vi ~ , ow, " ; hs ‘i a _ ES Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation htto://www.archive. org/details/edinburghencyclo09edinuoft | i | | . a ] 1 PEM, 5, | 4 bee F234 . THE See hf ak EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPZDIA; CONDUCTED BY DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. F.R. S. LOND. AND EDIN. AND M.R.T. A. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PRUSSIA; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK; OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MODENA; HONORARY ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF LYONS; ASSOCIATE OF THE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ; MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF THE AN- TIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND; OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK, OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK; OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF UTRECHT; OF THE PHILOSPHICAL SOCIETY OF CAMBRIDGE; OF THE LITERARY AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OF PERTH; OF THE NORTHERN INSTITUTION, AND OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH ; OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA; OF _ THE SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF NATURAL HISTORY OF BERLIN ; OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF FRANKFORT; OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY OF LEEDS, OF THE ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL, AND OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF YORK, WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF GENTLEMEN EMINENT IN SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. ’ IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, VOLUME IX. EDINBURGH: . PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD ; AND JOHN WAUGH, EDINBURGH ; JOHN MURRAY; BALDWIN & CRADOCK; J. M. RICHARDSON, LONDON ;; AND THE OTHER PROPRIETORS. M.DCCC.XXX. -— “<2 Af Oe ee Se! Le 3} oi? > it vy i. i ™ Ps = ; Nie ote - re , , yi - aa 10, 10.10 ay OV, a Hos - ; ; : ban G.ald ARTaAW Med aly Re d t y - xq ; i & Gade, » cone i @ = ral uu es ) 2 2 DTS 1 sv ww a ° s - rae a (7? "res ’ a ‘ ¥ ; er . oD RN) 5 ar 5 Ted ne Gem tee, ' édiny 7 ra we “ = s race Veg " eid ie jag S ghritne re we 7 Ee Wha gam aaa. ya pa wes , ; Pent Tr2sea8 ; ISNA Tyee age ta ae ee ae ape l = PRL Foor ‘icmae 5 S. > ws aia pe ~ fay = ay a4 ‘ ae ! = s : ‘ + 5 : ? - wz A S . i, os GALT AMY ar cae a, cea RO iS Lasg em piece a ah Z . ~ ha We ae ‘ \ . ' alk ale ‘ ts ree awe ~~ a4 - _ a . * \ all i sf : ‘ob a a tele a -HOA Us « i 2 ie sie iit es GOON EO TE 1 LMIEE AON, USTY Lhe ¥ IE 8 MNOS Ce gett HHOL:: LALA: = RROTSULOAT 543 10 HBTs VO wat a ; an Statisti —— | ay THE EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPADIA. ENGLAND. ; PART Il. STATISTICS.—Conrinvep. CHAP. IX. Manufactures. —Continued. Sect. I11.—Manufactures Silk, Linen, Stockings, Leather, Iron, Steel, pk , Brass, Toys, &c. 5 Earthen and China Ware, Paper, Hi be eee a ' and splendour of this article of dress seems to have ex- VOL. IX. PART L. fieulty of procuring ae ae 4 nued ti importation of raw silk from India, it is year 1719 forms a the silk trade in ed at thi E i Ht dispensibly necessary a An act of Parliament was ‘ore passed in the year 1779, to permit the importation of it in the most free and unrestricted manner; and this act was reinforced in 1783. Rhee. Avede 06 thie corte pier Ue? tre of the cotton trade at this time--only L.960,000; How A = i 1 1793. State at 2 ENGLAND. Statistics. different are the two manufactures at ! So rapid and was the of fashion, which substi- tuted cotton for silk, that in the year 1793, in the neigh- bourhood of Spitalfields alone, 4500 looms were shut up: these looms, when in full work, gave employment te 10,000 of whom more than a half were wo- men and child A short time before this, the East India Company, in order to encourage the British ma- nufacture of silk, introduced into Bengal the Italian method of winding it ; and they were able to render this country in a great measure independent of Italy, &c. for raw and thrown silk ; besides, it was ascertained, that the throw mills in England, on the whole, threw only about 50,000 pounds of silk in the year, which was not to an.eighth part of the thrown silk im- ported. t, unfortunately, revolution in fashion took place just about the time when the East India Company had matured their plans. The following is the state of the silk manufacture of this country at present, in the principal places where it is carried on:—At Derby, there are 12 twist mills,on the model of those brought over by Sir Thomas Lombe, which give employment to about 1000 people, mostly women and children. At Macclesfield, between 20 and 30 silk mills are generally at work for the throwing of silk, ad making of sewing silk, most of which are tury a water; waste silk is also spun for the making of s.ockings and silk handkerchiefs, ribbons, tape, &c. manufactured. At Leek, ribbons, sewing:silk, silk twist, and buttons: this place and Coventry have taken away a considerable part of the silk trade from Spittalfields, in consequence, it is sup) , of the effects of the act of Parliament for regulating wages at the latter place. Coventry and Atherstone in the same county, are the principal places for the manufacture of ribbons. At St Albans and Watford, in Hertfordshire, there are alk mills on a new and improved’ construction, which ive employment -to a considerable number of people: are likewise silk mills at Sheffield’; Bruton,’ ini Somersetshire ; Sherbourne and Stalbridge’ in Dorset- shire ; Nottingham, Chesterfield, Congleton, where silk is spun for the ribbon manufacture at Coventry, and several other places. Silk goods, of various descrip- tions, are manufactared at Oakingham and Colchester ; silk handkerchiefs at Marichester, &e. ; and at Tow- cester in Northamptonshire; the’ chief manufacture is silk wrought by machinery. We have already men- tioned, that part of the Spitalfields manufactures have been transferred to Coventry and Leek, in uence of the act for regulating wages: this act has net in- duced some master manufacturers of gauze, who used to make that article in Spittalfields, to’ remove their trade to Reading, in Berkshire, where it is rather in a flourishing state. i ds, however, must still be regarded as the principal seat ‘of the silk trade of this ¢ountty : in that district, there ‘are upwards of 20,000 looms employed, principally in the manufacture of light silks, which afte exported to America when the trade is . As there is less of the raw material in them, the English silk manufacturer can compete, ithe Ame- rican market, with the French manufacturer ; but it is otherwike ‘with heavy silks, in which the ortion of the raw material is greater. Besides America, the West Indies take considerable part of their goods ; and it is caleulated that one third are used for home con- : ly by women and There are three persons to two looms, besides windsters and ; from this, and from the circumstance mentioned , that when the trade was so bad in the year 1793, that 4500 Statistics. e@ were thrown out ““\—— looms were shut up, 10,000 of employ, we may —— reckon the total number of people employed in the silk manufacture in Spittalfields at between 25,000 and 30,000. Mr Grellier has — to estimate the value of Mr Grel- this manufacture in the rage quantity of raw and thrown silk im ears preceding the 5th of January 1797, was 883,438 b. the value of which when manufactured is about L..2,700,000. The cost of silk to the manufacturer, if raw and thrown are taken together at only ‘28s. per pound, amounts to L. 1,260,000 ; and the profits of the manufacturer L, 245,454, at the rate of 10 per cent, on the cost when manu ee o! ber of persons stated at 200,000, but th to be- lieve that it exceeds 65,000 all descriptions. This estimate seems to be manifestly wrong in one important is saa Mr Grellier takes the profit of the manu- at the rate of 10 per cent on the cost of the ar- ticle when manufactured ; but the value ing to him is L.2,700,000: ten per cent. on this is evident] L. 270,000, and not L,245,454. The imports of sil from Italy in 20 years, from 1781 to 1800 inclusive, were on the average per annum about 4200 bales. The imports from 1800 to 1805 were rather greater, amount- ing to 672,409 pounds. The average annual imports of silk from Bengal, from: 1775 to 1794, amounted to $240 bales ; from 1795 to 1804, the average im- port from Bengal was about 2128 bales. From this it will appear, that the annual consumption of silk is about 6328 bales, or nearly 950,000 pounds. Assuming the price to be 30s, the value of the raw mate- rial will be L. 1,425,000; and yr ee that th ods when ollowing manner: “ The ave- ducting from this the sum of L.1,; $5008, . e. capital, manufacturing profit, and labourers wages % to be taken. If wereckon 20 per cent. on this sum fi the two former, it will give 641,000, and the: i 1. 2,609,000, will be the amount of the labourers wages. Asa Med 8 0 ee of these live in London, we. cannot reckon wages‘on an average of town and country, and men, women, and children, at less than) 15s. a week, or about L:40 ayear. If, therefore; we di-) vide the sum of L.2,609,000 by 40, we shall come near the number of syed in this ma- nufacture: this will give us 65,250, and this namber of le seems much more: e than the number stated by Mr Grellier, when we:consider that in Spi fields there are about 25,000 or’ 30,000, and. in, Coventry the ribbon trade occupies'a consit «rable pro-. portion of the inhabitants, © ya small im ce, though formerly it been oP geod enbent iallcaabo T was made in this country so early as the year 1189, but at. that time by far the. quantity used, as well as: that of the finest quality, was imported from: ; About the middle of the 16th century, Norfolk en; Manchester ; and itis: rether- singular, that notwithstanding the almost overwhelming influ- lier'’s state- . ment. in three if mye ~ to have nufacture. Tell ee The linen manufacture ti appe. very Linen ma- dad e Effect of bounty on it. ed from England drawing increase of this manufacture in England. ~ In Lanca- | Scotland to the amount of L.100,000, from Holland to the amount of upwards of L.200,000, and from Germany to the amount of upwards of half a million. The an- nual consumption of linen he rates at L. 1,750,000, of which he'says that the English manufacturer supplied L.746,561, Os. 1d. - Such,. ing to him, was the state of this manufacture in E 1 at the beginning of the ei century. Parli t seems to, have been anxious to encourage and extend this manu- facture. By the act of and in the 12th of Charles II.. duties were imposed on fo- i piston: ‘ntoie aenenmaenre: of thes, Dat heme ddptomipietined Suita ied, and of the decrease in the value of the money duty, as well as the improvements in the fabric of German linens, they were not so bene- ficial as'was and intended.. In the year.1743, a bounty was first granted on the exportation of British linens ; and in 1745, this; bounty was augmented. It ‘appears ‘by the custom-house books, that, prior to the year 1746, British linen was. so small an article of ex- | ee aan whole quantity exported from Eng- never amounted in any one to 200,000 yards ; and it ap. agregar as forming a striking contrast between state of this manufacture in England and Scotland at that time and at this, that the whole ex ( of the manufacture in. England w ‘p- -pear from the following facts, In the year 1743, the year when the bounty, to parks, HME READEY. expert ty was 52,779 yards ; in 1753, 641,510 yards; in 1763, 2,308,310 yards; in 1778; 5,868,238 yards ; and, in 1783, 8,867,915 yards. On an average of 10 years, from the 5th January 1776 tothe 5th January 1786, the linen drawing bounty ex- from England was 5,315,354 yards ; and the to- tab averlige quantity of what was exported and what Irish linen -_ imported. or perhaps . “sumed by the people Wea was consumed in England, was in 1786 to be 30,000,000 yards 4 y# value’ nearly L.1,600,000 per annum, and emploj’’g and supporting about 200,000 people. It ought alsa to:be remarked, that the increase in the ex- ion of the fmer linens not entitled to bounty, be- tween 1743 and 1783, was nearly as great in value, though not in quantity. Yet notwitl ing this increase in the linen manu- facture of Eng i ion of linen from Ire- land continued to increase ; and it is worthy of remark, that at this period, from a comparison of the English i , exports of Irish linen, it a that four- map ths of the whole, were con- of England, and those mostly of ; Ww port of Silesia, between 60,000 and 70,000 yards ; of ‘from the latter country did not, reach 90,000 yards. _ re 4 : > The increase 8 the finest quality. . The Lords of Trade, in investiga- Statistics. ting this subject, reckoned the home consumption as at least four-fifths; but while the importation from Ireland increased, that from foreign countries diminished, as will appear from: the following statement : ‘ Tmported. © ~ Exported. 18,584,503 ells in. 1748 . .. 9,894,837 ells 8,954,649... 1T7S .. s 4,385,276 9,629,854 decrease .. .. . 5,509,561 This. manufacture, as well as that of silk, suffered from the rivalship ‘of the cotton manufacture about the year 1790, but not nearly to so great.a degree. There are very few data respecting this manufacture about this pe- riod. . It ap 5, however, that the quantity of linens printed in England and Wales in the year 1796, was considerably less than the quantity printed in 1800, though the exact difference cannot be stated, as the re- turns laid before parliament did not distinguish between | printed linens and stuffs. Besides the substitution of printed cottons for printed linens in dress, the latter trade must have suffered by the very general adoption of cotton stockings instead of thread ones, while the eat increase in the importation of Irish linens must er discouraged another branch. of the trade. That the princi must at this time from the following facts, ascertained from. official documents: On an average from the union with Ire- land to the 5th of January 1813, there have been an- nually retained, for home consumption in this’ country, '$2,758,958. yards of Irish linen, The annual average quantity of plain linen imported from Germany, and retained for home consumption, between 1801 and 1812, was upwards of two million F bid from Russia nearly the same ye ity ; from Holland and France as trifling. A do not immediately connected ith this part of the linen trade, we may add from the same documents, that, from 1801 to 1813, the annual average quantity of Hessen’s canvass retained for home consumption, was upwards of 700,000 yards ; of pac- king upwards of 300,000 yards; of damask and diaper cam- brie and French Jawns upwards of 17,000 whole pie- ces. . All the Silesia lawns were exported again, Of sail cloth, upwards of 47,000 ells were retained for home consumption ; and of chequered and striped linen up- wards of 12,000 ells. The average total of all sorts re- tained for home consumption during this period, was 14,559 pieces, 5,836,621 ells, and 64,706 yards. Al- though this statement includes Scotland, yet as little foreign linen (except Irish) is used there, it may be ta- ken *: sufficiently accurate sy apa re the consump- tion of foreign articles made of flax and hemp in Eng- land; and in conjunction with the Pe RR the - rage quantity of krish linen retained, it at least serves to prove, that the linen manufacture in England cannot be of much importance or value, It may, however, be proper to point out the pepcipes pao in this country, ‘where articles are manufactured from flax or hemp, Canvass for sailcloth is manufactured at Warrington, though not nearly to.so great an extent as formerly, as at.one time it was calculated that half of the heavy eailcloth used in the navy was manufactured here ; at Kirkham, in the Filde district of Lancashire, where a large quantity is made for the navy, 6000 bolts of can- vass having been supplied by two houses in the space of six months; at caster, . Whitehaven, Working- branch of the linen mar _) ture Present at a low ebb in England, 4! ap- state. Fe r 4 ENGLAND. Statistics. ton, Stockton, Whitby, Hull, Retford in N. - —— chi 4 + her in Leices- Lershire, shire, Oxford, Bridport, and all the district between that and Beaminster in Dorsetshire, as well as in the adjoinin of Somersetshire. At Bridport,there is also an extenstve manufacture of nets of all sorts, lines, — and small At one period during the late war, the number of contractors S Oe eT were in England 23, each having 20 looms, and loom producing two pieces of canvass in the week ; but England was so little able to supply the demand, that by far the largest proportion was obtained from Scot- land, where the sailcloth manufactures were increasing, while those in England were Lane wh In Suffolk, a considerable quantity of hemp is grown, which is manufactured into strong and coarse linen, and also into sacking and . The latter are made chiefly in the vicinity of Stowmarket. Linen for sheet- ing is made at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire ; and sacking for hops, &c. is manufactured in Berkshire, where 4000 people are employed, principally at A- Dingdion, and in most of the hop counties. These, with some other linen manufactures in different of Westmoreland, Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Du > &c. of very inconsiderable extent or importance, may be considered as the principal in England. Linen thread is made in considerable quantity, by the poor people in cottages, in the neighbourhood of Working- ton, and exchanged with es people for goods, Mills for spittning flax were first invented at pony where they are still used. At this place, there is also a manufacture of hutkabacks, diapers, and sheeting. It will be evident from this account of them, that, with the exception of the sailcloth manufacture, the value of the goods made, and uently the value of the raw material, and the amount of the manufacturer's profit, and the workmen’s wages, must be very trifling ; and asin time of this principal branch must necessa- fall off very much, there seems no necessity, even if there were data, to endeavour to ascertain these par- ticulars, It may, however, just be mentioned, that, in the opitiion of Mr Grellier, the linen trade of England amounts to about one million annually. As stockings are made of worsted, silk, and cotton, ‘we shall consider the manufacture of'them in this place. The art of knitting stockings was introdticed about the middle of the 16th century ; ‘and within 27 years after needles had been applied to this purpose, the’ steel frame was invented, ot introduced by one Lee of Cal- verton, in Nottinghamshire. This county, and the ad- joining counties of Derby and Leicester, still continue the seat of the stocking manufacture. The i ah Knitters Company were ye in 1664; but during the first after the invention, few im- provements were made in the frames, as in 1660 two men were employed to work one frame. Latterly, however, great improvements have taken place in this machine, and it has been applied té various purposes besides the making of stockings. The species of stockings matle at present in Leices- tershite, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, in some Te- spects vary from one another. In the first meéritioned county. the stockings are principally or wholly of worst- ed of of cotton ; very few, if any, silk i made in the county. The worsted and cotton forma. ~ i de neighbour is prepared a8 in the count Rd in neighbouring county of Warwick, pafticular in Warwick itself, where one house is very extenisivaly concerned in this trade. ‘The articles made in Leices- tershire are principally light, consisting of sandals, being borne i Dorsetshire, considerable is calculated, that there are employed about 20,000 peo- = In Hinckley alone, 3000 are he whole hosiery anifually made value of L.1,500,000. ; In Nottinghamshire, the stocking-trade is still «more in Notting: extensive, as well as valuable, than in Leicestershire, bowehire; Besides stockings, stocking-pieces for ‘pantaloons, &c. fre made ; and of stockings themselves'a great tion are silk. Thread dochtagy'vne MAAN abate here in , but, as we before mentioned, since the advancenient of the cotton trade, they = been ‘entirely superseded by cotton ‘stockings. ‘T trade of Noteinghamahire has undergone great fluctua- tions, and is by no means at present in a settled stute. In the year 1807, which was a “year, it was very great in all its branches. Besides stoc and pieces, ‘cotton el gi As rape ‘this a county for some years. are | in great quantities to the Mediterranean, 60,000 dozen having been sent in one year. Formerly the cotinties border- ing on this sea, were supplied from Germany ; but'the manufacturers of Nottinghamshire gained — of the market, by stipérior industry and attention, ‘and smaller profits, Pieeés are also made in ‘the frame, which are afterwards cut up into gloves, and exported ‘to the United States and Canada. All kinds of fleecy hosiery are likewise made; but ‘what pri dis. tinguishes Nottinghamshire, is its manufacture of lace on the stocking-frame. Warp lace was invented in 1804; and, in the year 1805, cotton-yarn (for this lace is made of cotton) bh ee fine enough to be made ‘into donble press lace, ‘so much approved, ‘that in - ‘1807 there were 1200 frames employed ; and in 1808, 1500. About this time an inferior kind of lace was Within these pl hem p has been | for ‘net silk lace, for veils, &¢. in the making of which @ great inany women ate ‘ at Castle Do and its'1 in tershire, d ant on Nol nufactare of De ire is chit parts of the county that border on Nottinghamshire, and to Litton, near Tideswell. The number of’ frames employed, including those on which’ silk and cotton stockings are wrought, has been calculated about 1950. In all counties, | g * ge a & $ : 3 3 s i 7 : ‘al 2g HA i cart ef eee E zs fe : ue Enea ul : f i Li 7 shore ; 347 barrels branded ; The cause of the great decline in sufficiently obvious. The demand for cu- s in the principal market for them, the Ro- Z : | i i " a : i man countries in the south of Europe, was in- Of the latter description, are the Newfoundland terrupted, and nearly destroyed, in consequence of the fishery, the Greenland and Davis’ Straits fishery, and war ; while the other market, the West Indies, where the South Sea Se aa ee they are used as food for the slaves, is supplied more most important are the salmon fishery, and the fishery ly from Scotland. Besides, from the increase of for herrings, mackarel, pilchards, oysters, turbot, &c. -w and luxury, the home consumption, notwith- rey comme eh hy mee standing all the attempts that have been made to ex- panes See ae ee ere ta whic tay tend the se ofthis fish, has also diminished . abundant, source of considerable mackarel fishery is entirely confined to the sup- Mackarel. except the T weed. lad Gda'viver,hvebe kre 41. fctoras ly of the home market. They éré principally cache of considerable besides smaller ones. i Bo Gtndiiee ie be Gane u ire on the south and west, being seldom oA pn = mre The rent found in any abundance to the north of Yarmouth, and of the whole is nearly L.16,000. “The expence attend- to the west of the Hampshire coast, being in a great boats, &c. amounts to measure neglected for the pilchard fishery, The prin- umber of ploy- cipal market for mackarel is London, where, on an ave- ‘he he chiet pilchasd Saher dong be eee iis 4 ief pi is coasts - Pilchard, Tweed nerly sent up to th market setshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall’ e: ially the last. pickled ; but within these 20 years it has been sent up Fow: g Eeeaeny, emeenet, anid St Lp - ing the 3 flourishing state of this Bihery, having exported’, fe THe herring fishery on the coasts of England is not greater quantity than all the other ports of these coun. usiv on the coast of ties. But this trade depending for its rosperity on coastof Scotland to the entrance of Chan- average of 10 years, from 1747 to 1756, was about nel, on the east and south-east side ; armouth is 30,000:hogsheadls from the four rts just mentioned ; generally as the centre of it. Herrings are also whereas, in the year 1782, it had fallen to about 12,000 caught on Soreudaaglarnee n= herder a TRO as ne ee wambers, T commerce in herrings is of very an- ment to 30,000 fishermen, besides the seamen em- eient date: Madox, in his of the Exchequer, in ing the fish to foreign markets, and to deliver 24,000 herrings to the'king; and, in of the, fishery... At one period eS Cornwall pilchards Soreige of Edward 111. the h fais of anna were so much in request in the Italian States, that the (which had existed for some time’ ) was regula. orders from them for lead, tin, copper, &c. were often. 5 g | FPSESZSIAS ESM SR AAETS ie a2 vice by saugsies [ Te" jest Sta ane ali THA 239955 \oeaeesmnat ll PH lceiee Hand HEH re aed Pregee ogee ore jae A at ihe Le HH We ttcetc dba a = waht He feingt gies Hi age: Seeetaeeeeee ices “janecepe bes ieee ie ope 333) aL. is ‘ils Toe Aes TOF Pat Te i Medlonlid) Ge mln alee ou i 3 ue A idead 7 ait eed ih a peel eid enti ie Hl quraaes sae Hut ae ® i wie tt if aye Lrg etd be : = tae et ee Tata iene aigiateiaadl ice a ee na 7 si eee fee Seren car poate oie Lie crack yeihtay 3 PP sesgssss” —— a (ilies a ae a 28222 : EE, ite aiadi ss ( aS" as8 dine ane ys ail Hire adda | a nd Hi [aes Hiphulia: f Pitre ees HE t ENGLAN®. ‘barrels of dry fish, of which 209,995 went to of Europe ; and in 1799, 313,756 barrels, of Eu took off 238,953. The ex- BLES HE a, 8 & 5 E & cE u : i : ! f 1799, the number of barrels of wet fish ed only to 3548, of which the south of Europe took 990. The tonnage, an g bone oon of course, fell off in a similar pr i In the year 1790, the tonnage was 31,644, the men 2608; in 1791, the former was 34,166, and the latter 2639 ; whereas, in 1798, the tonnage was only 15,838, and the men 1268 ; and in 1799, the tonnage was 14,322, and the men 1145. It is however, | pt ober pipreny fishery, which, at present, is as as it was in 1799, will revive, now that we are at peace with the south of E é age) rag ost paar rag eee Fy Red nglish Channel, of which Pool is by far the most considerable. The English seem to have commenced their fishery for whales in the North Seas, about the year 1598, but the first voyage, expressly undertaken by them, for this ' purpose, was in the year 1611. At this time the Rus. sian sent two ships into the Greenland seas ; pert Veep mg Tasmopedioge ingised to thi > ', however, soon reli it. The asks, of this, seems to have been eommencing, the number again fell off; and in 1762. there were only 28. In the year 1770, they had in- creased to 50, which, on an average, were about 300 tons burden, and navigated each by 54 men, of whom six were ; From the year 1770, till the commencement of the American war, the Greenland whale fishery from land ively improved, there having been, in progressi 1775, the year before hostilities began, ie con- rom again there having been, in the year of the war, only 38 ships, of about 20,000 As soon as peace was restored, however, the fishery re- vived very rapidly ; in 1785, there were 136 vessels ; in 1786, 162 ; in 1787, 219; and in 1788, 216. The 20 and 30,000 tons, and navi The ports from which th Scarborough, don. 15 The South Sea whale fishery was not followed in this Statistics country till about the year 1776, where there were equipped 15 vessels of about 170 tons each. As the go. sex, s had carried’ on this fishery before this period, four American harpooners were sent out in each vessel. The first voyage was not very successful, as they got only Sekpmcn duty and fifty tons of oil a-piece, yet the superior quality, and the price of it, advanced by the war from L.35 to L.70 per ton, were sufficient to en the merchants to persevere in the business. - In. 1778, 19 vessels were sent oy gtr» Seas ; but from some cause, ‘not explained, in the following year, 1779, the number was reduced to four; and it Rit, nued under 10 till the year 1785, when 11 vessels were sent out: in 1788, the number of vessels were 42, and’ their burden 8637 tons; till the year 1781, all the ves- sels to London ; after that, Liverpool, and some other of the out-ports, began to participate in the In 1798, the first year of the war, the number of vessels was 38 ; the war, however, seems to have af= fected this fishery ; for, in 1797, the number was re« duced to 23; and it continued nearly the same till the conclusion of the war. At present, the number is'again raised, there being usually between 35 and 40 vessels,_ die. ksinage af: whieh ds een 12,000 and 14,000, and the number of men employed between 800 and 1000. From this brief sketch of the fisheries of England, both domestic and foreign, it is sufficiently obvious that they are not carried on with nearl: arp aariig ute enterprize and spirit which is displayed by the English in almost all the other branches of their trade. Yet frequent attempts have been made to extend and im- ve them: companies have been formed by indivi- uals, and bounties granted by government. Whence then does it happen, that the fisheries of this country, especially those on the coasts of the island, are so im- ly and idly pursued? Probably, because in other branches of trade and commerce, we have made such great advances, and can secure, .or at least render probable, such large profits, that the compara« tively small profits which the fisheries offer to our com~ mercial ambition, are not sufficient to turn the adequate ital aside into that channel. n considering the trade of any maritime country, it —- divides itself into three 3 the coasting trade, the inland trade, and the foreign trade: the last,, strictly and properly speaking, constitutes its commerce. The two first are versant either about the ly of the: inhabitants of the country, or they indivety consti« tute part of its foreign commerce. They must be con-« sidered in the latter light, when they merely bring goods to the ports of shipment ; and in'the former light, when they contribute towards the interchange of ar« bic of estic eonsum — : ‘a The. coasting and inlan le of England, tho of great i ce and value, even ‘ehen considered as confined to ase 8 of domestic consumption, cannot abe te ariew in an estimate at all approaching to the truth, the details being much too pve sore and scatter- ed, and many of them too minute. The coal trade comprises able branches of the coasting trade of this country ; the coal ships on the east coast alone, belonging to Newcastle, Shields, Blyth, Hartley, Whitby, ‘Sun er land, Scarborough, &c. amounting to about 1500 sail, of from 150 to 400 tons ; the number of men employ ed in these vessels cannot be fewer than 12,000. Coasting: trade, one of the most considers Coal trade. Statistics. —_—— Coasting vessels in 1785. In 1796. 16 According to the account drawn up by the Custom- house in the year 1785, already referred to, the number of ing vessels at that period was 3445; their 256,648 ; and the number of men employed in navi- ing them 17,107: but this account seems to include of coasting : 358 ; Sunderland, 258; Beaumaris, 249 ; Cardi 190; St Ives, 173; Hull, 165; Yarmouth, 104; Scarborough, 75. i i In the year 1796, a committee of the House of Com- w tend dh kandah iccotzacted, wikeh iaap chewy toot out the great increasein this branch of trade, so far as relates to the ; and we may safely infer a si- * In for Sets rent incial ports. 1700, coasti which arrived in the ir repea' jae London, were only 5562; their tonnage, 218,100. the -year 1750, 6396, i 511,680: in 1790, the number of vessels 9278, and their ton- career on teaches. “2 race gy etined mele of London, in 1799, it appears, in the year 1797, the number of vessels, (including their repeated voy- ages), which entered Thames from the provincial ports, was 10,781, and their tonnage 1,360,823 ; and in 1798, the number of vessels was 10,133, and their tonnage 1,250,449. Considering, with respect to their BEE &8,5 cree i : | ‘ E 3 nF i it E 2 S i g i Es : FF ii tf BE i : It is still more difficult to form an estimate of the in- 2 crrredme tgs. ee person i gine its extent, w has-mot: considered the wonderfil and numerous facilities of conveyance, which, springi at first from the cominatdas cgldepine’ abd Seilahot the country, have in their turn served to increase and extend it. The state of the roads in almost every part ef England ; the almost infinite number of carriages, ENGLAND. entertain any thing like an uate idea on this sub- ect. Nor 2 onan dea mae tf mae if we do not recollect that all II. many streams had been rendered navigable: a sti greater number, however, have been rendered com< modious to internal commerce, during the present reign, besides the more valuable improvement of canals; nine- teen acts during the first fourteen sessions of this reign having been passed for ing artificial navigations ; and subsequent sessions have witnessed nearly an equal attention to this mode of facilitating internal com merce, It would carry us far beyond our limits, even to enu- merate all the canals which now exist in England. On this subject, we must refer our readers to the article Intanp ot — content ourselves with re« marking, that nearly all the great manufacturing towns are ya cme with one another by means of canals ; that by them they can receive most of the raw mate~ rials, which they respectively work up; and that by far the largest proportion of the man articles are dispersed over the kingdom, or sent to the ener Se ee ee inland navigation. gation. . The fore trade of this is con~ Value of t! ign ° country is generally n 0 sidered of much more importance than its trade ; but this idea appears to us to be erroneous: the te. foreign trade is undou ly much more imposing in its aspect, and the extent of it is more easily ascertained ; but the real value of the domestic trade, if properly in- vestigated, will be found to: be much — Let us ovly reflect on the ulation of E and Wales, which is. upwards of ten millions ; and on the industry and wealth of that population: our foreign customers are undoubtedly more numerous, but they are far be- hind what may be called the domestic customers in in- dustry and wealth. Even on the very moderate com- oe that the av: annual expence of each in« vidual of the ten million inhabitants, amounts only to L.20, the annual domestic consumption will amount to the enormous sum of L. 200,000,000, We come now to the consideration of the foreign Commerc trade of England ; and in describing it, we shall enu« merate the most important and material articles which England imports from each particular foreign country, 4 To Russia. To Poland. To Ger- ENGLAND: | _ of the ‘war ; and the average value of éach, during the ports from Denmark, are hides, bar ae “ : : E : z ; F . The number of vessels employed Denmark, in tim peace, was ge-) (including their repeated voyages) of English foreign vessels 800. articles of im from Russia are, Seine ccleo’ fan hemp, iron, tar, tallow, timber, &c. ; the principal are, coals, salt, sal ammoniac, lead, oe al ee ; ussia is t : of the ee eur oe wee Sareea pee nemppyed i the trate to this country in times of peace, was ly (in- GURNEY air tepeated voyonts) of English yoouals aint as & e Ss rat ; P t uA ar i 33 { BREE : “ i SrA? if Fe i Hit E ES i, 5 HH p F i # &3 a3 i i ai i : E i : : 4 R : 4 - . ged; . ver and other seeds, corn, . en-ware, broad-cloths, leather, hats, baizes, &c. 17 war, was much than before its commencement, as much of the trade between E: and the continent was carried on through Germany. This will be suffi- ciently a t from the following statement: In the year 1791, the official value of the im from Ger- many was about L.600,000 ; of the exports, rather un- der 1.2,000,000 ; whereas, in the year 1800, the imports were upwards of L.2,000,000, and the exports rather more L.12,000,000. From this instance, which, however, it must be confessed, is an extraordinary one, the extreme difficulty may be conceived of giving any thing like an accurate statement of the average value of the exports and imports of England to and from any particular country, as they existed during the strange and unparalleled war from which we have just emer- there is no difficulty in giving an average statement of the whole amount of the imports and ex- ports, from and to all of the world, during that war. The number of trade to Germany is generally about 200, and of fo- ign vessels rather more, he principal articles of geneva, i butter, rags, » hemp, madder, clo- , &e.; of export, cot- ton and woollen goods, hardware, sugar, coffee, and other articles of colonial and East India produce, fre- quently to a very large amount: the value of the im- is generally er L.1,000,000 ; of the exports, L 1,500,000 to L,.3,000,000. Before the commence- ment of the war, the number of English vessels en- gaged in this trade (including their repeated voyages), was nearly 900, of foreign vessels about 400. The principal articles of import from France used to be articles of luxury, such as wines, brandy, lace, cambrics, lawns; silks, trinkets, &¢. ; of exports, cot- ton goods, hardware, cutlery, lead, tin, copper, be- sides a vast deal of East and official value of the im from France during the year 1789, when the Revolution commenced, was re- more than L.500,000; and of the exports about L.1,200,000, of which about L.800,000 consisted of English manufactures, and the remainder of foreign uce. In the same year, the number of English eee employed in er traffic Yeast their re- vo was nearly 1400 ; and of foreign ves- Sela about 260.) : sib The chief articles imported from Spain are, barilla, oil, cochineal, fruits, wool, cork, dyewoods, wines, brandy, silk, &c,; of exports, hardware, earth- In time of peace, the official value of the imports was usually about L. 790,000, and the exports nearly the same; and the number of English vessels engaged in the trade about 200, and of foreign vessels about 50. The principal articles ‘of import from Portugal Statistics. English vessels employed in the _ import from Holland are, To Hel To France est India produce. The. To Spain. are, To Portu- brimstone, cork, drugs, and gums ; wines, fruit, dye- s4l- stuffs, hides and skins, &c.; of exports, hardware, coals, éarthen-ware, woollen, cotton and silk manufac- ’ tures, hats, and East and West India produce ; the va- lue of the imports is usually about L. 800,000; of the , rather more than L,. 1,000,000: the number ig ag vessels employed, about 250; of foreign, about 50, The usual articles of import from Italy, are barilla, To Italy. brimstone, cork, oil, fruits, silk, &c. ; of export, hard- ware, -ware, earthen-ware,’ woollen 8, cot- ton goods, pilchards, herrings, leather, and East and € To Ireland. To North To South America, To the East In- des yn —- ws or eaey 20. from Ireland to England: are nu- merous ; consist chiefly of corn, jyrovisionn) Wake! hides, &c. The principal articles of export are coals, dashery; earthenware, salt, glass, and. East and West India: pr The value of the imports vary from 142,000,000 to 1:3,000,000; and the from leather, linen, shoes, paper, &c.. The value of the éx- ports, ially those to the United States, has varied much latterly, according to the state of’ political rela tions between the two countries. It has as high are sugars, rum, coffee, pepper, ginger, indigo, drags; the oan and of the exports from L.6,000,000 to L.12,000,000. The shi are about 600; the about 180,000; and the seamen shout 16,000, The pri pare mg op’ icksilver, ¢ gume, rice, sal &c. The S are pteor~ arte tin, aa copper, bullion, clocks, watches, hats, mil- linery, coaches, cabinet and upholstery goods, &c, From the year 1708 to 1811, there was to India bullion to the value of L.29,588,210; and mer- chandise to the value of L.35,528,886 ; making the to- tal ex to India, during ip weange- L..65,112,096; anil during the same period, was exported to 5 ‘ thrown open, under certain ENGLAND China, bulliow of the value of 118,295,098; andmere Stadt chanilise:to the value of to- tal value of the to China L..37,807, and the totul-value of the both to India and: a, from seiebends 3; » anon incapaeiaan Ste omc Chan, 1812, 1818; to ; amounted to L.1,900,000 ; and on an: of the same years, the total: produce of the articles: sold at the East India» Company's sales amounted to about L.6,000;000. : In the 1771, the ; mF mon trade was 61,000; an act passed in year 1772, the company. was x been! from building, till their will: still continue. the monopoly ofthe | iy. Such is'a brief, and an imperfect, abstract of the principal branches of English cotmmeree:: ‘In con- sequence of the political relations in: which? this:coun. try has stood for the lust twenty years withthe conti-- nent of ‘Europe, and for the last: eight! years with the United) States of America, it is not pdssible-to present’ a fair average statement edioayemnbiomanay Europe or'America, The foll ial statements, however, will serve to give us a-clearer insight into the real value of ‘the exports. Real value of exports, onan’ of three: years: ending 1807, tothe continentof Europe; L.17,801,232: to Ireland, , &e, 16,415,428; to Asia, L.3,308,991.; to Africa, L.1,278,248 ; to the United States: of Ameriea, L.12,136,811; to other of America, and the: West Indies L.10,599,514; making a total, on the annual average of three years ending 1807, of 1L.51,540,224; if from this sum we deduct L.4,000,000! as the value of the from Scotland, it will leave about “L.47,000,000 as the value of the pe eget amen on an annual average of four years, ending 1811, to the continent of E ‘ L.3,222,575; to Africa, L.725,013; to the United States, Ix ; and to the other parts of Ame~ rica and the West Indies, L.17,133,553; a total of L.55,657,372 ; from bry aby erm = 872, as the probable amount of the exports Scotland, eet ee the amount of the exports England. i ‘comparative statement of the of two series of years, will be sufficient to shew how. much the value of our varied both to the continent of Europe and to the United States, par= ticularly to’ the latter. : The following statement shews the real value of the a England alone, (exclusive of those from India and China,) and of the from England, distinguishing foreign from English: ce export- ed. In the year ending 10th October 1806, there were imported articles to: value of L.98,$98,645; and of foreign goods, L.9,005,120; and of Eng- lish goods, L.$9,368,218. In the year ending the 10th of October 1807, there was , L.40,947,300; ex of foreign goods, L.9,679,052; ‘and of Eng- lish goods, L.39,041,854, And in the year ending Exports. Imports. Statisti . 5 next shews the number of marriages, on . _Years. Baptisms, Marriages. a medium average of 5 years, and also onamedium | In 1760.....+4.+4+0+ 366 to 100, average of 10 years, from the passing of the marriage 177O 0's Vedas aie le ie) «have [or i AO act to the year 1810: 1780).) bie Ma deels > 6 sy SER ROMO lee : eee et ae UBB Mea eldveiee 00: 9866S tae 1745 1760 incisive, “SSidos] MTA QO veers 859 to 100 1760 to 1765 do. 59,883 eee 1800... Tei coh ow cote ae 1765 to 1770 do. 59,043 ee -* = ete rte 2 6 S'S . . . 59,892 WOE fcc 6is eeustetoie oRliinSita «D0 1770 to 1775... do. 60,741 1810 360 to 100 1775 to 1780 do. 64,238 65 479 eoe¢ ops 42S Fe ig a J am a DE The last. Table we shall give on this subject exhibits 1790 to 1795 2 al one - . « 71,784 the population of each county ; the area of each 1795 to 1800 do. 74,998 in square miles ; the number of people in each coun 1800 to 1805 do. as a6e «+ + 79,231 to a square mile ; and the annual proportions in 1805 to 1810 do. 82,953 county, of baptisms, burials, and marriages : Population in |Area in ened neo ial] One “3 le | One ne oo ae ee Leer 1811, calle ang tim to'| to. - | lage to pe mile, persons. | persons. | persons. | Bedford. ..... 72,600 430 171 32 56 126 Berks x 122,300 744 164 34 53 144 Bucks ...... 121,600 748 162 33 49 129 Cambridgeshire . 104,500 686 152 30 44 127 Chester. .... = 234,600 1,017. | 230 $3 .| 50 131 Cornwall... .. 233 900 1,407 158 $2 62 141 Cumberland ... 138,300 1,497 92 35 54: 138 Derby ...... 191,700 1,077 | 178 | 33 56 | 137 Devon ...... 396,100 2,488 159 33 52 118 Dorset .. 2... 128.900 1,129 114 35 57 135 ° Durham ..... 183,600 1,040 176 33 50 128 eS 260,900 1,525 171 33 4h 128 Gloucester .... 295,100 1,122 263 36 61 120 Hereford . . 97,300 971 100 36 58 150 Hertford ..... 115,400 602 190 84 "| 55 1638 Huntingdon . . 43,700 845 126 31 48 129 Raeeia.. ... oo 385,600 1,462 | 263 30 41 118 Lancashire... . 856,000. 1,806 473 29 48 108 Leicester ..... 155,000 816 190 36 57 130 Lincoln. ..... 245,900 2,787 88 82 51 126 Middlesex .... 985,100 297 | 3316 40 36 94 Monmouth ... . 64.200 516 124 AT 64 153 Norfolk. ..... 301,800 2,013 150 30 50 128 Northam we 146,100 965 150 35 52 133 Northumberland . 177,900 1,809 98 | 37 53 |. 187 mere ow ae 168,400 71% 217. | « 82 52 119 Oxf Gere: ee 125,200 742 168 34 55 138 Rutland ,.... 17,000 200 85 $2 53 147 Sdloy so ta 200,800 1,403 148 36 57 143 Somerset . . 313,300 1,549 200 85 52 129 Southampton. . . 253,300 1,533 165 | °31 49 106 Stafford. 2... : 804,000 1,196 | 254 $2 52 121 Suffolk . . 242,900 1,566. | 155 $1 58 128 Surrey ..... ; 834,700 811 412 36 45 130 Sussex ..... : 196,500 1,461 | 134 | 30 55 | 129. Warwick ..... 236,400 984 | 240 85 42 116 Westmoreland . . 47,500 722 65 31 54 135 Wilts SP. 200,300 1,283 156 35 54 186 Worcester . . 165,900 674 244 $2 52 132 York, East . . 173,000 1,268 136 30 47 105 North . 157,600 2.112 74 30 §1 125 West . 675.100 2,633 | 256 31 51 123 ge py: 9,855,400 50,210 196 33 49 120 Wales,...... 632,600 8,125 17 $7 60 136 10,488,000 58,335 179 34 50 122 “ENGLAND. 25 "Statistics. “In treating of the population of Eng it would andthe lordsspiritual and temporal sitin onehouse, which Statistics. —\— be i not to notice the state of the poor, and the is called the House of Lords; and the representatives _ Sate oe mode by" hich they are supported ; and yet dur limits of the people in another, which is called the House of ‘lt i was L,1,530,804 ; yet us to be brief on this By the 43d of hag. 2. every aries to boa to provide authority justices of the Pe. to rate every parish at such 4 weekly money, as they should think necessary for this In 1776, a return was made to parliament rule palit eapiiedlitard fie ocie year; om sccoont Uf thie poor, from which it , that the sum that there were 1970 work- capable of ing 89,775 In 1786, another return was made, from which it appear- iture for the poor had increased to 956,248, besides 194,052, who were not parishioners ; the expence incurred for them was L.3,061,446. The number of persons relieved in and out of work-houses was 1,039,716, which se tee 12 per cent. of the 3 iste HH if F or by commissioners aj him. He al- so has the power to prorogue or dissolve it. Besides t prerogatives, as they respect Parliament, the “ee 3 epee the privilege of rejecting any bill that may have passed both Houses, and consequently ing it from being enacted into a law. The lords spiritual, as a constituent of Parlia- ment, consist of the two archbish 24 bi England, and four bi of Ireland. The English rose and bishops sit in the U House, from their i a being supposed to hold, certain baro- . nies under the king. The lords temporal consist of all the peers of the in their The duke is so styled from the or general. The title of mar- Gothic, and signifies the com- a march or frontier. The titles also the Gothic, and signify Viscount is derived from the 2, Ss GFE if 4 d; : ae Scotch and Irish House of Commons consists of knights, citizens, and burgesses, os ha by counties, cities, and boroughs. The number of representatives sent to Parliament, for England, Wales, and the town of Ber- i The Scotch and Irish representatives in- number to 658 members. No person can for a knight of the shire, unless he a free- of the annual term of years, nor copyhold estates, ficial ive the of voting. A how a eos , however, with no trade, and some entitled to vote, return members every county, for the election of all members to serve for that county, and for every city and borougl) in it, which possesses the privilege of returning mem- B Lords spiri- of tual. Lords tem- several degrees of duke, marquis, earl, poral. House of Commons. Power of afl [itt Hit Hl i : E 5 i eT! g . oe ie sitting members, mmmons, up- on petition, shall adjudge the return to be illegal. All petitions against si members are referred to a select committee of 15 members of the House of Commons. new Parlia- for prizes, ts for regiments, officers of the excise po ems of abe , &e. and every who holds any office under crown, created since 1705, or any pension during the pleasure of the ee ee ee ae le to sit in Parliament. ert Ag OY t and salutary. It pan ing dengumnedey aie Togs; bet tn Gack, ation te easily obtained. When, ENGLAND. i the where he loses, for the time, his character of speaker. the upper House is always at liberty to re torec ta opamp a an , the s enapk theta setdoat den es and be equal, and then his casting vote decides the ity. But in the House of , the speaker votes with the count the votes on each side. After the second reading the bill is committed, that is, referred to a committee, either select, or of the whole House. In the latter case, the leaves the chair, and another person is i chairman of the com- mittee. Ina committee, each member may on When the bills have passed both Houses, ways deposited in the House of Lords, to wait the royal ry barr ra ees oe . The Commons cannot proceed Of proceed- 27 shall consider of i to the state. The Statisties. qi dg 3 & if nots. | : Hy : ¢ bE 7 This is done by the ki expressed by the Lord Chancellor in his Majesty’s pre- . - dissolution, which is the ci- e parliament, is effected by the king's will. With respect to the executive er, and the rights of succession to the throne of E the fundamental maxim is, that the crown is, “ by common law and con- stitutional custom, heredi‘ary ; but that the rights of in- heritance — time to time be changsd or limited by act of parliament, the crown still continuing here- ditary these limitations.” The right of primo- ’ the males, and of the males in prefe- rence to the females, is a constitutional rule in the de- scent of the crown. Upon fuilure of the male line, the crown descends to the eldest of the female issue, and the heirs of her body lawfully begotten, and not jointly chap. 2. the descent is limited to such heirs only of the Princess Sophia, grand-daughter of King James I. as are Protestant members of the church pf England, and are married to none but Protestants. consort has many prerogatives different from wives. She is a public person distinct from the king, and is able to purchase well as er an ee aman ents late her person, and in likewise if she be consenting. 1 and in a similar manner, the Prince of Wales, his consort, and the Princess Royal. fer sean fy brothers, uncles, grandsons, and nephews, of all the other nobility. They, as well IIT. ¢ no descendants of George II. (except the issue of princesses married into foreign families,) can Say unkiony balupatamene urea “te > 25 i twel sauliinsuatiotSE. Gaaiibnitetion oe-thertey cove, indies also, are the king’s counsellors in matters of law. ar the principal council of the sovereign ie ~ council, the members of which are chosen by _ on changes of administration, are seldom erased, though those in opposition seldom attend. They are styled ight honourable, and are sworn to observe secrecy. lowest at the board pronounces his opinion first, and the king, if present, concludes with declaring his pr ere : he cabinet council, as it is called, consists of those Cabinet ministers of state, who hold the highest rank and digni- council ~ The members are generally 9 or 11 ; consisting of © res lord chancellor, the lord ru te seal, the lord presi- dent of the council, the three principal secretaries of state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, and the first lord of the admiralty. The first lord of the treasury is considered the premier, or prime minister of the country. It sometimes S$; that the offices of’ first lord of the treasury, and the chancellor of the exchequer, are held by the same per- son. No part of the executive authority of the rhe vested in his privy council, the constant style of the law being the king in council, and not the king and coun- cil. The constitution does not ise the cabinet council. The king can remove his confidential servants, or “ the administration,” as it is usually termed, at his pleasure. The principal officers, who have the m the political, military, naval, and financial sioners of the treasury ; the principal secretaries of state ; the secretary at war ; the commander in chief ; the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the admiralty. ' The business of the treasury, is to determine on all Treasury. matters relative to the civil list, or the other revenues of the nation; to give directions ae conduct of all boards, and ms entrusted wi e receipt, m pin oi i tctadarenenetaen 70 ign all warrants for payments out of them, and generally to superintend every branch of the revenue belonging to his Majesty, me public. Formerly, there was alia high treasurer ; but for upwards of one hunglred years, the management of the has been put in com- mission ; the commissioners being the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, (to whom is entrusted, in an ial manner, the revenue and ex- —_ of the nation, and who pene takes the ead on the ministerial side of the House of Commons, and three other commissioners. Since the union wi Ireland, the chancellor of the exchequer of that part of the united kingdom, is, ex officio, nominated one of the lords commissioners of the treasury. There are three principal secretaries of state: the secretaries ent, who has of state. secretary of state for the home “7 aoe management of, and controul over, the internal affairs of the kin , and from whom all directions and commands to the lord lieutenants, angen — other magistrates, issue ; the secretary of state for foreign af- faite, who, as the name implies, has the management of all nay ores and transactions with foreign na- tions ; and the secretary’ of state for war and colonies, ~ who has the ent of the affairs of the colonies, and’ to whom also is entrusted the supreme direction of all warlike expeditions. The commander in chief is at the head of the army The at war, when there is no commander chief, agg is, when the king retains actually, as well as ent of Principat irs of the officers of kingdom, are the lord high treasurer, or lords commis- **** 2° Seerctary MM at war. Admiralty. Royal pre- in many more cases; thou origina’ with the commander in chief, much of the execu’ rests with the war office. considerable branches of § F H PE Z J = now entrusted to a lord high admiral ; admiralty is appointed, consisting of a , is not a naval officer,) and si i among whom are admirals of known skill and which was instituted in 1794, has the charge of the ee aes of sick and wounded seamen, and of war. . ws and customs of See penenrien aed petite , to be in all his judgments ; and to maintain the Pro- testant reformed on. The constitution of this country ascribes to the Sove- reign the political attribute of absolute ection. It is an ancient and maxim, « the king i deriving their power and authority from him ; he has also the exclusive power of the ki ie considered the prosecutor in all cri- proces he.is invested, by the constitution, 8 nal ive of pardoning offences. Another branch of the prerogative, is yo wer of issuing pro- clamations, by which laws already made are enforced. The other te sang of the king, are the power of conferring and dignities, either by ‘writ and letters patent, as in the creation of peers and baronets ; or by corporeal investiture, as in the creation of a knight, ENGLAND. the ist of George III. ; £100,000 aeim of George III, ; £60,000 by the of TIL; ee the oro yea III. ; and £35,000 the a 23d of George 11, tt which Auctantes ite cened the king’s illness, they were increased £390,000. In the second class, ing’s Bench uer, and justices of the : in all about £25,000. salaries to foreign mi- oo In the third class, are compri nisters: these of course vary to the extent our relations with other powers. Under the fourth class, are compri ec the epee nee gc ge class, salaries in the above departments about £75,000. The sixth class, ds pensions and compensa- tions to old servants, and late ministers at foreign courts: about £120,000. The seventh class com small fees and salaries to the amount of about And has already béen mentioned, that the king is the Different chief magistrate in the country. The principal subor- magistrates. tices of the peace, constables, sury of highways, and overseers of the The hi, ee, High she ty, parece ge . peers) to atten: , on pam for disobedience. in'his judicial capacity, he may hear and determine all causes of 40s. value. In intl daues, fhe late serve the writ, to arrest, and take bail; to summon the jury in all cases, and to see jud ment executed. - He under him, the under cheriff, bailiffs, and gaolers. In every count there are usually four coroners, and Coroners, sometimes six. . are chosen by the freeholders. Their duty is to inquire into the manner and cause of the death of every person who ig supposed to have died by violence, suddenly, or in prison. The inquiry is to be made, on view of the body of the deceased, by a jury, over whom the coroner presides. If, by the coroner’s inquest, any one is found guilty of murder or manslaughter, he is to commit the offender for fur- ther trial. The next denomination of i justices of the peace, the principal are Justices of of whom is the cus- the peace. tos rotulorum, or keeper of the records of the county. ENGLAND. 29 Statistics. Justices are appointed by the king’s special commission. quer, which manages the royal revenue, and i which Statistics... —_r— In this i aati i justices are direct- Culses ctlatitas tnit-are detgnnined ; ‘one. tie oot, eV ed to be always i without whom no business or judicial part of it, which is again subdivided into a Municipal . law. Courts of justtoe, in to keep the peace of surveyors of the highways con- to execution the statutes for the re- Fa EE 25 & a if a = ri g & 3 The municipal law of England is divided into the i or common law, and the written or sta- The common law consists of general cus- particular customs of certain of the i , and those particular laws which are observed only in certain courts and jurisdictions. proceedings and inations in the ordinary -spangctacnpayl A yyiny wecpeneed pace rid so . Of these customs are the itories, the judicial de- cisions ing their guides. The written laws of the kingdom consist of those statutes which made by the king’s majesty, by and with consent of the lords / igess and tem- poral in parliament assembled. If common law and statute differ, the former gives place to the latter ; and an old statute is superseded by a new one ; but if a gies EF a : = E court of equity and a court of common law. From the equity side of this court, none lie immediately to the House of Peers. The whole num! to all of whom, intricate and important points of law, that occur in any trial, are referred. . They also sit in ihn Limes of Lords, in order that may assist: them with their opinion and advice, when that House acts in its judicial capacity. Formerly the judges were dependent on the crown ; but his present Majesty be- gan his reign with ing, “that he looked upon the independence and uprightness of the judges as es- sential to the imparti inistration of justice—as one of the best securities of the rights and liberties of the subjects—and as most conducive to the honour of the crown.” Upon this an act was by which the judges are to be continued in office notwithstand- ing the demise of the crown; nor can they be remo- ved, but by a joint address of both Houses of Parlia- ment to the king. The High Court of Chancery is the most im t of all the king’s civil courts of justice. It has its name from the judge presiding in it, who is ' styled Lord High C lor, because the highest point in his jurisdiction consists in cancelling the king’s let- ters patent, when they are granted contrary to law. The Lord Chancellor takes precedency of every tem- lord. By his office he is speaker of the House of s. To him belongs the appointment of all the justices of the peace thro lions ty mre and he is patron of all the king’s livings under the fouly va- lue of £20 in the king’s books. He is also the general guardian of all infants, idiots, and lunatics. The Court of Chancery, in which the Lord High Chancellor alone sits, and determines without a jury, ju causes in equity, in order to moderate the rigour of the law, to defend the helpless from oppression, and i extend relief in cases of accident, fraud, a teen of trust.’ From this court om Seeehney seeaeraser: statute that another be itself ed, the the House of Peers, which is the supreme court of ju- first statute is revived without any words for dicature in the ki . From its decision there can that purpose. be no farther appeal. common law and ety. the ecclesiastical courts, the courts military, e courts maritime. The court of King’s Bench is the was understood to The courts of assize act as auxiliaries to the courts already mentioned : They are composed of two or three commissioners, who are sent round the kingdom twice every year, except in the four northern counties of Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and West- moreland; in which the assizes are held only once a ber of judges is twelve; Judges. year. The trial by jury, handed down from our Saxon an- Trial by cestors, is the most noble feature in English juris- jury. prudence, and is justly regarded as the safeguard of the lives, liberties, and property of the nation, In ci- Jn civil. vil cases there are two kin juries, special and com- cases. mon ; special juries were ly introduced, when the causes were too intricate for the discussion of or- dinary freeholders. In forming a special jury, the sheriff attends with his freeholders book, on the per officer takes indiscriminately 48 of the freeholders, 12 of. whom are struck off by each of the attornies on both sides, A common jury is returned by the sheriff, who gives in a list containing not less than 48, nor more than 72 jurors, whose names are put into a box, and the 12 first drawn out are sworn on the jury. The jurors may be challenged by either party. Bach of the 12 men me epee, Hepa is sworn separately, well and to try the issue een the parties, and a true verdict to give according to the evidence. The 3 because the Sovereign pa ocoring by ata ad a. tN it is so u in San fe. Jotnlicind extease & the whee are three puisne judges, The authori Teenie he cekaronel ot wall so ciel aa the latter is called the crown side, the former the plea side, of the court. It is a court of appeal, into which may be re- moved all determinations of the court of Common Pleas and of the inferior courts ; but from it an appeal lies to the House of Lords, or to the Court of Exchequer. The court of Common Pleas determines all civil actions be- tween man and man, as distingui from “ the pleas of the crown;” which term comprehends all crimes and F eidgesiry ours. Cae “_—- Paar Ay "or haenad and i ju Ex uer, sO Semen Tage the encitel vada ch ceiling apon's che- quered board, is a court of law and equity also. It consists of two divisions. The receipt of the exche« Courts of ENGL qvabatrs t pote thrceshrtl sp aaF he : E f - f PS 5 } i upon the evidence. k it ry, retire to consider y are without meat, drink, (unless ssion of the judge,) till unanimously agreed. When ms 8 are agreed, back to the bar, and deliver their verdict ; SPREE tion must be sued out within a year and a day after > seemefiacaemar any Such are the proceedings in ci- pardon, under the great seal, is pleadable to an impeach- ment by tlieCommons. In et of pre monger after evidence is gone , and counsel heard, each peer declares; on his honour, whether the accused is guilty or not guilty of the crimes laid to his charge, and he is acquitted or condemned, according as the majority of the peers are for or against him. It has already been mentioned, that the Court of King’s Bench, on the crown side, takes cognisance of all criminal causes. The High Court of at takes cognizance of all crimes and offences committed either upon the sea, or upon the coasts. The criminal courts of local jurisdiction, are the courts of oyer and terminer, or courts of assize, héld ly the judges on the circuit, attended by the justices of the of the county wherein the assizes are hold- en; el cage quarter sessions of the peace, Which must be holden in every county, orice in every quarter of a year, It is holden before two or more justices of the peace, one of whom must be of the quorum. The jurisdiction of this court extends to all féloniés and tres- passes ; but murders, and other capital felonies, ‘are referred aeons of in er a criminal, is, in the thks (tees, toy beret The sual mode of ing an arrest, or of ending a person, ¢ hand and seal of a nn it making oath concern- b against persons thay fn Vie wor of eeeamnititng’a Wench of the ponte. fia phoebe yy Serbo hema a ma- distryte, Who dismisses hi ie charge ; ' groundless ; but if otherwise, the is either ‘coimmutted to prison, or admitted to bail, that is, he must give AND. i wa RS grand jury is sw delivers to them his charge, 2 4 5 : 5 : é , they ! “not a true bill,” or “ not found,” and the charged of course; but a new indietment may tisfied of the tru’ it, “a true bill.” pel wag an ing, in criminal cases, at the suit of the ithout a previous presentment to a grand jury, is by way of information ; “at the king, and partly of the the dite ahaie’ If the offender, on the bill of indictment found, does not appear after bei quired to si er him. self at five co; courts, he is judged to be outlawed, or is rendered incapable of taking any of the benefits of the law, either by bringing actions or otherwise. When the offender appears in court, the indictment is‘distinet- _ Any cause whatever; whereas the king can challenge juror, without igning @ reason, to be allowed by the court. In cases treason, treason, and mis- ni rh Sm re bed toad ery ae tom necessary to convict a prisoner ; in almost every other case, one witness is sufficient. ayer age one 4 soner i for the pi ion is gone through, the N called upon for his defence ; and when this is finished, _ the judge sums up the evidence, pointing out the law to the jury, and chien instructing them, that if any doubt of the prisoner's guilt rest upon their minds, they are bound to acquit him, The jury then retire to con- Verdict of given in open court. the jury. sider their verdict, which must The unanimity of all the twelve persons is the peculiar characteristic of the English jury. Ifthe poner i found not guilty, he is for ever discharged of the accu- pre nh Leeda Mo an court immediately follows, and he ean only -be on- ed by an exercise of the royal don Taust be under the great seal of ve. This par- Royal par- gland ; the ne- 400. Character il the Englisk laws. ENGLAND. 3 the provoking of another to break the peace; and this Statistics. It is beyond our and limits to enumerate the ere er penn 0) Sts Seema i however, be briefly to men- is affixed in the sta- i in an ‘ a spay ho wv easily Seeepiey-gab behing a truth as a false- _ By the constitution, the king is considered as the su- Church of __preme head, on earth, of the church of England. By this England, aul thority he convenes, rorogues, restrains, regulates, and dissolves all pein he ecclesiastical conyocations. The conyocation of the clergy in land, however, have never been allowed to transact any business since ign of Queen Anne. The ministers of the esta~ which me Bee al ae seen hein teen which com) ms either in orders, or in ecclesiastical offices. The different anes of the clergy of the church of England, essential to the consti- tution of episcopal government, are those of bishops, priests, ko sheep but there are other officers, which, though not essentially necessary, have been gradually i juced, as cag deans, daries, minor deemed to be sanguinary. in Saga Siasatate bak pi ph pc et aoe ge ea hd crimes, e. ‘The episcopacy nd consists ° many of which are by no means deserving of it, yet archbishops of Canterbury and York, and 24 bishops, there are. as few crimes i with who, spon confirmation, may sit in Parliament ; there | death in this as in any other country. High treason, is also the Bishop of Soder and Man, who has no seat murder, and forgery, are generally thus punished, in the House af Lorde. The archbis is the chief of Transportation for life, or for a period of years, isthe the rest of the bishops, and all the inferior clergy in livines in the digpocal of his bishops, in filled six months, The Archbishop of Canterbury enjoys some privileges above the Archbishop of York; to him belongs the privilege of crowning the kings and queens of England ; and of granting special licences to marry at any time or place, to hold two livings, &c. He is styled the primate of all England, and precedes all penna.en the royal family. he rn te Contarbuey piace ome Ist, The Ecclesiastis bishopric of London, containing Essex, Middlesex, and “! geo part of Hertfordshire : ad, The bishopric of Winches. &™P*Y- MT aon, within six to , commitment, to prevent a recommitment for the same offence. Circumstances, however, sometimes without his consent, expremed by his ight of petitioni the kin righ Pontoning ie Kips ter, containing Surry, Hampshire, Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney: ad The Bebopsic of Litebfield and Coventry, containing Stafford, Derby, and part of War- wick and Shropshire: 4th, The bishopric of Lincoln, containing Lincoln, Leicester, Hunti , Bedford, Buckingham, and part of Hertford: 5th, Ely, contain- ing Cambridgeshire: 6th, Salisbury, containing Wilts and Berkshire: 7th, Exeter, containing Cornwall and Devon: 8th, Bath and Wells, containing Somersetshire: 9th, Chichester, containing Sussex: 10th, Norwich, | containing Norfolk, Suffolk, and a small part of Cam- | bridgeshire: 11th, Worcester, containing Worcester and a part of Warwick: 12th, Hereford, containing Hereford and a part of Shropshire: 13th, Rochester, containing Kent: 14th, Oxford, containing Oxfordshire: points, Pf, whieh the English constitution is distin- 15th, Peterborough, containing Northampton and Rut- i it would be unpardonable to pass over the li- land: 16th, Gloucester, containing Gloucestershire : y of the : itmay be idered as consisting 17th, Bristol, containing the city of Bristol, oh of ly in this, neither the courts of justice, nor Gloucestershire, and Dorsetshire: 18th, Landaff, con- er j taining Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon, and Radnor : or not. Itis, subject, that whether the matter of the libels be true or as the guilt of the persons consists in 4 - part of Cumberland 19th, St David's, containing Pembroke, Cardigan, and Caermarthen; 20th, St Asaph, containing the pcre part af Flint, Denbigh, Montgomery, and part of Shrop- shire: and, 21st, Bangor, containing Anglesey, Caer- narvon, Merioneth, and part of Denbigh End Wasntgo- mery. In the province of the se eyree A of York, (who is termed the Primate of England), there is, 1st, The bishopric of Durham, whi — Durham and Northumberland : 2d, isle, which contains at ae : 8d, Chaster, gPEe 5 te & z3 z ui i H t i re ihe Bl ns a & <8 if rg i z F j FEE & a = g : : 3 are the vicarii, or deputies of the rector ; but if the tithes be entire, the priest is styled rector. lt 2537 i Hi = es ie ide bad ist LE z es : } = = # HAL : Hi ? f F i j E 5 Eg iH Tle aa Gl z The next order is that of ; their num- _ tithe-free, titheable, tithe-free in part, and tithe-free on ber is about 60 ; their office is to inspect the moveables payment of a modus, which is a very small and inade« the churches, to reform slight abuses, and to induct quate compensation. benefices. y Counties. Tithe-free. Titheable. Tithe-free in part. payment of Modus.) Bedfurd....... -| £186,589 6 3 85,031 13 9 £524 5 0 £475 15 0 OURS mah s:9< 0 chs. 08 88,441 3 0 316,709 10 9 - --— _- -—- OGRE shade, «07 2 -on0 $03,920 8 8 182,202 14 11 12,554 15 O -- = Cambridge ...... 107.045 19 10 842.719 12 9 2,515 0 0 935 0 0 Chestef..... 4... 28,412 9 4 646,865 6 8 1,236 15 0 3849 4 Cornwall. ...... 2,153 10 O 561,846 3 0 510 0 0 1,963 3 0 Cumberland ..... 69,094 0 6 $12,645 10 8 71,759 7 6 15,751 10 0 DN kid on 0078, 6 230,528 15 $ 810,149 7 3 78,739 138 0 2,275 17. 0 DIVO S s\n je 2.38 28,917 17 11 1,181,142 2 5 4,967 0 0 2,520 0 0 BOON «ai wid oie 48,853 17 4 436,642 11 10 545 0 0 2,984 0 0 oo re 143,073 9 0 358,441 7 $3 3,269 10 9 1278 15 4 IU s, dudin.¢ a sy 1,424,883 11 7 1,410.020, 5 3 170,849 17 4 105,364 15 11 Fa ats ess 40-0 72,796 19 O 826,784 12 § 1,798 0 0 3,236 0 0 Gloucester . i. 254, 7 4 8 7 —- —_ = 5,124 11 O Hereford ....... 21,340 3 4 4382. 0 -- = - = Hertford ere ee 76,150 10 0 264,616 16 7 1,483 13 4 100 0 0 Huntingdon ..... 119,176 14 10 56,367 8 10 16,895 4 0 11,637 0 6 Es: 2 5 &, 9 Was ae 11,290 5 6 849,040 19 8 7,857 6 0 _—_ ——|. Lancaster ...... 129,813 17. 2 1,131,425 15 10 2,643 5 0 6,962 0°0f Carry forward. . . - |£ 8,946,429 6 10 |£10,250,481 17 5 |£378,148 11 11 |£161,457 15 1 ENGLAND. 83 Counties. Ni os Tithe-free. — Titheable. . || Tithe-free in part. /On payment of Modus.} _ Brought forward |.£3,846,429 610 |£10,250,481 17° 5"| £378,148 11 11 | £161,457 15 1 | | Leicester ...-.-- ees, | 173,598 15 1 | + 18,514 510 | 922,989 18 2 Lincoln .......+}. 938,003 11,6 |... 499,009 1.7 | 107,729 7 3 87,108 10 6 Norfolk}... ---+{. 108,9i@.7 6 |. 823-218 3,8 |) 4,270 0 6 |... 410 0.0 N a+ see} $60,556 17, 9 -|. . 114,097 1511 13,070 17. 9 |, 8,911 9 7 N nd...}. 293,057 .2 5 433,087 13-7 | 129,897 15 4 50,797 0 0 Notti AR $40,163 2 |, 183,548 0 0 4,036 0 0 7,245 0 0 eer ee 275.140 .6 1 219,105 14.7 2,057 0 0 1,322 0 0 Rutland. ..... +). + 63,316 1 1 15,148 16 8 20,149 17 4 560 0 0 Below i vacors. ne ie':\}0 4 - 92,827 12 9 639,150 9 6 4,200 0-0 2,317 6 0 Somerset... . + s+ 9 oR cas ce 4,214 5 0 a ae Southampton... oe . 25, 2 9 3 r 8,437 il 0 —_— oe \ aes — —_—_— Staffordi.+.... | 189,442 16. 4 BEL 0) Bc Ooblvsinks: ining a et dk Suffolledicgage)» aie @ 60,425 14 0 624,253 16 0 6,486 2 0 2,912 10 0 a icles abo Say 55,530 18 11 800,564 6 23 3,746 5 0 10,000 0 0 dreads poke 54,109 8 5 410,256 7 1 13,506 14 11 72,077 16 8 Warwick .......- 280,103 6. 94 208,214. 9 103) 112,097 7 11.] 44,724 5 10 Westmoreland ....-..|- -107,185- 3 10 81,724 4 3 10,658 8 0 21,988 10 3 Did 218,674 12 2 562,160 15 6 21,004 1 5 8,788 6 11 wey 149,277 8. 8. $63,728 1 1 1,276 12 0 1,921 8 0 aie» « 45,354 11° 2 19,767 0 0 — _—— —: _—_— andes 738 0°0 107,708 7 2 oe — FS gee vee. 288 0 0 101,262 2 8 -—--— —_- —- = SR nah (151 °6°0 224,001 7 2 Reb i or eet ON tae 4 paaltlg 88,075 17 1 2,772 9 10 = fg 5 ati) _ ap) Bd ee 40 52,886 52 27,141 100 aK ‘ vee pn rand Wells . uy 2. 55 129,965 78 57,809) 103 (ihrwead Bristely;. 0) 5% hig. 41 83,766 |. 58 40,216 71 (Canterbury 6... 67 175,625 83 705 | * 1138 : Carlisle) 0's ys 29 58,459 » |. 49 25,108 89° . Chester eI. pBINR 257 568,826. |. 351 220,542 439 Shore areas) 41 73,3138 47 34,690 58 St Davids, no returns. ‘ ‘. Durham. oe ew ew we wee : 5 J 298,755 : 118). 63,259 173. y Ely CPOE ME Ie. oho 14 32,425. yy) OR 14,810 83 a Ss: Exeter: tig SAT Dupe 159 $62,551 176 152,019 234 re Tau ! Gloucester ... eee 36 87,934 46 46,931 76 Hereford .. 2. yr 33 82,567 51 39,483 |) 42 sepa Sith ett a ns ; : re © Carry over 888.) 2;111;780 1175} 834,984 1577 VOL. IX, PART . gE a ENGLAND. e Statisties, Number Number of Nam ber of Per- Number of SS Dioceses. of Population, | Churches | sony will ~ Parishes. |) and Places of P Chapels. Worship. | Brought forward 888 | 2,111,780 | 1175 834,984 || 1877"| "" BAR RE 11 | 28,200 21 12,350 | * °42° ‘a Lichfield and Coventry, | 429 |" 480,291 |" 199 |" 199,750 on vie 2 Lincoln... 2. 129 215,033 165 104,644 eng” | ne ; London ......... 132 | 661,39+ | 186 162,962 | °265 Jo" °F 4 Norwich . 70 135,900 78 64,668 [°° 114° Hh) 4 AAS. wack) 30 36,251 50 35,520 ‘| °38° mms, Peterborough. ..... 17 $4,825 20 19,450 |°* 87 : Rochester. ....... 24 105,142 86 25,280 44° , Salisbury -. 0. 2. 83 142,609 134 72,243 |° 142° us Winchester. 2... . 120 $71,206 193 115,711 1° °165~} Worcester; ....... 40 75,239 66 36,263 ‘59° Sega Re i! 108 591,972 220 149,277' | °892° OIA At Ree: 1,881 | 4,937,782 | 2,533 | 1,856,108 |°3,438 - ; A i to the last diocesan return, the total num- ties in which they are most numerous after these, are ber of in England and Wales (including 133 Durham, Cheshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, et sod Wate The total number. in all these counties is be 200,000; in London, Surry, supposed there are 50,000; » and in Bristol, via on eae thampton, Exeter, ‘oan fea dignities), was 10,582; the number of non-resident was 5037, of which, however, 986 did duty ; and the number of residents 5397 ; the num- ber of curates en livings where the incumbents were mouth, Plymouth, Sow not resident, was 3926. The following Table exhibits and in a few other places, 50,000 more ; the respective number of curates who had salaries from 300,000. There are 900. Roman ‘Catholie chapeles of £10 per annum to above 270. _ which 100 are in Pence etd ce seal £ a9 from £10 to £20- 5. of « . £140 sare apo. Care we re ead aig lod soak 70 about 70 Meodne 217 a ee eS nh os as ite 160 lowers of Whitfield, who are Calvinists ; these are org are tes. Cbs.) Gath ee top not numerous, bomhanthes. 3 increasing : and the follow. “ Se Hepes . . 190 crontab whose creed is Arminia, These have . . 2 ss in number 347 ~-. = : ts x ores an in England and Wales s being ame Fay 1 a = 7 Ms a Fay a The soerety 108 Sonera Friends as th style Quakers ec o + Si D . 270 themselves, in England ; but_ 9a5" AIO! “32° cae | 0 not numerous, oars B probably not increasing, not . Se sayeth or pl being anxious to make converts. The greatest number oF ogy SS of them is in London, and in the northern perucolarm Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Westmore« _ d. The followers of Sweden are far from nu~ merous. The modern Unitarians, ley may be considered the founder a oe numerous, being rincipall ound in N and West of England, Fad in the metropolis, The civil and religious freedom -which Englishmen enjoy, and Pil wor are Arye. I ily dis- the civil and all the pe ought religious ii- not, esadeing to be emobery de Fo, constitu. berty of tion and laws under. which they'live. » The same con- ~ stitution and laws would fail. to Berger wary The convocation, the highest of the ecclesiastical courts, has already been mentioned: the next in dig- nity is the court ot deh legates, then the court of arches: there are also courts of F widieace: of prerogative,"and of iars. he special tenets of the church of England are given in the 39 articles ; but some sre aot learned and conscientious of her divines have doubted whether they are Calvinistic or Lutheran. The law considers all as dissenters, who do not conform to the churc! vaisp, Bpglene a ga establish- ed mode of religious wo to the statutes. 1 Elizabeth, poe oh and 13 Charles it. chap. 4. eal- led the Acts of niformity. Latterly, however, and especially ly during the present reign, eration has been tly extend find. The principal classes of dissenters are the Pres- a pifege te Bese putin pull i Swedenborgians, and Unitarians. Presbyterians “—_ ts are scattered: over all England and 2 Papists, ¢ Roman Coben ee Seer mt confined to Lancashire, Yorkshire, Stafford- arwickshixe, and Northumberland... The coun- security wold Paeiblgent, er Een attem) Seen eae 4 they as rulers, as well as the people. over rule, are much more secure and , whi religious liberty is entire, en ot ait to be broken. in upon.. Ph Me | CHAP. XIt. tion, Manners and Customs, Antiquities. Tue language of England is radically Gothic, there beligs Seca: Gat. cats Ve traced to the Celtic, there is no doubt that the original po- pulation country was Celtic. From the Euro- languages of Latin origin and etymology, the PTE > , ai oB® F : u : e Fy ft z : g 7 af i : z : i £25 eF a ef a ie a i Hi the nobility ge te imo grat and France, the of Edward IIT. cectd,m the Ith century, change in ain nem ed the Norman Conqueror. haucer in » John Mandeville in prose, are su hibit the first specimens of what may be termed the advances of the language towards regular con- eet aettate oe ear were very great ; fro of Edward VI. to the reign of tis : impos Seeaa-wien ts a vapid and very brief sketch of English fis shed from the of most of the ENGLAND. and architecture, England has not made great “versities, at Oxford $5 life, Another grand is, original in the writings of Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, and Locke. As istinguished from Scotch literature, the literature of E may be characterised as more learned, but less metaphysical. feature of the English titerature, Statistics ius, which shines forth so conspicuously ““y~"" Since the days of Newton, England has not been S:ence. eminently distinguished for mathematical science ; but towards the wonderful discoveries which the present has witnessed in chemistry and the physical sciences, she has contributed an ample portion. The sciences con- nected with the healing art, have made great advances in England. © Perhaps our surgeons are not superior to those of France, but our physicians are decidedly superi- or to the physicians of the continent, in their education, manners, professional knowledge, general respectabili- ty, rank and wealth. 1 ~ Till'the 18th century, this country had scarcely any Painting. native painters of merit ; and it may be added, that it has been only during the reign of George III. that this art has met with much encouragement, or displayed much improvement. Even yet, in painting, ving, vances. In music, she is still more deficient ; for while almost ‘nation on the continent, and her sister nations every ' of Ireland and Scotland, have their respective national’ music, England is without it. Phe higher and middle ranks of English give their paucatioa children an expensive; ‘and, in some lent education ; ‘but till the institution of Sunday and_ the public of Eton, Westminster, St Paul’s, Har- Winchester. There are only two uni- and Cambridge; at chs former, classical learning is the favourite pursuit ; at the latter, tured with austerity and pride ; great fondness for do- mestic life ; a disregard of, and contempt for, show and theatrical effect in what they say and do ; anda decided preference of comfort to extravagance they are distinguished from most other nations, by the ion of animal food» which they con- sume } favourite liquors are’ale, ishing features of the English character, English are independence of mind and conduct ; a reserve, tinc- ‘har acter, In their diet, Food. 2 and Drink, wine ; for lighter wines, even the iNest ranks tines " little relish. ‘Tea, which is rately met with on the con- tinent, is drank herein iinmense quantities by all ranks and classes of people. Their cookery particularlysimple: with respect to the latter, it is im- ans by their dress, to distinguish the sons of the ing from the plainest tradesnien Tlie houses in Eng- land. ‘as well'as the persons of the people, bear une- i testimony. to their minute and scrupulous re- and” dress are press, gard. to cleanliness. The prevalent disorders are, con- Diseases. sumption, fevers, apoplexy, palsy, and lunacy : towards some of those, the An cgedapmig oe the cfintatt evidently contributes ; | towar ers, the quantity of. animal food and of strong liquors which are consumed. The _ of persons, houses,, and. streets, however, which.are ev met with,-as well asthe im- in‘draining land, which’ have taken place ring the lst century, have rendered England a much more thy country than it formerly. ‘The Enghsh nobility =a eniiry 6 \ eg im tion of their time on their estates in\the'country ; and many of them instruct and amuse themselves, as weil 86 ENGLAND. Statistics. as benefit their fellow-subjects, by their attention to manufactures, &e. of different towns and clistriets, Statisties cent i of architecture ; but,.in general, they of the Resources of Great Britain) Aikin's Manchester, Works con- t, than noble and ex- Aikin’s (A.) Jour in North Wales. sate Politi. sulted in tensive. The grounds mos —s however, are al- a Pag peommcen es etpee of rer tg mig J eye xo ogy ¥ Sate 0 : orwell oe ike British Enpire, 1772. The different county hists- Antiquities. _ The antiquities of E are ries that been i Beauties of nd under six laser 1. Celtic; '& Belgie; Homan; and Wales, Skeene’s Wives of Great Briain, Younes wanes siters, & i 5 on On Todinn o ionalt peo en , Geology — scripti c. have ron- ¢ rence. c s MO» 4 tier-wall from the Western Sea to the Tyne; and traces Becke the Income Tax. ee Wool. * of Roman roads are visible, from Richborough in Kent, servations on the Collon Trade of Great Brilainn, » through London, to Chester; from London to Lin- _ Much information was also derived from different Re+ coln; and from Norwich into Dorsetshire... The Saxon gh ae 8 acc House of Commons, jparti antiquities are chiefly sacred or, secular edifices ; the ly ng: | wt ‘the Manu facs_ Danish are camps, and some castles, to the north of the aregt England 80K, _ Evidence on the: Petitions of Humber ; and Norman are castles.and cathedrals, the i infers, 1803, 1804, and 1806. Report.on of which latter, those of Durham and Winchester may the Colton Weaver J men’s Pela . URe- be icularly noticed, : ports on the Distillation of Sugar, 1808.. Re-~ Works con- In drawing wp.the greseding article, a great variety porls.. Population Reports, 1801, 1811. \Returns)re~ sulted in of books have been, consulted for particular points, the, spretingate Hivos AVC. Bullion t. Evidence on énving “P titles of which it is not necessary to give here, since, the East India| Company's Affairs, 1812, 1813. Evi») _ unless pm. Fanee pois, they afford little or no informa- dence respecting the rs ins 1808 and 1812. tion respecting the statistics of England... Heport.cnnite ies! on Leather, 1812, 1818i05 : fo A plawicgh x ally consulted were, the agricul. __ Much valuable information was also derived respect~: tural the different counties; the various tra- ing the principal manufactures, from. personsyresident, vels in naleed the Monthly Magazine, the early vo- in the respective districts where. they are carried: ony lumes of which contain many yalaable papers on the and well acquainted with their presentistate. (wi. s.) basis —_—. ; xt) fare aff) ef udtireomsd fs f P Sioned § sdeigntU crore ed i at ip : . ere Si .SRO TE Tt vahoasM atrle'. i Ge oui T N. D Ex xX. b ; “ Tacnioage teri, allt shee « *,” The numbers of the pages between p. 589 and p. 761, refer to Vol. VILL, and-those from p. 1-to p. 36, refer. to Vols IX. | ' . : . . : wer fie bret Index. A lows su ed, ro- Agriculture, number of sheep in. _Corn- _—— tations, wheat, 720. and quantity of wool , part nel Somers ‘Byatt Agriculture, introductory re- Agriculture,‘ Produce,—wheat | ' jn Lincolnshire, — in A i ‘ marks,—state and ma- counties; quality) of! - | © Noftfolky in’ Cams |‘ ‘shire, in Hereford-\ nagement of landed wheatyiryey: barley 5 - obridgesbire, in Huns). - ‘shire, in» Monmonth+ property, &c. 716. counties. __ tingdonshire ;_ ee ee freehold, fee farmhold, barley is principally ‘ley breed; number of re, in, Shropshires, copyhold, leasehold, grown, produce, oats, Bi and quantity of ip Balipenlenranves, singular tenures, size 721. in in districts of short wool- of estates, kinds of oats, beans, sin War- | led sheep, 728. ment and size of » tares, buck. . wickshire, in Stafford- Agriculture, sheep in Wales; tythes, a Pacmgreren inereir se ebe~ = in Devon- . ane as. to. longs rent, rates, ify ‘ as. f z &e.; psn df entry 22. thite, long - woolled moclieh she, 729. , and payment of rent, carrots, &c.; sheep in Devonshire, number long and canary seed, &c.; flax total number of long- short woolled ments, northern agri- and ‘hops, or= ‘and 5 slaughtered; total cultural district, wes- chards, cider counties, weight of wool, short- number of sheep and earner einh te 723. Y _ooltcnin 2 ap german oe eal pipet en mo ing _— r rioly { wool, 2 cautern, the wend CCominee colle sheep, Of cattey 130, > western, tural zing la 1 gent ‘Suffolk, in Cambridge-, : . districts ; principal a- ral sane ee: tle; rable counties, dairy marks, live” i. i in moar breeds ¢ 4 counties, - breeding sheep, varieties de- Down sheep in probable number counties, 719. scribed, 724 065) ¢ ’ sate hai ass cone rie ae and = ; ; shire breed ; * asses; breeds swine, ploughs, number of ag Sang ve th — ; pg re, in Ber! _ goats, rabbits, poul- horses in a plough, rc shoyu lire, in Oxfordshire, . try, 732. ib. . nurhber in. .. “ine timber; woodland coun- waggons, thrashing ma- number in York- ') fn Herts, 727 _ ties; royal forests ; chine, old mode of shire, Lineolm yyeed: |. ») Hampshire breed, in) \ oak, elms, ash, &e. arable husbandry, fal- of sheep, 725. Middlesex, in Dorset, 733. 5 ¥ —- wv ENGLAND, 387 _ Index, ‘Apptpeieieer setletiony pent os a at Coquet; Vale of, 674. us a, es arms ition of the Index. - es of,"numbervof culti- « Liverpool and Manches- Country, genceal Eppsaienesse of ws, 618 ——! -») ©... vated farms, their ap- oie a pa) we x. sets ao award. conguestof Wales by, «-9 “plication, distribution n ties palatine, cruel icy 5 o& © ofvarable Tand, acres * st oh eeidieediicmeedads, 6D corporate, ib,‘ af dapeetsreasvthusects ~~) sof wheat; &e.§ value in the ndrth western part, | origin of the'present divi- ©. tish» affairs; war of the produceof the (0 «gibi of Ho > © into, 668 -2i3 - with France; he scovdl? dandpqs40 Vo oad near the:metropolis, ib. : in Alfred’s time, ib. ; : _new models parlia- rental of the land, 735 > average in England, ib. formed by $4Henry VIII. ‘ment, 619 ‘> -¢apitalemployedin; pro- tabular comparison of the ib. ~ he subdues Scotland ; ~") © fits of farming, gross ©. quantity in the midland divisions into trithings or f his dispute with the ‘ value of landed pro- ‘and maritime counties, ridings, and into laths elergy 3 his arbi- ‘perty, numberof peo- ib. i and rapes, 668— into trary measures ; he » »upleemployed, histori. of dew that falls, 695 _ hundreds and tithings in - makes peace with e-em calmétices'of-agricul- «© of water that is discharged © the time of Alfred; France 3) confirms doin | ppereyiT Seip: ’ “from the principal rivers, wards and wapenstakes, | -the great charter ; proofs of its advance- « © ‘ib,; Bot OT) : 669" dies, 620 wo ment, TBs” barometer, state of the, at number of, at present, 670 Edward IL comés tothe throne; Alfred the Great, 590 | Liverpool, 698 in the northern district, recals his favourite -. is compelled to submit to © at Dover, 699 ib. )- Gaveston ; hismar- — = the’ Danes, and’ retires in Cheshire, ib. bordering on Wales, ib. riage 5° discontents ©} imedisguise s enters the at York, ib. in the midland district, ° of the batons; Ga- _ ©) «Danish camp; recovers . at London, ib. ib. : yeston put to death; his' throne; his death, » at Sidmouth, ib. in the eastern district, 671 ‘invasion of Scot- peers) eae Tv ' Church of England, ecelesiasti- in the south eastern dis- land; the new fa- Area* of England, different o- © cal geography of; archbishops trict, 672 ; vourite ; civil com~ »pinions respecting, tradition- and bishops; parochial cler- in the southern district, motions, 621 vab-opinion, "opinion of Mo- © gy 3 annual: income of the ib. his success} his queen “lines, of Sir) Wm. Petty, of | church, 32— Number of in the south-western dis- forms the design of ary King, of Dr Halley; churches and chapels; num- trict, ib. dethroning him; “source of error on the sub- © ber of dissenting places of ° she invades Eng- roy rier le ar worship, 33—Doctrines of D land ; death of the ‘mistakes; Temple- the church; dissenters; re- Danes, England invaded by, favourite ; Edward man’s $Me. Arthur marks on the civil ‘and reli- 590 deposed by Parlia- . Young's 3 errors in gious liberty of Englishmen, Danish massacre, 594 °' ment; is murder- _ maps as'to, 666 BH wi invlen revenged by Sweyn, ed, 622 Army, 220 bes Clergy, celibacy introduced a- King of Denmark, Edward III. sticceeds his fa- Athelstan ascends the throne, mong them by Dunstan, 592 595 ther ; war with Scot- were”) meray Ciwyd, Vale of, 675 land, ib. the defeats the Seots and Coasts described, 679—of Es- E his narrow escape; ty- ‘Welsh at Brunsbury, sex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lin- Edmund and Canute divide the ranny of Mortimer ; oun AQQR ret cr uth colnshire, Yorkshire, 680— kingdom between them ; : execution of the Karl Aylesbury, vale of, 675 Durham, Northumberland, Edmund dies, and Ca- of Kent ; execution of 1 wh 4 ) Cumberland, | © Lancashire, nute seizes the ‘whole ; Mortimer ; Edward gedoeth 5 Lp ; - Cheshire, North Wales, Me- conquers Norway, and interferes’ in the af- ‘Bing Henry Il: quar- —_—_nai Straits, Bay of Cardigan, dies, 595° ‘fairs of Scotland ; »--9 vels with him, arid pro- | 681—Milford Haven, Bay of ascends the throne, and claims the crown of ' geeutes him, 607 ‘Swansea, ire, removes the Danes from France; fruitless ex- ” flies to the continent; com- Somersetshire, Devonshire, the heart of the king- pedition to France; aang with the King, Cornwall, the Lizard, Ply- dom, 592 the French fleet de- ot’ arrives in England, mouth Harbour, | is murdered by Leolf, a feated; 623 , MAGQG Ie elooe Rocks, mo 682—Dor- . his arbitrary - | ‘is*nmurdered, 609°” setshire, the Isle of Wight, Edred ascends the throne, and ings; he confirms the Belvoir, Valeof, 675 ; Pton- subdues’ the Northumbrian great charter ; renew- Berkeley, Vale of, 96 _ water, Sussex, | 683—Kent, Danes, 592 al of the war with spon Tweed, 673 -the Downs, Goodwin Sands, Edwy, his accession; he ex- France; battle of ‘England, 665 South and North Foreland, cites the resentment of the © y 710) ) Isle of Thanet, 684 monks ; queen is torn the Scots defeated ; ~~\ grapes, leguminous plants, Commerce. Trade to Denmark, from him, and cruelly mur- siege of Calais ; truce emi a to Russia, to Sweden, to Po- dered, 592 with France ; plague _/ © “rooted, native fruits, land, to'Prussia,toGermany, Edgar, his accession; he pro~ in London ;' renewal «! ~weompound flower plants, to Holland, to Prance, to tects his coast by a numerous of the war with APB cn? * - Spain, to Portugal, to Italy, navy ; his licentious amours, France; battle of «© evergreens, deciditions tim- 17—to!'Turkey, to Ireland, | and his marriage with the Poictiers ; captivity | Wher trees,’ ferns; alge, to North America, to South beautiful Elfrida, 593 of the French’ king, 7a, Fe ns America, to the West Indies, Edward the Elder ascends the 625. A> arytleaetyy 1 » to\the East Indies, exports, throne, 591 invasionof France; trea- _ mith i corey » imports, shipping, circula- defeats the Northum- ty of Bretignis con- Carlisley Plain of, 674 ting medium, 18 3 brians and Danes, ib. quered provinces re- Catmouse, Vale of, 675— Conway, Vale of, 675 — is.succeetled by Athel- Fre Absent eal Cities, towns, &c. defined, 670 Constitution. Origin of Par- “stan, ib. death ‘of the Black ena liament, mode of summon- Edward'the Martyr, his acces- ‘Prince ; the king’s oe i a "ing, constituent parts, Lords sion, and his murder by El- ~ death, 626 wintery spring, simmer, © *- and» Temporal, frida, 594 Edward IV. defeats Margaret “| autumn,’ 692. — “of Commons, mode Edward the Confessor ascends ‘at Totton; she and difference of, inthe north, of electing, 25—mode of va- the throne, bestows all pow- her husband again | ‘eouthy-east, and west, © cating/a seat, power of par- | er upon the Normans, and flee to Scotland; act MG Ps 6 8 liament, "mode of opening, quarrels with Earl Godwin, of attainder passed of rain in diffe- mode of 26— 596 against Henry, his vm parts compared, duration, + pro- Edward I. succeeds his father, ~ © queen, and son ; Mar- ql 6S aE Bored rogation, 21 his civil administration; bis " garet defeated at. —- bels quieted ; rebellion of. Warwick and Cla- rence; they flee to France ; Warwick and i ooo Belfand, son taken prisoner, murder of \ her son, 640 death of Queen Marga- ret; war with France; peace of Pecquigni ; ‘trial and execution of the Duke of Clarence; Edward vf suceceds his father, Git Gloucester’s dissimulation; the Earl of, Rivers ar.* rested and put to death; Hastings . murdered » arts of Gloucester to ob- tain the crown, 642 Gloucester __ usurps crown, 643 Edward. VJ,,. his accession ; . . Hertford chosen protec. tor; reformation com. pleted; war, with Scot. land prasecnuted ; cabals, and execution, of Lord Seymour, 654, persecutions by the refore mera; insurrections a. mong tke people; So- merget jresigns the pro- tectorship; . Warwick's ambitions projects, 657 his death, 648 » her accession; re- the .» France; quarrel with the Scots; her, tyranni- A gal conduct, 661 yp) pa her execution Mary of Scots; ject of ber marriage with the Duke of An- jou: peites with Spain; Spanish invae sion, 662 reduction of the rebels in Ireland, and ineurrec- tion and execution of Essex, 663 og ta and death, Bly, Usle of, 673 EB f sspends the throne, 490 yesigns the kingdgm to his WBD, iby cess of ys 594 he flies to Nofmandy, is recalled, 595 F . Festinaig, Vale of, 675 Finances,—customs, excise, 193 amount of exeise du- ties, 203 stamps, land-tax, assessed taxe es, » proper ty-tax, 21 Figure of England, 665 Fisheries,—salmon fishery, hers ring fishery, mackarel, pil- chard, 13 ; oyster, fishing vesselsin 1785, Newfound- land fishery, 14; Green- Gloucester, Vule of, 675 Godwin, Karl, flees to Flanders from Edward the Cone fessor, bet returns with an army, 596. _Is reconciled to Edward, 597 Government, executive power, bon.» Foyal family,» king's counsellors, cabinet council, principa) of- sury, secretayies of ~apeeaegat aad admiralty, coronation oath, royal, prerogas tive, civil list, diffe. Grey, Lady Jane, placed upon the throne, 658 Guernsey, Jersey, &c. Islands of, 673 H Harold succeeds Canute, 594, | divides the kingdom with Hardicanute, murders Alfred, and dies. 596 Harold, son of Karl Godwin, aspires to the crown, and opposes Edward the Confessor’s intention of settling the crown on Wiiliam of Normandy 3 his generous conduct, ascends the ‘throne, de- feats the Norwegians, battle of Hastings, 598, his death, 699 607 : the flight of Becket to the continent; Henry threat- ter, 61G the usurpations of his bas rons; prince Op- for the suppression of heresy enforced by the clergy; Earl Douglasde- feated by Karl Perey at Horneldon L 4 Peroy aud Douglas defeated by Henry, ¥ ; battle of Bange; bis mourder of Gloucester ; Duke of Suffolk’s death ; insurrections under Jack’ appears as a preten the throne, and is for- » throne, and those of the Duke of Yorks) Richard) — the Ae ee So- ~ oMerset) from. power 3 Richard has recourse to arms, 636° Henry VI. is woundedandtaken ss ‘at the battle of é 2 i i i 1 i i FEE F : with a superior force, faa 32 gt be ine Pe z Bee i | i : E BEEF pray Ae iy i : : : REF ENGLAND. Thomas More’; suppres- a of the monasteries, 651 | he marries Anne of Cleves; ’ Cromwell condemned and executed; king di- + vorced from Anne of Ay Cleves; he marries Ca- therine Howard, and pro- secutes the Protestants, 653. his journey to York, infide- lity and execution of the jueen; his attempts to the faith of the nation ; treaty of mar- riage between Prince Edward and Mary of Scotland, 654 — gbert, Hills. Malvern, Cotswold, Stroud water, and the Wre- kin, 678 Holderness, vale of, 674 Horticulture, 738 Brittany prisoner ; mur- ders him; is expelled from his foreign domi- nions ; disputes with the Pope; is excommuni- cated, and his subjects absolved from their al- his submission to the Pope ; confederacy of the - barons; Magna Charta signed; renewal of the civil wars; and Prince Louis of France invited . over by the barons, 614 reland, conquest of, by Hen IL. 609 sap! Kent, wealds of, 676 fens of, ib. Language, 35 Lakes, in Huntingdonshire, __ Cheshire,.and Wales, 690 Lakes in Cumberland, West- moreland, and Lan- cashire, 690 Ullswater, ib. Derwent water, ib. Broad water, ib. Buttermere, 691 inandermere, ib. teincaallte Fylde of, 674 Laws. Municipal law; courts of justice ; judges; trial by jury ; in civil cases, 29. Courts of criminal. jurisdiction ; mode of proceeding in crimi- ' nal cases; grand jury 3, outs lawry ; verdict of the jury ; ‘royal pardon, 30. Execu- tion; character of the Eng- lish laws; habeas corpus ; cloth exported ; state of the manufacture in 1800, 746 result of evidence: before: parliament, respecting the West Riding; errors in it, 747; present state ; 1 seats of it; est Riding district de- scribed; mixed-cloth dis- Wiltshire district ; Somer- setshire district ; differ- ent modes of carrying on the manufacture, 749 acts of Parliament regula- ting the manufacture; cloth-halls in Leeds, &c, described, 750 of machinery ; Pi Pomteftact returns of the quantity of cloth milled in the West Ri- ding of Yorkshire, 751 searchers, inspectors, su- pervisors ; Norwich ma- nufactures ; _ historical notices; present state ; manufacture of Devon- shire,—baize, blankets, z &e. strong cloth, small cloth, flannels ; value of the whole ma- nufacture ; the raw pro- duce, 753. Interest of the capital employed ; number of people em- ployed; results, 754. 39 Maniufactures, ‘cotton’; hise torical sketches, 754, Change in the condition of the Jabourers; value . of the* manufacture at different periods, 755, “Improvements in all its branches; effects of war; state, in 1795, ‘in Lan- > eashire, ‘7565 State of it in Cheshire and Der. byshire, 75%" State of it in 1801; comparison at different sds 3 cot- ton imported, 758.' Of- ficial value of cotton ma- '. nufactured, and cotton- yarn exported ; cotton district described 5) pro- portion of its population emplo: 759. > Value of ¢ manufactured goods ; value of the raw ~ material, interest and profit, wages, results ; ‘| woollen ‘and cottom ma- ‘nufactures’ contrasted ; ' different condition of the working people, 760 ‘silk-trade, historical no- tices, 1.) ‘Present state _-and probable ‘value, 2 | © «tices ; effect of bounty ¢ on it} Irish linen im- } ported ; its present state,! 3 rie © ‘stocking-trade in Leices-. | tershire,, in Notting- hamshite, in Derby- ‘shire, 4 ; lace, 4 Shirt-buttons ; quridus'instance | of the division of labour, 5 leather-trade, 5. Leather tanned annually ; ‘tan- * -neries, shoes, saddles, gloves ; value of the ma-. nufacture, 6 iron-trade, 6. Birming-. ham, list of manufac- tures, there ; remarks on them, % Capital; mode of ‘conducting ; number of people em- ployed ; japan-ware ; screws, locks, &e. 8. Nails, 9, Sheffield; dif- ference between the ma- nufactures. there and at Birmingham; list of ma- nufactures; remarks ; files 5» value, 9. Num- ber of persons employed; watch movements ; ear- then ware; glass, 10, paper, hats, &c. IL London manufactures, 11, Bristol ditto, 11 Newcastle ditto, 12 Hull ditto, 12 Liverpool ditto, 13 concluding-remarks; table showing the families chiefly employed in oe eenaadaeg 2 Mary proclaimed, and acknow- a by the nation,. 58 arrival of Philip in Eng-- Cader Idris, mineralogy N. Navy, 22 P Pertti mentioned A. D. 970, Pagel of 673 Pickering, vale of, 674 Plains, extensive, 675 , 23. State of the poor, Rr his captivity in Germany ; his return to England, and his death, 612 of affairs with France; war with Scotland; Earl of Oxford made favou- rite; his chancellor im- ‘ 627. encroachments on-his pre- rogative by the Duke of covers his authority ; battle of Otterburn ; truce with France; se- ditious conduct of Glou- cester ; Gloucester seiz- ed and privately mur- dered ; Arundell exe- euted, .and Warwick banished ; ai eiente quarrel, 628 his death, 629 Richard IIl. murders Edward VV. and his brother ; the Duke of Buckingham conspires against the king, and takes up arms, 643 Buckingham taken and executed ; Richard’s vades England; battle of Bosworth; the king’s death, 644 cends the English throne, 595. Stephen usurps the throne, 604. distracted state of the kingdom; irruption of the Scots; insurrection in favour of Matilda, 605 death of, 606 Stockton, vale of, 674 z Taunton, vale of, 675 a general remarks, 6 of Devonshire and Staf- fordshire compared, 696 of London and the west of England compared, ib. of Sidmouth and Derby compared, ib. great degrees of cold and heat, 697 ing, 669 — vy Trade ‘trade; coal trade, 15. vessels ‘the Nor- t ‘man barons against him, 600 — a few dissensions in/his family ; Robert revolts; is again ‘received into” ; makes the’ led 3 his 50 5 i : mT ot and are designated as “ filled with wisdom of of work with the graver, as well as jusion, not in its infancy. Mention is also often made in the sacred writings, at a time much anterior to this, of the existence of signets, rings, and bracelets, which it is le to suppose, however rudely executed, were ved or carved. ‘with certeintyaelithienn, A ehiort view, therefore, of the relics of antiquity now extant, will convey a more precise idea of ancient engraving. VOL. IX. PART 1. VLE 4 @e ENGRAVING The hieroglyphic figures of the Egyptians are per- 4 the most Leiant remains of engraving on ectdd ; ee they have been frequently met with, chiefly in the cof- Ancient fins of mummies, where they had been deposited as a syptian sort of talismans. There are in the British Museum se- ®8"*V"s- veral fine specimens See ie One of these, which bears every mark of high antiquity, has been minutely described by Mr Strutt. (See Dictionary of Engravers.) “ It represents Isis, and is carved in al- to-relievo ; the goddess appears standing on two cro= codiles, holding in each hand two serpents, a creature like a scorpion, and a four-footed animal; from the tails g of the crocodiles arise two ornaments ; upon the top of one is a bird, but the ion on the top of the other is so much obliterated by time, that it cannot be ascertained. The flat part of the relief, together with the bottom een ae of it, are ornamented with figures and symbolical representations, executed entirely with the , without any other assistance ; the backs of the crocodiles, and the of the four- footed animals, ‘are also finished with the same instru- ment, in a very careful manner. It is four inches high, and three inches four-tenths at the bottom, from which it gradually decreases to the breadth of three inches at the na the Etruscan antiquities at the British Mu- Etruscan. seum, by Sir William Hamilton, are two spe- cimens of the art of engraving at a very remote pe- riod ; a tation of which forms the ispi to one of the volumes of Strutt’s Dictionary. ‘ One of them,” as he describes it, “is a sheath to a parazonis um or . It is more than three inches and three- quarters wide at the top, and decreases gradually to an inch and a quarter at the bottom ; its present length is eight inches and a half: eh BE upon it ya etre nae Tg rh he trophy at bottom is symbolical of war ; above the trophy, two warriors are delineated, with a woman, who seems to accompany them with great reluctance, which I con- ceive may represent Paris and his ice conduct- ing Helen to the ship, in order to e her to Troy ; and at the top, the messenger, the servant of Menelaus, is relating to his lord the ungrateful beha~ viour of his Trojan guest. The figures are exceeding« ly rude, and seem to indicate the very infancy of the et be ey ee ee a= ver only, upon a flat surface, and need only to be filled with ink, and run through the press, (provided the plate could endure the operation), to produce a fair and impression. He likewise gives the representation of “ a_i va- luable i of ancient ving, atly superior in cae aren to the Socutaredh S pp or in- strunient used by the priests in their sacrifices ; and it is TP reason, to have belonged to an altar icated to Hercules, who is represented com- bating, as it a to me, Hippolite, the Queen of the Amazons, w irdle he was enjoined by Erys- theus to unloose and from her.” But M. D’Ankerville, who bas drawn up a deol’ tive catalogue of the antiquities collected by Sir Wil liam Hamilton, conceives it to represent Minerva lean« 3 F Engraving. —_—— 42 ENGRAVING. ing upon the head of that herd, and préssing him for- ward in the arduous path of glory; his bow and qui- ver are behind him. It is precisely seven inches in diameter, and about half an inch thick, apparently/, made of brass, but the ornaments and border are inlaid with silver. The figures and ornaments are carved in bas-relief, but the hair of the woman, and.the smaller inscription must be read from right to left,—another strong proof of its great antiquity. : An application of the art of the engraver, which seems to have been practised from the most remote an- tiquity, was the making of seals or signets, which were used as instruments of ratification. . Mention of them is made in the sacred books as far back. as the times of the i as well as in the other early writings of the ancients. It is probable they were en- on metal, and the impressions taken from them on wax, or some such soft ductile substance. In Hin- dostan, the art of engraving must have been known at a very remote period, as would appear from the spe- cimens, which we have in, this co , of the state of the art with them, described by M. seer. As the date of one of them is i and as the execu- eras ay considerable.advancement, it shews. that it must have been practised long before. ‘ They are both deeds of transfer. of land, engraven.on.tablets of coppers with seals appended to them. of the same me- » which seem to have been struck. like coins from an intaglio matrix. They are both in the Sanscrit lan- One of them; which: is now: in the; ion of the Earl of Mansfield, has been copied.in imile, and inserted, with:anEnglish translation -by Mr Wil- kins, into the first-volume of the Asiatic: Researches, It is dated 20ryears before Christ >and it-is further re« markable, that the date is ex in. Hindoo nume-~ vals, very much resembling’ the numerals. now in use. na am is likewise engraved in the me manner, pendant seal impressed on a pon rous lump of pk andsattached to itself by a massive ring of the same metal. .. The matrix must have been an-engraving of no mean workmanship, and it exhibits/a style of art similar, and not inferior, to the best of the present productions of the art of Hindostan ; it is in-alto-relievo, and being bedded inthe metal, is in high preservation. Itssubject is mythological; its form aci =o me nA Naso Ta weight metal on which it is not rerreke ner cp It was ot on to Mr Neave by Mirza hy a Shah ene ign present Emperor of Hin 4 was found in dig- a ome within the scite of the ancient fort of , on the Banks of the Ganges.” The art of die-sinking for stamping coins, though by no means of so early a date as the engraving of 9 or at @very early period. . It. iss uncertain wh the coining ofmoney »was invented by the Greeks or Lydians, though some suppose that the art was brought from Hindostan. The Greek money is su to have been struck by Phidon, haeet the Argives, whose reign is fixed. ithe Arundeli marbles at about eight centuries before the Christian era, or soon after the age of Homer. Many of the early Greek and Sicilian coins are beautiful, and. in highenliel -exehie, oworen the coins of Athens form aremarkable exception, being in a very inferior style . of execution, . -The art seems. to. Pt a cated to the Romans in the reign of Servius Tullius, Engraving. about 460 years before the commencement of our era, “Y= by the Lydian colony settled in Etruria, The best of the Roman medals are the work of Greek artists, exe- =] il ie i ie i + HL ate oF Ht ik e a es Bo Sere. ur e : E 2 grams. ak hag vical pings ~ollecti wt ad one in intag’ ved on stone, with which a } tal, in. cameo, onstaining the name of the | ieee rg aaa sis MAVRIL. y | more specimens. found in the antiquities ‘a= ther Montfaucon, Franciscus Gori, and others, who have treated on this subj With regard to, ate of the ATG Bri- State of the tish and Saxon ancestors, little is known. Like other a savage nations, they possessed the art of making rude ere - incisions on their warlike instruments, as, the remains jy cossors, Foci in their parr aya aubcien ly testify ; and eir coins are evidently impressions, from engrayings cut on iron,or steel. Under Alfred the Great, the art seems to have met with great eee and, ac- cordingly, it.attained to, very. considerable perfection in the making. shrines. and. caskets for the.reliques of saints. and pious. uses, which are said to have been wrought in gold, silver, and other metals, adorned with engravings and precious stones, and to have been the admiration of all saw them. There is still pre- served in the. museum at Oxford a valuable jewel, richly adorned with a kind of work bling fili- gree, in the middle. of which .is, seen. the half-figure of aman, supposed to.be St Cuthbert. _The back of this curious remnant of antiquity is. ornamented with foli- age, very skilfully engrav Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have . practised both COrigRNG-ADH $F raving, as well as the working of images and other things, in gold, silver, and. brass,. However, from the Pe anigs remains of his skill in drawing, preserved in an ancient manu- script. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, we must be allowed to doubt of the great talent in this way ascribed - ' to him by his monkish biographers. , of themt Some time after the conquest, a new. species of en- on brass ving was introduced into England, in every respect plates for Tifferent from the work of the chaser or carver, namely, tombs., ENGRAVING. Bograving’ inrei sa ons the tontts-etohies i chutches: —Y~ They were executed’ y with the graver, the out- ~~ Tinerbei ‘made out, and the shadows produced slag Gemnleseh sain ae eae Ae ing:to the strength of shadow intended, 7 in the way that | ngravit oy exeeriechst shee tine. Being” on the stones to which they ae they formed part of the pavement of the chureh’; and so being’ exposed to the feet of the con- gregation passing “over them, they were necessarily executed in a coarse manner, and the strokes very deep- ly eut'into the metal. There are some of these that of- ten display very considerable talent in the artist. The art’of engraving seals on precious stones or which'was practised’ by the ancients, and carried by thent'to ‘thé greatest’ perfection, was probably the invention’ of the E. jans; but of the means that prise tt carve such hard substances, from the ous hiero yphies which are seen at the tem- one Peete, aca er places, down to the nume- rous minute gems which formed ornaments, rings; ‘signets, &c. we dare hazard a conjec- ture. It is supposed ‘that the corundum stone, or ada- mantiné spar, was the substance wa for the pur- pose by the Egyptian lapidaries; and Pliny informs us, thatthe Romans used to i sand from Ethiopia ‘and’ India for this purpose, which it is probable was no other than the grit or powder of the corundum stone. The earliest engravings of the Egyptians are in intaglio, consisting most commonly of a opper, a scarabee, or an ibis, and in all probability execut- ed before the invention of letters. The earliest Greek gs are likewise scara- Ne i — in Greece with the . by the timie of Alexander the it had arrived at the perfection. While it declined under the exander, it migrated to Sicily and Etru- ria, and there shone in’ undiminished splendour ; but at Rome it never attained to any excellence, except in the hands of Greek artists. During the middle ages it with the other arts, and was afterwards revived in the fifteenth him kept up by Dominic’ 7 Origin and Wehave thus given a slight sketch of the art of en- progress of in the various way? hi which it was practised the art the ancients: It now remains to consider its origin = among the and F the moderns, in its more import- come at apt of ivr impressions upon paper, from of metal and blocks of wood, by means of the or rolling press. honour of this invention is equally claimed by Printing or rolling the Germans, Italians, and Dutch; but as the pretensions press. ted Baht nae ml Mle or evidence, they are not enti to our consideration. The art seems to have origi in Germany, in the Brief ma- brief malers, or makers of playing cards, who cut their lers. on blocks of wood, them on paper, and at first coloured or illuminated with the hand but afterwards performed the operation in a much more py tele mmn by blocks cut for the purpose, each requiring a separate stamp. The carvers of * brief malers, that the 43 the’ blocks were’ called formschmeiders, ¢. e. cutters’ of Engrsving. forms.’ " — As the mania for the adoration of images of the saints was, at this time, (the’beginning ‘of the 15th century,) carried to a most extravagant height; it occurred to the ublie superstition might\ be made a source of considera emolument to themselves. ‘This led them to the cutting of i ; and the representa- tions of pious subjects, which-were cut and illuminated like the cards, and illustrated ere title of os pao or a riate passages from le s, executed on the ital beck, in thd Gothic chadanend then in use; these were vended for the edification and amusement ofthe unlettered, and those to whom written books were not accessible. Baron Heincken discovered, ‘“ in the Carthusian mo- Impressions nastery, at Buxheim, near Memingen, a print of St 9 20m Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea; op- shou: 1499. posite him is a hermit lighting him with his lanthorn:; and behind him is a peasant, with a sack on his back, climbing to the top of a hill.” This piece ‘is of folio size, engrayed on wood, and illuminated in the same way as playing cards, accompanied with an inscription at the bottom : @hristofert faciem, Die quacunque tueris. FJlla nemype die morte mala non moricris: Millesimo tece? rr” tertio, This curious print was‘found ed on the in- ‘side of the cover of an old book; and there being no reason to d its authenticity, it proves that this me- thod of en, and ‘printing was practised as early as the year 1423. ‘This print was purchased by Ear! ee some years ago, and is now in his possession. . Heincken likewise informs us, that, in the convents in Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, and the Austrian coun- tries, he found many early specimens of works of the same sort, which had been intended for the laity, and . had been ed by the monks, by attaching them to the inside of books. These detached plates were soon followed by whole se- ries, consisting ofmany plates, mostly in folio, printed-un- der the name of legends, in which the figures of the saints differ little from each other, or from their yates om the figures on the cards, They are illuminated in like manner, and leave no doubt by whom they were exe- cuted, and are sometimes accompanied with passages of considerable length. Amongst the books of i without text, there are Poor Man’s still preserved in the libraries of the curious, several Bible. copies of the Historia veteris et Novi Testamenti, called also the Poor Man’s Bible. Each plate contains appro- priate sentences, or the names of the persons, sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom, or in scrolls in the middle, all in Latin. At the top and bottom are the busts of two saints, or prophets, with their names under them. In the middle are three historical subjects, that in the centre a principal one, and on each side one typical of it. We shall describe the first plate of this series, which will afford a fair specimen of the whole: it has the annunciation in the centre ; the inscription above is Ecce Virgo concipiet et pariet filium ; on the one side are Eve and the t ; and below, vipera vim perdit, sine vi pariente puella ; and farther down, on a scroll, porta clausa erit, et non aperietur. In like manner, on the other side, is Gideon with his fleece ; above, on a scroll, descendet dominus, sicut pluvia in vellus ; below, rore madet Vellus, pluviam sitit arida tellus ; lower down, creavit dominus ; and, at the bottom, the indication of the principal subject, Virgo Salutatur, innupta manens gra- vidatur. This work contains about 50 plates. "There Ragraving. —\— @rigin of prints and beoks. First book printed about 1450. EB en wood. Albert Da- ren. 44 is likewise an edition of this work, with plates ‘some- what different, with the inscriptions translated into the German . There exist copies of other similar works, such as Historia, seu identia Virgini Marie ex Cantico Canticorum, and Historia’ Marie Virginis, ez per ulustrata, led to books of text, illus- with i and still ved on one block, and in all robability the work of the brief maler, but waldind onsy.aninunisiaent ; but in some two and two, in hearers 7 anlew asertanawe both of prints Ss. t though practised this art for a time, the im nt tp em their invention might be extended did not occur to them, till, about the yas’ do ye of Stras- burg, a man of a bol ive disposition, see- ing these works, imagined, that, by cutting each letter separately, he would be able to print whatever he chose ; in this, however, he was not successful, till, after incre- dible labour and ce, in conjunction with Faust, he found means to form them of metal, with punches and matrices, and produced, about the year 1450, ait edition of the Bible, the first book ever printed. with moveable types, which, for beauty of execution, even at the t advanced state of the art, excites the won- ma astonishment of all acho -hersioa he art of engraving on w degrees to a re ag Sey William Pluydenwurff and Michael Wolgemuth are the first engravers on wood, whose names are preserved. They executed conjunct- ly, the plates of the Nuremburg Chronicle, which was blished in folio in the year 1493. _They consist of of various sorts, views of towns, &c.; they are ent with much boldness and spirit ; and the characters of the heads are often well delineated. _ They are, how- ever, marked with all the stiffness and inaccuracy of i drawing, which characterise the works of the German artists of that time. In the works of the brief malers we see nothing ‘but rude outlines, in the lowest style of art, (if it be at all entitled to the appellation, ) wifhout any attempt at cor- rectness of drawing, expression, or effect. The artists who followed, who seem to have been numerous, at- feenpting to give their works a little more finish, by in- ucing shadow, and paying some attention to draw- ing, brought the art nearer to perfection than it had yet been ; and the completion of it was ultimately effect- ed by the genius of Albert Durer, who, as far as regards the executive part of it, brought it to a perfection which has hardly been equalled by any succeeding artist. It does nct appear that Playdenwurff ever engraved on copper ; but as at this time, with the exception of him, it was the practice of the engravers to exercise both arts, we defer the few criticisms we mean to offer on their works, till we come to the history of o plate engraving ; and accordingly, in bringing it down to our own times, we shall e occasional notice of those who have distinguished themselves in engraving on wood, In concluding this part of the subject, we remark, that it has » Bis practised at different pe- Is, both by painters and engravers, in every country w the fine arts have been cultivated since their re- vival, principally in those imitations of drawings called chiar’ oscuros, (of which we shall presently take no- tice,) as well as in the engraving vignettes, decorations for as and mathematical di s; for these pur- poses it is well calculated, as the block can be inserted elistis et Patribus excerpla et - ngravi method of i g In chia ight drawings ity gumns of dilewens Lateran cemmalll oe pie —_ ay, ae ga invention of this art to Ugo da Carpi, a painter and engraver, born Rome about the year 1486; but as we have many cievems af cldaciedanen: by: tbaatinsainnaiaedits date much anterior to the time assigned by the Italians of its invention by Ugo da i, particularly by Mair, eit ig ey 1500, we cannot dated 1499, and one thods ed by the German artists differed materi- ally from hse ine deep shadows by engraving them on copper, and then the outline and dark shadows, another for, the li shadowy ants sane Ses the middle tint. number was geverslh iy. cess, consisting of four of which is given , i dat the 154th page of the and execution, prove | wenn, of the art at a much earlier peri: The artist whose name we are acquainted with, is Marty Martin Schoen, a painter, engraver, and goldsmith, He Scheea, in the year 1420, and died at Col- executed between the years the necessary which he lived, and the disadvan he un- der, he must be aloras io A man of strong mind and fertile imagination ; though his figures have.all the mea- gre taste and bad seaeing, of that time, his heads are well conceived, and the whole. is executed with much mechanical skill. The taste of his fancy of that branch of the art; yet the of his ex- ecution displays a more advanced state in the m i cal part of the art of engraving, He is said to have been ei siete EG yt ci Ua well authenticated work;), according to of Fran; cis Stoss, to whose style that of Schoen bears a great re- § ign shewsthein- ing though it must be allowed it is greatly im- br ce) semblance, though greatly ~ & ivanr 9 - Pi i ~ If we admit that Schoen’s preceptor, whoever he was, Phe aa the art ten years before gli ar scalp origin as far back as the year 1450, ten years the time fixed by Vasari for its Italian origin. - Ss Maso Fini. | On the authority of Vasari, the Italians ascribe the in- geerra. vention to Maso, or Thomaso Fini about the year 1460 ; apelene uy a pan praercailise by £92 ‘ it is very possible, art of engraving might have been a Beetietieilinks missor the iolista tors Fini a has ever of. Paris, and others, _ work iths, there may be some produc- tions of this artist. There likewise remain two small pieces of this sort marked witha , consisting of the letters M. F. somewhat similar to one of those used by Mare Antonio Raimondi, but the execution of the plate is in a very different style. This has been by -some presumed to signify Maso Finiguerra; but it must be considered only as iy vpubr b whut Sweynheym _ It is Sepckahie: that the first book printed at Rome, and Buck- “which also contained the first vings executed there, ~ (which were only maps,) was -by Sweynheym, and on his death finished by Buckink, both Germans, as the dedication to Pope Sextus IV. indicates: Magister Conradus , Germanus, a quo forma ‘Rome librorum ars primum profecta est, mathemati- eis adhibilis viris, quemadmodum tabulis denis «mprime- rentur edocuit ;” and that on his death, “ Arnoldus Buc- ink, e Germania —— ad perfectum opus succedens \perfecit.” This work is 1478, but it appears that it had been begun as early as 1472. The plates are exe- ‘cuted with great labour, and the letters.are struck with ‘punches by the blows of a hammer. From this it ap- ‘ “a if era did invent the art of engraving inl it was kept a profound secret for eighteen years afterwards. bn ‘ Baecio Bal- The next book that appeared in Italy with plates, was aii a ms Kod Dante’s Inferno, published at. Florence b Ni Lorenzo pea eerie = 1481, embellished wi thirteen vings accio Baldini, from the desi of Aliciniiva Betedli. Fac similes of two of thes ~ will be found in M. Heineken’s work ; and although the design of the figures is more pure and simple than that of their German cotemporaries, and the draperies cast with tolerable ease, yet the style of execution is puerile and awkward, without any of the delicate finishing pwr ge - works of the Germans even of t early period, and is another strong presumption of jk ota of the claims of the latter to the tovention of In tracing the history of the art, we cannot withhold fat the Pe pig ae, nee fowineh they seem entitled. We i in with the x wer au accordingly begin wi : @crman —__ Of Martin Schoen, and his predecessors, we have al- ready made mention. ~The.works of his brother Bartho- lomew, bear a strong resemblance to those of Martin, but without his neatness or After them came Israel van Mecheln, Playdenwurh, Wolgemuth, and Mair, the inventor of chiar’ engraving. - But Albert Durer was. the first that attempted to re- .not. discover in his plates rous style that was then | out grace ; an in hi _the, boldness and freedom which are desirable in large historical works, they at least display every thing requisite for subjects more mi- nute and finished. Although the art of ving has since had the advantage of the, experience of three cen- turies, it would be difficult to find a more perfect speci- men of executive excellence than his print of St Jerome, engraved in the year, 1514. He is supposed to have been the inventor of the art of etching: his works executed in that way.are the earliest extant ; they are not equal to his engravings, but his wood cuts are free and _mas~ terly. Although he was acquainted with the anatom: of the human. figure, and designed it occasionally with correctness, his contours are neither graceful nor plea- sing; and his figures and drapery are never entirely di- vested of the formal Gothic taste prevalent at that. time. His plates are numerous, and much esteemed. t we have said of the style of Albert Durer, ap- pet in general to-his pupil Aldegrever, Hans Sebald , and his brother Bartholomew, Aldtorfer, Binck, Goerting, George Penz, and Virgilius Solis, who, from the small size of the greater number of their plates, are generally distinguished by the name of the “little mas- ters,” al they have likewise executed large ones. Hans-Holbein, a native of Augsbourg, or, according to some, of Basle, an eminent painter, executed several en- gravings on wood... The most. remarkable, are those called,“ the Dance of Death,” pmayargn, Bid fifty-three small prints, the first publication of which took place -about the year 1530. The German school long continued to produce engra- ,yings both on copper and wood, principally illustrations of books ; bat an Been data i < not seem to have any artists, whose works deserve parti- cular consideration, and as the characteristics which distinguished it begin to disappear. from the artists go- ing to Rome for the sake of improvement, we shall not prosecute the subject further, but proceed. to the Italian school, from whence every thing is great and ex- cellent in modern art has emanated. _Generally speak- ing, they drew correctly, but,they seem to have been more anxious for,emolument than fame, if, we may judge from the prodigious number of Bible cuts, and religious subjects, executed by them, which. have all the appearance of haying been done. with great rapidity. After Boticelli and Baldini, already mentioned, An- drea Mantegna,,.and. Antonio Pollajuoli, practised the art. Mantegna,-by his superior knowl of design, contributed more to its perfection than all his cotempo- raries in the style of his engraving. He has a great re- semblance to Pollajuoli; but in the drawing. of his fi- gues he-greatly surpasses, him, particularly in the na- ed, Their plates are generally executed with single strokes, in a diagonal. direction, without hatching or cross lines; in the manner of drawings.done with a pen. Giovanni Maria di. Brescia, and others, followed the manner of Mantegna, without however making any im« provementintheart. But Beccafiumi, without much neat- nessof handling, produced seyeral works,both etched, and with the graver only, whichdisplay the talents ofa great master. We have likewise by: him, as well as by. An- drea Andreani, many prints in chiar’ oscuro, a branch of the art. which they carried to greater perfection than it had reached before, them. ‘The drawing ia correct, and the execution negt and spirited, 45 Ttalian 46 Bagraving. " The’ of Mare Antonio forms the tiost bril- ——— fiant Wh the history of Ttlian ire,” He? was'borh pee 0 Vabout the year 1488, and there commencetl - his ‘as under the tuition of Raibolini, nacaia, St artist of Considerable celebrity at that time: Tn these é' — to have made . Teis not under whom he learnt Pits gry rte i ‘is probable that it was from some one of the goldsmiths of that ‘day: His first’ are the heroes, and his Pyramus and’ Thisbe, 4 1502, taken froth the designs of Raibolini, ~ Being desirous of i he ra: to Venite, where a thet Germun’ engravers, particu a set of wood cuts Albert Durer, the life and ion’ of Christ.” These he copied with such accuracy on co per, that they were | sold for the originals ; whic coming to the knowledge of Albert, he came to Venice, and instituted a prosecution against him for the piracy before the senate.’ The excellence of Roman di , which, by the nius of Michael Ange elo and i aided by the ° interment of the'the d' ewires of ancient ed and the magnificence of the Medici, had now reached its acmé, attracted Mart Antonio to Rome, where his merit soon recommended him to the notice and friendship of Raf- faelle, who em him to engrave from his d under his own eye, and is ‘said “hough without suffi- cient evidences) ¢ to have assisted correcting the outlines ‘on his’ plates. The first plate whtich he exe- cuted from the of Raffaelle, was Lucretia stab- bing herself ; and in it he seems to have exerted’ all his abilities to make it neat antl delicate : tg after, the plate of the 7 t of Paris ; a work possessed of cdacti more spirit and Poder His engravings af- ter Raffaelle are very numerous, and are all marked with that correctness of scientific delineation, and beau- ty of character in his heads, which distinguish his works, and which placé him, in this respect, in the est rank of engravers of any age or nation. himself by travelli saw the works of the The style of Mare Antonio, however, possesses none — of the-blandishments of smooth delicate execution, to which his German contemporaries had attained in so eminent a degree, His manner is dry and unattractive, without any tittle at banaue of local Tighe” or oscuro, or reflected Among the many young Italian artists whom the re- putation of Mare Antonio had attracted to Rome, for the sake of his instruction, the following may be na- med; Agostino de Musis, Mare da Ravenna, Giuglio Bonasoni, Nicolo Beatrici, and Enea Vico. His school was likewise frequented by several artists from Germa- ny, such as olomew Beham, George Penz, James Binck, and many others. Mare rete d during the lifetime of Raffnelle, de- voted himself'almost exclusively to hich ‘ap the works of that master; but on his death, which happened in 1520, he executed several plates from the’: Loess of Giuglio Romano, and amongst others a set of lewd sub- jects, accompa ee amin tan pen of the Aretino. offended Pope ¢ Clement VIT. that he wat casino prison, from whence he was with released at the intercession of Cardinal io de Maciel and Baccio Bandinelli, the scul In to the latter of these, he engraved I rte the eer of thay ut) of St Laurence; in which, the drawing of the naked (which he corrected) is excellent, draperies are by pine ENGRAVING. oad Kept keg , well maintain ae e ‘mentioned, ae walle By Gece under the name OP Mitt B his ‘siete “and their relations, Giovatini Battista and ‘Ais Ghisi ; though in none ‘of the ‘hi, er excellencies of the art has he’ ever ‘beet’ equallec of his suce o de Musis a few of his vie Te method which “has since ‘been ake of wetted tk Baltes A men of his method will be found works, in a small plate of an old man seated on a che garb earl e back : “in thi zeae a - & Zz = bs af | ire it : : $ il iF e oe Ee i ving’ engra ee the Dutch and Flemish painters, he went to Italy. first settled at Venice, where he resided in the ho of Titian, and engraved some of the finest works 4 that great He afterwards established a : ‘at Rome, where Ke exectited those admirable works af- ter e, and others of the Roman school, which are much sought after by the judicious collector. The ‘plates of C. are wrought entirely with the graver, in a bold, open, and masterly manner, and more freedom of execution than had been eat be pti te hi reed eevetic 8, is are with and t addvees el This ‘style was imitated by Henry Golzius, who introdu it into the Low Countries, and laid the pete tH the works of Bolswert, Pontius, and Vos- terman. This period, when the transcendent - ties of the Roman and Florentine schools of paintin were thus so successfully diffused by the ts Mare ogg and his seg successors, marks x4 true era ie talian engra ; soon after this time, the oe pl ‘of ‘the art baba to develope themselves, for the charms of chiar’ oscuro, the delicate Hh ag umah flesh, and, to a certain extent, the beauties or haeal colour. Its professors relaxed their efforts in the and difficult paths of d and attractive e parsuits, Ww lepend on freed dexterity of execution ; but pa higher rare of the art have never been entirely lost si Italian school, and they have shone fo Airs splendour in our own re united wie oa ry which the experience of so many cen , as the works of Cunego and Vo’ ban tly testify , and still more, > of e Mor- i ghen, and lt of his pupils, The art of en and was likewise cul- tivated with mu sie by ost AG Aor eathe. ers. Titian etched many pes in a slight spi- 3 i, to coo thé more foe | E_NGRAVDNG 47 Engraving: rited style ; and there.are also:attributed toyhim several said of his) Fairyand many others. The subjects which Engraving. —— idateewen on er Parmeggiano. etched seve- Callot and Della Bella. chose for their sii iies nearly “—y—~” ee ral ich are valuable for the spirit and grace similar; but. the excellence of the former consists in Italian il rH . Caracci must be ranked EER: eg rant of its yor that he only learned it engravings said to be. by him, but it is more likely that they were executed by Ugo da Carpi, or Andrea An- dreani, under his direction. As an ver, Agostino the most celebrated artists of Italy. The. correctness of his design is only equalled by the beauty of his execution ; and hi ware would have nearly reached perfection, if he paid more attention to the. ion of Jocal colour, and inci jects, as well as in the dis- tances, which pe a Ae harmony of the ef. i ight. unfinished to the with the graver. We have likewise. several plates by the rest of the Caracci, which possess all the beauty and correctness of design, as well as freedom of execu- as they did piesdelioazeen amuse ethansiin Agostino, they are not so highly finish- 28 4 : The etchings tagallina, born at Florence 1610, are marked with the character of excellent taste. No artist has ever sur- one him in the deli and. spirit with which he handled the point ; his plates have a clear.and brilliant effect. They are often slight, which. is not surprizing, when we consider that their number amount- ed to more than fourteen hundred... His works are ge- nerally of a small size, and consist of every variety of Theat history, landscapes, and animals, who was also a disciple of Cantagallina, though born at Nancy in Lorraine, must be considered an art- ist of the Italian school. The fertility of invention, and the vast variety which are found in the works of this excellent artist, is truly astonishing. The talent he possessed of combining an amazing number of fi- gures, and of varying their attitudes, without forced contrast, so that all, whether single figures or groupes, may bets we orm from each other even in the sha- dows, was truly admirable, particularly when we con- sider the extreme minuteness of many of them. He ——_ (especially in his large prints) raised the point of sight to a considerable height, in order to af- ford more ample room for his figures, and greater to his invention. In that charming print called The Punishments, the number of: figures he has introduced is astonishing, all of them disposed in different guoupes with the greatest judgment ; and the actions of even oo ni ae of ~ aan the distance, are conspicuous, ou largest re on’ the foreground scarcel exceeds three-fourths of an inch, The same may be the clearness and rangement of his gi _and the firmness of his out- line ; while that of the latter consists in the freedom of his point, and the lightness and elegance of his fi- gures. The etchings of Spa and free ; his lights. are broad and clear, and have a lett. powerful and pleasing effect. He drew correctly, and the extremities of his es are marked in a masterly ‘manner. The characters of his heads are admirably particularly of his old men, which he was fond of introducing: into his compositions. Guercino, Guercino. (born 1590,) as an engraver, has left only two memorials behind him-of his, ts, a St John and a St Antony of Padua. . They are executed with much spirit and freedom, in.a style resembling his admirable drawings with a pen, which have been imitated so ly. by Bioniiiioemes and. in. our own time. by Bartolozzi in a very superior style, from drawings in the collection of his present Majesty... Salvator Rosa-has left many etch- salvator i ‘both. .history.and landscape. In these we must fon. not look. for the.grace and interesting delicacy of Cor- regio or Guido, nor the scientific design.of the schools of Rome .and Florence. His ingest Tepre- sent banditti ; and his rat fe : id and savage grandeur of Alpine scenery. His style is slight but masterly ; his heads are admirable, tee the legs and other of the naked are incorrectly drawn. | His draperies are stiff, and ill cast, and the whole destitute of elegance: however, the masses of light are finely preserved ; and his landscape is sublime. Inthe department of] e, Claude: Lorraine first claims our-notice. He has left about 28 landscapes, though in general in rather a slovenly style of execu- tion. They display great. intelligence of. the’ chiar’ oscuro, and have, to the eye of the judicious critic, an: admirable effect. One of the. most) characteristic ex- cellencies of his pictures, is the beauty, grace; and fine. diversity of character in bis trees; and these qualities he has transfused into his etchings with unparalleled success. :One of these landscapes, in particular, may be mentioned, on the right side of which, in the middle ground, is a groupe of trees, and seen through the ing the ruins of am ancient temple, in which the richness and diversity of character, and the truth of nature, we hesitate not to say,have never been equal- led. His subjects-are the same as he vipensnton on his canvass, landscapes with ancient ruins, rivers, a sea views, embellished with shipping, figures, and cattle. The etchings of his pupil Swaneveldt, which are very numerous, are executed with much spirit and effect. They are in general well composed ; but though they possess much of the truth of nature, and great neatness of finish, they bear no.comparison with those of Claude, j There are many beautiful etchings of the Italian landscape painters, as well as by French and other fo- reigners, who, studying in Italy, or forming their style on the Italian models, must be considered as belong~ ing to that school, such as Gaspar Poussin, Milé, Glau- ber, Both, Rousseau, Sebastian Bourdon, Meyering, &c. But as the peculiarities of each will be better un- derstood by an inspection of their-works, than by any verbal description, we shall not. enter on any further details on the subject, The etchings of Canaletti, however, are executed in Canaletti. = ity of his d ins, ia gnoletto (born 1589) are bold Spagno- ve been leftin a state of comparative negl and obscurity. Canaletti is remarkable for the distinct- throughout the whole of is Noél Garnier, who lived) about the middle of the 16th . His manner is very in general small. He ied many of the prints: of Maid ments with sana eioasane but his chobasiies are mostly from his own designs. They are executed with the graver only, and have merit. Claude Mellan introduced a new meth He expressed all the varieties of shadow by parallel lines without cross- ings, the greatest depth wn ar by only: strength- ening the lines, and consequently bringing them closer to each other; and the effect /he uced is clear, soft, and le. The number of his plates is very con- siderable, among which there are many irable por- traits. The most singular of all his ions is a aes the dy Seetiet, ansaar en St Veronica, executed with one spiral line, running in concentric circles from the point of the nose to the ex- tremity of the work, with the motto, “formatur unicus una,” representing, as large as life, the head of Christ, crowned with thorns, on a piece of linen. This print is not remarkable for any excellence of character or design ; we adduce it solely as a speci of his dex- ity in the use of the graver, and the whimsical use to which he, in weber arm it. Hedied at Paris in 1688. But the most iant epoch of French ving was the time of Louis XIV. when the mag- i ce of the monarch, aided by the taste of his mi- nister Golbert, produced such a constellation of artists as had never before at one time. The most Sous of all were Gerard Edelinck, and ‘GerardAudran. Thoughtheformer was born at Antwerp, he must be considered as belonging to the French school, as the splendid works on which his fame rests were all executed at Paris, where he settled.; This extraordi- nary aftist w t entirely with the graver.; and his execution, which is both spirited and finished, dis- plates are of a most sur- _ him in the clearness of his cutting, and the after N. Poussin, and other Italian are a last. pos rman cn 8 The other of his fa- y were all men of talents ; and none of them lifer apie gle es co f that department sidered as the ctions. t=] There ie of. this ee c younger, is the most eminent family. I in boldness and freedom, they have hardly been equalled in the beauty of’ his’ finishing; and the clearness of his stroke, His celebrated \ portraits of Bossuet and Samuel Bernard, are considered the finest mens of that style of engra’ there is different from all the i 8 well as ar= Sie he pega the feta of a lgueee eahicapentlaa . “a 7 correct : their i oes ee seat re 3 accessories, are executed with great taste. He gene- rally advanced. his plates with the point, to a state which left the graver only to give them more harmon of effec eed and ect ; and if his execution is inferior to he has engraved, The number of his plates nearly 3000. : isattntho There were many other artists of eminence at this time, such as Chereau, Cochin, Simonneau, Beauvais, Dupuis, &c. but of these our limits do not permit us to enter on any i details. brilli of colour, to a greater perfection, i attiat of hie voolyttay:s but otwi the beauty of his execution, his flesh is like marble, and his drawing is lame and incorrect, These defects lencies, which we have ascribed to Balechon, still far- ther. No engraver, since his time, bac ormeaane smoothness of his effect; and his style was admirably adapted to the subjects he chose, which were in gene~ ral the conversations, and other familiar, subjects of the Dutch and Flemish painters. He imitated sattin with astonishing success. His print,of the death of iopiner Detather, affords a wonderful example of this, She is habited in white sattin; and though we must condemn the taste which dictated such a costume in such a subject, every one must admire the talents which its execution displays, The flesh in this, as well Nanteuil, who.applied himself exclusively to the en: Nanteut . The style of Les Le-clere. ENGRAVING. landscape; and portraits ; the latter of which are in ge- Engraving. ‘Fagraving- as most of his other works, is hard, and like marble, F school. Le Bas. David. but it is to be regretted ‘that these qualities, from the excessive clearness of his lines. » The lan , cattle pieces, and drolls of the Fle- mish and Dutch schools, have been rendered with much fidelity and spirit by Le Bas. - He availed himself much of the freedom and facility of ing, which he har- monized in an admirable manner with the dry point and the graver. He executed upwards of an hundred plates after Teniers, besides numerous engravings from Ostade, Wovermans, du Jardin, Berghem, and onsets of that school. From the brilliant era of the age of Louis XIV. to the present time, the French school has distinguished itself for all the mechanical excellencies of the graver ; the time of Edelinck and the Audrans till within these few years, have seldom been displayed on subjects of legitimate historical composition, but have in general been confined to the representation of the most absurd and ridiculous frivolities. The genius of David, and a concurrence of other circumstances, have revived the study of the antique, and effected a total revolution in folly and affectation, they have gone to the other, that of cold insipidity. Their historical subjects now, in aiming at the chaste and rigid style of the antique, pre- Swe en eet oe mh hinpe re lea af e, ener- gy; or action. this sort are all the works of the pre- sent French pS aN mt ing all the beauties of mechanical skill, in whi have so long excelled, The Flemish and Dutch ools now demand our consideration ; and as the styles of them both differ not ially from each other, we shall include them both under the same head. cas Van Leyden, must be ed as the patriarch of the Dutchschool. He was ten ierirg ed so contempo-« rary with Albert Durer, There existed between them ial fri ip. aetidberat tron hr passed Albert in composition, though inferior to him i His drawing of the fi is stifly taken n without grace or elegance in the style, at that time prevalent in his country. His ex- on is neat and clear; but as his stroke is equally n the aes as in bo distances, and as ‘is a-wan connection in the masses, his q of connection nthe mates, his plats effect, to those of Albert Durer. He engraved well as , but his cuts are not nume- are spirited and masterly. After the death of Lucas Van Leyden, the art seem- 2 ah pg for many years, as the engravers seem to have been princi employed, as in Germany, in decorations ‘abode Whe “care te ‘who flourished about 1580, and who imitated the style of Albert Durer, with the exception of correct drawing, and much attention to the marking out the extremities of their figures, did little towards its ad- ancement. ny had the benefit of the instructions of their uncles. Their works are multifarious, consisting of history, VOL, IX. PART 1, 49 neral very fine, and much esteemed. There were in Flem the Low Countries at this time many other artists, whose 344 D a works display great talent; the elder and younger Peter schools. de Jode, Philip, Theodore, and Cornelius Galle the el- der, who all drew correctly ; but as with them engra- ving was more an article of commerce than an art which was to be cultivated and improved for its own sake, it received little advantage from their exertions. Cornelius Bloemart introduced a new style, which was Bloemart. the source from which the great engravers of the French school derived the principles of giving so mach colour and harmony to their works. He tinted the lights on his distances, and other parts of his plates, with great care, which, till his time, had been uniformly left en tirely untouched. By this improvement, he laid the foundation of those principles of colour and chiar’ oscu- ro, which form se essential a requisite to breadth and unity of effect, and have in later times been practised with so much success. The art received another im- portant improvement from Henry Goltzius, who, on his Goltzius. return from studying at Rome, despising the neatness and stiff dry manner of the little masters, introdu< ced the bold, free, and clear style of cutting, which dis- tinguish his works. He possessed a most profound knowledge of the figure, and drew correctly; but, in avoiding the formal style of his countrymen, and endea- vouring to imitate the sublimity of Michael Angelo, he, as well as Sprangher, fell into the opposite extreme of bombastic absurdity and extravagance. However, he has never been , and hardly ever equalled in the freedom and dexterity of handling the graver. He engraved small its with much taste, neatness, and good drawing. He also cut, from his own designs, ma- ny blocks in chiar’ oscuro, in which he was very suce cessful. The outlines are executed with all the free« dom and dexterity for which he is so remarkable ; and the works which he has produced in this way are truly excellent. He was followed by his disciples John Muller and Lucas Kilian, who carried his style to A pie jitch of extravagance than his preceptor done. But it was imitated with more judgment by Mathem and Saenredam, whose works diep y more delicacy and correctness, The brilliancy and splendour of Rubens afforded a new object for the imitation of the engraver, for which the improvements of Corn. Bloemart and Goltzius had prepared the way. About the beginning of the seven- teenth century, flourished the pt instruction of Rubens, they improved their style. Of this school, Paul Pontius, Vosterman, the younger Pe« prineipelly i th others, make a 7 i pv rinci in their engravings after Ru and Van- hycke all drew correctly, and have been very successful in rendering the harmony and beauty of the originals. But after the death of Rubens, the art of en« graving gradually declined, and ceased to produce, in the higher d tt of the art, any specimens wor- thy But in the departments of land scape and animals, and such subjects, in which the Dutch and Flemish schools excelled, there are many beautiful etchings, executed principally by the painters. In consideri is of our subject, we cannot with- our attention. hold from Rembrandt the pre-emmence to which his Rembrandt. works so justly entitle him; they consist of history, landscape, and portraits. His drawing of the human figure is very bad ; his heads are all of a low and vul« G Iswerts, whose first The Bols. exertions were in the style of Goltzius; but under the Wert &c- Vandyck. Lutma. ; and even in those historical boldness, freedom, facility of his execution; His beauties which we have assign- ed to historical works ; and as to his , Whe- ther in the varied and brilliant effects. of sunshine, or the stillness and solemnity of twilight, we cannot suf- pay Ppa the beauty, character, and sentiment, which he has so happily infused into them; and even safthtess slliihtar warlcs, whenelas thee teiiitloustee thaer outline, every stroke of his point teems with nature, character, ion. is etchings in general are executed with aquafortis, and finished with the gra- ver and the dry point. They are very numerous, and consequently of very different d of merit, The few etchings which Vandyck has left, are admi- table specimens of his talents in that way. His prin- cipal works are the Ecce Homo, from his own design, and Titian and his Mistress, from a picture of that mas- ter. ‘The character of his heads is finely expressed ; are drawn with much taste and correctness ; the hands are firmly marked, and full of energy Antwerp under his in ion, from pi of his own, are a few etched by hi , which, for spirited and correct drawing, fine expression, and tasteful execution, address of Martin Vanden Enden, as the plates were afterwards retouched. the engravers who have successfully worked after Ru’ we must not over a Jeg- her, who has left some excellent imitations of Rubens’ ings. , bold style, with erful strokes; and all the fr me and spirit of the origi- , even in the dark cross- i a of the art wood-cutting lost to the moderns. e extremities of the figures are well marked ; the heads, h slight, expressive; and in all his works the style of the mas- ter he worked from is admirably preserved. There are many fine etchings of Ferdinand Bol, Lievens, Van Vliet, and several other painters of that time, who either were the pupils of Rembrandt, or imi- tated his style. They have all a fine breadth of ligh and are executed with great spirit and effect ; but have not in any instance equalled brandt. There are a few ee Lutma executed at this time in a new way, opus mailleoli, or the work of the hammer. ee eee mer and small punches or chisels, like the etching points ; and the s were made of any depth, ac- ig to the force of the blows andthe closeness of ss the dots. Say oceyicd of ahnna initio beloeetaiees ing entirely scra , gives in impressions epee pe bern rhe g ENGRA VING. is: engravers. ings are i ; but his Tie wate of ex< but on the flesh he bestowed i heads are finished in an exce' both the character and expressi his dexterity in handling the graver. ny works of considerable size, from his own Seen the: pets te ee , history, it, conversations, and ] &c. which are much esteemed. His brother, John same family, has left many etchings in a free, spirited, and ly style. Though but slightly finished, ‘hi drawing is correct; but he paid little attention lour or effect, and left many parts of his untin His works, which are numerous, are prin« cipally and Du Jardin. painters of the Dutch school have likewise pro« duced many beautiful etchings of conversa- tions, cattle, &c. The lan of | c may contrast the works, in this way, which have been us by Jakob Ruysdael. Without the finishing of Waterloo, they Ruysidl. etchings of Ostade it m meetings, and si- Ostade. milar subjects, conceived with coat Shiite ‘and exe- ted wi i, much it; and fi and still life admirabl geoupul:!Toy are all his own de signs, of various sizes, and very numerous, and of difs ferent degrees of merit. Of all the painters who have etched animals, for scientific drawing and profound anatomical knowledge; nnkeietbone to be compared to Paul Potter. He left many etchings, wherein he has exerted his great ter. talents in this way with much success. His figures are grouped with great taste, and their extremities are 1 Paul Pot« ENGRAVING. 51 Engraving: marked with great precision. His etchings are not ve- and they have apleasing effect. He likewise engraved Engraving. at high prices. Adrian a large chi of a ship, called the Royal Sovereign, on ==” Van de Veldt, and Karl du Jardin, have likewise execu- two plates, which, when joined, were three feet long, park ted many etchings of cattle, which, for tastefulness, by two feet two inches high. He died about the year correctness of design and anatomical knowledge, are 1648. . next to those of Paul Potter; while those of Berghem, — Faithorne is the next English engraver who merits Faithome ich are executed with the greatest spirit and taste, our attention. He was a man of great ius, and drawn, are, on acemparison with the being obliged to leave England during civil war, those we have just menti very deficient he went to Paris, where he derived great advantage and beauty of anatomical detail. There from the instructions of Nanteuil, and on_ his return to etchings Cuyp, Stoop, Bamboccio, and his native country, he executed a great number of por- possessing in a greater or lesser degree the ex- traits, and several historical subjects in an_ ex! t ies which we have mentioned; but on a conside- manner: he worked almost entirely with the graver. these, our limits do not permit us to enter. In the early part of his life, he imitated the Dutch and however, conclude this account of the Dutch wares agen eg engraving ; wie on Sie SPREE ae school, without making respectful mention of an ama- France, he greatly improved it. His best portraits are teur whose works display so much genius, and would admirable, and are finished in a free delicate style, with artist,—the person we allude to is much force of colour ; his drawing of the human is by no means correct nor in a good taste, but as he his ; he flou- dedicated so much of his time to portrait. the few histo- year 1610. sar ye gee which he has _rical works he has left are not fair specimens of his ta- i from the picturesof Adam lents. His portraits are numerous, and not of whom he had contracted an intimacy merit, his best ones are very valuable. His son Wil- is correct and tasteful; his liam Faithorne many portraits in mezzotinto, marked ; the extremities are judicious- which are greatly inferior tothe works of his father. The Mezzotinto effect is p and powerful; invention of this method of engraving, which a little Memvig Tha pines aresall samechable before this was brought into England, and has been )\¢n'd bY since cultivated with so much success, is generally at- pert, tributed to Prince Rupert, who, it is Said, one morning secing a soldier cleaning his musket, which had been the P 1 g i eh -S2 5 &, ite by the night dew, and observing something of 7 a figure.corroded on the barrel, he con~ ceived the idea that, by covering the plate with such a ined ground, and scraping away the parts where the its were required, he might produce the effect of a drawing ; and that, having communicated his ideas on the subject to Wallerant Vaillant, with his assistance he yeaa an ears which, See sort, answered “this purpose. e Prince engraved in this way a print of an executioner, holding in one hand a coeticend tin not been in the other a head, after S letto, dated.1658. He this is not so conspicuous. afterwards ved, on a reduced scale, the head of the executioner, for Mr Evelyn’s Sculptura, who therein as< 8, res 2 i Py F at BEES eek a8 4 ee E 2 5 : i | i i ag # f i Hl i i ? i sures us, that it was given to him as a specimen of the Sacletines sh-leotigeraciaptenl tan ton as one tna, ee, poclsvelyy mewrveds ke aioe i invited from it is itive eee oe, Sl themonarch, Heineken, whom we a prom fliers in- few of the nobility. Among the ar- vented by Lieutenant Colonel Siegen, an officer in the different times visited England, there service of the Landgrave of Hesse, and that the print RO TIN SRD: DERN, PEGS ly in Whicis hia’ peodachd was. tho: peetemih ti the Esters of history portrait. most Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse, engraved as early as the and Crispin de year 1643,and that Prince Rupert learned the secret from fon Houry igo hhim,| and’ brought. it to E land, when he came over Vosterman, Hollar, Blooteling, Vander- the second time with King Charles II. Gribelin, and Dorigny ; but till the time of the __ Robert White, the scholar of Loggan, born 1645, be- R. White: ithorne, who flourished in 1670, the native sides many portraits in black lead on vellum, in which limited themselves to maps, cuts, and small he was v successful, has left many engravings of portraits, ispieces, and book decorations. His en- gravings, respectable, are not equal to his draw- ings, He likewise scraped a few portraits in mezzo- engraver who merits our attention. He pos- _tinto, which are much inferior to his other engravings. talents, as his works sufficiently testify; His son George White, learned the principles of draw- G. White numerous, as he led an irregular life, and ing and engraving from his father. His engravings ispi and are neatly executed ; but his principal works are in and portraits; he also executed a va- mezzotinto, in which he was very successful. He fre- subjects, animals, flowers, quently etched the outlines of his portrait before he laid i its are very on the mezzotinto ground, which gives much firmness : works: these he exe- and precision to his effect. The last portrait we have with the graver, in a free open style, of him was Bishop Weston, 1731. Engraving. —— English school. Vertue. Pond and Woollett, 52 George Vertue, born 1684, a scholar of Michael Vandergucht, was one of the most industrious artists that this country has ever produced. He has left a nu- pret om ena ert Ap tre og A9 spectable, man cuts, O almanacks, an antiquities of all kinds ; and he made many drawings in water colours, with the view of engraving them. We are likewise greatly indebted to him for his Lives of the English Artists, a work for which he was inde- fatigable in collecting information, as well as in procu- ring its of the artists. The manuscript work came into the hands of the Hon. Horace Walpole, who revised and published it. It abounds in miuch cu- rious and i ing information, and is well known. He died 1756. We have several works executed with great spirit and taste, in a very artist-like manner, the productions of Arthur Pond and George K n ; among others, a set of plates, in imitation of chalk, and ers De draw- ings, the designs of the great Italian masters: some of these are in chiar ’oscuro, with etched outlines. They flourished about the year 1740. The first artist of any school, who has been com- pletely successful in ean with the truth, spirit, and character of the griginals, the landscapes of the great Italian masters, (not even excepting Edelinck and Au- dran, in their beautiful works in this way,) is Francis Vivares: he was a native of France. It appears that he did not apply himself to the arts till he was consi- derably advanced in life. He learned the principles of or fon Poe oe eatin percteens eheoane! great genius, he improved on e tor, and acquired such freedom in etching as had never been before by any engraver: the foliage of his trees is delicately and lightly expressed ; aad His effect is deep, broad, and clear. His finest works are from the pictures of Claude Lorraine, and possess in- finitely more of the character of the originals than those of any other engraver. He must be considered as the founder of the English school of landscape engraving, and al (except by Woollett) he steve Phi equalled the Tight which he gave to su ing artists has been the means of keeping up that decided superiority in this depart- sei w hick Phis school aaa Move every other, He brought his plates to a state of conaderians finish and eifect with the point, and put the last touches on them with the graver. ; The landscapes of Woollett stand unrivalled for beauty of execution, and may be considered the most pests models of style for landscape. Like Vivares, carried his plates a considerable way with the point, and ing them up in the more delicate parts with the dry point. His works have all the delicacy and clear- ness of the French masters, and with all the spirit and taste of Vivares. He likewise executed several histo- rical plates and portraits with great success. His chief works are the ] landscapes, which he has engraved from R. Wilson, and others; the Death of ‘General Wolfe, after West; and a small portrait of Rubens, af- ter himself. In tracing the progress of this branch of the art, we cannot withhold our admiration from these two great men, who, from the state of total insig- nificance and neglect in which they found it, raised it at’ once to such dignity and perfection. The earliest landseapes we have of any importance from the works of the great painters, are the engravings of Bélswert, after the pictures of Rubens, ‘They-are executed with ve them the necessary a with the graver, ENGRAVING. le of landscape, cated th deta tah ands ; the un Gace shethrers witeeil’ enecaned voatom jects, with which are entirely executed, are sell very: eliictive igtalmowoter ond irit. ‘The lands scapes of Balechou, which are unriv: ting and dexterity of h . most erroneous conception Saalicading ions of the arial excellencies, very imperfect representations i sence of cook abbtieailles of water, or the rich. ness and variety of nature in the foliage of trees. discrimination of Vivares and Woollett pointed out the defects of their predecessors ; and, more particularly in the works of the latter, we find all the truth of na~ ture united to all the beauties of mechanical, skill. John Browne is-another eminent engraver of scape of this time. He has executed: several large works after S. Rosa, Both, and other great masters, in an excellent style. He likewise etched many of the plates which were afterwards finished by W with graver. : From this period, the English school is ifie in actisearitl Goer} depevtihianty ag Pemaan wes arn that we ought to mention 0 EE ee He is admirable for the breadth of his effect,: and to be regretted that, drawing should be so only room to mention a few names ; ire, Hall, Ryland, Bartolozzi, Heath, Holloway, and many others of our cotem ies, who maintain, with suc- cess, the art. {0 the English school, for ‘line manner, ee pare “4 for ite, ‘ally in the imitati , broad ae of the English syle, which originated in Sir ua Reynolds, ever since distinguishing characteristic of this school. its the earlier artists, such as Faber, M‘Ardel, Smith, Williams, and others ; ‘but, in the its of Earlom, Watson, V. Green, &c. after ids, we-see the art carried to the utmost per- fection. In-stippling, or the chalk manner, the artists ir productionsare innumerable, and of very differ- ent degrees of merit, principally of a small size for books. We'have, however, many beautifully executed in the chalk manner by Bartalozzi, Holl, Collyer, and others ; but there is verlag none superior to of Caroline ‘Watson, who has produced, among many others, that ‘head ahr ee oe tispiece to We have many Sir Robert Strange, Waisen. oz ENGRAVING. 53 his works, and which, for spirit and effect, ishardly sur- tion, and from the mode of their passions, not from Engraving. passed by the works of any artist. their haying the wit of fine gentlemen. Sometimes he In landscape, besides Vivares, Woollett, and Brown, rose to tragedy, not however in the catastrophe of ki whom we have already mentioned, we have many fine ahd heroes, but in marking how vice conducts insensi- works, principally from the pictures of the old masters, bly and incidentally to misery and shame. He warns sg ope Wood, Elliott, Lowry, Wilson, Ma- against encouraging cruelty and idleness in young jor and others ; ts ca ate the taste coe Pregame eye cokyok ip oy myedend embellishing books with subjects of topography an e vulgar, y different paths, to the same and antiquities, having been carried to a most extra- end. The fine lady in Marriage a la Mode, vagant height, has diverted the current of British ge- and Tom Nero in the Four Stages of Cruelty, termi- mnsvepmnneiescey nenaed of heroic land- nate their story in blood: she occasions the murder of scape, and absorbed all the talent of the ish school; her husband; he assassinates his mistress, It is sel- Peg age om Bal y ig ll ue and inte- dom that his figures do not express the character he in= rest of such works), would been more worthily tended to give them. When they wanted an illustra- Ss . to _employed in translating the works of Claude Lorraine, tion which colours could not bestow, collateral circum~ Engraving in aquatinta,. which was invented by St his crutches, and his pedigree issuing from the bowels Non, and communicated to Le Prince of Paris t .of William the Conqueror, add to his character. In ed by Sandby. It has been carried spectator. Sometimes a short label is an epigram, and oom ) se Rea by our cotemporaries, in ing is never introduced. without improving the subject.” i wings ; and the process, being sim -His plates are numerous, and have all the expression _expeditious, and of course well adapted to commercial and character of his pictures, and are executed with purposes, has been much practised. The English pain- great boldness yl, sm His drawing, though not ve executed, are chiefly on the excelledin. It is to be regretted, that his ambition separate of which . prompted him, in an evil hour, to aspire to the rank of end is arti a historical painter—a-walk of art in which, from his Mezzotinto has been likewise ed with the previous pursuits, and the peculiar nature of his talents, . capes eeina Sue ee drawings, as (great as Has, WEN 8 heme by no means qualified exemplified in that ex: t work by Earlom, called . to excel. e painted several pictures in this way, the Liber Veritatis, being a collection of 200 plates sania aeaplen, the, grosiems igmcente. 6 Sao veqrtiniies Seen Spine pa 96 Clete Lartaian, jn tie collection essential to this ch the art; and are com- of the Duke of Devonshire. The brilliancy of the ef- pletely destitute of good taste, correctness. of design, fect has been rendered in an admirable style with the colouring, in short of every quality which is consider- mezzotinto, and the outline added with muchtruthand . ed muliapeosble in such subjects. He has likewise spirit, with etching. engraved them, and in a style which, though happily In the department of drolls. and conversations, till suited for those subjects on which his fame rests, have the appearance of Wilkie, the English school never turned his history into caricature. $e to this a dramatic - works of every description, from the largest histori dactic character, strong and satire, and plates to the smallest vignettes, are, with it, brought grammatic point. “ I consider great and origi up to considerable effect, and finished to the n 3 with the graver ; the lights on the more delicate medy with a than as.apainter. If catching the — parts being tinted with the dry point. r ; of an age, ‘ living as they rise;— The principal instruments used in stroke engraving, ed by and just expressions of the passions, be ing the plate. » Hegedh compe comedy as. much as Mo- The a en 5 ict pla i i aq prism, about one tenth of an inch thick, increasing a little in thickness as it ap- personage is dis- prone fig ote. which is made of wood. In.ma- I his , and cannot be _ king the incision, it is pushed forward by the hand.in confounded. with any other of the dramatis persone. . the direction of the line required, and held at an angle , the last print. of the set I _ very slightly inclined to the plane of the copper. It is Tp z p rie i i cit : ze i z + ey} 5 : have mentioned, is an. ignorant. 3. and if witis . obvious, that it must be ed with only one (the struck out of ths characters inane is not “lower) ingle of the toa, and the point i fone by be ed, it is from their acting conformably to their velling off the end of the instrument. ind. Fiddler There are various kinds of engraving, as has already pjfferent by our countryman Burnet, from the pictures of that been seen; but that which is performed with the gra- kinds of en- eerroir na syetenene of Daitioh t which rival . ver is the oldest, and to it,’in- common language, the graving. strokes of na- are, the graver or burin, of which there are various ™® ture, and heightened by wit, and the whole maintain- sorts; a scraper, a burnisher, and a cushion for support- —_—\~ 54 The burnisher is about three inches , is used to soften any of the lines which are cut too as well as in the n of the Copper, peor gyn vg aprabarcarboier sce As « about six inches long, tapering to a point, i areee edges. It to used to serepi off the higlk shale ieee by the action of the graver. In order to shew the ap- ce of the work as it goes on, and to polish off more completely the barb, a roll of felt or cloth, called a rubber, is used for rubbing the part of the with a little olive oil. A cushion, being a leather bag of sand, of about nine inches diameter, was formerly used to lay the plate up- on, to allow it to be turned in any direction; but this is now never used, except by the engravers of wri- a engraving a series of parallel lines, which are all either equidistant, or approximating towards each other in regular gradation, a great to the most mi- nute distance, such as in the blue part of a sky, water, or in plates of machinery, &c. where a smooth tint is required, an called the ruling-machine was some years invented by Mr Wilson of Lon- don. The accuracy of its operation is perfect, and the beauty of the execution is unequalled by any thing that has ever been performed in any other way. It is performed on the etching ground by a point or knife connected with the spare, so as to move with un- ing certainty, and bit up in the usual way with the equafortis This instrument will be elsewhere found minutely described: (See Rutinc Macutne). There are numberless imens throughout this work of the productions of this machine, and we may mention at ran- dom, Plates CC. and CCI. to which we refer the reader. In wood engraving, the block is commonly made of -tree or box, ‘ne differs in thickness according to Cie. The surface for the engraving is on the trans- verse section of the wood: the subject is drawn - witha ho pater ink, with all the ve that it is required to have in the impression. @ spaces Seema the lines are Lent rh bp Say oh knives, one Is, and gouges, leavi e lines ve been drawn with thanks It will be seen, from this, that the pres- sions from blocks of wood differs from that pper- plate in this, that in the latter are delivered the incision, while in the wooden they are deli- vered from the raised part. In looking at the works of the old German artists, from im co " the time of Albert Durer down to Christopher Jegher, we are surprized at the frequent occurrence and free- dom of execution of the dark cross hatchings—an ope- ration which, by the common process of cutting away the interstices, could not be done but with the labour, and certainly without the freedom which those artists have displayed. As many of the impressions exhibit unequivocal evi- - dence of being worm-eaten, every doubt is removed of the nature of the material on which they have been wrought. We are therefore irresistibly led to the con- clusion, that those parts, instead of being cut with the tool, nye been executed by some chemical in some degree anal s to etching on copper, by cor- roding the Sater ations thataad rae lines ; ma has been suggested to us by an eminent artist of this ag Mr W. rs, that this might have been accomplish ed by sketching in the work with any bituminous sub- stance capable of resisting the action of acid, such as - the common etchin -ground, (see Ercuine), render« ed fluid by solution in oil of turpentine, put on with ENGRAVING. merville, wherein he has these with the utmost freedom and de! x His method he does not choose at present to divu dows in a second, and the third gives a pee = om whole, except where the lights are cut away. See Pa- pillon, Histoire de la Graveur en Bois. ia w qusual capable of roc thetetaa ot capes with a le of resisti action of fortis. The design is made with a black-lead a piece of of the same size, which being for some time in water, and laid on the plate with ee ee and run through the crossing quired. The thickness of the lines, which is regulated by the quality and distance of the object, will by the size of the point of the etching-needle, greater or less ing to the intended. The corrosion with ° require. It may be then touched up with the dry peice or deena. late, without d, solely by the point of the SE nodies‘autd that which i reseed by operation is taken off by the scra 4 Etching with the sott ground jaw imsthod of kin imitations of black-lead or chalk drawings. The is mixed with a proportion of tallow or hog’s-lard, ac« cording to the state of the pa art Aa 9 of thin per is put over the plate, and to it at the our corners by a little turner’s pitch. The design is then made out on the paper, and shaded to the necessa« ry degree of effect with the black-lead pencil, an action of the pencil on the takes off the ground from the copper at the same time; and when finished, it is bit to the requisite depth in the usual way. details of the various will be found more nutely detailed in the article Ercuine. Stippling, or the chalk manner, is wheel, consisting of centre, and ase of steel wire i times used ; moving this backwards and forwards, the points mark the copper, and give an excellent imi-« tation of the freedom of chalk-drawing. ‘The work is then bit with the aquafortis in the usual way. Etching. Stienlion: Another method of wim Or. oregon discovered wittiams’s r by Mr H. W. Williams, and tein of Edinbur; it is performed by instruments totally different from needle ; the beauty and richness of its effect is only equalled by the rapidity with which it is exe- cuted, Although the inventors have not as yet prose- process. E . @n steel, engraving. Mezzotinto © “ENGRAVING. | Engraving. cuted their-discovery as far as it is obviously suscepti- ble, yet what they 1 have produced shews that it is ca- le of much variety of application. The speci ae mostly i laitecis aa sen HY te ties: which are executed with minute parallel lines, have all delica¢y and smoothness of aquatinta ; the water i ectly liquid and bg or cid ag Shobacter of ths Yorke and other objects in the fore- the specimens will shortly publish. ee i ipally cut- i and for peti pete! tring vice of the es is performed in relievo, i to a model in wax; tea when finished, it receives a high temper, in order to stand the blows of the hammer in ing the matrix. The steel of the matrix is made hot to soften it, that it may more easily take the im- pression of the punch ; and when struck, is touched up there any deficiencies, by means of ing @ The ings of the , en= ring aid ite well tempered, and very sharp. Etching on steel is ‘ormed by drawing the de- ign with i vet, a in glazier’s putty, or the bordering a It may then be poured off, and the black clean~ y with a little turpentine ‘instrument, and mo- ing needle, The lightest are then scraped to the an Seunnia; sok Reruabbotesione sis seo. in the same manner, by scraping them, so as to P 2 a or less portion of the ground, according ving on stone, is a method of imitating pen and ink drawings, for which the inventor some years ago obtained a patent. It is performed on a slab of marb in pa gi lane pr The design and effect is made out, with a pen di in a solution of lac, the of pure soda, with a little soap, and co- black. ] ing has been on the stone for three or four days, or when the ink is i In this state it is erfectly dry, it is soaked ater. from the balls, and the ink will adhere to the design and not bed with printer’s ink the way as letter- ting, b putting a sheet of dex paper over it, dal atic ok tt to the action of the printing-press. Another method of .* on stone ue In in 1801; and, in 1803, a of Austria. He ac- inting-houses at Munich ion, similar establish- ments were formed in France and Italy: but it is at Munich that the art has been brought to the greatest i It has been found well adapted for imita- tion of wood-cuts, drawings, music, all kinds of wri- ting, and geographical maps. 55 The metliod’ is ‘to také a calcareous stone or slab of Engraving. marble, with a good polish, of from two to three inches thick, and of a size ioned to that of the work to be executed on it. The design, notes, or letters, are marked out with a solution of gum lac and’ potash, coloured with lamp black. When they are dry, the stone is covered with aquafortis; and the acid attack- ing all parts of the stone except those which have been impregnated with the resinous ink, the drawing re< mains untouched, and appears like the block of a wood< cut. When the acid has corroded toa sufficient depth, the slab is washed with clean water, and, while wet, printing ink is applied to it with balls in the usual way, and put through the ro) press. At each proof, the 2k must be washed — _—— sare method, roe expedition, cheapness, urability, greatly the » advantage over the usual processes, particularly for music ; and it is said, that, at the stone printing office at Vienna, thirty thousand impressions were taken off the same slab, and the last impressions were nearly-as- good as the first. Etching on glass is performed by laying ona acta ae on and making isting of a thin coat of /bees-wax, the design with an etching needle. It is then covered with sulphuric acid, and sprinkled over with pounded Derbyshire spar (fluor spat). It must be taken off af. ter four or five hours ; rae. when oer roby turpentine, the etchin, appear, leaving w been covered with te hee Sartachen, y this me« thod, glass vessels are graduated, or ornamented. This process is sometimes reversed, by putting on the design or ornament with a solution of bees-wax in mtine, and ing the ground to the action of the acid, which, win sufficiently corroded, will leave the ornament untouched, and the ground deprived of part of its polish and transparency, It is to be obser« ved, that the po pe acid does not immediately act on the glass, but only by expelling one of the constituent parts of the spar, a fluoric acid, )’so that the effect of the corrosion will be according to the quantity of the fluoric acid evolved, acting on the glass; and as it posses« ses much greater activity in the gaseous state than when combined with water, the operation will be performed more expeditiously by exposing the plate to the action of the gas as it evolves, properly secured to prevent its escape ; and in this way, several plates may be bit at. orice. Seal-en, It was performed on_ all sorts. of precious stones, but onyx was the most commonly used for this purpose. The operation Bb hey by inserting the tools into the axis of a 1 iron whéel, whichis attached to an apparatus like a turner’s lathe, and kept in motion by the - foot. The tools are tightened bya screw, and the stone to be engraved is applied by the hand to the tool as it re - volves, and is shifted and conducted as required.’ The tools are generally of iron, and sometimes of brass ; their forms are various, generally resembling chisels and gouges: some have small round heads like buttons, others flat, &c.; and when the stone has been engra« ved, it is polished on wheels of hair brushes and tripoli. See Strutt’s Dictionary of Engravers; Bryan’s Dic- tionary of Painters, Engravers, Be. ; Landseer on En« aving ; Heineken Idée Generale d’une Collection com~ plette d’Estampes ; Vasari Vite de’ Pittori ; Orlandi, , Abecedario Pittorio ; Christ. Dictionnaire des Mono«: ammes; Papillon Histoire de la Gravure en Bois; elibien Principes de l Architecture et des autres Arts qui en dependent. (P. G.) ving, which is performed both in cameo Seal en-” and intaglio, was an art much practised by the ancients, 8*¥"& ~ 56 ENHARMONIC. Rahernee- LSHEASMGMIG Salas, biseesie, See E= 2 ae es 8z substitution, during ‘ormance, of one interval = 3% — = —8-6th —Y~" another, differing » ina alight deme; oe = VUI — sill rae which i called Divecouncr of Tune, (eee tat article} which is IVERGENCY 2f Tune, (see article. yi The Rev. Henry Liston, in ide vale work, entitl $29} dt pac be ee An Essay on ‘ect Intonation, p. 72, after giving an aaa is ita a —t extract uygen’s ios, remarks, that a: BP oe =s sere the pitch, in singing, or on his organ, &c. cannot be abs etre: a i preserved by ly tempering every interval, but pach gy a +S Pp must be effected by substituting other notes, in parti- eal Tits, 9 ag te th a cular situations; and, at page 120, he shews also, how, * A + 2-—f¢ =T +. when the musician, by a series of dominants, has wan- pak rp all, “ecietah rs A dered away from his principal key, may recover his i _; a bark. lost ground, while he seems to the hearer to be perse- sale trts Roe wid het er vering in the same course, by only substituting a par- ef SO Rix — : ticular note, either higher or lower, by a schisma, brs ! major, or by a minor comma, than the one that is writ- =29.—2r —5=5 &= t— 8—3 ten, in the ordinary notation of music, and in which en- =f/—zx—- = = T—2S—c harmonic changes are all marked in his improved mode =f/—r —25 = T— J—S wins oy. music for the performer, on perfect instru- =f/—€—=z mY a Ennarmonic Degree of Aristoxenus, or Diesis qua- = pugs : a = drantalis, is an interval, equal jth of a major tone, or = P—f—fc “tye 3 T;=25.92713535 4-f+4 2m, or 262 4 3f4+ 21m. Some authors have called this the-quarter sais stage and Mr Hoyle denominates it the é onical diesis. nuHARMoNIC Degree of Euclid, is an interval three- thirtieths of the minor fourth, or ., x 4th, =25.32674 =+f+2m, and its common log. is =.9875061,2634. ir Ennarmonic Diesis, (greater $) or diesis greater of the mean-tone system, (see Vol. VII. p. 739,) is an in- 3 terval whose ratio is 32 OF oF =21542m in Fa- rey’s notation, =.9897000,4336 in common logs. = -0102999,566¢ in recip, logs., =.0342153 in Euler's logs., =1.9091591 in major comma logs., =21,0157248 in schisma logs., In tyneable intervals it is VIII—s III, =2VIII—3-6ths, =4th—2 III +43, by either of which methods of ascending and descending, or vice versa, in the tuning process, on an euharmonic organ of Liston’s, this in may be tuned above or below any given note ; already it will be found tuned thereon, above KD, E, %G and XB, ctively. In the symbols explained in Plate XXX. Vol. II. the following equations will be found to express the exact relation of this interval to all the other inter- vals therein, viz. * &=c +E é= R+- =r+2€ =21542m ' $=R4y 4+¢ ox +F +55 =d+m+9= &é=S—wv é=S—-e a gl Se =2— =f— =S—lI i ak, =L— =2S—t =I —; =T —25 =f—c =t —2s In that almost endless diversity of nomenclature, im which theoretical writers on music have indulged, this interval, besides the above, has received the denomi- nation of apotome by some writers; apol mirjor by Salomon, Boethius, &e.; bacchius by Rameau ; comma by Chladni ; (see Comma, Vol. VIE. p. 19.) com~ ma greater by some writers ; diesis by Euler, Liston, &c. ; diesis minor by Holder, ; diese major by Rameau ; diminished second by Liston ; harmona by Hanfling ; uarter note b ce, Holder, &c.; quarter tone. by se- bars raat ry Earl Stanhope, &c. Nip teen ror ()) of the trumpet, and French horn minor sixth. _ Ennarmonic Diesis (lesser) of the mean-tone sys- tem, (see Vol. VII. p. 739.) occurs adjacent to the half notes of that system of temperament, is an interval equat 173 >+4f4 14m, =17.89376412-4 2 m, whose common, log. is .9912224,3171. Se! ae Se nidnanaiic Diesis of Aristoxenus, is one quarter of the major tone, }T, or his entaeant’ Pee which see. rs saunas Ennarmonic Diesis of Euclid, one-tenth of the mi- nor fourth, or x4; x 4th, or his Enuarmonic Degree, which see. ’ ? . te Enuarmonic Ditone of Aristoxenus, is an interval less than a minor fourth by half'a major es a =2025 4.4f4+17]m, =202.00393122 4 4f4-17m; | common log. .9006375.2462. . vy Ennarmonic Ditone of Euclid, is an interval 24- 30ths of the minor fourth, or + x 4th, =203.20471=-+.. 4f+-17m, whose common logarithm is .9000490,1071._ NnuaRMoNIC Genus of the Greek music. See Gre NERA. ” Ennanmonic Interval of Good and Gregory, is the Major Comma $9, which see, weg - NHARMONIC quarter of a Tone of Rameau, is the Enuanmonic Diesis 334, which see. (¢) | 57 ENTOMOLOGY. defect in appearance must indeed be conceded; and Entontid« rome is deri wien sectum has a similar root, from in, into, and seco, to the mind of the The extreme dif- of discri the and i E % siya : Hei ae HE HH! ! ; i : i rH i Hs il F H VOL, IX, PART 1. this may be regarded, in point of , a material Daeet thes ate mat elstent od alana in magni- tude as to become, Wat tay oataretnee on meé oa strikingly attractive. Were in size to smallest birds, their elegance would render them more inviting in the eyes of mankind in general ; but, even ie eee eee eens woeeuen vinwerces croscope, we find their beauty and elegance far supe- rior to that of any other class in nature.‘ After a mi- nute and attentive examination,” says Swammerdam, “ of the nature and structure of the smaller as well as wonder at the elegant disposition of parts, to what a height is our astonishment raised, when we discover iat, eae renee’ Soe jeetinii the. meneueeealer logy- manner Insects may be divided into two kinds ; those which Uses of are immediately or remotely beneficial or injurious to &tomology. mankind. Many insects certainly seem not to affect us in any manner ; others, and by far the greater num- ber, most assuredly fall under one or the other denomi- nation, and surely on this account demand our most se- rious attention ; but, lest our allusion to the utility of some insects should seem hypothetical to the su cial observer, whilst the noxious effects of others aré all insects, whose numbers spread desolation the world, are not (except on some occasions when their multiplication exceeds all bounds). unpro- ductive of advantage. Although they depri Ser yee of their vegetable food, yet, in return, their afford nutriment of a wholesome and kind, and in much greater abundance, The various ies of locusts are the common food on which the i of many of the world sub- sist at cular seasons. The of bees, in man warm ,cohustitates another priaitapassialout foo. The of several moths furnish materials for countries, the silky produce of these indi animals is of as much use as the fleecy coat the wax-insect of China is a very distinct.animal: ( Cicapa, Index; and Donovan's Insects Some insects are used with success in History. = rr History. 58 the philosopher.” But allowing these benefits to be un- a and that the study ot acqnmalogy 3} is not ductive of any substantial advantages, how absurd would it still be to treat such an extensive portion of the creation with neglect?) The objection, that they are in nowise conducive to our interests (even if founded in truth); -svould be no evidence of the fri Beles ence, unless we are to conclude, that the uiries which merit our rational attention are thoze whi tend tification of selfishness. . If this be oe to the jection, how man écts. of vemignne must be rej J a a the earliest in which the light of natural know dawned, this class of animals obtaitied consid attention ; and although the! stidy has not at_all times been cultivated with equal ardour, yet we shall here- after be.enabled to: prove’ that it has not been utterly ected, but has en the study of men endowed talents,as splendid, and judgzhentasiabneds 9 lie eet of those who affect to treat it with con- tempt. HISTORY. From the earliest penais of which any authentie:re- cords remain, this science has’ obtained 2 very consider- able portion of attention ; but the total destruction of the great public libraries, has deprived us of the means of ascertaining attained, till within about 2000 years of the present time. We shall now endeavour to lay before the read- er an gt ye of mae meee and, as eats oj subject importance, as far as our limits w i mention every work, however slight, which roductive of any material information ; at vane tebe, we wish it to be understood, that we p perpen it necessary, or within our province, to enter at large upon a critical analysis of the multi- tude of writings before us, but only such as we have had an of er ore de- — e leading intention eir authors respec- tively, which we sal enumerate as nearly as possible logical order. Sonie books to have been written prior to the date of those w have ed to us, as we in- prone nt Se career the carlizst of: shione works ‘now extant. caiemaeae this subject are to be found in where mention is made of - entitle ie Moses = uired a know s science from the a korg of re- lating to insects ; and amongst the obsolete works of Goldmon, he’ ia said: to» have treated “ creeping Hip who lived about 500 years before Christ (as we are told by! Pliny), wrote on insects. The wri- pilpoophegs, quo- ea earlier Greek ‘and Latin by Pliny, afford extracts of his li Atutctle Homgished ta thetuabcomding igi He wrote, amongst many other es 2 History of Animals, an ebecinry hang ae and comp sive view of the anim cinstion f baithhe tanely escends to the description of species. It is a work of the greatest merit, which no one can impartially peruse without confessing the intimate knowledge its writer must have possessed of nature. The insect ‘class is treated of in one ana de In the seventh chapter of his first book, we find the term trrou« is that of a family, to what state this branch of science had — ENTOMOLOGY. which constitutes one of his four orders of animals with colourless blood. These animals he terms ersangui- neous ; and, in his definitions, he points out, with great * accuracy, in what differ from the other three divi- sious of this class, viz. Mollusca, Cristacea, and Testacea. In the first chapter of the fourth book, we find the. es- sential characters more clearly given, inaanely the inci- sione on theibatk de belly; or oath, -by which their bo- dies appear to be divided into two or more another part of his book, more: describes. ent which Append thind that walk. he notices those with naked and. with a sheath ; sh dep dig of Goon scientlingseather culture of bees, ey a was attended to with the most enthusiastic ardour, History; Aristotle. Aristamachus of Soli is said to have written omthe 4,:amq. ees ta wed of fifty deserts attending to then to-have So Bz Philiscus, ENTOMOLOGY. Mistery. wornis was an of attention. He says that garments —Y~" of silk were admired'in his days by the fair sex, as it'shewed their form to’ ry — the aeey - of its *texture. From the time of Pliny till the: prentiueoh the Ro- man empire, the study seems not to have been totally disregarded ; but we are ignorant what steps were advan- Titus, & Ged during that’periods “Am the writers were Titus, ZBtius, Alexander, Oribasius, lian and Paulus Agi- néta, who lived’ between the fourth and seventh century. Between 'the'ninth ‘and twelfth’ century, some of the Ara- bian botanists’ distinguished themselves = entomolo- gists. The’ principal were Rhazes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, Arabian et dnd Averthoes. ““Fromthis period till the fifteenth cen- , viz. M s; Platerus, &e. Albertus Albertus’ M wrote a” 1 zoological 6, en- Magnus. titled, "De Anita, of which treats of insects. He died 1280, but his work did not appear until the year 1519; ed at Venice, Agricola» Tn: a published” his'work, De Animalibus whicly contains a systematic arrangement of insects; He-redices ‘all ro ie are to three ipal classes, and, 3. Those viz. 1. Those that walk ; ntl andae cdelben athe of furnished with swimming feet; and d Pe 1853) Edward’ Woitort | published’ a'work, entitled, De Di Antmalium, in’ whiely ‘he® treats oninsects. The book is in folio, and appeared three years before the author’s death. - I 1555, Rondeletius of Montpellier owe ye) his ‘valu- able'work, « Universa s altera,” to the world, in which “ee magento pen’ he accom- with wood ‘cuts. Tn 1599, in folio, was published at Naples, « Ferrante + Historia Noturale libri 28." 1 a very voluminots work. wis published, etitit- ed, De Animale Insectis, by the «ind le compil- ee | ef” ‘Aldrovatidus:’ Doriovan is inclined t6 give him con- pein ‘credit: He has'certainly acquitted himself in ec gl the’ undigested observations of the ancients ; but from his wacre ge ignorance’ of the’ subject he has necessarily fallen into all ibe erery oF his " céssor8: ‘we must; however, allow, that"hé has’acted with candor, having rarely omitted” to mention’ his authori-’ ties. He was professor of medicine at Bologna, and Sealer ange ‘mite ‘oF his time in the stixcly of insects, and stims’ of money in’ acqetniig specimens, Seat enploy ing artists’ to figure”them. He’ is stiitéd’ to have paid two] “hundred flotins” annually to an’ artist, Who was occupied solely” i in’ the ‘delineation of insects. ve divides eds into two great” orders, 1. Terrestial ;* hich he’ terms Insecta farica, and Non fe these 1 he divides into sub-otders, from thé num- ber ani situation of their wings and feet! His figiires are” but ‘rudely expressed, which is excusablé. At this time a taste’ for more expensive’ “embellishments Wotton. per bat p arcely oh rom i were exclusively ir r ay iveets i hesedivks Me} In 1612, the Historia Animalinm Sae?a, by’ Wol-' fang’ Frenzius, dividing’ imsects~ into tlitee classes, 1. Actia, 2. Aquatica, 3. Térrea, and ‘coritaining ‘seve- ral new’ observations, a ears and’ three years af- serwards, in ‘the year 1616, at" Roti wpaiplet of tury; a few obscure writers, scarcely'worthy of ree ap- > 59 about one hundred pages, in’ Eatin;' entitled; De Fors mica, by Jeremialy Wilde. ~ In 1622, a work but remotely relating to insedts,: in Jeremiah 4to, appeared in Edinburgh, bearing the following \title, Hicroglyphica Animalium Terrestrivm, Sc. que in ‘Serip- turis Sacris inveniuntur et um aliorum, cum’ eorun interpretationibus ; which, being the first work»relatin to insects published in Britain, is not ese of notice asa curiosity. In 1630, a thin quarto, by Hoefnagle, was' published Hoefnag'e. anfder the title of Diverse Insectorum volatilium Icones ‘ad vivum ‘depict, per D. J. Hoefnagle, typisque man- dale a Nicolao’ Johanni: Vischer, containing 326 figures, some of whicly are‘very indifferent." He has not adopt- ed any particular mode of arrangement, but contented himself with delineating them in the state’ presented by chance; not always following thém throughout their pro- gressive i. In 1634, Thomas Mouffet published his Jnsectorwm Mouffet, sive minimorum Animalium Theatrum, which appears to be the’second! work’ on entomology published in our” country. This work, a& its title indicates, is written in the Latin language ; it appeared in London in one volume folio, and contains numerous wooden cuts, rude= ly executed, aécompanied by long, tedious, and often ri- diculous and fanciful detériptions of the spécies:’ The first seven chapters (capita,) are occupied with heavy details concerning the common hive bee (Aris M The eighth is entitled, De Vespis. The ninth, De Cran brone et Tenthredine, which includes the himble bees (Bomar). The tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, De Muscis, which includes, with several dipterous (or two-winged i in- sects) many h opterous, as well as neuropterous in- sects. The thirteenth, De Culicibus. The fourteenth, De Papilionibus, which occupies two hundred pages, the margins being embellished’ with 112 wooden figures, executed inthe radest style, yet in most instances to- lerably intelligible to the skilful entomologist. The’ fifs teenth De Cicindela, including the glow-worm (Lampy- ris,) and’ several others. The’sixteenth, De The seventeenth, De Cicadis et Gryllis. The eighteenth, De Biattis. The nineteenth, De By ‘et Ceram bice. The twentieth, De Cant The twenty- first, De Scarabais, which includes many of the larger beetles, (Coleoptera). The twenty-second, De Scara- beis Minoribus. The twenty-third, De Proscarabeo et Scarabeo Aquatico. The twenty-fourth, De Gryllotal- / The twenty-fifth, De Phryganea: The twenty- sixth, De Tipula. The twerity-seventh; De Forficula tive auvicularia: ‘The twenty-eighth, De’ Scorpio, For« mica, et Pediculis alatis. And, lastly, the twenty-ninth, De Cimicve Sylvestri. After these, we arrive at the se- cond book, which treats of apterous irisects, (those wanting wings), amongst which he’ places all sorts of Larvw’ (or Soha ut of other species belonging’ to winged insécts, and likewise many of the vermes, &c. We miust apologise to the reader for taking up so much of his time with dry statements of the heads of this History. ' work; but as it was one of the first produced in’ this country, we trust he will ‘not consider it as entirely uz interesting ; and as a specimen ‘of ‘his bd and notions relative to insects, we miay quote the following, which speaks of a species of Mantis, (probably M. religiosa or Oratoria): ‘“ Pectus habet longum, tenue, cuculo tec~ tum, caput simplex ; oculos sanguineos, satis magnos, an= History. —— Hollar, Johnson. Mey. Power. Hook. Charlton. 60 tennas breves, petles sex locustarum more, sed anterio- res multo crassiores i ue ceteris, quos quia junc- tos plerumque elevat (precantium ritu) a nostratibus — solet: totim corpus macilentum est. divina censetur bestiola, ut puero interroganti de via, altero pede extenso rectam monstrat, raro vel nunguam fallat. Cauda illi bifurca, setaceis acus leis preedita ; atque ut nanum elevatione vates refert, ita etiam et motus similitudine ; neque enim ludit ut alii, neque saltat, neque gestit ;\sed lente obambulans mo- destiam retinet et maturam quadam ostendit gravita- tem.” The work is ly an improvement on that of Dr Wotton, in 1550, continued by Conrad Ges- ner; and was enriched and published in its present form by Mouffet. In 1646, Hollar gained considerable reputation by his work, Muscarum, Scarabeorum, Vermiumque varie Jigure et forme, oinnes ad vivum coloribus depict et ex collectione arundeliana, §c. which was published at Ant- werp. In 1657, the Historia Naturalis of Johnson, in folio, was published ; but as this work is a mere compilation, itis unworthy of further notice; for “he has not added a single remark to what was before known.” n 1658, an English translation of Mouffet’s work 8 et in London by Topsal, chaplain of St Bo- tolph. Goedart, about this time, published a work in the Dutch lan , with plates. This work, considering the time of its appearance, must be considered of cons siderable merit. It has been translated into Latin, French, German, and English, with copies of the plates. «For the space of twenty years,” we are told, “ Goe- dart devoted himself to the study of insects.” He followed them through their progressive changes with great precision: this renders his book more extensively acceptable ; and his figures, which were never surpassed by his predecessors, are sufficiently correct to be under- stood. The first edition of this work being sold off, the first volume'of a Latin translation, by Dr Mey, minis- ter of Middleburg, was produced, under the title of pee as Le ride he ia Naturalis Insectorum, in 1662. Lister allows but little credit to the translators of his works ; “ Goedart,” he observes, “ left his writings in Dutch ; his translators were men wholly ignorant of na- tural history, and their comments are mere rhapsodies altogether.” In 1664, a quarto relating to insects as objects of mi- cros¢opical investigation, by Power, was published. In 1665, Hook’s Micrographia appeared ; and, like the former work of Power, treats of minute insects. In 1666, was published in quarto, Adami Olearii.Got« kunst-kammer Sleswig. 1667, Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum, con- tinens Vi ilia, Animalia et Fossilia, in hac insula re« perta t by Christopher Merre:, M. D. was pub- lished in London. This is the first work treating exclu- sively of the inseets of Britain: it contains a brief ca- talogue of such as were known to Dr Merret, each being accompanied by a concise descriptive sentence by way of name. In the first volume of the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, an.account of the in- sects given by this author, with thei systematic names, is prs by A. H. Handorth, Baynt In 1668, Charlton published a work in London, with ENTOMOLOGY. a systematic Aldrovandus, enti on ee a as8 ap pr vor afs fording one many exam cul i rit which living merit so rarely fails es nal labours bestowed for the benefit of an world. No sooner was his death announced, than his merits were discovered, and his work was rendered into French by an anonymous translator: this and. many other editions soon after followed... The sys. tem of this author is interesting ; we shall therefore give a short sketch to our readers. He divides insects inte four classes, the characters being taken from their meta« morphoses and economy. The first no change, and includes spiders, onisci, &c. (which are noticed une der our article CnustaczoLoey), |The second class ine cludes those which, after leaving the egg, appear under, the form of the perfect insect, but have no wings ; im which state it eats and grows, till, having passed the i salis state, it issues thence with wi a ina ' tion capable of propagating its kind. This class come. prehends the onions Ot bith Dermaptera,. Dictuoptera, Hemi; and Neuroptera, of this work, In the third class, we find those insects which appear when hatched from the egg, under the form of a caters. pillar (Larva,) which when full grown, changes. into a is, where. it remains until the parts are fit to be orders, 1. Coleopera, and 2. plea, (Lamarck); Sucto- hends those who having attained the pupa (or cngnies in- sects alluded to are the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera of modern entomologists. rere ’ In the same year Wolf’s Dissertatio de Insectis, §c..wore appeared at Leipsic, The author was professor of mes. eo ‘or lished his Esperimenta, 1671, Redi publi i i circa gene= Redi, ‘atlasmaestetntastaieoeanaeran ins, tained doctrine of ora generation Ment pyri roving by experiments and close reasoning, of cpjnione. At the end of this book he has given figures of the lice of birds. In 1671, Claude Perrault, one of the most learned Perrault. exotic entomologists of his age, author of several very. ingenious papers in the Memoirs of the French Academy, published a folio work at Paris, entitled, Memoires pour. servir 4 U' Histoire naturelle des Animaux. ere In 1672, Ferrard published a work Napiew of Ferrard. which we have no account, nor have we met withit, _. In 1673, Franzelio submitted his Insecta Novisolit. Franzelio. cum nive delapsa to the world, oa , In the same year, at Frankfort, was published by Mollerus, Meditatio de Insectis, quibusdam Hungaricts. yoters, prodigiosis anno proxime preterito, ex aere una cum nive in agros delapsis, ornamented with wooden cuts. rity ENTOMOLOGY. In 1675, a tract on the natural history of the Fpl: ee mera horaria, by Swammerdam, appeared, entitled, Griffin Wagneri. Pa meri Vita of van ’s menschen leven, font inde Elite van he aig! nde cm-daghlvent poo in the same el Ereee ak Wh tI fe Hi | i i In 7 sects, done into English, and methodised, with the addition i Mr P. Fib, was to have been transla- ted by Lister ; the initials M. L. are at the close of the in Lyons, under the title, Historia nsectorum, Latinam fecit H. C. Hennius. his ara Liner at edition of Goedart, 61 3. Those with deflexed wings. Moths: 4. Libellule, or dragon flies. 5. Bees. 6. Beetles. 7. Grashoppers. 8. Di , or two-winged flies.. 9. Millepedes. (Now Crustacea.) 10. Spiders. (Now Arachnides.) See the ace Although we readily allow Lister the credit due for this arrangement, yet we cannot avoid expressing our re~ gret for his remarks on the original author, to whom he allows neither credit as a naturalist nor as a writer. He po Assasin ep ae ; but says, “ Goedart, forty years attention, seems to have made but little advancement in his skill in the nature of insects ; he ra< ther seems.to have diverted himself, than to have given himself any trouble to understand them; and yet after si piss Pad iemcatenpeticin just and correct, but in many places short and hardly intelligible.” These opinions are delivered in a style of affected supe- reecitys over his author, highly unbecoming and not true; and he gained no reputation on the conti« nent for these illiberal remarks, which were much con- demned. Also, by the same author, Appendix ad historiam ani= malium Anglia. London. Octavo. . CrusTacrotoey. History. In 1687, Leeuwenhoek published his Anatomia seu in- Lecuwen-- | ar reese cum animatarum tum inanimatarum, ope et. boek- detecta. microscoporum In the same year, Gey: medicinal properties of Spanish flies, (cantharides,) un- fon gy title, Zractatus physico-medicus de cantharidts ereus wrote a treatise on the, Geyereus. Also by J. F. Griendel, at Neuremberg, in quarto, Grigndel pis ang eS ag which some notice is taken of In jn 1688 was published an Italian edition of Redi’s circa Generationem Insectorum, entitled,- intorno alla Generazione degl Insetti: bears but an indifferent cha- racter. Frisch and and a few perfect insects are also noticed. Another edi- tion was published at Leipsic in 1690. yonet consider it but a superficial, production. It treats of the larve -of various insects,. Blankaart of Amsterdam, Blankaart John Cyprien also published at Frankfort, Historia Cyprien. in the same year, in which insects are no-, About this by John de rng the other by C. Mentzelius. th titled,. And in the same year, seg, = Regnum Animale, ‘ In this year also, Stephanus Blancard published in oc- tavo, at Leipsic, Schon-burg der Ruspen, Wormen, Ma- 1. Those with erect wings, and angulated pupe. Bul- den. In 1691, Historia Vermium, by Jungius, was. printed anges 2, Those with their wings. placed horizontally, and etn lene ee at Hamburgh. |, two papers on insects appeared, Gb: Murstto, In 1690, Bilberg publish Upsal a di on n 1690, g published at a dissertation ens Bilberg. Locuste. Kinige In 1692, 1 in the Memoirs of the French Academy, we: \Sedileau, , fixid a curious paper, by Sedileau, entitled, Observations: History. Heanius. Heben- streit. Ludolphus. Albino. Petiveri. Goeilart. Petiver. Ray. Rumphius. Wedelia. Petiver. 62 sur Vorigine d'un espece de Papillon, (alichtnee ae turnia pavonia major.) In 1693, an calidad edition of Swarasedidatn’s Historia Generalis Insectorum Latinam Secit He CG Hen- — was printed at Utrecht. n this year, the igious ravages occasioned fy its mense = hay of ra me which, im ak in the month of August, over-ran Germany, and extended: partially, through’ the rest of Europe, even to the northern borders, could not) p= ec the observations of many writers, among nd the following naturalists, De Locustis im- oa donite aérem nostrum et porten~ = 'c tiple quid TP To. custis, anno praeterito pee ea in corgi d visis, cum dialriba, qua sententia autoris de myy>w defenditur, by Exidolphusr The former of these works is comprised with ene from which: we — the species treated of to be Gryllus migratorius. 2 work. of Ludolphus is in folio, and cmctatbo eighty-eight pages, embellished with The following authors also published: tracts. on this: subject, namely Crellius, Bnkinjer, Woollenhaupt, and raat but we are ignorant of the titles of these little dissertations. s In 1694, Albino published a‘small tract on the Spa- nish flies, (Cantharides.) In 1695, the Arcana Nature Detecte, by Leeuwen- hoek, appeared. ‘And i in the same year, a small octavo, Jacobi Petiveri Museum. In 1699, Hombergh published a in the Memoirs of the French: exten Agrioh virgo In 1700, was published, in three —. umes duodecimo, Histoire Naturelle des Insectes selon leurs différentes nae observées par Jean Goedart. Amster- "In.1702; James Petiver produced the first decade of his Gazophylacium nature et artis,” which was carried on Sttigitledwehy till about ten years afterwards. It consists of ten decades, which treat of insects, as: well as larger animals, fossils, and plants. In 1705, our celebrated countryman Ray Da re eon his work entitled, Methodus Insectorum, seu in methodum ali« digesta. In this year also, the entemological part of. the work of Rumphius appeared. In 1707, appeared in London, A Voyage to the Islands of Madeira, Barbadoes, Jamaica, with the Natural. His- tory, &e. by Hans Sloane. Folio: n 1710, Russel published his Theatrum universale omnium animalium, which:treats of insects. ‘And theillustrious Ray’s' Historia Insectorum, under the care of Dr Derham, after the author's death, appear- ed. In this work, he divides insects into two ‘principal classes, such as transformation, and those that do not ; and these he subdivides into several orders. He includes amongst these some vermes, which have again been removed by Linnzus, as we shall have occasion to mention hereafter. In 1717, Wedelio published a tract on the utility of in the materia medica, in Jena. ‘And in the same year, - Petiver, an entomological writer, published a work, Pi Brittane Icones, nomina, &c. in folio, London, which in its time was certainly a valuable publication to the student of ento- mology, and-even now, as a work of reference, is in’ high repute. ENTOMOLOGY. - In 1720, Crises hid Renting we Sao. Stacy) - zards, la Floride, &e. par Mave ten parts, each being illustrated by three. plates. In this year, Eleazare Albin’ published in'London, A: Albin. Natural History of English Insects, with: mead or copperplates; injone volume quartoy» | In 1721, B published im London, APhilosophi: Bladley. cal Account:of bs of Nature, which contains some n cntuncogel matter, and alsova few) ee sects, in octavo, Otinias = the is of Tw 17225: ra wer lenwaeae oe 1 In 1725, Sir Hans Sloane p second volume of his Natural History ‘of Jamaica; the: second ‘book ef which: ‘treats of ‘the insects ofithat island, accompanied ‘by several-uncoloured ‘platesy: o/s!) In1726, M vat th Merian. ee vet Metaeatph e Hague in ize folio ensium ; the materials of serene ve or under her directions, in Surinam, where she spent two years; , for the sole purpose of forming a collection, yand in taking drawings for this work; which is not, however; entirely devoted to entomology; for besides» insects, we find depicted. Leno celgantberte ye'eon ga ve) wien Ss, serpents, &c. In 1730, Valisnieri, in haa intorno agli insetti, distributes al zthrioapolay ore en from their habitats. ‘The first comprehends those which live on plants; the:second; such aslive in’ water ;‘the third, those’ that live: on earth, or amongst» stones ; and: the fourth, those which subsist on other animals. ty In 1731, was published in’one volume’ quarto in'Lon« don, Insectorum Anglia Naturalis Historia illustrataToo« nibus in centum tabulis aneis eleganter ad vivum expres sis, &c. by Eleazave Albin, and was esteemed an elegant work ; but, we must confess, itis more remarkable: for gaudiness than fidelity. In 1731 at London, Histoire Naturelle dela Caroline, Catesby. Catesby, folio, In 1734, the first volume of Reaumur’s Memoires servir a l' Histoire des Insectes, was published in The'five succeeding’ volumes appeared between’ thar ine and 1742. In 17345 Alberti: Seabee): lium Thesauri accurata descriptio, et iconibus artificiosis~ simis\ expressio Latiné et: Gallicd, toms iv. folio: The first volume appeared i in above > aoe the other: three: beforel 765. cw In 1735, the illustrious Swedish naturalist Linmeens; Lines published \the*first edition of ‘his. § Natira, sive Rega tria Nature S§ "/proposita per classes, ors dines, genera et. species, in which work: he distributes ine sects into four orders, aecording’to the*number and form of their wings ;pander Clwaningsy 1. Coleoptera’; 2. Ans 3 3. Hemaptera; 4. Aptera: In the first, are’ contained those: whose wings are covered; the second’ those with naked or uncovered wings, as butterflies; dra- gon flies, ephemera; &e, ; the third, locusts, bugs, &e. 3) ae fourth, those without wings, as lobsters, spiders, lice): &c. _ Besides these, several animals; which; in later'edi-: tions of the work, Linnaeus considered? as’ vermes, were included. These were the earth-worm (Lumbricus,)' the leech (Hirudo, ) all land and sea shells, and: star- fish (Asterias,) sea-egg (Echinus;) &e.; and in this’ arrangement, he by no means deviated from the received opinions of his time. In the subsequent editions of his " Reaumuy. et Observazioni: V alisnieri. , ENTOMOLOGY. ‘work, these orders are divided, andthe vermes are se- ; and, after the manner of Aristotle, are consi- dered.as forming another class. His final arrangements we shall notice, when‘ speaking of his last (12th) edition. See the year'1767.' And in the same year at Upsal, Acta Literaria Scientiarum Suecie. In 1736, all the works of Swammerdam were put to ~ press, entitled, Biblia Natura, sive Historia Insectorum Belgie, ‘eur wersione Latina, HD. Gaubii, et vita aucto- ris, per H. Boerhaave: The first volume appeared in 1737, and the second iit the year foll In radie ie ‘Lesser published a work, entitled, FEC. oder Vernunft-und Schrifimiis- Ler Vehleck ci th fray Betrach- se deer ta achteten Tnsecten, &c. Frankfort i ars bars, “This work has never come under our inspection. We have, however, noticed . a French transla which in 1742, at some len , oi i Linné D Baimskalor two Talend be eo the other ane a? stl Ea in Pa aay leh ska Ve Hi And hwardighter uli Insecterne. L'Admiral. In 1740, the folio work of L’Admiral, entitled, Naaw- uae Waarneemingen van Gestaltvernisselende gckor- Sie ern taoraner rae it contains of highly fini etchings, ‘which are distinctly ied by Hse in his . ‘Auvelian. This work is confined ‘to the insects’ of , and: contains of about fifty of the larger ‘species, principally of lepidoptera, which are ted in various attitudes, with large ‘branches of the plants on which they feed, generally ac- companied with their larva and pupa. It in nuni- eds phertaniior of coats one hundred’ plates, artes i sop fi but As work seed we, cnt the work contaih tes, id 06 Pages of print; but Mr Do- rer * which i is the most complete "that we have ge) vibtte and twenty pages, n rdty published a valuable work, under te ie Tee j a ee circa Ratisbonam I, Indigeno- three volumes quarto, with a vast number of co- fared plates The classification of this author. differs ly from that of Linnawus, and approaches that ed by Geoffroy, yet is so far distinct, that being)a system. of considerable repute, it may not be amiss to present am outline of it in this place. divides insects into. orders, which he terms classes ; de Coleoptero-macroplera, those with their ely» tra crustaceous throughout their whole length, and ex- ‘" hoe arenes the abdomen when closed. 2 a, those with crustace- shorter than the abdomen. nz, Boerbaaye. branaceous win, 6: Insecta Dipl 6 ohells ER i 7. Insecta Aptera, ‘oF those without 4 , Tn 1742, a French work, being a ion of Les« q ser’s Ingecto- Theologia, with remarks by Lyonnet, entis —_ 63 tled, Theologie des Insectes,.ou Dentonstration des Per« _ History. fections de Dieu dans tout ce qui concerne les Insectes, “"-¥ Traduit de L’ Allemand de Mr Lesser, aveedes remarques de Mr Lyonnet a Ja Haye, octavo, appeared. The ori- ginal work we have never seen ; it appeared in.1758. The views of the author are to promote the glory of God ; nor did he in any degree attempt to establish any new facts relative to entomology, but directed his attention to ~the collection of such anecdotes relative to the natural history of insects, as could be rendered a convenient meé~ dium for the theological remarks with which ‘his pages abound. To the entomologist, the work is of no use ; “for his knowledge was but limited, and his remarks often erroneous. A's a theological production, however, it may have an useful tendency, as it is calculated to expose the glaring errors of others, who, with a fanatic spitit, ‘had “entered on the same subject. One of the best chapters relates to the abuse of insects in theology. He says, the Jews are accused of stating many wonderful things rela- tive te insects, which can only be considered as fables. Amongst many instances, after repeating the text, Kings i. 6, 7, concerning the erection. of the temple, (“And the — when it,was in. building, was, built.of stone, ready) before it,was, brought. thither : so that was neither hammer nor ax, nor any tool of iron heard in the house, whilst it was building,”) he states, thatithe Jews explain. this’ passage in the following manner: The work- men (they say) e¢mployed.ai worm ‘to shape the. stones ; which inséct; named Schami7, .cuti‘and. broke’ theni to pieces in: places where applidd.: ‘They: add, that it was * figured like unto a grain of barley,” and wasikeptiih a leaden ‘box, “ because: had it reached rocks; it would have cleft them, so as to unfit them for use.” This fa» ble, with many others equally absurd, invented by the rabbis, is particularly mentioned.” Amongst the fazed of Catholic superstition, too, he selects several anecdotes equally frauight with folly, whith, + hin really believ 3 = time of Lesser, will excuse him ‘th é ing’a a div: applying his time td the’ expostite of such gross wh . Two of these anecdotes we shall take the Ii liberty of fists Baldus relates, that a hnuttiber of Bees. acci- dentally passing over holy groufd, paid” it Hoin inage, and carried a portion res illy to ine hive ; and it is sta- ted that St F rancis, when wa in_his Rede, wit a grasshopper, which apt ished on] at his command, sung Pepa a Detharding also, this year, Poe aed Bea ti pg Detharding. sica Vermium in Norvegia qu. nova, visi, in a relating to the. Rpkngpei at Vaasa or Edwards publish 1 the first volume Edwards. other rare and marie animals. ‘London, quarto. ‘Three other volumes appeared before 17.52, in which ind abe insects oo given. 1744, at tockholm, was: published by. Denier, m1 Sesh little work in octavd, on the utility of study. ing intseets, entitled Tal om nyttan, sum Insectere ovhde- ras sharshadande, tilskynda oss; pointing out the advan- tages of cultivating’ the naturalhistory of thosé animals, ‘and, as far’ as we know, is the oldest work on this stib- he 1745, oo, jusilem Olandski och” Gotliltindsiig’ Reva Sfarriittad ar, ost. Stockholm och Upsala, " 1745, lie ‘small yoltime octavo, By. Ling,” In 1746, Der monallich-herausgegebencn Inseclen Be- Roel History. —— Kleeman- nir. Kleemana- hus. Menander. Gould. Bazin. Gadd. Lyonnet. Hoppe. Wilke. 64 i . eet tention, one us, pte Vauaeiee painter. The work he an A wo other volumes appeared in 1749 and 1755. To these a fourth volume was added by a relation (Klee- mannir) after his death in 1761; and, since that pe- riod, us published three other parts. In 1747, a tract, explaining the advantages. arising from the study of insects, entitled, Dissertatio de Usu ——— Insectorum, was published by C, F. Menan- In the same year, William Gould published in Lon- don An Account of English Anis. Also in Paris by Bazin, Abrégé de Il’ Histoire des In- sectes, pour servir de suite a Histoire Naturelle des Abeilies. In this year also was published in quarto, Adrian Gadd. Observationes Physico-CEconomice, in septentrio- nali preiura territorii iorts Sat ie collecte. Dissertatio Preside C.F eee ay stp of naka histor). “ f In this year, Theologie des Insectes de Lesser, avec des remarques de Lyonnet, a la Haye, in two volumes octavo, appeared, a translation, with comments by Lyonnet, of Lesser’s Insecto-Theologia, published in 1738. Also Buzin Gilles Augustin Abrégé de I Histoire des Insectes pour servir de suite a U Histoire Naturelle des Abeiiles. Paris, in two volumes duodecimo. In 1748, was published in London, J. Dutfield, six numbers of a natural history of English moths and butterflies. - And, in this year, T. C. Hoppe —— two small entomological tracts, as Aniwort-Schreiben auf Hern Schreibers zweifel ; and Lichen-Weiden-und Dorrosen. The first at Gera; the second at Leipsic. In 1749, Linné published Ejusdem Skénska Resa. And at , J. M. Seli Aves, adjectis gs G. Edwardi Leone, | Polio r In the same year, or ps earlier, the id racy; and, when we reflect on the celebrity this work ‘has heretofore enjoyed as an original production, it cer- ‘tainly attaches some little to our naturalists, that facts, so publicly on the continent, should cp interesting ‘hall copy thiepact tesacened rious , we copy by a friend. “ In the sw Laan anthaad amt Glas amusements of insects, I have mentioned a certain wor iption, which is, however, promised at some future Peter In the notice to these plates, he professes to them from life; but, by those acquainted other works, it will readily be discovered that se- are taken from Albin’s work, from Merian’s book, ENTOMOLOGY. and many from my own. How far he has succeeded, I History. leave to tej ee rteenainh o = dee ne mail , but not alwa’ to too severe; ut let elalil qratalderthes be wmemantteden the works of others, and gives them for his own. I venture to assert, that in the future description of his work, he will be careful not to mention the authors whose works he prs ee er Be tera Sagem stem oe on w sovareing ine neers: oF bagi! them a different od sition.” Vol. iii. p. 192. 1749. - The substance of these remarks we are to be under the necessity of al- lowing to be true; for the eye of the artist will per- ceive, on comparing the two icati that nie “Oy dvapeucre nee Ses For valores of | Résel. e ve repeated Résel at 5) we wish to im’ on the public mind rn lue and importance of an work, in above mentioned, is rather i stated in the title.« page; for the plants on which the insects are q are not those which furnish their nataral food ; | De Geer also in this year. published the first volume ra of his invaluable work, emotres. mae des Insectes, at Stockholm, which was received with every demonstration of praise to which its merits are entitled. From the testimony of the author’s merit af- vg by this Yygcimy the continuation Ne wi Pra ; but nine years elapsed before the se- cond volume appeared, and it was al twenty- six years from its commencement to its termination. It was completed in 1778, in which year the labours of its author closed with his life. He was author of several mecsimirt ty cee aa ; i, in 1753, : - ; Garniblica,’ in: which, lve dintalloutes “All the insets of SP q which he treats, into orders, genera, species, and vari- eties, nearly after the manner of Linné. As a systema- tic work, this publication is of little importance; in other pe oe ied rm n this year also, Nova Insectorum Species, Diss. Presid. Johanne Lecher. Resp, Isaacus. Uddman. Abow, quarto, Care 1754, Kalm, a learned botanist, ish ed a paper on a species of Cicada, in the Swedish lan- ; but we are unacquainted with its title. In 1756, in folio, Brown's Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. nevis In 1757, F. Hasselquists Iter Palastinum, eller Resa ENTOMOLOGY. - Landet aren 1749—1752, Utgisver af Car. Linné, appeared at Stockholm. In 1758, in quarto, an interesting work in its day, entitled, Ejusdem Dissertatio. Centuria Insectorum ra- , an English translation of one of the was published in London by Thomas Fleoyd. . ~ And in 1759, J.C. De Schreberi Nove Species In- at Halle. Z eit hl eiet Aetmalinen,Speiiorias,dyaise _ In 1760, Caroli a Linné Amenilates Academice, tom. Schreberi.. nthe same year with the above, an octavo, Det Trondjemske ‘orske Videnskabers Selskabs Skivter. 7 i Hafniz, octavo. ~ dn 1762, Histoire abrégé des Insectes aux Environs de Sa tematicas cum introductione et iconilus. The latter is an elementary work in the Latin and Dutch langua- ges. ; Gronovius In 1768, L. T. Gronovius published in folio, Groro- : a i Three fascicali only Scopali. Also Whaonis ntonii Scopoli Entomologia Carnioli- &c. Vindebonzx, in octavo. x VOL, IX. PART L 8 65 In this year, Den Danske Atlas ued Eric Pontoppidan, History. Kiobenhayn, in quarto. Other parts appears ~~~" ed in the’years 1764 and 1767, forming altogether three }00*PP'- volumes in quarto. In 1764, Dr M. Geoffroy published in two volumes Geoffroy. quarto, Histoire abrégée des Insectes, dans laquelle ces Animauz sont-rangés suivant un ordre methodique. Paris. Linné in this year, again appeared before the public, and produced his camille Ejusdem Museum Lodovica Ulrice Regine. Holmiz, in octavo. Also Fr. Miiller Fauna Insectorum Fridrichsda- Mutter. lina sive methodica descriptio Insectorum-agri Fridrichs- dalensis, &c. Hafniee et Leipsize, octavo. Also J. C. Scheeffer’s Abhandlungen von Insecten. 3 Bande. Regensburg, quarto. , , Also the second part of Zoophylacium Gronovianum, Gronovius, by Laudentius Gronovius, containing de- scriptions of about six hundred insects, with synon after the Linnean system, accompanied by four illus. trative was printed at (panes folio In 1765, Seba’s Thesaurus Nature was published at 5¢ba- Amsterdam, in which a vast number of the extra Eu- Tae insects are aye in a very coarse style. : _ In this year J. G. Gleditsch published at Halle, in Gleditsch. 8vo. the volume of Vermischte Physicalisch Bota- nish Srecnonescte Abhandlungen ; two other volumes in the two ing years. vot sep yA ng a ‘asste Nachrichten, die Naturhistoire in isbenhavnske Selskabs. Skrioter,, at Kio- In 1766, Scheffer published at Regensburg Elemen- Schaffer. ie, containing 132 plates, illustrating the his , and an additional section with Saniciddes tisk aoeumee of catching insects, i &e. In this year, a second edition of Frisch’s work as SET , n 1767, Pallas published at Berlin, in 4to, the first Pallas, fasciculus of his Spicilegia Zoologica quibus nova infor- mis-et obscure animalium species Iconibus, descriptionie bus atque commentariis illustrantur, a very valuable work, Several other numbers or fasciculi were published be fore the year 1780, when the last made its appearance, And in the same year, the twelfth edition of the Systema Nature of Linné was produced. As this was the last work of that illustrious naturalist, we shall lay before our readers his ical arr. ent. e divided insects into seven orders, deducing his cha- racters from their wings, as follow : . Order J. Coreoprera, (from xoAs<, a sheath, and : alegiv, a wing), including those insects having crustaceous is or elytra, which shut together and form a longi- tudinal, suture down the back of the insect. _In many the whole body (abdomen) is covered by these elytra, in others partially, The coleopterous insects compre- hend those commonly termed beetles. Order II, Hemirrena, (from gery, half, and alegi, a wing.) Theseanimalshave their upper wings half crusta- ceous, and half membranaceous, or of a matter inter- mediate between leather and membrane. Examples, the bug, the locust, &c. Order III, Lerivorrera, (from aszis, ascale, and 1 History. —_—— 66 ENTOMOLOGY. slew, a wing.) Insects having four wings imbricated with calee * butterflies and motlis, Order IV. Nevnorrera, (from niger, @ nerve, and ‘igiv, a wing.) Insects hav four transparent na- k win se) ud with veins or nerves. Exam- ples, libellule, or dragon-flies, &c. Order V. Hymenoprena, (from Yea, a membrane, and sigs, a wing.) Insects with four naked and mem- branaceous wings. Examples, bee, wasp, &c. Order VI, Diptera, (from di, two, and algiy, a wing.) Insects with two wings, as gnats, flies, gadflies, &c. Order VII. Aprena, (from ¢, without, and ae. a wing.) Includes all insects without wings, as spiders,* crabs, lice, &e. pe on The t icuity of Linneeus’s System of Ento- mol Fevose trier its athe having made choice of the role Obvious characters which insects afford for the leading distinctions of his orders. In the construction of his he has taken his characters from the parts of the head alone, paying particular attention to the form, situation, and structure, of the antennz or horns ; these being conspicuous in most insects, and so infinitely varied in their appearance, as to con- stitute, with few exceptions, a permanent distinction. That there are other characters which, in the opinion of later entomologists, are better adapted to the pur- of classification, the reader must be aware ; but ese, although really preferable, are too mi- nute to become always useful to the student; yet to the man of science, who is really willing to learn and study entomology as a science, there can be no doubt as to the superiority of the modern systems, although we are Wt "illow ‘thatthe chivactere’ from’ the mouth are not so well calculated to further the views of the superficial observer, as those Linné ; the simplicity of his arrangement, the celebrity of his name, and the princely patronage under which he wrote, conspired, with other favourable circumstances, to render the science more universally cultivated, ad- mired, and , about his time, than it appears to have been at any former period. Much credit is un- doubtedly due to this great man for his entomological labours ; but as we have stated before, when ing of Aristotle, he is not alone entitled to our commenda- tion for the arrangement he has proposed; we must acknowledge the merits of his predecessors, who wrote under less favourable circumstances, but nevertheless excelled in this department of science ; men to whom Linné stands in a very high degree indebted, and with- out the aid of which it is impossible to imagine the which now commands our respect. In the works of Aristotle and Pliny, if those of Aldrovan- dus, Swammerdam, Ray, Willoughby, Lister, and vari- ous others, (whose works we have noticed), we = ceive, with some variations, the grand outline on which he has formed his system. It was from these valuable sources ian es mou from which he selected, wi ound ju ent, and the greatest success, the valeable antter, carefully and industrious. ly separating the dross. The characters of his orders and also are to be found in several earlier pub~ lications, as are descriptions of several of the species, But he has concentrated these scattered rays of science with so much skill and industry, that we must admit that to him alone the science is indebted for that firm foundation on which it now rests, His style through. out is concise and expressive, but in many instances it is so laconic, that it is impossible even to guess at the ani- History, Bomare Dictionaire Bomare. mals described. In 1768, was published in Paris, raisonné universel d’ Histoire Naturelle, 4to. In 1769, in three Deere 4to. “~ Teones In« Scheffer. sectorum circa Ratisbonum Regensburg, . by Scheeffer. : ; And in the same year, at Leipsic, was published in Scopoli. octavo, J. A. Scopoli Anni Historico Naturales. Also Dr John Berkenhout, M. D. limited, treating which are arranged after the Linnean system. Not- withstanding the small number of species enumerated, this little work has tended ially to advance the study of entomology in Great Britain. Since the lication of the above, three or four other editions hi ss 1770, J. R. Forster published, at Warrington, in Fiske octavo, A Catalogue of British Insects, a mere Latin names, amounting to about 1000 ies, the greatest number hitherto enumerated. This was in- tended as a Prodromus to a general work on the insects of Britain, as we learn from the preface, in which the author offers duplicates in exchange for any not in his collection. In this year also, D. Drury published a very beauti+ ful work in one volume, con voy omen de- scriptions in English and Festiclt with an index of Linnean names, illustrated by coloured entitled, Illustrations of Natural rey | are exhibiled Figures of exotic Insects, &c. plates form a miscellaneous assemblage of the more beautiful extra European insects, which the extensive collection of its author afforded. Three years after the publication of the first volume, a second appeared ; and the third, which concludes the work as far as it proceeded, ap- in 1782. Besides those figured and described z= the three a aera the extensive cabinet of r Drury contained man ice specimens, reserved as materials for a fourth ha which were rieties, no less than 11,000 insects, (in his time the lars gest collection,) which he obtained by transmitting ea directions and instructions, in various lan ‘or gathering and ing insects, i ce an insect for all insects, “ from the size of a honey-bee upwards.” His museum of entomo was di of in London, by Pape auction, and produced about six hundred poun One insect, viz. Scarabaus Go- liathus,( Goliathus magnnt) eh ectan by Mr Dono- van, for twelve guineas and a half, who obtained also all theBritish insects, (which were very numerous, collected by Mr , and now enrich his splendid museum. And in this year also, G. A. Harrer’s Beschreiburg Harrer, oo nt Insecten welche Herr D. J. neffer in eclxxx ausgemahiten kupfertafeln herausge- geben hat. Regensburg, octavo, In 1771, John Reinhold Forster published Nove Forster. * The crabs and spiders are now considered as constituting two distinct classes. See our article CRUSTACEOLOGY. published the Berkenhout. ENTOMOLOGY. 67 species Insectorum centuria, 1; the avowed purpose of stated to have-been published in this year, but is no- _ History. “_~ which, as the reailer is informed in the preface, was to ticed by us as having been published in the year 1749, “"Y" ive descriptions of one hundred insects, not mentioned or earlier: but, from the comments made on that work im the latest work of the illustrious Linné. ‘The in- by Riésel, it must have been published, as we have sta- ted, in or before 1749. In 1774 was published at Amsterdam, in folio, by L’Admiral. Jacob L’Admiral, Veranderi van Veele Insecten. Also, at Halle, in 8yo. Der Naturforscher, but the au- ‘ thor’s name not known to us, ; of the insects seem to have beenun- _ And, in this year, Iwan Lepechius Tagebuch der Tagebuch. to Linné, and some Le RN Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen der Russischen er and Reichs; Altenburg. One volume appeared first, and i ; y two others before 1783. , observation of Linné, whose work he was - In 1775, an interesting little work, describing the in- Faeslins. i i i i sects of Switzerland, under the title Verzeichniss der one of those eminent naturalists ihm Bekanten Sune we printed at accompanied the celebrated Captain Cook in his Zurich, in quarto, by aspar Faeslins. 7m i In this pat J. C. Fabricius, a pupil of Linné, pub- Fabricius. i im, ri yg Pa RARE , under the title Sys- Mantissa Plantarum altera generum editionis vi. tema E ie, in whi principles of a new et Specierum editionis ii. Holmie, of Linné, in which SDUAae shaudiietanrés teavthe dese'ainie|clenphoneh, several insects, not noticed in other parts of his works, He has taken the essential characters of the classes (or- are described, octavo, in this year. ders, Linné would have termed them) from the In 1772, Curtis in London a translation of of the mouth (Instrumenta cibaria), which has given the Fundamenta Entomologia of Linné, which consider- _ this the title of Cibarian System. in this work, di- yoo rym 383 Leng ete mee T ERNE 4 Pose insects into eight ee So hee ——, in same » Dr J Lettsome, Synistata, Agonata, nogata, yngota, an in aT. Naturalists and. ‘Travellers pa: saree ary bon winaes agp erineae PPC mee” Companion, giving directions how to collect and y very ; but his mode of distinguishing the genera ansaie adi aeastols oatenel etedioations, Je hits niece un elt sattionah, casdecmndestheiging: teotee beiawhotgie of ‘several editions, and may be considered asa natural genera, which, by his method, are generally to be very useful book to students of en stp eens see eee of any other parts. “Riso M. Th. Braunichil ZoSlogia Fendewenta Ashe has since that time written several other works, and iont i Linsie, added. considerably to this system, we shall defer no- ticing it further for the present. We may, however, In 1773, Kahn published a tract relative to the mode observe, that he gained such reputation from this work, of preserving and catching insects, entitled Kurze an- that he was induced to prosecute his entomological-stu- leitung Insecten zu sammlen, dies with increased ardour, and during his lifetime al- Thomas Pattinson Yeats i Institutions of Ww ne Sea AR SANE ETE BET i i shlans Desoriplinnss Animalium, Avium, Amphibiorum, Linnean orders and genera, collated with three other Piscium, Insectorum, Vermium; que in Itinere Orien- namely, those of Geoffroy, Scopoli, and Schef- ali observavit, Petrus Forskal, Prof. Harn. Post Sentegethor wen many i observations, by its mortem Auctoris, edidit Carsten Niebuhr; Havnie, translator. It is parti 'y defective, however, in the quarto. comparison drawn ee Moses Harris also ished a little let, enti- Harris. . ¢ co Nae ner aan = The Fagiek i bs or Aurelian’s Aacgad When Scopoli published y ere omen Am nion, London ; an alphabetical catalogue coincided very nearly with Linné, in hi mee ome the lepidoptera collected. by its author in E i he land. is little tract, although ap tly insigni and another. For an account cant, has materially contributed to ihe pinenical study ‘the system alluded to, see the year 1777. of entomology. The Linnean names, as far as they ree mensin ny teavo- were known to him, with the time and place of the lebrated Russian naturalist Pallas, appeared, entitled, appearance of the insects, in both states, are concisely P. S»Pallas Reise darch Verschiedene Provinzen des given incolumns. A frontispiece is added, explaining Russichen Reichs. St Petersburgh, which has been ren- terms used in the description of animals of this order. Latin and English. In 1776, Peter Brown figured a number of insects in Brown. In this year, also, Dr John Hill published a Decade his New perenne Apa Ae of curious Insects, some of them not described before, In this year, Sulzer published, in quarto, Abge- Sulzer. shown in their natural size, and as they a before kiirzte Geschichte der Insecten, Winterthur. the Lucernal Microscope, in which the Apparatus was The Genera Insectorum of Fabricius appeared in this Fabricius. artificially i/luminated ; with their History, &c.: illus- year. trated with ten quarto plates, in which the figures are In this year, also, J. H. Sulzer’s Abgehiirtze Ges- sulzer. sometimes immensely magnified, and far from correct. chichte der Insecten, 2 Theile, quarto. Alp rE al nie a rh a i i : cFE He ute ii hal ate FE A i H if Forskal. ~ The scientific accounts are given in English, accompa- Also, zur Naturgeschichte von Franz, von Schrank. nied with various interesting observations as to their Paula Schrank, peg, octavo, natural hi and econom In this year, O. F, Miiller Zoologia Danica Prodro- yuler. y- In the Transactions eS ae of mus, &e. Hafnize, in octavo, and must ever be i work of Benjamin is considered a most v and useful work, History. Schrier. Gueze. Esper. Pallas. Pabri¢ius, Cramer, 68 pepe lian Sgggane at Halle, in octavo, the first part of a work, entitled, Joh. Schréter Abhand- iiber verschiedene Gegenstande der Naturge- schichte ; a succeeding part appeared in 1777. A valuable book in quarto, entitled, Systematisches Verseichniz der Schmetterlinge der Wienergegand, &c. Wien, a in this year. wns In 1777, Scopoli published the ic work be- fore alluded to, under the title, Introductio ad Histo- riam Naturalem. In this work (which does not relate exclusively to the science of entomol » he divides insects into five tribes, under the appellations of Swammerdami-lucifuga, G m » Réese- In this he identifies each tribe with the name of that author who has, in his opinion, been most successful in the explanation of that to which his name is attached, The order ifuga includes two 1, Crustacea, 2. Pedicularia. noptera com- his Halterata, Aculeata, and Caudata. } era, the genera Sphine, Phalena, and Papilio. a pager greenside pe And ‘oleoptera he divides likewise into those inhabiti water, and those the land. ie In this fertile year, J. A. E. Gieze to publish an extensive systematic work called £ ische bey= trige zu des Ritter 's Linné zwilfien Ausgabe des Natur Systems, &c. which was continued progressively in parts till 1783, in octavo. = _ also uced in Germany the first part of his valuable work on lepidopterous insects, entitled, Die Schmetterling in Abbildung nach der Natur mit Beschrei- bungen, a by many plates, of which a second part was published in 1779. Between that time and 1786, two other parts appeared likewise, and which, al- er, form a very extensive publication. n 1778, at Berlin, was published in quarto, by Pe- ter Simon Pallas, Naturgeschichte Merkwiirdigen Thiere, in welcher Vornehmlich neue und unbekannte Thierar- ten durch kupferstriche, Beschreibungen und Erklarun- Sift Cropnsky ube And Paul Czempi ublished, in octavo, Totius as Animalis Coe : Iso, in quarto, Nomenclatur und Beschreibung der Insecten in der Graffichaft Hanau-Miinzenberg, von Joh. And. Ben. - oe Magazin 7" die “eat 8 der Entomologie eraus, , von Jos. ij » Zurich und Se cee And, in this year, at Leipsic, in octavo, was publish- ed, Versuch einer Naturgeschiehte vom Ladlabe. Niteoohs Jen von J. 1. Fischer. Moses Harris also published his Aurelian, or Natural History of English Insects, namely, Moths and Buiter« lies, London, in quarto. Lastly, J. C. Fabricii Philosophia Entomologica, &c. a work to be studied by every scientific entomologist. In 1779, Pieter Cramer published, De vit Landsche kapellen, Voarkomende in de drie Waereld deelen Asia, Africa, en America, or extra E insects, whieh, with the continuation published in the year 1782, con- sists of four volumes quarto, with many plates, con- fined ey to lepidopterous insects, _ And, in the same year, another very expensive work, in the French lan , named Papillons aE s peints d’aprées Nature, which, as its title shews, is voted entirely to the lepi insects. In 1779,. was published, in octavo, An, ‘angs-griinde: der Naturgeschichte, von Nath. Gotft. Leske. Leipzig, ENTOMOLOGY. Freunde. ' ven Also, Otho Fabricii Fauna Granlandica, &c. Haf- oro nie et Lipsic ; a valuable little work, in one volume Fabricius, octavo. In 1781, was published, in London, but, an elementary work, The Genera J Linneus, exemplified by various Specimens of Insects. As an illustration of the Linnean m, this work may be not uninteresting to the English reader, but its views are too limited to admit of even mere gene- ral utility. Its author does not seem to have been. aware of the vast improvements the science had. I on the Continent, in the interval between the i tion of the Genera Insectorum of Linné, and the time in which he wrote; and has therefore drawn no com- parisons between them, which, without innovation, must have placed the science in a more lucid point of view. Itis to the silence of ish writers in this respect, arising either from want of information, from satisimactith uf iDibenelity, ciedan: jenlouny,/at-maigeiony that we must ascribe the very low state of entomologi- cal knowledge in Britain, even to the: ) In the same year, Franciscus Paula yore i by his enumeration of the insects of ustria, called Enumeratio Insectorum Austrie Indi norum, which has since been rendered into German Fuesly. Je » nbs setormigd Johann Nepomuk von Laicharti eee censor pages lished, at Zurich, the first part of he re of the t¢- insects of the Tyrol, Verzewhniss und | ibung der voler Insecten ; a second part appeared in 1784. He Y ee a that of Linné. Insects y. are divided into ten classes or orders, charac terised from various parts of the body. These orders are named, Scarabecides, Grylloides, Cimicéides, Pa- pilioniiides, Libelluloides, Vespiides, Musedides,~Can» créides, Arandides, and Oniscordes. eel | In this year, the Icones Insect Colley et Deserip. sie, Si mid sera alee ne Poe nih rer oa ne roe giee, 3 inone volume quart © And Herbst published ‘Archiv der Insectengeschichte, Werbst. bcs: sepa von Jos, Caspar Fuesly ; Zurich und rthur. In ides ieiphe di mn Whe fall Secqui. In this 5 Ni ; Jacquin. published in am et Historiam sets ote ei an yd Also-the Genera Inseetorum of Lin , &e, by James Barbut ; London, , another edition. And Thunberg published at Upsal, oon Museum Thunberg. Naturalium Academie Upsalensis, §c. Pars 1 ; to which twenty other parts, and an appendix, were added be- a Alen, Beitrage wor dhschdsigerthdshte vine &e. so, Beitrage zur Inse ichile von August, &¢.) Knoch, Wilhelm Knoch ; Lipzig, octavo. ~ vi And J. C. Fabricii ies Insectorum, appeared in the same neo, In 1789, Moses Harris: published: his: Zxposition of English Insects, &c. illustrated b sone copper- plates, in quarto, in which he has given: of about 500 species. The text is in French and , and the specific names are given in Latin, but many as can never be adopted ; such as, forexample, (Apis) Audeo, &e. } And in quarto, Eri¢ Pon paa Norges Naturlige Historia, Kioberhavn. In the Transactions of the Paris Academy for this Morand.. Det forsle Forsog Pontepper . TH F ENTOMOLOGY. Motarid, entitled; Memoire sur ie a primer en “ee he S. Semler also published, in the German la , crepe pay Wi pag eines Diarium iiber die oy area mes rey 3 ig vale Methotinea tone d- Animaux, was publi iis pode is Gow @ Species Tn method of Wie Gok ia sinipl ie onthe pie (plant-lice, or hlese zur Bonnetis- i little y te Brom tat Ma, the Jr appeared in immense swarms in i during the summer of 1782, so many trees of their foli , a8 to create of the total destruction to the whole ve~ The of this tract was to show, e food of these voracious ani- mals, id + attack. This is an additional ad) dnt sone Pode of ee any ele fone an ac- quaintance with the natural history of insects ; for the authior, by this publication, was enabled to dispel the uneasiness occasioned by these supposed “ ministers of See lation of that vast me- calami beecish ee Alan: the interesting waph:by Biota De Geer, Gene- ne Species Fasecioren, Grrankt, ‘A. J. Retzio, Lipsie, octavo. | In 1784, an work, in octavo, entitled; “ag a Concinnata, was pub- lished by J. A. B. Thun in this year, published his Dissertalio Sis- fens Insecta Svecica And, in the same ear, Harrer wrote on the insects of Germany, under the title, G. A. Harrer’s Beschrei- yf Can lage Weiche Her D. I. C. Scheeffer, &e. at . in octavo. In he the following works 4 ogia Parisiensis, sive Catalogus Insecterum agro 0 Parisiensi repirhanse Secundum Methodum nena &c. edente A, F. De Fourcroy, duodeci- mo, in two volumes. Matthew Martyn’s Aurelian’s Vade Mecum, &c, was Ay in Exeter. The insects are whimsically ars 69 dye Linnean classes and orders History: lants on Spin Sey Sy of istoria Wetaaie © Cereidieen Sueciae ; auctore Bonsdorff. Gabriel Bonsdorff, &c. Upsalix ; in quarto. Naiursystem aller Bekanten in , Auslandischen In- seclen, §c. von Carl. ‘Gustaf. Jablonsky, Berlin, Fortge- setzt'von J. F. W. Herbst. Nath. Gotfr. Leske Reise Durch Sachsen i in Riicksicht Reise. der Naturgeschichte und Giconomie, Lei ; in quarto. Natural. Historische Briefe iiber Gstreich, &c. von Schrank. | Franz, von Paula Schrank, und Karl Erenbert Ritter, Moll. von Moll ; Spisborah. In ind 1786, Xavier Walfen published an account of the walfen. pies fe. Cape of Good Ho hichte der Schmetterlinge, Ausburg. Schwtelicne Einleitung in die et Leipzig, in octavo, Scopoli Delicie Flora et Faune, :c. Ticini, in folio. a 1787, were published the foll works : Dominicus Cyrillus, a ty. volt on the insects of N aples, entitled feng, (= eopolttane. A curious little on the gad-fly, was published in Leipsic, by J. Fi Fischer, entitled ationes de Oestro ovino atque bovino ‘acte. Fabricius printed his issa Insectorum, §c. Hafs nie in two octavo volumes. ne incentii P Specimen WE che erioris Calabrice, F et Mo . a Meidinger Nomenclator, (Versuch einer Deutschen Systematischen Nomenclatur aller in der letzen Ausgabe Wa des Linneischen Natursystems befindlichen Geschlechter der Thiere, Wien.) octavo. Kongb. Svenska Vete Academiens Handlingar, in octavo. This work is quoted thus, Act. Holm. John Adams published Essays on the Microscope, in Adams. quarto, at London, In 1789, a series of letters on the important subject Anderson.. of the cochineal insect, (which had been discovered at Madras a few years before,) from James Anderson, ad- dressed to Sir Joseph Banks, from Madras were pub- lised. Two oth other letters on this important subject ve been published since. And in the same year Swederus published a mono- on that a ae fark elec. us geen im a memoir enti fuing elt us land insecterna, hérande til At nash The work of M. B. Borkhanects, ¢ eeakta ye lepi- dopterous insects of E i. at Franc- fort, under the title Notrjtechiclte der Bosopaischen Schmetterlinge nach Systematischer ordnung. J. F. Gmelin published his edition of the Linnean Systema Nature. The entomological part is comprized Cyrillus. Swederuss Borkhau~ sen. Gmelin, in three and was published in The editor is considerably ind tothe writings of Fa- bricius ; and he rejects his classification, yet he has copied the species, ted them with the Linnean genera, which he ee aiiica t into families answering to the Nomen genera, and has, by this means, Vv ented and im roved the original work of Linné; we must allow that he has committed a vast number of the most inexcusable blunders, ly_in his quotations and references to plates. He has also, in many instances, described the same animal twice, or three times, under different names, We are surprised that lis errors are less:nume- rous, as he can be esteemed in no other light.than as an industrious closet compiler, In this year, also, was published, in Leipsic, octavo, Goeze. History. Marsham. Roemer. Olivier. Paykull, “pars Eat y 70 a work.entitled Niitzliches Allerley aus der Natur und ay gemeinen Leben fiir allerley Leser von Joh, Aug, And Mr Marsham wrote the: article ray ig’ tae Hall's Encyclopedia, which is illustrated by lates. In this article he briefly explains the entomo- ical system of Linné, and. mentions. the names of other authors of eminence ; and likewise explains the mode of collecting and prerg insects. Also Beobachtungen und leckungen aus der Na- turkunde von der Ge. Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, in octavo. Likewise J. T. Zs-chach, Museum N. G. Leskeanum a, octavo, Lipsie. ...., In 1789, a second edition of Berkenhout's outlines, under the title of Synopsis of the Natural History of Great Britain, §c. ap . And Johannes Jacobus Roemer published his Genera Insectorum Linnai et Fabricit, Iconibus illustrata, &c. Vitaduri Helvetorum, in-quarto, with thirty-seven ex- planatory plates, nearl of which had previously constituted the work of Sulzer, Tn this year, also, the first part of a most voluminous work, on entomology, was undertaken, at Paris, by the celebrated Olivier, entitled Ex ie, ou Histoire Naturelle des Insectes, avec des charactéres génériques et specifiques, &c. par M. Olivier, M. D. a Paris, in quarto. rom its title, we might infer, thatthe author intended to have treated. on every class and order, and, in con- formity with the first part, to have illustrated the whole be He, POMP Gn oraitinet the work, which is very extensive, entirely to the order coleoptera, which ke deh as Pesan as possible ; it is, how- ever, as must be |, a very defective, yet a va~ luable and useful w Paykull published in this year, at Upsal, Ejusdem, Meneareghen hylinorum Svecie, in octavo. —— , A de Villers published, at Lyons, a small work, under the title of Linnai Entomologia, 5c. curante et Lugduni, in octavo, in which to avail Geoffroy, De Geer, and In this year Natursytem aller hekannten in und auslan- dischen Insecten, &c. von, Carl. Gustay. dablerteve und Jfortgesetzt von Jobann, Friedrich. Wilhelm. Ber! = a in octavo, Anf gs hes And at Leipsic, in octavo, Anfangs-griinde der Natur- geschichte on eb. Gotfr, foran a 1790, ny ip on the genus jg pon in the Jour. tir die Entomologie, by Mayer, who, in the following year, published a work, Fl octavo, at Dresden, entitled Sammlung Physikalischer aufsitze, besonders die Bohmische Naturgeschichte betreffend, von einer Gesellschaft. Bohemischer Naturforscher ; heraus- gegeben von, Dr Johann. Mayer. In the same year, 1790, a Johann, Daniel Preysler Verzeichniss Bohmischer Insecten, Prag. in quarto, which is a catalogue of the insects of Bohemia. And Fauna Etrusca, sistens Insecta, in inciis Florentina et Pisana presertim collegit, Petrus Rossius, &c, Liburni, in quarto, ‘ Also, Dissertatio Historico-Naturalis, ignotas Insecto- rum species Continens, Conrad Qu » Lunde, in quarto, Quesnel is author also of two tracts, but we are an Soaks Sabena thee toe aan en saan in fer 8 nya Suenska, Da irilary an Pop the oer on noctua pruni, Beskrifning ifver eny Nattf ja Paykull published, in the same year, his Tirepeptis Car Suecia, ENTOMOLOGY. T | ici aanitih atin ai Ae ete i Gsclichle, Herausy Sey von Ludwig r Entomologie, Herausgegeben o n von L. G, Scriba, kfurt, in octavo. __ wong ret “And Insecien, Koléndar, vom Wic. oe. Brabay. Msins, seine A j , it was di its author, who, with great cae Sane Sree aaa sorry this Tablication, which, we are persenenes. We notice it, as we perceive it quoted y children, who, (with such a work as the might have given to the world,) would very natural hi , so much in this country. In os eye LSA pens several valuable en- ical works, er i a work which we have noticed under the year 1790, whilst speaking of The first volume of the Transactions of the Li: nean in pide ar pg oy i be F ~ on ctbeotan on the history of hese 5 . Stralsund, in octavo. an in’ * Ludwig: engerchitt Frankfurt am Main, quarto, by. Johannes Ludwig. In the year 1792, several valuable works were pro- Donovan. duced, and amo: others, the first part of a cons siderable work, Natural Hi of British Insects, by Edward Donovan, which has since been continued in monthly numbers until the present time. The design of this immense undertaking is to afford ge- nD and scientific descriptions of all the insects of , - 1 Great Britain, accompanied with a coloured Ggare, of each, as far as possible in their various states of trans- formation. The work at this time consists of eighteen volumes, and includes an extensive variety of the er cies, being the most extensive work hitherto under- taken as an elucidation of the Entomology of oe It is in octavo, and still continues to appear in monthly numbers. it + . Thomas Martyn published in this year, in imperial Martyn. ali the coleopterous Insects found in England, in- quarto at London, The English E ist, ceding upnards of five hundred different Species, the ENTOMOLOGY. oe yA lioi raedagetl pedal Fal i the Eien eres Se petied Hit eet arent according to the Linnean system. ‘The in rome cing are useless, mel ‘ies etter. press is "indifferent Fabricius. Fabricius in this year published onl posse rn notice his system. whit heed we shal tee Poy kull alee, whose taerk et: have often noticed, s ‘culionum Suecie ; a Ser wing wie te more than any to the Paty x9 Fhe Buen Beir zur Geschichte der In« +g iy gon vad began sie ssteeehe in monthly num- Sng entitled Fauna Insectorum Germanica Initia, oder Deutchland Insecten, auctore W. F. Panzer, which still continues to be Dr Smith’s ‘our on the Continent in 1786 and 1787, year. i ante rag capri Saat Paykull. Gegend um ‘Mains, Rheinisches Ma- gazin 2ur eee naturkunde, herausgegeben a: wary oe gebildeten und en Insecten und Wiirmer mit moglichst vollslandiger Synonymie. Erste Abtheilung. Nis Wockd volume of Linnean Transactions bp pre in which are the followi ; the ee ph ie Hheataheoasaaby Phalaena J. ; a new t of the genus of Linné, by W. Jones, which is so in as coming from excellent au , that we can- net refrain from layi pera OS Name’ ta secant his innovation: paper was, to out that the sh: oe ve (which forms a jpal character wi Linné in his distribution of the milies of that us, ) various’ at first view, th each so ly, that it is impossible to draw from them the line. between each family. Linné, he observes, was acquainted with about 274 species, whereas the writer of this memoir ie rch 56 a in various publications ; and examination of these, is induced to 71 “ Wings denticulated.” Linné. Jones adds, “the un- History. der without a connecting nerve in ‘the centre, ===" with a abdomitial groove ; ‘y'~

wanders about during ‘the night, I Pposet a been originally, in- night, aeee to have i i troduced into Europe from America, where it esto live amongst sugar. coolutéA den Famuty IL. Poeiaaiden rn ’ _ Body convex, with an arched back formed for spring- . Tail with three sete, the middle one longest. ee Il. Forsrerma. Geoff. Lepisma. Linn. Oliv. Macuitis. Latr. body. Manillery inserted or oP six joints, the last conic, Lai fl with the sex mimbranncos Eyes large Polypoda. wpa F ipa Sah Mert eetieslibihe etiabes’- vie presen cee . Linn. Lepisme hari 2. Fonsr- cIna. , shorter than the PE ti e-h BIUSs. Genus IV. Popura. Linn. Geet De Geer, Fabr. +h deadpan sg ” Geoff. Tnhabits under stones. A good figure be found in Rowers Genera Insectorum, tab. 29. fig. genus V. SMynTHuRUuS. "Tak ? Popura.__Linn. Fabr. De Geer, Geoff, Sp. 1. Fuscus... Body entirely brown. if sh tang se brun enfumée. Geoff. Wt eee De Geer, Mem. sur les Ins, vii. 35, aE 5. fig. 7, 8 & Surn- ‘Tavevs. ‘Buscus. a 17 Podura atra, Linn,? | Fabr. Ametabolia. Smynthurus fuscus. Late, way Inhabits Europe, is COMMO OR on ground, and in Sp. 2. Viridis. Bod: rod ae Viridis, ‘odura viridis. Ione Fabr. ! La Podure verte aux yeux noirs. Geoff. Smynthurus viridis. tr. Inhabits various trees in Europe. Orper II. ANOPLURA. Tail; without: sete» or Slaments. Mouth in‘some fur- nished with two teeth, (or mandibles ?) and an open- ee en nye harmony, and also to render the name more easy of re- tention in the memory, ihe choserumnizing dawandron the same parts. _ Their motion is slow, and their nourishment is deri- py emai | &c.) are infested with. several species an ak emcee he area has pr bes a considerable portion of time, for the P wi us, Fabricius, and Gmelin. The result of his examina- tions he does not consider himself as able to commu- nicate at present ; but it is his intention, when the sub- ject has arrived at maturity, to give'a paper on this or~ der to the Linnean Society of London. Trine I. Panicuninge, . Mouth cofsistinig G6" x thibilose; Very short haustel- Genus VI. Prusapa. Leach, Pepicouus, . Linn. Redi,\Latr.. Fabr. ‘Anterior . Geoff. era eyebrows of men and women, E virtue, being common pa re A the titles cole unteliss, “ Genus VIL. ante Linn. an. Babe, De Geer, Geoff.|7. Pevice- Redi, Hermann,.Lam. Lus. Feet all armed with a finger and thumb. Thorax, of three distinct equal segments. ‘ Sp. t. Humanus. Body oval, abate, white, and near Humanus. ly homaculate, ” Pediculus humanus, Fabr, Linn, Jatiads Pou humain-du hater Mem. sur les Ins. tom. vii. p.) 67. nhabite ay oe and of men, ‘and: is: ~~ the name — rah ea Portugal conti~ nent es in it is: Jeo pe Meayraciag in Britain ita of edety rare occurrence, may have been introduced: from the neighbouring pecerbow lg Mrtabolia. Cervicali 7. NIRMUS Cornici 8. ManTI- CORA. Maxillosa. 78 ENTOMOLOGY. Sp. 2. Cervicalis, cinereous, with Inhabits the of Good Hi anil is figured b Metabolia. © oh aetna yun trans te Horbets Archives’ tab, 46. fg. i — Le pou ordinaire. Geoff. ’ Genus IX, Covtiurrs. Late. 9. CouLt Pou humaine de la téte. De Geer, Mem. sur les Ins. Coutyris, Fabr. | URIS. vol. vii. p. 67. tab. 1. fig. 6. Pediculus humanus var, Pediculus cetvicalis. Latr. pf Inhabits the heads of man throughout Burepas In Britain it is extremely common, especially in the heads and upper part of the necks of children, whence they sndaeian by means of a fine toothed comb, or are ed ty ra calomel, mixed with a little fat, poo the roots of the hair: This species has been by many authors confounded with the preceding species. ' Trine Il. .Nigmipes. Mouth with a cavity, and two teeth, or mandibles. Genus VII. Nrewvus. Hermann. Riernvs. De Geer, Oliv. Lam. ‘Latr. Pepicunus. Linn. Geoff. Fabr. The character of this genus is given in’ that of the tribe. - All the oe ser be it birds. ‘The term ricinus having been in botahy'is rejected; and that of Dr peri is adopted. Sp. 1. Cornicis. ‘ee Whitish’ head heart-shaped ; ments of the thorax on each side produced into stot; abdomen oval, transversely banded with brown. Rivin de la ‘Corneille: Geer, Mem. sur les Ins. tom. vii. p. 76. Hi es a 11. Ricinus . ‘ Inhabit the Coren coir of Lists. Suncaites Ul. INSECTA METABOLIA. Orper III. COLEOPTERA. _.Onver Cotzorrena, Linn. Cuv. Lam, Latr. . Crass ELevrenara; Fabr. This order is divided. into five great sections; from the general number of joints in the tarsi. Section f. PentAmera. The number of joints in the tarsi is generally five, but in some of the aquatic genera the number is less. Tris I. CicinpELives. M. pi four, the interiof ones two-jointed. Meth voel otras ome al at their extremities with’ a distinct articulated hook. Mandibles with many teeth. Feet formed for running ; ‘hinder ones with trochanters. Mentum broadly notched ; internal side of the ante- rior tibia never notched ; antennz not moniliform. Genvs VIII. Manticora, a Oliv. Lam. Latr. Canasus. De Geer. , Clairvilley” (Cremoera. Th Thorax somewhat heart-shaped. “Abdomen v ‘age, pedunculated, nearly inversely heart-sha’ Elytra a and shielding the whole of the ab- domen) co! at the suture: Antenne inserted beyond the apex of the eyes, under a little ’ Clypeus of the same size with the la- brum. Labial and external nprested td , with the last joint at the a om 9 an gradually a little broader. ver Black, x whl eats dijo. » Sp. 1. Mazillosa. P| icvorea macillosa, Fabré vit VOR Manticora maxillaris, Oliv. Late. Cicindela ‘Thun. Carabe a A ota Men. 7. 623. Salt fig. Mei on 2 : Cicinpeta. Oliv. ‘Thorax long, cylindric-conic, ‘narrow, Lebiiastea in front. Abdomen long and narrow. Elytra not embra- cing the abdomen. * With wings. p. 1. Lpnaicollings Cyaneous; apex of the elytra Longta Prien thighs red. Collyris 1 is. Fabr. Cicindela longicollis. Oliv. Pr Siiecndeunein Latr. Gen. Crust et Int, 1. tab. ings. Sp. 2. Aptera, Black ; sigsenacomseetl with the Aptera middle part rough ; thighs red. Collyris aplera, Fabr. Cictndela aptera, Oliv. Colliuris aptera, Latr. Inhabits the East Indies. | Genus X. Mecacepuana,.. Latr. Gnatuo, Illiger. Cicinpeta, Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Oliv... Thorax short, cylindric. . El cine wanda. ret £ — palpi cael | onger than external maxillary am * Elytra connected ; no wings. Sp. 1. Senegalensis. Black-green ; antenna and feet rs aaa ferrugineous. Cicindela megalocephala, ave: ee Maowias | Senegalensis, La' Inhabits Sen tra not connected ; rp. 2. Caroling Purple- alt green ; antenna, mouth, a Carolina. (Mt hove feoterctres pomngitentin ellowi Cicindela Carolina, Linn. Fabr. Megacephala Carolinensis, Late. Gen. Crust, et Ins. 1. tab. 6. fig. 9. Inhabits ina, where it is abundant. : Genus XI, Crcinpera, Linn. Geer, Fabr, &c. 11. Cicrx- Buprestis, Geoff. DELA | Thorax short. Elytra flat, rounded. External max. © illary palpi as long as the labial. Antenne inserted into the anterior margin of the Clypeus shorter than the labrum. «i - Sp. 1. Sylvatica. Obscure aneous aboye; each ély- Sylvation, ” tron with “ external lunule at the base, with a mark at the apex, and an ‘intermediate transverse, narrow, sinuated band of white; with many impressed pric. ’ tures near the suture. Cicindela sylvatica, yee Oliv. Latr. Cicindéle des foréts, De Geer, -Mem. 4, 114. tab. 4. habits Europe, Is found on Martlesome Heath, Suffolk, occasionally ; near Christchurch, in hones fe i it is very common, it, 2. Hybrida. -green, or obscure Mesa “Hybrida. b above, often with a purple tint; each elytron with an external lunule at the base, another at the apex, with an intermediate transverse sinuous-toothed band of white ; suture cupreous. Am Gilg Cicindela hybrida, Linn. Oliv. Fab, Late. bi ‘ Cicindele iachetée De Geer, Mem, 4. 115. pl. 4, 8. habits the sandy maritime plains “ eh ee ENTOMOLOGY. . at Cromblyn Burrows, and on the sea-shore =—— near vont it is taken in oe By c Campestris, Sp. 3. Cam, siris. Green; sides head an a with the thighs, coppery-purple ; each elytron with four ewtiee ire spots, ‘anda fifth ture. Ti} Cieindela campestrit. Linn. Fab. Oliv. Latr. Cicindéle champitre. De Geer, Mem. 4. p. 113. pl. 4. fig. 1. Inhabits the sandy plains and pathways of Europe, -- and is vi ie pes me II. Carasrpes. these thersu- M: ‘four, the interiores two-jointed. io : bial two. bent at the Keel without a distinct joint. *Mandibles rarely with more than one tooth, w sth iestoweecls Ce mpess Feet formed for run- ning ; hinder ones with a trochanter. Mentam broadly notched. Internal edge of the an- terior tibiae often notched.’ Antenne filiform, some- times moniliform. I. Body:oblong, or ovoid, Labial i, inserted at the inferior sides of the lip. (Observe. insects of this division do not live in the water.) A. Anterior tibia notched in their internal edge. * . a, Labial and maxillary palpi abruptly terminated, with a joint Se a er aa the others, Antenne 12. Norn!- _ Genus XIL. vans ieve: Dumeril. Crcrnpexa.’ Linn. Marsh. Exapurvus. Fabr. Latr. Mlig. je: maxillary external and labial, with the last rearer the preceding are “and somewhat @PHilLus. interval near the suture. Reece Fabr. Latr. aquaticus. Inhabits pathways and the banks of ponds. Cicin- dela semipunctata of Linné, Elaphrus semipunctatus of Fabricius, &c. is the same species. There is a variety & of Paykull which has been taken in Norfolk and on the shore near Porto-Bello, Scotland, having little of the biguttata. Marsh. aie alus. Fabr. » Genus XIII. Exarnrvs. Fab. Latr. Dum. Ilig. -_Gremepet ‘Lim. Marsh. palpi we Labial external maxillary last init than the . Pater cylin- convex and i ual, a with os os the Sp. 1. Riparius. Green or brownish bronze ; "elytra with impressed spots having a pur- with ee Ee ee Sp. 2. Uliginosus.. with round ci- em uliginosus. Fabr. Latr. ; 719 don, and in the banks of wet ditches onthe borders of Metabolia- the Links near Edinburgh, in great numbers. —— Genus XIV. Bemerpium. | Bempipion. Latr. Crcinpeva. Linn. Marsh.» Carasus. | Linn. Marsh. Fabr. Oliv. Evapurvs. Fabr. Illig. Oliv. : Ocypromus. Frolich, Clairville. + ; Roa 1. pom a og Thorax somewhat narrower than Flavipés. broad and long, with very prominent as body aly above, black-green beneath. Elytra wets. Pal with two im sed dots in each pind ae suture. alpi, base of antenne, and feet, yel- 14, BEMEr- DIUM. owish. Cicindela Linn. Marsh: Elaphrus flavipes. Fabr. Oliv. Bembidion Latr. Inhabits the oniidy shores of ponds and rivulets, but is not common in Britain. Sp. 2 Litiorale: Thorax somewhat broader than the |, truneate-obcordate, punctured and excavated at the angles. Body zneous black. Elytra with punc- tured stria, and ech iheiositmunstiealent) another at the apex, and. with the feet rufous. Carabus littoralis. Oliv. rus rupestris.. Hliger. Bembidium littorale. Latr. Inhabits France and Germany. . Observe. This. genus contains a vast number of spe-- cies, which require some distribution into sections, &. Labial and external, maxillary ‘palpi not abraptly terminated & joint distinct from the rest in size. ‘An- tenne s'! * Lip prominent ; mandibles v ‘3 nal edge prominent suitactie + Elytra not trunecte: Genus XV. Scarites. Fabr. Oliv. Lam. 15. Sca- Antenne moniliform, third: joint much longer a RISES the second. Mandibles dentated:on their internal Lip short and broad, without auricles. Tibi,’ scitebior ones palmated. Sp. 1. Gigas. Black, shining. Thorax lunate, behind Gigas. on each side with one dent. lytra smooth, shoulders one-dentate. Mandibles meena with the internal pro- cess , dentate, with the apex acute, Searitas as. Fabr, Oliv. Latr. Inhabits Barbary and the south of France. . Genus XVI. Cirvina. Latr, Scarites, Fabr. Teneprio. Lim. Carapus. Marsham, Antenne moniliform, second joint longer than the third. Mandibles without teeth on their internal edge. “ily nanteaats with two auricles. Anterior. tibie gene- * Anterior tibiw externally dentate. Sp.1. Fossor.. Blackish or ‘brunneous.. Thorax Fossor. somewhat quadrate, middle of the. folat: impressed; Elytea with | strie. Tenebrio, Scaritas Littorale. a inn 16, CLI - vina. Innit Europe under stones expecially in nics crate, Antari bi, with obakete tout. vate” Me Gibbe Black brown. Thorax nearly glo- Gibbs. - Elytra with Seep enent: Koay pe fag — 80 —_Y~ —Inhabits France and England in moist or banks, In Battersea fields it is very common — sum- mer months. 17. Mo- Gates XVII. Morton. Latreille, RION. Ca moniliform, second joint much shorter than Monilicor- Sp. 1. Monilicoriis. Plain, elongate, black, nis. ining ; thorax on each side at the pectiier‘englas im- ; elytra striated. Inhabits the American islands. 18 Arora. Genus XVIII. Avoramus. Hoffinansegg, Latreille. mus. Scarires. Rossi. cman Ase gone ras wi he sor maxi ani i 3 i i much — and su’ inte a 1. Be s. See Rossi Faun. Eirus. 19. Staa0- enus XIX. Stacona. Latr. WA. Cucusus. Fabr. Antenne ian setaceous. Mandibles pointed ; the internal projecting. Labial and — an securiform j Rufipes. mail pl em Beonbonts bist ontame: ee sulcate ; antennz and feet red. Cucujus rufipes. Fabr. Siagona rufipes. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. tom.i. p. 209, tab. 7, fig. 9. Inhabits 20.Sruop- Genus XX. Sruopave: Clairville. RUS. Harpauus. Latreille. Carasus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. Payk. Fan ag er with the thin joint much m. 1 WI joint, saben longer than the lak pee Sp.1. Plaka: Oblong, black more shining beneath ; elytra with fine punctured stria ; trochanter 3 of hinder Planus. It is found in cellars and woods. The Minmon ate io as absurd, most of the Carabides ae white eyes after death, but never whilst livi Genus XI. Stomis. Clairville. Harpatvus. Latr. Caranus. Illig. Panz. Antenne not moniliform, with the third joint not longer than the following articulations. External maxil- line, and a little groove on each side behind ; elytra with striae. Carabus pumicatus. Panz. Inhabits France, yr te and ingles under Genus XXII. Harpawus. \Latre) ‘. ‘a Carapvus. Linn, FabroMarsh) 2) 9 ow) 22. Han- PALUs. horns: Head ‘and thin bind brown, downy, purictilate, “stri ENTOMOLOGY. thorax without foveole behind ; antennm and feet red. = Carabus ruficornis. Oliv. Panz. Marsh. Harpalus ruficornis. Late.» a Inhabits pepe under stones ; the most common of the Genus XXIII. Bivsbe: Claivitle, 23. Za Harpatus, Latr, snus. Caranus. Fabr. Antenne not moniliform. External maxillary with the last joint shorter than the one before it. | Sp. 1. Tardus. Black above, somewhat fascastaibe- T. Toenemeeet ee ieee ‘ov er margin w tured ; ‘a with punctured strie. se tardus. Latr. Carabus gibbus, Fabr. Inhabits the ae of France and Italy. Genus XXIV. Trecuvs. Clairville, Latr. Carasus. Linn. Marsh. cHUs. Antenne not moniliform. Mandibles Ex- terior maxillary acd labial pap filiform, formated by 24. Tre- a ted joint, Gl Meridieene uiaiiedall enus XXV. Licrnus. | Latr. 25. Litcre Carasus. Fabr. pS ee Antenne not moniliform. Mandibles. very obtuse. Labial and external snaxilary pales leseeeayee a E neat Obseure black ; el ( ith Rane 1. Emarginatus, wi out the aid of a lense) axiioath..1 — Carabus cassidens. Fabr. Licinus emar; s. Latr.. i. g ioe 199, tab. as fig. 8. ; but is very rare. Genus XXVI. Banister. Clair, Latr. ) en Carasus.. Fabr. L ae very obtuse. pi filiform ; the labial aa ter- minated by a thick chatt-ovaid joint. Sp. 1. Bipustulatus, Black ; base: of -aarbemnees! feet, thorax, and wing-cases, red, the latter with a sutural lu- «us nate mark of black. Carabus bipustulatus. » Fabr. Badister bipustulatus. Latr. Inhabits France, Germany, and Britain. ** Elytra truncate at their extremities. Head-and corselet narrower than the abdomen.» Genus XXVII.. Antu. Web. Fabr. Latr. , Carasus. Oliv. Linn. 5 Thorax cordiform. Head not narrow behind. Neck not t. Palpi filiform. Lip projecting in the = © a horny tongue. A oval, convex. | Sp. 1. Decemguttata. Black ; coleoptra with mine Nessmgut Crust. et Int, tom : { 26. Bapis- TER. Bipustula- 27. An- THIA. and ten white ‘ o Caral tar eengetca Lin Ob. Gach 2 Latr. “claeaies the Cape of Good Hope, where it is coms pe ie XXVIL Grarmprenus. Late.» mY 99, Ghast Crcmspera. De Geer. iw ouee pmere Antu. Fabr. + si? starr flee \ pave ‘ae Li see not ai t Pa Lip w the ‘membranaceous, and eo ty. ! orn orbicular; “Deeksha mt en codtaapige obese white tomentose ; thie bidentate within. +5 Nal ve ENTOMOLOGY Metabolia. Carabus mulligutiatus. Oliv. = ~ Path —\— = Anthia variegata. Fabr. . i mulli Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. tom. isp. 186, tab. 6 fig. 1 its Genus . Bracuinus. Web, Fabr. Latr. Clair. Carasus. Linn. Marsh. 4 Thorax cordiform. Head not narrow behind. Neck i ce itans. ot wate MUTHUS. Carasus. Linn. Marsh. Fabr, ; knees black. ates on: p. 191, tab. 6, fig. 12. Inhabits under the bark of trees, and on hot y banks. 81. R1s0- pe Sea Risopuitus. Leach, PMILUS. Carasus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. stria- by a large 8h Inhabits E -under the bark of trees 38. Cr. Genus I. Cymunpis. | Latr. wa MINDIS. - Carasus. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh. Tarus.. Clairyille. eck va Som E wales palpi filif _ Neck not ent. Exterior i i filiform ; labial terminated by a large scooniinete joint. Body Tarsi with entire joints. Sp. 1. Humeralis. Black, punctate ; antenne, mouth, Humeraliy. thorax, lateral margins of the elytra, the shoulders, and feet, red ; elytra striated. . Carabus humeralis. Fabr. Oliv. Payk. Rossi. Ichabits France, Sweden, ‘Germany, and England its France, Sweden, $ but is extremely rare. Genus V. Zurn. Late Carasus, Ross, Oliv. Gacerita. Fabr. Clairv. ieee woracreeent | Hicormehcacalonyster toed palpi terminated by a large nearly obconic joint. Body very much ep. 1. Oleus. Red, minutely punctate; head (mouth oteus, excepted) black; elytra brown, obsoletely striate, with common red. spot at the base, and another at the apex. woe oleus. Rossi Faun. Etrus, i. tab. 6, big. 2, 34. Zoe PHIUM. ium oleus. Latr. I its Italy and the southern parts of France. Genus XXXV. Gaenrva. Fabr. Latr. Carasus. -De Geer, Oliv: Thorax cordiform. Head narrowed, and lengthened Sp. 1. Americana. Black; first joint of antenne, Americant. thorax, and feet, fe i ; elytra black-blue. Galerita Americana. Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. tab. 7, fig: 2. ay my om ee very well figured by Drury, in Uustrations of Insects, tom. i. pl. 42. fig: 2. Genus XXXVI. Drvypra. Latr. Fae md Carasus. Ross. Marsh. Crcmypena. _ Oliy. Thorax cylindric. Head not narrowed or ed behind. Mandibles munch el minent, Exterior and nearly obconic joint, (maxi Lip linear, with: two auricles. F ata. punctate, villose; mouth, Emargins- antenne, ad na) pac cane pire rpyereage al itudinal line ; elytra pened strie ; apex the frst, and mid of the third. joint of the antenna, emarginata. Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, tom. 1. p. 197, tab, 7, fig. 3. Cicindela emarginata, Oliv. Carabus dentatus. Ross. Carabus ¢ ¢ 82 Metaboli. Genus XXXVII. Opacantua. Payk. Fabr. Latr, Py oP Arretasus. Linn. earn Caranus. Oliv. ao" Thorax cylindric. not lengthened or Satria ers in any great degree. Mandibles not remark- long or Sromltaale. Palpi filiform. Pe The structure of the mouth and the gi gs remain pi pn elanura, Green-blue; first joints of the ae tpy eh and widely punctures Lachichhinatasiaaede ot gral Aitelabus melanurus. Linn. Odacanthfa ee Payk. Fabr. cidahnaithaation Tn Britain it oceurs near Swansea, in considerable abundance. 38 Acra. Genus XXXVIII. Acra. Fabr. Latr. ; Thorax nearly conic. Head much narrowed behind and Palpi filiform, the labial ones with the last joint oval-round. P ion. In the structure of the mouth, this prea a near to Lebia, from which ‘it Melanura. : ** All the joints of the tarsi entire. . Surina- . 2, Surinamensis. -Brunneous; head and dhotax nam, '; antennee intersected with white and’ ‘black ; elytra striated, with their apex bidentate ; fect ted, ages surinamensis. Latr. hes 00 Surinam. Sp. 3. Pi ica. Black; elytra red, ‘wich pee tured striz at the base ; marginal spot, another’ on the suture, and the tip, black ; feet red ; knees black. Inhabits Pennsylvania. © ** Lip not prominent ; mandibles small, their inter- nal neither toothed or prominent. © Genus X. Panacaus. Latr. 4, Carasus.. Linn, Fabr. Marsh. Thorax orbicular. Head narrower than the sbaeesén, with very rant globular eyes. Neck distinct. Abdomen Binks Crax-major. 7 1. Crem oeijer. igen pence =n and a cross, and ‘tipe ret apg | ney 8 a Nailiddonondenen Linn. Fab. Marsh. Pana. teeter Latr. Siebel toeauemeiliites i with the last joint cy See ih a Benes Sie Loricera, Latr. Carasus.. Fab. Marsh. Antenne incurved, the first joints differing’ in size end in proportion from the thers)" Mandibles witli the back notched and unidentate. Thana pieriy eine. Spiden diii ytra. with punctured: th 1. strie ; the ieetinamtatrens the caveat iatadnen. - Carabus pilicornis. Fab. Oliv. Marsh. Loricera anea, Lat. Gen. Crust, et Ins, 1. Tab. 7, 6 habits France, Germany, and England. Pennsylva- Tce 39. Pana- SAUS 40. Lonti- ERA. Enea : Sent the intervals obsoletel ENTOMOLOGY. B. pened bm not notched on eo ote A a, Lip very short, not beyond : joint of the pall ndeset beve See maxille remarkably ciliated. Abdomen mote or less thick, Genus XLL Cycuavus. Fab. a ae Caranvs. De Geer, Oliv. Marsh. Fenesnio, | t. external aca 1. Rostratus, Dik atm hry penton Restrateds Cy hrus rostratus. Fabr. Latr, |" | duiete To ‘enebrio rostratus. Linn. yf é etiqut? (abate orope Ta" Enfient i a ented! Inhabits Europe. In it is uncom- cane aalt aicl dear NN stones, Genes XLIL. Carosoma. | Webs Febr. ord Canranus. Linn. De Geer, Oliv.’ >. Mandibles neither very narrow or | nearly orbicular. Abdomen nearly’ te. Taba and external fon gh om yadh +0 notre reo DP wien 1. Spophend able: lytra gold ‘or fe 1 cophanta. lolet- e ‘ a Psa an th about sixteen punctured striae ion, S7erebani ‘intersected transversely, the fourth, eighth, and twelftl ‘from: the’! mesic — some - Carabus Sycophantay Linn, - 5 6 ( deals Calosoma Sycophanta. Fabr: Latr. ° © wi, Inhabits the European woods. There are bat fewin- omev ag proeraph nie ose Saga Rye eri amd ntry,'six'spes ag | cimens onl ‘being known to us that have ‘been ¢leatly . ascertained to be British. T:wo of these’ from” Ireland are presetved in the collection of Mr Sow Fone) in theleollection of 'W. J. Hooker, Esq. ‘of : another in the museum of S, Wilkin, Esq. which’ was taken in the coun of Norfolk with the preceding cimen ; a fifth Setwred in Devon, near Ki re which is now, with another specimen, in the bs of Dr Leach. ileal) Calosoma Inquisitor of Fabricius is obit talien near London, and it has been taken by Dr Leach néar Tavistock in Devonshire; but it must be esteemed a rare British insect. It is said sometimes to’ occur |in ploaty near Windsor, on the white thorn: neniges, ‘feed. ing on the larve of lepido insects, | Genus XLII, Carasys. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. 43. Cane Paniz, Marsh,’ ylo det ; ay ld gus, Mandibles neither very narrow or ig: Thorax — truncate; and ° notched behind. Abdorten "Obe! Ab the British epéciés of this genus hive toon most sadly confused, we shall describe the species, for the purpose of correcting the errors of nomenclature, which Mr Marsharm bas terided not a little to inevease. Sp. 1, Violaceus. Black ; of the thorax and yictaceus: elytra violet-copper ; elytra’ cae a ‘somewhat smooth ; abdomen el Carabus violacens, Linn. be Oliv. ‘Marsh, Latr. Inhabits Europes) * panies) ere Carabus purpurascens is said to linve: been taken in Britain ; but we have not been ee to ene it with certainty. Sp. 2. Cabenylittilis : Black ; » ‘of ‘thorax: and Cateniiti’”™ Siyika violet ; thorax broader ‘than on ong, deeply emar. tus “ENTOMOLOGY. siete behind each 9 with, abt fourteen atte ; fourth, ith, rupted ; ‘ . a - F abe, Lete..s; mur ‘ Oliy..; oh "sixes bak wrad oman rar ag Britain » times with Te ia are rer petal in Ireland, the two, foumer Sp. 3. Intricatus. Black violet above, black beneath ; Seer ta ve ee res elytra ~ irregular striae, Interv punctate-ru, each elytron with three elevated eatenlated lines Corals s. Fabr. mane hy p. 4. Ne of the elytra and sien of the thocex:xiolet ; elytra checare copper, rugu- lose, wi i rows of excavated. spots. Carahus nemoralis. MNlig,.Latr. Carabus hortensis. Oliv. Marsh. Fabr. y- meets: Brassy-green or violet-black above, ean ofan elytron with about fourteen eleva- : ted lines, two in the middle more distinct than the » Marsh, - France, and Germany, It varies in sculpture, lines on each side of the entire line beneath ; each elytron with three ribs, one at the -suture ; the interstices with a catenulated line, and on alaiasiieenameonteentede bck broze stones. men Coy Inhabits Germany, Sw and England. 4. Lip projecting as far as the first joint of the palpi ; exterior base of the poet isti ciliated ; An men generally v. ; Lavf a XLIV. He Latr, 4 Cananus. Linn. Fabr. Marsh. Schénher. Lip nearly quadrate, not. projecting as far as the | brum, nor tricuspidate at its extremity ; labial palpi not 83 twice as Sa as 1 oe head ; mandibles but little dilated Metabolia. Sp. 1. Pale-yellowish; elytra paler, Cogito striated with two transverse bands, composed of black Carabus us. Linn. Carabus arenarius. Faby. Oliv. Nebria arenaria.” Latr. Gen, Crust et Ins. vol. i. p. 221. tab. 7. fig. 6. ~Inhabits the sandy maritime shores of France, Ger- many, and South Wales. Sp. 2. Brevicollis. Black shining antenne ; palpi, Brevicollis. tins, and tarsi, brown ; el with punctured strie. ’ . Carabus brevicollis. F: . Schonher. Inhabits Europe; is found under stones and under the bark of trees. - Carabus Gyllenhalli of Schnher, which was discover- of aa mtive of Britain b Dr Leach, at the base of Ben Lomond in Scotland. since been taken in some Ea near Edinburgh, by the late Richard Rawlins, one of the most rns ries Nace op — scutellum, rinus Natator. Gyll. 51. Hy- DROPORUS. Genus LI, Hyproporvs. Clairville. its stagnant waters. ENTOMOLOGY. Tare V. Burrestipes. _ alpi filiform. . Genus LVI. Buprestis. Linn. Fabr. Latr. tra. ‘ Pls ‘blue-green beneath ; 8 3 apex of the elytra on each side of the suture, Buprestis Trachys minuta. Gyll. Fabr. Inhabits the nut-tree and elm. Genus LVIII. Apuanisticus. Latreille. Burprestis. Fabricius. Antenne massive. Sp. 1. Emarginatus. = II. Palpi termmated by a thick F seo Genus TX. Mexasis. Oliv, Fabr, Lam. and the south of France. In Fkaeens 5S has been goon wens Vy Se Selep Carte of “oe 2 - Jogi Genus LX. Ceropnytum. Latr. Genus LXI. Exarer. Linn. Fabr. Geof. De Geer, Fabr. Oliv. Lam. last joint of the antenne with the 80 abruptly acuminated as to give the appearance of « 1 Thorax, with Thorax 85 ** Last joint of the antennz oval or oblong, not abrupt~ acuminate. 1. Body not linear, but three times as long as broad ; FC NS IO AEE A. Antenne (of male at least) pectinated or Sp. 2. Castaneus. Antenne of the male pectinated; Castaneus, colour -black ; hhead-and: thbrax:xed-tomentose ; elytra yellow punctate-striated ; black. Elated Castaneus. Linn. Fabr. Panz. Inhabits Europe. be Inhabits F Is common on thistles. 2. linear, nearly four times longer than broad; Sp. 4. tus. Black ; front retuse ; antenn®, yfargina Pore ame dove-omaer prt Asa — ee eee een ee outer margin of the elytra, black. Elater marginatus. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Marsh. Inhabits Europe. Is found on various herbaceous plants in fields, Trise VII. TeLepxoripes. Tarsi with the last joint but one bifid. Antenne filiform, of ten joints. Elytra soft, flexible. — uadrate, or nema ye enus LXII. Avrora, Pa , Fabricius. . Curysometa. Linneus. c ASA Cisteza. Olivier. > Criocerts. Marsham. Dascrivus. Latreille. Maxillary palpi filiform, with the Jast joint some- what cylindric ; labial palpi not bifurcate. ovate. Feet all si ce tor Dy — Black, with cinereous down; ane Cervina.. tenne, 7 elytra, yellow. Atopa cervina. Paykull, Fabricius. Dacillus cervinus. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, i. 252. tab. 7. fig. 11. Inhabits E Genus LXIII. Cypnon. Fabricius, Paykull, Gyl- 63. cy-. lenhall. PHON. Exopes. er ga Le Maxillary filiform, somew! “Cyphon pallidus. Fabrici . Fabricius. tie pallida, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. i. 253. . 7. fig. 12. Inhabits Europe in moist places. Sp. 2, Fuscescens, Seatiwhat rontesovite, yellowish- Fuscescens, 86 ENTOMOLOGY. Metabolia. red-fuscous or blackish, pubescent; thorax short, trans- Maxilla with one process, _Thorax sa =? — anterior nearly strait; feet and base of De bot oie an pon gel rd at antennee Maden falensete: Latreille. Sp. 1. Suturalis, black ; thorax with a double excava- Suturalis, Inhabits France, in Petit-~Gentilli near Paris. _ tion or fossula behind ; clyheashleotised, with the su- 64 Scim- = Genus LXIV. Scinres. _ Illiger, = black, deepl, ply punctate-striate, 7s Cypnon. Paykull, Fabricius. : Omalisus ee Oliv, Fabr, Latr. “ Exopes. Latreille. Inhabits German CurysomeELa. Lineeiiiecchions. Genus LXIX, Esanen. Lina. Gat He Ger, 3 Lame ues Ili yelp, bifureote filiform, the last ee oer Fabr, Oliy. Lam, lindrie; labs Mandibles pointed at their tips, _ and entire. with cones Pet ith i erp Fagin pr anege arth ee len with a strong = thighs ened and pressed, same as the following formed for joints, the second small, . Head concealed by the tho- Hemnispho- Sp. 1. H ica. Black, smooth ; thorax short, rax. Mouth small. Maxille with a double process. transverse, anterior margin somewhat concave ; tibie, Masilley, i, with the last saint, elena teat Sand Laat SOS ere eee ene. apex acute. Byes NOR RD, arg hemispharicus. Fabr. Payk. soft, of the male, with ol pire, sn wings ; of female, Chrycomela: hee Marsham, ms vomit Oblnn ‘brow of the i Linn. ? yp. 1, a ge n; margin Spendidla, Inhabits F. Inbobite Premee, England, and Sweden, thorax livid-yellow, anteriorly with a transparent 65.Cures. Genus LXV. Cures. Fabricius, Latreille. on each side; abdomen with the margins of the = Palpi equal, the last joint truncate; maxillary palpi pa anus and feet ellowish ; , uceae reddish, with their joints thick. Antenne, cylindric, simple. sonia aah Maxille, with a double process, the external linear, thy Fee apenen tamg lee peg ' internal small. Mandibule with their ts notched. — LXX. Texernorus. Schef. De, Geer, 70, Teyx- Lip bifid. _ Body linear, solid, rigid. Feet short. Oliy. Lam. Latr. THORUS. Capitata. Sp. 1. Capitata, Obscure fuscous, hestsinanesd red« CAnruanis, Linn. Fabr. Marsh, Gyll. “ dish-yellow. Mandibles, with their apex acute aa entire, An- , Cupes roe Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust..ef Ins. 1. tenne distant. Joints cylindric, elongate... Maxille “a 255. tab. 8. bifid. Body soft. Palpi, with their last_joint securi- 66.Dritvs, Genus L iI. Daitus. Oliv. Lam, Latr. form. El the length of the abdomen., Prminus. Fabr. Geoffroy. Sp.1. Fuscus. Cinereous-black, mouth,, base of an- prseus, Canruaris. Marsham. tenn, thorax, back of the abdomen, sides of ‘iii . Maxillary palpi with their apex acute ; labial short, ly and anus, red ; thorax with a black spot. somewhat cylindric. Antenne with their internal edge Cantharis fusca, Linn. Fabr. peciateedi- Maxille with one Mandibles Telephorus fuscus. Latr. notched at their points. Body ~iaian anteriorly arcuate, Int Harpe inte >ring end begining 8 the Flavescens. $y. 1. Flavescens. Black, 4 nga pecan coinee LXXI. Mazturnus.. Latreille. saute Th. Basi flavescens. Oliv. Canruaris. Linn, Fabr. Marsh. : THINUS. — Cantharis serraticornis. Marsham. Teveruorus. Oliv. De Geer. rs Inhabits Europe. Is found in Darent Wood, Kent, Antenne distant, joints elongate, cylindric: . Maxil- amongst , in tolerable abundance. le bifid. Mandibles with their points entire, and very 67. Lycvs. © Genus LXVIL. Lycus. Fabr. Oliv. Lam. sharp. Body soft. Palpi with their last joint ovate, Canruanis. Linn. acute. Elytra shorter than the abdomen. Head atte- Lampyuis. Geoff. Marsh. nuated behind more or less, compressed, more or less serrate, inserted near each behind ; thorax not broader than lon distinctly mar- other. Palpi of the maxille, with the last joint some- ed behind ; body blackish ; black ; two what triangular, having their points er. Head, age joints of the antenna: and "thorax red ; elytra with — with the mouth Hes ae into a kind of rostrum. Max. some obsolete striae towards the suture, the apex and illee with one process. Elytra nearly of equal breadth. two pectoral spots yellow ; base of the feet, anterior Thorax somewhat quadrate, the anterior margin trans- ighs, and tibia, and knees of the middle feet, iia . verse, strait. of the anus reddish, , Minutus. me 1. Minutus. Elytra with four elevated lines ; Malihinue ruficollis, Latr. 3 | thorax black, with — margins much elevated; last oe France. ; Mandibles with their entire end pointed. Antenne Sp. 1. Ruficollis, Head not Very much attenuated Rufitollis, . : joint of the antennz 2. Marginatus. Head but little dead oa be- Marginatus. Lycus minutus.. GyNenhall, hind thorax broader than long, margined round ; Lam Mal wee Marsham. * body "blackish ; base of the ener, aie of ket i corginiy De Gewts Lange range tenet pte |), ar trunks. It is certain 8 7 a somew yellow at eir points "ye corselet tout noir. Vol iv. p. 46 oan feet and knees pale ; abdomen with the sides and mar- 68.Omatt- Genus LXVIII. Omauisus. Geoff, Oliv. Fabr. gins of the ‘segments red- ellowish, : P SUS Lam. Cantharis bigutiata. Panzer, . Mandibles with their apex pointed and entire. An- _ Inhabits France and tenne approximate, the Neante. lindric-eonic; the se- Sp. 8. Flavus. Head much attenuated eh: . Flavus. - cond and third smallest. i with the last rx nr tag, marta eyo ul - 4 joint cylindric-ovate, apex truncate. exserted. the middle longitudinally impressed ; body yellowish ; Metabolia. Seema rote aera and dorsal mark of the thorax, b! with punctured roe ae .- at their T minimus. Olivier. Malihinus flavus. Latr. : ake Inhabits France and England, in the wate. Sp. 4. Collaris. Head muchattenuated behind ; tho- rax not broader than long, mere margined behind, and with a short ead behi gc mererae anten- ne (hese excepted) behind, mi of the thorax, ; smooth, somewhat fuscous, base dark- Gexus LXXII. Metynis.. Fabr: Oliv, Lam. Head ovate, much inflected under the thorax. An- tenn with the second and third joints nearly cylin- dric, the former elongate; the fourth and followin or conic. Tarsi with the outer nails eof Good Hop Sp. 1. Oblonga. Red; \linsillatd elgtrn blue de bike. wn ae Fabr. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 1. 264. tab. 8. fig. 3. Inhabits Syria and the ym. of Murcia in Spain. Genus LXXIV. Dasyres. Faye Fake, Latr. Me vynis. Oliv. Lam. Illi ' ENTOMOLOGY. 87 Sp. 1. ZEneus. Brassy- 3 head anteriorly red- Metabolia: oon elytra blood~ with the base and. half the a suture brassy- Malachius eneus. Fabr. Label Oliv, yl. Cantharis. enea. Linn ‘Marsha. . Inhabits Europe. Genus LXXVI. Hyuecztus. Late Canruanis. Linneus. Lymexyion. Fabr. Oliv.;Paykull. Antenne serrated, the fourth, fifth, and following joints nearly equal. Elytra covering the back of the abdomen. Thorax broader than long. Head vertical. bor eT lindric. Therseosieides Pale red ; eyes. and breast, oad 1. beck or black elytra brown-black ‘or testaceous with des a black apex 8 argereg Dagmegeoner * Latr.’ its Germany. Prag pips fee peedlray nope Ol ed as distinct, species, See Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 16. HYLE- CATvS. 1. 266. : I atteo Posh bate LXXVII.-. Lymgxyton. Fabr.. Oliv. pa oh pe acme Linn. ELaTERores. Bad sa Fabr. Oliv. Latr. ‘antharis navalis of pantie who (as we have al- mentioned in our history of ical wri« ters) wrote a on this destructive insect. The male, Fabricius has considered as distinct, under tasliel the oak of hich it destroys. . I its in urope, W| So Genus LXXVIII. Arractrocerus. Palissot-Beau- 78. ATrac- vois, Latr. TOCERvS. Necypauis. Linn. By 1, Ne > Head and therex fusogus,jeith Necydaloi- a longitudinal yellowish line. des. Atractocerus eenegreniien ne, Ralieecte OA Latr. Necydalis brevicornis. Tepmtaylenabir eeiaieaty Fabr.. Inhabits Guinea. |. Tree TX. Titrives. Antenne thicker at their extremities, serrated in some; solid in others, Elytra eovering the whole abdomen. ‘Wah cylindric. Thorax Suppoen behind. Famuy EF. Tillida. Tarsi, with the first joint very apparent, longer than one Are ~ Genus LXXIX...Enortium. Latreille.. Tittus. Oliv. Panz. Fabr. Dermestes. Rossi. abner) Antenne, with the thc last joint much dilated, serrated, » Sp... Serraticorne.. Black. 79. Eno- PLIUM,. SO. Tittes. Maxillary palpi filiform. Labial securiform. Antenne nearl serrated, lin- Pen toe Bere ween e 2. Unifasciatus. red Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Formicari- — Sp. 1. Formicarius. Black. Thorax and base of the uy elytra red. ~ tr ag ft pee pt mga ay a ong poo Settle Berepoter eens Famuy II. Clerida. Tarsi, with the first joint short, the w concealed Gruslitwetadininkae tT 62. Orne, Genus L Il. Opus. Latreille. Arretasus. Linneus. Crervs. , De Geer, Olivier. Noroxvs. F Evrocus. _Illiger. securiform. Antenne with the ninth and tenth joints obconic, the last oval, truncate. Eyes not notched. narrower behind. Mollis, Sp. 1. Mollis, Fuscous, Base and of the elytra, and a middle transverse band, with the un« der of the thighs gray. Abdomen red. otoxus mollis, F Cleras mollis, Oliv. Marsh. Attelabus mollis, Linneeus. Opilus mollis, Latreille. Inhabits Europe, under the bark of especially of willows, apt pd og pee with the three last joints ‘an oblong triangular ENTOMOLOGY. Eyes Metabotie. iy ately ee re ol Sp. 1. eT! Elytra red, with three Apiarius, Genus L . Necrosta." Latreille, Olivier. Dermestes. Linneus. + ac abi , De Geer, Marsham, 84. Necne- Bla. Corynetes ruficollis. Fabr. q Inhabi Trise X. Srvpurwes. ; | Antenne gradually thickening towards their extre- . mities, or terminated by a solid oS the abd . Elytra covering the greater portion . Body oval, or parallelopiped, . Fammy I. Silphida. Palpi very distinct. Mandibles, with their ap entire. | Genus LXXXV. Necropuacus. Fabr, Oliv. Lam. 85.Nrcno- Sitrpna. Linn. De Geer, Marsh, PHAGeh Dermestes.. Geoffroy. | ina in a strait line, the external margin not canalled or keeled. Body long, quadrate. ; | Sp. 1. Black. Antenne ferruginous at Spinipes. their points. with their external margin, and a peer ra MEE TR pee Trochan- ters of hi thighs into a spine. Tnhabite Mea ala ts A ae o | N orus vespillo is readil ished from this | Genus LXXXVI. Siena. Linn. Fabr. De Geer, 86, SizPay Oliv. Lam, Latr: Marsh, Pextis. Geoffroy. oe Sirpua, Necropes, Oicroproma, THaNnaToPHiLus. Antenne a little longer than the thorax. with , oval. Thorax orbicular. Apex of ly truncate. Hinder thighs of the male thicker than Genus Necropes. Wilkin’s MSS. Leach. ae Mae LO am i on ~ onan about the We have sdepeid takaoaa Soli icy sea . Littoralis. Black. ad @intheee Littoralieg the two ones connected } Silpha littoralis. Liew, Fabr. Late, Oliv: Marsh, 2 : on the shores of the sea, = so Hi ts 8 f aes ct E aE iG fi pe si i ; i f : i He i tle ; 88. Sca- PHIDIOM. } with an abrupt club composed of five some- inh ie-joint Radbtietrer. = 5 ip te A toe + The genus Tuanatornites of Leach, which contains. VOL, IX, PART 1. ENTOMOLOGY. “tra truncated. Palpi filiform. _ for ‘1. Castaneus. Shining, smooth, moutli and soles “club punctate, #89 Genus LXXXIX. ScAputsoma. Leach: _Metabalia. Scapnipium. Fabricius, Latreille, Olivier. at rent Antenne, with a club composed of five somewhat oval joints. Body acuminate at each extremity. Ely- Scutellum none,” Obs. The hinder margin of the thorax at the middle produced intoan angle. ° Sp. 1. Agaricinum. Body black, shining, very smooth. Agarici- Antenne, apex of the elytra, and feet, pale brown. num, ge Smee agaricinum, Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Panzer. Scaphisoma agaricina. Leach’s MSS. ©, Inhabits the’ Boletus versicolor, and other fungi. Genus XC. Cnotera. Latreille, Spence, Carors. Fabricius, Paykull, Gyllenhall. Promoruaaus. Illiger. Morpetta. Forster, M 5 Hetors, Panzer. , Cisteta. Olivier, Fabricius, Lurerus. Frdlich.. Denrmestes. Rossi. - Antenn straight, with a five-jointed club. Maxillary i with the last joint subulate, conic. Labial palpi. with last joint obtuse. Obs. This genu has afforded the subject of a learn- PHISOMA, 90. CHO- LERA , ‘ed and i ing monogragh, by W. Spence, Esq. blished by the Linmeas Society in the Gera yo- ume of their Transactions, to which we refer the reader descriptions of the speci Sp. be . Narrow, oblong. Thorax narrow- Oblongas er behind, the hi angles obtuse, the middle slight. ly foveolated, Antennesomewhat filiform, ° Cistela augustata, Fabricius. Choleva Latreille, Spence. La, cisteloides. ~ Frélich, Inhabits moss, and under stones. Genus XCI. Mytacuvs. Latreille. 91. My- Cators, Paykull. LACHUS Cuoxeva. Antenne incurved, shorter than,the thorax, the basal joints distinctly thicker than the rest ; club five-jointed, the joints transverse, Palpi of the maxilla, with the last joint subulate. Labial palpi, with the last joint ob- tuse; | pire Sp. 1. Brunneus. -ovate, black-brown, fine- Brunneue, ly but widely pimctate, sli — pubescent. Catops brevicornis. Pa P. Mylachus Brunneus. Latreille, Gen, Crust. et Ins: vol. ii. p, 30. tab. 8. fig. 11. Choleva brunnea. ce. Inhabits France, Sweden, and England, in which lat- ter country it has oceurred but twice. Genus XCII. “Cryprornacus, Herbst, Paykull, 92. Crxr- Gyllenhall. TOPHAGUS, Ips. Olivier, Latreille.. Dermestes. Fabricius, Scopoli, Panzer: Body depressed, back plain. Tarsi with elongate slender joints. Antenne with a compact three-jointed p.1.° Cellaris. Testaceous. ferrugineous, widely ¢.yJ,:;.; m i /Padedx finakelapcuiead. on ctly unidentate, anterior angles dilated, rounded, ending behind in an obsolete an Ips cellaris. Olivier, Latreille, sinuata of Fabricius, differ: this di merely in having.tl oavijseaUtselad Wr tha Semnths dongs torte j-eetete et are s from this division merely in githe “= calaris. "Pes Gylenhall. Crpeiptoge crenata. Herat rc ietren). | Fy ee Se vastus ahihibiek Sigeepdinaiag 63 Exons. MGeves XC E-xois, Paykull, Fabricius, Gyllenhall. Re Olivier. Baty depressed, bask with n. Antenne with a three- jointed toeek club. Tarsi with the three first joints short. Mumeriis, Sp. 1. Humeralis. Elliptic, black, shining, te; antennw, head, thorax, humeral on the ytra and feet red, approaching to blood- Pagis humeralis. Paykall, Fabricius, Gyllenhall. Baas Sect esr EAT er as wmmanti, Bo- Nitiduln rufifrons Marshom is scarcely distinct. . S. Care Genus XCIV. Catopicus. Lurreille. nicee, Neriputa. Rossi. Denmesres. Fabricius, Paykull. cake Me back plain. Antenne with a two- Mouth covered as with a hood. oe. M obseure blackish ; antenna, So thorax, and elytra, fus- cous- ; elytra with punctured stria. ‘Nitidule hirta.. Rossi. Colobicus marginatus. Latreille. Inhabits the south of France, under the bark of trees. two lines. genus XCV. Tuymatvs. Latreille. oro ‘Tacha Miger, Aer gyrne Fabricius. OMA. Margina- tus 95, Tur- Beus, thorax with i punctures ; orate when neo —_ Fabricius, Mlliger. ae ey daliattin Waahad oka 96. Nive Bn XCVL bare Linn, Fabr. Payk. Oliv. Pele "Mandbles prominent Body short, depressed ; back - generally broad. Antenne with the Et rie ing tc club abrupt and. ; immediately bebna the Grwvus XCVIL. Ips. Fabricius, Herbst, Gyllenhall. Nerrovta. © Gravenherst has written an admirable monograph on this Micropterorum. , the astious author of Menogrophia sApim dnglios la about to publish c'paper'on this rateosting teloe of insert . san ENTOMOLOGY. , and much bent at their the Sp. 1. Ferruginea, Red-castaneous punctate j- the Betas punctures ofthe elytra running together st the suture; egg. mandibles hack et Sel Beep dame Ait ner Fabr. Payk. Panz. ! ; pe jewus XCVIL. Brrenvs. Latr. . Latreille, Inbabits Europe, on the flowers of the ranunculus, rose, &c. Genus XCIX. Carereres. Herbst, Illiger. Bracuyprerus. Dermestes. Linn. Fabr, Srroneyius. Herbst. Niriputa. Olivier. Antenne with the third and following ae. Fawy TI. pramgy Ter" Labial palpi scarcely distinct. hina sed in 4 an excavation of the thorax. Mandibles with their arcuate and acute. : 100. M1. ee of but one joint. Snor™- i pi with the last joint subulate. ere Fh Seas berrieay more. Body long, and more or less narrow. Division I. : of the head the mandibles) F with ie alight ben it che | tin 5 Soh sete ee ue se serted below the oniddle + mot - Shots atm line. Thorax long. N Bod long and narrow. Elytra a a a Y portion of abdomen. Genus CI. Astrapxus. Gravenherst, Latreille. Srarnyuinus. Fabricius, Olivier, Rossi. “a Palpi terminated with nearly securiform. Pi phere bl pn yo geceg iy Anterior 101. As- TRAPACS — aa — Aappey mwa : —— 10. Sta- PHYLI- Nus. Politus. 103. La- | THROBI- UM. ENTOMOLOGY: Rail, with somewhat globéee-conie joints. ee ba. dat Rossi pn cra Fabricius, Takats bits Italy and the south of France under the bark of the wanes CII. Sraruyuinvs. Linn. Fabr. Latr. , the breast and a double series of ; poeta, each side of the abdomen, golden yellow to- epee erythropterus. Linn. Latr, Fabr.; Grav. in dung. heal 2. Polituse Black; fiead and thorax brit! black; , DARFOWEE than the thorax, iny with some distant dots: thorax with six or eight impressed eign “ a TS ga longitudinal series ; elytra Slaphylines sol” Gravenherst, Latreille. Genus CITI. Larunosttn: Gravenherst, Latreille. Pzperus. - Gravenherst, Fabricius, Olivier. Srapuytinus. Linneus, Geoffroy. Palpi subulate, with the last joint acicular and mi- nute. Antenne nearly filiform, joints aoe conic, Ruficorne. 2. Ruficorne. Black-fuscous, pubescent, wide but punctate ; mouth, antenne and thorax, red; elytra and feet yellow-red ; antenne moniliform ; rax quadrate ; line Pederus bicolor. Gravenherst, Olivier. Lathrobium ruficorne. Inhabits France under stones ' Drvision IT. Anterior margin of the head circumscribed ved line, the prone Seon me , Sabapan El a cur- level ering half the abdomen or more. F longer ai broad. ert hing a mae OS eat ean irons Body li. one foas!bneel joints ‘91 Head witha distinct)neck, Thorax orbicular or _Metabolia near. a Peannnellt Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Payk. 104. Px- Lam. Graven, DERUuS. © Svapuyoinus. ‘Linnens, Geoffroy, De Geer. _ Antenne inserted before the eyes, sensibly thicken« oylindrie:; Genus CIV. ing towards their extremities ; rel eee Eyes moderately large. ie Sp. 1. Riparius. Body red, ; head, anten~ Riparius, ee ») apex of. the abdomen, and knees, black ; elytra blue, with wide i dots. Pederus riparius. —_ Latr. Oliv. Graven. . zeus. Sage eto ee Genus CV. Srenus, © Latr. Cuv. Lam. Fabr, Payk. 105. Stx- Grav. NUSs Srapnyimvs. Linn, Marsh. Papers. Olivier.- __ Anitenna: inserted at the interior margin of the eyes, abruptly thicker at their extremities, the inferior joints Seatet the outer ones conic-globose. Eyes nearly z i Sp. 1. Biguttatus. Black, with grey down, minutel Biguttatus, punctate, somewhat 3 vertex of the head wi an elevated line ; thorax behind with an impressed little line; each elytron with a reddish round spot. Staphylinus guttatus. Linnzeus, Marsham. Fabr. Payk. Grav. Latr. ” Tnbabtte Rearope i in'moist places near water, as on the banks of streams or ponds. Subdivision 2. M sip ae much Yonger thes the: labial not thicker at their extremities ; the last joint distinct. A. Maniibles strong, with their mternal edge with one or more teeth. ead free. ~ ‘a. The second, third, and fourth joints of the tarsi Saney Ev onto as the others united. nus CVI. Oxyrorus. Oliv. Lam. Grav. ee Oxy~ Us, a Limn. Geoff. De Geer. Antenne scarcely longer ‘than the head, terminated by a pérfilinted ene. 3 Maxillary palpi filiform ; the labial ones terminated —. a me Ps teen ade norm me, i pg? and of the el ufus. S; 7 suture e R sare oa a yer, Genus CVII. Oxyretus. Grav. Latreille. 107. Oxy- Antenna? somewhat broken, incurved, thicker ex- 721s. be ret with the el mer foliate above; the extreme se globose ovate basal joint very long conic. alpi subulate. Anterior tibiae very spiny, with their extremities notched or narrowed externally, with their tarsi capable of being reflected from their- sides. Sp. ‘ Cornates!” Black, shining, disti and Carinatus, widely impresso-punctate, front unequal, somewhat in- clin to rugulose, the anterior space between the yr smooth ; thorax impressed on ‘each side ; middle with three grooves and four carine ; the two middle ones joining ogee) feet blackish ; tibiae with. very short little spines Oxytelus carinatus. “Gravenherst, Latreille. | I its the dung of men and other mammalia. Genus CVIIL. Omatrum. Gravenherst, Latreille. Srapuyvinus.. Geoffroy, Fabricius, Olivier. 1 108, Oma- LIuM, ae 92 ENTOMOLOGY. Menbelia Palpi filiform. Antenne thicker towards their extre- ax somewhat transverse ; abdomen with the extremity . 1" mities, the last joints rounded, somewhat : é‘ — Thorax transverse quadiate, the anterior . round- Toolaperme ohana Gray. Late. aad zyporus fae: a ASC River, Sp. 1. Rivendare. Miata petites Netasiee Staphylinus chrysomelinus. Linn. Marsh, | anton wena icon rw a or en approxima maya at the 7 3 marginated, at ntenne more or ie Pe oe ; ths Mader angien, back with twa senavely elytratwice anterior internal margin of eye, fifth and following . as long as the tharax ; obscure brown, joints broader than long. Tibie not spiny, - Omalium rivulare. Graven. Late. Gevus CXIIL. Aveocuara. , Graven. La- 113. Aree Staphylinus rivularis. treille. : : CHARM Inhabite France and Staravian Linn. Fabr. Geoff. De Geer, Oliv. | arsi wii the last joint shorter M ! than the others wey pe Head with the hinder part received into the thorax. aaaor 10% Aw. Seat crx. weenie Graven, Poss This genus certainly should be divided into raime teerasoem = STAPHYLI br. Paykull, Olivier. ree or more te indie. avs Can ag ae M ae * Head aout as broad at the ee somewhat tri« Antenne nearly filiform, the second and following angular; n distinct, very slender ; jeints obconic. Palpi filiform. Thorax elongate, some- thorax quadrate, with rounded angles insome; 5 minutely and finely punctate; antenne and feet obscure rufous. P Telstiee Poa weld England ; in the last rance ; in it must be considered as of rare pena mg Genus CX. Proreinus. _ Latreille. Antenne evidently thicker towards their extremities. Palpi subulate. Thorax transverse. ip. 1. Brach , flat, black, shin- ing, smooth, silky above; mandibles, basal joint of the antennw, and feet, brown red; head a little nar- rower than the thorax, triangular; thorax short, smooth, anteriorly a little narrower, the sides somewhat round- ed, very slight! i the hinder margin twice as broad as the anges slightly prin ent and some- scu iE i what reddish ; um very small; el elongate quadrate, externally inate ; the hi and exter- nal margins rounded ; with the four last joints naked. - Proteinus brachyterus. Later. Inhabits France and England. B. Mandibles without denticulations on their in- —a Head inserted into the thorax more or a. Antenne wide inserted before the eyes the fifth and following joints, longer than broad. © Tibie IL Tan Games CXI. Tacutyus. Graven. Latr, — epee ni Fabricius. aruyiinvs. .Linné, Geoffroy, Olivier, Paykull. Palpi filiform. im Rufipe. Sp. 1. Rufipes. Black, shining, smooth ; antenne prem a err Riewas external apex ytra paler. inus kull, rien ope Ce Fabricius ? nhabits the of oxen and horses. 112 T. . Gewus CXIl. Tacuyronus. Grav. Latr. cavresee = Staruyiines. Linn. Oliv. Geoff. Marsh. Oxvronus. Fabricius, Palpi subulate. —, Spb. Ch inus, Black, shining, smooth; tho- vax, elytra excepted), and feet, red yellow; tho- somewhat orbiculate, as broad as the elytra be- meres “4 Sp. 1. Canaliculata. Red fuscous, feet paler ; head Canaliculee and the two last joints, save one of the abdomen, black; ta, . elytra together transverse quadrate ; back of the tho- rax excavated with an impressed longitudinal line in the middle. Aleochara canaliculata, Grav. Latr. - | Staphylinus canaliculatus. Fabr, . Inhabits sandy banks and under stones. ’ - ** Head globose, behind removed from the thorax . with a very distinct slender neck ; thorax so what globose, or somewhat cordate, rounded fore, narrow, truncated behind, and narrower s repnecse. Reddish, head black, thorax with Impressa: « 2. Im . ¢ with Impressa, + eoaning and with two impressions behind ; base of the elytra with two little impressed lines. Aleochara impressa, Grav, Latr, Genus CXIV. Lomecuusa. Gravy, Latr. 114 Lo-.. Head disengaged from the thorax behind, with an xecnvss. inconspicuous neck or none. Thorax transverse, the sides rounded. Antenne distinctly perfoliated, Black, somewhat silky, thorax pBipunctata, vette vow terior Aleochara bipunctata. Latreill Inhabits horse dung. Larus. should probably be Terme XI Scypmanines. Body ovoid, rounded at each extremity. Palpi | . Tarsi short. iytri hand, bovertig the dbtlecte, . Antenne gradually thicker towards their extremities, Genus CXV. Mastacus, Hoffmansegg, Latreille, 115. Mas- Hellwigg: TAGUS. Prinvs. Fabricius, Olivier. ’ Antenna filiform, (or nearly so), composed of long ints, geniculated. Maxillary palpi the two last Joints forming an oval mass,© == , Sp.1. Palpalis. black. ~~ Pallpalis. Inhabits Portugal ; was discovered by Count Hoff- | . In Dr Leach’s cimens which were said to have been taken in Britain, : Genus CXVI. Scypmanus. Latreille, — : gus 2 5 Psenapuvus, Illiger, — Antuicus. Fabricius. Antenne thicken towards their extre- Papas eligi Herbs, | Paykall, iliger Si Te seer bli, ate and under moss. t of the maxi behind Body deep castaneous, pubescent. Godarti. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 1. 282. tab. 8. fig. 6. Inhabits France. : Troe XII. Prrnwes. Antenne much longer than the head, filiform, or ter- ens. PY S000 TER te Sts ne inte, 9 Fanos, Division I. Antenne uniform, not terminated, with three joints ‘than the rest. genus CXVII. Prinvus. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Lam. 4. Pr Bus. Whiciead' bitween tha eyec pproximate, _ Eyes Thorax hood-like. Abdomen near] vai yt acted to Sane 3 Sp. 1. Fur. Red oon Thorax with four tuber- oth at ry ith two wine eae hd ae body with oe ee, yellow hairs. ~ n. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Inhabits houses, committing horrid devastations in museums. : Reng hens guneh Sm is merely the male of this Sp. 2. Srdilac Fuscous. Thorax with four tu- : transversely seriated ; with short, obscure-red . hairs, hinder part contracted and marginated. Abdo- amen quadrate ovate, base straight, transverse, (not nar- rower. El (oe rep ter rap dlamerader SE wih ; the shoulders ent. Antenne joint of the same magnitude with the 7 Fabr. Latr. Ptinus elecans. . Fabr. Inhabits ses, the other. Genus CXVIII. Grinrum. Scopoli, Latr. Brocnus. Geoff. Primus. Fabr. Oliv, Scorias. Czenpinski. * Antenne inserted before the , simple, and seta- ceous. Eyes not not hoodlike. Alndshgan benty lobular. Elytra united. Sp. 1. Scotias. Castaneous, ing, smooth, antenne and feet pubescent, EMEOMOLOGNS 98 Ptinus Scotias. Fabr. Oliv. Metabolia. Gibbium Scotias. Latr. Sree Inhabits the museums of southern E urope. ge CXIX. Prininus. Geoff. Oliv. Lam. Fabr., 119, Print. NUS. Anosrum. wakiie SERROCERUS. vs, Kugellan, Prinus. arsh Antenne brags before the very much - ftinated in the males, serrated in te facies 3 Body long ovoid, nearly cylindric. Thorax some-« what globose. Sp. 1. Peetinicornis. Body blackish. Elytra ob--Pectinicer- one. brown. Antennz an feet reddish: Thorax nis Elytre punctate. oe ilinus pectinicornis _Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Ptinus pectinicornis. Linn. Marsh. Dermestes pectinicornis. Linn, ? Inhabits old trees and houses, perforating them to de- struction. Ptinus serraticornis, Marsham, is the female of this insect. Gexus CXX. Xyretinus. Latr. Priuinus. Iliger. Antenne inserted before the eyes, serrated in both sexes. Body short ovoid, Sp. 1. Levis. ilinus levis. Tiger. Xyletinus lavis. Latr. Inhabits Europe. 120. Xyze- TINUS. dake ~ Divison IT. Antennz terminated by three joints different from the rest in size. te CXXI. Anosium. Fabr. Oliv. Delamark, 191. axo. . BLlUMs Prinus. Linn. De Geer, Marsham. Brucnus. Geoff. Antenne eleven-jointed, with the three last joints abruptly thicker than the others ; the ninth and tenth joints obconic ; the tenth oval. * Thorax short transverse. 1. Tessalatum, Thorax bilobate behind the la~ Tessalatum. sid} margins reflexed, Body fuscous, sprinkled with villose, obscure Inteous Elytra not striated. Anobium tessalaitum. Fabr- Latr. Ptinus tessalatus. Marsham. Inhabits Euro Sp. 2. Molle. Thorax, with the lateral margins not yj, marginated, acute. Body rufous-fuscous, smooth, Eyes black. Amobium molle, Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Ptinus mollis. Linn. Inhabits Europe. iH e Thorax not much broader than long. ip» 3. Striatum, Fuscous, with ish ad orax with a gibbous protuberance, ek above, — with h the angles compressed. Hinder margins some- what marginated. Ely tra | a iad punctate, ~ Anobium striatum. Tate, Olw. I Anobium pertinaz. Fabr. Pepeull” Inhabits Genus XX. Dorcatoma._. Payk. Latr. Fabr. 99. non. Antenne nine-jointed ; the three last j joints sanwe, cave the seventh and eighth triangular, and much dilated their internal side. Sp.1. Dresdense Thaveet yma Dresdeten; Fab, Latr, Inhabits Europe, ~ Drestlense. 94 Metabolia. —— Tape XIV. Denwestipes. Antenne slender, longer than the head, and termina- ted by a large ovoid mass. Famuy I. Dermistida. Sternum not produced to the mouth, or over it like a neckeloth. Tibix spinose. 183. Dee. © Genos CXXIII, Denmestes. Linn. Fabr. Latr. =eetes = Marsh. Herbst, Oliv. er pec me nr fear arg ob CEP os ne se base of the elytra with a Dermestes lardarius. pints Latr. Marsh. Inhabits Dermestes, 2. ulpinus, 8. er tp 4. Tesselatus are the other 3 ay species is genus, Wh Arte = Genus CXXIV. Arracenvs. Latr.* Leach. — Meoatoma. Herbst. Deamestes. Fabr. Linn. Latr. Marsh. club, the last joint the posterior margin narrowly and acutely lobed. Max- illary exserted, longer the maxille ; the last lindric, v long in some. Pellio. Sp. 1. Pellio. Black ;m of the antenne: andof p the tarsi obscure red; hinder satgin of the thorax. with three spots, and the ‘elytra with a spot on each side of the suture vellose-white ; antenna. of the male with the erbst. (Variety of the ‘male. is found prado nex on Dermestes trifasciatus. Fabr. Latr. Inhabits rey Saene Penny Sweden, and in Famuy II. Megatomida. over the mouth, like a neckcloth. Tibi not or but sli i , tly spined. 125. Meca- Genvs CXXV. Mecatoma.t Herbst, Latr. roma. Denmestes. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Body narrow-oval. Antenna ‘with an oval or oblong ini. club, with the internal edge simple. 1. Undatum. Black ; sides of the thorax and two bands on the elytra, white-villose. Tarsi obscure red. Megatoma undulata. aay Megatoma undatum. Dermestes undatus. Linn, Fabr. Oliv. Panz, Taiwe XV, Byrnuipes. t Body ovoid. Feet entirely or semicontractile. Ster- num anteriorly produced to the mouth in the form of a Sternum @ndatum. ENTOMOLOGY. Diviston I. Tarsi with five very distinct articulations. i Subdivision : a sig ga "Geoff Fabr, Oliv. 126. Aw- Feet perfectly contractile. Mandibles at all, prominent. Genus CXXVI ANTHRENUS. Lam. Latr. THRENUS, Byreuvs. Linn. Marsham, Dermestes. De Geer, Antenne shorter than the thorax, with the club so- lid. Palpi filiform, short. Body orbiculate ovate. Scu- tellum very minute Sp. 1. Scrophularie. Black ; sides of the thorax, and serohulae three transverse bands on the elytra, 3 suture and rie, cuiaroal tomegial of the eae eta margin of the thorax, red-lutescent. Anthrenus Scrophularia. Fabr. Latr. Byrrhus Scrophularie, inn, Marsh. Inhabits its in Europe. Genus CXXVII. Turoscus. Latr. Exarer. Linn. Olivier, C Dermestes. Fabr. Paykull, Antenne as long as the thorax, with the three last joints large, forming an oval club. Palpi short, with presed joint securiform. on ellipse, narrow, de belongs to the tribe Exa- ae ge structure of 127, Obs. TERIDES, gat whi it di its antenne. Sp. 1. Dermestoides, Brown, with grey-yellowish Dermestoi- down ; elytra, with strive. mw Elater dermesioides. Aine. mS Sane: Dermestes adstrictor. ‘a Illiger, Thoscus dermestoides. Latr, Inhabits E ts ; is rare in Britain. Genus C hoe yrruus. Linn, Fabr. vay lar. 128. Byn- Latr. Illig. Gy ce CIsTELa. Marsham. Ciera. Geof, Geer. Peay man Birra sl 24 cr rite oe our or five joints ed. Palpi short, the gti ery longest, thick, somes what ovate. Body somewhat ovate, very cumretibare gs a 5 vet ia pital Linn. Fabr. &c. She chchete of Marsham is merely a variety of Me OXKIX, Cneonantum, . Fabr. Latr, Antenne seven- gest. Palpi with more convex below. Sp. 1. Beauvoisi. Chelonarium atrum. Fabricius? Inhabits the Island of St Domingo. ‘ Subdivision 2. Antenne elbowed or geniculated, not inserted in the Pilula. 129. Cas. last joint securiform. Body ovate, ‘ inted, the two last somewhat lar. o%4RUm Beauvoisi. Metabolis. cavity of the eye. Feet perfectly ‘contractile. Man- rm" dibles very inent. 5 130. Hus- Genus C Hisrer.* Linn, Fabr. &c. TER. Arteranus. Geoffroy, : Body somewhat quadrate. Thorax transverse. Scu- ‘ Elytra shorter than the abdomen. Breast ic, obtuse. exceeding the height. Tibiz cm eco Tarsi short. a. Body not very much. ister unicolor. Linn. Fabr. &. . Hister striatus, abr. Herbst, y Inhabits the dung of oxen and horses. Subdivision 3. Antenne strait, not inserted in the cavity of the eyes. semicontractile. Feet 131. Noso- Genus CXXXI. Nosopenpnron. Latreille. BEXDRON. Byrruvs. Olivier. Spuzripiom. Fabr. ay by Antenne terminated ly by a three-jointed per- “6 T ng ee ee Eye gee i g elms. ; —— Genus CXXXII. Lrunivs. Miiller, Gyllenhall, Me- Dyrtiscus. Panzer. Curysometa. Marsham. * Evmis. Latr. what oval. 1. Volckmari. i Voleckmari. Panzer, Faun. Ins. Germ. fas. 7. Bu Subdivision 4, Antenne inserted in the anterior canthus of the eye. 183. Pan- Genus CXXXIIL Pannus. Fabr. Illiger, Marsh. us. Dermestes. Geoffroy. Evater. Rossi. Dryoprs. Olivier, Lamarck, Latr, Auricula- 1. Auriculatus. * This +> This singular genus has the lip and maxille ENTOMOLOGY. 95 Metabolia. Tarsi with four distinct joints. Genus CXXXIV. Hererocervs. Bosc, Fabr. Ilig. 134. Here- Latr. Marsham. BOY Ut Antenne of eleven joints, the seven last forming a dentate or serrated mass. Sp. 1. Marginatus, Blackish, villose ; sides of the Margina- thorax and abdomen, with spots on the elytra, mar- tus. gins of the abdomen, and feet, pale luteous. pa aging marginatus. Fabr, Bosc, Iliger, Panzer, Inhabits marsh b ing in the mudd - y places, burrowing ly Genus CXXXV. Gronissus.¢ Latr. Pimetia, Paykull, Fabr. Antenne nine-jointed, the three last joints forming a r Py solid mass. 1 igmed. Fimelia pygmea. i Fabr. Georissus pygmeus. > Tree XVI. Hypropuiipes. Antenne terminated by a club. Maxillary pales ¥ P ie Chin or mentum clypeiform. Head wi t rounded, cowl-shaped. eet formed for swim~ ing. Tarsi with the first joint shorter than the second. Famity I. »Helopherida. psoas without teeth at their srommnitiet Maxil< palpi generally much shorter antennz. Body oblo , somewhat quadrate, or nearly semi-orbi , or somewhat cordate-truncate. Tibi slightly shines. Tarsi filiform, not ciliated, with two strong, acute, entire nails. Genus CAXXVI. Hetornorvus. Leach, Exopnorus, Lliger, Fabr. Latr. Olivier. Hypropuitvs. Geer, Marsham, Cl entire. i with the last joint oval, thick ; maxillary palpi pO i a sang shy * Body elliptic, agama ovate. Thorax broader ong. 135. Geo-~ RISSUS, Pygmea, 136. Heto- PHORUE, Aquaticus. rus aquaticus, Fabr. Olivier, Latr. Inhabits ditches and stagnant pools of water. ** Body nearly linear ; thorax elongate-quadrate. Sp. 2, Elongatus. Riphores ngatus. Fabr, Latr. Inhabits stagnant waters in England, France and Germany. Genus CXXXVII. Ocuruesius. Leach. Hyprana. Latr. Illiger, Hypropsitus. Marsham, Exornorus. Paykull. Clypeus entire. Palpi with the last Yop slender, acuminate; maxillary ones shorter than the antenne. po 1. Riparia. rena riparia. eg vi , Latr. prygmaus. ykull. minimus, F: Elongatus, 137. Ocu- THEBIUS. Riparia. Marintia. genus seems to constitute a peculiar wy and might be divided into some very natural genera. Helophorus ; the general habit of Byrrhus 3 and the tarsi of Heterocerus. 96 Mewbolia, =F. Margipalleus. Latr. —— phe 7 lens. Marsh. . | rrinart” Paykall. 198. 1 Genes CXX oul oh K Leal on Etornenvs. _ arma, with the last on acuminate teach etre mir las longer than the antenne., Clypeus 1 ongipal- Oe Ie I. pis. po Hydrophiles ipalpis. Marsh. Inhabits running water. Famuty IL. Hydrophilida. Mangibles with their points bidentate. Thorax trans- verse, Body hemispheric-oval, Tibie sim ‘ or = Tarsi Cliated or simple. Maxillary 138. Sree. bar fre 4 CXXXIX. Srencnevs. Fabr. Latr. Schén. = Hypaoruus. Illiger, moet. Sternum sim C emarginate. Antenne six- Tibia sim ly spined. 140. Hr- exus CXL. Heaters. Leach. paepits. Hypnornivus. Latr, Fabr. Marsh. De Geer. Dytiscus. Linn. Sternum simple. Clypeus entire. Antenna nine- jointed. Tibi terminated by strong el veg Dytiscus luridus, Linn, Inhabits t waters. 141.to-e GexvsCXLL Lroawesivus. Leach. BABIOD Hyprorunvs. Marsh. Gyllen, Sternum. simple. entire. Antenne nine- jointed. Elytra truncate at their extremities, Iophilus piscinus. Marsh. piscinus. | Ieatte drains and springs. 142. Hy. Genus CXLIL Hypnopuiius. De Geer, Latr. Fabr. SeOrELLUSL : eerie aed ced cl um u into a lypeus entire. Antenne nine-jointed. Anterior tarsi of the male sim- filiform. Caraboides. 1. Caraboides. a. oped caraboides. Fabr. Latr. Marsh. waters, 143. Hy- Genus CXLIII. Hyprovs. Leach, from the Lin- saovn nean MSS. Hypnornivs. Marsh. Latr. Fabr. Sternum produced into a spine. Clypeus entire. Anterior tarsi of the male patelliform. Antenne nine- ed. . Ptrophie piceus. Fabricius, Marsham. Europe in ditches, Tae XVII. Spuanimines. Antenne terminated by a club. Maxillary palpi very long. Mentum large, aie Head with the front rounded, cowl-shaped. Feet formed for walking. Tar- jae” the basal joint as long or oy ab tn * Insects of this genus are sculptured on the Egyptian monuments of antiquity, seaancion ska SAA eg a tencste the gallery of the British Museum, ENTOMOLOGY. _dentated, Mentum not very large. Mandibles mem~ Maxille membranaceous. - Genus CXLIV. Spuanipivm. _Fabricias, Olivier, Lamarck. rs =i: Set _ rmestes scarabaoides, ”Marsham, Linn. . Inhabits dung. - Trine XVIII, Coprives. ok Antenne eight or nine jointed, terminated an abrupt lamellated mass... Anterior tibie ee dl branaceous. cireular, _ bi semi- Fay I. “Coprida. Labial hairy, the last joint smaller than the p niet Seutelluns none, or very obscure. Wing< cases taken together, not longer then Posterior - feet situated near the anus, , Division I. The posterior, and sometimes the intermediate, tibie elongate, — little or not at all dilated at their ex- tremities, nearly cylindric. Genus CXLV. A co reg Web. Fabr, Mig Late 145. A Corris. © CHUB. AcTINOPHORUS. Sturm, ji a Scarasaus. . Linn, De Geer. Antenne nine-jointed. bry ee ken ogee oa anne’ not abru behind the shoulder: Hae tes than the body. Labial | palpi 3. S a« , y aes sacer. Fabricius. - : ‘f Scarabeus sacer. Linn: nor ; Inhabits the southern of Bubope and Africa sa i, with cs benolijoioe Grxus CXLVI. Gymvorteurus. “Illiger,— Artevcnus. Latreille, Fabricius. ; , pete Antenne nine-jointed. Body | RUS quadrate ; their external - dient. Osage abruptly and Pica dic sinuated. Hinder feet not much longer than the ty gg Labial palpi with their basal joint somewhat q r ree a-4ae A _ Anterior thie deers three strong teeth externally. wea Mba Sp.1. Flagellatus. . . teuchus flagelldtus. Fabricius, magna Gym s flagellatus. Inhabits southern Europe ere a Genus CXLVII. Sisyrnus.. Latreille, co Arrucnus, Illiger, Fabricius,);».-i gepeeak Copris. Geoffroy. ALO re wr Scarapaus. Pe alias dled a 4 Antenne ei, join! Co coptan amiga tale: e. os Feet elongate; binder ones much longer than the body, Body with the transverse and thighs. —— i diameters nearl Schafferi. bp. 1. i or Zi : Diviston II. The four hinder tibia short, or but little lengthened ; much dilated at their extremities. Subdivision 1. Labial palpi, with the last joint, very distinct. Tho- rax much shorter than the elytra; much broader than wee OXLVIIL Core «Geoffroy Illiger, Fabri- - 148, Co- enus CXL . Copris. iger, i vain cius, Lamarck, Latreille. ; Scarasazus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier. Subdivision 2: Labial i with the last joint not distinct. Thorax longer than the elytra. Tibi all terminated by a tar- sus. 150. On- Genus CL. Ontuoruacus. Latreille. auornacus. Copris. Geoffroy, Llliger, Fabrici SP 1. Vacca. Copris Fabric ee ree vacca. us, ; vacca. Latreille. Tnhabies dang ; is very common near London. Famity II. Aphodida, ! el Feet all pmersin on Ligh a y ly eet eh im distant from the anus. Scutel- um en rw ei ae vivs. treille ‘ Scaranzvs. Olivier, Marsham, Linn. 2 hs Rufipes. uM phodius rufipes. Fabriciusy’ | Searabaus rufipes.. Linn, Marshiam. Inhabits dung. dest Rufipes. ri] + Aphodius entire; 3. Clypeus VOL. IX. PART TI. ENTOMOLOGY. - vier, Illiger, Lamarck, Latreille. 97 Metabolia. « Tre XIX. Scaraszives. : : Genus CLII. Lerurus. Fabricius, Scopoli, Oli- 152. Lera- RUS. Lucanus. Pallas. Antenne terminated by a conic club, obliquely trun- cate, the ninth joint infundibuliform, including the tenth and eleventh joints. Head produced behind the oe: Abdomen very short. Hinder feet inserted at anus. Scutellum very small. Coleoptra united, forming a triangle with the apex rounded ; their sides involute inflected. Sp. 1. Cephalotes. Black, elytra smooth. Cephalotes. hrus Fabricius, Olivier, Latreille. Lucanus apterus. _ Pallas. Pp a scarabeoides. Act. Soc. Berol. vi. 347. tab. 8. fig. 7, 8. Bulbocerus . Archav. Act. Suec.1781, p.246. tab. 5. fig. 3—12. Inhabits eastern and southern E Genus CLIII. Scarasaus. Linn. Geoffroy, Fa- 153. Sca- bricius, Olivier, De Geer. RABAUS. Grotrurss. Latreille, Dumeril, Lamarck. Antenne terminated by an oval lamellated club. Thorax shorter than the abdomen, not horned, Hinder feet distant from the anus. Head not produced behind the eyes. Scutellum obvious. Sp. 1. Slercorarius. stercorarius, Linn. Fabricius, Olivier. Iahabih Bere boring indi holes beneath d ng cy ung, and flying about in the cerning se dusk. Genus CLIV. Typuaus. ’s MSS. Scarabeus. Fabricius, Gyllenhall, Marsham. Antenne terminated by an oval lamellated club. Tho- rax shorter than the abdomen ; one each side in front with a long which extends along the sides of the head. Hi feet distant from the anus, behind the eyes. Scutellum obvious. 'yphaeus. Fabricius, Gyllenhall, Marsham. Inhabits dung of horses on heaths ; is found in spring ay Weer a ips gar amg Reco goa Scarabaus pumilus of Marsham, is merely a stunted or accidental variety of this species. Stercora- > rius. 154. Tx- PHAaUS, Vulgaris. Tre XX. Georrupipes. Scarapaipes. Latreille. Antenne ten-jointed, (in some nine), terminated by a lamellated M corneous in part. Cly- ee lar or quadrate. Anterior tibiz large and not large. Famity I. Geotrupida. No scale between the posterior angles of the thorax andthe exterior base of the elytra. Division I. Thorax. almost quadrate, more or less transverse. Mandibles entirely corneous. * Onitis meris, Latreille ; and Onitis clinias, Fabricius; have a scutellum, and should constitute a peculiar genus.’ may be divide, for the sake of convenience, from the clypeus; 1. Clypeus smooth, emarginate ; 2. Clypeus smooth, N 98 ENTOMOLOGY. Uietioae Metabetia. Geotrupes nasicornis, Fabr, : Metaboli. ——_ Subdivison 1. : Inhabits Europe iniold wood. a prominent even the meen Genus CLIX. Purmeurus. Late, women peepecion ardeae rwencroane Lae Ss ae E ee araneaing EOTRUPES. fort iA Pepe tea de Antennae with:thellainella- of the clap Yong and pli Lah Bes i ey CLV. Hous. came catile. Body ovoid, depressed. Mandibles ane Arnopivs. — external oles 7k Strat ne Fata Puaspeanes. dentated. with its sides dilated and rounded. am hg the head ; composed = Sp. 1. Dydimus. Dydimus. se ity which is + ney lindric and a lit- Geotrapet ee aon Vee ith bi- hil rus limus. ’ teary Bo ae * age, oo CLX. Lies Giechie 160. Gro- Globo. 1. °Globosa. Black, shi ; head lated ; arnaBzus. Linn, Oliv. Lam. : TRUPER cyt rated punctate ae! ae) Aptounys ith the ens empnnesbiat Hae Mit Aphodius globosus. ew. ; lamella. Body oyoid, convex. Mandibles with their Mpioridice’ Laiediie. external edge crenulated or toothed. Maxilla corneous, ialia globosa. dentated. in 1 the sandy shores of ‘the sea, ye Punctatus. __. Panetatus. 156. Tacx. Genus CLV. non. Fabricius, Olivier, Lamarck, scion panciniey. _Fabr. Latreille. Scarabaus punctatus. Latr. “ the eect on ena the io apparent. Cl pone telat cma ang ; com _ 6, Labrum the anterior e t ly- of ten joints, the first obconic and very hairy. y peus quadrate. Sctto re" (Cso vars oh ovoid. Maxille with asimple hook. say) Sabuloms, Sp- 1. Sabulosus. xternal edge of the mandibles prominent, | Tres stbaleene, Fetstichas, Latreille. sed, with the sides cutting, crenulated, or Scarabeeus sabulosus. Linn. ted. Body short ovoid, o somewhat erica: Inbabits sandy places. a um generally la hs short, broad : ee «@ um a anterior] * Subdivision 2. Genus CLXI. Hexovon. Fo nts a 161, Hex- Labrum not projecting beyond the cl Body Mandibles with perm wit ir exterior Sie OPO, not globose. Elytra not embracing the si of the abe Base nencly cstinles exbcalae. Eyre with th :ir exterior domen. ntenne a. Labrum entirely hidden. Clypeus: triangular. ps ts pray ream alh. yom: aes Maxille coriaceous, or horny ; enegete or nage der, Tarsi with very small: nails. Mouth very hairy. Scutellum very small. (Colours Sp. 1. Reticulatum: _, ; gy % dente wiewe ot 7 Genus CLVII. Srnopenpron. ‘Fabr. Latr. Don. J ts 4 - , poe na Scananzus. Linn. De‘Geer, Olivier. Genus CLXII. Rurera. Latr. 162. Ru- Lucanvs. Marsham. Scaraszus, _ Linn. De Geer. Ar nate ee? eS Se nN Oe Fe ee te Ceronra. Fabr. . g folded ; the lamella very short, resembling the Bengt ‘Fabr. aE pee take Body limdite. Maxille coriaceous, more or ah ec tit exe bilobate. Ms side = dilated or channell aa Rate " 1, Cylindri Black, lub d obl Lange ON amir es ear the ume dibles wish thee pots having thee ie Mn bili ‘Male with a con . "Tarsi Sheen come al om Tani with undivided nals; Phe ils Giegadd ia. Sinodendron cylindricum, Fabr, Latr ovan, Sp. 1, Punctata. Punctata. a cylindricus. es De Geer, Olivier. Melolantha punctata, abr. te Tahabiteschd tases pre gall a theash. Isveryabun- Inhabits America, inaee and near Plymouth, in decaying '* * Tarsi with undivided, equal-sized nails. _ 168 Oxve. Genus CLVIIL Onveves. | Hliger, Latreille. setonia lineola, . Fabr. ves. Scanasaus. Linn, Geoffroy, De Geer, Olivier. Retela lineola. ao jist ‘ Grorrures. Fabricius. f tatile. Body ovoid, convex. Mandibles-with their ex- (Seutellam pa ternal without teeth or folds, Maxille coriaceous, pip — L = "* Chrysis. — Thorax with the sides dilated, and a little. wen eeaate Fabri { | chrysis. Late. — Nesieornie. . 1. Nasicornis. Fuscous-eastaneous, shining ; Ten habits America, < one horn ; elytra polished finely, and distant a Mandibles not, or but ie, rin Withivud any ¢ nat res or le in their a Tad ps ap , small or modettely ined) ae ee ENTOMOLOGY: Genus CLXIII. Meuorontna. Feteicias, Olivier, ernal "apap ee chee mah reload) te Sp. 2. Solstitialis. Summer cockchatfer. ) Melolontha solstitialis, Fabricius, Latreille. Scarabeus solstitialis. Linn. Vitis. - 3. Vitis. Horticola. Elytra with their external ns Kaas Tibia with obscure spurs or heels, Pulveru- 1, Pulverulenta. Subdivision 1, Mandibles entirely corneous. sictrase,petalnass. “Sonia chvtltd eohinessxAb- domen’ uadrate. Genus CLXV. Gtapuyrus. Latreille. ScaraBzus. Linn: Metontua. Fabr. Oliv. Antenne terminated by a rounded knob, the two last joints received by the ninth joint. TF Maurus. maurus. Linn. Melolonitha cardui. Fabr. Melolontha maurus. Oliv. mene hese ace Latr: Genus Gano CLEVE Ampuicoma. Latr.. Scanapzus. De Geer, Pallas. Metotontua. Fabr: Oliv. _Antenne with an ovoid club, having all the lamella Sp. 1. Melis. Melolontha melis. Fabri . icoma melis: Latr. Inhabits Barbary. Subdivision 2. Labram not prominent. Mandibles entirely or:part- Genus CLXVII. Antsonyx. Latr., Scarnapzus. Linn. m9 Metouontua. Fabr. Oliv. Antenne withthe first joutnot very large. Clypeus 165. Gia- PHYRUS. Manrus 166.. Au- rnicomsa. Mois. ly 167. Awe Sor yx. 99 i very slender, Matshetin. ese ee ee BO Cred ews g, terminated by a cylindric: joint. der large. Crinitant. Scarasaus: Linn, Geoff: De Geer; Maseham, Ceronia. Olivier: aaaeond with the: first: joi 1 Ears oT a IM tish thistedast otek onal) with equal © Body almostentirely: (above at least) smooth. ._Hin- =~ feet, with the ch wearers of almost equal Nobilis. Latreille, Fabr. Fasciatute Cetonia fasciata. “Olivier: Scarabeus us. Linnaeus, on. umbelliferous flowers. CreMAsTocHEILus. awe La- 169. Cas- Ror a the: first joint’ very: large. Te tire. Palpi short, with the dric, the ps es eee hPa Faony IL: Cétonida: seale i ‘between the’ thorax, and ‘the exterior of the base Ouida CLXX. Go.ratuvs, Gouarn. Latreille: Ceronia. Fabr: Oliv. | Maxille corneous, or very hard, Mehtum very —_ Thorax orbicular. Elytra’slightly or not at all he tenn yee Clypeus with two diverging the 170. Gorta- THUS. Pol & iis eae = Sate Ceronta. “Fabri Lat) Oliv? La- 17), cp 10. wa. Scanazazvus. Linn. Geoff. De Geer, Marsh. Maxille almost membranaeeous; or coriaceous. Men- tum moderately siged. Elves abrpty with the anterior point truncate. Elytra y sinuated at their external side, towards the base. Sp. 1. Aurata. Scarabeus auratus. Linn. Marsh; Cetonia aurata, Fabr.: Latr: Inhabits the flowers of roses: Trine XXI. Loecanrpzs, Antenne with a pectinated club. Anterior tibie large and dentated, Palpi: four. Labrum generally Aurata. 100 Mandibles very strong, corneous, dentated, — Mentum corneous. Famuty I. Lucanidg, Antenne Labrum not discoverable. , elevated, convex. ~ Genus CLEMIE L: LaMPRea. Latreille. Lucanvs. Linn. De Geer, Fabricius, Olivier. Palpi short. Lip smooth. —_ ew lethe Fabricius. Inhabits rotten trees. Genus CLXXV. Lucanus of authors. PLATYCERUS. Fa ion Lip bifid, very hairy, the lacinie re- Cerves Bs oy Ay oe beetle. Enc eros. Linn. Fab, Lat ) Inhabits Europe. Lucanus inermis. of Marsham. is merely the female of this species. Famity II. Passalida. Antenne not geniculated, simpl bent, very hairy. i and v distances: i> ; 175. Lveca- en Labrum prominent, Genus CLXXVI. petetes A Fabr. Lam. . 176. P sane. " canus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier, Maxille corneous, very much toothed. Lip crusta- ceous, Abdomen from the thorax by a wide Fa a Elytra embracing the sides of the abdomen. Interrupts, 1. assalus int . Fabr. Latr. Lucanus interruptus. Linn. Oliv. Inhabits America, Sect. II. Hereromena. ¥ _ Four anterior tarsi five-jointed, hinder pair four- Observations. ‘Anterme eleven-jointed,* mever la- or furnished with a pecti ~ mellated i Labrum in all distinct. Palpi four. Mandibles always horny or comeous, their internal edge armed. with one or two Maxilla: crustaceous at the base, often with two iacini, the external one largest, trigonate, or some- ENTOMOLOGY. what ovate. Mentum crustaceous, distinct from the Metabolia lip. Lip coriaceous, ers Marttc* Avene ee 7 ‘Divs My i - id ye oe 7 wits Wi erally. wanting. Antenne inserted ‘under the prominent mali of the head, + —— iliform. Elytra t sides of the sboeen” Meili unguiculotea od etr internal edge. Mentum large, transverse.) Triar I. Pie craves. Famuy 1. Pimeliada. seadl Mentum large, more or less cordiform. © 4 “tr ; » fhe Division I. cree vbr ie. 177. Cu , Scutel- Antenne abruptly terminated Anterior tibiae or Genus CL VII. Curroscenis. — ‘Fabricius, Olivier, 178. Eno- Genus CLXXVIII. Eropivs. © Lamarck. se Tenesrio. Linn. page been? none. Gibt Bee Erodins gins Fabricius, Latreille." Inhabits southern Europe, Division I, Antenne not terminated by a elub. prcx ef beh Kedah’ Anterior tibice Subdivision 1. Body nearly orbicular. “ Genus C X. Zopuosis. Latreille, oo» Eropivs. Fabricius, Olivier. ©. wily Scutellum none. : ¥ Sp. 1. Testudinaria. thi rm Bo: rodius testudinarius. Fabricius: ©)! ae Zophosis testudinarius. Latreille fos _ Subdivision2, ter! Body oblong. Thorax convex, ponianeeens or shincon orbicular. Elytra convex. Genus CLXXX. PiMELta. Fabricius, Olivier, 180. Piun- Latreille. uk TENEBRIO. Abdomen nearly orbicular. ; cular, _ Loot - , Sp. 1. Bipunctata, Bipunctata._ imelia bipunctata, Fabricius. ri ut Inhabits southern Europe. d Genus CLXXXI. Moturis. Lavelle. ar) Tenesnio. De Geer. L Pimexta. Fabricius, Olivier. 1 apiendb] Thorax narrower than the abdomen, almost cxbien- _ lar. Abdomen oval. Antenne gradually enlarging externally, the last joint almost ovoid. _ Sp... Striata, Striata. ja striata. Fabricius, — Moluris striata. Latreille, yatcirrdee Inhabits Africar PA gee Genus CLXXXII, Tewremia, Aatredie. 182." Tex. p4 TY RIAL ° Im oom miemora they exhibit the appearance of twelve true joints ; wile) opunghihiand eidsladihines! ork enkinii-enseammets ‘ ee a ey Gee et Interrupta. Sp. 1. 183. Axis. ENTOMOLOGY. Axis. Fabricius. Piweuia. Olivier. : Thorax almost orbicular, narrower than the abdo- men. Abdomen oval. Antenne filiform, terminated by two or three nearly globose joints. entyria interrupta. Latreille. Inhabits the western parts of France. Subdivision 3. Bod . Thorax flat above, more or less trun- pate eden eH 4in, or but little convex. An- tenne with the third joint very a Genus CLXXXIIL Axis. Hetet, Fabricius. Tenesrio. Linn. Prmezia. Olivier. Elytra united. Thorax with equal diameters, trun- cate behii Abdomen oval, the external basal angles rounded. Scutellum very small but distinct. Sp. 1. p Atis reflexa. Fabr. Herbst, Latr. Inhabits Africa and southern E Genus CLXXXIV. Evrycnora. Frerbst, Fabricius, Subdivision 4. Body oblong. Thorax flat above, more or less qua- 185. Asin’ ~= Genus CLXXXV. Asipa. Latreille. Macuta. Herbst. ' Tenesrzo. “ Opatrom. Fabr. Oliv. Pimenia. Panzer. Thorax with the sides arched, reflexed, anterior mar- mities. 1. Grisea, ~eet Opatrun erscan abricius. achla rugosa. Herbst. Pimelia variolosa. Panzer. Asida grisea. Latreille. Inhabits France, Germany, and Italy. Genus CLXXXVI. Hecerer. Latreille. Thor quadrete the sides straight reffexed 4 ‘ ight, not ; Antenne filiform. . 1. Striatus. ote . elongatus, vier. Hegeter striatus. Latreille. Inhabits Teneriffe. Famuty II. Biapsida. Mentum small, or moderate} , quadrate 5 abe y large, q or or 167. Troe. Lire Division I. Palpi filiform. Genus CLXXXVII. Trcenta. Latreille. Stenosis. Herbst. - 101 ’ - Thorax : lindric, Metabolia. Plein onioe cory aero Aloe Filiformis. Akis filiformis. Fabricius. Tegenia filiformis. Latreille. Inhabits Africa and the south of France. Genus CLXXXVIII. Scaurus. Fabricius, Olivier, 198. scav- Latreille. 7 RUS. Abdomen oval, with the base truncate. Antenna with the third joint slender, nearly cylindric; the eighth, ninth, and tenth, nearly globose ; the eleventh conic. Anterior feet thick. Scu- tellum very small. . 1. Striatue imelia carinata. Rossi. Scaurus striaius. Latreille, Fabricius, Olivier. Inhabits the south of France. Genus CLXXXIX. Sepmium. Fabricius, Olivier, 189. Ser Herbst, Latreille. apches Thorax truncated before and behind, the sides pro-~ minent. Scutellum indistinct. Abdomen oval; the base and apex truneated. Antenne with the third joint the tenth obconic, and the eleventh short ovoid. ovate. Sp. 1. Tricuspi ; ‘um. Tricuspi- pierimien wricuapidato.. Olivier, TatretiiHieatigs clus, Inhabits Africa and southern Europe. Division II. Palpi terminated by a thick joint; the last joint of the ones securiform, Genus-CXC. Misotampus. Latreille. Pimetia. Herbst. convex. Thorax almost globose. Antenne with third and fourth joints of equal length. Scu- tellum very minute. ek iz. rsa gibbula. Herbst. anhatae Hoffmanseggii. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins, 10. ,: Inbubite Pertugnl. Discovered by Count Hoffman- "eae CXCI. Brars. Fabricius, Olivier, Lamarck, 191. Bias, Marsham, Latreille. ; Tenesuis. Striatus. 190. Miso- LaMPUs. Hoffman- seggn. Linn, Geoffroy. Division I.. Wings occasionally wanting. Antenne partly or en- tirel aba ; inserted under the shebein’ of the head. Elytra sometimes united, (in all) embracing the abdomen. Mentum small, not broader than long. Subdivision 1... ee Se serrated or pectinated. Head not produced into a restrum bearing antenne. Maxil- lary palpi terminated by a large obtrigonate joint. Tarsi 102 Neiabotia. with the last juint but one bilobate. Nails simple, en- —Y~" tire, or bifid. Tame ll. Tenxeorionmpes. Mandibles bifid at their extremities. Head more or less triangular, et i be A a an tion with the thorax. Fasrevy T. Tenebrionida. aaa ieee A Nganeer aor ee a or PeGienve CXCIE Pepixvs, Latr. Texesmo. Linn, Geof. Marsh. Buars. Fabr. Herbst. Hetors. Olivier. Body oval Mectiary palpi terminated by a thick a joint. [rail wert AaB raven hate 7 1. Femoralis. 492. Peo ats. canoralis. 19% Ore Genus CXCI . Ovatrrum. Fabr:-Oliv..Lam. saum. Body oval; Maxillary palpi,. with: their last joint: ob- i ; antenna gradually thicker,towards their ex- tremities ; the last joints transverse, compressed. Sabulooum. 1. Sabulosum. sabulosum. Fabr, Latr. 1 sabulosa, Linn. E in sandy places, 19%. Tess» Genus CXCIV. , se aay Linn... Geof. De sara. Geer, Fabr. Latr. _ rnarax behind as broad as the elytra, or scarcely nar- Antenna: er, comms Cok tage, tincalp nd per yap transverse ; ee oO @decuras 1. Obscurus. ‘enebrio.obscurus.. Fabr: Latr,,Panzery Inhabits Europe. 2. Molitor. (Meal beetle.) ‘enebrio molitor, _ Linn. Fabr. Latr. Inhabits houses ; the Jarveein. meal. and. flour; it is called meal worm. Genus CXCV. Uris. Fabr. Paykull.. Tenzario. Molitor. 195, Ure Latr. inhabits Sweden, int the: Boletus fomentarius. t An ENTOMOLOGY. * The Genus Boros of Herbst, the type of whieh is Zypophaus bores of Fabricius, is unknown toss artificial family. - Famity 2. Diaperida. + “—— ¥ Tarsi with entire joints. Antenne not moniliform, ae their extremities pertoliated or serrated, Division IT. : Bod Has, or Seeman : by a club, estes Antenne terminated Genus CXCVI, Toxicum 196, Tox: naa terminated by an my compressed club, oom. posed of four joints. eg Richestanum. Richesi- Poxicwn Richesianum. Latr.. ade Crust. et Ins. 2, num. Tab. 9. fig. 9. Gente CXCVIT. 8 ig. Fabr. ENUS ARROTRIUM, Hispa. Linn. Marsh. Teneprio. De Geer. Orvnocervs. Later. Antenne eh he ae a ple a ere siform, downy mass, Sp. 1. Muticum. Sarrotrium muticum. Payk. Fabr.. Hispa mutica. Linn.. a Ort Airticor on Pym Mow if f yo In sith it is rare,.or, at. least very t has been found in gravel. pits.near a Hooker ; Sn pm Phos. 5-8 in sandy shores near Swansea, in Sou fae IB Seana dant in the months of June and July. 4a 197. Sin ROTRIUM. Maticum, Drivisron II. Body linear. Thorax longer than broad. Antenne | not moniliform, from the third joint 5 jth extras more. or less liated.. Maxillee ie, not un 1 : Genus CXC ll. Hyporniavus. Fabr.Latr. 198. Hye Irs. Rossi, Olivier. _ POPE Antenne from the fifth joint perfoliated. ee Thorax Usage quadine, ssbehaley . te, : Sp. 1. Bicolor, ' saris ° bicolor. Fabr. Latr.. mite Ips bicolor, Olivier. Inhabits under the bark of the elm. Drviston IIT. Antenna not moniliform, oval, or neu bicular ; a little longer than Soe Subdivision 1. Seinaet Antenne not serrated at their extremities. Genus CXCIX. Puanenia. Latr.. Persereep — ¥ te aa nterior tibie elongate-trigonate. -Tarsi short.. An- tenn y thickening towards their extremities, where are perfoliated. Body oval. hk Sp. ‘adaverina, : Tenebrio cadaverina., Fabr, he Inhabits sandy places. a Genus.CC.. Diapers. Gente Fabr. Oliv. sHesck 200. Dia- Curysometa. Linn. M _ PERIS. Tenesrio. De Geer, Antennw gradually enlarging towards their extremi- antl ae 199, Pais” Cadaverina. > Pe ies, from the fourth joint liated. — near! Metaboli. ties, from the joint perfo Body y , Inhabits the boleti of trees. Genus CCI. Evustrropnus. Latr. Myceropuacus. Fabr. Genus CCIII. Letomes. Latr. ANISOTOMA. i . Fabr. Genus CCIV. Taacuvsceuis. Latr. Mycerornacus. Fabr. Antenne terminated by a much oliated Pap ay Aphodioi- ‘Sp. 1. Aphadioides. © . ‘Maxillary palpi, elongate ; i iform. Mandibles abruptly attenua- ye Depressus. depressus. Fabr. Oliv. Hi Latr. ~ aioe Indies. arte Hofimansersil. Latr. Barbary ortugal. ase _ |, Subdivision 2. ena Sastre Se Genus CCVI. Exepona, Latr, Opatrum agaricola. Oliv. Marsh. ENTOMOLOGY. Diapers. Olivier. ; i ve rep geal tough Tore rere Fianna. ts vaietud Wo out iat 103 Ag. pt gc Mig.-Fabr.. Metabolia... Inhabits Boleti and other Fungi —— Genus CCVIL. BUTRAOD®: | , 4 : 207. Err- Maxillary i with joint rges i e. TRaGcus: Antenne wi four last joints dentiform. Mentum very large. Body elliptic or oblong, Thorax qua- drate, or trapeziform. 1. Fuscus. - Fuscus. itragus fuscus, tr. ; Thabit Cayenne. Genus III. Cropaton. Fabr. Latr. 208. Cro- Maxillary palpi with the ‘last joint very large, secu- Paton. riform. Antenne with the six’ last joints dentifoem, Mentum not very large. Body oval, very convex. Thorax transverse. Sp. 1. Viride. fig viride. Latr. .Gen. Crust. et Ins. 2:tab. 10; 1, ‘ Inhabits the West Indies. Drvision IV. Antenne nearly or quite filiform, with their extremi-~ ties simple. Viria Subdivision 1. Mandibles with their éxtremities bifid. Genus CCIX. Hexors. Fabr. Oliv. Lam. Illig. 999 p.. Latr. Rossi. Lops, i terminated by a securiform joint. and the us Hela of Latreille. Sp ine Lanipes. elops Lanipes. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Tenebrio Lanipes. Linn. Inhabits Europe. Genus CCX. Pyruo. Latr. Fabr. 210. Py Tenesrio. — Linn. THO, bya = joint. tennz shorter than the thorax. Body epressed. Thorax almost-orbicular. Sp. 1. Caruleus. Cerruleus. Pytho coeruleus. Watr. Fabr. Cucujus coeruleus, Tenebrio depressus. Genus CCXI, Hatuomenvs. Hellwig, Paykull, 211. nus. Latreille. LOMENUS. Dircw#a. Fabr. Serroparpus. Lliger een ; z ‘alpi almost filiform ; the last joi t of the maxillary ones Te cylindric. , a 1. Humeralis. Humeralis, Paykuil. , Col. Bor. 1, 184. Dirceea humeralis. Fabr. Inhabits Boleti, and under the bark of trees. Subdivision 2. Mandibles with their points entixe, Tarsi with den- ticulated nails. 104 Gexvus CCXIL Crefeca! Fabr. Latr. Lam. Oliv. Cunveowets. Linn, poay onan Antenne serrated. Feet rather long. Fasuty 3. Malyandrida. Four anterior tarsi with the last but one bilo- bate. Maxillary palpi with the last joint large, securi- form, or obtrigonate. Drviston I. Hinder tarsi with entire joints. Genus CCXILL, Sexnorarevs. Oliv. Paykull, Mig. Dincea. Fabr. Antenne filiform. Body almost cylindric, and very Striatus. a 2 1, Striatus. ) striatus. Paykull, Mig. Latr. Dircaa . bata. Fabr Inhabits E ‘ Genvs CC . Dincaa. Fabr. Orcuesta. © Latr. Hattomenvs. Illig. Paykull, Hellwigg. Mecatoma. H Morpetta. Marsham. Hinder feet formed for leaping. Antenne clavate: 213 Sea- norairvs. i Col. Bor. 1. 135. Drvistow II. Tarsi with their last joint but one bilobate. Genus CCXV. Metanprya. * Fabr. Latr. CuRYSOMELA. Sexnoratrvs. i Tr; Bosc. Gewvus CCXXVI. Lacria. Fabr. Oliv. Lam Curysometa. Linn, Cantnanus. Geoff. Tenesnio. De Geer. How 1. ENTOMOLOGY. haves CCXVIL. Nutro. ea orruvs. Faby. 217, Lia! Coccinetta. Fabr. nse by Sn core Villosus. Pritina marginatus, Fabr. Nilio villosus, Latr. 4 Inhabits Ca Ww rin a CCXVIII. Caropus. Fabr. Oliv. Payhall sd Cue itr. Cerampyx. Linn. De Geer. Antenne filiform, serrated. Body narrow, very much F elongated, almost linear. Maxillary palpi Semicnted by a securiform joint. 1. Serraticornis. opus serraticornis. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. nis. Cerambyx serraticornis. Linn. Inhabits northern Europe. Trisz III, Pyrocnrores. 2 te Head cordiform, y _strangulated: at its junc- tion with the thorax. jn joints all bilobate. nae te depres, or conver bas e or convex and cylindric. Thorax almost ; Divisron I. Antenne inated, serrated, or branched. —_- asta Genus CCXIX. Denpromes. Latr. iy” 219. Den. Antenne branched. Thorax conic, ' DROIDES, Sp. 1. Canadensis. ' Canadensis, Bendroides canadensis. Latr. / r ae Inhabits Canada. ‘Genvs CCXX. Pyrocuroa. Fabr. Geoff. De 220, Py- Geer, Oliv. Latr. Recent: Cantuaenrts. Linn. 4 Antenne or aad hae or a wate Aone pci of sr 1 this a 1% and black. a 1. Rubens. Rut ‘yrochroa rubens. Fabr. Lat. Oliv. © deal Inhabits Europe. - Sher Sp. 2. Coccinea. ip a Ah Ee Coll antharis coccinea, Linn. ; "yr ; Pyrochroa coccinea. Fabr. Late. iD ka ® Inhabits France, Germany, and England, . Ditiiee I Toy eee a simple. s dine @ hershey enus CCXXI. Scrapria. Latr. © eA Lae yet by a semilunar, or large tri- a an, joint. Thorax ircular, 1. Fusca. 4 be ee | ia fusca, Latr. Fusca, I its France. . ae CCXXII. Noroxvs. Geoff. Oliv. Uliger, 929. Now TOXUS. Metis, Linn. Donovan. ie attest: Anrnicus. Paykull, Fabr. 4 t ae Labial palpi terminated by a small truncate joint. yan borin fon” es ie epee ° Fans SN ENTOMOLOGY. Genus CCXXIII. cage Fev. Tenth. Noroxvs. Llliger, Latr. Marsham. Lyra. antherinus. aPagk Fabs aeooamean neue, Shanes — Trise IV. _Morpe.imes. _ Head cordiform, strangulated at its junc- others) with their penultimate joint entire. Body ele- visita! ecd.venp Ie y com ae eee ed by a Head v E v or v P pointed. behind. Hinder ‘Hinder feet feet large. T: prcpetiye Genus CCXXIV, — erent ase Fabr. Payk. Oliv. Latr. eae pt oss Marsh. Si be g wi the joints simp’ Palpi almost I~ form. H Scutellum Se en as ar or flabellate. none, .or yee ge Wtatiotivoope celgenes . Genus 4 reer 64 - Linn. Geoff. Fabr. pen sree Mila ae Scutellum distinct. culeata. ordella aculeata, Linn. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Inhabits . Genus Awaspis. Latr. Geoff. Morpvetta. Linn. Fabr.. Oliv. Marsh, Raeneeest the four anterior tarsi bilobate. with the. last gp tar vagper sar Scu- “ponte Far Oliv. Payk. Marsham., ) Re Py em Papa of meabelste plants. i Subdivision 9. iet Head not produced into a rostrum, bearing antenne, -Antenne simple. _ Tarai with bifid nails” Trise V. Canruarines. - ’ cordiform. Neck distinct. oe oe conlfrm."Eipter festble Tart gence wih ‘ f rudr ets oil aie soe ; en trem Corot: . : tsa rts gradual tiskening owe ppt vs oA . MOSM avaeed 105 Genus CCXXVII. Cerocoma, Geoff. Scheff. Fabr. Meétabotia: Oliy. Latr. —— Me.oe.. Linn. 227. Cero Antenne (of the males) ai cr nine-jointed, the coma. last joint very large. Elytra horizontal. » Le Se ; Scheefferi. elise . Linn. Cerocoma se: i. Latr, Fabr. Oliv. Inhabits the south of Europe. Genus CCXXVIII. Mytasnis, Fabr. Oliv. Lamarck, 228. My- Latr. LABRIS. Antenne eleyen-j |, terminated by an arcuate mass, ending ina point. Elytra deflexed-subrounded, =. 1. Decempunctata. labris decooteniiaia: Fabr. Oliv. Latr. tohabite southern France, ; Decem- ‘punctata. Famuty II.’ Meloida. Antennz of equal thickness, ing towards their points, ar subclavate, as long or r than the tho- rax, Se CoBPTE of globular or S cuiile og . ~ Diviston ~»Penultimate joint of all the tarsi bifid, Genus CCXXIX. ihr anes iy Seadanl 10 229. Tx- scarcely ly somew! t{ TRAONYS- Thorax short, transverse, quadrate, iyiksanimasoctonmalatie tar iin San aga &e, p. 237 ot ode) ithe Dovisron Il. “‘Tatsi with allvtheir joints entire. Subdivision 1. Elytra corsring tit whole abdomen ; their suture ‘Genus ete a Horta. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. ante ae se alpi with their last fay ack Toi wil thes all nail. denticulate beneath. 230. Ho- come. BIA: - Maculaia.. ~ Sp. maculata... Fabr. Oliv. Latr. ae. Inhabits American islands, Pha og CCXXXI. sepeasion h Late. (rejected by this st, Loe author by Horta.» Latr, Fabr, Oliv... Head narrower than the thorax. re rye compressed, inserted before es, wi last joint oval. ie a ic Rg a thick. a euamen Latr. Fabr. Oliv. Inhabits T Genus CC L ‘CEnas. ‘Late. Me.ée. Linn, Lyrra. Fabr. y Canruanis, Olivier. be- Elytrs covering ouly:a,past if :the abdomen short, ombsiwoans & Maan dWingn ate: 106 ENTOMOLOGY. Gexes CCXXXIIIL. Meise. Linn. Geoff.De Geer, —— Pabr. Pallas, Olivier, Lamarck, Mayer, LterEebety 33. Me- Abdomen very large, generally soft. _Antennw va- a. Sina? Casi, cae she Lin Fawuy III. . Cantharida,. Senn someones of cylindric or, obconic joints, #54. Cax- us ey So ‘Cantaanis, Geoff. De a FARIS, — Lamarck, Latreille. ELir. Cantharis vesicatoria. De Geof Olive Latr. ” ee Marsh. F; sis Sogut sarthirdiag ‘buts rare in cme eters common blist of dtr shops. 235. Zown. sCOXXXV. Zonrrs. . Latr. - . Apratus. Oliv. elongate, linear, coveri the ho of Pes bron the dides a!thaleistecron® Maxille not Antenne with: the first” : of ‘the same rey aes: the second a lit a conic ; the third and following cylindric’; the: last fu- ; terminatedl by 4thiee imei — ey r oh nad aeoruniesti i »Pabr. Lat, a peed ; peristas at 2%.Ne. Genus CCXXXVI. Metnenssdaid Tiger, Latr. moGxa- Zonrtis. Fabr. ™ cl ifr, td rv elongate, linear. - ~ Masille very much produ. Preusta Vittata, : a8) nib AF se 8 ae ave Nemognatha vittata, Miger.\'e1 4) SF. Ase _Genus CCXXXVII. Apaxwsi: ‘Olive Latri Pabr. av attenuated ‘tow. their extremity Apri. 1. Apicalis. is apicalis, % Gin Crt Ini 929. Se i wher Fane Set eh joints. - See hE yoegrercrer Se mp nate joint, Tarsi the-pentltinaate joints bilobate, bay sp ale ry) ileq wad ; ran « Taine VI, totam br, woo? Antenne filiform or setaceous. Rostrum riot very wt flat, and dilated at its extremity.) 9) oo) LA Genus CCXXXVIIL. Gime ehawee 238. @pr- Necypauts. Linn. Fabr. tab. MBRasloA Antenne inserted at the anterior. internal of : Ey eyes. Rostrum not. : the penlinels mee gosh: obiduiiat oie - Corulea, re Cerulea, coerulea. ‘Latreille, Olivier. a> F Inhabits E ' Genus CCXXXIX. Srenosrroma. ‘Latreille.. 259, Srr- Leprura. Seaman ees NOSTOMA inserted on ‘rostrum beyond eyes. acute. . Eyes not Elytra flexible, oe Mie... — oe last joint ey ume Sp. 1. Rostrata, ye 6) Restrain: ere Fabricius. pone ry Gen. Crust. et Ins. ‘ Latr. Considerat. 217. Genus CCXL. oatnesag pron Olivier. 240. Myc. RuINoMAcer. Fabr. Latr. | ov of OS pervs. My tasris. Scheeffer. .- Lveg Antenne inserted before. he are-eu ti tin El earns "Palphecth thesast joie eomapseaed ie? iytra Curculioni- ‘curculionides. ides, Fabrcas, Late, des, ; Mir pri Senta taleea in South 1 von by Mr J. “Ceanch of Kingsbridge. ~ Ciygeee- . | ‘Trine VII. “SALpINoDES, ‘ wn bis Antenna» thicker at their extremities, : Rostrum vey flat, and dilated at its extremity. ny Genus CCXLI. Satpineos.. minh! gel Saxe Curcu to. ge betas al, Haze, PINGUS, ANTHRIBUS: © Clairville. . rah BP Ruinosimus. | Latreille. ’ 1D caasmeasayt ™ Antennas inserted before the eyes. i sree mags tetioj, sedi silts sitter Ire Heca4 ‘Roboris. nuthribus roboris. Paykull, Fabricius, Olairville. | : Rhinosimus roboris. Latreilles sow) 6 Carculio rafal Linnwas, «chi llenw¥. InhabiteExrope, beneath the bark of trees. avila “—** Seeron TI. Terrimena. ~ al re ra 7 . Division I, Ly ; “pts tae he math he at r ' the rostrum. , Aidusath oo Bann, Le Bavewpes. tytul igea¥T sohdiovin, with the club RO nor y ENTOMOLOGY. 107 Metaboli — _ Antenne clavate, the club elongate. Eyesmotemar- cordate-subovate, apex emarginate, base rounded, con« Metabolia, the anus.above. . ovate- = in front: rr eee ae Sees me ed a Sete peg ~ iixeinibraget’ Fabricius, Latreille. rower before. Rostrum ‘be "iat Inhabits America. 247. Cys. rower atthe base. Genus CCXLVII. Cyuas. Fabr. Las. Latirostris. Is _Latirostris. 'Brentus.’ Olivier, Fabricius.) Sey res latirostris. Fabrici; Latrel, Paykel Mandibles short, the apex bidentate. ‘Mentum sub- oo Platyrhinus latirostris _Clairville. orbiculate. Body elongate, narrow before. ‘Thorax Macrocephalus la latirostris. Olivier; oe dilated ‘tigen one reeset its stran- 243. Ax- Genus _ANTHRIBUS, Paykull, Fabricius, vet with the the last jon ot bat one bifid. THBIBUS “Sp. #9 Brunneus. Brunneus. 2. Ratr- ‘NOMACER. 245. BRro- CHUS. Pisi. — . — _ Ranges Olivier. Mae oell Paykull, Eebdiies Stel. stanoursalinentnetiy 0 livier, Genus phn ee Riuwokacer. “Olivier, Fabricius. nes a Latreille. lye Antenne clavate, Eyes not emarginate. | co- vering the anus above. Abdomen Thorax He Rig , Latreille, Rhinomacer . icius, Inhabits pine trees. Genus CCXLV. Brucuvus. Linn. De Geer, Olivier, ‘abricius, Latreille, Marsham. MyLanris.: Antenne nearly filiform. Eyes for the insertion of the antenna. Body short, oval, thick. Ely- Gly Fie: ; ruchus pisi. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Inhabits and northern America. Trise II. Cuncurioniwes. Palpi very conic-subulate, scarcely discernible, or ninth clavate, the club regular, the joints coriaceous. Head from the eyes more or less narrow- ed, produced into a rostrum. Mandibles horns. ) nhg at the second joint, Antenne Body of all. from cylindric, Genus CCXLVI. Brenrus. | Fabricius, Olivier, Herbst, Latreille, Lamarck. | Curcutio. Linnzeus, De Geer. y 7 i elgg lm ag poo general- ly bidendate.. Body very long, somewhat..cylindric, narrower before, ren truncate before E igid,, gr, ‘thorax, narrower, not Thorax elongate-ovate, brunneus. Latreille. Brees rane Herbst, Fabr. Gros CCXL Ti. Arretasus. Linn. Fabr. Oliv. 248. Arrr- LABUS, pesceenecies elongate, produced ith no neck. y with no n Tibiz, with their points furnished with a double hook. Body ovate... Abdomen quadrate, rounded behind. La bium corneous, quadrate, the middle of the ss a mar , obtaaely unidentate. ° Me Curculionoides. Curculio- iolides curculionoides. Linneus, Latreille, Olivier. »oides. . Inhabits the nut-tree and willow. 249, APo- DERUS- | Genus CCXLEX. Apopervs.: Olivier, Latreille. ~ Agrecasus.. Linneus, Fabricius, Paykull. Head. with: sedans neck, ‘Tibie with one hook at their joints., Body ovate. Abdomen quadrate, round- ed behind. “abium coreous, quadrat the middle of the upper Corgi emarginate, unidentate. Coryli, diab itelabus coryli Linn. Fabr. Payk. Latr. Curculio coryli. _Marsham, Inhabits the nut tree. 250, Rrx-: CHITES. Genus CCL. Ryncurres. Herbst, Latr. Curcuuio. Linnieus, De Geer, Marsham, Ruinomacer. Geoffroy, Clairville. Arrevasus. Fabricius, Olivier. Head behind the eyes, with no neck. Cly- peus dentate. Tibie with very short heels. Abdomen star hee rounded behind. Body ovate, narrowly pro- daoad before. Thorax broader behind, (often nace, smal, he pes rounded, Labiam mee the apex rounded , entire. » Bacchus. *— Bacchiis. bacchus. Linneus, Marsham. Rynchites bacchus. Herbst, Latreille: Attelabus. bacchus. one nut and vine. Inhabits Europe. Genus CCL. yao “Hea Latreille, Kirby, Curcvttio. Linnens, Marsham. Ruinomacer. Geoffroy, Clairville. Artetasus. Fabricius, Olivier: Eyes prominulous. Head e behind. Abdo- men meses ses Tibie with heels. Labium "he. The The Rev. Vi William Kirby has given an admira- yA to the Linnean of London on the spe- this genus, which is pu blished in’ the ninth vo- icine oftheir irenayoticun r Rehae ‘edie, Stpples ment, which is published in the tenth volume. Genus CCLHI. Ruampuus. Clairville. ' 252, Tarsi with the last joint but one bifid, cordiform, Kuam- Head globose. M1 erry Hinder ‘feet formed ?#US. poe leaping. Tibee Ww obsolete heels. Body short, oval. : ‘ 251. Api-~ On. - ENTOMO LOGY. “ap wie rags es Gexoe = echt. “Tnacnvcanes Oliver, ‘Herbst, aoe +a z y'* : ales Bod lateral. ea ’ Drviston II. (Fracticornes ; geniculated horns.) Antenne the basal joint very much pee rel woes generally received in a lateral oblique groove, hats at leash) or the sides of the rostrum. Antennz <¥ clavate, the club generally compo- wf etgna in al dav the il (ype Tarsi with the las lot butte bid, or emarginate above cordate.) Subdivision 1. Antennz inserted beyond the base _— rostrum, larger than the head, the club distinctl attests ovate. Mandibles generally obtuse. Ti ciliated with spines, in a few terminated by a stiding hook. ovate, or elliptic. Colour various. Gesvus CCLIV. Curcusio. Linneus, Sone a Clairville, Olivier. Bracnyruines. Latreille. Body ovate, convex, narrower before. Thorax round, or conic-cylindric, narrower than the base of the elytra. Scutellum extremely minute. Abdomen ovate-conic, subovate, or Lip minute. Antenne eleven- 2h, Con- CC LIO. Imperialis. Genus CCLV. Lixus. * Latreille, Fabricius! Curcutio. Linneus, Geoffroy, Marsham, Fabricius. Body elongate-ovate. Rostrum as broad as the head. Genus CCLVI. Ryncuanvus. Fabricius, Olivier. Concorso. Linn. Geoff. Lam. Latr. woe Seay rea Rae a Re ot wera re ee nin! jen or eight fut jointed beginning at eighth joint, ings in wt Linneus, Marsham, Latreille. | fortriz. : + hag Fabricius. Sp. 2. Abictis. «~ Torti. Abus, Curculio abietis, “Litknens. Ais ten! minds. 4 inthe pine TE was dicnere Hameton, Sn Soitignd basi MR ge Fo ig 3. Pini. Lowest maprell . seobet. sever Coulis pini. vost abate apegnaerenrtiereney ial Inhabits the P sHeawal ff. Genvs CCLVIL. Livanvs. O¥"""® ene ts 4 ‘ Curcutio. Linnieus, Latreille ‘Marsham. RyNcnanvus, {aay edi Inhabits Europe a native ‘of Britain’ bY ED Pow) why R ; Inhabits Europe. It ‘occurs tees, fe ier and Hastings. - sip arte fy — Yar Tage Gorcalio eel Marsham, “Latreille, A 4 ent wos of Marsham, mean oe :8H 28s me oe Eu . rah. arianog a Genus Ears “Civeronexcos Inigee.* 258. Crvr- Curcuito. Lin Marsham. rn © romans Rynen anus. Fabricitis.” RA EI: SEES FOr Body roun domen short, tri trum applied to diameters nowy. joshua, leaping. een? weal as 3 K Erveime : s not ay -_ _— =e Erysimi eee Fabr. tag es a haere — Crytorynchus ergsimi- iliger: eae Ne Y AeG Inhabits Eu vt 2 ¢ Waly Genus CCL Lik. Cronus. Chairvie Latieille, 259. Cx Ryxcn ave.” re cate . . Beary i NUS. * Curevno..° Linh: eOlineoins od | winter Body quadrate-ovate;” “a little Jong than broad. Abdomen large, subquadrate, a little % and rounded behind. Anus not naked. Rostrum lied to the breast. Col convex, as broad‘as long, oe behind. Hinder t not formed for leaping. 1. hularie. : j ar a Cir rp i) Ine. Rynchenus 7 earites it onus’ sc: ; ‘ RED, CO 1 rome Verbasein ti iat adrenal Rynchenus, T) a Verbasci ot Fab fas Ber Genus CCL. Omieediis. Olivier, OP) 260. On- Ryncnanvs. Clairville, Fabricius, ) CHESTES. Curcutio., Linneus, wate ovate. Abdomen te-quadrate, rounded touchin aa Hinder feet formed r leaping. anus. ; . Alni. 2 insu he ; urculio alni. Linneeus, M rah SUT Rynchenus alni. racket wt ~a ovheunreha) marrerus van, Latreille. Fanny II. Mycetophagida, = * Macleaii. 1. Macleaii. Antenne eleven jointed. vee little or not at macleaii.. Donovan, Latreille, all prominent. é mew Division I. Tame V. Myceroracipes. Antenna with the club two-jointed. | ae ovoid or oblong; in some in others © Gznus CCLXXVIII.. Drroma. Latr, 278. Drto- Palpi filiform or bent at their extremities. An- § Brroma. Herbst. Me ‘ coum ton &r'elgugn Sobsede-ielundinis averse Gort Lycrus. Fabr. Payk. a op aRe extremities, or terminated by a perfoliated mass, Ips. Olivier. “ME Famity I. Nemosomida. eben] weet. eee Lie omenete Antenne ten-jointed.. Ditoma crenata, Latr. Drviston I. Tarias greneten Tit Payks tt of ite Antenne with the club three-jointed, Inhabits ; Europe under the bark.of dead trees, 276. Crs. Genus CCLXXIV. Cis. Latreille. eta D Ir Axonrum. Fabricius, Illiger, Herbst, Paykull. TAs ye n't Foud Deamestes. Scopoli. Antenne grad: ally Cckaning towards chat onesie Hycesinus. Fabricius. mities. Tae wi with the first joint longer than the fol. Prinvs. Marsham, _ lowing one. «4 Antenne twice as long as the head. Body oval, de- es CCLXXIX. Mycerornsovs. _ Fabricius, 270.Mycr. pressed. aykull; Oliv. Panzer, Late, TOPHAGUS. — Balt 1. Boleti. PR Oe ij wiry boleti. Dermestes. oe thunberg. a ™ Anobium Fabricius, iliger, Paykull. Sirpnoipes. Herbst. Mg wdoreg eg f Anobium bi Boxetaria, Marsh, Veta) wd Ptinus boleti. Marsham. Body oval, Antenne with the hast joint elongate, Inhabits the Boletus vesicolor. ovate. M penecena: nee —_ 375. Ne. —— CCLXXV. Nemosoma. Latreille. 3 1. Quadri ~e © Qundripass: ‘ Mos MA MESTES. pet tulatus. arc a ee ybIUM. erbst. Boletaria Marsham,. ea) ~hws Antenna not or scarcely than the head. Body —_Inhabits fungi. T om linear. Head as long, or as long, as the thorax, —-— Eloagatum. 1. Devings mm. | ‘¢mosoma ’ Latreille. Antenne gradually reonterks their extres nits ot wih tre one ~ ENTOMOLOGY. 112 - lin. Ss Deeg ht a e . a Meta —— Subdivision 1. “ Subdivision 1. —— Tarsi with the first joint not than thefollowing Mandibles small. Body long and linear. one. Palpi very shat; the illary ‘ones not, or but + Genus CCLXXXIV. Lyerus, Fabricius, Paykull. palate little, prominent. Antenne with an ab uptclubofthree - Irs.’ Olivier. v ,linear. Brroma. Herbst. . Herbst, Corticanta. Marsham. 280. Cory- — CCLXXX. Corypium. DIM. ~~ Antenne with a two-jointed club. Thorax long and : riroma. Thunberg. — ‘linear. Ips. - Olivier, Rossi. site : Sp.1. Oblongus. . | Oblongua. Elongatum. cc Ylak oblongus. Latreille. _ Ans ydium we Phe Herbst, Paykull, bate ote sage foes wo Fabricius. ' elongatus. Olivier, US. vier. = ro linearis. Rossi. Hitoma unipunctata, -Herbst. Tihahites. Ruvops-dnderise Mark of trees, . , Corticaria oblonga. Marsham. uot eid 194 gail Arete: ss Inhabits Europe invold wood. _ Subdivision 2. on Tarsi with the first joint longer than the second. reer Palpi very short, the maxillary ones -but little or not _ Mandibles large. Body elongate, much depressed, at all prominent. Antenne as as the thorax or less, ‘nearly. broad. 281. La- Genus CCLXXXI. Larrinivus.* Herbst. Genus CCLXXXV. Trogosita. .Fabricius, Qli- 285. Tre- ‘TRIDIUS. Ips. Olivier. vier, Illiger, Latreille, Lamarck. GosITA- » Corticarta. Marsham. Tenesrio. Linnaeus, Marsham, Rossi, Dermestes. Fabricius, Paykull. . Pratycervs. . Geoffroy. mela: Antena withthe bcd ut hrger than he hid ‘Thorax almost separated from the abdomen Poreatus. a remarkable interval. moniliform, shorter Towtdhengiecia porcatus. Herbst. the thorax, compressed towards the apex. La- Latridius minutus. Latreille. brum excerted, coriaceous, smiall, hairy in front. Dermestes marginatus. Paykull. 7 Sp..1. Mauritanica. Matititani- pre sss ree = ese Sg penken Rossi, as ca Sit. genus CCLXXXII. Sitvanvs. | Latreille. ‘rogosita carabotdes cius, Illiger, Paykull, pode _ "Tenepnro. De Geer. ee Herbst, Latreille.. Dermestes. Fabricius, Panzer. Trogosita mauritanica. Olivier. | Ips. Olivier. Inhabits Europe. Dr Leach has seen. it alive in a Colydium. yh hart wns box of insects brought from Para in the Brasils, ye with the 1 and following joints to the Trine VI, _Cucusipes, . eighth joint nearly equal. ; Body _and much depressed, Head, not glo" “Waidenta- Sp.1. Unidentatus. f / bose. Palpi filiform or thicker towards their extremi- tos. ' ‘Silvanus unidentatus. Latreille. . ties. Antenne of the same thickness throughout, all _ Dermestes unidentatus. Fabricius. _ eleven-jointed. Thorax almost quadrate, generally den- Ips unidentatus. Olivier. . tated or angulated. Colydum unidentatum. Paykull. D ‘ det! Ooms vision I, - Inhabits under the bark of trees. Antenne moniliform, shorter than the body, . 296. Pas Frumenta- . 2. Frumentarius. otter Genus CCLMXXVI. ‘Pananpna. Latreille, . B4NDRA. ius. dium frumentarium, Panzer. Isocervs. ur, a Corticaria frumentaria, Marsham. ATTELABUS. Geer. -(Sifednusfrumentarius, Latreilles «= 9° 7" Tenesrio. Fabricius, Herbst. Inhabits Europe. Labrum very small. Palpi terminated by an oval ay) 20 it Subdivision 2. — Tardilong.. Thorax quadrate, marginate. | Svayre ; Sp.1. Levis. Laviss ’ Thorax. almost cordiform. Eyes rather inent, Gates COLEXXVIL Cucwsus.. Fabricius, Olivier, 297. Bice. -Palpi clavate, the last joint sub-obtrigonate, fntgee than Paykull ~y a os es hecdligpaded af ’ Rs Cantuaris. Linneus? pats waht ae —: Merys rugosa. Latr. Gen. Crustset Ins.xis fig: ¥. oo truncate: ster Tarai short ap bibd. wily East Indies, 5 © ) 4) f a 1. ase Division IV, 2 : Cucujua arate: Paykall, Olivier, Latreille, Fa- ; exeauala cloven-jointed. Mandible prominent ox Cantharis inolenta. . Linneeus ?: Inhabits S len and German y.. : wen Stl paiertuageaiD Ob Beimgstat fo vk to this genuss Ceramayx. De Geer. i with the last joint nearly obconie. Body con- linear. Thorax without spines. ' vex. Tarsi with the penultimate joint distinct] Y vid. $ : 4 Pim Thorax almost orbicular, withiat border or teeth. Corambys lineato-collis. ; pe og Sp. 1. Buprestoides. Saperda lineato-collis. Leach, Zoolog. Mis. vol. i. yen Fabr. Oliv. Latr. Inhabits England. at reontl ; inkables Enrope, at the vesttiof’ the pina © Dinstox Th, pees Aney ber nutant. ‘ea oe jaa Antenne pectinated or serrated, in all longer than ‘Genus CCXCIV, CrramMayx. Linn. Fabricius, La- 294. Cx- . thorax. &e. 290. Pat- Genus CCXC. Prionvs. Geoffroy, Fabricius, Oli- - Srenoconvs. Fabricius. goed o1f sloiw leva ores, -: Latreille. ‘ \ae than the body. Pap wit he ns enampyx. Linn. Marsham.. joint obconic, compressed. a spine on Thorax with the sides gently dentated. An- “ie anus tenner serrated, a little shorter than the body ; of the . 1.) Moschatus. (Musk cerambyx.) - a male twelve, ‘of the female eleven-jeinted moschatus. Lin. Fabricius, Latreille, &c. Cotlarame == Sn. 1. Coriarius, . Inhabits willows in Europe, emitting, whilst alive, Cerambys coriarius. | Linn. a fine smell, resembling the flavour of roses. © Prionus coriarius. Latreille, Fabricius, Olivier. Genus CCXCV. Srenocorus. Fabricitis. — Inhabits Europe. Cenampyx, Latreille, 9 0) 9 Famuy H. -Corambycida. ay with the ae ne iniith. Labrum apparent, of various sizes. Antennie Sel. S icornis. 1 wojert inserted in a nitch in the eyes SE See “ae uratay Cerambyx icornis, Latreille. pottncz» f Division I. Genus CC Cv Ciytus. Fabricius, Head vertical. Palpi almost filiform. Cerameyx. Linn. ile ENTOMOLOGY. | Meiabolia, Gexvs CCXCI. Macnopus. Thunberg. “. yr Divistow TT. Prionvs. pro am Phe ne ons the body, often longer, composed CeramByx. pdeved Sav ets cial ‘ aang ef Lama, Latreille. .. , CRORE 228. Utee ary, LXXXVIII. eUsniora. Latreille. Body much depressed. ‘Thorax with pele seta Ceramayx. Linnzeus, spine on each side, placed on a tubercle, Anterior feet Baonres. Fabricius. sa sig fe ) JARI wen =a Creevsvs, Olivier, Herbst. De 1. Jy) Lengitna porrect, very i terminated vs nina Olivies9 5 fy Rue by an almost conic pointed joint, Tarsi_short. Lamia Latr. jnalt saiviDous Flavipes. Sp. 1. i Cerambyx Linn. i, on Cerambyr Linnenus. r Inhabit Broa. ep woes t gtd Uleiota flavapes. Latreille. Genus CCXCII. Lama, Leach, 4) Brontes flavipes. Fabricius. Lamia. Latreille, Fabricius. t .skveartl cnt Cucujus planatus. Herbst. Cerameyx. Linn. Marsham, Fabricius, o flavipes. Olivier, Paykull. Antenne ten-jointed, longer than the body. 1 Europe, beneath the bark of dead trees. b Bile tapos teaitietes A. Body (Lama, papritey athe: Division III. Sp. 1. : Head not produced into a rostrum, Tarsi Penta tage Fabsicius, Latveie + ts BE deel egyneed PD Corsmapesele. Linn. Marsham. | 6) 9) nhabits + HO e Subdivision 1 B. Shaan (Lamia, Craaactotm, Fa. diction Mahaes or ttoaeiiads : towards their extremities. Male ith ne lnent horny Bi Nebulosus. feud shook-on their internal sides. crambys nebulosus. Fabricius, Marchama..+ ' Lamia nebulosa, Latreille.’ Tae VIL Cerampycings. Inhabits Europe. Lip much widened at its extremity, cordiform. Bod Sp. 3. Textor Py: the Saag iva nite ickenipliaai parasites in the eyes. urope. LE) © e* PL C. Body linear. Thorax ast spined ote she sites, a Famuty I. Prionida. (Sarena, Fabricius.) “) Labrum small, or almost none. 4. Oculata. c) ae of yyx oculatus. Marsham., mays”) Division I. Saperda oculata, Fabricius, won wae eaten es nee 2 ineiaeate. Latreille. F * Genus CCLXXXIX,. abrici nhabits Eu ne elt oe tadog bidy PrLae Latreille. 2 gee grey Genus CCXCIII SAPERDA. Leach. s2) .i ae Artetasvs. Linn. CeramByx. M we 5 «> Metabolia. ——— Labial palpi with the last pummins Game Cais \ ial a 3 if ENTOMOLOGY. 113 Catiiprum. Latreille, " Clytus arietis. Fabricius. Callidium arietis. Latreille. Inhabits Ew without es, Antenne i fees, Inhabits Junci, ; Trise V. APHIDES., mes tve-soutels the first joint very short. Ros- sexes. wrtrwsath. yond dnsremheacged 409, Li- Via Juncorum, Gig Pinte Females generally apterous. 4tl. A. rats. 412. A- LEYRODES. helidonii. 413. Dor- THESIA. @haracias. #14. Coc- cos. Cacti. 126 Famny 1. Thripsida. jointed with the last joint vesiculous. Antenne eijght- maces minute, vo onan! 2 externally with- out rate. : tutta, Head ccccx. Tee Linn. Geoffroy, Latreille, Lamarck, Olivier. Elytra ‘and wings horizontal and linear. Sp. 1. Physapus. Black, hairy; antenne, tibie and tarsi pale ; middle of the tibia’ pale brown ; elytra and wings white. Thrips physapus. Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. Famity Il. Aphida. Tarsi with the last joint with two nails. Antenne six or seven-jointed. Rostrum very distinct, nearly Saat with three distinct joimts. Head trans- “Guanes CCCCXI. Apurs. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Oliv. Lam. Antennz setaceous or filiform, seyen-jointed. Ely tra larger than the wings, elongate- . Abdo- men towards the apex generally tuberculated or horn- ed. Eyes entire. The animals of this genus are very numerous, and are found on almost every plant. The French call them Pucerons, the English Plant-lice. The species require examination. The females are generally apterous. Genus CCCCXII. Axeyropes. Latr, Lamarck. Tinea. Linneus. Puarana. Geoff. Antenne filiform, short, | six-jointed. Elytra and wings equal in size. Body mealy. Eyes two, each di- “ 1 Cheledonit Body yellowish, wid Sp.1 ii. ly yellowish, or powder- od with white eyes black ; each elytra w with a punc- ture and spot of black. Trise VI. Apnipes. Tarsi with one joint and one nail. Rostrum in the female. Wingsin the male, but no elytra. Female Kee CCCCXIIL. Donwoaage Bose. Latr. Coccus. Dorthes, Fabr. Oliv. Antenne of the female eight-jointed. Abdomen “i ge" males very setose behind. 1. Characias. ; characias. Dorthes, Fabr. Dorthesia characias. Bosc. Latr. > Inhabits the Euphorbium characias of southern rance. Ons tapenade Coccus. Linn. Geoff. Fabr, Oliv. Antenne of the female eleven-jointed. Abdomen of the males with two very long sete at the apex. Sp. lL. Cacti. Cocbus cacti. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Latr. Inhabits fruit-trees, This requires a minute investigation, which should be conducted by some one possessing a great share of patience, and ving a very competent know- ledge of entomology. Orpen X. APTERA. Onpen Arrers. Linn. Delam. Onver Suctronsa. Latr. Characters of the Order. Nody somewhat ovate, compressed, covered with a , We MR td os man pabcy endear Go Kaho pron, che GUE Eee ela aie ENTOMOLOGY. melliform, small, ciliated with spinules, their base, inserted in two excavations by filiform (compere. of four rounded j ly longer than the head, porrect, e rostrum. Legs strong, and formed for especially the hinder ones. Coxe and thi com Tarsi elongate, cylindric, five simple joints, the last articulation two long, acute, slender nails. Larva without feet. Get COCCEV: P of authors. Genus ULEX, _Sp. 1. Irritans. Body brunneous, omnetinis ings $18 Po ning to rust-colour. common bed-flea. Is found throughout Eu- eee Notwithstanding the inconveniences attending - little insect, there is something pleasing in thea alt Sn ance of the flea. Its ‘motions are. elegant, and all its 1 tl The oon with which it is a3 times its own It is remarkable, that Socrates was ridiculed for Kg pretended ex SCuatn ent this sub- ject, by ‘Aristophartes. ‘Arist. Clouds. act i. scene 2, This his circumstance is alluded to in Butler's Hudibras. Sp.2. Penetrans. The chig, : Iuhabits the West Fg ee the human Penetrans, skin, and iting a of eggs within a sac. ° The Pefully acnined. "Sinks sees Seeaeat ef -Oxver XI. LEPIDOPTERA. Onver LeprorTera. Linn. Cuv. ‘Lam. Late. Class Grossata. Fabr. Characters of the Order. Wings four, covered with scales. Tange spiral, fili- form. Linné divided this order into three viz. Pa- pilio (b ects BME Sphine (hawk-moth), and Phalena. (moth), whi characterized by the form of their antenne ; and these divisions form the three great sec« tions of Latreille, as follow. “Secrion I. Drorna. Wings four ; all, or at least the superior ones, erect when the insect is'at rest. Antenne with their thicker or capitate; in a very few somewhat setaceous, with the extreme apex hooked. The insects ofthis section, which constitute the Lin nean genus Pa ly by Caterpillars with este fet. hrysalis ket, ear generally “i Trine I. Parmiowtpes,* Hinder tibie with byes en Soran Antenne not ungulated or at gre Wings al levated when ot 6 se ENTOMOLOGY. euhaerecas Metabolia, Peli) — int as the preceding: ‘Wings not very nar- Metabolia. —=—c Famuy I. Papilionida. - = ae egeeen: a. ited to=———" esis dati cylindric. i , admit the abdomen, but not tailed. Feet alike in both : alae Tees Gof ln with distinct Ma beng — sexes ; claws unidentate or bifid. ; mago ' 416. Parr. news CCCCKVL Paritio. Fabr. Latr. Leach. Chrysalis angulated, fastened by a transverse thread. a : at their points, furnished with a conic- * Anterior wings somewhat trigonate; hinder ovate or , somewhat arcuate, club. - ee MH ER COT a o : Palpi_ pressed close to the face, - scarcely . 1. Crategi. Wings white, with a faint tinge of Crategi. net two first joints of equal Sellemials and black nerveurs. nished with distinct but simple claws. Anterior wi . Pontia crategi. Fabr. erally somewhat falcate ; hinder ones often ; Inhabits Europe. In England, it is found near Lon- the internal margin excised or folded to admit of free don, where it is.called Black-veined white. play for the abdomen. Sp.2. Brassicee, (large cabbage-butterfly). Brassica. sa seep ee wens nya Sadayy an Rareibe. Papilio bras — 4 chrysalis angulated, with two processes before ; it ‘ontia brassice. Fabr. , _ fastens itself by a transverse thread. ‘ Pieris brassicae. Latr. ‘ rae ee ee an, cotaeten sien saiet Inhabits Europe everywhere. The larva feeds on * Apdo pan eS agape dates say “ Siisetie) s warmer regions, very occurring in the more tem- 3. , (small cabbage- lye" 8 pe. perate parts of the world. Their flight is extremely Papo rape. — : rapid. ontia ra " . Machaon. § Sp.1. Machaon. Black and yellow ; hinder wings Podsean. Latr. tailed ; edges of the wings black, with yellow cres- - Inhabits on cabbages. ; cents ; the tips of the hinder ones with a red spot at 4. Napi, veined white butterfly). Napi- heir inferior ti Deacon: pe scot Linn. Fabr. Pontia napi. F Europe ; the larva in the fennel. Pieris na, Latr, In England it is called the Swallow-tailed , » Inhabits everywhere. “ and is very local. It is the most superb of all the Sp. 5. Cardamines, (orange-tipt butterfly). . Cardami- tish of this . The caterpillar is green, ‘apilio cardamines. Linn. eg with black, marked by a row of red spots, It | Pontia cardamines, Fabr. & pee, php std state in July ; and the fly is Pieris cardamines, Latr. wo broods are suid to be found ; Inhabits Europe. The larva feeds on the Carda- the first in , having lain in the chrysalis or pupa mine pratensis. state all the winter. Papilio ice, Linn.; Pontia daplidice, Fabr. ; Papilio rius of Linné, which tothis Pieris idice of Latreille, has been introduced into genus, has introduced into the British Fauna, on the Bri anes t on very slender authority. dubious 2 PS ee Doni. us - Doritis. Fabricius. Sp. 6. Sinapis. Wings white, with blackish tips. sinapis. Parnassius. | (Wood white ). : Papilio sinapis. Bay ges meacmemageas Ungues or claws sim- —_—— Pieris sinapis. Latr. } rising above the clypeus, very prominent, Genus CCCCXIX. Cours, Fabr. Latr. 419, Co- cylindric-conic, with three very distinct joints. An- Preris. Schrank. L148. tenn with a thickened, somewhat ovate straight head. | Antenne short, gradually thickening into an obco- inde mage vee reds the internal margin excised, nic head. Palpi much compressed ; the last joint very to admit of e play for the abdomen. short. Feet alike in both.sexes, all with bifid, or umi- . The smooth, somewhat folliculate. dentate nails. wos anterior, somewhat trigonate ; * ‘ 1. Wings white, rounded, spotted with hinder rounded, with a groove to receive the abdo- 3 the lower pair marked with annular red spots. men. Papilio Apollo. Gmelin. Serene a transverse thread, Parnassius Latr. Sp. 1. Hiya y (dlouded yellow butterfly) Hyale. Doritis Fabr. Papilio yale of authors, Inhabits y and France. : iho Schrank. Larva black, with red, Chrysalis brown, Colias es Fabr. Latr. powdered with v Inhabits Occurs in England once in three This elegant insect, which has been confounded by mapa Ae » in every part of the country. some authors with Doritis Ni and Phebus, is There isa coloured variety of each sex, which have mage reapbertngeew >. ce wy ae been i as distinct species. 166. G no right or whatever to a place in ritish © Genvs CCCCXX. Gonepreryx. Leach, z's Fauna, has been described as such by Mr = Cotas. Fabr. Latr. aigeiv it Harworth, has been figured by Mr Donovan on Pieris, Schrank, the most and unsatisfactory authority, Antenne short, ually thickening into an obconic Pox. Genus XVIIL Pontia. Fabr. head. Palpi cee ech yews ; the last joint Pieris. Schrank, Latr. very short. Feet alike in both sexes, all with » bifid Antenne , with an abrupt, obconic, compres- or unidentate nail. Wings angulated, , the hin- sed head, slender, somewhat cylindric ; the last Ti tak Gatal need ete 128 went Gi Rhamni. motte mae yellow ofthe fe Shateb saale whitish ; with a fulvous spot on each. Papilio rhamai. Linn. rhamni, Fabr. Latr. Pieris rhamni, Schrank. . erys rhamni. Leach, its Europe in the spring and autumn, Flight $21. An- Gaxvs CCCCXXL Aroeynnis. Fabr. Latr. Otrxm Antenne terminated with a short club, Palpi diva- ricating abruptly, terminated with a minute, slender, acicular, very short joint ; cay SO PRE Rego hairy. Hinder wing orbicular. Anterior feet very short in both sexes. Tursi with double nails. Chrysalis suspended by the tail. ee. spiny. Lathonia. 1. Lathonia. ta ‘apilio Lathonia. Linn, a Re ates ‘ Fabr. oo ts Europe. It is rare in Britain. Aglaia. sp 2. ieee ~ ENTOMOLOGY. ably a white margin to the wings. Papilio Lucina. Gmelin. Melitea Lucina. Fabr: A Inhabits borders of woods and. : Genus prereset het val Antenne terminated Inhabits Europe. The larva on nettles. Sp. 2. Cardui. a lady.) Papilio cardui. Linn. Vanessa cardui. Fabricius, Latreille. Vanessa Antiopa. Latreille. 2 Inhabits Europe. The English: vaviety dbs invari ‘apilio Aglaia. Linn. . 4. To. (Foon oF 2 Be Argynnis Aglaia, Fabr. apilio To. ea Inhabits Europe. Is common. Papilio Char- Vanessa Io. Pabeide Latreille. iy; ee lotta saben tome Erp Meet na aoe Inhabits the nettle. 20 dental variety of this species. Sp. 5. Polychloros. (Large tortoise-shell) ia] Adippe. Sp. 3. Adi apilio Polychloros. Linn. a An ‘abr. Vanessa Pi . Fabricius. tii eilel pai foo and the borders of woods thoughout Page pg besa er) The larva on the elm. ni’ on 6. Urtice. (Small costing aioli ne Paphia. ops, Pape ‘apilo urtice. Linne ‘ Pe ia. Linn. Vanessa urlica. Latreille, Fabricius. : Areynnis Ba Fabr. Latr. Lewy Europe. ¢ Inhabits the borders of woods in Germany, England, Calm tec qece gt Lo. te hed and France. ks . pe 4 422. Meu - Genus CCCCXXII. Metrraa. > Fabre’ Vanessa pe Fabricius. “ef sides THA. Aroynnis. Latr. Genus CCCCXXIV. Hirrarcnra, Fabricius, Leach. 494. ; Antenne terminated ae club. fainw Maniota. Schrank. ; hairy, divaricating, with tl t acicular, Saryrus. Latreille. length of the inder win abe Antenne with a slender tuhinhhe tedictd Weenae- ~ lar. Anterior ey eet ie both sexes. Tarsiwith what trigonate orbicular club, ree. meeting above double nails. por? e, with the second joint very much compres- Caterpillars ponents with fleshy tubercles. very much longer than the first. Anterior Chrysalis suspended by the tail.. pi a egs'shorter than the rest, and often very hairy’! Euphro- Sp. 1. Euphrosyne. (Pearly border). eetof the other lege with double nails Hinder syne. ilio Euphrosyne. Linn. : somewhat orbicular or orbiculate-triangulate, with internal cronvabed0d receives toe alsdhianctoy chi! ‘apilio A is Euphrosyne. Latr. margin Melieea. middle cell closed: behind, from: whieh part the ner-' Enphrosyne, Fabr. Inhabits waste and heaths. vures radiate; the other margin. entire, or: with aeute Silene. Sp. 2. Silene. — border likeness). or obtuse i Caterpillar downy, with a glo- Melita peal icacr AR ptr 2 Fa gay eds copie the abdo-. 8 preceding species. men bimucronate behind. engubetd; Cinzia, 3. Cinzia. caritios the front bimucromate by the tail. Leach’s Poy ‘apilio Cinzia, Gmelin Zoolog. Miscel. vol. i. r 27. CL, Wim Melita Cinzia. Fabr. Sp. 1. Galathea. ) A is Cinzia. Latr. Papilt Galathea. . Gmelin. - x Tnhabits Rare in Britain. Piston Galathea. Fabricius. Artemis. 4. Artemis. (Greasy). Satyrus Galathea. Latreille. Artemis, Gmelin. Inhabits Europe in fields. | Melitea Artemis. Fabr. Sp. 2. ee (Eyed.) Inhabits Europe. » Is common near Norwich in Nor- ‘apilio hus, L PSE: V2 folk. ’ Hipparchia Hyperanthus. Fabr. © ~~ Dictynna. Sp. 5. Dictynna. (Heath). ; Satyrus Hyperanthus. Latreille. © Dictynna. Ginelin, ' Inhabits Europe in fields. Dictynna, Fabr. Sp. 3. Pamphilus, omy Fh Wwe Sebehids: bodies edods Papilio cos of Has ‘apilio Pamphilus. Linn. Gmelin. worth seems to be a variety. Hipparchia Pas Fabricius. Lucina. Sp. 6. Lucina. (Duke of Burgundy). Satyrus - Latreille. RL OL ORY: 129 as Inhabits heaths. . tracted, obtuse at both extremities. Tarsi with very Metabolia. : Sp. 4. Blandina, (Scotch argus.) — small nails. ee lio Blandina. . Donovan. © . ey Genus CCCCXXVII.. Turcta. Fabr. ; 427. Tae- Inhabits the isles of Bute and Arran. The malehas Potvommarus. Latr. cua, * been confounded with bar Hrd of Fabricius, Feet in both sexes all alike; nails hentai medved ~ to it is vi t ulvilli, w! are. . Antenne which Sea. beyond the pulvilli, which large Pilosellz:, Pars (Smal meadow brown.) dually clubbed ; the club elongate, cylindric oval. ; ilio Piloselle. Gmelin. der wings tailed. Hipparchia Pileselle. Fabricius. © Sp. 1. Betule. (Brown hair streak.) Betula. Satyrus Piloselle. Latreille. ‘apilio betule. Gmelin, ° _ Inhabits fields and the borders of woods. Thecla betula. Fabr. Janira. ~ Sp.6. Janira, ' Polyommatus betule. Latr. apilio Janira, T.inn: Inhabits Europe, frequenting the borders of woods. Papilio Jurtina. Linn. Sp. 2. Pruni. (Black hair-streak). Pruni, Hipparchia Janira. Fabricius. ‘apilio pruni, Hiibner. Satyrus Janira. Latreille. : ! Thecla pruni. Fabr. Inhabits fields. ~ 5.3. Qu borders - bes 8 Megiera. Sa a (Gate-keeper. 3. Quereiis. ( e hair-streak Quercus. Papilio ciera, Gmelin. ) Bapitio querciis. Gmelin, a , a Latreille. Thole nits Fabr. § Wo pares Sie} fatctdes auk foeda, fying ont the Riehl Was. geria. 8. 7 ‘ood its w on the es Pas i is Bogor. Chae poser of the trees. _ Me cs ia. Fabricius. Genus CCCCXXVIII. Lycana. Fabr. 428, Ly- I borders of woods and fields, 5; pemee hige Latr. CRNA. Semele. ae Semele. ce “gre in both sexes ; nails pro Late gees beep 2 aad ‘apilio Semele. Gmelin, : pulvilli, which are small. Antenne with an abrupt Hi ia Semele. Fabricius. club, somewhat ovate, or somewhat oval. a rcp aie wastes. nes Leratbdnodieatnnoes tetuioons Besides the species of this enume- 1. Dispar. (Large copper + Dispar. eek a eee ae have taken in this ilio dispar. ar ag country, ho ea of Denoras: %. Papilio Papilio Hypothie. Donovan, Topher und and, 3. of Haworth : Bar as Inhabits the fens of Cambridgeshire, and has been aga Mla ly rte a ess observed near Aberdeen in Scotland, sévts, we shall say nothing more subject, but © (Purple-edged copper). Chryseis. eee ee era Wy the investigations TC monet Fabr. * of ee aitiek: - ee Europe. In Britain it is extremely rare. } lot genus CCCCXXV. Limenitis. Fabricius. 8. Virgaurew. (Scarce copper Vi ; ial Nyuenauis. Latreille. Lycans i et eae y ot Antenne clubbed ; club slender, round- olyommatus virgauree. Latr. obconic. P. i ag Jong as the head, with the second Papilio virgaurea. Gmelin. joint not very com ; the anterior margin not —_Inhabits Very local in Britain. It is found po i ir of feet in both gory ae un vs sae sexes very short spurious. not much 4. Phleas. ¢ copper as. er than broad Four hinder’ feet with double nal Lycona yj dang Pr Larva elongate. suspended yommatus > Camila. Sp. 1. Cemilia, (White sdeenobie ) Inhabits Europe; much attached to syngenesious ‘apilio Camilla. Linn. Gmelin, plants. Limenitis Camilla. Fabricius. Sp. 5. Rubi. | oa ape gated Rubi. Ni lis Camilla. Latreille. apilio rubi. wk i arore. Te pis Dee hire ol ag ‘emcee «gO ‘ wood, Kent, where it is found in yommatus > 426. Avs Genus CCCCXXVI. ApAtivna. Fabrict Inhabits Eu — pene Latreille. take & Colne with the ior margin entire. Antenne with an elongate-obconic thickened club. Chalk- wali eter m the second j eae ict not much compreased, the Papilio Corydon Corydon. inn, Gmelin. io ne Selene Anterior pair of feet very short § Lycana iommane Ces Fabr. Iris, 1, fede € Inhabits iniehie taalky See a Tris, a a 7. vdoniee. (Clifden blue). Adonis. ‘apilio-Adonis, Linn. Gmelin, Adonis. Fabr. England. : Inhabits chalky districts. This insect is called bg emperor, empe- . 8. Dorylas. (Common blue). Dorylas. ror of Morocco, &c. a Dorylas. Gmelin? Diese oe ida. ms a loara Lewin. ‘Larva oval, depressed. Pupa or chrysalis short, con« roys ee wo (Selded ae). “Argus. VOL, IX. PART I. : ENTOMOLOGY, Metabelia. Papilio Argus. Gmelin. Papilio malo. Gmelin, - ‘thes: Fabr Hesperia malve. oe. Ratt Latr, . f Rivest Argus. Latr. Inhabits =e Anten Tnhabite Gelde and marshes Z Ameer Boye shi Idas, 10. Fr Black-spot brown Popits Mage ot » ake ria linea, Fabr. Latr. ule Fabr. Pepto linea. Gmelin. Inhabits Europe Fag igh eis of woods, Bt teat Artaserze, = Spi 11. Prarie ic brown)-" . 6. Paniscus. (Scarce skipper). apilio Artaxser ] ’ ss is Steet, SU Hesperia Paniscus. Latr. Fabr. Inhabits Arthur's Seat, and the base of Kirk-hill, one Inhabits meadows. Very rare in Britain, excepting ef the Pentland range, near Edinburgh, in great in some parts of Bedfordshire, where it is common. len z FOR aks sprig Als. {Beto ord blue). Secr. II. Creruscutania. Wings horizontal in repose. Antenne prismatic or Pees go Fabr. fusiform. Polyommatus Alsus, Latr. The insects of this tribe constitute the Linnean pe Inhabits Europe. = nus Sphinx, which has been divided by Fabrici Argiolus. rn 13. —— oa ue). treille, Scopoli, and Hoffimansegg, into a umber ef sme rgiolus, me genera, Cymon. S14 Gen Gmelin; Lewin. r Trine I. Spuinarpes. Inleabiee In Britain it is very local. It Palpi short, covered with very short, close scales ; is found near Sherborne in Dorset, in great abun- the last joint tuberculiform and very short, dance. pie aaa Laornoe. Robey, Tans IL. Hespenipes. whee i gaa Hinder tibie with two of of Spurs, one aki recat a ee ea ia, wil eh . middle, er. Ton vated when the insect is at rest. par ag Ape: ulated. Palpi onti ous, igen Oe Famuy I. Uranida. pe 1. Nate. yaar hawkemoth).. Antennae filifi narrower and ben ing ace P age a hag ‘oaks. poe vie * aha Fabr. * CCCCXXIX. . Fabr. Latr. Spectrum ovellatem, © : ad Una- al siae a alae aa 7 Smerinthus ocellatus. Latr. ; ; Palpi with the second joint much eoerarcatert the _ Inhabits ee The larva in the willow and pop- — slender, somewhat cylindric, almost naked. My Leilug 1. Yellns 5 Tilia. Lime hawk-moth). Papilio Tatten tees Spins tilie. Linn. Gmelin. Urania Lelus. Fabr, Laothie tiie, Fabr. : Famrvy I]. Hesperida. Sheriuhus tiie, Letrelle Fmnsp or distinctly terminated with a club. Palpi ~ Inhabits the lime in the illar state: ort, thick, and squamose in front. Sp. 3. Populi. freee hawk-moth). 430. Hes. “Genus CCCCX Hesperia. Fabr. Cuv. Lam. Sphinz populi. Linn. Gmelin, - Peau. re yeas i“ popult. Fabr. a ; ct Palpi with the third joint ¢ylindric, or cylindric- Souiiihad sae mS i conic. Inhabits E The larva on poplars and willows, ‘ ° Fo tome —_ - an abrupt, very acute hook. Genus CCCC I. Spuinx hr Fabr. La- 482, ‘apilio Comma. (Gana PP on Scopo i iit See Hesperia Comma, abr. Latr. Palpi cont rome the tongue. Tongue long, Inhabits Europe. In England, near Lewes, in Sus- very distinct, convoluted. Antenne prismatic, thicker sex. towards their middle, in the males slightly ciliated. | Sylvanus ‘p. 2. —— (Wood-skipper), Abdomen with the anus not bearded. y : Hesperia Sphene, “Wks Tits Shine porcells. Gmelin, Pabriicn Larede “Pet a cius, pee jo ee ie St . ip. t haw ‘. Tages Sp. 3. Tages. (Ding skipper) Sphinx Elpenor, tint 2 Oca, . rai See Teta. "ea Inhabits s a = ioe ren Latr. sod has a 8. Linea (Serine wha Lineata. nhabits heaths bank: ink line aes le tive nls Malve. Sp. 4. Malve. (Mallow skipper). Inhabits Eprope, 6, aa Lineata of Pea: pts: (sa ENTOMOLOGY. 131 ' Rs ix distin. is distinct, Nea must be considered as a doubtful inha- Trine ZyGRNives. _ Metabolia, bi ; Palpi long, separate, covered with long scales, or _ Galii. t Gok” ery tel ellie) ee ii. Fabricius. Genus CCCOXXXIV, cers. Fabricius. 434. Eee Inhabits Europe urope. Four only have hither- = Srsia. Latreille, Laspeyres. RIA. to been taken in Great Britam ; two in Cornwall near Trocuitum. Scopoli. E Penzance, elie Feagees e etes eee Antenne fusiform, Abdomen with the anus bearded. ' near London. : Sede Api bens oom hornet-sphinx. ) Apiformis. _ Buphorbie. 8p. 5. Euphorbia. (Spotted elephant.) (tee eu Tbe, . elin, Fai Late, _ Egeria opyermis. Fab its t is very rare in Britain. e Trochilum apiforme. * larya has pens th. Sphine epiformis, Linn. Pinastri. . 6. Pinastri. hawk-moth. ) | Inhabits Europe. Spine pin pinastri. Fabricius, Gmelin. yo 2. Craboniformis. CeReDee aD RNR), Crabonifor- It has been taken near London, sia craboniformis. F abricias. mis, vo in Hettid, wood near Edinburgh. Inhabits Europe. 7. Convolvuli, (Convolvulus hawk-moth.) ' Sp. 3. Vespi ora he hornet-sphinx. ) Mi spegh Shi inz convoluuli, Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. Sphing ——. Europe. It has been taken in the most re- Inhabits ote of Great Britain, even in the Shetland Islands, Obs. Phees ate are several other species of this genus but does not make a found in Britain, but their roma have never been Ligustri. Sp, 8. Ligustri. Privet hawk-moth. wre ascertained. We Py ot pn my viz. )phins i cael abricius, Gmelin. ‘ipuliformis. (net Tipulifor- Inhabits The larva feeds on the privet and Shine tipuliformis. mis. ash. Sesia tipuliformis. Latreille. aAtropos a. 9. Atropos. Geet reece Inhabits . The larve perforate and destroy Pie Atropos. a Fabricius, the currant and where they are plenty produce ypectrum Atropos. a serious mischief. Inhabits Europe. fe nee! must be considered asa value Genus CCCCXXXV. Zycana. Fabricius. 435, Zx- able acquisition to the British cabinet, for although it be Spurx. Linn, GENA. common in the Sn eam state, yet is it bred = Antenne abruptly flexuous-clavate. Palpi cylindric, savelt ; ce eAdery ond rabbeth Ss | burnet, Filiper ‘wing is much m Sp. 1. Filipendule. (Six-spot itipee- Thsrasdeailar cosas Ts potatos felde,and ‘acd sho Seuss aebadia’ Lima : dule, to feed on the ine leaves. ipendula. Fabricius, Latreille. Ca “Phe deatl’s head hawk-moth ia distinguistied by a’ — Tahabite fields Re hae acne saat dat cee Dba, There is. another epecies har but five red blance to a From this circumstance, and that spots on the anterior wings, which is and is ‘of its uttering a sound when handled, it has been vrmaly retanrel to the Pypene toll of Faeicion considered, by the , as an animal of ill omen, and Genus CCCCXXXVI. ino. Leach. 433. Ine. » as a messenger of fate. The members of a female cén- Procrts. Fabricius, Latreille, vent, (as we learn from Reaumur,) were thrown into Zyomna. Panser, Walckenaer. ' great con on discovering one of these insects, © Sputnx. Linn. a eae Antennz of the male bipectinate, of female simple. windows during the Palpi short. 423. Sesta. Genus SXXIIL esta. Fabricius. . 1. Statices. .) Staticece -Spurwx. " Linn. Latreille. A nz statices. Paipl onbtigaas * . Zeer statices. aed Panzer. contiguous above ongue very rocris statices. Fabricius, Latreille. distinct and convoluted. isl » Ino statices. Leach. ‘towards their middle, (of the males ciliated.) solaahien thausiantioaataeiislate sain ge oe he “Wings nage \ Section TIT. Nocroaia, ’ 2 . Antenna setaceous, _ Stellatarum, f amming ied hank moth. ) Pte: enc nor rat Teat chenehation, 5 a ea stl Fabricius. Trise I. Bombycres. Tubehits Retcne: SN bieleee Raunie edi file, A nemmm et tia meelg atlnahoeseied «. Tongue nate: hs of Palpi pet short, cylindric, very hairy. Thorax not wing, on honey Wings plants. crested. Wings undivided. Sp 2. Bombyciformis. (Narrow bordered bee-hawk- - Fammuy I. Cossida, Antenne with a single series of cilix, Wings elon- iformis. Linn. gate. sl ee lag Fabricius. - Obs. The larve of this family live on the urope, on the borders of woods, solid wood of trees, which in every direc- ee oe as Broad-bordered bee-hawk-moth.) abricius, : iformis. Gmelin tnabie Europe, Gai the bentsive oe nde tion. Sides of the salis Gents CCCCXXX fe arate Fabr. Latr. Puarana (Noctua.) Aakotin posi, ertos Gin Soe, home Pal» 437. He. PIALUS. pg Hawull Mappa, 438. Cas- sus Ligniperds. <9. Zev- zeek Eeouli, 40). Sa- TURNIA Favonia . a i32 very small, Resid We a Map- swift. Ww » ( ing ) Sp 2 Moy Inhabits Britain. Has been taken near Dunstar cas-* tle, in Somerset, by Mr G. Sowerby. It may be sy- ——- with Bombys velleda of Hubner. 3. Heetus. Sage Taian Raaes Fabricius. Hepi: . Cap Obs. We have in Britain several other species, but their characters are evanescent, and their names have never been determined with accuracy. Genus CCCCXXXVIII. Cossus. Fabricius, La- treille, Cuvier. PHAuana Bomsyx. Linn. Antenne as as the thorax, setaceous, furnished with a single series of short transverse obtuse teeth. Palpi very. distinct, thick, cylindric, and squamous. Anterior wings than the posterior. Sp. 1. Li Goat Praha findabys) S, Cossus — Fabricas, ‘Latreille, reage orks oar The larva feeds on the internal yandash. The celebrated Lyonett eenortsload immortalized himself by his laborious work on the of the larva, and perfect insect. The cater- say fh a scent, by which its residence conllies be made known to those passing suc trees as are much infested by it. It remains three years in this state, when it a strong web, inter- mixed with pain of wood, and changes into the chrysalis, w June the perfect insect starts into existence, Genus CCCCXXXIX. ZEUZERA. Latreille. Bomayx. Hiibner. Hertacvs. Schrank. Puacana, (Noctva.) Linn. Cossvs. Fabricius. ite (in the male pectinated to the . 1. Zesculi. (Wood-leopard moth. Tame escult, Fabricius, ) Bombyx esculi. Hubner. Zeuzera esculi, Latreille. Phalena esculi. Linn. Inhabits Eu In England it is rather rare, but may be found in St James's Park, in July, if industri- ously sought after. Famity Il, Bombycida. Antenne of the males with a double series of pecti- nations, Obs. The larvee of this family live on the leaves of trees, Sides of the chrysalis not serrated or denticu- Genus CCCCXL. Sarurnia. Schrank. Puarana, (Atracus.) Linn, Bomnyx. Fabricius, Hubner, Latreille, Wings horizontal, Antenne the Joust eae bidentate. with the feet distinct, and resembling the x o> 1. Puvonia minor. (Emperor moth. ) ENTOMOLOGY. it does in the month of May, and i in macula,(Donovan) ; 9. Ceerul ana By . Phalena attacus pavonia minor. Linn. Tanker ia minor, Fabricius. Inhabits eso ccocKi Lastocampa. Schrank. So a with the anel Aug. Seieet ood Foon os Querciis. Bh ss Fe Phat ye as sag eae Myint. = cA Fabrician Obs. The follewing species Bombyx are referable to this genus, viz. 2. i; 3. Rubi; 4. Crategi; 5. Neustria; 6. Populi; 7. tris, The four last are distinguished by their i eng more hairy than the rest, and may be considered as forming a subdivision. Genus CCCCXLUL. Bomayx. Fabr. Latr. ‘Schrank. 442. Bom. — Superior wings deflexed, inferior ones reversed. An-®**™* tenne of the male very much Bedi er: P: ae : duced into a rostrum. naked, with tl - feet like ye oefolia (is ssn Sp. 1. moth.) Phaléena bombyx quercifolia. Linn, Bombyx ney abr.Latr. urope. Hacer: Dh the foll di ollowing indigenous us belong ae 2. Potatoria Genus CCCCXLIIL Laria. a 10. Coryli, sree Leman ll. Aig ( prominent) ; 1 ser ryt Meira ap poses ar he ing ae 3. Fascelina, pas wld Sy 4 common tussock) ; 5. Reclusa, (s . Curtula? (large chocolate-tip) ; ss ca) ‘repida, (swallow prominent) ; es whose. names are not yet Bombyx visicolora of Fabricius, (the Kentish glory.) forms a peculiar , viz. Dorvillia, Leach. Genus CCCCXLIV. Cerura. Schrank, Bomnyx. Fabricius, Latreille, PHaLana, (Bompyx.) cennaeey es Antenne in both sexes inated, and gradually ac- cuminate. Caterpillar, with the anal feet transformed ie into a furcate tail. ee > 1, Vinula, (puss moth.) ; Ms Phateena bombyx vinua. Linneus, = > Bomiyz vinula. Fabricius, Larelie Cerura vinula, Schrank. wd Loiatie ER The larva, feeds in willows and es Furcula, ag 5 Boies furcula. EB us. Inhabits Europe ; oF common in Britain. 445. Anc- F 447. Lie THost. ~ Quadra, BRROMOLO GY. Tare ll. Arcries. Palpi shes ciliated. T: or ‘ongue visible, but often short, and somewhat membranaceous. Vi gp. - 1 Vili, (ream spot tyger). Inhabits Europe. Obs. The other indigenous are, 2. , (tyger moth) ; 3. ‘clouded 5. Mendica,.(muslin) ; aiatebndcies ere ete 8. Lubricipeda, Bousyx. Fabeicins. Europe. Obs. Bombyx, 2. Rosea (vedarches) ; 3. Jacobca, wie ge ’ - Trieelll. Tinerpes. | ae a Famity I. Tineida. Antenne distant from each other. Eyes separate, di- vided by a frontlet. aa yo Drvision I. ongue distinct, Front not very hai oe CCCCXKLVIL. Liriosia. Fabr. Latr a horizontal. shorter than the head, last joint cylindric, distinctly than the second. Back my flattened. Antenne simple, or but slightly cili- . Quadra, (four- footman as (four-spotted ). ones much folded, all T dra. Lithosia quasra. Fabricius, Latreille. Inhabits Ew The other i $ species are, 2, Complana; 3. one before it. Antenne simple. 133 Rubricollis ; 4. Irrorata; with three species not yet Metabolia. ascertained, Genus CCCCXLVIII. Yronomeura. Latreille, os copay hace Riera Tinga. Wings rolled, or ry tec Palpi as | head, the third joint obconic, as sien i er ores 1. Evonymella. la. halena evonymella, Linneeus. Tinea evonymella. _ Fabricius. Yponomeuta evonymella. Latreille. Inhabits Seer. Genus CCCCXLIX. Nemarocon. Schrank. -Paavana (Trvea). Linneus. Tinea. Fabricius. Auucita. Olivier. Wings besodt Tange, 1 he back, Pal on the bac i cera a Soe the Bay ; the second j nt ioe nins the | lest joint almost nak yy Tran Fg genus a Faas? . Linneella ; 2. Flavella ; 8. Roesella, and their congeners, belong. Division II. T not distinct, short, Front very hairy. Genus CCCCL. sts Ferre Latreille. Tinga. Fabricius. Pyrauis. Hubner. Palpi two; the second joint with numerous elongate 449. Nema- POGON. 450. Eu- PLOCAMUS» scales, the third naked and ascending. Antenne much pected , alpcowr guttella, Fabri bags nea abricius. La we gyielins, Latr. Genus CCCCLI. Tinea. Latr. Fabr. Hubner. 451. Trsxs. PHALZENA (Tinea). Linneus. Palpi four, distinct, 1 stated ones small, inflexed. An- tennz simple, or slight Sp: 3 onl loth’s cee Pelionella. inea pe Fabr. Latr. Phaleesa tinea ‘tinea pelionella Linneus. Inhabits houses. Ols. All the cloth moths, of which there are seve- ral species, belong to this genus. Famity II. Nemophorida. Antennz ‘inserted very near to each other. Eyes nearly meetin, aa Genus CCCCLII. Nemornora. H Aveta. Latreille. Soar: Nemaprogon. Schrank. Auucita. Fabricius. Tinea. Hiibner, Spey (Tinea). . Forced 1 char a m Phalistia’ conea De. ¢ via. Gancita Adela ella. modi Inhabits borders of woods. Obs. All the long-horned Tate called by English Sillettins, be Terre lV. Nocrumes. Antenne setaceous, in the males sometimes pectina- ted or ciliated. Tongue’ distinct. Palpi much com. ssed. Wings horizontal or incumbent, not divided. Thorax thick, often crested. 452. Ne MOPHORA. moths, as are mgr Mota 134 eal Pawny L Erebida, i with the last joint as long or longer than the 63 Ear " Gexvs COCCLIIL, © Enssvs. Latreille. = Necrus. Oderus, Sp 1. igs eapdel. ociwa odora. Fabricius, ter odorus. Latreille. Famity I. Nocluida. es with the last joint much shorter than the pre- ceding, squamous, 454. Noe- Gesus CCCCLIV. Nocrva. Fabr. Latr. Hiibner. Bomwayx. Fabricius, Hiibner. Pracena (Bomeyx). Linneus, Puate@na (Nocrva). Linneus. Pactua, Obs, The genus Nec genus Joctua a minute inv tion. It contains several ir aeced genera, as “Ke in the ay iM Conenrtilon ie with sixteen half-loopers, their anterior feet mem- Dranacen noes Mee gaye! shorter than the others. > te ne rast, (i (clifden prepare). ; Srazini. a Ne ‘qumee.. Hobaision, Lavelle ociua the Pes Nee Noctua, "3. Nupla ; 4, Proabeas 5b. Pea 6. Maura, &c. belong. “* Caterpillars with membranaceous feet of conform- able size. 1, Wings horizontal. ie Fimbria, (broad bordered yellow underwing Nevius fimbria. Fabricius, Sp. 2. Proauba, (yellow underwing) ; 3. Orbona; 4. Janthina, &c. 2. a ings deflexed. ( 3) ny a, Rumicis, (common knot grass m 3 ~~ o moth), &c. ag . Ligustri, (coronet) ; 2. Pisi, (broom moth), . Verbasci ; 2.. Tanaceti, &c. . 1, Batis, (peach blossom * moth). be Meticulosa, (angle shades). “de Pelbies, | (pale prominent moth). a i eegi with fourteen feet. poe a pam brass moth) ; 2. Festu- Praxini. Vimbria. Tare V. Puarenipes. Antenne approximating at their base; those of the male often pectinated .or ciliated. Famity I. Phalenida. Larva with twelve feet. Gexvs Laake, Puatana. Linneus, Fabricius, Grousrna. Haworth, Hiibner. Antennw of the male Morgacita Sp. 1. j tabors bewsg emerald moth), &c, 455. Pea- Lana ENTOMOLOGY. Fammy IL. Geometrida. Larva with ten feet... > Gaexvs wigs Biston. ve ene wt Puacana. Linnaeus, Fabricius, je," Geomserra, Hiibner, Haworth, — Antenne of tho malo uch pectinated Body thick. Pal i, a oe fie aloes 2. Betularia; 3. Heol P: Cents COCOLVIL Geomerna. ean vie, ‘ Puarana. Fabricius, Latreille, Linnaeus, ~~ $51. Gro Antenne of the male pi but li extended, Sp. 1. ppc 2. mare ' a Gence CCCCLVILL. Ounapreryx: ‘Ckecyion PHALaENA, Latreille, Fabricius, Linneus. Pe, a 456. Bis- TON. , truncate, and denabiantlog « a tail. ~ “Sp 1, Sambucaria, (swallow-tail moth). fina) = Inhabits Europe. : ia Genus CCCCLIX. Apraxas. Lams a Riga ae, Se . ee Linneus, Fobeisiey Latreille, Hiibner, Asnaxas worth, Berar ‘sob ‘eilinhetd? Body slender. Palpi " essed hirsute, Wings extended horizontally, not’an- os or indented. ( — jata, (common magpie ‘imoth) ;” Grossulari. Uinvir, (scarce magpie moth), &e.. Genus CCCCLX. . Bupatus.» Drench » | 460. Bu- ; PHALENA. Lenenn Reteicits, peat 22 PALUB.) Geometra. | Hiibner, Haworth, ~ Antenne nated in the male. Bodprlindons Pale. te. Wi mpeg , ingultd o aimed gag sm : onl 1 * Piniaria Piniaria. One 2 , Phalena piniaria, Fabricius, Latzeilla, Aili woods. ihe S09 Perea CCLXI. Hierarcuus. Leach. dees Puatana, Fabr. Latr. Linn. Don Pe GromeTRra. acer a, Wings extended ob’ elys sd aay lower ones. Body tenne of the male pectinated. Sp. 1. Popshonsha pnb 2. Prunata, &e, Famuy III. Herminida. Caterpillars with fourteen feet, the anal ons ditne, the first pair of membranaceous ones wan Genus CCCCLXII. Herminia. PuaLana (Pyratis). Linneus. — Crameus. Fabricius, Bose. Mood coal Hiibner. aR 3 * ria, com , often very jure Antenne ciliated. . Sp. 1. Proboscidalis, &e. . , Jo Fairy IV. Platyptericida, eae Cunaeie with fourteen feet, anal’ ones wanting; the first pair of membranaceous ones distinct. = . GenusCCCCLXIII. Puaryrrenyx, Laspeyeres,Latr. 463. Pia- ud PHALENA. singer ‘TYPTERYX. 3 , Anterior wings fulcate. Antenne of the male pec. . pare Palpi very short, per 2 py pee’ Tongue - ort. 7 Sp. 1, Falcataria ; 2, Lacertvaring 8 Cultaria, it Falcataria, ] ENTOMOLOGY. ees Obs, The two last species have their anterior wings ‘464 Cos. oe oa CCCCLXLV. Curr, a Bomepyx. Fabricius. PLaTyPpTEnyx. Latreille,, | Anterior wings rounded. ‘Antenna of the tnale ec see Palpiv very short, somewhat conic. Tongue 1. Compressa, moth Compressa Mop presse, (goose ceg moth). Plaijperys compressa. Latreille. ; Cilix compressa. Leach. : Famity V. Tortricida. with sixteen feet. Wings, with the bo- Secekest short triangle, dilated on each side / anteriorly. 465. Ton- pes ‘CCCCLXV. Tortrix. Hiibner. TRIX. aang eae oN oroweee pales with the mons joint nt distinctly longer than the third, and more squamous ; third joint short, truncate tea not recurved over the head. 1. ¥7 3 2. Chlorana ; 3. Pomana, &c. ENus CCCCLXVI. Srcsetars, Leach. : eruis. Torrrix. Hubner. Pyaauis. Latreille. Palpi short, rising, the last joint not recurved over denieanlaeatedacundiad joints nearly equally long and equally squamose. Inferior wings not com- pletely covered by the upper ones.. pac dentana. Hiibner. | : Pyralis dentana. Latreille. Simiethes dentana.» Leach. Inhabits E Genus CCCC XVII. Nota. Leach. aw Hiibner, pepe pl short, porrect ; joint r head ; the second and third’ joints nearly equally long i ov equally squamose. Under wings completely cover- the “Spel. Pellinlatie ln gO Hiibner, Latr. Inhale Europe: , Trine VI. Pyraurpes. Palpi four. Larva (as far as has been ascertained) Famiry 1. Pyralida. Phi. odkias ¢ forming with the body a nearly hori- F Seo ee Borys. | Latr. HALANA bar, Sehr , Scopoli, P¥RALIS. NyYMPHALA. Scoputa. Bi eons Pyravusta, Senate Cramaus. Fabricius. Tongue distinct, conspicuous. Palpi exserted. ws Lemncin ker 2. Potamogata. 3. Verticalis. rENUS CCCCLXIX. Pyrauis. PHALENA (Pynazis). Lina.. Aciossa. Latreille. or. Nota. Pyraa- not recurved over the. Hiibner, Schrank,. 135 Tongue none. Pap be rei, di-p the second joint _— Noe fe squamous, th bundles, Pinguinals ais Famity II. Tineida. Superior wings very long, enveloping the sides of the a CCCCLXX, Gatteri. Fabricius, Latr. 470. Gat- Puavzna (Tinea). Linn. LERLA. Tongue very short. Palpi short: Inferior palpi lar- er “aren 3 scales ; wu ones ener by the narrow, covering and cle e sides of | body. lvearia. Spat alvearia. Fabricius, Latr. Genus CCCCLXXI. Crameus. Fabr. Latr. Puaraena (Trvga). Linn. Trea. Geoffroy. Wings narrow, convoluted round the body. Palpi exserted, inferior ones largest. Hebd with abeat Goss. ly plied scales. Tongue distinct. Alvearic. 471. . Cramevus. 1. Pineti. 2. Pascuorum. 3. Pratorum, &c. . Pineti- ween CCCCLXXIE Tinga. Hubner, Geoffroy, 472. T:- NEA. er peel Latreille. PraLana (Tinea). Linn, Yrsotoenus. Fabricius. Wings narrow abru ly deflexed, behind and above ascending. Inferior palpi with the second joint covered with numerous fasciculi of scales ; the last erect, conic, naked, Head with a bifid crest in front, Sp.1. Nemorum, 2. Vittatus, &e. Nemorum; Trise VIL. Auucrrmes. Preropuorires. -Latreille. Wings divided, or formed of feathers united at their base. Genus be some Prerornoxus. Geoffroy, 473. Pre- Latreille, Fabricius, theater ee Auvucrra, Hiibner, Schrank, Scopoli. Puatana (Axucira). Linn. Palpi small, from their base ascending, not than the head, shortly and nearly equally squamose. terior wings com of tsvo, posterior of feathers. Pupa naked su a by a hair. 4 . 1. Pentadactylus. 2. Didactylus, &e. Pentadac- Gewve CCCCLXXIV. Axverra, Hiibner, Scopoli. ty!s- Prenornorus, Geoffroy, Fabricius. gl Auv- Paacena (Anverra), Linn, Villers. Orneopss. Palpi produced much longer than the head; the se- cond foint very squamous; the last joint naked, erect, i folliculate. 1. Hexadactyla. Hexadacty- Ornesdes hexudactylus. Latreille. sea Pterophorus hex lus. Fabricius. Phalena alucita hexadactyla. Lim. Alucita heradactyla, Hiibner. Inhabits Europe, often entering houses. . ; Orver XII. TRICHOPTERA.. . Orver Tricnoprera, Kirby. Orper.Nevnoprera, Linn. Cuvier, Latr. Lam. 5 ENTOMOLOGY. Orpen, Xm. NEUROPTERA. e 136 Metabolia ——~— Characters of the Order. Wings much deflexed, with strong nervures, hispid or hairy, the lower wings plicate, Antenne inserted between the eyes, often very long, composed of an in- finity of joints. Feet elongate, spinulose. Tarsi elon- gate, five jointed ; the last joint with two small nails, Larva elongate, agile, somewhat cylindric, composed of twelve joints, the three first harder than the rest, and each bearing a pair of feet ; the last segment with two hooked It inhabits tubes nenetenged of sand, bits of weéod, stone, or grass, glued together by a cement impenetrable to roe; the perfect insect, shut Papa somewhat resembli up in the tube it lived in whilst a larva, but having the from the water wer of motion to its emerging Fin which it resides), for the purpose of changing into the fly-state. Genus I. Purycaneas, Linn. Fabr. Geoff. La- treille. Obs. This genus Dr Leach has divided. into.seve- ral from the proportion of the antenna and palpt. We shall give as many examples as we can ; t we must refer toa work which he is about) to. pub- lish, entitled Trichoptera Systematica, for a more par- ticular account, and for the characters of these and of others named, 1. Ceraclea, 2. Géera, 3. Potoma- ria, 4. ia, 5. Chimarra, 6. Vinodes, 7. Philo- polamus, 8. Neuronia. era, Tree I. Leproceripes. Antenne much longer than the whole body. Genus CCCCLXXV. Leprocerus. Leach’s MSS. Antennz simple, not “denticulated. Sp.1. Interruptus. Piruaeesd interrupta. Fabricius. Leptocerus interru Leach’s MSS. Inhabits Great Britain. It is found in great plenty near Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond, -on the mar- gins of rivulets at D near Edinburgh, and near Carlisle in northern England. It occurs during the day time on the smaller branches of trees, and in the afternoon flies about in great abundance, in flocks. Genus CCCCLXXVI. Opontocerum. Leach’s MSS, Antenne with their inner edge denticulated, Sp. 1. Griseum. ye Leach’s MSS. griseum. Tohabits Ireland and England. It is common at Dun- lough a Killarny ; and near Carlisle, on the Eden river. It has likewise been taken in Norfolk by Mr Scales, near Cheltenham, and near . Plymouth, by Dr Leach. Tarse I. Paryoaniwes. Antenne: as long as the body. ams CCCCLXXVIL. UL, Panwoawes. Leach’s MSS, ee Diy Linn. Fab Pes eee r. Latr. Genvs COCCERX VILL, Lowwepuitus. Leach’s MSS, Anterior wings slightly coriaceous, nervures hispid Order Nevnoprera. Linn, Latr, Lam, Cuvier. Class Oponata. Fabricius, one Synistara. ° Fabricius. ings four, naked, reticulated, | Nm divided oto a vast —— of areolz. Sect. I, Supuriconnes. A bs Antensise subulate, very. —— the last joint setitiem. Maxillary palpi very short. pees exehdl horizon- tally, or erect, very much Meramorpuosis Sus ane. Larva and Purz anes pose By 8 ree some the perfect insect. Trise I, Lipectunipes. i * Tarsi three-jointed, Mandibles — strong, corneous. Maxille ccvabiens strong. Wings cites # Little labgésat theitleands Rtn nated with sete or filaments.’ Bynpwvery tips Famy I. Libeltutida, - Wings horizontal. Head hemispheric, mplieric, witha dittinct vesicle, on which the little eyes are’ ina he mad ressed, ‘Lip with Abdomen more or less dep dle lamella smallest.» Genus CCCCLXXIX. Lineuiunas Linn. Fs Latreille; Leach, sormiuk eter ip wile Posterior ba alike in: both sexes, < 1. De (on ey Libellula Linn. Fabr. Late. yay) Sp. 2. Co 4 1 ya) ibellula conspurcata. TaleiBone ‘ Libellula trifusciata. Donovan. Sp. 8. Quadrimacilata. jadtimn ibellula quadrimaculata, Linn. Fabr: Donovan. ould, Sp. 4. Cancellata. - - Libellula cancellata, Linn, Donovan. | Inhabits Europe. Is common on the Croydon Canal, near London. Sp. 5. Vulgata, ; Libellula vulgata. Linn, Febr. Donovan, Sp. 6. Donovani. : : bed ibellula Donovani. Leach. ooaelnatand Libellula biguttata. Donovan. Sp. 7. Scolica. A Libellula Scotica. Leach, Donovan. us : Genus CCCCLXXX. Corputa. Leach’s MSS. 480. Con- Lipeciuta. ay BU hale Gettnted | Latreille. DULIAs Posterior wings in e into an angle at the anal edge. Sp. 1. Enea. Libellula enea, Linn. Donovan, Panzer, Latreille, Cordulia anea. Leach’s MSS, — 12 Fammy II. Aishnidess ae Wings horizontal. Head ge distinct vesicle for the little eyes, w in a straight line. Abdomen oe ac Bain iny vate. Lip with the middle lamella not” much smnaller ann CCCCLXXXI. Conputsoasren. “Leach's tsi. S. Lisetiuta. Linn. Donovan. : Asuna. Latreille. 9 5 2° Hinder wings of the male angolated at their aia 5 —— 494. Ayax. ENTOMOLOGY. ‘Metabolis. edge. Abdomen of the male clavate, of the female with an acuminated iit GoemeOoee XXXL ye Fabricius. Hinderai faba opis their anal at Abdomen in both sexes, not clavate. pier. 1, Pictiuts Litelite grandis, Linn. Donovan. Zishna grandis. Fabricius. Oke There are several European species, which ha are w ve been confounded with Aishna Genus CCCCLKXXXIV. Anax. Leach’s MSS. Wings membranaceous, with a rhomboidal stigma. Abdomen of the male not armed with a forceps-like ap- Obs. We have of this several genus indigenous spe- cies, not Genus XXXVI. Lestes. Leach. ~ ny see” oo mr and of the male armed with a Genus CCCCLXXXVII. Caxepreryx. Leach’s Acrion. Fabricius Latreille. without a real stig- Wings coriaceo-membranaceous, in of which is sometimes a rg te Obs. This genus comprehends those Agrionida with coloured wings. Trise I. Eruemenipes. much smaller than the others, sometimes wanting. winginch wale than th furnished with filaments, eiteaiee anedeste. VOL, IX. PART I. 137 Fanury I. Buetida. Metabolia. Tail with two filaments. Genus CCCCLXXXVIII. Bartis. Leach’s MSS. ei BaE- Epuemera. Linn. Fabricius, Latreille. Wings four. Sp. 1. Bioculatus. Bioculatis. bioculata. Linn. Fabr. Biietis bioculatus. Leach’s MSS. Inhabits E Genus CCC CLXXXIX. Crozon. Leach. 489. CLox- Epuemera. Linn. Fabricius. na Pallida. Wings two. eg heneg ’s MSS. Famity II. Ephemerida. Tail with three filaments. Genus CCCCXC, Epuemera. Linn. Fabr. Latr. 490-Erur- Leach. MERA, Sp. 1. Vulgata. Vulgata. Ephemera snigule Linn. Fabr. Inhabits Europe. Sect. II. Frurcorwes. Antenne longer than the head, not subulate. Wi generally defiexed, or incumbent. _ Trise I. Panorprves. | Head anteriorly produced into a rostrum. Physapida, anterior ones somewhat ones very long, linear. Famuy I. Wi extended, - gu Jed, the hi Ocelli none. Genus CCCCXCIL Puysarvs. Panorpa. Linn. Fabricius. Nemoptera. Latreille. rl nel Linn. Fabr. Nemopleracoa. Latreille. Inhabits Portugal, Spain, and the islands of the Ar- 491. Pay- SAPUS. Coa. Famizy II. Panerpide, ovate-elliptic, one over the other. Oumitecan i i ina 5 Genus CCCCXCII. PANoRPA. Linn. Fabr. Lam, 492. Pa- NORPA. Tarsi with two bent claws, denticulated beneath, ha~ ving a spongy pulvillus between them. Palpi nearly me hep ar with their the last joint Mandi- ints distinctly bidentate. Abdomen of the male with wey art” three last joints forming a tail armed 1. Communis. Fourie communis. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Panz. Inhabits E Genus CCCCXCIII. Birracus. Latreille. PANnorpPa. Linn. Fabr. _ Tirsi with a nail. Palpi of the maxilla dis- labial ones ; the second and third long. Sp-1. Tipularius, Obscure reddish; wings imma- Ss 158 Metsbalis. culate; external margins ciliated; stigmata obscure ; ts of the tibie fuscous. Linn. Fabr, Tare ll. My /RMELEONIDES.® Antenne thicker towards their extremities. Palpi six. Bern equal. -Tarsi five-jointed, the first and last joints ; claws two, strong, elongate, acute. Gexus CCCCXCIV. Myamereon. Linneus, De Geer, Fabricius, Latreille, Leach. Antenna graduall Pace towards their extremities ; shorter than the toy: es entire. Abdomen very long, linear. Labial ‘pi very long, apex obconic, - . —e Libelluloi- "Sp. 1. Libelluloides. ellow, lineated with black ; antennae black ; wine: 7 Lean, with distant spots and points of blackish colour ; under wings less maculated, Pith two abbreviated blackish bands ; feet vari eleon libelluloides. Linn. Latr. Fabr. Inhabits the south of Europe, and all Africa. Genus CCCCXCV. etd Geoff. Leach. Myameteon. Lim. Fabricius, Latreille. Antenne gradually thicker towards their extremi- ties ; shorter than the —— Ey ote eee tere v , linear. Labi ji wil it in- pw fire iform, Pormeceot me atm the apex. Formicari- Sp. 1. Formicarius. Wings hyaline, apex acute ma- us. culated with fuscous ; Inhabits Germany. => hn taba) Fay IT. Osmylida, ¢ tonto _ Cea iss Bieta, 8 “95 ew ae Genus CCC smyius. Latreille. 49. Osarx- Hemerosius. Fabr. Villers, Roemer, Donovan. 5 nee Antennz moniliform, . Sp. 1. Maculatus. Fuscous; head and fol nee Maculatus.. ceous ; wings hairy, the upper ones and the mar gin of the inferior ones spotted with black. veh Hemerobius maculatus. Fabricius, = Hemerobius chrysops. tea Donovan. Hemerobius fulvicephalus. . Inhabits France, ei my a contin ane ed with Hemerobius chrysops « einer Trine IV, Gonwhnasmad Thorax with the first ent , not much longer than broad. Tarsi rigs sarge ings of ee size. : resembling each “Corgdatida. EeeyA :" Ocelli three a triangle. Wings incum- bent a arsi iwith all the joints entire. Genus D. oryYDALIS. Latreille, ornare Hemerosius. Fabricius, Olivier. Rapurpia. Linn. Antenne simple, the joints very short, cpliaahele. Mandibles v dango: as-lempgide shan aheees Head broader than the thorax. Obs. Latreille considers this genus isiakieyt Raphidia, notwithstanding the diference oF the tars joints, both in number and form. Sp.1. Cornuta. Hemerobius cornutus. H} Corydalis cornutus, _Latreille, Palissot de Beauvos Raphidia cornuta. Linn. Inhabits Africa, and part of America.’ Genus DI. Cnavutiopes, Latreille, Palissot. Hemerosivus. Linn. De Geen, Olivier... Semputs. Fabricius. Antenne pectinated. Mandibles shart. Head of the “i nN + ghad wade D vtta)h th Fabricius, Olivier. © Sp. 1. Pectinicotnis. hee pectinicornis. Linn. ctinicornis. Fabricius. — Cheuho pectinicornis, Latr. Palisot de Beauvois. set 4 mm la + Hemrrobius phalani ides Dr Leach places in a peouliar genus named Darraxreteayx. : Slo the firet volume ef the Zoological Mieellany, is instituted a new genus, named NymrHeEs, which belongs to this family. < 3. iT ae Tan TSMily II. Sichdg,” een Wings deflexed. Tarsi with the last joint but one bifid. Ocelli none. — DIL. Siatis. re oe EMEROBIUS. Geoffroy, Geer, Olivier. mere Fabricius. ; . 1. Niger. Flemérobes ic notr. Hemerobius ius. . Linneus ? Semblis lutrarius? Fabricius. Inhabits Europe. _ The larva in water. "Tring V.. Mantispipes. 502. Sra- LIs, Niger. Anterior feet raptorious. Thorax with the first seg- ment large, long. Tarsi five-jointed. Wings of equal ize, deflexed. size, Genus DIII. Manrtispea. Iliger, Latreille. Rapuipra. Scopoli, Linnzus. Mantis. Fabricius, Pallas, Olivier. Nerveures hairy. Pagana, Sp. 1. Pagana. Pubescent-yellowish ; thorax rough- ish ; elytra with a yellowish costa, stigma darker. 503. Mas- TISPA. Tripe VL Rapurpives. Wings of equal size. Thorax with the first nt large. Tarsi with four distinct joints, the last but one _ bilobate. Antenna nearly setaceous. Ocelli three, ina 504 Ra- Genus DIV. puipia. Linn, Geoff. De Geer, PHIDIA. — Fabr. Oliv. Lam. Latr. Head oval, narrowed behind, inflexed. Thorax with the first segment very. narrow, and somewhat ; cylindric, Anus of ‘the with two united Seta. Ophiopsis. i 1 Ophii is. I its Europe. Trize VII, Termrrives. Wings of equal size, horizontally incumbent. Thorax with the firs ent large. Tarsi with three = joints, the penulti joint entire. Antenne monili- form, inserted before the eyes. Head short, rounded behind. Ocellus one. The animals of this tribe congregate in numbers, and live in societies, being generally known by the ‘term white ants, a name applied to all the species in- 405.Tex- Genus DV. Tenmes. Linn. De Geer, Fabr. Oliv. aS. Lam. Latr. Perta. De Geer. Hemexosivs. Linn. Lucifugum, Sp. 1. Lucifugum. Black, shining, and pubescent ; thorax transversely quadrate, with angles rounded, with an impression on each side. of the anterior s the intermediate somewhat carinated ; tot mine rane, ~ eens of the joints the antenna, tibiee, and all i, : ( excepted), ne Termes lucifugum. Rossi, Latreille, Inhabits Italy. ENTOMOLOGY. - Trine VIII. Psocines. Inferior wings’smaller than the superior ones. Some are apterous. Palpi two, composed of four joints.. _Famity I. Psocida. Tarsi two-jointed. _ —. : Genus DVI. Psocus. Latr. Fabr. Lam. Coquebert. 506. Pso- Hemerosius. Linneus. nies Wings four, ae 1. Bipunctatus. Variegated with. yellow and Bipuncts-. black; head above the clypeus blackish; superior ™* wings with a small costal mark, and another on the . Opposite margin black ; the interjected cords blackish; sti white, with a black spot. us bipunctaius. Latreille, Fabricius, Coquebert. Hemerobius bipunctatus. Linn. Inhabits Europe. Famiry IT. Tarsi three-jointed. Genus DVII. Arropos. Leach’s MSS. Termes. Linn. De Geer. Psocus. _ Fabricius, Latreille, Coquebert. Pepicunus. (Pou,) Geoffroy. Sp. 1. Lignaria, ermes jatorium. Termes lignarium. De Geer. Le Pou du Bois. Geoffroy. - Psocus pulsatorius. Fabricius, Latreille, Coquebert. Inhabits old books, often beating like a. watch, whence it has acquired the name of death-watch. Psocus fatedicus of Fabricius, is referable to the ge- nus A but. whether it be a distinct species from Alropos ia is certainly very doubtful. . Trine IX. Percanripes. Inferior larger than the superior ones, wit! longitudinal folds, Parsi with three joints. Mandible$ distinct. Thorax with the first segment large. , Obs. The wings horizontally incumbent. Genus DVIII. Nemovura. Latreille. Purycanea. Linneus. Penta. Geoffroy, De Geer. Semeuis. Fabricius. Labrum very distinct, almost semicircular, Man- dibles corneous. Palpi filiform. Tarsi, with equal lengthened joints (the middle one scarcely shorter) not beneath, Anus without sete, Sp. 1. Nebulosa. Fuscous-black, pubescent ; abdo- Newitosa. men and feet reddish-fuscous ; wings cinereous, imma- culate, the nerveures darker. , Le Perle Brune a ailes pales. Geoffroy. Nemoura nebulosa. Latreille. Inhabits Eu Genus DIX. Perta. Geoffroy, De Geer, Olivier, 509, pen. Lamarck, Latreille. LA. Purycanea. Linn, Semauis. Fabricius, Labrum obscure, transversely linear. Mandibles al- most membranaceous. Palpi eae setaceous, Tarsi with the two basal joints shorter than the third. Anus with two long sete. Sp. 1. Marginata. marginata, Fabricius, Perla gs aa Latreille. Inhabits Europe. ‘ Phryganea bicaudata of Linneus belongs to this genus, Atropida. 507. ATre- Pos, Lignaria. Linn. 508. NE« MOURA. Marginata 140 Metabolia. —_—_— Oapen XIV. HYMENOPTERA. Orper Hyuenorrena. Linn. Latr. Lam. Cuvier. Crass Prezata. Fabricius. Characters of the Order. nervured, (the monet hare lomprein vines) the ‘inferior ones smaller than the upper. Anus fds femslos wih: a ting Sunetibech Secrion I. Tereprantia. Ovidact lamelliform or filiform, in a few resembling “ and valved ; the bivalve, received ina canal before the anus, the valves com in some compressed lamelliform ; in others ongate- cylindric, setaceous. Division I. Abdomen united to the thorax along its whole breadth, without any distinct peduncle. Tae Il. Tenrurepinives. Abdomen sessile. Oviduct composed of two lamellae which are serrated. Mandibles more or less long, ter- minated by two strong teeth. Wings with the mar- ginal cells complete. Famity I. Tenthridinida. Labrum distinct. Larve with membranaceous feet. Genus DX. Crsex. Oliv. Fabr. |, Latr. Tenturepo. Linneus, Jurine, Panzer, De Geer. Crapro. Cuavertania, De Lamarck. Antenne terminated by a distinct club, nearly ovoid. Obs. This genus is artificial ; it contains several na- tural genera, which may be defined from the joints composing their antennz. * Antenne with five joints before the club, which is nearly solid. rey Fenshala: Fabricius, Sp. 2. Azillaris. Panzer. 510. Cime SEX. Femorata, 8, ots Antenne with four j joints before the club, which is indistinctly articulated. ’ Amerine. Y Fabricius, Panzer. 5. Marginata. Fabricius, Panzer, S c . 6. Leta. Panzer. 7. Obscura. Panzer. pple ome mp Romer alps psn which is _——r Sp. 8. Faciata. bricius, Panzer. *** Antenne with four joints before the club, Ba is com of three joints. abricius, Panzer. Saeeiaien sericea and nitens of Linneus are but Sericea, $ll.Hyto- Genus DXI. Hyzoroma. : . Spinoli. TOMA. Tenturepo, Linné, Geoffroy, De Geer, Panzer, Lamarck, Olivier. Cryptus. Jurine. Ance. Schrank. Antenne gradually thickening towards their extre- mities, composed of three joints. Superior wings with * Some species which are placed in this genus by Latreille, have ten or fourteen joints in their antenna ; these should constitute distinct ENTOMOLOGY. —" fi cells, and cell. 4 Ee one marginal cell emitting Metabolis. Sp. 1. Rose. Rose. enthredo rose... Linn. Hylotoma rose. Fabricius, Latreille. ope Europe. cata er Pe lama frat of a 4 ig fetal the genuine Hylotome, , by heving having filiform pack and sheald constitute a peculiar genus. Genus DXII. Tenrurepo.* Linné, Geoffroy, De $12. Tex Geer, Latreille. THREDO. Attaytus. Jurine. ae > Antenne simple, composed nine joints. Superior wings with two santinoal and with ae submarginal = Tonthrede 8 rie. Linn, Fabr. orprres Taya Allantus sero ie. Jurine. ‘ Inhabits Scrophularia nodosa and aquatica: when in — 2. Militaris. Militaris. Tate militaris. a leas Inhabits places margins wiley! Genus DXIII. Doxervs. Jurine, Latreille, 513. Dotr- Tenturepo. abricius, a “aoe tens with ye Antennz simple, nine-joini wige: two oo and three submarginal cells. 1. Gonagra. Gonagra. Toerus ae Jurine, Latreille. . Tenthr Fabricius, Panzer. ; ” Inhabits Barope arm — DXI pcg ted Jogng, Late 514. Nz- ntennz simple, nine- MATUS, one apr i aaemagheel bee l. i enthredo seplentrionalis. Fabr. Panzer. Nematus septentrionalis. Jurine, Latr. Inhabits the European woods. . Genus DXV. Pristipnora. Latr.. _ $15, Pris- Preronis. x os ae niet le onde Antenne simple, nine-join perior wings be one marginal, and three Lares rane paren bidentate. . 1. Testacea. Heronus tesiaceus. Jurine. a4 2180? Pristiphora testacea. Latr. ; Genus DXVI. Cuaprus. Latr. Illiger. Tenturepo. Panzer. nok Antenne nine-j pero wing with one marginal and in the female. Soper ene ee and four sul Sp. 1. Dij ent ° Cladius di . Latr. Inhabits 5 Genus DXVII. Lopnyrus. Latr. Preronus. Jurine. Hytotoma. Fabr. atl y Linn. De Geer, Oliv. Lam. iemets i Antenne pennated in the males, vrata ni if males. Su ior wings with one marginal and brea cl” Mandibles tridentate. — Pn Panzer. ENTOMOLOGY. Fammy Il. Xiphydrida. Labrum obscure. Larvae with scaly feet, or at least not membranaceous. 518. Ms. | Genus DXVIII. Mecatapontes. Latr. Spinoli. catapoy- Tarpa. Fabr. Panzer. TES. Crepnatera, Jurine. Manible long, slender, and strongly bent. Neck ibles , not elongate. Oviduct not exserted. Antenne pecti- nated or serrated. Cephalotes. Genvs DXIX. Pampumuus. Latr. Olivier. na ae Hs Linn. Lamarck, Panzer. YDA. . Spinoli. Cepuareia. Jurine. Psen. Schrank, 519. Pam- PHILIvs, and HUS, Inhabits German: Genus DXX. Smex. Linn. Astatus. Klug: Tracuetus. Jurine. Mandibles exserted, longer than wide. Neck long. Oviduct exserted. Antenne inserted in the front be- tween the eyes, gradually thicker externally, See mem 1. Cophus Late, Fabr Inhabits Genus D Srrex. Linn. Urocervus. Jurine. Hysonotvs. KI Fabr. Panz. Troglodyta. | Pygmaus. . Xirnyori. Late. Fabr, Pane. 141 Latr. Fabr. Jurine, Metabolia 522. Orys- Sus. Genus DXKXII. Onyssus. SpuHex. li. , Mandibles with their internal edge not dentated. Maxillary palpi long and pendulous, Antenne fili- form, compressed, inserted under the anterior margin of the clypeus. Superior wings with one marginal cell, and two submarginal, the last incomplete. Oviduct capillary, hidden in a longitudinal groove. Sp. 1. Coronatus. Oryssus coronatus. Fabr. Latr. Coquebert. ssus vespertilio. Klug, Panzer. Scopoli. Coronatus- Sphex abietina. Inhabits Europe. Genus DXXIII. Unrocervs. Lam. Latr. Leach. Smrex. Linn. Fabr. Jurine, Panz. Klug, Leach. Icuneumon. De Geer, Scopoli. Mandibles dentated on their internal edge. Maxil. i very small. Labial palpi terminated by a very thick, hairy joint. Antenne ually aan. i the Geoff. Scheff. Oliv. 523. Uro- CERUS. from their characters, are evidently natural * Antenne with 25 joints. Abdomen of the female Ae Fn an abrupt horn. La« i palpi ith a distinct basal joint. Maxillary with two distinct joints sean length. yrocr. Genus Urocerus. Leach. RUS. Sp. 1. Gigas. Gigas. Inhabits Is rare in Britain. 2. Psyllius. trex psyllius. Fabr, Klug. U; igas. » Soden, Cates ** Antenne with 21 or 23 joints. Maxillary i pews their basal joint = ge A scarcely te ound, A, Abdomen of the female terminated by an abrupt, horn. Labial palpi distinctly triaticulated.. Genus Sirex. : Sp. 3. Spectrum. _ Strex emarginatus. Fabr. (Male Sirex spectrum. Linn. Panzer, . (Female). Urocerus spectrum. Latr. B. Abdomen of the female with the extremity gra- dually acuminated. Sp. 4. Juvencus. Sirex . Linn. Fabr. Sirex noctilio. Fabr. Panzer, SiREx. Spectrum. Juyencus. pone Inhabits E Is rare in Britain. Genus DXX pal jo eaty ack mach very hairy. * This tribe, Dr Leach has proposed to divide into two families, the one to contain the genus Oryssus, the other Sirex, Urocerus and. Division IL. | Abdomen united to the thorax by a slender pe- duncle. Taser UT. Evanwes. Inferior wings with very distinct nervures. Antenne with 15 or 14 joints. Gexus DXXV. Eyania. Fabr. Oliy, Lam. Ju- rine, Panzer. Sraex. Linn. Icuneumon. De Geer. Abdomen small, much , triangular or ovoid, ly pediculated, fi. enor inserted Ann i metathorax. * Antenne with the third joint much longer than the second, U; wings with distinct ner- poy and cells. bn a ie ro truncate-unidentate. i wi five distinct joints, the basal joint obsolete ; the last joint but one of the labial palpi much dila- ted. Superior wings with a tri marginal cell ; first submar; po es mage hee second open ; three middle open . Sp. 1. Levigata. Evanie lisse. Oliv. Evania appendigaster. Fabr. Evania levigata. Latr. Inhabits America. Dr Leach pe aaa le en on r8 fa, pomea boxes of American insects, and he possesses two specimens taken at large in London. #* Antenne with the third joint much longer than the second. Upper hc with distinct ner- vures and cells. Mandibles with their internal edge distinctly and. acutely tridentate. _Maxil- lary palpi with six distinct joints ; the last joint but one of the labial palpi not much dilated. Superior wings with the marginal cell’ semi- ovate ; middle cells two; apex without cells, Sp. 2. Appendigaster, } vania appendigaster, Panz. Oliv, Latr. Sphex appendigaster. Linn. Inhabits southern France, Spain, and Italy. *** Antenne with the third joint not much longer than the second. Superior wings with the ner- vures and cells obliterated. - 3. Minuta. , vania minuta. Oliv. Fabr, Latr. Brachygaster minutus. Leach’s MSS. Inhabits France and England. pbs Gexvus DXXVI. Fasvs.. abr. Latr, Jurine, Panz. lounsunon, Linn. Geoff. De Geer. ~Gastenvrtion, Latr (obsolete). Neck ae Hinder tibiw clavate, _ Abdomen a . 1. Jaculator, 525. Eva- NIA Jaculator. Fabr, Panz, Latr, ~~ ENTOMOLOGY. .treille. Lae te I PRA Baacon. Fabr.‘Panger: ““ivereool i i ell Thorax much attenuated anteriorly. Metathorax Tehneumon j tor. Linn. nctelhs daia wet dd Inhabits d an S- > ee meee — Gexus DXXVIL Pexrcinvs. Late. Fabr. 627. Penx- Neck not a t. Hinder tibise clavate. Abdo. omes. men slender, long, and filiform, Sp. 1. Polycerator.. . ens Polycera- elecinus polycerator. “Late, Fabr, ben bial Inhabits America. NT , <2) aa Genus DXXVIII. Avtacus, Jurine, Spinoli. 528. Ava ed yl nele, eeanael the net elev. Be i extremity of an elevation ere ovary ofaenee! 6 ea yA 1, Stiriatus. y tat tons red Striatus. ulacus striatus. Jurine, Latr. Inhabits the Alps. in Trine IV. IcuNeuMoNipes, — a Abdomen attached to the thorax by’ a’ part of its transverse diameter. Inferior wings with very distin =o nervures. Antenna with'2} joints and more, | athe Famuty I. Stephanida, whee Mandibles’ terminated by an entire point, or with but a very obscure notch: Head globose, Genus DXXIX. Srepnanus. Jurine, Miger, La- 529. Sree lindric, straight or horizontal. Abdomen inserted at the superior and posterior extremity of the metathorax, ent abruptly narrower than the rest. Sp. 1. Coronatus. Am Rtephitnts coronates, Jurine? Latyl een Ne? Bracon serrator. Fabr. Panzer, Inhabits Germany. ” » ar DeNs Gexus DKXX. Xonipes. Latr. 530. Xont- Anomaton. Jurine. DES. Cryprus. Fabr. Ut am) id ra Metathorax with the hinder segment convex; and at = the apex rounded. Abdomen distinctly: é inserted under the posterior and superior apex of the = metathorax. , et : Sp. 1. Indicatorius. ee Tndicate. orides indicatorius. Latr. i meres Inhabits Europe. Lah iz 1 Wate sata Famity II. Ichneumonida,, Mandibles bidentate, or notched at their extremity. »» Drviston I. ee Abdomen with five very distinct segments, read rd Subdivision 1. reprise liane eld Superior wings with the first subeosrgital inal cell very large ; the two discoidal cells situated longitudinally, one above the other. — Genus DXXXI. Icnneumon. Latreille, 531, Tene Maxillary palpi with very unequal joints. Oviduct *EUMON: with its base not covered by a scale, ex Obs. This genus, which Pan 9 ttentiv i exa~ é £ mined by Latreille, consists of several natural x a; } but the ‘characters are obscure, and are not yet fully understood. Under this, head, the following. gé or parts of them), posed by Jurine, Ftccas anzer, Iliger, and Walckenaer, are fo BA sien anil viz. 1, Cryptus, 2. Bassus, 3. Pimpla, 4. Joppa, 5. Me- +e topius, 6. Trogus, 7, Alomya, 8, Peltastes, 9, Ophion, 8. F and, 10. Bane: etabolia. The following divisions are proposed by Latreille, SN ooo etettied ticecinccth to a wrdyubses nie 7 . © Division A. Abdomen but little or not at all compressed, Subarysss0n a. 1. ara > ow sp id t t 1 ly truncated ; b = 1S cylindric, with avery short peduncle. - Genus Piwpca of Fabricius, .. 2. ** Abdomen somewhat ovoid, wi t ovoid, with the peduncle long, slender, and arcuate. ‘y Genus Crayptus of Fabricius. sliquely truncated ; oviduct scarcely 3. * Abdomen cylindric, almost sessile. Genus Meroptus of Panzer; Peiasrss of Illiger. 4, ** Abdomen almost fusiform or cylindric, u- ally narrower towards the base ; the cle not slender or arcuate. , _ Genus Atomya of Panzer. 5. *** Abdomen elli or ovalate, with the pe- duncle and “ * Genus Icuneumon of Fabri Genus Oputon of Fabricius. 7. ** Abdomen with the apex pointed, Genus Bancuus of Fabricius. Genus DXXXII. Acanirus. Latr. Crayprus. Fabr. Panzer. . Icunrumon. Schieffer, Scopoli, Oliv. : Palph wane thats unlike each othe ] joints not very r. Oviduct covered at its base by a large scale, od! Sp. 1. Dubitaror. n Cryptus dubitator. Fabr. Panzer. Accenitus dubitator. . Latr. Inhabits Germany. Subdivision 2. Superi ings with the first inal cell small, area er 6 sab rer it transverse line by the side of each other. . $83. Baa. Genus DXXXIIL Bracon.. Jurine, Fabr. Panzer, gow. i inoli, Latr. s eller Linn, Scopoli, Schrank. Virro. Latr. (Rejected name). Mouth into a rostrum. Superior wings 532. Acx- NITUS. Dubitator. 2 desertor. r 584. Aca- ©° Genus DEXAIV. * AGatuis. THIS. Ichweumon. } Bracon. Fabr. Spinoli. Mouth oe into a rostrum. the second submarginal cell very ya Sp, 1. Panzeri. “Iehacumor panzeri, Jurine, eur Agithis ale Latreille. Final oder e ior wings with Panzeri, ; ENTOMOLOGY. 143 Genus DXXXV. Microcaster. Latreille, Iliger, Metabolia, Icuneumon. Linneus, Fabricius, Jurine, Rossi. Oe cas. Ceropates. Fabricius. m i’ TER. Cryetus. Fabricius. - Bassus. Panzer. Mouth not produced. Abdomen very small and de- Oviduct. short.) Superior: wi with one marginal cell nearly obsolete in some, and three sub- marginal; the second minute, the last terminal imperfect. Sp. 1. Deprimators,.\ « at Ichneumon deprimator. Fabricius. Microgaster deprimator. _Latreille.. Inhabits Germany. Division IT. Abdomen almost inarticulate, with but three distinct Deprima- tor. segments. Genus DXXXVI. Sicatruus. ‘Latreille, Spinoli. Spuznopyx. Hoffmansegg. Cryptus. Fabricius. Icuneumon. Fabricius. Cuetonvs. Jurine, Panz. Iliger. Bracon. Jurine. Sp. 1. Irrorator. Sigalphus irrorator. Latreille. - Cryptus irrorator.. Fabricius. Famity III. Alysiada. _ Mandibles tridentate at their extremities, forming an square. ; Genus DXXXVII. Atysta. Latr, Cryptus. Fabricius. Bassus. Panzer. Bracon. te « Cecuenvs. Iliger. Sp. 1. Mase Coyeei manducator. Fabricius. Bracon manducator. Jurine. Bassus manducator. Panzer. . Inhabits 536.S1GAL- PHUS. {rtorator. 537. ALY- SIA, Mandugay tor. . Trise X. DirLorepipes; Abdomen inserted to the thorax by a part only of its transverse diameter. Inferior wings without disti nervures. Body not contractile into a sphere. Ab« domen > eager or depressed. Oviduct filiform. Palpi very short. Antenne filiform, straight, from thir- teen to sixteen-jointed. Famuty I. Diplolepida. Abdomen very shortly, or not at all pedunculated, Genus DXXXVIIL. Inanta. Latreille, Iliger. . Bancuus.. Fabricius. Sagaris. Panzer. ., Cynies. Jurine. Abdomen very much compressed, knife-shaped, An« tenn a cylindric. Sp. 1. Cult i. Ibalia cultellator. Latreille. Banchus cultellator. Fabricius. Sigavis cultellator. Panzer. I its Germany and the south of France. Genus DXXXIX. Diptoveris. Geoffroy, Olivier, Panzer, Illiger. id Cyxies_ Linneus, Scopoli, IMliger. Abdomen with the inferior part compressed, triangu. Jar-ovoid. Antenne filiform, joints eyindric. 538. TRa- LIA. F Cultellator, 539. Dr- PLOLEPIS. * 144 LQ fol : ak amen Genus XL Forres. Latr. Jarine. Cyrxirs. Rossi. Abdomen with its inferior part lar-ovoid. Antenne moniliform, extremities. Pts wetellr oe Latr. eel Gigients Fay Ul. Eucharida, Abdomen with a very distinct elongate Genus DXLL Evcnants. Latr. Fabr. Icuneumon. - Kossi. Cuaccis. Jurine. Sp. 1. Ascendens. Eucharis ascendens. Inhabits Germany. Trive VI. Cynipsipes. Abdomen attached to the thorax by a clea transverse eas Inferior wings without distin Bod tractable into a ball. ‘Abdo. ay . Oviduct filiform. Pal- triangu- towards their uncle. ‘anzer, Spin. Latreille, Fabricius, Panzer. Famiuty I. Chalcida, Hinder tibie very much arcuated. Genus DXLII. Levcosris, Fabr. Oliv. Panz. Ju- rine, Iliger, Spinoli, Latr. Vespa. Sulzer, Christus. Abdomen as if sessile, somewhat ovate, compressed, thicker above. “cally img? palpi. with the second and long. Superior wings longitudinal. Serichene the marginal and the submar- Vinal elle ditinct, abbreviated, open. pS Gigas. tied vi Inhabits France and Germany. ‘ 545. Cual- Genus DXLIL Cuaucis. Fabr. Oliv. Panzer, Ju- om rine, Illiger, Latr. Spex. Spee pve [tatibanlihingten, not sessile, terminated by i Su sake not folded, with the margi- ae iad ohare vane jell pane ox sisaiated Maxil- Sais, wah the hast Soler but one shorter than the pa i ot2. Lev. Cosris, Gigas. Clavipes. * ree with a very short peduncle. Minuta 2. Minuta, © minuta. Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. Inhabits Europe. Famuty IL. Hinder tibia straight. Cynipsida, ENTOMOLOGY. . Deviston L. Anterior segment of the thorax large, a trans- verse quadrate, or triangular, with the apex obtuse or truncate. Subdivision“. Mandibles with three « or four teeth. Thorax with the Genus DXLIV. Evrytoma. “‘Miger, 1 Latréille. Icuneumon. De Geer. Ovnirs. Fabricius, Schrank. — Dietoteris. Fabricius. Evcuants. Fabricius, Pastde? Cuarcis. Jurine. nares — tenne with distinct, rounded joi pe fags 5 in the males. ‘aphaner aaah presed. iduct moderately exserted, - 1. Serratule. nse Serratule. ips serratule. Fabricius. haris serratule, Panzer, serratule. Liatreille. Inhabits German Genus DXLV. Nita! Geoffroy, Scheff, Fabr. Sate Olivier, Walck. Latreille. Icuneumon. Linneus. Dievoteris. Fabr. Illiger, Spin. Cueptes. Fabricius, Cuatcis. Cuvier, Lam. Jurine. Antenne with A cadena cylindric joints. bdomen compres- hi 1, Capreee. (Soi cope. Fabrics, Laie, Subdivision 2. ; Mandibles with three or four teeth. Thorax with the anterior segment rounded. Anientise 0% oF Soyen- | jointed, branched sometimes in the males. Genus DXLV}. Evtopuvs. Geoffroy, Olivier, Latr, 546. Ev- . LOPHUS. | ; : Icuneumon. Linneus, De Geer, Spinoli, Dirtoteris. Fabricius, Spinoli. Ciepres. Fabricius. Cynips. Christus, Jurine, een Lamarck, Jurine. Ramicsrnis, Diplotene ramicornis, es ichabies Bae Europe. ~ Poe Subdivision 8. Thorax with the anterior nt attenuated in front, somewhat conic. Mandibles bidentate. Genus DXLVII. Cieonymus. Latreille, | Drevoreris. Fabricius, Spinoli, Icuneumon. De Geer, Rossi. Antenne inserted towards the middle of the face, Seay palpi hia way labial with three joints. Ab- Ramicornis, 547. CrE0- NYMUS, 5) Depressi Diplolepit depre depressa. Fabricius, Cleonymus depressus. Latreille, Inhabits Europe. | Genus DXLVIII. Sparaneia. Latreille, Spinoli. 548. spa. Antenne inserted near the mouth. Palpi ‘biarticu- LANGIA. late. Abdomen ovate-conic, ms Cag Oty, tee 2 549. Prem. LAMPUDS. - Violaceus. 550. Pre- ROMALUS. Tortricis, Sp.1. Nigra. porn sing memati Drvision HI. . ro e Thorax with the anterior segaitnt very short, cans Verse-linear. Subdivision 1, — Tet Mandibes most quadrate with three oF four dis tinct teeth. Genus DXLIX. Peritamevs. pe Datveilig: . PLoLepis: °Fabrieius, Iliger, Panzer, ‘pinot. Cuatcis. Rossi, Cuvier, poner tes Br) Cynips. Olivier, Walckenaer, Mandibles wraniehy South: vag ot the antennwe » fusiform. | nm Uv ilaheebisestatic) powri a ih o “Fabrici P eiolacens. Latreiile.; : f (ALG Benvs L. PreromMavus. ener Icuneumon. Linneus. Diecocerts. et a ot Sa Cxiepres. Fabridius. Cynirs. omar ass semnlaptbrtciol. Baiada Subdivision 2« Mandibles terminated if @ point, with tewwediore lead “i teeth. 551. Ex- «Genus DLI. Enoyrtus. Latreille. © CYRTUS. re SETH iii 552. PLA~ Ieuyeumon. Rossi. Mrra? Schellen Mandibles with but one tooth. Abdo- Sin Sextaii tae Head much compressed 1. Infidus. n ‘chnenmon infidus. _ Rossi. 22 Latreille. Mira mucora? "Schellenberg? ‘Inhabits Genus DLIL. Pratycaster. ‘Latreille. axyoasten. ScErto. Rugulosus. - 554. Te- LIAS, Latreille, ected name. Mandibles ees two teeth. ) Abdomen elon- Genus DLIIL ‘Scruro. . Latreille. Cerapuron? Jurine; Mandibles terminated by two teeth. Abdomen elon. is ee ae * ssarseallare" pear Sek a Genus DLIV. Tettas. Latredlin. co Agee Mandibles terminated by two teeth. Abdomen elori- gate, depressed, As ‘twelve jointed. ee ‘Trine VIL. Procrorrupipes. | Abdomen attached to the metathorax by a its transverse diameter. Inferior ‘tinct nervures. Body not contractable VOL. IX. PART I, wil i a ball.) Ab- ENTOMOLOGY. 145 domen compressed, or depressed, the hinder extremity Metabotia. produced into a point or tubular tail, which is seintlie or bivalve. TREE SR eS EES Division I. Thorax not binodate, the anterior segment transverse, arcuate, She i. ' Antennz with the first joint very 1 ‘iedited to- r hesrtna the mouth. ~ , ay ees Genus DLY. Srarasion. a oe .1Cenarpron. Jurmey res Antenne twelve-joimted. aikeeeiens ellijpties): de. pressed, without any very:distinet peduncle. ? Sp. 4. Frontale. Frontale. ; frontale, ‘Latreille. . CEraplrn cornulus. Sarine} (fomule: y France. : “ Genus DLVI. Cekivanost Jurine, Spinola, Latr. pos CERA- Antenne eleven-jointed. ar aco oomngeess- lg ed, petncelesed distiietly, | wi Sp. 1. Sulcatus, Sulcatus. ron sulcatus. Juries, spinklhy Latreille. Genus DLVII. Anreon. Jurine, Latreille. 55%. Aws Antenne ten-jointed. Abdomen very distinctly and 7=°%- bee = ge pedunculated, Le easgeerres 2 ae pee . Jurineanum: \ actin jan ecteans ‘Latreille Subdivision 2... Antenne inserted telWaniethe wijweof Wied’, or " gaven BEI Pa” Jr Genus etn Ft SILUS, Caer agra Spinola. 558. Ps1 Diapers, LUS. t Jurineatum: ~ Antenne moniliform ; of the males fourteen, Jointed; of the females twelve-jointed. ae or elle with no cells ; the costal nerve nyt on its An: CG ' Cornutus, : rilus cornulus. Panzer. ia cornuta, Latreiile. © Inhabits Europe. ; Genus DLIX. Betyta. Jurine, Latreille. 559. BELY- Cinerus. Jurine, TA. Antenne filiform ; of the male fifteen ; of the female fourteen-jointed ; all the basal joints elongate. Supe- rior oY ae with the cells complete. Bicolor. Beigta bicolor bicolor. Jurine, Latreille. . “ Subdivision 3. Antenne with the ‘first joint not elongate. -Gexus DLX. Procrorrerts, Latreille, Spinola. 560. Proe- Coprus. Jurine, Panzer. TOTRUPES, Enroporvs. Walck. Antenne thirteen-jointed. Mandibles without teeth. Superior wings ,with three complete cells. Abdomen , terminated by a joint more or ess 1 Sp. 1. " Brevis nis. Brevipen+ rocttrupes. brevipes Latreille, Gen, Crust, et nis. Ins. A. $8, tab. 13. fig. 1 Inhabits anaes ‘ Gewus DLXI. Hexorvs, Latreille, Jurine, 561. He- Spnex. Panzer. . LORY ok J 146 Meubolia. Pepyx. Panzer. —Yr"~—s Antenne fifteen 2. ~ omen distinctly and abruptly pedunculated, not ter- minated in a point. Apomab- > 1. Anomalipes. elorus avomalipes, Latreille. Inhabits Germany and France. Drviston IT. Thorax binodate, the anterior segment elongate- quadrate, or somewhat triangular. Antenne inserted on the cl near to the mouth. $62. Davi Genus DLXII. Dryivs. Latreille. ah Gownaropus. q Antenne straight, ten-jointed. Mandibles with many teeth. Thorax bi Anterior feet very long, ter- minated by two large nails internally denticula- ted, one of these Formica- . 1. Formicarius. I its France. 563. Be- Genus DLXIII. Beruyzus. Latreille, Fabricius, TuYLvs. i eee MALUS. Jurine. CrrapHron. Panzer. Antenne broken, composed of thirteen joints. Man- dibles bidentate. Thorax binodate, the anterior seg- Trise VIII. Curystprpes. Abdomen attached to the metathorax by a portion only of its transverse diameter. Inferior wings with- out distinct nervures. Body not contractable into a ball. _ Famuy I. Cleptida, Abdomen semicylindric or semicircular, with five segments in the male, and four in the females. Tho- Trax attenuated in front, divided transversely by four segments. #4. Crsr- Genus DLXIV. Cuepres. Latreille, Fabricius, The Panzer, Jurine, Illiger, Spinoli. Spuex. Linn. Vill. —— Olivier. ESPA. ‘ Sommaee Weak Walck. § hpi Semiaurata. s semiaurata, Fabricius, Latreille. Inhabits Europe. om Famuy Il. Chrysida. Division IL. tienes with the middle produced into a scutel- Subdivision 1. Abdomen with the second segment larger than the others, Palpi many-jointed. 566. E- Genus DLXV. iaures, Spinoli, Latreille. samres. Cunyer. Fabricius, Jurine. Hevyeunum. Panzer, Lepeletier. ENTOMOLOGY. obtuse point ; Spinoli, Latreille. Curysis. Linn. Olivier, » Jurine. Mandibles without teeth. A with the third segment v rge, slightly dentate behind. ‘ tau 1. * . a Chyna Fabricius, Donovan. I Subdivisi 2. Abdomen with the third or fourth segment Genus DLXVII. Parnoprs. Latreille, Fabricius, pal Spinoli, Mliger, Lepeletier. Curysis. Rossi, Olivier, Jurine. Pilg r s Drviston II. Metathorax with the middle not elongated into a scutellum. -” 568. Evcn- Genus DLXVIII. Evcuravs. Latreille. Curysis. Fabricius, Jurine, ier. + acy Mandibles with one tooth on their internal edge. Abdomen semicylindric, the last segment with a transverse elevation, and a row of impressed dots, Sp. 1. Purpuratus. Purpuratus. sis purpurala, Fabricius. ot gt Latreille. Inhabits France. Genus DLXIX. Curysis of authors. 569. Gury- Vespa. Geoffroy ena Mandibles with ‘one tooth on their internal edges. Genus DLXX. Hepycurum. Latr, Panzer Spin. 570. He- Curysis. Linn. Fabricius, Mliger, Lamarck, Le. pycurus. etier. Pe tandibles bidentate on their internal Abdo- men semicircular, with the extremity 3 all the . 1. Auratum. Auratum. Chirysia gurata. Fabricius. “1 Section II. Acuneata. eee none. Se a a eee ing a communication with poisonous glands. mam atached $0 the Chart ter all bap 0 cant oahu ies transverse Diviston I. Subdivision 1. Ocelli or stemmata not distinet. Wings often want- ing in the females and neuters, — ENTOMOLOGY. Metabolia. * —— Trise I, Formicarines. Abdomen with a peduncle te eet ap pl scale on two knots. Antenne towards their ex- tremities, the first joint Sa. snap males and neuters. Labrum large, perpendicular, cor- neous. Obs. These insects live-in societies ee nes eae nonce wings, the neuters being apterous. 571. Fore © Genus DLXXI. Formica of authors. MICA. Lastus. Fabricius. seeiaik gumceoiead Fycselorgieeientr thats: Sting not punctorious. Poisonous in males and neuters. Antenne i in the front. . 1. hes Hor ae ni he rope Nous, bing large nest 572. Fo» : ie OEXXIL Poryercus. Latreille, Spinoli. LyERGUs, Sanncis Jurine. Le 1 herrea formed of but one simple Sting not punctorious. Poisonous glands in the of vast Herculanea. sn nap me Antennae nee the moth, me Dolerae referee Late 573. Pow Genus DL til, Pontes. Latreille, NsRa. Formica. Linn. Fabr. De Geer, Olivier. ; x Peduncle of the abdomen formed of one scale or knot. Sting in females and the neuters. 4 maipedieact tametens never cenees stem Tt elo Oponromacuus of Latreille’s old works. Myr- _ MECIA,. Sp. 1.. Cheli si Heeler Latte ve of the neuters broad and Genus. PoneRa of Latreille’s older works. serted. Palpi very short ; siaiilary ones with six dis. tinct joints. Head of the neuters very large. * Mandibles of the neuters very narrow, and much elongated. ‘ Genus Ecrron of Latreille’s older works; Mynue- cra, Fabricius. Sp. 1. Hamata. 7 Myrmecia hamata. Fabricius, Aiia fandibles Latreille. - Mandibles of the néuters e i much longate-trigonate, Formica of Lgeetlle’s older works; Attra, Fabr. 7 7 gh TL atteiNle, Pabitioias, ” ese Mandibles of the neuters short, trigonate, scarce- ly denticulated. + Gena Formica of Latrellie’s older works, and of ' Fabricius. capitata. Latreille. , _ $75. Myx- Genus DLXXV. Myrwmica. | Latr. ay MICA. Formica. Linn. Geoffroy, Panzer, * Huber has written a work on the 147 Manica. Jurine. Metabolia. Mvemecia. Fabricius. Soe chy fea Morita: paici lon oo tennz entire 1 3 Six- jointed. RS an and females armed ich g: til iil abate very long: Antenne fili- Sp. 1. | Forfeata ‘ Forficatae + scares os rsa i A rica forte trigonate, anske little elongate: Anten- . ne thicker mgr their extremities. a. Superior wings three submarginal cells; the first and corm perfect. . 2. Subterranea, ica sublerranea. Latr. gga 6. Sw wings with two submarginal cells ; the » first perfect. i ‘ Latreille. a lyrmeca * Genus DLXXVIL. Crvyprocenvs. Latr. Fabr. 576. Caye- x TOCERUS, ormica, Linn. Olivier. Manica. Jurine. Peduncle of the abdomen formed of two knots. An- tennz with the first joint lodged in a lateral ridge of agent Newland females armed with a sting Created Atratus. Laat tg Latr. Trise I], Murw.anives, Antenne filiform, vibratous, the first and third joints e€ insects of this family are solitary. The males are winged, thie feciinlbe pte, and there are no neu- ters, Famuy I. Dorylida. Antenne inserted at the mouth, the first joint very long. Head small. Abdomen cylindric, having the elevated, or transverse ; rounded above, and se ow from the following joint by an incision. Tibie not spinose. Genus DLXXVII. Lasipus. Latreille, Jurine. Abdomen with the first segm Latreillii. Do lus mediotus of Fabricius is probably to be re- Sexedns this i Genus DLXXVIIL. Dorytus.t Fabricius, Jurine, 578. Do. , Olivier, Latreille. RYLUS. bdomen with the first transverse, rounded above, and from the following joint by an in- rae a wings with two submarginal cells, ne helvolus. Fabricius, Latreille. Famity II. Mutillida. Antenne inserted in the middle of the face. Head large. Abdomen somewhat conic or ovoid. Tibix Helvolus. of these animals. economy + The males only of this and the preceding genus are known ; the females are supposed to be aptereus awd solitary. 148 ENTOMOLOGY. Metatehia. “ weal Sp 1. Pedesiris. on Metabolia. — —_——_— - Drviston L. ; Res he espe us rae < Asoren wth the te st ements naif, pealten 7 goene peone ont ne ale S794 bn teow ee es bes tetas sind, vil suit, apes . . Pre. LXXIX. Apreroorns. Latreille. ao nowrxa, ional ntsicnn; oF Cnt HD 6 Wp tly, - Gcsllidstinet, smooth, Wings never wanting of the females. a little shorter. Mandibles epouppte. Trine, Il, Scouiwes.. wit ort 7 ae a 3 ‘ Thorax with the first segment edna ensi' Otvicri. ‘Sp. 1 Sister © tale ‘ forming an arc. Feet. short, or moderately: long ; the ee hinder anes thick, spinulose, o steomaly ited AN ot tenn shorter than the head and trunk. Superiorwings 5 preaibs Tr. with the marginal Solieeiitaghositueds the apen; mat Abdomen with the mee ient of the abdomen no- ee np pay re S. mere ome rae diform. 4 wings .w three submarginal cells, Fawity Tiphida,. Hg oxlemlt Subdieision 1. ‘. Maxillary palpi lopgt ne deka seat Maxillary palpi as long or ing thant the maxille. Genus DLXXXV. ‘Tenn FE me » Jar. 885. Tr. Antenna longer than the head, firet joint Hot tecci- Spinel. rio" ante as a ~ yo ee the second. Spuex. Scopoli, Christus je wits es aboeevitt 380. Mo- sexus DLXXX. Mutitea. Linn. Fabricius, Panz. © Brtiryiies: Parrzer. + M2 TO SENSE viita. Jur. Ilig. Spinoli. ; Without tectlt: nse hant Sruex. Geer. thorax in botl sexeg. Abdomen ovate) Arts. Christus, Marris. Sp. 1. Femorata. AYA A aye Femorats, Abdomen (of both sexes) ovead and pore hee se = Tiphia femorata, _Palse: Fur, mine kee an 9 cond segnrent large, somewliat companulated. Thorax Panzer. ; bey cer pty <9 te of the females cubical, with no transverse sutures I its: ot std *.¢ 2qano Emi Europea, Sp. 1. Europea. (SoG DLEAXVE “Penne Tate yon them 586. Tex. Mutilla Europea. Linn. Fabr. Panz, Latr. Mandibles with two: teeth: re daeered poate ton remy potetsrany rm a tha Bore rede tea. Attn lihear weit s81.Mz. Genus DLXXXTI. Mertnoca. Latreille. hae 1. Sanvitali. uirinde’h sant ome Sanvitali. THOCA. Mortitea. Jurine. Tin a sanvitali. Latreille. nd TE ae io diledy Abdomen, (af the, females) oveid andopuivex. swith the Inhabits Italy. on Ke or : ay ae as ret Sead i» Famay IL, Seolida.,. wot} ers Ichneumo- 1. Ichneumonoidess Maxillary i short, join ‘Antenne oh sigae bodes, Methoca Ichneumonoides. Late. | the first ry nest" cflindthe = a 582. Mra. © Gexvs DLXXXIL Myrmosa. ae rane oe : sos. Muticna, me" pi Tul cevreetn B. VIX MA WA ane . Hveaus, Fabricius. ¢ 60000 sve t Thorax ih te ae. er . Abdomen d elliptic in the males; conic in dyate, the hind or but little are ted i the females: composed: of two segments, the Grxys Dre IL. Mate Latr. lig. Spinioli, 587. Mr. anterior segment transverse. PusrA. Jurine. Tsdigi lt yetor hoo 1. Melanovephala, us, Pabriciu ; CRA ha, Phynnus dentatne. Fabr. Latr. Donovan. New Holland. Trive V. Pomprimes. Thorax with the first forming an arch, or a ' transverse square. Feet the hinder ones as k y as the head and trunk. slender, formed slengste, and slightly serrated joints. Superior wings ding longtacinal ; Famity I. Pompilida. Superior wings with three submarginal cells complete. Per- Genus DXCiII. Pepsis. Fabricius, Latreille.. _ Pomeiwus. \Jurine, Iliger. ; the two last joix of the maxil- lary ones, of the ones, shorter than, the hatugs ENTOMOLOGY. 149 Pepsis stellata. | Fabrieitis, Latreille: : Metabolia. Genus DXCIV. Pomrizus. Latreille. bad Fons : Maxillary palpi longer than the labial ones, with: the last joint thicker, conic-obovate 5 the three last join nearly equally long. Labrum»i anaictiae:d!; ity. peus. Antenna OF indnaliovidy manne: their points convoluted. +) Obs. This artificial genus contained follows nera, proposed by the most learned posses tl menopterous insects, viz.. 1. Pompreus;' Fabr: Panzer, Jur. lllig. Walck. Spin. 2. Spwex, Linn. Sedp/ ‘Vill. €uv. Lam... 3. IcnNeumon; Geolf. 4: Pepsts, Fabr. 5. Saurus, Fabr. 6. Cryprocnetius; Panzer. With the rejected genus 7. Psammocuwnes of pT Sp. 1. Annulatus. Pompilus annulatus. Latr. Faby.) 9 Cryptocheilus annulatus. Panzevs Sp. 2. Viaticus. slate Latr. Fabr: Panzer. PILUS. Planiceps. Latreille: Genus DXCV. Cenorares. Latr, Fabr, Jun canna 595. CERo- Spinoli. PALES. Brame Olivier, rie, ne, yt cata oo i pendulous, longer e ene; the tee a fast Base sonloates long, the last joint 7 en- ait eae os in) of pinetdre Antenne rei both sexes’ ae thick, ri with the middle spociniedd, not convol ss Sp. 1. Maculata. Maculatas: Coiaelen maculata. Fabricius, Latreille. Fammx II. dphorida, 0 uperior with two lete submarginal cells. ; Gincs DXCVI. Aporus. Spinoli; Latreille: 596. Aro Superior wings with the second submarginal cell ne. *°* Unicolor, . Trise VI. Spuecipes. 5 lt, : Thorax with the first segment transverse linear. Feet long ; the hinder ones-as long as the head and ‘trank. Ocelli distinct. Superior wings not folding longitudi- nally. Fanny I. . Sphecida. Mandibles with their internal denticulated. Genus DXCVII. Amopnira. Kirby, Latreille? — 97. Aspeu Spnex. Linn. De Geer, Panzer, Lamarck, Cuvier, PHILA.. Jurine, Illiger, Pepsis. Fabebions Spinoli. Miscus. Jurine. Antenne inserted about the middle of the face. Max- ille and Jabram much, heniins Seemaiene middie. Palpi very joints. SAL tete Salonen of ethene eaiabe ae formed, elongate, and twos a. eater, wings with the ent submarginal cell. not . 1. Armata. her armata. Rossi. ‘Aaoghila armata, Latreille:, 150 6. Superior wings with the third submarginal cell Pepsts. Fabricius, Spinola. Cuvonion. Fabricius. 599. Pro- = DXCIX. Pronzvs. Latreille. semetand Dryimus. Fabricius. Pepsis. Palisot de Beauvois. Antenne inserted at the mouth, 600.Curo- Genus DC. Cutorron. Latr. Fabricius, Panzer. nioN. Spnex. Christus, Cuvier. Persis. Illiger. Amputex. Jurine. ciypeus ?) ?) Masillery pale filiform, Ning cn Maxille terminated lobe. Lip with ot divisions short, as if qu Lobatum. Sp. 1. Lobatum, 604. De. & eninge. 3 Fabr. Latr. : ENUS + Douicuvaus. Menwacs = Pisox. Jurine. Pomritvs. i Antenne inserted at the mouth, (at the base of the ia nce Maxillary palpi setaceous, longer than the « Alter. corniculus. Ne Dolichurus ater, Latrei Fawiy Il. Pelopaida. ; Mandibles without teeth on their internal edges, Genus DCII. Poprum. Fabricius, Latreille. Antenne inserted below de middle ofthe face Cly- broader than Maxille entirely coriaceous. ated _ of equal R - Podium 603. Pere Genus rAavs. Latreille, 602. Po- Diom. tps | Fab, Late cere BLOPAUS, Latreille, . Patizer. Spinola. ; ye Persis, Illiger. 4 ENTOMOLOGY. Sce.ipnnon, pay Spuex. A cdenuiia alion se rye ep nd ec Masilloe ith thes peus wr extremities Maxillary than te labial ones palpi 22; irifex. Spirifex. Sphes ap ifex. Linn. elopeus spirifex. Latreille. Sp. 2. Destillatorius, Destillato. ies ae Panzer (Faun. Ins. Germ.) rius. estillatorius. Liatreille. Pensilis. Pensilis. . Latreille. 4. Tubifex. Tubifex. Folopaee lif Latreille. wll Obs. The above four species are often confounded under the title of Sphex spirifex of Linnzeus. Trise VII. Bempecipes. ' short or ge Ocal long. exserted, ey Br ‘nally distinct. Superior wings not fol Cuvier, Lamarck, Panzer, Jurine, Llliger, ‘edu = ve Apis. Linn. Villers, Christus. Vespa. Man dentate on their in edge. cae bat short, four jointed. Su Se See meas only by a very short P. Inhabits Germany. Genus DCV. Moweputa. Latreille, Panzer. Bemsex. Olivier, Jurine. Stictia. _Illiger. Thorax with the first segm Genus crv emg Fabricius, Olivier, iil 604. : Sulzer. Labrum and the last su oul aie Bembex poetry Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. Vespa. Linn. De Geer. ek triangular. Mandibles with two or three es on their internal Maxillary _ pias long as the maxille, com of six-joints. gr with she mega an lt sain clldivided by «very sin opce . 1. Carolina, Caroling. bex carolina. Fabricius. Monedula carolina. Latreille. Genus DCVI. Srizus. Latr. Jurine, ican 606. St1- Bemsex. Olivier, Fabricius. zUs Crasro. Rossi, Fabricius. : Lara. Iliger, Fabricius, ye “ae Spuex. Villers, ; : Meuuinus. Panzer. Lins. Fabricius. Scouia. Fabricius. Labrum short, semicircular. Palpi filiform, maxil- ones | , six-jointed ; labial ones acti » Ry ABE sgt ed Monedula ruficornis. Latreille, to Triee VIII. Lannipes, ENTOMOLOGY. Metabolia. serted in the middle of the face. Superior wings not —_~" folding longitudinally. - Famuy I, Larrida. | _—r or three submarginal cells - com: ~ Divistown I. Eyes entire, not emarginate. Mandibles without an emargination on their internal edge. : i H Sp. 1. Quinquecinctus. Genu /III. Nysson. Latreille, Jurine, Pan- Spincsss = 1. Spinosus. ; Latreill 609. Psex. Grae DCIX. Psen. Latr, Jurine, Panzer, Iliger, ae Rossi. si A ntenne short, thicker tow. ir tips. peu divided into three parts by two seapl labia 151 ior wings with the second inal cell petio- Metabolia. ot wings submarginal cel] petio- Sp. 1. Flavipes. Flavi Palarus flavipes. Late. ‘ ne Philant i Fabr. Genus DCXII. Larra. Fabricius, Olivier, Jurine, 612. Lar- Panzer, Spinola, Latreille. RA. Liris. Fabricius, Iliger. Spuex, Villers, Rossi. Antenne filiform. Superior wings with the third submarginal cell narrow, almost lunate. Mandibles without a tooth-like on their internal edge. Sp. 1. Ichneumoniformis. Ichneumo- Livia ichneumoniformis. Panzer, Fabr. Latr. niformis. Genus DCXIII. Lyrops. Illiger, Latreille. 613. Ly- Tacuytes. Panzer. RoPs, Larra. Fabricius, Jurine. Lins. Fabr. ANDRENA. Rossi. Antenne filiform. Superior wings with the third submarginal cell narrow, almost lunate. Mandibles with a strong tooth on their internal edge. . 1. Tricolor. Tricolor. a tricolor. Fabr. Tachytes tricolor. Panzer. I its Germany. Subdivision 2. Superior wings with two su inal cells. * GENus DCXIV. Dinetvus. Jurine, Panzer, Iliger, 614. pie. Latreille. . : Tus, Senex. Scheffer. Pompitus. Fabricius. Crasro. Rossi. Antenne, (of the males, ) moniliform, terminated , cy ic joints, convoluted in the middle. Mandibles Fe oreo! ae on Lo internal % the two submarginal cells sessile. 1. Pictus. Pictus. inetus ictus. Jurine, Panzer, Latreille. Genus DCXV. Miscornvus. Jurine, Latreille. 615. Mrs- joints alike in both sexes. ae CoPpHus. Sp. 1. Bicolor. Bicolor, Miscophus bicolor. Jurine, Latreille, Inhabits France, Drviston IIT. Eyes notched. Genus DCXVI. Prison. Jurine, Latreille, 616. Pr. Tacnysutus. Latreille’s older works, SON. ALyson. i Superior wings with three distinct submarginal cells. Abdomen conic, with a very short, almost imperceptible Sp. 1. Ater. niger. Latreille. Alyson ater. Spinola. Tachybulus ater. Latr. Gen. yohange foe idk a Genus DCXVII. Trvpoxyion. Liatreille, Fabri- g)7, pay. inola. Spuex. Linneus, Vil. Cav, Bossy Chisan, =, Ater. 152 Metadolis. vure; the third also obsolete, terminal, Abdomen long —rm and gradually pedanculated. _ sntet Famuy I. Oxybellida, Superior wings with one a submarginal cll 618, Nt- Genus se Nem pee ee alade than ts a Tels Antenne orm fn oe head, eee aa Mandibles bidentate at their | orb bo not Inhabits the south of France. ; 61%0xr- Genus DEXIX>> ae Latreille, Fabricius, eres Panzer, Jurine, pinola. Vespa. Linnane Villers Christus. Sruex. Scheffer. Crarro. Olivier, Rossi. Antenne thicker towards their extremities, longer than the head, convoluted, the second joint much shorter than the third. Mandibles without teeth at their ex- net Tibia spinose. Tarsi with large puleiils. Unigiumis. 1, Uni; is. Pe wniglumis. Linn. a Fabricius, Latreille. I Europe. Triste IX... Crasronipes. Thorax with the ag Haga ta transverse-linear, Feet short, “ae hae Labrum entirely concealed the hed. Ocei i di hang ont dar win ; ct. oe ag mers Antenne inserted at the mouth jan eylindtie or conic, er towards the voile of the Paster I. Crabronida. Division I. ‘Mandibles with their extremities bifid. Superior with but one recurrent nervare. s DCXX. Crasro, Fabricius, Olivier, Rossi, Jurine, Panzer, Ili ' Senex. Linn. illers. Vespa. Linn Geoffroy.) Poo erageery Bog et Spinola. Antenne wi e nt and cylindric. Su- ie wings with clieeraiate a ame dare Fabricius, Latreille. 620. Ca.- BRO 1. Cribrarius. 4 Dar cribrarius, 2. Sublerrancus. ee aor, Fabricius, Latreille. ? : Pewpireto tibialis, Fabricius, Obs. = Stie- ~ (Gere Dexa Sr eek Satine, Laanitiiy’* dvoitn’ 22. Ceno- cieene Jeri 5 ENTOMOLOGY. Theve thee et ae considered as' the » Psen.» Panzer.” ty Wb adNlitns wipe Dees PempPuepnon. Febricius. init Sriemus. Latreille. Antenne with the first obeonic, S with wo complete rt in oe and three cn - Minutus. "Sp 1, Min minutus. Fabricius. Psen pallipes. Panzer. Cemonus minutus. Jurine. ) Toma te" Stigmus minutus. Latreille. Ces AN Beth D Inhabits Europe. DrvuesL.. 349 conoid Mandibles strong, many-toothed. Superior “wings ae Genus DCXXIIL bricius, Spinola. Cemonus. Jurine, Panzer, Iliger. eons A PemMPHEDRON. “Latreite, Fa- 623. Superior wings with the nal edie _ rower towards the apex. Antennee "with ae thickest. aN us 6% inter . 1, Unicolor. ‘Dh fuse ber: ‘emphedron unicolor. Latreille.” ranmge bbend Cemonus unicolor. Jurine. caren Inhabits Europe. PT event Famity LL Mellinida, ‘aie S fire wig an ree ee : dope tal Division I. ‘anil ¢ eanve ' Antenne inserted at ‘the ‘mouth, filiform. | ‘Clypeus not trilobate. Genus DCXXIV. »Mecrrnts. | ee Panzer, 624, M. Jurine, I RAGS rg Goes, Cutt Villers, wea nonegy ‘Vespa. ‘Linn. ‘Rossi, Harris.” CUE). agus Superior with all the su cells sessile, Abdomen distinctly pedunculated. ~ ‘arsi- ‘terminated’ FAX as ee — Nicdines topcorts Fabr. Patiter, ‘Latreille:” “rhea Inhabits eee IK Genus DCXXV. Atyson. Jurine, Panz. Late, Pompitus. Fabricius. Su wings with tiie Sdcontlt iat gaat Abies with a short” eva a with a small pulvillus, , «<8 ee : Sp. 1. _Lunicornis. om. lunicornis. Fabricius.” ’ Alyson lunicornis. Panzer, Latreille, shake, Inhabits Europe. ~iget Shri > , a : binder Ih + fs si ae thicker towards their cxtretiie Sl aaa. about the middle of the face. Cl trilobate. Genus DCXXVI. Cerceris. - Bi. - Spinola, Sprex. Villers, Rossi. © 5 oe Vesra. Geoffroy, , Olivier, Harris; 0 9) Uh Puantuus. abricius, Jurine, Pane. Bempex. Rossi. Crapro, Rossi, « daw eanie role reese ae cea Pat haat ati I; cm Hep joint somew: on at poets in their internal edge. Su ings ‘ second submarginal eeBrtaty; Sp. \ Major.” y yO ey eves ocas betel: tang Majorsid ENTOMOLOGY. “Metabolia. Cerceris major. Spinola, Latreille. ne. etl 1. Quadricinctus. Quattri- hilanthus quadricinctus, Fabricius, Panzer. inca poms nts : ' : Al ti ae eae he LANTHUS, , Jurine, e ; VESPA. » Villers. ~ Crasro. Rossi. Simpiepuinus. Jurine. - ; , : Antenne distant, abruptly thicker towards their ex- - tral edge Superior ihaediiedibeierpahvosrgicnl ; : * oe ~ . e 1, 2 ee s coronatus. - Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. Inhabits Europe. Drvision I. Lip without glands at their extremity, divided into a Soi ake und yadane divin ‘Mandi- @a8.syxa- Genus DCXXV i1GrwAtohas. Latreille, Fabricius. Drviston II, | : Lip having four glandular points Pah are . parted into three pieces, the i or notched at its extremity. Subdivision 1, Superior wings doubled, three submarginal ete. M: i siX-jointed, not very much short- i aaa 629. Rve- Genus DCXXIX, Ryecuiom. Spinola. «cHIUM. Opynervs. Latreille, * : Vespa. Fabricius. _ ovoid-conic, the first —— not, or scarcely, narrower than the second. axillary with the last joint scarcely Rea ths tornado, cess of the maxilla ; labial palpi smooth, the last joint Maxille with their process very long and narrow. Foropeum. Sp.1, Europeum. hium m. Spinola, espa oculata, Fabricius, . Latreille. 7 VOL, 1X. PART & 153 _ Genus DCXXX, ; Prernocuiius, Klug, Panzer, Metabolia. Opynerus. i . Vespa. Panzer. , ; 680. Pre- __ Abdomen ovoid-conic. Labium very long; Max- *°™™** illary palpi, with the last joint not extending beyond the extremity .of the maxille ; labial palpi. batty, the fourth joint obtuse, scarcely visible. Maxille with terminal lobe narrow and long. Sp.1. Phaleratus. Pterochilus phaleraius. Klug. Vespa phalerata. — Panzer. vise Se ene Latreille. its - Genus DCXXXI, Opynerus. Latreille. Vespa. Panzer, Fabricius, Abdomen oyoid-conic, the sécond segment; broader than the first. Maxillary palpi, with two or three of the joints extending beyond the extremity of the max- ille. Maxille with the terminal lobe short, short-lance shaped. Sp. 1. Spinipes. y pa eaten Panzer, Fabricius. spinipes. Latreille. I its a : Genus DCXXXIL. Eumenrs. Latreille, Fabricius. 39, ry. Abdomen with the first segment cortracted into an menes. elongate peduncle, the second segment campanulated. Clypeus longitudinal, anteriorly produced into a point. Mandibles forming by their junction a Iong-pointed rostrum, 631. Ovx- NERUS, Spinipes. *.- 1. Coarctata. Coarctata. umenes coarctata, Inhabits Europe. Genus DCXXXIII. Zeruus. Fabricius, Latreille. 39, 7:. Bes 2) as broad, fig meed an long, brs § any rus. ble production t. axillary i short- er than the maxille. palp Fabricius, Latreille. Sp.1. Coeruleo-pennis. Caruleo- us ceruleo-pennis. _ Latreille, Fabricius. pennis. Genus DCXXXIV. Discacivs. Latreille. b Vespa. Panzer. - pd < rehartable peutsbenaiee babe “MiG Pe. protu “ i long- oth he Js 1. Zonalis. _ = oo zonalis. Panzer. Zonalis. Discalius zonalis. Latr. Inhabits Europe. : Subdivision 2. ; a pong swith lens thantaie joint ete. ~ i wil six jvints, sot uc ae Genus DCXXXV. Ceramivus. Latreille. 635. Cens- Sp. 1. Fonscolumbii. mrus, amius Fonscolumbii. Latreille. . hone Famizy II. Vespida, (Gocial wasps.) Mandibles than broad, long- » With their extremities obliquely truncated. almost quadrate. Lip with the intermediate division a little enus DCXXXVI. Pouistes. Latreille, Fabricius, 636. pe. iiliger, Spinola. LUSTES. espa. Linnzus, G , Panzer, Jurine. Mandibles (at least of the females and neuters) with their internal edge armed with three equal , the u 4 piformis in, predaced with a long peduncle. Pic gale Fabricius, Latreille. Bere DCX XNXVIL Vespa of authors. a “gp. © 1. ne crabro. Linneus, Fabricius, Latreille, &c. Inbabits E , building its nest in hollow trees. - 2. Vi (Common wasp.) : espa vu aris. Linneus, Fabricius, &e. urope, building its nest in holes under 3. Britannica. Poapa Britannica. Leach, Zool. Mis. Inhabits Britain, and builds a nest suspended from trees, Trise XI. Masanipes, ‘Superior doubled longitudinally. Thorax with the first segment forming an arc, prolonged behind even to the base of the su Antenne ei a Genus DCXXX Is) Masa Fabricius, Thee. Antenne (of the male as the head and trunk, ir the last peg er, obconic. Abdomen Rag Fabricius, Latreille. Genus “DCXX . CORLONET Latreille, Fabri- cius, Illiger, Masaris. Jurine, Cater, Lamarck. Cunysts. Vesra. Villers. Cimpex. Oliv. Antenne eight-jointed, longer than the head, the eighth joint wit tie flowing joints forming an obgonie club. daneak a Chelmer little longer than the trunk, . mis. epson Penne, Leen, iy and nein of France. Diviston IT. icin, peg: od ym eeideaai es very com elongate-q or obtrigonous, Larvae pollenivorous. Trise XIL Anprenipes. with the apex subcordate or subhastate, on each with one auricle ; nearly straight, or slightly in- side feith curved in im some, reflexed in others, Famuy I. _Prosopida, Lip with the apex dilated, somewhat cordiform. NTOMOLOGY. Genus DCXL. Couzetes, Lately Higentipl nola, K1 ~ th Tea, PR Villers... so 6400 Cone ANDRENA. ee ten tefald sree Hy.zxus. 23546 At Ad j reat) - Evopia. pres chet tony i Meuitra. * a. , or less villose. cell forming a curved line, eaeee Teoderectuaaaieauedaaanie for the tongue ; construction of its cells, which are ibed by the ac- curate Reaumur in the fifth memoir of his sixth volume, «dont les nids sont faits @ de ” According to this author, make their nests the earth that fills the cavities of certain stone walls. of them choose a northern sheltered by trees. These nests are cylindrical, consist of two to four cells placed end to end, each-of which is fo like a thimble, the end of one fitting into the. er, The cells vary in size. The cylinder runs in.a ho tal direction ; but sometimes, the intervention of a stone or of some other obstacle, it takes a differex course, so that the last cell forms an ith the first. The cells are composed of layers of a grove gute file TOs irate with eh sax conjactanes it tela, oncuation, cen fe Snepch. on. Nedhinw urope. ° Genus DCXLI. Prosors. Jurine, Rabaicions: 4 641. O41 Pao , Panzer, oli, i pare ay Walckenser. Apis. Linn. ANDRENA. Olivier. Famuty IT. ee if wT Lip with the intermediate process lanceolate, acute. Division I. mea Lip when at rest reflexed. Subdivision ¥. Conan De Bee ee us, Panzer, Iiger, Spinola, Klug, “*% Latreille, Fabriei- 642. Das 643. An-- DRENA. ENTOMOLOGY. by. Maxille inflexed at their mid- Sel sad Senger dich thie Hinder feet, with the on gk Sa caper aA 0. nr pete A 1. Hirtipes. small, : , Genus DCXLILI. Anprena. Fabricius, Panzer, Ju- rine, Illiger, Spinola, Klug. Apis. Linneus, Villers, Meurtra. **c. 4 - Maxille bent at their their terminal lobe their tarsi shorter than the tibie. Labium or little elongate, shorter than its palpi. i | i i 2 j i i z 5 ; 5 i ste A uate sf E Fe fy it 32F 23 155 Sp. 2. Hemorrhoidalis. Metabolia, ndrena emery Panzer. Home Melitta chrysura. Kirby. ‘dali Inhsbits Germany and England. one Diviston IL. Lip with the intermediate division incurved, or i ly straight. Superior wings in all with three comp Subdivision 1. Lip with the intermediate division nearly straight, not twice the | of the head. Genus DCXLV. Spuecopes. Latreille. Spuex. Linnzus, Villers, Rossi. Apis. . Pabie he Goa Nomapa. Fabricius. AnprenA. Olivier, Panzer, Jurine, Spinola, Dicuroa. [Illiger, Klug. Meutra. ** a. Kirby. Labrum trigonate, of the male entire, of the female generally emarginate, Antenne of the males long, al- 645. Spnz- CODES» most moniliform, arcuated. Abdomen with the greater The ies of at first sight, bear a near re- semblance to Sphex. They make their nests in bare sections of banks exposed to the sun, and nearly verti- cal. According to Reaumur, they excavate to the depth nine or ten inches, and deposit their eggs in a mass Gibbus. Subdivision 2. Lip with the intermediate division incurved, | than the’ lateral ones, and twice as long or more “ DCXLVI. H Fabr. Mlig. Kl genus DCXLVI. Hyraus. Fabr. Mlig. Spi lug. 646. Hr- Aris. Linnwus, Villers, Rossi. amen van Awnprena. Olivier, Panzer, Jurine, Spinola. ° Hytzvs. Fabricius, Iliger, Klug. Meuitta. ** 4. Kirby. Hauictvs. Latreille. Lip lanceolate, little sericeous. Hinder feet in both sexes aan Anus of the females with a longitudinal ve e. ; es Sexcinctus. Inhabits § Genus DC II. Nomura. Latreille. Meaitta. Fabricius. Lasivs. Jurine, Panzer. ip very hairy, or tomentose. Hinder feet of the male with dilated incrassated tibie and thighs, 647. No- MIA, 1. Diversipes. Diversipes. Megilla curvipes? Fabricius. Sp. 2. Difformis. Difformis. Lasius di, is. Jurine, Panzer. 648. Sye- Taorss. #49. Pa somous. #50 Xy- -otern 156 ERBARMOt oGY: Taise XII. Apines. with the inflected, thé intermediate: Iacifiia wine and very tobge Labial with the two Hinder tarsi with the & kj ey saalty tba, or gradually narrowing from the base to the apex, the second joint originating from the middle of its apex. Drvisiow I. Palpi alike. Genus DCXLVII. Sysrnopna. Iliger, Klug, Apis. Scheffer, Rossi. Evcera. ANDRENA. - Hy.evs. Fabricius. Ceaatina. Jurine. Antuimem. Panzer. bidentate. Sree wings with three submarginal cells. “Ocelli disposed in"trans- « verse straight lines. Antenne filiform, elongate; the Sa voluted in pA mei of the females elongate- Hyleeus spiralis, Fabriciis. Anthidium spirale. Panzer. Inhabits Europe. Genus DCXLIX. Panuneus. a a Spinola, Latr. Arts. Scopoli. Dasyropa. Illiger, Fabricius. Arts. ae. og, Enrtops. Mamdibles wot dentated. Antenna’ tin both sexes, and subclavate. Superior wings two subs Division Ik Palpi unequal ; the labial palpi setiform. Subdivision 1. , transverse, or not much. lng he than Trad andibles tridentate at their points. ith three submarginal cells). wi ENUS pee Xyocora. Latr. Illiger, Panzer, Jur. Klug. Spinola, Fabr, Apis. Linn Ge Geoff. Vill, Rosi, Kirby. (** digg). Bomovs. Fabr. Cenrnis. Fabr, ~ Labram transverse, abruptly carinated transversely, the emper’ fv fsa J iform, with the ; ; " Ee loured, and composed «substance between merabrane ee po 1. Violacea, ‘is vieowe. Li Fabr. Panzer, and Late. Linn, Inhabits Europe. The allowing acount ofthe seonamy of his pete aS ker epeeanaei ER ter is over; she may then'be met with in gardens, vi- siting such walls as are covered with trees trained on_ times three or four are bored in the same piece, nearly parallel with each other. A she enters, or first begins to bore, and.an at the end of the pipe. As the i in her em she clears away the wood which she d 7 ing it out upon the where ineupeae like a small var lag ’ othe prepared no gent age ton wood, mbcieene Rasen beesncelienn AAO edge af me “ ceirad ring of the same i 1s) B Pati ok ny ar are about twelve. _ When the assumes the placed in its cell, FA tier ra ne jae. = ainorons — attained its perfect: state, and is from disturbing — the tenants of ae si of later date each than its su - i —eia so as to crea to go “pee world.” s DCLI. Cepatina. Late. Jurines; Spi~ 651. Cene: nola, Kirby. (** deQea). abi sym!) THA. . Apts. Villers, Rossi, she all MeEGILia. — Illiger. : wer, “eat

tn i ‘ 7 Subdi ivis ton 2. TE Labrum longer than) broad, inclined - ly; c beneath the mandibles, elongate, quadrate. strong ; porrected, with the apex bidentate, in some ; trigonate, and often multidentate; in others. * Labial palpi with the three first joints continuous, "the - inserted. under: the external apex of 652. Ro Ges I. Ropurres.. Spinola, Latr. = ee | Maxillary palpi six-jointed. nque- = « ois 653. Cue- » Genus) I. Cuenostoma: = Latr. tostoma. » Aprs.’ Linn, Villers, Kirby. (** c. 2. 7). - Hyv2xus. Fabr. puts :Anturprum. — Panzer: Mandibles (of the females) arcuated, their dentate or’ farcate, porrect, internally hairy. bi- axil- % slender, and» of the SSeS and at its base is a horn or When asleep, they roll themselves up like an the horn or ae ay ee in v1 in Se em » Sp.1. Florisomnis. i with the second jo t not longer than : 7 Alpi tw. s - *-* t Mandibles strong. — boner ubeve) ENTOMOLOGY. 157 - Inhabits Europes __ je..2 _Metabolia! . Genus DCLVI., Anruipiwm. Fabr: Panzer, Klug. ~ Latreille. tae yncthisky _ Arts, . Linn,-Geoff, Scheffer, Kirby. (** v2. a.) 71" Anruopuora.. Iliger. ~ : -Megcacuiie.. W: aer, Spinola. - Tracuusa. Jurine, | tsi Labial palpi with their second joint: not longer than: the. first. Maxillary palpi one-jointed.. Abdemen of the. females, below, very hairy ; above; convex) ineur~ ved; the, base broadly truncate. Mandiblés’broad, multidentate, < The anus of the males of this genus is always armed: with spines. Ss 1. Manicatum. Manica- manicatum. Panzer; Latreille.: tum. Apis manicata. Kirby, Linn. Inhabits Europe. The following i ing account of the of Anthidium manicatum, is extracted:from Kirby's Mo- nographia. << Linnzus,” says he, «< observes, upomwthis bee, zn arboribus cavis nidos construit ; but he takes no notice of the materials of which the nidi were made. This i has been supplied by Mr James: Trim= mer and Sir Thomas Cullum: The former of these gen- tlemen some time since informed me, that having had Spee epee of watching the motions of An- i = 1 SOAPS Re 9 finding that the female con- stantly stachys germanica, agrostemma coro- naria, uid. tthen seecliy deapodl plants which grew in his he was:curious to know the reason of this - ce. It was not long before his .curiosity was gratified ; and he discovered that it was the wool;which covers the surface of the leaves of these plants, that was their attraction ; for he observed the little-animal, with her strong “:mandibule,” ing it off with great in- dustry ee mere and while these were thus =, ing it up, with her fore legs, into alittle *; making, all the time, widensiditde hum.) .The use to which she) applied the material thus collected; Mr Trimmer could never discover ; we only conjectu- red that she employed it in the construction of her nest. bee conjecture is almost turned into certainty by a llowing account given my i i i ir Thomas Cullum, to Mr Maiden, of a: neat which he found made of similar materials. He thus expresses - himself, in a letter to that gentleman. “I in a lock of one of my garden gates, that the key did not turn easily round ; and. looking into'the'key- hole, I saw something white: I-had the lock taken off, and it was completely full of a downy. substance,’ con- taining the pupa of some.bee, I ude. Upon exa- mining the Ph substance, I am certain*it’is the fine tris, of which pappus or down the Anemone two its in m n. I have preserved’the whole as I found it ; but the bee has not yet made its in its state. I shall watch their and send them-to you or to Mr Kirby.” This . tter is dated October 10. 1800. Sir Thomas has'sinee — the ess to send me the nid walle pashli be ill quiescent, (April 2. 1801), and willy pro’ not Fe ill after Midsummer. .Upon compating it with the anecdote which I haye just related of this bee, 1 cannot help being of opinion, ‘that‘it is'thenidus of that ies. It is with some ‘hesitation that I ven- ture to differ from so accurate an‘observer as‘Sir ‘Tho- mas Cullum ; but it appears to me that the»wool which envelopes the nest the cells, is fromtlie ; leaves of one of the fitst mentioned plants. I gather- 3. ( 657. Or- mis Corouta. 2 : i i i I % ipEhi ae rE i Hi 2 cell of a pale was covered with a eulrot rehaletm y pollen Dee tod clot onch on ebtias Spheria 1 and like that fungus distinguished by a Sf aes ene impressed. These were id, without any regular order, over the cell, and by means of them the wool, which formed its exterior coat, was made to adhere. It is that this bee should em: these materials to cover its cells, which ethers use only as food for their larve. At the summit of this membranaceous case is a small chimney, with an orifice ; and within it contains another cell, which is rather coriaceous, strong, and of a brown colour, in the Coos anes Sp eer te gr enionsomeereremy ate This may be the folliculus or coccoon made by the lar- psp tent map cree en 4 ly ps pubes, running from the to the bottom of a branch, and shaving it bare with all the dexterity of a 0 ver. When it has got a bundle almost as large as itself, it flies away, holding it secure between its chin and its fore A Gervs DCLVIT. Osmia. Panzer, Spinola, Latr. Aris. Linn. Villers, Kirby. (** c. 2. 2.) Antuornora. Fabricius, Iiger, Klug. Meoacnie. Walckenaer, eer Jurine, optitis. Klug. Amanys. Klug. Labial palpi with the second joint not longer than = the first. Maxillary four-jointed. Abdomen vaxbeoed helapiei females, Mandibles 1. Cornuta, -apambepep *pecies selects the hollows of a of nidifiating. ws of large stones for 2. Corrulescens, ecerulescens, Kirby, Linn. Apis anea, Linn. e ENTOMOLOGY. Villers, Antuopuora. Fabr. Iliger, Panzer, Tracuusa. J Crentnris. Labial first. Maxi i j the first rather ¥ lary palpi two-joinied, her long ies only,) has conft several species un the general tithe of A is centuncularis, and denoted it by the orange-coloured hair which cover the under ps ce as (and. which i inted,) is given by a we are acquain' s giv nests they construct are cy sometimes six inch« es in ” entirely of the leaves of trees. usually consist of several cells, each which is shaped like a thimble, theconvinWnd tf; second fitting closely into the open end of the first, the i = . a § 2 if : side, and that which a oe ee eee ers, exterior covering being made of larger pi than the interior. In coati © thantontensionat careful to lay the middle of each leaf over the of those that form the first tube; thus the sutures are ened. At the closed end, or nar« li in a horizontal eylinder, to which Ea H 4 F : i z nf be ! i iF + ; EL e | ERE i it at iH! a = ge e885 i the leaves ing it their bend from the ; sn thatthe external contrite fit depostl, a e insect could not get between the side of the cylinder and of the nest. , Sp.1. Centuncularis. re centuncularis, Linnzus, eurcroy, Kirby Inhabits Europe. Builds its cells with the leaves of AntTuHopHora. Fabricius, , Klug. Mecacnite. W: Tracnusa. Jurine. AnTuipium. Panzer. Hertapes. Spinola. the first, palpi two- the first double the length of the second. narrow and strong i ENTOMOLOGY. 159 Subdivision 8. a ’ Labrum remarkably longer than broad, inclining J rrorsn hanes 2 to the bles, triangulate, truncate. andibles narrow, pointed, unidentate on their internal edge. Body simply pubescent. Superior wings with two submarginal cells comp } ret DCLX. Ammonares. Latreille. 660. Am- axillary palpi six-jointed. Superior wings with “BATES. two submarginal cells, ee a 1. Rufiveniris. mmobates rufiventris. Inhabits Portugal. Genus DCLXI. Puiveremus. Epeo.us. Fabricius. me Maxillary i two-join Superior wings with two submar; cells, fas & Fabricius, on 1. Punctatus. P. us. Latreille. us punctatus, us Kirbyan Obs. Latreille has a divison of this genus, in which the superior wings have but one su inal cell, which character is certainly sufficient. to constitute a distinct genus. Rufiventris, Latreille. Latreille. 661. Put- LEREMUS, Purictatus, Subdivision 4. Labrum a little broader than long, subsemicircular or semioval. Mandibles slender, pointed, unidentate on their internal edge. Abdomen not polleni * Lip with the lateral divisions shorter ‘Suan’ the i. Body simply pubescent. Gexbe DCLXI : Nowine, Scop. Fabr. Illiger, 662. No~ Klug. Spinola, Jurine, Panzer. pees Apis. Linn, Villers, Kirby, (* 6.) Superior wings with three submarginal cells com- plete. Maxillary palpi six-jointed. The hi » economy, and mode of nidification of the insects of this genus (all of whom are remarkable for the gaiety of their colours) as yet remain a secret. Dr has strong reasons for suspecting them to be no instrament fo carying pole. The igh ving no instruments for i en. ir flight allen: unattended by an: iste uent banks. Their eyes, whilst living, exhibit through the external reticulated covering, a surface of hexagons, which — shifting with the light, : y A h. Rujficornis. Ruficomis,. is ruficornis. Linn. Kirby. Noes ore Fabr. Latr. Inhabits Ew Genus DCLXIII. Eprotps, Illiger, Jurine, Panzer, Spi 4 ris. Linn. ml * 5.) uperior wings with three complete submarginal calle, Maxileee palpi one-jointed.. Me 1. Variegatus.. papa? variegalus. Fabricius, Panzer, Latreille. [pis varie; Linné. % Inhabits Europe, but is very local, (if not rare,).in ritain. Greyus DCLXIV. Pasires, Jurine, Spinola, Brastes, Panzer. Nomapa. Fabricius. ANTHOPHORA, ror Superior wings with two complete submarginal cells, Maxillary pi four-jointed: * Sp. }. ees . Schottiiy iastes schottii. Nomada schottii. 663. Ergo. LUs, — Latreille, Fabricius, Variegatus, 664. Pasi-. TES, Panzer, Fabricius. "160 serge emo Latreille. ** Lateral divisions of the lip almost as longs the palpi. Body very villose in Spinose, Depatice tinge “wi th —enency Latreille. na! cells. Genes DCLXV. Oxma. ‘Klug. spt. Flan palpi — very short. ' King . Latreille. Genes DCLXVL. Cobdign: Jurine, Latreille. Tuysevs. Panzer. Metecra. Fabricius, Miger, Klug. er Rossi. palpi three-jointed. « Histrio. electa histrio. Fabricius. Melecta histrionica _MNliger. Crocisa histrio. Latreille. Inhabits Europe. 'Gexvus DCLXVII. Fabricius, Lliger, Spi Apis. Linn. K Crocisa. Jurine. Sym™Morpna. Klug. mn eet pa Mary pelpi six-jointed, with five very distinct. this genus are supposed to be parisi- tical Sp. 1. Panctata. | Melecta Latreille. Crocisa atra. i Tensie Earope Ts common near Swansea in South Wales. Famity II. Apida. Division I. Hinder feet of the females, with their tibie exter- nally, and the first joint of the tarsi very hairy. Subdivision 1, , i with more than four joints. Lip ivisions as- or longer than the Ite Antennz of the very long. Evcera. Scopokr, Fabricius, aa. Latreille, Panzer, K Maxillary pap Ki » (** de. :) S axi i distinctly six-jointed. ior Wi or gt sina ina in cells Lan om Nias - alg re longicornis. app Panzer, Latreille. — Apis longicornis. Kirby, Linn. pane Gexvus DCLXIX. Macrocera, Latreille. Evcera. Maxillary waif a distinctly five-jointed, the sixth j very obsolete, or —. Superior wings with Histuie. O67. Me-- Metecta. Latreille, Panzer, sects. » (ta) Punctata, with its bial 66% Evce- Genus DCLXVIII. nis. Subdivision 2, Maxillary with fi ts or more. the lateral isons shorter tha he wings three su cells comp! * Labial and ENTOMO Meottia. i oe jointed. Sp. 1. Retusa. Lasts . Jurine. Megi Fabricius. Antho hirsuta. Latreille. ; Inhabits Ew : Genus DCLXXII. Saropopa. Lateille Mecitra. ili » Panzer. ¢ bmn ug. ’ Apis. Vb TM a Ei ae LOGY. Genvs DCLXX. MeuittuRon. 7 it Genus DCLXXL. » ‘Annnornon ce ort hast Lasivs. Jurine. ° , THOPHORA, Apis. Linn: Geo. kr (8 de Qa.) Popatrarus. © Walckenaer. Genus DC i Apis, Linn. eave stlat, glad» Meera, _ Mliger. | (ayn atin wp age: Lasius. Jurine. rae ‘ wi Tracnusa. Klug, Hemista. - Hemorrkoidalis. is heemorrhoidalis. rte Late. _Inhabits Europe. ' _Subdivision® aad Le %. Saienlll Genus CLXXIV. Ericnanis. ‘King! lig. Late. 614. Ere Centris. Fabricius. > peat Sruecee Fabricius. ‘equ cme bus. ° Illiger. Y thse Blt A, : ‘ Acantuopus. Klug. yg ge alias three submerginal cell. iharis Klug. Tiger, Lateille.. Division II. en ee eee gee ees hen | , o a t Be. Hinder tibie terminated by two aparep thesis: Su- perior wings with three s cells in all, com- , the last neither linear nor oblique. ag hi DCLXXV. Evaiossa. Latreille, Fabricius, 675. Eve cid inl GLOSSA. er vee " Fabricius, ideale ih Bremvus. Jurine. ie lilnaiaaiias abit ai Sp. ls Dentata, cenit, Tihec anita, es ‘Fabr. Late, Dentata. idiata. ~ Dimidiate. dimidiata. Fabr. ’ - Englossa dimidiata. Latr.__. 677. Bom: “agg DCLXXVII. Soon ‘Latreille, ine ‘eel disposed in tanvere, sight Iie \ iy nidificate in cavities beneath the surface. The fe ‘te im bom. The macs ae the salices or willows are in bloom. The males are most abundant in the autumn. Sp. 1. Terrestris. Apis terrestris, Linn. Inhabits ‘ Terrestris. Sp. 2. Muscorum, muscorum. Fabr. ique or linear. 676. Aru. Genus $ DELXXVIIL. Aris of authors. wings with three submar, cells com Gblique and linear. ifica of Mel ne ge (Hive bee.) authors. eo the hive bee has en the attention of im, Reaumur, Huber, Wild- man, &¢. to whose works we must refer the reader, as bine of this curious animal would suffice to fill a 679. Mz- _ Genus DCLXXIX. Metirona. Illiger, Klugellan, LIPONA Ane Fabr. y Hitslonsdiablsateh Unsks Ueed oleh chtsigonsie’ ches sera cw comple man. cl -“) i any rem . 1. Favosa, ae ys is favosa.” Fabr. Melipora favosa, Latr. 680. Tar. Genus DCLXXX. Taicona. Jurine, Latreille. Sowa. Mextrona. _Illiger, Klug. Arts.’ Fabricius, oe Fabr. Spinipes 2. Spinipes. ‘ Contr spinipes. Fabr. Trigona spinigs. Me Orver DIPTERA. Oraver Dieters. Linn. Latr, &c. Crass Antiiata. Fabr. The insects | composing Se from all other the fo! Wit Ste ake, ig y he lowing carte * which are common to alm Hinder tarsi with their first joint ; Superior i6t or balancers,) placed behind, and generally beneath Metabolia the wings. —— Besides these characters, be noted some others, ost all dipterous i insects. The mouth is for the most | furnished with a rostrum having no articulations. Thorax composed of but one ra wag always distinct from the abdomen. . era are at this time under, investiga< tion by — very eminent aatetihese and as the Editor is desirous of rendering every part of this work as complete as the nature of the publication will admit,’ he has resolved to defer giving-the arrangements of this order, until the article Insecta goes to press, when the most approved rie of Diptera will be given ; in the mean time, we merely give a tabular view of the arrangement ‘of Latreille, the terminations only being , and the term tribe being used for family. Section I, Proposcippa. Head distinct from the thorax by an evident interval. Proboscis (rarely wanting ) univalve. Tarsi with two simple nails. Division I. Antenne with many joints, ; Tare Tl, Treucarimes. Diyision II. Antenne with not more than three joints. Subdivision 1. Antenne with the last joint having at least four rings or annulations. Trise II. Srratiomypes. Haustellum with two sete. | Trive II. Tapanmes. Haustellum with many sete. Subdivision 2. Antenne with the last joint haying not more thax three rings, ‘A. Haustellum with four sete at least. a. Proboscis (when at rest) entirely ox partinlay pro- . minent. * Proboscis terminated by two large lips. Trive [V. Raacioniwes. . Palpi prominent, cylindric-conic. Wings divarica- ting. Antenne generally moniliform. : Trise V. Doxycurropes, Palpi prominent, lamelliform. Wings incumbent. Antenne patelliform. Taine VI. Mypaswes. Palpi not inen te Preboscis vortaihated by very small lips. Trise VII. . Astipes. soboay Ig Wings incumbent, Antenne threes Trise VIII, Empipes. jane long. Wings incumbent. Antenne two- 162 ENTOMOLOGY. Taree IX. Awrsnacipes. Tae XIV. Muvuserpes.: | sites —~ short. di Antenne distant, heap deantes. TY Head'es igh os the ' Proboscis retractile, terminated by a very remarkable See say X. Bomoy.inves. Body short. Wings divaricating. Antenne con- Taine XV. CEsraupes. tiguous, three-jointed. Head lower than the thorax. Proboscis wanting. « ‘ This tribe is considered Dumésiles Toms 31, Mane, tinct division from the tribe "Mice, ie eave soperth ren Wings divaricating. An- pion we most thoroughly concur, tenn hs Rochendad aman aammepnseantae TWekie: Sheen Section II. Eproposciwea. ~ Troe XII. Syepnives. p “* ead sass from the thorax by ‘Nal ot at cyan B. Haustellum with two sete, double or treble. Trise XIII. Conopsives, For a farther arrangement of the Distress see In« Proboscis prominent, nearly cylindric or conic, with- seca. out any remarkable dilatation. INDEX OF AUTHORS NAMES. +. am © 1 Pork A Crellius, p. 62 Gorda, p 73 Latestiow ps The 73,75 Panzer, p. 71, ty 15 p64 yuo wed Abtheilung, p. 71 Crutzer, Gould, 6 Leach, 75 Paulus Hr ig Nome, Adams, Curtis, 67, 69, 10, 74 Grafinn, ‘va Mesian, Locket, 66 Paykul, 71,73 Sepp, 65, 76 — me Admiral, 63,67 Cuvier, 73 Leeuwenhoek, 61,62 Perrault, 60 Shaw, se ilian, 58 Cyprien, 61 a. 61 Leibstaff, 76 Petagna, 69 Sloane, 62 Btius, 59 Cyrillus, 69, 76 Griendel, 61 Lesser, 63 Petiver, 62, 75 ‘Smith, eat ie us Afzelius, 72 c + 68 Gronovius, 65 Leske, 68, 70 Philiscus, 58” G4 Robert, 76 Villars, 70 5 66, 70 69, 71, 72, 73 Lady + Mentzelius, 61 Roemur, 70 eee a Bilberg, 61 Fabricius, Otho, Merian, 61, 62,76 Rondeletius, 59 Voigt, 73 ib. aeslius, 67 J Roessel, 63 Blumenbach, $4 Fallen, 74, 75 Jablonsky, 70 Mey, ib. Rossi, 70, 72 Ww 61 60 Jacobus, 72 » 76 Roxburg, 74 : Bocks, 76 Fisher, 68, 69 Jacquin, 68 Mohr, 74 Russel, 63 61... a9 Boerhaave, 63 d, 65 Illiger, 73 Moll, 69 ey , Bamare, 66 67 Johnson, 60 Mollerus, 61 -7 $§ f Bonsdorff, 69 Forster, 66, 67 Jones, 71 Morand, 69 alford, 75 —— = ae oe 15 ii Moe aeeees ee SE oe seemg self i? Bosc, rancillon, ungius, ouffet, ras og 2 eber, 73,74 Bradley, 62 Franzelio, 60 Muller, 65, 68 Scheidner, 70, 71 Webersich: NN Brahm, 71 Frenzius, 59 Muralto, 61 Schellingberg, 7 A Brown, R. 67 Frisch, 62, 65,76 Kahn, 67 Myrepsus, 59 Schmid, ib. a Brown, 64 Fuesty, 67, 68, 69,71 Kalm, 64 69 Wilde, 59 9 pier ~ ae ae 4 N A ergy vale 64, 67 - Buodack, Kirkmaj . eoptolemus, Schrank, ’ > Gadd, 64 Kleemannir, 64 Nicander, ib. 73 62 4 c Geoffroy, 65 Kleemannus, Schreber, 65 Watton, 59 Catesby, 62 Geyerus, 61 Knoch, 68, 73 0 Ke) ; - Coderheilm, 72 Giorna, 70 Kinig, 61 - Olivier, 70 Schroter, coon (aad ipa aatat a © eden, of 4 Ovibasius, 59 Scope, Oh Chere ee Clairville, Gmein P ' cap ; Clark, ib. Goedart, 60,61, 62 L’Admiral, 63, 67 P ert a Coquebert, 75 Goeze, 68, 70, 68, 69- Pallas, 65, 67,68 Seba, 62, 73 OAS EP yE8 = INDEX. ras ee é : Index. index ne A Gen. Sp. Gen. Sp. Gen. S; Gen, Sp. ye 3 Gen. Sp. Akis 9. 183 bidentatum 274 1 Kirby oT acinia =» ib. 6 Abraxas, Leach 459 Fabricius 187 boleti, Fabr. ib. 1 Kirby 668 euphrosyne ib. 5 ~ grossulariata ib. I filiformis ib. 1 molle 121 2 Kirby 672 lathonia ; ib. 1 ulmata - ib? reflexa 183 1 pertinax ib. 3 Linneus 590 | paphia - ib 4 Acanthia . 384 \ Aleochara 113 striatum ib. 3 Linneus 597 Arpactus . 607 Fabricius 377 a Gravenhorst 113 ~~ tessellatum ib. 1 Linneus 604 Arczenites +.» 632 378 bipunctata 1141 Anomalon - 632 Linnaeus 640 dubitata ib, 1 Wolf . 379 canaliculata’ 113 1 Jurine. 530 . Linneus 641 Ascalaphus - 496 Schrank 380 © impressa ib, 2 Anopleura, p. 76, 77 Linneus 653 barbatus . ib. 1 Schrank 381 Aleyrodes . 412 Antea ot 557 Linnzus. 654 italicus . ib. 2 lectularia «= ss 378 1 Chelidonii ib. 1 ‘jurineanum ~~ ib, 1 Linneus 658 Arida grisea . 1851 maculata’ © 3841 Allantus,Jurine 512 Anthia, Fabricius 28 Linneus 659 Aritides, p. 161 Acantharides, p. 123. scrophularie ib. 1 Weber 27 Linneus 662 Asiraca " 400 Acanthie bordée, Alomya - 31 decemguttata ib. 1 Linnzus 663 clavicornis ib. 1 Latreille . 386 1 Attica, Geoffroy 315 variegata 281 Linnaeus 667 Aspen, prominent Acanthopus, Klug. 674 oleracea ib 1 Anthicus Z 116 Linneus 673 moth . 448 14 Acheta 4 363 testacea ib. 2 Fabricius 222 Linneus 675 Astata * 610 e Fabricius 351 Alucita . 474 Fabricius 338 , Linnaeus 677 Astatus, Klug. 520 Latreille 358 Olivier 449 Paykull 223 Olivier 674 Astrapzus, Graven- Coquebert 352 Fabricius 452 antherinus ib. 2 Rossi 646 horst e101 campestris 353 1 Latreille 472 fusca... ib, 1 Scheffer 648 ulmi . ib. 1 digitata . 352 1 Hubner 473 helwigii 116 1 Scopoli 649 Ateuchus . 145 gryllotalpa 351 1 la 4741 Monoceros 222 1 Villers 643 Illiger 147 Achetida, p. 119 Alucitida, p. 135 Anthidium . 656 enca.—C«G57 2 Latreille 146 Alurnus - » 807 Fabricius 654 amathea 680 1 flagellatus ib. 1 ~, ~ Aerocerides, p. 162 ~ Olivier 303 Illiger 655 bicornis, Kirby 657 1 sacer » 451 Acrydida, p. 120 femoratus ib. 1 manicatum 656 1 centuncularis 658 1 scheefferi 147 1 - 358 grossus 307 1 spirale . 6481 coerulea 651 1 Atopa ° 62 DeGeer 355 Alyria . 537 truncorum 654 1 cerulescens 657 2 cervina . ib 1 DeGeer 353 ib. 1 Anthophagus 109 conica, Kirby 659 1 Atractoceros . 1% > subulatum 3581 Alyriada, p. 143 punctulatus ib. 1 conica, Linn. ib. 2 necydaleides ib 1 Actinophorus, + 625 Aanthophora 671 cyanea, Kirby 651 1 Atropos. . 507 Sturm ° 145, Spinoli 616 Fabricius 653 favosa . 679 1 ‘ lignaria.... ib. 1 Aculeata, p. 146 ater ib. 1 Fabricius 659 florisomnis 6531 Atta . . 574 Adela + 452 lunicornis 625 1 Hiiger 664 longicornis 668 1 capitata . ib 3 452 1 Amblys, Klug. 657 hirsuta, Lipn. 671 1 manisata 656 1 cephalotes ib. 2 Adimonia, Schrank 313 Ametabolia, p. 76 “ 4-dentata 659 1 mellifica 678 1 » » dbl alni . ib. 2. Ammobates 661 retusa gw «SGT IL punctata 667 1 Attaginus + 124 nigricornis ib. 1 rufirentris ib. 1 Anthracides, p. 162 4-dentata 650 2 pellio . ib. 1 Adorium,Fabricius311 Amophila, Kirby 697 Anthrenus, Geof. 126 nificornis 662 1 trifasciatus. ib. 2 - bipunctatum 1 arenaria ib. 3 schrophularie ib. 1 terrestris 677 1 Attelabus _. . 248 Zcophora, Latr. armata ib, 1 Anthribus variegata 663 1 DeGeer 286 Zgeria, Fabricius 434 campestris ib, 2 Paykull 244 violacea 650 1 Fabricius 250 apiformis ib. 1 Amphicoma 166 la 242} Apius,Jurine «518 Geoffroy . 130 crabroniformis ib. 2 melis ib. 1 rhinomacer 244 Apoderus, Olivier 249 Linnaeus 37 tipuliformis ib. 4 Ampulex, Jurine 600 seabrosus 243 1 coryli ib. 1 Linneus. 91 vespiformis ib. 3 ee 226 «6A - $02 Aporus . 596 Linneus 92 2Xgialia, Latreille 155 ib. 1 Antliata; p. 161 unicolor ib. 1 Linnaeus 93 globosa «ib. 1 Anax, Leach 484 3 287 Apotamus, Lat. 18 Linnaeus) 195 Zgithus . 325 imperator 4811 Olivier 235 rafus . ib, 1 Linnwus 289 _ Fabricius 217 + 643 apicalis 237 1 Aptera, p. 76,126 Olivier 251 marginatus ib. 1 Latreilie 644 Apate, Fabricius 270 Apterogyna . 579 apricarius, Lin- Zilia, Fabricius 363 Olivier 645 capuzinus ib. 1 Olivierii ib. I naus +» 931 acuminata ib. 1 Olivier 648 Apatura, Fabricius 426 Aquarius, Schellen. 381 bacchus .. 250 1 ¥salus, Fabricius 173 646 iris . ib. 1 Schellen 383 buprestoides 289 1 scarabeoides ib. 1 Rossi 613 Aphanisticus 58 um 381 1 Attelabus.ceramboi- Zshna - 481 Rossi 642 natus» $8 1 Aquatica, p. 123 des, Linneus 195 1 _, Latreifle 483 heemorrhoi- Aphida, p. 126 ‘ curculionides~ 248 1 annulate 4813 dalis . 648. 2 Aphides, p. 125, 126 lunatus «ib, 1 formicarius, shades, p. 136 .) tricinetor 4 Abbodide, send iat | a. vis, DeGeer#26. a ial ida, p. ca iveab, 2 levis, DeGeer 286 1 Agathidium, Iliger331 _ Andrenida, p. 154 Aphodius, Fabricius 151 chrysorrhiea’ ib. 2 melanurus . 37 1 nigripenne ib. 1 Panzer 4155 lubricepeda ib. 8 mollis . .” 921 Agathis + 584 Aoshdies, globosus ib. 1 mendica ib. 6 Auchenia, Marsh, 306 gion, Eatrallg 400. Anis 167 Aphorida, p. 149 eer cenpitiie i Auteetie “28. § . pl + ib. 7 Autac! . 528 Pinguinalis ib. 1 crinitum ib 1 A . 67 ib. striatus . ib. 1” Agra, Fabricius == 38 ' 102s Apion, Herbst =—251 plantaginis. ib. 3 Azure blue butterfly @nea. = ibe Ls abricius 381 = Apis, Christus 580 - ib 4 428 13 _¢ayennensis = ib. 1 _ Iliger Christus 642 salicis =» ibe Pennsylvannica ib. 3 - bicolor 1 Fabricius 679 villica + jib 2 Badister . . 26 surinamensis ib. 2 nigripenne 1 Fabricius 680 Arctides, p. 133 bipustulatus ib. 1 Agrion + 485 picea © 102 t Geoffroy 645 Arge, Schrank 511. Batis, Leach. 488 Fabricius 487 piceum’ ib, 1 Geoffroy 6Y1 Argynnis + 421 bioculatus . ib. 1 Agrionides, p. 337 Anobium 121 Kirby 650 Latreille 422 © Banchus © . 531 Agyrtes, Fratlich 97 Fabricius 274 Kirby 651 adippe + 4218 Fabricius. 538 castaneus 97 1 Illiger 119 Kirby 655 aglaia » ib 2 cultellator . ib, 1 ENTOMOLOGY. 164 Coe. Gen Gen. Gen. &, ’ Gen. §; Index.) | Banus . me Hijiner . 445 wy _ Linnwus . 32" unicolor . " Panzer . 335 Latreiile . 443 , Pom} | Linnwus 39° Centrotus 405 Paurer . 537 weuli . 4391 biguttata . 56 1 Linneus . 42 cornutus . ib 1 manineator S37 1. chrysorrhaa 445 2 emarginata . 58 1 ‘Lionaus = 44—sCCeenttris— 673 - Redford blue but- compressa . 464 1 minuta §. (571 Marsbham 16 ‘Fabricius 650 Beng Aas terfly 408 12 eratmgi «44! 4 Burnished brass moth Marsham’ . 36 Fabricins G58), ‘ Bee hornet sphinx 434 | dispary. 443 1s Marsham 109 Detita e $59 domtnula . 446 | “Ryrrhides, p. 94 Oliviens 5 927 5 wrt bicolor SM furculas). 444 2 | Byrrhus ae 126 Olivier . . - 374 |= Fabricius 6754, Relostonts - %86 + 463, Linnaeus 128 Olivier. .» 96 ~ testaceo pallidum lanestria | 4417 Olivier . 131" ' | Rossi 2) 34 dimidiata..« 675 2 ih neustrias i iby 5 fascicularis *. ib. 1 arenarius. » 44 1 hemorrhoida- Belostormida, p. 193 phworrhea . 445 3 pilula. . 1281 arvensis ~ . 43 7 t Usyocnh4 678 1 Belostomides, ib. pint =. | 423 schrophularie 126 1 atricapillus, 311 spinipes. + 680 2 Bembes . Got - 4416 Byturus P 98 | . bipustulatus) 26 1 Cephaleia, Jurine $18 Fabticins’ 605" . . 4422 tomentosus . ib. 1 © bdrevicollis . 44.2 || ° Jurine ~ 519 Olivier. 606 quereifolia |. ib 1 c 1 cassideus 5,525 1 Cephus « +). 620) Rosi . G26 quereus . 4411 Calioxys. . 659 catenylatus 43 2 pygmaeus . ib 2 carolina . G05 1 rosea =. s | 446 2 conica,;. «ib. 1 catenulatus, _ | troglodytes, 1 rostrata . 604 1 rubi e 441 3 Calobicus . p 94 g Marsham. ib. 5 iy Leach X Bembicides, p. 150 trifolil. .' ib. 2 marginatus |. ib. 1 chrysostomos, » Cerambycida, p.112 Bembidion, Latr. 14 versicolora 443 = Calandra, Clairy.’ 262 Maysham . 361 bycides, ib. : Gavipes «ih 1 villica, ©.) 445 1 © «granaria’..| ib. 1 ©; complanatus). 44 J him 296 littorale . ib 2 vinula «| 444.1 Calepteryx, Leach, 487 -crepitans;,. 291 *« Geer, 289 Bembidium §. ib. O Bostricides,p. 109 Cailidium, =... 296 erux-major | 391 | Latreille .. 295 flavipes ih. Bostricus -.0" 270 Fabricius » 297 “eyanocephalus 30 1 Lipneus 288 Uittorale . ib 2 Fabricius’ 265 arietis.. 296 | Carabuscyanus, Fab. 43 5 Linneus 290 Berytus . 367 Hellwig . 266 violaceum. 297 1 decemguttatus 27 1 Linnenus “ ti 2 368 1 Paykull . 268 Callimorpha.. | 446 dentatus . 36.1 Lin % Bethy - $63 capuzinus. 270 1 dominula 9. ib. 1 dimidiatus . 109 1 Prine sa r - Fabricius 588 cylindricus . 266 1 jacobem . ib 3 distans . (161 Marsham _ Paneer . 585 typographus 265 1 rosea ib. 2 gibbus eee 2S 1 Marsham 296 _ cenopterus 563 1 “ Calopus «. 218 granulatus, + ; Marsham 297 fencoratus 585 1 lemnata. . ib. 4 serraticornis + ib. 1 Marsham 43 6 emdilis . 2921 Biastes . . - 664 potamogata wed os a . 42 gyllenhalli, - ay ' sarietis.., 2961 « Schottii . ib 1 purpuralis «i quisitor, ib. Schanker - : coriarius —. r : Biston, Leach 156 verticalis» . ib. 3 sycophanta ib. 1 } ied! ie limeatocollis_ i - ib. 2 Brachinu» . (29 Camberwell beauty 423 3 Marsham, ..43 4 ° longimanus 291 hirtaria =. ib. 3 Clairville,, 30 Cantharida, p.196 - humeralis.... 33 1» morchatus . | prodromaria ib. 1 crepitans 4 29 1 Cantharides, p.105 _ infidus, Panzer 442 | nebulosus. __ 2 Ritoma . . 284 © Brath Oliv,.253 Cantharis . 234 intricatus, Lin. 433 » oculatus. . ie, & Herbst . 278 girus so Gb Geoffroy . 216 intricatus, planatus . 288 1 crenata . ib. 1 Brachygaster ©. 5 Linnwus . 67 Marsham. _ ib. 2 serraticornis, Lin. unipanttata 284 1 minutus —. ib. 1 Linnwus . 70 locapthabaanny 30 1 i Leamiabuea’S ene Bittaeus - . 493 Brachypterus . 99 ». Linneus . 75 limbatus . 461 | spinosus .. 295 1 tipularius . ib. 1 Brachyrbinus. 254 , > Linneus . 77 Jittoralis .. 142 — , violaceus 297.2 = Block-arches moth 443 2 argentatus . ib. 2 Linneus . 230 monilis, Fabr, 43 5 Ceramius . 6355 | Black-bair streak imperialis + ib. 1 Linneus? 281 morbillosus, Fa- . _ floriscolumbii “ibe I botterfy .. 427 2 Bracon —. 533 Marsham 66 bricius . ib. G6 Ceraphron.... 856 Black-spot brown Jurine . 587 Olivier. 232 multiguttatus 23,1 _ durine .. 653 ~~ 428 10 Spinoli . 534 nea. - ,,761 multipunctatus 44. Jurine . 555 Blaps . I91 desertor . 533 1 biguttata... 712 nemoralis, Latr.43 4 Panzer * Olivier . 186 manducator 637 1 coccinea, - 220 2 oleus . wt cornutus .- @longatus . ib. 1 Bremus . . 675 fuscus ,. ) 701 | pilicornis , 40 _ heleatus ie : femoralis . 192 1 Jurine «677 navalis .. 771 planus.) 201 a ee 04 laticollis . ib, 1 Brentus, Fabricius 246. sanguinolenta 281 1 pumicatus, « 211 emer S| Mortisaga . 191 1 Olivier. 247 serraticornis, _ purpurascens 43 1 Ceratina #jpt GORD) Biatta anchorago , 246 1 Marsham . 66.1 4.maculatus, 321 . coerulea . 651 1 orientalis . ib. 1 brunneus . 247 1 vesicatoria . 2341 rostratus . 411 Cerceris . 626» Body-lowse . 71 Brondsbordered bee. Capsus . $69 -ruficornis . 221 | major . 6271 Boletaria, Marsh. 279 hawk moth . 433 3 ater - ib. 1 _ rugimarginatus, 2 + 6261 4 pustulata A 1 Brond-bordered yollan, i Carabe a theca 81 ouiuinertee, . ? p12» pe Boletophagus . underwing moth Carabides, p. i nibarbus .. Cercopis fiom agaricola ib. 1 Brontes, Fabricius 288. Carabus .. spiniger . 201 |. . sanguinolenta 403 1 Bombus +. 677 flavipes .. ib 1 DeGer 8 paphyiionies ite 1 Cerocoma,. . 227 » Babricius 650 Broommoth . 454 De Geer . 35 sycophanta _ 1 Scheefferi . ib, 1 Iliger . 674 Brown-hair streak De Geer 41 violaceus . 43 1 Cerocomatida, p.105 =~ Muscorum . 6772 butterfly *% 4271 Fabricius . 23 Carpenter bee, p. Ceropales + $35. terrestris . ib. 1 Brown tail moth , 445 3 Fabricius. 24 soe , Peciciee, «594 Bombylides, p. 162 Bruchides, p, 106 Fabricius. 25 » equestris 310 1 nlata . 594 1 Bowmbycida, p. 132 . 118 Fabricius 26 - ib 1 Cerophytum. . 60 Bombycides, p. 131 33 / ides. 60 1 Sombyz . = 442 40 - Fabridus 440 45 furewla ied 2 \ Fabricius _ 21 5 Letiee 1 Fabricius fasifitee ced “Fabricius . 445 _, Latreille Fabricius 446 histeroides.. 276 1" Fabricius 454 nN A Fabricius 464 jae 10°" Hibmer . 439 _ Fabricius 162 ee OD Oliyier 168 cuepeis "10a. * fasciata’-.. 168 2 lineola . 162 1 nobilis - 168 1 polyphemus 170 1 Cetalion . 402 reticulatum ib. 1 Chalcida, p. 144 Chalcis oni S43 Cuvier .,. 546 Fabricius. 558 Jurine -., 541 Jurine. 544 Lamarck, 545 ees clavipes + minuta .. 543 2 Chalk-hill blue but- terfy .. 428 6 Chaulioides _ 501 pectinicornis 501 1 Chechenus, Illiger 537 Chelonarius . 129 -atrum? . ib 1 » Beauyoisii . ib. 1 Chelonites : ae Chelonus, Jurine _ 536 Chelostoma .- 653 _ florisomnis . ib. 1 Chennsium =. S339 > bituberculatum ib. 1 Chermes, Linnaeus 408 betule alni ib. 1 alni, Fabricius ib. 1 Chilocorus, Leach 334 yeacti » oe ib. 1 Chimarra, Leach 471 2 Chiroscealis - 177 * bifenestrum . ib. 1 Chlorion —- 600 _» Fabricius oe cg a “prunnea . ib. I oblonga age Chrysidida, p. 1 Cu icin Bas : Fabricius Fabricius 568 - Linneus 566 Olivier . 564 -. Rossi . 639 Rossi . 567 . ib, Panzer". 865 Cormowbricius | S17 _ . Linnaeus . 62 Linneus . 90. - Linneus, 200 Linneus 212. Linneus 215" Linneus 216 Linnaeus 315 _- . Linnaeus 322 Linneus 323 Linnaeus 336 . Marsham = 64 Marsham 132 _ Marsham 306 Marsham 312 ais r a “sen, 088,2. ENTOMOLOGY, ; Gen. Sp, » aa) Gen. Sp. .w% auld Gen. Sp. Banksii .° 318 1 - De Geer .° 371 ; fossors,» io! 161 Beccahunge 319 1 DeGeer 372 ) gibba. 4) | ib. 2 boleti F 260 1 Fabricius 364 Clothes- Wot, 457 1 buprestoides, Marsh- Geoffroy 376 Clouded buff moth 445 4 am, Yee 182 1 Linneus 360 Clunipes . . «| 152, caraboides 215 1 Linneus 361 scarabeoides, 152 1 “ceramboides. 212 1 Linneus 366 Clythra -. 323 cervina . 62 1 Linnzus 368 Fabricius, 324 ' coccinea » 336 1 Linneus 369 monstrosa., ib. 1 elongata, . 901 Linneus . 370 ° quadripunc- ] 64 1 Linneus) 373 : tatav.«» | 323 1 hirta §. 2161 Linnzus 375° -Clytus 8 296 litura . 318 2 Linnzus 380 arietis sieedb. 1 marginella ib. 3 Linnwus 381 .; Cnemidotus, Iliger 54 merdigera,Lin,306 1 Linneus 383 Cnodalon «208 _ punctatissima 317 Linneus ,. 384 © viride | «ib b 4punctata . 323 1 Rossi... 382 Coccinella > . 0333 sericea, Linn. 322 1 Wolf... 3602 Fabricius, 217 Tanaceti . SIS 1 Wolf 363..', » Linnaeus . 332 Chrysomelida, p.114 acuminatus. . ib. 1 Marsham 334 Chrysomelides,p.} 13 apterus; . 367.1 biverrucata 332 1 Chrysopa, Leach 497 virens » 3641 cacti % $34 1 | perla, . ib. 1 globus. 362 1) septem-punc- reticulata. ib. 2 lectularius . 377.1 ; tata “ Cicada ws, SD lineatus. . 361 1 Coceinellides, p. m6. Linnzus, 403 marginatus. 366 1 Coccus “ Al4 Linnzus . 404 « 364 2 cacti ‘ ib. L Linneus, (405 stagnorum . 381 1 characias,.... 413.1 Linnzus . 406 tipularius . | 367 1 Gockchaffer, come’ | Linneus . 407 tipuloides.. S71 1 mon ein 6S 1 Villers. . 397 Cimicida, p. 122 summer . . ibs 2 cornuta . 4051 Cimicides, ib. Codrus, Jurine . 560 hamatodes 394 1 Cinnabar + 446 3) Colaspis ‘ 321 lanio. . 406 1 Cinetus, Jurine 559 » | suranamensis. ib. 1 sanguinolenta 403 1 Ciopus, Clairville 259 Coleoptera, p. 76, viridis . 407 1) scrophularie ib, 1, 78,118 | Cicadida, p. 125 Cis, Latreille .« (274 Colias ° ALD Cicadides, p. 124 . bl Fabricius. . 420 ac il Cissites, Latreille 231 hyale . 419 1 Clairville 8 testacea . ib. 1 thamni... 420 1 De Geer 28 Cistela . 100 Colletes " 640 © Linnzus. . 10 Fabricius | 212 fodiens » +) ib 2 Linneus 12 Marsham_ 128 Mmeeincta . ib Ll Linneus . 13 Olivier . .62 Colliuris 9 Marsham =s«i14 augustata . 100 1 aptera. .,; ib. 2 Olivier. . 9 ceramboides 212 1 longicollis, ... ib. 1 aptera «ib, 2 undulata, Mar,128 1) Collyris, Rabricius ib. _biguttata . 12.1 Cixius, Leach 398 aptera .. ib 2 se aga 113 nervosus . ibe} longicollis . ib. 1 - 10 2) Cladius . 516 Colydium, Hellw. 275 ata,Ol.861. difformis .. ib. 1 Latreille 280 + 1 Clamys, Olivier 324, Colydinm, Payk. 282 ot Bok monstrosa ib. 1 elongatum . 280 1 reien + 112 Clmwionapirere . 93.1, fasciatum . (275 1 longicollis, Oliv. 9 1 Clavellaria, Lam, 510 frumentarium281 2 megacephala | 10 1 Clavicera, Walck. 651 planum ... ib. 1 riparia. 131 Claviger . 840 unidentatum | ib. 1 semipunctata 121 Clavigeres, p. 117 Colymbetes .. | 48 sylvatica . 111 Cleone . 489 bipustulatus ib. 1 p- 78 , pallida. ib. 1 Common butterfly 423 7 Cicindele 211 3 Cleonymus . 547. ~ Common blue but, des forets ib. 1 depressus . ib, 1, terfly . » 428 8 ' tachete + ib. 2 Cleptes ° 564 Conoprides, p. 162) Cilissa, Leach 644 Fabricius, 545. _ Convolvulus, hawke tricincta .« ib 1 Fabricius. 550 moth * 431 7 Cilix, Leach. a ‘ cule ta + 564.1, poe sod 96 » compressa . . p- ib. ~Cimbex . . 510 CCleroides, Scheffer 911+ Copris . 148 _ Olivier . i Clerus, Fabricius — 90 Fabricius 150 _ amerine .. Geoffroy .. 93 Geoffroy. 145 axillaris . ih 2 Geoffroy . 94 Geoffroy, 147 fasciata . ib 8) Marsham, 91 lunaris . 148 1 : nee ° a » | Marsham ri racca. a 2 a8 ‘ . fasciatus . ah 1 . Jeucorum — ie 3 formicarius . ib. 1 CordulegasterLeach4$1 marginata. ib. 5 mollis . 921 annulatus ib. 1 | obscura. ib 7 unifasciatus 90 2 Cordulia, Leach 480 sericea + ib, 9 Clifden blue butter- wnea etyaie 1 Reg tata BEG SS 428 —_ Coreides,p. | 21, vier, rd 1 Clivina +. :16 ° Coreus ‘ Cimx wt. SID, ees a | 1 165 2, Wak Gen. S: Corixa,.; 5 393. ' Bestriata ~~. ib. 1 Corixida, p. 124 : Cortiearia . . 284 _. Marsham... 281 » frumentaria ‘ib. 1 oblonga,» |. 284 1 staxicornis . 278 2 €orydalida, p. 138. Corydalides, ibe... Corydalis . 500 cornutus ibs 1 Corynetes _ . 94." - vuficollis «. ib 1 Cossida. i + Pp 131 Cossonus . 268 linearis... ib. 1 Cossus . tan? 438 Fabricius 439 escyli «».).,cib. 1 ) ~‘ligniperda 438 1 Cossyphus; .... 205 depressus ib. 2 ; » hoffmanseggii. ib. 1 Crab-louse, .p. 77 620 Crabro” Fabricius 608 Geoffroy 520 Olivier . 519. Rossi. , 627 Rossi . 606 Rossi .. 611 Rossi... GIA. Rossi . » 626 cribrarius . 620 1 subterraneus ib. 2 tibialis . ib 8 Crabronida, p. 152 Crabronides, ib. Crabs, p. 77 ) histrio |... 666 1. Cryptocephalida, p. 115". iF 3 e £ 788 ~ a me i ee # 28° ik ENTOMOLOGY. Gen. Sp- Christus = 546 Fabricius 544 Jurine . 538 Linnewus 539 Linnwus S41 Olivier 549 Olivier 550 Rossi . 540 capree . 545 1 quercus-folii, Linnaeus 539 1 serratulae 5441 seutellaris, Rossi 540 1 Cynipsida, p. 144 Cynipsides, ib. Cyphon . 63 Paykull 64 fuscescens 63 2 hemispherica 64 1 pallidus . 63 1 Dacillus, cervinus 62 1 Daene, Latreille 93 bumeralis ib. 1 - 642 hirtipes . ib. 1 lobata . 649 1 plumipes 642 2 Dasytes ° 74 ater - ib 1 Death's head hawk moth . 9 Delphacida, p. 125 Delphax 401 clavicornis 400 1 pellucida 401 1 Dendroides - 219 canadensis ib. 1 Dermaptera, p. 76,118 Dermestida, p. Dermestides, p. 94 Dermestes 123 De Geer 98 DeGeer 126 Fabricius 102 Fabricius 94 Fabricius 99 Geoffroy 95 Geoffroy 128 Geoffroy 133 Linnenus 94 Linneus 119 Linnaeus 125 Linnzus 144 Linneus 965 Linneus 270 Linnaeus 275 Marsham 124 Paykull 281 Rossi oo nae Rossi - 100 Rossi - 271 Scopoli 330 Sad Ts un 79 adstrictor 127 1 boleti + 2741 calthe . 3301 capuzinus 270 1 cellaris » 1021 dentatus - 791 dubius . 2711 furmatus 98 1 fungorum . 102 1 tardarius . 123 1 marginatus. 28] 1 murinus 123 2 pectinicornis ? Linnaeus 119 1 pellis ’ 141 Dorytida, p. 147 _Dorylus Gen. Sp. rulicollis . 941 scarabwoides 144 1 tomentosus 98 1 trifasclatus 124 2 typographus 265 1 undatus . 125 1 unidentatus 282 1 vulpinus 123 2 Diaperida, p. 102 Diaperis + 200 boleti . 200 1 Diapria, Latreille 558 cornuta ib. 1 Dichron . 645 analis . ib. 1 Leach, p. 120 Dimera, p.-116 ° 614 pictus . ib. Dinopherus, I 211 Diptolepida, p. 143 Diptolepides, ib. Diptolepis « 839 Fabricius 544 Fabricius = 547 Fabricius 549 Fabricius 550 Illiger 545 Spinoli 546 quercus folii 539 1 violacea 549 1 Diprion, Schrank 518 Diptera, p. 76, 161 Diraplia - | 409 Dircea Fi 214 Fabricius 211 Fabricius 213 barbati- . ib. 1 humeralis . 211 1 nusans - 2141 Discelias ° 634 Zonatis . 6341 Ditoma - . 278 crenata ib. 1 Diurna, p. 126 " gonagra ib. Dolchorus 601 ater - ib Dolychipodes, p, 161 a 122 dresdensis ib. 1 Doritis . ALT Apollo Fikes | | Dorthesia . 413 charachias ib, 1 Dorvillia’ . 443 _— Leach . ib. - $878 helvolus ib. I D ryphora . 3817 punctatissima ib. 1 Drilus, Fabricius 66 flavescens 66 1 Dryinus - | 562 Fabricius 599 eeneus 599 formicarius. 562 Dryops, Olivier 133 auriculatus ib. 1 > 36 beac ay 4 e jurgundy 6 Dyticides, p. 84 Dyticus, Geoff. . 47 Dytiscus, Lin. . ib. Linnaeus 140 Linneus 142 Marsham = 48 flavo-scutellatus, fusculus » 611 hermanni . 53 1 luridus, Lin. 140 1 marginalis 47 1 minutus . 491 ovatis, Illiger 52 1 ib. 1 Echimuthus - 30 Leach ib. alus ib. 1 Eciton, Latreille 574 Egger moth . 441 1 Ekk + 267 Elampus. - 565 panzeri 4 1 Elaphrus . Fabricius 12 Olivier . 14 aquaticus . 121 biguttatus . ib. 2 flavipes - 41 riparius . 131 uliginosus . Elater - . 61 Linneus 59 Linneus 127 Rossi . 133 buprestoides 59 1 - 612 dermestoides 127 1 ferrugineus 61 1 - ib 4 murinus . ib 3 Elaterides, p. Elateroides, Schaef.’ 77 Eledona’. 206 . agaricola . ib, Eleutherata, p. 78 Elis, Fabricius . 587 1 interrupta . ib. Eliris, Latreille 132 - ib 1 Elodes ° 63 , Latreille 64 ' fuscescens . 63 2 hemispherica 64 1 Riophore Gylieas'198°" lo yllen. J Pheriger: 136 Paykull 137 ~ aquaticus . 136 1 elongatus ib, 2 grandis . ib. 1 _ longipalpis, Mar- sham 138 1 Marinus © 137 2 minimus ‘ibe I ib. 1 Elythroptera, p. 76 Endomychides, pe 116. y chides, Endomychus bas $36 Fabricius 337 boviste . ib. : coccinea. 3 ee + 8 humeralis ib. 1 Eaoplium . =79 serraticorne i, 2 Gen. weberi . “os , tion of, p. 57 history of, p. 58 importance of the science, p. 57 uses of, ib, Epeolus -. 663 , Fabricius 661 punctatus ib. I variegatus 663 1 Epistragus . 207 fuscus . ib, I Ephemera . 490 Linneus 488 Linnaeus 489 bioculata 488 1 Telgata: - Ephemerida, p. 137 pear cera ig ; wn picharis . 67 dasypus ib, t Eproboscidea, 162 Erebida, p. 134 , Erebus ~ . 453 odorus — . ib. 1 Ertodorus, Walck. 560 Eriops . 649 Erminemoth = 445 6 Erodia ‘ 640 640 1 Erodius A 17s . Fabricius 179 gibbus . 1781 testudinarius 179 1 Erotylida, p. 11 lides, Erotylus 325, ib. i Olivier 93 gibbosus . 325 1 Evania . 525 Olivier . 595 Fabricius 525 1! appendigaster, ‘Panzer _— ib. 2 levigata ib. 1 minuta eT ae ib. s Evanie - ib lisse, Olivier ib. 1 Evanides, p.142 Eucera Daye 668 Panzer ene Scopoli 6 antenuata 669 6638 Eucharida, p. 144 _ Eucharis) . 541 _ Fabricius 544 - ascendens 541 1 serratule 544 1° Euchrenus . 568 ‘ us ib. 1 E a Xe 551 infidus . ib L Euglossa . 675 dimidiata ib, 2 Eumenida, p. 153 Eumenus . 632 Bane "935 t Nyetlicn 321 med oe vitis ‘sat Euplocamus ¢ 450 | hihte iger upocus, r we - ibd ENTOMOLOGY. Gen. Sp po Gen. Sp. Gen, Sp. Eurychora «184 Fabricius 158 ' wuficornis . 221 galatea 424.1 | ciliata. . it. 1 Fabricius 159 tardus, Latr. 23 1 hyperanthus | ib. 2 Serratule . ib, 1 didymus 159 1 ‘large. 4243 megera ib. 7 Bustrophus . 201 nasicornis. 1581 Hedychrum . 570 pamphilus. ib. 3 dermestoides ib. 1 punctatus 160 1 Panzer . 565 pilosell ib. 5 Eyed butterfly 424 2 Stercorarius 153 1 Hegeter . - 186 semele sxanib. 8 F 97 = eee at or 1H . 308 Figites ; 540 Geotrupides, ib. eliophilus, Klug. Marsham 197 Spinoli 544 Getrida, p. 123 Helobium, Leach . 44 atra . 1 Scutellaris 5401 > 383 multipunctataum mutica 197 1 Figure of eight ib. 1 ib, 3 Hister . 130 moth . 443 9 Ghost, Swift . 4071 Helodes . 319 planus. ib. 1 Filicornes, p. 137 Gibbium . 11s Phellandrii ib, 1 striatus, Pabr. ib. 3 Flata’_. . 396 © scotias . ib 1 Violacea. . ib. 2 sulcatus ib. 3 ‘Fabricius 398 Glanville butterfly 422 3 Helophorida, p. 95 unicolor ib. 1 nervosa ib. 1 Glossostoma, p. 76 Helophorns -. 136 Homoptera, p. 124 reticulata’ 396 1 yros gS 165 aquaticus . ib 1 Hoplia . 164 Feenus : 526 maurus ib. 1 elongatus . ib. 2 pulverulenta ib. 1 ib. 1 Gnathostoma, p. 76 Helops . . 209 Hoplitis . 657 Fr ¥ 1° Golitthus . 170 Olivier . 192 | Hoplitus, p.84 Geoffroy 2 pelyphemus ib. 1 Panzer . 100 Horia . 230 Forbicine cylindrique2 1 Gomphus . lanipes . 209 Latreille 231 - 1 vulgatissimus ib. 1 Helorus : 561 maculata 230 1 F p- 77 Gonatopua, Klug. 562 anomalipes ib. 1 * testacea 231 1 Forficula + S43 Gonepteryx . 420 Hemerobe aquatic noir Hornet sphinx 424 2 ‘Fabricius 345 rhamni ib. 1 512 Humming bird, ' Marsham = 344 Gonius, Jurine 611 Hemerobida, p. 138 hawk moth 423 1 auricularia 343 1 Gorytes ‘ 607 Hemerobides, ib. Hybonotus, Klug. 521 =— 3451 . Hemerobius . 498 ib, 1 : . ae tatus . - 1 ge red 501 dromedarius m 2 neglecta - Graphipterus Geer 502 Hydrachna . . Joriee or Greasy Po ; ms r4 . 52 fritillary gibba . 521 Linneus 573 Green-veined Linneus 505 hermanni 53.1 Linneus 574 butterfly . 4184 Linneus 506 Hydreana . 138 Linneus 575 Grylllida, p. 120 Olivier . 500 Illiger 137 Olivier 576 ~—— Gryllides, ib. bipunctatus 406 1 Latreille ib. crassinoda’ 573 2 Gryllotalpida, p. 119 chrysops, Don 499 1 longipalpis 138 1 herculanea 571 1 - S61 chrysops, Lin. 497 1 margipallens 137 2 formicarius 1 Org ast opkains. 4003 yasehiue, Leech 140 . fulv H Leach Formicarides, p. 147 Linnaeus 351 hirta .. 4981 luridus ib. 1 Forrester . 4361 Linneus 353 lutrarius . 5021 Hydrometra . 361 Fulgerida, p. 124 Linndus: 354 maculatus, Fa- Fabricius 382 Fulgora - . 395 Linneus 356 bricius. . 499 1 Fabricius 383 ' Latreille 396 Linneus 356 pectinicornis 501 1 currens 382 2 Latreille 397 Linneus 358 pela . 4971 383 1 Panzer 399 campestris 356 1 Hemiptera, p. 76 rivulorum 382 1 eandelaria =: 395 2 | didactyla 3511 stagnorum 381 1 lanternaria 395 1 a em ib. 1 Linneus Hydrophylida, p. 96 virescens 399 1 357 1 Hemisia . 673 Hydrophylides,p 95 G religiosus,Scop-350 1 Hepa, Geoffroy 390 Hydrophylus 142 Galerita . 35 subulatus 358 1 - 487 Rotahens 136 Fabricius = 34 Viridissima 354 1 Schrank 439 Marsham 137 Americana 35 1 vulgaris . 3501 hectus + ib. i Marsham 138 ; se 312 #Gymnoptera, p. 76 humuli. . ib. Marsham 139 ‘Latreille 313 Gymnopleurus 146 mappa. ib. 2 Marsham 140 alni . ib. 2 flagellatus re 1 Heriades . 654 ; Marsham 141 ‘ nigricornis, Gyrinus. . . truncorum ib. Marsham 143 ’ Latreille L* = p natator : < 1 Herminia . 7 ‘ caraboides _ 1 ‘tanaceti . yrodroma, Kl proboscidalis elongatus 36 2 Galerucida, p. 114 H ~ Hesperia . 430 impressus 137 1 Galgulus «+ 8387 Halictus - 646 comura « ib. 1 longipalpis 138 1 oculatus ib. 1 sexcinctus ib. 1 linea + 4 . luridus . 4 : Galleria . Haliplus « 54 malve . piceus . alvearia ib. 1 impressus . ib. 1 paniscus . ib. 6 picinous «= M41 1 Gasteruption, Latr. 526 Hallomenus . 211 sylvanus ib. 2 Hydroporus 61 Gate keeper butter- ' Panzer 214 tages. ib. 3 fusculus ib. L cole, ior Sccmeidies: irate, reed 2 Xb 1 * ib, . {Haworth 465 } : ib. 1 Heteroceros « 134 . 53 ' “Haworth 456 micans . 2141 marginatus ib. 1 Hylacetus . 76 ' \ Hubner 460 = Haltica ‘ 315 Heteromera, p. 100 dermestoides' ib. 1 '.°°Hubner 461 oleracea . ib. 1 Heteroptera, p. 120 Hyleus .: 640 dolabraria 457 2 testacea . ib. 2 Hexodon _. | 161 Latreille 641 Tunaria «=, = ib. 1 s~Harpalus . . @3..:' reticulatum ib, 1 florisomnis 653 1 Geometrida, p. 134 Latreille 23 Himatidium . 309 maxillosus ib. 1 Gcorissus =. 135 Latreille 20 leayanum ib. 1 sexcinctus 646 1 pygniaus «ib, 1 Latreilie 21 WHipparchia + 424 spiralis.» 648 1 Geotrupes . 160 leucopthalmus 20 1 blandina ibs 4 Hylesinus 268 S2R8R5 Sees gE Cener Sererre MOH aaa & ENTOMOLOGY. Ca. , ) Gen. §) ) Gen, Sp.» Gen, Sp. éifformis ay . emarginatus 25 . Fabricius 278 Mastagus, Hoff. 116) pilipes «671 1 Ligniperday Herbst 270 canaliculatus 264 1 ! . palpalis ib 1 lL sthrobium 103 © eapusinus «ib. 1 crenatus 278 1 Meadow brown but- clongatum seb 1 Lime hawk-moth 431 2 _ histeroides 276 1 || terfly - 4245 : rufcorne «Ib. 1 Limenitis.. . 425 jugiantis 277 2 Meal beetle —* Tron prominent moth Latridius ©. 281 Fabricius 2684 | Medamoptera,p. minutus © «ib. 1 camilla. ib, 1 Lyda' . +...» 519 Megacephala 10 Teocerus, Miiger 286 poreatue . ib. 1 Limnebins, Leach 14l erythrocephala ib. 1 carolina — ib. 2 Jesus, Fabrictas ‘ sr picious —. ibe 1 Lygwus . 3.8 —carolineysis ik 2 Latreilie 30 —Limbephilus,Leach478 Wolff . . 369 . senegalensis © ib. 1 Latreiile $1 rhombica . ib. 1 bef " ay : paper = ‘ Kentish glory = - atricapilla’ . ib 1 Limoius, Mulicr 132 ("). ceed centune Knot-grass, com- i eyanecephala. 20 | Volckmari> ib, 1 apterus . 368 1 Megalopus _. 302 mon . 454 quadrimaculataS2 1 Liparus 257 vagans. . 370.1 nigricornis' ib, 1, Ledra ° 404 germenus . ib, 1 Lymexylon . 77 Megatoma .. 125 Fabricius triguttatus . ib. 2 Fabricius 76 Herbst. —-124 Leistus, Frelich 45 Liris 8 66 Fabricius ha] nigra ss ib. J Labidura, Leach 345 Lema . 306 Fabricius 612 abbreviatum ib, 1 -undatum 125 1 Pabricius 315 Fabricius 613 flavipes wr S7 undulatum ib J merdigera . 306 1 ruficornis - 606 1 navale «A721 Mi cottomiiac a Leoides . 203 = Lithosia . 447 ~~ Lyrtops . 613 np % cea - ibd complanas ib 2 | tricolor . ib. I cephalotes ib. 1 pi Lepidoptera, p. 76 frrorata & ib. 4 Lystra ° 402 Megilla .. 672 Linavcnen quadra’ =. ib, Ls | _ reticulata ib 1 ‘Fabricius. 647 1 e 1 rubricollis.. ib. 8 Lytta . 234 curvipes 1. ib © Fabricius? . 3 = Livia . 409 Marsham 223 pilipes . . 671 1 Linneus «2 juncorum 407 1 antherina ib. 1 rotundata 672 1 polypodu? Fabr.3 1 Lixus pried 28g. "1 fusca». i IP Melandrya . 218 polypoda, Linn 2 1 Fabricius 261 vesicatoria 224] — serrata. ib 1 saccharina, Lin. 1 1 barbirostris~. ib. 1 M Melandryda, p. 104 saccharina, Vil. 2 1 paraplecticus' 255 2 Machilis . . 2 Melasis . ... 89 Lepismida, p 76 sulcirostris . ib. L polypoda, Lat. 2 buprestoides ib. 1 Locusta «| 354 Macbleg Harbet:sivI85 i Leptocerides, p. I36 viridissima ib. 1 . rugosa . b in j : 475 Locustides, p. 120 Macrocephalus 378.) ‘histrio. .. 666 1 interruptus. ib..1 Lomechusa «. 114 i pone “A _ _ histrionica_ ot 1 Leptopus . = 385 bipunctata . ib. 1 livier ) * punctata . 667 1 + 300 Lophyrus .) 517 cimicoides 78.1, Melipona -. 679 Fabricius 239 pint «. ib 1 latirostris 2421 © favosa, . ibl 298 Loricera, Latreille 40 ‘‘scabrorus. 243 Lb Melitwa . . 422 » Latreille» 301 ' \ gnea $ ib. 1 Macrocera «+ 669 . artemis 422 4 Marsham 305 Lucanida, p. 100 antenuata ibe fy) | ocinxias sD S elongata . 3001 Lucanides,ib. ©. lossum ss 4833. dictynna ss ih & inquisitor . 301 1 Luecanus- ~ 175 steliatarum ib. 1 | eupbrosyne- ib, 1 micans & 3051 - De Geer 174 - (291 lucing =. ib 6 rostrata . 239 1 Linneus | 176 longimanus 291 1 silene. . 2 simplex . 305 2 Marsham 157 Malachius aa) b-78 Melitta © «i. Lepturida, p. H3 Pallas . 152 @neus .. | 751 - Kirby Lethrus 2 182 Panzer. + 173 | Mallow skipper 430 4 ‘Kirby (643 Fabricius 172 Schreibers 172 Malthinus ©. 71 ee 644 aneus = ib. 1 weneus » ib Ll | — collaris - b4 _ Kirby. 645 cephalotes 152 1 apterus . »152 1 flavus .. ib} 3 © Kirby | 646 Lestes . 486 caraboides 17441 | ib. 2 chrysura - 644 2 Lestiva panctulata 109 1 cervus.. 175 1 ruficollis ib. 1 ‘fodiens . 6402 Leucospis . 542 cylindricus 157 L Manica, Fabricius 575 gibba . 6451 wld $b. interruptus 176 1 Jurine. 576 _ swammerda- Libelloides, Scheeff. 496 Luperus + © '814 = Maniola, Schon 4245 > - mella.. 64221 Libellula - 497 Frelich 100 M . ; tricincta 641 Donovan 481 flavipes . 3141 maxillaris ® 1) Mellinus . « 624 Latreilie ib. rufipes . ibs 2 maxillosa +» ib Ll | Fabricius 607 Linneus 482 Lycena « 428 Mantis ben 350° Fabricius 608 Linnewus 483 Adonis. . ibe oT! Fabricius 503 Panzer 605 Linneus 485 Alsus- 4) ib. 12 ‘Linneus ©3487) raficornis «= 624 1 mnea. . 4801 Argiolus © ib. 13. Linneus 349 Melliturgia ©. 670 annularis 4811 Argus. . ib 9 Linneus ©» 350 | clavicornis ib, i boltoni, Don. ib. 1 Artaxerxes ib.11 / mendica .~ 349 1 ‘ Melée o way 88S cancellata . 479 4 Chryseis ih 2 oritoria © . 350 1° . Linneus 332 conspurcata = ib. 2 corydon ib 6 pagana » 603 1 Linneus 234 depressa . ib. I cymon ibs 14) | {persas sib LY Linneus 287 Donovani . ib. 6 dispar ib, 1) -religidsa .. «350 1 _ -Linnzus 222 forcipata, Don. 482 1 dorylas ib. 8 | siccifolia, Don. 348 1 afer ©.» (2322 grandis =. 483 1 phlaas ib 4 Mantispa. «© 603 monoceros 222 1 quadrimacu.- rubi /.. ib) &! pagana. . ib. 1 schefferi 227 1 lata + 6793 vi ib -S Mantispides, p. 139) = vesicatoria §=—- 234 3 Scotica’ «ib. T Lycanidm, p. 129 "Marbled butterfly 424 1 Meloida, p. 105 Vulgata’ «ibs 5 Lycoperdina " » 397 Masaris . . eo} ‘| Melolontha .. 168 vulgatissima 9482 1 ‘immaculata ib 1) Jurinés) Fabricius) 162 > Libellutida, p. 136 ‘ bovista =. 4b 1 ‘apiformise: 638 1 =) Fabricius 0 L.ibelulides, ib. " Lyctus +. 276 vespiformis. 639 1 -. Babr Licinws = 25 | Pabricius 277 = Masarides; po S#. >! ‘Fabricius ~ Fee ~ . we - -— wwrY anr —“~D » - SeSSiesseererrererrrrsr ose PESEFE Sesbe8e ~_ — — Cee Gen. Sp. Neuronia . 508 ‘Leath, p. 136 _ nebulosa * 508 L Nenroptera, p. 76 ~ - Linnzeus, p. 136 Nilio i 217 * villosa” . ib 1 Nirmides, p. 78 Nirmus, Hermann. 7 "4s ¥ Nitela : 618 ib. 1 Nitidulas . 95 Latreille 96 Olivier 99 Rossi . 94 bipustulata 95 1 hirta . 941 ’ linearis + 961 Nitidulida, p. 89 Noctua é 454 Linneus 437 batis é 454 camelina ib. chrysitis ib. festuce . ib. fimbria . ib. fraxini . ib. hecta~ . 487 2 humuli «+ ib. 1 janthina 454 Noctua Ligustri ib, maura heat | ™Meticulosa ib. nupta . ib. Orbona” . ib. pacta . ib. palping . ‘ib pisi é ib. promissa ‘ib. pronuba ib. psi . ib. rumicis . ib. sponsa » ib tanaceti . ib. verbasci «ib, Noctuida, p. 134 Noctuides, ib. Nocturnia, p. 131. Nola . 467 palliolatus ib. 1 Ni ay 64AT difformis ib. 2 diversipes ib. 1 Nomada~ . 662 Latreille 645 gibba. ib. I ruficornis 662 1 schottii . 6641 Nonpareil, Clifden 454 1 Nosodendron . 131 fasciculare ib. 1 Noterus é 50 ‘crassicornis ib. 1 Nothiophilus . 12 aquaticus . ib. 1 biguttatus ib. 2 Notoclea ° $16 Notonecta + 392 Linnzus 393 glauca « 1 striata. i Notonectida, p. 124 Notonectides, p. 124 Notoxus . 222 ib. 1 Nymphala, Schrank ‘ 468 Nymphales - 425 Latreille 426 camilla + 4251 tris . 426 1 ENTOMOLOGY. * Gen. Sp. N: . 608 spinosus «+ ib I Oo Ochthebius = 1387 marinus «= ib. 2 s ib l Odacantha ax! 3ST " melanura ib. I Odonata, Fabr. p, 136 Odentocerum’ 476 griseum - ib 1 Odontomachus, Lat- reille - 5 Odontostoma, p. 76 - 9 europeus ib. 1 phalceratus 630 1 spinipes - 631 1 @demera - 238 ceruleaa - ib. lL Gdemerides, p. 106 ~ 232 afer - ib. 1 strides, p. 162 0 - 96 thoracica ib. 1 Oides - S11 bipunctata ib. 1 Omalisus . 68 saturalis ib, 1 Omalium ‘ . 108 rivulare ib. 1 Omalus, Jurine 563 Omaphron ° 46 ' limbatum ib. Omoptera, p. 76 Leach, p, 124 Onitis > 149 sphinx » ib I 150 vacca ‘ ib. 1 Opatrum - . 193 Fabricius 185 Illiger 192 Marsham 206 agaricola ib. 1 femorale . 192 1 femoratum ib. 1 griseum 185 1 Ophion . 531 Fabricius _ib. . 92 mollis . ib. 1 Orange tipt butterfly 418 5 Orneodes, Latreille 474 ib. 1 - ees oan chlorotica ib, 1 Orthoptera, p. 76 Latreille, p. 118 Latreille, p. 119 Latreille, p. 120 Oryetes . 158 nasicornis ib. 1 Oryssus > 522 coronatus ib. 1 vespertilio ib. 1 Osidromus . 14 Osmia ° 657 Dicornis « 6571 ceruleseens ib. 2 eornuta , + ibd Osmylida, p. 138 Osmylus . 499 maculatus ib. 1 Saapmeyess stages sambucaria’ = ib. 1 . 665 flaveseens. ib. 1 Oxybellus , uniglumis 619 1 Oxyporus 106 : Fabricius 111 ’ Fabricius =112 chrysomelinus ib. 1 Tufipes . W111 . rufus . 100 t Oxytelus ©. 147 carinatus ib. 1 Pecilia, Schrank 464 Pederus . 104 Gravenhorst ; 103 Olivier 105 bicolor « 108 2 elongatus ib. I riparius 104 1 Pezlobius ; 63 Hermanni ib. 1 Patrobius,.Leach 3 maritimus ib. 1 Painted lady butterfly 423 2 Palarus ° 611 flavipes ib. 1 Pamphilius . 879 erythrocephalus $17 1 Panageus ss 39 erux-major ib. 1 Panorpa 492 Linneus 491 Linneus 493 com - . 491 1 communis 492 I tipularius 493 J Panorpida, p. 137 Panorpides, ib. Panurgida, p. 156 Panurgus' . 649 lobatus - ib t Papilio 416 Adonis - 428 7 Adyppe 421 3 Zgeria » 4248 Aglaia =. 421 2 Alsus - 42812 Antiopa 423 3 Apollo + 4171 Argiolus 428 13 Argus « ib @ Artaxerxes ib.11 Artemis 422 4 Atalanta 423 1 betula « 4271 Blandina 424 & brassiex 418 2 C-album 423 7 Camilla » 425.1 cardamines 418 5 cardui . 423 2 Chryseis . 428 2 Cinxia « 422 3 Coruma . 43801 Corydon . 428 : crategi + 418 Cymon . 428 14 Daplidice 418 Davus . +424 Dictynna = 5 dispar . 1 Dorylas . ib ®& Euphbrosyne 422 1 Galathea 424 1 Hero . 424 Hipothoe, Don.428 1 Hyale . 4191 Hyperanthus 424 2 Janira, Lin, ib, 6 Icarus, Lewen.428 8 Gen, Sp. Teidex. 620 nn 170. lin. aaead BS eenty aes Is *. 428 . ee ~ a ENTOMOLOGY, . nu i us fit SEsserSRsSsSesssecses ® . SO COSMCSCHM KOH ASSOKVEYTe ROH OH -— — Atri BEErz g | = a a Oo 0 8 Cen. Gen. ’ Gen. Sp. + i me nts ig yg 96 ’ , 95 460 1 Peres: 2 175» Prionida, p. 12. a rei Platygaster a ange 1 Pemphredon 623 quercifolia ee | ON i Fabricius 620 quereus 441 t raficornigs, ib. 1 coriariugs 290 1 Fabricius 622 virula - 4441 Platyptericida, p, 134 _ longimanus 291 1 minutus ib. 1 Phalenida, p. 134 Platypteryx, 463 ~~ Pristiphora _ 895 tibialis . 620 1) Phalenides, p. 134 _Latreille 464 testaceas $15! unicolor 623 1 Phasma ‘ compressa ib. 1 Pro-apis, De Geer Pentamera, p. 78 Fabricius 347 cultraria 483. 3. Proboscidea, p. 161 _ Pentatoma . 366 Lichtenstein348 » falcataria ib. 1 Procris . Latreille 363 rossil o ith lacertinaria. ib. 2 Statices jb. I Latreille 365 violaceus, 461 Platypus. Proctotrupes —~ 4 accuminata 263 1 Phasmida, p. 119 cylindricus — ib. 1 brevipennis ib. 1 bidens . 3641 Philanthys . 611 — Plesia, Jurine 587" ~—Proctotrupides, p. 145 prasinus ib. 2 Fabricius, 626 = Plojaria’ = ~~, 376 ~— Prominent aspen 443 14 Pentatomida, p, 121 Fabricius 627 ' Wagebunda ib 1 iron. ib, 12 Pentatomides, ib, coronatus ib, 1 Pneumora . 355 pale... 454 Pp ~» $03 flavipes 611 t Podalirius . 671.- Pp - 43.14 Fabricius 597 Phileucus é 661 Podium : 602 swallow ib, 15 Fabricius 598 Kirbyanus, Lat. ib. | rufipes ib} 1 Proneus ..° 599) - Iiliger 600 punctatus ib} 1 Podura . . 4 @neus . 1 Illiger 603 Phileurus . 159 Linneus 5 Prosopida, p. 154 25> Palisot de dydimus 159 1 atra . ib} 1 Prosopis =. Beauvois 599 Philopotamus 1 , Viridis . ib} 1 Proso og 1 arenaria 197 3 Leach 477 plumbea 41 Proteirus . 4110 flavipennis. $98 1 Phloitribus . 269 Podurebrun enfume 5 1 brachypterus ib, 1 maxillosa ib. olee 4 1 YS ~ : Psa «94 Pensylvanica. ib. | Phryganea « n ronde Psammodius . 155 aaean 593 1 * Linnefi® 508 De Geer ib, - : $. ib. 1 Perilampus «549 Linneus 509 grise commune 41 Pselaphides, p. 116 _ violaceus ib. 1 bicaudata 509 I ib. uphus - 338 Perla : 509 grandis 477 1 plumbee 41 — Helwigii «116 E De Geer 505 interrupta. 475 1 DeGeer ib. , impressus 888 1 Geoffroy 508 rhombica 477 1 verte aut yeux Podh' chet 4 _» Fabricius 66, . cossus 1 variolosa 185 napi . . » , Allige. ~ Degeerella 452 1 Pimeliades, p. 99 - ib S davis +. ibd dispar . 4431 Pimpla .. 531 sina + ib 6 | pectinicornis 119 1 evonymella 448 1 Fabricius’ b. , Poplar hawk moth 481 3 Ptinus ©). = | 11%» hectus,Gmelin437 3 Pine hawk moth 4326. Potomaria . 1 Fabricius 118. a 4741 e 616 Pou bumain dela, , |) Latreiile 121, mappa, 437.2 » Jurine 601. thte, De Geer 7 2 Marsham — , ' margaritaria 4551, eiumable A hi ducorps, ->. Marsham 119» pavonia-minor, «> niger, Latr. 616 1 at boleti tty 41 Lingeus 4401 Pit » 681 » Geof, 7 2 elegans, « i172 ENTOMOLOGY, a7 Fndex, - Gen. Sp. > Gen. Sp. 28 #2 Gen. Sp. ~ Gen. Sp. >. Gen. Sp. Index, ——— fur» 117 1 Ricinus cornicis. » 7 1 pS Ee 168." -pectinicornis 601 1 Spectrum - 3470 yee ib, 2 Risophalus, + 31° | | pumilus 154 1 Sepidium =~ +» 189 Scopoli 431 mollis - 121 2 : | atricapillus | ib. 1 punctatus 1601 | tricuspidatum ib. 1 | Scopoli 432 . — pectinicornis 119 1 Rophites - - 652 '» tufipes - 151 1 Serroceros, Klug. 119 ~. Stoll 346 _ seotias - 1181 quinque-spino-— . sabulosus 156 1 Serropalpus. - 213 Stoll - $46 tesselatus . 121 1 8@. « ib 1 _sacer, - 145 1 Illiger 2i1 7 atropos, Scop. 432 9 testaceus,Mar.117 1 Rutela .- 162 | scheefferi 471 - Illiger 215 ocellata, Scop. 431 1 +, 100° ~~ chrysis = ib 3 solstitialis 163 2 caraboides ib. 1 * populi, Scop. ib. 3 rufescens .« ib. 1 lineola + ib. 2 | | Spiniger, Mar. 153 1 humeralis - 211 1 rossii + 347 1 Pulex ‘ 415 -punctata - ib. 1 ‘stercorarius, “ micans) + 214 1 \ tilie +.) 431 2 irritans . ib. 1 Rynchites - 250 - Linneus ib. 1 © Striatus = 213 1 Sphecodes ~ » 645 | penetrans ib. 2 Bacchus + ib. 1 stercorarius, Sesia: 433 gibbus - ib, I Punaise d’eau score .' Rynchium - 629 Marsham ibe 1 ’ Latreille 434 Sphzridides, p. 96. pion aquatique 390 1 | | Kuropeus + ib. L Typheus 154 1 apiformis. - ib. 1 Spbheridium - 144 d'eau scorpion ; Rynchophori, p.106. vitis -~ 1633 bombyciformis 433 2 Fabricius 131 allongé - $91 1 Rynchophorus, Herbst, t « vacca» .» 150 1 crabroniformis 434 2 ~ Fabricius | 330 Purple edged. cop- > : 262 Scarites . - 15 fusiformis, 433 3 Olivier . 203 eo. 42¢ 2 Ryngota, Fabr. p. 124, ’ Fabricius 16 stellatarum ib. 1 Olivier 831 emperor 426 1 Ryzophagus - 276 arcuarius ib. 1 tipuliformis 434 4 fasciculare 131 1 high-flier - ib. 1, histeroides_ ib. 1 gibbus .- ib. 2 Setoura , « 1 . tuficolle. - 331 1 » chairstreak . 427 3 ' ; ; gigas - 15 1 Siagona . « 19 Scarabeoides 144 1 Pyralida, p. 135 ° afb ae Scaurus, - 188 rufipes + 191 Sphzrophyx, Hoft- Pyralides, jb. Sy Sagaris .- « 688 striatus - ib 1 Sialida, p. 139. mansegg - 636 : Pyralis *. 469 § — cultellator ~~ ib. 1 Sceliphron, Klug. 603 — Sialis ns 502 | Spercheus +. -139 _ Hobnee 462 Sagra . - . = 304 Schlerodermus 583° niger. = ib. 1 Sphecida, p. 149. Hubner 467 femorata ib. 1 | domesticus ib. 1 Sigalphus. = | 536 —‘Sphecides, ib. Hubner. 468 = Sagrida, p. 113. Scirtes - 64 irrorator = ib, 1 Sphex - 598 Latreille 465 Salda, Fabricius | 384 hemispherica ib. 1 Sigara - 393 - Christus. 600 Latretle 466 Salius, Fabricius 594 - 589 striata. + ib. 1 Cuvier + » 617 _ dentata ib. 1 Salpingides, p. 106. Fabricius 606 Silpha % 96 De Geer 580 - 4671 Salpingus - 241 Rossi. - 587 Linnwus . 95 DeGeer 597 pinguinalis 469 1 _ roboris - ibl abdominalis 589 3 Linnaeus 193 De Geer = 624 Pyrausta, Schrank 468 a 293 hortorum - ib. L Marsham 328 Linpeus . 525 Pyrochroa - 222 ' lineatocollis ib. 1 interrupta ib. 2 obscura «96 4 Linneus 543 coccinea - ib 2 oculata ~ 2924 tridens - ib 4 russica + ==. 328 1 Linneus p64 ,-rubens, -» ib, 1 Sapyga -; - 590 Scolida, p. 148. sabulosa, Lin. 193 1 Linnzus © 594 ” Pytho, p. 103 _ sex-punctata ib. 1 Scolides, ib. thoracica + 96 3 Linneus — 608 + gerulens - 210 I Sapygides, p. 149. Scolytus - 267 _—Silphida, p. 83. j Linnaeus. 620 - 672 Fabricius = 46 Silphides, ib. Panzer 561° rotundata jb. 1 4 Fabricius 269 Silphoides, Herbst 279 Panzer . 603 Ranatra, po124 Sarrotrium - 197 Olivier 241 Silvanus - 282 Rossi - GOT linearis, - . 391 1 muticum ib. 1 Olivier 265 frumentarius ib. 2 Scheffer 614 a 504 Saturnia - 440 Olivier 268 unidentatus ib. 1 Scheffer . 619 Linneus 500 pavonia-minor ib. 1 Panzer 266 Simaethis ~ 466 : Scopoli $22 Scopoli 503 - Latreille 424 crenatugs - 268 1 dentana- ib 1 Villers . 590 cornutus 500 1 ib. 1 cylindricus 266 1 Sinodendron ~ 157 Villers 608 mantispa - 503 1 Hyperanthus ib, 2 = 2671 . cylindricum — ib, 1 Villers 610 6041 Janira - ib. 6 ligniperda 264 1 Siphonostoma, p. 76. Villers 612 terfly > > 423 rim yp - ib 5 lex - 2691 Jurine . | 524 anomalipes 561 1 Redurius += 373 Seaphidiy - 98 typographus 265 1 Linnaeus | 520 crmebdlomten 525 2 Latreille 374 Marsham 99 . Scopula - 468 Linnaeus 521 ' ) armata. - 597 1 personatus 373 1 agaricinum | ib. 1 Scorpion aquatique Linnaeus 523 flavipennis 4938 1 Rhagionides, p. 1 1 quadrimacula- & corps. allonge, camelus = 521 1 . spirifex, Lin: 603 1 um - Sol tum + 981 Geoffroy - 3911 Columbe < 524 2 spirifex, Panz. ib. 2 * inquisitor ib. 1 Scaphisonia - 99 Scorpion aquatique emarginatus 523 3 Sphingides, p..130. - Rhamphus - 252 agaricinum _—ib. 1 & corps ovale, fuscicornis 524 1 Sphinx .- 9482 4 flavicornis ib. 1 Scarabaoides, P- 97. Geoffroy - 3901 | gigas, Linnaus523 1 Linneus 431 | Rhina - 261 Scarabeus 153 Scotch argus butter- juvencus «ib, 4 Linnxus . 433 barbirostris . ib, 1 Fabrictus 154 fly «x 4244 mariscus « ib, lL ! Linnzus 434 ig Rhinomacer + 240 Lipnevs 145 = Scotias, Czempin- noctilio + ib. 4 Linbeus 435 . Geoffroy 261° Linneus 148 sky + lls psyllius = ib. 2 Linnwus 436 : : . brentoides 101 1 Lipneus 1él | gibbus - ibe t Pygmina -. 5202 * apiformis «434 1 Rhinosimus. - 24] Linneus 157 Scraptia ° 221 spectrum = 523 3 » Atropos » - 432 9 : -roboris + ib. 1 Linneus 159 fusca - ib. 1 Sirtes, Fabricius 378 chrysorthaa, he Ripiphorus . 224 5 Linnaeus 162 Scydmznides, p, 92. Fabricius 379 Donovan 434 3 it | paradoxus + ib 1 Marsbham 164 Scydmanus - 116 crassipes ~ | ib. 1 ‘ convolyuli | .432 7 Rhynchenus. - 256 Marsham = 166 Godarti - ib. 2 manicata ~ 378 1 Elpenor ib. 2 : Clairville 260 Marsham 168 Hellwigii ib. 1 Sisyphus 147 Euphorbie — ib, 5 » Fabricius 257 ’ 71 tellera = ri ib. 1 filipendule 435 1 | Fabricius 258 | Olivier « 149 Latreille . 1 Sitaris « 237 fuciformis, _ Fabricius, 259 ~ auratus «. 711 Latreille 362 apicalis fib, 1 Gmelin 433 3 abietis - 256 2 cylindricus 157 1 nigrolincata 361 1 Smerinthus - 431 faciformis,Lin, ib. 2 P aint . + 2601 148 1 sexmaculata 360 1 ocellata - ib. tl ¢ . galii - - 4 Erysimi . 258 1 fasciatus . 168 2 Scutellerida, p. 121. Populi - § ib 3 ligustri «ib. 8" 4 _ fusco-macula- foreatus, Mar. 153 1 Tilia ib. 2 | Jineata - ib 1 Fl ~ tus, Fabr.» 257 1 . horticola 1634 |. biverrucata ib. 1 Smyntburus 4 ocellata -« 431 1° ni » «5 2563 longipes 167 1 - 502 Uscus . + ib. 1 pinastri - 432 6 schrophularia 259 1 lunaris = --:148 1 Fabricius 501 viridis = ib. 2 \ populi 431 3° thapsi . - ib, > mauras - 165 6 Fabricius 508 Spalangia - 548 porcellus 432 2. { [tortrix 256 1 melolontha 163 1 Fabricius 509 nigra . * ib 1 | (wtatices. «486 1 verbasci - 259 . mutator, Mar. 153 1 lutrarjus 502 1 Sparasion — « 655): stellatarum 433 1° Ricin de la Corneille 7 1 nasicornis 158 1 marginatus 509 1 frontale - ib, 1 tiie . 431 2 — ee ee ee ee ee i; if ENTOMOLOGY. - 2 Gen. Sp. ; Gen. Sp. > Gen. Sp. 3 Gen. Sp. Tclephorus . = 70 + 399 pomana , 4653 phalerata 6301 Olivier 7 virescens ib. 1 Toxicum . 196 spinipes . 631 1 Scheffer . 75 Tetramera, p. 106. richesianum — ib. 1 unigiumis 619 1 fuses. 201 . Trachelus . 520 vulgaris =. 637 2 minimus 13 ectomaculatus, ib. 1 Trachusa . 642 — zonata . 6341 Telias + 556 Telratoma . 202 Trathys - . 57 = Vespida, p. 158 brevicornis ib. 1 coy oem ib. 1 | ‘minuta -. ib. 1 Vespides, ib, Tenebrio © « 194° Tetrix, 358 Trachyseclis « 204 Viuppo. +9 583 DeGeer isl - Mb1 aphedioides. ib. 1 Ulleiota . DeGeer 197 = Tetyra - 861 Trechas - 24 ho 1 De Geer 200 Fabricius 360 meridianas ib. I ete 4 DeGeer 216 Fabricius 362 Tremex = 524 F p.120 De Geer © 282 globus ~~. ib. 1 columba =~ ib. 1 Vi + 330 Fabricius 199 lineata + 861 1 -| | fuscicornis . ib. 1 3311 Geoffroy 185 neata, Trichius « :168———dUpis - 193. Geoffroy 193 Fabricius — ib. 1 fasciatus. . ib, 2 - ib. 1 Latreitle 195 Thanasinus . 81 nobilis . ib 1 Urania . 429 Lionwus 841 formicarius ib. 1 Trichodes, Herbst, 93 Leilus ; ml Linnwus 178 Thecla : 427 apiarius . ib. 1 Uranides, p. 180 ~ Linnwus 1} betule . ‘ib 1 Trichoptera, p. 135.: Urocerides, p. 141 Linnaeus 183 pruni- . ib. 2 Tridactylus . 352 Uroceros —. $23 Linnwus = 191 quercus os ibs 8 ib. 1 Latreille 521 Linnaeus 192 woseus + 127 ~=—s Trigona ° 680 gigas . 5231 Linnwus dermestoides i, 1 amalthea . ib 1 geese ‘ib..2 Linnaeus 210 Thysocuris 362 spinipes - . ib. 2 vencus —_ ib, 4 Marsham 285 globus ib. 1 Triplax . 328 psyllius =, ib. 2 Marsham 337 Thryps 410 russica = gS E spectrum ib. 3 . 3371 physapus . ib. 1 Tritoma 9. 327 w 199 1 Thrypsida, p. 126, ; | Geoffroy 279 _ Wasp hornet : ceramboides 195 1 Thymalus ~~ 95 Thunberg 280 — sphinx . 4348 + 3361 ferrugineus ib, 1 bipustulata 327 1 White spot brown __ 210 1 Thyneus 666 russica, Latr. ib. 1 butterfly + 428 11 192 1 Thynnus 592 Trochilum,Scopoli,434 White spotted = © 209 1 dentatus ib. 1 apiforme ib. 1 skipper- . 4302 mauricanica 285 1 Thysanura, p. 76. Trogosite . Wood argus but- molitor . 194 2 Tillides, p/87 Fabricius 286 terfy- . 424 8 mortisagus ? Tillus 80 Fabricius 304 | Wood leopard >=: Linneus. 191 | Olivier . [9 Sulzer . 329 ' moth- . 439 1 obscurus . 194 1 ambularis, Marsh. bicolor - ib. 1 Wood white but- ; rostratus .. 41 1 80 - Ss brunneus 286 1 terfly 4 4343 Tenebrionida, p. 102, elongatus ib. 1 caraboides 285 1 K- i ib. serraticornis 79 1 / mauritanica ib. 1 Xenops . 842 unifasciata 80 2 | purpurascens 286 1 Peckiii . ib ¥ - it Weberi « 792 Trogus ©. 431 | Kossii . ib. 2 Tenthredines, p. 140. Tinea ‘ 472 = Trox ° 156 Xorydes . 530 Tenthredinida, Fabricius = 448 sabulosus: ib. 1 indicatorius) ib. 1 - 12 Fabricius 449 Truxalis + 856 Xyletinus . 120 Fabricius 513 © Fabricius _ 2 nasutus . ib 1 levis . ib. 1 Linnwus $10 1 rypoxylon . 617 Xylocopa « i Linneus = $11 Hiibner .« 452 ' Fabricius 604 violacea , ? Linneus 517 Linnaeus = 412 atratum . 609 Xyphydria « ; Linneus 519 Degeerella . 452 3 Tussock, common, 443 $3 camelus sity 1 516 ‘ e es nut tree ib.10 = air nr a 2 + ib flavella . scaree wi. 4 ydrida, p. 142 613 1 guttella . 4501 Typheus . 154 so x ee » 122 ee eee pumilus -s Yponomeuta — me. + 609 nemorum vulgaris. 1 evonymella $17 1 pellionelia 451 1 v Ypsolophus, Fab. 472 S11 1 pineti «471: 1 Vanessa =. 2 428 Z 3 septentrionalis 524 1 reesella . 4493 Antiopa . ib. 3 Zabrus . 23 - 5109 vittata . 4722 atalanta . ib 1 tardus - tht scrophularie 5121 Tineida, p. 133. : C-album =. ib. 7 Zelus. . 875 Tentyria - 182 — Tineides,~ ib. , cardui sib 3! longipes 2. 1 interru ib. 1 Tingis « 380 Io . « ib 4 Zethus . Terebrantia, p. 140. - eardui . ib 1 Polychloros ib. 5 cecruleopennis ib. 1 505 — Tinodes, p. 136, urtica . ib. 6 Zeuzera . 439 507 «Tipbia =. S85” Veli scum gp ewsculi . ib. 1 ib. 1 584 currens » ib. 2 Zonitis « 2.) yo . lucifugum 505 1 Fabricius 587 rivulorum ib 1 Fabricius 236 pulsatorium 07 1 Rossi . 588 Vespa - 637 -(prevusta 235 1 p» 139. femorata . 585 1 569 vittata «236 1 120. maculata . 587 1 607 Zophosis . 179 394 pedestris . 5841 Geoffroy 626 testudinarius ib. 1 Latreille 406 Tiphides, p. 148, Linneus 543 Zuphium = . 84 + 403 = Tipularides, p. 161. Linneus = 605 _ @leus ibe Olivier . 407 Tornicus . 265 Linneus 619 Zygena. 435 hematodes 394 1 typographus — ib. -1 Linnewus 624 Panzer a 406 1 Tortrix - 465 Linnwus 629 —S fillipendula © 485 1 sanguinea, Fabr. Hilbner 466 Sulzer . 604 statices 436 1 3941 chlorana . 465 2 abbreviata 6391 “Zygian = . 9 93 viridis . 4071 dentana 466 1 crabro «= 687 1 oblonga . V3 1 Tetigonides, p. 124, fagama «465 1 oculata . 629 1 - Batre- oy ENT ~ ENTRE-Dovnro-s-Mrnuo, the name of one of the most 3 provinces of Pi , and so called frona ; and ite mountains, the sand, and the val- As the inhabitants are extreme- ly industrious, the soil is well cultivated, and a system of irrigation is carried on to such an extent, that the numerous wells obtained by ing, give the every tree a vine, which over its summit, and the even of the hi est oaks. The fields are watered ifici which communicate an freshness to the air fae ! i 173 EN T. houses, which are ill built, and have. but one story, .The are small and inconvenient, the wik, dows have in general no glass, and the floors are so bad Their only furniture ; that one can see 3 consists dk areeeh weenie ion oan A pass called Portela de Homem. The hi eee aia Ramee He: cape ge: Caldas, to- w ontalégre ; the highest peak, which is between 3000 and 4000 feet high, is named O Murro de Burra. i the ula: flesh is much esteemed ; the skin 3d weld ab. cone snakes abound in this range ; Lacerta agilis of Linnewus, and the and the v of Covide, appear the remains of an old mountain fort, which the inha- ruins. . Entre- Douro-e+ Minho.. es EPA ro The princi the Douro, the Lima, the Neiva, the Cavado, the Ave, &e. allof which run westward into the Atlantic. The province contains three cities, 25 towns, 223,495 houses, and 900,000 inhabitants. of. ENYDRA, a genus of plants class sia, and order p- 312. : ; EPACRIS, a genus ref ko of the class Pentandria, and order M ia. Borany, p. 141, 170. EPACT. See Curonorocy, vol. vi. P- 411. EPAMINONDAS, acelebrated Grecian general, was born at Thebes in Baotia ; and was descended, by his father Polynmis, from the ancient sovereigns of his country. He was educated in his father’s house, along with Philip of Macedonia, under the Pythagorean phi- losopher Lysis ; and, from an early age, devoted him- self to the study of philosophy. Nor was he inatten- tive to the more ornamental accomplishments ; and par- ticularly applied himself to those athletic exercises, which at that time formed the chief amusement of the Grecian youth. While he was distinguished by the most amiable dispositions, and mingled pra F with persons of his own e, he was remarkably re- am in his manners. io dgake seldom, even to his intimate friends; but the few words which he occa» sionally uttered were so uniformly pertinent and judi- cious, that, when he was only 15 years of age, it was eaid of him by Spintarus of Tarentam ; « I never knew a man who understood so much, and spoke so little. Though thus accomplished and admired, he was one of the t citizens of Thebes ; and no solicitations of his friends could ever prevail upon him to accept of riches, or to alter his frugal mode of life. Anxious to correct the luxurious manners of his coun! en, and to inspire them with that virtuous spirit, which might enable them to maintain their public liberties, he omit- ted no opportunity of resisting their dissipated habits ; and, when once questioned, at a public festival, why he shad appeared in so plain a dress, and with so pensive an aspect, he sarcastically replied, “ because I wish, that one person may remain to watch over the safety of the city, when you are all drowned in wine and de- bauchery.” Having attracted the esteem and affection of Pelopidas, one of the wealthiest and most illustrious of the he inspired his friend with similar sen- timents ; and, by their united influence and example, they revived among their fellow citizens that love of sobriety and virtue, which laid the firm foundation of their — eminence. These two friends, having been appointed to join the troops, which were sent to the as- sistance of the Lacedemonians, in the war against the Arcadians, gave the first signal proof of their own mi- litary spirit, and raised the character of their country among the neighbouring states. At the battle of Man- tinea, they sustained with heroic e the hottest of the fight, and Pelopidas, having fallen covered with wounds upon heaps of slain, the desperate exertions of Epaminondas for his rescue, restored the victory to the routed Lacedemonians. When the Spartans, a few years afterwards, jealous of the rising power of the The- bans, had treacherously made themselves masters. of their city, and when Pelopidas, with the other exiles, had formed a sc e for the liberation of their country, Epaminondas, whose obscure station and love of study had saved him from banishment, privately seconded the with the utmost pe na ts ¥ 4° the exe- cution plot, openly a) am ie assertors of Vie independence of Thebes. Sacrificing his love of neipal rivers are, the Minho, : Ss ygamia Segregata. ied ceaes, tage mended a general resistance to the overgrown power of the Lacedemonians. The er ty ing excluded the Thebans from the league, war was declared against ‘them as the enemies of Greece. Epaminondas was paar yr 104 coon to ae the affairs of Thebes mn and, having selected six of the principal citizens as hi associates, to whom he gave the ‘ation of Beotarchs; or governors of Beeotia, he aaemel with 6000 infantry ie 5 small body of cavalry, to op the Liacedemo- nian king, Cleombrotus, atthe heed of. 10,000 foot and 1000 horse. The hostile armies met at Leuctra, a small town in Beeotia, B.C. 371. . Epaminondas, by the cou- rage with which he inspired his troops, and the new plan of attack which he adopted, gained a complete vic. tory over double his numbers; and cut off the Spartan commander with the flower of his. army. The victo- rious chief rejoiced in the exaltation of his country ; but declared that his highest personal gratification consisted in having ye. ired so great. while his parents - were alive. Two years after this memorable success; he entered the territories of the Lacedemonians, where, for the space of 600 years, an-enemy’s camp had never been pitched; and, at the head of 70,000 troops front different states, overran all Laconia with fire and sword; advanced to the very walls of Sparta, which on one oc- casion he had it in his power to destroy ; laid waste its suburbs in the sight of its kings, and, having te- ly humbled that formidable power in the sight of all reece, returned to Thebes with an army crowned with victory, and loaded with the spoils of the enemy, Entering his native city, which he had raised from the lowest humiliation to the height of political greatness, he found a factious party prepared to accuse him and his colleague of treason against the state, oe baring re: tained their office as Beotarchs four months beyond the term prescribed by law. An assembly of the ungrate- ful e was ready to condemn the two. friends to ca- pi ishment, when Epaminondas, anxious to save the iit e of Pelopidas, acknowledged the breach of the law which he had committed, and took upon himself the whole of the guilt in having advised the measure; « The law condemns me,” he exclaimed. before his jadges, “and I consent, if it must.be so, to suffer as an example ; but permit me to make this. single re- quest. I suffer for having led you into Laconia, where « no enemy before you had dared to penetrate ; [suffer for having carried into their towns and territories, the desolations which they first brought upon our misera~ ble country ; I suffer for gaining your victories and en- larging your power. Behold the crimes for which I am condemned ! let them be engraved upon my tomb, that, when posterity shall hear of my punishment; they may also be informed of the cause.” _ This speech ; possession time stations at Rhodes and Chios. But the growing power of Thebes having excited the jealousy of the other states, he was called to make head against a for- midable of the Mantineans, Athenians, and Lacedemonians. to retreat by the re- -and his son Aeertr pcg then hastened to make a similar attack upon Mantinea ; but, contrary to his calculations, found it prepared Anxious to retrieve his own fame, off by the force of the blow, was left in his body. Carried to-his tent, he heard without emotion the de- w He first asked his attendants if his buckler had saved ; and when it was brought, he it to his breast as the ion of his exploits, He next i event of the battle ; and, para saaaemanirsdhibertipss:.«) Mesto: mers otal advise A ee are ude a peace!” One of his intimate fri lamenting his death, and -his want to revive his name; “ you mistake,” 175 and instantly expired, B.C. 363. The glory of his- _ measure, their former splendour,. EPH country perished along with him, and his distinguish- ing greatness consists in this, that he inspired an ob- scure and se with his own exalted senti- ments. He has justly been regarded as one of the most distinguished characters that any age or nation has ever. produced; and was equally eminent as a philosopher, a y ssgre a —— e sak virtuous an See ‘orn. Nepos; Plutarch’s Lives, Agesil. and Pelop. ;, Justin, b. ix.; Pausanias and Xenophon’s henna: Greece ; Polybius, b. ix.; Diod. Sic. b. xv. and xvi. ;. Anacharsis, vol. ii.; Univ. Hist. vols. v. and vi. ; and particularly M. de Folard’s. Life of Epaminondas, §c., vol. ii. (q) | EPERUA. See Panzera, Botany Index. EPHEDRA, a s of plants of the class Dicecia, and order Monadelphia. See Borany, p. 339, EPHEMERA. See Enromorocy Index. EPHESUS, a celebrated city of Ionia, and once the metropolis of Asia Minor, is affirmed by Pliny, Justin, and Orosius, to have been built by an Amazon, whose name also it is sup to bear. It was then possess-. ed by the Carians and Leleger; but was occupied by Androclus, the son of Codrus king of Athens, who con- on vac iancten he Beige ain who usurped the sovereign power, and who ourished before the birth of Under his successor Pindarus, who ruled with an au- thority equally absolute but with moderation, Semmes was Ps by Croesus King LA Lydia, who, respect to the tute! goddess e place, re+ stored to the citizens heie asia: liberty, and confer red upon them numerous marks of his favour. . Pin-. have again fallen under the dominion of tyrants. Of these, hi has mentioned Ath i , Arig. starchus, ias, the last of w was expelled by Alexander, w he defeated the Persians on the banks of the Granicus, and a democracy established in. — After his death it passed into the hands of- several of his successors, and J zeae: of Lysima-. chus, who caused the ancient city to be ed, and, built a new town in a more commodious situation, and nearer to the of Diana, which was about seven. stadia from the walls of the former. From this period, the Ephesians were subject to the kings of Syria, till the Romans, when pay eve liberty to the Greek states, in Europe, extended same privileges to the Greek, colonies in Asia. Reinstated in their ancient rights, they became the allies of Rome ; but were afterwards, pemeiae by Mithridates of pea to take part with im against their protectors, even to massacre, without distinction, all the Roman cites ee their ates. For this barbarity they were sev punished’ by the victorious Sylla, who suffered his iers. to live upoh them at discretion, and almost reduced them to the heavy contributions which he sapepedts _ but by the favour which they experienced from the future emperors of Rome, they ina enjoyed for many. Eperua: Ephesus. EPHESUS. the elm had stood, and the sacred image placed within it. fphesus. — This temple seems to have been several times (Pliny “Y= many magnificent edifices. stituted in honour of Diana, n attended so late as the reign of Caracalla. It is cele- been the seat of the most flourishin i apostle Pau for three years, where the evangelist John resided during the latter of his life, where Ti- mothy was the first bi Under the auspices of Con- stantine and Theodosius, the Christian faith made rapid progress, and numerous churches were erected on the ruins of the Pagan tem Under the reign of the emperor Alexis, the fi of Anna de Comnena, it first fell under the er of the Saracens, from whom it was retaken Greeks in 1206, but was again lost in 1283, from the commencement of the 14th pw Pde eee a part of the Turkish dominions. the extinction of the Greek empire, Ephe- sus fallen into general decay; and a new town and citadel having been founded at Aiasoluk or Ajasoluk, about two miles distant, the ancient city was soon to- deserted. was known in ancient times by a variety of names, Alopes, Ortygia, Morges, Sm Trachea, Semornion, and Ptela; and is described by ancient as at once the ornament of Asia, and the most uented emporium of that continent. Its ci- tizens, in addition to their mercantile eminence, were liberal patrons of the fine arts, and their temples pos- sessed many of the most celebrated productions of an- cient genius, Their architeeture was conducted prin- cipally by Pharax, whom Vitruvius mentions with much commendation. Agasius the son of Dosotheus was one of the most eminent pipe oon Parrhesius, Apelles, and Ephorus, (the master of the latter, )all hold- ing the first rank as painters, were natives of Ephesus. Artemidorus the historian and geographer, Hera- dlitus the melancholy philosopher, were also born with- in its walls. The esians were equally noted for their luxurious and licentious manners; and are said to have banished one Hermodorus solely on account of . virtue. ng = apiauae Works, vol. i. p. 7. were m i to superstition, sorcery, an aia arts ; whence arose the proverbial expression, « Ephesian letters,” to denote those spells or sentences, which they used to write upon their girdles, or to im- print upon different parts of their bodies, as charms ainst evil, or as sources of supernatural power. But the great boast of the Ephesians, and the principal ornament of their city, was the celebrated temple of their tutelary goddess Diana. The original object of their worship was a small statue of elm or ebony, made by one Canitias, though commonly believed in those to have been sent down from heaven by Jupiter ; but, ye is Fm ony mane it had no resemblance to the t huntress Diana, and was merely an Egyptian sMerogly phic, with many breasts, representing x hsm dess of Nature. As the original figure became decayed gl i Raghteton by two rods of iron spits, which, even its renewal, were religi- ously in the substitute. It was at first placed apon a block of beach or elm wood, but in later times was in a shrine adorned with all that wealth and us could contribute. As the veneration for the among the inhabitants of Asia, a temple was constructed on the spot where says seven times, lib, xvi; ¢, 40.) ruined and rebuilt, a circumstance which may help to reconcile the discre- pancies which occur in ancient writers, as to the dates: and descriptions of these successive erections. One of them is expressly affirmed by Livy ee ‘to have been completed in the reign of us T who flourished at the latest 570 years before Christ. Another is described which was originally designed by Ctesiphon, a Cnossian architect, 541 years: the Christian era, whose was continued by Demetrius, a priest of Diana, the whole at length completed by Daphnis eee om a citizen of — This temple is said to have partially destroy: fire on he day when Sucrmenrwar pelodiod doe pase Oe Cc. and again $56 B. C. by the philosopher Herostratus, on the day when Alexander the Great was born, Diana, says Timeus the historian, being then absent at the de- livery of Olympias. The incendiary confessed, upon being put to the torture, that his only motive for the sacrilegious act, was a desire to immortalize his name ; and though an assembly of the Ionian states passed a decree condemning his name to oblivion, the prohibi- tion served only the more to its remem- brance. According to some accounts, nothing four walls and a few columns escaped: the orehebilites flames; while others relate, with that only the roof, and some other parts constructed of timber, were destroyed. The Ephesians had begun its’ tion, when Alexander, in hi expedition inst’ the Persians, offered to a iate his ils to the completion of the work, upon condition that his name should be inscribed, as its restorer, upon the front of the edifice. This they accounted it ful for them to accept ; but secured the forgiven the conqueror by the flattering style in which their re. fusal was conveyed : sates Poheuka ds is not rere for ner ten g 5” sai ian deputy, “ to decorate the tem- Ed of another.” The women of Ephesus, besides work- ing at the materials intended for its ornament, devoted their jewels to its restoration ; and all Asia contributed: to its . Cheiromocrates, who assisted in build-' ing A dria, and who had proposed to cut Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander, was the architect em- ployed at its commencement; but 220 years (says Pli- ny, lib. xxxvi. c. 14.) or even 400 years (says the same author, lib. xvi. c. 40.) were spent in completing the building. It is di to determine whether the de- scription of the temple given by this writer applies to its appearance prior or ior to the conflagration in 356; and it is impossible to make it in any measure intelligible, by supposing, with the Marquis de Poleni, that its dimensions were exactly the same both before eget prabes eee and that it was mere ; with greater magnificence and rohan its former state. It was built on a pre A that it might be more secure from the effects of earthquakes ; and under its foundations was laid a bed of charcoal firmly rammed, and ‘above that another of wool. The whole building was 425 feet in h, and 220 in breadth, su by 197 pil- lars of Parian marble, and of the Ionic order, each 60: feet high. Those pillars were furnished by so many princes, and 36 of were curi earved by Sco- pas, while the rest were finely poli Along the’ flanks of the cell was a double row of columns, 15 on each side. Itis considered as'the first instance in which, according to the Ionic style, the fluted column and 5 ess of EPH Han OY EPI capital with volutes were: introduced ; it is calculated or baths, inhabited by $0 or 40 families of Turkish Ephesus that each pillar, with its capital and base, contained 150° herdsmen. Its name is considered by some as a Turk- beg tons of marble. ‘The doors and panneling were made ish word, signifying the temple of the’moon, in refer: [PCS Eo pehageerns om ge and shining ; and the stair- ence to the temple of Diana ; but is supposed, by others, . bye es Its mp ions were soy HE myn , the modern’ seo heightened by ustre of gold, especially by ‘Ayi0s @codAoyes, referring to the residence there m i rae artists of aie evangelist John. Even the vale of Ephesus has under- : statue’ of Hecate, by Scopas; gone a total change; and the town could never be sup- a picture of the goddess Diana, by Timarete, the first by an observer ignorant of its y, to have female artist upon-record; a painting, by Apelles, of had a free communication with the sea. e Cayster, sping a 20 formerly navigable, is now choked with sand, and flows’ talents of g The shrine was adorned by Praxiteles tale Bhiledtich which render it almost invisible. ' At- and his son isodorus ; and the walls by Parrhasius talus Phi us, king of Pergamus, in order to im- and A in the temple prove the port, which was shallow and incommiodious, virgin os was by an architect to construct an exten- voted to-inviolable chastity. They were eligible only sive mole; but, by the interruption thus given to the from the higher classes of the citizens, and enjoyed a current, the earth brought down the river has de- great revenue with numerous privileges, in addition to’ stroyed the port, and even encroached some miles on the presents received from the crowds of worshi the dominion of the sea. who flocked to the annual festivals. Their luxurious When the city was taken by the Turks in 1300, “ the mode of living, and particularly the cost of their dyed desolation was so complete,” says Rycaut, “ that the tem-' vestments, are ancient writers in the most ple of Diana, and the church of Mary, will equally elude extra t terms, The s mentioned by Luke,. the search of the most industrious traveller.” See Ans xi. 31.) were the princi Officers chosen by the cient Univ. Hist. vol. vii. p. 416 ; Anacharsis’ Travels, the Asiatic cities, to preside over the vol. vi. p. 188 ; Vitruvius, |. viii. ; Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. xvi. Seed ites anne Soe c. 40, and 1. xxxvi. c. 14; Strabo, lib. xiv; Pococke’s Tra- ve w been priests of the tem vels ; Sandy’s Travels ; Voyage Pittoresque de la Grece, Among other privileges, the sacred edifice afforded en maT: Dalla 's Constantinople, p. 209,211. (q) um to those who its protection. The invio- EPHORI. © Sparra. space at first xten one furlong, and was after-- . EPHIELIS. See Botany, p. 199. wards increased, first by Mithridates, next by Mark EPIBATERIUM. See Botany, p. 325. Antony, so as toi a part of the city; but, in EPIBLEMA. See Borany, p. 317. of the disorders which a the exer- pe Re ag See Portry. _ wv a pri it was entirely revoked by Ti- RUS, a celebrated losopher ancient’ elect that etn the attay itself Greece, and the founder Pade which flourished i under his name, was born at Gar s, a village of At- tica, in the 109th Olympiad. He was the son of Neo- cles and Cherestrata, of the illustrious family of the Philaides at Athens, At the age of eighteen, he com- ah See i tn ui i a 8 if iH > i) E § : 5 = g f as E 2 i 2 iE A oF : e ’ iH af i g ef i a . H at if a if iF ; Having acquired an high reputation for natural ge- nius, extensive learning, and parent investigation, when raised by the Greek out of the ruins of E about thirt of instituted, at Athens, a sus. A highs wall, ab the carevier eid oFte etilioes new philésaplical schéol, ind jiropiaided Novediwdlea entire, bit is also made up of of former build. tial points, from the doctrines that were taught by the i pete. its origin toalaterage. Two most jar sages of those times. For the grand out- a theatre or a Naumachia, and some lines of his theory of the universe, indeed, he was in- walls of brick, faced with large marble slabs, supposed debted to the previous labours of seobicss b ae to of Di i ers; but from of the church of St , form the incipal ob- the sublime conceptions and ie genius of Epicu- jects of any magnitude. t Aiasoluk or Ajasoluk, once rus, these broken and discordant features first acquired’ the rival of the parent city, and the residence of the such a rational form and consistency, as entitled them Saraconic princes in the 14th century, is a large portal, to the name of a system. formerly leading to the citadel, wholly built with Ro- _ His theory Mattel wall ad thuch © to the man tiles, and faced with polished marble. Over the rigid maxims of the Stoics, as his life and. coriversation the a sys in that celebrated school. a aio AS ingi of Patroclus to delightful Epicurus enjoy é society of his . comb iia ;, ieeae otk dan his instructions to his numerous it the Gate of Persecution, and believe that it ; whence the institution was denominated the the n i itself is of the Garden, as that of Plato was called the : 0 Peg pete ree) none acta. « small square of brick, the ruins of oratories Porch, and that of Antisthenes the Cynosargum, Zz Gears atdgeus, arcane contrasted with the ascetic habits of the disciples of —_Yr rate 178 . His manners were easy and affable ; his life tempe- virtuous. Having devoted his days to the pro- of science, he died of an in ion, occa- sioned by a stone in the bladder, after suffering the most excruciating pain with admirable composure and patience, in the 127th Olympiad, and the seventy-se- cond year of his age. It is unnecessary for vi gh at pan eer inp discussion respecting principles incul- Suis Epicurus, as we have ae exhibited a view of his ical hypothesis in a former article: (See Aromicat Pamosorny.) But whatever objections the combined lights of reason and revelation may have af- forded us against the principles of that system, it must wn be acknow to have new the ntspring ct a , Vigorous, and. scientific mind ; and it is, perhaps, the only rational profane: , on the subject of cos- mogony, which has had sufficient merit to attract re- disciples in modern times. The moral principles promulgated by Epicurus have age theme of reprehension to Jud ascetic philoso- phers of all 3; and, by a sin miscon ion of the So ent alters of his opiniens, age name of that illustrious sage has been converted into an epithet expressive of every thing that is unprincipled, licentious, base, and grovelling, m human conduct and manners. Having assumed, as the basis of his ethical system, the principle, that pleasure is the chief good of man, it has been unwarrantably sed, that his doctrines give countenance to habitual intemperance, and even recommend the unrestrained gratification of every illicit passion, Nothing, however, can be more unjust than such a representation of the moral theo- ry of Epicurus, His system, indeed, as we have al- ready a tte was directly opposite to that of the Stoical school. _ He rejected the eel doctrine of fa- tality, which constituted the foundation of the philoso- phy of Zeno, and boldly contended for the free of man: a principle, without the admission of whi it were vain to attempt to erect any rational system of morality. Disclaiming the external aid of gravity in speech, and of any singular austerity in dress and de- meanour, and being himself arses. endowed with an affable and cheerful disposition, he deemed it not necessary for a wise man to be morose, but ht his disciples, on the con , to look for pleasure in the pursuit of wisdom, and to consider concomitant of virtue. ‘ Wisdom,” says self, in his epistle to Menwceus, “ is the icurus him- ief blessi of philosophy, since she gives birth to all other, vir- tues, W unite in teaching us, that no man can live happily who does not live vials: conscientiously, and. j ; nor, on the other hand, can he live wisely, conscientiously, and justly, without living for virtue is inseparable from a life of iness, and epris virtue.” Such principles, whether resulting from correct } of human nature or not, po yh be pe ail ; ‘ 8 as holding out any encouragement to in te cons or indulgence in illicit pleasures, ‘“ Those,” says of his disciples, “ whom we call lovers of pleasure, real lovers of goodness and justice ; are men practise and cultivate every virtue: for no true can exist without a good and virtuous life. e assert, then, that pleasure is the chief felicity of man, we do not mean the plea- idi the pleasures $18 4 Ad ai : 2 : F : 2 u those who wilfully mistake our opi- y assert ; but what constitutes pleasure nappiners asthe that th EPICURUS. with us, is the pessmsion.of a hedy euneept framnanias anc « mind deren Ahegiaanelaty ” &e. Th bonum of Epicurus, ore, was nothing . the mens sana in corpore sano of the Roman poet; he proposed to conduct mankind to happiness, not. ’ the deceitful labyrinths of sensual. gratification, but along the plement pette of knowledge and of virtue... Among those, i |, who controverted the doctrines. of Epicurus, there were some who ventured to arraign, his personal character, and who had recourse even to falsehood and forgery, in order to vilify and degrade him in. te egenoa et soe people. . These attempts, it. must be confessed, however unjustifiable, have been too, successful ; as the vulgar prejudices of mankind, from the age of that philosopher down to the present times, sufficiently evince. But the. malicious _ whi were industriously circulated, and too ally. believed, A ig the moral character of Epicurus is disci-. ples, are abundantly refuted by the concurrent testimo- of the t res ie authorities,—of men who,. ough tley might dissent from. his. principles, yet. bore witness to. the virtuous tenor of his life, and to the, purity and excellence of his preeeyts- Sess In reality, both the Stoic and the Epicurean profes- sed temperance and virtue, though from opposite. prin-, ciples. According to the former, virtue consisted ina. total subjection of the passions, and in the constant and. habitual practice of austerity and discipline. The Epi- curean, on the other hand, assumed pleasure as the chief. good, but, at the same time, sought. this pleasure ina restraint of the desires and passions, and in the attainment of wisdom, and the exercise of virtue... Pain, according to the Stoic, ought to be considered as an ob-, ject of indifference, beneath the regard of a wise man ;, with the Epicurean, on the contrary, it was a great evil, and to be avoided by all means. The . of the lat. ter sect preserved the influence of the social.and moral, affections entire; while that of the former. evi tended to produce ascetic and indifference, We shall hove ne reeset. - fore, poauaran mith She ethi- stem of Epicurus, if its principles under- Fat g in the nos sense in which ns seems a in: culcated them, To teach mankind the true road to hap= piness, has been the professed object of almost every theory of morals ; and of all those means by which we. can promote our happiness, it will be admit t there are none more efficacious than the cultivation. of temperate and virtuous habits, and the exercise of our intellectual faculties, and benevolent affections. _... The doctrines of Epicurus long continued to be fa- voured by the Romans; and his school was. found to flourish under the emperors, after other institutions had begun to decay. The most celebrated adherents to this. system were the elder Pliny, Celsus, Lucian, and, Dio- genes Laertius. The Epicurean theory, however, was, not at Alexandria, which, after the decline of Grecian learning, became the chief seat. of literature and science ; where the eclectics; who still continued to call themselves Platonists, superseded every. school. In the earlier ages of the Christian church, i fell into utter neglect and obscurity ; but, during the 15th century, the doctrines of Epicurus again began to sare some Ee pigs eyr Bem 3 and ae ane, uently revived in the 17th cen writings. ndi, Du Rondelle, and aie - See Di $ Laertius X. Gassendi and Rondellius, or Du Rondelle, ~ Couturis, Sur la Morale. se) «i -- ee EPICYCLOID. - EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, is pects ireeat pe. foe int in the plane of a moveable ci 1er on the inside, or the outside of the circum- ference of a fixed circle. If the circles be both in the same plane, the curve generated will be the plane epi- If again the moveable and fixed circles be in different planes, and the former be the base of a right cone, that: rolls on the surface of another right cone, the base of which is the latter, so that the vertices of the cones are at the same point ; then, in this case, the curve 179 death of Galileo, which happened-inr 1642, his disciples Epicycloid.. Torricelli and Viviani, were more successful ; the for- mer found the area, and the latter the method of draw ing tangents to the curve. The claim of Torricelli to- = porte of his discovery Maric omy “sin te 3 t the charge of plagiarism, whi ght against the Italian reaabotadticien, has not been believed by his countryman Montucla, who has discussed the contro- versy in the second volume of his History of Mathe- ties, second edition. . The cycloid, the source of so much contention, and on that account compared to the golden apple thrown by Discord among the gods, was again brought into. notice by Pascal. This philosopher, not: less celebra~ ted for his piety and zeal in defence of the Christian. eligion, than his mathematical invention, took the cy- cloid as the subject of his meditation in those sleepless nights which he passed, in’ consequence of bad health ; and he soon extended his discoveries beyond what was then known. He was not of a disposition to boast of his discoveries in ; but some of his pious friends su that it would be useful to have it known, the man who had defended religion and Christiani inst infidelity, was perhaps the most. profound thinker, and the greatest eter in Eu-. his problems, of the first the celebrated H s; and Sir Christoph who discovered che Seebcaton of the curve. Pascal, published his own solutions in the beginning of the. year 1659, in a work entitled Letters from A. Detton- ville to M. de Careavi: In the same- year, Dr Wallis published a work on the cycloid, and other curves, in which he resolved some of Pascal's problems by his Arithmetic of Refiee ; and, in the following, La- louére also published a treatise on the cycloid ; and an- other work about the same time from the pen of P. Fabri, the jesuit. The cycloid is remarkable, as well on account of its. mechanical. as its ical properties ; and Mr Huy- s discovered some of the most interesting of both. inds. To.the latter class bel the property, which. we shall demonstrate in this sri, by which he shew- ed how a pendulum inay. be made to. vibrate in an arc: of a oycloid ; and to the former, the very beautiful pro- perty, that all. vibrations of a pendulum in ares of a, cycloid, are performed in. equal times. See Mecua-~ NICS. The very curious problem, eee John Ber noulli, 2 Ap * to find the path hich’ body may; roll from one given point to er, in the shortest: time possible, the points being supposed neither in the- Cyeloia. —— Of the Cy- Cleid. PLaTe CCLUL. Fig. 1. Figs. 2, 3. 180 same vertical nor the same horizontal ” on ac- count of its the attention of the most celebrated icians in Europe, who found, that turned his attention to the theory of epicycloids, while be iform ; and that on this ac- diminished. of the force of gravity all its vibrations in equal times, it described a greater or a lesser arc. But, by the hypothesis, and supposing the force of gravity to be directed to the earth’s centre, and to be in as the distance from the centre, it became a oe on nae gd pcm: Taf: ppm , 80 a8 to perform unequal vibrations in equal times? Sir Isaac Newton shewed that the curve ought be an epi - See Principia, lib. i. prop. 51. icycloids was treated by Herman, in the — volume of the —— of the A . It appears thata ician, named O re aagyl this problem, “ to pierce a spherical roof with oval windows, the perime- a of any one of which may be-absolutely rectifiable.” Herman beli Academy of Sciences of Paris, 1732, where he shews that the rectification of. the curve proposed by Herman er or ene oe e shall now give a brief view of the properties of eycloids and epicycloids. I. Or rue Cycrom. Definitions. 1. If a circle, EPF, roll along a straight line AB, (Plate CCLIII. Fig. 1.), so that every point. of the cir- cumference may touch the line in succession ; and if i sa hy ot bape vn eters ea tact wi straight line at the beginning of the mo- Gli, ils tha ‘die nda vention Complete reveling the point P will have described a curve line APDB, which is called a common cycloid, also sometimes sim- A ae aS along a straight line lines, a pendulum moving in a cy- ced, EPICYCLOID. itis called a curtate cycloid, if the point is without the Cyctoit circle. e A balay Apa get 8. In each of the three cycloids, the circle EF is cal- ved Tks waraigi lime AB) which oles tha>ppelesatin 4. The ne joins the points: each cycloid, where the motion of the point that de« scribes the curve begins and ends, is the dase of the cycloid. : : tid: Lect Soni 5. A straight line CD which bisects the base at right angles, and terminates in ‘the curve, is called the azis; the point D, in which it meets the curve, is called the verter of each kind of cycloid. 5 Ybeirn 6. A straight line drawn from any point in the curve, perpendicular to the axis, is. an ordinate to the axis; and the ent of the axis between and an ordinate, is called an abscissa. Corollary be sw the vertex nitely. Proposition I, ih edatona a In any cycloid, the base is equal to the circumference. o the generating el PB, (Fig. 1.) every point n the common APB, (Fig. 1.) every im p the cisensstasuct ee aeipeneslalagiedoveticaatieas CLI ly touch the base, without sliding along it, while _ Fig. 1. circle makes a complete revolution : therefore, the Vidi le ee Se eee In the being the point of the ci genera- F os fae ich touches the line a 6 at the beginni d end of the motion; and P being the point in the revolving radius OQ, which ger the cycloid APDB, it is manifest that at the inning of the mo-. tion, the line QP will have the positi a A, a perpen- dicular to ab; and at the end, it will have the position 6B, another icular to a6;*therefore aA, 6B ab, which again is manifestly equal to the circumfes Pror. II, nal In the three kinds of eycloids, the axis is equal to- Wie Ee ee eee generating ci and curtate cycloids, Se een 3.) Figs. 2, 3 EPICYCLOID. 181° Con! Avdircle described on the-axis of the commion circumference’of the circle DHC tothe base AB. For Cycloid: get the base is equal to the circumference of the circle. ““\—"—" PratTe ccuitl. Fig. 4. Figs. 5. 6. cycloid, as a diameter, is equal to the generating circle. ie Prop. III. Let DHC (Fig. 4.) be the circle described on the spoeiendteies and PHG the ordinate; the equal to the circular are HD. is the position of the circle when the point in the circumference Set dapecloas the baron The \ciecles CRD) RPE axb yeni, se lines HG, PI are manifestly the halves of chords , however, be in infinite terms, by ae 2 a equation. See Fiuxions. i " i be F i fr ES] a2 oF MP FF i 8 i 5 i F : fy a ih be Sens bose elle fae Ue af : z br, iy : a : we ll =x S = i Q é g | H ' 3 = : i ad . t 5 = straight line PH. Now, from simi- TORE ote are DH isto the straight line PH as the : of : FQE. : Cor. 2. Let DG=z, PG=y, are DH=z; and let a. be the radius of the circle described on the axis, and 6 the radius of the generating circle ; then because by the theorem Hp=! z, the nature of the prolate and curtate cycloids will be expressed by the two equations xa — Cos. z, CC : z+ Sin. x. Prop. V. In the common cycloid, if a circle be described on p > ecinntir ; and from any point P in CCL. the curve, an ordinate PG be drawn to the axis, meet- Fig. 7. DC, the axis, as a ing the circle in H ; a tangent PV to the cycloid shall be parallel to HD, the chord of the arc between the he points HD draw the tangents HR, DR, the At the points H, D e ts HR, DR, latter of which will be el to the ordinate PG: draw also another ordinate p h g indefinitely near to the former, so that the indefinitely small arcs Pp, Hh may be considered as coinciding with the tangents VP, RH ; lastly, draw Pq parallel to HA, and join D A meeting PGi in m. Because PH=arc DH, mt heat fo) therefore h—PH=arc DH h—are DH, that is, pg = Hh; Cie the trimgles 2H, h RD being similar, and AR= RD, therefore }H=Hm; hence pq=Hm, and ph= Pm; the Pphm is therefore a and consequently pV 1s parallel to kD, or to HD. Prop. VI. The are DP of the common cycloid is double the chord DH of the corresponding arc of the generating Let the ordinate ph g be indefinitely near to PH ; h, meeting in m, and draw Hn perpendicu« tohm Because the peti br indefinitely small, as in proposition, ma’ considered as‘ coincidi with tangents to the curves, And because Pp is < ; Prop. 5.) the figure Pphm isa |. m; hence Pp=mh ; but Hm=H/A, as was in . 5; and therefore xnm=nh, and mh=2hn; therefore Pp=2hn. Now Pp andxh are evidently the increments which the oidal are DP and the chord DH receive by the ordinate changing its position from PG to pg; therefore the increment of the arc is always double the increment of the corresponding Ss now the arc and chord to be i moving _ to itself from the vertex , and the increment of the one is double the other, the arc will always be double the corre- sponding chord. Cor. The whole cycloid ADB is four times the diameter of the generating circle, or four times the’ join D z Prop. VII. If DM be drawn from the vertex of the cycloid pa- pig, g, rallel to the base andl Seaman, Beane P in the curve be drawn to axis, aiters, © geperating cine) in H ; and PL be drawn to ; the external cycloidal area D is equal to’ Cycloid. —— Pirate CCLIIML Fig, 8, 182 the area contained the circular arc DH, and the lines DG, G Take a int p in the curve, indefinitely near to P; and draw the co-ordinates p Ag and p/: join DH, and complete the indefinitely narrow para Gu, Lr. Because the indefinitely little arc Pp may be con- a a straight linc, which is parallel to DH, ( ), the triangles Prp, HGD are similar; hence rp: Pr: y GD: HG ; that is, Gg: rP:; PL: GH; since then the age geen: . ! are See Gromerry Now cae Gv sai tie combiored ered as the incre- a of the circular space DHG ; and the rectangle Lr as the increment of the cycloida space DLP, cor- cependiog a the position of the ordinate from PHG to vhg ; bra to th e triangles AH», p Pr; they vamsn in les: therefore the increments of spaces DHG, D ofa pei and uentl the spaces themselves are opel Con. If AM be perpendicular to DM, the whole cycloidal space ADM is equal to the semicircle DHC. Prop. VIII. _ If PHG, an ordinate to the axis, meet the era- circle in H, and the chord HC be drawn to the of the base, and PK parallel to HC, meeting ee base in K; the bounded by the cycloidal ae Saeee as PK, KC, CD, shall be trip] space bound by the circular are D ihe sgh nes HC, cD , a tange tangent to the circle, meeti the bese in Ne also draw the ordinate phg i teins tee PHG, m HC in m; he; draw p L parallel tohc, and ks parallel to C or KP. eee angles CNH, mh H, are similar, and NC=NH ; there- EPICYCLOID. —. CH ele he. a is pir ye the pacer ee oy and’ A are AY ( 38. ha goo is, to TC, or PH, is to the arc P is in.a cycloi vot which C CHD ‘is circle (Prop. 38. . and therefore it is ADB. Nore. The rty of the proposition was-discovered by Huygens, to the motion of a pendulum. Suppose to be perpendicular to the horizon, and two of metal to be bent into the form of cloide, born #02 tions VA, VB; then, if a were formed fixing a weight to the end of a PXV, and entis to vibrate between the wei ht P will, by its motion, describe the cyelc is manner of describi erie the eo ADI. b Pn emp is unf pe hit ep given rise to the theory of involutes evolutes, one of the most elegant speculations of modern geo oe Pi Fates, ox yee or the app cation properties cycloid to mechanics, see MECHANICS. t Or Reitvevehh, Jo Il. fore hm=h H; and because ph=h H-+are HD=;H +PH=h m+tm ; that is, because pt4-th=2 h m+ th; therefore pt=2hm. And because / s is parallel toom, and kp to ch, therefore ps=hm, 1. Let AEB be a given fixed circle, and EPF a of Rpicy- moveable circle, which vols either on the outside of the cloids. pe Caen 10.), -or on the inside (as in Fig. 11.), Pear ; alsolet p be a given ¥n CCLIIL Pig. % fod nis 79s hence the lelogram K is double the fb i and the quadrilateral pk K ¢ is triple the range’, ks, that is hem. Now the former of these is manifestly the increment of the SE CD SECeROEOS £2 8 change of position of chord from CH to CA, and the latter is the increment of the space HCD ; there- fore the space PKCD is triple the HCD. Cor. 1. The cycloidal area DAC is triple the semi- circle DHC, Con. 2. The interior cycloidal space PDG, is the ex- cess of three times the contained by the are HD, and the lines HC, CD e the trapezoid PGCK. Prop. IX. Let AB be the base of a cycloid, ADB and CD its axis: In DC produced take CV=CD ; and let a semi- cycloid, the same as DB, be put in the position AV ; and another semicycloid, the same as DA, in the posi- a line drawn from O, the centre of the moveab Cuengh 2s a given pointe its circumference ; and at.’ the beginning of the motion, let P be at A, the point of contact of the two circles, and the point p at a; then, while the circle makes one complete revolution, by roll-. ing along the are AB, the line ‘Op, will revolve sbout, O as a cefitre, and the point p will describe a line. pads which is called an epicycloid. 2. When the generating circle revolves on the side of the circumference of the fixed circle, the li described is the exterior prerene ‘when the ge nerating circle rolls on the iimide of the circumference, the line described is the interior epicycloid. 8. The circle EPF is called the generating circle, and the point the ating point. A. A t line drawn ugh the centre of the fixed circle, and H, the middle nee the base, is called the axis; and the point d in which the axis meets the pas poke me now that «thread is fastened at V;, curve, is called the vertex. s then fit be the curve, so as to terminate at A; then, be unfolded, beginning at the point ‘A, its Coxpilat ies to the Definitions. | re oqremses * 5a) describe noe epoan cb. Cor. 1. The points a and. b, ome of ee w and equal to ; cloid, CA, CB, the radii and describe the semiciscle AYR. Let PX, the pat tone para 4 ceseaey™. of the thread which has been unwrapped from 2. This of he epi etl the dram meet"AC in T ; drew XZ perpendicalay to AN, meet ference, of the ing circle in Y.; and PC ay ay” serenade Scnouium,, areas ot ae circle in H ; and join AY, CH. set on the that Chola KTP, the part of the thread wifolded, is’ mea csh sevclotinait he abopoe to conti~, nue its moti, « eis of pico circle ¥i8* 10 EPICYCLOID. 183 like the first. Indeed, they may be considered These two equations express generally the nature of Epicyclote. Epicycloid. a continuous curve, which will go on con- all epicycloids, whether exterior or interior ; because, al- =—— ws 1 PLaTE ec_Lill. Fig. 12. een ads will come again ff the circumferences of the and or their radii, are incomm a eeeahas be that case, the two circles will never come into contact at the same point. If, however, the commensurable, it is evident that, after a cer- genes of revolutions of the generating circle, the to. the ts A and &, from, which they eet out ; and thus curve will return into itself. If the point that describes the A pabiaaye be pee on the Sislstoke to te circle, as at curve a w to the curtate oad: but if ft be with- 4 Ege ee circle at p’, then the curve ‘a’ p' dB will cor- respond to the prolate cycloid ; and lastly, if the ge- Fst gl) pat be at P, the curve APDB will be more and will iecoapold to the common cycloid: Baer. E iawn E ce e he te nod checks, ea ish Geto also let F’H be the circle when it has made ex- half a peorrt Then its centre O’ will be axis C e t will be at Lapa wires generating poin now that the e arc HE, wafcant + sake © GO, mdi the reveléi radius from the position O’D to the position OP, while the Sar pene See motien. the will be the t of the erati eno gh erdnders! er gat seg rid Tadtow the ee fe of the. fixed circle origin centre as the of the co-ordinates, though in investigating generating circle to be without the fixed circle. By a well known principle i in mathematical analysis, we have only to change the sine‘of a and } from + to —, there- by silicate that the lines which these letters repre- sent, are to be considered as having a contrary direc- tion to that which they had in the former case, and the aig will be adapted to the case of interior epicy- In the preceding ms ations, the co-ordinates are expressed in terms of the arc, which the gen circle has rolled over, reckoned from H, the middle of the base, (Fig. 12.) but it will be convenient to have them also expressed by the arc described from the be- “motion.” Draw a straight line from C 5 A, circles, and et us suppose, rolled along which was at first atA’, has described the epicycloidal A’P. Let Pc meet the circle in N, then the arcs EN, EA will be equal. Produce PO, CO to Land F; draw PQ, OR icular to CA ; and OT dicular to QP. the abscissa CQ=2’, the ordinate QP=y’, the are AE=~’ ; and, as before, put CE=c, PO=}. . Then the angle OCR, or FOT, is = radius being unity, and the angle NOE, or FOL=~, theres : av es oe ap 1\,, 4 foreTOL== += = (44 ae Hence CR=(c+p.a) Cos. =, OR=(c+a) Sin. z . 1 BOze—sd Gon: (14+ =) Put CK, the abscisse, . . . adherens vam, i ORR Ae panting, 2195220 5% ay Ps 81h. cag, PT=b Sin. (+4 >)» CE, the rad of fixed cixel CEDDEDED DLL Sg and since s’=CR+TO, and y=OR—PT, we have OE, the rad. of ee Pay gen. circle, . OP, the dist. of gen. point from the centre, : 36: Then = is the are of a circle, whose radius is unity, which measures the angle ECH= FOM ; and, in like manner, 7 is the measure of the angle LOE, or POF ;, = (cpa) Cos. —5 Cos.(—+ =) y=(c+a)Sin.=— é Sin. (+2) From this solution we may deduce the following con« uences : : 1. These two sets of formule (A and B), enable us hence = 4.2 = (14 ~) zis the measure of the an- by the help of de te fa uy ehicrelie Cr eatle gle POM: Hence by the help of the trigonometrical tables, To do ths this, vt €6 =€O x Cos. BCH =(c42) Cos.£, OG=CO x Sin. ECH=(c-+2) Sin. = _OM=PO x Cos, POM= Sin(— + + th. we must give particular values to the angle <, then we must find from the tables the values of the sines and cosinesof —, andof (e+ =) =t* = jandfromthese, the coordinates of poinjs in dhe and, in these calculations, regard hs tale dy cand “PM=PO x Sin. POM=5 Cos. (++ 1), must Bel of the sines and cosines, as is 2 explained in a4 mee e Arnirumetic of Sines, 2. Ife and a be Soames indeterminate Now r=CG-+OM, and vy ree therefore A) . c 1 a “ Seo | Te = +b Sin. i +=): _ example, if c arc z may be eleminated from either of the formulz Oy @)s oon thence an equation may be found, which expréss the relation of z toy in finite terms. For: sa:t 9% so that 4 <= from formula (A), ais githen, OE=a, them, we have supposed the y Fig. 13.) the first point of contact of the two prars , that the generating circle has CLUE. the are PAE, while the: generating oe Fig, 13. PLATE cCCcLUL Pig. 14 2=(¢-+a) Cos, ~ +b Cos. =, : . 5: y=(c+e) Sin. = +4 Sin. ae Put Cos. 5, = pand Sin, = = ¢. Then, by the Anrrumetic of Sines, (Art. 7 , Cos. <= 2p'—l, Sin. = =P Cos. ganesh ener Sin, ae =5q—20q) + 169! ; (e+e) (2ptel) +b (1—12 +16 *) z=(c+a)(2 pi— q*), y=2e-+a Pat ioe— 20g + 10g"): these equations, and the equation p*+q°=1, p and - may be e " » and the’ result: will be an Bai equation equation, involving z and y only, which will petael te care teal tn ineitary tan spicy ill Bé'en bers, the epicycloid will be an eri Alda petedalnts aaa ( Scholium to Def.) If, however, a and c be incommensurable, the of z produces an equation of an infinite from number of terms, and therefore in this case the curve is transcendental ; and in this case also it never returns into itself. 8. As the order of the curve depends upon the ratio of the radii of the fixed and generating circles, it may be worth while to: seeing one horse "First let us take the case of a circle EPC, (Fig. 14.) — rolls on the inside of another AEH, fe edape pass through its centre C. erat b=a=—te, berwase «lies det in a-cont ; therefore, the co-ordinates to the line CA, drawn through A, the point of contact of Yo. twocrees, we have by the formula (B), ' « 8 ye a +8-\ Sin. ¥ Sm. (-=) Now, if'in_ the formule for the cosine and sine of a— 6, a and 6 being any arcs, (Anitumetic of Sines, Art. 10.) we suppose a=0, and. observe that then Art 10.) Sin. a=0, we shall have Cos, (—b) = Cos. b, Sin, (—b)=—Sin. b, and therefore Cos, (— =) = = Cos. a iar therefore z=c Cos. — =,y=0. This value of y shews,. that the int is in the axis CA, pee Yr es on ‘zis evi-. the cosine of the are z, or AE, the distance of the generating from the centre at any time, is the cosine of the arc that has then been e@ over. in this case is therefore AB, that diameter of EPICYCLOLD. . BOR icneinle double the ; and 2ACE= 2 nny but FOE At we AR. Sm = MEAS ; there. ; fore arc PE=are AE, and so ‘3s a point that would be described b ane ‘the circle E pecs on the inside of the circle AEH 4. Next, let us suppose that the circle EP rolls on the outside of another AEH, of the same “magnitude, Fig. 15.) and that the generating point departs from Wk foe pols Ut ciniines 6 dis Sea AMM TASTE. In this case, b=a=c, and we have by formula (B), Fig. 15. CR=2=2eCos. = —¢ Cos. =, PR=y=2c Sin. —< Siny . tions i) and Sin. 4 v=2 Sin. v Cos. », (Anirameric of Sines, =2c Sin. v (1— Cos. v) Ay x _ 1—Cos.* » Let us put 2—c=z’, so that instead of making C the mong it ne From these two equations, let by the curve ; which Hea lay ral remarkable : For , ifany straight. and VP’ are each A be dra the ew points ts wn to curve at i Pe, they wl fom orm a right angle at X fete tabs pay 4 case (Fig. 16. pid ty ras ein ve from a cylinder or circle AEH, round which it was Let v=, then observing that Cos. 20=2 Cos v1; Art. 14.) we-have, after substitution, &c. _- 2—c=2c Cos. v (1—Cos.v) . 6.2. e+ ae ee (1) Sin.* v 4 ; ri G@—cy Costv™ Cos#o ate tae po mare: of the abscisse, we are now to reckon them Aj and let Cos.v= >, and we have frm equas 2cp—2cp* a hie Poe +y) i Font on method, (Avceana, Sect. Pa} ew ition ht aoe (2° 2c2’ +y*)*, of tet fousth ocer ’ This curve has been called the cardioide; it has seve- line be drawn through A, to meet the fixed circle « in V, ere ee ake eee Secin thaGecrt’ ace, sitais gi in the curve, . are , an number of points ‘in i By hippy any y As a third icular case, let us tO bp inthe cireuinieranioouh the circle, and its radius shes peg +4 great. ag ey roth ond E Se of ona is to caesar pic ad ap aw PERL, bey ettadiges: wound. ; In this case, we have b=a= an infinitely great The, Suantty; and because, in general, Cos (F-4=) = Zz . oe - {z . Cos, = omg Bing Seige + 5) = Sin. = Cos, = s+ Cos. = Sin. = (ArireMetic. pata of Sine) when sisal great then Cou (444), 5 EPICYCLOID. jicycloid. wn ee pee ee phat Se = cos. £—+ Sin. =, because = being an indefi PLATE ccLill. Fig, 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 21. i ine i to radius, and its SR aes cart can ei Mediates rac Cos.—+ Sin. =, y= Sin. — 2Sin.— ions of the curve. © By the squares of « any, we ge T= < z, an ion expressing a curve, + in equation property is called the involute of a circle. Prop. II. A tangent to an epicycloid at any point is perpendi- dilaton vissight lars, deatn from it; to the point of contact of the generating and fixed circles. Suppose two A 2, 3, 4, E, &e. N 2, 3, 4, E, umber of sides to be described about of the proposition Cor. 1. Let O’ be the point in which the centre of the circle crosses the axis (Fig. 18.), and DVI a circle on O’, with a radius equal to OP, ee LAT at tT tic sets ok. the ie generating circle), and H the point in which the generating circle ies the fixed circle, when its cen- tre is at O’. Then, if a circle be described on C as a centre to meet the epi id in any point P, and the circle DVI in V; and PE be drawn perpendicular to prctn he meet the fixed circle in E ; the nor- mal (Mh nier ebeguadsidettiagy acl toH. Let O be the centre of the generating circle seatamaritiiecns Fan 2 22 centre, ) join OP, O/V; and because =CO, O’V=OP, and V=CP, the ce og COP are equal ; there- fore the angles HO’V, EOP are equal ; now HO’=EO, ler ee hid dala Cor. 2. wfc be FM g Magica ference of the generating circle, a tangent to the curve at any point P (Fig. 21.) will pass through F, the ex- trestity of the age ers Ey ik Sr. Pt See the two cir. Scuouwm. From this proposition it appears, that if 185 parallel rays of be cle FPE, which ro a circle AEH, havi Se ae volving circle ; e generati int being sw to set out from A, the middle’ of the perpendi- cular radius = let me generating ag 3 any position , P being the erating point, an CHF that radius of thecircle DFR’ which pastes through pt yeah ow he niet ged Aa tae sg 3 di bp cen nyh hs set cut tae ge touch epicycloid at P, + e angle EF at the circumference is half an ang! sh Cie peace, bth the same arc, and therefore is measured by 27777 = are PE are Fe, that is by MCE but this last arciis also the measure of the angle ECA, or CFG; therefore the an« gles PFC, CFG are equal; and hence, if GF be the in« cident ray, FP is the reflected ray. See Optics. Hence it that in this case the epicycloid is the catacaustic curve, or the curve which passes through the intersection of any two and contiguous lg after they have slop et 8 bowl, by the reflection of the sun’s rays from the po- lished concave surface which rises above the surface of * the milk. When rays diverge from one end of the diameter of Fig, 20. acircle, and are reflected from the inside of the cir« cumference, in this case also the eatacaustic curve is an epicycloid, viz. the cardioide es Prop. 1). For SS aikins ths teks dopating ame By. vel gues AED, int i + genera~« ing the epi id APH, through E, the point of con-~ cast of thes chads, ature CHE, “er susat he i circle dius, ting circle HFd, which meets the epicycloid. Because AE at the centre is double the rence. But because CF=CH, and conseq CHF=CFH, the angle ACE is double the. angle CFH ; therefore the angle CFH is equal to the angle CFP; pt cones ing any incident ray, FP is the ray ; moreover, FP is a tangent te the epicycloid. (Cor. 2). _ Nore. in perenne werctioy Se ways su generating point to be in the circum~ ference Prop. III. Let H be the middle of HPA, an. exterior epicy~ Fig. 21. cloid, C the centre of the fixed circle, and e erating circle when its centre is in the axis CH, C Gabe Se ne of'9 Crcie to pies thitomes © point-in the epicycloid, and meet generating circ! e in V, and jin HV, Sedsherd HY Sy eet cloidal arc HP, as the radius of the immoveable ci to the sum of the diameters of the immoveable and ge« nerating circles. Take p, a point in the epieycloid, mdefinitely near to Ps deeribe the are pt dnd join Hv; let FPE, Je + ro ys fall on the concave circumference Epicycloid, of a circle DRd (Fig. 19.), they will, after reflection, “=v” ts to an gare DPA, generated by a cir- Pratz i the CCLII. same centre as the circle DRd, and its radius the Fig: 19. 186 em a ing circle at P and: FE, fe, the = diameters which passthrough ts in which it touches the arc DA ; join p> will be tan- ~ gents to the curve at P and 2. Cor. 2.); and Gre the lines PE, pe, which will be normals curve; draw Vr to Hy ; also f's pe dicular to FP, and e x ‘PE, and Pate ccLui. Fig. 21. " 4 = 3 5 : eT Ae = Zz K, we have, by reject- are infinitely small in of ax. K fk: % Rei f-PraH v—HV=r», and PK4K ; and since pi—PF=(p tke cP 5 J crakeneres RE s eee ers p=rv+sF the are V v as coincidin, vith its tangent) the sngle rV vis equal tothe angle DH, or to EF P, that is to F fs; therefore V v: Ff::rv:Fs; but Vr=Ee, and Ev or Ve: Ff::CE (=e): CF (=c4-2.); there- fore c:c42a::rv: Fs, and by composition ¢ : 2Qe+ Qa::re: re+Fs, that is, c: 2c-4+2a::rv: arc Pp. Now rv is the increments of the chord HV, and P p is os increment of the are HP ; and it ap- pears that the HV and arc HP, which begin together, are augmented by increments which have to the cndeeak Yeiho of c to 2c+42a; there- fore the chord HV, and arc HP themselves, will have to each other the same ratio. Cor. The are HPA, half the epicycloid, is a fourth seperti es , C, 2c-4-2a, and 2a. ~ Senorium 1. If the epicycloid be interior, then the chord of the g circle determined as in the will be to the bp roped oy Ash Sager ence of the diameters of the fixed and generating cir- cles to the radius of the fixed circle. The demonstrated in this case exactly 2. If we suppose the radius of the fixed circle to be infinite, its circumference is to be reckoned a strai 4 line, and the ratio of c to 2 c42 ais that of c to or-of 1 to2. The curve is then the common eyelaia and the proposition agrees with what has been shewn that curve. 3. It a that any it wee whe = may be rectified {chat in; straight line rha auig' be found equal to it), when the curve is described by a =< the circumference of the generating circle. pent meee point is with or without the circle, the rectification of the curve is redu- cible to of the ellipse ; and therefore cannot be efected but by approximation, See Fiuxions, Prop. IV. The same thi being supposed as in last proposi- tion, let PE, sneer P, meet the ci ition is Do, and draw H iV, : ferent ii to EP. ft incor sciar Bd aes.” and 4 @e indefinitely small, they may be as x tng ale the bases eral F EPIC YCLOID. coinciding with en may be t Ken a, recline ti rds be equal, be ¢ En is equal to E to DUY =EFP ; the fn LS not ch eis ate position or en aft epcycarhar to Sef thee position, rv: inet p SB es pl ad witely little triangle br v, and the same altitude ; ta bie Detendete therefore the triangle Drv is to the as r#, the base of the former, to n e+ maneer’ the parallel sides of the latter ; that is asc to S$c-42a. But the triangle and trapezoi d are the increments b, which the circular space DHVD, and the « ; DHPED, are augmented, in 1 ce of the epics DUPED. ot ee eee e; there fore, these spaces are continually fasrensett oy : ties which have to each other the cobstant falao nt'e.tp Sc4+2a; and cdnsequently the Spaces Saeeneer ia mas the same ratio. Cor. The whole epicycloidal space DHPAD is to half the area of the generating circle as $¢-4+2 toc. Scuotium. When the radius of the circular base is infinitely great, the epicycloid becomes the common cycloid ; Y ind the tatio of $042 ¢ to ¢ becomes the ra- tio of $c toc, or $ to 1, as was demonstrated in ; 8. of the Cyctorp. oi sale ~ Prop. Vv. ide bows Ifa thread be fastened ‘at A, one epicyc’oid, and applied thre AH ares ina he oy ed into a strai line, tee extremity sng ne another epeyeoid HXZ, smile tthe epicycloid i ees accngh the pata EL Pte circle, when through the ints Hand P respectively. i Ae centre of the cle describe ahs and PV ; join HV, and PE ; and make EF to FY CE to CF, that is as ¢ to ¢-4-2a, and j in XY cause PF is equal to VH, and the are wiraight line PX, PFs XP: BK, 2c4-2a (Prop. 2) aad hy gin version, PF: FX :: ¢: c+ 2a, that is, as EF to FY; henes ‘the triangles PFE, OK PY are simi- lar ; the angle FXY is pea fh a pa and a circle described on FY as a X, and touch the are HR in F. again case angles XYF, PEE Te cone the arc XF is similar tothe arc PF, and arc XF :arc PF: : chord XF: chord PE. But XF: PF :: YF: FE (or by construction,) : ; CF : ie : are FH: arc ED; therefore arc XF: are PE: are FH : are ED: But the arc PF is equal to the ED, because, by the generation of the curve, are arc EP, andere AE are EPF ; therefore the : XF is equal to the are FH: Hence it follows i Ee OL Hick the sto XY the because, be Cantertition, EF BY Nay CF ; the di meters of the HM pope | circles, have tio as the diameters’ of. the f circles ; the same ra tee the epicycloids will be si Con. The radius of curvature at ay Wa 3 et epicycloid is to the chord of the arc of the por between that ae pie bee constant ratio of the sum Wy bigeye yey OF the tation, former, and the diamnster of the later. For a aaa i cCLitt. ; EPa * it follows, that EF: FC:: FY: YC, and EF: FY:: : YC; therefore PF : FX :: FC: YC, and PX: ::FC+YC: Wabssetd ov wr iandbie 6 "E This proposition will apply to an interior epicycloid, by subtracting the diameter of the generating circle, or its multiples, instead of adding them. (2) EPIDEMIC Diseases. See Mepicine. EPIDENDRUM. See Botany, p. 315. EPIDERMIS. See Anatomy. ~ EPIGHA. See Borany, p. 217. } EPIGRAM, (from éx:, upon, and ygaPiu, to wrile,) originally signified merely, as its derivation denotes, an inscription, generally upon some public edifice, monu- ment, or remarkable spot. Even among the Greek writers, however, the word epigram gradually acquired a more extensive signification, and was almost indis- criminately a to any short poetical composition, descriptive of local scenery, commemorative of some striking event, or illustrative of some liar moral feel- ing or affection of the mind. such ancient epi- grams or inscriptions, we have many beautiful speci- mens in the Greek Anthologies; and it is justly re- marked by Mr Drake, in his Literary Hours, that a num- ber of these uctions bear, in their style and charac- ter, a very analogy to the modern sonnet. ve been much restricted ; with them an epi- gram was usually understood to denote a short sati- rical effusion ; and, in this sense the name has general- ly been adopted in modern times. The characteristic requisites of an epigram are ex- pressed in the following couplet ; «* What is an ?—A dwarfish whole,— ** Its body brevity—end wit its soul.” pr ne ceonhe 5 e or allusion, which pleases us, Stents ee KR a pt chong pakig es ired in an epi ; indeed, many of the i 1 speciinens of this species of caxsposition wane is no British author, we believe, who, like irtial among the Romans, has distinguished himself of our most eminent poets abound in epigrammatic turns ; pret tif ty collections of the scattered int which is to See Greek Antho- Lessing, Ueber das EF, onda The Fesoon, or gles. » Uleve mm. esloon, or © Cillaction of Epigrams, he. by Mr Gtayes. The Bre tish Martial, 2 vols. 12mo. (z) EPILEPSY. See Mepicine. EPILOBIUM. See Botany, p. 199. EPIMEDIUM., See Borany, p. 123. 987 nie radius of curvature at ‘X, and FX the chord'of the — EPI ipa lee We paras ofthe Tonge Te princi ice in the rtment e Tt is situated on the river Moselle, near the mountains, * and had formerly a celebrated abbey, a college, an hospital} and four convents. Its commerce consists of corn and in of all kinds, of hemp, lintseed, colzat, and wood. ts principal manufactures are those of paper, earthen- ware, and pipe-clay. ' Oil is made in great quantities ; and there are also manufactures of thread, linen, and _ cotton stockings. Its fairs are held on the Ist and 3d Wednesday of every month. Population 7000. (w) EPIPACTIS. ‘See Borany, p. 314. EPIRUS, was a region in ancient Greece, bounded on the east by Macedon and Thessaly ; on the south by the Ambracian Gulf; on the west by the Tonian_Sea ; and on the north by the Ceraunian Miniésinn: It con- sisted anciently of three divisions ; Chaonia, lying to- wards the north; Molossis, the middle or inland pro- vince ; and ia, i it’ the. eouth’ ant the Ambracian Gulfto the sea. Many cities of consi- derable magnitude adorned this territory, of which we shall only mention Ambracia, built near the mouth of the river Arachtus, which was about three miles in cir- cumference, and became the residence of the Aacidz, who He ea in Epirus ; and Dodona, said to have been founded by Deucalion as early as the flood, and render- ed illustrious by the temple and oracle of Jupiter Do- donzus, which were accounted the most ancient and venerable in all Greece. The lands which stretched along the sea coasts were fertile and well cultivated ; but the interior parts were covered with vast forests, and were almost entirely barren. The horses of Epirus were famous from the most remote antiquity ; and the dogs, which the Romans called Molossi, from the dis« trict where they were reared, were every where pur-~ chased and employed in hunting. Ifcredit be due to J us, Dodanim, the grandson of Japhet, having first settled in the island of Rhodes, either went aves to the continent himself, or sent thither some of his descendants, to ethisregion. From him the inhabitants were called , and their principal city Dodona: but in a short time after,a number of different tribes migrated thither, and took possession of those places which were not yet occupied. Having no bond of union, they were almost constantl in war; and though this inspired them with most exalted , it rend the introduction of. civili« zation and ement slow and difficult, During the time that the country was divided-into a oneness — states, each see its own king wi most despotic authority. i of this region is al unworthy of attention. was only when the kings of Molossis had gained the ee their bours, and had reduced the whole their sway, this region was denomina- ted Epirus, from a Greek word which signifies the cone tinent, Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, was the first of the race of the AZacide, who assumed the sceptre. | But the ancient annalists generally bes re the history ,of this country with his accession the siege of Troy, yet the exploits which they attribute to him, are certainly disfigured by poetical invention. The names of his descendants, who governed Epirus till the Persian war, are buried in oblivion, When Xerxes in- vaded Greece, Admetus held the sceptre ; but as he had refused to assist either party, Themistocles, after the ter- mination of the war, rejected, with disdain, his offers of alliance; but when that celebrated Athenian was banish- ed from the ungrateful country, which ee ae ‘Epirus. eat by his brother-in-law, Demetrius, with whom in exile, Many. opr Beye G king of Egypt Having conciliated affection of” that mo- , by his assistance he agai for Italy ; pa ge Tarentum. Taking the field at the head of his own forces and those of his allies, he defeated the Asculum, where he was dangerously wounded. Col- part of his army had fallen around him, he was obliged, not only to leave the field of battle, and retire to Ta- rentum, but to abandon Italy, and returnhome. To retrieve wie septation, and supply his exhausted trea- sury, his spirit then invaded the ki of Macedon, overthrew Antigonus in a pitched battle, drove him from his throne and his dominions, and took ion of the kingdom him, entered the city during the night, Sad threat be GE ote Sa cee e whi eir fury revenge had made. Pyrrhus, who now per- ceived that all was lost, endeavoured in yain to retire from the city with the wreck of his forces; and, whilst he igies of valour, a woman who sur~ veyed the from the top of a house, beheld the é monarch below her ready to plunge his sword inte the breast of her son who had wounded him, and, in avenged her country. The head of the monarch was severed from the body, and the remains of his army were made _. The kin after his death, was successively go- succeeded her ther, a female hand was too weak to keep her fierce and “ ‘foundations of a powerful ever, was equalled by its punishment. After i in al the adverse fo Emili ith an exasperated war behe ‘aulus us, with an army, enter their territories ; divide among his daring veterans the wealth which had been amassed for. ; level in the dust the cities which their fathers had de- corated ; condemn to slavery a hundred and fifty thou- sand of ane parte inhabitants ; anes : the chief men country to Rome, and to perpetual imprisonment. The glory of Epirus was now for ever extinguished. When the Consul Mummius had redu- ced Corinth to ashes, and dissolved the Achaian 2, Epirus became a Roman province. In this state of de- gradation it remained till the division of the Roman world, when it shared the fortunes of the eastern em- pee. But when the French and Venetians, under the uis of Monserrat, had stormed Constanti and divided the Greek provinces, Michael, a of the house of Angeli, from the camp of the Latins, and, seizing upon Epirus, Aetolia, Thessaly, laid the ~ bse and claimed the honours of an independent ne. Theodore lus succeeded to the power and ambition of his brother ; took prisoner Courtenay, who had been elected emperor of Constantinople, had invaded Epirus, expelled Demetrius from his ki of Thessalonica, and as- sumed the lofty appellation of Emperor. This dawn of glory was soon overcast, Amurath IT. having driven by the name of who held the sceptre. shai gud, awh at. alien ingloclns salijection their , W itin i i jecti It is now known by the name Albania. (n) EPISTYLIUM. See Borany, p. 329. EPITAPH, signifies an inscription upon a tomb, and generally designed to commemorate the name and virtues of the deceased. The practice of i epitaphs on the dead, which appears to have . death, tives. . . ss So tm eee the nvidal be a es note, ome mare ample desig names, are apt to excite v feelings from pa te pe ced in mind of the read- epitaphs of Pope. (2) EPITRITES, in music, is an interval whose ratio is 2, = 2544-5 £4.22 m, and is the Fourta Minor ; which see. EPIZOOTY, derived from ex: and Zwsy, signifies a plague or murrain among animals. In the common acceptation of the term, murrain is limited to distempers among useful and domesticated animals, whereas epi- gl remy averting the . At present, however, we shall chiefly restrict our remarks to some historical notices of the more singular and decided epizooties which have wi of hte lus, in the year 212 before Christ, ind and animals were alike the victims of a pesti- lential disorder ; and if we could trust to Silius Itali- cus, the of it might be described. J age centuries of the Christian era, : instances of are found in the works of the an- HE indiscriminately, in the year 65; and the Roman ter- ritory was ravaged by a similar pestilence about the- year 190. In the fourth century, we learn that the means 4 EPI to avert a general 89 Se tedelly phen ia ellis whee b eaten ly ly produ t ef w is ascribed to it, Vegetias Renatas, who floured in the same eon- , various cures for the different pestilen- Kal disorders of cattle. destructive, which ravaged different parts of Europe.” such diseases, ple existence of the malady ; but, in the sixteenth cen« tury, the subject was ined with more attention. Fracastori, an Italian physician, witnessed an epizooty in the year 1514, which first Frioul, whence it spread by ion to thence to ‘etange A — in France during ‘ollowing year, and are described as an eruptive fever, narrowly re- sembling the small Few isti served, except that it was extremely contagious, and Venice, and ce lady in 1578, it was more plainly designated small-pox, apprehensions were some time after entertained, that man might be liable to infection. The Vene- tian ent, therefore, on an universal dysentery attacking the citizens of Venice and Padua, issued an edict in 1599, ibiting the sale or distribution or the flesh of , or milk, butter, or cheese, under pain of death, It had likewise been observed, that such dis- from the east, and that some dis- had been t from Hungary and Dal- where the malady so common, that an- was sought out for the two cities. 1661, after a hot, summer, spread among pein especially horses, cattle, > but we ¢ pA ovens Maman pccote pally to climates, and, al This was accompanied by gangrene of the tongue and. intesti and the former sometimes came away in pieces. who tended the cattle, and neglected proper: precautions, are said to have been infected by the disease, and to have died. Its: was regu- wonderfully increased in the ‘of the eighteenth century ; and oppor. izooty in Europe, was Epizooty. alti CluMals tek faa Cemotine’| with a echsnee “See” Episcoty. tunities for observation seemed to keep pace with a g —y— neral antiety to Doreeeite 190 EPIZOOTY. Svea aad the flyin years 1705 and 1711, 4 chanere or -bubo, which the latest authors denomi- nate a real plagwe or murrain, was found to be making terrible ravages in Europe. It had been imported by a Single infected ox brought info the Venotiatt states from Ho and Dalmatia; and it was thence dissemina- ted hout the: Roman territory and the kingdom of Naples, sweeping away almost the whole cattle in its Ie did not reach France until the year 1714; and, in the same year, having been some time valent in Britain, the most vigorous a v4 re- pressing it were adopted by government. the ani- mals attacked were ae be destroyed, and bu- ried deep in the earth, and a compensation allowed to those who thus lost their The violence of the disease did not subsist above three months, during which time the counties of Essex, Middlesex, and Sur- rey, lost 5857 cattle, old and young. At this time it was observed, that on cows being brought to a pond to drink, many became giddy, fell down in convulsions, bled copiously at the mouth and nose, and died. Other nations suffered more severely ; Piedmont lost 70,000 cattle; Holland, not fewer than 200,000 ; and the full extent of the epizooty throughout Europe, was calcu- lated to have destroyed 1,500,000 animals, All these i of the infection disseminated by the single ox from Hu But the disease was mark- ed by considerable distinctions in different countries ; and it seems that some of its symptoms bore little re- semblance in one place to what were seen in another, - Anintelligent German physician, Andrew Goelicke, had an opportunity of making many interesting observations on anepizooty among black cattle in 1730, which spread by contagion ; and the attention of M. De Sauvages of Montpellier was soon afterwards directed to a distem- among cattle, horses, mules and asses, This was a lees of the tongue, degenerating into a cancerous ulcer, whereby that organ was almost totally destroyed. The commencement and termination of the disease were sometimes witnessed within 24 hours. The e of the city of Nismes did not escape ; and on looking into historical record, several Parisians had apparently been affected by a similar complaint, in the year 1571. The tongue of the diseased animals now fell to pieces, while — and performed their ordinary functions. e of the most destructive epizooties known to have rope; but for at least ten Its. virulence; evacuations, _ evan the es fell down as if struck by apoplexy. ions covered those which perm eben jf saporaton But it was evi- dently contagious, and the strongest precautions were — to repress the infection. Former experience proved, in the history of an epizooty, by Lancisi, Tor marmite te ree ene ot Der‘ certsin drivers havi pe re fair in Italy, in Ey oe « 1718, a ition was issued against holding it, meg prevent the dispersion of the cattle. However, the drivers rather than be disappointed of a market, conducted them by private roads to Rome, and sold their cattle ata low price. Inm wards, a contagi spread th Roman territory, and destroyed 300,01 withstanding similar precautions now enforcec burying the diseased cattle, as well as interdictir sale of their flesh, untoward accidents happene: if we are to credit the accounts of the times, cor vances in the surrounding country. The Marquis de Courtivron instituted numerous experiments regarding this distemper, from which he concluded that it ex- hibited itself on thé fourth day from infection, that the ninth was its crisis, and that the contagion could ‘ only by direct communication between two animals. — Whether this epizooty totally ceased within ten years, or, indeed, whether it has ever been completely extirpated, may be the subject of dispute. Perhaps thie renewal of epidemics is judged to be such, be- cause observations are not sufficiently extensive to prove that they are always subsisting. In the course of the year 1746, a new remedy, inoculation, had been attempted at Brunswick, and in an epizooty Which ap- siiiedl in Holland during 1755, the same remedy was repeated, though with little success, and recommended in Britain by Dr Layard, in the year 1757. The dis- ‘temper in the latter country was considered absolutely . similar to the small-pox ; and the infection was said to have been brought from Holland by two white calves of a favourite breed, or by two skins of diseased animals, Whatever was the case, many cattle perished of it, — Different epizooties appeared about the same time among the cattle, horses, and reindeer of France, Aus- tria, Finland, and Lapland. Swine, dogs, and even poultry, are said to have been attacked by it. Russia _ did not escape ; and, if we can credit the relations given, the malady was propagated by the skin of an i bear, even to the destruction of mankind. These epi- zooties were either or renewed duri aa years immediately subsequent, and, if possible, raged more extensively among the various genera of animals, The horses of Switzerland, the cattle of other countries, sheep, and particularly lambs, were swept away in ~ thousands. In 1764, dogs were attacked t Ep in Spain, and the rest of the fe tribes all over Europe, The milk of infected cows spread the contagion ; for those animals supplied with it were covered with pustules ; and people who suffer= ed in the same manner experienced t difficulty of deglutition, and burning heat in the throat, : or some years, about this period, an epizooty raged axiscingiaack cattle of Holland. It firstrasnifested itself in the province of Groningen, especially in the village of Haren, and spreading insensibly, carried off the whole cattle belonging toaneighbouring district. Its attack was announced all at once by the animal becoming dull, and rejecting drink. Fever and shivering, attended by: a — prostration of strength, followed; the ears and 1orns gtew cold; a cough became unremitting ; a pu- rulent matter was di from the nose, and an ichorous fluid flowed from the eyes. The hide was acs up, and a crackling, like that of parchment, was eard on pressure. Sone ene i " others by constipation from the fourth to the sixth day of the disease, and they died from the second to the eleventh day after its commencement. The blood of the animals then proved thin; the intestines inflamed EEE — : of the disease. It is unnecessary to enter on any detail concerning these different principles ; Tp renpcating that sinnk-azodets opinion, there was no means of ing against con- See arty betine teach nels, ed alee stances. , i ; i od the malignity of the di a the doubtful issue of former experim them on a more exten- sive scale. His first essays, which he did not consider particolarly successful, saved 46 out of 112 infected ani- mals : again, 46 were: ed out of 92 ; and, if cows were not far adlvanced ‘n gestation, three-fourths sur- ‘ weg to the same proposal in England, when ator applied to the privy council for i sion to carry the variolous matter from Hampshire into other counties. It was then remarked, that the intro- of inoculation. This ed ex- tremely destructive in Holland ; for it a , that ‘of 286,647 animals attacked, not fewer | 208,354 died _ The same disease seems to have made its way into , by the introduction of a diseased cow, as was prs en: the Low Countries, in the year 177t; after being subdued, broke out with bled vio- lence In 1773. _Its first and principal ravages were in the province of Hainault and ly, whence it became widely extended. Numerous remedies were tried, but was EPIZOOTY. : and this result is said to have coincided with the ex- Epizooty- —_—— 191 eriments of the Marquis de Courtivron some time bes ™ . The British government had adopted the precau-~ tion, of ordering all infected cattle to be killed by stran- gulation, and without effusion of blood ; that their car- cases should be buried in the earth, with the hide entire ; and that all fodder, litter, and every thing else which might communicate the contagion, should: be buried along with them. Similar ordinances were pro- mulgated by the government of France, and renewed for several years, strictly enjoining the destruction of the diseased animals, and that their carcasesshould be buried, and their skins cut in pieces, in order to prevent.any dealings for them. Indemnification was promised te those who thus lost their property, and a premium of- fered to whoever should substitute horses or mules for cattle in agricultural ions. By these and other rudent regulations, this, which is one of the epizooties. [eieshersiadand iathictaty; was repressed... » - During the period that contagious distempers swept away the cattle of Europe, a malady even more } in its appeared among those of the West In- dies. [ts effects seem to have been more minutely traced: | in Guadaloupe, where it first attacked black. cattle, then spread to horses, and is said even to have affected man. Animals apparently well, in condition, and feeding as usual, were suddenly seized with shivering fits; attended by convulsions in the spine and abdomen, which sometimes carried them off in an hour. _ Almost all the negroes who opened the dead cattle, had boils rising on their arms, attended by much fever; and those feeding on their flesh, experienced the like symptoms. But examples were given of several, who actually died from infection of the distemper. Something similar was witnessed in France, where persons skinning the animals, themselves died of the contagion, the effects of which. were immediate. ‘ Between the years 1780: and 1790, a pestilential diss. ease prevailed among the cattle in the northern coun- ties of Scotland, vulgarly denominated hasty, from the- rapidity of its The animal swelled, its respi-. ration was , there was a copious flow from the- hea it lay down, and sometimes expired in a few hours, pater ter was weeny pease ene many foreign countries, to an MU. rage of copses, and with the decay ciahernondaheaphe zooty has declined. ote? pena attempted to cure- the infected animals, pan contagion of the. healthy, by fumigation with the smoke of need yire, - which was fire obteinedt by the friction of a certain, wooden apparatus erected on an islet. The eastern parts of Asia were visited by a destruc. tive nay the horses, especially-in 1804 ; and- after the severity in 1805 and 1806, it was re- newed with uncommon virulence in the year 1807, In so far as we can learn, this distemper consisted of a-sud- den swelling, attended by shivering fits, an abscess formed. most: in.the head, and the animal died in twelve hours at farthest. -But, in many instances, its commencement and termination were infinitely more rapid, and death was known to ensue in half an hour; The was observed aed at Ochotsk, Cattle, reindeer, and horses, all suffered ; and of the last, a ca- rayan consisting of eighty, preserved, only: ten. The Russian government of those distant ions, in order to repress the disease, ordered all the-animals perishing of it to be burnt ; but before its nature was well un-- derstood, the Jakutchians, to whom horse flesh is grate. fal, unwilling to lose such a; source of subsistence,, feds iB [} i F i i ! Lil tt HF t $2 ar rf [i H i : | il : | HT : i = er oe is from imaprebable ag a it wales its i A entire once inhabiting the surface of the earth or the waters, are now mwa Traité de I’ Education des Animauz, p. 131. Landt’s History of the Feroe Islands, p. 210. ae on the Plagues of Egypt. (c) POCH. See Curonotocy. EPPING Forest. See Essex, p. 205, 206. EPTAMERIDE, or Heptamenis, in Music, is an in- terval, so named by M. Sauveur, (see Mem. de l Acad. 16mo, 1701, p. 407,) as the 1-30lst part of the oc- tave, = 2.04057055, and its common i is 99899990035, but which is assumed by M. Sauveur in his calculations of musical intervals to be .9989000,0000, in order to have the octave expressed by a sup. log. of 3010000,0000. 64 oe arp. flat ; the Vths flat, and the VIths sharp; and the II Ids flat, and the VIths be men sharp. See his Harmonics, 2d edit. pp. 211— Bat Earl Stanhope in 1806, was the first we believe EQU who proposed succession of cond of the aumme kind, te cr rekcical oaoe> A controversy on which ensued in ~ =the ratio of each of these concords when perfect ; m é=the number of beats in 1” of time ; <= the ratio of the given interval or compass; and N=the number of complete vibrations in 1’, made by the lowest given sound thereof ; and we have Tueorem I, Fam Nx (<2—m') - 3 r ~ nt? bm? ne m3 1? te KE. the series inating, when the index of m becomes negative, n and r being the least terms (in their lowest terms) of the ratios, and accordingly as 4 is positive or negative the beatings will be sharp or flat. Also, if V=the number of complete vibrations in 1’ of the rote araived st, SNE Sening + SPEER eielNst ing concords in succession : > Tueorem II. ya (Nits x (m=! em? rtm tp Ke. = t n the lower si i sed, accordi: bis ad ap lidericly dnp Days And iff= the ratio of the last or uppermost of f, of - such equal-beating concords in succession, then Tueoren III. wt-as ce _ n+(Nm'—*ab x )m'—* +m n 4 m'—*n? 4 &e.) a Nm'aeb x (m'—" 4-m'—*n4- m3 &e,) 1. If Earl Stanhope’s two equal-beating bi- equal major thirds E)A and pAc, are to be tuned in the minor sixth Ec, in the octave above tenor cliff C, we have, in Theorem Lt=2,~= ~~ = andN=300, 5 8 : 8 300 x (= x 16-25) 5 + —900X%.6 _ andé= 45 = 9 ae manher of baste abarp, made in 17 Uy Soe eneeaee thirds, as observed in 7 + Vol. Xxx. p. 4, in our article Concert Pitch. In coder tofent “a od Beaty ampere Sv. bes af on ft a or, we $8 ator : . ‘ tt ht geting: in Theor —— v= ae OT ir Os he the -vi- EQUAL. RE ERT ER RI cea ansehen, i=1, b= 4-20, andthe rest as before; and =—T6 brations of pA; and SP = 17 is the ratio of EDA. And in order to obtain the ratios of these bi-equal thirds, we have in Theorem IIE. first, t=1, 6=20, &. nd [= 61 4% (30040) 1200 15 5x 3004-20’ 152019 =! PA, as before; and se- 4% (300 x 54-20) cond, 1=2, &e, and5 = aoa 2542 oxGFH) 544 poelere a= hare hen go, by inverting the vibrations of the nots already found : thus, 30 = {35 also 300x-= = 480,the Ge ND, cht art ship’s two new thirds, mentioned in our article Br-EQuAL Third, ~The minor sixth CpA is = 7. aig dace canal! Lae to tune his Lord- RI-EQUAL Quints, in the nisjer’ tia Ce Be On the mili venereal partly above and below it;) we have, ¢=3, ~ = = 5 and N = 180; and Theorem I. gives _180x (sues) 2 or 3.1578947 flat beats 7 edi of idee ites consecutive fifths » Se xxvii. p.13. In Theorem II. make and the rest as before, and v= get, ri © 19 180%3— x (140) _s10 = 268.4210526 vibrations a per 1” of the note D. "See Phil Sepang aye In like manner, when i=2, we get 1070 — 401.0526816 vibrations of the note A. If the jules of these three _ trisequal quints be required, they may be had from 180% 19 6100 ; and the vibra- 127 Theorem III. ; or from their vibrations thus, Be et 5100 _ 85 tions of e sing 128 wehave oe icy =vib. of Ac. Example 3. If three equal-beating major thirds be re- quired to be tuned in an’ octave above tenor-cliffC, we pn lia Tr = 11.80323 times sharp, the rate of each of their beating. ee ae =1, &. and V= VOL, IX, PART I. 193 240 x 5 OO a g4e0 gE and 2d, when imate, v== =F 81.0998, those of 61 7qand gy Tespectively 5 and the values of these three new thirds 97 pA. The ratios of these two notes will be founa OL come out, CE=— Ep A = — and ) Ac=—. Example 4, If four equal-beating parkiuon be want- ed in the octave as above, we have t= ey. 8 ee m 625 rien se 20x (+ x 625 —1296) N=240; = = 2 eck 2164-1804-150+4- 125 11040 Lessa cot "Sr? =16.45305 beats flat per 1” ; and putting t=1, &c, in Theorem II. we have van = 284.70939 vibrations of PE ; also by making ‘=2, and f=8, we get ch =338,36066 =) G, and a 402.74217=A vibrations. The notes themselves will be found pE ou sap Ga sand A= SU and the four equating minor thirds wil be, as fallow, _ ChE = Top PEGS FagiG A= and Ae= gee. if, nen at the use of our $d Theo- thirds, we put (=4, b= 5x (240x216—0 Xx (96-430-425) ) x (2164-180-4 1504-125) Eingis's Suppose it were wird to calculate up Spe, were ree of 12 succes~ sive fifths within 7 octaves above tenor cliff C, we have vane < Ls jug and N=e40; and in the 1st 240 x (128 x 4096 —531441) Theorem we find b= T7747 4 118098 4.787324, &c = — 949944 _ __s.0554021, the flat beats sek 1° ok 1 each of these di quints, Make t=1, &c. uodeci-equal and, in Theorem IT. we have, 343344 240 X S—s 60 v= 5 =f, 168" = 358,3722989, the vibrations of G ; Sogou hE we get — 565204080 _ ; vimanas ers all the other notes of ‘such a may readily be found, and the ratio of each In a letter (which the writer has before him) from QB ‘Equal- beating. = er = St2 B08, he wf Bs , and A =401,344539 ane per Earl Stanhope, in the controversy above alluded to, has mentioned another of equal-beating sounded at the oo two tem concords ; his two bi-eq Sa testense, Sten Geaeee pb A and c; so adjust- ed, that there shall be no beatings between the two beat- ; that is, that the beatings of Ep A and b Ac shall SESE cote oot (as in our first example,) or one be exactly some concordant tals as 2, 4, 8, &c. ae ag ag 2’ Bit alt ven ~* ee cae Magazine, vol. xxxiii. P EQUAL Harmony, has, by one class of musical ga tntd Emerson, Mr Cavallo, Mr Chambers, &c. to the equalization of the harmony of the or systems of eight notes, above every finger- the organ or piano-forte, considered as a key- are note ; which system is, however, more commonly, and ought always to be denominated, the equal temper- ament, or Isoronic system, and by another and more correct class of writers, as Dr Robert Smith, Dr Robi- son, &c. the term equal , has been restricted to to attemper the scale so, that all the con- cept the unisons and octaves, which are kept sap uy may be equally and the most harmonious, within a given compass of notes. _— Bs his ard Harmonics feteies un- deserving censures that have w has endeavoured to lay the foundation for’ such a system as has ne of the her on his im- + : ° 3 ors, of the other, in a gi- es Hd tem Seeger er ): ve product ofthe ems of (each of) the perfect ratios of corresponding ect of arithmetical gO ahmonieal mean nances, parcels, Vths, Viths, and I[Ids, and their compliments to, and with VilIths, Dr Smith's investigations lead to the conclusions, that A ee va een is Cocunt V, and II b (or lows, » in one octave, must have , tempered, (or +,) or —,) in parts of major comma, or nearly as fol- 360° = 360’ 360’ or those tempered concords, are V—3,088325, VI+4 1.74290z, and [1] —}.34542z. EQUAL. Kn tre cote, ee Pe aera MEE) ie pg 32 or V—3.095962, vI 7 + 1.719983, end I—1.8766 In three octaves, these temperaments Iara. nearly - ae a re Ts “is 78? or V—3.0577422,V1 + 1.834643, and IT —1.2230992, and, In four octaves, ee pnt eRe RT a “4 4’ orV—3. ner Ae, Vig Sas cane i ue F base respectively ; tions, at om the same differs a system W ae eager eae and the latter X. Farey has shewn in yol. xxxvi. p. 51, that the temperaments in by ultimate ratios, are —2 +1 1 7? maiko ad or V—3.1451042,VI + 1.5725523 anit—t ST25522. The Doctor likewise shews, a syssem, (prexi- ously proposed by M. Henfling,) wherein tone is to the major limma as 8 : kn vee ae: vided into 50 equal parts, approaches favourite system oa haroon, ating i tempera ments (p. 157) at sina +25 16 i —41 oer) “i 14s’ “148° i a PEPEEEE 7 148’ which are equivalent toV—3. 0494752, VI41 1. oe and I1I—1,1900383. of BE Nog various systems vin, orth crane chm geese eit ae eee Wit cake cestar oceans readily, ater areca ata p. $70 of our third volume. () EQUAL Temperament, is applied to a of ee wherein each concord par, pri te Baa alike tempered, and wherein there are twelve semi- cme, precisely ; and thence it is called the Iso- tonic System; each ‘of which semitones are = 51 = Fe Aiam, ny and thet ratio the Hr Ble which incommensurate. Fa- eligi: that a commensurate , seven of Thoda tall Gade are peas Se ech 4 f+ ae and five of them of the value 51 gran of whose fifths are of the value neste sti a one of the value 357 24+f+430m, differing ERA A only m. in each case, or or less than the +jssth part of a major comma! and yet this temperament, so perfectly m eerie eo sree TC QUATION or Tie. See Astronomy. p.652, am. EQUATIONS. See Atcesra, EQUATOR. See Astronomy and GrocrapHy. EQUATORIAL Insrrements. See Osserva- TORY. EQUINOCTIAL. SeeAstnonomy and Grograpny. EQUINOXES,, Precession or. See Astronomy, p- 712, 714. P EQUISETUM. See Finices. . ERANTHEMUM. See Botany, p- 85. ERASMUS, or Desipenivs, * one of the most cele- orn 2 et = cree i i Gry in a He aie ia FE iF L me 1H E 7 i a Fj z rF i iH ur pe | a Hl Bre a < «i g Tig bell ht Od ‘ ap eh gt alge Dies pension. of a hundred crowns, visited Fagot in 3/0 , and formed an apapesptence. wth She nent Kacey characters of ta friendshi ot some, of his meee ean" pd A a - 195 ERA sae of his treatises, and compelled him te spend Erasmus reading lectures to young students,, ““—~-* of his time in He received, however, frequent donations from his friends and patrons, particularly from Anne Bersala, Marchioness of Ure, whom he often addressed in let- ters of the most complimentary style, and to whom he made known his wants with very little deli- oe About the beginning of the year 1507, he went taly, in order to take a doctor’s degree, which, he observes, “‘ makes one neither better nor wiser, but must be done, if a man would be esteemed by the world.” Having ‘resided about a year in Florence, he ed to Venice, where he published a third edition of his Adages ; and, after rade a short time at Padua, he.- arrived in Rome in 1509. At this time, he was acting as tutor, to Alexander, fo pore of St Andrews, na- tural son of James IV., of w draws a very high character, and who was aoe slain, with his fa. ther, at the sr pcan rae Field. At Rome, he at “experienced most flattering attentions, and re~ ceived several ady: offers to induce him to set« pi en ap but at | he -seems to have the sincerity of his Italian friends, and, in. “ Praise of Folly,” which he wrote soon after, ex- ply Se, ap od inert oe treated ane oe popes court. there fore, the invitations .of Henry VIII. and of his former ations, to return to England, where he continued a considerable time in great favour with the King, with fue with Warkam Archbishop of Can« wieate with Sir Thomas More, and many other nobles . of distinction. Invited to Cambridge by » of Rochester, he was oted succes~ eet the “ Praise of Folly,” he. ‘wae No plage tre sant invectives against the monastic. orders, are upon him the bitterest persecutions tions from that order to shelter himself from their ~ nt his edition of the New Testament i in Greek.and: Latin, with notes, a work which had long occupied his -chief - attention, and which, while it drew upon-him the cen~ sures” of i t and envious critics, was highly va- lued by all who were capebve. ani of appreciating its merits. About the same tim roduced, and fnscribed to Archbishop Warkam, an edition of the works of Je« rome, whom he professed, in rather exaggerated terms, to hold in the cuetaat estimation, as an author and a / _ ® His original, name was Gerard, signifying « amiable,” which, according to the custom of.the times, he rendered into the Latin epi thet Desidertus, and the Greck Erasmus, ptt on | as he afterwards wished to have expressed it, Erasmius. Yrsarme —y—" from 196 ERASMUS. i He received the most pressing invitations is I. to settle —— anew os ; but dread- ing the envy of the French literati, and the persecutions pr pes Dowore of the Sorbonne, and being unwilling to forsake ions for ises, he retained his pre- ferments under the Emperor. In 1517, he revisited England, and was a courteously received by~the king and by Cardinal ; but, thongh he declined their offers to provide for him in that kin ,» he mentioned to one of his friends, that his English reve- nues constituted his chief In the same year he published a work entitled Querela Pacis, in which, ith much soundness of reasoning, power of eloquence, and freedom of sentiment, he expostulates with the igns of the world upon the atrocities of war, and all hostilities which are not strictly defen- sive, to be unlawful and unchristian. A pret ject for a congress of princes at Cambray, who s ae into mutual en ~ Ae the reservation 4 peace, having been unhappily thwarted by the arts interested re oe Rasuneones his “ Complaint of Peace,” at the request of John Sylvagius, Chancellor of Burgundy, who had been a zealous promoter of the plan. (The work was dedicated to Philip of Burgundy, Arch« bishop of Utrecht, who majeseed his approbation, by ing the author a benefice, and presenting him with a valuable sapphire ring, which he requested him to wear for hissake.) During the six succeeding years, he resided chiefly at Louvain ; and, by the commence- ment of the Reformation under Luther, was involved in new difficulties and disputes. Hitherto, he had often ienced the enmity of the scholastic divines, and of the monastic orders, of whose absurdities and immora- lities he had so openly assailed in his writings ; but he found no difficulty in parrying their attacks, and pre- serving the favour of the most zealous Catholic princes and prelates. But, as the struggles between the Ro- manists and the Reformers became more serious, it re- quired his utmost exertion of ingenuity and caution to enna at once consistency of sentiment, and security persecution. Both in conversation, and from the press, he had been accustomed to inveigh against many of those errors in doctrine, and su itions in wor- ship, which disgraced the church of Rome. Some of these he ably confuted by the utmost solidity of argu- ment and force of eloquence ; while he directed others those weapons of ridicule and sarcasm, which he was able to wield with such irresistible effect. Nor did he spare even the character of the ecclesiastics ; but, with the greatest ability and most exquisite rail- lery, exposed to the world their spiritual domination, their impious frauds, their ambition, avarice, and luxu- rious excesses. Searcely did one of those opinions and ces, which Luther afterwards attempted to re- mm, escape the animadversions of his pen ; and, as his writings were read with universal admiration, they contributed, in no small d , to the progress of the Reformation: “ Luther,” it was said, «hatched the egg, which Erasmus had laid.” Nor was he merely the of the great reformer; but, for some time after Luther had commenced his career, he acted as his admirer and auxiliary ; applauded his conduct, and expressed hopes of his success ; recommended mo- deration in his measures, but en ceed ; vindicated his character to the itaries of the chureh, condemned the spirit of his adversaries, and always insisted that his books should be answered by ow instead of being suppressed by authority. in several of his publications, he openly cobouned vik him to pro him in denouncing the obscure and i tems of the schoo] divines, and calling the of mankind to the of the Sacred Scri , as the only standard of religious truth. In his’ celebrated « Colloquies,” particularly, whieh he published in’ 1522, he pre his severest strokes swe the monks and their superstitions ; and so manifest was its i tendency, that the Faculty of Theology at Paris, afterwards a provincial council at Cologne, denounced it as “ a wicked book, the perusal of which should be forbidden to all, especially to the young, and which ought, if possible, to be entirely suppressed.” But, though he entertained so great a similarity of sentiment with the reformers, he pe i = by a variety of circumstances, from decidedly espousing their cause. His extreme love of peace rendered him averse from those measures of direct ition to the church, which had become necessary, and flattered him with the delu« sive hope of a i pee reformation by methods, His excessive ce for of high station, his Soni orerat nena tics, and his love of the li reputation whi had acquired among them, him from ing a party, to which his patrons and friends were adverse. His of losing the pensions and other emoluments, which he derived from the Catholic prin« ces and prelates, may be supposed to have had a con- siderable influence upon his conduct. His natural ti- midity of mind, particularly disqualified him for en< countering persecution; and, by his own confession, would have induced him to consult his personal safety, however much he had the sentiments and measures of the reformers. ‘It is true,” he writes to his friend Richard Pace, dean of St Paul's, “ Luther hath given us a wholesome doctrine, and many a good counsel ; and I wish he had not defeated the ef- fect of them by his intolerable faults. But, had he written any thing in the most manner, I had no inclination to die for the sake of truth. Every man hath not the requisite to make a martyr ; and I am afraid, were T put to the trial, I should imi- tate St Peter.” There is no reason, indeed, to sup- pose, that those motives, powerful as must have been * their influence upon such a feeble temper as he posses sed, engaged him either to act or write in direct op sition to his conscience ; Dut they sna) have Bilele i judgment, while he was unconscious of their operation, and may serve to palliate, while they cannot excuse, the unworthy concealment and concession of his opi- nions, by which he endeavoured to ensure his tranquil- lity. ile he embraced every ity, in his epistles, to disclaim sapere ek wen ‘aan anxious to le the repea which Se dade tordegnes bitin tor more sobainsiy former; and, on one occasion, when exhorted by Mount. eae accusations of heresy with which he was |, by taking - his in defence of the church, he ied, “ Nothing is more éasy than to call Luther a blockhead ; nothing less easy than of him one; at roots it seems i At , partly irritated by the reproaches “more pr ba reformers, and partly ar of incurring the displeasure of the court of , he proceeded first to repress his own zeal against the abuses in the church ; then to assume the character of a mediator between the contending parties ; then to censure the impetuosity of Luther’s proceedings ; and finally, to enter the lists as his antagonist. alls Upon a rumour probably of his intention to attack Eraemny. sys. oa ft ~*—- ~ a ERASMUS. a - 197 —— a of spirit, yet expressed with much 1 ac aa a a et AC — him to continue to bea spectator rather clat in the contest: ‘‘ We saw the Lord had not conferred on you the decernment and resolution to join as, and ly expose those monsters ; therefore dared not exact ou what greatly surpasseth your strength ity. We have even borne with your weak- and a ness, and honoured that portion of the gift of God which is in you.” “On the other hand, my dear Erasmus, if you Gidy. seflect on your owns ienbeciity, you will wb- stain from these sharp and of rhetoric ; and if you cannot or will not defend our sentiments, you will let them alone, and treat of subjects which suit you better.” In 1525, however, Erasmus commenced hostilities, by publishing his Diatribe de libero years at Basle, a place and which his enemies used to call his city of refuge. He was made rector of the university, ing sur- rounded by friends in whom he could confide, he found - ao the ref " writings, discusses “the right pronunciation of the Greek and Latin languages ;” and in the other, entitled Cice- ronianus, he rallies, with great ingenuity and sprightli- ness, the servile followers of Cicero, who scrupled to tion, and prevailed w mus, to do justice to his memory. As Erasmus advan- ced in life, he lost much of that and candour which had distinguished his early years; and so anxi« ous did he become to disclaim the cause of the refor= mers, that, besides dissembling, he led to con= tradict his most avowed sentiments. He had always professed his abhorrence of every thing like cruelty in the measures which were adopted for suppressing the ee en but, when some of the . ts began to produce passages from his wri< {ing®: which seemed to favour their cause, and particu« y to deny the lawfulness of putting heretics to death, he was so fearful of being suspected by the persecuting princes of his day of condemning their barbarous do- that he published a letter “ against some who falsely call themselves Evangelics,” in which he main-« tains, with unusual acrimony, that there were certain heretics, who might lawfully be put to death, as guilty of blasphemy sedition. These unworthy conces- sions on his were duly appreciated by the court of Rome ; as he was now the declared defender of the church, it was resolved to him for receivin a seat in the of s; but these re came too late, and his increasing infirmities obliged him to decline the preferments which were offered to him in that view. In 1535,he went to Basle, in order to superin- tend the printing of his Ecclesiastes, and in the hope of recovering his lost health; but his strength continuedra« idly to ine, and he died of a dysentery on the 12th y of July 1536, in the 69th year of his age. He was buried with great funeral pomp in the cathedral church of Basle, where his tomb still remains, and where his cabinet, containing his ring, seal, pencil, knife, sword, : se a New Testament para td his own |, is ibi to strangers, as one test curiosities in the city. His memory is equally Roem: ed at Rotterdam, by an inscription upon the house in which he was born, and upon the co! which bears his name; and a bronze statue in the great square. By his will, he handsome legacies to several of his ees ied to charitable purposes ; by which it a that he was neither so straitened in his circumstances, nor so defective in economy, as he was accustomed to t himself. He is said to have left more than 7000 ducats. Erasmus was rather of low stature, but well formed, of a fair complexion, with eyes, a cheerful countenance, a low voice, and agreeable elocu- tion. His bodily constitution was very infirm; and, am other peculiarities, he was not able to endure even the smell of fish, which made it necessary for him es ispensation for using other food in Lent, ree as im occasion to say of himself, that how~ ever friendly to the church in principle, he had a most Lutheran stomach. He was always neat in his appa- rel, facetious in his disposition, and fond of a witty sto- ry directed against himself. He used to dine late, that he might have a long morning for study ; but after dinner, he conversed cheerfully with his friends on any subject, and delivered his opinions both on men and things with the greatest freedom. *In his intellec- tual character, he was distinguished by a strong me- mory, extensive reading, a penetrating ius, and a lively imagination. e composed with great facility, but disliked the task of revising his writings, aeaeie. style in Latin, (the language to which he sal levo- ted his attention, not always i pure, is uniformly anil chu, and copious ; but his himmjiafter the 'death of Eras. Beumie. norance and superstition, and ping interests piet » with all his he must unquestionably as one of ornaments of the age in which he lived. His works, which were very voluminous, consist of translations from the Greek ; grammatical and philo- a a yap various treatises on moral and re- ; a version of the New Testament ; para- cet pe gee several parts of sacred scripture ; apologies, epistles, declamati poems, LC ontnyis apophthegms, editions of poco Bae ov ving &e. His were the most favourably received of his theological uctions ; and his collo- quies, and of folly, have been the most frequent- ly printed of all his wri The best and most ele- edition of his works is that Le Clerc, in eleven volumes folio, 1703. See Jor- tin’s Life Lf Bremess parie's Dict seen id Biogra, 1 iclionary ; rtson’s istory 0, r V. Bal ip. 156 Le ‘Clerc’s Bibl. Univ. gal aan Hoy = aie Milner’s Church Hist. vol. iv. App. p. xvi, and pp- 845, 943, 1060. (g EREMOPHILA. Botany, p. 258. ; ERFURTH, Exrort, or Exrunr, ene or Erpis, is an ancient town of tly situated on the river Gera, which flows "through the town ae pecan branches. Al oe twit is in t, yet it possesses sev buildings on on arene which aie built nts contains a huge w wei 30,250 poun n the cidevant convent of the Bee is shewn the who is said to have been interred there beside his two wives. The universi 1392, and half of the chairs were filled by Catholics, and the other half by Protestants. In 1754, the Acade- my of Sciences was founded, which was subsequently enlarged by the addition of a botanical garden, an ana- tomical theatre, Pe oerveters , ariding school, and a society of natural the princi public libra- ries in pry hr of the Fore of the Academy of Physics, of the Scottish Benedictines, #4 of the cae id ran am epaeny. The ay of the Scottish Benedic- tines possesses a cabinet of physical and mathematical instruments; and that of the Lutheran ministry con- tained some ancient MSS. of the Hebrew Bible. The house for the of Lutherans was formerly the and contains a cal which was generally considered as a place of till the year 1806, when the French enter- ed it resistance, The country around Erfurth so See Ie cee encl vines, andl sboundls 94, Giastand eat- Erpes,* yards of Erfurth was established in Surt mit selves Merkwurdighkeiten und ronan om D. Arnold, Gotha 1802,8vo. (w) ERIACHNE. See Borany, p. 115. ERIANTHUS. See Borany, p. 116, ERIC. See Denmark. ; b aie ERICA. See Borany, p. 202. emir . ERIGERON. See Borany, P, 301. warsegy av Sigs . ERINUS. See Borany, p. 252. . ERIOCAULON. See Borany, p.. 109. ERIOCEPHALUS. .. See Borany, p. 309. . ERIOCHILUS. See Borany, p. 307. . ERIOGONUM. See Botany, p. 208. ts ERIOPHORUM, | See waenys Pl 100. ' “ eeroens, ut fort, whi prea Sys Bara Lee pas } ed with towers, The town is large, dirty, and ill bui The churches, which resemble 5, are and half buried in the ground. There are 28 endowed conyents in town and nei ibourhood fi both sexes. ; Erivan does not at p re on & pr perce stanyiayqeun a fat A Tia sieges to a ruinous bya Bee a ean Gatun beet ee town fr sary sx onthe sd at Ist tempted n vain to carry it They were repulsed slaughter, aad ait nearly half of the army ed uring its retreat to Teflis, The Turks and Pe however, have repeatedly taken the town;.and it has remained in the possession of the latter since the peace of Nadir Shah, in 1748, to the north-east oa ae About two da smear is the beautiful hich the Persians call reen, or Goucheh. It is about five fursungs and abounds in trout, and other del O fish, The tne sncny ofthe tne Sure, ich Sr John Chardin has particnlarly described miles from Erivan, At a short di of the Saven.i¢ the Sanoee ana the ark rested. after the deluge. According Sutherland, it forms an angle of an immense range of mountains, and has. two summits, on the highest of which the natives believe that part of the ark stil] re- BR 199 mains. chasm of igi ing a sapedatons there yn successive days he saw it discharge fire. ‘The ruins of once magnificent city of Nuksheevan, or Naxuana, are situated about twenty-six fursungs to the south- east of Erivan. Itisa of rubbish, and does not contain more than 400 inhabitants. pk, seed Persia generally pitches his camp here, to direct the ions of the campaign against the Russians. East . 45° 15’, and North Lat. 40° 11’. See Chardin’s Travels, Macdonald Kinneir’s Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire, p. 319, 320 ; and our article Ana- RAT. (7) ERLACH, or Cenuier, is a small town of Switzer- land, in the Canton of Berne, beautifully situated at the western ohne Beare: Cee near the em- bouchure of the Thiele, and at the foot of the Julimont or Julius’s Mountains, upon which one of the strongest entrenched camps of this great warrior was establish- ed, The Chateau of Cerlier, situated the Juli- mont, was built about the middle of the 11th ohn, situated near the embou- , and of the bridge over the Thiele, is ic- ag Ce Yong iets residence of Rousseau, is seen from Erlach. See Ebel's the families. of several from France. The streets of both the Old and New binet of Natural History, to the university ; the Academy of Music, and two The cipal manufactures of the town are sand in po anc aa a and glass, most of which were established by the French About a league from Streitberg, which is one of the posts on the old road between rig a is the Grotto of Muggendorf, where there are fine stalactites, and a fall of water 70 feet high. The new road to Bayreuth, pe ahh yaar rege Pegnitz, Hilpoldstein, and pear. Population 8700, rie Bane: Saale ing peers neraerseine, it, Long. 11° 4’; North Lat. 49° 35’ 36”. (mw) ERMELAND.,. See Prussia. ERNE Loven. See Fermanacu. ERNODEA. See Borany, p. 121. . ERODIUM. See Borany, p. 265, EROTEUM. See Boranyy p. 235. EROTYLUS. See Entomonoey, Index. ERPETOLOGY. See Herperoziocy. . ERROMANGO. See New Hesripes. ERTZGEBIRGE. See Saxony. ERUPTION, See £rna, Vesuyrus, and Votca- NOES, ERT ERUPTIVE Diseases. See Mentcine. ERVUM. See Borany, p. 284 ERYCIBE. See Botany, p. 177. ERYNGIUM. See Botany, p. 161. ERYSIMUM. See Botany, p. 261. ERYSIPELAS. See Mepicine. ERYTHRZA. See Borany, p. 173. ERYTHRINA. See Botany, p. 274. ERYTHRONIUM. See Borany, p. 190. ERYTHROXYLON. See Borany, p. 218. ERZEROOM, Erzervum, or Arzervum, the name of one of the most considerable of oP gua of Arme- e rishing cities in the kingdom, and is situated about three or four miles from one of the streams which runs into the Euphrates. The town is ill built, the streets or’, and the houses are for the most part low, ood. The bazars are large and well sup- plied with provisions ; but fruit is very scarce, as it is gular embrasures ; but from its want of solidity, it is equally defenceless with the rest of the castle. On the north side of the town is a igh mountain, cover- ed with eternal snow. The plain in front is about 20 miles in circumference, and is adorned with more than 60 vi In the 1807, when the French lega~ tion General Gardanne passed through this ; 2006 fa wobacten. ig ater oe was leprous persons. e raged in the town, i off from 20 to25 daily. The inci gilded ef arnstiictaze ta eroom are cop- per, ore of which is from a place about three days journey from the town, and the skin of a ies of martin. Erzeroom is the staple of the mer-~ ise of India, isting of silk, cotton, painted li- nens, spices, rhubarb, , and z eS 7 - The climate of Erzeroom is intensely in winter, but the air is salubrious, the water good, and the na- tives and healthy. The winter commences in the month of August, when the snow begins to fall. »It continues on the ground from October till March, when it melts, and causes all the rivers in the country to over- flow their banks. A ing to Mr Macdonald Kin- neir, the ion of the city was about 100,000, of whom 15,000 were Armenians, and the rest Turks, with the exception of 200 or 300 Greeks. The author of the “ Journal,” who accompanied the French Lega~ tion in 1807 and 1808, makes the population 130,000, _and says that 500 of these were Armenian catholics. Erzeroom is five ordi days journey from the Black Sea, thirteen from Diarbeker, nine from Bayazid. It is situated in East Long. 40° 57’, and North Lat. 39° 57. See Journal d’un Voyage dans la Turquie D Asie, et la Perse, fait en 1807 et 1808, p. 21. Paris 1809; and Macdonald Kinneir’s Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire, p. 321, 322. md. 1813. (w) 4 Escurial. —— ESC ESCALLONIA. See Borawy, p. 152. ESCAPE. See Fine Escare. ESCAPEMENT. See Horoxooy, and Time-Kerr- ERS. ESCHATON, an interval in music =—, of Dr Call- . 16,677,181,699,666,569 = cott, has a ratio 16,777,216 ,000,000,000=° =+2f,= 5.299322, and is the Greater Resrpvat. ESCHATON of M. Henfling and Frees exin- gun siheaiintiods se gTOe— f+ m,= 5.858202, and is the Resrovat, (¢) ESCOBEDIA. See Botany, p. 258. BSCULAPIUS. See Ascucapivs. ESCURIAL, the name of a ee in Spain, about eaint St Lorenzo, from which it received its name. The first architect was John M of To- ledo, and upon his death, in 1567, the work was con- tinued by i, one of his pupils, who died in 1597. The building, which consists of stone, from the i i ies, i form of a grid- ae ered ee ere eee, The room s contain many admirable pic- tures, Fhe old church is 129 feet 1 , and $8 broad. besten rer sha Pon er , and 83 broad. Among isa 8 Titian which is greatly admired. chien we square formed by a double row of piazzas, one above the other, 98 feet on each of the four sides, and 17 feet broad. The walls of the lower cloister are cover« ed with by the first artists. The staircase pepgince St aeees adeur, & adorned. ae wage" which represents the foun- dation of ened fre fn bettie of Bt Quintin, The upper cloister itself is ornamented with the finest opening on a ious court of 88 arches, eleven in each row, supported by 96 columns, which are Doric below ges. In this number are included several Bibles, particu ten by St Basil. The secepenh is ieee ee ae Qa;s. times, but more frequently after beans, &c. Tartarian; potatoe, Dutch, and black oats, are sown: in some parts of the county, the uce is very large: the ave- of the whole probably about five quarters. Though a large portion of the soil of Essex is suited to beans, Bears. pe fp go ON IM ep THT extensively, as they t to be: where grown, they are ly putin after wheat, sometimes but not always dibbled, more frequently drilled ; in both eases pone a but horse hocing is neglected: the a crop is supposed to be 27 bushels’ per acre. Near the is, great quantities of white are SOWN} Pease. | — but this erp isnot very common in other part of the ; county. There is not much turnip soil in Essex; but Turnips. the culture.of this root is well understood whereit can be practised: they are generally grown: after searly pease ; sometimes, but not usually, Grilled, and fed off either with bullocks or sheep: the average price for feeding on the land with sheep is £3 peracre. © sandind ta strand iexioeoneenane aiamedtio from the influence of the sea air. Swedish turnips are also grown to a considerable extent, and a few cab- bages. Potatoes, which have long been cultivated tov Potatoes. - great extent in the northern counties, have tively made little progress in the south of Englands Essex, however, is an exception to this remark :. here Treble crop. Caraway. Mustard, Tares. be + me Nee f FEE l i i I Be i : eee i ¢ a F Hl et é : a 7 S s ines, toa head which were not suf- year. The heads of the rere manufacturers for the A ih af the crops in the same manner as in Middlesex ; the produce is great, as not unfrequently three loads of 1800 ewt. each load, is got, at two cuttings, from an acre. the marshes possess very rich and valuable ing seprbee so — the or of ea Thames are greatly to on the ocean or Blackwa- ter; the rent varies from £3 to £10 per acre ; the lat- ter incipally taken by the London butchers. The marshes in Dengey Hundred are singular, from the cir- cumstance that they rise in elevation as they approach the sea. The rise in the price of corn has indu- ced several of the proprietors latterly to let their marsh land to be plou Between the Blackwater and the used are principally the Holderness, Leicester, and Derby, though other breeds are often mixed. In ma- king Epping butter, the milk is suffered to stand 24 hours, when the cream is skimmed off, and the milk is drawn into other vessels, where it remains for about 20 hours, when the cream is again taken off: this‘is cal- led doubling, It is afterwards put into deeper vessels, when all the remaining cream is separated from it: this is called trebling. The butter made from the two last skimmings is of inferior quality. There is one thing peculiar to the dairy-women, which is, that there must be a certain proportion of sour in the cream ; otherwise they cannot ensure good butter. The butter made by the smaller farmer is either carried to Epping market, or sold to higglers ; but the large farmers ge- nerally agree with some Clare-market butter-man for the whole produce of the ee Essex has long been noted for its calves. Formerly it was supposed that more were bred and fattened here than in any sere oar, ae county ; but the practice is on the decline. ides the calves that are bred in Es- Sex, numbers are brought from other parts of the kin , and fattened here, especially by the farmers in the Burnham and Gey ack Maomemehin he To pro- mote their fattening, are iven a small ball com of the powder of fhcaigrecks phest. meal, and a small quantity of chalk, mixed up with mild ale. Essex is not for its live stock, though in some the Devon breed of cattle are gaining a footing. Where early lambs are in demand, the Dor- set sheep are kept: besides these, there are in the county a mixture of Norfolk, Welsh, and Wiltshire. Considerable attention has been paid to the breed of hogs: there is one kind very valuable, called the Es- sex half black ; the Berkshire is the favourite breed in the southern parts of the —— The Suffolk breed of horses are generally employed for agricultural pur- poses.’ Oxen are seldom wrought. 905 | Hay. Marsh land. ter. Calves. Skeep. Hogs. There are several decoys among the islands and pocoy., marshes; the most considerable is in Mersey island: when ‘any n approaches the decoy, he takes a piece of lig turf in his hand; as the wild ducks, it’ Forests. Draining. Manures. Fmbenk- mnie trees in the j acetlen at Heslkbarne Hall is sup- posed to be the largest in ingdom ; its girth, at six inches from the being 18 feet ; at 10 feet from accidentally took fire. Before this accident, its branches ° an area nearly 200 feet in circumference. In the reign of James II. the forest of Essex, as it was called, extended almost over the whole county. The forests of Epping and Hainault still retain the name, and ae deer ; the extent of forest land is to be about 10,000 acres. In the marsh dis- plantations are much attended to, and are very profitable. There are no extensive or pear trees, but many cherry ones inster, &c. The wastelands, in- ozier to be orchards of Burnham, rom the moist nature of a great of the soil, this improve- ment was much wanted, bo it has, in - carried on, on the most scientific principles, care and skillofexecution. Almost all the known inds of manure are employed in Essex, but chalk is not so commonly used as formerly. From the nature of the sea coast, as cake Gaon _ We have dwelt thus long and fiilly on the agricul- ture of Essex, because it is in general excellent, and be- cause it is this which principally distinguishes the county. In no other respect is it of much note, and Sain anseeatinn bntadientiatrdonieeaion, As intermediate between its agriculture and manufac- its fisheries shall be first considered. There are very few ponds for fresh water fish in the county, though, in the vicinity of London, rel ; but latterly it has much declined. Bai oft subject coun land. On this the year 1803. Atthat ernest ee we ir out of workhouses was 35,368, besides 6780 who were not parishioners ; the expence was at the rate of £3, 16s. 9d, for each person. The number of persons re- lieved in and out of workhouses was 38,337, besides non-parishioners. The total expence was £183,582, ap in| et a me N ~— of parishioners reliev: e 's rate was 17. in a hundred of the resident pana There were at that time 238 friendly societies, the number of per- sons belonging to them being six in a hundred of the resident ion. The amount of the total money ised for the poor, was 19s. 14d. the head on ‘the po- pulation. Li'ng uninteresting county to the minera- logist. It is nearly exempt from quarries, or any mass rocks; and it possesses no mines of any kind. It has, however, already been noticed, that chalk is found on the borders next i ire; but the most ex-- ma- Manuface of supporting the eauia Ole of the K Ne Minerals, tensive chalk quarries are at Purfleet. On the estate purfect of Mr Whitbread here, there is a bold cliffof chalk, co- quarry. vered by many feet of surface loam. It appears to have. been wrought for many years; but certainly never with so much enterprise, nor in such an economical and - Sel ese as apa Most som i in vessels, w! can come up to quarry. But though Essex is so aninterensing00:the mere min in parts of it, eralogist, there are ces in ' which must be instructive to the geologist. At Har-- meena wich, the conversion of the ooze hard that it is employed for buildi ly traced. There are masses of it whi ooze, and at the other stone. There is also, in the ¢liffs- near Harwich, a stratum of concreted shells; and va- ESSEX. 207 They all dine, after which he blows three blasts with —_ Easex. his horn, and they depart. ‘The custom of the manor of Woodford is that called borough English, by which the younger son inherits. Several men of considerable celebrity have been na- Celebrated tives of Essex ; among whom may be mentioned, Phi- men.. found. stratum was 10 feet deep. Several stags horns were lying above the Antiquities. Numerous antiquities have been vered in Essex. remains of a Roman villa near Ridgewell. Before the dissolution of monasteries, Essex contain- ed 47 religious houses. Of these, two were mitred ab- still existing in Essex: the most extraordinary is well-known custom of the manor of little Dunmow, : f z sonage, where ner: Heblows three blasts with a horn; carries a hawk pram enmebenibr degerey i eer he rector; he* receives a chicken for his hawk, a of cats for his horse, and a loaf of breadfor his lamon Holland, called the translator general of his age: he was born at Chelmsford in 1551. Thomas Audley, Lord Chancellor of England, in the reign of Henry VIL. Samuel Purchas, who and republish- ed Hackluyt’s Collection of Voyages and Travels: it is well known under the title of “ Purchas’ Pilgrimage ;” and Sir Thomas Boe, the first English ambassador to the East: the celebrated Alexandrian MS. of the Greek Testament was by him into this country. Not must Edward Bright, a shop-k of Maldon, be for- gotten; few men have: a ter size and weight than he; at the age of 12 he weighed 144 nds. The last time he was wei , about a year ‘ore he died, his weight was 584 is; his body, round the chest, was feet six inches; round the pr na Neat tmnt he died at the of 29. Trinobantes inhabited Essex at the time of the Roman invasion: had two considerable fortified stations—one of which was at Colchester. It is said por ine tae chan Bi vr eto aia of tes is tribe. When omnntur divided ‘ie epitnery”* Ewer” oak tactlgl tt that part called Flavia Cesariensis ; the five principal stations of the conquerors were all seated on the road which formed the fifth Iter, from London to Venta Ice- norum. During a certain period of the Saxon Heptar- chy, Essex formed aseparate kingdom, called East Seaxa ; Erkenwin is supposed to have been the first king —_— Essex - a hoticed by beset we other kingdoms e heptarchy, William ti the Conqueror deprived 90 land-owners, of this county, of their lands; and the Norman barons con- structed numerous castles, and tyrannised over the in- habitants. In the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, Essex suffered much from the in- terference of the De Veres; and also in Charles I. time, during the long siege of Colchester. Former! there were 12 castles in this county, four of whi were denominated royal castles: there are two remain- ing, + ah ace itn? Bd ni in the neigh- bou of the latter, Queen Elizabeth reviewed the army, which she had assembled to oppose the Spanish The population of Essex, in the 159,200; in 1750, 167,800; and in 1801, 234,000. On an average of several years, it is found that there has been one baptism to 33 persons; one burial to 4% persdns ; and one iage to 128 persons. In 1810, the s of males were 3792; of females 3678; total 7470: the burials of males 2807; of fe- males 2531: total 5338: the number of marriages 189%. The following further details on this subject are taken from the population returns for 1811 :— oe houses ‘Qian . . * . . * 42,829 amilies inhabiting . , 51,645 Houses noeek ele Keke nese ee 255 Houses uninhabi Ak at er Reger 1,012 Families employed in agriculture .. . 28,517 Do. employed in trade manufactures, &c, 14,182 Do. otherwise e Per 8,944 pe gr EC OR year 1700, WS Population. ( lepate. EST — 208 EST Se ee eo ee + ee x) 2839" continues incessantly; with. almost always serene, Bstremadu- Focios SS The curth wind Pesvails in sunaieeameiiecinegion see oni rer ere amen oer Be Population in 1801 ay ay, 0 he prepa B4O00 — fy me | : | 3 Increase oy Gute) ems glues Granth S, 499 heit : a heat of 96° is not uncommon. The soil round oung’ i ‘Essex ; Movant's History limestoneis close é ee elie y basalt hegisn‘atsAlve toanbisant featinendiiniands then “a vol. vy. (w. 8-) prrcede Sena a “aN ELA, is a manufacturing town of Spain, in the of the basalt mountains stretches Lisbon isa ptovince of Navarre. It is watered by the rivers seb mee tipeneta tgs oan cinsted inn Hie, and contains several chi ie pn oe a universi seins , which was fou in 1565. Diets goods are, manufactured in the town, and it contains some distilleries of brandy. P ion 4500 ) THONIA. See Reve. _ ESTRELLA Senaa pe, the Mons Herminius of the ancients, is the most; extensive and highest range of mountains in It is _a branch of the high range that divides Old and New Castile, and stretches, like most of the other mountain ranges in the penin- sula, from north-east to south-west. .It rises a mountain plain of a considerable height, and_is cover- ed with snow during more than four months of the year. Link has estimated its elevation at 5000 or 6000 : “apap, A ge of the » sou or hi range is called Serra Brava, or the wild ates from ae steep and rocky character; and the northern, or lower part of the range, is called Serra Mansa, or the gentle moun- tains. The whole of these mountains consist of granite. ‘The highest summit is called Malhao de Serra, and isa lage. Pes genes srebannietacss Segue eor ean tate does not at all observe the rough rocky . spectator sides that surround the mountain every where but to the north-east. There are two lakes in these moun- tains. One called the It is surrounded with high rocks, 8 com an is remark ayer yen of its water. The princi eis or. ides, te ectupies she middle of avelley ofemederable ength, eccup Its breadth is unequal, and, from its marshy banks, it is less beautiful than the other two. Many and small rivers take their. rise in this range; particularly the Mondego, the Vouga, and the 7 é . ESTREWADURA, Extrema Durii, is a province of Portugal, which is bounded by Beira on the north, by Alentejo and Beira on the south, and by the sea. on the west.. Itextends about 140 miles from north totouth, and about 70 in breadth, and contains 5440 square miles. It.is cutin the direction of east and west by the Tagus, which throws itself into the sea at Lis- bon. This forms a long and narrow stripe of land, along the sea shore from the embou- chure of the Mondego to below, the town of Setuval. On account of its proximity to the Atlantic, the climate is remarkably mild, and is very salutary end pleasant to these who are accustomed to it. During the period between the end of July and the beginning of Septem- ber, every thing is parched. Not a blade-of grass-is'to be seen, and the evergreens are shrivelled up. The heat ) The mildness of the climate i poculisnly’ favourable igo: to agriculture, il is ive or z ture. are ¢ ea : “+ rae heaped up rocks, affording a wild anda dreary pect. The north side of toe angio Soeeuneninae covered with cow houses, and ing quintas, forming a shady wood of the finest trees, as oaks, i trees, &c,.. From the .top,;) there «is a fit ‘of the well cultivated valley of Colanos, © oa we a by the sie arc ang A of Estremadura, Beira, Entre-Trajo-et-Guadi ie tem, rime an north to south, and 45: from east to west,: This province is intersected. by ranges of hills, the Mincralo- mineralogy of which has, not yet been carefully exa-¢y- — mined, . A mine of in a blue and green mixed, stone, occurs in _to the south: : _ of the village of Logrosen, There isa lead mine, which EE ESTREMADURA. © | 909 -Petremadu-" ha’ been worked onan eminence called Vadija, or-val- out of the road from Xeres de Jos Cavalleros ; and ano- Estremadu- _ ‘ra: Jey of Las Minas, about 24 leagues from Logrosen, on ther by the side of the Hermitage of St Bartolomé, near ra, _““"Y~" the road to Zolamea. Another occurs about a league ee town three leagues to the east of Merida. tie ARs ‘_ The five of these are cold, and the last is thermal. Mineralogy. yeous stone and Blood stones are found near It is very copious, and has baths, and was much fre- ©Nabal Villar. nl amber ye emcee. quented in the time of the Romans, the ruins of a bason ich, when pounded, takes fire, gives a - and an oval edifice being still visible. north to - The Romans were attracted to this province by the Soil and fertility of its soil, and the mildness of its climate ; and #sticulture, i i it was converted into a en, by the industry of the rubbed between the hands, is found upon a very -Moors. Upon the ion of the Moors it was great- » and since that time it has continued iT if s 2 ue 8 g F Z Es | ; 4 iL i pees i a | i 3 Villar. « Laborde says, that it is a mine of refractory ima state of nearly total inutility to Spain. The soil is iron. A mine of iron on a sandy stone, containing extremely rich; but it is almost completely reduced to very fine red ochre, is found between Alcocer and Or- the state of rank pasturage. In the district of Badajoz i alone, it is computed that there is a space of waste land 26 leagues long, by 12 broad. Neither gardens, nor or- c i ; of chards, nor fruit, nor mulberry trees, nor hemp, occur cee ten nee gree Alcocer. This mine was im the whole province. Wheat and rye are almost the worked by the Moors, who erected a fortress onthe sole productions, and the quantity grown is nearly i i The iscom- sufficient for the support of a scanty po ion. Olive poset mixed with quartz. Near trees and vines are not numerous. Chesnut trees are -Alcocer; there also occurs a smooth emery, os more abundant, and afford nourishment to the inhabi- Manufac- tories, : i | 7‘ i 1 E 5 i ai H : H i ? | f F i : incipal manufactories which existed be-> tion, were one of hats at Badajoz, esta- ‘by. a Frenchman, two similar manufactories pein ili Pgs ui + bat Ht pall un FAEETE ane fli i Hi nf | z ir Lie i ; Ez : and inns in Estremadura are co ame sa Roads. Al i ge. i if H rf 28 F Hh ih He ty ree it Hu 1: i ie i Free gece Hi i : E : kind in Estremadura, excepting two colleges, the inha-. bitants being in a state of extreme ignorance. «This province contains three bishoprics, Badajoz, Pla-. Political . sencia,and Coria ; three cathedral chapters in these three Subdivisiov, i ie u Fi: it HE ae : e | | : | | a FE ‘ FER F : i 3 ; H 4 AH i 2 , _nardo Estevard, near Barcarrota, a small town iat Jeros, Llerena, Almatana, Zafra, Caceres, Albuquerque, . - seven and Olivenga, VOLIX. PART ntvmy Liao Lesage sg 2D i —_—. ll is very high, and of extent, and projects a number i t partsofithe province. = © In the years 1787 and 1788, the province contained 416,922 inhabitants, consisting of ets fp « t'e't, ae 0 cin 69 2441 Parisli priests ........+-.-- $41 MNS oS ieee a ce sf oe 2,060 oe een Se 1,748 rs cre ene tae 3,724 Widivocates so te te 305 WEEE a's eG ct eb 2 8s oe 505 ones gr eeterpar 1,446 Gee crs at cip oo > 0 = ® 11,036 From this scanty population, the traveller soften passes immense tracts without seeing a:settle- ment, a house, or a human being, and without percei- ving a tree, or a Travels in Portugal; and Laborde's View of Spain. ‘w ‘ EsrReMoz isa smal fried town of Portugal; in the provinee of Alentejo. town is i but has a large cheerful’ square in its centre. There isia castle on an eminence, an some outworks of no importance. There are \five religious houses in the town, and a sixth in the neighbourhood, an ital, and a casa de misericordia. This town belongs ‘to the corregimento of Evora, but being a:praga de ‘armas, it has.a governor. On the ‘side of the town towards Lisbon, the country is well cultivated, and:abounds'in © orange gardens and laurels, which continues as long as soil is lime, but, on ascending ‘the mountain, the soil consists of slaty: granite, all cultivation ceases. A good marble is found in the neighbourhood of the town. There is here a:small of the general's command, et nar pen relating to prisoners an iootaibenal the day, plans of Rounincunels : 5 marc equa auuhanigptoh souteal in a comprehensive sense, the channel for the transmission of whatever requires the decision of a directing head, but is too much mat- ter of detail to be transacted by the eommander-in- ‘The chef of the etat major receives from the in.chief » summary of his directions respecting the movement and arrangement of the troops, These spot of cultivated land. See Link's . moture of earthen. -it deserters, as - connected with the movements my no fewer than three ood which divided ig them the duties now ‘by the collective etat ‘major. The plan of has since of a'general of division and assistants, called Ants each division, the:plan of which is, on a smaller seale, ‘the same as that of ‘the former. ‘From the time ‘ot of ‘the'staff in each of ial orders are continues the ‘invarivble rule, even when of an yare at a considerable en to afford every ac- E oe ETC wniniiiuie to efficers travelling as. couriers, whether ire horses, carriages, or even escorts. When (sean a he distance of 80 or 100i i : s a dail rt to head q such wer gad of cee ere the French etat: Wools and Varnish. Hard var- ¥ Tn she choice, of ofiinere fon. thia, Seen benahabeneetal since the. revolution, to. oe cnet Ry Cb engineer service. latter requires extent and accuracy of paetionsation! nominee foun- ed tote sta unacg Se erate ah pemotoetae atthe heed of a de- tachment of horse, The pon the march of a co- lumn of i ja a at their hands, are accuracy of aco! ce with the force placed under their nye ies aa ye pane report, The posy SScekbomeda \e efficacy of er wh nar pe of the. French have ly owing to the concert and. activity which prevailed in their movements, in. concurrence with the splendid talents of afew af heir ) oercHING, in. the arts, is a species of engravi produced by the-action of an acid, i irenaletheccstonees sive menstruum, upon metal, or other substances suscep- tible of corrosion. This ern wea ane vused, to express iar effect produced upon — Staion, Ih the action of dilute. aquafortis, which, ,~ peppers pauaptabaga per red sew superseded) the use of the graver.. edb a gore } plates which ch. are merely etched the effect: which.the tool can give in poin 3 but! the: lines are not sohdineteds Voorn formed iy. tool; and}. imperfect, from the wear: soon become of the plate i In order, therefore; tobe:enabled:to take off a number of proof.im- pressions, the etched lines should be) cut deeper by: per Othe joint eflect of the ay te von > y' Pe teetend efisteanaillgttreniiehtecabo cmt Py the tal othe etched ines, ‘witha Ioneunings thet ane -ap wae taketh Steeda ee same way as thowe fr The substances, and: the whole surface Proce, re Se @ vari to cover to ing needles, which, should: be made of. cast steel wire, about 1-16th; of an inch in diameter. A’ variety of! these are points of different de of bluntness. e varnish is of two kinds, hard:and soft;. the former was in use in the early periods of: the his- tory of this art, when etching ie ditesdest noencci po oneal a8 an : ack of not guide the graver with i “The soft td oc the pes employed, more caleu- The varnish is. prepared as fol- lows: "Take equal parts-of drying oiland mastic: The: Q1y ETC oil should,.be prepared from lintseed oil, and fo till it acquires a certain degree. of viscidity, under which it is said, by painters, to-befat.. The oil should be heated ‘ina. stoneware pipkin,. with a sand heat, andthe mastic added. in pow The heat must now be kept up, and the mixture; stirred, till. the whole of the, mastic is dissolved, and the compound: becomes.an uniform fluid. While yet hot, let it be strained through a fine linen bag, and bottled for:use. The following is the preparation: of the: soft var- nish, as, recommended. by Le: Boffe: Take:two-parts of: clear white bees’ wax, od melt. it ina stoneware:vess powder, two, of mniastic: > let it wares bidualin stirred all the: time, and till it is: thoroughly melted. Next add one part of asphaltum. in\similar powder, stir-. ring as before, till, it is, completely dissolved. Let the: liquid, now cool, but not to: lose its fluidity. Pour it . into warm water, and. mould it: with the hands: into sticks, or balls, for-use. rst aoa e whole lislod stirred. till: the: solution is complete, Tt is now poured into warm water, and - into pens ety use. sonplecwciontatat e copper- ing pre an clean, insabe by th the patioe in a hand vice, tony will serve asa handle. It is:now to: be heated:over'a glowing uniform fire, or what will be better, laid: upow flat-plates of metal heated by a:sand bath., This heat must be so great as to:melt tlie soft varnish, For this punpnses: one of the balls or sticks; above-mentioned, must be wrapped in a piece of taffety. It isnow to be drawn over the hot plate in successive stripes, till it is completely. andi uniformly covered. Still, however, the varnish, will exhibit numerous ridges in the direction in which)the; ball was drawn overthe plate: This will be remedied: by what is called adabber, which is formed by wepnne =: ball\ of cotton wool in a piece -of Persiar: rng — the irom is <_ melted upon ~ one is perpendicul. u the plate, sxuth idiot en the: same cieocions This will give the» poor ‘an uniform smoothness. Ianmedintely alter this, the: plate\is to be: placed: with its: varnished ‘side downwat it, — at such a distance as to smoke the plate with- ow the: varnish. The: smoke; which is*no. am: a a Pp black, becomes i ‘with the varnish, making: it completely black, by. which: means’. any lines transmitted ‘to: it, ‘ot’ wlightes slincey are’ ren- dered more conspicuous: The next object is to transfer the desi of, the varnish,. which-is afterwards to copper. Two methods: are employed; an outline, yand a imation ar large candle, held'under » Etching. Le Boffe’s soft varnish. ect, rhe 4 paid, The sot cr men Mr’ Wilson Lowry. oa ae Lowry’s Method of laying on the ground or varnish. to the’surface Method of etched in the transferring or the drawing, of the intended size, is first prepared in: black 1 fo ox ger lead pencil:orred)chalk. This, after being made damp *" by. lying between two sheets’of wet pa me te is laid upon. the plate with the drawn side downwards, and mr sed through press.. This’ will give'a’reversed impression of every line of the drawing upon the surface of the varnish ; so. thatthe intended print willibe the same as the drawing. The-other meth a wee plate; is: py covering: the red lead; b off-again the’outline’ to the ‘the’drawing with rubbing’ om witha:cushion, and rubbing it: tilLit ee the fingers’ men This it 212 ETCHING. é laid on the with the drawi ards, ther, for the pu of facili the escape of the Etching. » one it tight ot tanening it at oye 7 very ok ta gas. This not oufy hastens vm hea but renders Rt . Etching map cn any ich is drawing must now be traced with a blunt and smooth pointed ome ced per hes — — in etch- . During tracing, i t int must touch the plate. To enoure thin, a heart cated ing-board, must be used. This is a thin board with a bevelled edge, and supported at each end, so as to form aren ove oes without touching it. Without his, the pressure of the hand upon the drawing would cause the varnish to be with red lead, and thus the outline indistinct. The whole of the lines being traced, the paper is to be removed, when the out- line will be seen in the colour of the red lead. f the surface of the varnish be coated with a paint- like composition of white lead and solution of glue, and the back of the drawing be covered with fine lamp- black instead of red no | the outline produced by tra- ing will be in black lines, and very distinct. ~ ihe sated gebeem fe $0 trace the lines marked u the varnish with the etching needle. These, as been observed, are formed of cast steel wire, about two inches long, and in little wood or ivory handles. The points, of which there are varie- ty, are formed and kept smooth and sharp by rubbin; lengthwise upon an oil-stone, causing the needle to revolve between the fingers as it is moved backwards and forwards. The same operation must be repeated eminem degretssef haneaeg uecghe pelt, santa esate on int, ing to the fine- ness or of the lines in the design. This must be left entirely to the judgment of the artist. In land- or depend ~ the dexterity, Judgment, and taste of the The point of the needle merely passes through the varnish, laying bare a portion of the copper equal to next thing is to for applyi gear ey Sa t is, technically called biting in. The plate is first surrounded with a tion of bees-wax and pitch and tallow. This. forms a t to remove it from the plate. T aquslorts employed is generally known by the first of these diluted with from two to three parts of wa- The ee emcee souls toquine sore: seniam: iquor should, at any rate, be such uce a moderate effervescence with heae id liquor should be in a widish mou with a glass stopper, which it may be Poured on to the ‘plate, and. back into the bottle ip of sax in the comes. the first a ger} iF On ing of the liquor upon the plate, «mall bubbles air will soon. appear, ae if.emergi from the lines on the plate. The whole mass of i be slightly agitated with fps a “wax from thesides, While the plate is still warm, it the corrosion more uniform. As soon as the finest lines are deemed sufficiently °PP!yinathe deep, the liquor is to be poured back into the bottle. The plate must now be well rinsed with water, and dried at a heat not capable of melting the wax or var- rtgl peut ile Hig I iE : re i i Evi i! 2 ee. if bee LL 3 i <5 tei Hi =] A =] a ei] U be smeared over with oil of tu’ ine, or olive what is ch , Spirit of tar. depetdiaes en and dissolve the varnish, by which means: it easily be removed, and wi clean with a soft or, what is better, currier’s shavings. If, after corroded, Th 5% 2 Hl tf 7 may be found n : , f ts from it. But it will be to take pri to observe, that if the etched lines are not gone over by the graver, toe ey gy Appts i will soon become imperfect the wearing of the plate. Hence re- been tried. The first be hardened; without afterwards ing them, might be polished with similar to smoothness and accuracy, Oo cee iee pleth alone: That the acid ‘etch these Reecllod. the Vesutilll enainants pot epeeeapamiaes put upon polished steel by etching, as we shall explain in the sequel of this article. is the varnish is first laid on the plate, it requires to be held for some time over the fire, as the linseed oil requires some time to dry, and become stiff. When the king ceases, it may be removed. The sign of i heated enough, is its iring such a of adl siveness as to hold any thing fast that may be stuck to it. This trial is. in i Y aquafortis, i 3 —_——- itt ETCHING, ceive the ink in proportion as ag Aol been corroded, _ Etching, If the heat be continued too , and will be apt to pi is to be wrapped in a piece of , and laid on the warmed ¥ i di- sbicigngonmeien renin, shoxving ¢ ei Hj E F i HEN itt i : : zp i E o 213 while the polished are left free, per being laid upon this, and pressure applied, will uve an agreeable impression. Messrs Brown and Mawe of Derby, and in the Etching Strand, London, have latel the very elegant articles w coloured tique ornaments are beautifully enriched with figures etched upon them by acids. If sulphuric ‘acid of tolerable be laid upon polished gypsum, it gives to the part a dead white, which forms a good con- trast with the polished For marbles or any car- introd: etching u ich does not merely deaden the agp but forms a greyish ground, which is an agreeable contrast to the black po- oF i employed to ornament glass wi corrosion of glass by the fluoric acid gives of ground glass, so that when the fi- upon glass are defended from the acid bstance, the d becomes opaque, form- contrast to the transparent part. The lat- ly painted representing figures or flowers, manner of painting transparencies. The com- ing ground is generally used ‘to cover the same manner as the copper-plates are first taking the same pains to sp it uniformly. , the figures, but more commonly the —<_ formed by needles of different ; and a flat pointed tool when greater surfaces are be removed. As soon as those parts intended to be corroded are cut out, they are surrounded with soft wax, as directed to be placed round the margin of the oe ora Somer berwaaned sorrmck aie The eae ee 1. By the li- b caytie 2. By pounded fluor spar; and, 3. By acid gas, or what is more ly called the su- t of silex. The liquid acid 1s obtained by distil- ing the gas from fluat of lime and sulphuric acid, from a leaden retort into a receiver of the same metal, sur- rounded with ice, and containing a little water. The liquid obtained is to be employed on the in the same manner as the dilute nitric acid in etching copper- plates. The second method is the most simple, and is on that account generally i It consists in first redu- cing the fluat of lime, commonly called fluor spar, and Blue John, to powder. When the sides of the outlined ii f : ‘it ai he " the acid as about three to one by weight. It must be placed in a warm situation, but not so hot as to melt the wax or varnish. The sulphuric acid soon begins to li« berate the fluoric acid, which in its nascent state core The gas are tiys ta WL ea the si- along with it in the form of superfluat = ee ees very pure, that is, free from silex. If the latter be oe oni RNa A Cn lee of getting the silex from form of various lc and les and gypsum. Vases and other an- 8YP°0™ plates do not answer for Dw Etching good upon glass, bicdung -—-Q Bron. —_—\— of materp- This art on Sheffieldand ETO on the elastic form at a very low temperatare, at (een than 60>. Hence glass may be very . ly corroded by being inmensed in this vapour, As. it. combines with the silex of the glass, it becomes a more elastic fluid, called the superfiuat of silex, In etching round vessels of glass, it is not so convenient to use the wall of wax to contain the liquid; and hence it will be better to etch bodies of such form with. vapour, ob- serving uot to apply it so hot-as to melt the wax. When the plate has been exposed. to the action of pulp com of pounded fluor spar and sulphuric ed, till finest hoes are correded sufficiently, which can only be ascertained by trial and observation, the acid mass is to,-be removed, and the plate washed. with clean water, and dried so a cannes _ parts cor- roded sufficiently are to be stopped out with turpentine varnish used in etching copper, The rest of the pro- i isely the same as that of the copper- plates, lying every time the same quantity of pound- ed at ak. The pulp which has been used.once, may sometimes be used again, since it will be capable ing so long as any effervescence appears. of etching upon steel, has been practised at Birmingham for ornamenting polishedsteel. The corroded part becomes a dead white, while the part unafiected remains polished. Those parts intended to be from the acid, are drawn with turpentine varnish, while that which is to form the white ground is left bare. The where the acid is to be exposed, is first surrounded by a wall, of a mixture of bees wax and pitch, with the eddition of a little tallow: The acid employed is the nitric, diluted with 3 or 4 parts of water, more or less according to the strength of the acid, The proportions will be those which produce the whitest ground, This will be easily formed, by. trying different strengths of acid, with a pair of polish- ed steels kept forthe purpose, This beautiful art:is; much assisted by bluing and gilding. - (c: s:): ETFOU, or Evev, See Civiw Arcnirrcrons, vol. vi. p. 522. ETHELBALD. See Eneuann, p. 590: BTHELBERT. See Enexanp, p. 590: ETHELRED. See Eyeuanp, p. 594: ETHELWOLFY. See Enotann, p. 590. ETHER. See Cuemisrny, vol. vi. p. 68; 69, 70. ETHERED: See Eneiann, p. 590. ETHICS. See-Monat Puiiosopny. ETHIOPIA. See Asyssinia, ETHULIA. See Botany, p. 296. ETON, or Eaton, the name of a large village in the county of Bucki consisting of a iaglacitabals pleasantly sit on the north bank of the Thames, and connected with, Windsor by a bridge. This village has long: been. celebrated for its » im which many of the: distingui cha racters in the kingdom have received their education; Eton College was founded in 1440, by Henry VI. for a “ provost, ten priests, six clerks, six choristers, 25 poor grammar scholars, witha master to teach them, and 25 poor old men.” It now supports a provost, seven fellows, two schoolmasters, two cadets, seven clerks, 70 scholars, and 10. choristers, with various other: offi« cers and assistants. T'welve of these scholars are annu« ally elected to. King’s College, Cambridge, to which they are removed; according to their seniority, as soon as any Vacancy occurs, the av “number of vacan- cies being’about nine. in two years. ‘They: are entitled to a fellowship, after having: continued there three years. ‘Two scholars arealso sent annually. to. Merton College, Oxford, where they are named ‘ostmasters, lic 214 ET Y At the fi mea labile 59 fr tds base tinaien cotaien 1 each, which has been increased by al of L annum, bequeathed by a late fellow, Mr Besides the king’s scholars, there are generally fron 300 to 350 independent scholars, or. oppidans, as.they are called, educated here. ‘They are the sons.of noble- men and tlemen, and reside at; lodging within the of the college. , Eton College consists,of two courts or, quadrang! divided, by a tower or gateway. In, one of these is the school, the chapel, and. ings. for, masters and scholars. The school is divi into. lower and upper, each, of which are subdivided into three classes, The other ynarnale is, occupied: by, the library, the. provost’s lodgings, which are in. the front, and the fellows’ apartments., The library, which is-on the. south,side,. is one of the best: and most ele+ gant in the kingdom, both. with ‘to its architec. ture and its. collection cues: eM books were be- ueathed to it principally. addington, bishop of Chichester, br Godolphin, provost, Nicolas Mann, Esq. late master of the Charter-house, and Richard Topham, Esq. of Windsor. i left many it drawings tiquities, collected by himself at Rome,, at ce: las thetieee aes of books oe ueathed to library, a . lege, Mr Hetherington, who also ( his « expence, a neat in the middle of the town forthe. accommodation of peas. me 4. 2h fee chapel, which is on the south side, is a very handsome building, ornamented with large abut- chapel of King’s College, Cam- y to which it is, however; mi in ii tion, a pry 4 FF likewise ie g & bri of Salt-hill, The object of this custom: is to collect what is called Salt Money, which is done by the salt-bearers and scouts dressed in different coloured silks. The salt money has sometimes amounted to £800, from the lis scholar on the king’s a Se Gough's 's Bria Beauties of England and: Wales, vol, ix p- 398. : w prone, See Kunite Isxes. ETRURIA. See Tracy and Tuscany, ETYMOLOGY, (from the Greek srujos, irue ot real, and Aeyes; speech,) the science which investi nature, origin, derivation, and formation of words. The subject of etymol being words. n or written, iedoay be vie wid alan ‘ t Ist; As sia a Seve aratiigaie oe former, the office of: S is out the dif- penta acaremp nie “speech, as they are pee fear ions or. which they may un dergo ; and the modes in which, by composition or de- Sora ! ‘Rrymology. . neral rivation,'they are‘to be deduced or formed from one another. In the ‘latter, the etymologist extends his views | | mere grammatical formations, to the re- ‘mote and recondite analysis of words, whether primi- ‘tive’or derived, with a view to trace out the’actual ori- gin,. s, and filiation of langu: ‘and, if possi- ‘Ble, to er the radical nuclei or ‘ -of human “Speech, as ive of human’ t. The elucida- ‘tion of the first’ branch belongs to ‘ians and lex- ‘ic hers ; the second forms an interesting subject of ‘philosophical enquiry. Considered under either point of view, the import- ance of the study of etymology cannot justly be called in question. “As a part of particular grammar, it cor- stitutes a fundamental and essential branch of it, abso- ‘for the knowledge man knowledge, certainly cannot, as some have cabsurdly roe yr Medan gogo of thin 7 “but they may at least furnish assistance towards unfold. ‘ing the of the mind in observing and discovering the objects it. Prejudices have indeed been researches of this description, as if t resting juent- usurp the place discussions may no doubt pee er 3 but when conducted and appr lead to concl sratifping to the Riciihaine adel, nd venient oe For the condu ae hy here expres- all lan- ‘of our internal ‘rations of the human mind are uniform bee ee ; language, wherever formed and introduced, per Foy non + age in some than in some, | : more i ects, or ‘modificttions of action, pooner eaeahe are exal of the former ; most of the of rid a, eho Drtigres Rogar peda culiar structure of the language'in these points, soon. vreaponilitg Gifferenice takes places in the churcorec ot ETYMOLOGY. dition, or more em 215 its etymology, ‘more refined: and : more simple in others,. Where.many ions and cir- cumstances are expressed by means of inflection, that branch of ‘etymology*which treats’of it, must become an important and fundamental object of attention. Such a language possesses this advantage, that when the laws of its inflection are understood, and the radical ‘meaning of the verb or noun comprehended, each word, ‘whatever place it may occupy in the sentence, has its precise relation to the others ascertained. ‘In eR -Of less artificial structure, where recourse must be had to supplementary terms, much of the sense must de~ pend upon collocation alone. Languages of the for- mer‘description are more tible of variety of ar- rangement, as well as harmony of modulation ; in lan- of the latter kind, the arrangement is necessarily more confined and uniform, but it has been thought that accuracy and perspicuity are thereby better at~ In what manner 'these varieties ‘in the etymological structure of we have arisen, has been a subject of dispute. Some have supposed that inflections their origin from the gradual junction and amalgamation of separate terms with the ‘radical word : thus, ‘m/nouns, the terms denoting mor recipient, or subject vA ac~ tion ; and in verbs, ‘the terms expressing time, volition, command, or dependence, being frequently in common eenien along with the word to which they re- lated, came at length to coalesce entirely with the radi- cal word, and to fi the genitive, dative, and accusa- tive cases of nouns, the tenses, moods, or voices of verbs, that might easily arise when a language was constaritly employed by an active, ingenious, and ani- mated le. To others it has appeared more proba- ble, that the of language was'in a different di- rection ; that speech being intended to: communicate the complex feelings and impressions of the ‘mind, at ‘first consisted of what may be denominated mere masses of sound, significant only of these complex impressions, in which su ce, qualities, and actions were united and blended without distinction ; that, by the operation of external objects, a modification of these impressions ta- king place, and the agent, the action, ‘the effect, and the quality, becoming alternately objects of direct and aed a corres ng variation to indicate ese ‘modifications, took place in the significant sounds ; that separate classes of ‘sounds significant or words, be- ing thus formed. farther but minuter variations these words themselves were found necessary, to denote the relations in which they were supposed to stand, or — ‘the particular mode of operation they were believed to exert: These it was easy to supply by abbreviation, ad- cenuneiation, at the commence- ment or termination ; and in this manner might ‘be formed the cases of nouns—the tenses, ‘nioods, and per- sons of verbs; from which afterwards might arise, ‘by separation of a part, or contraction of the whole, new ‘classes of words, denoting ‘relation, ‘position, or modifi- cation in general, and constituting ‘the ‘classes of ad- verbs, Sh ope a ‘and conjunctions. In which of ‘these two'tracks we are to look for the actual niente is a question in- . ip ‘complete ‘solution, ‘nor, as re merely to the study of logy, is it very material to deter- mine it. ' It will be sufficient for the etymological stus ‘dent, in the first place, ‘to ascertain how far the lan~ guage to which his attention is'turned, partakes of the more simple or more “ated ’strueture, and then to direct his labours #0 as to ‘obtdin an accurate and jlex in some, [tymology- 216 Feymology. cuous view of the laws and principles by es ee rors edt the inflections, derivations, and com regulated. This constitutes what is ne y of a particular language, forming triton ensuted bacnabrahvengeatl has for its obj the analysis and resolution prea tg with hae eo ee languages, or the primitive germs of human speech. For the suc- cessful ion of this study, a comprehensive view of the nature of language in general, iv regard to its object, its constituent parts, and the principles of its formation, is first of all necessary, that no i ne eee be brought forward inconsistent with the fi principles which must operate in all lan- Keeping these in view, and observing accu- wacky the structure and forms of words in the e to be analysed, it will not be difficult, ially in those of fabric, to distinguish, with sufficient precision, radical and primitive from what are only accessary and accidental. If the modes of posi if the derivative words can all be traced to primitives in the language itself,—and if these primitives can be ul- timately resolved into-roots, evidently existing in and proper to it, we may, without hesitation, assign to that language the title of primitive, and accordi ly proceed in our attempts to develope its remote consti- tuent parts, and the laws of its formation and structure. Such we find to be the case in the Hebrew, the Ancient Gothic, the Sanscrit, and some others. If, on analysing a » we find all these distinguishing features, we tly woes ~ ae wy (Fes at least, a8 a primitive, ou e similarit many of its tiene Sactheen nf smatien i cmesay ag be ein rivation ; in this case, both retained, in its new country, the primeval roots, from which im time emanated, by regular progress, a new copious language,—a , however, in which all the words are found to be formed from significant roots still existing within itself: The title of a primi- Sue Lenguoge may, therefore, with propriety, be given If, on the other hand, a language want these charac- teristic features of a primitive structure, it falls to be re- garded asaderivative, and analysedaccordingly , with con- gation of widest field for the labours of the etymologist. In the mation of languages alone, when other _ cre _.to. be disr _ally emanated. When arrived at these ETYMOLOGY. tion should first be paid tothe es in onal. piel as ea on hee ~ as be referred fo, as each of these have con- knowledge of vestigation complete. In the actual deduction of the words as occur, discriminating attention is often required, a forensic phrases, if lanted from one language onthe generally bear such manifest marks of their ipectilar Grigio, fost can at once be referred to their primitives ; agp -fpann wnt Saat gn ata icles, itions, conjunctions, are often so wee ie from one le to another, that it requires an accurate scrutiny before we can ascertain their - t stem. In such cases, various circumstan- ces for attention. The successive revolutions in the lan which we ae ing to be st ; changes, in ciation, gradually taking place, and t : considerable, that without remounting to the earlier stages, the connecting links would a ear. The varieties h one t neers fava Unto particularly in the vowels, whi ident may have in- Toduned, and halt continued ; the interchange of con- sonants of the same order, as certain organs of speech in different countries are more or less exercised, and the alteration of letters for the sake of more soenes* t variations i a All these apt to produce great vai in meaning. A itis business of a skilful etymologist to a x till the primitive word can be traced through all its changes. Examples of all kinds maybe found in eve-« ry modern dictionary. While the ist; by at- tention to these circumstances, can successful- ly in his labours, caution is. ni ; on the other hand, to avoid the fanciful and absurd deductions in which Jexiccgraphors and }antiquarians have too rashly indu tymologies far-fetched, or built upon resemblances purely accidental, ought in general ; and unless historical circumstances ono. be Siaceie suicionh ot Sens ip ea aeued c connection or descent, probable, if not certain, a few si- milarities of would be too weak a foundation for a system of filiation. Occasional coincidences may arise in languages quite unconnected, and which have no ra- dical affinity ; it is only when, by following up the ana- lysis, we cau trace the resemblance in the radical stems, eras eerie le a ea U inciples now lai wn, etymologic me aa structure of different ight be conducted with success, proceeding by a strict inductive process from the derivative . ages ac- tually existing, to the remoter primitive tongues, which furnished the roots whence thee bene greta primitive - guages, it. might. still be an object of curious research to continue the investigation, and endeavour to analyse these primitive languages themselves, till some view could be obtained of the first elements, and subsequent progress of human speech. In every primitive lan- guage, it seems by no means improbable, that if the roots could be fully investigated upon just and phi phical principles of etymology, and the app Different theories of of explaining the conversion of water into grapecstion: gucbteral tors , and its EVA that the generalisation arose from the repeated applica- tion of the same sound, to express individual objects or individual feelings, concurring in the same common wethtieet aupaiapsechestapeaen diene ight be f ing wi progress of na- ture, and an excellent track would be opened, for tra- cing the procedure of the human intellect in the ar- rangement of ideas and formation of speech. A com- parison of these primitive roots, too, would best enable us to determine what degree of affinity existed among the languages to which they belong, and, perhaps, throw some light on the much-agitated question, whether all the of the world were really de- rived from one. Probable as the opinion of their com- origin must be allowed to be, and ened ing proofs of actual coincidence, still, to 'y, such evidence seems to be want- acetone wascipionion: men- Alexandrian school, but these are only incidentally, eeeeeoeniely eat ste In modern Rave distinguished them. selves in this line. Horne Tooke has thrown great light on j wa Jamieson has fur- Seapasgen:.‘Thaiecpected wurksofs-t Mann pen ern, F ex work o urray on the languages of Europe, there is reason to , will a most valuable acquisition to the lovers of etymo- logical research 0) . EVAPORATION, is the process by which the aque- ous particles of bodies are converted into vapour. This is of two kinds, Artificial, and Natural or taneous. We have already described the general appearances connected with the former, (See Cuemis- “ry, p. 37.), and we shall therefore confine our atten- tion at present to the consideration — latter. Spontaneous evaporation is prombted by a variety of causes, of which the principal appear to be elevation of temperature, and the successive application of fresh portions of air. Neither of these circumstances, how- ever, can be deemed essentially necessary to the pro- cess; since ice gtadually wastes away at a very redu- eed and eyen more rapidly under an ex- pr erm it is exposed to a current atmospheric air. - Various theories have been proposed, with the view vapour, at elevation in the ; but notwiths with which the process is presented’ to our observation, and the important which it is destined to serve in the economy of nature, there are few subjects of ical enquiry involved in greater obscurity. According to Des Cartes, the action of the sun the water converts small particles of that fluid into hol- VOL, IX. PART I.” : wt 217 in the a ‘EVA low spheres, which, being filled with a subtile matter, are rendered specifically lighter than air, and thus ascend in the atmosphere. iers, assuming the hypothesis that heat acts more powerfully on water than on common air, asserts that at a temperature which -by. its cold condenses air, may be sufficient to cause an evaporation from water, or even from ice. He farther assumes, that the particles of water, after they are con- verted into vapour, acquire a repellency to one another, and deriving elasticity from the contiguous air, recede farther and farther till the specific gravity of the fluid which they form becomes lighter than air, after which they ascend. The particles of the vapour are supposed to retain their repellent force till by the diminution of the density of the surrounding air, their relative weight ra and they again descend in the form of rain, , Se. ‘ A theory somewhat similar to this has been support- ed, with much ingenuity, by Dalton and De Luc. These philosophers maintain, that since. water passes readily into vapour in vacuo, where the agency of the air is com 'y excluded, its spontaneous evaporation tmosphere may be referred entirely to the ope- ration of calorie. Accordingly, Mr Dalton, agreeably to -his opinion respecting the constitution of the atmo- sphere, asserts, that the aqueous vapour, thus formed by heat alone, exists in air, not in a state of combina- tion with it, but merely of mixture or diffusion ;—that it exerts no action whatever with the surrounding ga¢- es, but supports itself entirely by its own elasticity ;— and that the quantity of it ds entirely upon th temperature of the air, and the pressure exérted by the vapour already formed. He even advances a step be- yond this, and affirms that the quantity of vapour which could exist in the atmosphere would be the same, though the pressure of the atmosphere did not exist, as the va- pour itself would soon accumulate, and form an atmo- which would uce on the surface of liquids the mechanical effects of the air itself. The princi t which Mr Dalton has brought forward in support of his theory, is drawn from the well-known fact, that water passes readily into vapour under an exhausted receiver, and where, since there is no air the evaporation must be ascribed entire- ly to the influence of caloric. Dr Murray has shewn, however, that it by no means follows, because water into vapour in vacuo, at-a natural temperature, it will pass into vapour to the same extent, at the same temperature, under the ordi pressure of the atmo- wt The two cases are indeed totally different, en water is placed in vacuo, evaporation cannot, it must be admitted, be owing to the presence of air; but it ought to be recollected, when the air is removed, its mechanical pressure is removed along with it: and it would be altogether illogical to conclude, that because water passes into in the absence of that pres- sure, it would do so in an equal degree when to it. “« The proper manner of making the experiment,” as Dr Murray very properly remarks, “is to exclude e air, the chemical while the pressure of it is preserved; in other words, to place: water in vacuo under the re of a column of mereury 29 inches in height, which is equal to the presse ‘of the atmo- sphere. If in this case any vapour were forined, the conclusion would be just, that eous evaporation is i ent of any chemical agency of atmosphe- Evapora- tion. —\ye Theory of Dalton and De Luc, ric air, But the fact will be found very different; , for although water introduced into the tube of the i to ee Brepors- ot _—y— Argument om the asme quan- tty of mois- ture being ce mtained by all the gwcs ina saturated state. Doubts con- cerning that fact. . 218 EVAPORATION. 3 barometer at 60° passes into vapour, and depresses the mercury half an Foch, that vapour. will be completely condensed, and the water retamed in the fluid form by a pressure a little greater, instead of being able to exist under the pressure, which is to that of a column of —- 29 inches ae by r ann — wour- ed to this objection, by maintaining, what appears eho quis rats acne A fact, that pressure does not prevent the evaporation of fluids, or at least, that the pressure of the atmosphere is exerted in such a way as to allow, by its partial action, the escape of some of the icles of fluids: for, according to his opinion, tee a ore ata een atallle p i ticles of any liquid, that the pressure u per- i » Prt.ms becomes uniform ; al chet several of the particles in the uppermost stratum are in reality subject to but little pressure.” It is unnecessary to ob- serve that this assertion is entirely hypothetical, and even at variance with the known laws of hydrostatics. The eae however, receives some degree of support the alleged fact, that the same quantity of watery vapour is contained in equal volumes of dif- ferent gases saturated with moisture. Saussure ascer- tained this to be the case with common air, carbonic acid, and hydrogen gas, or rather that these gases exhi- bited, in the same circumstances, the same ore cal condition. Clement and Desormes were also led, by their experiments to infer that all gases contain, under similar circumstances, equal portions of water. It was even stated by Saussure, and the assertion was after- wards repeated by De Luc and Dalton, that the quan- tity of watery vapour contained in any gas is the same as that which would be contained in a vacuum of equal extent with the space occupied by the gas. These facts, if admitted, seem to favour the opinion that water is converted into vapour, and retained in that state, not by an affinity subsisting between the water and the gas, (or —t - likely <= this ree | — be the same with e ,) but merely by the w: vapour being raised od action of caloric, aitvahedlints diffusing itself mechanically 3 own elasticity. On the other hand, it may be said, that the accuracy of these facts is, from their extreme delicacy, very ques- tionable ; arse sng they have rather been dedu- ced by inference, proved by direct experiment. A portion of water is allowed to be conv into va- pour in vacuo, and the depression which it produces — a column of mercury, is assumed as the measure of its elasticity: a quantity of dry air is also introduced into a receiver of equal capacity with that in which the vacuum was formed, and an equal portion of water is introduced, the temperature in both cases being the same. The scuitoat alaisty of the vapour, indicated by the effects of its pressure upon the mercury in an inclosed barometer, is the same as that in the vacuum, and produces an elevation of half an inch, at the tem- peratare of 60°. It is therefore concluded, that an equal quantity of water has in all these cases been con- verted into vapour. But, in sition to this conelu- sion, it has been said, that the elasticity exerted by the vapour under these different circumstances, is not an exact test of its quantity, unless it be admitted-that the vapour is not all attracted by the gases ; and this is the eo point to be established. If the vapour be eombi- with the gas, its elasticity will be counteracted in a degree proportional to the attraction exerted; and it is easy to conceive, that, at the point of saturation, the elasticity may be so modified by the power of affinity, as to indicate the same degree of intensity, though the quantities of vapour which are present be very differ- a 9 ent. But it has also been urged, casa wr er i 2 , that the quantity of moisture “by equal oreo i t forsscmyppe tone a pwd aps oe cases, the same when they are to substances as might naturally be expected from the e of daaieg the experiments. But though the ar; st afforded by these experiments, in support of opi- nion that the vapour exerts no action with the gases, must be admitted to be of some weight, it be regarded as perfectly conclusive ; since~it still remains to be determined, whether . the quantities of water, which cannot be taken from the different gases by de- siccation, are exactly equal ; and there appears to be no means of ascertaining this by direct experiment. It cannot be doubted, that the gases do differ from one another, with respect to their affinity for water-; for the pee BL TIRE RE op ne > OH oY s, and tains them in combination wi Secisiontte so e of di ing water in a ing u this affinity, though modified, no doubt, the elasticity of the vapour which is formed. Mr ton maintains, that the combination is entirely mechan- ical ; and that the absorbed gas received into the vacant ui ound, that the temperature being the same, the quan- tty of any gas absorbed by water, was exactly pro- portional to ces of temperature, water takes up, in all cases, the same volume of condensed gas, as of gas under ordi« nary pressure.” But admitting the law, as Dr Murs ray has stated with his usual ingenuity, the conclusion absorption of gas by water, two powers or may be conceived to ate, independent of pressure,—the affinity between gas and water to combine > . this, and’ placing limits to the peri ago Sere in the frees operating the chemi fit, andthe ohesion forces. . i ity, ion of the solid. In the absorption ‘of a gas, whatever fa- vours the exertion of the. elasticity will. lessen. the — absorbed ; whatever represses it, will promote the absorption. These effects are produced by varia- i ; " ‘Bvhpora- tion. —— Objections to this theory. EVAPORATION. other.” pits lution of water by air, is, that so ai — process to go on most ys Ct al the very reverse is ? Hit . pe Hu Fes i uti! Hl " it t 5S of water ipi be pls 5 po ha opposite states of electricity, this may strata are in 219 and thus mix rapidly and thoroughly togethér ; lence the reason of the very heavy showers which usually ac- company thunder storms, If the temperature of the atmosphere where the condensation takes place be suf. ficient to freeze the watery particles as they are formed, snow is produced ; but if they have time to collect into drops before they are frozen, they become hailstones. Southerly winds are commonly followed by rain, be- cause being warm, and saturated with aqueous vapour, they are cooled by coming into a colder climate; while northerly winds, by being exactly in an opposite con- dition, are dry and parching, and usually attended with fair weather. When the atmosphere is completely sa~ turated with moisture, and passes from a denser to.a rarer state, it suffers a diminution of temperature by its increased capacity for caloric, and being unable to hold the same quantity of water in solution, it deposits a portion of it.. It is owing to the same cause that a mist or cloud is formed = exhausting, a receiver with the air pump; and in manner may be explained the treason why fogs usually cover the tops of hills when a current - air, aie with eer ay is driven over them. air, which is ly transparent at the bottom of the vallies, reat its temperature is suf- ficient to make it dissolve completely the moisture with which it is charged, becomes opaque in-the more eleva~ ted regions, on account of the reduction of temperature which it undergoes, partly from change of position in Reroute, and partly from rarefaction in conse- quence of that change. On the contrary, when the at~- mosphere passes from a rarer to a more condensed state, instead of iting moisure, its solving power is increased ; and it dissolves either wholly or partially, the clouds which may have been previously formed. This is one reason why the rising and falling of the in the barometer become indications of the state of the weather. ¢ Dr Halley attempted to ascertain the quantity which evaporates we the surface of yeaa a oo peratures, ing a circular about eight inches pe pin Ni ~ experi mah onc equate fens of wartan yale i top ; ees . ‘ about half a wine pint ; a square mile 6900 tons ; square 189.) A surface of eight square inches, evaporated by air, without exposure to wind or sun, in the course of a whole year, 16292 graino <6. water. alouh Gh cabin inalan, consequent ho depth of: mater evupoested in, tips tases sight allowed to receive the rain, and to suffer from the surface, as in ordinary ci register was kept of the water which made its way through the soil into the bottles; and a raingage of equal surface was placed close. by, for the sake of com- The following Table exhibits the results ob- Evapora- tion. _— Quantity of evaporation from the surface of ¥vapora- tion. — ’ 220 tained, and also the mean evaporation from a surface of F water, for three succeeding years. eA el PS two | Bean! Rain. | frou. | from. 1796 | 1797 | 1798 Ground.) Water. F Inch. | Inch. ora 1.90 \February | 1. ‘March 4 ‘A i May 2.03) 2. June Pu ieee July 15) ‘August —_—|— ‘September} — | . October | —| . [November — | 1.04 December | .20, 3.08 6.88'10.95 Rain $0.63)38.79 Evapor, _23.75/27.84/23.87 Experi- The writer of this article, employed the following ment to as- method of discovering, by evaporation, the tity of ss tay latent caloric existing in steam or v A quantity Process of forming ice on the pri ciple of eva- glazed poration. water, equal in weight to 550 grains, was pla- of p eae con intinmi ness anh wishing 4distsionmina, comp with a pocket , the weight of which was 59.32 grains, png Whe anes! Cesponeel as in the ex- periment described under the article Coin, p. 732 ; and on exhaustion was then pg age weaty tone cautious- ly, to prevent any part o water kling by too violent an ebullition. In foul eiioaher over, t be considered as equal to 550 + 130 — 12.75, or 667.25 grains. "This gives Gh=72, or as the ratio of the 524 of water , to that cooled down from 47° to 804° or 164°; and as this quantity must have combined with a dose of caloric, the abstraction of which was sufficient to reduce the temperature of 667.25 grains of water 164°, the vapour must have com- bined with 52+ 16}, or 8634°. A slight correction must be applied to the result, to make allowance for the es caloric ing the time of the experiment, which was observed minutes, EVAPORATION. ascribing the reduction of tion of the water ; and that this must, i i a hs ah : F cE ib gz owing to radiation. similar to those z _ 73 ES. BSE poration, became, in some cases, de sence Por pg —— of — the 380 ~ rege such instances, the e evaporation in cooling the water, must have been more than counteracted by the caloric imparted by the condensed vapour. One expe- riment on this subject which he relates, was on the evening of the 16th of October. With the view Vt Baby teers hry 2 next placed a number of small shallow earthen pans, a part of which were glazed, and a unglazed. In the last place, all the were filled with soft water, which had been boiled on the same ing. On the night alluded to, ice ap in the when the temperature of the air, at the height of 55; feet, was; according to a naked thermometer, 37°. A dry earthen pan was placed among those which contained water, and - the inside of its bottom was found to be as much colder than the air, as the water was in the other pans, before ice appested in them. Moisture was attracted by this pan uring the night, which was afterwards converted nto “f J ere a film of ice. aie) In the course of his i Dr Wells observed, that water ex in the evening in the open air to the sky, lost a li water had been cooled en to condense the vapour of the atmosphere, and to the weight gained afterwards being insufficient to com vious loss. ' He exposed, therefore, water to the influence until it was cooled to 34°; of this he put into each, of two china ‘saucers, which had also bee grains in weight. prota t. At a naaivedad 6 of the straw-bed 12°, colder air. F - ~- Dr Wells the result of these experiments as Qpjections a * that the cause of the formation of ice, to DrWell’s ‘in such circumstances, cannot be evaporation ; but be- theory. fore coming to this conclusion, he ought to have shewn, » that, during the experiments, there was no e from the surface the ground, as well as from the was i ‘9 ter in the pans. For it is easy to conceive, that the evaporation from the extensive surface of the fibres of the grass, might be sufficiently great to cool the air in contact with them below the freezing point, ar this temperature might afterwards be conimunicated to the air immediately above the pans, either by conduc- of air. Taking this view of we can che yousush OB paiva teks pore pans, the water which they contained suffered no loss by evapo- _ Evapora- ~ tion. e ; EVA ration; or‘evén gained @ sinall addition to its weight, as part ofthe moisture which evaporated from the sur- face of the ground might have been condensed over the “Dr Wells: mentions, on the authority of cet a and Mr Williams, both of pc testers mo process in India, that; for the complete success ; experiment, it is necessary the air should be very still; ~ and he adds, that “wind, which so greatly promotes evaporation, prevents the freezing altogether,” without seeming to be aware, that this fact is still more irrecon- cileable with his own hy is, it being well known, that radiation is not affected by a transverse current of , DUE, prone. carmen. wes » that evaporation is the cause of the ction of temperature, a rea- may assigned vhy agitated state Scedlplisonisinecg trie tation Guaoeapeeclinn No reason can be given, pals. radiation, the congelation succeeds sebunaphalbierdiediass but, on ge is of Dr Wells, we sed to say, that radiation has no share in the effect, or, attention to accuracy, are still necessary for the full elucidation of the subject. : 3 as much as possible, without the cy of heat : Thus the form, as well as the colour of delicate plants, upon poo com le ere in the preserved state depends, woul ina measure d ed exposing them to Geathiais of ew thoved It bab theatre been proposed, to dry them in an exhausted: receiver, by suspending them over a vessel containing sulphue ric acid, the muriate of lime, or any other substance which has a attraction for humidity, and allow- ing them to remain in ‘that situation, until the whole * of their moisture was’ says On » Murray’s Chemistry, vol, ii. 705. » Dr’ «ute (a) i ee ~ EUCALYPTUS. See Botany, p. 229. " T A223 1 EUC EUCERA. ‘See Entomonocy Index. EUCLASE. See Oryeroenosy. EUCLEA. See Borany, p. 337. - EUCLID, the Mathematician, was born at Alexan- dria in Egypt, about 300 years before Christ. We have no certain information as to the precise period, either of his birth or death; - come Lada ry particulars respecting his life. It would appear that he resided constantly ae his native city, and devoted him- self to the study of the mathematics, which he culti« vated and taught with distinguished success. Among his scholars, he had the honour of ceakeving Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, of whom us relates an anecdote, w thy of being ed, not only as it shews the friendship and iarity which Euclid en-~ joyed with his royal pupil, but as it is strikingly cha- racteristic of an enthusiastic geometer, and the only one on record which brings him, as it were, personally be- fore us. Ptolemy, fatigued with the long and unre- mitting attention necessary to comprehend the demon- strations of certain itions, one day inquired of his teacher whether he could not point out an easier method of investigation? ‘No, sire,” replied the phi- losopher, ingenuously, “ there is no royal road to geo- metry. “The work by which Euclid is best known to us, is his Elements ; a work which, to use the words of a which there is refinement enough for the expression of abstract truth.” Various opini however, have been entertained with regard to the share which Euclid had in the composition of these Elements, While some main- tain that he was the author of the whole, others assert that the demonstrations only are his, and others that he furnished the propositions alone. As in most disputes ofthis kind, none of the contending parties are per- fectly correct. Independent of the undeniable. that some i propositions were furnished by others, as the 47th of the first book, by Pythagoras, it must be obvious, from the state of the mathematical sciences at the period in which Euclid wrote, that he could not be theauthor of the whole. Long before his time, mathematicians had been to solve the famous problems of the duplication of the cube, and the trisection of an angle, problems which they never could have attempted without the assistance of many propositions to be found in his Elements, On the other hand, it seems impossible to grant; what is universally allowed, that he was the first who arran- ged all the propositions»then known into a system, without ting a great deal more. The mind that mebaspibteiad putting such a system together, even the materials had been ready furnished, could 'y fail to discover some room for improvement,— some defect to be supplied; or some weak: link that rey quired to be strengthened. Reasoning, then, from what we might naturally suppose to be the process of a mind accustomed to scientific investigation, we shall be led to conclude that Euclid must have been the au- thor of no inconsiderable part of the Elements, «This Socematy to cutie him tothe appellasoa of tha Rather to entitle him to the ap ion e of Geometry. \ Even supposing every proposition in the Elements to have been wn and demonstrated, still they were but insulated truths, and; as such, of com+ ively little value. ‘The young mathematician, un- he possessed no ordinary portion of ingenuity, in attempting - Euclid. 299 | EUCLID. | i foci. must have been guided in his studies in a great mea- cient. To such prejadices has been ascribed, and we ‘Euctid —\1—" sure by accident—interrupted at-every step of his pro- believe justly, the bondage in which the human mind oa - gress, and obliged’to go out of his way for the purpose was long held by the metaphysics of Aristotle. But . of investigating a ition of which he was not at to ascribe the reputation of Euclid to a similar cause, first aware, bat which wes necessary for the demon- is to place him infinitely lower than he was ever ‘les- etration of a more important truth. The length of tined to stand, and to asi to prejudice an authori- time thus necessary, in the most favourable citcum- ty over mankind, which it never possessed. Bi < Stanees, for iring a knowledge of the fundamen- and superstition may retard or suppress a spirit of ma- tie preyotions ‘the difficulty of bringing them, thematical inquiry ; but we cannet admit the possibi- 60 as to Leah tet tie sea of new truths, as to suppose that any thing but intrinsic excellence must ‘have ‘obstacles ordinary magni- could secure to an elementary system of geometry, the tude even to the most skilful geometer, and rendered almost unanimous a ion of mai ians for the future progress of mathematical discovery both two thousand years. slow and uncertain. Every person who has studied - The other work to which Euclid is in any d in- Tair intemans attention to the nature of ma- debted for his reputation with posterity, is his Book of investigation, will be ready to admit the Data. This treatise, like his Elements, had suffered trath of these remarks, and to acknowledge the extent much from the ignorance of commentators, as well as of the obligations which he owes to Euclid; nor have the depredations of time ; but, like the latter, revived the admirers of that distinguished mathematician any with fresh vi under the renovating hand of Dr reason to lament his being denied, in some instances, Sinem of ‘Glingow: It is still perhaps unnecessaril of original invention, while it is admitted prolix, and not at all entitled to the estimation in whi that, by the | arrangement of the discoveries of it was held by the ancients. At the same time it is others, he has put into the hands of his successors an certainly valuable, as containing the rudiments of the instrument which, at a comparatively trifling expence geometrical analysis. —~ ; ; ’ ‘of time and labour, has enabled them to reap not alittle — Of Euclid’s books on Porisms, ing can be col- _ of what is most valuable in the field of mathematical ee eee rewind discovery. such propositions, an ey were regarded oh wes ot bree started with re to the ancients, as fee eres rye fan author of the Elements, so the merit of the work has _ lysis. were , or rather di anew, likewise been a subject of discussion. While some by Dr Simson Panay servo after his death by the maintain that it is not only the most perfect system of late Earl Stan Anacysis, Porisms, &c. elementary , either of ancient or modern times, Besides the subjects already mentioned, Euclid is but as se Mags tp thease Rosie abe m8 known to have studied various other branches of the = to it from the blunders of igno- pecranarmscenyd nivmrers M2 anche My ih i astronomy. Conic Sections. ; k prolix, frequently - It w be impossible to enumerate all the editions and indirect, and ill adapted to the purposes through which the Elements have passed, and the com- 4 in this di both par- mentaries that have been written upon them since the } ‘ties are wide of the truth. It must be acknowledged, days of Proclus. Those of Commandini in 1572, and H sation, pospicahy of lnguage So cod Geeny chun. wie calvary attchtes, ate taser sor Gla : stration, i an ar- to be uni ly admitted, ‘imson’s of “7 oe wee Elements of Euclid stand unrivalled, is superior to every other. f ind that modern writers have excelled in these quali- those who have written on geometry, with the v ties, exactly in mrt dearth apy mere view of accommodating it to the present state of the ' Greek geometer. It must also be admitted, however, mathinastical stGences, Legentiees Sigotbbe, Ae yfair, 88 ~ | ren teed ap of the mathematical sciences, and Mr Leslie, may be mentioned as the most es: even these ents are susceptible of improvement. ful. Mr West too, deserves to be noticed as the author ¥ Though they are equally necessary as the foundation of an elementary treatise of mathematics, which has not 3 ‘of all mathematical investigation in which magnitude is hitherto enjoyed the celebrity to which it is so justly i NS ae ae entitled. which they once did to the whole science. They still | See Trans. of the Royal Soc. of Edin. vol. iii. part ii. deserve, as much as ever, to be studied on their own ace p. 154. Simson’s Euclid, Hutton’s Math. count ; but as the field to which they open a way has ict. articles Euclid, Elements, &c. Bossut Essai sur vastly increased, and still continues to increase, it has [Histoire Generale des Mathematiques, Paris 1802. De become a matter of no inconsiderable moment to abridge, a Caille, Legons Elementaires des Mathematiques, Paris as much as Seep ete eration met tha acquirea 1811. P ir's Geometry, Preface. Leslie's Geometry, knowledge of the elementary truths whi con- _ Notes. in. Rev. vol. xx. p. 79, &e. (R.G.) ~ tain. On this account we are disposed to some™ EUCORNIS. See Botany, p. 188. modern treatises of geometry, as possessing advantages EUDIOMETRY. See Cuemistry, p. 104. — unknown even to Euclid; not that they excel, or even © EUDOXUS. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 588. equal him, in elegance and correctness of demonstra- _ EVECTION. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 703. tion, but because they conduct the learner with great- | EVESHAM, Vate or. See Groucesrersuire and ‘ to the ulterior and more i objects of Warwicksutre. inquiry. ‘With all these concessions, however, we are | EVESHAM, is a borough and market town of Eng- not prepared to admit an insimuation that has been land, in the county of Worcester, pleasantly situated on sometimes thrownrout, as if Euclid owed the continu- a rising ground upon the river Avon, over which there ance of his celebrity to an unreasonable and pertinaci- is a stone bridge of seven arches, and where there is a ‘ ; ous adherence to a system, merely because it is ans convenient harbour for barges. The streets are in ge- | There was formerly at Evesham a statel RDA se} Ghee Abtet ast io the. Eicon of Boor. lene as were valued at £ 1183 at the dissolution. It was founded in 709 by Prince in, who retired here after the Pope had ived him of the bishopric of Worcester. Of the few vestiges of it which now remain, the principal are the above tower, and a elliptical arched gateway 17 feet long, with rich The fal the population of the borough ’ is ace cording to the late returns for 1811: Inhabited Senha | eo. Oe Families that them A 714 Families in 318 Do. in and manufactures . 339 meee. oo,Le aA tere oT * "Females © .. >. 1697 Total population . 2% 3068 Sony | EUGENE, Francis, Prince of Savoy, was born in 1663; and was descended from Cari one of the when it was closely beau by the Turkish army. fie ay pe gy Sacepgaen e of Lorraine as a yo- ; ving greatly signalized himself both in the defeat and pursuit of the enemy, he was appoint- Eugenes P y. ; EUG 4 ed, in the course of a few months, to a colonelcy of . In 1684, he was present at the sieges of Neuhausel and Buda, where he gave such unequivocal proofs of intrepidity and intelligence, that, on his re- turn to Vienna in 1686, the prince of Baden presented him to the emperor with these hetic words ; “‘ Sire, here is a young Savoyard, who will some time or other be the greatest captain of the age.” Thus he rose daily in favour at the court of Vienna ; and so great was the rapidity of his military advancement, that he was a. major-general at the age of 21, and a lieutenant-gene- oe a gal he Busch mene cla- war against emperor, it became to form a coalition against his ambitious schemes, Prince Eugene was sent from Vienna to negotiate an alliance with his cousin, Victor Amadeus, duke of Sa- voy. That selfish and aspiring prince, who loved nei- ther Louis nor ,,and who was. ready, to betray: both as his interests required, was secured on. the side of the Teepaipliots hee seb dtie-of cumeenliontoon, facen- Austria,—a subsidy of 20,000 crowns month from England, a similar allowance from Holland, andthe promise of four millions more to defray the of the war. E was sent with a i igatetapeaaia German troops to keep him steady to hi ts,. as well as to with him in the fiel ; and, du-- ing the seven campaigns, which they carried on with saslidiaaommniectn tend aptesed die hakicnemende. wenn agua ine nd Seah ol the, dee, Sr setsionh ihe errors, of his bad ip, and to make head against the able tactics of the F commander Catinat. In. paren oh a Saees sentae pHi my cane aye trating into france, - opened.a Lyons, when Amadeus. was seized with aan and Eugene was obliged to withdraw the army to rin. In reward of his exploits, he received this the order of the golden fleece ; and was created a marshal exactly ten years after his entrance into the service. He was greatly thwarted by his u to es us ear _ ally, duri the remainder of the war; and at ietuie spite of all his vigilance, the duke concluded, in 1696,. a ie ip Ho with a, Sealy mae soon - terw: e 5 of * i joined : ag: emperor king was. discontented with. government of Champagne, an annual ion of 2000 pistoles, and the rank of a marshal.of F'rance.;. but, so was the prince’s antipathy to Louis, that he re- j pp a 086 7 ap in. “I received: ly,” he says inhis Memoirs, “ the person whobrought Socprarenlaet bo Reet sary Oe eachlivensey answer as I it.” Notwithstanding the unfavourable result of affairs in Italy, the.emperor saw that he was free from.all ground of reproach, and suf- ficiently testified his approbation, by giving him the - commend oe san arinen S\. 4 » In 1697, he took. the field. against the Turks,. “4 were commanded by the ( i in ; and inflicted upon them - the severest defeat which they had. sustained in the - whole course of the war. While ing to attack . . them at Zenta, on the river Teisse, he-received an or- der from Vienna, not to fight a battle. in «any. cireum- stances ; but, having advanced too far.to retreat with honour or safety, he hastened to the-assault, forced the entrenchments of the Vizier’s camp, . defeated his army with great slaughter, and mage himself. master, of an, immense booty, to the amount of several millions stem 224 magene ting. Of the enemy, 20,000 were killed in the field, —“"—" 10,000 drowned in the river, and 4,000 taken prison- ers; while the victorious Imperialists did not lose one thousand men. But bis enemies at Vienna having gained the ascendancy, he was received by the Empe- ror with the greatest coldness, commanded to deliver up his sword, charged with disobedience of orders, and arrested for trial before a0 = eae war. a pt report of these proceedings, assem a- round his house; and the een edeeelte tee a guard about his person, to prevent his being removed for exa- mination. The eniperor, either from fear or from con- viction, restored his sword, and uested him to re- sume the command in Hungary. is answer was, as he has recorded it with his own pen, I “ will do it upon condition of having carte blanche, and of not being ex- posed in future to the malice of generals and ministers.” “ The poor ae he adds, ‘ durst-not give me this full power publicly ; but he gave it me in private un- der Kis own signature, with which I was quite satis- fied.” The war with the Turks was terminated in ano- ther campaign ; and now for the first time since he com- menced his military career, he was left at leisure to cul- tivate the arts of peace. He employed himself in form- ing a select li , collecting paintings, building pala- ces, planning ens, and hearing music, in preference, as he says, to “ the talk of idlers.” During this inter- val of peace, he enjoyed the society of the celebrated French General Villars, who was ambassador at ,Vien- na; and with whom he maintained, during the remain- der of his life, a most cordial friendship, which was not interrupted even in the midst of hostilities, When the war of the Spanish. succession broke out in 1701, Prince Eugene was appointed to the command of the Austrian army in Italy, which consisted of thirty thousand veteran troops. His cousin, the Duke of Sa- voy, was now - ——— — the axa tee fre- ently commanded against him in person. arm vith which he had to contend, was ———_ potnory A in number ; and was successively conducted by Cati- nat, Villeroy, and Vendome. » Against the first and the last, all his activity was en but he gained se- veral temporary successes when Villeroy the com- mand, and even made him his prisoner, in a bold though unsuccessful attempt to surprise Cremona. Aiter two years absence, he returned to Vienna in 1708, to secure for his army more regular supplies of men and money ; and being there appointed to the presidency. of the mi- litary council, he rendered great services to the Aus- trian — in that office, by effecting an accommoda- tion with the Hungarian insurgents, and detaching the Duke of Savoy from his connection with France. He was chiefly instrumental, also, in concerting with the Duke of Marlborough the plan of the campaign of 1704, sh in which he bore so distinguished a and which so se relieved the hereditary inions of Aus- tria the formidable which threatened them on the Danube: (See BLenuem.) In 1705, he was - sent into Italy with an army of 28,000 Austrians, in aid ef his cousin the Duke of Savoy, who was now heartily exerting himself in ition to France. During the first campaign, while Vendome commanded the French, he made very little in freeing Savoy from the enemy 5 but, in the followi » when Marsin and La Feuillade were placed at the head of the hostile ar- my, he gained with an inferior force, and after an ob- stinate contest, the famous battle of ‘Turin, which wee followed by the deliverance of Italy, and the invasion of France. Returning to Vienna, he was dispatched in EUGENE. 1708, as 0 maprehent: eeeaionainiote the coalition ; and then. hast with his army to form a junction with Marlborough, who was at Asch in the vici- nity of Brussels, . Here he an interview with his mother, after an absence of twenty-five years; and though his troops were not come u concurred with the English general in advising an attack of the French army, and in gaining the decisive battle of Oudenarde. Having ravaged Artois and Picardy, they undertook the siege of Lisle, which, after being obstinately defended by Marshal Boufflers nearly six months, surrendered to the allied arms, While Prince Eugene was actively employed in superintending the siege of the town, his enemies, either at Vienna or at Paris, ‘are reported to have made an attempt upon his life by-poison. A letter was put into his hands, which contained only a piece of greased paper, which he threw away ; but, being pick- ed up and given to a dog, or rather, as it. was said, being tied about the animal’s.neck, he rs twen- ty-four hours, with all eee been poisoned. The prince hi remarks upon this oc- currence, that there must have been some. mistake in the supposed cause of thé animal's death ; and that the paper probably contained some piece of information, which might have been rendered Kegible by the fire, or some of the usual lications, in secret writing. In to an army of equal force ‘under Villars, who 4 on the defensive, and made the confederates y dear for their successes, ly in the bloody tle of Malplaquet. It was chiefly by the advice of Eu- genb, tliat shuallietfovenh Nentarand that daring by his friends to have it dressed, he ly . * If I am beaten, it will not be worth while ; and if the French are, I shall have time enough.” havy petisbsdiaiterthe ostbesssempendbiaisediae’? e y serious respo! bi had taken upon myself?” In 1711, the Emperor Jo- I. died of the small-pox ; and Eugene, by his skil- maneeuvres, had considerable influence in securing the election of his brother Charles, itor for Spain. This circumstance, lition agai aS 1 | | ¢ ee mt ag RVd - PUGH NE. between the empire and France. bo return to ‘Vienna, received; both by the court and the most enthusiastic testimonies of appro: and immediately applied himself to improve lic finances. But his respite from of war was short. In 1716, hostili- against the Turks, and he was appoint- the command of the army in Hungary. Attack- ‘his camp by the’ i with great f - ae which lean had es 164 e opened the campaign of 1717 with the siege he’ was attended by a number of princes and young men of rank, who were eager to reputation, to improve their mili as g gf : tt ge li £8 3s A ig a e disease. But recovering middle of the month, he re- tre te ie i 5 Hie hy c if ie e d 3 oe. Hae So z —~ PPecple shige ges 2 geeite at live our father !” while thou old soldiers of H = “ ; Italy, Flanders, n ike of Berwick from penetrating into the heart of the country, and baffled the talents of D’As- feld saeeaiaiaen wor Mea in the following cam itary career by operations of a Lite anteet dvaees taking Trarbach, and delivering the electorate of Treves, Having of his with’ tears, he continued, during the’ re- mainder of his life, to be the advocate of pacific coun- ‘sels. fond of renown, and ‘the most 2 hong cape ‘life, his cooler _ Judgment an ience led him'to form a more enlightened opinion of the evils ofwar. thirst “under the hypo garbof national hononr. It dwells om imaginary insults—it i and “abusive people go on one thing to another, VOL, IX, PART I. - 225: till they put an end to the lives of half a million of Eugene: men. “A military man becomes so sick of bloody scenes in war, that in peace he is averse to recommence them. I wish, that the first minister, who is called to decide on peace and war, had only seen actual service. What pains would he not take to seek, in mediation ‘and compromise, the means of avoiding the effusion of so much blood ?” gets He spent the remaining year of his life-in complete semen in the gerne of his pera: og society persons, whose com e 5 and in a Secbuitier Netention to the Vihces ‘religion. **T have been happy in this life, and hope to be happy in the next. I have scarcely had time to commit trans- ; but I tte a bad ee without think- , by neglecting the exercises igion, though a siacers ellover f and well i with ‘a eee trines. I have led a soldier’s life of indifference, and have acted the part of a philosopher; but my death I wish to be that of a Christian. I never liked boasters either in war or religion ; and it is from ha- ving seen on one side the ridiculous impiety of the French, and on the other the bi of the Spaniards, - that I have observed a medium between the two. In former days I had so often seen death before me, that I had become familiar with it; but this is not now the po — ST A at tpt lB Baty wi uillity, and on the ‘as'a in dream. a find of the el rd ast the jit it When Bourdaloue has made ey commander, whe had received thirteen wounds, and who, in almost every one of his numerous battles, had made many hair-breadth escapes, died at length tran- quilly at Vienna, on the 10th of April 1736, in’ the 73d year of his age. He was found dead in his bed, after having retired in good health from entertaining company at supper; and was su to have been suffocated by an immoderate defluxion of rheum, to which he was ‘subject. Little remains to be remarked upon his character, in addition to what may be sug- — by the sketch of his history, and the extracts his private memoirs, which we have presented to our readers. In his military tactics he is considered as having frequently bordered rashness, and havin been generally too lavish of human blood. He ari distinguished for 1 courage, and for his coolness in the midst of dangers ; and he mentions two cireum- stances, from which he derived the enw advantages, viz. always reconnoitring if possible in person, an writing with a See cabeseaes tenants of his aide-de-camp, order whi ‘gave him to carry. He has been y commended for his generous dis- position ; for the-ease with which he descended to an equality with those who conversed with him ; for his unaffected modesty, which prevented him from ‘assu- ming any over others, and which rendered him unable to bear, with any tolerable grace, the just ac+ know ts which were paid to his merits. See ical Dictionary ;* Life of Eugenes ‘Modern. Univ. Hist. vol. xxv. p. 151, and vol, xxxip. 896; Me-~ on of Prince Eugene of Savoy, written by himself: POUGENLA: See Borany, p: 228: EUHARMONIC Onean, is'a very improved. musi« 2. Fubarme- nic Organ. —_———— EUH cal instrument, the first that ever has been capable of acing perfect harmony, or music wherein none of Te eratale are tem or imperfect, in the widest range of modulation, the invention,of the Rey. Hen for w Liston, minister of Ecclesmachan in Scotland, ; . Vol, he took out a patent in 1810; (see the Phil. xxxvil. p. $28, vol. xxxix. p. 421; and the Mag. vol. xxxvi. p. 217). The first of these instruments was perfected in Gdiateenh “and, aoe pipe for each of the numerous sounds wanted, 12 fin- ger-keys in common use were made to act always on as many contiguous notes of the scale, by means of six pedals, di i OOO & See, ae ENS on as flats, or vice versa, in the order of la- tion ; si pedals or foot movements being a most im- ti ement on the separate hand-slides in the - Oy ~ tata ey Taba ig spe organ oundling na ‘ y and. it is somewhat remarkable, that same system and con- struction of occurred about the same time to Mr David rs pelprageue whapepererve (ecko a i same to his improved or, or occasionally shifting finger movements from one pipe to another, higher or lower than it, by the in- terval of a major comma. In order to lessen the bulk and of this first construction of his organ, Mr Liston afterwards con- trived a mode of temporarily lowering the sound of a pipe, either one or two commas, spelicontosing it eons at pleasure, by means of a shader, brought and held near to it, but not touching its orifice ; and for this contrivance for diminishing the number of pipes, and for some im- pemeemaene phenome was Mr Liston’s patent ob- important work, forming a new em in the theory of music, and its practice on keyed instruments, is pre- xe f the most handsome and voluntary testimo- nials of four eminent London who had per- formed on and heard the euharmonic organ. The first part of this work treats of the perfect scale, tempera- ment, and the principles and construction of the euhar- meneneryne s:the, soci pestiannts Al Svnee Sasie and their progressions, ulations, intervals, and their combinations in chords, modulation within the key, and ing into the subordinate &c.; and, Yo notes Sietentine of the text. engraved examples contain full and very explicit instructions for aan pe ac tiny A ee of modulation, and euharmonic changes ; and the se- lection of pieces of music, from many of the best mas~ ters, which follow, being all, like the elementary exam- ise thet. grocedia them, marked wherever the Pe as my apne pcan ret exact per- 226 EVI notes can be instantly varied at pleasure), or performi- Evdliarmo- ances wholly by ar Stan sa to re a band ~~ nice of 3 whose delightful har- mony never, in any considerable , been pro- duced, by a single performer, before the exhibition of bist apa el aati vn are nude euharmonie organ seems an Tequisi umed by the writer, our best performers of single ike the deats of imperfect concords, to exactly fix the apa a emer while learning to per- , or in practising, as the cessation of beats do for the concords ; and, aceordingly, he was most forcibly struck on first hearing Mr Liston’s organ, with the pers fectly new and peculiar character of several of the dis- cords, when heard alone, but more especially when combined in certain chords ; the pleasing effect, for in- stance, of the IT‘, 7’, IX (and ee and what is more sur ising, of the % VI, (and % Il and IV), when coms ey Mr Liston describes in pages 57, 69,-73 and 99 of his Essay, and wherein -he mentions also at page 56 pov 90) nd 71; the disagreeable effect of 7 (and 5, IL and IV) in the dominantseventh, and of 2’ in the chord of + seventh, &c. vi ite and students of the violin, violincello, &c. composer this instrument cannot fail of proving at all EVIAN,a {o., of Switzerland, situated on the south side of the lake of Geneva, about eight or nine leagues from Geneva. It contains two: and two cons iages could not go any far- ther east hee ee, In order to reach Meillerie and Since the year 1805, however, a military road, icating with the Valais an perenne the rocks, commanding, all the way to St Maurice, a charming view of the Lake of ; Seo Binared EVIL, Kine’s, is the name formerly given to scro~ ae 9 a rb of England and France possessed the of curing this disease by the touch. The English and EUL experimental pi and the number answering to Euler’ this last is “O4R1S the | of string to the unison I, Scale. In like manner, if F i | i : E : a : ee Z ; 4 Z Hi z id uh f a ae yet i i a7 4 = & : Hf it 3 i ‘ : if y of cures by their sacredtouch.” See also the Edi | eh ee Journal, Vol. III. p. 185. VIL... See Tuzonocy. ; ULER’s Locarirums, for musical calculations, are musical, intervals. in their relations de« 1 and .30103 respecti re Dare ly any, fon. If maimawenieneiie Fouthnhes atinictnontornions , were given, 68% € .076814 x .30108=.0231233, whose re~ cip. -9768767 is the common log. near enough for most wanted from Euler’s logs. since both of these are of the nature of reciprocal logs. the octave being expressed by 612 and 1 in them 3 ively, we have only to mul- tiply Euler’s post By. 612,to obtain nearly their artificial as. The last example will stand thus: .076814 x 612—47.010168, or 47, as in the schisma column (=) of Plate XXX: Vol. II. ; and it may be remarked here-~ on, that whenever the product approaches a whole num- ber, either above or below it, that such whole number is, in general, the proper number of artificial commas t. . eT eri Scar of musical intervals. It is proba- ble, we think, that M. Euler made the first, though an unsuccessful attempt, at the grand harmonic im- vement, (which Mr Liston has lately effected, by scale of perfect harmony, and his Evnarmonic Or- gan, which see), by endeavouring, on a very limited scale, to avoid tempered or imperfect concords, by means of more notes introduced in the octave than the 12 in common use. M. Euler extended these to 24, eight of which new notes were only a major comma higher than his notes CX, DX, E, FX, GX, A, Bp, and B ; and four others of them a minor comma lower than his notes D, F, G, and C: at the same time, that three notes of his original scale differ from Liston’s, viz. CX, Ep, and Bp, ‘ . -__ 24 64 128. 128 in having the’ ratios 25° 75 and a5 instead of Te Aas and iW which are Liston’s notes respectively. In order to facilitate the labours of those, who, like the gentleman alluded to in the last article, may be de- sirous of trying, either by calculation or experiment, the effect and extent of this scale in producing perfect harmonics, we have been at the of reducing M. Euler’s vingtquatreave scale, from the octave F to f, in which he has published it, to that of C to c, in which all musical are given in our work; and we have added in the columns of the following Table, the lengths of strings, and number of artificial commas, answering to each of Euler's notes ; and in the last column but one, we have set down the notes on Liston’s , (see the Phil. Mag. vol. xxxix. p. 419, or the Mont ag, vol. Xxxvi. p. 217,) whereon the several chords in this sys~ tem might be tried, and whence these notes might be aes mac hey ad gad weap oo ene w one’s while to e such aone, having a Tar es betiigtoncoes Ge eight genta motes..eah onather for supplying the four that are minor comma: flats, in pee. halla itty, ieizanliguepeeed are wanted in performance, in by M. Euler. The last column shews. the’ numeral value of the notes, major and minor, above C. 8 artificial commas were ~~ ¥™ 1 )FHE EU L Raler’s} Common theof; Artif. | Liston’s) Nume- Notes. | Logarithms. ro Commas. | Notes. | rals, C_ | .6989700,0 | .50000 | 612 Cc |Vul .7038749,3 | .50568 ] 602 | BR .7216087,0 | .62675 | 566 B’ | VIl’ B | .7260987,3 | .58333:| 555 | B vu .7496324,2 | .56187 | 509 | A’ Cp | .7550274,5 | .66889 | 498 Ak | XVI .7727562,2 | .59259 | 462 Ae tt FV A | .7781512,5 | 60000 | 451 A VI 80078494 | 68210 | 405 | G’xK G&)} .8061799,7 | 64000 | 304 | Gx G_ | .8239087,4 | .66667 | 358 G Vv 8288136,6 | .67424 | 348 | F/R 8465424,3 | .70233 | $12 | FR | IV’ Fx | 85199744 | .71111 | 301 Fx | IV F | .8750612,6 | .75000 | 254 F 4 87996619 | .75852 | 244 | EX .8976949,6 | .79012 | 208 E’ Ill’ E_ | -9080899,9 | .80000 | 197 E Ill .9257236,8 | .84280 | 151 »| D’x ; Dx} .9311187,1 | 85333 | 140 | Dx |. xII D | .9488474,8 | .88889 | 104 D Ul .9537524,0 | .89898 94 | ORK .9768762,0 | .94815 47 Cx I Cx | .9822712,3 | .96000 36 | CK K .0000000,0 {1.00000 (9) Cc 1 ‘The want of minor consonances above C, are v obvious in the above system, which most probably M. Euler never tried any more than the equal tempera- ment, although his name has been often enrolled among the very numerous theoretic recommenders of the Iso- TONIC = ng ¢ EULER, ee one of the most di distinguished mathematicians of the 18th century, was the son of Paul Euler, and M Brucker, and was born at Basle on the 15th of A 1707. esi oooh His‘father, who had been instructed in mathematics by the célebrated James Bernoulli, became pastor of the village of Riechen, near Basle, in the year 1708 ; and as soon as his son had arrived at the Proper age, in- stilled into him a fondness for mathematical learning, although he had destined'him for the study of theology. He was afterwards sent to’the-university of Basle, where he was found wuyrnvemeae from John Ber- noulli, who was at time regarded as the first ma- thematician in Europe. “The assiduity and amiable dis- position of Euler, soon gained him the i es- teem of that great master, and the friendship of his two sons Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli, who ‘had already beeome the disciples and the rivals of their father. John Bernoulli even condescended to give ‘him once every week a particular lesson, for the p of explaining the difficulties which he encountered in the course of his studies, Euler had not the fortune to enjoy long this inestimable advantage. In 1723, he received the degree of Master of Arts ; and on this occasion, he ob- tained great applause by the Latin discourse which he delivered, containing a ison between the New- tonian and the Cartesian osophy. At the request of his father, he now began the study of theology ; but his attachment to the mathematics was so strong, that bis father at last consented to allow him to follow the = of ee genius, icolas Daniel Bernoulli having accepted in 1725 of the invitation of Catherine I. to become a member of the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg, promised at we ider that he was then only vo i About this Srehmaenat-qhe. idate fo vacant professorship of natural in the university of Basle ; but he had not the pCi eg Io , Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli used all their i i to procure an tment for their friend ; and’ baying at last succeeded, cod hitat' imnatediatel i vite SePetmcebeng, Tinie oa obeying this welcome summons ; but, after he had be gun his} , he had the mortification to learn that icelas ulli had fallen a victim to the severity of the climate ; and the very day which he entered the Russian territory, was that of the death of the Em- press Catherine I.: an event which at first the great problems on the motions of e heavenly bodies, EULER ther, who was thén a widow, and to conduct her to Euler, Berlin, where she remained till the time of her death in, Leonard, that_ it would occupy of our: to give remain teiahiattonnion of debi. We i ddeotove: content ourselves with referring the reader to the articles Acuromatic TeLescopes, ALGrpra, ARITHMETIC of many of his memoirs have no value whatever, except in so far as they exhibit fine of the resources of matic Telescopes, on Naval Architecture, and on Gun- ', are among the number of those which are liable tothe om matical class of the y, and in the same year he obtained the piece ps Sp Anatomy of Sciences of Paris, for the best work on the theory of magnetism. About this time Robin’s Treatise on Gunnery had ap- peared in England, and though our cou had treated Euler with great severity, this act of injustice did not. prevent him from recommending it to the king of Prussia, as the best book on the subject. He seentennalatonl tis 00 in chee ome which he made, ve a comp! motion of projec- tiles. M Turgot pope gh work to be transla. tillery; and about the same time there appeared a splendid edition of it in England. In 1746, he published his new Theory of t and rs and in 1759, va memoir oath ack Hake at angaper gained. ize © rench Academy of Sciences. - ee 5 In 1750, Euler went to Frankfort to receive his mos 229 1761 ; having enjoyed for 11 yearsthe assiduous atten- tions ofa favourite son, and the high’pleasure of seeing him universally esteemed and admired. When Euler remained at Berlin, he formed an in- timate acquaintance with M. De M is, the learn- ed President of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and he defended Maupertuis’s celebrated and favourite-prin- ciple of the least action, by resolving by means of it some of the most difficult problems in mechanics. In the dispute into which he was thus led with Koenig; who had attacked Maupertuis in 1751, he lost for a while his usual serenity, and became one of the ene< mies of that unfortunate individual. Al h the number of foreign associates in the French Academy of Sciences was limited to eight, yet - Euler was appointed to the ninth place in 1755, on the condition that no appointment should take place at the first vacancy. In the year 1760, the Russian army under General Tottleben into the Marche of Brandenburg, and a farm which Euler possessed near Char: lottenberg. As soon as the Russian was in . formed of the event, he immediately repaired the loss bya large sum; and upon giving notice of the aimee to the Empress Elizabeth she added to this indemnity a present of four thousand florins. This act of ity, no doubt, had a powerful effect in attaching Euler to the Russian government, which, in spite of his absence, had always paid him the pen- sion which it at him in 1742, _ Having received an invitation the Empress Catherine, he obtained ission from the King of Prussia to return to St etersburg to spend the remainder of his days; but his eldest son was not allowed to accompany him. When Euler-was on the eve of his re, Prince Czartorisky invited him, in the name of the king of Poland, to take the road of Warsaw, where, | with kindness, he spent 10 days with Stanislaus, who afterwards honours ed him with his correspondence. Shortly after his arrival in St Petersburg, on the 17th July 1766, he lost the sight of his other eye, having been for a considerable time obliged to his calculations with characters, traced with chalk upon a slate. His pupils and his children copied his calculations, and wrote sithig.tmapanlentediotaieias dictated to them. To one of his servants, who was quite i t of mathematical knowledge, he dicta~ ted his Elements of Algebra, a work of v merit, which has been translated. into. the lish ey 2 other languages. .Euler now ired the rare ky of greys oni ot Tenens mioaticoes. prose analytical arithmetical calculations ; and. . d'Alembert, when he saw him at Berlin, was asto- nished at some examples of this kind which occurred in their conversation. With the design. of instructin his dchildren in the extraction of roots, he formed a table of the six first powers of all numbers, from 1 to 100, and he recollected them with -the utmost ac- . Two of his pupils having computed -to the 17th term, a complicated Cia: pp their results differed one unit in the fiftieth cypher ; and an appeal being made to Euler, he went over the calculation in his mind, and his decision was found correct. His principal amusement, after he lost his sight, was to make artificial loadstones, and to, give lessons on ma~ thematics to one of his grand-children, who seemed to evince a taste for the science, In 1771, a dreadful fire broke out in St Petersburg, il 8 4 3 ft is i Ff Fe? 5] i He : Be g 3 = 4] HI °F | pit ihe af pi a1. Br 1 38 F are sk | i great premium of pounds offered by the British Parlia- of three hundred pounds was given to having furnished the theorems made use of in his theory. year 1773, Euler published, at St Petersburg, his great work on the construction and management of vessels. A new edition soon afterwards appeared at Paris, and at the desire of the French king, it was in- troduced into the schools of Marine, and a reward of ni il | g z r z a handsome letter from the celebrated Turgot.' About - the same time an Italian, an Engieh, and a Russian translation of it , and the Russian government presented Euler with a gift of 2000 rubles. Three of Euler's memoirs on the Inequalities in the motions of the nit crowned aoe n+ treed Academy of Sciences, e also gained the pri 1770 ual 1772, by his perfection of the lunar haceys Having lost his first wife, by whom he had thirteen children, eight of whom died in early life, he was mar- ried a second time in 1776, to Mademoiselle Gsell, the too \ organs, he again lost his sight, and suffered much se- vere pain ‘from the relapse. ever, continued unabated, and in the course of seven he transmitted 70 memoirs to the Academy of Bt Pe . On the 7th of September 1783, after having amused himself with calculating: upon a slate the laws of the ascensional motion of balloons, which, at ‘the attention of musing himself with one Pet teeters ar on a sudden, his pipe fell from his hand, and he expi- ¢ stroke, in the 76th year of his age. iné him three sons, having lost his two in yon years tart ome Tw = of grand-chil were alive at time of his death. After along life, so snecessfully devoted to the sci- ences, Euler's was a widely extended. Besides being a f Theory of the Lunar Motions. > ledge was not limited to mathematics ] vereed in ancient literature. eid from the beginning to the end, and he could even tell the first and last lines in every — of the edition which he used. Tih bate OF file weidarthene’ts F 2 nature the assiduity with which he pursued them, we cannot fail to be surprised at the : his lively and chearful. In his and reli+ Et cir ariee Sie apa ew e in he must have experienced both at. and St Peters- » never induced him to abandon the religious duties to which ee tatiana i ina form. — * voir Memoirs of the A are extremely behind kates fewer than 200 order to fulfil a dy for hich he work contains many new views ; but as M. Fuss re- marks, it had no great success, as it contained too much geometry for musicians, and too much music for Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive ntroductio in Analysi itorum, Lausanne, 1744, 2 vols. 4to. This work, whi ‘was reprinted at Lyons in 1797. It was tra ine to French in 1796, by J. B, Labey, and published at ~ Theoria motuum planetarum et cometarum. Beroli« ni, 1744. ' Opuscula varii argumenti. Berolini, 1746, 1750, 1751, $ vols. in 4to. The tables of the sun and moon, which are sometimes to be found separately, form part of the Ist volume of this collection. As the three vo- jg make only 600 pages, they are generally found one. $70 wea 4 EVO pay ps 251 come of 5000 crusades. - The ‘archbishop’s house ad- Euphrates. joins the cathedral, and not far from it ate the shambles, “~~” _an old Roman building, in which admirably. ta seagate como ciemenin. Berolini, 1753, ato. amine objectionum Cl. Koenigii, contra hoc principium iges i infinitorum ac doctrina serierum. edition of this work was published in 1787, in Sigel, Haig saoeee a ph Kavesangse 1804, in 2 vols, 4to. 3 vols, 4to. Another edition, more correct, was pub- Opuscula neigtae: P. 1783, 1785, 2 vols. 4to. Lettres a une Princesse d’ sur quelques su- - jets. de Physique et de Philosophie. Petersburg, 1768, of this was publish. ed at Berne in 1778, in 3 vols. 8vo. An edition was published in Paris, with notes by Condorcet, and ano- ther in 1812, by J. B. Lobey. noulli, avee des notes EVOCATION, is the of a religious ceremony which was always observ d by the Romans, when they began the ofa town, which they as iii. 9.,- w) WOLUTES.. See Flexion, EVOLUTION. . See the articles Atozsra, and ARITHMETIC. © EVORA, or Etvora,. Ebora, and the Li- houses-are in general small and low. The cathedral church is situated in the highest part of the town, and , has 25 prebends, each of whom enjoys ay annual in« EUP - ~ preserved Corinthian columns are connected by a plaster) wall. These columns, seven in number, are remarkably beau- tiful, and a drawing of them has been given by Murphy. It is said to be the remains of a templeiof Diana. Be- — . wre Ca into the ane it had been y oors as a mosque. In the great square, and in other parts of the town, there are many other remains of Roman architecture. On the north side, the aqueduct enters the town. It was begun by Ser- torius, but was entirely rebuilt by John III]. When Mr Link visited this town, a large and massive edifice was building for barracks, which, when finished, will, he , be unique in its kind in Portugal. Sa was formerly the seat of anuniversity, but it has totally fallen into decay since the time of Pombal. There are.no manufactures, and no trade .in the town. It contains five parish churches and 28 religious houses, It is defended by twelve bastions, and two demi-bas- tions. ‘On the north side of Evora,” says Mr Link, “ the hills rise, being round the town, adorned with , and on their summits with evergreen oaks. road from hence to Montemor o omnes is five leagues distant, . over granite -hills, partly covered with corn and partly with fine woods of evergreen, oaks, and pastures, which give t variety to the,prospech”...Papslation 12,000... West, Loni. 7 42’, and. North Lat. 38° 30’, See Link’s Travels in wily » ATI, (10) E PHRATES, or more properly called the Phrat, tts name from the Hebrew Phar, or Pharaiz, to spread, and Pha- whence de« rah, to prodace fruit or flowers ; a river of Asia, which, Tved- with she iets forms the western boundary of the Persian empire, The Eu mountains of Armenia; the first:of these is called Al- la, issuing from a mountain in the vicinity of the towns of Bayazid and Diadin, and receives in its course the tribute of six springs from Shehrian, Malasjird, Khun- noos, Chaharbore, Miznajird, and Kague. The second is formed by the confluence of many streams from the mountains around Erzeroom; and is called the Karasu, from the blackness of its water. These two streams unite near the town of: n, inthe recesses of Mount Taurus, when the river inclines to the south-west, and passes within afew miles of the walls of Malatea. Recei~ ving at Malatea another tributary stream, it approaches the Mediterranean, till it is forced into a south-east | course by the mountains in the nei of Samo- sata. not so rapid,the Eu is a much finer river than Tigris; while the latter at Ar, is but a little brook, the Euphrates is 100 yore teeth at Malatea, and at Ul Der, orthe ancient Thapsacus, 800, Ten miles from the village of Lemloon, situated about half way between Bussora and Hillah, its waters are i over an immense morass, and are again col- lected about 21 miles north of Samavat. These marshes have been much increased since 1784, when the Great Soliman Pasha threw:a bank across the river‘at Delva- 08 pana Spo Bao gm 5 old chan- nel, for the purpose of attacking wi vantage the Alghazil Arabs. At Korna, about 130 miles distant from its mouth, the Euphrates joins the Tigris; their united streams receive the name of the Shat oo) Arab,and form one of the noblest rivers im the East. The force of the flood-tide prevails so much at Korna, that, from has two. principal sources in the is sources. a westerly direction, and Its course. Ruphrates. ———— ton of Kor- Remark of Poly bins. Polybius cootredicted by Kiancir. 2382 the point of the tri formed by the junction of the nae newbie epsom, was Euphrates on the one hand, and forced back by the strength of the Ti- is on the other. Korna is one of the three A iit by Seleucus, in honour of his first wife Apama, and is situated at the point of a tri formed by the confluence of these two streams. John Malcolm, peels etter + dete Aes + lee the M is Wellesley, considerin tion or- na malarly ad and where an im able fort might be erected at a trifling expence, which would secure the navigation of both rivers, repress the inroads of the nei ing Arabs, and command the countries between and Bussora, recommended this ob- ject as worthy of the attention of the governor-general of India. Here the channels of the Euphrates and Ti- gris are so deep, that a small ship of war might anchor close to the works, and a canal cut across the base of the tri , from one river to the other, would render any other fortification unnecessary. Polybius observes, that the Euphrates is remarkablefor differing in one from most others in the world. Rivers, in general, he remarks,. increase in size as they advance in their course, their waters swelling in winter and decreasing in summer. The Euphrates, on the contrary, diminishes as it flows, is very high in the middle of summer, and no where so broad as in Syria. This is accounted for from its increase being the effect of the dissolution of snows in the mountains, and not of winter rains ; canals and reservoirs being employed to draw off the superabundant waters for irrigating the districts on its banks, it decreases as it traverses an ex- Captain thor of a Geographical M Captain M. Kinneir, author of a i emoir of the Persian Empire, whv must be su; posed the sulhat authority to follow, writing from actual observation on the spot, and to whom we are indebted for much inte- resting information on this peg ie says, that the great- lan est rise of the Euphrates is in January, when it attains an increase of 12 feet icular; and it continues to rise and fall till the end of May or beginning of June. Here is a manifest contradiction of Polybius, which we cannot hope to reconcile, as it probably proceeds from some change, in the manner in which the river is now affected, unknown to us. However, in justice to Poly- hius, who is esteemed an excellent historian, and drew trom the best sources within his reach, we must observe that that part of his account where he mentions that the Euphrates decreases in size as it advances in its course, is supported by Kinneir; for this author states that at Hillah, near the ancient Babylon, the Euphrates is only 200 broad, and 40 feetdeep. Now Hil- lah is mach below Ul] Der, where itis 800 yards broad. Perhaps the great depth of 40 feet may be . ht to compensate in some degree the breadth so much higher up; but we are not warranted to draw this concla- sion, a8 Kinneir has not given. us the depth of the river at Ul Der. Even in the driest season, the Eu- phrates is navigable for boats of considerable bur- den, up as far as Shukashu, a village situated on: the west bank of the river, and a day's sail from Korna. The tides of the Persian Gulf reach 20 or 25 miles above Korna; and the river is navigated, during six months of the year, by flat boats up to Hil- lah, These boats are of a singular construction. The body resembles a half-moon in shape; the ribs. and planks are roughly nailed together, and the outside covered with tha or bitumen; there is no keel, and the rudder, formed of a number of spars clums EUPHRATES. ily bound together, is nearly as large as the vessel; ch igi conehee Alf aac aia te at lagen a When ing to Bussora, they float down the stream ; cent,” Asotiee Wate at ya rent. n ¥ wicker work, covered with Wenner. and about phrates and 3 made of reeds, in the form of a shield; and, as Kinneir remarks, it is curious to observe that so li alteration in their construction has taken place during such a lapse of Oo - 3 Hi ue pd No subject has excited more the attention of the learn- Canals end Cas artificial its wa- lakes. ed than the river Euphrates, with regard to its. nals and artificial lakes, dug for the-reeeption ters at the season of inundation. Of the ancient’autho- blished by su! ery estigation. The canal of Pallacopas, dug by the first of the Baby- ton of Kuls, having fallen disrepair tion of K i into disrepair, about twenty years ago it ee ly cleared. by the Nabob of Oude, in honour of whom the Arabs now call it Hindi. + It is cut from the ri mainder is nearly raging dee sand, but its course hood of Babylon are still:the remains of two lakes, the names of Ali and his son Hussein. The upper pots mania eye te FA Sp ag AI en e town of K containing the tomb of Hussein, the of hommed. cig ming re Ree pee the northern point of the lower, or Nej distance is about. twenty-five miles. Meshed A’ tuated a little to the east. Into this lower lake the phrates was turned by the canal of season of its floods. e opening and canal was a part of the office of the satrap of’ and, as Dr Vincent remarks, it must have been a duty ee is desert cannot be watered, every spot tile that can be flooded. Peat esd oy ee Heyer pious Go gency tener enemy eyo mand of the waters of the Euphrates was highly ne- cessary for the cultivation of the adjacent icts ; > and thus, as the cities in the vicinity of its banks have h its grand canals ve failed, the ruinous policy of the Turks, at this day, regards the partial distribution of its waters as an object of primary importance for the purpose of irtiga- bee in existence; butpsinge thedesr. .s** tion. Arrian gives us the following accountof igin Arrian’s y and object of the canal of P. , cut from the phrates to draw off its superabi river, he tells us, descending from the mountains of Armenia, flows within its natural channel during win- ter, but receives such an accession of water in the be ginning of spring, and a still about the summer solstice, that, overflowing its banks, it lays under wa- ter the plains of ia. And unless this inundation, caused by the write ti of snows in the mountains, ut fre = count of it waters. For this Pallacopss, AU EUPHRATES. Euphrates. were diffused by. sof: the ent of Pallacopas over ——— penance dha Sea of the surrounding coun- “~~ try would be’ desolated. The waters thus drawn off, reach the main by a diversity of subterraneous courses. woul: : i in this: 1 fuse its waters to irrigate and fertilize the plains of Assy- On this account the Satrap of Babylon, at a great expence of labour, cut off the communication, although the work, on being was found to. be insuf- ficient ; the embankment being composed of mud and. such like materials, was incapable of resisting the pres- sure of the water, and continued to yield it a passage through the canal. Alexander, the advan tage of Assyria, shut out the waters by a more solid and it: work, Ata short distance, a rocky soil wean founel-tihiiele, whee dit Unragirle anil pestonged to the Pallacopas, offered the double ices to admit the waters. of nalinto,the Bahr Nejiff. Lille belong fixed upon a convenient spot, he founded acity, defended by walls. Se My ‘This retain tame of Alexandria, after Be i or tat ee tontins but on its becoming the residence ancient of a of Arabian prines, was c to that Alexandria. of Hira. It is now known by the name of Nejiff or Meshed Ali, and is supplied with water by a subter- raneous aque connected with the cut of i This the Wahabee, in order todistress the city, broke down, so that when ir was at Meshed Ali, in 1808, the inhabitants of te RT oo to bring their water in sheep skits, from a distanee o ity. town of ’ Kerbela, or 1s a very fine one, though more ancient than the days of Alexancer, and su men:of which the walls of Babylon were built, a brid i baplieseg for the canbe n-- journey from Van, situated: "Though ‘the a y iSeentoe das dcad toveo teoreentanstial 233- a bridge of 15 arches.at the town of Argish, three days Euphrates... uater the north-west side of ="y—" the lake of the same name, which is about 168 miles in circumference, but whose water is so brackish as to be fae known. that aa oh Nagy Wek sy city Babylon a. 2 into two parts, flowi through it vi y the from north to: south. ie banks were with bricks, Euphrates. the inhabitants descending by steps to the: water, through small brass gates in a lofty wall, parallel with the river. Semiramis threw across a bridge of five fur- longs in length, and 30 feet in breadth, to connect the two quarters of the city, and erected a palace at each end of the bridge. These palaces communicated with each other, by means of a vaulted passage cut under the bed of the river, for which purpose an immense lake was dug, into which its waters were turned. The Waters of ~ course of the river, Kinneir remarks, might easily the Euphis< be diverted, as the banks of the Euphrates rise above tS “diverted the level. of the adjoining plain ; but, as he adds, it is difficult, to, conceive how it could be confined within the compass. of an artificial lake, without inundating the outeiades country, or forcing a passage to the sea. The waters of the Euphrates were again diverted by: Cyrus, when he took Babylon. Taking advantage ofa great festival held in the city, and when all its inhabi- tants were immersed in debauchery and revelling, he posted a part of his troops, destined for the attack, on. that side where the Eu tes entered the town, and another division on the side whence it issued out, giving orders that they should enter the city by marching along the bed of the ee, as — as they ae Barn te In the ing, he caused the great receptacles and ca- nals above a below the town t to be opened. By this means the Euphrates was discharged, and its natural channel left dry. The enterprize was greatly facilita- ted, and, perhaps, solely accomplished, in consequence of the negligence and disorder of the city, as that night the gates of brass which shut up the avenues from the river to the town were left open. When Kinneir examined the ruins of Babylon, he pyramid of mentions particularly a pyramid, six miles south-west Nimrood. of Hillah, called Nimrood by the Arabs, about 50 feet in height, from whose summit the windings of the Euphrates may be traced through the level plain of Shi- nar. Villages and orchards are seen to line its banks, while a few hamlets, in here and there on the: like on the surface of the ocean. Euphrates flows through one of the most. uctive regions of the earth, the icious po- icy of the Turk renders unavailing the bounty of nature, the baneful influence of _ ism convertin fertile plains into sterility, and itation of wi beasts. On those banks where once flourished the dest cities of the world, now languish ive-~ y insignificant towns; where luxury and abundance were universally diffused, a scanty pittance is now thered ; and where mighty conquerors have contended’ for kingdoms, the wandering Arab of the desert now vindicates his spoil. But the whole extent of country along the banks of the Euphrates must not be included in this picture of desolation. The a of Arme-+ nia, considerable part of which this river flows, so delightful to the imagination of poetry, seat of pa: radise. ' sop aarevocseees Eden stretch’d her line From Auran, myn oa the royal towers G Meath of the Ku- phrates. i azFe i ite Foie f itt ales Vincent has bestowed much pains and argument in elucidating the matter, and D’Anville has been Jed in- to gross mistakes, from i on some particular points of inqui But Kinneir having been encam tor six on the banks of the Karoon and Hafar, must be su from his intelligence, and though erroneously, been suppo- wee (the combined stream of the Euphrates and Tigris.) enters the Persian Gulf by issue from the Delta into the sea, at no t distance from each other, were derived from the l-Arab, the river with which they were chiefly acquainted. These channels, or khores as they are call , in Mr Cluer's map e the following order: Cossisa Bouny, Bamishere, Karoon, Seluge, Mohilla, Goban, and Detia: Bona. If it be proved that the Bamishere, the next in succession, as well as in itude, to the Cossisa Bouny, or Shat-ool-Arab, is not in the least aug- mented by waters of the latter, clearly none of the others can ; for the only means of communication is by the Hafar cut. Now, the Bamishere is the main — aa Sern oye Pity river, after its confluence wi Abzal.at Bundikeil, contains a greater body of water than either the Euphrdtes of Tiss se- 'y. This stream, on reaching Sabla, a ruined village 30 miles east of Bussora, disunites; the largest branch called Hafar, after a course of fourteen or fifteen miles, tes. The greatest portion of waters flowing obliquely to.the east, constitute the Bamishere, the rest enter the Shat-ool-Arab, through an artifi- cut, three miles . This cut is the only com- munication which the -Arab has with the six ; and,as the waters of the Karoon | teresting in the world, at the time of its accomplish- ‘ ment, opening a communication with Eur and the most distant regions of Asia, and, as Dr Ve ob= serves, the eacee and orgin of the Portuguese disco- veries, an primary :ause, however remote, of the’ “From fo anges, too Eeplialia panacea rom its source, Eu a course of about 1400 miles to its confluence with’ the © at Korna, which, estimating at the distance of 190 miles from the Persian Gulf, tle waters of the Euphrates con sequently flow upwards »f 1500 miles in reaching the gd aa gp ce a 8 Machen to hong re, passim, pnyis ip ; Memoire sur t Buprae et le Tigre pir D Anville ; Vincent's Voyage of Nearchus, and Arrun’s Hist. by Gronovius (w. 7.) EURIPIDES, a ceebrated Grecian ic poet, was’ born in the first yearof the "ath Olympiad, (about 408: B. C.) in the island of Salamis, whither his peng res of the false interpretation erxes. In uence i ’ Pe equivocal orade, he was destined, by h one pow go Anaxagoras, by vari chadiones fest ren. em various 4 tobea e ; for, a reference to chrorology, it will be found, that Socrates was twelve or thitteen than Euripides ; which makes it Yery im a ee it is 6 a i inti subsisted a ey ag Sate —ve men; in so that Socrates, vho in general di exhibitions, sellom appeared at the unless when the tragedies of Euripides were to be performed. At an early age, Euripides imbibed a strong partiali- previous to the invasion of Attica _ = EURIPIDES. 935 ‘Buripides. from his eighteenth € ar, to the composition of drama- opinions concerning the superior claims of Aschylus, Euripides. ——~ eomene = which bicedan rose to the hi emi- Sophocles, and the subject of this article. Quintilian ——"\—”" nence. He wrote a great number of ies, which seems unwilling to decide, yet he evidently gives the were held in the highest estimation during his owntime, palm to Euripides, (Inst. Or. lib. x. cap. 1.) He is and have been admired by the best and most inferior to the two first, perhaps, in majesty, sublimity, cedon, a great patron of learned men, by whom he was i received, and raised tohigh honours. Here, -however, he met with a most tragical.fate ; for, while he was walking in a wood, according to his custom, ab- sorbed in ein ip ga ep a ra torn to pieces by the prince’ 's dogs, who happened to be at that time engaged in hunting. Archelaus his death, and gave him a the news of his fate Athens, the inhabitants were so grieved at the event, that the whole city went i i His great rival Sophocles, with a soul into mourning. superior to vulgar jealousy, also manifested his grief in _ the most unequivocal manner. He ordered a traged Setnaiciodiad-dpes: tha acapiices:nt chick tip birpeclt - and the actors appeared in deep mourning. The cir- cumstances of the death of Euripides, however, are va- riously reported ; but we have given the most current tradition regarding it; and the event seems to have when he Euripides. His. oF capeniivnis sssith terpisepel eine and. phi ical maxims, that he was called the of stage. » many, he has been considered as the most i of all the ancient tragic poets, although the critics are divided in their and force ; but he is generally allowed to surpass them in morality and pathos ; atid in the declamatory elo- quence of the stage he is probably unrivalled. — Aris- totle calls him the most tragical of all the poets. Euripides froee ee ope cae aioe ve into the composition ly. Among other es, he su the prologue, in which it had been saoel comin an outline of the story, and threw the exposition of the subject into the piece itself; a mode of proceeding, which, although it some difficulties to the au- thor, was of considerable advantage to the dramatic art. The manners of Euripides were harsh, and his cha- racter austere ; but his dramatic productions, in gene- ral, do not indicate such dispositions; for there is no poet who has written with greater feeling and tender- ness, or who has described the passion of love in more expressive and delicate terms. He is said, however, to have had two wives, whose character and conduct were far from contributing to soften the asperity of his tem- per; and he acquired the name of the woman hater, bly in consequence of the many invectives which, in his writings, he pointed against the fair sex. The earliest edition of Euripides is that of Aldus Ma- nutius, Venice, 1503, 8vo. | It contains only the Greek text of eighteen ies. This edition was renewed by Hervagius, 1537, &c. Robert Winter, pub- lished another edition at Basil, in 1541, with a Latin version. John Oporin pri an edition of Euripides, in Greek and Latin, 1562, fol. Plantinus gave an edi- tion at Antwerp, 1571, 16mo, with the division and ar- rangement of the verses by William Canter. | Besides these, we have the edition of Jerome Commelin, Heidel- berg, 1597, 8vo; of Paul Stevens, 1604, 4to; and of Jo- shua Barnes, Cambridge, 1694, fol. with a life prefixed, and learned notes. Some tragedies have been printed sepa ty commented upon, by different editors, The excellent English translation of Euripides by Pots ter, is well known. (=) ji EUROPE. tant and governs others. the warmth of its climate, the fertility of its soil, and the richness and luxuriance of its i productions, re en a a Bm grange the nations which it it, in civilization and. refine- ment, in attainments in science, and.in all the useful and ornamental arts, the iority. is vast and striking. Here is the theatre on which the human character has appeared to the and where soci The origin of the name Europe is not certainly _knewn; but it seems to have been extended from that of a small district on the European side of the Hellespont, as the name of Asia spread from the name of the Sec cabs: oP The extent of this part of the obe, which. yields considerably even to Africa, is from the Extent. most. western point of. P near Lisbon, to the Ura- lian mountains on the east, in length about 3300 Bri- tish miles, and in breadth, from the North Cape in Lap- land to the southern extremity of Greece, about 2350. — wo paehg square ae though they ane Ds culated with any degree of accuracy, may sta at.the medial num ancients were but very imperfectly acquainted with the boundaries of Europe. A epet eeovetcees this divi- sion, especially in the. no: east, has never been known with any degree of precision until modern times. It is bounded on the by the Arctic Ocean, or Frozen Sea ; on the west by on the south by the Mediterranean Sea. ' Its eastern li- mits are not so well defined.. As the natural -bounda- ries on this side extend only a certain length, it is sepa- rated from Alaina qiesenantily by. arbitrary li- on Europe. of two millions and a half. . The Boundaries. Atlantic Ocean ; and . Divisens. British isles. Peninsulas. Mountains. ® Fils 8 iil Fi ¢ 2 : F' 4 4 m urope no great ivided by the north and south of that sea. On the north of the Baltic, are the northern or Scandinavian kingdoms, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The extensive empire of Russia, occupies the remainder of ape terial F , France, Holland, and many. And in the centre of Europe are situated most of the German states, Prussia, Poland, Switzerland, Bo- hemia, Hungary, &c. During the violent and extraor- dinary convulsions which for the last twenty years have itated and desolated this division of the globe, it has atten been difficult to say what were the limits, or who were the masters of many of its states and kingdoms ; but now that the storm has subsided, they are again re- turning to nearly their former boundaries, their former governments, and their former institutions. The E islands are numerous, and some of them extensive and highly important. On the west in the Atlantic Ocean, are the Azores, situated about thir- teen west of ee classed under Africa, they more perly which they were fpr erm to which they have always been subject. The belonging to the crown of Denmark. island of Iceland, subject to es i lying about 400 miles from the con- tinent in Western Ocean ; and numerous other but unimportant islands on the Norwegian'coast. In the great Northern Sea, the chief and most extensive are the remote and dreary and almost uninhabited islands of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. In the Baltic Sea, are the islands of Denmark, Zealand, the chief seat of the Danish monarchy, Funen, Laland, Talster, Born- holm, &c. ; the islands of Rugen, Oeland, Gothland, and Aland, be ing to Sweden ; and those of Cron- stadt, Oesal, Dago, subject to Russia. In the Me- diterranean, are the islands of Majorca and Minorca, of Corsica and Sardinia, the and fertile island of Si- ‘cily, Malta, Candia the ancient Crete, N t the ancient Eubcea, with the numerous other islands of the contains numerous peninsulas. Some of its finest and most celebrated are peninsular. Be- sides innumerable others of lesser extent and import- ance, we may notice Crim-T: in the Black Sea ; the peninsulas of Greece and of taly in the Mediter- an ; i contained between ‘the Mediterranean and the ic; and Jutland, formed merger —y the Baltic. We may include also Scandinavia, w is a large la formed by the Baltic and the Northern Ocean. The mountains of Europe do not form ridges of such vast extent as those of Asia, and are much~ in height to those in Thibet and in South America, Of The large and renaaapte gs cre tb Oe Seatidina Ses i “The vian chain. cliynthinpal ike apetendas Bawerans very accu- rately ascertained ; but they do not equal the Alps, or even the Pyrenees. The grand and extensive ri he Yhsirmageare eerie gees! oe: - form, from the mountain of Javornick, south of Silesia, niountains. bounds H on the north and east, and sends off branches to Transylvania and Wallachia. — Its circuit may be about 500 miles; and the highest | mits of these mountains do not feet. river seer a oo PB the d range of the Hemus, ing from Emi to south of Servia, a tract of 400 miles, known un- ¥ der various names. From the western extremity of the Hemus branch off two other extensive chains, one ‘ running between Dalmatia and Bosnia ; the other pass- ing south, a —_ mountains of wom | f the west % Appenines, ae Appenines. mont from the sea, and por meas oe ¢ Vanantenctetenhet aie iedaeeee vases " of Europe, mount itna, in Sicily, claims the first dis- tinction. The other voleanoes are those of mount Ve- suvius near N. and mount Hecla in Iceland. The islands of Lipari, to the ‘north of Sici » also contain a eee Hemus. ent esl which prove a usefuul source of industry and subsistence tothe inhabitants. To the north of Europe lies:the Arctic See. Arctic Ocean, extending over , the this enormous , barren waste a fertile source of provisions for the human race. Here the vast and innumerable tribes of herrings E a, Mediterra- Black Sea. EUROPE. reaches the shores of America; another smaller squa- dron i | i F f : E i : and extent of its inland seas; which have been just- ly regarded as one of the chief causes of its indus- try and civilization, and ae the other grand divisions of the globe. Amongst 5 the Mediterranean is obviously pre-eminent. From its shores, their first seats, both in ancient and mo- dern-times, knowledge and civilization have been dif- fused over the other countries of Europe. From the ! | which still further of inland na- Mitcwids tupanne’'f tide ca ts bonouttly tortoniod w sea is with islands, and environed with opulent coasts, abound ing with the most sublime and picturesque features of nature. Epnithe:Dodtistchagemy thane tate tides, ex cept in the narrowest straits ; but a current sets along the Italian shore from west to east, and towards the African in an ite direction. This sea abounds in ief fisheries are those of the tunny, of the sword-fish, of the sea-dog, and of the anchovy. To the north of the eastern part of this sea, which is denomi- nated the Levant, but distant from it some hundreds of miles, lies the Black Sea, with which it communicates by two narrow straits, and the small sea of Marmora, which is situated between them. This extensive sea, of which the western parts only be toE is said to have derived its name from its black r or navigation. To the north of the Black Sea, and connected with it by the short and narrow strait Sea of Azof. of Caffa, istthe sea of Azof, the utmost maritime li- Baltic, mit/of Europe in this quarter. It is shallow, and pol- luted with mud, whence its ancient name of Palus to the N. E. and called the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, both covered with ice during four or five months of the win- The greatest depth of this sea does not exceed 50 fathoms; and the Sw me ope extent in the course of a con | t 237 called the White Sea, which is an extensive inlet or Europe. gulf of the Arctic Ocean; ing the northern pro- vinees of Russia in the direction of. sea was better known before the commerce of Archan- gel was supplanted by that of St Petersburgh. The numerous and extensive inland seas and gulfs of Straits. Europe, give rise to several celebrated straits. Of these, besides those ‘already mentioned, the most. im- are, the Straits of Gibraltar; which connect the editerranean with the Atlantic Ocean ; the Straits of Messina, between Italy and Sicily ; the Dardanelles, between the Grecian Archipelago and the Sea of Mar- mora ; and the Hellespont, between the Sea of Marmo- ra and the Black Sea; the Straits of Dover, which con- nect the English Channel with the German Sea, and the narrowest distance between the English and French coasts ; and, in the Baltic, the celebrated Strait of the Sound, between the Island of Zealand ‘and the coast of Sweden, where the king of a levies “ toll on all shi i and down the Baltic; the Great Beles ventt Peake and Funen; and the Little Belt, between Funen and the peninsula of Jutland. Europe contains few or no lakes of any great extent. The most considerable are; the lakes of Constance, 45 miles inlength, and 15 in breadth; and of Geneva, 40 miles long, and nine at its greatest breadth, both situ- ated in Switzerland. The lakes, Wenner, 80 miles in , and 50 in breadth ; Wetter, about 80 miles long, and 12 broad ; and Meeler; 60 miles by 18, in Sweden. And Lake Onega, which is about 150 miles in length, by a medial breadth of about 30; and the Ladoga, 130 miles long by 70 in breadth, in the western divi- sions of the Russian empire. - The more limited extent of Europe admits not the rivers. accumulation of such mighty bodies of water as the Asiatic and American continents roll to the ocean. ‘The largest and most important of the Eu rivers, are, the Volga, the er pat of which belon this division of the globe. This largest of the Euro- a takes its rise in the mountains of Valday, Petersburgh and Moscow, and, after running ina direction, a course of upwards of 1700 miles, falls into the Caspian at Astracan. This noble river, having no cataracts, and few shoals, is na- vigableeven as high as Tver. Its chief tributary streams are, Kama on-the east, and Oka on the west. Next to Volga is the Danube, whose m stream rises in Swabia, and Passing through Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey, falls into the Black Sea, after'a circuit of 1500 miles. The Danube, though occasionally im by small falls and whirlpools, is yet sanviggltn an immense extent of its course. Dnieper, or ancient Borysthenés, rises in the vernment of Smolensk, about 150 miles to the of the source of the Volga, and after a course of about 1000 miles through fertile provinces, falls into the Eux- ine Sea. The Rhine rises in the mountains of Switzer- land, and falls into the German Sea, by several mouths, on the coast of Holland. This noble river, whose banks are celebrated for their grand and striking scenery, forms the great barrier between France and Germany, and. its course may be computed at 600 British miles. Tt receives, near Mentz, the tributary stream of the Mayne. a the Baltic. This White Sea Lakes. to Volga. ificént Danube. ‘0- Dnieper. Rhine. The Elbe rises in the Sudetic mountains of Silesia, EJbe. and, running through the north of Germany a course of 500 miles, discharges itself into the sea near Cux- haven. The Don rises frorn a lake in the of Tulan, and fulls into the sea of Azof, after a course of about 800 miles. The Dniester forms the boundary Dneister. ernment Don. a Rurepe. — re Oder. Rhone. Population. 238 between Turkey and Russia, derives its source from the side of the Carpathian mountains, and falls into the Euxine at Akerman, after a course of about 600 miles. The Dvina and Pelchora direct their course to the Arctic Ocean. The course of the former, which falls into the White Sea, is about 500 miles ; and that of the latter 450.. The Dvina rises in the province of Smolensk in Russia, and falls into the Baltic at Riga, after running 500 miles. The Vistula rises in the Car- ian mountains, passes Warsaw, and joins the sea near Dantzic, after a course of 450 miles. The Oder has its source in the mountains of Moravia, and, after watering Silesia, Brandenberg, and Pomerania, joins the Baltic, after a course of 380 miles. The Rhone pees from the Glacier of Furca, and, flowing through Lake of Geneva, bends its course to the south, and enters the Mediterranean ; its course is 400 miles. The Loire rises in Languedoc, and after running 500 miles, enters the ocean beyond Nantes. The beautiful stream of the Seine, on which the city of Paris is built, falls into the English Channel at Havre de Grace, after a course of 250 miles. The Ebro rises in the mountains of Asturias in Spain, and after a south-easterly course of 350 miles, falls into the Mediterranean Sea. The ‘Tagus has its source in the west of Arragon, and hold- ing a course of 450 miles, falls into the Atlantic at Lis- bon. Nor in enumerating the rivers of Europe, ought we to ft the Thames, which, though one of the smallest, is one of the most celebrated ; the seat of Bri- tish.empire, and the grand resort of the commerce of the woud. Excepting a small portion of its most northern limits which stret within the Arctic circle, Europe is en- tirely situated within the temperate zone, is con- tly exempted from the utmost extremities both of beat and of cold. In so extensive a track, however, the climate must necessarily be very various. While its northern states are often cold and bleak, and during pean Es ttt lay bound in the frozen chains of winter, one furnishes them with all the comforts an of life. even luxuries energy and activi in knowl EUROPE. like the Samoids of Asia, in the furthest north. Those ancient inbabitants, who seem to have been thinly scat- tered, were driven towards the west and north by the Scythians or Goths 3 Asia, whose descendants occu- y the ter H by the g eek eihaiaies from Asia, the ancestors of the Rus- sians, Poles, &c. From cenaniytatety unser Iberi passed into Spain at a v od ; a late ter period, the netnasion of ts Trigarleanea Turks took place from Asia. wt The irruptions of ran the Roman*empire, ry quarter of Europe, rise to a new and sin- state of society, distinguished by the name of Feudal System. As these conquerors of Europe had their acquisitions to maintain, not on’ ail such of the ancient inhabitants as they but also against the more formidable inroads invaders, self-defence was their chief care, and seems to have been the chief object of their first institutions and ‘policy. With this view, mgt soldier, upon re- ceiving a portion of the lands which were bound himself to in arms against the enemies of the community. This tenure, by which they held their land, amongst a warlike people, was reckoned both ea- sy and honourable. The king or general who led them to conquest continuing still to be their head, had, of course, the portion allotted tohim. These lands: he parcelled out amongst his adherents, binding those on whom they were bestowed to resort to his standard when required, with a number of men ioned te thie extent of territory they. received. :Flis chief olcets ed themsel imitated the example of their sovereign, and in distri- buting’ portions of land to their « dants, annexed the same conditions to their grant. Thusa feudal king- dom resembled a military establishment rather than a civil institution. The victorious army, cantoned out in the country which it had conquered, continued ar- under its proper officers, who were ordered to hold themselves in readiness to assemble whenever oc- casion should require their united operations. The names of a soldier and a awe to ane: sper Sw ns E roprietor, girt with a sword, was ready to jet a the sdintothe of his superior, and to soie aes field against the common’enemy. Such is the origin and outline of that celebrated system which for many centuries prevailed throughout the whole of Europ Though it seems well calculated for ing : assaults, yet it was ill fitted to promote the ends of m- ternal ps i and tranquillity, and was unfavourable to = these barbarous nations who over- political ves in eve= state, the cultivation of every art but that of war. By the . gradual tion of various causes, this barbarous structure has been overthrown in most of the states of Europe. In some countries, however, considerable re- mains of it are still to be found, and in all its former existence, may be traced in their laws, policy, and in- stitutions. } In E almost alone, or in its colonies, aré li+ berty and government to be found. In various states, freedom is established beyond the reach of ac- cident or caprice; and even those governments which in theory are more arbitrary or er absolute, the diffusion of knowledge, the state of European. society and manners, and the force m= 1 9 oom has rendered in ice comparatively mild, and atten- tive to justice and the rights of the subject: The uni-. versal hatred and detestation of which, in this quarter. of the world, where the principles of freedom and of government are so much better understood, they inva-. ' Pe _in a great mea- neral congress of deputies from its various states ; and Europe. de zag" ‘as occur any of its nations war be regarded as ty of ay hematin cepa: ants Paces rebellion ; to quell which, all the rest are bound to con- Political EUROPE. “a 239 states, which is peculiar to “Europe. In ancient ab ies Pctropeest Commintity; and jtnpieteen boa times, and in other divisi Gat gh kar Agr’ A + anature and strength, as to endanger or even altoge~ Send dard sta aneeeed Cat ana fee ederacy. Of ind i ing another, and interferes not, for a time completel ded, and seemed to have Splees ee the telischs e Satiaans Mase gift torte? entirely destroyed, the | ce of power in this part of ries or dominion. In this state of things, some one in- the world. But its different oms having again dividual power is always eee 4 an undue prepon- subsided into their ancient state, one of the seve« derance and ascendency fatal to. © independence of rest agitations to which they can ever be exposed, has the rest ; and the face of the political peepee established this system much more firmly than if it’ ally undergoing great and sudden changes. ut the had never been interrupted ; and shewn, that no power’ similarity m the situation of the European powers ; the need hereafter attempt to disturb it, who is not able resemblance of their languages, manners, and laws; to subjugate Europe. ; =n the extension of their intercourse by travelling and fo- The Christian is the universal religion of Europe, Religious eign residence ; their union, by the relations of scien- with the sacestion of Turkey, in which Mahometan- state. . : 1 caieeriality a the ism is established, but where, nevertheless, at least : and one half of the inhabitants are pan ps oe common advantages of such an union,—have given birth religion must be regarded as one of the causes of the tart boteaste pemcsectiok: Sx Goes of pence, eal x cot superiority of E ; for wherever the rel on of mon feeling of interest in maintaining the existence of Jesus has penetrated, knowledge, industry, and civili« the state of affairs. They form a united whole zation, have followed. The southern parts of Europe Willen Gicbaciven almost separated from the rest ofthe were converted to the Christian faith at an early pe- world,—a great federacy, acknowledging indeed no riod. Among the barbarous tribes of the North, the common chief, but united by certain common princi- progress was slow. Scandinavia remained Pagan till and obeying one system of i ional law, the eleventh century ; some Sclavonic tribes on the se lags fat sith aolietade the dangers which South of the Baltic’ till the thirteenth; and it is not beset the vest. and feels tteelf attacked wher any of the above a century since the Laplanders were converted weaker states are to the insults or oppressions missions from Denmark. The chief divisions of ) fosiebble neighisour, The power that. the Christian church are three: The Greek church, ; itories of any one feeble which me in E , and the a — neighbour, must lay its account with preserving the tions ics and Protestants; the former of w usurpation, by exposing its whole dominions and colo- are prevalent in the South, and the latter in the North abe of Haroge, immediately unite to restore the former balance of | The progressive geography of E will be more Progressive power. i Fig sa properly a ron sarang illu wr under the de~ geography. Such is the system ot palitecal equilibrium which ex- scriptions of its different kingdoms states, in, i globe, an impolitic France, and Britain, were early and fully explored by the Romans, who overrun them with their arms, and i pre a pic in permanent rps nen Their Ww easily perceive, however, how shi lored southern shores of the Baltic, as its influ ¥ intai i Fg fd hte fiple Babes ot the Western Divina, anatvane different states, if we consider the trifling extent pres my ae ata gee along the coasts ; ‘ which have taken place in the relative were also acquai wi e southern parts on of the left of the ube, but of the central ; of anor it is evident, from the maps of Ptolemy, they no just ideas. Of Scandinavia, the ancients knew only the southern parts, as far as the lakes Wet« ter and Wenner. The Carpathian or Sarmatian moun- tains were well known, but the line of 50° or 52° north latitude bounded the ancient knowledge in the north- east, and the wide extent of the Russian empire cons tinued almost unknown to Europe until the sixteenth century. The greater and more splendid efforts, in«’ deed, for extending geographical knowledge, have been directed to distant regions; but great and laudable ex« ertions have also been made to improve the geo y of European nations. Some of them have ly been most minutely and shee described ; ‘and it is probable, from the t increasing intercourse amongst its different catia; as well as the labours of scientific and public craiiel eehinon ~_ fact of importance in the geography of Europe will speedily - be unfolded, (¢) : Tee i } ee ry af : 28.2" Fey 3 240 ISEBIUS, ’ was born in Pa-. mu a surnamed Pamphilus, Pamphilus, an eminent presb a wg he is to new ate much assistance in his studies, and from to whose memory he is said to have taken the sirname of Pamphilus. During the Dioclesian persecution, when Pamphilus was im- isoned. in the year 307, Eusebius assiduously attend, Wiis dafiog his confinement; and.after his friend had suffered rdom, A. D, 309, he. removed to, Tyre, where he witnessed other anking instances of unsha- ken suffering in the cause of Christianity. He next went into Egypt, where the same persecution was Car- ried on, and w he himself was. imprisoned, but was afterwards released without mune bx subjected to nalty ; a. circamstance which, without any ap; inten brought upon him the charge of having made some.dishonourable submission to the enemies of his faith. When the persecution ceased, he returned to Palestine, and was elected Bishop of Czesarea as is gene- rally supposed in the year 315; but, at all events, he filled that see in the year 320. From, this period, he was present at most of the synods held in that of the world; and was generally the advocate of mild and. forbearing measures. He was one of those bishops who conceived that Arius had been severely treated by Alex- ander, Bishop of Alexandria, to whom he wrote a letter in bis behalf. He acteda distinguished part at the ce- lebrated Council of Nice in 325, in which, by the com- mand. of Constantine, he was placed. on the right of the throne, and opened the proceedings by an ess to that Emperor. He hesitated long to admit the term émexeses, consubstantial, on the ground that it was un- scriptural ; but afterwards concurred, upon condition of being allowed to subscribe it in his own sense of it, namely, “‘ that the Son of God was not like created beings, but received his existence and his ections from the Father in a different and in an ineffable man- ner.” Hence it has been keenly contested, whether he favoured the sentiments of Arius or of Athanasius, The most likely opinion is, that he assented to neither, bat endeavoured to steer a middle.course, which has rendered him obnoxious to the more violent disciples ofboth. In the year 330, he concurred with the coun- cil at Antioch in deposing Eustathius, Bishop of that city; but, though he was elected to the vacant see, which was more honourable and profitable than that of Caesarea, and though he was earnestly urged by the hishops and sisted in his refusal. In 335, he was present at the Council of Tyre, where he joined those, bishops who condemned the prnecetiogs of Athanasius, Bishop of Tyandus en deputed to justify the. sentence to Constantine, he pronounced his celebrated, Alexandria ; and having the public e po: honeursdomch peror’s fayour, being gyric of that emperor duri ce 30th year of his reign. very particular marks of the em often invited to his table, and admitted to his private. conferences ; and, after his return to received fram him many letters, several of which he has insert- ed in oie life of that prince, It does not, however, ap- le to accept of the succession, he per-_ tate ever employed his eee stantine, either in depressing _ He died ep ear 339 or 3: _ his disciple and intimate fi his life, but whose work has: and, like most eminent i. t friends and inve enemies. According to pedbaig ys - : and sincere—a gr , of truth, an religion—little disposed active share in the quarrels of hie conten sways, suns fe : contending Saarene persuasion, things sidered as the father of ecclesiastical hi ‘o hi as well as a voluminous writer. 1 course of his life he seems to have studious ; and it has excited the astoni who were Ives distinguished for how he should have been able, amidst ties of his function, to find leisure for the been rer OO compen in a Treatise conce in six books, of which han 1604. A fe fragments of the orig inal, preserved in Greek authors, wete collected and published by Joseph, works, which Levi ies Pe bius treats with great ity; Three of E siastical Theology ; the Life of Constantine, in four 2) Gq * ro 41 Ex '¢€ is gen counted rather a panegyric and French ; and the French king at the treaty of Bre- Eutosthene and in one of which the author da, retained possession of it in spite of the remonstran- ,, far as to of that empe- ces of his Dutch allies, As soon as the treaty, however, basen Trinity ; a Commentary upon the Psalms; a was signed, he restored the island of his own accord to ’ entary upon the Prophecies of Isaiah ; the Evan- the Dutch. The French drove the Dutch. ftom. the al Preparation, in fifteen books; and, the Evange- island soon after the revolution in 1688 ; but they were ‘Demonstration, originally in twenty books, but of expelled from it in their turn by the English under Sir ich the last ten are lost ; two works which contain Timothy Thornhill, who left a small garrison for its de- the most learned defence of Christianity, both against fence. The Dutch obtained entire possession of it at and Pagans, that has been transmitted from an- the treaty of Ryswick. Admiral Rodney got pos- cient ti argument proceeds upon the opinion, ‘session of the island in 1781. The French under the ‘that the dent & 030] had receivéd many truths, Marquis de Bouillée retook it before the close of the year, ‘either immediately or by tradition, from divine revela- and it was finally restored to.the Dutch at the of tion. Among the materials col in illustration of 1783. Population 5000 whites, and 15,000 Neston this point, are geht ean tai The position of the road according to astronomical ob- h -been long lost. Of | two works, a servations, is in West Long. 63° 4’ 45’, and in North ‘beautiful edition was printed in Greek by Robert Ste- Lat. 17° atte ms in 1544, in two volumes folio; which were re- EUTOST ‘ Genera, in Music, according to 2d at Paris in 1628, in two volumes folio, with a Dr Wallis’ opinions of the various scales which the version of the former by Francis Vigerus, and of Greeks pretended to have in use, consisted of the fol- the latter by Donatus. The Evangelical or Ecclesias- lowing modes of dividing the tetrachord, or minor ‘the e bit to the death elder Licinius, a period o sabes. This a accounted Chromatic XX ees 5 the most valuable, but the least accurate, of all the lar- a ceee es * get works of Eusebins yet, with all its defects, it is a Diatonic oP Poh cli Important production, as furnishing the prin 256 * '9* 10~% on we concerning the first ages Bohenmic.... 225 coe eee of Chris and the of scripture then received 40* 39% ig =a dcr etee i Of this work, the editio princeps, translated into Latin by Ruffinus, was printed at Utrecht Two of them involving higher primes than 5, all of 1474; but the best edition is that of Henry Valesius, which are excluded in modern music without tempera~ ‘who carefully revised the Greek text, and gave a new ment, which tothe Greeks was unknown it is believ- ‘translation, with many learned notes, printed at Paris ed. (. in 1671, at Frankfort in 1672, and at Cambridge in EUXINE Sea. ‘See Brack Sra. 1720, in three volumes folio, by William Reading, who EX. See Drvonsutne, Vol. VII. p. 686, col. 2. has added to the notes of Valesius several observations EXCENTRICITY. See Astronomy Index. A Th ge : | i i i 5 i zs f ES i ret E i Cave's H. L. vol. i. in Euseb. Jortin’s Remarks on Ecc Hist. vol. ii. p. 91. Lardner’s Works, vol. iv. “New. Biog. Dict, Mosheim’s Eccles. Hist, vol. i. Brucker’s Hist. of Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 308. a a e ; ’ schisma-excessive ( 2), minor comma-excessive (€), di-- @ aschisma-excessive ( subminimis fixes to the names of different intervals; (¢) ; EXCHANGE, in commerce, has two significations, the one expressive of a place of public resort among merchants on particular days, or rather at particular hours of every day of business ; while an and a “more important méaning of the word denotes the pay- “ment or receipt of mioney in one country for its equi- Meme ther tal country, by means of ex r y - Te i Yat ting he west: 2H exchanges . of Amsterdam and London have long been famous ean eect as is the crowd collected ‘daily the hours of two and four at the latter, the renga. of the Amsterdam exchange is said, in the days of the mercantile prosperity of the Dutch, to have considerably more numerous ; an assertion, however, which should be qualified by admitting that traders of an inferior description were accustomed to - ‘Yepair thither. In bom extent of space, the new H 242 Exchange exchange of Liverpool takes the lead of both these cele- —\Y—" brated Exchange between dif- ferent coun- tries. Real ex- change. of mercantile resort, 2. the same manner What the diferent lic rooms of Liverpool are superi- ar to those of sy ete city in Britain, The hours of meeting on " have, like our hours of dining, ex- perienced a ble alteration in the course of the present age ; and, noctrithaneadtins the endeavours made in London to enforce adherence to established rules, by shutting, at a given hour, all the gates except one, it has become more and more fashionable to protract the transactions of reer ond aie o'clock, so that it is now generally near five before e Exchange is com- pletely cleared. II. Exchange, taken in the sense of paying or re- ceiving money between two countries, forms one of the most complicated subjects of political economy. ‘The discrepancies ‘of public opinion, in this respect, have been strongly exemplified by the recent discussions on the bullion question. All ies were in re- ogy hades to the practical point of the fall of exchange, but and the manner of its taking place are, to this day, subjects of doubt to many persons, possessed, in other respects, of considerable information. The bul- lionists contend that the fall was owing to the excess and consequent de: so of our pa currency ; while the mercantile body maintain that it arose from ‘the de of our foreign expenditure, and the un- fav: le balance of our le with the continent. Under the head ing ae we have ‘taken occasion to state, that the poin pe omrpeladty tard cetine whan ont but more one seo the commercial advocate. That our.paper currency undergone a partial deprecia- fiom! to ¢ the extent of two or Prox per cent. pig di be doubted, on comparing our tables of the prices of gold and silver, since- the year 1800; for at no time since that period, have bait notes been within three per cent. of the value of silver. On the other hand, the enormous fall of the continental exchange since 1808, is to be attributed much more to secnacad and Pe causes, than to over issues of. currency. he stoppage of the American trade to ‘continent of Eu always appeared to us the fundamental root of the evil. It deprived us at once of a remittance of four or five millions a year, which came over in _weekly packets, in portions of L. 50,000 or L. 100,000, with as much regularity as the letters which passed by ngs gis: War beet bat bo Sra sh 1s most egg i °8 y, until it was -dient to lay, b pe 4h in council dan betas the commerci intercourse between the United States and Europe. I pened unluckily, that soon after trying this un ented experiment, ment of the war in Spain called for. é sup- plies from this ‘country. The absence of American traders making it necessary for us to effect our remit- tances in specie, we were speedily stri et of our bul- Tion ; and our deficient crop in 1809, ob us to im- port ‘large quantities of corn, led, in the cad instance, to a deprivation of our current com, =" The bullion question might have been much simpli- fied, had its the piece ee it been familiar with rinciples of exchan These will be most easily comprahatiied: by dividing exchange into three heads, real, nominal, and computed. Real exchange. —By this head is meant a reference to actual value, without taking any account of the appa- rent difference arising from the variety in the m denominations of different connie,” Ths exchange from one city to another in the same ki Glasgow'to London; for example, is atehaent sen. sims the commence- hav EXCHANGE. ple. An allowance of interest for 30, 40, or 45 days, ono] is ted in consideration of th oo father dilntehee eat ney is the metropolis ; and no farther ists, as the currency of the two cities is striking cat aete this rf the ra ae Teaonge to same manner, Hctantim “neces- a of exchange, thn iene he pl the ammie fen place fr thon of ance 3 and merchants have no interest in in an ie an higparge in the value of Equality” eh d exports leads to penta equality bts and credits, and mote Gstog thas of hee tab value in one as in another, the course of exchange is consequently at BS st a8 not un ony howeyer, that clreumstan Scour valicien sen in their : jon, to unsettle this the things. A deficient eg in one im of corn the amount w: veniently be balanced b eosin and the alana a. Serene ef the coun has sold the corn, In that country, money become: eho Sp in the debtor country, biect of the latter is to thither, in order either to procure to discharge the debt sis ae the Gost apenas 2 Ate in , the chief expence of aby bar Insurance the Ff o€ which yt tine of war, ne- vg dark mda of capture. In some aeig' iene: nae F ndentiphosacinns ® a3 eoerts aed tn ge of specie, create an burden on the traffic. Such ibitions are so inef- reautens The stock of coin ina astiouti' tial bilgi ‘more than pe parne for an sear oe of ‘business, it seldom ns that mu it abroad.’ Bullion is ° the more a source; and the want ef bullion leads : purchase of it theo ie ee ar tecnto te tole ae, Sy i aha ad obtained for the sale of his. a EXCHANGE. , 3 what less violent, act of injustice, was the reduction of Exchange. its weight. In France, irregularities of the latter de« “Vv” —\— to a mercantile correspondent, like Messrs Barings, who paid it away, by order of the owner, to” ms. ac -was, that the manufacturers in York- the funds required for our continental expenditure, whether the latter were wanted in the Mediterranean, the Baltic, or the central part of Europe. Were gov to avoid expensive foreign arma ments, the course of exchange would experience com- paratively little fluctuation. In itself, it has a steady to ci ph drritet eet ie does money become of more value in one country ano- ee Se ee of the er a ae to in question, Intelligence o’ re- eer bites oF coomanditien is transmitted from coun- post, and no men are more ex~ pee ts, wheneyer a rise of price af- a tolerable chance of advantage. These ship- ments are continued until are. to a level, a circumstance which can : until the ex- change has been equalized. Any species of merchan- dise may thus be in contributing to 1 to the desired level. Bullion has, more- their current coin, and all have been unsuccessful in the of melting is too short and too law ; so,that the chief result of : he evasion. process, how in thi i (roca telly Nominal exchange. _We are now to leave the i- Shenton sceal secs oC tend, and ya aicses voc nom and the true policy of countries was un- denied was ou reign odes base the quality of the coin. A more recent, and some- scription took place about a century ag0, and in Tur- key they have occurred even during the present gene-~ ration. The obvious effect of this diminution of va~ lue, must be a reduction of the nominal exchange. When the French government, under Louis XV, issued ’ an order that the ecu, till then of five francs, should contain silver of the value of four francs only, forei nations would of course consent to receive it only at the latter rate. In the same way, the value in exchange of the Turkish piastre fell, not many years ago, to the half of its former amount. It deserves to be mentioned that, in our own case, before the new coinage of 1774, our ex with the continent was, on account of the lightness of our coin, two or three per cent. below par ; but that so soon as we had guineas of the full weight, it regained its proper level. Another cause of fluctuation, to a certain, though no great extent, in the rate of exchange, is the occasional variation in the relative value of gold and silver. In this country, gold is the standard coin ; in France, in. Holland, and in most parts of the continent, silver is the standard. Now the price of the one compared to the other, though. not subject to sudden fluctuation, can by no means be accounted stati In around estimate it was common to set down gold to silver, in Sify the of 15 to ae daigey hy ag ected ify existing proportion: Of late years, the silver mines of America have been in a state of progressive and rapid increase ; her gold mines, on the other hand, have become less productive than formerly. The con- age has been a ual, though not Mes consider~ able diminution in thie relative value of silver. The practical effect on the ex: is a reduction of those m denominations, of which silver is the standard. This being the case in Dutch money, the par of ex- Pru aig acne Holland and England, is no longer 11, but fully 114 guilders for the pound sterling. The same applies to other parts of the continent ; but- the difference being merely nominal, has no influence on ane airs rei cee, fry a introduction of paper currency duri e last’ and t age, into almost every Cahatey Europe, has ‘ uctive of great though not of permanent irregularities in the state of the exchange. This way of currency is by much too seductive tobe lodged in the hands of any government. On the Con- finent, the issues of paper have generally proceeded, not as in this country from banking incorporations, de- tached in a considerable degree from the influence of the government, but directly from the public offices of the state. The issues have accordingly been pushed as - far as fr peokerts of government required, or as the- ins? the public, in a season of enthusiasm, would bear. -No account was taken. of the roportion to be observed with reference to the de of trade; and ; it was quite fo that the existing currency is al. ways equal, or i of the French assignats has been renamed, al~ in a style of less extravagance, in all the prin- cipal countries on the Continent. ie Portugal, Austria, Russia, and Sweden, have each their royal or. i ial bank-notes, which circulate at a great and ac- knowledged inferiority to the current coin. ‘In France, the exaltation of the popular mind enabled the exeeu-~ tive power to make, at a particular time, an enormous, abuse of the facility of creating money ; but the excess of the evil produced its cure, and there has been, since ly equal, to these demands, The ( exchange. E> i . : i ! o pret ia : tations were pr pwc under the head of Bu.uion, was sent abroad, the substitution of at home was the cause of preventing its return. is paper, however undoubt- ed in point of character, is not current on the Conti- Reiss c comttorsblg Sik, then exchaiiged tar tee a when exc | for the precious metals, Og attending to the fluctuations in this we find that our paper has regularly fallen in ion as demands for subsidies or other pur- poses increased the sum required on’ the Continent. Computed exchange—After describing the exchange, both in its real and nominal character, the subject may appear to be exhausted ; but there remains a third dis- crimination, known by the name of computed cranes. This might be better understood, if it were called sparen or current rate of exchange, for it means no- ing else than the rates as they are quoted in the mer- cantile letters of the day.. Merchants take no account of the causes which operate more or legs the statements amon Their business is with its actual condition ; a condition which may be affected by circumstances connected with either the real or the nominal exchange. A sudden demand of corn from the Baltic, may make the real exchange between Eng- land and Poland in favour of the latter ; while the de. pracreted paper. of Volare. sf leoet of F ia pone may produce a calculation apparently fav to - land, This calculation forms, as tf vaxkds, die eceipes ted or current ex , and is the only part of the matter noticed in the , or attended to in the spe« oul of aeeieees, n E i z E s ~ 5 & z & r EXCHANGE. liam IIL. a similar in exi Holand bong 2% pe cat. blow par in the it fe Holland, kang at a very heavy ge of 17 i i Mercantile Calculations of Exchange. = * at a tet pt pet tet pe Wen 5, i Fs Lage d passat sorta es Soanees mburgh, called banco ar currency. co bears an agic or premium cent, t : Amsterdam. = 1 Stiver. , A 12 Grotes or 6 Stivers = 1 Shilling Flemish. 7 eo Flexing =1 Pound Flemish, ‘There are two sorts of money in. Holland ; namely bank-money and currency ; bank-money bears i 2, 8, or 4 per cent. which is called . Paris. - Exchanges are computed in francs and centimes; or in livres, sous, and deniers tournois, - 100 Centimes ' 1 Mercantile calculations of exchange, = wl cc eh eer ir ob OG heir, EXC Dimes, serena Bae 10 Dimes, or 100 Cents = . 1 ‘currency =1 _ Ditto. iple of ing’ the inequali a direct interchange Sag Si torment any fa quis or coun- adopting a comprehensive and circuitous following explanation from too slow and jive ; and the second and third plans were considers aa likely to. turn the exchange against Spain. method, by circular exchange, Hamburgh, as the hinges on which the operation was to and iged correspondents in each of those cities to support circulation, Madrid and Cadiz were the places in from which remittances were to be made, and , of course, were to be sent where 945 stood with litthe difficulty, from the following exam- Brsbeven, . x EXC le, é e Suppose £1000 sterling is to be remitted to Cadiz, and the direct exchange is 40d. sterling dollar, but the remitter wishes to send it Holland and France ; it is required to know which is the most ad- vantageous, the direct or indirect remittance, the quo- tation of the course of exchange being as follows ?. . London on Amsterdam, 35 schillings or shillings Fle- mish per pound sterling. Amsterdam on Paris, 60 pence Flemish for the ecu of 3 francs, Paris on Cadiz, 15 ' francs for 1 doubloon of 4 dollars of exchange. Flemish. 12 Pence emish, 3 Francs. 1 Doubloon. 4 Dollars. 1000 xX 35xK12%3x4 50400 60x15 => = 5600 dollars. The perplexity produced by the endless variety of money denominations in different countries, has long been a subject of general Like the equalization of weights and measures, it has at different times enga- ged the speculations of philosophers, and sometimes the attention of governments. The American plan of rec- Koning by tenths and hundredths of a dollar, is ac- counted a considerable step towards simplicity, and has been followed in some measure by the Hence rench govern ment, At the beginning of the French revolution, the views of the enlightened men who belonged to the As- semblée Constituante, were directed to the formation of measure, The consequence has been the i uction ofnew denominations in both ; but so slow are changes of this description, that old method is still of France. In the tee of the of Commons was appointed, to make a report on the subje Without venturing. to go into the field of general disquisition, this committee put on record a yery clear accurate exhibition of the pre~ pm irerg bog whee patie hae a stan avoirdupois, pound in the Mint weighed exactly 7000 grains troy, a weight strict- ly ing to that of the two other avoirdupois sandards preserve for successive ages at the Exche- uer and Guildhall. EXCHEQUER, (Scaccarium, from the French Echi- quier, or the German: Schatz-kammer, Treasury), is a very ancient court of record, wherein the ising's ré= venues are received, and all causes ing re« basen and rights of the crown are heard and deter- min “Camden says that this court took its name from the table at bes they sat, the cloth wee it being party-coloured, or ¢ 4 it. p. 113, Some persons have thought there was ee quer under the Anglo-Saxon kings ; but our best his- torians are of opinion, that we derived this institution from the ancient Norman exchequer, and that it was introduced from thence by William the Conqueror, It fuer. EXC 246 Exchequer. is Certain that there was an exchequer in the time of i Chamber, (which then consists of all —y~ his son Henry I. which was regulated and reduced to of “and —-~—S- its order by Edward I. ex 2A vantage fos SOR oe the ccm oh the Exchequer ; and quer. former is occupied with the 0 sheen of the royal revenue ; the functions of the latter are judicial. : The principal officers of the er are the Lord Treasurer, the Chancellor, the Lord Chief Baron, and three other barons, with a ne baron, who admi- nisters the oaths of all high sheriffs, under sheriffs, bailiffs, &c. ; the fata sh for the King, who calls to account, in open court, all the great accountants of the crown, &c. ; the Remembrancer for the Lord Trea- — who makes out all estreats, and issues out writs cases, &c, ; two Chamberlains, woke Sop the kine of the ;, where the records lie; a Clerk the Pipe, ini ose. custody all ac- counts and debts due to the king are conveyed out of other offices, as water th ha pipe; the Controller 7 the Pipe ; the Clerk of the Estveats, the 7 Opposer 5 the Auditors; four Tellers ; the Clerk of , 80 called from his parchment rolls ; the clerk of the Nihils; the clerk of the Pleas, &e. The Court of Exchequer is frflerbor in rank to the courts of King’s Bench and Common Pleas, It is di- vided into a court of equity and a court of common law. The court of equity is held in the exchequer chamber, before the Lord Treasurer, the Chancellor of the Ex. chequer, the Chief Baron, and three puisne Barons, whose original and primary business related to the md cal rights of the crown. But now, all kinds of . suits may be prosecuted in the Court of Ex equer, pon the surmise that the plaintiff is debtor to the king, which i is held to be mere matter of form and words of course, the truth of which is never controverted. This fiction gives rise to the common law part of the juris- diction of the Court of Exchequer, which is exercised. by the Barons only. The writ, upon which all pro- ceedings here are Fev is called a minus, in’ which the plaintiff suggests that he is the king’s debtor or farmer, and that the defendant hath done bes the in- jury or damage complained of, quo minus sufficiens ex- wstit, by which he is the less able to pay the king his debt or rent. In the same manner, also, in the equity side of the court, any person may file a bill st an- other, upon a bare suggestion that he is the in $ ac- comptant. In this court, on the equity side, the clergy have long been in use to exhibit their bills for non-pay- ment of tithes ; but the Chancery has now obtained a. large share of this business, From the equity side of Exchequer, there lies an appeal directly to the House of Peers; but from the common law side, a writ of er- ror must be first brought into the Court of Exchequer Chamber. The Court of Chamber has no original risdiction, but is only a court of appeal. It was perm by statute 31 Edw. III. c. 12, to determine Jin: of error from the common law side of the urt of Exchequer. It consists of the Lord Tieautes the Lord Chancellor, and the Justices of the King’s Bench and Common Pleas. ‘A second Court of Ex Chamber, in imitation of the former, was statute 27 Eliz. c.8, consisting of the Jus- tices of Common Pleas, and the Barons of the Ex- chequer, before whom writs of error may sully bee in the Cot Court § g's Beach Ean serial ene : : the other courts, such causes as the ment, find to be of great weight nd diffic o a ent is given upon ‘ourt b yj ye ae techie of of this Court “of exchequer Chamber, a writ of error lies to the Hoube of Peers. “4 The ancient Court of Exchequer i in Scotland, which was the king’s revenue court, was, by the treaty of wndiny (AR: 5D sired ty pat until a new revenue court should parliament, which was accord= cngly done by 6 fan. e. red The ju of this court are the Treasurer of Great » with a Chief Baron, an four other Barons, who must be mae ther of serjeants at law, or English barristers, or vocates of five years standing, All may plead before this court who can practice in the courts of Westmin- ater, or in the Court of Session ; and all edb dae of the College of Justice, are communicated to the 1 rons, and to the other members of this court. — The jurisdiction of the Scottish Court of Ex extends to all matters fog Wa coves ore crown ; but under two limitations, which were intend- ed to preserve the private law of Scotland from inno-. vation. Ist, That'no debt due to the crown shall a= fect the debtor's real estate, in any other manner. than such estate might be affected by the law of Scotland and, 2dly, That the validity of t e onis ae honours, lands, or See ae he |, as by the Court of Session. See Madox, Be: pas chequer ; Blackstone’s Comment, 'b. iii. ee Law Dict. v. Excneqven ; and nears ‘Inst. of the Lan 9 Scotland, b. i, tit. 3. § 30. et seq. (2) CIS, (gutately nee ans to Som the Bel Ry acciise, to tribute ; its a erive it from assisa, assize, Sani pointed for that purpose a branch of the arising from duties paid upon the man - pie commodities made or sold within es ings om. Excise, in its proper acceptation, to duties imposed oh consumable commodi' Sentoedttee ai 4 produced at home, in contradistinction both ‘te pared which are duties payable vpon commodities imported from abroad, and to assessed janis, which are duties i im- posed upon the use of certain commodities not i ately consumable. From experience, _ however, of the utility of some of the excise ilations, certain joth of a have es of revenue arising from ally been put under the ee iu wen eaten not ote at i blishment. defray the expence of providing either fr thc bert . Si or external defence of a state, Aan! bot either some fund oy to the at the ite or from a part of the private. i 1e the introduction pi pond erty. een Sohariod se one of the chaste ; th silver mines of Attica constituted a large part of the pu- blic funds of the Athenian: ¢; and inall the doms of modern E the crown lands were chief resource on which the sovereign relied for di EXCISE. In time, this resource was found to be wholly nsufficie from the waste and dila- ee ee ‘To supply the ney, taxes were nglnaty ses ot Serre omen. that, the. poopie, mee) to contribute a of their private revenue, to answer the- and benefit of all. Taxes must vary in their nature, ac- cording to the situation of the community, and the mode ‘pan nd wil icbaily Sere thn pip il svaronat chp upon will probably principal source public income ; in states, taxes uw) com- ies will be found most availing. In taxing commo- ‘os, forei “manufacture, and inland trade of various descriptions : it is this last branch of revenue which constitutes the - It can 7 be doubted, thatin y community so uh, rans eenevery ity change ally took place in ancient time is evident, though the appear to have been subj to various rates ; and so far as Soe tr enewe verre laid on the sale or duties, was by officers stationed either at the ports, at the es of towns, or in cer- sy and the practice seems commercial states. Among “being inconsiderable, and the circulation of goods frequent and rapid, consumable commodities constitu- ted an obvious, and probably an easier source of reve- nue than other. These were therefore resorted to, when large sums for the public service were i In the Low a Be Holland, duties of this description criy wi brought to a system, and tig we have borrowed name from the England, though subsidies, aids, and benevolences, jod granted to the monarch, “commodities for their own use being obliged eles, which subsisted till the restoration. turn of King Charles in 1669, Cromwell’s ordinance of duties which had ; .ed, ‘and assigned to the crown as a compensation for h° the feudal tenures, and other oppressive branches of the ‘prerogative.. The commodities subjected to the tax at that time, were beer and ale, cider, perry, mead, vine- t civil list revenue. _'merScotch excise duties 247 tended by the Westminster parliament to butcher meat, ‘wine, tobacco, sugar, and a number of other commodi- ties in general use. The mode of levying the duties i Arto im terwards found advisable to continue, not only makers and venders, but even private persons preparing the ‘to account. In 1656, by an ordinance of Cromwell, new excise du- ties were imposed in room of the former, on beer and ale, cider, perry, wine, oil, tin, and various other arti- Upon the re- course fell to the ground ; but some part of the excise imposed were then re-establish« gar, spirits, coffee, chocolate, sherbet, and tea; the tax attaching only.to such as were made for sale, and cof- fee, chocolate, and tea, being rated by the gallon like ‘strong waters. ~ These duties (with the exception of what had been rated upon the gallon of coffee, tea, and chocolate) were continued after the Revolution, and made part of the The duties on spirits were carried to the gate fund in 1736; and those on malt li- _quors in land, were applied to the same fund in 1760. Large additions have from time to time been made to all of them. In 1694, a duty upon salt was established, which was properly an excise uty, though then put under different management. In 1697, malt was subjected to an excise duty, temporary at first, but revived in 1713, and, with large additions, continued to the present time. During the French wars in the reign of Anne, the exigencies of the state calling for new impositions, the articles of sweets, soap, leather, candles, hops, Peper, rinted goods, starch, gold and silver wire, were sido liable to excise. In 1724, the duties upon tea, coffee, and chocolate, were transferred to. the a 2 ag of the excise. The manufacture of glass had - ity anqich y excise duty jin the reign of King William, but a tax being deemed rejudicial to an infant manufacture, it was very “yt soon taken off ; however, in 1746, excise duties upon glass’ were again ‘imposed, which, with considerable additions, still sub- sist, . The pcprege harp of revenue now under the excise, are the following: Sales by auction, subject- ed to excise duty in 1777; bricks and tiles in 1784; wine in 1786; tobacco in 1789 ; salt in 1798 ; and stone bottles in 1812. has pat of the excise ing Sant. to have nearly cotemporary with its establishment in England. Tacos duties were first imposed in Scot- land in 1644; these were farther ted and extend- ps in aap yi aay testy the _ various uties termed excise, more properly customs were aes by parliament in 1661, an Se — soap, salt, tobacco, cloth, hats, gloves, and other goods imported ; and along with these, = poe excise duty was imposed upon malt made within the kingdom. _ Brandy and mum imported, were subjected to excise in 1673. Malt liquors and spirits made in Scotland in 1693, the duty upon malt itself being soon after taken.off, At the union in 1707, the excise duties then existing inEng- land were extended to the whole united kingdom, the for- being discontinued. .. Since that period, the excise duties have,-in general, been the same in both parts of the op wae some occasional des these acts, was more strict than it was af- - Excise. i 248 viations, for the most part in favour of Scotland. ‘The extension of the excise on malt to Scotland in Hey ; casioned much discontent and commotion for several years, At ,in 1725, the Se malt duty was fixed at one half of the English. Even with this abatement, the discontents were not allayed for some time, and it required no small degree of exer- tion and firmness to carry the tax into effect. The excise duties in other countries, so far to resemble those in Great Britain, that the articles which form the subject of this tax are generally ‘similar, al- lowing for unavoidable differences arising the mode of living, the necessities of the state, and not unfre- quentl thé ignorance of the rulers. In Holland, be- sides g Bere I the articles specified, as falling under the excise in Great Britain, similar duties are imposed on butcher meat, fuel, lead, hardware, &c. “In France, the iron manufacture before the revolution was a sub- ject of taxation ; and an oppressive duty under the name of gabelle, levied on the consumption of salt. In Spain, cloth manufactured was taxed, and every time it was sold a new duty was incurred. . . The general principles of the ‘excise a3 a mode of tax- — ation, have been already mentioned. It is a duty im- on the manuficture or sale of commodities with- in the kingdom. For this purpose, all persons eng in those branches of manufacture upon which the ex- cise attaches, are required to make an entry of the pre- mises in which the business is carried on ; to allow ac- cess there to the revénue officers, that an account may be taken of the quantities manufac! ; and a corre- ding charge of duty made, according to the rates established by law, In-several ofthe taxed articles, the - interference of the excise is earried no farther, the sub- sequent sale and transit of the commodities being free ; but in others, baer where the duties are high, it has been found requisite, for the security of the revenue, to subject also the dealers and sellers of the commodity to the visits of the excise officers, in the places where the goods are kept and sold, and at the same time to prevent their transit, unless accompanied by a certifi- cate, to signi on account of these regulations chiefly, that certain im- ported goods, particularly spirits, wine, tea, and tobac- co, have been pat under the management of the excise, It has been found jence, as Dr Smith justly re- marks, that the éxcise ‘régulations embarrass the opera- tions of the smuggler more effectually than any other : hence, for the security of the revenue, they have been that they may give rise to inconyenience and irritation, and fre certainly in their nature not. strictl eeable to the free pri aime iples of My British bs Upon ve always been unpopular; and an Robert Walpole, , and has since been the revenue would have revenue wired for the service of the public; and though are not free from inconvenience, yet in Great Bri- ‘country for more than a cen past, has been | ‘der the dircetidn of officers spate ‘by, d that the dutiés have been paid. Itis © ‘whom ae mre supervi ‘lectors in different places, adopted in many articles, although it carinot be denied, ‘specti from it. "The excise laws © excise in Scotland, which was then entirely separate fron, and independent of, the ise amounted. Lae EXCISE. jected to, that of compel! x Cel wpiih Galli OE i quantities of Bi ‘ to duty. The hazard of perjury, and the diminution, if to the sanction of an oath, ‘dependent of these objections, the Ls pari of the ex« tax generally attaches in that particular stage of t . so aan Pacicuee ema ublic, frequently oppressive, and certainly of all others the most ex sale in the end. That system, though other cotintries, as Lag Ma Let best suited 0 ped iy) ——s one for Scotland, cre ® of e not very ly, considering the great increase of sum collected. They ira Sipe robably to about 6000 in all, TI cers termed gaugers, over rs. Payment is made no one duties are ch by most productive branches of the public revenue. For the first ten or twelve years after the when it was in farm, the amount received by the pub- lic Was upon an average about £420,000 a year. Fi the eM ea between the ion ar ¥ 249 EXC pealed, till the rites prescribed: for restoration to legal Excommu’ purity were duly performed. Besides this, there does Patton. ; EXC. Queen Anne, new duties were ‘added, and the union ms being effected, a junction, as tof the two-ki Excommu- i as assimulation of their revenues, took place. ‘he ‘average of the excise during that reign, was England about £ 1,600,000; for Scotland nearly ,000. Between 1715 and 1728, the reign of George I. the produce of the excise for Great Britain, including the annual malt, was nearly £2,340,000 a year ; for Scotland alone about £74,000. ing the reign of II. from 1728 to 1760, a gradual increase still took. place in the luce of the excise, the annual ave- rage pig 3,000,000 for Great Britain ; the pro- duce for Se somewhat above £97,000 per annum, In 1759, the-year preceding the accession of his pre- sent Majesty, the nett excise as paid into the exchequer was £ 3,887,349 ; the gross produce tor Scotland near- ly £99,000. After the peace of 1763, the addition of several new taxes, but still more the advancing state of commerce and i gave a new increase to the excise ; so that for the five years between 1771 and 1776, the gross: annual average amount for Great Bri- tain was £5,340,000 ; and the gress annual average for Scotland nearly £140,000. During the last five years of the American war, there was still an increase, and Lt. dea ares in Scotland than in England, the average of five years being for Great Britain £5,642,327, and for Scotland alone nearly £247,000. At the:time of the of Amiens in 1901, the gross amount for En, was £ 12,507,807, and for Scotland £1,054,428.. Since that period the amount has nearly doubled the gross produce in 1807; being for Great Britain about £ 24,000,000 ; for Scotland a little above £ 2,000,000. In 1813, the total for Great Britain was about £24,700,000; for Scotland about £ 1,945,000. By the latest parli finance statements, the gross for the year ending 5th January 1814, was for ngland £25,171,274 : 0 : 114, and for Scotland £1,861,691 7422. The expence of levying, collect- ing, and this revenue, amounts to no more than £3, 19s. per cent. See Huic’s Abridgment of Excise Statutes. ScotchActs, Blackstone’s Commen- tary. Smith's. Wealth of Nations. Sir John Sinclair's History of the Public Revenue. Hamilton's Enquiry into ee Taxation. Parliamentary Reports and “yy A a ’ j io EXCITATION. See Execrricity. EXCOMMUNICATION, in ecclesiastical polity, is the judicial exclusion of offenders from the religious rites and other privileges of the particular community eS ae Founded in the natural right which every society possesses to guard its laws and pri- vileges from violation and abuse, by the infliction of whether human or divine. _ That Ay Serta an engine gratification. of private malice and re- and been per the venge, ere Pdiabolical, the Retry most un- Sen oe tionably a consideration ought necessity of as well as i perance in- not appear to have been any excommunication of spe~ cial divine appointment, except that which, was im- mediately accompanied with the ultimate punishment of excision or death ; and from which, of consequence, there was and. could be no absolution. In the later ages of the Jewish church, indeed, this species of dis- cipline was systematised by the Rabbins, whose: opi- nions, however, are often so contradictory to each other, that itis next to impossible now to ascertain in what the different kinds of their authorised excom~- munications consisted. By many writers they have been divided into three classes, viz. Niddui, Cherem, and Shammatha, but Selden has satisfactorily shewn, that these three epithets are indiscriminately applied by the Rabbinic pe to every variety of this punishment, hin general the term Cierem denotes a severer species of it than the other two, — Distinguished into greater and less, both of them might be. pronounced on an individual either by a public j » by a court, by a private person, or even by himself. The least kind, commonly termed, Niddui, i. e. Separation, might be incurred in a. vast diversity of ways, of which no fewer than twenty-four are specified in the Talmuds and other Jewish writings; and.of which several. re- late to moral and religious delinquencies, though others of them are a the most frivolous 73 ak _ When pronounced by a court, it was precede ivate cen- sure and sdnettian ; after which,, if the cnlpeit gave no satisf evidence of tance, the house of Judgment, or the assembly of jndges, solemnly warned and threatened him, that if he did not reform, he must fall under the sentence of public excommunication. If he still continued obstinate, his name, and the nature of his offence, were proclaimed in the. sy to which he belonged, on four successive Sab in order to bring him to a just sense of his guilt; and if this also proved ineffectual, he was then solemnly ex- pie ef sg xie sentence, whether pmenneed publicly or privately, was.in force for thi ys, du- ring whscbiee. was interdicted from oe nearer any person, even his relations, than four cubits ; from doing,or receiving any office of kindness which re- quired greater proximity to other persons than that dis-_ tance; and from ing the usual ablutions, previous to sitting down to his Is, On his remaining impe- nitent at the close of this period, it might be 1 to thirty and even to sixty days longer ; after which, if still incorrigible, he was subjected to the eX~ communication. This sentence was required to be pronounced by not fewer than ten or at least in their presence, and with their concurrence; and it excluded peat a a pew ng nee poe seer all e advantages of civil society. its horrible nature, some idea may be formed by the following extract from one which Buxterf found in an ancient Hebrew MS, : «« Ex sententia Domini Dominorum sit in Anathemate Sint ipsum plage magne et fideles, morbi magni et hortibiies Tienes 110.06 hahiioanlam Ao The navigation of the river was, however, tion. ~Quantities ct thse gods £500,000, are annually pet a Germany, and Italy ;’ and long-ells, £400,000, are annually purchased by the East paisa oa Company. A large cotton manufactory, established . 253 passing. tide had: ‘hitherto flowed beyond the city; bat it now . ~only a small Say Ree, Gens EX M the banks of the Exe, formerly gave employment to about 300 persons, but it has now entirely failed.» A very considerable and valuable wine trade 1s carried on in the town. The Corporation, which has conkidevsiile revenues, | consists of a mayor, 24 aldermen, a recorder, cham- berlain, town-clerk, sheriff; four stewards, and several . Officers. of inferior note. The co rporate bodies within . the'city are 13, and each of them is governed by offi- cers chosen annually. Markets are held here on Wed- — Friday, and Saturday; and the fairs are on Ash- , Whit-Monday, August Ist, and De cember fith, for horses, cattle; sheep, and almost every commodity. Exeter the advantage of several ‘very pleasant walks; the one‘on the north, encompassing the upper sides of the castle, and extending nearly from East Gate to North Gate, isa most itfulairy terrace, and is uniformly admired for its beauty. It was planted with elms in 1664. Above the quay, on:the south side, is the fine terrace: called the Friers. | It rises above the river to the dicular tof 100 feet, and com- mands a most extensive: and beautiful prospect. The air of Exeter is very salubrious, the average of burials ers 1 to 37 of the population. lowing is an Sree lg! goer aoe for the city of © Exeter, in 1811: Number of inhabited houses ‘- » Number of families that occupy them, Number of uninhabited houses, 4 “92 Number of families chiefly employed in agriculture, 156 _ 2,879 4,465 Do. employed in trade, enema &e, 2,898 Males, 7 . 9 7,908 Females, - . © £1l, 44 * 10,988 Total population i in 1811, , . © + 18,896 _ Increase since 1801, 1,508: West Long. 8° 80’ 34"; ie st 50° 44’. See Po. lepers History yah: Desens ire; Jenkin’s History and Antiquities of Exeter, 1806 ; the Beauties of Eng- land and Wales, at 46—88 ; “but bly Se post f pean, and Ly ’s Historical Ac- Cathedral, with several prints from rawitgs of Me J. Carter, published by the § of Antiquaries. An engra of the north tower of Ex- eter cathedral, and-of the south gate of the town, are given in the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. (wv) EXFOLIATION. See Surcery. EXHALATION. See Evaroration and Merro- ROLOGY. EXMOUTH, isthe name of a celebrated watering place in Devonshire, situated on the north side of the mouth of the river Exe. About a century ago, it was , but it was hamlet inhabited ‘brought into notice by éne of the of the circuit, who received’ benefit from it as a bathing place. Exmouth is situated near the sea, between the cliffs, bye as it were open to receive it. -It is sheltered the north-east and south-east by some’ high‘hills, wiich rise behind the town, and sippy it with wa cellent water. The town is coagan Lach Al commodation as a watering-place, © sembly-room, The houses are in general low and i in. pres hi though well built, but some of themare ; “and elegant, The walks are delightful, and ten ‘and picturesque views. - The Hill embraces a.line of coast ersending Pin 20 pi eae ig A a ra ead. ye this whi ually ascend from, the coast on _ side of the riven break this line wud behind’ these “Excter Exmouth. EXP Kaoteric, hills arise several boll towering headlands, of various +‘ paknon. and Sa Eemouth bess Foo yy the parish of Littleham. According to on returns for 1811, the of Littleham town so Eumenth Sap UhaMiiabbouses rotons. lies, 5! families em in 871 in trade and manufactures, 968 males, 1333 females, and a total is a term employed in Eflicott's experi- mane metallic bodies, by the eae ee ee Gold. Silver. Brass. - 73 103 95 Mr James Ferguson obtained the following measures : Bam > Trem, Sth Lai. Ti Be { niduoiial M. Berthoud obtained the results with rods three feet two inches and five lines , five lines wide, pad ee Ss pp ii Ferguson's, Berthoud's, 254 Pre EX? of a similar kind were made by Smea. Muschenbroek, Borda, Gerace) ae “The results for neat ies iron and Hint elas he has tine afer, eget eet aiff sider= Daten Mr T constructed a meter * anew principle ; as it was | s for trying pendulums in a finished state, a Jength than 40 inches could not be to trial. With this instrument he obtained the follon results : ion on oneinch ron wire . : - t «Herd drawn $-000880. dos’ 20 ee AE “Platina. .~ .0008305.+ do. do, ye Mr Trou hton considers all. the have hitherto ats eas of confidence, which ‘the n Thacieele otto in the ry og ky eer, ‘to receive a ten feet rod. A series of such an instrument, and by a * 2 of Mr Troughton’s known her, ri 8 > Wi a most acceptable to the i of. lid | seas ' ing valuable Tables far which, wid the Le ts to eh & cunge ie exhib we are indebted It exhibits the ees increase both bso an 1 a Free aaaena 7 Solid Bodies. | dm Jength.|. In'bulk. | In length. |, Earthenware,.. 5+ + +) = = 4-08.) Ww. oat : * is ° ig ba ir Glass tube, .. . ++ » 00077615) .002330 _- —_— —.,,, }00088333} .002502 00004 6s Glass rod, ss. 3 «= 40008078 426. eee Deal, ene fel sb) gee) Se Se ar a Hee "Fn aw puedo te eine hs Out bo obix i] Depa gsm om 3073 iT 7 (eid ) Remarks. Na ost Platina a 856 | .002570 |.0 orda. ’ Rad {0000086 ) € laste of ‘ 00383 : Berthoud. .003258 |.00000602|.00001805/Smeaton .003332 |,00000617}.0000185 |Roy. .003337 |.00000618 1853| Lavoisier. . 003438 |. D J Y vat 003379. 5 Trans, 1795, 428. 008454 Smeaton, © 008476 voisier. ak bat Gl zt '985/Troughton. ich, IX. p. 230. 003679, 2)5meaton. - r -00367 Muschenbroek. ooatl |. 3 |Muschenbroek. 003472 | 00001926|Bordz 3 -008779 Smeaton, : rou r7 .00400 Muschenbroek. - 00417 Muschenbroek. 5 me Be 6k .004180 3} 2 320|Smeaton. gold,—..- - ~ | 00438 |.0000081-|,0000243 |Muschenbroek. Goulds ors Ves iicrrs veg OOS 0045. |.0000093 |.000025. jEllicott, by comparison. | Gold wire, CaS of" O".. 0, Sw 00167 00502 0000093 0000279 Muschenbroek, Copper hammered, . . .« |,001700 {| .005109 |.00000944),00002833/Smeaton. Copper, . . . + - - 00191 | 00573 |.0000106 |,0000318 {Muschenbrock eee or ime * : .001783 005359 1.000029 d eertamabang, Poses mb | o018564 | .009576 |.00001091|,00009092|Roy. Cast brass, . . . . - ~ |.001875 | .005635 |.00001042/.00003125|Smeaton. English plate brass rod, ._ . |.0018928 | .005689 |.00001052/,00003156|Roy. English plate brass trough, . |.0018949 | .005695 |.00001053),00003159|Roy. © ee eee me ers -00001066,00003200 oughton. Nich. IX. p. 230. Brass wire, . . . - » + |,001933 | .005811 |.00001074|.0000322 |Smeaton. : NOD) oi cite wie eo 4 @ LOURIO .00648 |,0000120 |,0000359 |Muschenbroek. 8, tin. 1,. «.- ° - 001817 005461 '00001009,00003028|Smeaton Pe She AS x peonee 005681 Obie ne Ya api lerbe us ee - - - = .0021 0063 — |,00001167].000035 cot comparison. — = = = |o0212 _ | 100636 [0000118 0000354 |Muschenbrock. -_ - =- — $= _ .00001157|.000084 |Troughton. | Brass 16, tin], . . . + te pees .00001056).00008168|Smeaton. - ' Speculum metal, . . . . |,00193: 11 |,00001074).00003222)Smeaton. ‘ Spelter solder, brass 2 zincl, |: 006187 |.000011 3430|Smeaton ine pewter, . . . . « |,002288 .00001238).000037 1 4|Smeaton. Grain tin, «. . . «_ . |.002483_ | .007469 00001 379}.00004137/Smeaton Tin, «.. . . . « . . |.00284 | .00852 |.0000158 |.0000474 |Muschenbroek Soft solder, lead 2, tin 1, . 1.002508 | .007545 |,00001 00004179|Smeaton. ae Sige foe ae ee .002692 .008095 00001 00004888)Smez ron 29 ON Tn Pe | | 008625 |.00001592.00004776)Smeaton. nica slice looses | Lonose [0000191 [0000573 [Muschenboek. °° +B MNGi! whe 95S 002942 | .008850 |.00001634/.00004902|Smeaton. igen ah ee ce Pai 224 |o9g011 | .009061 |.00001673,.00005019'Sineator It has been found, in general, that equal increments From t!number-of experiments made with Prince jy of heat produce a expansion at a high tempera- Rupert’s hich are formed by dropping melted ments o tare, than they do at alow one. = a Dr Brewster TP AMTTEGT (6. the costrac- nett glass into col hed '_ The expansion of metallic bodies seems to have some obtain a measure of the expansion of. -when-in a tion of - connection with their fusibilities. Platina, the least ‘elvastes When the drops: arev of flint glass, 8!*** 333" se H ake Saar Sana aratetors Ms, eee Hi nice ah i Hil : Bs res aphid i le uf | aH mci eC RLPr aha? ot baa ial ‘ar ay sate Ss . dp Wifeesrraeeesasate sie? 3 Hae valiaaal (f fsegeaagaz223222 aT Ez soe ul He 3 Tr 23239 SR E 2a" 4 no S Rs b i i i | all 3. u ) Cite Hood dae > = 3 2 ee Bi + Pe ead a2] : ad 2 £8 Sb oS = 8 ofr 3 3. et a Q Sai Hele ta. as Fae | thes S hall He oH ‘ 2 egies E a8 e222 2. hii ; nt ty | ° 2 N= aoe S & & 3 iy a nh a : i I SEE CCER CES. a3 - = Fi 13 ils 3 Mee ree Tle He iiae yy S292 92399 3a 2 2 2 3S re i fe k i i # wale q397923 3 233514 i 3 q Hi lit fet ate. = g2999292322 2 ghee B ie ay - als i 2 2 eg eseo 228382 2° HI HE Hi Fi tall q a shh ii es hs bas “thik 7 EXPANSION. — 257 aasion. vision than in the lower, and he obtained the following Notwithstanding tlie accurate experiments of M. Le- Expansion. SoS results: ; ths wifes i fevre’ Giana} whis proved tie! tiaxiamium density of —— in kid HA} Ratio of expansion in the higher water to be 39°.2, the results obtained by Mr Dalton TPA tesa division to that in the lower. threw a considerable degree of uncertainty over the =f 1 cage » + 4 + 16° to 140 subject, and chemists were divided in their opinions, _ Olive oil, . woe woe Bs - 13.4 till the subject was investigated by Dr Hope in a Experi- : Linseed oi], . . . oe 1s) ‘ 184 new manner, which was not li to any error ments of Dr Chamomile oil, ... . «4 15 13.0 — arising from the contraction of the containing ves- 4r ; es ° © at ) & 5 5 s g : = 3 cS Z eS 2 Waters po. (tee ah Botan 4.7 the expansion might be rendered visible by the change Anomaly in © The results for water contained in the last cflumn % Place, which would happen in a column of water when 7 s gs from the Table, exhibit a very REE Eee | B i ! i 43 broad, with water at the temperature of 62°, and 3 : uf i z 8 ; F x zZ ag. if i i 58 358% z E i i 5 i 23 oe Fed i it ae is al : | | | : © tes thes , in the most the surface was always one d lower than the one at been. shewn, in thatthe density of the water : ik is not ter be free of all agitation so as to prevent it from adjusted at the middle of its height a bason of tin- r be Kept and is cooled down’ to 21° or 220, Nediron, by filling »which, either with hot water, or the jon still alia . ing ratio. frigorific mixture, he could apply heat or cold to the Mr f ¥ Rie: a sn aiteintan th 494° middle of the fluid pe Rey A thermometer of Fak I it; he f 1 that the nsi nm was scarce- at the and bottom of the jar as before, perceptible from 41° to 44°, and that from 41° to 32° the jar was filled wi water at 32°, and water of the the ion was about +2,th part of the whole expan- temperature of 68° ee into the bason of tin- sion from 424° to 212°, neces Deluc’s observa- "€4 iron. The lower thermometer rose from 32° to tion, that. the for any number of degrees nearly 37° before the upper thermometer indicated the éither shove or below 424° was the sane but he after. mullest increase of temperature, the warm current wards thought that it was below 42°. He also baving moved downwards in consequence of the con« verified the ok ion of Sir Charl that the ‘*taction or increase of density of the water. Dr H. : continaée % Blagdon, A reversed this experiment by ling the basom with coolithr 1¢'66 fara in a tube, that the water had ex- ‘rigorific mixture, while water in the jar had a and risen to the same height as if it had been *e™perature of 39}°. The upper thermometer descen- ed to 75. Hence, it must have been cooled down So while the lower to 10°. soon as it was frozen, it up to 128°, One su . a » the current of cooled \ These remarkable appearances wereregarded by seve: Water. ascending to the tp of the jr. By thas vary ~ ex ina ilful zal philosophers as so anomalous, that they were probably a Dr Hope decided — engge y+ = : uestion of the maximum ments ; and even Mr Dalton himself was induced tobe- ‘ensity of water, and is entitled to the honour of ha- lieve, that the anomaly exhibited by water was only Ly. hig, the first who really established the existence apparent, and arose from. the contraction of the vessel gypenaly. sestigts Unie poe he aapeded tne. nears es msing Moxsicar.Acopo.ot-Pasis tn in cee of te SS ve ; at Paris in course o: fM, earthen ware and metallic vessels, and com the summer, he mentioned to him a series. of experiments Arzo.. r remults with those made in glass. In all these trials, ™atle on the reftactive power of water at different tem- the point of maximum density, instead of being the ee =a fill if its maximum densi- | e, varied with each substance, as will appear from ‘Y Was above 32°. He filled a prism with water at the '. . the following Table : tem wiry del a ha 9 ere ee angle of deviation ; Water the refraction, w its tem ti fi Meet | come 32° to 212°. ‘The angle of deviation Was greater at 32°, height. it gradually diminished to 212°, exhibitin k Brown earthen ware, No. t. at $6° at $2° and 40° whatever of a variation of refractive power at 40°, or at Brown earthen ware, 0.2. °38 34 44 any point between 32° and 212°. Hence Monsieur Queen’s ware, - . 40 82 48 Arago concluded, that since the refractive power always = i) shin 41 $2 51 _ increases with the density, the density of water must ton, thin p p $2 53 at a maximum at 32°. This conclusion might have been Copper. ‘ 32. 59 admitted to have considerable weight, Dr Hope pe pow Ser - 46 _ 820 60. had established the ite conclusion by direct expe- pita : ris “ ms riment ; but, it of this circumstance, we have VOL. IX. PART 1. no hesitation in saying, ol M. Arago’s conclusion is te 258 EXPANSION, Fxpansion. not legitimately deducible from his i Itis that it may be’ visible, if it does exist, by the A Samet in his soning, thet the rfatve power of action of the water in pyrene yee | bodies increases with their density, a doctrine which re- light, a property which is the water as quires to be established by direct experiment, before it soon as it is converted into ice. We have shewn from can be admitted as a valid argument in favour of any numerous experiments, that a piece of glass which has other position. Nay, it has actually os pd no ceives it by a a Albert Euler from numerous experiments, the re- tion of temperature, and aga inoe i 'yrling tem- © fractive power of glass is increased by heat. An au; re diminishes, and communication and de- — mentation of of 60° of Reaumur diminish- cracticel of te pee a eee ed the focal part, and an ion of Peg Agee ore ‘Hence it is reasonable to in« $3° produced a i eke M. Euler concludes, er, pepe ame, mppene e tyriabarn 8 poe! all fluids pectin gos? evap elhgewee fp Add iar erangement is necessary to a ids is ; is rm r viously erroneous, yet the experiments which he has and whi pent whic i necssy to dpolarie that the density oye ve leanre omiyehingpes cig id pai of ee plates ma. od ner, by m a snow een ferred from the refractive power, and leave the éub- of gest, and. the snow was com of the maximum density of water in the same state considerable of light was depolarised. As thi as it had been left by Dr Hope. effect, however, t have been produced by some in- ag Dee placa engurier eigenen Pps r manaliag steppe do view of explaining singular property as worthy of any confidence. We have, the writer water, nor does it readil how such experiments however, begun a experiments, for the of this arti~ could be made. We bere chon thought thea an. incie ining this point. ~ 4 crystallization takes place at the point of maximum Powe shall now conclude this branch of the subject, yeu qpadnally Sevweusie Gh. Aee eanaiasion with a tabular view of the different experiments that i . * -*. completed, in what manner are we to render this have been made on the expansion of mercury, water, incipient apparent ? It. isnot visible to the acids, and alcohol, which have been collected and the eye ; nor can it be iy eee et arranged in a tabular form by Dr Thomas Young, any instrument. It has occurred to us, Table shewing the Expansion of Mercury, according to different Authors. ori For 1° of Expansion in Bulk. | Fahrenheit. MANGER, > «15, nals amen akghcead 015385 .0000855 | Cotte, in » ealk® chvshuscakall Ga sath 0165 -0000917 S iilotoeeg, ied epee ex- | Specific gravity, 13.6 at 45° 01655 | 000092 Adhard in gi 0185 .000103 |} De Luc La Place. ——— from 32°tolo#® . . .. 00010415 | De Lue, corrected by Gen. Roy. Se eS een 000108 | Roy. ———— Specific gravity 13.61 at 68° .000104 wat Charles Cavendish, mean of uckburgh’s experiments, SETTLiie tube wid: ey muteatlé od Gn .00010985 | Rosenthal. ie PEP TIEIIER C9: d's ein situsl cones i pre bans 017583 ~ .000097 | Hillstrom. ‘ Table shewing the Expansion of Water. Speci vity. i of 8 v ipecific gravity. oman Sp. Gr. ae Expansion. ber 10° |As69°Dalton ¥ 30 | .99980 Gilpin, 20 18 .00020 -00018 | .00004) 1794. $2) .99988 G. 12 ll -00012 -00011 |.0003 (.000144 M. Inst.) 4 $4) .99994 G. 6 5 -00006 -00005 89 | 1.00000 G. 0. 0 -00000 -00000 44 .99994 G. 6 8 .00006 -00005 48 | .99982 G. 18 18 00018 00018" 49 | .99978 G. 22 22 -00022 | 00022 |, 54} .99951 G. 49 48 00049 > 00048 |. 69} .99914 G. 86 84 .00086 _ | 00084 }. 64 | .99867 G. 183 190 | .00183 00180 |.0001 69 | .99812 G. 188 186 | .00188 00186 |.100r2 74| .99749 G. » 251 . 250 | .00251 | 00251 |.00014, 77 225 De Lue, .00299 Achard. rs 259 “Expansion. 4aaf ig a ity oy : pep gary ae ‘ =~ | _ Specific gravity Sistansion a Sp. 6 “a3 *g rae retaiea.| Fo* 1° ee: Ae "99680 G. $20 “$22 | .00321 .00326 |.00016 Baht )| ‘99612 Kirwan. | 388 368 | .00389 ‘00372 |.00017 ~| 90] .99511 G.1790. | 489 509 | .00491 4 00513 |.00020 ' {100} .99313 G -| 687 711 | .00692 .00720 | .00024) 102 | .99246 K. | 754 753 | .00760 .00763 | .00025| 122 | .98757 K. 1243 1247 | .01258 .01264 |.00029) = 1128 De Lue. 00949 Achard. 142 | .98199 K. {1801 1818 01833 .01859 |.00031 162 | .97583 K. 417 2448 02481 02512 | .00034 167 hes 520 De Luc. 182 | .96900 K. 100 $109 | .0$198 .03219 |.0003 96145 K. 855 3802 04005 .03961 |.00037 12| .95848 K. 152 4140 | .04333 .04332 |.00038 ; De Luc, by comparison The formula from which Dr Young has calculated .f being the degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, either the expansion in the ing Table, is -way from 39°. The diminution of specific gravity is éx- -* ,0000022f*—.00000000435/3, pressed by ' or more shortly 22/7 (1—.002/) inten millionth parts, , 0000022 /* —-.00000000472 5. Table shewing the Expansions of Acids, &c. For 1° of Fahrenheit. .00031 Achard. .00026 At 60° Kirwan. Irish Transactions. EXPANSION. Sulphurie aci i acide sp. gr. 1.7, I caeid, sp. gr. 1,84, .00021 At 55° Kirwan. _ ,00029 At 60° Kirwan. -00037 At 65° Kirwan. Muriatic acid, sp. gr.1.185, .00035 At 50° Kirwan. Nitrous acid, sp. gr. 1.43, .00037 At 53° Kirwan. —_——— .00055 At 60° Kirwan. .00070 at ha! Kirwan. irit of e, .00052 Acliard. nia SO, 0072 Achard ’ Olive oit 0007 about 100° Achard. Table shewing the Expansion of Alcohol. ~Coinparative Specific Gravity. . |) P By Obser- E the |For each vation. | By Formula. Unit at 32°. Degree. ; 0° Fahrenheit. 1.0826 0° F.|~.0162 _ 00047 10 1.0275 |12 |—.0105 .00050 20 1.0222 | 32 .0000 .00054 : 30 1.0169 | 1.0168 | 52 .0110 j.00057 $5 1.0142 | 1.0141 .0132 Achard. 40 1.0114 | 1.0114 | 72 J 00061 45° 1.0087 | I. 4 2 0355 ,00065 50 1.0068 | 1.0057 [112 .0489 00069 Spirit” highly rectified, | 55 I.00zg9 | 1.0029 182 0633 0007 % specific gr. at 60°, 825, 60 1.0000 1.0000 ‘ he .0784 |.00078 ; 65 9971 | 9971 [172 | .0946 00083 70 9942 | _ Ost 175 0971 S/R? 9913 9912 | 80 Gilpin, Phil| = a | Trans, 1794.| 9.882 | .9882 the 120 - ; + .9630 7 et 140 : 4 9496 : {160 9858 - : sof. fi de tat) 9214 y shal (260 EXPANSION. Table of the Expansion of Gaseous Bodies. Gases. For 180,; For 19 : air, 1, at 32° 7 6] .00209 Mean of six observations, Lacaille making it .04, Dy 46, Bonne 0877, Shickburgh O05, Bradley and De Luc .047, for the expansion. From 32° to 54,8°: the mean .0476. De Luc. . Do, a oe ane 377 Mayer’s refractions, Gilbert. : Do. hy naw Seo: .370 | .00206 | Lambert. y ie Do. -388 | .00216 | De Luc, reduced by Gilbert. © Do. 381 | .00212 Luz. Csi Do. 00214 About 95°, Luz. Do. 00210 | About 172° Luz. Do. ; (.484)} (.00243) ;_but moisture was admitted. . Do. aS ee -357 | .00198 oe : thinks it perfectly uniform, becoming 7. at 00212 | About 172°. Dalton. Hydrogen gas. : , Oxygen gas. Azotic gas. Murietc acid fae All as air. Gay Lussac, and Dalton. Nitrous gas. ‘ Vapour of sulphuric ether. ab — It follows from these experiments, that all the gases 1805. Croune, Birch’s Hist. of Soc. vol. iv. “ths same expenidn: from tial ieend “Stead a p.263. De Luc Recherches sur les Modi ms de? Ata temperature, the expansion for each of Fahren- , tom. i. p. 225. Biot Memoires a tom. heit being .}, according to Dalton, xyes according 3. (not yet ) Gineau Mem. de U'In- to Gay Lussac, An account of the expansion of the va~ _stitut. Manchester Me vol. v. p. 59. of water, will be found in our article S: Dalton, Nicholson's Journal, vol. x. p- 95; xiii. 3 For information on this subject, see Elli and xiv. p. 128. ‘ Transactions, vol. v. Phil. Trans. vol. xlvii. p. 185. F ’s Lectures, vol. pe Gough, Nich 's Journal, vol. xiii. p. 189. i. p- 20. Smeaton, Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii, pt. 2 p. 612. Mushet, Phil. M , vol. xviii. p. 1. Gay ? Roy, Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxv. p. 473. rea oe Annales de Chimié, tom. xliv. p. 87, or Nicholson's Jour= cholson's Journal, vol. ix. p.225. Wollaston, Phil. Trans. nal, Oct. vol. iv. p. 207. Brewster, Phil, Trans. 1814, EYL E ATION or Lire. See ANNUITIES. EXPONENTS. See Aucrsra. ’ EXPORTATION. See EnGLAnp. ° EXPRESSION. See Paintina. ; EXTENDED Turns, in Music, according to Mr Marsh, Theory of Harmonics, p. 20, are the same as the « wolf thirds,” or those on which the greatest imperfec- tion or result of the ; falls: usually on Gc, Bye, XF)B, and XCF, in the major thirds ; pEXF, »pBxXc, and FXG, in the minor (e) EXTRACTION or Roors. See Attealontté and ALGEBRA. EXTREME Intervats, in Music, are, ing to Dr * such diatonic di ces as are ii or imini a chromatic semitone,” (Gram. 1st edit. phen, rather ear army 112; is defined to in the chromatic (Essay, p. 24.) denote all those intervals extreme with to C, which arise in ing therefrom by either above XG, or below pE. several ez ; flat intervals of the above authors when R are bil, or 2 (2), ¥8 (—S),. b+ (—) ; pIV, or 4 5 ord 3} 3 DVL, or6(—32), b7 (—d,) aes picid Sr i ent sory. (—#—S) ; and the extreme double interval %K1 (f , and %K4, or RIV +i." Shae The letters J or eee —, deno- pert tie rot jecly, hades vl m, or m 9 value of any of be ; or see the se- pec, coe to Mr Chambers, imini increased by 2S ; but Mr Overend na $43, which Seay Coen toca” hs Be le sharpening ¢. EYE. See Anatomy, Mepicinz, Optics, Puysi- oLocy, and Surcery. _EYLAU, Preussisch, or Prussian, a small town in 261 EYL the Russians not exceeding 60,000 men. On the even- ing before the battle, there was a most sanguinary strug- gle for the town of Eylau, which finally remained in ion of the French. The armies the night in the immediate neighbourhood of other, and ea- ger for the app’ conflict. The cannonade be- gan at day break, and was conducted at first with great- er effect on the part of the French, in consequence of the Russian line standing more exposed. je space between the armies, though marshy in weather, ‘was passable at this season of ice andsnow. Bo- naparte accordingly made two large columns move for- ward, the one against the centre, the other against the right of the Russians ; but after advancing 300 yards, the havoc of the Russian artillery was so great as to break their order, and they returned in confusion. A subsequent effort directed against the Russian left, was equally unavailing, the Russians advancing and driving back their opponents with the bayonet. These operations, however, were merely preparatory to ’s general attack. Calculating that Da- voust, he detached to take the Russians in the rear, oe arrive at his-station a noon, Bo- naparte di a general movement is army, in- cluding the guards, in six separate columns agai at the Russian line. A heavy fall of snow concealed his ar- = and ee — columns, so were not discov till come very near to the Russian line, upon caked Beningsen, aware-of the im ce of the moment, made his re- serve advance, join themselves to the main body, and rush forward, with united strength, to charge the ene- my. ‘The French were shaken, gave way, and all the efforts of their officers to rally them were ineffectu- pee, tr ing to turn the fortune of y by by ates were cut up in great numbers ; but the Russians hardly effected this re- pulse, when they were ordered to face about, a nume~- rous appearing on their left, and threatening their rear. This was the corps of Davoust, who had fortu< oe retarded by the wretched state of the roads. The Russian main body was drawn back from the field of battle to meet him ; and a Prussian under ge- neral having, after a most di t march, reached the scene of action, advanced to attack Davoust. Their number did not exceed 6000 ; but they were ad- mirably commanded by and the Russian left wing them the Erench wan tepeiert ight now came on, and a= with very heavy loss. parte recalled Davoust. the Russians been in a condition to make an attack -the next day, their success would avec manny but their ey ge was expend ir men: were. fainting want of food. By an irregularity unfortunately too common in ame that day a Psa «haem aa provisions ; 5 a) ensive for the eventual. safety of i g, took the determi- nation of retreating, contrary to the concurrent wish of So The Russians acknowledged a loss of nearly 20,000 men in killed and wounded, and main- that that of the French exceeded 30,000. Bo- naparte remained for some time at Eylau, but finding that the Russian cavalry were competent to the tion of the surrounding country, and that he could make no effectual progress against so resolute an enemy, he retired in the direction of Dantzic. (x) . Eylau. Fabius i Patlun FAH : eve aa" 5 on - F 1 ‘ as | : 4 : : - + het exer . . PAP ey J Fasws. See Rome. FACE. See Drawine. FACULZ. See Astrroxomy. ’ FAENZA, the Faventia of the ancients, a city of Italy, aud capital of the department of the Amone, is pron ew fay su of Ravenna. Mr Eustace, the latest author of travels in Italy, describes this ancient town as spacious and well built. Its great square has a fine of porticos on either side, and a Corinthian church ing to the Dominicans. The cathedral, which is ic, stands in the great square, and is or- namented with a handsome steeple, five stories high, with ballustrades. There is a fountain near the church, having a beson surrounded with four lions of brass, and with a wrought iron rail. -Faenza was once ted for its pottery, from which it received its name. The pottery obtained also the name rabor yo i ca, from the inventor of - Mr Eustace in the vicinity of this city, a few traces of the pi ves, which sonar to jase hamadl one of its icingnaht features in ancient times. Distance from Ravenna, 20 miles south-west. North Lat. 44° 18’, East Long. 11° 51’. See K s Travels, vol. iii. p. 246; Euse tace’s Classical Tour through Italy, vol. i.. p. 142, 243. (w) FAEMLUN. a tome of Sweden in the province of Dalecarlia, is situated about 300 feet above the level of the sea, between the two lakes of Run and W; ba all plain, ewrreursiedl-en all eides: by Uaelaue The town, which owes its existence to the celebrated mines in its neigh is very pec a. ghbourhood, hha Ai are The following very interesti fell in, . Jea i | fi : i 3 i be i i flr Safe F ‘Thee ie Gnd Senate ore is extracted part] the mallet, blasted by gun-powder. yrgage fists oor, ae 262 a 7 il" p dom yielding more than 1} ‘cent. of the r. To the 5 awe a nee hopper 8 . tiful crystals oF acdioclion of considerable : which gives it when fresh broken, vey send appearance, actinolite is likewise in the H i Bf : ae Fé | a i f EE i F i t E ATs . fi] | iE i rath He i : g i fs i il ii HT i y ii ail sf | i E Hf a F Fae 2 ate 6 RAI ce i«) which it contains... The church, which is dedicated to the Virgin. , is.a fine specimen of the Gothic which recsiled chituk the end of the 15th century. It consists of a lofty nave, achancel, side-aisles, and a low tower rising from the centre of ‘the edifice, which has supposed to have been intended for the founda- tion of a spire. The whole of the building, which is 120 feet ; and 55 broad, is embattled, and:sustained i buttresses, those of the tower being flat~ tened, and ually i as large as life, are rudely sculptured on their bases ; and round the architrave is a series of jue fix gures.. The exterior is adorned with many niches, which had once contained carved statues. The archi« tecture of the interior is + rere weer light fluted pillars, sustaining four arches on side, divide the aisles from the nave: The aisles are continued paral- with which there a communi< ual height. e chancel is yy adorned with finely carved tabernacle-work, and — vhs pe mane work, eee blue and white stone. magnificent edifice was founded by John Tame, lent merchant, who eas in 1492, taken a with painted glass, and bound from a Fle« to Italy, resolved to have a large building i i Having been for some time at Fairford, ee ee each having partments. principal subjects of i slab abiditex dvtenelie ho opposed and who favoured the i of Christianity. The designsin the window are the Resurrection and the Last Judg« the colours of which are so brilliant, and the dra« delicate, that Mr Dallaway regards them as i i of ancient art than will often or on the Continent. Vandyck ree ne es Palin at ihr dentin ig that could not be y the pencil, per Spr ony omders spa of monuments and se« A tomb of Italian marble is of Sir Edmund i < E B 3 PLE] ne i Fairford ll Fairhead. —_—— diminishing to the top. Statues, - the present church in 1493, There is here a free school endowed for 60 boys, and’ other charitable institutions, The Colne is crossed three bri Number of inhabited houses, 295 De tugs ae yf 295 employed in agriculture, 129 Do. in and manufactures, 133 Malye) 5) 22 fe Searls om G88 PF yi Do 756 Total population, . . . « 1444 See 's Gloucestershire, and the Beauties of Enge land and Wales, vol. v. p. 629—636. ( FAIFOE, or Harro, the name of town of inchi — re Banal ence tn er commu- nicating with Turon Bay. The river was ‘na- vigable for large junks, but it will now admit only vessels of 100 tons burthen. The junks lie at the dis- tance of about $ miles from the town in another river Paifoe FAI communicating with that of Turon, and capable of re- ceiving ships of 200 tons. The best anchorage is on the west side of the island of Cham Calloa, in N. Lat. 15° 54, opposite the river, and about three from the main. The town of Faifoe, which is 10 miles from the ses, was once wery lange, snd pos: wars, but is now re- portance. The vessels which ar- rive at Faifoe are gna cap! Chinese, Japanese, and the country ya, aber I A hundred Chinese junks are said to have come annually tan top ome are cline. The principal articles whi ex in- to Faifoe were Se ches ware, tea, dined fruits, drugs, sticks of sandal wood, linen cloth, false Js, or- naments, of various kinds, dried blubber, dam- mer, ink, isin , sweatmeats, talc, lackered ware, and great quantities of tutenague, the last of which the king always engrosses to himself. The Japanese import chiefly copper, and several articles similar to those enu- merated. ‘The country ships import several E and Asiatic commodities, such as. braziery, c ® cloths, guns and gunpowder, saltpetre, silver, cl and watches, tobacco, opium, gold lace, brimstone, cam- blets, furs, glass ware, hardware, ironmo! tin, sandal wood, ee one pally The exports from Faifoe to China were’ princi beetle cat Deck wood, bullock’s bones, : calavances, cardamoms, cotton, dried sea snails, dried fish, drugs, pepper, Ja mer, birds cote blue, (a kind of smalts), cassia, cloves and nutmegs, deer’s sinews, mats of rattan, elephant’s teeth and es, fish glue, boge, coarse linen, rat-. ¢ pi op tans, wood for aa of vances deer and elephants, stil tin, wax, 5 | sugar candy m t quantities, which reckoned the fins in the wor’ he exports to Japan were ebony, nam- morack, , fish skins in great quantities, hare- skins, cow hides, buffaloes horns, white and dark sugar, Cambodia nuts, bark, drugs, Sellaw, and silk stuffs. The exports to India are principally ly and sugar. Various articles are also to Batavia, Manilla, and Siam. The duty on all imports. is 12 per cent. ; and the master of every vessel must give in a statement of all his goods, and agree to pay a certain sum every time that the ship arrives. The pay annually 3000 quans, (600 of which is equivalent to2 rupees, or 1 Spanish dollar, ) and the Chinese only from 1500 to 2000, according to the size of their junks. It is necessary to present the king with a piece of scar- let cloth, some fine long cloth, a sword, telescope, &c. and the principal mandarin at Hue, which is the royal residence, must also be attended to. See Milburn’s Oriental Commerce, vol ii. p. 452. (w) FAIRHEAD, is situated in the county of Antrim, my 3 the fe ME ee angle < Ireland, and ag to the is in or » in . 6 2’ W, of Greenwich, and Lat. seat N- vane ; This bold headland is composed of the most consider+ able mass of greenstone in the British islands, The greatest thickness of the bed is 260 feet, and its eleva- tion above the sea 545 feet. The greenstone rests on strata of sandstone, which dip south-west, and in these, a little to the west, the mine of is si- t Fairhead, in consequence of its superior elevation, is » lead, looking glasses, mathematical instruments, piece goods, wood, powder, agala wood, beech de: west by south, and is overlaid by sandstone at the dis« fall with a tremendous crash elow. rr tcimarger pe ars ay, place ; and, from the the same substance, very ing ba~ salt.on the and the surfaces, and very fine grain is again observable... Fairhead dips, alittle: Ntieraing te, Dabourien,, a apesine alaaaieeied ing to Du ieu, a i ; which promises to be a profitable return tothe proprie- tors, has been found in the strata the green- stone on both sides of Fairhead ; and what is remarka« "ved one about a yard in diameter, the ring FAIRY-RINGS. FAIRY-Rivxes, or Circles, is a name which has been iven to spots or rings in grass fields, which are either ; Toocdiied chexecansa the field, or covered with grass more of n grass, incl a circular portion with grass less luxuriant. Dr Priest os aee eg about a quarter of a broad, so in the Sacheubdngainmaetaies but there was no appear- r led the withered grass of a foot- path, but they traversed the -shoulder of the hill im such a direction, as to correspond neither to a sheep- track nor a foot-path. Upon a near inspection, a nar- ipe of the grass to be quite dead and The breadth ipe was about nine, , ides of it were per- fectly defined, without any gradation from green to wi- thered grass, all me rer abe on e-em no heme without the i s ing suffered in east. The! oe tao trad ares ‘shout 160% 200 yards, “. i rer pecan eat merle patad ost hill, css a ow, ascending obliquely the shoulder of the summit of Arthur’s Seat, on the oniali east side.” Similar tracks of various extent were found in all the different and situations, from the south side of the summit to the north side of the hill, half year 1776, by Dr Ferguson, Dr Black err why thea . pe erin the plain, but none at the bottom. Pa- had been made the year before, and was then black, from the grass having rotted, the These tracks are not always continuous, but frequently consist gear ‘spots. tracks : rf and ery among the rotten grass in e The — part, however, of the dark green was behind last year’s track, and ‘was owing to a similar growth of grass in places where the grass ‘been formerly killed or withered, and ber: wants apes ne tla sah peso which a deeper shade of green e rest of the hill. ‘Hutton sometimes noticed five or six successions of tracks, but those which had been made above three ér the rw By ‘idadha ea roadie rings ; a line drawn from the centre bisecting the segment, that is to say, those portions of concentric circles are never i 4 porns edo Ser pe and for this reason it will appear those circles of which segments are exhi- bited to our observation, must be increasing and not iminishing in their diameter. ’ is April, the peas Dacina groltoa hisul deca » the gre ins ly to wither and z Ie is: petipell yada a Weslo tone, chat i: Surg wee " -WOL. IX, PART 1. ‘rounding the dark ring 265 or two, and then wreowe white or withered. Thus, every plant being killed in the new track, those ve. table bodies exposed to heat and moisture gradually de- cay, so as next year to exhibit a dark or black, instead of a light or white track, which it had been the year before ; but, during the second year, the dead plants are still observed in the turf, which, as it begins to get new plants, loses gradually the appearance of the old ones, until at last little more can be observed than a broad shade of a much deeper green, which, on the one side, is compared with the natural verdure into which it sometimes seems gradually to terminate ; whereas, on the other side, the deep green colour of the ground formerly tracked, is contrasted with the yellow or light colour of the withered grass.” After a careful examination of the ap s, Dr Hutton could think of no other mode of explaining them, than by ing that they were produced either by light- ning, or by the tion of insects. Dr Price, Dr Darwin, and Mr Gough, without any plausible reason, ascribed these phenomena to lightning ; but Dr Withering, with much more reason, accounted for their formation by the growth of fungi. He always found the spawn of the fungus below the brown and bare portion, by digging to the depth of two inches, whereas it was never found below those parts where the grass was green and luxuriant. ' Dr Wollaston has examined the subject of fairy cir- eles with his usual ingenuity and success. He observed that the fungi or mushrooms, first noticed by Wither- ing, were found solely at the exterior margin of the dark ring of grass. The breadth of the ring, in-that instance, measured from them towards the centre, was about 12 or 14 inches, while the exterior ring, occupied by the mushrooms, was only about four or five inches broad. Dr Wollaston conjectured, from the position of the mushrooms, that the rings were formed after the Pairy- Rings. , ws dif i lALéE ANE Cause of fairy rings first ex- q plained by Withering. Dr Wollas- ton’s obser- vations. mariner described by Dr Hutton, by a progressive in- _ crease from a centre, and this opinion was strengthened by finding that a second species of fungus presented a similar t, with respect to the edlative posi- tion of the ring and fungi, the fungi being always upon the external margin of adark ring of grass. “I thought it not improbable,” says Dr Wollaston, “ that the soil which had once contributed to the support of fungi might be so exhausted of’ some peculiar pideline necessary for their production, as to be rendered incapable of produ~ cing a second crop of that singular class of vegetables. The second year’s crop would consequently appear in a small ring surrounding the original centre of vegetation, and, at every succeeding year, the defect of nutriment on one side, would necessarily cause the new roots to ex- tend themselves solely in the opposite direction, and would occasion the circles of fungi continually to pro- ceed by annual enlargement from the centre outwards. An appearance of luxuriance of the grass would follow as a natural consequence, as the soil of an interior cir- cle would always be ‘enriched by the decayed roots of fungi of the preceding year’s growth.” : In oppidiian to ae sana of Dr Withering, that he never could find any spawn of the fungi among the green grass, Dr Wollaston tedly observed undecay- ed spawn, even > he the av luxuriant Brass. 3 2 ing the growth of the fungi, they so entirely absorb pelea from the soil beneath, that the Rerbagh is for a while destroyed, and a ring appears, bare of grass, sur . If a transverse section be made of the soil beneath the ring, at this time, the part iL Yims ; Lteld ~~ Bairy- Ring. side of it, but that whi pe Wolke. of dark ton’s ober ably dar vations. FAI paler than the soil on either is beneath the interior circle is found, on the contrary, to be consider- the general surrounding soil. But, in the course of a few weeks after the fungi have ceased to appear, the soil where they oot grows darker, and dy rehaapentign sacri pee wi iar vigour, so that I have ecen the surface covered with dark s, al- though the darkened soil has not exceeded an inch in thickness, while that beneath has continued white with spawn, for about two inches in — The section of the space occupied by the white spawn, has, in general, nearly the same form, and may be com- pared to that of a wave, proceeding from the centre out- wards, as its on the inner side ascends ob- liquely towards the surface, while its exterior termina- tion is nearly in a vertical position. The extent occu- pied by the spawn varies considerably, aceording to the season of the year, being greatest after the fungi have come to perfection, and is reduced to its smallest dimen- sions, and may, in some cases, not be discernible before the next year’s crop begins to make its appearance. For.the, purpose of ing the progress of various eircles, I marked them three or four years in succes- sion, by incisions of different forms, by which I could distinguish clearly the successive anmual increase, and I found it to vary in different circles, from eight inches to as much as two feet. The broadest rings that I have seen, were those of the common mushroom, (ag. cam- tris) ; the narrowest are the most frequent, are those of the champignon (ag. orcades of Dr Wither- ing). The mushroom acco ly makes circles of the largest diameter, but those of the champignon are most regular. There are, however, as many as three other fungi that exhibit the same mode of extension, and produce the same effect upon the herbage. These are the ag. terreus, ag. procerus, and the lycoperdon bovista, the last of which fs far more common than the two last-mentioned agarics. j There is one circumstance that may frequently be observed respecting these circles, which can -satisfac- torily be accounted for, according to the preced- ing hypothesis of the cause of their increase, and may be considered as a ion of its truth. Whenever two adjacent circles are found to interfere, they not only do not cross each other, but both circles beneath the fungi are invariably obliterated between the points of con-_ tact; at least, in more than twenty cases, I have seen no one instance to the contrary. The exhaustion occa- sioned by each, obstructs the progress of the other, and both are starved, I think it also not unworthy of observation, that different species of fungi appear to require the same nutriment; for in a case of interference between one circle of puff balls and another of mushrooms, oe not intersect; but I cannot say positively that I seen more than one instance. I once found that a tree had interrupted the regular progress of a circle ; but this appeared to be only a temporary learner, as_the extension had ga ed at the u rate; and by passing obliquely front each side into the soil beyond the tree, had given the ring the form of a kidney, so that another year or two would probably reunite the two extremities into one, curve surrounding-the tree. Being desirous of ascer- taining in what length of time a soil might again re- cover the power of produsing.a fresh crop of fungi, I cut a ve, in one or two instances, along the diame- ter of a mushroom ring, and inserted a quantity of 266 FAK but the experiment failed altogether, as [ shortly after try. ht wena to the action of grubs, the roots of the ; and he supposes, that th ive a preference to ‘rings, on account of the abi ce A dead - le matter — be found in — Mr Florian Jolly su iry rings, and fungi which they pbb 4 are ropa: Ane horses, diluted by the rains, and imbi Jessop, Phil. Trans. No. exvii. p. 391 ; burgh Transactions, vol. ii. p. 1—11 5 Wi rangement of British Plants, vol, iv. Gough, Nicholson’s Journal, vol. ix. 3; Wilson, Id. vol. xiii. p. 1; Florian Jolly, Id. xiii. p. 98, 415 ; Monthly Magazine, vol. xv. p. 219; Gilbert's Journal, vol. xvii. p. 351; and Wollaston, Phil. Trans. 180%, p. 133, or Nicholson’s Journal, vol, xix. p. 367. (w) — . FAITH. See Turoroey. : FAITH, Conresstons or. See Conrrssions. FAKIR, or Faguir, from the Arabie Fakar, signi fying a poor person, is a kind of dervise, or religions , Very common in countries, sometimes travel alone, or in of 200 or 800, having a superior , who is disti wound somne een fogs ee tee of all colours. strew their hair, which hangs half way down the with ashes, with which they sometimes besmear their whole bodies. They are not allowed to marry. “They gees take up their abode,” says Stavorinus, “ in 2 Se ag? er in the open air, or in old and oh i vows that they will perform penance by remaining du- ring their rare tives in some unnatural NOR ig torturing their bodies by various m ; or and honour. I met. wi i others, were some who, by z if i It would be a waste of time to give an account of the various tortures by which these Fakirs seek for re- ion. Tavernier informs us, that some of them vernier’s. Travels, and Stavorinus’ Voyage to the East 183, 142; and vol. iil. p. 147. (7) FALCONER, Wisin, an ingenious poet, of ob- » Witrram, an in $ of whom little more is see Po part element, in very subordinate stations. In such unfa- vourable circ , it is difficult to conceive how fr =: oy Aca da Aen gaggorsf acquiring taste, ‘or culti- vating those poetical talents, which he afterwards so a py Hr aN On this. subject, the memoirs of his busy and obscure life, afford us li ee ren ntnn, sonnei 0 sondtete, des Sel. eoner possessed one of those ardent and vigorous minds which seem destined to surmount every obstacle op- ean te Sasion into ccabsenee: by theis own natural elasticity. The late ingenious editor of the works of Burns, however, informs us, that Fal- goner, W ing on board a man of war, attracted the ; Campbell, the author of Lexiphanes, who 4 im as his servant, and having discovered his emer ne ing his instruction. Rel G if | which di considerable powers eel widen In 1762, “aoa a Poem, in three Cantos, by a hich has insured to Falconer an eminent i 267 FAL scribed to Edward Duke of York, brother te his pres Falconer none to enter, ) were with wing inscri in us Tale Spenser seciain, poeiclerations, te ) Hibs tin — i whole of the of that into the hands of the king; and it was granted in farm and. abso-~ , lute erty, to Sir Lewis Ballenden, son of Sir J FVNERATVS Filled the barony of Broughton. On the death of HIC . DEYN fis Lewis in fhe. year 1691, the property eaemeed ROB . GRAHAM upon James, son, W. conveyed a 1 barony of Abbots-kerse, A. D. 1606, to Ris “ = atin Geomeent the seventh Lord Livingston, and the first Earl of Lin- Lam FRY ESUS lithgow. ba baroay af Abbots kare comprehended AC. LIS the greater part of the old parish of Falkirk, before FERGVSIVS . IL Polmont and other parts were separated from it.. It R. sco included also other lands and ions in the coun- con re ty of Stirling ; but pe, So of Abbots-kerse was to the 9,08 Callanslan, yet considers: This inscription, like many others, must have been made long after the event, but it shews, that Graham Hi Fr Falkirk, and half a mile distant from the town. the troops were Sir John de Graham, Sir John Stuart, Cumyn, and Wallace the ce« lebrated champion of Scotland. That there might be some jealousy among those illustrious , is not inconsistent with the infirmities of human nature ; but it is not ascertained, on good authority, that the for« tune of the day was injured by any fault of theirs, (Dal. rymp. Annal.) notwi ing the different opinion his Edin- loco ce#no- Yakhed which some historians Islands Discovery, History. ‘in conformity to his. instructions, took F ians have expressed ; but memorable day, De Graham and Stuart were battle, and both of them were buried in ‘ of Falkirk. Till of late the grave of Sir John was only distinguished by a stone, shaped like a coffin, and without a name; but now his name and fate are inscribed u the stone. Sir John de Graham's was origi marked by a sculptured figure in homan —_ At three rade pray times, stones sm rted by pillars, were over his grave, one above as es the care of relations, namesakes, or friends, and the last was erected by William Graham, of Airth, Esq. A. D. 1773. 7 In the beginning of the year 1746, a battle, or rather skirmish, was fought between the king’s forces and the Highland troops, in the interest of the Stuart family. The king's forces were routed, and fled toward Linlith- gow ; Highlanders took possession of the town of Falkirk, and conducted themselves with a considerable degree of order and moderation, though they knew that the people in general were hostile to their views. A monument was erected in the church-yard of Falkirk, over the bodies of Sir Robert Monro, bart. of Foulis, and his brother the Doctor, who were both killed in the field of battle. The Callander estates, after the forfeiture of that no- ble family, were sold to the York Buildings Company ; and when their affairs had run into disorder, they were exposed to sale by the authority of the Court of Ses- sion, and purchased by: William Forbes, Esq. a native of Aberdeen, who is the present proprietor. (3. w.) FALKLAND Istanps, a group of islands in the At- tantic Ocean, situated at the utmost extremity of South America, and about 80 leagues from the Straits of Ma- gellan. Two of them are of considerable extent, being more than-70 | es in circumference ; and lie be- tween 51° 10’ and 524° South Latitude, and between 58° and 62° West Longitude. These islands were first seen by Captain Davis, who sailed under Sir Thomas Cavendish in 1592 ; next by, Sir Richard Hawkins in 159+, who called them Havwkin’s Maidenland, in ho- nour of Queen Elizabeth; in the year 1598, by Sebald de Wert, who named them Sebald’s isles, and they are so designed in all the Dutch charts ; in 1683, by Dam- pier, and probably about the same time by Cowley ; in 1689, by Strong, who gave them their present ap- pellation in honour of Viscount Falkland ; in 1699, by a Frenchman named Soede pe a 1721, by Roggewin, a Mecklenburgher in the Dutch service, ms circumnavigated the whole group, and called: it Belgia Australis. The Dutch mistaking the numerous capes for portions of different islands, gave to the whole the designation of New Islands ; the French genérally call them Malouines, from the people of St Maloes, whom they wish to consider as the first discoverers. The navigators of the last mentioned nation were, with- out question, the first settlers on these islands, when their government, after the loss of Canada, in 1763, selected them as a new American settlement, particu- larly as a place of shelter and refreshment for vessels bound to the South Seas. A colony of Acadian fami- hies, above twenty-seven $s in all, was carried thither in 1764, by Commotore B inville; and in the following ear, by the addition of new colonists, the number of inhabitants amounted to about 150. In the beginning also of the year 1765, Commodore Byron, i i ion of these islands in the name of his Britannic Majesty ; and 270 FAL very little value, i ly from the total want of wood ; and first the French ceded their settlement to the Spaniards in 1767, and the English abandoned theirs in 1774. They are now | by niards as a receptacle for criminals from er can dominions. ¢ The two largest of these islands are sepai channel about twelve leagues in length, to three in breadth ; and wace*tetstahed with the ont secure and capacious harbours. Port Egmont, on the north- west coast of the largest island, is described by Byron, as one of the finest havens in the world, and as capable of containing the whole British navy in perfect secu- rity. The general of the coast is rocky and de- solate ; and no kind of wood has been found on any part of the islands. They to the first naviga- tors, while sailing along the shores, to be completely covered with trees ; but these, upon a nearer a ‘ wore diacdves6ih tobe neibdhagr bat tidal af walt anaes height of and reeds, which in clusters to the three feet, and then shoot out other stalks about six or seven feet in length. The higher lands are covered with heath, and is great abundance of excellent turf for fuel, capable even of supplying sufficient heat toa forge. There is no appearance whatever of thos islands having ever been inhabited ious to their discovery by Europeans; and the navigators, who first Janded upon their shores, found the animals so unac- quainted with man, that the birds suffered themselves to be taken with the hand, and even settled upon the heads of the people when they stood still. The sur. Soi face is marshy, and the soil is composed first of a thick turf, then a black mould, from eight to twelve inches deep, and next a yellowish clay, resting upon strata of slate and stone. In most places on the coast is stone fit for building ; and, in the interior, there is earth ca- pable of being manufactured into bricks and potter's ware. The rocks are chiefly of quartz, with some yrites, and marks of . Red and grey slate, and ifferent kinds of ochre, are common ; but no mines or metals have been discovered. The climate is re and salubrious, free from the extremes of heat or cold ; but there are frequent rains and stormy winds in all seasons of the year, The ing streams are never frozen; and the ice on the lakes and pools is seldom sufficiently strong to bear the weight of a man, above twenty-four hours in succession, Snow remains upon the tops of the highest mountains about two months in winter; but seldom above a day or two in the lower grounds, The hoar frosts in spring and autumn occa- sion no injury to the plants, but, being thawed by the sun, are converted into a refreshing dew. TT. is seldom heard in summer ; but, even during that sea- son of the year, the winds are almost uniformly vio- lent ; and, from the want of fuel and shelter, all the settlers have suffered peculiarity has been observed in the tides, which do not rise at settled periods subject to calculation; but just before high water, the sea, in less than a quarter of an hour, rises and falls three times, as if shaken up and down, and this motion is always more violent during the solstices, equinoxes, and full moons. The surface Vegetable of the ground is covered with turf, shrubs, and a variety of ts. The turf, which is found chiefly above the clay soil, is.formed-of the roots and Wan \néttled,, ‘the! yet after, in! Port Fatale ; Kea rene | Port Falldand gg ve by & Aspect greatly from cold, A remarkable Tides. ey i z : i i a é uF : z f Be 3 i : a i Fee 44 ul = s | ike ae id af i 3 E g RS eee i a é eg an Hi - E c cf ah ie Ht é Fish. Q71 great adyantage _ FAL and a fresh water trout of a green colour, without scales, Failing There is no want of muscles, cray-fish, crabs, shrimps, Bodies and other small shell-fish; but they were found very inferior to those of in taste. See Byron’s Voy- age round the World in 1764, &c. 3 Bougainville’s. Voy- in 1766; Pernetty’s History of a Voyage to the nes. (q) FALLING Bonne, See Dynamics. _ FALLING Srones.. See Mereortres. FALLOPIAN Tuses. See Anatomy, FALLOW.. See Acricunrure. _ FALMOUTH, a sea-port town of England in Com wall, of modern. erection, its charter being granted. bys Ranies. 1, in 09. Its Flap anid inensese pk eet owing to the progress of commerce, and par-~ i og to the establishment of et boats for aan rica, West Indies, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, &c. Its harbour is accounted the finest in England, next to Pl uth and Milford Haven, and being land~ , it affords complete protection in tempestuous weather. The town, situated at the bottom of an eminence which commands the harbour, consists of one street, nearly a mile in length, extending along the side of the beach. The pilchard trade is an object of considerable importance to this as well as to other of Cornwall. Pendennis castle, a building of much older date than the town of Falmouth, stands on a rock, joined to the main-land by a narrow neck, and defends the west entrance into the harbour, The rock is three hundred feet above the sea, and to rise from the bay like an island. This fortifention was begun by Henry VIIL. and improved in some mea- sure by Elizabeth, but more by Oliver Cromwell, hay~ ing been much damaged during the civil war. It is — now modernized, and mounted with seventy pieces of cannon. St Mawe’s castle is a much smaller, and less remarkable erection, standing on the eastern side. of Falmouth harbour, and tracing its, origin likewise to Henry VIII. The houses in the neighbourhood, though few in number, constitute a Cornish borough, while Falmouth, in consequence of its comparative recency of wth, is unrepresented in parliament. Outside of Falmouth harbour there isa safe and com- modious roadstead for vessels of the largest size. It is the opinion of many naval men, that the value of Fal- Pent as a is not yet fully known. Its great lies in its to the Western Ocean, oe = of which bai Portsmouth, and even 4] outh, is experienced every season by our outwa' foul vessels. Now from Falmouth e distance to the Lands-end is less than from the Thames to the south eens there + shy hay shoals nor pact inetd fre way, and it is highly im t to consider, that the French side of the Chaxtnel evens on the meridian of Falmouth, so that if a vessel going from that port gains a Jeague of westing in her southward prog she is forthwith received by the ocean. ‘wind to round to the westward the day after her leaving Falmouth, the vessel ‘has still a clear course of more four hundred miles to the southward before meeting with land, viz. the north-east coast of Spain. The difficulty of getting into the ocean from Portsmouth or Plymouth, will be apparent on computing the small number of days inthe year during whith t fair to come down the Channel. On examining a diary, ‘we shall find that sixty or seventy days in the twelve- month are rather above than below the average. In 1808 the expedition under Sir David Baird sailed from 5 Falsdouth. Sis iy nest ere the wind is ae T down Channel. It is however to acknowledged, that the remote situation of Fal- degree of hazard to an enter- prizing enemy who might venture on an attack, is an Seca it an arsenal or dock-yard. following is the statistical abstract for the town of Falmouth for 1811: rl Inhabited houses... .....5,...-.. 465 Families that ory ie aie ae where 1017 Families employed in agriculture 10 Ditto in and manufactures 427 Mee. ss ee eens 1453 Jaw et ioc obo ak 2480 Total population in 1811 ........ $933 W. Long. 5° 2’ 5”, N. Lat. 50° 8’, to trigo- nometrical observations. See Beatties of England and Wales, vol. ii. p. 442 ; and Manderson’s s on Fal- Set aod Boa at cowed We ident Moke Te ‘ best towns ei t ir tasted on the eastern coast, about three leagues from The inhabitants hare of corn, and‘have a it number of cattle. ir chief wealth, how- ever, is derived from their brandies, which are reckoned the best in the island, and form one ofthe most advan- 8 branches of commerce of Majorca. Augustine have here a handsome convent. About pr Se te from this village, is a small hill called San , on the summit of which is a chapel, where the islanders pay their devotions to an image of Christ, There is an inn near the | for the accommoda- tion of ims; and an ascent has been cut in the rock to the top of the hill. P on 5000 or 6000. See St Sauveur’s Travels through the Balearic and Pi- jan Islands, chap. 1. (7) AMAGUSTA. See Cyprus, vol. vii. p. 537. FAMINE. See Anstinence and Fastine. FANDANGO, the name of'a national Spanish dance, only among the lower classes; an in Townshend’s T'ravels ; to South America, vol. i. p. 39; but Laborde’s View of Spain, vol. v. page 257. (w TANG) Passi Pectin e's lace town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino. It is a well and very handsome town, surrounded with a lof- having towers at a small distance, and bastions towards the sea. The churches are remark. w : a in) tween ‘town and Il. still lying, (when Mr Eustace visited the seem to have fallen on the above There are three different on the three cor- nices, The theatre was formerly a magnificent and com+ modious building, but it has now the ruin, “The Via wards the Appennifes. See Eustace’s Classical Tour in Italy, vol. i. p. 153, (w) FANTIN is the name of a in the west of a , is Africa, which extends about 30 coast. The capital, which is also called twelve miles from the coast. Fruits, maize, and palm wine, are produced in abundance. ‘There are nume- rous small towns on the coast, which are inhabited: about 4000 fishermen, The ty bee ee and are Anamaboa; or ,w the English have a fort ; Adja, or ; Great and Little Corman- tin, or Korm ; Tantim, Guers, and Maufran. See ANAMABOA, Labarthe’s Vo a la Coté de Guinée, Lett. viii. -:p. 69. Paris, 1803. (w) FAOUE, or Fovan, is the name of a town of Egypt; situated on the west branch of the Nile, and miles from the sea. It was formerly a large and flou- blishments belonging to Europeans. The ancient edi+ fices, however, are now in a state of ruin, and: the place is falling rapidly into’ . Itis Be A Wey, a a Dont gee of the ancients. The surroundi ‘is rich, and the gardens fine fruit, which is held in great estimation. ong. 31°, North Lat. 81°10’. “See Lord Valentia’s , Vol iii. :p. 443. (mw) ; FARCE. See Drama. FAREHAM, a market-town of England in Hamp- shire, is situated at the north-west ity of Ports« mouth harbour. The houses are tolerably well built, There are two meeting-houses and one ‘ , which stands at the entrance to the town. ‘The inhabitants _ are principally employed in the manufacture of sack- ing, and ropes for ing, of which they send great quantities to the dock-yard at Portsmouth. In the sum- mer season, this town is much frequented as a bathi place: a commodious ing-house has been late erected. Vessels of consi burden are built at the quay. There is here a good market on W. ; and an annual fair on the 29th of June, which is sup- plied with corn, cheese, hops, &c. The town also cars ries on a considerable coal-trade. The following is the statistical abstract for the town and parish, in 1811: — Inhabited houses, . . . Z Families that them, . . 698 Do. emp! in agriculture, . . 255 Do. in and manufactures, . 179° Wraes, Se Tene, oo. ee Total jon in 1811, . . . 3825 - See Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi. p, 308. (~) ne was induced to pa convinced y onvinced was at FAREY’S TEMPERAMENT. 273 best but a most Ss q LET] eraiok 5 ie Faye : = ri & E z iff ifs | tl it S < g 8 | ily ile i only. Thatis to say, ifon C (on a range of pipes) the five successive perfect fourths. CF, FBp, Bb E p, Ep Ap and A’) D'p, be very correctly tuned upwards, and from the hi these notes, descending again by two perfect fifths, D'p Gp, and Gp F,X, and a major third F,% G, (which notes, in Farey’s arti- ficial commas, are, 0, 254, 508, 762, 1016, 1270, 912; 554, and 357, ively), the last of these sounds, Eek edb enettine sae common notation, is the proper fifth above C, in this system. After this, new G has been transferred to the range of pipes intended to be tuned, sume laguna: is to be made at this note; ths which are discords!—the length of and 5-4ths up, and 2- and a IIId down, are to be carefully tuned for obtaining D, a proper new fifth, ‘nore bile to G. From this'D, A is.to be tuned in like manner, and likewise E, B, FX, CX and GX in succession. . This: process is then to be discontinued, and a new beginning made from C, by tuning upwards the three fifths CG, GD, and DA’, and the major third A’CX, and thence downwards, the four minor fourths CxG’%, G’KD’%; D’ A’, and A’F*, which last note (being the same with Mr Liston’s E’) is the pro- per fourth of this system, 7. e. in Art. Com. 358, 716, 1074, 1271, 1017, 763, 509, and 255. Upon F*, two other schisma-excessive fourths are to be tuned in suc- cession, as above, for Bp and Ep ; and thus eleven fifths will be obtained, each equal 5-4ths—2 V—III, and a re- sulting one, GKEp, equal 29 V+11 I[I1—48-4ths, Its fourth CF*, and complementary fifth F*C, being found ready tuned on Liston’s organ ; and whereon also there are 14 other pairs of notes, at the exact distance apart of this fourth, and 14 fifths (their complements), which agree exactly in their quantity therewith, but not with their in the scale, as Mr Farey has obser- or eq ing Table, consisting of 11 columns, numbered at top, sill tenticlod at/cntsen, bettisse intemladlan:be read are wards, according to the practice of musicians. 7 8 9 10 I Ugnagagh awa i & ao 3 24.4551 | 17,9658 | 2.0464 | 1.5330/28.5507 | 20.5644 23.0595 | 16.9766] 1.9315 | 1.4470] 26.9183 | 19.4103 21.7871 | 16.0239) 1.8229 | 1.8658 | 25.4366 | 18.3206 20.5644 | 15.1075) 1.7149 | 1.2993| 24.0085 | 17.2752 19.4103 | 14.2753 | 1.6240 | 1.2169| 22.6614 | 16.3218 18.3206 | 13.4591-| 1.5330 | 1.1483| 21.3892 | 15.3907 17.2752 | 12.7183| 1.4470 | 1.0889|20.1655 | 14.5412 16.3218 | 12.0043 | 1.3658. | 1.0232/| 19.0556 | 13.7251 15.3907 | 11.3307} 1.2993 | .9657|17.9658 | 12.9548 14.5412 | 10,6946) 1.2169 | .9115|16.9766 | 12.2975 13.7251 | 10.0828]1.1483 | .8574|16.0239 | 11.5298 12.9548 | 9.5278|1.0889 | .8120115.1075 | 10.8936 i Flat Srds. I1lds|Sharp4ths.|Flat Vths.| Flat 6ths. | Sharp VIths. (Harmonies, 2d edit. p. 166), that its -raments of its V, VI and On eobe ieloue ns may nevertheless be ‘OL. IX, PART I. coarse and disagreeable ;” and has, at p. 167,. erroneously stated the tempe- wand 10th if ae FE £ z x g a feu if i f E FAREY’S NOTATION: | ° ‘ways, t of the above system with the Isotonic, (which agree in sel , it may be proper to state, that in lengths of strings, the greatest difference (on Gi) is Viths. | Totals, J. Farey’s System, sotonic, 18,2413 Ep .0092 0006 183.1550 |847.2849 183.1527 |847.2912 %,0126 .0063 0002] .0001 254.2596 254.2546 or Bp. FAREY’s Noration or Musicat Intrrvars. This new mode of expressing the magnitudes of intervals ha- ving been in our work, it may be proper to say a few words in this place on the discovery of this nota- tion. The late Mr Marmaduke Overend, organist of Isleworth Church, near London, and author of “a brief account of, and an introduction to, Eight Lectures in the Science of Music, (intended) tobe read,” &c. 4to. pp- 20. Payne & Son, 1781, bestowed inconceivable pains and labour on the calculations and ison of musical intervals, by actual involutions, multiplications, &c. of the terms of their ratios, never using logarithms, and but rarely resorting to the indices of the nent primes, for shortening his work: he pdageohb consistent nomenclature hout, to which At the conclusion of of his arithmetical calcu- lations, as above, Mr Overend was careful to express his results in form of equations, by means of his sym- bols, and to transcribe the whole neatly into thick = to volumes. After Mr Overend’s death, Dr John Wall Callcott, one of the most able but unfortunate of mu- stcians, havin all Mr Overend’s i from his family, kindly offered the use of the above men- tioned quarto volumes to Mr Farey, with issi to make all such extracts from, an volumes, in June 1807, Mr Farey fo namber of intervals -aad expressed in his (to be read «* fall schisma,”) and the asterisk in its-usual united, *, will denote the fall of a queticeanum ae or &, and ™ ATION ‘usical Intervals, And he marked the sameat the time, in an immense deduced by Mr Overend, which no previous wri- position Bp acy aber peice el — 2 minor eomma or €:, and ** the rise of the same interval: and, in like ma the fall of aren Sohated, stachel ether the Menlo the humeteal es ae pencil, in Mr Overend’s volumes, where stilh remain, i the library of the Royal Jpstitw- tion-in. Albernatle Street ; to which public bedy Dr-Calloott soon after presenved thous etcious toanuseript volumes 7 discovered, viz. d, f and m ; but this notation, as well as that by F, f and m, proving to have negative signs to. m, in every instance, as remarked in our article Common Measures of Musical Intervals, he next trie =, fandm, which has been found in its most exten use, the best adapted by far, than any others of the nue petits tre 58247f +31 m, and 6 E44 f4 17m, 358547 f 431m, and 612 54. 12 fia ag tb age may easily be peti true, by either the indices of the. primes, or the log rithms “of these intervals, in our Table, Plate X3%. Vol. IT. by adding together 197 times 5, 4 times f, and 17 times m, and so of the others, the following resolu- emeunticapenes would readil ®, to denote the rise of a schisma, (to be read «rise schismia”) ; so I pressions for all the intervals in the 9m 2 FAREY’S NOTATION. ats ble us to find the expression for any interval whose ra Farey’s = tm less 5 22 tio is given. We can, on the present occasion, only N' 161 3 14 find room, for the first 25 numbers of Mr Farey’s Tae pa ft hos 2° 9 ble of this kind, viz. py 93 2 8 ' — ; a7 1 5 New Notation | 11 0 1 Nos. | 46 1 4 = f m 58 1 5 44 0 4 2} 612.00000 | 12 | . 53 210 3} 970. 19 | 84 — 4) 1224, 24 | 106 010 5 1421. 28 123 » Ba A » | gazseooorr |. 34° | 199 remaining in- 7 34 1 ; 1718.05290: 84 149 lien poy 8 | 1836, 36 | 159 310 9} 1940. - 38 168 roo 10| 2088. 40 | 176 5 10 11 | 2117.10204 | 42 | 188 12 pa 45 an ; 3073 | 44°] 1 After several lundred intervals, 13 | }.2264.58107 | 45 | 196 ap te 6 been collected 14 46 | 202 ; -other sources, 15| 2391. 47 | 207 eteaiingsnbon 16} 2448. 48 212 was observed, that all but a 17 2501.53067 49 216 a regular series, in which each of the three 2501,53181 49 217 formed a ‘tnoreasing | 18 | 2552. | 50 | 221" “that, 1, 2, 3,4, &e. first appeared with Z, 23, 80, 12 19 | 2599.72902} 61. | 225 174, 231, “tener or a 20 | 2646. $2 229 respectively ; and m, 1, 268806077 | 53 | 232 Sialed with, & 19; 34,44, 21 |} 2688.20257' | 52 | 233 123, 149, 159, 170, 185, | §2729.25171 |. 53°} 236 258, 268, 274, 289, 300, 310, 22 | J e729.24884 | 33 | 287 378, 298, 404, 414, 425, 440, 497 23 | 276846027 | 54 | 240 508, 518, 529, 544, 554, 565, 576, ; 622, 24] 2806. 55 | 243 633, 648, 658, 669, &c. respectively. i »251 2842, | 66 | 246 Jr ni pe — eas sometimes 5, commencing = m; 4 = f intervals of the beginnings of the ee From this Table the. primes 7,11, 13, 17, 19, &c. commencing with 8 © 4 m’s, by and their multiples, are not excluded, because intervals tal aden ray ren ‘conatrac involving these do sometimes to be calculated : of the above 71 the reason why two values are to 7,.and to some ‘wiaisiaast cenit OiietSon want of soon. others of the primes differing. by m.or f, is, in order ‘All such i in Mr Farey’s general Table, asdo that a regular interval may be made betweenevery ad« not conform to the above, with to the number of Saget BUDE edad Ae, A simple subtraction t's and ofm’s that they contain with their 2’s, have been Will give the value, whenever the terms of the ratio are denominated irregular intervals, such as d, F, r, x, $e, in the first column ; and when this is not the Feed eek By mene: of wih ought to have either or case, the ee ROE SE SP AN a De waips - , but consist 's only, to constitute them corresponding notations of eachadded % aa Pp and and fto then the sums are to be subtracted ; thus if the value “have anand only two m’s, &c. and these changes may ote evans tails were wanted, we have its ratio fiom byhdeake 2 deciunls, in the schiera celewn, 35 equivalent to the f’s or m’s, that may be added or taken 970 19) 8% 612 12 58 away ; reckoning each f as .14966096 =, and each m as 970 19 8 and 1421 28 123 007862412 ; thus, for example, d in a regular Ta- ble, will be .5588795 2,9 = 10.149661 = 4 m, f= 1940 : 38-168: 8033 40 176, the dif. 31-8582014 © + f m, &c. ? ference of which sums, is, 932 4 2f 4 8m, the value is found involved or multiplied in the numerator, or _Since; in the use of this notation, a carrying or bor. least term of any musical it is equivalent to de. rowing to strat radia tories to another, never takes ting an octave 4 from it; and if, in thedenomina- place, in whole numbers at least, as with columns of tor, tothe addition of VIII; so 3 denotes the es 20 ee ee that a Table of theintervals [cocdescimecns aspneear eliotn some cases. 2) to d fy See, expressed in the new notation, wilbenas | The middle column having 12 £’s to the octave, it is FAR (276 FAR Farming, eviclent that the number of f's ea Number of inhabited houses... 2... .. S527 Fernba™, for any interval, will shew, to which of the 12 finger- | Number of families which oceupy them. . . » 570'” -_——_— s, or notes of the half-tone system, the same Families PRA ee wy Sh aio. BIH be! : thus all in less than 23. -4-f-2m may —_Do, in trade and eae! pe SORT be classed with the unison, or first di , and consi- Males -. .. 3.0 Ba ses Seip Bente eels dered as temperaments; all between this and 80 © + Females . «5-4 see eee eee s 1 1560, 2f + 7 m, may be considered of the second degree, or Total ON ee ee ee ee QOL as minor seconds, &. * See the Beauties of E: Wales, vol xiv. page In like manner, the third or m column of 53 parts in 241. West Long. 47’ 52”, North Lat. 51° 137". See the octave, are the Artificial’ Commas of Mercator, asis Sunney. (je o 6. 6 or oe particularly explained in our article Common Measures | FARO, the name of a town of P , in the pro- of int and by help of which commas, the calcu- vince of » It is situated in a level and sandy lations of ‘most intervals, except those near to or less plain, about a league from the sea, and on the bank of than a comma, may. be correctly perfurmed. And, in the river Da Quarteira. The town, which is quite open, like manner, the first column, tely considered, of a table of regular intervals, constitute Mr Farcy’s Arti- Jicial Commas, 612 to the octave: ‘by means of which, the utmost facility, and every requisite degree of accu- racy, is given to the calculations of all real or diatonic intervals r than =, (except sometimes confound- ing R and» ¥c, and also € and ¢), mostly in whole numbers ; and in the calculations of po) ener or where decimal or vulgar fractional parts of this artificial comma are used, even the smallest intervals, as well as the largest, are represented by them and decimals, with greater oo pms than it is practical to make ex- iments, or to apply musical ‘calculations in practice. ARMING. See AcricuLTURE. ; FARNHAM, a town of England, in the hundred of Farnham, and the county of Surrey, is situated partly on a hill not far from the north bank of the river Wye. The town consists of one principal street, with some smaller ones branching off to the north and south, and the houses are in general excellent. The principal pub- lie buildings and establishments at Farnham, are the castle, the church, and the market house, with a free school, and a charity school. The castle is situ- ated upon a hill, on the north side of the principal street. It was built by Henry, (brother of King Stephen,) Bi- shop of Winchester, and has ever since the sum- mer residence of:the Bishop of Winchester. It was greatly injured in the civil war in 1642, but was rebuilt and fe oy the Restoration by Dr Morley, Bi- shop of Winchester. . It is built of brick, ‘Sveted! with stucco, and is embattled, and of a oma Some remains of the keep of the ancient e are con- tiguous to the edifice. It is called Jay’s Tower, which is ascended by 68 stone steps. It contains a kitchen garden on its top, consisting of 48 rods ofland. ‘The whole is surrounded with a strong stone wall, at the foot of which is a moat planted with oaks. The church, ‘which was formerly a ¢ of'ease to Waverley Abbey, is at a little distance to the south of the High Street, and is a large building, apparently built about the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century. It consists of a nave continued to form the chance), with a north and south aisle, . Its numerous windows are -adorned with tracery ; and the interior contains several hand- some monuments, ‘with a painting of the 12 a -on an altar-piece The tower, which is very substantial, has a small turret at each cornice ; end Giersiontlibe. kgt at the west end, which seems to have hops cultivated in the ; Feroa Reserata, very j wi built, and has , Sites Sale . 1s large ones are obliged to un load roy tie road or lower down the river, which,:af- ter numerous windings, forms the narrow entrance ‘of the harbour a league and a half to the south-east of the town. The harbour is defended by the fort of San Lou- renco de Olhaé, situated on the east side of the river. Anithier narrow arm of the river, or i of the sea, called a Baretta, forms an island, on whi is the sandy cape of Santa Maria. In all the maps, this island is laid down at too great a distance from the land: The tract between the town and the sea is very A and is covered with marine plants. It is flat and on the i bres - op oe Se tains of Miguel, which are high and steep, but: cultivated taietatla their base. sev er The gi part of the trade of Algarvia is carried on v the country people in a , ina building for this purpose, The syru wiath ior haendedaomaanie making brandy. They are then spread in the sun in an open situation, and are afterwards p into small baskets made of the leaves of the fan each con- taining 28 os grrr ye i dag omer th the red, cularly the Figo do Enchario, an do Bispo, are most. and Spanish reeds are also exported from Faro to « Number of houses 1200; population 5000. West Long. 7° 52’, North Lat. 87° 2. (j) 1 ritsvite +4 . FAROE, the name given to a group of islands in the Northern Ocean, ing toDenmark. presen interesting. They to have been resorted & long before Diienia Ba cause, the subj petty Harold the fatr-haired, led to the colonization of in the 9th century. Those inhabitants of Norway who did not chuse to submit to that victorious left ple of Faroe, who were of the same rank with those who. FAROE. = sinter It is not im vit - employed themselves in piracy, were ob Siete ok Sealeiion ind sttack ; and ing thus constantly aged either in molesting their nei or in de- cone See education and literature would of ‘course ni . ' sri takendlt pees Std of various chiefs, whose petty warfare seems to have 1 a long time, ‘familiar to the Faroese, of whom a considerable n is’ yet to be met with who speak it with flu- ency. The ‘war with France, and the destruction of the Dutch and Danish East India trade, put a final stop to smuggling, and reduced the islands to a state of great aw md In the year 1808, Captain Baugh was sent to to privateers. Some time:afterwards, a German, assu- ming the-title of Baron Hompesch, who had obtained a letter of , landed at wn, plundered the inhabitants of every thing, and broke into the church where the public chest was deposi A small crucifix _ of silver, which stood on the , was seized with ea- gerness, but when it was found to be hollow, and of no ‘great value, it was restored. The British government very properly and humanely refused to sanction these 3 and some disturbances having happened m_ the year 1809, between some British merchants and an order in council was issued, com- British ‘subjects to consider the Icelanders, Faroese, and the Lee of the em settlements in Greenland, as stranger friends, and permitting a trade between these places and the of Londen, Leith, and Liverpool, on certain conditions. The money, and the of all the goods of which Faroe and Iceland had been robbed, were restored. £ & to government, that the were in distress on account of the scarcity of provisions, Two ships, in consequence of Mr Banks’ were permitted to ors seta articles aoe - to Faroe, and to Leith to have their licences reoeewoa whe 277 the means of improving the little soil capable of cultiva- ti 7 on. my 58! ; The Faroe islands lie between 6° 15’ and 7° 43’ Lon- itude West from Greenwich, and between 61° 20’ and 2° 25’ North Latitude. The group consists oftwenty- two islands, of which seventeen are inhabited. Their appearance, whether when approached in fine or in bad weather, is inconceivably grand, ially from the south-east and west. While the sun approaches the western horizon, and the. sea is smooth, with a gently undulating motion, nothing can exceed the sublimity of the scenery. The stupendous masses of light and shade, and the varying tints reflected from a thousand fantas- tic forms, hewn by the hand of nature from piles of rock, many of which soar to the height of 3000 feet, produce an effect beyond description. The central island of the group, Stromoe, is likewise the most extensive, and contains the highest mountain. This island stretches (as all the others do) from nearly north-west to south-east, ae length 25 geogra hi- cal miles, and on an average about 5 in breadth. It is deeply indented by bays and creeks, some of which form ‘ccommodious and safe harbours, particularly that of Westmanshayn, which is fit for the reception of every description of ships. The south-west and west coasts present finely varied and magnificent rock scenery, more ially the west, where, for a distance of about 12 miles, the eye meets continued changes in the forms of the precipices. To enjoy such scenery im perfection, and to give it the fullest effect, one must coast along in a boat at a short distance from the rocks. The curious traveller may, in this manner, obtain the greatest en- joyment. Sometimes he may enter a cavern, and, after exploring it till he almost loses the light, may find himself yet at a distance from the place, where the swell meet- ing the bottom of the abyss recoils with a tremendous roar. Often, while he is owe the singular forms of the ine ices, the boat rough a perforation, and he finds them di éd from the mountain, and standing like huge walls, towers, or castles, surround- ed by the sea. On these the sea birds haye their nests, and there the hardy fowler fearlessly robs them. On this remarkable coast, the rocks soar from 1500 to 2000 feet. Each island has its beauties ; and there is scarce- ly a promontory or detached rock, that does not pre- sent something combining singularity with magnifi- cence. Of these, the rock called the Witch’s Finger, and the little island called Tindholm, the one on the east, and the other on the west side of Vaagoe, are [oe the most remarkable. The former is detached e adjoining precipice almost to the bottom, From some points of view, it has the app ice of a grand square tower, surmounted by a lofty spire ; and when the light falls in a particular direction; the resemblances of a door and windows are quite distinct. This was ‘observed by the writer of this article at a distance of five miles. When viewed in that position in which it appears detached from the rock, it is not unlike a huge pointing upwards. Landtstates the height of this peak to be 1200 feet, and we believe that this does not much exceed the truth. The elevation of 'Tindholm is probably about 500 feet, and its singular appearance is much more striking. On one side, though very steep, it is covered with verdure almost to the summit, which consists of a number of long and slender peaks ranged along the ridge, which terminates on the opposite side a di face of rock. In crossing island of Vaagoe towards this rock; its summit is seen in a form 278 FARO E, Pare bearing a very close similitude to the towers and pin- —y" nacles of Westminster Abbey. In some places, e are ranges of columnar rocks ; but, in general, they are not in such situations as to render them of much im- oy! : in the scenery. The promontory of Niepenin poor Faroese are compelled to ‘own Remenos, presents a very beautiful e of columns. and unripe corn. Boa pak ak , There are some in Osteroe, which are lofty, but from a yellow sort, but small and hard ; and the their situation not very striking. Several if curious diminutive and watery. Such, how columnar rocks are to be seen in Suderoe Mygge- try of the people in some places, that soil is o nes. laid on the flat surfaces of large stones, in which Skielinge Field, which rises very abruptly, termina The are very small; andno. being in a small platform. Tt exzeeto’ 9000 fost in height® to select the best for ing from, few are / me but it has not yet been very accurately measured. The with that are well shaped. ote a small adventurous traveller, even in fine weather, renders the vary a little in appearance, and. it ascent of the Faroe mountains a very hazardous under- wool. This is owing to a supply taking. The height of Slatturtind, in Osteroe, is 2825 to the country, after a season of un feet; and there are several mountains in the same among the native sheep, partly from I island, Wine eper ually high, ly from Zetland. From wool, strong There is nothing in Faroe which can be called a val- stockings are manufactured, and likewise close jackets, ley; the mountains for the most part meeting at the Which, arg Maen see TEA HAC Om ires, and orna- wor- i Bs bottom, and having only a small rivulet as a boundary, mented with apres variously There are afew lakes, the largest of which is in sted, dyed in the country, © give a yellow island of Vaagoe, being about three miles ny Nai the Anthericum ossifragum, Polygonum one in breadth. Beyond the upper end of the lakes, /ygonwm persicaria, and the Lycopodium. con there is Resaliy senall expen, oF Hi aperet are used ; for black, the ; far Rural The inhabitants have chosen for th jaa 3 such the Lichen calcareus.and the Lichen. tartareus ;. effhir. spots as are dry, or may be rendered soeasily, and brown, Lichen sazatilisand Omphaloides; and for or which have the advantage of a commodious landing the Lichen parietinum. ' 3 tanpetalh: ees Sa posts: hong ta last, in a few instances, The wool en an Se ae Fee He. EON ives to the former. ins te loosen ; but frequently that event.i wai ah of the occupiers of land hold it in property 5 r, and the skin of the animals is often mat ay one and others of the crown of Denmark, paying a tax ted. The h re small, e] ; it of from 20 to 40 skillings for each mar. A markis shaped. _The best,.are to be seen in the island of an extent of land which rarely supports more thantwo deroe. They are very seldom used, except for, carry« cows during the yeat, thongh samme maintain for. ‘Tt ing home Ma pci mosses ; there being no roads is generally reckoned to ut 8000 square Danish no w carriages, , . =; ye mark Ae iad in different ai and is va- samen be supposed, that Senger spate around. these, ued at about 600 l was a never- source istence The whole surface of the country is very wet; and, profit to the people who inhabit them. pn Corn ay in general, the soil is thin, and for the most part con- siderable fishery for cod was carried on; but now sists of peat. On such a soil, under a climate, not in- pears, that the only bank im the vicinity (arhich ne deed rigorous, but excreting moist, and consequent- about two miles north of Kalsoe) is almost totally. le-engenial from the rays sun being so much ex- titute of fish. The accounts of this failure, which the from the surface, agriculture cannot be supposed writer of this article received, may, pk a Aerething eosin. She iobaeanta bes ‘whet gxagaeetarh It ie EE AT SAAN not rye, and 0 with pease, the cultivation of 2 grain ment to prosecute the fishery with vigour, It seems is carried to a very smal] extent, while hay for the cat- to be the policy of the Danish government, to keep the tle during winter is an object of the first importance. natives o by a aig Wry erp By repeated working, the land is thrown up into ridges, t oop alg d ce, . Han een es A Pr gh ne “which, we exchanged for the woollen ' acture. is the —the of the ridge lying along the acclivity, Thi ief employment both » is undoubtedly the bee fees that could be device for ot carrying the soil. When or turnip seeds are to be sown, made turf is then cut from the next, and laid with ) pr side downwards on the dung, This is chop Pith ‘ * pe ad ite more i do, a on eee ; aamabadct en it is again stirred wi : pepe wre Sarees ark: fe eerismame ge pat cmienl = 2 nufame my P can d e m 5120 7 1 7 " years, when a coarse herbage, thegreatest part of which people in conmyey ae sy each emer 4 i tothe stock on their shoal came on shore, and the other to an . The ed in driving them. proportion of ‘There can be little doubt that the herring ; might be about Faroe with success ; but it . has never attended to. and the clergy, send Certificates of the cases § The only other source of subsistence which remains Bird-catch- tive districts to the commandant, who to be mentioned, is — number of sea birds which ing- Ly eveeeng and distributes the corn ac- nestle in the rocks. these, the puffin (Alca arctica) ‘The farmers are divided into four classes, is the most numerous, and the most sought after. But i various other kinds are taken. The eider duck, which in some other Countries is so carefully protected for its down, is here often shot for food. The bird-catchers are exceedingly adventurous; and as this is the first ity we have had of describing this hazardous occupation of the inhabitants of many northern coun tries, an account of it may entertain our readers, | in the event of his losing: How The fowlers are provided with long poles, to the ends are settled seems to be a mystery ; but it of which ate fastened small poke nets. With this in- i rome te strument they generally display great dexterity in cast~ ing it over the birds, which ne en gee! make towards . the water when they are disturbed. It is this anxi Dg Ie eR Na ol ne To- of the birds to seek the element in which their securi- request, it is likely that the ty is to be found, which gives certainty to the ex- i profit, asa good ertions of the fowler. The birds push their heads exchanged for a few leaves, But through the meshes of the net, which being dexterous- i j ly inverted, keeps them suspended by the neck, When a en a is undertaken, two men keep carefully concealed. It t to be fasten themselves a rope, so that there may be eight ever, that the writer of this arti was in- of ten fathoms of it between them. One assists the the year 1808 other to ascend the rock by means of a pole, at the end of which is a hook, which is fastened to the band of the climber’s breeches, or to a rope tied round his waist, and thus he is pushed up: But the most com- considerable size used to be loaded once a year at the yion method is for the climber to seat himself on a prone kA Osteroe, and cargoes were made up board fastened to the end of the pole. They often as- at other places. At times, the caiig whale, cend frightful cliffs without an assistance. When the as it i Orkney, (and which is now su first has got to a place where he has some footing, he to be a ew speties,) comes to Faroe in vast shoals, helis the other up by nieane of the rope: to. witich hey are both fastened. When they have gained the eleva~ and the’ Higence is soot Spread to every cor- tion where the birds are pretty numerous, they assist a vous fleet of Boats is as- each other from cliff to cliff. It sometimes : for, Whatever may have been their employ- that one of them falls and pulls the other after him, ment, it is instantly forsaken to pursue these es, whien both are precipitated into the sea, or dashed to shoals of a thousand and upwards are seen pieces on the projecting rocks. When the rocks are pon Tape the islands. Being surrounded, they so high and as to render it impossible for the ew a where gd fowlers to pe 7 let down ts means of a a as th aag in Vaagoe, strong rope from above. To event the rope bei Sel renlis hetace toa a watt wificient to Sone cee oF wood is placed at the verge of the pre- float ther into the créek, and wlien they take ground cipice. means of 2 small line,’the fowler makes of death begins. ‘The animals are destroyed signals to above, and they let him down or pull ed Their oil is the chief object ree | alge lie reaches a shelf of the it is in rock where the birds have their nests, he unties him- is cut er ph Rg self, and proceeds to take them. Sometimes he places Fa ep ea: spars 80 a§ to admit himself on a projecting rock, and, using his net with pletity of air. its dried state, without any other Heed , he catches the natn BH t im ; and this they call heining. This mode of catchi several yards of birds is even practised while the fowlers are suspend ' ‘When a projection of the rock is between the fowler When these welcome visitors have- been slain and and the place where the birds are, he swings himself secured, ate valued by the syssélman and his as- from the rock so far that he turns round the projec- es tythe is first set apart; but the largest tion. In this, great address and courage are requi« diem about half an English p of barley or animal is given to the boat’s crew who first discovered Fares. pose, lve per diem bout Balt sm Engi Ent tere ae the shoal, the head being’the property of the man who fishery @ of considerations ‘which render it a complica- first descried it. Another is set aside to be distributed nd provi- ted and troublesome business. The bette ee among those whose boats may have been damaged in ante town, Thorshavn, not being it , Yeceive a the attack. The provost, or dean of the clergy, has ed eamual allowance of one el and five-eighths one ‘allotted to him; and one is given to the poor: each person ; and this is not given to them all at once, The rest are divided into two equal portions, one of ions. The ‘people in the coun- which belongs to the pro ge Meg eo olin ig farms, and their Setar be een, fe agi the 2 : ee ie i i BS i Le E ‘ i $2 i “ = ge 2 ie cae b : oe ae a8 83 ue re A * [ : g 85 Se8 Ps = j g° s Ey 3 3 3 HE e a : : : g z F 5 i =, : Hie i Ht fl : 4 g : ff get a a ei ti : ay rE fi The town. Country houses, cha- neral good, In all of them the traveller racter, and manners of the people swing far enough, he lets down om in a boat below, who swing him, as far as is necessary to enable him to gai a safe place to stand upon. Betis ing eon to he wk of i i uently in these people resort for procuring food, rot agg a ‘pueerly net in caverns which abound on the coasts, m great numbers ; but are either not so numerous now, or there is less in ment for their capture. Thorshayn, the principal place } tuate on the east side of Stromoe; the houses being built on a narrow tongue of land jutting out into the sea. Two small creeks are thus formed, in either of which vessels may be safely moored, large iron rings being fixed in the rocks, on both sides, for that purpose. The houses are constructed of wood, and crowded to- gether without any regularity. The roofs are covered first with birch bark, brought from Norway, over which tarf is laid. The green colour of the tops of the houses assimilating with that of the soil around the town, renders the place almost invisible from the sea, ata very short distance. The house of the com- mandant is the best furnished, but. that of the land- JSoged, (who is here Ingh sheriff as well as treasurer, ) is the most spacious. h the exterior of the build- ings does not promise “at yet the rooms are generally neat and clean. The church is a large wooden edifice, covered et aa painted white. It has a small steeple, together its appearance is v: om ble. . There Banh oe lar; etna ifferent parts of the town, several of which are now locked up, on account of the almost total annihilation of e. The pri is a small wretched building of stone, in. which those convicted of crimes, such as sheep-stealing, are confined for several years. . They are brought out occasionally, however, to work when any thing parti- cular is required to be done. At the mouth of the harbour are the remains of a small but strong fort, the guns of which were destroyed in the year 1808. The houses of the farmers and of the clergy are in ge- ill find him- self hospitably received, and accommodated with an apartment as neat and cleén as he could desire, though not elegant. The hospitality of the poor Faroese is really remarkable; the readiness with which they oar to anticipate them, are, to a mind not al er devoid of feeling, truly affecting. In their deportment they are ingly tives, raised their moral timation, To religious duties they pay the most regu- day evenings, and on holidays, the ive them- iy elgg of selves up to merriment. In fine them are seen in the fields, formed into circles, moving round in slow cadence, (which they call dancing,) to a song in which sometimes | 5 or 20 voices join. sub- Pi oh ong io usually some atchievement of their a the history of faithful lovers ; and the in the country, is si-: aracter very high in his es- . with scarcely any intermi it rtp hte valent in his time, but which are now de however, some remnants of lity may be traced, and some persons are to be found,.who believe that they have seen the of at a distance, at the. moment they expired, and thus had notice of their death, In this respect the Faroese are not more onpraseangne than the common people in many districts of our own. country. : ; Barley bread is that which is roe, e imported in vi ; this, with silk or fat, constitute a in the, umn, when the lambs are’ htered for drying, the blood a lar; seploced ent ene & uantity of sea- bird’ boiled or su ne “4 and Landt asserts that the stone is more frequent in Faroe than in other countries, The small-pox seldom. visits Faroe ; and, at the present time, there is not a native who has had the disease, except one who caught the infection in Denmark. Elephantiasis , such as silver coin, or some ornament, is put, and decoc« performed externally cxtinpation eee on is. of w ~ from. relaxation, it structs the isa auap Teaetobel at rye from the Danish government ; but his skill is not mu improved by practice... ~ The dress of the men of Faroe consists entirely of woollen stuffs, manufactured in the country. . i jackets, which are worn in their ordi occupations, deemisnee Sornate ot Seapets the root of tormentilla. ‘They are formed by cutting a iece of skin of a length and breadth, and pue~ ing, very neatly, be peste forthe tose eae ca re mY en , knitted for the pur« pose, and tied round the legs. e dress cap is form- ed like a bishop's mitre ; on ordinary rorprtuggaarn wear woollen caps, and sometimes caps of skin, wi the hairy part outermost. The men never cut their hair ; and to appearance seldom comb or wash it, .__ The women wear their hair combed backwards from tho frahertlnsa0 enna linen caps ee stiff border of coarse ising perpen ey cap is fastened by a coloured silk or cotton kerchief ie or sovkef’> commonly used in Fax yfanner of Faroe. 7 aes as It ma Almost all the natives ey 05 is this and guide of the writer. of 281 be traced, per- tanl curiosity, was to comprehend mountains. but that he ts of but parents donot Education. 3 and several of to teach their children to read, and sometimes to . 2 navian, or, it was origi aoa ose the Icelandic, patent great pond a remarked that he was now an oli eh upwards of 20. years ‘th measuring no schools in Faroe Danish language, in which divine service some of the islands be too old to learn. The name of this delighted, and are now its use In <8 from w mare, cape th Hans Alaik... He conducted. Sir John S The people are fond of reading rometer, which seemed to excite them, with whom the writer of this article conversed, shewed great eagerness for information of e' kind. Mnaieh-thewlteitheun halexplainesdthoseeaed tation _—— ii Le II Ut a fi ae a write. HE niet HE ee diet : aii Statistical Table 1812: iil SBQARRs |B s48 YORUM 19 3 iL ARS “SIs 1S be eaten ls Lip |szgeuas 2 ars ‘i af [REBRES5 [3 Hy Ras Scr ag |p8aagze |s mee sgke885 |3| RSSERSS & 8/2aR 12 hea | 23a8258 [3 i) |S265888 8 71 |easzaas|9 Northern Islands = “#3«@ eand the contrary, they are very in their botas os : fe de eee Ui (Hen spe te ie] Ge a i + i i Hua iv i os se teegtgsy. Sige : HME HIBE ai en i iene Tp te huey FERRET HUE art 4146 iy ite Ae ‘all Lai Hstlyii elie Heed fe dauaill SEG tanith Gti F i i ie i el i aia sepea H Hl : eae gdaloidel and porphyritic; greenstone sing chicky in the oe form, and basalt ai eide assuming commonk same form. am iety of zeolite in the grea' semi-opal, are to be found in great abundance ; and the island of Suderoe furnishes elegant jaspers. There are some very remarkable geological facts to be seen in different of the islands; but as these are closely messed rane some, equally curious and important, which were discovered in Iceland, we will defer giving a i account of them, till we come to that arti- cle.* See Lucas Debes Feroa Reserata, 1670. De- scription of the Faroe Islands, by the Rev. G. Landt, translated from the Danish, London, 1810.‘ Transac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinpurgh, vol. vii, 1814. FARQUHAR, Geoncer, an eminent English comic writer, was born pag nip wd ere. a gic respectable clergyman in the n Ireland, who, ving a numerous family, could not bestow any fortune upon him, but resolved to give him such an education, as might enable him to prosecute some genteel profes- sion. Farquhar discovered an ‘early taste for literary pur- enits, and is said to have, wuten verse ae onl = ears of age. In 1694, he ired to Trini 3 blin, where he*made such progress in his studliger as procured for him considerable reputation. It would ap- , however, that his prudence was not equal to his i attainments; for he was expelled the college, au in consequence of having adventured profane wit u asacred theme, given to him, as a by Ris tutor. At an early period of life, he turned his attention to the stage, intending to follow the'profession of amactor ; in which career‘he was’not very eminently successful. . ‘He possessed an engaging person, and genteel manners, but his voice was weak, and'he had a natural timidi however, to-‘continue'the exercise ee ae eee sti ve'abandoned, - to kill Vasquez, one of the ores forgotten to: exchange his sw proved himself to be a man-of' In the year 1704, he married a , who was 80 'vio- lently in with him, that, despairing to win him by “® The Bditor has been indebted for this counpany with Thomas Allan, Esq. in the summer of 1612. to the honour of F , that, after he had ere sh dt whieh Bad an ec wpa sh ve the lady her « [have net.any thing taleave you to perpetaste miy memory, ‘two irls ; look upon them sobetinent eoth thik bry cre ‘dat was, to the Ee mo- ment of his life, thine, a elasetaae EORGE Farguuar.” Wilkes humanely complied with the dying request of Their mother died in great dig owe writer, as man of fashion, an actos, an offcer in the y, an author, a lover, anda husband experience pied "hin web eeiees and his observation e3 with a know of human nature. His sub- jects are ly well chosen, his characters well sus- tained, his pure and lively, his dialogue easy He’ seven comedies, of which the most « : tJ ¢s FARS, or Farsistan, is a of the ki oleae ee Suen datouls by the Sea of Oman. inane into two climates, the warm and the cold, which are ; : latitude of ‘Kazeroon, el with the Gulf from thecbanks of the Tab to the confines of Lari When the periodical rains are abundant, the sandy og the oot of the mountain roduces a ¢ juan- interésting account of the Faroe Isles to Sir GEORGE MACKENZIE, Bart. who visited then in ; i “ FAR S. 283° Fors, each other by the projecting mountain called Kopi in the mountains immediately behind Behaban, and after __ Furs. nae : hog af flowing within a few miles of that it passes through — the vale of Ram Hormuz to old Dorak, in the territory of These districts, which contain only a few wretched mud are badly cultivated. The Cold Re- gin arcs from the of Kazeroon to that of -Yezdekhast, on the of Irak. Tt comprehends most of the mountainous part of Fars, The mountain the Chab Sheikh, where the Arabians have erected a dam, for the purpose of irrigating the fields, leaving two chief brenches, one of which passes on the outside and the other through Dorak. The marshes in the vallies are generally 8 or 10 miles broad, and from 15 nei urhood of this town are occasioned by the lesser $ to 100 long. They afford abundance of pasturage, and branches. One of the principal branches enters the ill cultivated. The plains Karoon above Sabla, and the other empties itself into are commonly fi 3 of Sheeraz, Ribeeoba; Merdesht, however, are in cultivation ; but, towards the north and west, they are almost unpeopled. Mr Kinneir travel- led, in 1809, above 60 miles between Behaban and Sheeraz, o—. =~ — . i ee vallies, without seei e face of a human being. An/ancient tribe peeve fase inhabited them, most exti by the orders of the prince; and the few which had escaped to the summits of the lofty mountains, ‘subsisted upon a wretched kind of bread made from acorns, and upon the pillage of travellers. The eastern part of the province towards Darabgherd and Fesa is more open. The soil is more sandy, and the plains more extensive. The cocina er ge oe eee separate range, but a bran ount Zagros, which stretches in a continued succession of ridges from the borders ‘of the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and . Mount Caucasus. _ The hills in this province towards Bushire, are about 24 miles from the sea. The. wards Bunder Reig ; and to the west of the village of Gu- nava,a low ridge suddenly projects to the south, and ter- minates at the sea shore in the projecti int of Kohi , which se the districts of wee and i This point is not high, but is about 7 or 8 miles broad, and it lies the plain of Leerawee. Wee: ad for Dbink COr pou ahepy peenacee Gale’ dntanee, sea, and for 18 or 19, e this distance, had been als. in becomes contracted to- - the sea at Goban. In passing through the vale of Ram Hormuz the Jerahi receives a rapid river which flows - from the mountains about six miles east of the town of ~ Ram Hormuz. This tributary stream contains a ws body of water, and is not fordable after the melting of the snows. It-is the river alluded to in the marches of « . Timour. The river Bund Emeer, called by some of the ancients Cyrus, and by,the Greek historians Araxes, flows through the delightful valley of Merdesht, adorn- ed with the ruins of Persepolis, and in the rich districts -- of Kurjan it is subdivided into-.numerous streams for ~ irrigating the fields. The remaining part of the river is. joined by Shamier, a small stream which rises in a hot fountain, three miles from Gazian, a'town about 90 miles from Sheeraz, and afterwards passes:the villages of Kumu and Syvund. The united streams then dis- themselves into the Jake Baktegan. In travelling from Bushire to Endian, Mr Kinneir - passed other four-rivers. The first of these rises among the mountains behind the old. city of Shapour, and after running through this city, and watering the villages - of Kesht and Dalkee, it.enters the Gulf alittle to the - south of Rohilla. Mr Kinneir supposes it-to be the.an- cient Heratenis. At Rohilla it is 60 yards broad and six feet deep.. The second-river, which he.supposes to be the Granis of Arrian, is.only.seven miles. to:the . north-west of this. It apse itself into the.sea half way between Rohilla and Bunder Reig ; ‘but. it is neither so wide nor so deep as the former. The third, which is the Roganis of Arrian, runs with a south-west form near’ Bunder Deelum. On turning the south- course from the mountains, and throws itself into the par Boyt ema dow and advanced branch, which is sea three miles north-east of Gunuva. It,is almost f Zeitoon, from a small town near Behaban, they in breadth to that of Rehilla. At high water it again retire to the north, and at the port of the Mashoor is im e, but it is only three feet deep during»the ‘are 30 miles from the sea. eir most southern ebb. The last and the smallest river, which is pro- extremity at Shuster, crosses the 32d degree of North bably the Brizana of Arvian, flows between Hissarand . Latitude, in the 49th degree of East tude. Bunder Deelum. After a wandering. course from. the rivers, are the Tab, the Arosis of the ancients ; the Jerahi,; the ancient Pasitigris ; the Bund Emeer, and several others, whose modern names are not mentioned. ‘The Tab, which is the largest, is formed _ union of two streams near Zeitoon, one of which of the high hill of Kamarah, and the of Sheeras. - Mr Kimneir considers this latter branch as the river mentioned by Arrian in the march of Alexan- der. ‘The ‘Tab: Fars from Kuzistan, and pas- ses thre the town of Endian, where it is 80. wide (in Feb:) and for boats of 20 tons bur- then. ‘There is a ford about 9 miles above the town ; and the Tab discharges itself into the sea about 16 miles below corey The me of this river is. perfectly eweet when it passes Zeitoon ; but in running over hills towards Endian, it becomes so-brackish as hardly to be fit for use. This is also the case with all the other rivers in Fars, which empty themselves into the Per- TheriverJerahi, which is next in size to the Tab, rises ) hills of Zeitoon, it discharges itself into the Gulf, eight miles south-east of Bunder Deelum. wield The salt lake of Baktegan is about/75'English miles poke, .. in circumference, and is situated about: 10°miles south- east of Sheeraz. In summer, when it is nearly. dry,’ the people on its: banks collect the salt, which encrusts . the bottom. This salt. is generally used throughout the theres and is reckoned. very fine: ‘he principal towns in Fars:are Sheeraz the capital, ‘Towns, Kazeroon about 70 miles. nearly west of. Sheeraz, Shapour, Bushire, Bunder Reig a sea-port with about . 300 or 400 inhabitants, Bunder :Deelum another sea~ — ing about 700inhabitants, Zeitoon with a popu« fase scuttoumnoens Behaban, the capital of the moun« tainous district of Khogiloea; having walls about three miles.in circumference, and nearly 10,000 inhabitants, Fallayoom, ‘Selbistan with 4000 inhabitants, Niris, Feza, Darabjerd with pr inhabitants, and Ursinjan. - For more com; information respecting Raseewns, see Kinneir’s | ical Memoir of the Persian Empire, cata which -we arein- FAS ee aaa cle. (w) FASCINATION is the name given to an influence which certain animals are supposed to possess over other animals, which serve them for food. This fa- culty has beew ascribed to toads, hawks, eats, owls, tigers, and various other animals, but particularly to the rattlesnake and other American It is sup- posed by some naturalists, as Kalm, that the small birds, squirrels, &c.. which have been seen to fall from the branches of trees into the mouth of the rattle- snake, must have been previously bitten by the snake; and being thus debilitated, were unable either to esca or to remain the tree, Others, nadia Ohpedd, —— that rattlesnake produces the effect by stupifying vapour emitted from its body; while ching as Linneus and Blumenbach, ascribe the effect pane neve terror inspired by the rattle which is to reside in tail of this animal. Dr Smith Barton of Philadelphia, has drawn up two interesting memoirs, the object of which is to prove there is no solid foundation for the opi- nion that ts are endued with the faculty of fas- charming other animals, and we think that he has succeeded, at least, in rendering this opi- nion very doubtful, if not in completely overturning it. Such of our readers as wish to prosecute the subject, are referred to the following works, where they will find information on the subject. See , Hist. Nat, lib. viii. cap. 14. Linneus Sys- tema Nature, art. Crotalus Horridus. Professor Peter ‘Kalm, Travels into North America, vol. i. p. 317, $18 ; vol. ii. p. 207, 208, 209, 210, Eng. Transl. London, 1770—1. Kalm, Memoirs of the Swedish Academy of Sciences for 1753. Mather, Phil. Trans. No. 339. Hans Sloane, Phil. Trans. 1734, vol. xxxviii. No. 433. p. 321. Dudley, Phil. Trans. 1723, vol. xxxii. No. 376. p. 292. La Cepede, Histoire Naturelle des Ser- pens, p. 409—411, Paris, 1789. Pennant’s Arctic welt App: pcbil., Blunsenbech, Hlondbwol der No- 511 lumen ch der Na-~ frgesclaht 253. Gotting. 1791. Benjamin —_ Barton, American Transactions, vol. iv. This was published separately under the title of A a concerning the Fascinating Faculty which has been as- cribed to the Rattlesnake, and oth American Serpents, -~ -Philadelphi Barton’s S to the above lemoir, . elphia, 1801. The preceding papers are published also in Nicholson's Journal, vol. vii. p. 270 ; vol. viii. p. 58, 100; vol. xiii. p. $00. Blumenbach’s Reply to Dr Smith Barton, was published in Voigis Magazin fur-der neussten astand der Naturkunde, Part il. 1798, andin Tilloch’s Phi ical Magazine, vol. ii. Pe 251. See also Ironside in the Phil. Mag. vol. xiv. = 19; Gentleman’s Magazine, 1765, p. 511; T os ~ ae p. 879; and Michaelis, pe orp wary 1785. (7 Gre ‘partial or total abstinence of man- Kind andl anisole hen the ordi rondnatin ply of aliment, by which is to be understood that gener eaallsiliewas in a heal- ay aod goon given - few examples of the faculty —s STINENCE, creatures to resist , while ovina privation of sus serena eel oye ae ro uences ing of mankind. It is a prevalent opinion, that the sudden 284 FAS reduction of food will immediately q extent am dat death will ene See especially if to a great extent ; and death will ene sue from total privation, ‘even for the shortest term be-- rte ere our accustomed necessi- ties. ut n othing can be more erroneous ; for the re- verse is satisfactorily established by pee cr anew instances, me os animated tribes peace subsitene nee from the uncertain capture ’ in this num- pramarnoae ranked in hit orginal state ane in general capable of resisting impressions of hunger tor a considerable period. Sleep follows the labours of the chase, and digestion is not conducted with rapidity. Removed from that ori state, however, custom usurps the place of nature ; and, on looking to the enor- mous quantities of food consumed by those atound us, we should be apt to conclude, that not less than several pounds daily are required for the preservation of health incor giche, ths ecu snclias ooaipenseanueete n glo’ t an ce tite asa proportion of the population of these king~ doms, nor by whom any abridgment would be more sensibly + felt and it accordingly appears, that in war- fare, on occurrence of such occasions, the same ener- gies decline, which, to the combatants of other nations, have previously proved successful, — - In some eens seme a the supplies of fot are scanty and enjoying one a long interval ma: Sy clapes | before obtaining another ; yet the! aN ow do not —— Hy wees Continent of urope, the meals of the e for the most are few vane aiithe bicbioas qt asenrahe most universally abstemious: a cake of meal;and camel’s milk, are the chief subsistence of the Arabians :: millions of. Indians:subsist on rice alone, with water for their pen es be if we look into the state of the in some = the British dominions, we Scholae find many on ergeres | bat: Bi eva iis aniade wate ipcmnans ut there are countries though inhabited by men ; others have not yet been re~ claimed by agricultural operations, or, if sataen 4 uncertainty of the cuales frequently disappoin paar of the husbandman ; and in this way does the tion of fasting arise. The vast continent of New’ olland, except for few and distant patches, ex- peer reste denn of steri berth mas searce offers any pacion persone Srblbeuneeeterpaneaidincbieneionten in so wide and ‘aterritory, the animal tribes can sel- dom be obtained for sustenance. ‘The incessant pursuit of those of size, as the ‘and kangaroo, has rendered ‘shy, while it diminishes their num~ bers. isa ous resource, both.from the precari - imperfect implements of the savages, from the. which constantly assail their coasts, and more from the of the fishes themselves. _ visages and emaciated bodies of the natives of the An- daman islands, indicate how sparingly the of nature are satisfied. They live in an : ded. state ; and, like brutes, their nat occu- pied in ly of food. Hitherto no at~ tempts saree stad bp them to cultivate the lands upon which they dwell ; and their whole subsistence’ is derived from what they can collect or kill. Though their. country be less i itable than that of the New Hal- landers, and their’ vegetable diet consist of the pro- | | : i ; f ‘ i, Hy | q ae = any eg ‘great emp ee teeete Wome heyinnen sp dhrestes the ver expation a affords too many examples of BASTING. his hands and feet were cold, and pulsation almost ex- _ Fasting. ahesheiy meapce little. found thére which is pa- e to Europeans; and, as they have no vessel which can withstand the action of fire, they are unable to reap much advantage from such esculent herbs as ay be containedinthem. Their principal subsistence on. collecting fish from the reefs at the recess of tide ; and the greatest part of the drudgery of do- pe Leet) en nb ag ty tome rien A es with hunting in theforests. _- dent of natural sterility of 1e bark of trees, which, with the addition of a little presented not to be unpalatable, while they are suffi- ient for the preservation of life. Famine more terri- experienced in populous countries, such as occur- in. , when’ many, the su: of abstinence ; but those peculiar mental morbid ‘state, or neipally nt sodsualnr Pissed ae ace a on acavity. He could raise his head, but 285 tinct. Immediate relief was afforded ; but next morn- ing he became indifferent about food, and, having an- nounced his own dissolution, expired in a few minutes, on Sunday afternoon, after’ seven days. This example illustrates the opinion of Hippocrates, though it is not corroborated by others, namely, that fasting less than seven days is not invariably. fatal, but after that period, notwithstanding individuals may. surviye and take food, their previous abstinehce will occasion death.. It is to be observed, that here was an instance of absolute privation. In the year 1768, Captain Kenne- dy was shi eked, with 12 companions, in the West Indies. They | served a small quantity of provisions, which were ly consumed in seven days, amidstextra- ordinary distresses. During eight succeeding days, though in absolute want, of meat.and drink, and exposed in an boat, the whole survived ; but, af- ter obtaining relief, some of the people perished. In this case they were evidently supported by being fre- quently drenched with sea-water. Sir William Hamil- ton, in an account of a dreadful earthquake which de- vastated Sicily and Calabria in the year.1783, relates that he saw two girls who were miraculously preserved in the ruins of ahouse. One had nm eleven en- tire days, and the other Six, totally deprived of food. _ It must not escape observation, that the difference be- tween absolute privation,of food, and a supply of any portion of it, is incommensurable. The same may. al- most be said of water ; for it materially contributes to preserve life :, and hence the difficulties. of ascertaining what is truly protracted fasting. The Negro couriers, i Stag Nase ig io on the western coast of Adee, tiguing journeys on about four ounces yi daily... It is Sail that, in common situa- tions, both they and the Moors are frequently seen to. subsist eight days on three ounces of gum daily, with- out diminution of health. or vigour ; and some maintain, that they can fast three days without any in- convenience. The whole store of a courier at his out- set, consists only of a pound of gum, a little grilled rice, and several ounces of hard animal jelly, compounded with a fourth of its weight in gum. This substance is decidedly nutritious ; we are told, that when the whole provisions. of a caravan had been exhausted in the desarts between .Abyssinia and. a thonsand subsisted on which was found to fee of the ; and the caravan bh am, tole The cor sae one, unger or di cony Negro cou~ | riers may possess particular qualities in re ay ger, such as that which, among the primitive inhabi- tants of this island, is said to have proved sufficient, if equivalent to a bean, for a whole day ; and some of the American Indians, when. i have similar ients for hip's biscuit divided into a number of daily. Captain Inglefield, and eleven men, of the taur man of war which fou -at sea in the yeay 1782, sailed 800 miles in a yawl, while their sole provi- sions consisted of a twelfth part of a biscuit for each of two meals a day;.and/a glass of water, continued 286 FASTING. ‘of Captain and 18 of the Bounty. i i 18 men > who lied a qrent paren of 3600 miles in an open q : size of a , was accidentally caught, it served for a dntal to (oe whole crew. We dull not be woth ourpri- sed, therefore, at the — made by some le en hcmselvs, from ‘hich appeared. that ting on half a pound of bread daily with a pint of liquid was ive of no inconvenience. Still there is an infi- nite difference between all this and absolute privation, because nutriment is derived from the solids received, and these solids may be of very various descriptions. Sea weed has afforded many grateful meals to fumished sailors. Inthe year 1652, two brothers, accidentally abandoned on an islet in a lake of Norway, subsisted twelve days on grass and sorrel, and suffered nothing in consequence of their diet. Few instances can be given of absolute privation both of solids and liquids ; but in the case above referred to, where 72 persons took shelter in the shrouds of a ves- sel, fourteen actually survived during twenty-three days without food, though a few drops of rain were occasion- ally caught in their mouths as they fell. Some of the survivors also drank sea water, but it was not so with all. In the year 1789, it appears that Caleb Elliott, a reli- gions visionary, determined to fast forty days. Du- ring sixteen he obstinately refused all kinds of suste- nance, and then died, being literally starved to death. It is said, that not long two convicts in the jail of Edinburgh lived folarecth di s without food, and recei- ving liquids only ; and in the records of the Tower of London, there is to be preserved an instance of a Scotchman, who, strictly watched, was seen to fast during six weeks, after which he was liberated on account of his uncommon powers of abstinence. Morgagni, an Italian physician, refers to an instance ofa woman, who ly all sustenance, except twice’ during fifty days, and took only a small quantity of water, the died. An avalanche some years ago over- whelmed a vi in Switzerland, and entombed three women in a fla with the juice of oranges. He took no exer- cle, slept Tito, ani successfully dispelled his religious aberrations: but aay Tom i ty-eighth from the date of his abstinence. An analo- gous case has been quoted by the same physician, of an Insane person, who survived 47 days’ on a pint and a half of water daily, during which time he obstin: stood 88 days in the same position. From extreme weakness he lay down during the remainder, still refu- sing any thing’ but water ; nor did this extraordinary abstinence prove fatal. f Perhaps we should find many examples of fasting for a much longer period, on ing to morbid conditions of the body ; such as that of Janet M‘Leod,a’ Scotish female, who, after epilepsy and fever, remi red five eee in bed, seldom , and receiving food or yy constraint. At e obstinately refused sustenance, her jaws became locked, and in attem to force them two of her were broken. small quantity of liquid Sita ne rs. ae of eS palm of her hand. It is not evident that her con cence ever was complete, and it rather is to be that she always remained in a debilitated con After these ‘ i instances chiefly to our own wra, to which many more might we shall probably be less in us in lists accounts of the older authors ; and although we refuse to go to the same extent ‘that they have do cannot reject those exampl cee Pe | +f ; I : Fl es which do not ex terms of duration here specified. Yet it i to be too careful of imposture, of which the: bs clines tomake a systematic division of the duration of fast- ods, which he designs short, inter~ mited to three days; the’ second happens ‘ > but life is in hazard, and it embraces an interval with- in the sixth day. AJ fasting beyond that time; belongs att Me * FASTING. voured, to ase the cravings of h 3 every animal, the most istherene sapien are welcome sus- of trees. John Lery, who endured the extremity of famine in a voyage to Brazil, Lay ere declared, had been ashore ; famine from sieges, shipwreck, or the failure of ex- Diminution of size, and the prostration of strength, are almost immediatel, ent to abstinence. The extremities of Datives of i ; his arms alone remain withered, stiff, and motionless, and as hard as timber.” Extenuation and v s follow sudden. changes from sustenance on animal to vegetabl : e i M1 known, those who subsist solely on othe aoe the latter are not 237 capable of the same personal exertions as those copi- ah supplied with th e former. Along with vk. tion, there ensues the suppression of the alvine excre- tions, though secretions by the kidneys continue, and it is remarkable that drenching the og frequently with water uces an augmentation of the latter. Duri is period a material alteration is taking lace in the mind; men become wild, and ferocious, ey view each other with malevolence, they are quar- relsome, turbulent, and equally regardless of their own fate as of the safety of their neighbours ; they actually resemble so many beasts of prey. The sensations of hunger from protracted fasting are not alike in all, or it may be, that immediate languor operates strongly on those by whom it is not so severely felt. But it is certain that, after a icular time, ri ae inclination for food is experienced, though great {desire remains of quenching thirst. The Genevese physician describes his hunger as having been keen, but never painful. During the first and second days of abstinence, he be- came faint on attempting any mental or personal exer- tion ; and a sensation of cold was diffused over his whole frame, more ially affecting the extremities. Captain Inglefield, of the Centaur, expresses his conso- lotary feelings on seeing one of his. companions perish, “ that dying of hunger was not so dreadful as imagina- tion had pictured.” A survivor of that miserable ship- wreck, w so many people hung twenty-three days in the shrouds, observes, that he did not suffer much during the first three from want of food; that after more he was surprised to have existed so long, and concluded, that each succeeding day would be his last To these examples may be added that of Cap- tain Kennedy, who considered it sin r, that although he tasted neither meat nor drink during eight entire days, he did not feel the sensations of hunger and thirst. niess for timely succour, the human frame yields under such privations, idiotcy succeeds ferocity, or the sufferer dies raving mad. Should the consequences not be fatal, Jortings disoneee are frequently occasioned, by the tone of the different organs being injured, some- times incurable, and sometimes admitting palliation. It is evident, however, from the preceding observa. tions, that protracted fasting is not so destructive as is commonly credited, and mankind may, without danger, remain entire days destitute of food. Liquids are an effectual substitute for solids in. preserving life, and drenching the body with salt or fresh water, or laving it copiously on the head, materially contribute in avert« ing death by famine. See Philosophical Transactions, 1783... Memoirs of the Manchester Society for 1785, vol, iii. Lerius Navigationes in Brasiliam. Asiatic Researches, vol. iv..p. 386. Syme’s . to Ava, p- 130. Mackay’s Narrative of the Shipwreck of the Juno. Annual Register for 1768 and.1783. Gentle man’s Magazine, 1789, Licetus, De his qui diu vi-+ vunt, sine alimento. (c FATA Morgana, is the name given to an optical enomenon, sometimes seen in the straits of Messina, ween the Island of Sicily and the,talian coast. This remarkable phenomenon, which has nothitherto received any explanation, has been described by Kircher, Ange- lucci, Se Giardina, Gallo, Leanti, Brydone, Swin- -burne, and F. Antonio. Minasi, the last of whom pub- lished. a dissertation on the subject at Rome, in 1793. Pr on ei nengtiy: me Fata Mor; three ime, Minasi yen us. ollowing description of it, which we believe to be the most correct thethad hither- to been published, Fasting, Fata Morgana. — b Be Sied'ts the caeant "the Aseteliee placed ik cniants ofthe city, ie recat ting plas and his face to the sea; on a sudden there appears in the water, as in a ca theatre, various multiplied less series of arches, wise in the air, though not so distinct or well defined as the former objects from the sea. Lastly, if the air be slightly hazy and opaque, and ‘su at the same time dewy, and adapted to form the iris, then the above mentioned objects will only at the surface of the sea, as in the first case, but all vivid- ly coloured or fringed with red, green, blue, and other ic colours.” Minasi divides these phenomena into three classes ; the marine morgana, the aerial morgana, and the pris- — matic morgana ; and he endeavours to prove, that all the appeara -es are representations of the objects u p= nner He comaiders the bok be" Saale um, on account of the rapid current which runs trough the straits; and he supposes it to be divided into t planes, by the contrary eddies which take place when the current its direction. He as- cribes the aerial morgana, to the refractive and reflec. tive power of effluviee suspended in theair. © Many other phenomena of a similar kind, have been Jong observed under the names of Looming and Mirage. In our article Sonnet states we have mentioned a very phenomenon observed by Dr Vince of Cam- Srilge and Dr Buchan has deseribed another in Ni- cholson s Journal, vol. xiv. All these phenomena ob- reer Rered from the rarefaction of the air in the neigh hood of the surface of the sea, in consequence - of which, a distant obj to be depressed in- sed of elevated by the refraction; ee seen depressed elevated, one of having in general an inverted position. Dr Wollas- ton has inv this subject with much ingenui and has shewn, that this class of rth imitated, either by viewing a distant object alo hot poker, or through a saline or saccharine so with water and spirit of wine ae upon it on Nieholeon’s te ae vol. i, 4to, and vol. xiv. page 840, ‘ 8vo, Wollaston, Phil. Trans. 1798. Gilbert's Jour- - nal, vol. xvii.p. 183, DrThomas Young's Natural Philo. sophy, vol. i. p. 441, 442. Vince, h Transac« tions yol. vi. p. 245. Biot, Mem. de ? Institut. ; and our articles Armotrusne and Rerracrion. () of which it is composed form ‘an an irregular arin! ee a ee Many: formed of stone 1s at west ali and termiasted by mtociaguiaeyies ? feet igh The interior of the church underwent @ thorough sepeie tn eee ras eke Se Oe ee aad z of the belfiy. ‘ rue The guildhall; de tacos was built “oF of tinier : in 1594, and has an open space between the i be- neath. sh aensaeeh eadcien founded pee 16, and supported chiefly ne taaeorheg amend Ponee 12 poor rane 12 winks. Tere are also shows snd ater benefactions, for the poor. The brent brated abbey of Faversham, were once extensive and numerous. © The two entrance gates remained till a 47 years ago, when: er now remains but the outer walls of the ; pposed before the time of Elizabeth. The sin lr individuals by government in 1760, and were soon’ eae 2 ORE hE eS ‘The rent mills and storehouses are p quantity of powder manufactu red annually, amounts :to -between 12,000 and 13,06 ene to about '400 — The wn up in 1761, by the ex- The mis were ph ret noise was Pece so nage imeheete The oyster fishery is the: cures ofthe ra eHameatiann teal teas farnlice being by it. Bc Pern oe ae annually exported to Holland to the eee Senden te neg aerien ibang fis en a pe wi uantities sham sup ripe great q P comm, oysters. “Eve ‘he followi ence are in 46145 including’ the out-Hberty: Math Number of houses... ... Peay Sie" 98 - Females 2-04:5°5%).G00h, MEN cS ogy ae Vet popuain a SS Se ved eae <2 Peo eS Oo Ge Ar ‘miles long and 9 wide. ‘The prin- cipal town is called Villa de Horta, before which is the semicircular bay or road of Fayal, about two miles an aed spree cede bea town, according to is West Long. 28° 41’ 48”, and North Lat. 38° 30’ 55”. See Azores, for a account of the Islands. FE ps Bocora Santa. See SANTA FE DE Bocora. FEATHERS... See Anatomy Comparative, and OrnirHoLoey. bole > apr L -FEEJEE, the name of a ——— in the ly of which were Several z i $ i i PE i i 5 : | i in north of those which he had formerly vi- ing.crossed his former track, he doubled of the in East Long. 178°, and 19° or 15°. i sre Q ; > f a & : E BF year 1794, Captain Barber saw six islands in western part of the p; and having anchored in bay on the western side of the largest one, his. ship -was attacked. by the natives in a number of canoes, In ef which were soon He found the navigation very difficult. and in Cook was in- formed that Feejee wasa but fertile island, abound- ing in hogs, dogs, fowls, and all kinds of fruits. ithe F ns are a distinct race from the inhabitants of Ti speaking erent language, and ma- metueereyaemi a i 7 3 west ¢ Li i, in » 14° 21’, pi ag op pp nabenceee pelo ‘resembles a truncated cone, and incloses a hollow 40 feet deep, and about 2640 in ci called the Ditch of Fern, which is now in cultivation. It is sup-~ posed - to have been anciently the crater VOL. IX. PARTI. 289 PEL from whose lava the island was formed. The soil is Felicuda. composed of. half pulverulent tufa, resting There is alsoa email isolated hill, to the south-east of the principal mountain, and about ‘half its height. It has the appearance of a broken cone, trun at the top, where it forms a hollow owing towards the bottom, and eed 6 PRE of lava imbedded in earthy tufa : the exterior e hill is lava. - ; Though yet unprovided with a lar harbour, Fe- licuda has two bays, the one on lie dontli the other on a ev ded side of the island, by one or other of which a landing may easily be effected, in any direction of the wind. A “A if The shore is almost wholly composed of various Ide Minerals. we — eather bay have eaters: base a lig elspar ; include needles of black Gnd Thseeas aches with small on nselbeminbpsaniben cr . Ime many parts. they resemble Perec Sen ddeeant o ity of their va- cuities, the production of which been ascribed to the action of gas, when the lava was in a state of fusion. About a hundred and fifty paces to the left of the bay stands a fine rock of prismatic lava, 30 feet high. From the top downwards itis perfectly smooth, to about 12 feet abovethe surface of the sea, where it begins to assume the prismatic form, dividing into a number of three-sided isms, and continuing this form under water. The of this lava is an.extremely: compact iron-coloured hornstone. It contains a great number of small rhom- boidal schorls, with some grains of amorphous felspar. A little farther to the left, is the Grotta del Bove Ma- rino ; the entrance is 60 feet in breadth, and above 40 in height : it forms a kind of porch, which conducts to ahall 200 feet long, 120 broad, and 65 in height.’ It a PCH RE PN Nec RE BRIE ee porous schorl ; it is ofa colour, interspersed wi white shining rhomaboidal felspars, and is magnetic at the distance of half a line, but its power is increased by fusion : like the rock mentioned, it sepa- rates into prisms before eo water. Beyond this cavern is a high ipice, which descends into the sea, and is. oieasmnantenae alternate beds of lava and ‘Spallanzani counted .eleven of each. The remaining part of the shore consists chiefly of pris< matic lavas, having for their base the hornstone and schorl in the mass. “za The lavas of the interior are of three different kinds, of two of which the base is hornstone, and of the third converts them into a vitreous froth. The pumices are ity,,and always in very detached are of two kinds; the one light and po« rous, the other, entirely without pores, of a smooth fracture, and of considerable weight and Taaeasenliiaisanleaetnovsedcpellemnandaaiiaieg: All of them with very brilliant scales: of vi- treous felspar, and in the furnace contract into a shin- ing black enamel, interspersed with the whitish scales the felspar. The climate of Felicuda is bracing and healthy ; the Climate. 20 on lava. “v= laobabstants. air is remarkably , and seldom contaminated with erect queue, several inches long, is woolly, and of Feloopy, Sige ap wapeseey tho coll fo ecm , and consists entire- r length than that of ne in ger The ly of pulverised tufa. The island, however, abounds is allowed to grow, and is in like man- in vines, which afford an excellent wine. It has also ner, so as to advance in a point ¢ some inches Indian figs, and some olive trees, and gives a toler- from the chin. Rena ay om | aring greater able crop of wheat and barley. The value of the to- resemblance to those of the than of ne- tal produce, including that of the vintage, was estima- gee, Bay have a wild and melancholy east ; ted by Spallanzani at 4000 Neapolitan crowns. Its See ee te ee ima) productions are not more numerous than those ful disposition. They hold very little intercourse of the vegetable kingdom. Of amphibious animals, their neighbours, are ly jealous of their (the Lacerta agilis of Lin. rpent ot i i on any of the group, owing, it is thought, to the paucity of those insects, and other small are which s a scene of unambitious and cheerful tranquillity, which even in its highest anticipations scarcely looks beyond the wants of nature. Their es are mere hovels, rudely constructed of blocks of lava, and seem hung like the nests of birds to the precipitous eliffs of their mountains. This si custom was first occasioned by the ent attacks of the Tu- nisian corsairs, with which the i was formerly much harassed, and which at length compelled the inhabi- tants to transfer their residence from the lower parts. of the island to those declivities of the mountains, which are less accessible to piratical surprise. Their food, in , consists of wild fruits, and a sort of black bar- bread, before them in the coarsest dishes, or on the bare d,on which they are seated to receiveit. They sometimes indulge themselves with the luxury. of salt fish and pure water. This last article is extremel scarce, there not being a single spring on the island, which makes it necessary to preserve the rain water in cisterns. Few of these people employ themselves in fishing, in which they use the hook and line, Their principal ion is agriculture ; and it is wonderful with what industry they cultivate, and with what at- tachment they cling to wretched soil, which thus scantily repays their ever-patient exertions. would not exchange it,” sa; i, “ for the For- tunate Isles.” (v) Ap ea FELIS. See Mammauia, ; ; FELOOPS, or Fenuprs, a tribe of inhabit- ing the western coast of Africa, between the Gambia prieemn we oe of the river Casamanza. The whole ex- tent territory occupied by them, is about seven- ty-five miles in length Sy a in breadth, ter- minating to the east near the sources of the latter river, _ In stature -are short and stout, but strong and swift ; pen Arapapaitonge pe ony ar e and their hair, which they collect on the crown in an 5 These in common with other tribes in diffe. rent parts of the world, cover their faceand skin by akind of tattooing or scarification, with strange and hey go almost naked, except for a scanty mathe hate known of th religion of the Nothing whatever is e relig e Foleops hut te focigs hy tie ae ol arte baer about their th eeply tinctured with is reputed difficult, and their traffic being carried on by means of a factor or third person, arya cewerriar SS and eed ans. But the simple savage is 3 de ot; for after having departed with brn pang ica recy cephatily esied oa tains a consi le ce, ‘ically desi « cheating mo "a0 the reward of hie tralia.” co in the woods is made into an intoxica- ting liquor resembling mead. This is one pri ingredient at their feasts, eager de cokes fatally, often ensue when the whole party is in a state of intoxication. One singular feature in their manners is now disclosed, intimately resi aa ee i i Ee fF i f i a ay : Eg F é i ef fF i z' u Ey ‘ r i tion: tawanie. thes, beneiastoalil aaa) Whats trusted to their charge is preserved with < § FEN ‘eS Sirdkgein: «6 blishments on the river Gambia, it is said to be other- Portuguese settlements on the Casaman- are common and familiar with the ' ws Gol- otenusnies ly ee o! berry mare en Afrique, tom ii. Park's Travels, p. 218. (c » FELSPAR. See Mineratocy. FENCE. See Acricutture. FENS. See Drarninc. FENELON, Francis pe Satignac De 1a Morte, : of Cambrai, cient and i, was able in the mode of his education, which was entrusted to the care of a private r; but, in a few years, he acquired under this instructor a more extensive know- oy Sis nosh metre cae yb ages, than is usual. 25 meat and to this circumstance perfection iy Aco mitted to preach in public at the age of fifteen. id di ing relative, rather alarmed than gratified by the encomiums which this premature ap- pearance had excited, and anxious to secure his nephew's 291 FEN inexperience fromm the snares of youthful vanity, placed him at the seminary of St Sulpice, under the care of its learned and pious superior M. Tronson. From the ex« ample and instructions of this excellent person, the youthful Fenelon derived his relish of those clerical vir- tues, of which he afterwards exhibited so a pat- tern ; and received those impressions of elevated piety, by which he was Meandtanntin distinguished during the whole course of his life. When he was sixteen of age, he formed the determination of devoting himeelf to the missions in Canada, where the seminary of St Sulpice had a considerable establishment; and neither the influence of his tutor, nor the remonstrances of his friends, were able to shake his purpose. But at length his uncle, the bishop of Sarlat, on the ground of his nephew’s extreme youth and infirm state of health, explicitly refused to grant permission. for his departure, and ordered him to remain at St Sulpice, that, by longer study and retirement, he might qualify himself for the exercise of the ministry. Having been ordained at St Sulpice, he devoted himself for the of three years to i of his functions in that parish ; and, after that period, was appointed to explain the scriptures to the people on Sundays and festival days. About the year 1674, he was invited by his uncle to Sarlat, and resumed with additional zeal his missionary views, choosing the Levant as the scene of his labours ; but his friends succeeded in finding for him a more suitable, yet very similar course of ministration ; and, at 27 years of age, he was nominated the superior of an institution for ing in the faith the newly-con« verted female Cethciion.i sie this humble employment, which ired only the simpler forms of instruction, the more minute details of knowledge, and the milder topics of persuasion, he ten whole years in the prime of life ;-but, while faithfully engaged in these obscure and unhonoured duties, he was eens by study and meditation. those higher talents which con- tributed to'render him so bright an ornament of the Christian church, Though the Marquis his uncle, with whom he resided, passed his life in religious retirement, yet he retained the intance of a few select friends, to whose notice he introduced his ni w, and in whose society he enjoyed many ities of improvement, epportunities Among these were the Duke de Beauvilliers, who was afterwards governor to the Duke of Burgundy, and the celebrated Bossuet, who held the situation of tor to the Dauphin. He ily recommended hi to the esteem and confidence of that distinguished prelate ; and profited by his instructions, while he s his in. timacy. During wet esanh en om his first work, a treatise on “ the Education of a Daughter,” which he wrote at the request of the Duchess de Beauvilliers, and which has been rather imitated than surpassed by future writers on the subject. In 1686, he was placed by Louis XIV. at the head of the missionaries, who were sent to Poitou and Sai , to convert to the Catholic faith the Protestants in these provinces, whose pastors had been driven into exile; and having been allowed to choose his , and authorized to dis- miss the military who had hitherto acted.as the of the'chiirch, he repaired to the scene of his:duties with all the zeal of a Romish missionary, tem 1 with the spirit of Christian conciliation. But h he was received war TE RE ee and se- dulously removed every instrument of coercion, he per- ceived that his converts were chiefly influenced by fear, im consequence of the violent measures which’ were pursued in other provinces; and it would seem, that Fenelon, . vevekom his proteedings ; re In consequence of his own request, he ved permission to return to 292 sand Paris, where he gave an ‘account of his mission to the king in person ; and contentedly resuming his humble functions among the “ Nouvelles Catholiques,” he was more than two years without once appearing at court. He was too ind Gerent about his personal interests to employ the ordinary means of ion ; and even his ing character did not him from the machinations of envy and malevolence. He had been selected for the Bishopric of Poictiers, and his nomina- tion even sanctioned by the king, but it was revoked before Se public ; and at the earnest applica- tion of the Bishop of Rochelle, who had witnessed his fidelity in the Protestant provinces, he was on the eve of being nominated to assist and succeed that aged pre- late ; but means were found to prevent also the accom- plishment of this plan. In both these cases, his success was obstructed by the secret influence of Harlai, arch- bishop of Paris, who never forgave Fenelon the decided nee which he had shewn for his rival Bossuet’s iendship, and who is said to have gained his ends by rendering him suspected of a tendency to Jansenism, Having published, however, in 1688, his treatise on ** the Education of a Daughter,” and another on “ the Ministry of Pastors,” which had both been long ap- proved by his friends in Manuscript, his merits became amore generally known; and an unforeseen event sud- denly placed him in a situation, which fully displayed the superior lustre of his character, His friend, the Duke de Beauvilliers, having been appointed by Louis XIV. governor to his grandson the Duke of Burgundy, and having been allowed to select his own jutors in this important trust, without a moment's delay, no- minated the Abbé de Fenelon p or to the ‘prince. Fenelon, equally free in choice of those who were to act under his direction,’ selected as sub- ee a the Abbé de Langeron, Abbé Fleury, and ‘his own nephew Abbé de Beaumont; and with these waluable friends, all men of talents and piety, he enter- .ed on his arduous office in September 1689. He had, ‘indeed, no ordinary task to fulfil, the formation of a good king to twenty millions of people, and the most unpromising materials in the character of his pupil. ‘The young Duke of Burgundy was naturally irritable, unfeeling, obstinate, proud, impatient of controul, the slave of sensual pleasure, and so furious in his’ 4 that ‘ it was sometimes feared,” says St Simon, eae -very veins of his body would burst ;” yet the powers of his mind were of the highest order, acute, brilliant, profonnd. All who were entrusted with the of this i youth, acted as with one mind, and upon the same ; but Fenelon was the soul, which animated and their joint operations. A detail of their would furnish at once an interest- ing and instructive work ; and some idea of the method pursued may be formed from the Fables and Dialogues which Fenelon wrote for his pupil, and which were severally composed at the moment when the young prince required some fault to be corrected, or some use- maxim to be impressed upon his mind. Several curious particulars have been recorded by Bausset, but we have room only to state the result. So great’was the Duke’s proficiency in classical attainments, that in his tenth year he wrote Latin with elegance, and was eee tentiote tasinidat difficult authors with i sion ; and what was more important, his character was so radically changed by the instrumentality of his pree FENELON. ceptor, that his most fearful vices were succeeded by the ite virtues, and he was rendered mild, affable. pre patient, humble, and austere towards himself It was by religi inciple, that the sagacious p ceptor efaeand nc renainlte a transformation ; nik a0 powerful was its influence over the mind of the prince, that his most imperious caprices were ofteit sub- dued in an instant by merely pronouncing to him the name of God. | ri so SRA tego Fenelon conducted, at the same time, and with equal attention, the education of the brothers of the Dake of two resolutions, from the observance of which he ne« ver deviated. The one was, to askno favour for him« self; and the other, to'ask none for his relatives and friends. It from his letters to his cousin, Mas dame de Saval, that, after he had been four years at some help. I will not suffer you to make: any efforts shojinennaitenh® & shall send back what you would lend me. I prefer to:suffer. Let them for- ward to me from Carenac as much money as they can, after having, however, distributed the mala alms; for I would+rather live upon ql in the strictest sense of the word, than suffer the’ poor of my benefice to be reduced to’ the extremity of want.” Fenelon,at this v ee est esteem and confidence of Madame de Maintenon, by whose influence he might easily have supplied his wants, and secured his promotion, In the year 1694, however, the king himself attended to the just claims of a servant, in whose behalf he received no solicitas tions ; and, with apologies for the delay, communicat- ed to him in person his nomination to the Abbé of St Valery. In 1693, he had been. admitted:a m of the French Academy, and was daily rising in reputa~ tion as a writer of SP rer me and honours were at length rewarding his merit, a storm was beginning to gather, which clouded: his fu- ture days. . ayes heal ay Madame on, who in 1688 had been imprisoned, on account of her heretical notions, in a convent near Paris, had been released by the interposition of Madame de Maintenon, and by her introduced to Fenelon, who had expressed a idendh of, sesitizantite with Siar 1genérah dedteiabe aa a creasing influence of her tenets, and were part- commissioned, to confer tog’ on the subjects, and né disclose the opinions of church on: the difficult . 4 xe ints which it involved. These examinators, at. the ronson, the ealy and attached feendof Fenclon M. , the early an friend of. 3 and Fenelon himself. who beget ta Sial how much he was concerned in the result, was frequently consulted preci- respecting Cele ne on the qués~ tion. In the mean time, his: supposed errors were made the subject of any meet he was nomi-« tayhont oe lhe FENELON. Bebeles. nated, in 1695, to the archbishopric of Cambrai, and 1B Seatene’ of his divinterentednées of es 293 Cambrai has etréd'froni an excess Of love to God; the Fetter: Bishop of Meaux has sinned from a want of due love “~v~* racter, and probation of’ pluratities, by immedi- resigning the Abbey of St Valery. He was re- ¢ by the King still to retain his situation‘ as’ ceptor, and to reside at Versailles three months of every year, as the laws of the church allowed, while during the other nine he should communicate directions for the education of his pupils. Searcely, however, had" he arrived at Cambrai, when he heard that Madame Guy- on was arrested ; and at once ived that her ene- mies were powerful,’ and that their hostility might ex- tend to himself. Her impradences ‘had irritated Bos- suet to adopt the harshest measures against her; and Fenelon’s reluctance to coneur in the same severe treat- ment and sweeping censures, rendered’ him an object of suspicion to many of his’ ecclesiastical contempora- ries, and: particulary vee to from him ‘his’ former familiar friend, the Bishop*of Meaux. Having'p himself, in the course of the vatious diseussions which took place, to give a public declaration of his own sen timents} ‘he wrote’ his ** Maxims of the Saints,” which he submitted before publication to the Cardinal de Noailles, to M. Tronson, and to’ M. Perot, a Doctor of the Sorbonne, an acute scholastic theologian, who had been one of the examinators’and censurers of Madame Guyon,and who had long been devoted to Bossuet. With a docility, which extorted their admiration, he altered every passage to which objected ; and. received rie a metarae—tsae that his book was correct and ' Nosooner, however; did it appear, in 1697; than it was denounced as heretical ; and a scene of al- most inexplicable persecution commenced ‘against him, under the conduct of: Bossuet, who. accused him of fanaticism to the king, and determined to be satisfied with i urbe pitcaapel i sama an absolute recantation. 3 ipal question in the controversy -was, that Fenelon maintained the existence of a pure and disinterested love towards God ; while Bossuet ‘that this love should always have for its foundation the hope of celestial happiness. * © The Archbishop of Cambrai resolved to submit his work to the decision of the P. with the full issi the’ King: » But this would not i L isiti of his enemies; and, from ‘an amiable desire of conciliation, he entered into a variety of personal discussions ‘and explanations; of which his availed themselves to effect his disgrace at court. He received a peremptory order to retire to his diocese ; and was, at the same time, refused permission kare cause in at Rome. -flis most va- luable friends retained their attachment to his person os ey considera — oe either = fear or flat- tery; and the y Bi 3; having in nibvtlotaeaaet aaa his aaben vailed atleast, {though this favour was soon revoked), that he should be allowed to retain the title of his tor. ‘Irmo: cent XII. was very desirous to the affair in the most conciliatory manner ; but, in compliance with the aa of Louis XIV. he ten examinators of Fenelon’s work, five of voted in .its favour. Sy hiya t rei bir anh seer nvm Opinions, apparently ‘80 opposite and to his neighbour.” It has ‘also been said of the two characters, “ L’un ‘prouve la religion l’autre la fait aimer.” But a fresh remonstrance’ from the King of Frarice prevailed with the Pontiff to refer the examina- tion to the assembly of Cardinals; and, after a struggle highly honourable to the friends of Fenelon, a formal, but moderate, condemnation of his book, ‘was issued from the court of Rome in 1699. During the whole course of this enquiry, the mildness and serenity of the Archbishop formed a striking contrast with the asperity and rancour of his enemies; and, when he heard of his sentence, as he was ascending the pulpit on the day of the Annunciation, instantly changing the plan of the® discourse’ which he had prepared for that occa- sion,*he delivered a sermon on the duty of passive obedience, ‘which drew tears of admiration from his hearers. Actuated by a principle of religious resigna- tion to the will of God,’ and love of peace towards his enemies; he published a formal submission to his sen- tence. His conduct commanded universal admiration, and the Pope was so touched with his meekness, that he wrote to him’ a letter with many expressions ‘of re+ — Inthe general feeling of approbation ‘which whole'nation entertained towards the Archbishop, it was e that he would in be recalled to court, and reinstated in his former functions. But the strongest antipathy against him now appeared to have the minds both of the King and of Madame Maintenon ; and all the circumstances of their con« duct concur to confirm the suspicion that there existed some secret and more powerful cause of his late perse- eution than his theological opinions. Their refusal to authorise his return to Versailles, has been ascribed to the publication of “ Telemachus,” which a’servant of Fenelon’s' had, without his knowledge, first circulated in manuscript, and afterwards sold to:a printer at Pa- ris, This‘admirable production: was- denounced by the cotirt as‘‘a satire: upon the government of Louis XIV. ; ‘and the utmost exertions were made to suppress it for ever. — hy this opinion, though solemnly disclaim- ed by Fenelon, Madame de Maintenon coincided; and, whatever had been the intention of the author, the king could not but feel that its maxims were completely con- tradictory of those by which he had been guided. The avidity with which it was , and the approbation which it received in every nation of Europe; expressed rr pe apVatcanatatinnn if not of Louis him- self, yet e politi inciples by whieh: his rei inadl been direct ire These 7 évidietioeny tule. ever, ofan earlier and more inveterate dislike towards. Fenelon, in the heart of the favourite Madamede Main- tenon, and to whicl: his future di may be consi- dered as principally owing. That lady, not satisfied with bein lis taletepati depirel to become the wife of Louis ; but king’s confessor, Father la Chaise, referred the point'to therarchbishop of Cambrai, as theablest casuist at court. ‘His opinions were hostile to the hopes of Ma- dame de Maintenon ;\ and, from that moment, his ruin was meditated, +» But whatever may have been the im« mediate cause of that avowed! or secret hostility to- which he fell .a victim, there can be little doubt that he had become an object of undefined antipathy to the in. Bin Tot ; } ? “yy a Seman on TE a cema, arémiost ingeniously and satisfactorily reconciled by Bishop Horsley in: “ 7 Jd ; 7 ie Pp. igen, Stay § ; ot 808 Guardian, voli, Nos, 46, 47,48; and, Yolaite’s Hing deta alse de Lovin, XP, 294 FENELON. the maxims and manners of that unpri | aang oe ame Guy and that, sooner or later, though M on had never existed, he must have been to with- draw from the scenes of public intrigue, But the per- uniform in a remarkable \ pongo g 2m ton - at 0 Pema mass every in hi roe # e noon, ac- — to the practice of those times, and partook only of the simplest food. All the ecclesiastics of his household were admitted to his table, where he promo- ted chearful conversation, while he preserved the most decorous behaviour. After dinner, he more formal business of his diocese ; and unless he was induced by the weather, or called in duty, to go abroad, generally retired till half past eight o'clock, About nine, he appeared at supper, where he ate nothing but an or pulse ; and about ten, his domestics were assem~- bled in the principal room, where an almoner read the evening prayers, and the archbishop pronounced the benediction. The only recreation in which he indul- ged, was walking; and he took great delight in the placid views of nature, the pious meditations when alone, and the pleasing conversations with his friends, which he enjoyed amidst these rural scenes. In the course of his walks, he would sit down upon the grass to converse with the peasants whom he met, or would visit them in their cottages, to offer the consolations which they required, and would often ber pare a vitation to porega their table, —- their m e preached regularly during Lent in md of the churches of Cambrai ;.and there parish or town in his diocese where he Socity wae Sr tnale pulghhontheal, top se of his was in their nei F p ced a guard for its preservation ; and the towns and pie pare his jurisdiction, became asylums to the i i of the surrounding country. In 1711, when the allied armies within sight of Cam- brai, the little town of i principal domain of the Archbishop, bourmg tection of Fenelon’s name, he informed him of the neces- sity forremoving it, and escorted thecarriages which con+ veyed it to the outposts ofthe oe The ey prelate availed himself e mer or ed to his p ,and the safe conduct provided for his person, to furnish relief and consolation to the suffer- ing people under his care. His was attended with a temporary suspension of the horrors of war, and the season of his pastoral visits, observes one of his bi- to write to him, dated in 1701, strongly expressed suslonenao,of bie enanas sud the digas One Ta the he had regarded the treatment to which he had been When ing through Cambrai in 1708, to take the — of the army along with Marshal de Boufilers, he obtained penntiesian to visit the i but on- the only words which i atered were these," Etery te Sted d asunder ; nothing now holds me to the earth.” Yet In the beginning of the year 1715, he was seized with an inflammation in his lungs, accompanied with conti- nued fever. He yo re the event, and appeared of the sacred scriptures; interest Se eae verses of the , and the first nine of the fifth chap- ters of the second epistle to the Corinthians. He in the 64th year of his age, on the 7th of January 1715, In the character of Fenelon, there appears an extra- i union of intellectual greatness and of moral excellence. The governing principle of his whole mind and conduct was the spirit of Christianity. z tions undebased the ny pews of a corrupted church. But his plety, while I : re most conciliating and attractive nature ; and his talents, scarcely less unrivalled, were exerted with a degree of modesty and affability, which are not often found to os pera ible integrity, softened id t den ced by attractive manners: this is more like a charac- A goats ape of these combined attractions, that, in the words of the Duke de St Simon, « il falloit faire effort pour cesser de more o! hed as much by the charms of his conversation, as the superiority of his talents. He always brought to the level of his company. He never dispu- to yield to others at the very time ae ret oot ae? greatest subjects with facility, t trifling were ermobled b is ~ bei esg ity gervehel Ma ORs pores singulari who # in un fe bad sublime simplicity, gave the air of a prophet. The peculiar of expression which he adopted, believe that he possessed universal inspiration : it might indeed have creep Te i sat H (i H al fy] i i The same pulpit of opgeieatd church, in a language suit- een aad de weak~ ings, and afterwards descend to of contacting te concer ofa gion." When i concerns of a king en the affairs of Louis XIV. were in a state of derange- ment ing to ruin, the Archbishop of Cambrai generously rendered him the most valuable political as- sistance. Amidst the labours of his diocese, he applied himself to.devise measures for re-organizing the cabi- net, and repairing the resources of France, and display- ed all the promptitude and sagacity of the most experi- enced statesman. He even controuled in some ili pel A oe of Burgundy, w _ made un 5 i ved himself fi neat presented itself to his con« _ Of his writings we have left ourselves little room to give a detailed account ; but they are such as must ren- destined yet with a LON. 295 consumed his palace at Cambrai in 1697, destroyed many of his most valuable manuscripts, especially those which were corinected with the education of his royal by pupil, and upon which he had employed the best years life—an event which scarcely disturbed for a moment the habitual serenity of his mind, but which the friends of religion and of literature can never cease to deplore.* His Treatise on the Education of aDaugh- ter, published in 1687, thougt not originally intended for the public, may be considered as a compendium of ~ most useful r ts Be the subject, sees with greatest simplicity and precision. His Treatise on the Ministry 0, Past SO a in 1688, is intended to vindicate the spiri authority of the church of Rome, and is at least written with a degree of candour and temper seldom found in ecclesiastical controversies. His various replies to his assailants on the subject of Quietism, were composed with astonishing rapidity, icuity and precision which seemed to Initiate the into the most difficult points in theo- logy, and with a subtilty of genius which confounded the talents of Bossuet himself. He wrote many pieces against the Jansenists, ially Four Pastoral Letters, printed in 1704; and his share in this contest is cer- tainly the least amiable part of his conduct. The Dia- of the Dead were composed for the use of his pu pil, and intended to fix upon his memory the real me« rits of the most distinguished characters recorded in his. tory. They were first published in 1712, after the Duke of Burgandy’e death, and without the author's hame or consent ; and it was not till 1730 that a com- edition was given to the world, The Adventures - of Telemachus, which was not originally desgons for publication, but entirely for the instruction of the Duke of Burgundy, seems to have been composed between : Lo bes ei and 1697; and as it appears to have - to remain a secret er david aia no tor and his pupil, this admirable ormance, the lucky treachery of a eenaciher” prevailed, might have shared the fate of the other papers in the young ‘ agate cabinet, which Louis committed to the es, Demonstration of the Being of a God, which he pub- lished in 1713, is, to say the least, the best book en the, subject in the French . His Letters on Reli- gion and Metaphysics, written to the Duke of Orleans, were published after his death, and are chiefly suited toa member of the church of Rome, His Dialogues on the Eloquence of the Pulpit, were com in his youth, but never made known during his life, and not published till the year 1718. This production may be ey with Cardizial Maury, to be the best di- tic work for preachers, and to be founded upon the principles of nature and good sense, His-Lives of the Ancient Philosophers is an excellent elementary worl. for youth ; and a very neat translation, recently pub- lished by the Rev. Jolin Cormack, has made it accessi~ ble to the E reader. His Quvres Spirituelles, a collection of to his friends, also published after his death, contain many maxims of the most,sublime piety, and many excellent rules of conduct in the vari- ous circumstances of life. The few sermons which have been printed from the pen of Fenelon, were com- aide ing his youth for particular occasions, and urnish no idea of his usual pulpit addresses. The dis- * Louis XIV. is said to have committed to the flames, with his own hand, all the letters of Fenelon to the Duke of Burgundy, with only one exception, which Madame de Maintenon preserved, and sent to the Duke de Beauvilliers, : der his name immortal, and contribute essentially to Feneloa. the improvement of the human race. A fire, which “Vv FEN Yeas. course which he delivered in 1707, at the consecration —v~" of the Elector of Cologne, was adapt ose ipte ee cence of the » and proves rivalled the most eminent met of his time ; but it was his ordinary practice, a bat which ordi men would do well to follow with caution, Phase atte Wid indienne si :tida axon ordinary man, are referred to Querbeuf's Vie de Fene- fon; Ramsay's Hist. de la vie de M, Fenelon;, Eloge de an M. D'Alembert ; apd peaticelany. Bausset's en Life clon, translated by Mudford. (9) NTON, Exisan, an ah ces some note, was born near Newcastle in Staffordshire, of an ancient very considerable, But he and afterwards to Cambridge ; but doubting the lega- seen © qualify himself & public employment, by taking the requisite oaths, university without a degree. “tre f was thus excluded from the ordinary tuitous livelihood. The obscurity mode of life, renders it impossible to trace. his varyi circumstances, or to discover what means he for his support. It is certain, however, that he kept his name unsullied, and that his character has never been subj to any mean or dishonourable imputation. hectlpler oAe cy cay Rigebegadrk a2 of q in Flanders, and tutor to the,son of that nobleman. one time, he was. assistant in the school of Mr Bon- wicke in Surry, and at another kept a school of his own at Sevenoaks in Kent, which he brought into consider- able te ; but was persuaded to leave it, in 1710, by Mr St John, under a promise of some more able em] of which, however, he appears to have been dia inted. In 1707, he published a collection of poems, which gr yok im ion to the company of the wits of is time ; and his amiable manners made him be es- teemed by all who knew him. Alth he professed the principles of a non-juror, he zealously Pathe ed his pen in the praise of Queen Anne; and very li ly pow vyahy dies of ay , when he was at the height of his glory. t his elegant penegyrics do not seem to have procured him any patronage from the P Rewihe ben ere Peres him ina situation from w ve derived great advantage. when he became secretary of state shout 120, fealeg his want of literature, desired Pope to procure him an instructor, by whose assistance he might supply the deficiencies of his education. Pope rocteuinentied Rais ton, and his choice proved acceptable to Craggs. But the epot pe barge tae carried off the patron, and put an end to the pleasing expectations of Fenton. When P resolved to’ auxiliaries in the translation of the Odyssey, he uted twelve books between Broome and Fenton, The books allotted to the latter, were the first, the fourth, the nineteenth, and the twentieth. In what manner Fenton perform. FER i , nor corrected the press, was su ; Gecandtile of ctacrriment, "To! this'edition ke-peelae - ne nt account of pee ph pe ikewise publi |, in 1729, a very’ i ion. 7 often weefl: snd chpetainidlly B tion, he had been invited by che brite of Sir ; Trambull to educate her son, whom he first stead, in Berkshire, where he died in 1730. asf . Fenton was large in stature, and it to, oes pu lence, which tendency was increased by a s ish and His por fics bs paise. Asa poet, he did not discover much in genius ; but he has a good title to be considered an complished scholar, and a skilful versifier. =~ Pope, who had lived in habits of sincere 4 with Fenton, honoured his memory. with the follow ., ; ‘ , * Dah OA She « This modest stone, which few vain marbles can, thls May tay say, ete Hes a Benet ma Pang spy: ef ih gh hae ‘Wyhom heuy's Sigs suared any 8 proud and great; = - Cofitent with ablenee im le wale of gemtec regret, j From nature’s temp’ rate feast rose

constructed a globe from the description which is there When he was about seven or eight years of a given of it; and having delineated upon it a map of part of his father’s roof fell in, and a prop and a world, he was led to solve all the common were to an upright spar to raise it to its former problems in geography and astronomy. ili i i i F next went into the service of a miller, ex« erguson reer Semeunenonta, mie kits to pecting to have sufficient time to study decimal arith- it was i He metic and geometry. His master, however, fond of immediately began to construct levers; he discover- drinking, left him the whole charge of the mill, and ed that the power was proportional tothe length of the almost starved him for want of . As soon as he different parts of the lever on either side of the prop. had recovered the strength which he had lost by the He invented the wheel and axle, by endeavouring to erty of his diet, he went into the service of a Dr make a lever that would raise bodies to any height; and Young, who acted in the joint capacity of a farmer and by means of a turning lathe of his father’s, alittle aphysician, and who ised to instruct him in the knife, he was enabled to make models of these different medical profession. This new master, however, was ines. Ferguson afterwards wrote out a short ac- as bad as the former one. He never even shewed him count of these machines, illustrated with fi,ures; and one of his books, and overwrought him to such a de- upon shewing it to a gentleman, he was to gree, that at the end of three. months he was obliged learn that the same s had been known before, and to leave him in a state of debility, and without was much to observe that his own account co- receiving a farthing of wages. This inhuman doctor incided with what he found in other books. the day-time he made models of mills and spinning afterwards, when a gentleman was riding past his fa- wheels. Our author next went into the service of a ther’s house, he him what o'clock it was; and peeeraied heen hvger mgr When his ing received a very good-natured answer, he was over, i work went into the fields with a blanket about ged of him to shew him the inside of his watch, as i beads could not conceive how it went without a weight and ; 700 then laying the down upon a request, and not ouly shewed him the inside of his nF Prk = 2 t = g ; ® piece of paper, he stars upon it accord- watch, but explained to him very clearly in what man- ing to their respective positions. His master at first ner the box was carried round by the uncoiling of the laughed at this apparently ridiculous occupation ; but spring. Ferguson then tried to construct a watch with as soon as he knew the object of it, he not only en- wooden wheels, and a whalebone spring; but u: Pct g ony padhersed powcr bre putting on the balance, he found that the teeth of the torn hantuiadilen OD that he might Sdvoapht icehaliotod tan ten ere A ve im during make clean copies of wheels ran enough when the balance his rude planispheres. He soon after received from the was off. He inclosed the whole in a wooden minister of Keith a map of the earth, and compasses, case, a little than a breakfast cup; but a chu r i i y looking at the watch, allowed it to one it; and his generous master frequently took the and crushed it to pieces with his foot. Ferguson ing flail out of his hands and worked himself, while was next employed in cleaning. and iring clocks ; Ferguson was sitting beside him in the barn busy with and when he was living at the of Sir James Dun- his ruler and compasses. Upon his return to the mini- bar‘of Durn, he painted a map of the celestial and ter- ster of Keith with the copy of his map, he saw a man restrial globe, upon two large spherical stones on the ~, © Berger au roi D' Angleterre en Ecosse. Astronomie de Lalande, tom. i. p- 163, VOL. IX. PART B 2P 298 = =< that of the earth, not only served oe he exhibited a number of interesting geographi nomena. Having drawn some for needlework for Lady Dipple, (sister of Sir James eee! LEE very extensively loyed in ‘this work by the ladies inthe vicinity, and he received so much from his new emp. eT oe the wants of his indigent father. i the goodness to Paar re Edin burgh, act offered him a year’s bed and board at sprees er might have an rap pe uiring a know mt- mg. He wuiaetianinset aoa Dopetsenn ae idin- burgh; and, by the of the Marchioness of he obtained a consi le deal of lucrative employment, and thus began a profession which he followed for 26 years. During his stay of two years in Edinburgh, he took a violent inclination to study: medicine, and he forsook for a time all his favourite: studies. He then went to the country with a cargo of medicines and plasters, but with a very scanty knowledge of the art, and began to practise medicine at the place of his nativity. He soon saw, however, that he was an unsu | practitioner; and that no one paid him for his medicines, he went to In- verness for the purpose of resuming his profession as a painter. During his stay at Inverness, he recom- menced his astronomical studies, and after much la- bour, he invented and completed a machine called the Astronomical Rotula, for exhibiting the eclipses of the sun and moon. Mr Macbean, one of the ministers of Inverness, compared the results given by this machine with the calculations given in common almanac, and found them nearly the same. At his advice, he wrote to the celebrated Colin M‘Laurin, Professor of Mathematics in Edinburgh, and requested his opinion ef the new instrument. M per ~ 2d. ; — — Ta Ag ee tenant), acre, to £8; omen to weight grass, do.), £6 to £9 ; do. potatoe land, 66 Ihe 6 .; do, flax, per rood (tithe free), do. £2, 5s. to here to a large size. There are also oaks, firs, and hazels, Elm is seldom raised. At the yew grows to an astonishing bulk. ‘ kinds. of wood found in the bogs, are fir, oak, and yew. Besides the inhabitants of this county make use rental of this course there is E FER 800 Fermanagh. run for three lives, or thirty-one years: of late the pe- There are only 18 parishes are here a few estaies whose rental is from £1500 to £2000; but by far the greatest number of the estates are large, and there is no intermediate between the : and the leaseholders. Lord Enniskillen has an estate of £13,000 per annum, as also Colonel Arch- dale, and Mr Brook of Brookboro. The Marquis of Ely, Lord Belmore, and Sir James Caldwell, have pro- of from £6000 to £7000 per annum each. There — deal of church property belonging to the see Cc . There are several lakes in this county, but the most remarkable is Lough Erne. It consists properly of two lakes, the upper being nine miles long, and from one and a half to five wide, and the lower one about ten miles in length, and from two to eight in breadth. The two are connected by a broad winding channel of about six miles, resembling a river. id secre occupied by Lough Erne is supposed to uare ho Shs deanery is remarkably fine and striking, ing both the beautiful and the d. There are in it between three and four hundred islands, some ef them and fertile, and inhabited, many of them well wooded, the whole of them di in a Vv picturesque manner, and affording a variety of rich enteresting prospects. The. Erne and several other rivers run into it ; it discharges itself at the north-west end by a current of about seven miles, which runs very rapidly, and at length precipitates itself over a grand cataract into the sea at Bally: on. The falls of Bel- leek are esteemed very beautifal, and ing of the traveller's attention. Lough Erne contains all the fish common to fresh water The salmon here in a wonderful manner; some y: ones having been found to increase at the rate of 1 lib. a week. Great uantities of eels are caught near Enniskillen ; ei hey devuredantions in one night. Near the falls of Belle there is an eel weir, belonging to Mr Pakenham, which lets at L.120 per annum, and near it there are three others which let at L. 100 each. The chief sources of wealth to the inhabitants are the line manufacture and the rearing of black cattle. The linen produced here is what is called 7-8ths. There are several of those bleach-greens, which finish for sale the bleached linens that are sent to England. I distillation is carried on toa considerable extent. There are mills for grinding oats, but none for grinding wheat. : The principal, and indeed the only town of note in F is Enniskillen, It is situated on an island formed by the river or channel which unites the two This contains rich iron ore and coal, On Lord iskillen’s estate, west of Erne, there are ies of marble. It is brown white, beau- tifully veined, and of a fine grain. Fermanagh is divided into two by Lough Emme; the division on the east of the lake containing five ba- ronies, and that on the west containing three. It sends three members to parliament, two of these being from the » and one from the burgh of Enni . The in the county amount to 5000; and itical influence is so situated, that if the Earl of they Secu vember they please, Eouiskilieg may return what mem! . i has ve self-elected burgesses; and the Earl of Eaniskillen is patron, 3. ‘lived, he ra me idu —y—" vod ist and one life. There are in the diocese of C and the other three in “WY” riod adopted is twenty-one years aegis ond - * that of Kilmore. The church. The Protestant dissenters are few in number. Sir Richard Hardinge has an estate of 81 farms, and the tenantsin 79 of these are Protestants. the superficial contents 694 English caer of the county is 71,800, on the number of ouses 11, being six individuals to a house. Exclu. ding Lough Exe, there are sbout $1: Ragtish sapbe:tp a house, or 54 acres to each individual. See Newen~ ham’s View of Ireland ; Wakefield’s Statistical Account of Ireland; Beaufort’s Memoir of a Map of Ireland; and Young’s Tour through Ireland. (+) : FERMAT (Perer), an eminent French mathema- tician, who was born at Toulouse in 1590, and died in 1663. He was cotem with several mathemati- cians of the first order, among whom may be mention- ed, Pascal, Des Cartes, Roberval, Torricelli, Huygens, Meziriac, Carcavi, Wallis, &c.; and furnished tions of all the more difficult problems which these il- lustrious men hed tert ranches, nym ate another. His predilection for n ical researches, led him to direct much of his attention to prime num- bers, a subject which had been almost entirely neglect- ¢ ae days raf re In these researches e affo’ striking proofs of the superiority of his nius, by the discovery of many general Anctree al pro ya 60 "edmabecs Wild baker divisors, and such as are composite. The indeterminate analysis al- so occupied a deal of his attention; and though Bachet de Meziriac had already greatly extended and sos op the wy bape prob antic his eo were far surpassed, in nce, simplicity, gene- ralization, by those of Fermat, When Pascal was en- gaged at Paris in investigating the nature of figurate numbers, Fermat was eagerly prosecuting the same eubject at Toulouse, by a different train of investiga- tion ; and, indeed, on many occasions, these two great men were frequently led to the same results, by me- thods of inquiry which had little resemblance to each other. Such interferences in their pursuits, did not, however, weaken the fri lip to which the confor. mity of their studies alone had given birth; and, though they were never inted, uniformly did justice to the merits of each other, wit a liberality which is unknown to little minds. > Fermat was scarcely more distinguished as a mathe- matician than as a general scholar; and, like most of the learned men who flourished in the age in which he sprudence and é -litera- ture with no less a: and algebra. ‘The universality of his genius, and the lr ee eee, nk a. FoeboRs 6 CP A BOK 2 FER ‘Ferments- high authority, we mean La Place,* who affirms, with- f : A pir r> i f t printed at ‘Toulouse in folio, 1679, contain also several smaller tracts, and a great number of letters to learned “iat FE NTATION, an intestine commotion, certain substances of to or animal origin ~are, more or less, liable, from the spontaneous reaction of their constituent elements. The embraces a series of changes of i terminates in the formation of new , which differ essentially from the original substance, as well as from one another. net ae gl ue a a Hebe oe Sar In eae and to these, epithets have applied descriptive of the products to which it gives birth, namely, the vi- ‘nous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. ergs] some upon the process in general, we consider the subject under these three heads. It appears that no species of fermentation can take place without some portion of moisture, and a certain elevation of temperature. The of moisture is necessary, because no chemical action can be displayed aceon Aer the intervention ot ee ve t0'thed ‘el aeiaahaindn aie iteeien ter, tach ather? and re enciaees Shiels 286 Well dried, kept free from moisture, min Boa pon hen for many years without suffering any change in their composition. The degrees of heat necessary for fermentation vary with the different kinds of it ; but below a certain temperature, the process does not vinous fermentation; and a still greater number run Fermentas into putrefaction that never suffer any change analo- _ 4 gous to the vinous or acetous processes. } _ The vinous fermentation has been examined by Vinous fer chemists with a.good deal of attention ; anda variety "Vcntahon— of useful facts connected with the process have been process be noticed, though the circumstances that may be deemed entirely con- essential to it are still involved in some degree of un- fined to sac- i It is well known that saccharine matter, in charinemate some form or other, passes most readily into the vinous state, and that the product of the fermentationis when the substance which is subjected to the process contains the largest portion of sugar; but it has not been decidedly ascertained. whether sugar is the only: substance capable of being converted into ardent spirit. When nutritive grains are employed to afford ferment- ed liquors, they are previously or at least in- e part, to the tion of malting. ject of which is to convert the farinaceous part into sugar by germi- nation. This operation was long held indispensibly necessary to the grain le of the vinous fer~ ‘mentation ; but experience has proved this opinion to iia, th sichh shaktre; a cniatabe: «pica diatiliers, bare of late been in the ice of malting only part of the grain, and adding the rest in a mashed or ground state;. and they have found it to answer their purpose ex- tremely well, when the latter is used in a r pro- portion than the former. It is not a little singular, that when the farinaceous part of the mashed grain is mixed with water, it passes into the state of an acid, without acquiring any vinous quality; but when mixed Ed emer o of saccharine matter, it undergoes the vinous tation, and yields a larger portion. of spi- rit than the sweet matter alone would have afforded: ee orn eevee to ene that norte already in the state of su the roperty acting u this farinchona petal the ; an wounding ade it not fo tis pmopesty’ of the oun ego he = it not for thi farina, wi grain not frequently be sustained by the:farmers in unfavourable “““ ba seasons; as grain that has once begun to: grow, and Givitier, deg in. Such never ‘can undergo any iting: when grain has been made to grow in this manner, it can be supposed that the into saccharine matter is perfect or complete. It therefore would be less proper for the vinous fer- mentation, and would furnish a ‘smaller — of — than grain which had been perfectly “ his grain, Scirebies when mixed with a quantity of malt, and fermented, furnishes as much spirit ai deere oll Beer eee amy he persons in this trade even ee grain can % grain, it to- senha the % wick shote'adaly east art antichod Ghat they obtain more spirits in this way, than from an equal quantity of good malt.” — Though sugar, in some modified form, appears to be Other suis. the only substance capable of the vinous fermentation, stances be- certain other substances are necessary, both for the side saccha- ‘commencement and continuation of the process, A Tine matter suitable quantity of water must be added:to the saccha- °¢ss*'Y rine matter : if the quantity, however, be in excess, arr hag the li is apt to into the acetous fermentation ; mentation. and if it be too little, the process on difficultly and slowly. When the liquor to be ented consists % Theorie Analytique des Probobilites. soz Feentta- of a solution of pure sugar, a quantity of yeast is also oe. necessary to excite the fermentation, and make it pass —Y—" into the vinous state. Nor is the influence of tempe- rature less essential: below 50° of Fahrenheit’s scale the vinous fermentation proceeds very rare and at the freezing point it is completely check Above 70” the advances too rapidly, and unless it be duly moderated, is apt to into the acetous stage. Netareof ‘The nature and action have been the subj the fermem- OF chemical investigation. voisier ascertained, that, ciple, me besides the other e ts which are usually found in yout. vegetables, it contained a quantity of nitrogen in its composition, and so far evinced a connection with ani- malized matter, The researches of Fabroni, Thenard, and a re have demonstrated that the fermenting pro- perty of yeast is owing to the presence of a substance resemblirig gluten or albumen, which is derived from certain vegetable infusions, capable of spontaneous fer- When circumstances are sufficiently favourable for the vinous fermentation, the liquor, in passing into it, becomes somewhat turbid, and manifests a kind of'com- motion throughout its whole mass, Air bubbles begin to be separated, and being entangled by the floccu- Jent part of the liquid, occasion a frothy appearance on the surface. In the meantime, the temperature gradu- ally increases, and sometimes requires to be checked. The gas which is disengaged is found to consist chiefly of ic acid, mixed occasionally with a portion of hydrogen. At length, the extrication of air, and the intestine commotion with which it is accompanied, gra- dually diminish, and the process terminates by the li- quor recovering its transparency, If the fermented substance be now examined, it is found to have ex- changed its sweet taste for one of considerable pun- gency, and to have acquired the property of acting as a powerful stimulant on the animal system. The vinous fermentation depending in a great mea- the condurted without thevaid of atmospheric air ; and, in- deed, it has been found by experiment, that, if the air be excluded, while the gas disengaged by the fermenta- tion is to make its escape, the vinous product is stronger than when the process is carried on in open vessels, In that case, however, as Chaptal remarks, the fermentation advances more slowly. Products of — ‘The products to which the vinous fermentation gives Phenomena of the vi- nous fer. mentation. ——— birth, resemble one another by ssing an intoxi- tien. cating quality, and Yielding, by distillation, a portion of alcohol ; but they differ considerably in their strength, odour and flavour. Their differences, in these respects, are owing, partly to the essential oils, and other proxi- mate principles which they derive from the substances submitted to the vinous process, and partly to the man- ner of conducting the fermentation. ey may be con- sidered as of two general descriptions : Wines, proper- ly so called, and the various kinds of ale or beer. Customs Wines are obtained by subjecting to fermentation the ings sweet juices of fruits, particularly that of the x The products are extremely diversified, and var oh vour and appearance with the climate, soil, and the na- ture and culture of the vine, as well as with the manner of carrying on the fermentative process. Hence wines are sweetish, and weaker or stronger, according as the saccharine matter of the grape is more or less abundant, and the fermentation more or less complete ; and th are and sparkling, when of the carbonic pes | wine. which is generated during the process, is retained, ion of carbon, the process may: be. FERMENTATION. Astringent wines derive their peculiar flavour from the Fermentas: astringent principle contained in the grape from which, p= they are formed. The colour is communicated by the —— external icle of the fruit, and t easily be pre- A vented, if necessary, by removing the husks, before fer, mentation. Wines of every description contain a cers a tain portion of supertartrate of potash, which’ gradual- ly separates from them, when they are left > i and to this is owing, in a great degree, the improvement 2 Seer et r France producesa great variety of excellent wines, For prench daily use, carercy peaier> shonent Besgenes. heensanem wines. their principles are duly combined, and none of them pres dominates, so as to communicate a peculiarity of flavour: The wines of Orleans, after being matured by age, res semble those of Burgundy, The red wines of - pagne are highly prized for their excellence and deli« cng? though, in ;some cases, they possess, a pungent and sourish taste, from being, bottled before the cars bonic acid is sufficiently disctigeged by fermentation, The wines of Languedoc and Guienne are greatly - esteemed, on account of their tonic qualities, particu. ; larly when they are mellowed by age. Those of Ans jou are strong, spirituous, and intoxicating. ves The Rheriish and Moselle wines have a cool, taste, and readily intoxicate. Some Italian wines, such |lian,Spa — as those of Orviette, Vicenza, and Oran Christi, are mee and well fermented, and resemble the French wines. Those wines of Spain are in general boiled, sweet, and being but omg A fermented, cannot be reckoned wholesome, he wines of Rota and Alicant must, however, be-ex+ |, and are justly considered as useful stomachies. e wines of Portugal have been long in great demand in this country ; and, indeed, no wine can be accounts fat en craty mule yy og OL Se lies ha 3 Ie H Zs % | E which grow the forests. Every part of theisland is covered wi ‘sort of. or straw, like the stalk of oats,’ which ws to the height of a man; and there is a great va- riety of esculent canny antiscorbutics, as water cresses, sorrel, turnips, ** 3 for ing, vi ing, wi and” ren- pyr vate ysl the B and other cruizers in quarters ; and, in order to'de- prive them of the supplies which it afforded, the Spa- fe FERNANDEZ. 805 sufficierit to heave the scarcely able to muster Juan anchor. In 1766, the Spaniards formed a settlement, Fernandez. and established a garrison on the island. In the year following, Captain Carteret, in the course of his voy: round the world, attem to enter Cumberland-bay, and was surprised to find it in the possession of the Spa- niards. He neither anchored, nor had any communi- i- cation with the shore; but was able to observe a num- ber of men upon the beach, a house, and four pieces of cannon near the water side, a.fort upon a rising ground about 300 yards farther from the sea, faced with stone, provided with 18 or 20 embrazures, with the Spanish colours fying on the top of it. There were 20 or 30 houses i t kinds scattered around it, a number of cattle re ee the brow of the hills, and several spots enclosed for cultivation. Since that period no ac- counts respecting this settlement were laid before the public, as all access to its shores was invariably denied to strangers. But-in 1792, Lieutenant John Moss of the royal seas then commanding the ship William, Hs a Se on southern whale and seal fishery, visit- ed the islands of Fernandez; and ‘from his MS. the following notices were first published in the Athe- neum vc: 1807. rs was not aware of its having been occupi the Spaniards, and went in his boat to look Pp aed and to catch fish. Upon finding the pee inhabited, he landed, and ied to the governor ‘or leave to anchor and fish. Neither of his requests was formally ; but getting into a position where none of the guns could bear on the boat, he caught as many fish as served the whole ship’s company. Several months afterwards, however, touching a second time at Juan Fernandez, ‘he obtained from vernor, ‘Don Juan Calvo de la Canteza, free permission to supply the wants of his crew. The town, or village, is pleasantly situated in a fine valley between two high hills. A battery of five guns is placed round’ the west’ point of the harbour, and commands the road. It is built en- tirely of loose stones, piled up breast high, and formed into embrazures ; but on the left of the valley, on a little eminence, another was then constructing of masonry, which had two faces with fourteen embra- ‘the town, and several others in different parts ‘of the ‘island. Every house has a garden, with arbours of grape vines ; and figs, cherries, plumbs, and almonds, = state. There was abundance also ptain Moss entered, the women ted him with maté, the infusion of the herb of ‘araguay, _ ra = Z > Zz i] S > 7" : P F 5 2 z & Latitude, and 81° 40’ West Longitude ; and as both 3 ‘ ! if 2 = F 5 hy i i wards the north; and at the south point also is a large rock, or islet, about half a mile island. Fernandez de Afuera is generally asafuero by the English navigators, which 1s ing more than a corruption of the Spanish which expresses its being more remote than the other from the American continent. It is igh and mountainous, appearing at a distance She.one MLscivee pnd in.dien maehe eae seen from Fernandez de Tierra. It is of a triangular form, and about eight leagues in circumference. Its cliffs on the south end are almost perpendicular from the sea; but on the ite side, h the land is likewise very elevated, is a fine low green point stretch- ing northward from the bottom of the cliff, and forming _ i ud the account of Lord Anson’s voyage, there is said to be no proper an except on the north side,.in deep water ; but Commodore Byron found good an anchorage there is anchorage about a mile from the shore in twenty fathom, and about two miles and a half in forty fathom, with a fine black sand at the bottom; and mentions a remarkable rock with a hole in it, on. the south-west point, as a good mark for anchoring on that side. _Cap- tain Moss, however, affirms that in no part isthere good eee any ar in the places where an anchor may be let go, is foul ground ; and that nothing but distress can warrant anchoring on the coast of thisisland. All the navigaters who have visited it, concur in their ions of the extreme difficulty of landing, on ac- count of the high surf, which breaks upon large frag- ments of rocks all round the island, so a boat can- § 3 s E : cs Es BSF 3 Fe ? 3 5 4] se . E é : z <= 5 E - 43 FE 2 a F Fe 3 ge ‘ ef i read very easy to make a commodious landing, by building single ship to do, if she was to continue any time a s i F i ¥ 5 F : peter ; pleasant aspect, shewing numerous vallies covered with trees, rich in verdure, and abounding in flowers of the lily and violet kinds, _Down every valley runs a co- pious stream of water, which expands in its descent among the rocks into several successive reservoirs ; but the seals go far up into these vallies, and the water has a bad taste, unless taken above the places which. the: frequent. These animals are so numerous on this islaid, that they literally cover the shores ; and Captain. Moss’s Sioa kinds of bch. clan yecticaleiy eal halen ae rious ly P t, fish, and cray fish, in such abundance that in two a single nek Ane Nanaia see ight take Te to serve a large ship’s company for two. days. are alkenchllent ia theieaieel, eee of them reinb from twenty to thirty There are goats in the which are not difficult to be » and which Byron compares to the best venison in Among the birds, were observ: od pertienlathe various kinds of hawks, some. very lar others as small asa ldfinch ; and the pintado birds were so numerous, in one night during a gale, Carteret’s people caught not less than seven hundred, which flew straight into the fire which they had kindled on shore. Among the angeables, the mountain cabbage was particularly noticed; and the trees consisted principally, of red cedar, and a hard yellow wood like box. See Byron’s Vo round the: World ; Carteret's Voyage round the World; Ulloa’s Voyage to South America, vol. ii. p. 219; and £xtracts from in Moss’s.MS. first published in the Atheneum, vol.i. p. 581. @) , Te FERNANDO pe Norona, is the name of an island ortugn ese. It produces every species of grain and fruits common in hot,climates; but, for the vm of meeeneras crops are peinrneraapely . Two or three years 0 without rain, canbe thn een sip of restesiate be ioeaainee a ahead eit eee om,» a am | Dennen. > Pe ‘Ferrara. —— FER on the 19th of May. The inhabitants save the water in. pots cisterns. : There is in the inland part of the island a Portuguese town, in which reside a governor and the partes Pease When the Pi had compelled the Fren India Company to evacuate this island, they erect- i t forts, in order to defend it, Three of efe the north harbour, two the north-west, ‘eastern of the island, where there is a only for barks. The forts are all built spacious, and are well garrisoned and ge artillery. Fort Remedios alone con- partly regulars, sent from Fernam- ieved every six months, and partly the opposite coast of Brazil. fort, called Fort Remedios, stands BB S8 gestae gee in i 255 The princi : = es There are two harbours capable of reeei ships of the sede: Gall Pet onaith, etal maneher on the Ab a i ue Li zee a cue uly ae Fick aL win! ef ay i : g i “i : if : it : Hy ' 807 island. When Ulloa visited: the island, they had had to the Adiiatic; and each having a harbour at its mouth, Ferrara. no rain for two years, but violent showerscame on up- FER Besides these, it is fertilized the streams Panaro, Reno, Tartaro, and numerous artificial canals. Only one of the preceding harbours belongs to Ferrara ; the. other is a subject of frequent controversy between it. and the neighbouring territories. » This duchy contains three cities; Ferrara, the. capi- tal, which we shall afterwards describe more particu- larly ; Commacchio, and Cento. Commacchio occupies. a situation in the midst of a considerable extent of low marshy ground, called the Commacchian Marshes, de- fended by a high alluvial bulwark from the sea, but, penetrated by a canal, at the extremity of which is Por« ta Magnavacca. These marshes are not less than be~ tween 70 and 80 miles in circuit, and communicate with recent census, but, 30 years ago, th of the Ferrarese territory amounted to 235,234 souls. eal government, ie porble are pany and languid in ; from salt-works, and other such extent, when an annual fair, in a town ba cesesteresk a » semmerene ts Se errara bei papal domain, is governed ph teutaltone et — appointed a dignified gate, who rules in his absence. minal selected, to constitute an annual . Inre« spect to its ecclesiastical state, the duchy is divided into nine dioceses, at the head of which is an archbishop, generally a cardinal, endowed with ample revenues, and ing a jurisdiction over 135 are sixty monasteries of different ; ini 1350 monks and priests ; ten convents, ing about 620 nuns ; and in which 50 boys are igious or a civil institution, , The cay ob Reaver da See soeve hem semenieel very anciently as an’ important territory. It was a of its own dukes, of the family of Este, who began to Clement VIII. declared the duchy had papal see, and he took possession of it in person. Along with the other Italian inces, it ieaplicated in the F the became ences of the French revolation. It was ceded by Roman pontiff in 1797 to the government of France, and by it constitu. — vy" cent restitution of the t of the Lower Po; but by the re- Pope, it has again become an in- See of the territories of the byamasar pr pers oad ERRARA, a city of Italy, the capital of the duchy of Ferrara, situated on the north bank of the river Po, which here divides into two branches, called Po di Vo- Jano and Po di Primaro, both flowing to the east. This city is surrounded by a fortified wall and broad ditch, which may be filled with water by méans of a canal from the river. There are five gates, called the gate of St Benedict, St Paul, St George, St John the Baptist, and the gate of the Angels; and at the south-west ex- tremity there is a regular fortress. Within the walls are some gardens, which enlarge the dimensions as- éribed to the city. There are several squares, and the streets are tolerably wide and convenient. The suburbs of St Luke and St are without the walls, on the opposite side of the river, which is crossed by bridges near two of the The principal objects in the city of Ferrara, are churches, convents, a few edifices for public pu not ecclesiastical, and those belonging to private indi- viduals ; but of the first there is a very great superiori- with regard to numbers. The metropolitan church, icated to St George, the tutelar saint of the city, of cupies one side the Piazza di San Crispino, the princi- uare. The antiquity of this edifice remounts to the year 1135, when it was completed and consecrated, and exhibits a specimen of the bad taste which perva- ded the architecture of that period, intermixed with subsequent alterations. It contains many monuments, inscriptions, and statues. Among the last, are five in bronze as large as life, ornamenting an altar, represent- ing the crucifixion, the Virgin Mary, and other sancti- There are several of fine Carrara marble, of which one of ‘the most conspicuous, and as large as life, was erected by the citizens of Ferrara, in honour of Albert their sovereign lord, in 1898, who had repaired ‘tothe Pope with a great cavalcade, and obtained two important bulls, sanctioning the erection of a universi- ‘ty, and certain rig Fe regarding succession to pro- petty. Pope Urban IIT. having died in Ferrara in the "year 1187, was interred here, and his successor Grego- VIII. elected in the church. The architecture of tower, which was built in 1412, and consists of mar- ble, is much celebrated. About the year 1506, a spacious edifice, the church ‘of St Benedict, was built by two native architects to- ‘wards the western part of the city, to which a monas- ‘tery adjoins. Here are deposited the remains of the famous Italian poet Ariosto, in a marble mausoleum, executed by Nano, a Mantuan sculptor, with two in- scriptions, one of which was composed by Guarini. This monument has attracted the notice of crowned heads in their visits to Italy, while the ashes of philo- sophers have in neglected obscurity. Ariosto was a native of Ferrara, and his house is still shown as a curiosity to strangers. It bears two inscriptions, com- posed * imself and his natural son, a literary ecclesi- astic: The former is in these words, Parva, sed apta mihi, sed nulli obnoxia, sed non sordida, parta meo sed “tamen aere domus, certainly neither very t nor po- ‘etical ; the latter is, Sic domus hae Areosta propitios habeat deos olim ut Pindarica. The house was built by him, and he died there on the sixth of June 1533. In the annexed to the church of St Benedict, are preserved some i t archives, A church dedicated to St Francis was founded at an early period of the Ferrarese history, and after being FERRARA. | | frequently renewed and altered, was at last completed Fertital in the year 1495. This edifice is also rich in ete he uaa ma use, is an open square surrounded by a gallery, mil communes with the asad in Thos e ie di nt’ nts doors are wide and lofty, made of carved: ’ ‘ ‘ar Ce ; ue se This: celebrated con- Fever, | ‘the hereditary descent of Pee” —_—_—— or ee my Oe ———— ene sw ee ae ag dts Fez. wood, painted. wee : in the city, w the F E Z. with various colours; and the beams. of the roofs are also whimsically and gaily painted in the pent mae Every house is supplied with water from. the river, which enters the town by covered channels ; and the principal dwellings have private baths and cisterns. A bath is attached to every mosque, for religious ablutions, and there are public baths in -various parts of the town to which the people resort, -the men at one hour, and the women at another. very sumptuous marble neni the Atlas mountains, and unknown in the countries of E A few professors and stu- dents are maintained in the mosques, and the rith Moors send their children thither for their education; but their studies are chiefly confined to the explanation of a AAR 8 purity of the Arabic spoken in the city. The mosque, called i most ancient and magnificent i i Africa ; but has not been found to correspond with the glowing description by Leo Africanus. There are a very few of those hospitals mentioned by early wri- ters, where there is i no icians in attendance, -but- where the are su} with food, and the dkeheaddipndediog simian. wre 6 these is a mad- house, where the lunatics are chained down in apart- ments, which are disgustingly filthy, and treated in a very harsh manner. ; The caravanseras or inns, are “very Mumerons, amounting nearly to 200. They are ae oman ERT HNP PHM to 100 apart- ments, each of which is provided with a mat anda swater.cock,. The traveller pays so much a day for his room, but bri his auth baiting, amd s and _ dresses his own isi Each trade and article of t ; and there is a square divided into twelve wards, which are hiefly with silk cloth and linen shops, pro- vided with sixty criers:or itinerant auctioneers, who with the different pieces in their hands, cry- og, «t who bideamore?*-and sell the lot to the highest i '» The inhabitants. of Fez rear a great deal of poultry, which they: keep in cages to prevent them runing. the house, » No animals are permitted to _be slaughtered:in the city; but are killed at a distance Spriedithacintry andsafie: tna. tin teen bin Sed the officer, who superintends the price of provisions, 1s inthetown. There aremany corn mills sort buy the flour in small ies, and where the richer inhabitants send their able for their-bigotted spirit. «If a Christian,” says Jackson; “ were thereto exclaim, Allah k’beer, < God is ” he would be invited immediately to add to it, ‘and Michammed ie. his ’ which, if he were inadver- cireumcised according- ly.”. - They. were in former times still more infamous, on account of their licentious manners; and debauch- _erywas even encouraged by the government as a source ue > but at the state of morals is not -worse than in the ' cities of the empire. — When the Mahometans of Andalusia, Granada, and Cordova, during the revolutions in Spai over to Fez,they in the Spanish ‘dressing and and goat skins, red and yellow, then cal- 1 3l11 Jed Cordovan, now Motocco leather. At Fez, also,was first established the manufacture of milled woollen caps worn by the Moors, and brought to.so great ection at Tunis, They are named Fez by the Turks, which confirms the account of their having originated in that city. Besides gauzes, silks, and other stuffs fabricated at this-city; it is celebrated for an elegant manufacture, namely, sashes of silk and gold... In addition to its own manufactures, Fez is the common magazine of Bar- bary, to which are brought all kinds of commodities from the sea-ports of Morocco and the Mediterranean, . from the eastern countries by the caravans of pilgrims, and from the centre of Africa by the caravans of mer- chants. Its chief exports are almonds, gums, raisins, dates, carraway, anise and worm seeds, citrons, * oil of olives, tallow, hides, tanned leather, particularly Morocco leather, ostrich feathers, lead ore, elephant’s teeth. _To Timbuctoo, the merchants of Fez send va- rious articles of European, Indian, and Barbary pro- duce, especially linens; muslins, fine cloths, raw silk, beads, brass’ nails, coffee, tea, and sugar, shawls, and sashes of silk and gold, haiks (pieces of cloth used by the Africans as outer garments) of silk, cotton, and wool ; turbans, spices, tobacco, and salt... In return, they receive gums, gold rings, elephant’s teeth, amber- gris, ostrich feathers, and slaves. The caravans, which carry on this trade from Fez to Timbuctoo across the desert, generally travel seven hours a-day at the rate of 33 miles an hour, and complete the journey between the two cities in 129 days, 54 only of which are em- ployed in actual travelling. On account of the number of Mahometan saints said to have been buried in Fez, it is considered by the Moors as a sacred asylum, and an object of devotion. Hence all Jewsand Christiansare prohibited from entering its gates ; and an order from the emperor is necessary before they can gain admission. This, however, seems to apply only to Old Fez, for the new town is principally occupied by Jews, who, notwithstanding the contempt with whi they are treated, carryon a regular trade with the inhabi- tants of the city. In the various revolutions to which the country of West has been subject, the citi- zens of Fez were always ready to change their master, and generally yielded at the first approach of a victo- rious leader. They pretend even to plead, that this is -a privilege which they enjoy from the founder of their city; but it is consid as proceeding rather from their own cowardice, or from situation of the place, which “is incapable of defence. » Old Fez ‘is several leagues in cireumference, but a great part of the in- closed space is occupied by gardens, | It is about 120 miles from the sea-coast, and 36 from the city of Me- -quinez, to which there is an excellent road along a communication between these two cities is -pleasant ew | watered by numerous rivulets and ca- nals. .The i and very expeditious, by means of mules, which may be ready saddled at all hours: of the day, and which lish the: journey at an easy pace in six hours; so as ently to return the same day. In theyear 1799, a dreadful plague, which spread over all the empire of Morocco, crigioated in this city, which some ascribed to infected merchandise from. -Eastyanhd others to the pestilential smell of the dead lo- custs which infested West Barbary during the seven ing years. In the cities of Old and New Fez, it carried off 1200 or 1500 persons daily ; and durin its continuance, 65,000 of the inhabitants perish This deadly calamity produced. a wonderful alteration in the circumstances of the survivors, and reduced all Fez, 312 Fes. _— classes to a strange system of equality. Flocks and —"Y—" herds were left in the Belds without ry ee 3 for- Mountains. Rivers. tunes were inherited, or rather taken wu fe omer labourers ; visions became ly and abandant ; t of enormous- ly ; and so few of the poor were spared, or those who had survived were now become so rich, that there were none almost to work or serve ; and the most wealthy individuals were obliged to labour for themselves, and to perform with their own bands the menial offices of their ive families. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. p; 74; Chenier’s Present State of Morocco, vol. i. p- 71; and Jackson’s Account of Morocco, p. 129. (q FEZ, a province of the empire of Morocco, is bound- ed on the north by the.province of Errif, on the east by Tedla, on the south by the mountains of Atlas, on the south-west by Shawiya, and on the west by Garb and Its dependencies are very extensive, and include several mountainous tracts, well cultivated, and full of inhabitants. Its principal mountains are Zaragh, one side of which is covered with vines, while the other is completely barren, and which lies between the river Seboo and the plain where the capital stands ; and Zarkon or Zaraharum, wliich is shaded with olive trees, and on the summit of which are the ruins of Ti- tulies or Tuilit, once a considerable town, but demo- lished by a prince of the family of the Almoravides. The Seboo, one of the largest rivers, of West Barbary, rises in the eastern part of the province near the foot of the Atlas mountains, and passes within six miles of the city of Fez. It is impassable, except in boats and rafts; and at Mamora, where it enters the ocean, is a deep and navigable river, capable of affording a cheap conveyance for corn to the city of Fez, which is at pre- sent supplied with that essential article by means of loaded camels, whose hire often exceeds the original cost of the grain. The river Bu Regreg, also, which i itself into the ocean between the towns of Salee and Rabat, rises on one of the mountains of At- las, and proceeds through the woods and vallies of the territory of Fez. The only other townin the province, - of any note, besides the capital, is Mequinez, which will be described in a separate article. The whole of this province is a rich champaign country, remarkably productive in grain. The soil is arich black, sometimes reddish mould, without stones or clay. No other ma- nure is employed, than the long stubble burned on the field; and no other culture is necessary than to throw the grain upon the ground, and cover it with the pa yn ta crops are wheat and barley ; ut in lands adjacent to the rivers, beans, pease, ca- ravanies, rice, and Indian corn, are occasionally cul- tivated. There are few trees, except the olive plan- tations and gardens around the cities of Fez and Me- quinez. Fruits of various kinds are very sp oranges, (which are frequently sold at a dol- a thousand, ) , melons, and -figs of different sorts. Cherries are produced in this province, though they are said not to ripen in any other part of the empire. In the country around the city of Mequi- nez, a8 well as in the province of Benihassan, is produ- ced the tobacco called Mequinasi, which is so much es- teemed for making snuff. A mineral salt of a red co- lour, exceedingly strong, is. dug from quarries in the vi- cinity of Fez ; and considerable quantities of saltpetre are also produced in the adjoining country. Near to \ these innovators; who professed to. abundant, tiff of the M FE Z. the city is a mineral spring, which is ‘said to be an ins fallible remedy for the venereal disease, if used for for- ; days successively ; and many persons in all stages of ee dewdde, resort to its waters with much On the western side of the plain of Fez, is a village containing the sanctuary of Idris, the founder and first sovereign of Fez; and this asylum, to which ma- lefactors frequently betake themselves, is never viola- ted by the emperor, or any other authority in/his domi- nions. The country part of this province. is: inhabited altogether by Arabs, except a small tribe of Berebbers. See Jackson’s Account ef Morocco, p. 13 ;Chenier's Present State of Morocco, vol..i.; Modern Univ. Hist.. vol. xviii; vol. vi. (g) blished Mab ereignty in West Besbery, is ometan sov it ‘est , con= tained seven provinces, viz. F Ke El Gateinet non. under the article Morocco, with which they are now united as one empire. Of that empire, in short, the kingdom of Fez forms the northern division, and is se« parated from it by the river Morbeya on the south, | It is bounded on the east by Algiers, and on the north and west by the sea. It is inhabited chiefly by Arabs, who dwell in tents, and are divided into various tribes ; the mountainous districts of Atlas are occupied usurpers arose in the west of Bz . The tribe of Zenetes, called Mequinesi, seized upon several provi ces, and founded the city of Mequinez, within ten leagues of the capital. A marabout of that tribe, hav~ ing by fanatical predictions seduced the minds of the people from the family of. Idris, formed a considerable - vince of Temsena, arid marched ‘ez, who was thus forced to 1 Another of a descendant of himself El-Mohadi, or s, and accused the house of fdvis ater tee . princes t - *-. =. Gi ‘ a having declared hi Caliph, he marched to« party in the the king of the authority of the Zenetes at. Mequi Ali and Fatima, -wards Mount Atlas to extend his dominions. While -he was thus engaged in the South, Al-Habed Almon- sor, one of the generals of the king of Cordova, arrived with an army to aid the house | ery aimee conquered a of the kingdom of Fez, the city of Arzilla, which remained for some time un- s der the government of the Moors in Spain. El-Mohade, by this diminution of his power, and by the hatred * One of these princes named Shariff F1 Idrissi, was the author of the work entitled Geogrophia Nubiensis, which he dedicated to Roger’ i Cee tant ote aed hb take 4 4 yp 2D hing of Sicily, to whom court he had fled for protection, — by Bex a Fes. om Pp 9). eet 4 Debtetietnentees 404 2o0c came eee ee e : = PBZ oy his” ean was unable to retain’ ‘in Fez, was obliged to pass into the eastern part of Africa. The whole of northern ‘of a numerous army, and took pos- Here he fixed his resi- Morocco, which his father had begun ; blished the seat of his empire. A multitude of Zenetes, having begun to ‘new errors and innovations in-tt A y Temsena, he sent several Morabites parr bce to their former tenets ; but, instead havi repéopled by colonies from the kingdom of Fez, he embraced the first ity of attacking theking of that seuniay Having entered pe ee ee Vora. any Modern: Univ. Hist. vol. xviii. ; State of Morocco, vol. ii-; Playfair’s and Jackson's Account of Morocco. in the interior miles south of + The name is supposed to be derived from the word Marabout, lowers of Tessifin, because most of his officers were persons of that 813 FE Z communicates withthe flat ‘sandy desert, ot Sahara: The test length of the cultivated part of the king- dom: is about 300 English miles from north to sou and the greatest breadth 200 miles from east to west. But the mountainous ions of Harutch, on the eas- tern frontier, and other desert districts of considerable ' extent towards the south and west, are within its ter. ritory. On'the north, it is bordered by Arab tribes, nominally dependent on Tripoli; on the east, by the hilly deserts already mentioned; on the south and: south-east, by the country of the Tibboes;on the south-west, by that of the Nomadic Tuarics; and ow the west by Arabs. Almost the only historical notices of this country by the ancients, are to be found in Pliny, who mentions it as one of the most important conquests of the Roman general Balbus. : e climate is at no season temperate or agreeable. The heat is intense during summer ; and when the wind blows from the south, is scarcely supportable, even by the natives. A bleak north wind prevails dur: ing winter, which produces a severe and chilling de- gree of cold: Rain very seldom falls through the whole year, and when it does come, is little in quantity ; but water, notwithstanding, is found every where in wells of eight or ten feet in depth; a circumstance, supposed to be owing to me otner act heen A is ontbnansed. Thunder and lightning are rare; biit storms of wind, whirling upthe sand and dust, are very a There is not a river or stream of any note in the whole country, as far as was observed by Horneman ; but Edrisi mentions a river of some size, which takes its course by Zuela, and which is lost in the sand before it reaches the sea. The soil is a deep sand, covering calcareous rock or earth, and sometimes a stratum of argillaceous substance; but, as the springs are so abundant, few regions in the north of Affricaex- hibit a richer v well from the indolence of the people, their ignorance ‘of tillage, or the op ions of their government, a suf- pos hey eh es their subsistence is not raised in e country, ; upon im ions from the Arab countries to fron aro Pot herb and garden ve in general are plentiful, and some senna is raised in the western districts; but the natural and staple produce of Fezzan is dates. There are few horses in the country, and camels are kept only by the wealthy inhabitants ; but asses are generally used for all the i 0 of burden, draught, or carriage. A few orned cattle are found in the fertile districts, which are employed in drawing water from the wells, and are never slaughtered for food unless in cases’ of ex- treme necessity. The ordinary domestic animal ‘is the goat, —s few — en in the eens parts ingdom. antelope, » and os- trich, are the principal wild animals, from which the natives derive any benefit; but the more noxious and loathsome -creatures are sufficiently abundant; and Fezzai. Extent and 7 boundaries, Climate. egetation. Both the soil and climate are Produc- for the growth of wheat and barley ; but, tions. snakes, adders, ions, toads, and similar vermin, . reer constant i itants of the fields, gardens, and uses, Fezzan is the most advantageously situated, of all ee the inland countries in Africa, for the purposes of ecommerce, as it lies in the shortest and most conveni.~ ent line of communication between the Mediterranean and the centre of Africa, as well as between Western a name given'to Mahomedan Saints or Monks, ‘and applied to the fol- description. ‘ AR Peezas. Africa, Egypt, and Arabia. 814 Its trade is, of conse- —\— quence, considerable ; and its inhabitants are the most Manufac- ment —— merchants in that quarter of the globe ; but thei traffic consists chiefly in foreign merchandize, and they are enriched by the carrying trade across the deserts. The capital, Mourzouk, is the great resort ef numerous caravans from Cairo, Bengasi, Gadames, Troat, and Soudan; and the rendezvous of all the Mahomedan pilgrims from the west and south of Africa on their way to Mecca. The caravans from the south and west bring, as articles of commerce, slaves of both sexes, ostrich feathers, tiger skins, zibette, and gold, partly in dust, and partly in native grains, to be ma- nufactured into ornaments for the mhabitants of the interior. From Bornou, copper is imported in great uantities ; from Cairo, silks, calicoes, cloths, and East ndia goods; tobacco, snuff, and Turkey ware from Bengasi; paper, fire-arms, sabres, red worsted caps, and woollen cloths, from Tripoli and Gadamer ; and butter, oil, corn, senna, and camels, from the Tuarics and southern Arabs. ; There are no articles of manufacture produced in the country, and the natives discover no ingenuity as artificers. The only tradesmen are shoemakers and smiths ; and the latter work every metal without dis- tinction, so that the same » who forges shoes for the sultan’s horse, forms rings for the princesses. The women, indeed, make a coarse woollen cloth called abbe ; but, so imperfect is their manufacturing skill, that the whole work is performed solely by the hand, and the woof is inserted into the warp thread by thread. The country of Fezzan is governed by a Sultan, who igns with unlimited authority over his subjects, but tole his dominione ss tributary to the Bashaw of Tri- poli, The crown is hereditary, but/does not always de- seend from father to son. The law of succession re- quires, that, when a v: occurs, the oldest prince of the blood royal shall ascend the throne, a ion which ly occasions an to the sword. The Sultan, by the rales of the state, must always be of the family of the Shereefs of Waden or Zuila. The palace is situated within the fortress of the capital, and the Sultan lives there retired, without any other in- mates, except the eunuchs, who act as his attendants. The Harem is contiguous to the royal residence, and ’ the females are brought to the apartment of the sove- reign, who never enters their habitation. He never appears. without the castle walls, except on Fridays, when he goes to the great , or on other public festivals, when he is attended by his whole court.. On these days of solemnity, he rides on horseback, in a plain on the outside of the town, where his courtiers exhibit their skill in ao exercises, or practise the art of shooting. On days of state and ceremony, the Sultan's consists of a large white stuff frock or shirt, in the Sondan fashion, and brocaded with gold and silver. Under this covering, he wears the ordinary dress of the Tripolitans, without any thin temarkable in his. except his turban, whi extends a full yard from the front to the hinder part, and is not less than two thirds of a yard in breadth. His official attendants. are the first and second minis- ters of state, both of whem must: be freeborn ‘men, but whose influence, notwithstanding their nominal rank, is very inconsiderable; the general of his forces, who may be appointed from any class at the sovereign’s re; a number of black slaves, who are purcha- sed when boys, and educated for the court according FEZZAN. ‘ is most qualified by his lear es pale eg ar pon who can best or write. mee sees sultan’s family also oe ext to the cadi, as head of the clergy, 1s the great iman, es, , foreign le, from assessments on all gardens and cultivated lands, and from arbitrary fines i consists in the main- princes of the royal family are of corn delivered w: = to those wha.hold the respective offices. 1 Nae , a AY am nm Nc I among which there are few places note, and 4 a 1 The incipal . Its environs are well watered, remarkable for fertility, full of groves of date-trees, and better cultivated than most other places, It contains many vestiges of ancient splendour, cisterns, vaulted caves, &c. which some writers consider as the remains of Roman architecture ; but the ruins, which Mr Horneman observed, were en- - tirely of Mahommedan ns Jerma, or Yerma, un- questionably the Garama of the Romans, and the capi tal of the country at the time of its bekngaabGemet their arms, is situated as far to the west as Zuila is to the east of Mourzouk, and is full of majestic ruins, and ancient inscriptions. Temissa, about. 120 miles east- ward of the capital, is rather a garrison than a town, built on a hill, and surrounded by a high wall ; the in- habitants of which derive their chief subsistence'from the date trees, and employ themselves in keeping sheep and The ruins dated houses, built of lime-stone, and cem reddish mortar. ‘Katron, or Gatron, about 60 miles. south of Mourzouk, is remarkable only for the multi- tude of common fowls reared .by its inhabitants, and the abundant crops of Indian corn in its neighbourhood. 1 remarkably abstemious in diet, they are great] FEZ fm treet heme more an pare , but the province, which bears its name, is for the quantity of trona, a species of fossil alkali, which floats on the surface of its nume~ rous lakes. Teghery, about 70 miles south-west of the capital 'is'a'cmnall town, nearest to the western frontier. ane north are Sockna, Sibha, Hun, and Waden. anaes dincnaigsareace t. Itisacommon i is to desi arich man, by saying that he is read and meat every day, But though i i y addict- is the juice of fresh, is sweet which is extremely intoxicating. Their amuse- ment in their eveni i is with the reer ts one teen Merah strument is a rude kind of guitar, and whose motions are sufficiently rete Aen ym 4 of the females, in general, are unusually tious, are vehe- mently fond of amusement, i ot dane’ in the occasional blood-letting, which is always done cupping, and never by venesection ; ‘aibeliivigattics 315 FIE of medicine is confined almost entirely to amulets, con« sisting of sentences from the Koran, written on a sli of paper, which the patient wears about his neck, an is sometimes compelled to swallow. “ae Geography, vol. vi.; Rennel’s ‘Geography of Herodo- poy 566, 618; and Horneman’s Travels in Africa; p- 62. (q) FIARS, is the name given in Scotland to the average prices of different kinds of grain sold within'the coun- ty for ready money. Their average prices are gene rally determined ‘by the Sheriff in the end of February or the beginning of March, from the evidence of a number ble tenants or dealers in corn. The method of striking’ the average varies in different coun- ties. (1) FIBRE. See Anatomy and Puysro.ocy. FICHTELBERG. See Franconia. FIELDING, Henry, the celebrated English novel. list and dramatie writer, was born at Sharpham Park; near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire, on the 22d of April 1707. His father, Edmund Fielding, Esq. who was nearly related to many noble and a meee fa+ milies, served in the wars under the Duke of Marl- borough, and eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant- eral. His mother was daughter to seigeGens ee to Sir Henry Gould, one of the of x home, under the care of the Rev. Mr Oliver, a person edn = seems _ have entertained Me very, ~~ , as he is generally thought to have design e character of Parson Tr somyie Pooogh Andrews, a8 a it of this we Sm He was. afterwards re- moved to Eton school, where he had an opportunity of forming a very early intimacy with the first Lord Lyt- tleton, Mr Fox, (afterwards Lord Holland), Mr Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham), Sir Charles: Hanbury illiams, and sevéral other distinguished characters, who ever afterwards cherished a warm r for him. By an assiduous application to study, the cultiva- tion of strong natural talents, he is said to have also acquired an uncommon knowledge of the Greek and Latin classics, during his residence at that seminary of education ; and when about eighteen years of age, he repaired to the University of Leyden, where he studied under the most celebrated civilians for about two years, at the expiration of which period, he was in consequence of the failure of remittances, to return’ to London, His father, General Fielding, having greatly in- creased his family by a second marriage, found it im- possible ‘to afford his son an ae: Peet to” the expence attending those fashi leasures in: which he had too great a to indu The vivacity of his temper, the brilliancy of his wit, and his relish of all kinds of social ent, made him a most desirable companion in the circles of literature and fashion ; but having no disposition for economy, ' and his finances being inadequate to the draughts made upon him in this career of dissipation, he soon found himself involved in difficulties, from which, however, he hoped to extricate himself by the exertion of his genius. Accordingly, he commenced a writer for the stage, in‘1727, when he had just completed his 20th ear. * His first dramatic attempt was a comedy, called Love in several Masques, which met with a very favourable reception, although it laboured under the disadvan of succeeding the long and crowded run of the Pro uer. ‘ Fieldin received the rudiments of his education at Fiars Fielding. 816 FieMling- voted Husband. His second play, The Temple Beau, ~~’ which came out in the follow: year, was also well received ; and from this period, down to the year 1737, he continued to bring forward a number of plays and farces for the stage. But although these produc- tions considerable merit, it anes allowed that Fielding’s genius did not qualify him to excel in tlramatic writing. In his plays is a good deal of humour and vivacity ; considerable knowledge of life and manners, and abundant proof of an attentive ob- servation of the humours, foibles, and affectations of mankind ; but they were evidently written with care- lessness and haste: he disregarded the rules of drama- tic decorum, despised the criticism of the stage, and obstinately refused to make any sacrifice to the feelings er taste of his audience. The emoluments which he derived from his drama- tic labours were by no means great ; and his imprudent extravagance still continuing, he found himself obliged te resort to some extraordinary expedient to supply his necessities. With this view, about the year 1735, he determined to bring forward a new, but certainly ra- ther hazardous species of public entertainment ; which is particularly worthy of notice, as it eventually pro- duced an extraordinary change in the constitution of the dramatic system, He brought together a great number of actors, and made preparations for exhibiting aap are ary f of a ped tendency, at the ittle theatre in the Haymarket, under the whimsical title of The Great Mogul's Company of Comedians. It is probable, that, in this singular undertaking, Fielding was actuated, in some degree, by resentment against the minister, Sir Robert Walpole, whom he had _for- merly flattered, but who hitherto neglected him. The project had the charm of novelty, and succeeded, at first, so well, as to answer his most sanguine expec- tations. But this novelty wore off with the first sea- son; and the design afterwards received so little en- coaragement, that he was forced to abandon it. The severity of the satire, however, which was contained in the pieces represented at the Haymarket theatre, galled the minister extremely ; and he determined, not only to put down this modern Aristo , but, like the At enian government upon a similar occasion, to re- strain the public theatres from becoming the scour, of statesmen at any future period. Accordingly, he laid hold of a piece, written by somebody or other, called the Golden Rump, which was full of abuse, not only against the parliament, the council, and the ministry, hut even against majesty itself ; and made such use of it, as occasioned the bringing into parliament a bill for the regulation of the theatre, and to explain an act made in the 12th year of the reign of Queen Anne, for reducing the laws concerning rogues, v. mds, com- mon players of interlude, &c. y this bill, which pas- sed into a law, after some opposition, in the year 1737, the representation of dramatic ‘ormances was con-. fined to Westminster and its liberties, or where the royal family should at any time reside ; and the theatres were prohi ited from bringing forward any play, or even prologue, ue, OF Eons .wishons its being first in- spected, and obtaining the licence of the Lord Chamber- lain. This act also took from the crown the power of li- censing any more theatres ; and inflicted heavy penal- ties on those who should afterwards bring forward pd perfgmenee, in defiance of the regulations of the Among the earlier publications.of Fielding, may be noticed an Essay on Conversation; an a on thie FIELDING. cn the 3 a Jo owledge of the Characters of Men ; a Journey a Rime this World to the next, and the history of Jonathan the Great ; in which he displayed his natural humour and knowledge of mankind, but of which the moral tendency is, at least, questionable. ° to? ef Some years after he to write for the stage, he married Miss Craddock, a young lady from 4 who possessed a great share of beauty, and a fortune of L. 1500 nds ; and about the same time, he suc- ceeded, ugh his mother, to an estate at Stower, in Dorsetshire, of somewhat better than L. 200 an- num. With this fortune, he wisely determi to bid adieu to all the follies and dissipation, to which he had . been hitherto addicted, and to retire, with his wife, to his seat in the country. But his natural disposition, and passion for society and show, unfortunately pre-~ vailed over all his prudent resolutions ; and in less than three years from the period of his retirement from tow1i; his extravagance, and total neglect of economy, redu- ced him to his former state of poverty, dependence and distress. His ardent temperament, however, did not suffer him to be easily vp es Having determi- ned once more to exert his abilities, in a in; to procure a competent subsistence, he applied himselt’ to the study of the law; and, after the usual period of probation at the baron being called to the bar, he made no inconsiderable figure in Westminster Hall. But the intemperance of his early life now began to af: fect his health so seriously, as to prevent him from be« stewing the requisite attention on the duties of his la- borious profession, and consequently from reaching that degree of eminence, which his talents and learni might otherwise have enabled him to attain. ai all the severities of pain and poverty, however, he stilt found resources in his genius. For some years he de- voted his talents, in a great measure, to politics ; he was concerned in a political periodical paper, called the Champion, which owed its principal support to his prolific pen ; aid he was Hirscclf ‘the conductor of two publications,—the True Patriot, and the Jacobite Jour« nal, in which he supported the principles of the Hano- verian succession. About this period, he had the mis fortune to lose his wife, whom he had ever tenderly: lo- ved ; and the fortitude which he had oe the former distressing’ situations of his life, is said:to have entirely deserted him upon this trying occasion: His grief, indeed, was.so violent, that great apprehen- den were, for a considerable period, entertained of /his being ever again possessed of the ordinary powers of reason, ; : Baer Hitherto the genius of Fielding had been chiefly em- pores upon dramatic effusions, written, no doubt, with the view of supplying the exigencies of the mo< ment; or upon miscellaneous subjects of mere tempo rary interest. But the powers of his mind were now, fortunately, directed to a species of composition, in which he was liarly qualified to excel, and to which: he is principally indebted for his reputation with-pos- terity His celebrated noyels of Joseph Andrews, Ton Jones, and Amelia, penta in the maturity of his ge- nius, may be considered as forming a sort of era in the history of his own life, as well as in the literary history of his country ; and have elevated Fielding to the first rank among the writers of fictitious PPA.) But the employment, of his pen.could evidently afford him only a precarious subsistence ; and although he oc- casionally received large contributions from his friends, he is al and the pressure of want, to the extremity of distress. — to have been frequently reduced, by disease FIF - ww In the year 1749, however, he at length received a ~ from government ; and, peep ind his necessities obliged him to accept of the office of an in the commission of the peace for been and the county of Middlesex ; an office aan me Che ious to the populace,and which, abe pee failed to incur tbe imputation of aie , from which Fielding was not exempted. jn cinerea tas ttich of his office, he aga uncommon. vigilance and activity of mind. ng many beneficial plans and regula- tione-of oe ublished several Tisefal tracts u connate with the functions which he Among these are, An Address ta the Grand po of Middlesex, which he delivered at Westminster in June 1749; A P Lfor making an effectual pro- 7 An Inquiry into the Causes of Robbers, &c. life of Fielding was now draw- In 1753, his constitution had Hite a pla ved i ual ; ala by thea of his physicians, he at length determined the re- storative effects of a warmer climate. nie ollowing accordingly set out for Lisbon; but in two months after his arrival at that place, Henry-Fielding was tall in stature, and of a seh seen famneit hots, until the vigour of ne stitution had been en by. disease. He had an ar- dent temperament, and lively passions, - His affections See ray nce and constant and his conduct and a vi- Staaey, a oe oe a oe ly wit; and to considerable learn- estate, he suffered it to be devoured pects ae and » bod weap is life exhibits a be" silgwed to hold be allowed to hold a prs ns The county of Fife is situated on the east coast.of Scotland, between 56° 2° and 56° 317 27’ of North Latitude, and between 2° and 2° 56? of Fifeshive. West Longitude from Greenwich. On the south it is ="y— an extrav. t size, FIF bounded by the Frith of Forth, on the east by the Ger- man Ocean, and on the north by the Frith of Tay. Its western bompeary.t is irregular, being indented by the Kinross, and united by an uneven line with ogi Med of Perth and Clackmanan. Its praee belong from Elie to.Balmerino, is about 19 miles from south to north ; and its greatest length, from Fifeness to the extremity of the parish of Saline, is about 48 miles from east to west. It contains about 52.144 square . miles, or 263,593 Scottish acres. The climate of Fifeshire may be considered as mild Climate. and tem .. On the south side of the county, along the shores of the Forth, igh air is Ppicrs and friendly to vegetation. On the grounds which traverse the middle of the county, the soil is damp, and the air cold. The northern parts, which are rather exposed, and des« titute of shelter, have a very bleak aspect, and in these the air is and penetrating. There are no remarkable springs Those which issue from the rocks of the coal-field be- tween the Eden and the Forth, are frequently of the chalybeate kind ; and in a few places, as at Kinghorn, of considerable strength gth. In the middle district of the county, including the valley of the Eden, the pangs, are frequently — and issue either from beds sandstone or gravel. In the northern of the shire, where trap-rocks abound, the springs yield wa- i the previes purity. In the Inch Craig of Car- Fina to the dam-dyke, there is a hae, Seg ucing a liqui resembling ink almost constantly from the rock. t.a former and lakes in many parts of Fife, which the hand of in- dustry has changed into fertile fields by means of drain- ing. ip few my still remain to enliven the scene, and ve pe Mey to rospect. The Loch of Lindores, g ance, is surrounded with uneven Simao iocihel aes ne scene- ualled. It is about a mile in length, PE ke pike, perch, and eel, and is much fre- quented by ducks, coots, and other water-fowl. Kil- conquhar Loch lies on the boundary that divides the pers of Kilconquhar from Elie, is Y neasly of a circu form, and may be about two miles in circumference. It abounds with pike and excellent eels. In the parish of Auchterderran there are two lakes of considerable and Comilla; the former about three miles, the about two miles i in circumference ; and. farther west, in the parish of Beith, we meet with Loch. fittie, of an oblong , and of equal extent with ci- ther of the two last mentioned. To these may be add- ed, Kinghorn Loch, in the neighbourhood of "ae een Kinghorn, and the small at Otterston in the parish of Dalgety. The rivers of this county (provincially termed wa- Rivers. , and inconsiderable in ulated situation. _ The the eastern side of the celebrated and empties itself’ into the Figs of Forth at Largo Bay. In its course through Fife, which ex. fae oe qe arte ae AL ie piped considerable called the hier ing e below. the village of Leslie, and the united rivulets of the Lochty and the Orr, about a mile to the westward of Cameron-bridge. Thisriver, the water of which is he supply ia constant, and. the stream weighty, ters or burns) are few in number in the county. Springs. , there were numerous marshes Lakes. Fifeshire. drives the machinery —Y" at various Vallies. H Hills. $18 of a great number of mills, which periods have been erected on its banks, At its opening into Largo Bay, there is a considerable sal- mon fi . and the river also abounds with fine trout, ike, and eels. The eels annually descend from Loch en to the sea. in the night-time, during the month of September, and are taken in quantities by nets ced in the river, which the draw every two rs. The lands of Sthrathendy, before the Refor- mation, were subject to an annual tax’ of some thou- sands of eels to the Abbey of Inchcolm.' The river Eden, which is formed by the confluence of several small streams, in the parish of ery eg 2 ly throagh a level valley, the town upar, an unites with the German Ocean a little below the Gair Bridge to the north-east of the city of Saint Andrews. In its course eastwards, which may extend to 20 miles, it is increased by a few tributary streams, and at its con- fluence with the sea, is joined by the Motray,a rivulet collected the hills on the left bank of the Tay. At the mouth of the Eden, a few salmon are yearly taken, and it abounds with fine trout, pike, and eels. Along the south side of the Grampians there is an extensive plain, stretching south-west and north-east, and constituting the t valley of Strathmore ; and along the south-side of the Ochils, which may be view- ed as the outworks of the Grampians, there is a similar valley stretching i Hap Kinross, Strathmiglo, Ket- tle, and Cupar. eastern portion of this valley, which is situated in Fifeshire, is known by the name of the How of Ife. It divides Fife into two natural divisions, a ern and a southern. The Wottom of this valley is but little elevated above the level: of the sea, so that a canal might very easily be formed which would unite the mouth of the Eden, or the harbour of St Andrews, with Loch Leven, and even with Stirling. Such a canal would be of incalculable advantage to the counties of Clackmannan, Kinross, Perth, and Fifé ; we may even include Angus, as a lateral branch by Lin- dores to Newburgh tould easily be formed. The con- veyance of those indispensible minerals, coal ‘and lime, to districts at present but scantily supplied with either, would be ly facilitated, as vessels could pass with certainty rough this canal in so many hours, which liave to wait at present several weeks before they are able to weather the exposed promontory of Fifeness. ‘From the How of Fife, at Collessie, there is ‘a lateral ‘valley which runs into the Tay by Woodmill, Lindores, and Clatchart Craig, and another by Luthrie, Kilmany, and Forgan, terminating in the extensive plain called Tents Moor. These vallies observe the general easterly di- ¥ection of the ran of the hills, and contain small eminences of regularly stratified gravel in different parts of their course, as at Collessie, Cupar, and For- gan. We could offer some curious observations 'con- cerning the origin of these hills of gravel, were this a Seueeiae The lls on the north side of this great longitudinal valley constitute the eastern base of the Ochil hills, with whic! they agree in direction ‘and constitution. The aia s are red and white sandstone, amygda- , compact felspar, stone, clinkstone, gre one, basalt, trap tuff, and . Limestone occurs only at one place on the farm of Parkhill, near Newburgh. These rocks belong to the old red sandstone formation of Professor Werner. The more compact rocks of clinkstone, basalt, and felspar, form hills of considerable height, with precipitous acclivities, as Glendackie hill, Normani’s Law, and Lucklaw ; while the other rocks of gold. iiweke The native plants of Fife are very numerous. They Botany. FIFESHIRE. a less durable See waaghdall ind et) form rounded hills, usually covered soil, as at Balmea- dow side, Moonzie, and’Forret. The soil of this nor- thern district, chiefly derived from the decay of the trap rocks, is remarkably fertile, and produces of the finest quality. Shell marl is here found in great abundance, as at Rossie and Lord's Chirnie This district affords » carnelian, and A and considerable quantities of gravel cemented % man- ganese have likewise been observed. : rm To the south of the How of Fife, the rocks are ofa = different kind, and constitute a part of the great coal field of the river district of the Forth. The most important mineral of this district is coal, of which the following subspecies occur: pitch coal, slate coal, and cannel coal, Frequently all are found in the strata cut through by the same pit ; and a mixture of the two former in the same bed is very common. It was ini this county where coal was first employed as fuel i Scotland, at least the earliest evidence of its use is to be a chafter of William de Obervill, in which he — liberty to the Abbot and Convent of Dunferm: ne to open a coalpit upon his lands of 4 This charter rt dated the Amd before the feast of St Am- brose in March 1291. ed ime cab eb ermal pin tuated in the of ine, Dysart, W and Markinch ; at the same! thane ft may’ be anientivdbad; that beds of coal occur in almost every parish in the district. Glance coal, provincially d blind coal, cone’ in some places is of great purity. limestone of mineralogists, mid contains numerous pe- trifactions of shells corals, and in one or two pl . = the impression of plants. At Lime-kilns on the Forth, lime , tebe stone is another very ¢ time was smelted in a furnace’ at Sand. fe quent occurrence. In'‘many places, it is of 8 et ome and preg shames in the coalfield are slate clay, bitué minous shale, | basalt, amygdaloid, wacke; and flint+ in't district are situated several ils among : ’ —- eral the ground is moderately level. The soil is very various in quality, owing to the great variety of rocks from which it has origi . Tn the higher parts, a cold stiff clay prevails, while in the lower grounds the soil is less retentive, and more friend: ly tov ion: The precious stone, known by thé name of the Elie Ruby, is here found imi d ina rock of trap-tuff. Lead and ores have been observed in different places, and sulphurated ores of zine ; ye appears from the charters of the monastery of Dunfermline, that the hills of Fife formerly’ yielded ’ were, in part, described by the industrious Sibbald, and subsequent botanists have made considerable additions to his li In the marshes of the county the botanist will find the mare’s-tail, Hippuris vulgaris ; the small water plantain, Alisma-ranunculoides; the marsh hitchwort, Stellaria glauca ; the water Scrophularia aquatica ; the water hemlock, (provincially known from its deleterious qualities by the ‘name a Fifeshire. deathin,) Cicuta virosa; and the basket osier, Salix £. s. d. Scots. —_Fifeshire- Forbyana. The woods will furnish him with the yel- Cupar... 2. ‘ 98,535 13 4 low star of Bethlehem, pores deen croak: oe Seen ae 126,013 - ty) . winter-green, Pyrola rotundifolia ;. kealdy ....... 87,664 16 -8 — Chrysosplenium alters . ~ Dunfermline... 05... 56,250 13 4 nifolium ; and thé bird’s-nest f Nidus- avis. Macduff’s cave at Elie ield him the Ger- co ch pep rrarerier necten. * ro Ue wr Aegan man Madwort, Asperuge ; and the French amountsto215. General Wemyss of WemyssCastle is at holders. sorrel of horticulturists. hills will afford him the present the knight of theshire. Jn Fife, there are two alpine bugle, Ajuga alpina ; the alpine bistort, Poly- complete districts of burghs, each of which sends a mem- viviparum; the common, moonwort, Osmunda ber to parliament, viz. one comprehending the burghs p yawns and the rock brakes, Pieris crispa. Among _of Dysart, Kirkcaldy, Kinghorn, and Burntisland ; and the fields of wheat, the smooth rye brome , Eom icimmereinine bine eeoen: mus secalinus, appears, a common but unwelcome visi- 5 ilrenny. of C and St An- tant. arsine tabaci Dundee, = Forfar ; and The zoology of Fife is no less i ing than its Dunfermline and Inverkeithing to Stirling, Queensfer- botany, in consequence of the great extent of sea coast. ry, and Culross. Fife, therefore, has in effect four re- On the land the zoologist will meet with the rare Sorec _presentatives in parliament, and consequently nearly fodiens in meadow ground, the Tringa alpina breeding Ps, gg of the whole representation of Scot- in the Tents Moor, and the atropos, @ rare visi- This, however, is no more than her just share, tant of Cupar, The Tay the Forth.will fwnish being nearly in ion to the valuation and the him er ee ge tee he rearerainel edie pueches SA ea eR and the Cyclopterus . 7 shores he tion e county in 1811, amounted to Population. pick up the following > Caecum (Dentalium) in 52,061 males, 55,304 females, making a total number perforatum yr» nee acre Turbo cingillus, and if he of 107,865 souls, At a former period, the landward is in search of the Crustacea and Radiata, the Pandalus districts: must have contained a greater number of inha- Montagui, and the Ophiura aculiata will reward his bitants than at present; as in travelling through the exertions county, you frequently meet with rows of ash trees in 2. Civil History —The county of Fife at a former the midst of cultivated fields, where formerly. stood the as erse ser og have been of great extent, andto hamlets of the peasantry. Even in the burghs on the the county of Kinross, and part of Clack- . shores of the Forth, ruinous buildings every where pre« ™anan. : } name Parag pp pi ber rd Bg em of Ross, or the peni and hence Culross signified to which, alas! they are now strangers. The active the lower part of the peninsula, Kinross the head of the _ part of the population of Fife, is engaged either in the i ,; and Muckross, now Fifeness, the.snout. of pursuits of agriculture, manufactures, or fishing. peninsula. The last division may have obtained Four-fifths of the county are considered arable, and 4 jie infested are at present under the management of judicious and ture. that ; ent the | is divided active agriculturists. The furm-houses, which formerly into sixty-one parishes, distributed into four pres- were mean in their appearance, and afforded little ac- ee en erent eae -commodation to the tenants, are now built of substan- we re infe i ry pour saa pau dein Se eo aha The constitute ‘synod i size of farms is very various, on an average ma which meets at Cupar and Ki en ee gO be considered as not exceeding 120 acres, The ordi- f athe eee i The a ee See reat The rents vided four districts for lating -are usually paid in money, in some cases in the busi which ae pera rato The enclosures are chiefly form- ed with stone walls, Thorn hedges, which beautify a country, and yield-shelter and warmth to the fields, are disliked by the farmer, on the supposition that they har- bour vermin, by which he means small birds. But the same farmer who offers this objection, will not fail to per- i- mit forty or fifty pairs of sparrows to hatch their young held by different under his roof in safety in spring, while he will e Senta basbcnauattiadnod aban erooiees ee | | Hl i it i a i h i F i Hl : : i aa ut l A [ 4 E ‘the crown, sometimes of a subject superior, and in many instances of individual proprietors, these last oc- ly known in the country ; and .the een eve,entens eupiers being termed feuars. Another class of lands, ridges which f prevailed, have exchanged pe re der ie re wie peecnensd by bur- for a more rational and productive mode of tillage, Sum- ome sw no a polar uboriateined Te weuhibe Eeetinian chines sontnn teminiee - corporations to private indivi tw without descending to particu~ a, The valued rent athe county 50 13s,4d. lars, to mention the rotations of crops which are obser- Scots, ‘among: i in ‘the ved on the various soils which here occur, rotations dic- manners 9 yy ep dies tated by experience, sometimes by example, and rarely ; °® We are happy in having it in our’ power to enirol tuts plant as an undoubted native of Scotland. Sir Robert Sibbald” mentions ‘it in his list of Scotish plants without adding a habitat, Prod. part iy. page 41; and Lightfoot, upon his authority, retains it with ‘It was found in Forret Den, near Kilmany, by avery keen and indefatigable botanist, Mr Alexander Chalmers, surgeon, 4 re FIF Pifehire bytheery. ‘The crops commonly cultivated are oals, “—Y~" of which there are many varieties ; barley, and in the condition; but the private parish roads, in which he colder big ; tohaet, both, red anes Nenn AEG the proprietors and farmers are materially interested, yi wheat seldom ; rye on-thin sandy soils; beans, pease, and are in bad, and in winter nearly impassible. -—s tares ; clover and rye grass ; potatoes, and turnips both This fault may be fairly charged ietors, Live stock. Manufac- Fisheries. Roads. ‘of the Hi “may expect a number of common and Swedish ; flaz is raised in small quantities, hemp is never at present even attempted. Although there are a great many trees around the mansion-houses of proprietors, there is still much ground in the county fit only for planting, which is at t, comparatively speaking, useless. On many farms, there is not as much wood as ‘would make a gate. Farm-yard dun is the principal manure, and a straw yard is ceadidenddl as one of the most valuable appendages of farm offices. Lime is-universally used, marl is employed in a few places. Even the refuse of the ironstone mines at Dy- sart, has been found a le manure to the sandy soils of that neighbou . It consists of several varieties of bituminous shale and slate clay, and was first applied to this useful by Mr Jameson of Dysart. - The Fife — othe dai Th ears ay ‘or feeding, or iry. ey wei fi to fifty stones, are usually of a black or brown tee, horns turned up, limbs short, and the body round. The cows give from ten to fourteen Scots pints of milk each day in summer. The breed of horses was formerly very small, and resembled the Highland garrons. But by the introduction of stallions from other parts, the Fife horses are now fit for the saddle and the draught. . The native breed of sheep was the common white- kind, or mountain sheep, of a small size, with fine wool, which have been banished by the introduction of the i black-faced, or Linton breed, with coarse wool, and of a wandering disposition ; or by some of the improved cross breeds from England. The swine are principally and kind, with arched backs, pk cae at tles. Rabbits are protected in many places, and the annual value of their skins probably exceeds six thou- sand pounds, _The number of pigeons in Fife is very —- pigeon cotes amounting to nearly three hun- As connected with the agriculture of the county, we may mention that there are four distilleries, three of which prepare whisky for the home market, and the other for the London trade. There are breweries inal- most every village, which supply the inhabitants with beer ; and strong ale is also compounded by some of the incipal brewers. The manufacture of linen, compre- ing damasks, diapers,checks, ticks, Osnaburghs, and ‘ Silesias, gives employment to a great number of weavers in the diff erent towns and villages. Saltis made in the ~neighbourhood of the great coal-works on the Forth. The tanning -of leather is.performed in several places. Soap and po a rn wate rn considerable quan- tity, Brick and tyle are made at Cupar, Gair Bridge, -Burntisland, Kirkcaldy, Scotscraig, and Anstruther. In consequence of the extent -of sea-coast, we ing villages, and. that the-county is well supplied with fish. The case is so in reality. -Anumber of fishermen in the towns on the coast, direct their attention to the haddock and cod fishing, and, in their season, catch herring. In the Tay there are extensive salmon fishings, and in the spring, sperlings, Salmo eperlanus, are obtained. The county of Fife is intersected by numerous roads, and the materials for keeping them in repair are easily obtained. The more public roads, on which are erect~ repaixs'to; only about gain, all the while seemingly not averse to the jolting which they often experience. There are few bridges deserving of particular notice. The Gair Bridge over the Eden, consisting of six arches, holds the rank. - It was built. in the beginning of the fifteenth century, by Henry Wardlaw, Bishop of St — Andrews. On the south coast.there are several excel~ lent harbours, of which Burntisland is the safest and eres be me El hich, the d pth of ight be constru at Elie, whi e water, could be taken at all times of the Gide and would prove a safe retreat to the vessels navigating the Forth. In the Tay there are several ports to which ships resort. The principal of these are rewpcinw Woodhaven, and Newbur; The imports are chiefly wood, oak, bark, hides, flax, iron, tar; and groceries. coasting heneenene an aneennaes phony raring yes ton in consequence permanent features of nature, the hills and yalleys, springs, and rivulets, not having been attended to. Mr Givan at Cupar is at present executing a new map of Fife, which we expect will be free from those defects, which are but too apparent in a great number of county plans. For further partieu- lars, the reader is referred to Sibbald’s History of Fife and Kinross, Svo, Cupar, 1803 ; and Thomson's Agri- culture of Fife, 8vo, Edin. 1800. ? Nr FIFTEENTH Maysor, in Music (xv), is an interval, the double of the major eight, or diapason, and thence often called the bisdiapason, the disdiapason, the re- plicate of the octave, and the quinzieme ; its ratio-is 4, = 12245 4 24f 4+ 106m, its common log, = -3979400.0868.. ; Firrsentu Minor (15th), is the octave of the minor eighth, or the doubled minor eighth, as musicians improperly term it, instead of its replicate ; and it has the ratio of 334, =1177 54-23 f+4.102m, and its com- hs log. Siar is iy soy ry igaa IFTEENTH on rgan, is a range of pipes in large organs, which are each tuned a major fifteenth, or double octave above the corresponding pipes in the diapason stops. In accompanying choral in -churches and concert-rooms, this stop is ge used in conjunction with the open and stop diay the incipal and the twelfth stops. (¢) FIFTH, in Music, is the numeral designation. of an ‘interval, consisting of 5 diatonic , including the lowest and highest of these; but besides the intervals ‘come under this denomination, a i OP F IF 821 toisinda iting teorereast Bits ural ssh TE. $2 m, and its common ti Major Firma (V), has the ratio i, — 52 = 3475 +74 30m, its log. = =.8293037,7283, =. 567042 x VIII, = $1.639526 x c; =V—c, = 5— 3, £4t, =VI—II, =7—3, =T+2t+S, =2 T+t+L, af Hi6e4193;, =2-4ths—Srd ; by which last may &e. This Sheetal has . Comma-deficient Minor Fiera (5), has the ratio 5 = Fp =3002 4614.26, its log. =.852,4275,7167, = .490228 x VIII, = 27.35340 xe; =5—c, =V—P, =VILI—3T, =2t+28, —=2T+ 2L, =2$rds—2c, = T4t+s ty sotpely Oc, eebc4 lar 46f = Ofte 102; equal also to 4 4ths—2 Vths, by w it may be ‘correctly tuned. This interval has Trihemitone of some, 23°, 2 (2 re +S+5); the Grave Minor FiAK of Liston, fe ¥f Comma-redundant Major Firtu (V"), has the ratio= = 22 = 9692 47 £-+32 m, its log. =.8185137,0905, cease Xx VILL, =33.639526 xc; =V+c, =5+P, Teeaties; met jonas wit’ may be w ned. * ab g fifth of Maceall tad Lis Lis- ton, oa Poti fifth « of » &e. Comma-redundant Minor Furrn (5°), has the ratio =>, =o> 322 54 6f+28m, its log. =.8416375,9790, = 526068 x VIII, =29.35340 xc; are, =Vv—4d, =10th—VI, ene an 8, Try 12z; it is the double minor third third, by whi means it . gresterdimininbed fith of Chladni, the imper , &e. Comma-redundant ~5, =8. 19€+4152; ae =i M2 hs, ual also to idieese tries See: Commadeficient Major é Defeient Firen of wher writers, has the ratio TOE VOL. IX, PART L. FIF = 3005 4 6f-+426 m. See Comma deficient Minor Fifth. Firts. » Diaschi. ective Major Firru (V,); its ratio is 177,447 3" 262,144 = pre =3462+7f+30m, its common log. is .8297938,7996, =.565417 x VIII, =31.548683 xc; =V—4, —545—J,—5— —€, 542c—S,=442L, =5L42P, =4t—2, =T42t435, =5 T+f+r, BIL FIST + U3 =, =380c417 =+-7 f.. This interval bearing, or wolf fifth, when 11 _ in succession, in 7 octaves, or =7 VIIL —11V; and 7 4ths—4 V: by either of which it may be tuned. soniaicied Fare, the greater of Chladni. . Its ra« tio is 36° = 322 +6f+4 28. See Comma-redundant Minor. Firru. Diminished Fivru, the least. Its ratiois “72, =276s, +5424 m. See Extreme Flat Minor Firru. PP nay 5 gt the lesser of Chladni. Its ratio is i =3115+46f4+27m. See Minor Firru. 67” Khel Major Firrn (), has the 2187 _ an PP ny tT = .549121 x VIII, = 30.63952 xe; = +2t+L, =%9e 4 V—2e,=>54 iti =3t+S, =T Ep ean. te slpoageal tn. dein? hich means this interval may be tu« gti eee Sharp Firre, (XV") ; its ratio is $090 ==, =H16248f 436m; its log. is -7953899,1021, = .679696 x VIII, = 37.92561x ¢; =V4P, =54S+P, =54T+2, =4T, =2 114 2c, =4P+4L, 36c4205+8F, athe oy chat also equal to 8V—4 VIII, vo either of which it may be tuned. This interval is also called the Double Ditone, the Quadruple Major Tone, and the Fifth of Bemetzrieder ; eis also the Schie. ma-excessive Minor Sixth, or 6-4-5, (6*). Tepe aeons Minty Perks, has a ratio of 5, => =383 3+4+8f+ 33m; its log. is .8115750,0587, of =-625935x VII, =34.92566 xc; =5429, =—V+f, =V+5—c, =T+St, =33c418E48f, —8 f+ 17€ 4 132; equal also to III 4 2 —2 rds, by which it may ‘be taned. Equal-beating Firtus, are ne. as, when tuned in succession, beat a eons ; of which there are a oe variety. See the article Bevar Be now Bn ape where the values of several of them given, anda theorem, by which such fifths aay bee in any given case. Extreme Diminished Firrn has the ratio }1i, = 275 re Ft Gs See Extreme Flat (minor) Firrn, major) Firru of Liston, (pV), has ine rato ft = ane 27m. See Minor Firtu. Extreme Flat (minor) Firra. of Liston, () 5); has the ratio 27%, = 5, =975245f4-24m; its log. is pRSn TORI O6TS: = .4492528 x VIII, = 25.06728 xe; =5—JS, =—V. , =V—25—0, =T+3S, Suth+é, eras =5 f+ 14 €+ 105; it Finh. FIF is also equal to 644—2IIT, or 1I—S HI, by either of which it may be tuned. This interval has also been called by some the Diminished, and the Extreme Di- sninished Fifth, and it is the Minimum Fifth of Hen- fi ing. Extrewe sharp (major) Firtu of Liston (% V): the ratio is es =9915 48 4-34'm; its log. is .8061799,7398, = .6438566 x VIII, = 35.92564 x ¢; =V 45, =54844d, =5425S +6, =6—E, =VI—2, =ViIl—3, =X—6, = VIII» 4th, =2T +2t, =2T+ t+S4J, =4S42842d9, —34e4+20548f, —8 f+ 18S€+4142; it is also equal 2VIII—26th =2VI— 2 4th, = 2V—2 Srds, and =2 III, from any of which, but the last in particular, it may be readily tuned. This interval has also been called, the Tretratonon by Dr Calleot, the Superfluous (major) Fifth, by Tartini, Marsh, Chladni, &c. the Sharp Fifth, the Redundant (ma ) Fifth of Liston; also, the Double major Third, Sixth of Holder, the Diesis Defective minor Sixth of Euler, and of the Trumpet scale (.,).. Mr F. Webb has lately said, that the ratio of this interval, nearly corresponds with that of the diameter of a semicircle to its are, taken as = 399348463 = 48 f4-34m: where- as the true diesis and are, give 389.55534 54-8 f $4 m. False Fiera of Chambers and Bemetzrieder ; its ra~ tio is 45, =31154-6f427m, See the Minor Firra. False Minor Firru, of the common trumpet scale (i); its ratio is 15, =320.460258: 46 f +28m, =5th +-9.0460258 = 4m: and its com. log. =.8428921,4664. Fiat Fiera, of Overend, &c. (pV), has a ratio £3, oy f 427m. See Minor Firru. Flat Firru of Hussey and Webb, has the ratio 5%, =314,947096 = 46f+27m, and its common log. is .84509080,4001 : it is also their lesser fifth, and the pois fourth of Holder. : Greater Firtu of Holder, has the ratio 1$°, =369 2+7f£+4+32m, See Comma-redundant Major Firrn. Imperfect Fivru of Marsh, has the ratio thy oe =46f 428m. See Comma-redundant Minor Firtu. Isotonic Fiera, or Equal-Temperament Fifth, has the ratio 1 *4/2, =357.0072072 = 4-7 f 430m, =357 = +7f+4303im, its log. is .8248991,6920, =,,VIII, =V—>— 3m, =5 + *,m; and the length of ering answering thereto, is .6674199, See Isoronic,. an Farey’s Equa, TEMPERAMENT. Less, a Lome parse a Hone 5 its Ba ie > = 47 = +-7f +350m. mma-deficient Major Firrn. . Lesser Firru of Hussey and Webb. See their Flat IFTH. Major Firrn, (V) is a concord, that is very commois ly denominated the Perfect Fifth, or simply the Fifth ; it has the ratio of ¢, =358 = 4-7 f +-31m; its common log. is .8239087,4094, =.5849626 x VIII, =32.639526 Xc, 359.2913613K =; =54 3,=—1+5, =24 IV, =H+44; =6—2, = VII—III, = 9—5, = IX—V =11—7, =XI—VII, =12—8: —44-T, =4L+ 3P, =oT tl, =2T +t4+S, =4849545, =4$4254 9 + 2€,= T +2t4+ L420, =8ic+172 47f, =7/ + 17€+413: it is also =34 I], =VII—4, =10 —6=X—VI, by which its tune may be checked, and adjusted to the greatest nicety. interval was anciently called the Pentachord ; the D te of Holder, &c. ; the Hypate prima of Hen- fling ; the quint of Earl Stanhope ; and on account of its great importance in the scale, the upper of its notes, 322 FIF ? above the key-note, is very talled the Domi- se This interval is heard in a very marked manner on the trumpet, ora freely sc string, owing to its numerous repli $s $ x» xt &c, that are usual- ly heard in the octaves : it can be tuned, by the more accuracy than the octave or unison, and being, (except its compliment the minor fourth, ) the con- cordant or t le interval, that being 12 times ed, (and returning by octaves as often as is 1 ry,) uces as many different notes, that are not gr Frc iad each deatans Mad each other, and the last © of such notes nearly coinciding with, the octave of the first ; on which account, it is the interval almost exclusively used in the tuning of instruments. See Succession of Fierus, and TEMPERAMENT. ~ Major Firtuof Hussey, has the ratio 7 =399.348463 =+8f+434m, and its common log. =.8037053,5486. Mean-tone Firtu, has the ratio 1 + 4/5, = 355. 2558968E 4-7 f4+ 30m, =35542 +7 f 4302 f; its log. is tee ere = V— ie, =} pe 3 this tem- pered , four times repeated, peculiar } ey of producing an exact replicate of the Major ird, and gives the only system that seems adapted to the tuning of the common coger M. Loeschman likewise uses it, with excellent , in tuning his pa- tent enharmonic piano-fortes and organs, with 24 sounds in each octave. } Minimum Firrs of Henfling; its ratio is $2, = 2753+45f+4+24m. See Extreme Flat (minor) Firts. 2 sy Minor Firtu (5) has the ratio 44, = = = 311 6£+427 m; its log is .8470325,3979, =.5081467 x VIII, =28.35340x¢; =V—S, =4th4S, =23—c, pat My: =V—I, =6—I1, =7—ILI, =8—4,. = VI —IV, =9—V, =11—VII, =III4+2S, =T ry + 28, =484534¥9, =2843584942€, =2704 6f, eat Be eters A it is =2 4th—III, ch it may be tuned. This interval was ancient- ly called the Hemidiapente, or Semidiapente ; it is the ritonius of Euler, the False Fifth of Chambers and Bemetzrieder, the Lesser Diminished Fifth of Chladni, the Flat (major) Fifth, and the Extreme Flat (major) Fifth of Liston, (pV). ji-L= Se Sp peels Minor-Comma excessive Major Firru (V,'); its ra- ; 3 5 : , on r = tio is $234, = ae = 368 © 4 7f+4- 32m, its log. is .8190038,1619, =.6012559 x VIII, =33.54839 xe, = V+e€, =5+4S, =2+5, =6—I, =8—I1], =9—IV, =12—VII, =T +t 438, =32c-46247f, =7/4418 €4.135 ; it is also =3 4th—2 III, by which it may tuned. It is the diminished (minor) sixth of Liston. 14E4 by Redundant flat Firru (pV’) of some writers, has the: fia (oV’) . ratio 34, =322z6f428m. See Commu t Mis oO Leads (Major) F f Liston (V) ; its rati ’ nt (Major) Firru of Liston '; its ratio is 3 =394z nf al See Extreme sharp (Major) IFTH. > Redundant Firrn of Holder, has the ratio 33, = 371.947096> + 7f+ 32m. See Bearing Firtu, Schisma defective Major Firru (V.) has the ‘ratio ney Bi A $993 5) —= a, =3575-47f-4-Slm 5 its Jog, is 8249988, 4807, =.583334 x VIII, =32.54869 xc; =V—Z, = 541, =VI--29, =I] +3—2, =2%-4 38, =3le4 165 +78, =7/ +17€ 4-125, =5 4ths—2V—III, by which means this eq r ent Fifth of Farey’s | may be tuned. Its length of string is .6674194, and a eh ee en FIG 81 Shard (Major) Firtn (XV), has the ratio $¢, = 42+8f434m. See Extreme sharp ( Major) Friern. cod thegparly aye aged ratio 2,, =390.529042 48f+434m, and its log. =.8081144,7576. The re- spectable author above named, has not only been be- : d into the admission of this unmusical ratio, but tothe naming it also his Deficient less sixth, and his Redundant great third, in different parts of his Essay. Successive Firtus, or the succession of fifths, im- lies the order in which they arise, in modulation ; these, Beginning twas the lowest arc, according to Mr Liston, b» Fp, Cp, Gp, Dp, Abs Ep, By, F, C, G, D, A, E, B, Fx, CK, Gk; Dk, AX, EX, BR, FRX, CK; who, at page 24 of his Essay on Perfect Intonation, remarks, that the six first and six last of the above, ing a chromatic douzeave scale in the middle), are extreme flat or extreme sharp notes ; and so also are any other double flat or double notes called, that may be ced by further extending this series either way. If the fifths, in the above series, are , they answer to the Tutrie progression of the i See that article. Superfluous (major) Fiera of Tartini, Chladni, Marsh, Se. has the ratio *® = so 2-+ 8f4 94 m, See Extreme em (major) Firra (KV. 1eTH. of * fer hit its ratio is = 4162 +8f-+ 36m; see Double.comma re- ax roar WE Temperaments 9 spi ular tempered douzeaves, eleven Y tie malin Afthe ate ahah toomeoned and, at the same time, eleven of its fifths are each tem- Gita Pet the eng a t's cer ty ; e or , is b 9 mn « gh eas of the V Ith — 28.3542997 :: ‘arey’s musical theorems and corollaries, in the PaTeiequal Firms, oF quints, of Earl Stanb i IFTHS, or quints, ; there on Seay cnteneins. mm ‘fits, ut ar iter in magnitude, or ick. See ae Beatie, and Tarequar Gomes, fr) FIGUERAS fe tose Spain ic the is a town in, in ince of t pain, prov , in the reign of Ferdinand VI. at great It is called the castle of St FeeGinind, cud is $23 FIL tagon, like the flaps of pointed pockets, and it stands nearly in the middle of a great plain, which it can de- fend on every ‘side, serving as an entrenched camp for about 17,000 men. This place was, however, taken by the French in 1796; and in the council room of the fortress are still to be seen spots of ink, occasioned by the of an officer who threw his against the wall when he heard of the event. The walls have been whitened, but the ink is still visible. The plain on which Figueras is situated, is covered with fruit, wheat, rice, vegetables, flax and hemp. Population 4000. See Laborde’s View of Spain. (j) FIGURE or tue Eartu. See Astronomy. FILE, a well-known steel instrument, having teeth on the surface for cutting metal, ivory, wood, &c. When the teeth <= Leap instruments are eee by a flat sharp-edged chissel, extending across the surface, they are properly called files; but when the tooth is formed by a sharp-pointed tool, in the form of a trian- gular —— they are termed rasps. The former are used for all the metals harder than lead or tin; and the latter for the softer metals, ivory, bone, horn, and wood. Files are divided into two varieties, from the form of Different their teeth. When the teeth are argent 7 hea raised by the flat chissel, ing like parallel furrows, cither sh right shgles tothe ler of the file, or in an oblique direction, the files are termed single cut. But when these teeth are crossed by a second series of similar teeth, they are said to be double cut. The first are fitted for brass and copper, and are found to answer better when the teeth run in ‘an oblique direction. The - woeeghe arsed sell Sich “eb: gcsadand aherp iron an ac resents a nae to the substance, which eons the substance, while the single cut file would slip over the surface of metals, The,double cut file is less fit for filing , since the teeth would be very: liable with the filings. , different names, according to their pacpmax “rete ler Those of extreme h- ness are rong the next to this is the dastard i hea pas files serch ped ee E are sinastiiecs a little coarser 3 are distinguished des Soe ntiored On ? [ Files are also distingu other equal sides, mostly tapering; those which are not ta- ‘our-square _ are. These files are generally thickest in the mid- round file, the section is a circle, and the file generally The heavy and coarser kind) of files; are: made from On the steel the inferior marks of blistered'stee}.. That made from used tor ‘the Russian iron; known by the name of old sable, and ‘ies. also called from its mark CCND, is an excellent steel for files. Some of the Swedish irons would doubtless zine, cellars, caverns, and i ’defend- ed by a casement. It bas the form an ircegular pets. 5 Vile, 324 make the best file steel, but their high price would be —v—" objectionable for heavy articles. he steel intended for files is more highly converted than for other pu on ive the files proper hard- ness. It should, however, recollected, that if he hardness is not accompanied with a certain d of tenacity, the teeth of the file break, and do but little service, Small files are mostly made of cast steel, which would be the best for all others, if it were not for its higher price. It is much harder than the blistered steel, and from having been in the fluid state, is entirely free from those seams and loose so common to blister- ed steel, which is not sounder than as it came from the iron forge before conversion, The smith’s rubbers are generally forged in the com- mon smith’s forge, from the converted bars, which are, for convenience, made square in the iron before they come into this country. The files of lesser. size ‘are made from bars or rods, drawn down from the blistered bars and the cast ingots, and known by the name of tilted steel. = The file maker's forge consists of large bellows, with coak as fuel. The anvil block, particularly at Sheftield, is oo re stone of millstone girt.. This anvil is of consi le size, set into and wedged fast in the stone. The anvil has a projection.at one end, with a hole to contain a edged tool for cutting the files from the rods, It contains a deep groove for contain- ing dies or bosses for giving particular forms to the files, ‘Phe flat and square files are formed entirely by the hammer. One man holds the hot bar, and strikes with a small hammer. Another stands before the anvil with a two-handed hammer, The latter is generally ve heavy, with a broad face for the large files. They both ‘strike with such truth as to make the surface smooth and flat, without what is called hand-hammering. This arises from their great experience in the same kind of ‘work, The expedition arising from the same cause is Process of wunealing. not less remarkable. The halfround files are made in a boss fastened into the groove above-mentioned. The steel being drawn out, is laid upon the rounded recess, and hammered till it fills the die. The three-sided files are formed similarly in a boss, the recess of which consists of two sides, with the le downwards. The steel is first drawn out square, then placed in the boss with an angle downwards, so that the hammer forms one side, and the boss two. The round files are formed by a swage similar to those used by common smiths, but a little conical. - |The whole of the working part of the file is formed -and finished, with the hammer before it is cut off from the tang of a er. This upwards in the anvil; a side where the com- mences. It is then to the front of the anvil, and, by an acquired dexterity, the is drawn by without touching a Poa with ar er. n order to cutting, uire to have the siaiecotan ectly mata me as even as possible. he state, however, in which the files leave the hammer, is too hard for the dressing and cutting. The first thing to be done, therefore, after ‘ration for FIL E. ness peels off. This scale, however, is very hardy and is removed but with difficulty. This last is not the greatest evil attending this process ; the surface of the ous, that, by the oxidation e hich takes place, the part which has to form the teeth of the file will be much impaired by the abstraction of its carbon. Hence it will forcibly strike any one, that steel, particularly in this instance, should be annealed in close vessels, to exclude the oxygen. This has been accomplished to a partial extent by some manufacturers, but still requires more minute attention. The annealing should be per- formed in troughs of fire-stone or fire-brick, similar to the cavities in which steel is converted, having the flame of a furnace playing on every side, and over the. top. The trough should be filled with alternate strata of the files to be annealed, and coal-ashes, or the dust of the coaks, formed in the forge-hearth. The upper stratum of files should be covered with a thick stratum of the dust, and lastly with a mixture of clay and sand. The heat should be kept up no longer than till the mass will become red hot, quite through. The whole must now be suffered to cool. When the files are with- ‘drawn, instead. of being scaled ‘as in the old method, 7 will exhibit a m will be much softer than by the common : It should be here observed, that the mass to be ed should not be more than one foot in thickness, as it ‘would be so long in heating and cooling, that the me- tal would put on the ejeatiion form, under which it is too brittle to form a cutting edge. nif We have before observed, that the steel. conversion for files. ‘This will evidently become unne- cessary with this mode of annealing. The surface of the files, which is the principal part, will become con- verted in an extra degree, by using more carbon in the annealing, and thus make steel, of common conyer« sion, ciently hard for files. > The next is the lic surface, and the substance - ? “ave aT s r spe) pe HiAcpamen ; ex orm time or other accomplished. ~ ’ bi In the present state of the file manufacture, the larger files must be prepared on the present plan, and must tT — PFs FILE. iit if LF : Hi ay in ‘a g a E F Bs ay ALE ea a : i as possible. six pounds. His chissels are a little broader than the file, sharpened to an angle of about 20 degrees. The length is sufficient to be held fast be- a 2 z s, Seng upon prop on the other of the strap. When of is single fine file Sanne the seit to pag hina. '90§ 325 bastard cut fineness, a quick workman will make about 800 strokes, and as many teeth in one minute. The smaller files are generally cut by women and children, who very soon acquire great dexterity. ' The file-cutter, whatever ma the degree of fine- ness of the file, depends phe File. more upon his feel- “ing than his eyes. Indeed, their ors are frequently directed to other objects while the and the ham- mer are going at the full rate. When one tvoth is formed, the edge of the chissel and the surface of the file being both very smooth, the for- mer is pushed up against the back of the first tooth, which can be much felt than seen. By this suc- cession of stroke and motion of the chissel, to feel the last tooth, the work is performed, although the eye is at a considerable distance from the work. When the files are cut, the next process is to harden Process of them, This is effected by heating them to redness, hardening and quenching them in cold water. Some previous steps are taken to prevent the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere upon the file when red hot, anda peculiar manner of immersing the file in the water, which we shall more particularly dwell upon. The preparing process has beenimproved within these ten years, so far as economy. The files were, before that time, first smeared with the residuum of ale barrels, commonly called ale grounds, and then covered over with common salt in powder, which was retained merely by the adhesive nature of the ale grounds. They were now dried before the fire. The files were now taken once or twice and heated in a smith’s fire, made of small coaks, frequently moving the file backward and forward, in order to heat it uniformly red hot. At this period the file gives off a white vapour from the surface, which is the salt in the act of subliming. The surface a at the same time covered with the salt ina liquid state, which, like a varnish, preserves the surface from the oxygen of the atmosphere, during the time it is red hot. ‘The file is now held in a perpendi- cular position, and the immersion in the water com- mences at the point, slowly di ing it up to the tang, which shoald not be hardened: An files are dip- ped in a perpendicular direction. Those, however, which ve a round side and a flat one, are nioved also in a horizontal direction, with the round side foremost. With. out this precaution, files of this shape would warp to- wards the round side. This arises from the flat side having been more hammered than the round side, which is formed by the concave die, and does not acquire the same density which the hammer gives. It is common after hardening to temper most cut- ting instruments. Files, however, are never tem at all by the maker. Nor are any but rough and the bastard-cut files tempered by those who use them. If these were not in. some cases tempered, the points of the teeth would break, and the file would do but little service, When files are hardened, they are brushed with wa. ter and coak-dust. The surface becomes of a whitish- grey colour, as perfectly free from oxidation as before it was heated. In ing the salt as above directed, a very great of it is rubbed off into the fire and is lost. consumption of salt used in this manufacture at Sheffield alone, amounted to about £1000 annually. The economy with which it is now used, has reduced this quantity to less than £300. This saving is ‘effect- ed by mixing ale grounds and the salt together, the The only means which can be employed to increase the hardness of files, is by more ly i simple manner, No more is ener ats. grant rere FILICES, | Ors of the P yecr natural series of plants included with the Musci, Heépatice, Lichenes, Conferve, &c. in the Cryprocamia of Linneus, and AcoTyLepones of vo AM vite on these plants have ae widely in ir opinions as to the etymology word. flices, Aiea derives flix, the name used | by Pliny, from lum quasi filatem incise ; but Ains- worth was no naturalist: even the roots of these ‘plants have no more resemblance to jilum, “a thread,” than those of other plants. It seems far more probable that the latter name is derived ame ray Quddrwy (foliis) ; the leaves or fronds of the European ferns neve alone visible, as the stems and roots are either hid under ground, or decayed leaves, mosses, &c. I. On the Germination of the Seeds, and Physical Witeney of Pera date Visa tas * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. ii: FILICES., i : z be ined, by sing the engravings to some oe dig 4 per hina in the West iginal drawings, now. in the of Dr Wri Edinburgh, were sent? ions were made on two of Aspidium and one Athyrium only, coincides Lindsay in a t one in the * But the figure of embryo, as observed 1, is described with much more accuracy either of these writers, although he had an op- seeing only a single species, the Athyrium in a state of spontaneous germination.t , however, had the good fortune to observe, from i i commencement, the germinating process, in several species eee ee so clearly distinct, that they must be consi as belonging to different tribes, namely, the Polypodiacee, Aspleniaceew, and Pteridea ; and having traced the embryo from becoming visible as a dark green point, to its gradual expansion and final evolution as a perfect plant, we have succeeded fh 7 ef 4 ” First Period. | ; Fig. 1. Represents the seed-lobes somewhat magni- Getty. tied. dete sitar Usnetulig Vicible’to the nakerl eye, Exhibiting Fig. 2. The same highly magnified and reversed, to the author's shew its under side, with the mould adhering to the Feroieating central fibrils. sea Satoiatineeh endlsday dopaak embryoof —— Fig. 3. Represents evolving from the ierns. decals odaaling 1d the ersten af ths lothaiel the use. ral size. The circular frond. ~ Fig. 4. Theseed-lobes reversed, to shew the true root, . Fig. 5. The lobes cut off, to shew the tuberous swel- ling of the young stem, with the young frond and root from ite. Fig. 6. the young plant with a second frond ‘ same Hi i : z f i clade within their substance of the embryo, which they nourish, and, under necessary * Beytriige zur Naturkunde, iii. 75. } De Fructibus et Semin. Plantat.—-Pref. 47, 327 circumstances, finally develope; 3d, As in the dico- — Filices. tyledonous seeds, these aim organs,germinate from a Y sthetandligg she abner “ hd et notwi ing this general congruity with di- athouck cotyledonous plants, ferns, both in the structure of their they differ embryo and manner of inating, possess. characters in — * oe -a5 LY and manner ceniy Stinerehing them from aber phonts hither- *° goes ist, In other dicotyledonous plants, the seed-lobes, at least such as rise to the surface, are afterwards far- ther elevated by the growth of the young stem; but this cannot happen in ferns, whose seed-lobes, less perfectly divided, and, expanding horizontally only, attain their Ree before the developement of the other parts of their embryo. 2d, In other dicotyledonous plants, on the contrary, the root immediately germinating, contributes towards the evolution of the other organs of the embryo, and re- ci ly, even to the expansion of the cotyledons them- selves ; whereas in ferns, previous to the shooting of the true root, the seed-lobes are nourished by minute fibrils, Tensporary invisible to the naked eye, shooting from around the radicles, centre of the seed-lobes, and adhering to the soft mould in the crevices of moist rocks, where they frequently germinate. In this state, these plants, like the larva: of many insects, have no similarity whatever to their future form, and must have been generally mistaken for young Hepatice, which, both in a) and man- yar ae they somewhat resemble. 3d, In the seed-lobes of dicotyledonous plants, the sced-lobes vessels conveying the green juice towards the other or- cellular, gans of the embryo appear. elegantly ramified, distinct without the* from, the deeper green of the cellular substance ; where. vascular as in ferns, on the contrary, the lobes of the cotyledon, (77). oun. when examined by the microscope, seem to consist en- mon to the tirely of a network of deep green cellular substance, other dico- without the least vestige of ramified vessels, tyledones. By these peculiarities, then, the true ferns are charac- terised with much more precision, than by the circinate involution of their fronds ; a forrh of vernation which is common to them; with certain kindred tribes, such as the Botrychiacee, Cycadacee, Lycopodiacea, and Mar- siliacea, as we shall afterwards find. IL. Of the developement and peculiar Structure of the Stem of Ferns, Although, therefore, the filices, in the organs of their Gencral embryo, possess a certain degree of analogy with dico- view of the tyledonous plants, this analogy diminishes as the pro- ‘¢lope- cess of ination advances, On cutting across the evade stem of dicotyledonous trees at the end of the first sum- of the stem mer, three distinct parts are manifest ; the bark enve- in dicotyle- loping the nbalds nities circle of wood immediately un- — it, in centre a great proportion of spongy cellular matter, The stem thus formed resem~ bles a cone, whose summit is terminated by a bud, Du- ring the gfe a pn tt the stem preserves its ori- ginal shape, only the summit of the cone is extended, and its diameter en 2 oo REUSE ST, proportion of wood greatly increased, and matter diminished, while it the wood towards the + Anleit. (Transl. 1807, Lond.) Pl. 1. Fig. 17. Pilices. —\v— 328 A lateral bud is evolved from the bark, whose centre is uced from the radiated cellular matter of the trunk, surrounded with spiral sap-vessels ; and a cone of wood is in like manner formed around it, whose base, during the first season, is gradually encircled by a layer of the contemporaneous maternal wood. During the second year, therefore, the base of the young shoot can receive no addition to its dia- meter, except where it is unencumbered by the wood of the trunk: so that at its origin, a branch resembles the summit of an inverted cone, enveloped by the circles of maternal wood. Opinions of As to the order of the developement of the various Malpighi amd Grew. Experi- ment of Duhamel. Palisot de Beauvois* experiment inconclu- sive. parts of the stem, Malpighi supposed, that the internal cireles of bark were subsequently condensed into wood ; while Grew concluded, that the young wood was elabo- rated by the bark. But the well-devised experiment of Duhamel demon- strated, that the bark itself, as well as the young wood, derive their origin from the gelatinous part of the sap, (the eambium,) exuding from the central and radiated cellular substance. in which new sap-vessels are devel annually during the season. Theexperiment of Duhamel alluded to, consisted in removing completely the bark of a cherry-tree, from the trunk of which he afterwards observed the sap oozing, and forming a new bark, un- der which new circles of wood were afterwards formed. - We are aware, that the accuracy of this riment has been lately called in question by Palisot de Beau- vois, in a memoir read before the Institute of France, who observes, that when a portion of the bark of a tree is removed, and the from which it is ta- ken is well rubbed, so as to leave no remains either of bark or cambium, neither the young nor old wood pro- duce any thing, but that the edges of the divided bark extending over the bare wood then produce new wood, which unguestionably is derived from the former bark. | But it does not seem that this experiment of M. de Beauvois mvalidates the truth of M. Duhamel’s conclu- sion ; on the contrary, it is perfectly reconcilable with it. The efforts of nature are by no means limited to one mode of effecting her purpose. _ In fact, in both ex- periments the bark was formed from the cambium, from which the bark first, and subsequently the new wood, derive their origin ; but in De Beauvois’s experiment, the cambium oozed from the trunk covered with the re- maining bark ; whereas in Duhamel’s, it necessarily ex- uded from the bare trunk. It ought. to be mentioned to the credit of Malpighi, that Duhamel’s experiment partly confirmed the sagacit of his opinion, “ Conquituritaque in horizontalibus utri- culis et medulla ipsa succus, ut futuris et proxime erup- turis gemmis, et tenellis foliis Presto sit.”* For it is evi- dent that the increased diameter and elongation of these plants depend on the same cause, viz. the annual expan- sive motion of the sap in the lymphatic vessels and cel- lular substance of the stem, and the subsequent formation and condensation of both into bark and wood, assimila- = probably b Ay _ —— of the r ive plants, p e leaves, and distributed ‘h the doaenting vessels, , rt From this general view of the manner of growth and organization of the stems of dicotyledonous trees, we shall perceive how remarkably they differ in both from The second period of the growth of these plants ma be said to commence, when the conieal lobes, having * Anatom. Plant. passim, et de Caudicis Augmento, p. 20. FILICES. this early on a of a triangular with the sti a tri sesbuttitg ‘tht letter r, and, with the mi ves- sels may be seen elegantly ramified, diverging trom the central stipes in every direct ion ; whereas, in the se- prarr minal lobes, which are cellular and of a darker~ CCLIV. hue, no ramified vessels can be distinguished, The Figs. 1, 2, tem fibrous radicles of the seminal lobes, as well 3 4 5s 6 as themselves, now no longer of use, begin to fade, and their dark green sap being evidently for the nutrition of the young plant, from the tuberous stem of which the true root now descends exactly as in dicotyle- donous plants. A second frond is soon perceived shoot- ing from the axil of the first, and opposite to it, but with an additional lobe. In the same manner the fronds. are thus evolved one after another, with a gradual addi- tion to the number of lobes ; the stem, during tat on riod, acquiring only a slight addition of diameter, out any perceptible increase of length. Another cirs cumstance to be remarked in the of these - plants, is, = even — the second year, an stems, at least of the native European species, frequ ger- minating in the crevices of our sandstone cli a Gothic ruins, are very far from attaining their utmost diameter. It is no doubt probable, that the slow growth of these plants must be greatly influenced by their situa- tion and soil, as well as by the temperature of our northern climate, but ill to foster the om reve. i thelr of plants, which only attain their fall perfection in- luxuriant forests of the tropics. Were it, however, : missible, under ‘circumstances where observations are vonkt cman tint thane gual irene ng it would seem that these plants possess a sit ana- logy with palms, in this and other i Both Kempfer and Daubenton have remarked, that the Phcenix or date-palm, and others of this series, require several years before they acquire their utmost diameter ; and that previous to this their stems do not b to elongate, nor do their fronds acquire their p -form and size. Now, inall these circumstances, th ratly the gro ‘ of ferns with that of palms. Mie arth: i ember beers cigs oaks he but having closely examined this supposed root, in the Diudtiie Conarionsia is, gee jum aureum, and other species asserted to be stemless, we found that they pos- are bm mivowin gr eel sem bent stems, detaching at in sp roots, and diverging branches, and like es attionehddine ec lucing fronds from the numerous buds at the mity. hether certain ies, however, are altos destitute of stems, it is impossible to determine with certainty ; but such a circumstan mln Se : and it is far more likely that such as arethus figured by = _ Plumier and others, are plants in the second period of their growth, whose eee had not yet commenced. It is certain, however, th p smi species possess real, though very short stems, . , FILICES. sobsteataeanetrhythegemnng ig eideb have arrived at . The third period of their growth commences. he now gradually elongates, but except where it ramifies, invariably in a direction el with the axis not Of the great vascular fasciculi; and Sprengel is incor- circinate, as rect in supposing the buds of the tuberous stem to be supposed by involute or circinate, like those of the fronds which ger- Sprengel. ninate from it. ‘These, in fact, Gopsist of ‘round ta- mez or Tar ago shewn Linneeus to have originated miner t = of the tuber wes enni os Cpe dium , Willd. Sp. Plant. 110) covered with att ag scales,common tomany of these plants. It is certain, , that the numerous rere we te of ent growth ne do not actually of the Tartars. From the extreme slowness with which both ferns and -arrive at an adult state, we not me that ch it is well known = __begpa f cimmahuinar amueiaeoeermies Stan da Lined werd wenneryt With respect to ferns, indeed, few of which are necessary to the wants of mankind, no observations, as to this circumstance, are recorded. In tracing the of the stem of these plants, theacctiracy of Malpighi is again manifested ; for, to this excellent observer, we owe the first notice of their ‘structure, Ina ven by fat the Si a te m4 iy ied, of the cen- But however valuable an i of these parts be-when thas exhibited, we have an iJlustration of the general stracture of the easel pe Weppesee whsets sertivdly chamnirted by the naked eye, as & more correct outline, not only of: tha geneeal etrnctave; Tut of the relation the 4 several parts of the stem bear to each other. Some- es 8 ea etn is» te by too amagnifying er; the su i tole: aepeciesited tr-viihsae ae clearly delineated, a which seems well il- lustrated by the: ‘view given by Des- te ac ns section of the ser ofa fern aon 0 ts.* Baledaemetae-mat tire ce nic as possible posbible,’ itis mecestaty to'cut the seen ag en from the lateral buds. @ transverse section of the ‘creep. di a i ee spidium filix mas; and Fig. 6 a me! tsa canal set of that of Davallid canariensi: tae the origin. of the buds of these’ plants, it is’ . VOL. IX, PART of these plants, - 329. clear that they originate from the cellular substance of _ Filices. the centre swelling, and in a manner forcing the vas- = fasciculi to accompany them in a lateral direction. . 7. @ The exterior cellular substance, part of a , In the stems’ of ob: rk he Se is externally converted into a substance of the density of PLATE CCLIV. * horn, which is sometimes furnished with spines, but is, for the most part, in young plants, covered with woolly scales,each o which i is furnished with a central fasciculus probably vascular, issuing from a pore in the surface of the stem. These scales serve- partly the purpose of Ssecharine © bark, in protecting the e young shoots, and evidently pre- neo vent the evaporation of the fluid part of the sweet juice 4); stems of which every- where envelopes the germs of the future ferns, fronds and stems, which, in our northern climate, remain dormant during winter. The central cellular matter in ferns (Fig. 7. 6) is not converted into wood, as in de- cotyledonous trees, but remains soft and spongy, in the at least, till finally absorbed during the ripening of the fruit. This substance abounds with a similar sac- charine juice, often accompanied with an unpleasant astrin . ‘The stem and branches of these plants are Cyjindrical, , entirely cylindrical, unless accidentally checked in their and not growth by renioval into an unsuitable soil, whereas the conical like stem and branches of dicotyledonous trees are invariably ‘¢ west of conical, tapering towards the extremity. a Fig. 7. and 8. c, The roots in the procumbent species, a issuing from the cellular substance, and descending into the soil, from the under side of the stem, opposite the buds. Each of these shoots, therefore, when d form so many distinct panes posted the full diameter of the adult stem, and, like t tioned by Kempfer, occasionally ‘shooting i in the same manner, from stem of s, attain their form. It was, I believe, Micheli who de- scribed the or covers on the extremity of © a gh the roots in certain aquatic plants. Sprengel has § observed these covers on the extremities of the fi- fous brous roots of ferns; and supposes Sehapiotbe argue of absorption analogous with the am- rption, in some degre en ’ pull in the villous coat of the intestinal: canal of ani- mals. To us, it would seem ble, however, that these covers, like the chaffy scales of the stems and fronds, are intended rather to the delicate ex- tremities of the absorbent roots, than to perform this office themselves. Ill. Of the Fronds and parts of Fructification of , Ferns. Tue buds from which the fronds of these plants are evolved, form of the great central tuber from which the ster itself is produced. This tuber, in our northern climate, is found during winter, surrounded with the decayed ati of the fronds of the ing season, and cl invested with the woolly scales already mentioned. In examining these buds te~ ly, we find that it is the superior or frond only which is involute, or circimate, sts tt termed : the stipes itself extended sey a # straight line from its origin within the stem. Aapidiam file mas, we have traced the Siretging fasciculi within the stem, before the external evelopementof dhe fronds ; and this appears evident in some species on cut- - ting it neross, when the large central fasciculi of the stem appear surrounded with the smaller ones of the stipites of former years, (Fig. 7. The reason these are not per- apne es thc ecient ohio plte veppttboatet te Fig: 8: * Memoires de Institut National, tom. i. p. 478, by Desfontaines. ‘ 27 330 Pilices. ut supra, is, becanse it is difficult to recognize them in the young succulent stem, as distinct from the cellular sub- The fuci- stance. The term lignum fasciculatum, used by Dauben- cali of the ton and Desfontaines to designate the stems of monoty- supies — ledonous plants, is in fact peculiarly pe ermce to the ma- - ‘ue the tare stem of ferns. For these fasciculi may be seen even ineature by the naked eye, and traced from their first divergence within the stem, to their final termination in the veins, eter. as they are termed, of the frond, in many instances in contact with the ps of capsules. ~ : Sprengel’s Sprengel had the merit of first pointing out this cir- hypothesis cymstance; and he su « the pinadee Deine concerning contain the concentrated sap, analogous with the pro’ peat juice of other plants, which is elaborated in the thick the seeds. Solid tubers of ferns, from the humidity of the earth ab- sorbed by the roots. The oxygen of the carbonated water entering the loose cellular texture, while the car- bon, uniting with the hydrogen, is conveyed into the ascending spiral vessels, where it contributes to the forma- tion of the fruit, while the brown membrane surround. ing the fasciculi, prevents the admixture of the elaborat~ ed sap with the crude juice of the cellular texture.—This construction,” he adds, « throws light on the peculiar origin of the seed-vessels in these plants, which takes place immediately from the ribs of the frond, or the continuation of the spiral vessels.” Fronds, It is very probable, that the vascular fasciculi per- their ana- form an important office in the formation of the of logy with — fructification in ferns; but it is equally so, that the = ote fronds, like the leaves of other plants, contribute their oe part in the assimilation of the saccharine muci con- tained in the cellular substance of the stem, which would seem destined, not only to the nutrition and evolu- tion of the infant germs invariably imbedded im it, but to the developement of the fruit itself. What renders this opinion more Y seas is the circumstance, that the abundance of the saccharine matter increases or di- minishes with the health or weakness of the ive plants, and in the autumn after the ripening of the seeds, it is aagyee and the seer matter itself disappears, and the central of the stipites is Rand ee, However, an stot supply i de- posited in the stem for the use of the buds the follow- ing season. In short, this saccharine muci seems to a remarkable analogy with the cambium of Du- el, from which, in other plants, rye buds and seeds are apparently developed, and subsequentl nourished and perfected. a ee Although in by far the greater number of species the buds are ri Be from the stem, there are many others, as Polypodium reptans, in which buds are evolv- ed from the top of the frond. Indeed in their general structure, the stipites of the fronds possess a consider- able analogy with the branches of other plants; but pe | also combine with this the properties of. leaf and fruit-stalks. There are, however, some species, as Schizwa dichotoma of Smith, and S. bifida of Willdenow, whose stipites are destitute of frondose expansions. The fronds in the whole series are generally green, except in the under surface, which is white in one Acrostichum and in Cyathea dealbata, and other ies, whilst it is of a beautiful yellow in Acrostichum sulphua reum. The young buds, both of the stem and fronds, are often beset with scales or hairs, and sometimes this is the case with the under part of the ex fronds. It is singular, that Hedwig should have mistaken these hairs in the infant fronds for anthere; so very apt * Schrad, Journal fiir die Botanick, . 3 " observed to spring up in wild and uncultivated visi FILICES. ‘ are men of the first talents to hunt after analogies where — Filices. — none can pel exist, ole ye If we except ——— 3, No are really more ornamental than ferns. To them, indeed, And peeu- — we are not attracted by the fine colour or perfume of culiar ele~ _ the ewe, Be uliar freshness and beauty in the bright green hue Fr the arched frond. andi sh y divided pinnulz of the Brake and Polypody. No plants are better adapted than these to adorn the sloping bank of the clear and pebbly stream ; and their beauty in such situations has not been overlooked by the fine taste of one of the first poets of our time : , Where the is the Where the Fa steep glistens pine g Where the lady fern er strongest, Where the morning lies longest. The number of ramifications of the wancaler fasciculi a wee differs greatly in the numerous species. In the P. aureum, a single branch turns at a right angle into the pinnule ; whereas in the more complicated frond of Da« vallia canariensis, and others of a like form, several ramifications accompany the ive subdivisions of the frond; and towards the end of autumn, in our native species, a skeleton of the ligneous fasciculi can be dissect« ed from the surrounding cellular matter, through the mi- nute et rg of the op almost - hennoontet termination in sev i these vessels well vt theis oe into fered pienso fs girth mi is of Bernhardi, Various hy. — who supposed them to be the organs;* but, unfor- potheses re- tunately for this hypothesis, it has since been observed by ‘Pecting Sprengel, that the su organs are wanting in many ~omgs bo species ; but where do exist, he admits that the m1- nute vermicular bodies contained within them are pro- ak nctedmanee Soe comionetodoaenan which, canes ihieniees . chief part in the of fecundation. Other parts in the frond have, however, by various writers, been su to perform this important func. tion. Micheli, whose accuracy in other is well known, attributed the office of antherz to ; uctions, which he discovered on the unevolved. ... mds; and, as already observed, Hed: ‘ ° ig adopted and illustrated this opinion, ( Theoria Gen. Pl. Crypt. tab. v. vii.) Gleichen considered these organs to situated in those minute fissures, on the lower surface of the cuticle of the frond, which are well. illustrated by Spre' Tui. 1 Rb eas rents Sey ER ene ns wens A i this office to — Equally nella of the cuticle of the which, in most of the tenable, tribes of ferns, forms the involucrum of the of 7 capsules. But leaving these various h to their natural fate, it is full time to proceed to the considera tion of the capsules themselves, The singular aspect of these plants, which every one seeds, seems to have arene i an age of general ignorance, to those superstitious fan- py ee prevalent in several parts of Europe. It was a practice among the people to collect the capsules, which they considered as the seeds of ferns, on mid~ summer eve, and make use of them in various charms. « We have the receipt of fern seed,” says Gadshill, in Shakespeare's Henry IV. “ we walk invisible.” In fact, the botanists of the sixteenth century partook in the faith of the times, Valerius Cordus, in his commenta- without any - os ¢é~+,. A a ES: —-— FILICES. 331 _. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. from a state of coniparative confusion, nearly to their pre= , Filices. sent form. Since the work of Smith, others have follow ed on the same principle ; and Bernhardi, Swartz, and Sprengel, have respectively contributed to our stock of knowledge of these plants. The general principles on which the genera are at present distinguished, consist in the form, attachment, and manner of opening of the involucrum ; and when this envelope is wanting, in the manner in which the sori (groups) are ' on the receptacle of the frond. To receptacle, the capsules are generally . ‘attached by a fruit-stalk, in some so short, as to cause them appear sessile ; in others of a considerable! a and sometimes branched with a capsule on each divi= sion. The whether situated on the plane of of al , as will soon appear, there are in- stances of le multilocular poe aa apparently sessile in the frond itself. The capsules in most of the tribes are girt with a ring, which, on the maturity of the seeds, ee eae ee with considerable force to some distance from the plant. This ceperenanee may be oherer ss occasionally, b placing the ripened under the microscope, wi a sheet of writi sper under them to receive the ex ploded seeds. a great part e series, many 0 genera want the rings ; but, instead of them, their cap- sules are more or less marked with striz, in the direction of which they burst. : An attempt is hens, mnade.to..arnenge ‘he, genera, of the principle of the natural method, as far as our limited knowledge of the structure of their most essential or- gans would admit. It is no doubt very likely, that se- veral of those we have ventured to i , will be found deficient in affinity by uent observers ; but as an adherence to truth and nature is the great ob- ject, this will only add to our satisfaction ; conscious, as the illustrious Jussieu observes, that such errors ori- * Non legum naturalium, sed prave eorum in< terpretationis, vitio.” I. DANEHACEX, (Ptare CCLIV. Fig. 12.4.) - (Poropterides, Willd. Sp. Plant.) We have commenced with this singular tribe, because it differs most the rest of the E series, it is still more nearly related to them than the a aR = a A and Gonoph cee, of which The single multilocular seed-vessels, in this tri sessile in the substance of the frond, and which, in the genus Maratiia, are endowed with a divisible septum, renders it necessary to them in a natural method, their -vessels possess neither an involucrum nor ring, yet their fronds are entirely those of ferns. They possess a similar structure. They are inyolute, or circinate as it is termed, in their vernation, and affect a imi in their fruit they are singu- larly distinct ; for instead of the groups of minute cap- sules, as in the greater part of the series, this tribe is GENERA, ( 1) Marattia. (Sm. Act. Taur. 5. p.419. Myriotheca, uss. Gen. Pl. p..15. Willden. Sp. Pi. 5. 1942.) Seed-vessels oval, distant, with a divisible or double 332 FILS (2.) Danewa. (Sm. Act. Taur.) Seed-vessels narrow, linear, transverse, parallel to each other, imbedded in the substance of the frond. the oblong sing the of capsules in that sae sheaves There is a re of the ae. pre apes in the Annals of Botany, ii, Pi. Three species are described by iidenov all natives of Ra ot ie the D. See ga ioe (Rudge, BS mir tab. 36.) D. nosa, (Plum, Pl. American, 6.) ‘and D. alata, (Plum. Fil. tab. 109.) II, GLEICHENIACE2, re The era of this tribe proach much nearer to the aia the lant, _ The seeds are con- or obli , and the es burst lo tudinally in ign of the ae grou’ se aaa, ua a es pe de Mertensia, have a very number of’ cap- GenERA. (1.) Angiopteris, (Willd, 1944.) Capsules elli ical, disposed in groups of five or seyen, in double rms lng ti secondary veins of the frond, per cern, ste Fi of nag igured. b pci, the G a own, 2 * Ms» els 29. tab. 5.) Tits stagics eee taquattion the islanls of the South Sea by Forster ; and Swartz has represent- ~ ed the generic character in the Annals of Botany, PI. 10. fig. 4. This species is five feet in height, ond gs the aspect of a small palm, (2.) Gleichenia, (Sm. Act. Taur. 5. p. 419. T.9. 10. ) Willd, Sp. Pl. 5. 1945.) . rate les disposed in point-like Broups of three Orforr Goan ne us, the lobes of the frond are rolled ‘back- tp Gi. apornaes was ranked by Linneus gard to the want ve a ring. Guys Mpodilder ir’ wait of ths of Good He and two others, viz. Gl. circinata, and Gi. glauea, described by Willdenow and Swartz. To these Brox has added ag ll p= hone of which are ; t is the Mertensia dichotoma ot Swarts, and Dicran we - In Gleichenia the fronds ‘are dichoto (8.) Platizoma. (Brown, Prodr. Nov: Holl. point-like Capsules sessile, mixed with powder, and in’ “Gistnet la groups. CES. _Mr tat ng Glee yt etry ih the Pree ston, bat (4.) Mertensia. (am, 1906 p65) ot anaes semi- This genus was ft Feit founded with Polypodium, The reper peel fn sue te pms in Osmundz, eh ay mint gt i pr gt A Genera. comin: (ay Todea. (Willd. 1947.) L Seat Capsules wire a semi-bivalve, on st veins of the rans oe There is Asin speci only, the scribed and figured (ae CA ‘tab. 3.) and i Pubcnee sate is the Osmu barbara, ing to Brown, Todea iste res ‘ ae Sta? genus distinct from Osmunda, as it possesses pedicill cant) Mohiria. owina. 1918.) ape somewhat: aoe poe a ed ren pein ops tee | is but 0 one pec 4) fs a : pe au Eee Sea 1 ? lasesay (3. iaiotel (Opltoglaiuny . aaa Spee . or frond, covered vith sc scalp, "end g long’ “i a fine figure of this pricrrd We me ied Wh Opa, i gaara eae has no affi w To the accuracy of Brown we are indebted for first notice of the car erg eo of ‘the ¢ -to the receptacl most correct character | Brown and Swartz, Seueh i ere bee to ri of vapors (Sp. Pl. 577; ) wherein > FILICES. sules ; so that there are eight species known, of which | Filices. port - Brown (Prodr. N. abit? observed ») and Po somiblpieoatam, in New ttolland 4.) ‘Schizeea, (Sm. Act. Taur. 5, tab. 9. fig. 9. Willd. a " ws Sp. Pl. 1950.) Pe Capsules oval, in two: ranks, on the back of narrow “7 of the summit of the frond, opening late- aa By ; oblong pete m that tinct from the ger of the series. Plukenet (Aimag. p. 200, tab. 95.) accounted this a yuncus, and he terms it Juncus capitulis pectinatis. In this he was Ray and Morison. The other ies, however, may be considered as only eieendlngiee ae are ¢ i ch all of them were formerly ey are fugit phie stron: anc aise @ieated och tpt doath of thi ha frond, or around it, when contracted into the form of a panicle. : : , 833 one, the O. regalis, only is a native of the moist woods of Europe. e ination of the young plants of the last ies was observed by Morison, and, from his very concise and imperfect description, it would seem gechebila, thet inishis process it tgatenbles Gene occ he O. spectabilis of North America, though at first considered asa variety of the O. regalis, is supposed b Willdenow to be a distinct apiecias, having ‘pinafules finely serrated. Bee he Leeeyarirmngs yd tion, are very ornamental, growing to the hei ve feet.' The O, i of Wi ow is the O. basi- laris of Sprengel ; and, like the O. claytoniana, bears its fruit towards the middle of the frond. The O, cinna~ momea, O, ja ica, and O. lancea, have their fruit- hearibig feando ditipeat! shaped from the barren ones, and may eventually be a distinct genus. The genus Osmunda, then, evidently does not bear its capsules on a separate spike, like the Anemia, but on the back of the fronds, which are changed in such a manner, in several of the genera, as to put on the ap-~ pearance only of spikes. They ap , therefore, in their general structure, to those of the rest of the se- ries, whose are annulated ; and to the ardour and diligence of Humboldt and Bonpland we owe the discovery of an intermediate link between the genera without rings, and those that have them, in Polybotrya, (Willd. 1953. Humboldt and Bonpland.) (Intermediate genus.) Pe pee with rings, sessile, round, aggregated in loose spikes. There is but one ies known of this truly interest- PR ay Be ag ce Soe Sa i dl many instances, of the fact, that the several links of the get Goin & Hc natural bodies, are now, or w ormerly, enacted , all we are generally only able to ive in that or disuni- ted form u which we endeavour to characterize them in The ferns, therefore, whose capsules are and those which are without rings, are not naturally distinct ; and therefore we ought not to divide them into artificial classes, but endeavour rather, ing the ization of indivi to. collect Fen ct Keren 6 beat eh and thus restore them, as nearly as possible, to the of natural affi- place they really occupy in the series nity. IV. POLYPODIACE®, (Puate CCLIV. Fig,14.) In this tribe the genera have the capsules Sen bea i as in all rounded with an elastic , which, the others endowed with them, bend backwards on the burstin see CCLIV. Fig. 11.) of the ripened ca sule, (ee sacs of the pil lg ot roe bi ca be ked, or at least apparently provided with no other co- vering than numerous hairs everywhere around them, Brown, however, whom it is impossible to mention without has in one us, hitherto sed to to Polypodium, demonstrated that th hairs are in reality the divided margin of a singular in- volucrum, whose capi are incurved so as entirely to conceal the young, and even the mature capsules, of the Weodsia igpatiorea and W. ilvensis, so that this genus must be removed to the tribe Cyathea- cea, (see p. $42), Whether similar involucra may not, some time or , be detected in: others of this very 334 GENERA, (1.) Acrostichum, (Willd. 1954.) covering the whole or the part of a fertile fronds, ‘which frequently the lower disc of differ in shape from the barren ones. Willdenow reckons sixty-two species, to which Brown (Prodr. Pl. New Hol. two hitherto unde- scribed, the A. fraxinifolia and A. pteroides ; the former species nearly |, he observes, to A. aureum, but different in having the pinne shortly accuminated. The A. aleicorne, previously described by Swartz, was obser- ved by Brown near Port Jackson. The species of this extensive genus are too nume- rous, and differ too evidently in appearance, to be ac- curately known ; and it is easy to see that they require # more natural subdivision than, from our present im- perfect acquaintance with their structure, can as yet be attempted with success. Some of the species would seem to approach to Onoclea in affinity. Genera, how- ever, ly distinct, have been confounded with A- erostichum, from being examined in an advanced period of their fructification. Hence, as Sprengel A, hastatum and Liljebad’s A. alpinum, are real Polypo- dia, their capsules becoming crowded when about to - burst. In many of the en i the fertile fronds, con- tracting, put on the appearance of spikes, seeming to- tally distinct from the sterile ones; and thus have been, even by modern botanists, confounded with Osmunda. In the Acrostichum alcicorne, now in the public collec- tion at Edinburgh, the sterile fronds are kidney-shaped, — and sessile ; ir the — fronds are erect, ichotomous, w - at the base, bearing their capsules mae Biber io. ors on the lanceolate laci« nie. iene aiden is figured by Schkuhr, (Crypt. 1. tab. 2.) By far the greater part of the Acros- ticha are natives of tropical regions. The Acrostichum maranta is the only European spe« eies hitherto described. This mpetie Yoke opposite bi- pinnate fronds, The pinnules entire, , blunt, united towards the point of the frond, the whole of - which is in the back covered with scales, as in Ceterach, from which, however, it is easily distinguish- ed, by comparing them when the Ceterach is m the first period of fructification, and the transverse lines of its capsules are clearly seen. The A. maranta is found on the rocks of Styria, in the Tyrole, Switzer- land, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The A. canariense possesses great affinity with A. maranta ; but it differs in in every respect, of double the size, the lower pinne having nine or ten pinnules on each side, and - former being all alternate instead of opposite, as in + maranta. (2.) Hemionitis, (Willd. 1955.) 5—:Lapsules inserted into the reticulated vessels of the In this — genus, the fruit accompanies the ra- ” describes fifteen species, in eight of which the frond is entire, and in the vemiconiley 9s riously pinnated. In the H, acroslichoides, the cap- sules are confluent on the broad, lanceolate, undulated, and crenate pinne. This ies is a native of Sierra Leone. The H. reticulata, figured by S is evi- dently allied to Vittaria lanceolata, with ‘oups of capsules in branched lines, with which wn FILICES. Filices. eS Ny eT ae s. The H. rufa 2. Lin.) This spe- Lamarck (E 2. 208:), freee Dees The species are all natives of -warth elisnaiany ete" (3.) Meniscium, (Willd. 1956.) in lunulated groups, situated nearly Le iol te each othr, oxi the tesbeaeteiabala tether the frond. Pte od Only six species are at present (1815) paadeigg a to S we are indebted for a correct a dt in an engraving of the 1M. triphyl- first characterized M. t China. triphyllum, which we native of the East Indies, are Sound in the West: Indies aud South Aiaeckie. (4.) Tenitis. (Willd. 1957.) _ Capsules generally in linear, longitudi supposed to belie Pteris (Phy tb 9.) but it genus by Swartz, reckoned Pierides, as in neither do the s furnish wel has a good figure (PL 10 dalets) of the generic che. 1 has re (P1.10 An : Seas co ee ae (5.) Grammitis. (Willd..1959.) : of longitudinal i : beset with eens, = ai cS ss a This genus can ly inguished from the ee ee ee being strag- The greater part of the species known, have simple FILICES. ted and blunt. These lobes produce the brown round _ Filices._ in mbagonin, on each side of the ““\—" ote by S , (Tab. $. Anleit:) exhibits the = character of this genus. ed by Cavanilles (Ann. Sc. Nat. t. 41. mala.) as an As- plenium. (6.) Ceterach. (Willd, 1958.) les in transverse linear _ The Ceterach has been so ently described under : : pumila. Besides the above, he observes, « huc perti- Acrostichum marante, Pteris trichomanoides, et r E Es i close inquiry into the structure of the fruit hich are i EE | a I u ga ES Bye & & > RE ES E H i Sronde lineari lanceolata, acuta, pinnata, disposed unwearied investigation of individuals,—that boldt 535 of capsules middle fasciculus of the fronds, which alternating on each side of the stem, extend from a span to a foot in length. The most remarkable variety is that noted by Bolton, in which the pinne are formed into branches resembling the maternal frond. This variety is distinctly, but coursely, figured by Bolton, (tab. 2.) It is also by Morison, (sect. 14. tab. 2.) under the name of P. Cam- bro-Britannicum, pinnulis laciniatis. This is like some other ferns, well adapted to adorn rocks surrounded with shrubs. (2.) Polypodium ? (an Athyrium?) fontanum, a 7 sa i 3 neue erase obtusiusculis pinnatifidis crenatis supra glabris, (Sm. Flor. Brit. 3.) Smith inks this species Siatbes Bes the Fn oo gy fontanum of Swartz. (3.) deh jy Sei (Willd. Sp. Pl. 131.) The frond is pinnated, the pinnaz lanceolate, pinnatifid and united at the base, the un- der pinne bent back. This ies is found in La; land, and in the woods of most parts of Europe. (4.) P. dryopteris, (Fl. Brit. 5.) This species is the tender three-branched P. (Eng. Bot.616.) (5.) P. cal- careum, Boer Sp. Pl. 156. and Fl. Brit.) In this species ternate bipinnate frond is erect, and more rigid ; in other respects it resembles the last. It is the rigid three-branched polypody, and is figured by Bol- ton, as P. dryopteris, (53 tab.) Our British species then of this genus are very limited ; but, indeed, we nearly the whole of the European species yet own. In order, however, to give some idea of the very dis- similar habit of some foreign ies of this extensive assemblage, it may be remarked, that the P. lycopo- doides, (Willd. Sp. Pl. 12.) possesses entire eh a ed fronds, and an = ste ing stem, covered with scales, from which it has its name ; although it vr ut Areye resemblance to a ay moana Plumier, mer, tab, 42.) gives an expressive figure of it, under the ple It ar i cervina scandens. Itabounds in the woods of all the West Indian Islands. The P. linear lan- on the under side with white woolly down. The P. leniosum, ype 9 _m discovered by Hum- and in South America, near Caripe. is fern are also linear, little more than half an inch broad, and extending to the length of two P. Shee Mateos spetion R Perhaps, os their 5 | i as congeners of a genus distinct from the ee . aureum,; and others the P. dulce, P. decumanum, and other kindred spe« cies. As to the P, h , (128,) and P, ilvense, (129,) it is evident must be excluded from this genus, if we attend to the valuable memoir of Brown, published in the eleventh volume of the Linnean Trans« actions: (p. 170.) in which he has demonstrated the true nature of these singular ferns, To the ies de- scribed in the present edition of the Sp, Plant. (1810,) six others hi unknown are by Brown, (Prod, Flor. Nov, Holl. 145, 146.) (1.) P. confluens, FILI (5) The P. rupesire, apparently possessing affinity with P.itellatum of Swartz. “Vv. ASPIDIACER. (Ptate CCLIV. Fig. 15.) This tribe was originally included in the genus Poly- podium of Linnwus, but since the more accurate ex- amination of the genera n by Sir James Edward Smith, and continued by Swartz and Bernhardi, the poly jum has been aes into Bs foaled ape hurt § istinct genera, whose grou capsules, tig separate, aud in round Son wacomeed with an invo- lucrum, which in some of them is umbilicated and reniform, fixed at the centre, opening all around ; and, in others, attached by one, and opening on the opposite side of the involucrum. Without, therefore, implicit- ly following Roth, there seems to be a certain seins of propriety in adopting his principle of separati ese ough he erred in confounding them with the Cyathea of Smith, which belongs to a very distinct tribe. But since the publication of ana J work, a genus totally .distinct has been discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland in Mexico, : GENERA. (1.) Pleopeliis. (Willd. 1961. Humboldt.and Bonpland.) Capsules in round scattered , With numerous peltate involucra to each of hes, Pn P. angusta. The stipes of this small fern is smooth, and about an inch in length: the frond, which is deep- ly pinnatifid, wedge-shaped at the base, and decurrent, is two or three inches long, covered thinly with brown scales. The are about the size of mustard seed, and to each of there are about twenty of the brown peltate involucra. These distinct involucra se- parate this genus from the two following, but their form rank it with this tribe in affinity. 2.) Aspidium. (Sprengel, Anleit. Gen, Aspidii, Willd. So Sp. PL 1962). oi Capsules in scattered round groups, invested with a round or reniform involucrum Ged in the centre, and opening all around. Swartz and Willdenow (Sp. Pi. 5,) have united this genus with Athyrium, (Polystichum, Roth and Lamarck) ; but to us, the reasoning of for keeping them separ Lp ny a caging cnr or, if the form and of the involucra be, as it is at present, the characteristic principle of the generic ee ought, in consistency, founded be discovered. The Aspidium, then, includes such genera as have their involucrum fixed in the mid« die, and emit their capsules all around. — - A the British species, are, 1. The A. filix mas, which a a decided of this genus, so as, even without the help of glasses, the kidney-shaped shields may be easily perceived opening around the and discharging the brown capsules. This spe- cies, (whose elegant b fronds, from upwards of twenty inches to two feet long when in.a proper soil, , to adhere to it, until a better ° 336 CES. Fiiees with linear entire lanceolate ash-coloured be~ ought to become more frequ an ornament of the —— neath, with the groups sometimes confluent, anda scaly _shrubbery,) possesses es rounded at the extremi- creeping stem. (2.) P. attenuatum, likewise with linear wy finely serrated, bearing in the end of summer’ lanceolate fronds, attenuated at the base, and a ah po gh tg taal age ge ingstem. (S.) P. membrdnifoliwm, with a pinnatifid and near the middle rib; the sti beset with Prare reticulated frond, and minute scattered mh chaffy scales, and the stem, | short and neat CCLI sules. (4.) P. diversifolium, the sterile sessile, the surface, is hid by the remains of ses newer Fig. 7. ovate, and siniated ; the fertile ones pinnated with lan- and generally confounded, even by botanists, with . ceolate, ensiform, crenate, and subpetiolated fronds. the roots, from which, however, it distinct ; for the roots are fibrous, sHooting at hee fro stem. It is sin that this species should be so ge- nerally diffused. It is a native not only of biped iM of E , but of the woods of Asia and the North of a specimen of a variety from the island of St Phomasin the West luis. ‘Tis variety iin length the same as the common European species, but th ev respect Germnatit, There is arsdher euall varity fousd 1 mountainous situations, 9 ©” * sath ar erie ES = des 4. A. dilatatum, (Willd, Brit, ; Schkubr, C fronds are more rigid and shining. — and the pinnules more e : figured in Eng, Bot. 1460. . p07 MiB ul 5. A. lonchitis. Fronds pinnate, wi fronds are about a span Jong, erect, te, and nar» row. Pinne nearly sessile, alternate, declining, acute, and spinulous: at the margin groups of fre«. quently confluent. 6 ide te al yee ae 6. A. oreopteris. The frond is with the» "has added four new ferns, under the designation of Nephrodium, (Mich. Flor. bor. Amer.) 1. N. oblitera) ium. 2. N. unitum. 3. N. decompositum. 4. N. tenue. The Nephrodium seems to possess entirely the character * of Aspidium. (Prodr. Nov, Holl.) Bane ee” | kul Bae eee eh nn Farolan an: aa ti wel veges Capsules in small round groitps dispersed on the whole of the lower eartans of the frond; covered with an invo- » lucram attached by one, ‘commonly the inner side, and — echih y utabew tent 1. The Athyrium ( Aspiditm Wilk o whore rt figured fr Pate COLLV. Big 1, tons dium, A. thel has fronds nea 4 innee somewhat crenate and distinct at the » es, ial Beanieedl The are confluent. The + frond is erect, a foot and of a bright ~ - AP og IN FILICES, clays st the ad. pinnat enerally smooth; the 92. A, filiz femina, with a bipinnate frond; Pe 5 Rian innatifid, wi asi fe niform involucrum. aon - The fronds of this species are eighteen inches long, broadly lanceolate, of a deep green colour, smooth as well as the stipites ; the pine are lanceolate and pinnu- lated, and these pinnules again pinnatifid. The groups of cap are di as in Aspidium filiz mas, but oblong and much less. It thrives best in moist and ‘shi dium incisum of Hoffman, is ium ovatum is ano- ec gn? ay = ther ‘et and Muller's figure ( lor. Frid. t. 2. f. 3.) is an excellent resemblance of it, to which Roth refers chaffy ariety. This species is Morison, (sect.14. t, 3. £8; and Pluk. Phyl. t. 180. f. 4.) ; . Ath. montanum, ac pcan Willd. 147.) With more than twice com: ternate and tripinnate fronds; lobes remote, and last ones very narrow ; blunt at the tip, and seusaly serrated. Plukenet found it in Wales. (Phyt.t. 89, f.4.; Allione, Fi. Pedmon. 2410.) ~" Allantodia, (intermediate.) (Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. 149.) - Groups of es oblong, oblique, with respect to tha yi; tavtluerard , origi Se a vein to which it is attached margins, and opening on the inner side. ~ This genus seems to be intermediate between A//; rium and Asplenium, and certainly distinct from both, although more allied to 7 tenuated towards the point, »b bearing numerous the ob in- among rub uanenaebiee re only the bear their lincar groups of capsules at the base only. VI. ASPLENIACEZ. (Piate CCLIV. Fig. 16.) f ium trichomanes, a figure of part of the The ond of w slope eapel Bn ie Fete, aie be as- sin as | _ type of this tribe. It Iattulles on the margin, and ing outwardl with respect $0) the lobe; let inwardly wi “A the rib, which the fructiferous vein originates. a B : 5 id : E ve Z He. ir iy eEE ¢ ; fF i a | Fe VOL, IX. PART 1, , with a smooth stipes nd -re-. 337 1s in certain species, whose fronds are undivided, the involucrum opens in a contrary direction. Fer ' * GeEwnera, (1) Darea, (Jussieu, Gen. 15. Sprengel, Anleit. P. 3. fig. 24. Willden. 1966. ~ Capsules in linear submarginal groups. Involucrum originating from lateral veins, and opening towards the rib ' There are none of the species of Darea hitherto found in Europe; most of them being native either of the Cape of Good Hope, Bourbon Island, or New Holland. This genus was first established by Bergius under the name of Ceenopleris. The lines of capsules are generally situated in the marginal sinuses of the narrow lobes of the frond. The generic character is represented b Sprengel, in his third Plate, exhibiting part of the frond ot D. odontites. Sometimes, however, the groups are at a ter distance from the margin. | The D. fumaroides, ately discovered in Caraccas by Humboldt and Bon- pland, to whom all the physical sciences owe so much, is a most beautiful species. The stipes is smooth, chan- nelled, and half a foot long ; the frond from three to five inches; bipinnate, the pinne and pinnule alter- nate ; the pnoule are linear, obtuse, and bipartite, with bipartite lacini. The D. rhizophylla is figured by Sir J. Edward Smith, eris rhe ila (icon. in edit. tab. 50.) is a native of the West Indies. The D. vivipara, which is figured by ius, (Act. Petrop.6. tab. 713.) affords an instance of buds being produced from the pinnule of the frond. This fern is found in the woods of Mauri- tius and Bourbon Islands, (2.) Asplenium (Willd. Sp. Pl. 1967.) Capsules in linear separate groups, originating late- 3 from a vein, and opening towards the rib. Yilldenow describes about one hundred of this ge- nus, of which only eight are natives of Britain. 1. A. trichomanes. The stem of this Sairan species is very short, enveloped with the decayed stipites of former and having in the centre of these the buds of the future season. The pinne of the frond are oval, finely crenate, with a stipes of a shining purple hue, carinated in the under side. It is y found on the northern walls of our ancient buildings, where, although it requires but little moisture, it is in some measure protected from the total want of it. It is cor- rectly _— by Sowerby in Eng. Bot. 576, and by Woodville, Med. Bot. tab. 204. A syrup was formerly from a decoction of it, the whole plant pos- sessing a slight astringency ; but other ferns far exceed it in the ion of sweet mucilagi matter, abounding not in the frond, as Woodville observes, (Medical Botany, ut supra), but in their stems. Mr Teasdale found a variety of this fern with the frond a A. viride osm the a but differs, ing a green quadrangular stipes ; the pinne of finned sented, cadet t paler ; the middle fasci- culus of the frond is occasionally bifid. 3. A, marinum. .This species has also alternate pinne, ovate, blunt as in A. trichomanes, and of a deep green colour, wedge-shaped at the base, and above sometimes united. On several parts of our coast, and in the sandstone caves at Wemyss in Fifeshire, observed by Sir Robert Sibbald. These three beautiful species sess an evident affinity with each other. 4. A.alternifolium, with a pinnated frond, and al- ternate, erect, veer pinne, eroded at the point. u Filiees. the lines of fruit are less numerous, peler then in the Gres dasagtid. Siaetes pete Mise. t. 5. f. 2.) lanceolatum. In is species the frond is bi- pinnate and pointed ; the pinnules obovate, dentate, and acuminated, It is a native of the south of Britain, and found by Mr Forster on the rocks at Tunbri 4 about a span in length, the lines of capsules phe pmo ah adiantum nigrum. With” deltoid fronds, al- teonataly tigi innate, and with lanceolate, cut, and ser- by Bolton, 30.t. 17. There is in ion to their size. of trees. The smaller was found in a dark cave in the mountains of Mourne in Ireland; and in this variety the fronds are barren. and membranous, ele- gently laciniated. . A. septentrionale, with a trifido-pinnate frond, ait linear pinnee, as it were torn at the point. It is found in the fissures of the me, and other rocks in the be Ste a oe of Edinburgh, where Wil- lisel found it y’stime. - 8. A. ruta muraria, with the frond alternately de- com nz rhomboidal open eroded at the point, tly in Eng. Bot. t t. 150. We have suc- in obtaining germinating seeds of this, and other ferns, and found the ent answer best in decayed mortar mixed "with vegetable mould, taken from under the J str plant in ancient ruins. numerous wild. 594. Hort. Kew. 15.) merits attention, This species has bipinnate fronds, and oblong acute pinnules, serrated at the point ; but it ‘js chiefl y remarkable on ac- count of its agreeable odour. that of Anthor- anthum bp Ae ery long linear filiform points. is species, though poribesly hardy, is in few collections. It was intro- Britain above a century ago by Mr John The A. monanthemum, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is another singular group of capsules on each pin im 1790, specie ready dese by Lab of London. To iere, as native Sf Now Lfolland frows (Pr atte has added the following new species own to Wi Ww, viz, Genera (insulated) of uncertain affinity, "Canis ncn PD Fase, t 9 £2. 1968, 5 peal fissure. of Sir J. Edward that we owe the separation of this and other species, the A. fragrans gin FILICES: genera of ferns from those originally established neus, Although before the i tran ees » this was wi Tip me t the via, with which, however, i seemed ta Soe little affinity. . 1. Scolopendrium officinale, is a native of I the stem is black, as in several other ferns, and scaly and poe & Ths Gras, $e ber re he to ces, entire, cae at the base, and narrowed at the | ai smooth, and of 4 bright green colour. of a dark brown colour, and very often’ riations on the waved margin of the frond, or iC~ casional lobes produced at the point, are the effect of situation, Although, like the rest of the senate it will grow on the most elevated ruins, in the cre stones, it attains a large size on a richer isher dap i Sc. hemionitis, Pgy base of the frond, (2.) Diplazium, (Swartz, Syn. Filic. p. at wd Sy Pipl mone B. de St Vincent) ~* Capsules in distant double. lines, simple, or : The fivolucha double, each opening townie the Wiese of the frond. Willdenow describes ten species of this genus, which, althoug h in habit somewhat will jescrbine 1 it as Swartz having only a pinna, which he mistook for entire frond. This species derives its name from the stem abounding more with that sweet gummy. sap, which is common, as already observed, to op ae part of the even in Europe. : ROR NG Te eg Ay eR agen ag most, magnificent of t OF nelinty of Rootes ‘an Ses oe. ‘ in length ; an: ae te pinne are i upnocy rfal eet long ; jc paula See a r _ Tinear, atte caters Rom e ving an eect kemitot a Roane the ft en howit dtengh tn cota seed (3.) Viltaria. (Sm. Act. Taur. Willd. 1971.) Copeul tinuous marginal or dorsal involu pas eats bly ite eats res he inwards. esto 7 form fra it The V. ensiformis and V. plantaginea ha att teantoleah bide hood alseosly teorteth (3.) Blechnum. (Lin. Smith, Swartz, and Willd. Sp. 1972.) oz ing inwards. nig nuows capsules, the'rib ow each side. Of the twenty species by Willdenow, pics, The Blthews conde linear, longitudinal, continuous, parallel to on both sidés of the mitlile rib of the frond. with, and close to described part are natives of the tro- ntale is common in every PILICES. | 339 collection, as it thrives better in the stove than many _ Filices other foreign genera. It has been for several years kept ““—"" te Acree d the botanic garden at Edinburgh. The boreale is the only species hitherto known to be.a native of Europe, and, what is singular, it is al- so found in the Canary islands, but of course only in al~ pine situations. The linear narrow fertile pinne, no doubt contracted and exhausted by nourishing the fruit, caused it formerly to be confounded with Osmunda, un- der the ridiculous term Spicant. (4) Stegania, (Br. Prodr. Nov. Holl. p. 152.) G linear, continuous, the capsules at length co- verin back of the contracted frond, or of the pinne. The involucrum scarious, opening inwards. : SE Oa cat eee negecingl my ree Prodr. Nov. Holl. without being reminded of the learn- pe Poor ud it of the author, These notes, like those ‘Nistiba, (Gen, PL) generally in a few words convey t, a degree of information that could only be obtained by 1 a patient and diligent enquiry into nature. The. Ste- both gania; he ¢ nearly the habit of Blech- num, to which it is next in affinity; although in it approaches to certain Pterides, at least des, (Pteris crispa, Willd. Sp. 895.) must be added as VII. ONOCLEACEZ. (Puate CCLIV. Fig. 182 Willdenow having, in the last edition of the Species GENERA (1.) Onoclea. , We per densely covering the under part of the Involucrum consisting of the reflex margin of the frond; and opening inw: ; The definition of this genus 4 Swartz is to be pre- sie edged ing at Pa tne SR indusia non dehiscentia” be réally analogous with the involucra heretofore supposed to be character- istic of Onoclea, as figured in our Plate, and expressed in the generic definition. 1, O, sensibilis. This oe Eee cies is a native’ of America, and was introduced into this country in the year 1699, by Bobart. It endures the climate of Bri- tain in the south. The’ sterild fronds are pinnate, - rison, vol. iii, sect. 14. tab. ii: fig. 10. 2. 0. »( is Germanica, Willd. Sp.) This is one of the rarer European ferns, 3. O. pensylvanica, (Siruthiop, Pensyle. Willd, Sp. 5. is another species tke the last, but diffe. yay aaelel onl Menlo ae according to Brown, (Prodr. ut supra,) a Woodwardia, (Woodw. onoclevides, Witla. Sp. 1073.) (2.) Lomaria, (intermediate, (Willd. Sp. Pl. 1963. , Sp. Bory. and Swartz.) densely covering the inferior part of the webs wat continuous, marginal on each side of the frond, ne aR ’ Of this genus, Willdenow describes eleven species, all of which are taken from the Onoclea of Swartz, (Sy- nops. Fil.) and Labill. (Nov. Holl.) and. Bory. (Jtin. ) In affinity, they approach so near to Onoclea, that it is difficult to give them a determinate and distinct charac- ter, as must be the case in all natural genera, when the intermediate links of the series are discovered, The in- volucrum is continuous on each side of the frond, and named as a just ot eye poe is . (tin, p. 194. -) hi 4 e ipo MEA po of Bourbon, and he gave it the name of Pieris osmun- doides. The sterile fronds are pinnate; the pinnz ses- sile, oblong, bluntly lanceolate, and very entire. The fruitful fronds are also pinnate, and sy sting 8 are li- near, and entire. ‘The stem is erect, and four feet high. The sterile fronds are two. or three feet long ; fruitful ones shorter, and their pinne very narrow, This fine species, like most of the other arborescent ferns, is unknown in our collections, Willdenow is in doubt whether the L. scandens be not an Acrostichum,to which, in some measure, the Lomaria approaches in appear- ance, etd teen aoe rhe ff Os- munda . (0. trifrons,) as well as . fraxinea, Willd) frou h his not sede do the ring of the capsules, IX. PTERIDE#? ((Puate CCLIV. Fig. 19.) Dryander had previously, from a more accurate examina- tion of the structure of the involucra of certain species , has already observed, “ Pteris thalictroides Siotheediebin imum genus constiluit,” i is, i (1) Lindsea.(Dryander, Act, =e Taur. tab.. ) 06 yf rte Capsules in continuous lines, and frequently very near. the margin of the frond. Involucrum se. hs rigit ting from the under membrane of the frond, and open< pp de cpto ve aa te wy 13 t is to thelate venerable der, that we owe : tinction of this genus from Preris; epi Attar ee Swartz had associated the respective species with Adian- tum; although they ought, he observes, in consistency” with the Linnean character, to have been referred to Peeris, with which indeed iro Rae an evident affinity. Lindsea received its name in honour of Lindsay, an in- gens botanist of Jamaica. ( Trans. Lin. joc.) describes nine species of great beauty, and diver- sity of form. 7 ete 13 e L. reniformis, a singular species, ( Lin. Tr.fig. 1. ut signe yikes reniform frond, ax) Or: Eis Ard indentation, the stipes being attached to the sinus; form- ed by the two lobes of the frond. Itis to be > thatin, the’ eight species, described. by. Dexentes wk have no account of the stem, as the examination of the frond alone is insufficient to in completely their habit. The L. ¢enera, likewise figured by Dryander, t beauty. The frond is Ge soares tb tiie eatotie cut into obovate or rhomboidal forms. * In no genus are the ramifications of the vascular fas« in this. ai : To the eight described by Dryander, Willdenow has. added twelve more from Bory. ‘Swartz, Humboldt and ea hg ; and to these Brown. Prodr. Z . 156.) has added L. media with deltoid: bipinnate ponds, and coriaceous, obovate, rhomboidal p we lobed in the under part, and elsewhere entire. The ste- rile fronds are serrated at the point, and have a qua drangular stipes. This sate ne most of the others, inhabits the tropics. —— Sed iE bg (2.) Pleris. ‘ , Capsules in continuous marginal lines ;_ and marginal scarious aeiroy os am p from the inflexed upper membrane of the , and opening inwards. = The species, Pt. lanceolata, and Pt. piloselloides, ace cording to Brown, belong to Tenitis, and, with Blech- num seminudum, Onoclea spicata (Sw.), ought to be ts ray Ae transferred to that genus. Rips 4 The following species are natives of Europe.” 1. Ph. ensifolin, This species has pinnate fronds, with very long sessile, lanceolate, tapering pinne, and a creeping stem, It is found in Spain and. s, and figured under the name of Polypodium majus, (Barr, te 2. Pt. cretica, with pinnate fronds, and the pinnae with short foutstalks, Yandedbinl and ars row and serrated at the base; the undermost bipartite’ or ternate ; by Schkubr, Crypt. 85, tab. 50. 8. Pl. Bests. ih inna nds ; oblong, lanipnthuse, and eee) pare} FILICES. 341 _— subcrenate at the t. Native of Portu« tab. 29. This elegant species is, like some others, dis« Filices.. Sel gel, td Sigurd by Tourelor, (het tab. 3138.) ” persed not only over Europe, but is found on Tene. “y= Stegania onocleoides nobis), Osm. Iton, me be stat ones Fhe 2 3 pi sein zane we un- by Bolton, 16, tab: 105, omen tab. 96, C1 It is singular, ou Sa It is found in the woods cular fasciculi have been imagined, by the us, to.resemble a cross ; others have vs separate wa: wel De ane Oe ved from. this circumstance, according to some. But proba- bly the remarkable of the pinne of the frond, Medecimdantie eraity fiye feet in length, has given rise to the name. of Pteris with erect fr eciadkr gained 7 Sait og fon and oblong acuminate pinata pinnuls, with n wi lanceolate poi and serrated Pathe figuredby Plumien, (Plonies de? 4 eek ot CE) Pela uni pte pollen tga ese vaiglae, the undermost |. This cies is found in the woods of the Society Islands and of. , Pp? propriate, as. many of these plants abound with similar sweet mucilaginous matter in the cellular substance of the stem. See also Br. Prodr..Nov. Holl. p, 154. Brown has also described three new Pterides, ing in habit to Adiantum, viz. Pteris falcata, Pt. niti« da, and Pt, nudiuscula. Vid. Prod. ut supra. (3.) Adiantum. in punctiform or linear ps, and inserted into the involucra formed by the inflexed eye of the frond, and opening inwards. Solium of Willdenow. The first is , riffe, Jamaica, Isle de Bourbon, ime South America, It- varies much i in. size. __Of the foreign there * ; axes with simple bay a ag the 4. reniforme and A, imple figured by Plukenet Alm, tab. 287. fig, 5.) and the second by Lamarck,' Illust. Gen. tab. 30), and Schkuhr, (tab. 115). Both ‘resemble other * very much ; the frond of the first is, however, crenate ; eae s the. s aan very ae and broader than Jo ‘he: third, A. ships Pol ty ed also to. ee a siraple fron but. a is ‘figu Of the Adianta with pinnated fronds, the Rhizophos rum affords another instance of the naked clonpeint point of the frond . buds, producing .new: plants. Humboldt and Bonp land found several new of which, al in south America, particularly the |, varium, W althoug! > al with se< veral other species, continued groups of capsules, Will«. denow_refers to this genus : Probably these may, after. all, be Plerides. The A. teiraphyllum, A. politum, A. serratodentatum, and A. concinnum, were all found in, South America by the indefatigable Humboldt and Bonpland. Besides those described by Willde+ now, the following have been. since aah ‘by Brown.. 1. A. paradoxzum, with pinnate fronds; the pinna: cordate, oblong, or lanceolate ; the veins ‘below obso= lete, and the groups of capsules. linear and continuous, 2. A. formosum, with fronds decompound, deltoid. and leaflets tripinnate,_ with rhomboi , smooth, and blunt pinnule, the lower ones cut ; the ‘involucra kids, Dee De, and the stipes itself ‘rough, but its ramifi-, cations smooth aie Cheilanthes, 1976, Willd! Swarts, Fil. p. 5.” uunctiform or crescent-shaped groups, . santa te eas e sinus of the scarious involucrum,. formed by Were folded back, and « g inwards, - The whole of the have been. separated fron: Adiantum, with whi ra have the closest affinity ; but the interrupted punctiform. or .crescent-shaped groups of the fruit, distinguish them ; and, on a clo. ser view, the capsules are seen inserted into the. sinus of the involucrum. Of the thirteen species described by Willdenow, there are three remarkable for an sennte ; able odour: 1. Ch. sauveolens, Polypodium. sauveolens of Desfona taines, with bipinnate smooth fronds, and very entire ob« pa 9 i ovate pinnule, the inferior pinne pinnatifid, filiform, . stipes. This species. is. by Schkuhr, (€r. Tr tabr19, 19.) It is anative of Barbary and Natolia, 2. Che odora has also bipinnate fronds, but the - pinnule, instead of being perfectly entire, like those ’ of the last, .are pinnatifid, with rounded entire borders, The stipites resemble the last. This species is a native of Switzerland and Italy, and ought to be introduced . into this country, the climate of which. it would en- - dure.: » 3. Ch. fragrans has also: bipinnate fronds, with obs , lanceolate, obtuse, pinnatifid pinnule, and some~ what bifid lacinie ; the stipites chaffy. The fragrance of these three species renders their culture an object of particular interest, yet the last isthe only apres spe cies as yet introduced into the collection at Kew by F, Masson. The Ch. fragrans is figured by Swartz, (Syn. Petiver laciniated, ( azoph, tabi 4. . Filices. 342 Fil. tab. 3. fig. 6.) The Ch. ides is also in the Kew ton ts gured by Hluttayn, (p. 120, ta. 96 fs. &) lentigera, with tri somewhat villous fronds, with minute folioli, is a ry CF cies, (Comment. Petrop. x. p. 302, tab, 22, fig. 3.) Ch. arborescens is the species an erect stem This is the Lonchitis tenuifolia of Forster. (5.) Lonchitis, (Willd. 1977 ; Schreber, Gen. Plant.1629.) in separate crescent-shaped ps, inserted into the sinuses of the frond. The involucrum formedby the margin of the frond bent back, and ing inwards, This genus of Schreber seems to be more conve- niently united with the last by a slight alteration of the bo rr Iie four species of Lonchitis, ad- ded to Chei , will include, in all, twenty-four kindred species, to which Brown has added, from New Holland. . figu hirsula (Willd. Sp. 5.), gi BS) 1 ( Anleit. tab. 4. fig. 27.), affords «pool iden of chi conn Davailia (insulated), (1978, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5 ; Smith, Act. Taur. 5, p. 414, tab. 9, fig. 6.) Capsules in punctiform marginal distinct groups; ins volucrum superficial, somewhat hooded, Geese out- Linneusformerly united the various es of this ge- nus with others, $9 Which @ietr ethentil appietaribe tnd habit seemed eee It is a distinct genus, how- ever, as Dr Smith has shewn. The groups are situa- ted on the veins or ramifications of the vascular fasei- culi, at the margin of the frond. Sprengel has an excellent figure of the generi fig. 38. ) in D. adiantoides, ( Willd.) an arborescent he i (Fils. it is observed, that Sprengel, whose accuracy is not i ight grounds, gives, as an il- Tustration of the us Adiantum, a fi taken from axterted by Swarts and Willdenow to be a 5 - The Davallia hirsuta (Willd.) is Trichomanes hirsutum of Mogan # and Davallia It is figured +f renee (Alm. 156, peed fig. 2) an is the on- uropean species as yet known, ahd found in Pors and the Toland, Da. arborescens of Willdenow, the Filir arboe rescens adiantoides of Plumier, (Fil. t. 6.) is found in His: paniola. It is certainly difficult to devise appropriate ae names for so many plants, which, like the is, resemble each other so strongly ; but one would have thought the designation arborescens rather un- sppropriate, unless, which is impossible, we were cer- no other arborescent species of the genus exist- FILICES. ed. rash and plain phase qobes eat thas Ba acuminate, rape eee pinnule ; epg ber jualher te name Bid is bemereret” weet aid ha them bipinnate,) lanceolate, and ser. rated pinnule, w at the base. This sp might, from the present connection of Java this X. CYATHEACER. (Piatt CCLIV. Fig. soy Womans stan, bier chempanines cere so fréquently to’ refer, ‘frorh the ip the us Which we hive selected aé the ty tis snguler ee of fers. In all the tribes. the series hitherto noticed, the involucrum ‘is cial in this it is formed under the groups of capsules, tote ok Kew’ i che dupe ofa op) de , ed in xa cluding it genera, although in the Cyathea of Smith ws perenprly rghit inn gridit dp rs armnben ho the natur- al arrangement is essen t from’ that of ari artificial system, in which all the are riecessarily prewee oslrog a antes na series, the Ups ¢ other shades, Bhvedled, uttl ard alstapt only wived links of the series are either broken or or i i in’ distinet’ pointlike, of round niarginal grotips: Involuerum eup-shaped, double, of as it were ivalvé, had eel png ot ma py to vein, outwards ; the other spuriotis, be, ar Pos rte 07 fein om dk 2-3 ien, the cup ‘the is formed by the more or less perfect union of the in- yolucra, and thar Woah ae me cab there is, in sorié species, a sma serving rpose of the colurtinart y cle of the other Sprengel il, t. iv. this pe me a figtire of character of Polypodium, b ing this and several others. In fal situation of the groups of capsules, this genus exe ternally resembles Davallia; but # careful examination soon out the difference between their. A figar of Dicksonia flaccida (Willdenow and Swartz) is given also by Sechkuhr, (T. 129). This ferris the 7¥ichos manes flaccidum of Forster, (Prodr. 472). AN the » genera are foreign, and for the greatet , Ses veral of them have arborescentt, or erect stems ; although, in otder to shew the absurdity of such aspecifie rg, on tion, one- species only is terinel Di arboresiens. : species is native of St Helena. It has bipi fronds} with ovate, somewhat sharp, cnt wth tly united lobes, (Sin. Act. Tawr.iii/p.496)) The. , (Swartz, Syn. 136.) eit age kubr, is anothet rescent ue omiunes sq? erect, or a’ ‘osu Forst. Prodr. 476), The D. adianwoides (Huriiboldt Oe ee FELICES. P. dentatum of the Sp. Pl. (1553.) as Cyathe@ (see Flor. — Filices. illdenow, A, $7380 SN antartica, is p- 100, tab. 249. Of this genus, which wasdiscovered by Brown in New pean only one species as yet known, viz, ie af taney we fey epee iG guaolan. along: mortise Honk, sud oor aoe lerum estimatio, unde certior eruetur 5 gt tum partialis. (Jussieu, Gen. Plant. me years. since Brown. observed the cup-like ins volucrum in Woodsia ( Pol , Willd. Pl&. and Sm, Flor. Britannic.) and he has since ly ascertained it in Woodsia ilvensis, In fact, isti; . #5. specian, Smith describes the P. ilvense (With.) and hyperboreum wartz as one name of P.arvonicum. tote or five inches a Cyathea, (Sm. Act, Taur. v. 5. 416. P. > podium, Gen. Pl. 560. pecned 15.) = es in round distinct attached to a he- groups, atta ah Smith at first considered three of the ‘olypodia, viz. the P. fragile, P. regium, and 843 Brit. p. 435.) ; but Swartz and —81) have arr. these species with Aspidium ; and in fact, none of the Cyathew have as yet been found in Europe. ies de- : Nearly the whole of the sixteen scribed by Willdenow have erect stems. The C.5 ciosa, found by Humboldt and Bonpland, near Cari > onyed pees, has, like ew ad Eich, a , being twenty-four feet in height ; povige tina gaciy spreading, and extending five feet broad, a foot long, and the pinne peti linear, an c Y pointed, and wedge- at their origin ; sinuate, and dentate along their . The groups of fruit in this, as in several of the species, are placed sparsely along the margin of the The C. arborea is by no means the most remarkable for the length of its stem, which is very hard, and co- vered with the scales, so frequently abounding in the whole series. This fern is the P. arboreum of Sp. Pl. wears Rumphius (Amd. p. 62. t.27.) describes other much akin to this West Indian ies. The C.ex- celsa, (Arborea, Bory.) is found in the Mauritius, with a stem twenty-five feet hi : The C. gence, is another magnificent fern, Bory. (/éin. 206.) in the mountains of the Isle de Bourse.” The fron have not hitherto been brought to Europe; but we may, in some degree, i (ex pede Herculem) from that of their b aearr. which cereeien rite eighteen inches long. In i i les are situated, on nai of the mhidle bof the pinnule. The ye cific term glaucus, is derived from the colour of the under part of the pinnul, whicli, when viewed by the microscope, seems to be owing to the minute scales with which are covered. Several species, as the C, ‘a C. horrida, have their stem and stipites eco+ vered with hard prickles. The C. villosa, lately found ne and ee | is remarkable for having of capsules inv with a woolly covering. The Cyathea et AL ke yy of Forster ; S is, Bernh.) is for the abundance that saccharine gummy juice which isso common, in ee ee in the stems of the whole se- i as an article of diet by the inhabitants Brown has already demonstrated the necessity of se~ aes. ae C. multiflora, Sra. -Horrida, Sm. Capensis, .and others as yet undescribed, from Cyathea, under the designati of’ Hemitelia, on.account of their arched involucrum, with a semicircular base, inserted under the receptacle. (5.) Trichomanes, (Willd. 1981.) — brevisetum, (Br. Prodr.) Hymenophyllu alatum, (Eng. Bot. 1417, p. 159.) is the onl species watine of Betas an te i anf 7 onan alatum native of the southern mountains. of Jamaica, a specific name has been given to our native ern lum. S44 FILICES. Cy t ‘be considered as belonging 3. their elegantly delicate one or nearly iaempornt tents ving them altogether a dif- ferent character. Baie = of them have erect events ; but, on the contrary, like the Musci, their stems are a creeping along the moist and shelving rocks, seldom msing above a few inches from the sur- face. Indeed, some species having their involucra on slender footstalks projected from the margin, and in the Fr prfrum kde a such as the 7. radicans, Fysidiferum, trichoideum, and muscoides, possess more of mosses than of ferns. a the aspect of these beautiful ferns have simple or undi- rile ond, The. 7. renjforme hes very entire = shaped fronds. It is figured. by Schk Capt. pt Habe 134.) The 7. cuspidatum has. fronds eh ae ovate, bluntly peinted.and truncate at atthe b base; undulated, and crenate.on the margin, aeely veined, and bearing the cups towards the point, on » mannin et, Alea: frond. The ZT. membranaceum -has the fronds sessile, obovate, blunt, and as if torn on -the margin. Plumier (Americ. 34, tab. 50, and Fil. tab, 101,) has this singular species, ‘under the descriptive definition of adianlum muscosum lichenis pe- irei facie. It is also figured by Plukenet, tab. 285. T. muscoides is figured Sloan, (Jem: p- 73. tab. 29, fig. 1.) under the definition of “ is scandens minima, musci facie.’ The frond of 7. scandens. attains the height of nearly a foot, and is the tallest of the genus, and, like many others, it has the fronds three or = times pinnate. The frond of 7. giganteum is also about a foot in length ; the stem of these two, like all the rest, creeping along the surface ot oe 40 “al describes thirty-four species. ~ £6.) Hymenophyllum. (Willd. 1982. “Smith, Act. Taur. 5. p. 418, tab. 9. fig. 8.) in marginal groups, inserted into a cylin- anil tasepeicle, inélu within a bivalve Saar crum. The only British species is the H. Tunbrid; ants Smith Flor. Brit, and Eng. Bot. tab. 162,) with d cra and bipinnatifid, and the ‘border of the fied u- The the frond itself, serrate ; the cups solitary, end attached to’the margin of the axils of ‘the plows it is sin that this ies should be also found in New Hi It is by Labillardiere, (Nov. Hol. tab. 250). ‘The remaining thet -five species are natives of the West Indies and South Sea islands, and of Java, Mauritius, and Bourbon islands. ‘Labillardiere mentions one, viz. via Australis, from New Holland. ‘To these, however, Brown has added two new species from the same country, viz, H.rarum and H. nitens, (vide Prodr. Nov. Hol. p. 159.) The H. nitens, has tripinnatifid, lanceolate, smooth fronds, linear obtuse obtuse submarginate, entire lacinie ; terminal involucra, with ovate orbicu- _lar valves, The Hymenophyllum rarum again has bipinnatifid, lan- ceolate, smooth, and open fronds, the borders on the mar- » gin very entive pee amsencones Bide ;\he inves terminal, with round. valves: = The Hymenophylla, coset eer olserved, have all the habit or external appearance of XI. BOTRYCHIACEE (Plate. peer Figs. 21, 22.) The Botrychium, which we select as the of this tribe, forms a link widel deustes teardecmeran eto It is incl in the last edition of the Plantarum by Willdenow, with the ; Dorakardiag and » under. ritles with neither-of which sa tuen te lan tint affinity whatever, if structure ‘ded, as it ily x be the only solid basis of a natural ent, In external , indeed, Ophioglossum slightly re- sembles this genus. The | es in both are close. » The moststrikin g-peculiarity i och can a te eae ded within a membranous spathe, which bursts as shoot from the subterraneous stem ; whereas in tl invariably covered with woolly scales. Wome iets that Swartz has denied that the buds Rey is clear, that, in this respect, | nearly approach the rest ofthe ferns. Thee is as yet but one genus wn, . yr Botrychium. (Swartz, Synops. Fil. 8.) on ules in a compound distic sspike ening i a Sintetion parallel with MxF insé r 1. B. lunaria. This is the x - 1) if snl of afin, Gone ria of the Sp. Plant. Lin. p. 1519, ot Hofinan or II. Tf and Roth, Germ, 1.and 444. The stipes extend. ing to the 1 of about five inches, with the frond bluntly pointed, attached towards lobes of the pine: are crescent-shaped, nearly sessile, ing “oo and imbricated, succulent, : and of a north of uw (wie. Sp. Epes 5. p. the two rat Lif both being naked. — : - ~~ The remaining six bieeiase’ by ao denow, from their evider Avr habits, require a closer examination, Whoever consults the accurate El 7 Pas —o— posed. Botrychium : Natural filters or Fig. 8, must t with the rest of the series of ferns; for, the fronds.* | _ FILIGRANE Wonk, or Finacree work, from j- lum and granum, is the name given to a kind of orna- mental work, in which flowers, &c, are formed of fine and silver wire, curled or twisted ina Be Z E i 3 uk i if ad aE i employ: Such of our readers as take any interest in j referred to the following works, quot-. : ann in his History of Inventions, vol. ii. 245—247. , 's Werkstate. der kiinste, i. p. 101; i Worterbuch, i. p. 721; Grignon Bul- letin des fouilles d'une ville Romaine, i. p. 22.; Menage reliquiarum Electoralis Brunsuico-Lunebur- i Hanov. 1783, 4to. p.19, 29, 56. Marsden’s i of Sumatra, Lond. 1783, 145. Der Mi- i Briefe van der Insel Teneriffa und Os~ tindien, Leips. 1777.. Thomans Reiseund Lebensbes- , Augsb. 1788; and Von Stetten Kunstges- bg: 'P are in the toward the water Seligl vided taki end werehdloteme fee damentie purposes: such is the state of the waters of most rivers which are not supplied by springs alone, but by brooks running on the surface. portion of the water which soaks into the earth having passed through a sufficient thickness of strata, either by ascent or descent, will have op mang rpciec pumping and become clear spring water, It be observ- ed, that filtration can only produce transparency, by NG OE Ree ett 28. 50 ic vise of mixture with the fluid, for any matter pass with it, ‘the pores most minute. fil- ter, unless the substance of the filter itself should have a greater af for such matter than the fluid which it. this case, a new combination will be : E will be taken up by the filter, not simply because the are too small to permit its particles to pass, on account of the superior elective attraction be- 345 tween the substance of the filter and the dissolved mat- Filter. ™ : 4 ———’ _ poses the filter a FIL ter. duce a natural spring for any great cause, by the constant addition of matter, the filter will at last saturated with it, or choked up. In ~ applying this reasoning to springs, we shall find a rea~ son why so few springs uce water, although it is always transparent. In ty, the natural filters-which produce springs, are almost always on an opposite principle, viz. that the substance which com- t affinity for the water, and a are taken up slowly in solution, carried off at the same time that the extrane- ous matters, which are only in mixture with the water, are detained in the pores of the filtering strata: thus we find few springs which have not some mineral held in solution by the water, although invisible to the eye ; Frequently and in cases where yn ere in making the new ""P4"* combination we have en of, hot springs will be produced. The most common mineral taint which wa- ter receives in its natural filtration, is sulphate of lime or plaster of Paris: this renders the water hard, as it is called, so that it will not produce a lather with soap, but curdles it. — tip and vitriol is also fre- in springs. Add to this, in great towns, the dnnnage wate which soaks into the earth is contami- nated by animal matters as well as vegetable, and in such an offensive state, that the filtration through the soil can scarcely restore its purity. From all these causes, it is found that the turbid and foul waters of rivers, where altered by art to separate from their extra- neous mixtures, will be more pure and wholesome as . RS te than the generality of spring water. Gravel, the water in passing it. Beds of sandstone filter only well, and also some porous limestone. apparatus is made from a po- Filtering rous stone, of which there are two kinds ; staniietene tne, procured in Northamptonshire, and a limestone found in Derbyshire. A thick bow] or basin is formed of the stone, and mounted in a frame. The foul water, be- aieage mpi basin, HE af : He es : 7 i t's ie F i C ie : "© The Editor has been indebted for the preceding article, to Joux Your, M.D. F.R. S. E. VOL. IX, PART L 2x - Filtration, on this principle, cannot continue to pro- Their ac- of time;, be- tion. in thick beds, is the most ect natural Gravel ings from ‘Prings- ¥idter, —_—— S46 The Society of Arts have published a description of a filter by Mr Moult, which consists of a vessel in whi Mc Mowlt’s the foul water is contained, and a bason of ats ering Mr Hem- pel’s. Harman & Dearn’s gravel filters, stone bei in it, the water will percolate the stone into its cavity, from whence it can be taken up clear and fit for use ; or the filtered water may be drawn off, by means of a curved leaden pipe, to reach over the edge of the bason and act as a , with a cock at the lower end. By this plan of filtering the water into the bason, the d it is not left on the stoné, and will therefore be less liable to clog ‘up a . The same principle was proposed by Mr Collier; his ma- chine Laer nd ofa pes or rh A vessel to contain the foul water. Within this vessel cylindrical tubes of earth- en ware are fixed ; these tubes are closed with a hemi- spherical end, but the other end, which is open, is ap- plied to the sides of the vessel, and closely Imted there- to, so thet no water can gain entrance into the vessel, without first penetrating through the substance of the tube. A was provided in the side of the vessel, opening within the tube to draw off the pure water. Mr Collier proposed also to fill up the vessel with pieces of broken ery, which, by presenting a great surface, would allow every facility to the deposition of the gross impurities of the water, and thus avoid the clogging up of the filter, and also render the process more expedi- trous. a A patent was granted in 1790, to Mr Hempel for a method of making filtering vessels or basons, from a spe- cies of pottery; the composition of which was four parts of tobacco pipe clay, mixed up with five of coarse sea, ri- ver, or drift sand. For large vessels, this composition is found liable to crack in the burning, equal parts of the clay and sand were therefore recommended ; and if this was found insufficient to prevent the tendency to cracking, one-ninth part of Stourbridge clay, or of old crucibles broken down and pounded, was to be added: the basons were turned in a potter's lathe, in the usual manner. The filtering stones most commonly used are not the’ best kind, as they are too expensive, hable to be broken; and will not produce so great a quantity of filtered wa- ter as others, which, in imitation of the great natural filters, have beds of gravel and sand for the water to pass through. A very ane apparatus for domestic use, consists of a cylindrical vessel of pottery, provided with a cock to draw off the clear water ; upon this is fitted another cylindrical vessel, having a globular bot- tom, which is pierced with small wales a stratum of coarse gravel is first spread in the vessel, over this a stratum of fine gravel, and above this fine sand. If the bottom of the vessel is covered with a coarse cloth, to keep the sand from running through the holes in the bottom, the gradations of gravel and sand will be rendered less necessary, A plate of earthenware, or a board, is laid upon the sand, and being perforated with holes, allows the water to pass, but prevents the disturbance of the sand when the foul water is poured in upon it, and in per- colating through the sand it is filtered. The fineness of the sand and the thickness of the bed will be regulated yy experment ; and it is one of the greatest advan this construction for a filter, that it can be so adapted to the of filtration which the water re- ires, the bed being made thick if the water is very i, and diminished in proportion to its purity, by which means tek ee can be pas- sed “ym i my ter. cane ae changed every 1 or three w to keep apparatus perfectly sweet and clean, FILTER. The late ingenious Mr Bramah, had a patent for va rious modes of conveying and ing off beer and other liquors, in he describes a filtering appara~ ed to ‘in the pipes to conduct was a cyl vessel, made of cop~ troduced to the vessel near the lower part to i the liquor, and from near the u end a si proceeded to convey it away. Between these fixed the filtering floor, consisting of flannel, bags, sponges, or porecagisar man se ich sp u a horizontal plate pierced full of holes, end ited .in-the oplinnleh dade abe ering : stance ; another similar plate was fixed and i He é t ey 5 i ES L i ; g : # 5 E é q i z lower pipe by means of a pump or otherwise, and as~ cending through the inecing Same passed off in a clari« fied state: the impurities which ¢ collect in the conical bottom of the. cylindri ssel, whence ; a vessel, they can be drawn off by a cock. This contrivance adapted to give a slight filtration to a great quantity of patent for a method liquor, such as beer. n 1791, Mr Peacock took out a the filtering bed. Mr Peacock tor sandy gravel, sand, broken and pulverised glass or tery, &c. These were to be C +o ings, and then sorted by sieves into a number of differ- ent sizes ; these are to be spread in different layers, be- ginning with the largest and spreading the smaller par- ticles over these, in a regular gradation, until the finest is at the top. This arrangement is better than that have before spoken of, when the water through the finest, being less liable to choke Professor Parrot of Paris, invented a filter v acting both by the ascent and descent. It is in the Philosophical Journal to consist of a 4 : ces _ =o . 1 6 af 1 ~? ' : ef f i tal TAT SPELETE filters through the sand, and passes off. At the top the lowest leg, it is recommended to have three inches of difference een the level of the two surfaces of the water, and eighteen inches of pure sand for the water to h. When the section of the tube was four inches by two, that is eight square inches, it would pass six Paris pints of pure water every hour, Mr John Isaac Hawkins has contrived a filtering apparatus, which we consider as better adapted for do- mestic } ; ' 4 is to be compel of Shrconl, pounded tesa Cnre sad as and above this, other ‘increasing in size, which are as ease; the wh vered with a board wtb haked to: edenit ~~ Mr Pea- BF g i FIN SAT FIN charcoal bein disturbed when the water is poured ed in. a few years ago, invented a new instrument, consistin Fingeve _‘Raohee for ofthe apart wry, wel apie) of a rotative bow of horse NT eradaso Kore the use of a ship’s company, It consists of a cask di- act at pleasure u catgut strings, which he denomi- Instrt- vi a vertical partition, which does not quite nated ‘a Fingerteyed wal. or claviole. M. Chladni 2 bottom, but leaves a space for the passage of likewise invented a new instrument, called 2 Keyed water. ‘The bottom of the cask is filled with pow- Cylinder.. See the Monthly Magazine, vol. xxviii. p. space whe bottom of the partition. Ste fool tad oth ord ere f Finger-k at ; ition. The water e ordinary arrangement of F% eys ing pera ene of the divisions of this.cask, is fil ~The ordinary torn tre the distonie sale, or that in in passing to the other, by being obliged to de- ‘which. five notes and two half notes are comprised in scend through the charcoal on one side, ‘and ascend the octave, two whole notes or long keys being asso« the other. This machine affords a great quill: ciated together, and three such, with a half tone be- tity water; and the known antiseptic quality the tween each of these groups, which are separately called charcoal is of great ‘consequence in Temovin, any taint a ditone, and a tritone by Dr Callcott. In the former with which water is often affected; and is not of these groups, two, shorter keys ot este.) colour easily removed by any other filter, unless indeed it is (now usually , the long keys being white, ) are in- made very fine, such a thick filtering-stone, and this serted between the long ones; and, in the tritone, two as will it the water to pass but very slowly. such short keys are in , by which the whole ~ most simple filter for experimental inquiries is douzeave, or range of 12 notes in the octave, is com- made by a piece of blotting aper, rolled up to forma pleted, and every other octave, above and below, is but isted tight at the point, so that asepennn i See pe oat sees Dees ave | the pores of most conspicuous and. best marked finger key 4 Ll E z E FS F i is to be p' in. the neck, of in the arrangement above described, is the long one i in the middle of the ditone, which belongs to the letter ee eee crc D, which is the second of the aa op the fa cone ina state. at C, ing to e fin< int ther method, which is still more delicate, is ger keys are as follows: viz. et ob fy Dar aly a ae ea CK Ey) Fa GH Bp this purposes, ® Bunch of coarse cotton threads, as i cael lp nasal are used for the wicks. of lamps end candles, is bang =e a va over the edge, so that one end of the bunch is Ditone. Tritone. a i z ¢ z this it will be drawn up on one side, and conveyed ments are obli to be so tuned, ‘that every shor wote the cotton, from the ends of which it will ip y indiscri tely serve either for the rp of that very but in a most state of purity from on its left hand, or for the of that on its right, and all extraneous mixtures. It is scarcely necessary to even so that E and F, and B and c, may also serve as mention, that the cotton must be wetted with the li- the flats or sharps of each other respective 7- begin when it is first put in This very confined nature of the key-board, or Se action. Ae eee thick flannel, if itis doubled three tnt a ge eye ln, presented a eis ba oi four times, will answer the same purpose particu- provement in the tune of th or = well. tones, until at length Mr Hawkes roduced his patent ‘Wood. i very i | apparatus has recent! instruments, on which all the five s notes might be been invented by Mr James of Edinburgh. A tuned to sharps, and, b: means of a pedal, dhe danltiec- ' gen Rodan eae yea apr onamenger ip tion of the keys with t strings or pipes might be ‘the water, which i the pores of the instantly loosed, and the same short keys be made to ‘wood the pressure of; forcing-pumpy Mr Innes net on another set of those tuned to flats, thereby intro- has en this simple machine ‘or purifying oil and = duci 17 sounds in the octave, but with the disadvan- _ other tage of being unable to use a flat of any-one note and : : a of another at the same time. But these and Acad. Par. 1185, Hi 82; 1148, Hi cL dtperory and MeL the eben in py nea of oven Po _ chines ut , tom. vii. ); Her of Mr Liston now remedy, by means ot sev , of dri vol. ii, p. 230; Caller, Tilloch’s Phil. Maga- dals, adapted to take away two at a time at ba zine, vol. vi. p.'240 ; Peacock, Repertory of Aris, yol, end of the scale, (See our article Succession fF ietus), Parmer send, ) Nicholson’s Journal, _ and to ly to the same finger-keys two ats in the m! Nicholson place p. 40; Sir H, Engl Nicholson’s Journal, vol. ix. stance, out of the original scale that we have represent. pa. See also. , vol. xiii, p. 140; and Gil- ed above, the first flat pedal will remove GX and CX, 's Journal der vol. xiii, p..108. (3.F-) and supply in thet places replace rst sharp FINDER. See Texescors. — pedal will remove Ey and Bp, and replace their connec- yt tion 1e short finger-k s, by Dx and AX, and so See Vexrenino. . on, leaving the performer the present uses of the -FINGER-Kevep Instruments, in Music, are in key* except during the instants when the pedals finger- al such as are performed 1 ing with in ; ea mo Fey rs on However perfect and easy the use of the present r . aaa gem 2 key-board snap eta to ee a raved om Layering barillons -or carillons, are well known pedals above ates . existed for ‘of instruments, Mr Johnilsaac Hawkins, ‘simplifying it for the use of children beginners. — ares 4 4 E 7 : e $ a] E i = an : | i a : : : = ; ride. } i 2 i - be - of this latter invention in the Repertory, vol. xxii. p. witht hy see eee eee ae TNGER:- Kev Intervals, in Music, or degrees of the vals as are linked | | ; i i : among themselves! as the Isotonic system was five different sounds, except i ‘ ; alone in use, notwi ding the high probability, produces only four sounds, making in all 59 sounds: (¢) rament has never yet been heard on the rarely so FINLAND, a division of Sweden, but} 4 (or sary oar Ik) 3a he piano-forte ; and it is certain nexed to Ruscia, is ditusted teteses G0? aa CO 39 that use on that instrument, while the key-board remains li- Proper, East Bothnia, Tawartland, Nyland, Sawolax mited as at present. Fortunately, the new notation and Keymenegard, The Aland or Oeland Islands, which we use, enables us to ma e this classification about 80 in number, and generally small, are situated at without any trouble, because every interval, 1 pat laggy ere Meammies es expressed in Farey’s Notation, (See that article), has Finland , and in 1792 contained 11,260 inhabi- the f’s therein equal to its number of finger-key mter- tants. The named Aland, is about Hil. ey Cas See cee Eee emer aera T12 2 1571. The inhabitants of these islands, who appeat'te 1,2 3 have been originally Laplanders and Fins, live toa pix $28 pv gret age; an about 208 of them are registered a si 13 9 } 5 » WI y from the government amounts to about xVIL 6 lyIV 5000 rixdollar yearly, In most of these islands, 637 K4 senor sd ms webb omge A ; 9 278 language people 5 a Finnish 12 wir bIV —— to be heard only in Helsing. %S 5\2 4 » the south-west province, extends Finland ! 590 hi and 83 from west to east. It is diversified ‘* ree 231 b4 with lakes, rivers, woods, arable pe a | vu 4\2 U1 grounds ; and, though inadequately cultivated, is tole- | 533 x11 | tably fertile. Its towns, which are all situated on the p VU 174 coast, are, Abo, the capital of the provin a bislionte 10 pa } pill see, and the seat of a university, about 41 Swedish : “VI 3\)-s } N. E. of Stockholm, and containing about 8750 inha- 486 XII bitants ; Nystadt, a a ee pcm, amt bb VH 197 port, north of Abo, and surrounded by a pleasant 9 b7 ppII17 | of country; Biorneborg, an ancient but insignificant VI . es oops and Nadenhal, a little town to the north of XK V u A “a ka r..54 hie c ) East or Cajania, extends the gulf of - pvr at pa $01.1 uietiens b temicladee eciauy or Feenh Gnas 8 6 } pil ards of 100 leagues in and between 30.and av Ag lee tose: bee > ari runs and “- bb.vVI a1 east boundaries of the province. The towns, ds Vv 93 |, proceed northwards, are, Christinastadt, a small trance ; Wasa, a sea- town, rapidly increasing 328 ann ? {2 trade, provided with «tibunal of tice for the north 0 of Finland, and containing, in 1790, about: ‘inhae zif Fonch bitants ; Gamla Carleby, a. stall’ but Numerals = | f |Numerals| about 34 leagues 8, W, of in Finland. borg, —y—" mouth of the rapid fyland. awolax. i contains six. FINLAND. the capital of the province, a trading town at the ‘river Ulea, with a : very bad har- bour, containing about 4000 inhabitants, and celebrated for its exports of salmon and tar ; Tafwartland, or Ta- vastia, situated to the eastward of Finland Proper, is about 80 leagues in length from south-west to north- east, and between 20 and 30 in breadth. It is the most fertile and beautiful district in Finland, but is very thin- ly inhabited, and poorly cultivated. It is mountainous towards the north; and towards the south full of lakes, one of which, named: Pajana, is 80 miles long, and 15 broad, _ Its principal and almost only town is Tamast- thus, or Kroneborg, a small place, situated in a fertile on the banks of a lake, about 28 miles N. E. of bo. _— - 4 4 . Nyland stretches along the north coast of the Gulf of Finland about 40 leagues, and is between 15 and 18 in breadth from north to south. It is level, fertile, and and designed as a bulwark against the encroachments of the Russians; Borgo, a but ancient town, about 10 leagues eastward of the last mentioned, pleasantly situated on a hill, and containing a university, or rather academy, tt by seven professors ; Lovisa, or De- gery, formeny the frontier town between Russia and inland, in the midst of a remarkably stony or rather rocky country, but provided with a very conve- nient harbour. Sawolax, an inland province to the north of Nyland, extends about 70 leagues from north to south along the confines of Russia, and about 30 from west to east. It is covered with forests, rivers and lakes. The lake of Saima, which is nearly 160 miles in length, and 25 at its breadth, lies partly in this province, and within the Russian territories, and has a com- oe lake La by ee plage: acd river Voxen. . Its cipal town, ot, is situa ie: wom ot : which lies on the south-east extremi- ty of Finland, is naturally fertile, but thinly inhabit- ed, and almost destitute of cultivation. Its chief town is i aarp of oe Kexholme, once belonging to this provinee, have |} been inclu- ded. im Russian Finland. ™ 4 Russian Finland, forming the province of Wybourg, was ceded by Sweden, partly in 1791, ae thivjaned of Nystadt, and ly in 1741, by the treaty of Abo; and icts,—W ybourg, Fredericksham, Wil- manstrand, Nyslot, K e, and Sardobol. The whole of Finland, indeed, is now to be included by the geographer, within the wide extent of the Russian em- pire. . pa mts the scene of many bloody struggles between the 349 } ing vessels, though its stream is so rapid, that b Py riegat down 0 Fa at the rate of 18 English miles in the hour ; the Cano, which s Biorneborg; the Aurajoki at Abo, about 100 yards broad, and re- markable for its muddy waters; the Kymen, which flows into the middle ofthe Gulf of Finland, and forms the boundary between Swedish and Russian Finland. ‘The mountains of Finland often contain a brown mix- ture of felspar and mica. Lead ore is found in various parts, and a ferruginous earth from which iron is ex- tracted. There are, in many places, very extensive fo- rests, and one particularly to the north of Abo, about 80 miles in length. Great devastations are occasioned in these forests by the tempests of winter, which seem to find access to the very centre of the wood, by de- scending in the manner of a tornado, and which tear up by the roots, or break in the middle of the trunk, or bend to the earth, the most enormous pines. Fre- quently also similar ravages are committed by confla- ions, occasioned by the carelessness of the peasants in smoking their pipes and making fires in the woods ; and sometimes, it is su , intentionally kindled, from an interested motive, as the inhabitants are allow= ed to cut down, for their own use, any trees in the = forests, which have been injured by the burning. he climate and seasons of Finland vary consider- ably in different parts of the country, according to their latitude and situation. At Uleaborg, which is the most northerly town, the winter commences in October and continues to the end of April. The spring is limited to the month of May ; the summer begins in June, and lasts three months; the autumn, like the spring, is con~ Finland. —_—~_ Mountains, Forests, Climaie. fined to one month, and both commences and termi« . nates in ber. ca oer — vex t ae are pretty 4 icu about the middle of Au-. gust ; and in se eaedaen of July, the pot herbs in the no have been known to ~e Lon the frost. rom the beginning of summer, however, the progress of v ion, as in most other northern latitudes, is re- markably rapid ; and there have been instances of grai being sown and reaped in the neighbourhood of Ulea- , in the space of six weeks. In the southern parts of country, near the Gulf of Finland, the heat in summer is equal to what is generally experienced in Portugal; and the long continuance of the sun above the horizon increases the temperature above that of more southern countries. At Uleaborg, the middle temperature of the four seasons, according to a mean rtion of 12 years, was found to be in winter 10 below zero, in spring and. autumn six degrees above the ing point, and in. summer 15°. The surface of the country, besides what is occupied by large lakes and forests, is frequently covered with marshes and masses of stone; but not more so than other ek Seed, ag i Eat percep is a ess fertile an 8. soil is generally of a san nature, pee nay ph the cn papee. 4 of riyulets, that,the proper earthy mould is tobe seen. Finland, however, ts to the view many rich pas- tures, and fields of grain, icularly of rye, oats, bar. ley; and even wheat. The principal exports of the country are salt, iron, copper, pitch, tar, deals, rye, butter, oil of seals, skins, tallow,. salt-beef, dried fish, and vessels built of fir ; but the mode of agriculture and kinds of produce are so similar to those of Sweden in general, that we refer to the account of that country for -@ more particular statement, on the subject... It may here, however, be remarked, as a curious circumstance, that the Finnish plough is of a very ancient model, and Soil. 350 “FINLAND. Fioland. resembles the primeval instrament of agriculture in The Finnish abounds in proverbs, bearing Finland, ——’ Egypt and other eastern countries: Its form is that of wach comatlenstie tkiencattessl tee, =e an alpha placed horizontally, and having one side shorter and generally expressive of sound sense and acute re- than the other < , which, being ti with metal, en- mark. They are in Runic or alliterative verse, ters the ground, while the cattle are attached to the and divided into two ‘the latter of which longer limb: (See Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. p. 216.) contains an illustration of the former. “ A good man Inhabitants, The Fins appear to have been the —- inhabitants spareth from his peck, b of Sweden, and to have proceeded their settle- from ments around the White Sea, a country formerly styled shall do, Permia, or Biarmia, and still exhibiting remains of their ed which is ; is ancient prosperity. They are short in stature, with shall 1 do ?"—‘ The tool of flat faces, dark grey eyes, a thin beard, tawny hair, and sharp, but the plough-share of the fool a sallow complexion ; but those who inhabit the more a southern and western districts of Finland, while they inhabitants of Finland are not t retain the national features, havea superior appearance, the influence of music; but, owing probably to the and are scarcely to be distinguished in their manners imperféction of their national instrument, they have ‘ from the Swedes. In Russian Finland, however, they not made much progress in the art. Their native in- have a slowness of motion, a depression of spirits, a strument, the harpu, consists of five strings or chords ‘ "simplicity, and almost stapidity of look, which forma of metal, each of which sounds a distinct note, G60, striking contrast with the livelyaspect, alert movements, d, ¢, and within the compass of these five poo = the ? 1 e and cheerfuf humour of the Russians ; but these cir. whole of their music is confined. But cumstances miy be chiefly owing to their condition as been introduced in later times; and the music of a conquered , imitating and dreading their mas- Finlanders is beginning to acquire a more varied cha- ters. More ly than the Muscovites, they are notso racter. ~ warmly clothed, and seldom wear the sheep skin ; but have a coat of coarse woollen stuff, made without re- without any variety of step or motion, except alter- gard to shape, and tied round the body with a band, a nately laying the arms over each other ; and the whole pair of coarse linen drawers, or loose pantaloons, straw ‘exercise is performed with sufficient vigour, but with shoes, and pieces of woollen cloth, or ropes of straw entire gravity, and most unexpressive countenances. . ve 2 ‘wrapped round their legs. ‘ The houses in Finland, and frequently even the Houses. Language. _ It is chiefly in the northern parts of Finland, or ra- churches and_other public edifices, are constructed of ther in Lapland, that the ancient Finnish language is wood, generally painted red ; but they are nevertheless heard. Along the gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, the _ sufficiently warm, and sometimes too much so for the Swedish language prevails in the towns; and the ings of those; who are not accustomed tova close at- eantry speak a mixed dialect —— — —_ ere. The habitations of the its are well ‘Fins were subj d by Eric I ing weden, built, and afford complete protection the severity and couteratontieCicaoten faith in 1156; and from of the winter cold; and, notwithstanding the du- that period, literature, especially eI paar ration of that season, and the seeming sterility of the + Poetry. more generally cultivated a them. The verse soil, | i 4 d "which they employ is ealled Runic, in which the lines than the same class in more southern regions, They “consists of eight syllables, a long and a short in suc- nae! Sym set before the traveller at least fresh and ‘cession ; but, instead of aR ee rhymes, they - milk, salt herrings, or a little salt meat ; and begin with alliteration, having at two or more they are rich in all that they consider as stituti words which agree in the same letter or sound, as in the enjoyments of life. If at any time they have the following specimen : ‘money than i th ther lay it up for future emergencies, or convert it into Nuco nuco pico Tinto 0 Drese. some Wessi wessi wester eki. small wooden dwelling, to see the water presented in a These Runic verses are rarely committed to the press, women are warmly clothed, and above their other gar- or even to writing, but are chiefly transmitted by oral ments wear a large linen shift, which gives them the communication ; and none are found of an earlier date appearance of bemg'in an house, th than the era of the Reformation. ‘men generally throw off their coat, and even in that In the more inland districts, the peasantry are much bat whch they go ot tages date inthe in { in | - addicted to this species of composition; and many of but when they go out to a distance them, unaided by education, are capable of producing ter’season, wear a kind of short coat made these verses on ordinary subjects, sometimes in a great skin, or a woollen surtout, fastened round the middle measure extempore. The recitation or composition of ‘with a girdle; and pull over their boots coarse woollen such songs, sometimes accompanied with the harp, stockings, both for warmth and for on forms one of the most frequent amusements of the the ice. Most of the peasants have a small house for Se Sa . Onthese ‘the of taking the warm bath, which is done in occasions, the reciter or peet stands in the midst of a the following marmer. A number of stones in the. circle of auditors, and having sung or delivered one nermost part of the chamber are heated by fire till tl line, a coadjutor, bey the ‘last word, or the last become red; and water being thrown upon them in th ‘but one, finishes the line along with him, and then re- state, the bathers are involved in a cloud of thick - it alone ; which gives the er time to recol- » in an atm of 70 or 75 degrees of Celsius. or compose the succeeding line, which he then [n this heated oppressive air, they remain nal ‘sings, and his assistant repeats in like manner, until for the space of half an hour or evena whole hour, : “the poem is ended. wit bing their bodies, or lashing them with bunches | eBie 3 - af aa FINLAND. $51 twigs; and uently go out without any covering to face. Four or five persons set sail in an open boat with Finland. R orsed the ope eee 5 ganagelicnin tha taaes m one small mast; and»expose themselves during the’ ““\—-—" = the degree of cold is 20° or 30° below zero; thus making space of a month or more, and inthe most unfavourable _ —_ an ir taneous transition of 100 d whichis als circumstances; to‘all: the ofthe ocean. In this Hunting. Ht i ing effect their frames, and recruits their strength ps. cpa ese inn contT Lexar » The Finnish are at all seasons busily em- oyed in active labour; and even in the depth of winter Fin abundance of employment both in the house and. abroad. Within, ee 2 heme e ne constructing cart w! forming faggots for ; or oa flekic sem, pk nko doves, hoy: louk cera incredible velocity, by means of a pole which they hold in their hands; and when they have reached the place where they intend to fish, errunlee wn come to shelter them from the wind, perforate the ice with a chissel, plunge their line into the sea to the depth of about 30 feet, and are sometimes obliged to continue stir- the surface of the water to prevent it from freezing. shing with nets, they make two ings in the and by means of ropes and long poles pass the nets from the one to the other, which they afterwards draw out with great labour. In autumn, when the frost be- gins to set in, and the ice is most the fish- erman courses along the rivers with a wooden club or mallet in his hand ; and when he observes a fish under the ice in shallow water, he strikes a violent blow per- pendicularly above it, which at once breaks the ice and Sine seeder Ghapadpenss' bc toontinp ei ven thoy ment made e n e take post in the of their haunts, behind » should it still be passable. _ In these extremities the animal makes a ing to reach the assailant ; but the slowness pursuit their little bark is continually placed between, masses of ice, which threaten to;crush it to pieces; and in order to reach the seals, they must creep along the Paka ear killing them as they repose upon the ice. During the same season they hunt the squir-. rel, which they kill with a blunt wooden arrow, shot from a cross-bow, that they may not injure the skin. The bow used in this sport, is of a very ancient con« struction, extremely heavy, and requiring great strength to bend it, even with the assistance of a thong. The peasantry are remarkably dexterous both in the use of. this bow and of the fowling-piece, loading the latter al- ways with ball, and rarely missing the smallest bird. They employ for this purpose a kind of rifle gun with a narrow bore, which requires butia very small charge;: and yet carries to a considerable distance. ‘The winter Winter tra- season of traffic ; and all the great velling. also is the principal fairs are held in Finland and Sweden in that time of the year, in consequence of the facility of carrying goods over the ice, and travelling in sledges on the snow. » The peasants on these occasions frequently undertake jour- nies of three or four hundred English miles, carrying along with them whatever articles they have for sale.. In Finland, the sledges are very narrow, containing on- ly one person, and drawn by a single horse; and the roads are deep ruts formed by the successive passage of these vehicles, thus admitting none of a larger size than what are generally used in the country. The circum- stance of being overturned is rarely productive of any serious consequences ; and the dangers attending the traveller arise chiefly from those parts of the rivers or lakes where the ice is insufficient to support the weight. Excepting the bear, which rarely comes, from his den - to attack the inhabitants, until he is first provoked, the only other savage creatures ‘in the country are wolves ; those, even when starving, will not venture singly to assail the Lee a When assembled, however, in herds, and impelled by famine, they sometimes rush upon the horses in the sledges; and should the travel« ler be overturned and left upon the road, he must fall a prey to their ferocity, Many 8! vailamong the inhabitants,some of which will come more properly to be noticed under Swepen, as being com- of his 1 renders his efforts unavailing, and he is mon to both countries, and others of them under Laps soon di without much risk. The Finlanders’ tanp, where these ancient peculiarities have suffered mode of hunting the bear requires a of least change. A Finlander, when about to‘form a mas intrepidity and presence of mind. Instead of a musket, r Fess at 7 A z See BE a e g : : jets i = : } : i “ : H $ i : : Hi HH H i i in Hl i 3% 23.F ie it ut Pe a i ili trimonial connection, commissions some old women to make|known his proposals to the object of his affections, at the same time sending a present of a handkerchief, - . al usal, which may nevertheless yield to a second pro- posal, unless the’ young woman, instead of returnin the gift~with her hands, suffers it todrop'to the ground, which is counted a positive token of decided rejection. marriage, one of the friends or neighbours, with or speaker, does the rea of the feast, y also recites verses, or makes them ex« suitable to the occasion ; and, on the day fol~ after addressing some advices to the married - and sometimes indelicate customs pre- Customs, : Fire-escapes doped rarely Fixed. couple, he strikes the woman repeatedly round the eee ichthe husband's breeches, r to be fruitful, and to furnish him with heirs of his own body. In some places, a practice rese the bun- i of the Americans, is ssid. to aot in the to and among the peasantry inland, a cupudences the utmost kindness and hospitality. fie is always treated as the first person in the company, and every endeavour Is made to consult his taste and gratify his feelings. Even Bp oe be yr inhabi- tants of the towns, a strange rather startling mode of testifying satisfaction with a visitor, is practised by the ladies, who, as soon as the entertainment is conclu- ded, give him a slap upon the back when he is least ing it; and the more forcible the application of the ihe tangee ie he Slee good will. The peasants display great disinterestedness in their services to strangers, and can seldom be induced, with- out considerable importunity, to accept a pecumary remuneration for any occasional assistance, which they may have rendered. See Coxe's 7: ravels in Russia, §c. ; Acerbi’s Travels in Sweden, &c. ; Wraxal’s Tour round the Baltic; Swinton’s Travels into Norway, Sc. 3 Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. (9) FIRE-Eecarss are machines for enabling persons to descend from the windows of a house when it is on fire, and when the stair-case and are so filled with the flame or smoke, as pt geen a retreat by the ordinary avenues: Some of these machines are contrived to convey down valuable goods as well as le. ey ee who is awakened from a profi os by the flames of a fire, which has already made su progress as to cut off all retreat, has no other alterna- tive than leaping from a window, of great taaight, co peneieen hy, So Sane his is a situation so |, as to d every exertion of ingenuity, and every regulation of the which can contri~ bute to the relief of the Frequently as this y is repeated in London, every new instance a lively impression on the public mind, and fails to give rise to the invention of some new Jfrre-escape; yet still we do ergy apa adopted po mapege , as toremedy the evil. This may be owing, ei to the inefficiency of the a patie or to the lect of the istracy to provide a proper number. oT fachines for th P are of two different kinds, first, those which are mtended to operate from the street below, and can be quickly erected to communi- cate with any window : OF this kind are ladders, and poles with pullies and ropes to draw up_a_ basket, also a variety of curious and complicated machines or ele« yators ; of course all such machines must be kept at the public expence, for the service of a whole parish, in the same manner as fire-engines, and must be made to remove very readily. The other kinds of fire- escapes are those which can be fixed to a window, and allow the unfortunate sufferer to descend safely into the street. Machines of this kind are intended to be in the bed-rooms of the house; and each house must be provided with one at least, to render the con- trivance generally effective. Both kinds have their in- conveniences ; first, from the difficulty of con- veying them with dispatch from the places where they are deposited, to the situation where they are to act: This objection they have in common with fire-en- gives but it is here more sensibly felt, because the fire-escapes which have been made, are but very few in number; nor can it indeed be expected that they lice, ferer. FIRE-ESCAPES. will be unless parishes were obliged by law to keep fire-escapes as well as fire- < ~, sondh ton’ ; 7 Oat to both. case the same regulations might be At nents fe eee towns, Fire-lad fire-ladders are kept in every church-yard, for the ser- ders. vice of any fire which may happen within a reasonable distance. This regulation is in a great measure render- ed useless from inattention in the keeping 2a ee ee removed. is clerk of the parish ; but the nearest watchman, or every procure the key until too late. We have seen, some years ago, a long ladder, vided with a 5 adv hoeakaj witch arene takedial axletree a’ to the lower end of the ladder, with- in about three feet of the extremity. A weight was Re RE. RT ER NR muc its weight, t one man, by treading the lower end, could elevate it upon the axle of the wheels ; but when raised to about an grees, the end of the ladder touched the ground, and > therefore if it was elevated more than that, the wheels: were born off the port itself i This simple addition of wheels to a fire-ladder is great advantage, not less in conveying it to the in rearing it, which is always a work of mu bour, and those who are unused to it, of rea E difficulty. With the wheels, ing is more easy, the weight scshelennt json heosioleenioarade ane Le ee tor otaid aia cae at utmost, can walk qui Ww ing’ longer onthe shoulders fom the difiaiy ing exactly equal paces. The length of the ladder should be from 25 to 30 feet, according to the kinds of houses in the neighbourhood ee This simple contrivance to us of more utility than any other which we have seen: z i roposed, Amidst the number of ingenious, plicated machines, which have been rewarded and : t that a sufficient number of fire-ladders, thus mounted, and as the ladders now are in the church-yards, would be the most effective provision that could be made against accidents of this nature. As we are not’ al without hopes of seeing this arrangement adopted, we shall add a few words on the best and most. economical method of constructing such ine ; be- cause when great numbers are requi ee is an object of attention. The two spars of the r may be formed out of a clean piece of fir, such as i used for masts and oars. Each should be about inches by three at the lower end, and ing up to three by two at the other; now; are much weakened by the holes bared through for the rounds or steps, we propose to use pean and at yer ii the render them more strong, For this purpose, be divided fom the middle $9 within thres ox 4 of each of its ends, by a saw-kerf, made in the cawok hi: 7 i Hin ; it : ; tion. Pro- Ladder wi an wheels, ape ih = a te _ Construce 4 | : : Poe FIRE-ESCAPES. n of the of the piece; a ‘ is then to to ten tt i: be fitted into th ing, which will be eight mile, and grad y diminishing to no- ; emcabaasiene ion ey at the proper place for every round or step which is intended o be made i the ladder ; wht Aen of the rounds i 3 S z the rounds, where they touch the insides of the open- ing; should be let into the wood the ‘of an inch to prevent them from moving. The whole is to be bound fast by slight iron hoops, d on from the ends, and ‘at the ‘solid ends, to the Tpliting farther than was in By this method a ladder is formed of Very , Without in- i end of the rope, the remainder being » and the lower end of the ladder, so'as to be in no danger of t. In ~ this way, the ion of the ladder will not be at all impeded, and the rope will always be ready for action, ne bps Ne end of the rope, and thus releasing the is rope be extremely useful to haul up wari aen, : i F Fire-escape A machine is described in the Annual Register, some with a pole, years ago, with a rope and basket; but a pole from 36 to 46 feet in length was used in place of the ladder. This the pole, two Calle echin or VOL. IX, PART I. e direction. ‘Several ‘petsons could apply their forts: very advantageously at the ends of then jpoles to elevate the great one ; and when it was raised, the poles formed legelikes tripod, to strengthen the great pole, and prevent it from hating inthe middle. Itis stated that a pole of this’ sort was elevated, and two or three per- sons lowered from the upper windows of a house, into the street, in the space of 35 seconds, or rather more than half a minute. Still, as the pole was five inches diameter at the base, and three at the upper end, it could not, with the addition of the side poles and bas- ket, be rendered very portable, and, from its length, it would be troublesome to turn the angles of narrow streets, and therefore we prefer the ladder with wheels, which is extremely of transportation, and which, from the facility of raising it by the balance weight, can be elevated to'turn a narrow'corner. [ff it is trussed, as we have described, it will have as much strength’ as the pole, when propped in the middle by the two short ones. We think it is scarcely’ necessary to describe any other machines, except very briefly. ~The principle of ‘several of them is to have two, =k or four ladders, fitted one upon the other, or rather one within the other, _and provided with a tackle by which they can be ele- tothe height ofthe window. The most complete of this kind is ibed by the Society of Arts, in their Transactions, vol. xxviii. The base of the machine is a four-wheeled carriage, with apair of shafts for a horse to draw it. The lowest of the three ladders is ‘fitted in the carriage by a bolt, on which it can be inclined side- wise at pleasure, to reach the window, and retained at any elevation by a frame with screws. The three lad- ders are made to fit one within another, and provided with iron clamps to confine them er. In the back of the frame, beneath the ladder, is a windlass, which receives the ropes for sliding up the ladders. These consist of two parallel ropes, hem from. the windlass, and passing-over two pullies, fixed at the u end of the principal or lowest ladder, and the are made fast to the bottom of the second ladder. Therefore, by turning the windlass, the are drawn, and the second ladder is elevated upon the first. The third ladder is likewise provided with two parallel ropes, passing over pullies, at the top of the second ladder, and attached to the bottom of the third; but the opposite ends of these ropes, instead of being carried down to the windlass, are made fast to any part of the lower ladder : in this way they have the same effect to raise up the third upon the second, when that is elevated upon the 855 Fire. - Escapes. og pt arlene. ngs ich they might Among the many kinds of food which are given Masintindiceances of sheti fish is one of the most whole- some and abundant; and such is its powerful influence on , that it is y allowed that the empire of owes the immense number of its inhabitants 355 ’ other, the two innermost bei part of the bi FIS elevated upon the onter- most by a rope and pulley, if necessary by the aid of a windlass. The Sender consists of two square tubes and a square beam, the first square tube containing the second, and the second containing the square beam. All these aye supported in a vertical position by four legs, the lower extremity of the first or outer square tube resting on the ground. By means of a pulley moved by a windlass, the second square tube can be elevated upon the first, and the square beam upon the second square .tube, to the height required. About four or five feet scores dar ces square beam is fixed a form, upon which the fireman stands while he is raised to the height for the purpose of directing the pipe of the engine, the end of which is fixed upon an universal joint on the top of the beam, so that the fireman has no weight to support, but is in directing the pipe to the proper - i one rgrabcagrnnegy the magistrates ve ordered ese i nious machines to be constructed for the use of the town, and we trust every other town in Scotland will follow their example. of the ladder when about 42 feet long will not exceed £5; that of the elevator £13 or £14, The elevator may be applied to many other ; and Mr Lamb pi also to i y pecan may raise himself, » An account of a fire which supports itself, will be found in the Acta Petropolitana, vol.i, p. 1. See also ’3 Theatrum Machi: m, tab. 54, 57 ; Emerson’s Mechanics, 228; Varcourt, Mem. Acad. Par. 1761, Hist. 158; Collins, American Transactions, tom. iv, or of Arts, vol. xv. p. 25; Audibert, Mem. de Institut. tom. iv. or Repertory, vol, i. p. 439, I. FP. ( FIREWORKS. See Pyrorecuny. FIRST, in Music, sometimes implies the first, and sometimes the second chromatic of the scale: rota 6 Me jf ag ih naage i is the Semirone Radix, and marked with an its last stroke. astonishing quantities of fish with which they Fisheries. — i however, we rehend, may ——~ boast of a greater and choier ‘arety than even Chi — na; for, out of about four h species, a3 de« 3 scribed by Linneus, we can enumerate nearly one and fifty to be inhabitants of our own waters, and almost all these are esculent. in herring, with their numerous con- salmon... These, when pickled,or ied, find at all times a neacly: YORE in the European continent, or West India islan For the other kinds which we have not here specified, there is always a de« mand, either as fresh, green, or cured fish, for home 356 FISHERIES. seb F 5823 Fee . Ps 3 1 i : fein PEE Es Hani TEE] i i F ; E E E Hl = > f t of flavour was we believe generally, and we think justly, ascribed. The inhab rer paws oR ee ant capitals, but are too for in- of nation : r for a spirit of enterprize far above those ions. ed body, the Highland Society of Scotland, ertion and careful investigation, discovered and pointed par ney fleece neem re Ro and. by means of their reports, a bill was brought into June 1808, and. the provisions of it took place from the Ist of June 1809, and were to continue in force until the Ist of June 1813, and from thence to the end of the then next session of Parliament, (1814). | Some amend- ments were at that time and with these we the same act either has or will berenewed. It is a spirited and fair i and. we hope will-af- ford a proof of the utility and many advantages that must accrue to the state from a persevering prosecu- tion of all the branches of the deep-sea.fishing. Yet, at the same time, we must. remark, that this act is not without its imperfections; and it is to be that it did not embrace ions for some of our other fisheries, which so terference, such as conservancies for our rivers. Had the commissioners in that act been appointed as a court of conservancy, with a power, ing to lo« cal situation, to. constitute district courts under them, it might have saved that fishery from an uni to which it is fast. verging. The use of stake nets, -h and the wanton and prodigious destruction of the fry in various of the country, have been very injuri« ous to this . It would have been well, :too,, had it held out great and particular encouragement : ; : oa pably require parliamentary in- a fi é i ii F iH i: H. 2 5 i unction of the cod with the deep sea ; ane h FFE i fis ul i i HI H HF FE oi i (ie ce f : et be 4 zt id a B t for ution of our fisheries ; we applaud can not approve of any we have ; on a grand scale, has recommended ; and the fi ing are the outlines, ee ae corporations, Lee ar to the advantages of locality, and amount of ade aukiemage peesineein aaa po ticatld to 9tuae a: * We ronst, however, in these general observations, except the whale fishery, which has of late been carried on most stecessful~ Lords, In $ Plan of National I , Fe, 1803. MES 85 3,686,760 in one of a middling size, which weighed Fisheries." 12,540 grains. The flesh is a Al firm, comes off in = FISHE shreds, &c. constructed in Cod fish-- the inhabitantsof “7° Cod fishery. | the mildleof Aprils flakes, sores good, and held eo higher estimation. in ev of the world, except by i rhc that of its congener the haddock, (Gadus @glefinus). Various are the names given to it, both when fresh or pickled,—cod, keeling, cabillow or cabillaud, green fish, Iceland or mud-fish, Aberdeen . fish, North Sea.cod, stockfish, barrelled cod, poor John,.. - and; throughout Scotland, when dried, hard jish. Their young, and those under 20 inches, are called codlings. wn with us from February until and sooner recover than any, other. fish from their shotten state ; for, in a few weeks, after having shed their roes and-milts, they appear plump;: well coloured, and full about the tail. This species is:. infested with a variety of vermes, as the Gordius. _ marinus of Linneeus, the Echinorhynchus, the Cucul~ lanus marinus, the Fasciola piscium, the Tania ru- gosa, all of which are to be found at times in their: intestines, and. the Lernea asellina in their gills and fins. There is no fish of more general use, and: more suitable to all than the cod ; and it is in, plenty, and fit for eating, in some or other of the wa- ters which encompass our islands, at almost every time, of the year. It is to be found on both sides of the ther reo aces sosuhich it prefers aewdhe er its choice, as the region which it 's in Euro) is from 50'to 65 latitude; that-is, from near the Scilly. islands to Iceland; and in America, from about 41 to® 58 latitude ; that is, from about Rhode island to the: shores of the Eskimaux. gril ey shery, in which we include, of the same ge- nus, the ling (Gadus mola ), and tusk or torsk (Gadzs: brosme), forms the most extensive fishery of which Bri- tain can boast ; for we have not only the range of our) own islands in Europe, but the vast banks of New- foundland:and the fishing grounds along the shores of . Nova Scotia, St John’s, Cape Breton, and in the Gulf: of St Lawrence: all of them seas noted for the quan- ity of this valuable fish which they afford. t was found expedient, by the late act of parlia~ ment, to give what was th a liberal encourage- ment: to ae Scaeens a burden; in the: prosecution sea ing. > but it cer— tainly must be allowed to be fully 2s sekendocdyremdindie: able to that of the cod. » Herrings lie commonly nearer’ the shore; and as they are not so ofter found in the- strong rapid currents as the cod, the use of small open: boats is i and injudicious for that fishery, un= less it be with the view of affording a temporary: . supply of fresh fish for the inhabitants of the coast. fisheries, indeed, are carried on by the natives of" Scotland (with a few exceptions) ini a: awkward and slovenly manner. . The common m of taking’ cod, ling, haddock, &c. is to\go out only a few miles from the shores of their fishing-towns, with a crew con-' sisting of four or five’ hands, sometimes one or two of them boys, im an i undecked boat, carry- ing with a tires of long lines, which they of- with. These they drop on the: grounds, where they think the fish lie; and, when the’ weather is im the smallest boisterous, they leave them-attached to neat’s b! all night, and indeed frequently for many successive days and nights ; that is, until it becomes so-moderate'as'to suit their choice’ ' and conveniency to return. » They then draw up theixe Berkenhout’s Synopsis of the Natural History of Great Britain and Tretand.- a 358 Fuberies. lines, find the baited hooks stuck in the stomachs of the —_—\— Cad toh. ery. fish, or the fish exhausted struggling, or dead, or por barack mere venom fe in thio condihieitere what they call fresh cod, fresh turbot, and other kinds of fish caught by the line and hook, offered to sale in our markets, Let us now observe the modes that the Eng- lish and nen are tbs ent of their Mg alwa bobbing, that is pa gn, sae Pm arm, by which means, as in angling, the line and hook are in continual motion ; and, ling the fish the mo~- ment he bites, they instantly haul him ap. They are therefore all caught by the lip or mouth, which saves a great deal of time, as the Ghia t4ncesiiettyan- abled to renew the bait, not having to extricate the poe Se Rw or stomach ; besides, they are al en alive, without being torn or mangled, a consideration of no small im e In this manner, on the and uncomfortable banks of Newfoundland, each expert fisherman, although he can take butone at a time, will catch from two to three handred of their heavy fish ina.day. This is the most valuable cod-fishery in the world, and may be now said to belong entirely to Great Britain. The island is si- tuated between Lat. 46° 45’ and 51° 40’ North, and be- tween Long. 52°31’ and 59° 40’ West. The bank is about 70 miles from it, and is 400 miles i as the sandy ground; on the contrary, i fl £ i don, es from 12 to 20 tons bur- rigged in England the fisheries along the shores of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the i ‘Breton, a great part of heer, signifying an army, i the “greccebinh ie coasts. FISHERIES. _ ward, and Cape St Mary on the east. When a vessel ries. has taken her station on this or any other bay, she is = rig immediately unrigged, leaving only the shrouds to sus- Hering” tain the masts. eet — The livers of the whole genus Gadus, yield a well- flavoured oil. The zounds and tongues of the cod are suspect the account is some i Britain, and the United States, at the lowest computa- tion, annually em 8000 sail of small craft in this’ ; on board of which, and on shore to cure and: pack the fish, are upwards of 100,000 hands.” In our article Encranp, Vol. IX. p. 14. we have lied: an account of the quantity of fish caught, and ofthe number of vessels, &c. employed in the Newfoundland fis in different years. ‘ whe - Of late years, the English have sent a number of welled choy tivia chy deep weet; asbeatong eonvathor ae in water, currents, r oer pee adj n tion is ; have been extremely successful; and although at °F in small boats up to London. -©) |» Pi wlinragy Boros The name herring is derived from the German word ‘ as expressive of the numbers ding Sceospel annually appear upon the “- northern i Ce hol Our common herring is from 7 to 12 inches $ lines are small, and not easily perceived ; the under jaw is a little longer than the upper’ on ; the 2 sists of seventeen, the ventral of nine, oral seventeen, the anal fourteen, and chns-auth ack wie ios He dies instantly when taken out of water. ghee ais 6» 18 a oh This is the Clupea harengus of Linneus, Rondele- tius, Gesner, Willoughby, and Ray. The Halec of the eres: ’ é : i : t of herri Clupea alosa,) is the only one of the'genus Scene eaten ron ton in B Britain is only _ to be found in the Thames and Severn; where it is “the mont of November, December Jeary she Fucus, pbwotu al, (aled tS og FISHERIES. which ‘they have for lightning, and for that luminous Fisheries. of a middle size, found the weight of the spawn to number of eggs 36,960. the heaviest salmon. are found in our large ri is LES geste ii g it cu # a 3 & i Z superior flavour to all others: from 650 to $00 fill a barrel. Friths of Forth and Tay require about 1000 Murray Frith, it takes about af eet BE J been a matter of curious inquiry, how far to Ca resmeme sanennmnnnys erate shenienvin our shores.. We imagine that Liseupehasel.toueeniibes naturalists have mistaken the winter residence of the herrings, who say, “they return to their parental appearance in the sea, called by fishermen, waterburn. Abont the wadsetie or vely fi poonng Seay et the great shoal of i seemingly e 5 a pears towards the extremity of .the Shetland pigide Gulls and gannets, screaming andin flight ; whales and porpoises, rising and tumbling in the water, are the never failing harbingers of the-approach of this im- mense body of fish, forming a surface or extent of se~ veral hundred miles. A great rippling in the sea is al- so observed ; and sailors and fishermen aver, that they. can nose them from afar by their strong oily smell. Soon after they come near to Shetland, they separate into various large divisions, some taking to the western and others to the eastern shores of Great Britain and Ireland. A few of these columns likewise cross the North Sea, or German Ocean ; and the Swedes, ahout 1730, discovered a valuable herring fishery near to 359 Herring fishery. Gottenburgh, and which, from its contiguity to the - Baltic, them to undersell both the Scotch and Dutch, who formerly the whole of that trade. From. their first arrival in July, they keep along both the east and west coasts.of Scotland, and in October, many erratic movements, they fix their residence where mean to spawn. In these places they con- tinue until the end of February, (sometimes, but rarely, longer, pond constitute what we call our winter fishery, In rith of Forth, for these several years past, this has been a very productive fishery; and during .the present winter, 1814-15, the numbers of herrings there taken, and ht to the .Edinburgh markets, have yielded a most t supply: of nutritious food for bourhood. nejghbourioed of the inhabitants. of the city and its . the states of- Holland became independent, (1579, ) the herring fishery was carried on to an amaz- ing extent ; indeed the accounts given of it by various writers appear at this day almost incredible, although they, upon the whole, seem to be well, authenticated. Sir Walter Raleigh was of opinion, that the Dutch made ten millions per annum of this fishery in his time. The - great statesman De Wit, assures us, that in the year 1667, the Dutch employed no Jess than 2000 busses, and that upwards of 800,000 is were subsisted in the two provinces of Holland and West Friesland ~ alone by the herring fishery. The rise of. the united © provinces to their importance their being at one time rivals to the English in their marine, was entirely attributed to their perseverance and success in the herring fishery. The splendour and commercial consequence of their towns, sprung also from the same source, and it is acknowledged by them- selves ‘ that Amsterdam had its foundation on ing bones. : The wealth, which the herring fishery, at an early ht to the Dutch, induced the Scotch y into the same concern, and ac- great iod, Kk sori to em as a nation, and to . cordingly it was enacted, “ That certain lords spiritual 4 and tem boats, with nets and other cap. 49. ¢ ships and. bushes, with all their be made in each burgh, in num substatice of the burgh, and the least of them to be of twenty tunn.” Par. 4. cap. 49. 5 mapep instant avere genie 2d. Seem ne ae blish the Company of the Royal Fishery of E — it to be dissolved. , This erection was, however, rescinded by an act The first bounty for the exportation of herrings, was inents,” Jam. III. Par. 6. rtinents for fishing. liam and Mary, declari ~ r according’ to the , and burrows, make ships, bushes, and = - This act was confirmed by James IV. “that . Fuherter. granted b Scotch Parliament in 1705. A bounty the Scotch was then paid on every last of her- rings in whatever way they were and upon a last taken by busses and exported £18 Scotch allowed. The same act remitted the duties pay- on all-materials used in the wo years after this enactment, the herring fishery seems to ‘have eclining state, in spite of all lhe , and the li pre- miums given for its revi In 1720, a general co- ry was formed for the purpose of raising this from its — It ee of ew a of the ipal people in Scotland ; their capital was di- pth! vier eae of £100 each ; but, like the South Sea bubble, which burst about the same time, the whole éoneern soon vanished ‘into air. . In 1727, the Board of Trustees was established, to whom the t of £2000 per annum was given from the revenue of Scotland, for the encouragement of the manufactures and fisheries of that country. We ¢anhot say what part of this sum was, or is now appro- priated for the herring fishery. In 1750, the Free British White Herring Com- pany act passed in Parliament, whereby it was enacted, that a capital might be subscribed of £500,000, the proprietors to receive 3 per cent. per ann. upon the sums paid in during fourteen years. A bounty was also allowed of 30s. cons fe alt Wente thom b0'% 80 tons employed in the service of the company. His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, (who was enthu- pot ane! Rarer ache ams Prieta pee os nor. This national association, although patronized by the first people in the kingdom, and ising fair in tant sage was soon after its establishment given up. By this act it was likewise mere toe every fishin, company, at any port in Britain having a capital £10,000, should also be entitled to the ati fein Bae a Rey Pas sete Free British White Herring pany. Nei id this to the act succeed better. ss In (753, 1755, and 1756, three other acts of ~ ment were , regulating more icular e mode of fishing with busses. 3 eae / Another act took place in 1757, by which the boun- ties to busses were increased from 30s. to 50s. per ton. course of the year 1767, so large a sum as £31,396 was id in Scotland to persons engaged in this fishery. y an act passed in 1771, this bounty was again re- stricted to 30s. ton, by which means the ties paid in became trifling, and in England, for yoo we ages no bounties for herring busses were and improvement. The whi ne- Sasadey Wo take Se Cis op mb yrs premiums for approved essays on the Natural History of Herrings, containing observations on the causes that induce them to leave their usual haunts, the modes of RE any» aadenty hover eee ve, &c. Having received several communications on the FISHERIES. manufactures, in Scotland, to be increased from 21 to 28, whereof hi Majesty may appoint seven to be commissioners for nai Huts quae rll: TT Hire te tel measurement, to; po te Ramee the pc th the be tamemedl i eg Maa here pol that is 25 s E78 ¢ rie nt an a «hl gg PT ig a: ee eee eon wad ee OS) og OME ee & ome —_— tan *\ — a Pr. FISHERIES. ting, than one of 100 tons. The full number of men, as above stated, are not deemed until the ar- rival of the buss at the rendezvous of Sound. — ' . the iH are EF Ee ze, 3 i 4 pRiare inte eae ad AL a qs, ul ibe Bg i tl Ap H a ‘ that is to say, the crew directly from and into the said buss or vessel; i it 5 if ie i E i i SEEEETE lu i i E a tonnage : Herrings taken the crews of the busses to tis ditngutabtsdiiog a Whack can tho Peraaba ta hich ‘out of a buss at the - 361 ed such to the commissioners of Excise in England or Fisheries. Scotland, who are to. give an order to their cashier or “~V~ collector nearest the port where the buss discharged her cargo, who is to pay the sum mentioned in the deben- ture on mane. mi , , y Mariners employed in the deep sea fishery are pro- tected from being impressed during the voyage, id until after the buss has returned to the.port of her-dise Owners of busses entitled to the tonnage bounty, to i¢ pay the crew 2s. perbarreb on the herrings taken and* » cured by them. An additional bounty of £1 per ton is allowed for~ Herring fishery, the first 30 busses» fitted out for and employed in the — herring fishery, and entitled to the bounty of £3 per ton.. Then follow regulations for cleaning out vessels, - (other than busses on “the ra apenas with salt, &c. for the British herring fishery, what herrings shall” be entitled to the are prohibited from being be: cured and ed in half barrels, may ' containing 16 gallons English wine measure, and two - of these being accounted equal to one, 2s. bounty shall be paid on them. Y. or encouraging Scotland, to provide larger boats than are now used in ' the herring fishery, and to take herrings at tml distance from shore than can be done in’ small boats, it is enacted, that after the 1st of June 1809, the com- bounty of 2s. and certain herrings - ing the inhabitants on the sea-coasts of © missioners are authorised. to allow premiums or boun= — ties, not exceeding the sum of three thousand pounds - yearly; to persons who shall employ boats of a burthen * not less than fifteen tons by admeasurement, in the tak- ing herrings on the coast of Scotland, and who shall : cure. and pack them according:to the rules and regula- - This, bounty also to be ~ tions of the commissioners. paid by the commissioners of Excise in Scotland.” When the foregoing act expired, which was at the close of the last session of parliament, (1814,). an in- terim one took place. This was a temporary expedient, until a bill should be brought in this season, after the Easter recess, to obtain an act for permanently regu- lating this fishery: This act,.as we are informed, is to - be in substance, nearly the same as that of which we-- have given an abstract, and both modelled (with the ion of the bounties) after a placart or ordinance ed at the Hague and Delft, by the states of © olland and West Friesland, in the prime and most. successful state of their fisheries, concerning the catch+ ing, ee curing, packing, heightening and laying of | e. , with the peculiar pleasant flavour of © The fine si the Dutch herrings, owing to their excellent mode of \: curing, caused them to be more esteemed throughout Europe, than.either those of the English or Scotch. However, it is to be hoped since the value of this fishery seems now to be oh ew appreciated and at- tended to, that our pickled herrings will be equal, if not superior,-to the best of the Dutch; or those of Gota - tenbu The first idea of preserving herrings by pickling, is said. to have been saggulted about ae year 1890, and it was the cause of that fishery becoming afterwards so valuable an article of commerce. « William Bruckfield, or Beukelings, a native of Biero~ liet, a tewn of Dutch Flanders, who lived about that time, has got the merit of being the first discoverer of 22 Faberics, —— Fakes’ in the county of Norfolk, Red her- rings. i >. . 362 is picklin * We suspect, however, that the thie AES Te Labitants of the. town of; Yarmouth, knew the art of preserving red and white herrings before and barrelling both het period. Ye to have been a great and lu- erative branch of their trade from the 1306 to 1360, and we see a statute of Edward the Third, in the 31st of his reign lating the herring fair and fishery Zr that . Bruckfeld improved on the art, but to the merit of the discovery, we do not think him entitled. ; According to the time of taking, and mode of curing herrings, they receive various lations, as, sea- sticks, summers, crux, corved, and shotten herrings. _ When they are intended to be cured with what is called the white pickle, they are cut open, and the guts carefully from the milts and roes. Then cast- ing away the guts, and leaving the milts and-roes en- tire, the ings are first washed well with water, and then put into a brine strong et where they are allowed to lie from twelve to six« teen hours; then they are taken out, and after bein well drained, the salters begin packing. all strew a quantity of salt, as even as ble, over the bottom of the barrel, and lay a row of herrings over it, sprinkling also some salt over them, and so on, till the be completed. The firmer the herrings are packed, they keep the better ; and the salters therefore press them down with their hands in the packing, as closely as possible, and before heading the cask,’ they strew about a platterful of salt over the u row. When the barrel is thus filled, a: stop it up very close, lest the air should get in, or the brine flow out; either of which circumstances would be destructive of On the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, a considerable i i mber to the end mediately makes for ‘the shore, and delivers its cargo of herrings to persons who are employed in the gut- i ingofthem. After this is done, they are ut into a tub with salt, where they remain for twenty- our hours ; they are then taken out, and put into wi er baskets, washed, and spitted on small sharp wooden spits, and hung up in chimnies in their herring hangs, where fi are kindled on the floors, for the p of drying them. These places will hold ten or twelve thousand at atime. This process of drying is generall ended in about twenty-four hours, and then they aie taken down, and put into barrels for ing. Her- rings, when thus cured, have a bright yellow, golden ‘appeararice, and from their firie flavour, are in much re- quest, both at home and abroad. 5 Secr. III. On the Lobster Fishery. Tue eastern and rocky shores of Scotland abound with this fish, which is Cancer Gammarus of Lin- newus ; and the great ities of it sent to the Lon. don market, form a very lucrative article of trade, Lob- sters aré generally found in deep, clear water. They breed in the summer months, and it is said» more humano. They are very prolific, and de- it their ova in the On the 11th of August, x Harmer found in a lobster of thirty-six ounces, the weight of spawn to be 1671 grains, and the number of to bear an egg, | FISHERIES. | i E Z iit ist HEE fe g p ali : ; f : E i ff i Lf g # ue aE - é & | | |! E eH ce A 7 ze | if E taken up in boats to Billinsgate. By io and 11 William Il, csp be'taken under eight inches i : He z hy September. See our article CrusrackoLoey, Vol, VII, p. 398—400. : {add Wi re Seer. IV. On the Mackerel Fishery. = SS hy - Tue mackerel fishery, althougha «tie One FOF yfockere) the metropolis, by su g it is not carried ay ee in any except in the Channel, and on the coasts Suffolk, weighs nearly two pounds. The chic, and fleshy, but en small er towards the tail, which is so much forked, that it seems to be almost parted into two distinct fins. Its adity is very great ; for, according to Hanmer’s table, he found Sin cigs cane ts a orice light newly t 9 its shape, so finely aelet dived for swimming, it has be: proposed as a model.for the building . Macke- rel are found on the coasts of and from the Lands Ent in Engg the po in Scotland, gradually in, nambers, | * The Emperor Charles"V. coming to the Low Countries, paid a visit to the town of Bieroliet with the Queen of Hungary, to honour the memory and to view tlie tomb of this supposed first pickler of herrings. a ee with this fish) gshery. y “hae _ Fisheries. Yarmouth northward. It has been often mentioned, ayy ERIES. - 363. are carried to different places, and laid in beds, or pits. Fisheries: of salt water, in order to feed and fatten. A green co- ‘ , lour is often artificially given to themin the salt marshes;. but we do not consider it as any improvement, as we think white oysters both look, and taste, better than those that are green. The sea star (Asterias glacialis) is a most destructive wine pt pps Ruan because it its around the till it. pr sonal out. The fishing he comteke per- mitted from the first of September to the last day of April inclusive ; or oysters are in season, according to. observation, in all those months which have the letter r in their name. See our article Concnoxocy, Vol. VII. p. 98, genus Osrrea; and our article Enc« LAND, Vol. IX, p. 14. Sect. VI. On the Pilchard Fishery. who insist that it is only a variety of the herring; how- ever, we have various reasons for thinking fe seedy It is less and thicker than the herring, the nose turns up, the under jaw is shorter than the upper, the dorsal fin is exactly in the centre of gravity, for if you take a pilchard by the back it will hang even, which a herri ‘will not do ; the scales are firm, and adhere very closely, ~ whereas those of the herring come off with the smallest. touch. The pilchard isa fish of passage, swims in shoals, and its arrival on the coasts of Bretagne, Cornwall, and De« vonshire, is indicated by similar signs with the ap- proach of the herring towards Shetland. _The season of this fishery is from June to September, although they are sometimes caught about Christmas. On the jutting cliffs, upon the coasts of Devonshire: and Cornwall, men are set, whom they call iuers, to watch the coming of the pilchards ; the. purple colour of the water in the day, and its shining appearance in the night, give certain indication of their approach. Then the a: according to settled and signs, direct the boats and vessels how to man their seins, and when their commands are Saoperty iven and obeyed, they have been known to take, in their nets, 100,000 pilchards at a draught. It is a com- mon saying of the ish fishermen, when talking of the plenard that it is the least fish in size, most in a , and greatest in gain, of any they take out of e sea. In Scotland there are no established fisheries for pil- chards; they sometimes appear among the herring shoals, ially in the Frith of Forth, where they are accounted a very insipid fish. See our article ENGLAND, Vol. TX. p. 138. Sect. VII. On the Salmon Fishery. Tue pilchard forms a distinct species in the genus (G pllelaedne) There art severs] natutiste: Cos™ \ Iv order to-understand our account of this fishery, it’ ¢,) will be requisite to have w slight knowledge of the na~ fisheye bees gras of the salmon, (Salmo salar,) but as we have already given this in our article ANGLING, we shall not resume this subject eR rise - It is scarcely in the power of human skill to reduce the numbers, or extinguish the race of such fish as make the sea their only element. But this is not the case with fresh water, or rather fluviatile fishes, which being » con in narrow limits, are consequently within the easy reach of the avaricious contrivances of men, and too without their encountering either the toils or attendant upon the fisheries of the seas. In- Seed hed it not been for the restraining statutes re- specting the manner and times of catching them, the breed of salmon would, in all probability, have been ere now extirpated. of the genus Salmo are anadromous fishes, or such as alternately inhabit fresh and salt waters ; all of them, however, spawning in the heads of rivers, or in brooks rename I with them. After orming this fanction, they become lank and sickly. In this situation they make forthe sea, no doubt to recover from their shotten state. After remaining there for a few weeks, an irresistible impulse of nature hurries them agein to their native streams. To accomplish this object, they set all kinds of obstacles at defiance, and would rather ~ in the attempt than deviate from their course. hey never spawn until they reach these shoals, and if obstructed or retarded in their ascent, they are often forced to drop their roes in the lower parts of rivers, but which, in that case, are never known to be either po er or covered by the milter. It has been re- that their periodical migrations are in part prompted by another circumstance. During their re- sidence in rivers, they are infested by parasitical insects, which are killed by the salt water; but in the sea are soon attacked es the lernea, which perishes in fresh.water. The importance of the salmon fishery to Scotland, in- duced the legislature, at an early period of our history, to enact various statutes, for the preservation and mul- tiplication of the breed, and for srolabeng all kinds of apparatus in their capture, which might tend to a di- minution of foo neepers, Such is 4 pit ofa laws respecting this v efishery. But within these thirty or fort Pak the existing laws have not been duly enf , and, of course, a great and sensible de- crease has taken place in all the waters of Scotland ; and, indeed, in many rivers in which they used former- ly to abound, ly one is now to be seen, as for ex- ample, in the Almond and Ericht in Perthshire, both branches of the Tay. In the upper parts of the Tweed, from Kelso to Drumelzier, there were formerly several established salmon fisheries, but these are.now entirel relinquished, from the small number of fish whi ascend to that part of the river. The cause of this scarcity is imputed to the modes of fishing with stage, toot nets, &c. at or near to the mouth of that river. Although we only mention these circumstances as coming within our immediate knowledge, we believe. pcg prangagce ped a Aug say al per’ » aS in the tributary streams of all inci- ities in Scotland. ice hie It has been contended by many of the lower proprie- tors upon our rivers and estuaries, that stake nets, and other such sweeping devices, do not lessen the breed of salmon ; that the Scotch acts of parliament are now in desuetude ; and even if they were still in force, that pre Lorninentes of eens nih arg tus, nor to the passage upwards, but to the waticn of the bavedens! i Goes-ot fends Cane, and te-the smoults, fry, or salmon seuse. The most material object, undoubtedly, in the propa~ and preservation of the salmon species, is to af- them a safe passage to their parent stream, that FISHERIES: bed which nature has ‘out to them as the safest Fisheries: 8 ene spring. We have, t noticed, that, if S*!0" ae sabdhing tivepet, the own ] 1s dered unprolific, their dropping it without porary ome sho eect el we y 4 That our statutes have the of this passage egy rts ! cin Hx i. itory i use of cake! Rodham Oeste auenatente’ 4 inmagaie,* a propagation should be neglected ; that is, a complete protection in their ascent to the spawning. ‘a As the law at stands, we con all modes in the this fish to be illegal, unless by an gling, by the net and cobble, or by the common seine, ef moderate and fixed dimensions. But to prevent all pooper tometer tah of the times with re« to the preservation on, we e ine thncetoomeneretahbehattearcaletah aa tepsilione effect, not only in settling such means as may render this fishery permanent and productive, but would pat laws for the conservancy of the Thames, yet'trespassés increased so much, anil the offences in g became so ,intricate ‘and destructive, that the city of London found it necessary and ient, in the 30th year of pate ape ch in another act of parlia~ ment, for the better regulating the fisheries in ri- ver, and in the waters of way. In pursuance of this statute, the lerd (Clark) in 1785 i a Set of rules, orders, and ordinances, penal- ties for a breach ofthe same ; and annexed to this pub- lication, are notes by the Lords Mansfield and Lough- Pree thee ordinances, now acted upon in the court following articles, being, as we think, not well to; hibt aheieGtvhnat Se cheatbnant the Scottish and i Snive de wiogandl saree pare et » Thar all wilawtl ul daeinads 3 i is, ' nets » i and other abuses, offered to the p i ment ns he ; * That no wuall thee flood. acted 2. Item, That no shall lie or bend over net whatsoever kind of fish Sneed ming upwards, for the benefit Safealtisiter, coder pulley bf fedslag wootbapine d river, r Riaiileate Se cours toch in ba ho aah WA, $. Item, That no person shalt shoot, or place draw net, cod net, or other net or engine’in the said river Thames, to catch salmon with, or shall useany net or of Thames, * The Irish complain much of the decrease of salmon in their rivers; and Wakefield, in his Statistical Account of 1 2 oning the modes of ascent.” Vol. ii. p. 83. in some of their Gisherics, observes, that « flood are more injurious ebb’ weirs, as they catch the fish ix 3 Be wm bp ee Se ee li ae dent wit, ne pty Nth ding ee te Pm ie eke iL no person, betoreen the 10th day of September and the 25th day of January in every year, shall.fish in the said river of Thames, or watersof Med- way, for salmon, with any net or nets, engine or device; ‘ or within that time take, kill, or d in the said ri- walasgerenaies atthe, casiaa te Si odinde ve ‘or every su ence. 5. Item, That no person shall fish with any net, or lay or haul any mesh, ine, or device whatsoever in the said river or waters, from sun-setting on Saturday ight, until sun-rising on Monday ing, at any time of the year, under a penalty of forty shillings for every ce. 18. Item, That no person shall bend any net by an- chors, or otherwise thwart the channel, or draw any other net, éngine, or device, into, upon, or near it; or use any net with any false or double bottom, cod, or , under the penalty of five pounds for every such - 20. Item, That no person shall fish, or attempt to take fish, with any sort of net in the night-time, or be- fore sun-rising, or after sun-setting. at any time in the in the said river Thames, between Richmond idge and the city of London’s mark stone above Stainesbridge, under a penalty of five pounds for every such offence. 24, Item, That no salmon ht in the Thames or Medway, shall be exposed to ‘six pounds, AT. Item, That no person shall put down at the mouth bee ing into the said river or waters, or at any mill or dtuige Githin the andl jorteion icti ; nalty of five pounds for every such offence. 55. Deie, Sheeaib phoun anil have: ac , or fix up, drive down, or place, or cause to be fixed up, drove down, or placed in any part of the said river or waters of Medway, any wear, stank, 4 eo silt ieatads che Bhd 7 en ‘on aforesaid, u a penalty of five for every offence, in breach of any part of this order.” Such are the ordinances the salmon fish- the water bailiff, or his assistants, to ive notice of tres- passes, and the committing never escai unpunished. The above articles are not chtelly ser_24 in order, as the intervening ones apply to other fish than e salmon It is much to be wished, that similar regulations saucted for the conservation of our rivers in Scotland That salmonhave c years greatly i f Sedigecd bs ey ae oa ee ich ve wil not tat this fishery wll fourah an Ndevie pe 1 modes their spaw unds be. y this purpose af ake, tok, and other eaten aoe FISHERIES.. 365 by particular grants now inherit or possessthem. Rights oF , held to be inconsistent with the common weal, have, in the cases of tithes and thirlage in Scot. of land, already been the subject of rh provisions, object of which was to remove the incumbrance on general prosperity, without injury to the owner. Per the pena cal expediency Uf this interposition are still more obvious with regard to rights of fishing, by modes injurious to the fishery at large ; for each pro« prietor of such rights has a direct interest in the benefit that might result from a judicial sale of these, because, after obtaining the value of his peculiar privilege, he would share in the increase of the general fishery. ° If any alteration should take place in the laws re« garding the capture of salmon, fence time, in Scotland termed close time, should be prolonged, and extended indiscriminately to all the riversin Britain ; thatis, be« ginning upon the first of August, and to continue until the end of January, or from Lammas till Candlemas day. This would prevent any interruption to salmon in month of August, when ‘heavy with milts and roes in making up to the head waters for'the p: of spawn- ing. It would also save many shotten from being en in December and January, when on their passage to the sea. There seems to be no general law respecting the fence months in the rivers of Scotland, all the fisheries com- monly commencing and ending at different times, ac- cording to various acts of parliament. In the Forth and Fisheries i Fiume. - pat Tay, the fisheries begin on the 11th of December, and . terminate on the 26th of A In the Tweed, they fish from the 11th of January to the 10th of October. In the north Esk in Kincardineshire, from Candlemas to Michaelmas. In the Dee and Don, from the 11th of December to the 19th of September. In the Spey, from the 30th of November to the 26th of August. We cannot accurately ascertain the periods of fishing in our other principal salmon rivers, which, beside the many tributary streams, are, the Clyde, Luce, South Esk in Forfarshire, Doveran, Ness, Beauly, Thurso, and the Annan, with others running into the Solway Frith. The chief rivers in England frequented by this fish, are, the Thames, Medway, Severn, Mersey, Trent, Dee, Ex, Usk, Wye, Lon, Weever, and Tyne. London is principally supplied with salmon from Scotland. When fresh, they are sent packed up with ice in boxes ; and those that are pickled in ‘kits, such as were first used in Newcastle for that Although the sums drawn in this country from the me. tropolis come to a very considerable annual amount, yet were proper regulations for this fishery established by law, and duly enforced, not only a increase in the trade would take place, but Scotland would be more abundantly provided in salmon for home consump- tion. For an account of the Wate Fisnery, see Wiatr Fisnery ; an account of the Pearr Fisaery, will be found in our article Ceyton, Vol. V. p. 700 ; and of the Ancnovy Fisuery under our article Ancuovy, -See also IneLaAND. (A. D.) FISHES, Exvecrricar. See Execrricitry Index, FISHING. See Aneuina. EISTULA. See Surcery. FIUME, or St Vert, is a sea port town of Istria. It is situated on the Bay of Fiume, in the Gulf of Ve- nice, at the mouth of the Fiumara ‘or Reka, at the ¢om- mencement of a narrow valley, abounding in wines and excellent fruits. The town ts j ly built, and con- tains several good public buildings. The churches are . 1x. and L. F. Cassa’s Travels in Istria and ) IXED Sovunn of M. Sauveur. About the begin- ning of the oe century, the author above named took denominated the fii just 100 complete vibrations in one second of time. Now the tenor cliff C being a minor tenth (,f,) above this A, we have 1200+5=240 for the vibra- -tions of this C, which being also the result of several modern si eg on this subject, (see our article Concert Pircn,) we have always used this pitch in calculating vibrations and beats in our work. M. Sauveur also proposed another fixed sound or pitch, which has since been adopted by Dr Thomas Young, and some other writers, in which an imaginary C, eight octaves below the tenor cliff C, should make ly one vibration per second ; and consequently the latter would make 256 vibrations, which is to 240 as -16: 15, shewing that the former pitch is just a major itone higher than the latter one in present use ; and that for the mere purpose of simplicity of description, _an erroneous idea of the actual pitch has thus been con- veyed to the student, but which future writers may .avoid, by representing the fixed sound 1 per sound, as belonging to Dp, eight octaves below that, which is the next above the tenor-cliff C. FLAME. See Cuemistry. FLAMSTEAD, Jonny, a celebrated astronomer, was county of Derby, on the'T9th of August 1646, though county on 1 A t 1646, althou, others maintain that he was born in the town of Derby. The registers of both of these parishes were examined in order to ascertain this point, but his birth does not seem to have been registered, probably on account of the commotions which at that time agitated England. His father resided at Derby, and he received his classi- cal education at the free school of that place. At the age of 14, a severe illness obliged his friends to take him home, where the accidental perusal of Sacrobosco’s tres tise De Sphera inspired him with a passion for astrono- my. Bymeansof the Caroline tables, published by Street, he was instructed in the method of antag - eclipses, and the of the planets, One of hi bo Bc iid of an eclipse, procured him the friendship of Mr Ema- nuel Halton, residing at Wingfield manor, who was well acquainted with the mathematics, and who sup- astronomical plied young Flamstead with the best, works then extant, among which were Riccioli’s Alma- gestum Novum, and Kepler's. ine Tables. With these aids he made rapid advances in the knowledge of Brou r, : titled, “An Account of such of the lestial Phenomena I oat al 167 cuous in the ish Horizon.” . purchased . lescopes, a micrometer, and several other instruments with which he had not been provided. After leaving London, he entered himself a student of Jems Cambridge, where he became acquainted with Dr Barrow and Sir Isaac Newton. Ass soon as he returned to Derby, he resumed his astronomical studies, In 1671, sane to the Royal Society calculations of the appulses of moon to several fixed stars, for the year 1672; and about the end of the same year, he transmitted another com- munication, containing his observations on the ans@ of the planet Saturn, wae Sieh Selene the largest of nm th which was fourteen feet long, same year, observed, bah gl rem gin 2 ed to th recedin, » tive position of prin- , stamp inn the iade eel taornned ae : cultation by the moon in the subse tient. year, In 1673, he composed a treatise on true and appa. rent diameters of the ts, which Sir Isaac Newton employed in the 4th book of the WM bal When he was in London in 1674, Sir Jonas More having inform- ed him, that a true account of the tides would be acce table to the king ; he composed a small emeéria fon Bis snajeety’s Be Me likewise recomn enced Dimanite e royal favour, by presenting to his Majesty a pair of becacoeteas with the method of ing them. i resolved to enter the church, Mr Flamstead was ed by Bishop Gunning in 1675, but several years | sed before he ined any preferment. Th was prevailed upon, in 1676, to found the royal « 7 was p) ipon a led tered stead directed almost the whale of his attention to prac- tical astronomy. By means of the best instruments of the lunar motions with grea fe Co o the wishes of editi ore, . Contrary to wishes amste ait of his Nai de was published in 1712, by eee in one volume folio; but as. he would never acknow- ledge this work as his own, he a edition of it, but before its « piecing ey the 73d year of on the 31st of De age. ; 2 dA tip : 4 Mr. Flamstend wan scimilted smsemaber of the: Pia BVM yt a ee FLA Society on the 13th of February 1678, and he contri- to the transactions of that learned body a great iety of valuable papé His celebrity, however, is iefly founded on Historia Celestis Britannica, a work in three volumes folio, which was published by his widow in 1725. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 599. Flamstead is represented by his biographers as of a morose and unsociable dis 6 pea having been on bad terms with most of his contemporaries. ‘ From some of his letters,” says Dr Thomson, (History of the Royal Society, p. 335,) “ it eyen appears that he com- plained of Sir Isaac Newton as unreasonable in his de- mands of observations. Dr Halley, in the preface of the Historia Celestis Britannica, draws rather an unfa- vourable picture of the disposition of Flamstead ; and I find, from one of Sir Hans Sloane’s MSS. in the Bri- tish Museum, that, in the year 1710, he was expelled the Royal Society, because he refused to pay his an- nual contribution.” (0) FLANDERS, the name of a maritime province in the Netherlands. It was formerly divided into Aus- trian, French, and Dutch Flanders. It now belongs to Ho.vanp and France, which see. . FLAT, in Music, ()), or flattened intervals, are such as are depressed or lessened a degree of the scale, a chromatic semitone, or Fincer-Key Interval (see that article.) As it ha , with the Numerals, 1, I, 2, II, 3, ITL, &c. of the ic scale, that the major and minor of the same Numerat (see that article, ) are not at the same invariable distance from each other; so the of the literals, Dp, Ep, Fp, &c. are not at one inya- riable distance from their naturals D, E, F, &c. al- in tempered scales this is obliged to be the case. Mr has correctly explained these matters, in his «« Essay on perfect Intonation ;’ but it may be proper pri) iad ical coker b ee ta incongruities yy enumera~ é. Be Ds Bases of his MS. in the LAT, , in some parts i . in is pigh Sacg Royal Institution, is =S, or 57 2+4f+4 m. r ok nat double, of Liston, is invariably $+ /, or 83 4 : Tm, - ; LAT, double, ()p), of Chambers and Overend ; some- , times 2 P, or 116242 f+410m, ; at others, P+S, or 105 242 ay. a Frat, of Liston, to the notes D, G, B, or C, is = S, or 47 &+4+f+44m; and to the notes E, F, or A, is=J, ? or 36 &4f4-3 m, the second flat of any note being al- ‘ ways the reverse of its first one. ’ tat, of Marsh, = 3, or 36 >4+f43 m. ’ . Frat, of Maxwell, = 5, or 47 5 +f 43 m. Frat, of Overend, (and Dr Calleot, Mus. Gram. : ist ed. p. 112), = P, or 58 = 4+ f + 5m; this corre- 7 sponds with perfect fifths, See the theorems below. Fat, of some writers, = L, or 46 2 4-f44 m. ¥ , Brats or Scales, is the 7 lim- 4 ma ith, which, according to Mr Farey’s . theorems, Phil. ay. ap aa Xxxix. p. 44, is =58>-+-f+. 5m—seven times temperament of the Vth: Or, =38.75196562 + f+ 3m + seven-fourths of the tempe- rament of the I1Id: Or, =32.3228500 = 4f42m4 se irds of the tem of the VIth. hence we see, by way of that in the iy a? where the tem: of the I1Ird =0, the flat is =38.7519656z +f4 3m, for obtaining the of the Isotonic : | =P—ljc:— either use the | , we may temperament of the Vth, 1.0006552=, of the Ilfrd, 7,0052416z, or of the VIth, 8.0058968z, 867 FLE and either of the above theorems will give 51.0032762 _ Flax, +f-+4m, being ,,VIII :—and, in. the system where Flechier. the major sixths are perfect, the flat is =P—2}c.. (¢) FLAX. See Acricutture, Vol. I. p. 317. FLECHIER, Esprit, bishop of Nismes, an eminent French ecclesiastic, was born at Pernes,.a small town near Carpentras, on the 10th of June 1632, of obscure but respectable parents. He was educated at Tarascon, in a college possessed by the congregation formerly known in France under the name of the Doctrinaires, or fa- thers of the Christian doctrine, of which his maternal uncle was, at that time, general. At the of fifteen, having finished his studies, he caployas imself, for some years, in ing the Jdel/es lettres, in the same college. Some time after he pepe to Paris, and having determined to fix his residence in that city, he accepted employment in a parish, and afterwards un- dertook ‘the sea of the “mn. of M. Lefebvre ee Caumartin. From this period, his reputation rapidly increased, in consequence of the discourses which he delivered on different festivals of the church ; and his celebrity procured him admission into the Academy, in the year 1673. He had the honour of preaching before Louis XIV. on Advent, 1682. For his preferment, and the many favours he received from the king, Flechier was principally indebted to the active patr and friendship of the Duke of Mon-~ taussier, who already for him two. bene-~ fices, and the abbacy of St Severin, besides the office of almoner to the dauphiness ; when, in the year 1685, he was selected as one of a mission, which was destined to bring back into the bosom of the church, the Pro- testants of Poitou and Brittany, of which mission Fe-~ nelon was the chief. On his return, he was appointed to the bishopric of Lavaur, which he held for two years, and was then translated to the more lucrative see of Nismes. The duties of this charge, however, were much more troublesome than those of the former, on account of the great number of Calvinists who were then in open revolt, or ready to break out, against whom the impolitic and disastrous edict, revoking that of Nantes, was Bgrously executed. In this difficult situation, the high of Flechier became eminently conspicu- ous. By his mildness, moderation, and persuasive ad« dress, he contributed to assuage the sangui zeal of the Catholics ; his humane virtues concili the good will of all parties, and he received unequivocal testimo~ nies of regard even from the Calvinists, amidst the hora AWwhe oe aa 8 ee rat i ngth appeased, hi en les were at le; ap) , he was enabled to devote himself, without obstruction, to the exercise of a zealous and active benevolence. There was not a single charitable institution at Nismes, which was not either founded by him, or indebted to his libe- rality for support. His favours were indiscriminately conferred upon unfortunate persons of all descriptions, without regard to religious opinions ; and in the disas- trous winter of 1709, his charity was only limited by the total expenditure of his funds. When some one, upon that occasion, represented to him the le consequences which might ensue to himself from such profuse liberality, he. answered, “ What you say is, haps, very true ; but are we bi for nothing ?” e€ was as much the enemy of su tion and fanati-« cism, as he was zealous for the maintenance of pure re- ligion ; and he laboured with ardour and efficacy to re- form and instruct his clergy, and to enlighten and re- lieve the people from that blind ignorance and creduli- ty, which are often abused for the purpose of mislead~ Plechier, i Plensbourg. —— story of the Nun of Nis- , which furnished the subject of a drama to an esteemed French author of later times, bearg strong tes- cower saee enlightened humanity, and to the sensi- Amidst the manifold and important duties of his charge, Flechier did not entirely the cultivation of letters, to which eee owed his celebrity and his elevation, The y, of Nismes, which had been founded before his time, was indebted to him for a new existence, and, among other advantages, for that of being affiliated with the French academy. To the latest period of his life, he enjoyed a vigorous state of health, a blessing which resulted in a great mea- sure from his simple and moderate habits, and the equa- lity of his temper. He died on the 16th of February 710, at the age of 78. : The moral character of Flechier is sufficient] — dated by the preceding narrative. As an author, his i rests prindeally - his Oraisons pipet a which, although inferior, aps, in point of genius and true to thote of Bossuet, are be pre mri an elegance and brilliancy of expression, in an af- fecting strain of Christian piety, which have procured them a considerable of admiration, and given them a place among the classical actions of the French divines, His style is remarkably polished ; even in his familiar letters, and notes written upon ordinary occasions, his language had a finished correctness, which, in any other person might be taken for the effect of la- bour and affectation ; but which, in him, resulted from a profound study of the delicacies of the French tongue, and a habit which he had acquired of constantly Mens | with the utmost attention to propriety and elegance ion. The complete works of ier were at Nismes, in ten volumes 8vo, in 1782. Ae FLENSBOURG is the name of a at town of Denmark, situated on the eastern coast of the duchy of Sleswick, and though not the capital, is the most opu- lent and important place in the duchy. The streets are rather narrow, and the houses, though not so neat and clean as those of Sleswick, are constructed in a more substantial and durable manner. Like that town, it consists a of one very long street. The back of this street looks towards the harbour, and on that side each house has a garden, an from the water by an ble promenade. On the right is the har- bour, filled with vessels, and on the left are the gardens, each of which has a door opening into the promenade. Kuttner informs us, that the harbour is safe and conve- nient, and was full of ships when he'saw it, It is nar- row close to the town, but the whole bay, called Flens- bourg Wisk, is 18 miles long, and may be led as aha , as it has a sufficient sm large vessels, = is sheltered from every wind by the surrounding The trade of this town has been important since the midtdle of the last century. Te fs carried on princi- pally with Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, and con- sists of brandy, grain, skins, provisions, wines, and stuffs. The wines and stuffs are brought from France, England, Spain, and America. The inhabitants trade elso with Iceland, Greenland, and Finland. “The num- ber of commercial houses is from 120 to130. The fol- lowing is a list of the vessels belonging to the town. Number of vessels. 1780, . . 184 1783, . 200° 1788, 218 1797, 257 868 FLE In 1797, the number of sailors waé 1597. ‘There are Fletchen no fewer than 200 establishments for manufacturing and distilling brandy, and these have served, at the same time, to fatten 4000 head of cattle, and as many swine. The town also contains five refineries of sugar, 40 ma- nufactories of tobacco, and several tanneries. The po- sition of the town, to trigonometrical obser- vations, is,-East . 9° 27' 40", and North Lat. 54° 47’ 18". See Kuttner’s Travels through hk, Swes den, &e. Lett. 1.; and Catteau Calleville, de la Mer Baltique, tom. ii. p. 325, _(w) FLETCHER, Anprew, of Salton, in East Lothian, was a statesman and a patriot of the highest order ; and though Scotland, his native land, was the chief object of his exertions, yet, wherever the love of country and of liberty prevails, he deserves to be remem with res and gratitude. His powers, too, were called forth at a period of the greatest importance in the Bri- tish annals. His paternal grandfather, whose Christian name he bore, was one of the fifteen Ju of the Court of Session, by the style of Lord Innerpeffer. His fa- ther was Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and I 3 and his mother, whose name was Catharine, daughter of Sir Robert Bruce of Clackmannan, derived her de-« scent from the royal and truly illustrious race of Brace. Andrew Fletcher. was the son of this i and.was born in the year 1653, in some sketet of his life the date of his birth is stated to be 1650. The celebrated and excellent Gilbert Burnet was but 10 years older than young Fletcher ; and, as Sir Robert Fleteher - ted him to the rectorship of eH which he filled with most exem fidelity from 1 to 1669, Andrew enjoyed the rare advantage of having his principles f _and his mind cultivated, by Dr Burnet, to whom his father, at his death, wisely con- signed the eare of his son. WT Ving Sore Gifted by nature with uncommon powers, it is not surprising that, under such a preceptor, he made rapid ? progress in classical 4 . and literature. His hereditary love of liberty, connected with his indignation at the nical pro+ ceedings which marked the conduct of the administra~ tion of Charles the Second after the restoration of that unprincipled king, gave an unfavourable bias to his temper, and-seems eyen to have made hit x union of the oars ps soosen and En which was-so essentially conducive to peace and prosperi« i ty of oe Ceara ee ae ee Having: ified himself, e deep and sos lid foundton hich had don: told bysBoeneeatenas other instructors, for receiving i nit, « < acon dheredhapiot-tioh total ieomaiiia tal ean ol for some time on the Continent, and was, soon after his return, elected to t East Lothian in the Scot« tish parliament, which consisted only of a house: While James, Duke of York, acted as lord high ecom- missioner in Scotland, Fletcher distinguished. himself ition to the mea« guished preacher, and occasionally of King Charles, of whose. personal and political \p fli afterwards became the steady Sppkaelt: Tet. cher by his advice went to Holland, and was soon after declared an outlaw in Scotland, and his estate confis« _——~ aly tere - ; ——————— a FLETCHER. 369 Fletchers cated. In the United Provinces he and: many,.of the —— : friends. of religion and liberty found an asylum. Me returned to, England in 1683, with bis friend and . countryman Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, who, in the following year, died on a scaffold at. Edinburgh, for ha- or connived at the expedition under the Duke of Monmouth, and the unfortunate-Earl of Ar-- gyle. It is recorded to.the honour of this virtuous man, that though he was offered his. life. on condition. of revealing what he knew of Fletcher’s connection with this fatal enterprise, he nobly rejected: the propo- sal, and died, as he had lived, the friend of religious and civil liberty. As to Fletcher, it appears that he acted a still more important part on that occasion than his friend; not are being a statesman, but having great knowledge in military affairs, he actually bore arms in that part of the expedition which landed in England, and served under Monmouth ; but finding that, contrary to,hisen- , that rash leader caused himself to be. pro- ned king without the choice and consent of the dple, and without any of those wise limitations which letcher considered necessary, he quitted his standard, and concealed himself till he f an opportunity of returning to the Continent. It is stated, that while he had the command of a party in this expedition, he kill- ed the ri hed of Lynn, in a dispute which arose about a horse belonging to that gentleman, which had been pressed into the service by histroops. It has even been said, that this event rendered him so unpopular in the little army, that it was deemed advisable for him to re- tire. Fletcher himself, however, complained of the injustice which had been done him in the account of that transaction; and, in his own account of his conduct on this occasion, which he afterwards gave to the Earl Mareschal of Scotland, he utterly denied that it had any thing to do with his leaving Monmouth; in _of which he stated, that he i at et with him till the proclamation above alluded to was made at Taunton, which Fletcher regarding as a violation of pride ta, Ooms and of his duty to the nation, brag all farther engagement to serve un- ‘The vessel in which Fletcher made his escape, was bound for Spain. ,Information having, by some un- means, reached the ish minister at Madrid, of his arrival, he applied to the Spanish government, who caused him to be apprehended and put in prison, in order to his being transmitted rity Foon ut he escaped in a manner so extraordinary, that if it had not + sed many curious books, which the journey, he met with several singular and pr deliverances, which he used to recount to his friends VOL. 1X. PART 1. ; ial, ~ her body, in case 4 with pleasing and: pious emotion, regarding .them. ag . Fletchex. Pp s + pl : 3» reg s proofs of the special protection of heaven, _ eT We next find him serving as a volunteer in the Hun- garian war under the Duke of Lorrain. Meanwhile he had not been an inattentive observer of the signs of the times in his native land; but, having availed himself of such opportunities as occurred, of learning what was going on at home and in Holland, he gave up his _pro- spects of military fame and promotion,, and joined the band of exiles and patriots from Britain, who were pre- paring at the Hague for the execution of the grand en- terprize on which t the liberties of his country.were sus- pended. Having declined to accept James the Seyenth’s act of indemnity, under which several persons of dis- tinction had recovered. their estates and honours, he came over with the Prince of Orange in 1633, along with Bishop Burnet,,Sir Patrick Hume, &c. The suc- cess of this grand. effort is detailed in its proper place. At present, we haye todo with Fletcher, who, whilst in Holland, asserted the rights and liberties of Scotland previous to the Revolution, against William, Prince of Orange, with a firmness and unbending zeal’ which made him appear as desirous of giving the crown with- out the sceptre, and prevented him from being a fa- vourite of the prince. In the Convention Parliament which met in Scotland after the Revolution, he was.a strenuous advocate for popular freedom and limitations ; and it isa cir« ‘cumstance highly honourable to him, that, except re- gaining possession of his family-estate, which happen- ed as a matter of course, he never seems to have enjoy- ed or desired any office, emolument, or pension, what- ever. “ Non sibi sed yparrie’s was the noble principle on which he acted.. King William re and fear- ed him; but finding him “ too fond of the right,. to pursue the expedient,” did not.confide in him... - In Fletcher's Political Works, which were. published in one 8vo. volume in 1737, we find seventeen speeches that had been delivered by him in the Scottish parlia- ment, most of them.about the year 1703; and all ex- cept three on the great questions which then agitated the nation, relative to the settlement of the Scottish crown, in the event of the death of Queen Anne with- out issue. In, these. speeches, which are certainly a great historical and literary curiosity, he advocates with great boldness the cause of popular right against royal privilege ; laments the degen of the nobility and people from. the high spirit of their ancestors, and re- them for their servility to England, He ught in and supported a bill entitled “ Act for the security of the Kingdom,” which, had it passed, would have lodged.the whole executive power in, the hands of the parliament, and rendered the king a mere puppet to. be shewn at a procession. Against this alarmmg . project, the Queen’s commissioner exerted all his influ. ence, and even si, that as, without the touch of the royal wh yee officially given to the act, as the Scot- tish mode. of, ing the royal assent, it would not have the force of a law; so that assent must be with. held, even if the scheme should obtain. the sanction of liament... Finding this could not be carried into a w, he formally moved, that “ the rmcpneed limitations should, be declared by a resolution of the House of Par« liament, to be the conditions upon which the nation will receive a successor to the crown.of this realm, after the decease Sogn) YN ie ate and failing heirs of e said successor shall be also king or queen. of England.” (Fletcher's Political Works, Sa FLETCHER. we can 370 hn sears II. and IV.) Even in the present age a of the power of judice over the wisest and were in truth liberal and tolerant in their domestic foreign policy, we could with less difficulty have is tion concerning a right regulation of governme good of mankind, &c. 1703,” In the re- port of the characters and di , he shews consider- able dramatic skill ; and in his own part of the scene, he di $a of politeness and address superior to any thing of this ki . ou a his parliamen- tary speeches. Thoug’ etcher did not succeed to the extent that he desired, he laid his country under great obligations, by the modified « Act of Security,” which was eventually , and by the many wise and salutary provisions which he caused to be connected with the measure. One hundred and eight years have now elapsed since this most important act of union was adopted ; and the ive improvement and happi- papecngl bit yh trom bu mregenie st ore ven, in which, ri Se Rooted pees oe sven 8: snow i picture of its e ith i d evil consequences. Sse gergro an instance of tory he had a seat in the parliament of Great Britain ; that the advanced period of his life, and his dissatisfac- tion wi aa ae a lead- ing part in the del ions of that . “He died in London in the talents, great courage, integrity, generosity, and tempe- rance. On the of his tetentiolia as a bate. the exertions ings of his life form best commentary. He was a most elegant scholar, and an His speeches are remarkable for i orator. Son ilamee and energy, and form, by their brevity, © a iking contrast to the wordy eloquence of the pre- sent day. His Phe = geiseenen phe med of »” origi ublished in i ; et which epics in an English dress in the 12mo and ound acquaintance with the interest, : oud tovatelions of the continental states, as at Great Britain, and shews him to have been deeply ac- quainted with the doctrine of the balance of power, which has since been the theme of so much discussion, and the cause of so much strife the philosophers, politicians, and warriors of E His “ Discourse on the establishment of a nati militia,” is learned and ingenious, but too Utopian to admit of a practical application. _ His « Two Di on the affairs of Scotland,” contain many curious views of the state of society at the time when they were written. On one’ topic only, we must offer a few remarks. These Dis- courses were written in 1693, when, in consequence of some years of barrenness, a scarcity, or rather a famine, existed through the land, and occasioned the most se- vere sufferings to the lower classes. The author A clares, that besides those who were scantily i : : sin Scot. — for out of the church boxes, there were at when he wrote, not less than 200,000 person land begging from door to door. And though,” he observes, “ the number of them be ps double to what it was formerly, by reason of this present dis- tress, yet in all time there have been about 100,000 of those vagabonds, who have lived without any regarc either to the laws of the land, or even to those of God and nature.” He tells us also, that when he considers the many excellent laws enacted by marae for setting the poor to work, particularly made in the reign of James VI. contrasted with their utter in- utility ; when he considered farther, that all the other ' nations in Europe, Holland alone H is under a similar pressure, he was led to i neither the cause nor the remedy of the evil diseovered. As no such evil had been complained of’ — ot ee ee - bition of princes, that he icing all’ those” “ persons and their posterity Socauvery, by a solemn act: ~~ inted at Glasgow in 1749, displays an ample FLINTSHIRE. 371 _ Flintshire. of the legi , that on the one hand they might be cay Maaco Oe Teper ony Sat a Flintshire. —\— ui to work, and on the other might be insured Vale of Clywd; from the banks of the Dee, the land ““Y"" of the necessaries of life. A more extraordinary reme- ee a ridge of hills, which run for a con- dy for a public evil, all circumstances considered, was siderable way parallel to that river. The Vale of Mold, surely devised ; and though he guards the pro- in the southern part of the county, is uncommonly plan ops Sree Sek aye leer yer Caeaeette Finest reer alone Ata 8 amg oppression, ui! umane tions, we to Flintshire; the city of St ing situ-° 4 } ated on the river Clywd, in se centre of it. Ke this remedy could hardly have occurred toa thinking mind. place, the vale is between four and five miles broad.. The evil has since disappeared, in consequence, The low part of Flintshire consists, for the most Soil. chiefly, ee he provision for public instruction part, of a — or loamy soil: whereas, the soil of in the of 1 i seal taaneliey, made by an _ the hills is lighter, and much more barren. The rivers Rivers. cher’s discourse was written, viz. in 1696. We regret Oe ere as pocesed, per auscribed erie na that the accounts of this excellent man are so head of this county. e Wheeler rises near Caerwys, and scanty ; and we consider a good account of his life amarket-town near the middle of the county; its course and writings as an important desideratum in the litera- ture of our native country. (/) bigh. The Sevion rises to the north of FLINTSHIRE, is a maritime , and the most Caerwys; its course is also west, and it falls into the northern in North Wales, It consists of a narrow slip of Clywd a few miles to the north-west of St Asaph. The land, that runs from north-wést to south-east ; is Allen rises a few miles to the south of Ruthin, in Den- soe ee Seen US Wor be ERY bighshire : at first, its course is to the north ; it next . north-east winds to the east ; and falls into the Dee to the north and east ; and by Denbighshire on the south and west. of Wrexham in Denbighshire. Near the town of Mold, At the distance of some miles from the main body of this river sinks ‘under ground, and is lost for a short the Soe adh sarade! igpemarta the space. The climate of Flintshire partakes, though not Climate. ly s of Den ire, and n urrounded Pec ge A beet gut Swe donee Bead climate of by Shropshire and shi This ae oiggey | arin con- North Wales; being rather mild near the sea, but wet: sists of the hundred of Maelor . Maelawr,in the hilly parts are exposed to cold and sharp winds. the Welsh language, signifies a place of traffic, mart, or ‘Flintshire pees een eenee oe en are eee Agric. market. There were ly many districts so deno- an agricultural point of view. On the flat tract, in its ture. minated, near the marches or boundaries of the princi- n extremity, a considerable quantity of corn is pality, which were considered neutral ground, where grown, especially wheat, of which a deal is ex- trade was carried on, are aeeerta Renticns of Fine panes po narra pam bey 8 Pesan shire, therefore, was most probably neutral ground, county, is applied to uction of Phi ish, or as the Welsh even both corn and Flintshire it oie’ of the bewedi yet stile them, met the latter for na? goapieabrioaay counties of Wales. The cattle are of the common ; ion of the iske of f - place.above 10 in much less. Its greatly discontinued. The low part of the county is circumference is 115 miles. Its area contains 309 square well-stocked with wood. miles, or 197,760 statute acres. It is divided into five The importance of Flintshire is derived almost en« Mines. hundreds, viz, Coleshill, which contains 4 parishes, 3 tirely from its mineral productions ; of these, the lead townships, and 1 3 Maelor, the disjoined hun- mines in the vicinity of Holywell are the most valu- dred i which contains 5 pari 1 able and curious. The entrance to one of the largest i i chapel pee: hhwetestr ter Rate Segbinnr: tal 1 3 Hie hu re ; F g f z Hil [ i the canal are cut through shale : remainder, (700 yards), hard i . The veins of this mine are un ly rich, ph ; one the inci peenrtles himaennit ye besi ny By miners are usually employed in it. e t of ore is found abou race the same circuit with the latter dipping down gradually almost as low as the level. The . at ue ) Z H s i : : ; Z 1 ee : : ] : aE en is uu HE lu ef if i i F the boroughs of Flint, Rhyddlan, O ects ronal 5 Bae tiny int, , Over- ing it ; and sev and Caergurley, including the inhabi- ounces of silver have been annually extracted in this tants of and Overton foreign, paying scot county, and sent to the manufactures of Sheffield and and lot, who amount to about 1000 voters, Flintshire Birmingham. The calamine is exported, and one half of the land-tax. partly used in the brass works near Holywell. In the is county is not nearly so uneven in its surface as south-eastern parts of the county, there are considerable ee iat et _The northern extremity, coal mines, from which the city of Chester is in a great the detached part, is mostly a level tract ; and measure supplied. Millstones are also found in Flint- seater portion is agreeably diversified with hill shire ; and some years. as they were sinking coal the Denbighshire side, the county is pits in, the parish of Mold, 5 WEE.O€ Week slate was GEIL PESETISFIELS deg it ecg kgs reat Bete: a ALE aH : fe TAAL) uF iz = ee - > : gut : sft af spun here is much , on account of the uni- texture and quality produced by the constant and force which this body of water exerts, dischar- about 21 tons in a minute from the spring head, never: ing, even in the severest winters. Near are considerable potteries, at which are nade large quantities of coarse earthen ware, much of which is to Ireland. Fs Political From the returns to the House of Commons in 1803, state. respecting the state of the , it appears that the money raised for their support in Flintshire that year amounted to £16,130: 7 : 83, whereas in 1783, 1784, and 1785, it averaged only £8085 : 9: 5, and in 1776 it was only £4176: 10:8; the average rate in 1803 was 5s. in the . No money appears to have been earned by the poor towards their own support. The number of persons relieved out of workhouses was 1572, in workhouses'25. There were 18 friendly so- cieties, containing 3307 members. The number of children in the ls of industry was 62. From the returns under the property act, it appears, that in 1810, the annual value of property in this coun- ty, from houses, tithes, quarries, miines, &c. amounted to £148,732; and it is remarkable that there is no tithe free land in it. The amount of the incomes from trades was £44,371. In 1700, the ion of Flintshire was 19,500: in 1750, 29,700; im 1801, 41,000; and in 1811 there were, 7 Inhabited 3) ene) 8,816 \ Families in them, . . . . .-+. . 9,740 “ Housesbuilding, 2 2 2. bi F uninhabited, . . . 155 BSC he FLO Families em in agriculture, . 4,086” rag = oe naga eee fi All other families, . : cia 3 22,645 Males, vo) «© eelhe ss Dee bad : 22,712 Females, . Wee oe wie te er we 28, Total, . . ‘ a. 46,518 The baptisms brought to account in the parish regi ter abstract, are four to each marriage: to every 31 of the lation, there appeared to be one baptism, and one burial to every 53, and one marriage to every 15% of the lation. At invasion of the Romans, Flintshire ‘was in- History. Venedotia, ly from the Veneti, in who, according to Cesar, uently visited. Britain, The Ordovices were the last of the British tribes con." quered ye Romans, On a marsh in the neighbour- hood of Rhyddlan, was fought, in 795, a battle hich the Liter were de- feated ; their prince, Carador, was slain, and the event was deemed so disastrous, that a plaintive tune, still se a in Wales, was composed on the occasion. much moment, ] ) east of St Asaph, is supposed to be the Varis of An- toninus: near this city, also, are the remains cular fortification; and near Hope; the county, a Roman hypocaust, ‘or hot-bath, was dis- covered some years ago. On Mostyn mountain, there isa stone pillar, with characters on it, hitherto not de- cabeesd . Print Town is a small town on the Dee, + See Davies’ View of the Agriculture of North Wales; A. Aikin’s somes a Tour through North Wales; Bingley’s North Wales ; Evans’ Cambrian Itinerary ; Pennant’s Tour in Wales. (Ww. 8.) ha. FLOE:TZ Rocks. | See MineRALoGy. .. _ FLINTS. See Mineraroey. R “FLOATING Bopies. See Hypropywamics, and Surp-Bui.pinG, : Al ale : FLOOD. See Detuce. S ps FLORENCE, a celebrated city of eerie situated b A Aro, is the Arcadia of the Italian poets; and even Milton himself frequently alludes to the exquisite ties of its scenery. a “4 Ree eT eS Se a ee eyes! >. EE — —_ Ss —— —— —_ i» ‘ i el FLORENCE. 7s StPeter's a and 363 in ‘Ite most remarkable feature, however, is the dome, which was raised under the directions of Philip Brunel- lesco, the mdst celebrated architect of the 15th 3 The dimensions are within a few feet of the dome of. Peter’s ; and as it is prior to it in date by a cen- ‘tury, and was always the of An- ‘$s admiration, we may ‘con , that the of h Roman edifice was at least im part suggested the Florentine. But, ariaatedl tiamein oe ie of yon "ta Wore eats “S00 eneiade tae: , has consequently circular, Herm ne closed at there is a want of 1 at ee esi 1 Th . of Andrea Ugalin, of Pisa and Lorenzo Ghi- the great 873 | berti, and were so highly admired by Michael Angelo, Florence: that he ealled them the’ Gates of oh mip Hee the “—"\—" rinci te of the baptistery are two columns of por- ~ pe vo bik are. i dperitied the immense lanine with which the Pisans, in 1406, attempted to close up their harbour against the Florentines and Genoese, and which were afterwards brought to Florence as a trophy of victory. See Civiz Arenirecture, vol. vi. :p. 548, and Plate CLXXIII where we have given’a plan and vertical section of this church. The next, and indeed the only other church which deserves a particular description, is that of San Loren- zo inthe northern part of the aie This also was plan- ned by Brunellesco, ‘but is, in design and magni- ficence, inferior to the Duomo. It has, however, at- tained to high celebrity, from two buildings attached ‘to it; the none and the Medicean Chapel. * rhe first was one of the earliest works of Michael Angelo, and is de« corated with 7 statues by the same artist ; and although most of them are unfinished, yet the eye of the con- noisseur will easily discern in them, the genius and boldness of design, which so eminently characterize the ions of that great ‘sculptor. The chapel which adjoins the back of the church was. begun in 1604 by F and I. Grand Duke of Tusca- ny, who intended not only to have removed thither the: mausolea of his ancestors, but was in treaty to the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. The plan of the building was every way worthy of the p e for which it was intended. “Its form is octagonal, its diameter 94, and its elevation to the vault 200 feet. It is liter- oie with lapis aa jasper, onyx, &c. furnished with sarcophagi of , and supported by granite pilasters with aoitate of xthde; The HM peat these pi are of touchstone ; beneath is a subter- ranegs chapel, where the bodies, whose names om on i above, are to 5 ie Srdctfition of our staf, a group in white marble by John of Bologna, with a bless Miko by Michael Angelo, and St John by one of his” pupils, “ grace this dormitory of the dead, and preside over it with appros priate majesty. But, Nescia mens hominum fati sortisque future, before the magnificent monument intended for their ‘reception was finished, the Medicean line has failed ; the work is now suspended ; and, if we may judge from the impoverished state of the country, and the agitation of the times, it isnot likely to be resumed for many years, if ever.” The Laurentian library, which is in the convent annexed to the church, is a collection of valuable manuscripts, first formed by Cosmo and Loren- zo di Medicis, and considerably increased by Leo X. and Clement VII. ‘Of these, Aacatig several of the most valuable have been removed to Paris. * In the other churches of Florence, though not defi- cient in internal decoration, there is but little to in- terest the traveller, except the recollections which the tombs of the illustrious men, whose ashes they con-~ tain, are calculated toexcite. It is indeed impossible to pass by unnoticed the edifices where repose the re- mains of a Guicciardini or Machiavelli; of a Michael Angelo or Galileo. : The palaces of Florence are remarkable for a style of Palaces. architecture peculiar to themselves, to which the long civil wars in the 15th century between the Guelph an Ghibelline families first gave rise. The Palazzo Strozzi and the Palazzo Ricardi, the latter of which was built by ¢ Cosmo de Medici, are curious specimens of this style. They are square, heavy, solid masses, whose Medicean Population. stories are Senne fee nae! Gh ne eae Des uired so a reputation as . wy ay teiredgram yh Pago PI gas wa rts i E F : i HH fF be [ : fis eel SEog F. rs of icean princes and other contribu- gallery adorn the vestibule, and, like the tu- the place, seem to claim from the passing ler the homage due to their munificence. The A former, however, pee of the most celebrated now the galleries of the Louvre, and the hall of the enus de Medici is now a temple bereft of its divinity. Of those that remain, the most remarkable is the group of Niobe and her children ; it consists of 16 figures, which are ly considered as models of the hi ion ; although it is a subject of de- bate among critics, whether this group be a copy, or iginal, which is ascribed by Pliny the to the chissel of Scopas or Praxiteles. A minute description, however, of this celebrated collection would exceed our limits ; and we must refer our readers for this and the account of the natural his- tory museum, to the Museum Florentinum, the Pano- rama of Florence, and similar publications, In 1782, Florence was calculated to contain about 97,000 inhabitants ; if, however, in this, as well as other e it has followed the fate of the other Italian cities ; the long period of misery war which has er ensued, must have greatly diminished its popu- ion. As early as the 14th century, while the Venetians and Genoese were contending superiority in the Levant, Florence had ‘become powerful, and its citi- zens wealthy, by théir attention to commerce. As they were not at that time, however, possessed of a sea- port, their care and attention was principally directed to the improvement of their manufactures, and objects of industry. It from a contemporary historian, that the silks and cloths of Florence were the chief manufactures in the 14th century. ‘From their con- FLORENCE. their individual wealth, the Florentines were naturally = ~ 5 of Europe, and z 5 z z z E : 5 4 3 it z 3 : | i i ut uh SPs & 4 é 2 [ = F &, Europe fell into their hands ; collection and administration were even confided to their care. tunes which were acquired in these ways, : J i Free i we find Cosmo de Medici-endeavo ing to i his countrymen a share in the Indian trade, ried on b the Genoese and Venetians. In thi z z 5: " a i E : ; i i i : gf FSF ness of Florence fled with her liberty, and wi forsook the fertile plains and es of the Amo, the less highly favoured v of Britain, and frozen shores of the Baltic. The present trade of Florence consists entirely in sale of the productions of her own territory, and manufactures, &c. Of the former, the chief are raw silks, oil; and wines. Of the latter; the most ce- lebrated is the manufacture of silks, which still con- ze stuffs, commonly variety of other man rcelain has been introduced with great success into ritain by the late Mr W: iP It is di to ascertain with certainty the era of the foundation of Florence. It to have been a place used for markets and fairs by the Etrus- can inhabitants of the town of Fasule, (now Fiesolé, ) ee Velde eate cell cleoted for asap = mand the was 8 3 and the first houses in Florence were the booths erect~ ed for the accommodation of traders. Under the go- vernment of Sylla, it became the seat of a Roman co- © lony. The walls of the new city were first traced ou oc name from the officer who had the charge of ment of the infant colony. by that dictator, and it is suresedl toneveensatea “ns t y. hee We find but little mention of it in hi ing the — Syl, till the later period that elapsed from the time of fers tee Raper i gif re inca teres neg from the beauty of its situation, and its conveni« ence for inland commerce, it must have greatly increa+ cod in papain and riches, At the time that it was during his war wi iniane FI Ri in ducts, a sure indication of the wealth and luxury of its inhabitants, ig Me Desegtne, rom sway of the Lombards in Italy it sighth, gentary. ra it was xy Charlemagne, ly ated the Lom~ a rat SE a ee a e during the anarchy oF thereigns off the dukes of Friuli” ‘ and the other soverei who successively assu- med the title king of Italy, and the subsequent disputes a Manufac- tures. History. entirely destroyed by Totila, king of the Goths, SE RR ee ne Pt tT eI ay - — + eS CP ta es Per te oF ghee we . ater 44, Florence. between the German —— ‘ors and the bishops of Rome, like the other cities of Tuscany and Lombar- dence. History. dy, was gradually acquiring strength along with the se fl Exposed to sudden assaults of hordes of Saracens, Bulgarians, and other barbarous nations, against whom their lords were unable to assist them, the first step towards freedom was the right granted them of surrounding their city with walls and fortifications. It was not,, however, until the reign of Otho I. about the people were epee and esta- mun vernment. constitu- tion adopted by tha cteatioes, was a deliberative class of citizens. OF these there iginally four, elected by the four of the city. When it was increased to six divisions, two new consuls were also added, who were elected in the same manner, the Florentine s to have i y taken part rapt nmr ween the and especially in that of Otho ss a IV. and Innocent III. yet the internal suet tae wanet haniy standing these long continued dissensions, the republic seems not to have suffered either in point of popula- tion or wealth. The annalists of that peri of the of the city, of the erection of FLORENCE.. 375 d having forced the chiefs of both parties to si Florence. ani ving e Ss parti sign a ‘treaty of : they added to the captain of the peo- ple a Podesta of a Guelph family in Milan. No sooner was the popular government established in Florence, than the citizens, animated by the strength had acquired, endeavoured to bring over the whole of Tuscany to their party. For an account, however, of the wars that ensued, and the subsequent history of Florence, ‘as connected with foreign transactions, we refer our readers to the article ITaty, confining our- selves at present to a brief sketch of the internal revo- lutions of the republic. In the year 1258, the Ghibellines attempting to re gain their ancient ascendancy, were, in their turn, ex- from Florence, and obliged to take refuge in jenna. By that republic they were not only received but protected, notwithstanding the threats and decla- ration of war by the Florentine Signory. The Ghi- bellines soon acquired a still more powerful protector, Manfred, king of Sicily, who, at the solicitation of Fa- rinata des Uberti, sent to their aid a small body of Ger pone a~ On the total defeat of these by the Flo- tines, Manfred, irritated at the disgrace, resolved to take a more active in the war, and immediately par garde ides infantry, into the state of Sienna, under command of Giordano d’Anglone. Alarmed at this new addition of strength to their ene« pee ered in ienese territory. But ¥ influ- enced by their rtinust of the nobles, a tle was fought on the 4th tember, 1 Aperto, on the banks of the Arbia, where the Guel were completely defeated, with the loss of 10,000 kil+ led, "békididctunthahecds ‘daxiber of platens. The consequence of this defeat was a second expulsion of the principal Guelphs, who, with their families, were, by the orders of the people, exiled from Florence, nine days after the battle. At a diet of the Ghibelline states of TAseyy it was seriously proposed to destroy completely city of Florence, whose growi wer and inclination to the ite faction rendered it opposi so dangerous to its neigh« bours ; and this meeting with ap) from the Tuscan deputies, was nearly on, lad not the firniness and eloquence of Farinata des Uberti; whose abilities so much contributed to the victory, been successful in altering the opinions of the diet, and pre- serving the independence of his country. For six years the Ghibellines retained the sovereignty, by the assist- tance of a garrison of the king of Sicily’s soldiers com~ manded by Count Guido Novella. spirit of the people, however, was hostile, and the tyrannical ads ministration of Guido did not diminish their attach- thent to the pontifical faction. The defeat of Manfred at Grandella by Charles of Anjou, and his subsequent death, raised the spirits of the exiles ; and Count Guido, alarmed by an insur- rection of the le, having deserted ‘his. post, the Ger witcha aided by 800 French’ onder the etmaabie d of Guy de eo celebrated Earl of Lei-« cester), re-entered Florence on Easter day 1267, and again expelled their ancient antagonists. Their whole property was immediately conficated, and, after the loss ‘sustained by the Guelphs was repaired, thrown into 2 fund, under the administration of particular. magis- , at Monte: History. Florence, trates, destined. to y=" nance and increase of the Guelph party. FLO 87 provide for the constant mainte-. portant add ee ‘ riod, also, an im ition was to the rentine constitution of four new councils, without the ion of which, the signory, could. not. deter- mine on any point of im ce. The tirst in order was. the “ Council of People,” isting. of an hundred citizens. Next, but on the same day, the council “ De Credenza” was consulted ; this consisted of 80 members, and in it the heads of. the seven prin- cipal trades had a right to a seat. From. both these councils, the watchful jealousy of the le excluded all nobles and Ghibellines. On the following day, the business was considered by the council of the Podesta and the general council, the former composed of 90 members, indiscriminately chosen from the nobles and plebeians, besides the heads of the trades, and the lat- ter of 300 citizens of all. denominations. . The esta- blishment of these tended greatly to increase the influ- ence of the people. The number of citizens compo- sing them, and their continuing in office only one year; prevented them from having any peculiar interests.in- d ent of their constituents ; while the check they - on the magistracy was immediate and power- _ In the year 1279, by the zealous and _actiye inter- position of the Cardinal. Latino, legate and nephew to Pope Nicolas III. a was concluded between the Guelphs and Ghibellines ; to the latter were resto- red their fortunes and. estates, andthe right of partici- pation in the public offices. At the same, time, the pious endeavours of the Cardinal were successful in putting an end to a family feud between the Adimari and Donati, in which a considerable portion of the In 1282, the Florentines anew system of go- yernment, which continued until the downfal of the re- wablic.. This was a new signory, isting of six mem- who were styled priors of the arts and. of liberty, one being chosen from each of the incorporated pro- fessions, except that of the judges and notaries, These continued in office only two months; and, during that time, resided in the ic palace, which they were not allowed to quit. council of election consisted of Se senor going out of office, with the heads and s of the principal. professions, and certain others chosen by them from the different quarters of the city. No person could be re-elected in less than two years, men, although nominally members of the tion, from being ever elected priors. This, and the other laws, tending to the power of the nobles, were duced by Giano della Bella, who, though a noble, had more regard for the general liberties of his country; with various success, until the Neri, assisted by Charles of Valois, succeeded in expelling the Bianchi whe were ap forced to join with the Ghibellines, their:brethren ion of the emperor H i a taly in 1310, revived the: drooping pitt of 6 FLO the imperial faction, while, from the distinguished Florence held among his opponents, it public a much hi place in the of the Italian states than it had hitherto held... In fact; after this riod, the history of Florence is so much involved in that of the revolutions of Italy, ‘that it’ becomes i sible even to narrate the. york in Sa Ad without entering largely into the general history of times ; and we must therefore close this article by again referring our readers to the articles Irary, Tuscany, Mepici, &e. (.3-) FLORIDA,.a province in North:America; is bound- ed on the north by Georgia; on the east, by the At- lantie ; on the south, by the gulf of Mexico; and on the west, by the Mississippi, It extends between 500 and 600 miles, from east to west; and. little more than 100 from north to south, except at its easternypeninsula, where the breadth is nearly 400 miles. It 1s situated between 25° and 31° of North Latitude; and between 80° and 92° of West Longitude. This country was first visited in 1497, by Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian ma- riner in was more ag 7 A ay vered. time? Ponce de Leon, a native in, in 1512. is navigator gi ing credit to an old tradition, that a fountain Sideloh the American continent, which had she eens of bestowing perpetual youth, fitted out a x pes Cte and bent his course tow the quarter where these ua de Flores; or, according to Herrera, from the ap- ce of the country, which was covered with owers, and the most beautiful blossoms., He landed on the coast ; and, taki ession of the soil in name of his Catholic Majesty, he erected a stene with an by Ferdinand de oe eas “officers: in ish service ; it cost the Spaniards ‘a lo and Ccaahchetuetithepeeataaies tanmmoae ndered z Captain Davisy'at the head of of eers. In Senpaputliian tartans amin. the service of Henry VII: of England ; but History. *- , and t . 1 but the Spaniards, hay- for the space of three months ; ing sent a.squadron to the relief of the garrison, he ive of a new Florida ; and, in 1740, an expedi- tion was fitted out St Augustine y Bs General re= ceived in of the intended attack, made such additions to the strength of the garrison, and adopted Fit iF a ae i / 3 : : : aut : : é 5 | A | ae tS z f SF eee a E i EF? nt | Hi E H ie ce F g z 4 4 # Hele ite FLORIDA. . Lake 877 The coast is deeply inaented with small gulfs and in- lets, and intersected with numerous rivers. Along the south coast are several islands, which are included in the province, but which are of little importance or uti- lity. The most remarkable are Cat Island, eight miles Florida. Islands. . east of St teas Bay, above six miles in-dengthy-and- i pars pl with immense quantities of shells; Ship Island, about ten miles south of Biloxy Bay, nine miles long, and two broad; Horn Island, about six miles farther east, very narrow, and about seventeen miles in length; Massacre Island, two miles east of the last mentioned, also very narrow, but nearly‘hine miles long; Dauphin Island, five miles farther east, six miles in ie , and about two in breadth ; Rose Island, a long and narrow sandy slip parallel to the coast, between Rose Bay and that of Pensacola; and the Tortugas, about ten in number, nearly opposite the most southern point of East Florida, covered with mangrove bushes, and ex~ tending ten or eleven miles from north-east to south- west. Some of these oe are mere sand, and none of them uce any thing better than s and pines. The oriteipal idind in the east coast 3s Aniaatintsy op- posite to the town of St Augustine, divided from the in length. by a narrow channel, and twenty-five miles in The rivers, which empty themselves into the Atlan- tic ocean, are St Mary’s, the common boundary be- tween Florida and Georgia, about a mile broad at its mouth ; St John’s river, rising in a marshy tract near the middle of the peninsula, and flowing gently north- ward, traverses several lakes, (the lowest of which, , is 20 miles long and 12 broad,) and falls into the sea about 40 miles south of the St Mary ; and Indian river, which runs from north to south, and falls Rivers. “into the sea about 60 miles south of Cape Cannaveral. Most of the rivers which fall into the Gulf of Mexico, have their source in the province of Georgia, and the most Seeathy of paces ate the Appalachicola, which di- vides East West Florida, and is composed of two streams, the Flint and the Chatohuthe, arising in the Ape mountains, and uniting on the confines of ida ; the Escambia, the source of which is unknown to E , and which empties itself into the bay of Pensacola; the Perdido, formerly the boun be- tween Louisiana and Florida, and falling into the sea four leagues west of Pensacola Bay ; the Mobile, which has its source in the country of the Chickasaws, and, he! pce seats hghena ta Tombeche, and which, reeei becomes navigable nearly 120 miles from its mouth; the P which is navi upwards of 150 miles, and which falls into the about 16 miles west from Mobile Bay ; the Pearl River, which originates in the Chaclaw territories, and is also navigable upwards of 150 miles ; and the Regolets, which is worthy of notice, chiefly as issuing from lake Ponchartrain,-which is 40 miles long and 34 braede Augustine, the capital of East Florida, and origi- 7, nally founded by the i about the year 1580, eg stands in 29° 45’ North Lat. on the coast of the Atlan- tic. It is built at the neck of a peninsula, in an oblong pa re " oa I fortified withrbestiong at t les. It is forti i i po Pir ass adi itch, and is also defended by a castle called Fort St John, well provided with ordi- nance. The river St Mark flows the harbour, and separates the town from the island Anastasia. The and south breakers, at the entrance, form two whore bars Have sight feet of water. Pensa~ B Phorda. General as- Climate. $78 cola, the capital of West Florida, was regularly laid out by the English in 1765; and is sbout senile fa’) y of an oblong form, lying nearly parallel to the beach, and defended by a fort, which was built also by the English in 1775. In consequence of a low and sandy shore. only small sessala are able tapeoenee Peers? but the bay affords a commodious Pardew ships, which may ride there in security every er a Mobile, a at the sae ‘ ve) ri- ver of name, on a gently rising . is nearly a mile in length, and contain several good houses, whieh are chiefly built of brick, “with a r fortress also of brick, towards the lower end of the town. There are, besides, numerous forts and settlements, generally in the neighbourhood of Indian villages. The houses of Europeans are usually of brick, ” hs tax tine the’p ninsula is hotter than the west’; and, towards ° southern point of the west coast, there are, from side, the ; but, fromthe end of ° i FLORIDA. it is altogether inconceivably de-" the winds are itudes; and many persons the Havannalt resort thither, as to's Montpélier. “In both the tracts of eli. mate, however, ee more northern, there are great variations from heat to cold, making often a change of 30° the thermometer, in the twelye hours. The vegetable productions of Florida are particu ly Sasiveaa et Seeiy Sar phew and luxuriant tapes can exceed the'majes- tic appearace of its towering forest trees, and the bril- liant colours of its flowering shrubs.. The cedars, and chesnuts, grow to’ an im and size. The laurels, especially the mag uncommonly wine objects, rising with erect trunks: to the height of 100 feet, rg arte eo perfect cone, and having their dark green foliage silver~ ed over with large milk white flowers, frequently eight or nine inches in-didmeter, The-live-oaks,. after:fornis’ ing’a'trunk from ten’ to twenty feet ‘high, and ‘from twelve to eighteen in circumference, a re werereens es fully fifty paces on every side.” _gene= rally jini te watery Girerlentuatty, tat like but. tresses, rising around its lower , then rearing a stem of eighty or ninety feet, throws out a flat ho- rizontal top like an umbrella, so that often in forests all of an equal height, ' present the appear ance of a green canopy supported upon columns in the air)’ The dog-wood trees rise tothe height of twelve feet; then ‘ ‘their branches horizontally, which, meeting and interweaving with others on every” side, form a shady grove, ‘so’ and humid, a8 completes ly to’exclude it rays ‘sppuitle skied a growth of any other ble, thus. ing tot traveller a natural shelter, frequently extending for the space of ten miles without int ion. But the most beautiful of the forest'tribe, is the: ery. ee i paya, which rises to the height of twenty feet, with a stem pr ly. straight, smooth, and: silver-coloured, having a spherical = Ad leaves always green, and or= namented at once with flowers and fruits. © er Fruits. fruits; yg a linies, pranes,’ peaches, and “figs, grow in the forests, and gra , Vines, whose stems: are’often’ ten or twelve inches in diameter, climb around the trunks of the trees to their very tops, but those which’ ce the best fruit creep along close tothe grouhd Ranrent low shrub to another. ' Among the shrubs’... ma’ icularly mentioned a'species of uy call yy ra thee) whieh grows'to the’ height of nine or: ten feet, and’ produces a number of large round berries, covered with a coat of white wax, which is formed by the inhabitants into candles, and more lasting than those’ made of bees wax. Of the numerous flower- ing plants, we can only ‘particularize a species a c ous p stem every year, yet grows tothe height of ten or twelve 5 » Trees. Florida. ———_ FLORIDA. 3 tobe eccasioned by their standing during the Florida. — : of summer, in the lakes and rivers, feeding on ““\"" feet, branching’ seogulesia. ia, the fornn of a.sharp cone, . flowers. uring r 5 0. 4 months, That si of fifteen. or twenty feet. Wherever the bark, it present- ly takes root as readily as if it had ors eainry the and deer rivers,the reeds and ruslies grow. to extraordinary size, some. ofthe former. being actu- ially,80 or 40:feet high, and: being used as masts to the »eanoes ; but among the aquatic the Pistia strati- soles is sparticularly. of notice, _ It resembles a ;and. a miles indength, and a quarter of a in breadth, furnishing a habitation to crocodiles, ; She pinciplvegetable productions regularly culti- enough for several shallops to ride init. The water is of a sulphureous mociciorsataoserasieay oeeinetn substance i in it, with a pale bluish ecoagulum ; but it is remarkably greatest distinctness. _ The country is stored with creatures fit for the use in, wi i that are’ very formi- 3879 the water-grass ; and horses, running wild, as well as kept in herds by the natives. They are extremely beau- tiful and sprightly ; but of a small breed, and almost as slender in their form as the American roe-buck. Of the wilder tribes, there are the wéasel, polecat, and lynx, which last is a very fierce little creature, preying upon “young pigs, fawns and turkeys ; foxes, of the small red 8 , which bark during the night, but move so pre- cipitately, that are seldom heard twice in the same spot; wolves of different colours, larger than a dog, ly assembling in companies, particularly during the night-time ; bears, in-considcrable numbers, and of _great strength, but scarcely ever known to attack hu~ man bei When fat and full grown, they weigh from 500 to 600 pounds weight; and their flesh ‘is greatly esteemed as food by the natives. Of birds, be- Birds. sides many which are migratory, there are found sta- ‘tionary in Florida, vultures, hawks, rooks, jays, parrots, wood-peckers, pigeons, turkeys, herons, cranes, cur- lews, cormorants, pélicans, plovers, &c. A few of the more remarkable are the snake bird, a species of cor= morant of great beauty, which delight to sit in peace« able communities, on the «dry limbs of trees, hanging over the lakes, with their wings and tail expanded, as ~ if cooling themselves in the air; and, when alarmed, they drop as if dead into the water, suddenly appearing again on the surface, at a t distance from the spot where they first sunk, but shewing only their long slen~ der head and neck above the water, which gives them very much thea ce of a stiake. The crying bird, a species of pelican, about the size of a large domestic hen, and of a ed colour, with’a short tail, having the longest feather in the middle, and the two outer~ most perfectly white, which the bird ‘is accustomed, whenever he is disturbed, to flirt out on each side with the quickness of lightning, uttering at the same time a very harsh and loud shriek. The wood begs a large bird, nearly three feet high when standing erect, fesling on serpents, frogs, and other reptiles, is gene= rally seen solitary on the banks of the marshes and ri« peer with his =e Scan: in w his shoulders, — is long crook resting like a scythe u i btoabt © iis bird is si re) to Ei ttle eiedbede to the Egyptian ibis, ‘The painted vulture, of a white or cream colour, except the quill feathers of the wings, and the tip of the large tail feathers,’ which cote. datk brown or black, is‘séldom seen, unless: when the deserts are set on fire, which sometimes happens from liglitning, arid is. more regularly done by the Indians, 'to rouse the game; and then they gather from every quarter towards the burning plains, and alighting among the smoking embers, gorge their immense craws with roasted serpents, frogs, an lizards. The Creeks form their national standard with the tail-feathers of this bird, preserving them in their natural white colour, in en jons, but drawing a zone of red beneath the brown tips when they go to battle. ‘The re savannah crane; a'very stately bird, about length from the toes to the extremity or aetieak when extended, nearly five feet when standing erect, and eight ornine feet ‘between the extremities of the ings: they fly in detached squadrons, all rising and falling as one bird, and while they move: their wings in flight with slow and regular strokes, the shafts webs of their quill-feathers may be heard at aconsiderable distance in the air, ing like the wrorking, of a verge ta 9 RernpOnos Se. Planta 880 The coasts, sounds, and inlets, abound in excellent 1 fish; and the inland lakes and rivers are, in some bab Amphibia. places, actually crowded with the finny tribe. Of these, the more remarkable are, the brown spotted ser, from five to six fect in when fully grown, w im skin resembles a coat of mai!, of which the ibentedaped strong, that the Indians use them as points to their arrows, The mud fish, about two feet. long, the flesh of which is white and tender, but rather soft, and not much esteemed. The golden bream, or sun-fsh, about eight inches in length, resembling the trout in shape, remarkably and rapacious for his size, and very delicious as food ; the silver og white bream, and the black or blue bream, which are also ex- tremely beautiful and abundant; the cat-fish, sting- ray, scale, flounder, spotted bass, sheeps-head, drum, &c. and many other varieties, are found every where, even in the smaller ponds and open holes, in the utmost abundance. This multitude of fishes furnishes subsist- ence to an equally numerous brood of alligators, which are seen in all the rivers and lakes, in immense bodies, many of them nore tae ee er. prodigious assemblage of them in the river St John, was witnessed by Mr Bartram pursuing the vast shoals of fish with which that river abounds; and his descrip- tion of the scene will best convey an idea of their num- bers, as well as of the prolific nature of the waters in Florida, *“ The river in this place from shore to shore, and perhaps near half a mile above and below me, weak te be cue solid bank of fish of various kinds, ushing through this narrow pass of St John’s into the ittle lake, on their return down the river ; and the al- ligators were in such incredible numbers, and so close together from shore to shore, that it would have been easy to have walked across on their heads, had the ani- rex 4 been harmless. What expressions can sufficiently declare the shocking scene that for some minutes con- tinued, whilst this mighty army of fish were ongse pass! During this attempt, thousands, I may say hun- dreds of thousands of them, were caught and swallow- ed by the devouring alligators. I have seen an alliga- tor take up out of the water several great fish at a time, and just squeeze them betwixt his jaws, while the tails - of the trout about his eyes and lips ere he had ar soc Sag pT he horrid naise of Piste ehosing jews, their plunging amidst the broken banks of fish, and rising with their prey some feet upright above the water, the floods of water and blood rushing out of their mouths, and the clouds of vapour issuing from their wide nostrils, were truly frightful.” Here may be men- tioned, as belonging to the same genus with the alliga- tor, the lizards of Florida, of which there are several species: the little green chamelion, about seven inches long, and very harmless ; the striped lizard, called scor- ‘ons by the Americans, covered with small scales, vi- their tail, and darting out their forked tongue when cere epepiliag 3 asmall blue lizard, remark- ably swift, with a long tail, which is subject to be broken off like that of the glass snake. There are several kinds of tortoises in rivers and lakes, of which the most d ing of notice is the great soft shelled tortoise, some of which, when full , weigh from 30 to 40 pounds, extremely fat nil Selisioaa, and ho aga ee much in form and nce the sea turtle. ve whole back shell, except the vertebra and ribs, is cartilaginous, and easily reduced to a jelly when boiled. These creatures bury themselves in the slushy bottoms of rivers and ponds, under the roots of aquatic plants, leaving an aperture just sufficient for the head . extremii FLORIDA. : ey E F i i i : i i Wt in BEE Of frogs there are various kinds, the largest is about 8 or 9 inches in length from th oi to the ball frog of Viginia, but gs ferior indeed to the irginia, but resembling the grunt ofa hog. Ki Fino wel od are the bell rog, the voice of which is similar to the sound of a cow bell ; another species of abeautiful green ¢ which utter a noise like the yelping of young dogs; a still smaller tribe which infest the houses, whose voi is like that of young chickens; and an extremely di- minutive class, called Savanna crickets, which may be seen in the rainy season ing like Rey Omg the tall grass. There are red and black toads, the for- mer of which are very large, weighing upwards of a pound, but ne way venomous, : & # ; 5 There are numerous kinds of snakes in Florida, but Reptiles. little different from those which are found ‘in the other southern provinces of the United States. The largest is the rait , Which is commonly from four to six feet in length, and sometimes even eight or ten. With a single scratch of one of his fangs, he is able to kill the largest animal, but is never known to strike unless first assanited 5, ner -cmh..ne, orang Cates, tate Geta be _with a single blow on abounds in East Florida, large as the rattle-snake, and said to be more formidable by being more ite ; the bastard, or ground rattle-snake, of size, but extremely fierce and venomous ; the green snake, a beau- tiful and harmless creature, about two or three feet in ] , but not thicker than a man’s little finger ; the snake, v but scarce mon walking stick, the abdomen towards the tail like a switch, or i i ing at times to ing it only with \its lower extremity ; the glass snake, rage one lour, about two feet and a half in length, a and great of tail, which is so and. of beautifal butterflies hover among the shrubs —— Se di _—— ay me _ fire on Population. : FLORIDA. fly, of a splendid green colour, and golden head, which eee Mee the peek ot rol hot soodie or a spark of “tain, the greatest et it was given to settlers ; and at first considerable aiditions were made to its Eu- He ropean inhabitants. But their increase was extremely slow, notwi pee eas and, since the country was recovered by the Spaniards, its lated of the n possession fruitful regions, and in close al- liance with Spaniards, and now form one le with the remains of the tribes who were in ce with the uered race. There are found, - ly in East Florida, numexous monuments t nerally by the modern Indians to the exe- cution of their captives ; artificial lakes or ponds, to which avenues run from the mounts. - have n 381 tries, are a mere handful of people, and range at liberty over the richest plains of both provinces. They find, in the spontaneous uctions of the soil, and in the abundance of game which the forests afford, a superflui- ty of subsistence ; and secured in the midst of their swamps from any sudden attack of hostile tribes, they ing to occasion their disquietude, but the gra- ts of the White le. They are re- dual markably joyous and volatile in their dispositions ; and can be more ressive of lightness of heart tha ‘tice or vi ee. d okay and motions. They are fond of bling, and spirituous liquors ; and amuse Tugectres, Fike liven in pete rari by the most extravagant stories, to excite surprise and laughter. They are the most active and ex hunters, andi by the sale of deer, bear, tiger, and wolf-skins, honey, wax, horses, &c. they procure their clothing and domestic utensils from the White settlers. They are, however, treacherous and unsteady, and being far re- moved from the controul of the upper Creeks, with whom are confederated, and eed government is more , they are apt to pay little d to treaties of amity with the Whites, and to commit murders and ions on detached families who fall into their hands. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. xxxix. ; Robert- son’s Hist. of America, vol. ii.; Bartratn’s Travels in Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; Volney’s Account of the United States; Bernard Romans Concise Natural and Moral Hist. of East and West Florida, published at New York in 1776, a very scarce but highly interest. be PT ;and Hutchin’s American Geography. (q) ORIS, Fiores, or Enper, is the name of a large island in the eastern seas, situated to the east of Java, between the 120th and 123d de, of East Longitude, and the 8th and 9th degrees of South Latitude. It is about 200 miles long, and has an average breadth of 36 miles. The interior of this island is very en ince known, The inland parts are mountainous and woody, and it contains a burning mountain of considerable height. Towards the sea coast, the country is fine and open. The principal place frequented by the English in i the straits of Florie, “a the village of touca, upon the island of Floris. Refreshments for two or three ships can be obtained here, such as goats, hogs, fowls, and fruits, buffaloes, and some turtle, water. In return for these, the natives will receive gun-powder, musket balls, bottles, wine glasses, white linen cloth, and all kinds of coarse cutlery. Ben- zoin, ambergris, and small quantities of wax, are export- ed from the island, and sandal wood in small quantities may yor K sseycn oe of a ¥ she profess Chris- tianity, generally hoist the Portuguese flag. The Burman language peeve over the greatest on the island. The Portuguese visited this island at a very early period, and gave it the name of Floris ; but there is no reason to believe that they ever established a re- gular settlement. See Milburn’s Oriental Commerce, vol, ii. p. 385; and Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer, w ( PLUENTS.. See Fiuxions. FLUIDS. See Cuemisrry and Hypropynamics. FLUSHING, Vuiissencen, or Fiesstncus, is the name of a seaport town of Holland, situated in the island of Walcheren, on the north side of a branch of the river Scheldt. The lies between two moles, that break the waves of the sea, which enters the town means of two canals, forming two basons. This town defends the passage of the Scheldt and of all the islands of Zealand. The Stadthouse, which is built in s Florida I Flushing. —_—o FLU / $82 FLU Calculus, as it is ie Ae creme oso and invent his Method of Indivisibles, in which he con- no further back than the 17th century ; but the inquiries sidered lines as composed -of an infinite number of which have led to it, must have occurred to Geometers we er omni of an infinite number of from the earliest peri tay void yew of; a re pen as Ant of an infinite ni end was cultivated. It rs from the writings o i e to have is theor and Archimedes, hit ven the ancients considered cur- the year 1629, att he Lin awn net with ti. vilineal , or the solids formed by the rotationof tle, Geometria sndlivisibélium isibilium conlinuorum novd quaédam curves, they established the truth of thei itions ratione : e of his method was at- by a peculiar mode of demonstration, whi was indi« tacked by Guildinus in 1640, and then he shewed, that Eudiits Elements, is arriustence of this kind ofdemon: lines; of drhidh Ga valetidis eocisillored thie! ratice"ana tiie stration. It is there to prove, that circles sums, are no other than the little solids, or the’ inscri- haye to each other the ratio of the squares of their dia~ bed and circumscribed ‘parallelograms of i > ‘differ lar gons inscribed in circles, have to each other cluded between them, by less than any given quantity ; RES Es coil ‘hace, by a mode of reasoning rather wae tiie investnette, anyone eaten, artificial, although quite accurate, the truth of of a curvilineal to another known one, employs ion is proved to extend to the circles ves, many words, an “indirect turn of demonstration ; Soe negte: Shere baad yt Deg om tageraye item the modern eter, i not be to the square of the other diameter, as the one ni in’ circle to a space either Jess, or greater than the other : . g : i ue i i THE ie 2 well be supposed, that t dfeccyered fieun at iitst by P Repeeval,'in A eS ee simple mode i ct i Cavalerius had-done in Italy. have quoted, as the ratio of gons inscribed ae 6 ee G5? = d | F H iE fu Poe a eee aT " BEL Ay SEraiste ster! SEOs. i af if free = 5 4) id 8838 Neil and Van-Heuraet gave the first example of a History. curve that may be rectified, one of the cubic parabo- ““v——* las.) Van-Heuraet’s od reduced the problem of Van-Heu- rectifications to that of quadratures. Brouncker and tet Mercator, proceeding in the path of Wallis’ discoveries, Brouncker. FLUXIONS. ner of the ancients, he gave them with that clearness pe er os la ought always to characterize the. style of warks-on science: ~~ = eal Ti earlier than Descartes a method of "Fermat “Rat he-only published it after Descaites had - History. ‘ ov Ne Fermat. Slussius, de 8. Vincent. Wallis. ee nistmosn, and ‘he joined to it a method de mazi- nis et minimis. "These are more simple than Descartes” methods, but their author, fir from imitating the f¥ank= mazimis et minimis, his analysis, and the mode of de- , monstration. By a multitude-of discoveries, several of- y his communicative character, and the simple man- ner in which he has presented his researches. arvel Huygens first’ demonstrated: Fermat's two: rules. Slussius afterwards found:a simple method of drawing tangents, which at bottom was but the enunciation of. the caleulus required by: Fermat’s method ; i ccontvived? lie-chiarpelicristic tritmgle)whicl in faetrige the same as the triangle that measures: the fluxions of the abscissa, the and curve; and’ thus the of tangents: plication. of al was infinite, the. last term. may be reckoned as . Considering, then, surfaces as formed ‘of a series-of lines, the'terms of which follow a certain law, he found the ion. for the surface by summing. the series; The area ofa triangle, for example; was na of ny iw te: J found the first series known for the rectification of the circle, and h bola. Brouncker also first. noticed con- tinued fractions ; and he shewed that the fundamental ~ principle employed by Neil in the rectification of: curves, and by which Mercator squared the hy- were to be feund in the works’ of Wallis. ‘Mercator published his Logarithmotechnia in Septem- Mercator. ber 1668, which contained his quadrature of the hy- perbola ; and soon after the book came out, Mr Collins, to the Royal Society, sent'a copy to Barrow, at Cambridge, who put it into the hands of Sir Isaac, y.wton,. then Mr Newton, and a fellow of Trinity College. Presently afterwards, viz. in July 1669, Barrow wrote to Collins, that«a friend of :his*(Newton,) who had ‘an excellent —_ to these things, had brought him some papers, wherein he had set down methods of calcula-- ting the dimensions of ‘magnitudes, like:that of Mr~ Mercator for the:hyperbola, but very general; as also of resolving equations: Barrow afterwards: sent these- papers'to Collins,-saying, that: he presumed he would. be much’pleased: with them, and “requesting him to- shew: them ‘to Lord’ Brouncker.. Their 'title;was: De analysi per equationes numero terminorum-infinilas.. In this manuscript, the -method- of flaxions« was first indi- cated, and rules deduced from it given forthe quadra-: * ture of curves, to-which it was observed, their-rectifica-: tion, and the determinatiow of the quantity, and ‘the su- perficies of solids, and of the‘centre of gravity, may be. all:reduced: moreover, the author ‘there asserted, that» he knew no problems relating to the quadrature or rec-: tification of curves, to which his method would:not ap-: ply; and-that by means of -it,.he:could:draw tangents’: to mechanical curves; so, there can: be no doubt: butr that. then, Newton: ‘the method ‘of fluxions,, and therefore he must. be reckoned: the. first» inventor. Indeed it a: that although his discovery was»pro« mulgated forthe first time, he ‘had been ‘inpos« session of it from about’ the year 1666; which wasitwo ears before Mercator published hisquadrature of the. bola. And although the MS: memoir De analysi ccthne omer ey &e. professes-to' explain ‘the method ? rather than to:demonstrate “it. accurately, yet there was enough to shew, that:the author-was aware of its great i as-an instrument. of investiga- tion, and that he had reduced it'in-some measure'to the form of an analytical theory: Barrow, Collins, and Oldenburg, . (another _ to the Royal Society, ) disseminated: the analytical dis- | coveries of Newton by. their: ce, and: coms municated them to several geometers on the-continent, _ stch as Slussius, and Borelli.. In‘the-year 1672, the celebrated Leibnitz, who: af-' terwards also claimed the honour of the-diseovery of the method of fluxions, appeared for the first time upon’ the’ scene. »to be in London, he communicated: first method was icable, deserves particular atten- to some members of the Royal Society, certain re-' tion, because it was the germ of Newton’s most beauti- searches relating to the differences of numbers; but he. fal discoveries, and is at present the most i ant part. was given to understand, that this subject had been al- of the theory of series. This method led ‘him to.are- ready treated by Mouton, an astronomer? of Lyons: markable expression for ‘the area ofa circle. Wallis upon this, he turned his attention to the doctrine of in< must be allowed to have contributed ‘tothe pro- finite series, which, at that time,\ engaged ‘all the ma- of sis, er his oan rd and ‘his thematicians ; and, in 1674) he announced: to Olden- i e doctrine of series, which led to’ burg, that he possessed important theorems relative. to all the great discoveries of that period. © ' the quadrature of the circle by series; and that be-had Leibnitz. Vi keaeery, —— 5384 general analytic methods, Oldenburg, in answer, Ctr dus Oneacey and Newton had also found methods, which gave the quadrature of curves, geometrical or mechanical, and brated SF z 9; and a variety of other ‘and quadratures, but nothing directly ii - letter, Newton speaks of Leibnitz cion which atter- r i i ZF Fe i 7 i Fe 3 : to O , to be also communicated to Leibnitz, he still of his rival with re ; and he here, in compliance with a wish ex nits, lains the manner in Which he found the bi- session of his calculus. On the 21st June 1677, Leibnitz sent to Oldenburg, to be communicated bi bape r= a — containing the first attempts at a m whi ied to ev i that could be done by that of Newton, This was his Differential Calculus. The death of Oldenburg, which soon followed, put an end to this epistolary correspon- dence; and seven years afterwards, viz. in 1684, Leib- nitz published his method in the Leipsic Acts for Oc- tober of that year, with this title, “ Nova Methodus maximis et minimis, i ue tangentibus, que nec his Principia, where he had occasion to give an ex- ory of fluxions: and it is worthy of © ti -ton.-At length tician 1 “ns » judged prs trad att be proper to consult - - — FLUXIONS. from mine only in the:enindliilon, tion.” To this, in the i and in the manner of ivi generated.” It has been s who is said to have entertained a dislike to Leib- on account of his having omitted to name him in an enumeration which he made of eminent mathema- ticians, asserted, in a short tract on the curve of swift« est descent, and the solid of least resistance, that New- ton was the first inventor of the new calculus, and that he would leave to others to decide what Leibnitz, the second inventor, might have borrowed from the Eng- lish geometer. To this attack Leibnitz gave a spiri answer, and complai to the Royal Society ; and there the dispute rested for atime. Afterwards, when Newton's treatise on the Quadrature of Curves, and his Enumeration of lines of the third order, came out, in 1704, the Leipsic journalists gave an unfavourable account of it, and in effect said; that Newton had ta< ken his method froni that of Leibnitz, substituting fluxions for differences. This assertion called forth the indignation of the British mathematicians, and without doubt offended Newton himself. Accordingly, in 1708, Keill inserted in the Phil ical Transactions a pa per, in which he stated , that Newton was the first —- vs the Fluxional _ us, ae — nitz, in publishing it in ipsic Acts, changed the renee the oerren eon of Leibnitz thus accused of plagiarism, addressed a lete. ter to Hans Sloane, to the Royal iety, requiring that Keill should retract what he had said : But far from this, Keill replied in a long letter to Hans Sloane, in which he enumerated the reasons that i city. This letter was sent to Leibnitz ; who that the Royal Society should cnc: oa of a who was too young to paseed between him and Newton, The on in 1673, and went thence to Paris, where he of the differential caleulus, before his letter ox. thing the 21st of June 1677; which was a year after a copy. ———O FLUXIONS. of Newton’s letter of the 10th December 1672 had been 385 drawing tangents. Newton replied, that he conjectu- | History. red what the nature of that method was ; and he gave an (~~ example of it, which shews that he was in possession j.6n Leib of a method in effect the same as these two geome- nitz and ters had found. He adds, that this is only a parti- Newton. History. i person: That Newton was in possession i hake titers the year 1669; and that those who reputed Leibnitz the first inventor, knew little or no- thing of his sr —— cere ee Oldenbur; - before, nor ’s having that ~ method irae me years before Mr Leibnita began to publish it in the Leipsic Acts: That for these reasons, they reckoned Newton the first inventor, and were of opinion that Mr Keill, in asserting the same, had been in nowise injurious to Mr Leibnitz. In this report, the committee cautiously avoided gi- ving any direct opinion upon the int on which seems to shew, that were of the latter opi- with care over E with a view to vindicate the claim of the British nation, to the most important discovery that has ever been made in abstract sci- ence. It was not to be that Leibnitz would quiet- ly submit to this decision, so unfavourable to his pre- arisen from the insinuation, that he had stolen the in- vention ; for, as to the right to priority of discovery, that is, beyond this dapat favour of wwe aS is dispute was originally agitated, the natu- ral feelings of patriotism, which protect nations against the encroachments and unjust pretensions of each other, dispute about a mat- of faith rather than of testimony. Even Newton himself, who, for a time, does not to have taken ata tatioer by Cotes and Bentley at, Conbeidge, while tainty, whether there were just for the suspici ows e i Ae suspicion Montucla, in his History of Mathematics, vol. ii 8 2d edit. 2 Thanet - tay, he mercium m, which treat of fluxions in.so-clear- of Newton’s invention. . cular case, or rather a corollary to a method much more general, which, without a laborious calculation, applies to the finding of tangents to all sorts of curves; geometrical or ‘nochaniéal, and that without being obliged to free the equation from radicals. He repeats the same thing, without explaining himself farther, in another letter; and he conceals the principle of the method under tran: letters. The only place where Newton has allowed any thing of his method to trans- ire, is in his Analysis per equationes numero terminorum infinitas. He here discloses, in a very concise and ob- scure manner, his method of'fluxions ; but there is no certainty that Leibnitz saw this essay.. His opponente have never asserted, that it ®as communicated to him by letter; and they: have gone no-farther-than-to sus- pect that he had obtained a knowledge of it in his in- tercourse with Collins upon his second journey to Lon- don. Indeed, this suspicion is not entirely destitute of probability ; for Leibnitz admitted, that, in this Inter- view, he saw a part of the Epistolary Corr lence: - of Collins, However, I think it would be rash to:pro- nounce upon this circumstance. If Leibnitz had con- fined himself to a few essays of his new calculus;-there - might have been some ground for that suspicion. But the numerous pieces he inserted in the Leipsic Acts,’ prove the calculus to have received such improvements: from him, that probably he owed the invention to his ius, and to the efforts he made to discover a method . t had put Newton in possession of so many beauti- ful truths. This isso much the more likely, as from the. method of tangents discovered by Dr Barrow, the tran- sition to the differential caleulus was easy, nor was the: step too great for such a genius as that with which: - Leibnitz appears to have been endowed:” In this opi-: nion, we are di to agree with Montucla; and we consider that we add to its weight by the fol- lowing testimony in its favour, from one of the most». elegant writers and able critics of the present time: - The celebrated La Place having asserted, in his Philoso«> phical Essay on Probabilities, that Fermat was the true inventor of the Differential Calculus ; the writer to: whom we have alluded, in a review of La Place’s werk,’ says, “ Against the affirmation that Fermat is the real: inventor of the differential calculus, we must enter a strong and solemn protestation. The age in which that discovery was made has been unanimous in ascribing the honour of it either to Newton or Leibnitz; or, as . seems to us much the fairest and most le opi~ nion, to both, that is, to each independently of the other, . the priority in respect of time being soniewhat on the side of the English mathematician. The writers ef the- history of the mathematical sciences have given their: = ee to nome oe Montucla; for poe who has treated the subject with great impartiality, Bossut, with no eet a certainly im. favour: of: the English phi In the it controversy to which this invention gave rise, all the claims were like« ly. to.be well considered ;. and the ultimate and fair de~ cision in which -all sides seem..to have acquiesced, is that which < pees ject mentioned. . ae be on good , that a decision passed by such com Seat judges, ahd that hes hewn now-in force foe a con dred years, should all at once be reversed.” Edinburgh Review, vol, xxiii, p. 324. 3c 386 FLUXIONS. Hotery. The new caleulus was not at first cultivated with that L'Hdpital; thie was when he came to Paris in the year History. —y—" attention which its importance deserved ; and, therefore, 1692. These are curious, as the earliest essays inthis =" in order to rouse the attention of mathematicians, Leib- branch . we wre Seay pe ae rote nits, in 1687, proposed the following problem: “| To merit. w ave an it determine the curve a heavy body ought to describe, to L'Hopital’s work, but they were not published un- _ in order to descend equally.in equal times.” Huy, til 1742, when they appeared pre hgmmeshnu ae sas: the’ fret cheb uhomredkquhab wnaidhe Manaieten the Bernoulli's works. . 2 : curve, but he did not indicate his method of solution. It is to be that Newton did not a James Bernoulli also resolved the problem by the dif- a design he had formed in 1671, of i _ ferential calculus, and published his analysis in the thod of fluxions, and its 3 for, Leipsic Acts of 1690. About the same time, John ception of what he done, herdiy'any. thing Laboars of Bernoulli, a younger brother of James, began his ca- ihe cevury. "Dund ‘Gregory explained same ts tbe Ber. reer as a mathematician: he studied the science, aided coulis by his brother's instructions, and he contracted a friend- principles pod applications; ana ¢iatinag dhe ship for Leibnitz, which continued until the death of /igurarum, printed in 1684. John: the latter, in 1716. He made the calculus known in __ treatise, De curcarum quadraturis, ist 1698,- which he oe ah ee RRR Sa ee prema irscn oo Byres res “s 1 in 1718, with de l'Hopital. Leibnitz and the lis resolved the title De calculo fluentium. oivre and Fatio many new and difficult problems, which they gave solutions in the Philosophical sl Teanseotions of the as challenges to the geometers of that hey also ama voomoerasitiy: tite S008 efi teat Galatea the 2 Lek CORE aa achain or cord which hangs freely, but is fas- In the year 1703, George Cheyne, ss )Gledilicls seme Cheyne cmnoll andes easton), and the curve of swiftest de- thematician and physician, published his Methodus scent, which had proved too difficult for Galileo, and Fluxionum inversa, Edin, 1703. ‘The author committed the mathematical theories known in his time. A spirit some mistakes which were pointed out by De Moivre: na He had also been wanting or a rane the. — w a war of problems, each endeavouri maticians on the continent, and exposed to re eo etn i map dpe heir the animadversions of John Bernoulli. In the year degree of animosity on the part of John not at all be- 170¢, a treatise of fluxions was published by «Charles coming, was yet of advantage to the science, as it pro- Hayes Gent. This, we believe, a Hayes. duced the celebrated rical problems, a class prota han, pear tthr or fpervatitncnit ac yo more difficult than any that had previously engaged guage. the attention of mathematicians ; iho, indeed, _—_ It is remarkable that Newton himself should:have Newton. Newton had resolved a problem ‘of this kind in his been so slow in publishing any be considered athe Principia, when treating of the solid of least resistance. calculus. The 1699 must be The calculus went on, improving continually ; it was epoch at which his numerous tothe theory of evolutes, one of the most beau- env dest: nierle qpantelipaietesig bmanationndanties iful discoveries made by H ; but, with the ex- second volume of the works of Wallis. At length, ception of some pieces in the Leipsic Acts, there was however, in the 1704, when he printed his Optics, as yet no work Mulisbed his nad ror a he added to it, 4 acai Quadeaténs Curbarsenysin i pad dentially to Leibnitz in ier lifetime, ie ya a and rome Ki ee with rrp ‘ . a L - differential equations, by se- Mensurarum, published in 1722, by his friend Dr the v: quantities an far back ae 1694, In Smith. The inventions of Cotes were extended and Manfredi. 1707, Gabriel Manfredi, an Italian, gave an entire eted by De Moivre, in his Miscellanea Analytica, Moivre. work, entitled, De Constructione poe at ere feos published in 1730, Dr Brook ‘Taylor also holds a dis- 7... tialium primi gradus, which all that tinguished place in the higher: wwhovexs 7 Se Rows dine ‘Ainab uchening (SerRariategeel tel eee re me aterm inted in 1715, contains in second man Jobn Bere oe = a a series of lectures on the Piicaions of fuxions 40 ph ea al problems: noulli. integral calculus, for the use of his scholar and patron, theorem forthe developement of any function of History. —— ions ; and-one of the a Nicholas and Waniel Bernoulli. The sei FLUXIONS. binomial, leads to many beautiful applications of flux- Giaticebenathere ticiienhi iain late L , has made it the foundation of his theory of the calculus. f received considerable improvement from the mathematicians in Germany, particularly in that branch which relates to the fluents of fluxions, contain- ing several variable tities. The two Nicolas Ber- noullis, one a:son of James and the other a son of John Bernoulli, and Daniel Bernoulli, another son of John, / i SORT woe 3% of profound disquisitions relating to the calculus; and to these may be»added the labours:of improvement of the calculus, by as challenges by name, to find the-path of a projectile, moving in a oa ee the velocity. » i quickly resolv “problem, not only in that particular case, but also when the re- sistance was as any a whatever of the velocity. He then required that should ce his own solu- tion ; but Keill had not resolv lor particular scodiegeatldigeteaienda tiine ipnaedivctesl to gui i resolve Taylor's problem, and more that he would Seaphearen which T: should not resolve, but whi could resolve himself.. Taylor did not accept this chal- pre mg solution of Taylor’s problem in the Leipsie Acts. The new calculi excited a con of a different kind, respecting the accuracy of their principles. These were attacked on the continent Niewentiit, and Rolle; and defended by Leibnitz, Varignon. rin. In England, Dr Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, called in ¢ ly the accuracy of the rea- employed toestablish the theory of fluxions, but aglish. As John Bernoulli aimed at, he offered also the faith of mathematicians in general, in regard to matters of at He began the in his work entitled the Minute P; But the principal addressed to an Infid , (understood to be Dr Halley,) wherein it is examined whether the object, principles, and of the modern analysis are more inferences listime tl ied than relict ix end! wed of faith: One of the best answers to the Bishop came from the of Benjamin Robins, in A discourse con- Berkeley, however, had some reason for his objecti The very: Guriéiss om manner in which the great inventor 387 had promulgated his discovery, might leave room for a History. ispute about the accuracy of the terms. Instead of de- Setitgsaheon it was better to adopt a mode of expla~ nation more intelligible, and consonant to the common methods of mathematical reasoning. This was done by Maclaurin, in his Treatise of Fluxions, (1742.) He has there placed the principles of the method upon the firm basis of geometrical demonstration; but his de- monstrations are tedious, so that we fear few’ have pa~ paves en to study the subject, as delivered in the ort-of hi ject.is considered in the usual manner, and algebraic characters are employed, is very valuable, and indeed the whole work abounds with original views of the theories connected with fluxions, and it proves the au- thor to belong to the highest class of mathematicians. Before the publication of Maclaurin’s treatise, Mr Thomas Simpson had given the first edition of his New Treatise of Fluxions, (1787.) He new modelled the work, published it in 1750. This was a very valuable work at the time it appeared, and, as far as it goes, is at the present time one of the best intro- ductions to the bnetbiod of fluxions in the English lan« ar ane a Doctrine of Fluxions came out in 1743. This has also been always much esteemed in England. It contains a great number of applications ; but ‘as it oo oo less within the reach of a beginner, impson’s is, we believe, more — - It is to the celebrated Euler that the calculus is in- debted for its greatest improvements. Indeed these are far too rumerous to find a place in the brief view which our limits allow us to give of the progress of the science ; even the titles of his various memoirs would fill several of our pages: his more remarkable works will be given in the list of books relating to the sub- ject in the conclusion. That branch of the calculus which treats of the higher class of problems, De mazi- mis et minimis, such as the solid of least resistance, the carve of swiftest descent, &c. was first reduced by him to the form of a distinct , in his Methodus invenia endi Lineas Curvas Maximi Minimive proprietate gau- dentes, Sive solutio Problematis Isoperimetrici lalisst» mo sensu accepti, (1744.) This was improved and new modelled by Lagrange, and denominated the Method of Variations. \t is aremarkable instance of Euler’s candour, that he took up the subject a second time, and laying aside his own theory, treated it accord+ ing to La ’s views, employing also the same notation. Euler's writings on the analysis of infinites, and the differential and integral calculus, are a trea- sure of analytical know fore produced by the labours of an individual. Adi Marquis Fagnano, or Fagnani, has contributed con- cident to the i ent of a branch of the flux« ional He found that it is always: possible to assign two arcs of an ellipse, reckoned mity of each axis, such, t cree, my egy be exe algebraic quantities ; a t any hyper- which has led to some remarkable transformations of fluxional formula, appears to have been but little known in Britain, as we do not recollect to have seen it in any of the mathematical works published in this country until it was also found by our ingenious coun nD, Mr Landen, who added to it another remarkable dis- covery, namely, that any hyperbolic are may always Maclaurin. work. The second, in which the subs Simpson. Emerson. Euler. ledge, richer than was ever be« | from one extre«" made by an Italian mathematician, the Fagnano. \ 888 Mistery. be rectified by means of two elliptic ares. This theorem —y— Agnesi, 1D’ Alem- integral calculus. And an een eae to elliptic arcs all fluents had = lished in 1748. A mathematician ar antes ume of it in lish mathematician, Mr Colson, (who translated Newton's Fluxions), translated it also into ish, having studied the Italian language at an adv iod of life, for the express purpose of making himself master of the work, The historian Frisi, who has himself excelled so much both in mixed mathematics, calls her work Opus nitidissimum, 7 issi et certe maximum adhuc ex fie- mine alicujus calamo proderat, For an account of this , see AGNES. invention of the Arithmetic of Sines, which is due to Euler, has contributed ly to the improve- ment of the calculus, and to its cation to the phy- sico-mathematical sciences. to Euler we are ‘Fontaine and Clairaut; this was about the year 1739 or 1740. The method of Partial Differen ces, one of the great- est i vements in the calculus, was the invention of D’ Alembert, who found it when he was inquiring into ly little increments, (infiniment petits). have been ur, It has been said, that is an idea quite foreign to pure roathematics, and therefore it ought not to be employed establishing its doctrines ; and still objec- ous countryman, Mr Landen, proposed to la: the consideration of motion in ini : and, instead of the Newtonian theory, he to sub- stitute another, which he called the A is: this was about the year 1760, tiie patho bos eens, FLUXIONS. followed, but his candour in i 7 tional prejudice in favour of 's method, has procured him the approbation of foreign mathematici- ans. : : i) in 1792, and; at » later period, cons sur le calcul des Fonctions. These works quadratura ed along with his Optics in 1704; also treatise De Analysi, &c. by Jones, 1711.0 Newton, ae Lib. II, Sect. I. Lem. 2, 1687. ary The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series, Leibnitz, Nova methodus pro mazimis et minimis items foo story is contain- ed in the Commercium Epistolicum de varia re Mathe- matica inter celeberrimos praesentis seculi Mathematicos, 1 —_—— Lagrange. Waring. List of wri- ters on fluxions. FLUXIONS. Sc. Jussu Societatis Regice in lucem editum, 1712, and the ~ third volume of Opera Leibnitii, 1768, also a collection - of piec Desmaiseaux, the works of Wallis, and two vols. 4to. 1745. feed dete petits, 1696. « Cotes, é Clue, Tntittion of Facto, 1725. : Praag keane Fantataee + Stone, Thy Method of Flusxions, The Doctsine of Flusions, | 1736. , Le Calcul differentiel et le Calcul Integral, A Treatise on Fluxions, 1737 ; also 1750. A Treatise of Fluxions, 1742, 2 vols. 4to, , The Doctrine of Fluxions, 1743. Sec. 740.” ‘! rinensia, tom. ii. et iv. 389 Saunderson, The Method of Fluxions, 1756. Lyons’ Fluxions, 1758. D’Alembert, Opuscules Mathematiques, 1761. Condorcet, Du Calcul Integral, 1765. Le Seur et Jacquier, Elemens d du Calcul Integral, 1768. oe Traite de Calcul Diff: et Integral, 1770. Waring, Miscellanea Analytica, 1762. ' Waring, Meditationes Analyticee, 1776. Cousin, Legons de Calcul dz iel et de Calcul In- hagreh 1777, 2 vols. 8vo. also since in two vols. 4to. _Kramp’s Analyse des ee ae ‘LHuillier, ; des Principes és Cale Su , 1786. Wi die Ll’ , Principiorum Calcu entialis et inte« ae Expositio elen elementaris, 1795. Principia Historia inventionis calcu- . Dafoe et I nec non methodi Fluxionum, eet Traité du Calcul ntiel et du Calcul poe one vols. 4to, 1797 ; also Traité Elementaire de Calcul differentiel et de Caleul Integral, 1 vol. 8vo. Fluxions, 1795. ariations, inthe Miscell. Tau- 1802. Vince, The Princ Calcul Lagrange, Theorte des Fonctions Analytiques, 1797. eladt aabaw2 le Calcul des Poschisas: Traité de Calcul Differentiel, et de Caleul Inga 18 es sur la Metaphysique du Calcul In- Jfinitesimal, 1797. Woodhouse, The Principles of Analytical Calcula« tion, 1803. Woodhouse, A Treatise on Isoperimetrical Problems, and the Calculus "Beeay on the Ti ms, 1810. re or ce, An on t. cet various S domarithoic arithmic Transcendentals, 1 pote ete Recherches sur quelpuer, Points —— Theorie fonctions derivées. i Ecole: ytechni e 13. Cahier, 1806. . Dealtry, A Treatise on Fluxions, 1810. Du Bourguet Traité Elomentaire de Caleu! Diferen- “Coamien, Legon de Coes! Dien, ‘aleul &e. 1811. Lagende, Beri de Cale Tega 1811 relating tothe calculus, which have Seeshebehibibd ancien trapsistaarahtocese “societies, are too numerous to admit of a particular description woe Fama 2 the Bibliotheca Mathematica of M. epetentan’ ammuonlehdaiesy taridetibes Lastserse editarum, slr, publ ty Sone T ana hich his w. is sold contains the titles of all the mathema~ aren have been made of the caleulus are’ torbe found in the Principia of Newton, the Mechanica of Euler, the Mecanique Anas Wages Grange, and the Mecanique Celeste of Le. d : History. Principles. SECTION I. . Fonpamentat Pruxcirces or THe Tuzory or Fiuxions. Anticts I. In the branch of mathematical If ymax*4-b2+4c; or if y=s/ (a* bs) if Lim yoart+br+ y= oa y=e the quantities because ae are. supposed. to be ies conechaphes chen A quantity which d upon two or more variable Pree pome a function of these quantities : peer wn if y=at bey then y is called a function of v x giagith debsidend ans-tatetinwel sons i ee cet not di- recy expressed by tt quietgy:nedl wean auhagh Ebatcosting ails tot town: Thee the equation yma puet nae tion of 2, and, on the hand, « as a function = that 4+ this is ee dant to x, t= in case an im . ary, y ‘dienes atin divided into algebraic and trans: cendental. Algebraic functions are such as, when re- FLUXIONS. duced to their proper terms, or ecient aoe. i ely ie lo rithm, o tna ithe isi ocboaeeetia then, in case, y is a 4 A chiar notions ofthe tatusolie fahatibh dtarve- riable quantity ‘ecies be obtained by: _ ties may in like manner be’ 1 _geome- “on ‘which the other two, . The hypothesis, : may hich Pa state of tan a. ps . gives ~v +-py, 'that is, 1+-pv > (1+p)v; therefore, also nes (p+1)0"—" >(+p)v. expressions it appears, that vo”? = 1; and v” —"Sy; and hence, by multiplying the quantities on each side of the sign of inequality by »”, we have o” =v" ; andv® yt, : As v is by hypothesis less than unity, we may conclude from the first of these expressions, that P’ "is greater than P ; and from the second, that P’ is less than P+-1. it appears, that the new value of P, which corre- to p+1, is greater than its former value, but thebts Setiee exceed its former'value by. so-much as From i*\Here we take for granted the obvious prinéiple, that if a ‘ : variable quanti from one state of i i a coming Dp ob a abi q Agua magnitude to another without be og infinite, it must successively have 5 Fundamen- saleoes —— 392 which we proposed to demonstrate. Since it from Equation (1), that hemp ie any positive integer number, then 1—v? = p(1—v) 0, So also g being any other integer number, a corresponding quantity Q, such thet 1—vi sg (1—v)v* ; waere et ae P has to app poses sh any w ae af , for an instant, that Pad Q Q will also be equal, org. Now, let p be reas but as it number, there must be relatively to q dividing the other, we get (3.) pi poe to increase not increase we hine POs (pd): As is on Pand Q. snd these again on p,q and'v; it follows, that zis a function of p, g and v, It is =0 2 ens every other case it is a itive than uni- ty. By sbattating ¢ (pg) fo P— for Posh wa habe esr I—v? P yi PD dawnt +, qd Let. v=— = #80 that » being Jess than unity, 1 will be greater than unity- Instead of v, let > be substituted in the formula just now found, and it becomes th P nI—) (—9- ufl—1 As zis some has been investigated upon the hypothe tat ls than 1, io aloo trae when et greater then Pin we positive Guksley We have hitherto su but to include in the nla thecassatp “oe tive quantity, let both sides of the oquetion plied by ov”, and we have * 1-0? —p Poe I—vi q Assume now (p= q) —p=# (—p—9), and'then = -— : hence, as all possible values of z iPr included O and 1, so, all possible values ovis damaanee DXB DP ane 13e( eae = th llomearents 3, and so we have FLUXIONS. Pentmeeh 1, and these are the two properties of the quantity P, = a a Vy" sy ten 0nd br niet, instead the second mem- — the elation wil hae the same for a etre w , then, it » penton: i orhatever, sand p and q numbers, of which q is positive, and p oUber ploy or (rh =a, ond, fe EO 4 Hiren a—l / / to ee j Naettibie 9 ait oS thera q » cr = mn and —— ves ; ese os ne, ti , "ut anne be bee 1 sf Ot | ad at oP te. genta ‘expan ne the ratio, betveen nem, soda fa = ) hen (24-8). rive Soria alo to's: Blah Olin Siete the expression for the ratio approaches as 4 decreases ; — ioe OOD, DFO SEE rn en 2s , ~ AN ae En Rt. FLUXIONS.. - Am 2 4B mix” 4A mgmt debe.) ht. iene --Yese for then the fraction =) approaches continually to unity, iid a: the bowidnnies 4 the value of the ex- -g(w—1) remain unchanged, the function fete ee will continually approach to unity, and 4 the ‘expression for the ratio to n 2*-*, which is a limit to its value, because the expression ft =~) nay differ less from unity than by any pe ey ck x have seen for the ratio is al- cart toeponarersead 6 lea These two ex pressions may be included in this one, » {(x-+-h')’—?. where h’ is put for a certain quantity greater than 0, and less than hk. We may therefore express the ratio otherwise, thus: z en =n (sph) (B’) end in arder to fave the two bo boundaries «ph tige we have ve to h’ its two bounding values, viz Oand h. This & another another formula, which shews also, in a very distinct manner, the properties of the expres- sion for the ratio. From this last formula, we have ch) n (24h) "th; and as, fmm lm mE 1 h’, on ta (0 hye, | inne and 4; we have, by pila Teeeiae ats ac Paarfns—ht-o (nt) (24h? hh ae = — natn (nl) (ch). This expression for the ratio is composed of two parts, one of which, nx*—", is entirely independent of the increment h, y and the other m (n—1) («+ e”)*— W is a function of » and hk, which can tly never be infinite while / has a finite value, but which vanishes We may denote thi smn eg ce simply by and then the Rito may Vis cowie the CA ane ate ei teary ld Sega cos prop dos Of te oe = Tae tio may likewise be detuced: - (c-+hy'=a" +n27"— h4Hh. which we have demonstrated to be- ~ est ead cg us to prove that every function whatever, - a variable quantity 2, w=A (c4-hy? 4B (x mt 4. & Then because ae bat ips ns G(r te oe), as Fac Hh, and ha z = My so on, Wi art a Bd PO ne ete taliyaiecHt.&e. + &e. CH'"h pe Cones + AH 4. BH” clin &e. which vas nishes h=0, be letter H, then putting « for Ax® 4 hak oe we have VOL. IX. PART I, 393 a'=u+ stp any hence = “=A ma" 4B m! 24. &e, + H. Here it appears that the expression for the ratio — has precisely the same property as has been found to belong tothe ratio @F")"—=", it is composed of two parts, one a function " x only, and the other a, function of x and h, which vanishes when A=0. The fractional function Az" 4Ba™+4. &c. aa" + ba” + &e. has the same ; for by the substitution of x / instead of z, numerator becomes Ast4 Bov4-Se-4-(mAz™ +m’ Ba" —'4&e.)h+ H’i,. and the denominator becom ax" +b x” 4. &e. 4 (nae nb. 29'1.4. 8c.) hb". Put Ac™+-Br" 4 &c.=N, mAz™—1 +m’ Bo”! &c.=N’ ax*+b2" 4. &e. =D nas + nbz" +4. 8c, =D’ and we have eae wae Lote ~D+Di+H% This expression, by actual division, is easily transform~ ed to ok Sp. ied pan Parmete capone, Wiis wh tncienntorbnely ba the quotient which is by one other of the three quantities h, H’ and ” ann which, consequently, vastishes when A=0; therefore observing i= As the tities D; N’, N and D’ are all in t of h, it 1s manifest that,” bs as capo, in veto es the ese espn ns gg Peres a Dong oF in 9. Nahas ona bert at wtem ic ohiedgacet = -anezhal logarithmic exponential quantities, according to the plan we have laid down, c requires that we resolve this other PRopLem. which is Also let « be such a fanction of «, that c=. cand posed to find two boundaries to the values of w ; that is, two expressions, one greater and the other Jess than w. Investigation.—Let m and n denote any two given tee yaad ied iy, Ge beth grocer coast oak tities « and 4, provided are both greater uni- ty, it wil always be possible to find two whole nut bers p and q, and a positive quantity v, such that = a, tobe For, in order to determine them, we have by the theory of ; 1 1 p log. v =— log. x, and q log. v = 5, log. b. mlog. ¢ qo alg t Spd Prineiplén —_——— $94 Feedasiee- Henee p and ¢ may be any two whole numbers, as wl duit he —_—o as we please, ve to each other the ratio of m log. x to w log. 6, which indeed is incomm , but may be expressed by numbers as near to perfect accuracy as vwe choose. The remaining quantity » will be found from the = ; 1 Log. = log. x; or this, log. o= ag OB > Now as by hypothesis r=b", and by assumption z=v?" , and 6*=e"?™; therefore o?"=u"?, and hence pn=ugm, and 2-=™™. Also, sincev”=2*and o! =o, therefore q et =. Let these values of »”, »’, o°%, and F be ba substituted in the formula 1 =Ly—2, vi —1 q which was investigated in Art. 6. and it becomes i z : eal aes bu Ps and hence, Od scowls (C) a ™(b"1) where m and mare, as we have already observed, quan- tities of any magnitude whatever ; and z is some quan- tity, mp -of an intermediate magnitude between 0 This formula exhibits elegantly the boundaries tothe value of w ; for as z can never be so small as 0, nor so great as 1, if we put ==0 and z=1, we shall obtain two expressions, one of which is greater, and the other less than v. These boundaries are z AE ALS n(x —1) _— 6” n(xr—1) 1 x é m(b"—1) x m(b"—1) They are remarkable on account of their involving two arbi quantities m and n, which have no apparent connection with the function they serve to express. It also appears, that the bounding values of the function oe are to one another as 4” to x” ; now as we are at liberty to give as great values to m and n as we please, this ra- pater Breve: degree of nearness to a ratio of equa- er ence it appears, that the quantity « is a limit, to w . is equal to itself. The equation 4 — ; v1 | ol ber to a common denominator. An identical FLUXIONS. supposell os incest and to which come near- Fandamen- er by an par a A ane us we have _. tal © complete solatiant at a 10. If we suppose 6 to be the basis or radical num- ber of a system of logarithms; then, in the equation «= 6", u is the logarithm of the number x. (AtcEsra, 330.) We have, therefore, from | C) this ~_ expression for the logarithm of a : 24 = I rE ede b” n(x" —1)° Lt 4 log. 2=7;-"™— @). a m(b" —1) Bis, being some quantity contained between 0 and 1, and ‘i and m any readied Ghaaorer: In effect, therefore, we may consider, that L log. 3 ol Re (E) m(b™—I vided we do not limit the magnitude of them and n, but them as greater than any assignable num. bers. Under either of these forms the expression for the ithm of a number is valuable, because it iden- tifies logarithmic and exponential expressions with coms mon gion quantities. 11, erhaps, it may be doubted whether such an exe) L L pression as n(x”"—1), or m (6"—1) admit of any defi- nite value, bapa BPR of dee lndefiagende of the at a mandn. To remove this difficulty, we shall resolve this third ProBLeM. Let v be any positive quantity, and n any very great number, or ra‘ a mantioer preheat pf number: it is proposed to transform the expression n{~"——1) into another that shall be free from the inde- finite quantity n: and also to calculate the value of the expression, in some particular case ; for example, when» v=10. t n Solution. —Let V and V’ be two functions of v, so re« lated to each other, that 2V"=V+41: Then 2(V’*—1) =V—1, and pes A ae eg VideL it Veeed its two boundaries and the intermediateexpression as _will ap’ by bringing the terms in the second = I member of the equation into a single ion. Hence a(x? —1) A we have this identical equation. * pT IN: oas\* 7 continually approach, as m and n are V+i 1 Ve a mI). vam Hyqitt ® An identical equation is so called, because it may be changed into another which shall epress merely that acertain quantity Pons is of this kind, as will appear by reducing the terms in its second mem- equation differs from a common algebraic equation, such as v’—3v+2=0, in this re- spect, that the latter holds true only when v : 5 ; : has certain particular values, which, other bolds true when v hay any value whatever. Many etrical theorems, when expressed “equations. The fourth pryposition of the second book’ of Kuclid's Elements produces this, (x-+ in the present case, are v=1 and v=2; but the ‘braic symbols, are identical =a? 2ry--y*; and the ninth ‘2 2 sand tenth produce this other, rt yt = aL ace Lin theme end y may have any magnitude whatever. “ye <3 te A FLUXIONS. : g z Vl . tal Witha Vir ta sbeidgs, put for 7, and similarly 7’ : —l- 1 = for wp and, consequently, ¥ for rm tome tome, Vat | elt na get Petes V'41 Vi. 7 Vp then the for- mula may be expressed Pate. ‘ 1 1 Famt7tt 1.) Let us now suppose that V’, V", V”, &. to V™ (m) denoting the number of accents over the last term) are a series of quantities each formed from that before it, as V’ is from V, or so that 2V9=V+1,2 V7=V' 41, 2V"*=V" +1, &e. 2 Vel V1 VM) be briefly denoted by ¢”, #”, &c. to ¢™, then from for: mula (1) we derive the following series of equations: 1 1 t 1 g=ptate 1 1 fd 1 ar Pprte tap 1 1 #7 1 fr aetatoe 1 Me Slee ahh 4 a rt el ge Oa Ge” ome By adding the ng members of these equa- tions into two sums, and rejecting wliat’is common to both, we find = ae ae a ™ = EtG ecee te 1 1 i 1 1 T=) +et+ arta ar ky, ara Now, the numeral series being a geometrical pro- P 5 pe | 1 Pent eee a gt ene — a, and common ratio, its sum will be --——7_; there- 4 8, 3.4™ fore, after substitution and transposition, we find eer ene a+ xe YS 3.4" a Se + ( t a” “er ™m ttate te Let us now assume that, aV=ed—, Then 2(V+1)=0424—-=(e42)'; but 2(V-+1)=4V”, therefore, ; 4 2V'= 3 * v +7 . _In the very same manner, it may be proved, that s 3895 2V" =v +4: and in general, putting » = 2”, that ’ I 2V) — v4 ca r v™_ and as 4™)= —_—_-;; therefore, yor) oe want g1_ (ora) ve pevrga (v% 41) By substituting this value of *) in the denomina~ tor of the first member of equation (2), and n? instead of its equivalent 4"; and also putting for > its value (ae 2 (v—1)*+40 o—1/ ~ 15 t= 40 ots oo =i” we have 40 | 18 _ GF 41)F aay tat on oa 2 Ul t"’ uv" pi J lS GtatS--- +e. And this identical equation holds true, m being any whole number whatever- Because 2 V=04 =, and 2V’=v$ +, and 2V” Uz usp + &c, v must always be a positive quantity ;- . but it may be of an magnitede whatever: And as, whatever be the value of v, the terms of the series 4 at : v, v®, v*, &c. approach continually to 1, and very fast, if v be a large number, or a small tion; there- fore, the terms of the series V, V’, V’”, V’’”’, &c. con- tinued indefinitely, approaches continually to 1, which is their Limit. To discover the ratio according to which the terms of the series ¢, t,t’, &c. Te ap let us take’ any — i me two succeeding terms, txargy at's vrai the latter divided’ by the former is tv vet Wel V1 VV +1 Pes Vie * Vv ae ta (W"41)?V—7 : But because 2 V”?= V’ + 1, we have V’”* ~1 4(V’'—1) ; therefore tv (W—1)(V'+1) V4 ~ 2V741)2 (VW 1)~ 200" 4-1)? We have ‘ate g thet the quantities V’, ee, &e. a Uy proach continually to 1; therefore the ratios oe &c. approach continually to 4 : hence it follows, that when any term ¢’ is found to be nearly } of the term - immediately before it, the same will be more nearly true of each of the following terms. i From what has been shewn, it appears that the series of formula (3.), viz. , ee 4). . state: tay as it advances, approaches in its form to a geometrical rression, of which the common ratio of the adjoin- terms is ;;. It will therefore converge very fast, so dat lactweven tbat the number of terms may be, a vr Fundamen-. tal Principles. ehyeet sc pik Bod DO Wat anion davai & rise lae x it a ing aly, an equal number of terms of the series t’, t”, t’’’, &c. from the formule, a a ‘Spey! = war * = wy Then shall , o 7 1 eee —_ i” ’ Thy eles being Seppe Eee aes Note, When any Sere of Be, sores 2 oe to be nearly ,', of the term before it, the remainder of the series may be reckoned a | page mrad The formula gives the value of the square of the res ciprecal of the quantity to be found, thence the quantity itself may be y - poieriation of ‘pe Damas NPE —1), supposing that = In this case V = 5.05 V’ = 1.7392527130927 Vv" = 1.9703108676146 V’’ = 1.041707820748 . Viv = 1.01087315420.. VY = 1.0025899846 .. . Vv" = 1.000647274.... Vru = 1,000161805..... eas = 1234667901235 R= -0883333333333 P = Sum of positive terms, .2067901234568 396 FLUXIONS,) } reatiqss) few rms ot the beginning wil. be. nomty equal to a ifs 0168671164758 Prioaples “Lat ws now suppose that informal (8), i a very 1 a Sasi theh wo upen' Gg nghdatels 2: = can only be ex- ais 0000797965180 _ pressed by 0, we have v" I= vo 114 1=9, and a= 0000050388826 _ s nn ‘ “ 2 yee wo the expression ‘ : ; will be simply, z= 0000003157452 a(o"—1 : une 5 ( ) : gi" = .0000000197469 > Also the fraction —. will vanish, and i 1 : n(v—1) 2, v5 Of "nearly = = 6 .0000000012944 Pau nf the series —(= c+ grt &ec.) will go on.ad inf Rem. of ser, nearly= sy. zy t= 0000000000823 vito, 0 that upon the whole we have this rae To the value of the — n(v*—=1), in N = Sum of negative ternts, 0181784264458 sec ele f pret a = re lA, mg : _ : number, so as to admit of being greater P—N= ————~ = .1886116970110 Seen yiae es ie 1. tire ag eee Fone “aoeaj EAEOS#BI9N5 compute terms necessary n(10*— F . of the series of quantities (, WW" ec, from the for n(10%—1) = 2.902585092994 . en Vie le SP a af ne Oat, 12. We have seen (Art, 10. that in stem =v nipch va of logarithms, of which the or radial mimber io n(z and) ° * m(™ —1) ] and z a certain unknown geal tote boa In Briggs’ system, which is that in use, 6=10; and we have now found, that in this case, log. 22” m and x being any q m (8° —1)_» so 058009290428. Therefore, ‘th cans loguithan of ay sneer «i atu), If we suppose ¢ to be such a number 2B that C=), which is evidently possible, then ina sytem, of logarithms, of which ¢ i the basi log.z= by Nope nd by ae th Napa tem. Since, therefore, 21) ap log # tmie * on n (er), This is the system first invented L ig s Inrly "(7 —1) = Nap, log. b. ais ash that: be ———— a = J + * PLUXIONS. Pea the number B is the Napierean logarithm of 10, so that "principles e"=10, na aad log. e = com. log. 10=1; and : hence com. log. ex qy = 434294481903, By inspect- Cy AB = age The Pee yee ing a table of logarithms, it appears tt that ——— 3 its more accurate ap to be e=>2.718281828459. Let us now aol mil rents (F) 2*1.(b). = it is to be observed, that in Napier’s system I. (4) = From’ this formula, and the series which we have , — tage pads ar that here gi pap ee. ils estigate the general eeeere tes Rie is, for the of the basis-ot” the system), we have, by formula a (F, x ar ) y {(e+a—it ; B(2-h)* Ba and therefore, ; Bu zt=n (<*"—1), 7 1 Bu’ (z+hy=n {+i} 3 and taking the difference, and dividing by h, pfu(egp—ue} aflegnpoe ‘} h ee h s "by formula (B), (Art. 7.) the second member of AO Tes bale Pret ad ¥(S—') Gy being a quantity between 0&1). Therefore, B fears ALL; Stes ico uc aera eae please, and and always of i magnitude between 0 and} iC: 0 dappled $6 be may be each reckoned =0, fet} of G1) very great, — an =, ana + oe a and then (2-+)*, 2%, 2", and {rth are each to. be accounted =1 ; our formula becomes:now simply, BW) eel i and hence, pertieke for u’ and u their values, log. (t-4+h)—log. « i _ ©) h 1l— (24-h)* From this formula we see, that the function which expresses the ratio of the increments of log. «, and z, has the’ ies which we have shewn in Art. 7. to belong to the function which expresses the: ratio of the increments of " and x; but that the ex- pression for its boundaries has a different form. If we make z’=0, we get — for one boundary ; .and if we make 2’=1, we haves Fy fo the other boundary; and between these, i 4 ar of the function express- ing the ratio is always contained. Or we may indicate 1 both boundaries at once, by this eS aay where i’ is some quantity cm, bart 0, and re than h; and, again, as a yee where H is mb ah uantity eG the a of baie yo = 0; we cas also log. aesaihent wr ’ h =sasri=mte (@) 14. Next let the function be a”, where a denotes a constant’ positive quantity, and x any variable quan- tity. When «x changes to «4h, then a” changes to a* th — g* q* therefore a* +4 a*= a (isn 1). We have found (art. 9, and art. 12.) that if a=)” y then u= _—! #(1) n being any number, and 2 a cera B® . tain quantity between 0 and 1, and B=1(b). In this formula put 5" instead of its representative x, and it u becomes wax 2(F—1). To adapt this expression to our BE present purpose, change wu into h, also 4 into.a, and B into A, (that is 1 (2) into 1(a)) and it becomes sh pl) , or putting for the present A’=Aa*, we Aor ahat=(1 + p. Now we have found (art. 7.) that (ath)? —z amas h; 397) Fundamen. ° tal Principt ———— tal Principles —— $98 AA iastead of hand ¥ for a certain quantity between 0 and 1, we get es ‘hy Aye (1 +) —i=A'(1+> h; but since (: +S)'= a’, the second member of the a- , s bove equation mE oat therefore after 14— n Aha® - annie) Now, as we have it in our power to make n as great as we please, let us suppose it a very great number ; then of?" = =h may be reckoned =0, and a* =1, and ARS 0, ” thus we have amply a'—1=Aha™. (I) and as a***_a* = a* (a*—1), it follows, that + ae Aa*a**, (K) 2’ being, as already stated, a quantity between 0 and 1. This ion for the ratio of the increments of a” and x agrees in its general properties with that for the ratio of <* and z, (art. 7.) Its boundaries found by making 2'=0 and 2'=1 are Aa‘a” and Aaa"; there- = an put 4’ for some quantity between 0 and h, we 8 ve that : « =Aa*a". . (K’) And as spin, by equation (I) of this article, a’ = 14A kh’ a™, if we put H=A h’a*, where H denotes a quantity that vanishes when h’ or h=0, we shall also h, have this fonmule ee =Aa*4H. (K") 15. We come now to the circular functions sin. «, and cos. z, that is, the sine and cosine of x, an are of a circle, the radius of which we shall assume =1 ; and we are to investigate in each case an expression for the ratio of the increments of the function, and of the are, which we consider as its variable basis. ing x and a to be any arcs, from the fourth of formule (C) An:rumetic or Sines, Art. 12. we de- rive the following series of equations, ‘ Sin, (7-+4+-2a)—sin. z=2 sin. a cos. (ra), Sin. (2-4-4 a)—sin. ae a)=2 sin. a cos, (143 a), Sin. (r4+64 24-4a)=2 sin. a cos. (x45 ay Sin.(z42na)—sin. {42(n—1)a} C— 3 2 sin. a cos. {2+ (2x—1)0}; the number of equa- tions being'n. By taking the sums of the corresponding members . * In the series of ares t+4-a, -4-3a, x-+4-5a, &e. the cosines of those less than a quadrant will be positive quantities ; and the. FLUXIONS. Pondemen- therefore, putting in this expression 1 instead of x, and of these equations, ont: celoction the quantities found F wisin. aa ae @sin.a { cos. (24-0) -008.(24-3 @) cos. (2-45 a) + Are yer +con(24[2n—1] a) }. sot pees eee raultipli num terms, be a quantity evidently ter than their sum ; and if by their number, ‘the pro- series ; it must therefore be less than 2n: We have now : bis Cos. (4-4) + cos. (r-+$a) ... C08. {e4(en—1)a} =n Cos. GN and hence Sin. (242 n a)—Sin. z = cos, («#+4+N a) 2 nsin.a, Let us now put A=2 na; then a= 5» and Na= hs as N is always less than 2x, 2 will be a posi. tive fraction less than 1, let us denote it by z, and also let us put n’ or rather n instead of 2n, and upon the whole we chall have = Sin, (24h) —sin.emcos. (2--2h)nsin. ~, and in this formula n may be any positive number whatever. , 16. By the second of formule (C) Anrrumetic of Sings, art. 12. we have the following series of equa tions, aie Cos, « — cos. efi) 2sin, asin.(x-+-a), Cos. (x-+4-2a)— cos. (x44) = 2sin. asin.(z43a), Cos, A aan (+62) = pemipte i i so Cos. {e+ 2(n—1)a } — cos, (#-4+2na)= 2sin. a sin, 2+(2n—1)a } ; the number of equations being x. Hence, by adding. as in last article, we : C08, 2-—COS, (-- 2n oe 2sin. a { sin. (s-+0)+ sin.(x 48a) sin.(-45a) + wae $sin.(e+ [2n—1 Ja) i As the sum of this series of sines will ‘be less than the greatest term multiplied by the number of terms, and greater than the least term multiplied by the same. number, it must be exactly equal to some quantity of an intermediate magnitude multiplied by that num- ber. This quantity may evidently have the form sin. (a4-Na), where N denotes a positive quantity less - than 2n; we have therefore 5 sin, (2-4-@)-+4-sin.(4-43a) 4 ..+++ +sin. fr (2n—1)abn sin.(2-++Na); sosines of those greater than a quadrant, but less than three quadrants, will be negative. Here we reckon that to be the greatest term which is nearest to +1; and that to be the least which is nearest to = 1. : $. ee a FLUXIONS. 399 P eal 'g wh Megat > i! hi ~ Fundamen- tat Conmemetat oa) ealetauiN ayes sin.a, Segue ped bree, oy (= +3) sing Principles. i’ —— y ip : hy. =~ Asia last article, pat h=2na, then a=>> andNa ss Gin. (24h)=sin. x4 2 cos. («+-5)sin ak. Bee tet Put z toe: so that z will always be a po- . ae 2Qn , sitive quantity less than 1. Then ing the proper substitutions, and also putting instead of 2, we get from last equation ; ; : Cos.) —cos. 2=—sin. (r+-z h)nsin. ca and in this expression, may be any positive number whatever. 17. It is an axiom in geometry, that any arc which does not exceed a quadrant is of an intermediate magni- tude between its sine and t. Now, z being = for some fraction between 0 and 1, and v for an are less than a quadrant, the expression Gray may denote any quantity between sin. v and tan. v ; use when ==0 it becom es and when z=1 it becomes “= = tan. v; therefore while z increases from 0 to 1, the ex- pression will increase from sin. v to tan. v, and will have successively every degree of intermediate magnitude. Hence we may assume that w= en)? z being a fraction between 0 and 1. . Then sin. v=v cos. (zv). Instead of v put 4 and we have sin. A= cos.(2 i) and n sin —=h cos. (+). Now we are at liberty to suppose as great as we please, therefore the frac- tion — may be as small, and cos. (= 1) may differ from unity by as little as we please, and so n being in. definite, in respect of magnitude, we may express nsin. “by the are h, We then get from the two formule, ; Sin, (¢-+h)—sin. « = cos, (2-42h) n sin.” ” Cos. (z-++h)—cos. « = —sin.(x-+zh) n sin. these others : Sin. (zh) —sin. x h = cos. (x-+-zh), (L) Cos. (x4-h)—cos.r ; et = —sin.(x+zh). Observing always that = is a positive fraction less than unity. And these expressions are the boundaries to the ratio of the increments, which we proposed to investigate, : If we put z=0, we get cos. x and —sin. x for one w is. to indefinitely ; and if we make z=1, we get cos. (w--h) and —sin.(2-4-h) for another boundary : so that the first of the two func- ba always yale 5 Palo a (eth); and Serened cos, (x » h’ being ome are. wher fy peg Ch Sey henna: —sin..a, and —sin, (4h), and may similarly be ex- pressed by —sin, (x4/’): And as, by the Anirumeric or Sines, art, 12. formule (D). _ . boundary to the functions which express the ratios ; : hihlante _will appear that the property belongs to ev If we put H to denote briefly the expression —2 sin.(« +5)sin. Pe and H’ to denote ’ : , — 2 cos. 2+5) sin. ay where it is manifest that H and H’ are quantities which vanish, when A, and con- uently when 4’=0, we have also a ad —sin.t _ 24H \ * ‘) = on TF = sin. t4+H’ 18. We shall now bring into one point of view the different expressions for the ratio of the corresponding increments of the five simple functions considered in this section. ; hy—. is wey (t4-2')" =n +H; log. (2 + 4) —log. x 1 - A ~ Be@+#') PB LT Aa*t¥ Ag 4H; i sin. (x--h) — sin. x cos, rey —cos. x 1 1h Fate ‘ = cos. (2 +h')= cos, « + H; =>—sin. (rh’) => —sin. cx +H; h and in each of these expressions, }’ is some uantity greater than 0 and less than h. : By comparing these formule, it appears that the five functions, a", log. 2, a®, sin. x, cos, 2, have the following common p: ies :—~ 1. The expression for the ratio of the increment of each function to the increment of the variable quantity x, which serves as its basis, is always a finite quantity contained between two determinate ies, 2. The ion for each ratio may be resolved in- to two parts, one of which is independent of the incre- ment h, and the other.is a function of x and h, of such a nature, that it is always finite while 2 is finite, and vanishes when h=0. 3. From this last pro , the function which ex. presses each ratio has always a limit to which its value approaches, as / decreases, and to which it may come nearer than by any assignable quantity ; and it appears that in the case of the function 2”, this limit is m 2’—1 ; in the function log. z the limit is 5, B being theNa« pierean logarithm of the base. In the function at the limit is A a*, A being the Napierean ithm of a; and, lastly, in as functions sin. ye oy cos. z, the limits are cos. 2 and —sin. « respectively ; so that each limit is a new function of z, peculiar to the original function from which it is derived. We have seen, (art. 8.) that the of the limiting ratio extends to the algebraic functions A «4 Br’4, &c. and Ac™+Brv 4+, &e. .. é ax bas 4, Ke.” which are composed from the sim- ple algebraic function 2”; and in the same manner it expres= sion, composed in any manner whatever, by the opera- ~ ’ St henctits chaewe of 400 ’otme- tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- Peows functions we have been a To the analytically ceeeihie an. tended » it will cunvenient. % sdopt, « subtle notation ; therefore, like as ve bee denoted the sine of an are b the symbol sin. x, and the logarithm of z by log. 2, also ) 3() ce we eee any function and = 5 and — <= cD ca’ of every function whatever ing velocity. 1f, however, the velocity decrease, then, Sarai, coca: Sree Ss be found that BC a4 cD r >< te? and — > —7: So that, in every case the ratio of the velocities of the generating points at any contemporaneous position, is always between the ratio of any finite increments in an in- terval of time ended when they arrived at that po- ‘sition, and the ratio of finite increments inan interval of time that when they is, the ratio of the velocities is greater than the one, -bat less than the other of these ratios; provided that prover mecemacy eS described, the velocities are s increasing, or always ing. e have observed that the pe ary BC, snl pena weenie cue tre Hooves ena because of the acceleration or retardation of the motion; the less, however, these increments are taken, the less will be the effect of the acceleration or retardation, and the more nearly will the ratio of the lines BC, CD ap- proach to that of equality: Hence it follows, that, by continually diminishing the increments, the two ratios tA and

dy=mn bla+b x"! 21 dz. Ex. 6. pe Y= ete "Paty gem’ and we have y=r u. youd«+ _ edu, Meaadiaiet a 6 Hes Iain dine vma?+2%, and then u==/s, therefore by rules (I), (B), and (A), dumeeazdux 0” you = eeey Hence, ; d 2 PP aN ey Wan orev nts), re? ot ghee: peti aie) e! Now ‘Seger hets—e ay « rules and (A), therefore, after substituting for u, d ot (Und ‘ ca alues, and reducing, we find - d _ (a 4ate*—42')dz I=" Ve) We bars re sowe’ letters for complex func- tions, with a view er operation to a particu- lar rule ; but, in actual calculation, this will not always be necessary. Thus, in the 5th example, in which oe ae by retaining the symbol a-++-b 2”, instead u for it, we have sgt ap baa 30 Sexier), and as d(a+62")=b d(2")—mb x"~1d x, "px 8 Lety (a tqb)-42,0 (aa) (2d ees Pooh +6)*+24/( ) x (#—#). d {(ax+0)} =2%Xa2)48) xd(a245) = 6ax*(ax+b)dz. Again, afoy(a—a) x (2—s)} aida) x d(a—b) + (2—b) Kd } 24/(a*—2") But d(2—})=d2, and d fey(a—e) ~ aol therefore, upon the whole, “i a dy=6a2*(a234b)d x + 20—tU+2ba)d x ae—z* 33, Wed next. give exomplesof thm fune- one putting 1.(z) for the Napierean log. of any func~ z 405 . Ex. 1. Letu=l. (Fay). Put Tay =* then by rule (B),du=“* But by the rule for the fluction of a fraction, dnd (FS Therefore, warns S40 zea) Ex 2. Letwnt, $V (t+#) + (1—e) 1 i Put Y=1-+42, 2= Seoayh meee ore Then u = i(¢=) =1.(y+2) —L. (y—z); of LN aoe. y Now eedeeuty, oni S08 —dv. Therefore dy= and dex ="; Hence we have dyt+dz_ y—z dx ait3 ype Vyz _ te) de PN nate a ate ay yAP—*) But y? + vs y Aa 2s and yexy/(i—e): Therefore, du= z/(1—a") In the next two examples we shall merely give the results, @edx =¢= fy": and du= dy—dz_y4+2 dx _ Ye yz Qyz” — Ex. 3, wxifervigeyhs ;du=—__—__—_ Vey) ee ER Vee teet 4 dx (148) Vapey As an example of an exponential quantity, let ; supposing y and z to be any functions of a va- rial ae then log. u=zl.(y);_ There- fore, (Article 28.) d-{1.(u) } =a feuy) bs now aj 1 (1 wh 4 and af 21, (9) } saei) +74 by rules (B) and (F); Therefore, substituting y* for «, we have du=y fast) +222}. 34. Examples in circular Wiactione .. Ex. 1. Letu=tan. 2. Because tan. preren fore, dud (= 2) =e dE (sin) sin. 2d eos.) But d (sin. x) = dx cos. x, and d (cos. 2) = — de sin. 2, role (D) ; theesborn dat ene) in cos, 2.x cos.7a" In the three following examples, we shall, for the sake of brevity, merely state the results. Ex. 2.. ux sec. x, du = dx tan. « sec, a. Ex. 3. u= cot.x,du=— Se . sin. * x Ex, 4 ux cosec, x, du =—d a cot. xcosec. «. 35. In the above examples, the tangen are considered as functions. of the are : ‘but*we may re- verse the h and consider the are as a function of the tangent, or secant, &c. Ex. 1. Let it be required to find the fluxion of an arc Direct’ . Method. —o— Pirect” Methal —Y—" asa function of sin w; and i 406 considered as a function of its tangent. Put x fur the and w for the arc. Then we may consider u sin. w and cos. ™ as functions of x. Now, by Rule (D), supposing « a function of sin w, we have dues ti: (1). cos. And since by the Aniruneric of Sines, sin, x= 2 cos. u, therefore idering sin. « as a function of z, we have, by rule d (sin. u)=d 2 cos, w—xd(cos.u) (2). But cos.*# +4 sin.*u= 1; , by rule (A), cos. u d(cos,u) + sin. wd (sin. ~) = 0, and d (cos, u) = — 5 4(cin. u)=— 2d (sin, u); hence, fromequa- tion(2) we have, d (sin. u) = d x cos. u—zx* d (sin. 2), and (142*) d(sin.u)=dzcos.u. (3. From equations (1) and (3), we have, by rule (I) z 1+? And since 1 4 2* = sec.* x = du =cos,*udz. Ex. 2. If we suppose u to be such a function of « that sec. w =, then, cos, w=. Now regarding u as a funetion of cos, u, we have, by rule (D) du =e), dix , we have also cos. *u dx +5 dz < cos.udx #'sin.u ~ sec.*« sin.u ~ sec. usin. u’ Hence putting tan. u for ~~, we have also Rie dz dz = sec. u tan. uw r4/(2—1) Ex. 3, Let cot. u=2 ; thentan, pay Tr Now we have x found that dw = d (tan. «) cos.* u, (Baamplp 1.) but d (tan. v) =—S; therefore, du= — =< «or = Cos. % since z= ——, sin. u du= du dux=—d rsin.? ae! Ss ; 1+. ons If cosec,u= 2; then, from the formula, i = 1 du= HO), and sin. u=—, we easily find dx da G0 =a dackens u 2/@—l) Some Applications of the Theory. 36. Before we the theory of fluxions, we shall.give a few examples of its application to the investigati of analytical and ical formule ; ém the principle de- monstrated in Art. 28, namely, if two functions of variable ity be uni i acpaheh Bok laa FLUXIONS. By slenvenis Gereaiats i joan Fete tH. be i inink oF peal and therefore, a( =a) ia =t+ eat fat vee +2. (a) where n denotes the number of terms of the series. As the members of this equation are functions of the same variable quantity 2, their fl must be equal. cay H) fluxion of the first member is by rules (A) an (1— 2) fi—(n +1) et de42(1—2) de o>) | feat} dx 1—z)* And. the fluxion of the second mémber is Dxp 2rd x4 3822 wove pne—idey - Hence, esting. Ore expressions equal to one another ; s also, diyidin by d x, and multiplying by x, we get x { 1—(n+ Dee tit = © (1—z)* ; 242 22438 44at 2... 4n2% formula may be easily verified by multiplying the second member of the equation by the i of the first. - Let us now, in order to abridge, put xa +1)2"+ nar tl aa (i—2)* Then, by formula (4), Nasr42a' +3 34471... tnz, (c). then, taking the fluxion of each side as noting briefly d (X’ x X” dx, where X" is a func- tion of x, which may be found by rules (F), (H), and (1), we have X"dr=da4+2ardzr43*atdzr.., +n*2—"de; reer hence, dividing by dx, and multiplying by x, we X" eae estesg eat... 4 niat, From So by which formula (4) and (c) have been deduced from formula (a), it appears’ that if we put |—~ =X, and compute the series of functions Xamaprpaipaet ice. fe"; XX exq2z* 43254424... 042; Xa mar42? x? 4 $2734.47 af, . nites X"erar+23 24332344324... 439; &e, &e. where n may be any whole number whatever, and x any quantity greater or less than unity. In the parti cane Of don}, the forratile-g0ihol banana. plicable, because then the numerator and denominator of the expressions Xz, X’ w,&c. vanish at the same time. We shall shew, farther on, how quantities ha« Vig Oe Propety sre to Oe a hen z is a proper fraction, and nthe number of terms infinite, the funetion X becomes simply =~. Tn this case, and de« a —— ee » Direct Method. “te ——~ —dx dzx Quadu as tall i + -FLUXIONS. pall ie pes jhe Sea: ie Cor an a Ca Zz te . eset tbe phe. y: ‘ | RES a(l+r) _ ah; ee Tach git 3723 4-42rt-+&e, S++ 2), porte giet pater p&e. (l—2)" &e, &e &e. By the principle employed in this article, we may discover as many series, finite or infinite, as we please, that may be summed, - z 37. As an example of another mode of investigating series that may be summed, let us assume’the series of identical equations. 1—2*=(1+42)(1—2), 1—z'= bet et 1—2*=(1 +2*)(1—2'), 1214 )2): By te the ucts of the two sides, and leaving 8 oe bi ee to both, we obtain l—x*"=(1l—z)(14+2)(142*)(142) ... *(1+42"). Now it et ee ay oo 29. : that EOE r, * t, v, &e. to be any funetions of «, if y=rstv, &e. en ¥y Therefore, assuming that y=l—a™, r=1—a, s=1 44, t=1 4-2, v= 1424, &e. and taking the fluxions, we have 4x3d x i-a fet Type nv dae ¥en”? and hence, by dividing all the terms by dx, and multi- plying by «, and transposing the — we find x 2nw ; =< 1a F tg a 2x" a n =Tyatige Tite +143 This elegant analytical theorem holds true, indepen- dently of any particular value of x ; and whatever be the ‘number of the terms, observing that the exponents of 1—c** the powers of x must be the terms of the series 1, 2, 4, 8, &c. the common ratio of which is 2. 38. Let us next assume this. other series of identical equations. a—1=(e—1)(2? 41, - hota (2t —1)(24-41), eis(e—ayat 41), of the two series of equations, and i ae to both, we find «1 expressed 407 (ot —1) (24.1) @t41)(2* 41)... X @P41). Hence, paaies. as in last article, dividing the fluxion “~~ of each Factor by factor itself, and leaving out dz, which is common to all the terms, we find wis w—l1 a 1 j-1 ries s x : 43 z +t n(a —1) x41 rt] at ent +3 zx = x] +4 L > vet oe oe | ee am and multiplying all the terms by z, we ‘ 2" = + n(2#—1) ag: x an a +} + § ve 41 ety erp This equation holds true, whatever be the number of terms: but let’us now suppose their number infinite ; rt cn then the numerator of the expression becomes of x, n(c*—1 =1, and the. denominator is the Napierean (Art. 12.) Hence we have be aren L(z) 2—1 : : ole oo teh er at+l1 vel We may give this expression another form, by wri- ting ~ instead of x, and afterwards changing y into =, +'&e.) and observing that log. (=) =— log. (x); we then have. 1 1 T(z) “21 : 1 1 5 er pers 2 Soe po Free . av? 41 at4t at 41 By adding the corresponding sides of these two for« ha we get this third form 1 yttt Oi 4. 4 -(34 43-1 +45 —l +e.) a4 x4 zi4i which is better adapted to calculation than either of the others, because it converges faster ; but it does not con< bb! abating’ whi we have in Art. 11. y taking the fluxions of both sides of this equation, ws sar the ex cp Mah ali ay of the uare zr), W investiga a diffe- peg Art. 11; and repeating the pescess, we ma’ ‘or mer ewe he’ bp the reciprocal of its, third highes ers. 39. By Me RarinukHie of Sines, formulz (G), Sin. z=sin. } 2 x 2 cos, 4.x, and sin, 3 a= sin, .¢X2 cos, 4x, ‘ore, Direet Method. —o 408 sin, r= 2 sin, 3 x cos. 4 r cos. 3.2; because sin. } =sin. 4 « x 2 cos. 4.x; therefore sin. r= 2 sin. 4 x cos. $ x cos. } x cos. 4 x. And, in general, putting m for of cosines, X cos. i x, and 2=2", sin. en sin. } zcos.f2cos.iz. . Hence, proceeding as in Art. 37. we have d.sin.x__nd.sin. tx d.cos.42 d. cos. 3.x sin.s ” =6ansin. Se" cond” * * cos. iz’ actually taking the fluxions of the numerators, snd rjocnieg the common factor dx, we have cos. FCO, Fe sin. 4x sin.} x tin. « ~ nsin.ie 200s. } x 4cos.42 and hence, transposing and putting tan. x for at &c. 1 : ere ie eee ntan. is ~ +ftan.42.....42 tan. ty This formula is true, whatever be the number of terms in the series. Let us now suppose the arc x indefinitely small, and n indefinitely great ; in that n tan, } x=are 2; hence, supposing the series to cn ad iefaitom, we have 4 1 i Stee Ft det pan. fa F tan F2+&e, This expression for the reciprocal of an arc, Bh cote found in Arrrumetic of Sines, Art. sg nr ae maar naa owt “et a By taking uxions repea oO sides of this equation, we may find veries for reciprocal of the squares, and any higher powers of an arc. 40. From the few applications which have been given in this Section, it must appear, that the fluxional calculus is F peewee Yee in analytical inquiries. For as all quantities whatever may be treated by the ele- mentary ions of addition, subtraction, ipli FLUXIONS. iginal function, finding the fluxion of a function. For example, if u = x*, then by rule(A), 4 = nx*-!, therefore in this case p=n x”, and since dp=n(n—1) 2*-*d x, rule (A,) there- fore q = SP=n (n—1) a2, In like manner, dg= by the rules which have been given n(n—1) (n—2)x-5dx, and hence r atts dx n(n—1)(n—2)2"—5, and so on. : The relation that each of the fluxional coefficients p, q, 7, &c. stands in to the original function 1, is indica- ted by heap the fluxi coefficient of the first or- der, q that the second order, ¢ thasof the third order, and soon; so that in the case of the function u=2", the fluxional coefficients of the first, second, and third order, mis qtetetiyene tact os ( we nal, g=n(n—1 2, r=n(n—1) (n—2 3. "2. The jroo by which the luxiondl eneticientsp, y, 7, &e. are to be determined from the function w, is du d dq ‘\ bon 5 I= 7 hae Fs &e. In these, the conventional symbol dx enters merely faction | erin, iat pertrasing’ the operons, ve ; , in i operations, we = treat it as if it represented some constant quantity, and so we shallhave - eae eT ARLE a erate PO cation, and division, by attributing to them the proper- ty of being SENSE Stree ert and, therefore, aSa(du) ‘a ration, namely, that by which their uxions are taken. _du __—d(du) AS —? It must also be obvious, that the use of the character P=gz 9=qy-de’" = “dardacda > but instead dx is merely to shew, that the changes of magnitude of different functions are all referred to that of the variable quantity x, which, in a function of a determinate form, has the same relation to the function that a root has to its power. ; Of the Different Orders of Fluzions. 41. In what has been already explained, we have es- tabeioeed (Oe Mppoctent peipeiple in. shel sis, that if u, any expression of calculation, be susceptible 3 there is a certain p, deducible from u by de- terminate rules, which is a limit'to the ratio of the cor- eS ee and which we have the fluxional co-efficieni, originating from the uu : Now, by applying the same hypothesis to p, that is, of repeating the letter d so often, it will be better to put d*u for d(du), and d3u for d }d(du) + ,and, and hence again, 2a 1 1 For example, if X r r ee ae pression which is always — 3 + dz (@—ay * (z—a)— z 5=°% fe. opie (= 2 ) ( ett a] dv ‘(2*—a*)3 Go ~(z y Bye 03 Ke. 44. The rules for finding the first fluxion of a func. tion of 2, are equally applicable to the second and high- uxions. Let u—a" ; then (rule (A) )du=n 21d 2. By consi- dering dx as a ee Fae: we have d(du), that is, d*u=n(n—1) 2—?d 2?, 'y proceeding in this manner, the successive fluxions of u—z" are ; du=n xd x, : d* u=n(n—1)a*—2d x2, d? u=n(n—1) (pricey &e. ‘From these expressions, that when n_is whole number, the flaxion of the ath hier, b-m te stant quantity, and therefore all the following fluxions vanish. log. x ; then 4, i the basis of the sys. Let u= tem, by rules (B) and (A), we get to ees aiid at __ 2d 23 du= a Ms #1 Oyo "= aig °& Let u=e*, ¢ being the basis of the Napierian system of logarithms ; then, by rule (C), bd ~ duxdae’, dtu=date’, du dae" -&e. VOL, Ix. PART IL. s de >thatis, Fa = Go . 409 From these examples, it appears, that the functions ‘Direct aS 3 Method. w=log. x, and u=e have fluxions of all orders whatever, Swe This_will also be found to:be true of the functions “= sin. x, and u= cos. x. Of Fluxional Equations. 45. We have hitherto supposed ‘that the expression whose fluxional coefficient is. to -be determined, was an explicit function of the variable quantity 2, that is, a function of x of some given form. But it may be res quired to find the fluxional coefficient of y, an implicit function of 2, the nature of which is expressed by an equation, For example, the relation of y to x may be expressed by the equation if y2 me y+2*—a = 0. In this particular case, by resolving thg equation, we have Y=MTH Vf J ar+(m—1)x* b ; as y is now an explicit function of z, its fluxion may be. found by the rules already given. But the equation which expresses the relation of y tox may not admit of being resolved ; and when this is the ease, the fluxional coefficient must be determined upon principles which. we are now to explain. As we have denoted any expression of calculation composed of x and constant quantities by the symbol J(#), we may, in like manner, denote any expression. Bobet ofe, si y, and known by by S(=, 9). n this way, an uation, such as 2 mry+ar— a=0, aipeeelag the relation puewenl cant nney be briefly indicated thus, F(«,y)=0. * Now, al ugh we should not be able to resolve the equation, we may be certain that y is expressible in some way or other by 2: It may therefore be assumed that y=X, where X de- notes some expression of calculation made up of x and known quantities. This value of y being put instead of it in e equation F(x, y)=0, it becomes (a, X)=0, an equation involving only x and constant quantities : And as the equation F(x, y)=0 holds true for every ible value of x, so also must the equation F(«2,X)—0: is must therefore be an identical equation, and con- sequently it will have the ies which (in art. 43.) have been proved to belong to such an ion: So that putting u to denote briefly the expression F(x, X), or its equivalent F(2,y), as we have u=0, we must du ui. du have also —-= 0, —— da dx* which mean that if the fluxion of usF (2,4), (consi divided by dz, 46. Let y be a function of x, of such a nature that ¥+e=0%, or ¥+2—a=0, 1) a being a constant quantity. _ In this case, uy +2°—a’*, therefore, taking the fluxions and dividing by dx, we 410 w= 2y av 42 r=; Hence, vos. (2) To determin the xia co-fient of the second order, pe fe =P then SF =2lyp+e): As p is a function of y and z, and y is a function of x, therefore p is a function of z. aking now the paras gf eee t we have Oe = 2(ysh+ ph41)=0; d d d* that is, because p= 5%, and P= a ‘wu a PY Pe s oe = oy + Fe 41)=0. (8) Or, since = a a1 ne Recta adits» 5 (4) dx To determine the, son coefficient of the third erder, we may put 5% = 9P = 4, and then substi- F di tuting p for “%, equation (3) becomes Gam AyatP*+1)=0. By taking the fazions of both sides of this oe x an The quantity 42= <1 i, that to be determined ; (i ial ae PS ae expressed in Spe ae ae (2) by means of x and y: Hence the value of La 4 may be found. And, by a like mode See the fluxional coefficient of any order This mode of dtemining the axonal coefficients %, it &e. is that indicated by the analysis (art.45.) It evidently furnishes the follo ical rule. * Tet doe ths ere a spt 4 as function of, and dividing by ds the rem be a new equation, which serves to deter- mine 92. Again, take the fluxions of the terms of this new equation, considering y and as functions of z, and the result will be an equation involving 4%, and % which, combined with Pepi equation, serves FLUXIONS. to determine 44, A thind equation may be formed! d*y dy from this by taking the fluxions, considering. 5% any 0 Rennioneel Aa earn me ns? former, gives the value of $s, and so on to any num- ber of equations whatever Let the fluxional coefficients of the different orders ree ae Gh ee 4 = = as (2) Frew: die serene by again taking the fluxions, we find oy _ Cre (1 mey | ¢ dxt ~ as gh ona (y—ma)’ (3) Or, substituting for $Y its value as expressed by pate tion (2), and reducing, $b = — 1mm a o) ies sides of equation (3), conaidecing’ apie wad =? as functions of x, we shall have d Pi oP tt4 OF +R (5) > Where P, Gaal cee ee ee posed of x andy; by substituting for > Y ana &, their values given in equations (4) and (2), we may have #Y expressed in terms of « and y. . 47. The piers wisi ay a RRO Soar ae equation, 3 y—lmery LS Lihpeveitgse Bc 10 it as ef Apts rule, Jast article, are called Fluzional . The equation itself is the Primitive eqnnton, The fluxional equation, which gives the value of 9 in terms of y and 2, is said ‘to be of the First Order. That ‘which gives the raloe oe 29 in terms of 7, y, anid x, or else | in terms of y and x in id © bof He Second Order ; and so of the pes Diagn us, from the primitive equation, — yn ees kp trt's we have found. joa sab Kates wuateeet-satompeiealiae dty _ (1—m*)x dy . ie Gaara t Gee | dty 2m a? The f tive are identical. ire 48, The equation y= may +2*— a'=0 being of the Pee eZ q Ce gat ee FLUXIONS. second degree, y will have two values corresponding to any gi 2 of x, and as y enters into the ex- pressions for the fluxional coefficients $4, 4, fe these will also have each two values. A like remark will a ene ys ye coefficients ei eh an primitive equation of any higher order ; number of values of y determining in every case that of the values of the fluxional coefficients mto which it en- ters. 49.. We have seen (art. 27.) that the constant quantities. which enter into a. function of a variable Emagen B athnatare 1.0" i from their fluxions. he same remark applies also to fluxional equations. ‘For example, if 7?= a 2+ 6, the fluxion 2ydy=adz belongs to every particular equation which can be form- ed from the equation 7?= a z+4, by giving all possible va he flucional be also expressed inde- uxional equation may be p i pendently of a, by eliminating this quantity by means of the two equations i dy _ youth, T= yoy . , igi we then find dz Qiy Le, This equation expresses a relation that subsists among the quantities 2, y and %, independently of any part- cular value of a. . If the constant quantity which is eliminated is\not of the first degree in the ation, the result obtained will contain powers hi the first of the fluxional coeficient 4%. For example, let the equation be Hence, by taking the ftuxions, we find ydy—ady+2dz=0, z therefore a= YY SES, This value of a being substituted in the proposed equa- Pe an: (z*—2y) WY — gay —r=0. This equation expresses the relation that ought to sub- sist between the variable quantity x, its function y and its fuxional coefficient A independently. of siny parti- cular value of a. By resolving the equation y°—2 ay +.2*=a*, in respect ofa,wehave — a= — yt (2y*+2°). As a is now pan pages le quantities, it ya en in taking the fluxion: accordingly we a 2ydypede 4 — y= 78 ay = ‘ When this expression te freed fori the Tadical sign, it will appear to be the same as we have found by eli- 50. number of conten quantities whatever, contained in an equation, may be made to disappear, —— fluxions as often ge thata ape questing Let y= m(a*—2"): by taking the fi ” f 1 E 2ay+2*=a%, we find i 411 dy , Pp D deme Taking now the fluxions a second y time, we get y SY 4p Pm; this value of —m being substituted in the former equation, it becomes oy td =o Vis * Ia —*9 Gam a result which is independent of the two constant quan- tities m and a. Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem, and its Application to the DracUipedent of Functions. i 51. The principle established in art. 28, and. il- lustrated by various examples in art. 36, 37, and 38, leads immediately to an im t application of the . fluxional calculus, namely, the developement of func- tions into series. Let us consider, in the first place, the particular func- tion 2", x being su variable, and nm any constant quantity. We have found (art. 7.) that when 2 be« comes x-+-h, so that 2" becomes (2+4-4)", then (xh)" = rp leer +H h, where H is a function of x and h, which vanishes when h=0. As x and h are quantities which we suppose to be entirely i of each other, this is an identical equation of the same nature as the equation (z#+h)}3 = 23 ft Ow" + 32h + h*)h, and will hold true, whatever values we give to « and hk, We may therefore, instead of h put 4—x, where / denotes also a quantity ind t of x By this- substitution, (oth), the first member of the ion becomes ; but as the form. of the function H is unknown, we cannot actually make the substitution in all the terms of the second member ; we may however suppose, that if it were made, the quantity n2"—-14H would be- come X, a function of z and £, and then the equation will be kt = x" 4 X (k—2) an identical equation involving two indeterminate quan- tities x and k, which, being quite independent of each other, we regard k one of the two, as constant, and still the equation will be true whatever values we give to x the other quantity, which may be now consider- ed as alone variable. This equation may therefore be treated exactly as the identical equations we have con- sidered in art. 36. that is, we may take the fluxions of all the terms, and after dividi dx, we shall have ‘a new identical equation; and this equation may be treated like the former, and so on as often as we please. Accordingly, taking the fluxions, idering & as con- stant, and observing that d (a”) =n a"—1d x (art. 26.) and that d {x (i—n)} =(k=2)dX— X dx (art. 29. and 31.)-we have =na—'dx—Xdx+(k—x) dX, and hence, dividing by d x; and transposing X, we get X =n 2-1 4+ (k—z) da’ ‘a new identical equation, involving x and k, We next take the fluxions of the terms of this equation exactly as before, considermg 4 and dz as constant quantities, and get a dX=n(n—1) 2% 2*damdX+ (k—e) z ye And hence we find, after dividing by d x, Direct 412 2 : x ” (nat) #4 (bos). Method. ws = This is a new identical equation, which must hold true for every value of x. From this equation we may de- rive another, just as we found the last from that before it, and so on. ‘Thus a series of identical equations wil! Sa eee they hare been derived, will stand lt = 2" + (k—2)X, =n + (bs), : m efx = n (n—1) 2°-* + (k—2) = ss = n(n—1) (n—2) 2-3 + (b—2) er 1X wnat) (m2) (rs) HT, &e. From these equations, » ‘wat vais one after an- other, the functions a ie & the follow- ing series of successive values ot X is obtained, dX X=onx 1 +(4—2) Nonx"-14 en (k—2) G—2) aX a mee Fo Xone + nd (k—2) sear aie &e. ee ae expressions for X in , ke=x" 4X (k—2), we find < Bampnzt) (ka) +(h—2)* 5, as4¢n2) (ka) + pet (hms)? (—zys aX +O &e. And again, ing r+-h instead of k, and h for k—w, but retai til the hypothesis that the fusion > dX z al functions >—, >—;» &c. are functions of x and &, ictal 2 faccmmenanteie eee n(n—1) (2+hyma"pnz— hy Sdere See ee And in general, supposing the series to be continued to m terms, (without reckoning the term that contains the fluxional expression ), (24h tan he nO) ao js 1) (n—2 ‘ $ MOTO) oot 1; Be he aX + 53....tm—l)* de" FLUXIONS. If we suppose this series to be continued indefinitely, then we have the binomial theorem in its common furm ocenan, wei meie Sele Pee, Se quan- Cal PAX 23...m—1 dey on ta ee the first m terms. For example, 4* ——— expresses the spate, Sh all the terms following the second; and D * Gar °kpresses the amount of all after the third, and so on. ; When n is a whole number the series terminates, be- cause then ali the termsafter the canis den jenwianyrae In this case the expression Sn oo” be Soe ht to be dat gan OB 0 =0. To veri recollect, that ai a now, when n is a whole number, the nu- merator is exactly divisible by the denominator, so that XS) pnt ems at. htt ams hence, considering & as constant, we have aX Skem-*8 42k 3243 htt... dx ~ L4(n—2)ka-9 4-(n—1)2-2 5 aX f2h-342.3h—19.., viper +(n—2)(n—3).2*-4 4 (n—1)(n—2)2"5, By proceeding in this manner, we may express alPthe functions 4%, 2%, &e. in terms of k and 2; and it is manifest, that the series which expresses each, will have one term fewer than the series which expresses that before it, because of the constant quantities /"—?, ke—2, &c, which have:their flaxions =0. As the series which expresses X has terms, that which expresses can never be = 0: still, however, it may be calculated. Bea 1 For example, if n=}, then X= = : 7 hme Bt de ~ eet at ay de gah (Bp ady From the first of these expressions, we find ' 4) which will consist of'a single term, viz. therefore, )% i OO EE _ Methed. —— many terms as we please. ~ other » 2 2 h , he th ; — —— > CTA A eanaay and, in like manner, we ney develope (x-+-/)* into-as his expression, and every found by this theorem, is merely an identical equation, as will appear by reducing all the terms to a common denominator, for then it becomes (24)? = (apAy?. 52. Ve might develope each of the functions, log. «, a’, sin. x, cos. 2, al ei tet the ard pene! as we have developed («+/)"; these, every other fanction fat oat Aa arty where « and h are indeterminate quantities in ent of each other, may be included in one general formula, which we shall Let f(z), any function of a variable quantity x, be re- u, so that we have f(x)=w, then, when x its JF (A=u+X(k—2). “* . . k : Ae bis indepintento et ane the u and X(k—x) relatively to x, and divi- ding by dx, we in the ft place, k u o= > en + (k—«) 7 Xa osx A . Considering now dx as a constant quantity, and tak. i repeatedly fore, we find, as in art. 51, dX Hu ie Bl dz et Fryn $e (k—«), Shou $ (ie) +e ays, FLUXIONS. Sa+hyaut h+ te he Sethaut 7h + value, and becomes x4, we have seen f(r-+h)=u+ ae + 413 Shay Se) 4 Te Cosy Mathod, —— aX (k—2)3 qe 2” &e. and hence again, by substituting r+h for k, but still retaining / in the function X, so that x — fH—"_f®S@) k—x —r where & is to be considered as a constant quantity, and x alone as variable, we have Jla+h=u+ X4, d dX, ae Bui Rs aX hs de 2 * de 2’ du alee Gu hs a2 2" dz 2.3: - GX hea + ie 28 If we suppose the series to proceed ad infinitum, then, without paying any regard to the éxpression = which enters into each finite developement of the fune- tion, we have du du h® au h3 h)= ete: lass mA ESS Set da! tas 2 + dx 2:3 ; Au da 3.307 t This formula, remaikable for its elegance and sim~' - pny. was first found by Dr Taylor, an eminent Eng- ish mathematician, who. published it'in a work. called Methodus Incrementorum, about the year 1716, and is - called Taylor’s Theorem. Sir Isaac Newton ve a similar formula in his Principia, where he treats of the theory of comets, but it is icable to a series of quantities having finite differences. Newton's formula becomes Taylor's theorem, when the differences are in- definitely small. This theorem has considerably excited the attention of mathematicians ever since the late M. to make it the basis of the fluxion- al or differential calculus, first in- the Memoirs of the - Berlin Academy for 1772, and afterwards in his Theo- rie des Fonctions Analytiques. ‘The demonstration of it iven here, is taken from a Memoir by M. Ampére, pub- fahed in por as th Cahier osha leat Siietens ique. Itis simple and very e t. ge has also given an el ¥ t pita! bee 750 qv &% we set U'=na—,U"=n (n—1 a", U" =n (n—1)(n—2) 0", &c. These essions, when substituted in the gene- tal theorem, us (a4+2)"=a"+4+n ama Det = HONE sy te Thus we haye another demonstration of the binomial 2d. Next let it be required to develope the functi log. —— series. In this case, putting B for ( Beneneneee Pte) weds . u u=log. (a+2) ; n= Bays)’ dv Bafa apny? Gu 2 du 2.3 qa=t idea Blapaye * of mele Nd A ae eaten «ot 2 bedaiaes ; =U’; in like manner we = dx Ba ; 1 at 2 J 238 find Wa— wu =p "=A & Henee, from Dafoe, re a) ci log. (a2) = logay + {2 — =. 4 a0} the same expression as was found in Art. 53. 3d. Next, let /(2) = u=a*; then putting A for 1.(a) oo here —. =Asa*, &c. Now ) dacrniyg nT ? dxi ee when x=0, then a*=1, therefore, in this case, = U=1, U’ =A, iy ge =A}, &e. substituting these in the general formula, we get et as, Bey Dae - ets” as ee 4th. Lit fiegieen = sin. 2; in this ease * = cos. x, dtu ‘ du u J Ge =~. = — 008. 7, Gy = Sin. x, &e. 415° Direct Method. U=0, U'=1, U0, UY =—1, U"=0, & =“ and the general formula gives in this case, x + 2 2: x? 4 we 23° 2345 , 2.3.4.5.6.7 “e 3 2 5th, Iff( «)=u=cos. 2; then 5 =—sin. 2, = Bu dtu sin. z= — — 00S. 2, 73 = sin. x, Toy = 008. x, &e. When x=0, F then cos. 7=1, and sin. c=0, therefore, U=1,'U’=0,; U’”’=—1, U0, UVs=I, Bie; at x6 asa zsaset & In like manner, we may develope the function u= tan. x, and w= sec. x into series; but the expressions du d for a <=, &c. will be more complex than in these and cos, « =1— o+ Rxemples. On the other hand, we may find series whi shall express the arc by means of the cosine, the sine, or the tangent, &c. We select the last as the most simple. Let /(x)—u= are, of which the tangent is «: then tan. u=2, said wit ek (art. yeas 142% sec.*u =d x cos.*u; therefore, du m Fg 008? He (1) Regarding now cos. w as a function of u, which again is a function of 2, and considering dz as constant, we haye (by rules (A) and (D) art. 26.) 2 =—2dusinu X cos, u, but we have seen that du = dx cos.? u, there« fore, substituting for du its value in the second mem- ber of the last equation, and also putting sin. 2u for 2 sin, u cos. u, we have Pu dz —— Cos*wsin.gu. - (2) From this tion, by taking the fluxi rul (F) ast 9, and rules (A), (D) art 26.), ‘we > fa u da = — 2 4x cos. u (cos. 2 u cos, u—sin. 2 u sin, u). _ Let the value of du be substituted instead of it in the second member, and also cos. $u instead of cos, 2u cos.u—sin. 24 sin. u, to which it is equal, (Anrrumeric of Sines, art. 7.), then dividing by dz, we have — Gu ' Tat = — 2 008.3 u cos, 3 u. (3) From this equation, again, by proceeding as before, we find d*u é r= 2.3 cos.4 u sin. 4 u, (4) du P as = 2.3.4 cos.’ w cos. 5,” (5) &e. . Now when «=0, then u= 0, and cos.u, cos.3u, cos. 5u, &c. are each =1; also sin. uv, sin. 2u, sin. 4 u, &c. are each =0. Hence, from the formule (1), (2),. (3), (4), &¢. we have U=0, U1, U’”=0, U”= — 2, UY =0, UY=2'3.4, &c. and recurring to the general formula, we get in this case : a xe u(=arc to tan. “= Zt ci The preceding investigation affords an elegant ex- ample of the utility of the arithmetic of sines in the fluxional calculus. &e, Dvtreet Netiood, 416 FLUXIONS. 56. atten ihe Oe ied Mac- du _ laurin’s theorem, quantities U, U’, &c. haveallfi- de ~~ (z—@ —— ore Cae ae an infinite value, we may conclude function general developement of " does not admit of being expressed by a series, the terms of the functiail) Se (e+h=ay of which are positive integer powers of x. The func- anes tion w =L(2) is of this nature; for, from it we get Waka — he him ke. - dw 1 dt te er (=—a)* rae) ay Ly =, dw >=~2 ae => In the particular case of «=a, every term of the ¢ 7 din ¥: —. Mabe sgwesnts hep ad Sy bey position that x == 0 renders 7- = = an infinite quan- grerns eee or b - ae Sto quantity indicated by the developement is 77 = ~, tity ; in like, manner the quantities =, qar> &¢- an in which the exponent of A is ne become all infinite as well as the function u itself. As the developement contains only positive powers of h, it could not express the new value of the function The quaitities denoted by the symbols 4° $e, bee in this particular case. Waar ernest value, ° true. aly bscomejafinite, however, when perticalar valussure 0 6eneeslidevelopensent wOEue me EeiaE aS G7 iven to x; therefre it ~will always be possible, by Ta : iva for's theorem, to develope any function f(z+A) into dual cases, it has been or. paen Saree that, although in general the function may be developed ee MA oa be 4 : : : : ° si t, and ed that a be a into aseries, the terms of which contain only the inte- Giri so new state of the f s. : ie tree 4 i ¢ Zz 5 . - Z H E 5 j a|3 all the coefficients of the have 54 (x+h—a)® for the new value or the ee Rotictente faGnite, we mas pare EK 1 an 1 , &e, by Taylor's theo ent ought, in that particular case, to contain 2a)? # Aa—a)* or negative powers of h. ‘ rem, we have, F , f + b4(xph—a) =b4-(2—a)"+ —h , Sc. +(«+ph—a) =b4+( (aa)? . Of Vanishing Fractions, § | je ; oa Fa . r Wt &e. ms 57. A vanishing fraction is.a fractional function of a + (aa)! Mi : iable quantity ¢ of such a form, that its numerator In the particular case of x= a, or z—a=0, the denominator become both = 0 when a pariieular value -quantity to be developed, viz. b+(24h—a)?, becomes is given to x. Such, for example, is this, b A san ion containing a fractional er of P ps, es baw which haa the twofold value be/iemad bo h, Which when c=a becomes > ; however, by remark- because the si, a square root may be taken either jn; —a=(«—a) (x 1 appear th + or —: ‘As the developement contains only positive pe Be mt BIR Ane lee - ne oan pees of dp SR ES quantity, itean >—Z = xa, so that the value of the fraction when ly have a sing’ ue, and therefore it is impossible ss imvfact hence it that the that it should ex the function in’ this parti 5==0, 30 IEEE OA : P ys: Dy, when x il a faction basin tht ose Fal angnabe value; and velopement, its first term u=b + (z—a)® Wecomes 5; we also see that it assumes the form > only be but the coefficient of its second term, viz. > ae flee eles Space have's-comanes s ia bat ity i xi—ata—rat+a3 a(e—a)t > aot ee ee great, The fraction - re hae also the property and the same is true also of the coefficients of the third inp oe ee , and following terms. “Thus the analytical fact, chi ‘of Jooming elaetedoath Kan ray sdigaerl the devslepereset penmet in thls, particule chew ropes. nominator have a common divisor z—a, and this being sent unction, is indicated its terms failing to Pe ta’ pga thing —s If, However, we give tox taken out of both, the fraction ya a: any value, except that of z=a, function is Upon the ition that c= quantity be- rectly expressed by its developement. * ned chais Toenticetly 0 Pher ps Next, let the function be = =" :im thee, ection SEA pecomasissO, 8 . azc—a* Wy \ 7A: : os ey - fe FLUXIONS. becomes x—a out of the numerator and denominator, the frac- tion is changed to —“-; and this expression when ra becomes an infinite quantity. Hence we see that a vanishing fraction may in some ea eee a others may be nothing, or infinite ; but in every case jue ma be determined by freeing the mumerator and denomi- then, by Taylor's theorem, P becomes p+ oh + 2p fp? dQ aQ h* Tey tSe and Q becomes Q4 FS i 4 TYE + &c. and the fraction becomes ) , dP dP he ; 2 Cat lk alee dQ, @Qh Qt ae hase th E dP @P Let us denote the fluxional coefficients 7—, ie qQd briefly by P’, P*, &e. and 52, TR, ge by @, @, &c. then observing that when x = a, P= 0, Q=0, have, after dividing by h, pen ~ oh P’443P"h+&e. TOTP for the new value of the Vy sae If we make h=0, this expression becomes simply &, which must be the value of the fraction slit wai liislite it is evi. dently the same thing to sw first, that z= 2+h, and afterwards Ridess h=0, as to cappoan' ti once that z=a. If it happen that one of the two quan- tities P’, Q’, is equal to 0, then the fraction —-is either nothing, or infinite ; but if both are =0, then, after re- jecting P’ and Q’ from the neral expression, and di- viding again by h, we have @ for the value of the frac« tion, in the case of xa; and so on. Hence this rule. To find the value of; 4 fraction which becomes © when r=a. Divide the fluxion of the numerator by that of the denominator, let the result be ai then if this expression does not beeome +, when a is substitu. ted for x, it is the value sought ; but if it does treat this in all respects as the ether was treated, dedu- VOL, IX, PART 11, 417 Direct cing from it a new fraction Z, and proceed in this man- Method. ner, until an expression be found which does not become © by the substitution of a for «; and the first expres- sion that occurs havin this property is the value sought. Ex. 1. The sum of terms of the series 14-24 .2°+4- —tl 23+&c, is z—1 : Jf we suppose x= 1, this expres o- sion becomes —-. It is required to find in that case its va~ lue. Here P=2"—1, Q=x—1, therefore d P=n2"—) dz, dP nat pr dQ=dz, and aa" a oO Q” when 1 is put for x, becomes + =n, which is the value This expression, sought, as is otherwise sufficiently evident. ax*+actk—2acr ¥ Ex. 2. Let the fraction be b—2bcap bor? Wed 0 becomes —- when x=c. In this case, Spe amisddas dQ= (26 2—2 bc) dx, dP _az—ac dQ ~ ba—be~ BY This fraction =, becomes also, when «= c, there. fore, ing as before, dP’=adz; dQ’=bdz; and Jey => Which is the value sought. a —}* Ex. 3. The fraction Here dP= fa", (a)—8" 1. @} dz; dQ=dz; al. (a)—b' 1, b)_ Pr dQ~ Q” Pr a ‘ when # = 0, 7; becomes L. (a)—1. (8) = 1+) which se ae if 59. tule of Jast article will not in iy it Taylor's theorem does not give the dev: gl the ions P, Q in the case of =a. When this hap~ ro ey substitute a+-/, instead of 2, in the frace tion Q° and develope the numerator and denominator into ascending series of the form A k"4.B k*4.Ch? 4 &e. A’A™ 4 Bh” + Ch?’ 4 &. We have then, instead of Z, this other fraction, AI4BR+C iP &e, ' Al} 4B" 4ChP’ +. &e,” or, dividing the numerator and denominator by jm’, Ale” + Biles CHP" 4. Be. A+B "5 CH=" > Be, Under this form, it is to see, that if m be greater than m’, the supposition A=0, makes the. frac. tion =0 ; weparaeteten > 6 the same supposition re. duces the fraction to 473 because whatever be the va- lue of h, h™—"’ = h°=1; lastly, if m be less than m’, so that m—m’ is ive, then, when h=0, the fraction becomes infinite, Hence this rule, A 36 becomes ©- when «= 0; PLATE CcLy. Fig. 1. wi —tas* +7 a2—2a) —2 a's/ (20 2—a%) —2ar—a* 4 2ay/ ( 2ar—r*) and let its " ; which being made ©; this value of » being put inthe Yrq— + expression for the concave surface, it becomes ——; oe the whole internal surface of ud ey/thiter i is Sei > which being denoted by y, we have c “rea 8c =3 Frm the it thee uty we get e#3= shige nee 9 eer we have found for x? cor- repo to mii ( (art. 62.) Now, since =8c, and x2*u=4c; we have r23=2 x 2* v, an hence 2=2v ; thus it appears peng ene base must be exactly double the depth of the measure ; =c, we find v= dy —_ dz” a 8c, to be its the Fi v4 ee ee FLUXIONS.” of the distance from the point : therefore, the efoct of the ead to lumina te pane at A maybe Me expressed by “rt. Put a CAB in. CAB __2(1 bee a Ar = ; and s0, rejecting the constant divisor a?, we have y=x(1— 2?) =r —2*: Now we have already found (in Ex. 2.), this function is a pang ate em: dre Ape 1:.71 nearly ; there- fore, BC=8.5 inches, Ex. 7. To find the position of the Venus in respect of the earth and the sun, when the area of the peg nay tyros ep ey em Sun, Va aed VE pemepticses to VS and VE, The illuminated surface of Venus is. the céa; but of this, only the part ba is turned towards the Earth, Ba gto ASE oor boa nous crescent contained between half circumference of the disk and a semiellipse ; the breadth of the cres- Sr temas dean ev wena a, bei e angle a is to ig, tangle DVE; therefore, the breadth of the crescent Sres th besa tect tee ouighe ae Now, b vo nature of the the area of the crescent will iene nae" some Put “pat SVna a VE=z ; then, by eapegenin cos, SVE ="+2—"" Let y denote the apparent Wo then, from what has been shewn, we ve _ (a+? + 2a2—H) 2ax3 , therefore, shige fluxions, a. c(3 #3 a®—4 a x—2*)_ Raz Hence we « o 244a2=3(b*—0"), a quadratic which gives =e of bls 8. To tion of a stral, or lb when it rests in ar - id one end upon & prop, E the Earth, and the Fig: 6, Pig, 6 FLUXIONS. prop, AB th beam which touches the wall at B, pact eth at P, Let C be the centre of ity of the beam. P draw the DE, and draw CD perpendicular to DE. Put PE=a, CB=, these are given quantities ; also, put eh ee ust . ig similar ah peBC : DE:: PC: PD; that is, b:a+ax::/(a*+y*): 2; Hence, : (ata? (4 y) =P, and taking the fluxions, phere Be he (a2) (28-49%) + (+2)? (=+y fae. Because y is a maximum, dy =o, therefore this last equation may be abbreviated to (e+2) (2° +9") +2(a+2)=h2. When we have elimi z*4y*, by this and the first equation, we (a+-z)i=a b*, Hence -z is determined. In this example, as well as in some others, for the sake of brevity, we have assumed the possibility of the uantity y having a maximum, as it 1s sufficiently in- dicated by the nature of the question. For, P the of su to be between, C and if B, the end of FE in. esploving this theory, we have only con-« sidered functions of a single variable quantity. When Ww = 3 S ll 4 pet ry plete ag Fonctions Analytiques, No. 160; to ix’s Traite du Caleul Differentiel, Vol. 1. Method of Tangents 67. Let CPD be any curve referred to an axis AB, (Fig. 8.) and let PQ, P’Q’ be two consecutive ordi- hates, and AQ, AQ’ the corresponding abscissee, A be- value of y corresponding to x+/ ; therefore, d yl? By is PQ st i+ Tasty ggt &e- and 8854 CY BE _PE wy Bvnde aah ES SE FE ete —pE 8 the trigonometrical expression for the tangent of the angle P’PE, or S ; therefore, dy h | &y i? dee 2 tag t & Sup’ now QQ’=A, the increment of x, to be conti- nually diminished ; when Q’ comes to Q, the two pone of intersection P’, P coincide, and the secant P'S becomes PT, a tangent to the curve at P; and as theangle S becomes then the angle T, and A=0, we have tan. angle T =. (1.) The segment TQ of the axis comprehended between PT the tangent, and PQ, the ordinate at the point of contact, is called the sublangent. By trigonometry, _ dy (2.) Hence, in the right angled triangle TPQ, we have tangent PT =v a4tdy*) (3) Draw PN i to the tangent at P, the point of contact, meeting the axis in N ; the line PN is called a Normal to the curve at P; ahd QN, the seg- ment of the axis between the ordinate and normal, is called the Subnormal. By the elements of geometry, the angle QPN is equal to the angle T; now we have found tan. T =SY ; therefore, observing that PQ = y, we have by trigonometry, ms geometry, . Subnormal QN = y. (4) _ Normal PN aty(dst+d y) (8.) 68. We shall now apply these formule to some ex- am; on . Let the curve be a circle, (Fig. 9.) and let A, Fig. 9. igin of the co- one extremity of the diameter, be ordinates; put the radius OA=a ; the equation of the curve isy?=2axr—a2*. Hence, taking the fluxions, 9 gag A888 & and, by formula (2) (Art. 67.) ‘x F9= a= 10 the subtangent ; therefore, OQ: QP :: QP : QT. Ex. 2. Suppose the curve a that A, the vertex of the axis, is the origin SS c0-or. dinates. Let abe the of the axis. The Hence it appears that the su the vertex; and that the meter. Ex. 3. Let the curve be an let O, the centre, be the origin a denote half the , and & half the lesser axis: The equation of curve is a®y?-+-b?2?=a*h*; (Co. x Sections, Sect. VIII.) hence atydy+0?2dz=0, dz is bisected at is half the. para- ellipse ay? = z ‘The general formals for the was investi« gated upon the supposition that the abscissa and subtan- 10.) and Fig. 10. e ~ Spe; (Bly. aL )'atd p, Gr tie es ediaten. to © 422 Diveet gent were on the same side of the ordinate: as in the Fig. 12. Pig. 13. pomeavent Gauieseee we Se uan- tity, we infer that and the eatin es ies sides off the ordinate; So that; Without t positian, TQ="—"", from which it appears, that the subtangent is independent of the conj axis. In the hyperbola, the subtangent may be found by exact- ly the same process. Ex. 4 apogee (Fig. 12.) of which AB is the axis, and AHB ing circle. Let the origin of the co-ordinates be A, the vertex: and let us suppose that the radius of the circle is unity. Put the are AH =v ; then, by the nature of the curve, (see Ericyciom,) «= 1— cos.v, y=v + sin. v ; therefore dz=sin. vudv, dy=dv-+cos.vdv, therefore, dz _ ysin.o a, Y L008. 9) _ ay it awe inn ~=T2 is, POX RO TQ; therefore, QH : QP:: QA: QT. Seog or recreate rethld are 9 F of the generating circle, as was ved in the article Erircycuorp. en Ex. 5. In the logarithmic curve, of which the equa- tion is y = a*, we have dy=a"l.(a)dx=y 1.(a) da, de 1 « dy? Lay 2 em. In this case, the subtangent is a constant quantity. 69. When a curve 2% a polar equa- tion, we may first find the equation of the rectangular i as i ined m Curve Lines, art. 21, and then venient to is y the formule ; but it will be more con- e formule suited to that particular mode of expressing the nature of the curve. of the Let the centre ing radius AP=r, and the variable angle PAB=v, w it makes with the axis AB. We may now res gard the angle v as the i t_ variable qnantity, andAQ=2,QP=y,and AP=ras functionsof that quan- tity. Put ¢ for the angle PTQ ; then because the angle =v— tan. TPA = _“4n..v— tan. ¢ TEA oi -h neers Ae pinta ee (Anrrumeric or Sings, art.26.) But tan. v= ae = 4, and we have found (art. 67.) that tan, i= oh Pa . ey therefore, 44 tan. TPA = 242 94s —sdy. dy” xdatydy™ 14 ue uv y Now, by trigonometry, 2=r cos. v, y=r sin, v; the fluxions, (art. 29. and art. 26. dzx=cos.vudr—r sin. vdv, dy=sin. vdr+rcos.vdv; and hence again, ydz=r cos. v sin. vd rr sin.*v dv, ady=r cos. vsin. vd r+7* cos.*vdv, 2dz=rcos.tvdr—r*cos. v sin. v dv, yd yar sint odr +r*cos.v sin. vd. - therefore, Rule D.) FLUXIONS. Therefore, y ” sevid Sate ridu, adr =rar; oud koche’. Paeeeh tan. TPA = — = var Through A, draw AT’ perpendicular to the ras dius AP meeting the in T’; and the point of contact P, draw PN perpendicular to the tan- gent, meeting T’A in N; We may [? as the sublangent and AN as the subnormal. be- cause, in the similar right angled triangles TAP, PAN, rad. : tan. TPA(= 5 ::PA(=r): AT’:: NA: PA, therefore. subtangent AT =—S' 5, (7) ' subnormal AN= = (aye ores v Ex. Let the curve be the spi 70. In some curves, the distance between the ori- gin of the co-ordinates and the point in which the tan- pt dpe cn bseghprawhgere he | issa x is infinite, that distance becomes P SN Te aan. aur eel axis at a finite distance from the origin: It is then an Gi, % (Fig. 8) the abscissa AQ =< be subtracted, Fig. & the remainder eyo is the general expression for TA, the distance of the intersection of the tangent and axis from the origin’of the co-ordinates. If when < is infinite this expression is finite, we may conclude ‘that the curve has asymptotes, but if it be infinite, then the curve has no asymptote. Ex. 1. The equation of the hyperbola(Conrc Sections,. Sect. VIII.) is a? y? = 4? x*—a? b?, the origin of the co- ordinates being at the centre; in this case, atydy= xdx, and dz _ ay? _x—a? a y= prs : totes, which through A Ex. 2. The equation of the parabola is y*=a x, hence a2 ymax; when z is infinite, this quantity becomes infinite ; therefore the curve has no The method of tangents i i tigues, Lagrange; Traite du Calcul Di i i, Lacroix; A Treatise of Fluxions, arma Analyse OE FLUXIONS. Direct Infiniment petits, L’Hopital; and in most works _ Method. Asa coaae expressly of the fluxional or differential Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Of the Fluxions of the Area and the Arc of a Curve. 71. In any curve, we may consider 2, one of the co- ordinates, as an dent variable tity, and then the other, also the area, the arc, aid avaey ob area CEQP, and it as a function of x, let s=f (x); then the area CEQ’P’ will be f(z+A) ; and ee oe will be the in- crement of s, ing to h increment of 2. Let P’F, the increment of y, be denoted by 4. The curvilineal is less the rect- GQ’=( y+), but than the es PO my be theceteney ie wil equal to (y+k')h, k’ ing a ity between 0 and & Hence, f(x-+4)— S@=Cyt¥ and Let —Se) =yt+e. now / to decrease continually, then k and ’ continually, and the limit of the ratio S@+H—IE) will be y; therefore, the fluxional ratio d {re} ord! a2,°. ds = ¥y, art, 23. and hence ds=ydz (1) From which it that the fluxion of a curvilineal Pp. a ordinate multiplied by the fluxion of 72. When the nature of the curve is by a polar equation pie. ap eprdaen high cay apreecd position, which meets the curve in C, and A a given point in that line, round which the variable radius AP revolves. Draw another radius AP’, so that all inter. mediate radii may form with them an increasing or a de- ing series of quantities, and on A as a centre de- scribe the circular ares PG, P*F. Put PA=r, the an- gle PAC=», and the curvilineal space ACP=s; and Gre Or peel dg Put A for the angle PAP”, the increment of v.. employing the usual notation s=CPA=f(v), and area CP’A=/(v-+h), therefore area PAP’= OF Se). Put =P’G, the increment of 7, then’ the arc =rh, the arc P’F=(r—A)h, the sector APG=} r*h, the sec- tor AP’F=}(r—k)*h. Now the curvilineal space PAP’, is less than the sector APG, but greater than the sector AP’F ; therefore it will beequabto 4(r—¥’ }*h; supposing / some quantity greater than 0, and less hk; hence seashore yh, and f a bet ROAD SO) — irk: 423 as h decreases, k and k’ decrease, so that the limit of the expression for the ratio is }7?; therefore ; a ONE ae ea 23,) and dv dv ds=}eede * (2) Hence it appears, that the fluxion of the curvilineal sector CAP + is half the product of the square of the revolvi: with the ficed axis AC, 73. Archimedes, and all geometers since his time, have admitted as an axiom, that if two lines of any kind have the same extremities, and their concavities turned both. the same way, the shorter of the two is that which is in the apane bounded by the other line, and the straight line which joins their common extremities. Hence it follows, that an arc of a curve, which has its concavity turned all one way, is greater than its chord, but less than the sum of two tangents drawn at the extremities of the are. Proceeding from this principle, we may de- termine the Limits of the ratios of the arc, the c , and the sum of the two ts to one another, su the arc to be diminished indefinitely, as follows : Direct Method. Oo . radius r, and the fluxion of the angle it makes ° In Fig. 16. let ADB be any arc of'a curve, AB=c the Fig, 16 chord ; AC=d, and BC=a, the tangents at its extremi- 3 A a sin. A 6 ties. By trigonometry, — = an, (AqBY and >= sin. B a+b _ sin, A + sin. B in (aE) ee oe aA tap ee sin.A + sin, B=2sin. }(A 4 B)cos.}(A—B), (ArrrHMe~ ric of Sines, art. 12,) and sin, (A4+-B)=2 sin. 4 (A+B) x cos, § (A+B), (art. 13, form. G), therefore a+b _cos. }(A—B) - c ~~ eos, (A+B) the ; roped ae yadhg the aha int ing to A; angles _A-and.B wil imenifestly both arene and they co become less than any ay aoe angles whatever ; therefore A—B, and A+B, proach continually to 0; and cos. }(A—B), and cos. 3(A +B), h to 1, which is their common limit. Hence the limit of the ratio of a+ to c is the ratio of 1 to 1, that is, a ratio of - lity ; and as the are ADB is always.of an initevinedixts itude between a+4 and c, much'more is the limit of the ratio.of the are to the chord, also the limit of its ratio to the sum of the ts a ratio of equali 74. In the curve CPD, (Fig. 17.) let PQ, two ordinates dicular to the axis AB; and su pose that the intermediate ordinates go on colstiandally increasing, or else decreasing. Draw the tangents P P’H’, meeting the ordinates-in H and HM’. The are PP’ is less than one of the two PH, P’H’, but than the other; for draw the chord PP’, and let tangents PH, P’H’ meet in I, then because, from the nature of the figure, P’H’, one of the tangents, must make a acute angle with the ordinates than the chord makes with them, it will be less than: the chord, and therefore it will be less than the are, And again, because the acute angle, which the other tangent PH makes with the ordinates, is less than the acute. angle made by P’H’, the line HI must be greater than P’I, and HP greater than P’I+-IP, and therefore HP must be greater than the arc P’P, ‘ous ence also it is-easy to infer, that the limit of the ra- "tio of an arc to its chord is a ratio of equality. ‘For the lines PH, P’H'’, are manifestly to one another as the PQ! be Fig. 17- 424 Direct cosecants of Prcke dnciinstions te the cnlleete PR: CTS- Methed- Gonomerny) ; but as the —\~" inclination of the line P’ Fig. 17. Fig. 15. Poel and at last the two lines coincide of the ratio of PH PH ma matio of equality, rar oa the chord and are are of an intermediate be- tween PH and P’H’, the limit of their ratio must also be that of equality. 75. Genes i A to hea arigih of he. xestenguie: in then, because the arc PP’, and the line PK, are corre- sponding increments of = and 2, the expression for the fluxional ratio $= will be equal to the limit to which the fraction "1?" approaches, when QQ’=PK, the increment of x, is diminished indefinitely, (art. 23.) Now we have seen, that the arc PP” is of an intermediate magnitude between the lines PH, P’H’, which touch the curve at P and P’; therefore the pai fastege of an intermediate magnitude between these PH’ But we have seen, (art. 74.) that two, => PK, and Se when P’ to P, the ratio of P’H’ to PH ap- proaches to» ratio of equality ; therefore the limit of ea will ey! and eonsequently the limit of PK’ a spp’ PH a? = PH PK ill also be —.— 7K" Hence we have =~ = 7K" And since, by trigonometry, Fe = secant of the angle HPK=,/(1-+tan2 HPK), a by art. 67, formula (1), tan, HPK = $2 therefore 72 = (1455), and hence again de=y/(ds*4dy?) (1.) From which that the square of the fosion of the ar, isthe sumo) the aguarer of Ufone of the rectangular co-ordinates. 76. In the case of curves expressed | a tion, (Fig. 15,) patente rey M4 he bp ng which the radius AP=r revolves put» forthe variable angle which r makes with AB, a given by position pas- sing A; and the Gite tobe aude re- ferred to this line as an axis rectangular co-ordinates, Fy origin at A, so that AQ=« and QP=y, z=rcos.v, y=r sin. v, pce eer gh aig bed =—ydu+ (i-z) + (75-Ts) a+ & This ought to be true Sonsevenprveioe of h Widlbhets than But h to the first of these y’—w, or, jecting the quantities that toatl cach othe) Lae at doy \ h3 + Ae & —as)et+( cay an m du uy “a i. Te) Sea act Now this cannot hold true, unless 22 — — 7 =0,and also 4 S% 0; for, were this not the case, k ponsrngtrs Retire de, pedicels amount of the first of these two be iy He ae iF te] | BEE 25° in Th oF Yawk the ‘rine cliteetin, bene tae Nye povee of A. Er owerte, i u dye and ——~ iam = 7,2? then, that the third curve re Mra seein se oe | requisite that d3v da Za) +e: 2 (Topiges ailalle which is certainly possible. : 88, In general, if there becuny: carve » Seen re ee ee it, which requires that their re es 9 the same abscissa should be equal ; ‘then, ff the first EE ——. = SS Regrets te Fig. 8, FLUXIONS. spectively equal to the first and second fluxions of the enced smh to the two curves, and.so on of the ya hn only coincide in the point two. curves in in which their ordinates are equal ; el theoiatennt the different orders of fluxions merely shews, that no ee Be! i i i i : e i F i i i i i (Art. 67.) 84. Asan illustration of this origin common abscissa. Let AQ =2; and PQ (takenas any ordinate of the curve C D) = y, also PQ _ordinate of the strai line TP) tangent of =t; then straight line PT is evidently u=t¢ (a4+7)=—ta+tx; hence, as a and are constant, we have, for every point in the straight line TP dvZta<; md *’=t. As be- dz sides the straight line and curve having a common point at P, which is expressed by the equation v = y, we farther suppose the nature of the contact to be ‘ with what we found in art. 67, formula (1), and thence the subtangent TQ may be determined, as was there . being thus ined, it is i , let Put AS=a’ ; tangent of angle S=t’; PQ poli — es : eek = consider- ed stan oninate of PS) = then the equation of the line PS isu =¢' (a’ +2), and hence 5 = ’: Now, in order that the line PS may between the curve and the straight line PT, it ought t i iti moe dam dz (#tt- 81.): hence we must have t’/=#, that is the nt of the angles PTA, and PSA must be cdiiedde + ‘Thos the like is aean eaniten oh . a \e. to the strictest ion of the term. 85. Let us now consider the contact of a circle and 427 any curve ; let the.circle EPF meet the curve CPD in the point P, (Fig. 22.) that AB is their com- mon axis, and A the origin of the common abscissa F AQ =z; then put y= PQ, considered as an ordinate of the curve CPD ; and v=PQ, considered as an ordinate of the circle EPF. Let H be the centre of the circle ; draw the radius HP, and draw HI, HK perpendicular to PQ and AB. Putr= PH, p= AK, q = HK, so that - p meg are the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle, then HI = p— wx, and PI= v—q; andsince, from the nature of the circle, PH? = PI? + HI ; therefore _ (p22)? + (v —q)? =r Q.) First let us suppose that the kind of contact is such as is indicated by the equality of the first fluxions of di d the ordinates ; so that 77 = 7 The preceding equa- tion, in which p,q and r are to be considered as con- stant quantities, andy as a function of 2, gives us —2 ars + 2(v—g)dv= 0, and hence ' v dv _p—< - pat pare 2.) p—*_ HI_ QN_ QN. dv_QN. ea g EET Bg ing MO BE 7 and #2 y= QN; and since by hypothesis, v= y and dv dy d : . dsm ds therefore Ay = QN. But this expression for QN is identical with that given in art. 67, for the subnormal of a curve; therefore QN is the subnormal, and uently the centres of all circles, which have the kind of contact we are considering, are in.a normal to the curve at the common point P. When a circle has this kind of contact with a curve, no other circle of an equal radius, but whose centre is bg: of the normal, can Mey son it mnie 7 or, su ing it ible, let p’ an e co-ordi« nates of the centre of thie Weds eck: and wu its ordi-« nate to the abscissa x; then, in like manner, as in the former circle, we have found " dv_p—« p—« we Dears Sf ( yy in the other circle, we must similarly have du p—r a= . * vi{r—w—y} And as upon the esis that this last circle passes between the other circle and the curve, we ought to ve (art. 81.) therefore ed Phage ane ON SET | Fee v{r——ay fv {r—w—2)'t This tion gives , from which it follows, «that dimadan teh soabane have their ‘centres at the same point, and therefore are identical. The kind of contact which we have been consider- ing, which is to the contact of a strai. line and curve, may be called a contact of the first order. 86. Let us next suppose the curve and circle to have a closer degree of contact, so that not only is y=v, an dz~ dz’ dz ~ dz** From the second equation of last article we find Direct Method. ig. 22. Direct Methed. —— 428 FLUXIONS. P - Slteoes +6 ‘ad given pedi eos 29 cates g may bord ds (o—)" ae cxprtaned by 6 eeee eaeeeeenee ceo nee instead of dv wubstitute its value £—— dx, a8 given by parr strnpregdine! hen! Trae fata be assianteaby the, segs ‘equation, .and soxeover, pidion yor soesne of ie two-sgguetioiag mid Ug rseale wl! be sn * + (e—9)" as given equation, ation involving ind known quantities, Or dak dividing by 4% we get which will be an Sten or tos local of ths eoaire of deo r the circle of curvature. aoe de @—9 oa Festa (A) Of test artis nage bea i i i 1) and (2) in dius of curvature, when the nature o curve: hiegge senate ng eatin OT the Laden trae oan of the rectangular co-ordi- do_d lastly, ates: But let us now suppose, that its nature is de- circle, but as we suppose v=y and 5 = 5%, and y aed Wy it SOROS Si ee ee AE= perpendicu from T= = $4, the same three equations relatively to the axis B cient a ella ta? balk Ore BAE =u, ds dss which that perpendicular makes with the axis (Fig.18.) Fig. 18. curve ‘CPD ‘will stand thus: ! Draw the normal PN, and let 2 and y be the rectan- (p—#? + (y—9)'=" () gular co-ordinates of the point P, ‘The angle at N=w 5% ae’? meee (2) 7 neni" SOR ee eee a es vt (3) ‘tangent makes, with the axis; hence 5% = cot. u (for im (gana ; é , the é ey os ; Food he tek util eStansd a Chins Sehltitiig we Sell Spee (1), OTs) Se OR ape ate eee rd (4) and y as functions of x, 2 nt “5. re it gen weet =: Mit (4x'-+-d9") (art, $4.) but cosee:* w= 1 + cotant v= 22 hI" -1= = (5) therefore dxd*y= —du (de +dy)=—dudz 1 teat aye ja ( ing read Seri that d2*= and again, from . and equation (3), da4dy, art. 75.) and since by formula (A), last art dtd + pgrottieyben cn hay be ae | vt a. (A) = — Geter) 2 ES y therefore, = This value of r being substituted in equations (4) and 2M Bi ot Sue Vy ee eee (5), pS cae these results r= (A’). csdsthees + Pa =" . . ae =s—dy——, B hav ; for the radius BEE Fe PD got Soret ae aadnc abcess te anarae +°9 fuuxion of the arc divided by the fluxion of the angle WY Fendgit pi eR acy: Redbone nerd The three constant quantities p, q, r, which enter into “And as we have found (art, 77.) that dz=pdu the general equation of a circle, being thus determined, d? p it may be concluded that no other circle can be- ee therefore : — tween Sy Sp eer ok gy is panto y few a &p n values » Gy Ts or it ible, let u = a *\. 53 cudiinate in thét'cihde ittle caeieaondling 40 thie Bie = Pt Te (a) scissa 2, 7’ its radius, and p’, a the co-ordinates of its centre ; then its equation w be p—#)* + (u—q')* = 12, Now, that on! cincke Aspe ts between the curve and the other circle, it is necessary that u=y, fe = a ot = a - But these being the very same conditions they will give the same values for p’, q’, r’, as we have found for must coincide, ! osculating circle ; also the circle of curvature, because it serves to measure the curvature of the curve, The quantity r, the radius of the circle, is called the radius of curvature. 87. The centre of the circle of curvature being dif- ferent for different points of a curve, there is a certain line LM, belonging to the curve, which is the locus of all the centres. Th uantities p,q are manifestly co- ordinates to any point H of this locus, and its nature is Pid : This is the expression for r which we proposed to in- vestigate, t : 89. We shall now shew the application of the for- mulz we have found for the radius of curvature. Ex. 1. Let the curve be a parabola (Fig. 23.) and Fig. 28. let A, the vertex of the axis AB, be the of the co-ordinates AQ = 2, and QP =y. Let a be the pa- rameter of the axis, eat noe apse sate ; Pw heer Peer =ax, hence =at«t, ndd =f and d?y= Rei dying A rh RATE Nah | ata? - ‘ada 2" Pherefore, di? of: dot alate ae at ore, + ce ha haw ) pi det pay (a 40) ro dad*y * Tiae ave “mn Ifx = 0, then r= 4a; this is the radius of curyature at the vertex. 7? wih in velar : As an example of the application of the third formula for the radii OF COLYER let 7 again take the para- "a: _ Direct - Method. FLUXIONS. bola, and let F be the focus, and FE a perpendicular to the PE. Draw a straight line from E to A, the vertex of the axis; then AE is a tangent at the’ 3 pee me aan Sect. IV. Prop. 14. cor. 1,) and there- ore FAE is a right FE =p, and the angle AFE = u, and observing that AF = } parameter = }. a, we have for the equation of _ the curve ~ . a= P= Teo. And taking the fluxions, by art. 30. and art. 26, ing that p is a function of u, dp__asin.u dip _ (costu+2sin.tu)a du” 4costu due ~~ 4cosiu : Therefore, by formula (A”), art. 88. d 2(cos.? u+-sin.? u)a 19-4 T= 4 cos.3 u observ- @ . 2cos3 u’” Ex. 2. Let the curve be any one of the conic sections. Ti Ae cogin. Ade cove tostes be taken stone srire- pri ys the equation Hence we find, Sala canoe _dy= fneenis, fay+ (m+4+2n2)? i dx* 4y* A fa( me 4 nat) +(m +2n2)} dst = ¥ 7 > Qnydx2—(m+2nx)dxdy _ : 2y" a axis, their nature may be expres- d at4dy* = dy= 4 {any — (m 4 2n2) } dt 4¥ Hence, from formula (A), we get 3 {ast (m-p2enay} ca ny—Z (M4 2nz and substituting for y? its value, ; F a¢mix-t-ns*) +-(m-42n2)*} r= . : 2m* By giving to m and n the values that belong to the different curves, (Conic Sections, Sect. VIII.) this for- mula will give the radius of curvature in each case. 90. It appears from what has been shewn in this section, that the contacts of curve lines may be accord- ing to different orders. The of contact, in which the ordinates, and also their fluxions, are equal, (art. 81.) may be called a contact of the first order ; and when in addition to these, the second fluxions are equal, (art. 82;) itis a contact of the second order ; and so There are curves which, with a given curve, admit only of contacts of a certain order. A straight line, for instance, is only capable of a contact of the first order. A circle may have a contact of the first, and also of the second order, but none higher ; and a curve, whose equation is y=a + br-+c z*+4d2°, is also capable of a con- led triangle. Hence, putting ' angl . Lm second requires three; and so of the higher orders. 429 tact of the third order ; and so on. ‘The degree of con- tact of which a curve is capable, depends upon the num« ber of constant tities to be determined, These may be called the elements of contact. A contact of the first order requires two constant quantities ; a contact of the In an analytical point of view, the contact of a straight line, or of a crcle eth a curve, is not more interesting than the contact of any other curve, unless on account of these curves being more elementary. The circle of curvature is, however, interesting, because of the sim- le geometrical expression it gives for the measure of a leflecting force. (Principia, lib. i. prop. vi. See also. Physical Astronomy, chap. i). 91. The first formula which we have given for the radius of curvature, (art. 86,) has been investigated upon the hypothesis, the curve is concave towards the axis. In this case, 4 is a negative quantity ; and hence the sign of the expression for r is negative. If the curve had convex towards the axis, pe the sign of 7“, and of the expression for r, would have been positive. Upon the first h esis, 7 comes out a positive quantity in the applications of the formula, as in the examples we have given ; but when the curve is convex towards the axis, it has a negative value. Of the Evolutes of Curves.. 92. Let LHM be a curve of any kind, (Fig. 24.) and let us suppose that a thread, fastened to the curve at some point beyond M, is. drawn tight, and applied upon it, so as to have the position CLOM ; that thismay be done, the curve may be conceived to be the common section of a plane, and some solid rising a little above it, round which the thread is wound. Suppose now, that while the thread is tight, it’ is ually un- from the curve. hile the portion between L and H is unwinding, its extremity, P will describeu the plane some line CP, and the process of unwinding being continued, a curve CPD will be generated, the nature of which will depend on the mode of its genera- tion, and the ies of the other curve L The curve along which the thread is wrapped, is eal- led the Evolute of the curve, generated by the extremity of the thread ; and, on the other hand, the latter curve is called the Involute of the former. Our present object is to shew, how the evolute of any proposed’ D: generated may be found. may immediately draw these three 93, From the manner in which a curve is from its evolute, we conclusions : 1. The to of the thread PH, which is disenga- ged from. the evolute, is a tangent to it at H. 2. The straight line PH, is equal to the are CH of the evolute. 3. Any tangent to the evolute, is a normal to the curve. In fact, any point H of the evoltte may be con- sidered as a momen centre; and the line HP ‘as the radius of a circle which the point P is describing, when the point of contact of the tangent’and curve is at H. It is from this last property, that we propose to deduce a solution of our prow ? Let AB be a common axis to the two curves, and let the normal PH produced meet the axis in N. Let P’H'N’ be another position of the normal, mecting the Direct Method. Fig. 2h. Conceive now the point P’ to approach P, then O will to H, and ‘ine OG SiN in mag- nitude to HP=r, which will be its limit ; ee tion to which OG is equal, will approach to POP haw art. 73.) Hence, remarking that the arc PP’, and the <' P', are the corresponding increments of and x, and passing to the limits, we have (art. 23% = r. Bat this value of r, is the very expression have found for the radius of curvature, (formula (A’), art. 88.) Therefore, ris the radius of curvature, at P ; tre of the circle of curvature ; and the evolute LOM is the locus of the centre of that circle Hence, if AQ=a, pact be the co-ordinates of P, any point in the curve PD, and AK=p, and KH=q, the tes of H, the corresponding point in the evolute, by art. 86. formule (B), (C), its equation will be, dy. dattdyt) 5 datpdyt P= — ds a =9 t dy For example, if the curve CPD be a parabola, van putting a for the parameter, in this case y*=a 2; and hence, dy=H*, doa > — ans Me: p=3r+ 4a, I=——’ As 9 comes out negative, the parabolic arc kd its delaioticien sides of the axis. Moreover, since ay om = amma (4 ne | “1\iayse x, we easily find, 27 a q'=16(p—}a)s. to the semicubical parabola. _, evolutes, one of the most, elegant ath in hie Hovolog: , who hand- in F Fe a F Ee nt j F | i ‘t eg i 8 E I FLUXIONS. in eunerianny ahethdeaen eager: to: fatiis , Fe ree Tan oak cera onc griele Svea 7 oF changing the Independent Fri oni 95. We have all along supposed z to manner whatever, and estimated the ceo 2 ey place in y, any function of 2, by it to the ay tan pee Son SD t variable quantity. It is sometimes at tin ecmapehiot ate he hypothesis, and pass oy being a imation of , to that pepe, netion ire em aa upon the quantity that is regarded as the i variable, Thus ‘'ar€°@7, we have fouhd, if s de- note the eub-tangent SESCEYG 0d 8/408 MANERA dinates, then «== y ; and thisis true, whether y be con- Giclee ay & Palio A 9 ee: From this expression, regarding Fanchiong ? (oo tak Ue Wemmetanet nant? ite we Rea say) = dz— sie nit If, however, we sie z as functions of y, og asdy must be now constant, we have ded. 27%, an expression quite different from the former. We are now to inves ah sacri by be pra eg Aca =o ), and let tae whats ), us su} it w az bes en y becomes spins Taylor's theo- pa oY Bg SY det at & SY Rtk. (1) But %, us now sup} that from the equation y=f(@), we deduce z=F( (9); 00-that w ton finctioe of eas she rpee rkt dz : hah ge dp Dt ayiagt® . @) Let the value of 4, as -the first ion, be substituted in the secon ; and, witha view to abridge, let us put > ' dy dy. da y for, ee also for 7, dry. , &e. and we dy’ hav hty Sty” nt &e.) acs tye ty" + &e.)* + yh sy ety" E+ 8c) 48. oferta nate Ox(e ¥—Ihb (ely! hatySe aly" Baty! ype yf) $8. comes Pak rem, -- x" for —— FLUXIONS. Direct Now, as / is altogether independent of 2’, x", &ec. y’, — ys Cenc ie operate 8 e-porala shee Uo wah ee =0, a y—1=0, 2! y"+2x" y?=0, a a! yf" £3 2" yy +2" y'=0, Ke. from which equations, we get » Pe eee ae a= 5: r 72? 15 y's loy’y” y" 27 = ? id y¥* ¥° 97. i ig he fri re ee Bas Py ‘=— Cree sb + 0g a as the in 6 - Now, to shew bo ae cn faclc orentinnteh last. sa be sone nn ei inte Re a a ns a a Now, b sieameiaie pis from they pothetis of y, ction of 2, to, that of 2, a function of ro Ys wemust make y= » and y= — =, This. sub- stitution being made, Oe ra Ot ij? _ = (dm pay’) ae dyd*z The ea hae expensing moter, by substituting 5 for :', and 7 for 98. totes 9a bsedeth hte tas y (a function of z) as functions of'some third quantity 3. and in this view of the matter, neither the fluxions of "gle x nor y can be considered as constant. For example, in mechanics, we may consider x and y, the co-ordinates of the path of & projectile, as functiotse of /, the time of the motion. Let us suppose, that when ¢ becomes ¢4i, then z be- bes rota. ke lh dl and to abridge, let a woes by x, 2 a", &e. ty AY web fe, SE, Be. by (yo (y" wie Then, by Taylor’s theorem, y= (2) gives b=(Vh+(¥") ote y=F (@) givesk = yi +y" Sp ke. = ¢ (f) givesho rig 2” £8, "we first devel 431 Achaea of ee et a of , these three ie of t, “ > must_all. hold true at once. Therefore, by the value of h, as gi seo ew gwen reg ton in the fs, and then” putting th two values of & equal to each other, mas (y’) {ritertyec} 7 5 oe? fa fame tro or = 46. Hence, finding the second power, of the sas al pig the co-efficients a0 wha of i=0, «(y)=y> Hr) 9°") =y"’, &e. therefore, (y)=4,,(y”)= £2) ge 99. Let us again take the formula for the radius of curvature, as an example, which, when expressed in conformity to notation of | "last | ieticle, will be 1 me ta Si By substituting for (y) and (y”) ae % igen a and re- d * we find to be taken relatively not indeed appear in the to a quantity ¢, which does ‘must be kept in view.. formula, but, ey it pete me Fluxions + Functions, which contain two Inde« ‘ariable Quantities. t Variable Ste eilipandiaiida tcl only functions of a” variable quantity ; and this is the most commion ’ case ; but a function may involve two or more variable feat toa awe quite 9 dyer other, we su int on surface of a fn geet we spon ny es perpendicular to each eer which pass avagt i its centre, and put 2, y, z, for the co-ordinates of that point, and a for the radius ; the equation of the surface is x*-.y¢4-2*=a}, (Curve Lines.) Here each of the quantities x, y, 2, ‘may be say eapeeaap een of the other two, w may of one another. tet u be any function whatever of two independent le quantities x,y; or, re the notation of boriprs let-u=/ (x,y) ; = pnd & values, 80 that x bee comes and again, in conseqi (eh) it becomes f(2-+h, y + ees - supposing x , h, > y constant, an st datlteard tar asc peters ment yk for y, Gene have the complete rh, y+k). we may reverse instead of x ; arrive at the same final at once #+h for x, and y-+4 ee Sy 1 ee 3 am a. hs In this st Liteon ar leis «, DOTS: aE Seeds annalaeniaian become y + 4; by which fis }hyg) meommen hte thy got ty the dons plotealy pag = ns oe ke bu et ue of y, u wt Tit oe ay 3 tay ast by cither result, as if we wereto substitute [ang Oe functions. of these methods, ‘du\ dz} ke dy 2° Lae d(7*) But it is easy to see, that the expression dz! indi« cotes, chit Ua Bald of w fr Go'be taken twine ist rs- Lesintly,eo-4; siding ional, Vhanihdlositelyto:g $ it may au therefore be more simply wrieen thus, sae a4 ot like manner, _-——+, ee Pe which means thit ‘the fluxion of w is to be taken once relatively to 2, and twice relative. ly to y, nay be written thus 7. ® Sik afciomoel d*+™u : A in geeyl, [das Om mapas Se Deennl cocci, ot the wih onder of the Sancta 22%, in which y alae decmiiierel = fon ambi geietty eal apta "u ‘Ty means the fluxional coefficient of the mth order, hase ete tanya bing undertod, whet y becomes y +4, then * bes coms , i+ yeas tapas and ™ becomes leben tat ayaa! + aganza + and so on for, &e, ; ' : These values of i ap wan 8 * To exemplify this motation, let use 2%y%, then ee saty'; a = = l2zy, &c. FLUXIONS. 4 Peek da. a Sf a a. necceemaaeantt | ue reas wt tt ay et, ra ate Hint apa apa “dtu Ie ke tide & irre is + &. : a. + Te a t “ 4p hee, | Thin the cmp drlpemet he new alae the function a. 101. Pape pr eer a remain the same, melee +h} au kb Bu B ‘ “4G tape tapas A Here + enters ito the fonctions i, &e. as a con- stant 3 but wramntless ey value, and necro then « will become du du ht} AD sow] * hag t tae GUS Also, (employing the same mode of notation as in the other ten gore a. will become “a “y ye woe Bu he Peay ee . at iaay" taedy 2 2 + he ua age Tice ro i du ae 7 + asig asap & 2 FH he. | and soon for > &e, Pharr being substituted i in 15 Saaamnaepe FS (a ER) “eared tos @u eet: hi ee Mi catriaait 2) a3 + the fmetion * 102. If we com in these two sore the nth ot , we terms which contain the same ee fs u > shall find this series of equations, ase Gedy’ Gu: ; antag a*tmu dyda = ardy mine Ta = Tedy =6 an ae Oa sh 53 = OP apt ' Direct Method. FLUXIONS The first of these equations shews, that the fluxional coeffi- cient of the second order of a function, containing two vari- . waa sean kent a ively to the one, and then re~ other, is the very same, in whatever order we proceed in finding the fluxions. This isan important theorem in the calculus. To exemplify this property, let a=x* y®, then, taking the fluxion in respect of «, we find <* = ma" y* 5 and again, taking the fluxion in re- spect of yy oo = mn st yet. By proceeding in the contrary order, we find pane! and peed rans ia = mn) y—", the same result as before. ' The other equations given above are merely conse- quences of the first. 5 " 103. As, by the transition ofa single variable quan- tity from one state of magnitude to another, there ori- ginates from any function of that quantity a series of other functions, which are denominated its fluxional coefficients, (Art. 23. and 41.); a function of two in- variable ities must have an analogous oP single vertable aaa care 5 Sith ‘that tion of a single uantity (Art. 52.) wi of a taco of two fidepenklent variable quantities 24h, u any function of 2, becomes w + ote +> + &e. 5 t quantities z and y, when « becomes x-+-h, and y becomes y 4%; then w becomes w ~h + du, , @ul? , du Pu ke Sprit ae Nady Ot ay Tt ble thé flation of « is indi s ing its fluxiona coeficient by d 2, the Sahel fer te fluxion of z,) so that the fluxion of the function may frese the sane quantity 2, which will be expressed by 7. d, and the other derived from y, which must in ial fluxions of the function ; and, in the language Daumrnememnensae! Sipornire The sum of the par- tial fluxions, viz. T= dx + ig jis the whole fluxion of u considered as a ;, re: VOL. IX. PART I. the of and in the latter, u being a function of the. 433 When wu is a function of x only, instead of ge dx, it is usual to write simply du, because, when there is only one variable quantity, the symbol dw can have but one meaning; but when there are two variable pega it is to indicate. what part of the whole fluxion results from each ; which is con- veniently done by writing the fluxional coefficients du\ {du - thus, (7): (F ), as was done by Euler, or more sim- ply thus, hd 7y , as is now the common practice. 104. As examples of functions of two independent variable quantities, 1. Let «=x + y, then du=da + dy. 2. Let u=ary; ot =y, and da = yds, paz Gy d= Hay, therefore du=y det vdy. , 8. Let w=, then ¥o 1 @¥_ = aug, y dz y dy yx dz dx du ady dx «dy == 5 dy=——;} ; hence, du= —— — LG soi d y yon yi. yheorsdy. In these examples, we have evidently got the same results as if x and y had been functions of some third quantity ¢, (Art. 29. and 30.) Indeed this ought to be the case, seeing that the fluxion of w can- not be affected by the circumstance of y being a func- tion of x, unless the particular form of the function be 105. From the first fluxion of u, a function of the in- dependent variable quantities « and y, we find its se« r F du du cond fluxion thus ; because BS ae ay det, eM therefore ®und (Fae) +4 (Hay); but, ems y 7 2 #*) dat u u u * dyads dxdy;andd dy) = Tody Cte Tye 19 here dz and dy wre considered as constant. F Bu @u Therefore, observing that tte Sade. we have (Art.102.) Thus we see, that the ny Serer pind bet rN or- ee fluxions of the sec dest third, and higher fluxions of u, may be found in the same manner. ori funetions which contain two independent variab we might proceed tain dues Suppang’y to be a function of the three i variable quantities x, y, z, it. will have three partial fluxional coefficients, one relative to .r, to such as con- . which may be expressed by the symbol £"; another re- lative to y, which will be 5 and a third relative to z, Sr Direct Method. - 484 Stethen whose sum Sede + dy + 7.4% is the complete Guxion of w. Our limits, however, will not permit us to enter farther into this branch of the : besides, it is easy to extend what has been ly shewn, to functions of any number of quantities. Application of Infinitesimals to Fluxions. 107. The colshated Lelhadts Gatuten hie thecry of the differential calculus upon the doctrine of infinitel 4 little quantities, To this. method it has been obj that the notion of infinitely goer bee ie tint fy) to form the foundation of a mathematica theory, and on this account it has been laid aside by late writers, in establishing the principles of the calculus. It must be confessed, however, that this view of the subject gives readily all the rules for the calculus, and affords a great ed. facility in its applications to geometry and mechanics, particularly in questions of an intricate nature. On this account it is 2 and, besiiene we a: 8 that in the developements of the mee a Tine selve tion, all the Tomeglected, that were hi to find ime pei mca having deel the proc MORSE SIRS Ral ction xy, ‘E eg en rept of tev nitely less any_ then dad y tonat be lntinitely less than dy or dx, == then (See By substituting now 2°, ,.md 22d 2x instead of dy, in the formula’ d(2 (ey) fedy ty de, we get d( (2) = 25 Free inakseny; e fl vfluxions. of the high With regard to fluxions, of her orders, his, theory required that-fluxions, ‘or second respect to those of the first order ; and therefore as ho- with the squares of these last. Hence,, to Lag gp deri his her differentials, it was only ne- we to find iginiageee be » other any sinligaea telat * resolved, is far Sion, The ary quantity represented by 1, tials of the | , should be considered as infinitely little in _. indicate thé pian aie Fact FLUXIONS. Thas, $Y will manifestly be the trigonometrical tangent of the angle which a tangent to Whe’ curve makes with the axis, and consequently § Also, y dx will be the i increment, or dif- tere of the sheet ad, ie re led hav Vide )= ee an, » we e = ap Sy for the differential e ae ” 110. Al Lalbnite’s view of the oi led to correct results, dil ot scze the tr oA method. He coghe be here vena beter rejecting certain quantities, definitely small, when com i retain The trath was, Cupiic Wine eee jected, STs (Riet ay Catton! ifan hog On small Mra Ce i ae SECTION Ill. Or rue Inverse Metuop or Fivxions. 11. Tue I Method of malt aun Inverse a ic anes ap fluent of ;in« he cena —— are itis carr to ’ lation ofthe to the sittin con ee ramet amy 744 ubeta a ee the.direct ames. quantities are aseaee =e of any flaxion, we | employ character ” the i et ee ge ee toe to consi differentials as new, variable Pe aid? by 5 whi had themselves, differentials. opted \generally by foreign, British = 3 ofa snare ar ai te, meri d ates | a. terms “were of an to iy wi jon a2” wis ~ cals Raieiecierae led.a fluent, is: “tree the fg, tity is i inate omnis it aed ca from which it is to des vo dg dz; then, cor, ving pig 2 ae | ay Be and, z | ee Oey called Ji nimnanl PH kirk hy ) that “in?a such as are cons, 5° . esares Pines ah Ne ad ~ sey ahd asa tile wih? wilt * ve ye 11s. We function ¢ : ae , FLUXIONS. stant alwa disappear in taking its fluxion ; so that « a variable, and c constant, the fluxions of diced anton expression du. on the contrary, the an any, Ah ony ders the coh cre This constant quantity is common! = by writers on Fluxions, the Correction of the 114. By reversing the principal rules-of the direct wethod We find as many for the inverse method. I. The fluent at agg consisting of several terms, isthe sum of the facts of its terms, each r its sign, and coefficient (art. 27.) nog deer ee du, =av—bu+te, for the constant quantity, or eae be ay ag IL. As the fluxion of x* 4+ cisnz"-* dx; (Rule (A Art. 26.) ‘on the contrary, th Ment of 9 = de wi be «* + c; that is, we must increase the exponent by uni~ pS Nnetgd ste “ind divide bythe ‘exponent Az'tl [eet +c As particular examples, SS afar de=— har fen— ate Allee, Siz aavess applies to all fluxions which can be redu- cid bata? Pee Fer eset let the fluxion be ax" dz(b + e2* )™: as the fluxion of 4 + e2* is qreords, We er the first factor a 2"—' dx to this form, dice in ay in the constant factor ne. » putting z = 6 4 e 2", we have < xnexidz(b+ea" =< Sande; , Therefore the fluent is ” eh a . it << ne(m+1) Crear Pinte. The transformation which has introduced + is not abso- me, rer er nae in such a Sieemes may with advan- av focercore baa hie TH. The foregoing rule fails when n=—1, because then fz" diss = 4, an expression of which the first term is infinite ; but this because the fluxion belongs to another kind of It appears from Art. 26, Rule (B), and inore ge- 5 fea Miro 40 meralor is th futon ofthe Spee Me so ong pad — lar denominator. In this 10 the lsent under the orm l(c), fu ci 4 523d x . 435 rule by a eee of its constant factor : thus, Se aur 12 so {h(Se47) 41 (ot =5 1 fo(ss4+7)} IV. We have found, (Art. 29.) that uw and ¢ being any functions of avarable quantity, d(u #)=ud¢-+1d therefore, ut=fudt+fidu and fu dt= ut—ftdu. This manner of expressing a fluent is of great im: ance : waiters oA the, digerenttsl ke pate thud of integrating by parts. As an example, let the fluxion be 1, (aie then, putting dt=d 2x, and w=1. (2), so that d um, we have fi. @draal(2)—2fe. The rule indicated by the formula has the advantage of making the fluent depend upon’ another, which, analytical address, may frequently be more easily sd V. From rule (D), art. 26, if the radius of a circle be unity, we have rp idz va) Sms = are. (cos. =z) 4c. By these expressions are meant the are, of which the Poy pe open Again, from art, 35, SGs= are (tan.=z)-+e. We may also suppose the radius =r, and we shall have = are. (sin, =) +c, rdz Ae apni fe To find the fluent of epbacrstes eam m al pat ols age Resta Spe Therefore, ——— Fa) are (tan. = ¢) is the fluent sought, supposing the radius unity, and dz ‘ JSagie= Tat’ ahs (mises) pe: ee eee er fi. mdz J 7@=by= Ve are Gin. ==) +e, Inverse calculus call it the me- The direct method furnishes other rules, which willbe — noticed in the sequel, Decamposition'of Ratiinat Fractiont: 115, Let it be proposed to’ resolve the fraction ast! y into two others, of which t shall be the Ce rma. teat tl , that the fractions sought. may have the form —*— and > A and B being indeterminate coefficients, which are in« lowers Methed, —y—" minator, and adding, their sum 436 dependent of z, 3B: reducing them to a common deno- i (A+ B)s—(bA +B which, com with the A+B=4, 6A4+¢ B=—/, from katl 2 A=———— B= Hence the practicability of the resolution, and the man- ner of performing it, are shewn. te By redu- cing to a common denominator, we find 4x* + / x 4- m= fa hs LF orate fA? LB ae = — Bd). Hence, of indeterminate coefficients, k=A+C/=B— Ab—2aC,m= atC—Bd. By these nome ceed ay re Faes A, B, and y be determined. Exactly in the same esti tail. Sound, that the fraction ES +lz*+meztn @—a)"e—5) be decomposed, so as to be equivalent to = Azt+Br+C a: bo (2«—e)5 tmb - In general, Jet be an irreducible fraction, such, that the power of = in the mimerator is one less than its highest the denominator, and let v= Le goge past being polynomials which have no common factor, and in sara a ot 8 est powers of x are p and gq. We may assume Aa? * + Ba? 3; Fo a of sae vtech ate reget degree of w exponent 1s —l same as that of U, de seseeunet sie tee fraction : IID and @ at themselves the roduc f two for a aeedite aioe ee, Oates peas an Ss wo prceling n thin was he propa raabe: may be mpd bers ac meee numerators Whatever be the degre ofthe numerator ofthe pierre Vy” by division, it may be brought to a of the fraction thus nee cases. | gon He the: dononsecior ead on eae my ight (Ke Be . x S, we may sup- oo A v= ee eS = rb Meh E aU i Q FLUXIONS. — 4" Examece 1. Let the fraction be — > By the ory gin, (Atanas) be he rt ee =90,. a ore tata — I— ves tea) e—r-—2>= G9 e+) so that we must assume A B 2—42 at—c—2 = 7-2 tT Hence we find A= —2= Band the rope ie 2 2 2—2 ) 240° Ex. 2. se ears fraction A be ope Gur a—x tion = 1 sat — x" ——, by reducing to a common deno- - minator, and putting the numerators equal to one ano-, _ ther, we find 1= Alias +a(B-+ A); here we. must make aR hs 0, and pen arse $ which gives B=A= 3, and Yan) eee ma a?—xt”~ 2u(a+z) / 2a (as) . " eae’ B Ex. 3. Assuming ———~ (a=) = a4 age t ane we have 1 = Aa* +aa2(B+C) 4+2* (C—A—B,) which gives 1= Ae, Bot : Sores 20; La - oe ea) * ‘ wisi geetres - Fd 1 1 é ~ivGts t2e@—a) ett th oc mT At ee so that V=(et+prtqye+prt+”) - we may suppose ip Ac+B C2z+D V-Ptpetg) @+pete += e—xpl oA Be+C OMA yk he ig Tea Ra a Ex. 5. ois eee ee + pat pp we ind A= C=—B= eo : Gaastte If V has real and equal factors, so that V= ’ U Awrt4 Ba P vo" Gm PS. bot tile better t0 pat A B TP Ex'6, Thies" forthe freee 08! thovigh it maybe decomposed into’ + cyt FLUXIONS. 437 “ane a eaieni aks Ai Carty Which gives A = 2, B=—3, C=—E=j, cea? * we have v’=s; therefore also jew. D=—§ it will be better to make the fraction = i —~— : | i. al A B. & D E Inthe fraction ———, U==1, Vza?-ta*; therefore <— er (+1)? + z41 + (c—1)* ma! iar ate “ This expression, by substituting the values of A, B, C> = me 953, when, xoca, 1 becomes.a== 14 and te be~. Selena we rate 1 comes o’ =—2a, therefore, one of the partial fractions 2 2 @pip ~*aq1t Gay test . . mec) = Tas The other is mee: : reap dig gga RERRER BEET PROBS Sipame hae teats Vous pa ae Pe g vagt e a a a 1 1 2 x . = + / Let both members of the equation be multiplied by I teh Ee ¢ Case IV. wee SE trinomial (x — a)", then, observing that Sis 6) 5,54 pe = + pt + q to be imaginary, if V has for a factor ting K for-5, we have - (2*-4-p2+q)", we may make : U_ Aa*'4Br2-24 .., +T P K=A+B (7—a)+C(x#—a)?+ wee v= (--pa+q)" + > Now, make « = a, and put u and:s to denote as be- or rather, | fore, and have A=K= -“; and since pf nine Cog K—A=B(z—a)4C(c—a)'4... vo (x*-4-pz+q)” + (2*--p -+49)"""* Ress the first since sah yee pa e Lee Cl; 1 : : ant — it will therefore have the form K, (c—a) ; t Ex. 8 Thusyiwe make (e441) BiB Co e)troes A B C.. Derk F G H I now «=a, and that then K, becomes & Getatst ar teptes thus we have B=, and so on. ; = A ik 1 F=—G=}, H=—I=3. . K=A+B(z—a) +C (c—a)'+... 117. ‘The manner of determining the quantities by taking the fluxions, A, B, C, &c. as expressed in last article, is that sug. 4K — Bye c(ena)$3D (ea): py, gested by the theory of indeterminate coefficients, (AL- dz GEBRA, agt. 313.) but itis very tedious, We shall now @K pointy AA saben, se Gua *C+6D(z—a)+... Joni, amen Lat cn, BEE Pir, bo. fede eek 7 fe, Soy Fe a a mappesingalo shah s—iaiesiote’ a. respsctively, in the! particulir dhee'efoxsassthes, factor of S, we propose to find A independently of P, making that hypothesis, w. } e find Reducing to a common denominator, we get A=k, B=’, C=} k", Dai kk”, &e. become w ails respantividy tee Reet 8 P2842 C@ply tapi? s? w=As, and A=—, Hence, staiisa + B(x 4 1)4 Fw )s Oe tte + i SB + be ——, we have L=/ , _ aae we. have 1 A(a+2)+B(a 2). When ing now a=— 1,.we fnd A=—}, B= —{. z=a, this becomes 1 =2 Aa; and when 3.). Let the equation be it , r= —2, it Becpmes 1=>2Ba; hence A= B= (), o Az+B: ry z - Vir Sepang? 37) yoiletgna ; : ee vee js then U= (Az + B)S + P(a?+ px+q). - is T the flaxions of the identical V= , vd UT a —a), considering that -V and pene If ‘we substitute for x, one of the imaginary. roots of st sill ¥ ieee of the equation 2? +pa$ q =.0, P will disappear, and. dv : By we find 5 =~ (c— 4) 4p Si supposing now w=, the OLS imagery, Weeation reine ee then, putting w for the value of when a is substic. tities on each side of the equation equal to one another, lorerme . 4 —_——— 438 Fill be obtained, by which A and B may be determi- ned,*. Let the fraction be ’ 39 TH fet z Ar+B (2—1) (#4241) ote Now pap ito aps ys eter apt Ra aay last spctina,'e bapiesas j= fae pa ects ry Fieie ee en he rately equal, and dividing the latter =+/—3, we find B Seer B; (4) Let us consider the fraction, when 4 = Arc+B * ~"A'r4 Br on GPP Fret) re Let sides of the equation be multiplied nage f (+ps+9)", , and observing that'V =(2*-+-p 24-9) let K= =5: , and we have KsAstB+(A's+B)(s4 p44) + &e. This case is the two » and Scar bs etlaak ix tas coe ohbOar In the first place, we substitute’ ey 2” whe ee etn 8 eq ion w+pe+q=—0, w e 4 . K=Aa %. The caspiailey “qed ake now so ta ads petite ye, gor Bh pa and hence Smo eqestios.ane get Sen bich Aso Reape. a taking the feesions of both sides of the equation, therefore, SE HAs (Ac BY(224p)} mandi Rs avec sony mem ode. walaet Clad eee in this expression, th a nary value of x in eqestion «4 x+q=0, t- we gong found, b vebedy, etal tw ’ - © equations are 7 are de- For example tthe faction be = Om assume it Arc+B A’ «c+ B’ =@oaspop + Paz49 By reducing to a common denominator, ‘we find. P— 22 + 2r—3= A r+B-+(A'r+ B’)(2? —2 24-2). St y—f. Ths being cobeiated Ba'ay 2=0 is r=14/— being substituted for 2, e equa tion becomes 4/1 = A+B —1. Hence the two equations are ey ee A=—1, therefore B= — $. Substituting the values of | A and B in the equation, and » we have - P— 2x? 4 2e=(A'r + B #— as +2); and taking the fluxions, and divi S2— 42 4 SAA Pe te ruts on again substituti 29/1 =— 2/4 2(A’ BY) /— hence’ A’=1, reese rents iar " _ ALB, p, qm b oe Clee FLUXLONS. _ *=+3 + — Fare? age ie hs wes eure acy into its by the tri ed in Anitn! we vigns comprehends also ol. of ie cata Equations Nu vier fedétions, 068 lee I Tit, Cal. Post: cap. xi. eaa ¥ os Fluents of Rational Fractions. 119. We have seen, that every rational fraction may be reduced Rens be a @—ap Arce B of 22 oe, ee, two penne , tions are transform to ate Att Br Case I. Mets (Art. 114, Rule ITIL.) But But 1. (c) being a al- together arbitrary, ronmey pat bnedt cf Ne AGS + and then the fluent. is i be dx id . P alepet amet: (art, 116,, dx And singe —— ees mij altas gare a rd g{herVe-9410} dx plats), oe e—2 a—« 9 In like manner, @ss)de = 28 2% has for its ‘ent —21 Cee er 1. (@ 14 “e L(o), oF Goa SP att or 2dx a Ads, has for its fluent ¢ 9 regi wcearer wee (art, 114. Role IL) ~ 2: —ay~" . For the management of inpousible ox imeginary quantities, see ALczania, At, 190-194 AAhis AXL (2-2) +16), | FLUXIONS. ooo. 439 x aha $25) constant, but indeterminate co-eficients, and let us ass Inverse —2ae * sume. Method. Inverse Method. Wehr i 116, Ex. 6.) that —— 4 a dz Kgorrrio y Lae —— = 24s dx - dx , dx. , Eh + —l —¥{ 1): =e (2*+,°)" “@+a—) et @4ey-. cake Clarita ) fhe’ Let the uxions be. ‘iathag a which, in. respect.to . quantities affected by the sign f; is done by merely res + ah = ahaa 4 the mon sGtiy jecting the sign, and we have » ale +1) +6 dz. Kdz 2K (wee ste 5 Case IIL. ‘The fraction Art dz may be ak @+Fy~ +e” (eee + — "“Azdz Bdz The fl en Bak tie yas" ved, inte faa mae 37 e fluent of By reducing these fractions to keting sl of these is 4 Al. (2* + 6*) +c, (art. 114 Rule III.) ba and rejecting such : ape as are found in all Hs B oz), the terms, we get 1=K (2 + 41) —2K (11) 2? and the fluent of the second is [are (tan. = =)+e +L (2 + 62), or : (114, Rule V,) therefore, uniting the corrections of the { (2n—3)K—L ple K+ L) 0; two Hence, by the theory of indeterminate co-efficients, var Didee FALQ 489 4 > are (tun. = = =) +e. (2n—3) K—L=0,1—47(K + Lae, Wa have found (alt. 116.°Ex., 5.) that From these equations we find K = = (n—1) 6” adz righ aie x (®—1)dz Qn—3 | ; . Aoi si Pa eT yeh L= sia —1)eF Therefore, substituting for K and The fluent of the first term of the second member is L, we find Lie (art. 114. pimp Make z= z— } by dz Bon d«=dz, then Ap separ termacia tramefermntad to eccemenrice: tak saat + 8°)" , zdz tT +3 Qn—3 ff dz Now epee ‘ELD; tea—pe/ G4 (art. 114. Rule III.) and the fluent of the other is Te ey Joitee the woe, sf Se Ps by means of 37S are (t= 75) therefore, restoring x in these it the fluent aay is made to depend upon ano= expressions, we ae adx * f capppeein which pia diminish y an unit, 3.1? fug@enyery (tyes yt This last, last, again, is reducible to another, in which the _ ¢ ; ‘ef @e41 exponent ee and so on, until we come to the te sare (ton = =F) fuent of ~ bringing ing the logarithmic i i into qne.term, MM AHoS a epostg the arbiter correction to be 41. (c’), The tain ERE Ee will serve to abl 1) rau ne ew ey exemplify this Peel 6 5 decomposed it becomes L {<< team um. = are (tan. = ae ) (—2e+41)dz2, Pci +1)dz dx v (#4 4-2-1) 73 (#1 epi * #41 As a second example, veers DE The first terms of each of the two first fractions give 1) (#41) = bes 116, Ex. 4.) may be decomposed ) REET 6) Vg hin Pde, = into @ +1) 2@o4 @piy= = eopT me pens, the latter of these’ again may With respect to the other terms, ba,sny, feral, adx > : dx . teem tei tei Teme | fears ate t Yee | ae Sie dan eh seh teeta of ovr ‘ ry a clo de ha 3 . second eran! we have in like ay aside pabivnenaemaiand z+ dz Azdz z a : a matey The fluent of the first of eho ie, E309 oi arin seein’ tasty Sta ay eaters, email 2 (mn — 1) (# BER Mrs 5 Ue Heloll) Bat it The ditierent parts apited.give ns rth WA Piles ath as ip hay re (tam 2) +0 + + 120, Tofind the fuent of Trzgop let Kand Lhe FFI) ae hue 3 which is known by Ritle V. art. 114. the fluent of by the circle and- logarithms. ays John Bernoulli Taiowed in the same path as Leibnitz, but their methods were very laborious: The theory by the discovery of Cotes, i noticed, (art. 118.) On this branch of the subj see John Bernoulli, pm: ; Cotes, Harmonia Mensurarum; De Moivre, iscellanea Analytica ; Simpson, Epeeue oe several sub- jects, awd Fluxions, Vol. U1. ; Landen, Mathematical Lu- cubrations, Part VIT. Euler, Inst. Cal. Diff: et Integra- lis, Of the Fluents of Irrational Functions. 122. We have shewn how the fluent of every rational algebraic function may be found ; the same method will apply to all such irrational functions as can be rendered rational by transformation. Let us consider, in the first place, fluxions, in which the terms are singly ra- dicals, such as : Soft fe xox x* t +42 ” it is easy to see that by making x = 2‘, the irrationa- oe 5 ma and as dz = 62° dz, the fluxion is trans- formed to 6(2"4 + 2% 4+ 2) dz m 62zdz ( wat =6z ek thal ager Ie which presents no difficulty. Let the fluxion be “= da; put x ==, then ds =: 22zdz, and the fluxion is transformed to ads _o4 2Qdz Bal en ea of which the fluent is 2 z 4 log. (z—1) —log. (z++1), or c/t—c 123. We are now to consider any function whatever affected by the radical 4/(A + Bax ==Cat); which may be also expressed thus, Voy (% + Ge) There will be two cases, according as #* is positive ‘or ve.« nse [When the i ' we radical has the form 4/(a4-b24-2*); V(@ 462+) =e -b2, or = sez, hence we find a +62 == 2x2 + 2', _ #—a * = bo2? 2(b2>= a= 2) lien (roa ® we tp that the factors are 4a+4b2— be positive, and ¥(6* 4. 44) a real quantity. FLUXIONS. Thus the radical, or r=, will be rendered ra- Ini tional, ae swollen he peppeesd feedior : . : z Fer a th catanibab ie By = _@+tbzta ual? 2246” and the proposed fuxion i transformed to 22; the fluent of which is 1. (2 = 4 6) + const. therefore eters at {e ce +U4+-V(a+br42")7} Hence, [a= 1. fete+v(2 =«)i} | Suppose dy = d x4/(a* 4 2*); we put 4/(a* + 2*) =z—2, hencedy=zdz—xdz, andy=— }xt+/fzde. Instead of d z, put its value 2% (a 4 2), and then, ta- king the fluent, and substituting, we find ee yactiey(ode)tiel fry yes ay} Ie we put dy = 77-"* under this form dy y/—1 dx = ETT ae ea ne oe y=) 1, {ervey} rer! If y be an arc of a circle, x is its cosine (Rule (D), art. 26.) and 4/(2* —1) = o/— 1, sin. y;, the equation of the fluents is therefore i shy Y—1=1. fos. y =e7—1. sin. yf. The constant correction c in this case must be = 0, boosie: wlien + 551g laa Se eee ‘Moreover we i =k, because t i if 4/— 1 ma’ either + or eyo e bein ‘the ada amber in ier’s i art, 12. Napiers System of Logarithms (art. 12.) by the theory yv¥—l1 : ; ae me putting the radical = z— 2, it > ar cos. y fo 4/1 sin. y= e cos, y—/—1.sinny=e yVv—t > cos. y= 2 ‘Gaw v—1 —yVv—1 . ey yj one yt Pees sn. ¥ = 2/—1, : - considered these formals as one of the most analytical discoveries \ They were first given by Euler. Form diffrent matie of investigating see ARITHMETIC oF Stnes (29 124. Case II. Let the radical be 4/(a phe ; the method cannot now Be apple’ witlnaee introducing imagi uantities: But in this case the trinomial « -{- Beans? te the profiakte? thads toro meal CHES (440) — $b, 4Y(h + 40) Hh b—2, Let them be denoted by — «and @— 2a, and let us assume V(ap-bcmn)j=V/ {(e—«) (a—z)} =(x—«) x. always real, it is to be observed, that as a ..be—.2? is supposed oA’ k pihacive ‘cjuastily.= 4 x* = b+ 4a— (b— 2x) will also be positive, but (6 — 22)! will always be positive, therefore b% -f- 4a must also 4 Snide Method. ay i al x FLUXIONS. 441 Then, squaring and suppressing the common fatter, m41 - ye Mave etsicss).°3 hence ae (2a) _ ‘ ; Baz _ 2(a—8)zdz 4 mel" BF pant | Got) vedi Sehcae tt Wile 468 0) (onin) 8 eran) PY ebeietions the prapoved Harien bevatres These functions, as expressed by z, are all rational. B Ste—6) 8 ad # nba ; UA dah se oS ER then, making the above f 1 tore? ip >> the fluent of which is — 2 are (tan. = dz s—zx Pr oy TCT 2are fen. = /=} If we suppose a= 1, b= 0, then, because 1 —x* = + s)G—s), we have «=—1, 6=1; in this case, the ula becomes ic (aro hae See: The fluent of this fluxion is otherwise expressed by arc (sin. = 2) 4c’, (Art. 114, Rule V.) If dy = dz /(a* — x*), by applying the transforma- ij ving that «= —a,&—=a, we —Satz2dz dy= J j= +2) The fluent may now be found by the rules for ra- tional fractions. The same mode of transformation will apply to. the es pa ee rman e Bs 4620 are real. 125. The radicals 4/(a+-b2-+4-2*), and ,/(a+-b2—<2*) may also be transformed ing «= z— 46 inthe first case, and «= z 4+ 46 in the second; then Soiree eee Leone) In the case, the irrationality may be removed by making 7 (a = 2) = a—uz, for then 2au ?@=e1 a= Pag tet a8 Seis ‘ x —dz It is ~ that Tata) ene Alay by ere lepers the fluent may now be found by - art, 114, Again, making 4/(5?— 2?) = 6— uz, the fluxion is changed an a fluxion of which the fluent has been repeat- edly assigned, from its second form to Of Binomial Flusions. Of binomial 126, We propose now to find the fluent of fluxions, pe 2 K2"de(ab2"). m,n, p, being any numbers whatever, whole or frac- , positive or ve, In the first place, we put zmatbn; i Hence, = (=“)’: Raising now both members of this i the i, and taki h ages power m + taking the VOL. IX. PART It. tution, it is immediately trans- Now if =i, bad “2, -0hiih: anion “his “HG” Bich K’ 2? dz, and its fluent may be found by Rule II. art. 114, If as —1=some positive whole number r, the flux- ion has the form K’ (z—-a)"z” dz. This expression may be developed, by the binomial theorem, into a series of a finite number of terms, each having the form A 2! dz; their fluentsmay therefore be found as in the former case, and thence the fluent of the proposed fluxion will be known. If a bea negative whole number =— r, the Kids ~ ; this expression (z—a)” : may be transformed into a rational fraction, by assuming z= ul, g being some whole number, such, that pq is also a Whole number, as has been shewn (art. 122). Therefore, if the exponent of x out of the binomial, in« creased by unity, be divisible by the of x in the fluxion will have the form binomial, the fluent may always be found by the rules al- read: ined. This, wever, is not the only case in which we can find the fluent. If the part of the fluxion in the bino« mial be divided by 2", and the part without the bino« mial be multiplied by z”?, which will not change the value, the fluxion will be expressed thus Kat" (6 aan Yds a and putting z= 4 +ax2-*, roceeding, as in Seimei vale. Gis Bixien be ttuiheoerto From this expression we Iearn that the fluent may be found when leaky ha Fda tae or rather when i + —n n P is a whole number. Hence it appears that when = : n is not a whole number, if p be added, and the result be a whole number, the fluent may still be found. 127. When p is a fraction, (which is the most im~ portant case,) and g its denominator, it is most conve- nient to assume a + b2"='2’. For example, let it be required to find the fluent of 5. a~*dz(a+23) 5. e m+1 Par In this case, —~— = — }, to this, if we add p= — $, we find —2; therefore we must multiply and divide by (23) or a~*, and then the fluxion be- comes 3K 442 mide(l 4a); —— We now make 1 + a2 =2', from which = fs") by raising both sides to the — 6th power, and taking the fluxions, we get a(—1), a* * Hence, by substituting, the fluxion is transformed to | ; . —_pl—=)ds of which the fluent is Ke 1 v4 24 eA (8$ 1) =¢— sap In like manner, the fluxion 2° dx (a? 4 2) be- comes | dz (=*—a*z'), by making a* + 2*=23; hence the fluent is 3/(a® 4+ 2*)*(420°—Sa?) 4c. 128. When OS entices lo not satisfy one of the two conditions specified in art. 126, the fluxion cannot be rendered rational by any known method; we may, however, reduce it to the most simple form of which it will admit, by means of the formula fu d¢ = wt — ft du (art. 114. rule IV.) us put u=2P and dt=a"dz, then du= rvde=— +1 pz? dz; and (= 5 hence, r™+12P Pp P11, m1 m1 Jaf z dz. Bat z=a 4 bx", anddz=nb.2"'dz, therefore, 1 fren 2=Z LS wendin. zPol wdz.2?= Again, because 2? = 2?—! z = 2?—! (a4.5.2"), there- fore fordz.2=aferds. P46 [Pl etd e (2) These values (1) and (2) being put equal, we find b(m +1 np) fP- erde= xe 2P—a(m+41) fz? xd x (3) Change now p—1 into p, and m 4. into m, and we have wf) preva —a(m—n+1) far? d x 6(m+1+4+2p) and putting for the last term of equation (2) its value as given by (3), we get 4 : (B) ‘ frrdzs?= xPgeri + anp fz" dx. ‘ 129. We shall now m-1l+np in which it must be shew the use of these formule, recollected that z=a-+ bz". 1. Formula (A) makes the fluent of a 2? dz, pend on that of 2»—" 2?d'z, and again this last on the fluent of x2 ="d x, and so on; it therefore serves to diminish. the mt of x out of the binomia @; at last to bring she hasnt to eco a Pd 2, i being any whole positive number. 2. Formula (B) serves to diminish the exponent p FLUXIONS. ? by 1, 2, 3, &c. units, and thus to make the fluent of d on that of 2" 2?“ ds. " the fost in tee gedpad member os phe vie or eo [rasa _frades? aE Hating i frrind S de- Es cay V7 =e2*)’ SFeH depend on that of a 2? dx equation, then substituting’m—a instead of m, in the hot Geel ae instead of p in the second, we . , ons, Pt 1 pnt p+n+1 Yfomerehd. Py (D)" (m41) ; an(p1) These formule serve, on the contrary, to increase the exponents of «, out of the binomial, and in it, and are useful, when the one or the other is ve. - 4. These formule shew the law according to which the terms of a fluent are formed : thus, it is easy to see that the fluent of ; ada het Ny Bb: rseed, Vv (1— 2%). Pe B i e fluxion of thi ion, we the co-efhicienta, A, B,C, by the meth method of indleter- minate co-efficients, with less trouble than by applying the general formula. j 130. We shall now indicate a mode of finding fluents, remarkable on account of its simplicity, and nume- fons faatasde in Wiech 1 sadly Wage. Taking the fluxion of a*—'s/(1—22) we have d fe-yu—«)} ee ov (1—z*)’ the first term of this = (n—1) 4 /(1 — 2°) dz — By multiplying and divi flaxion by 22) my after taking the fluents and transposing, ®) 4 veer ede em tY(isa) nlp mide 70—*) n a J 7a—y By treating the expression 2*—!4/(«?=+1) in the same manner, we get ae psiloc Il PO dar n aS J (el), find the fluent of every wdx V@=D z form Fatma) © (tata) ced at last to the m7 (eae) ” Va By dividing the numerator and denominator by a, the radicals in these expressions may be changed into hen oil and 4/ («* == 1), ahd ‘Chati Sottitglas (E) and (F) make the fluent at last depend on rdzx xdx or if n is odd; dz 0 f Ezy if n is even. The two first fluents come immediately under Rule II, art.114, by putting 2*=£1, or I=t-z*=z, from which adx=or—xdx=d z; the third has been in art. 124; the fourth is the arc, of which the sine is a. For example, we have. 4 DRiavere adz 1 yas a oats, Jay EV at edz a. 12 V¥Ui—2) =—($+75)v0—*) $6 ay = BV (0 2) 4} ae (in. = 2) bo. wtdz 1.32 x3 Wins =~ Gta = + st arc (sin, =r) 4c. 131. However, if n were negative, formule (E) and , and (F) would no longer apply ; but, by making z = 1 ? ‘>? we find, dz pe —2-1dz FVI—#) ~ V(#—1)’ dx 1 dz 2/(@= 1) Jase Besides, we may find formule which shall apply direct- ly, by ing as in last article ; for, taking the flux« ion of z*+14/(1—a*), we get 7 dz —__ x(i—=*) wr/(L— 2?) ~ — (n—=1) 2 } (G) n—2 de +71 J 0—) When z is an odd number, this formula makes the dx fluent ESE i at last depend oe fa which, by Ex. 2. art. 33, is LI Vv0+2)4+V0—2) ooh d Saeahiaet os) se ftvC—-)} In like manner, we find adzx gm! VQae—2*)—~ om anes t (H) (2m—1)af* 2—dz + m J/(2aa—2) Of Exponential Functions. 132. It appears, from art. 26, rule (C), that pruzty L(@) Let V be any algebraic function of ar, then, because oa? d (a*) ‘ _ dr= » if we put a*° =u, we have Vd = a* 1. ( Vdu “) ’ . % it ive a.., algebraic form, For example, let V= ——-“——_ Vl + a") pas ade du pe! V+ el Ee: uent of this last i F : rad t expression may be found by the Let z be any function of x; then, e being the num- ber of which Nap. log. is unity, we have d (z¢*)= edz + zda; , ; FLUXIONS. Judizut—fidy, making u = 2", 443 Inverse Method- —_—— dz - fe ds (: +7 )=e fe. a. For example, let z = «3 —1; then = 32", and zr Sede (3 2? 423 — 1) =e" (a3 —1)+-<¢, 133. In other cases, we may have recourse to the method of integrating by parts, (art. 114. Rule IV.) Thus, let the fluxion be «* dz.a*; then, by the formula dtz=a‘dz, we ara” n fedeaa L(@) ~E(a) vd e. A By treating a* x*—'d x in the same manner, and re- peating this as often as isnecessary, we find Ja ade { a na! n(n—1) a-* * UL(a) ~ TF (a) t~ 13a) 1.2.3...” ~~ Seat + ¢. In this series, 1.* (a), 1.3 (a), &c. mean the square, the wet Te the Be t n is negative, by following th 134, e n isn ve, ‘ollowin 2 same method, we may anordiee the fete Bo: of x, Tae. cordingly, from the formula fu d ¢ ='u t — ft du, ma- king u =a", and dt =<, we find aad x ard x —a l(a) G te =G—pe ta) =r By repeating this transformation, we bring the fluent ad d. J {Sto depend on <=. This last fluent has long exercised the ingenuity of analysts in endeavouring to reduce it to circular ares or logarithms, but without success. It to be a transcendental of a pecu< liar kind. For want of a ri s method, we may employ a series ; thus, putting A for l(a), we have, by art. 53, ‘ A®x? A3z3 @=l+Ar+ —3-+ 95 Therefore, multiplying by and taking the fluents, we find pad he A?x? ~ Ai x3 L(2)+A a + ga t+aagte++ +e 135. If n be a fraction, either of the preceding me« thods will serve to reduce the exponent of x to some fraction between 0 and +1 or — 1; and then, recourse may be had to the method of infinite series, which we are afterwards to explain. regard to the fluxion of zdx.a*, will ly equally to zdx.a", supposing z to ti say kina eee act: + &e. Of Logarithmic Functions. Let it now be zdx1."(2x), putting 1." (2) to denote the nth power rithmic of the Napierean log. of xz, and supposing z to be any y=) braic function of zx, n be a positive integer, then recurring to the required to find the fluent of of loga- _ 444 formula fudi=ut—fidu, and making s=1." (x), = and df=rd-z, so that t= fzds, and dw= w L=* (2) iy we have dx fries (= Ln(a) feda—nfms (=) feds, mynd hs ny ee og ap eatpuas A established, the proposed fluent is is form le to on another of the same kind, in which the exponent of the logarithm is an unit less. Thus, if=—2", we have freee @=ayi mary foo (2) .2" de. ing the fe Ja to this last fluent, and agai PR Sr ar tease > oe; we qt ‘we Seni (sz) dz= , fhe) nl?—(2) , x(n—l )Le*(@) : oe eet eri eee te 187. But if » is a whole negative number, we must . | sp lorasbayer udi=ut—Jid u, so as to increase exponent of the logarithm, This will happen, if, in the expression z2 [*(2) = —n+1 d. > we make 2a = u, and L— (2): = = dt, by which I—*4+4(2) | —n+l x (—n4$1)1=*(2)%, =, for we then have zdz_ gn I) =~ —n +1 — L-* +! (x).d (22). Let us suppose z = 2”; then this formula becomes xdz — gt! m+1 ~amdx Tz) ~(@—1) b=" (2) Fal P@’ By transforming this last fluent in the same manner, and again the fluent that thence results, and so.on, we wd at last make the proposed fluent depend on nO L741 (2) Now, put 2+? = +, then L. (2) = =), and a"dz= dz meV therefore, wdx dz edu = fra: Te) ie) =" ou pepe A agg The fluent of this last func- tion can only be expressed by a series, as we have al- ready observed in art. 134. 198. When » is a positive or negative fraction, the fluent may be made to depend upon a similar fluent, in which n is between 0 and +1, or —1,. This last can only be expressed by an infinite series. Of Circular Functions. Of circular functions, 139. of such expressions as coritain trigonometrical fune- There are several methods of finding the fluents - FLUXIONS. arc, its fluxion may be transformed into an alge. © braic function, . For example, let sin. «= 2, then dz cos. t = 4/(1—2"), dz=-—_—__; sip Va)" sin.” «. cos." 2dx=2"dz(1—2) a 1. If n is an odd number, the radical in the trans« formed expression di i 2. Ifm isan odd number, then the exponent of z out of the binomial, when increased by unity, will be a multi le of 8, it exponent ies, Mnausial Thus, one ie first) of art. 126, will be satisfied ; and therefore the fluxion may be made rational. 8. If m and m are even numbers, then the second condition of art. 126. will be satisfied, As an example of this method, f‘sin.} x dx, dz ry VO—*) ~ RS. II. Method. It follows, from art. 26. rule D, — i con. «(8 ascot x) 4c _fizcos kas + sin. ke +6, \ [asrsin kes =F coke +0. yest Now, we have shewn 24 crip. « or Sines) how to develope the powers of sin. x and cos. « into series, the terms of which are multiples of 2; every fluxion of the form cos.”"2.dx, or sin.” xd.x, may be transformed into a series of futions, of the forms dx cos. kx, dx sin. kx; and hence the fluents may be found from the preceding formule. . Thus, because ae 5 pete Cos. & = ‘7 08. ee ee a ee (Anirumetic of Sines, Formule (S), therefore, nT Bis g: ‘ ross 2d 2 = 5 sin. 524 Gesin. 824 sin, & This method “is often used, because it is easier to find the sines and cosines of the multiples of an are than the powers of its sine and cosine. As-the expression cos.” x sin." z, may also be resolved into a series, of which the terms are the sines and cosines of the multi- ples ot Se the fluent of cos.” x sin.” xd x, may be found as in ere pc E on Pe ccbon Noe Sah Hotta may be as i i ‘or m of at. 195; bad tae the eaets of ony Sixxions into which enter, may be found by art. 132---134, 142, IV. Method. This proceeds by the formula Sudt =ut—ftdu, which we have already so often 4 ed, the fluxion be d w sin.” x cos." x, which oo dee gig ee protess oe sin."—! x; then, putting vu = sin.”— 2, t= dx sin. z con't a oon which it follows, that ¢ = ae and du = (m—1) dx cos. # sin." 2, we ve ; * sin” ze . UJ as sins cosa = = SS cost x | — _frosrtrasinm ad x, this lue cos." # (1—sin,?z), 1 for cos.n+2.2, its va= transposing, we find 4 L FLUXIONS. 445 ~ Invers 16) ef — When the be ee of the sine and cosine are Iavena _ Method. . — __ sin." x cost » negative, we multiply the numerator by cos.2a Me —— S dz sin” 2008," 2 = Ta mon + sin? 2=1, and aia / Beart 1 ° m—1 , dx iy. dx dx + aan t# ee Nt sin.” x cos.” 2 ~sin."=* xcos/at sin” 2008 8 resolving the proposed fluxion into the two fac. By repeating this operation, we come to fractions hav- Gece tine eet nes aad ing in ing only sin. x, oF cos , in the denominator. P the same manner, we find m=N, as sin. cos. z= 4} sin. 2 x, the denomi- d c 1 ; ei wud 4S nator sin.” x cos.” x becomes gn Sin.” (22). i, * ‘ d x sin.” x Cos.” «= mtn 146. We shall conclude this branch of the subject, ? + ‘ a ; fhe” ; by fin the fluents of four of the more elementary + aaah a sin.” x cos."— 2. circular ions. dz dxsin.x J One of these formulz serves to depress the exponent The first is ——~= ———__; put = 2, and it - of the sine, Se, ae ae of tie caine and, by 2 ren T—cos.2z* Pu 00s. 7 = % an | their joint ication, the fluent may be found when a2. : : r Pye i cay Wo positive’ itkger “Hinatbert.” For becomes — 7—,- The fluent of this expression has : exam) ple, Sd x sins x c08.*.z = — + sin. xc08.3 x +3 faz sin. x 0s. x S dx sin. x 0032.2 = +sin# 2c0s,.24 fd 2 sin. 2, Observing, now, that fd x sin. = — cos.x, we find, ats enlceniogiall eo terpe./ die ts ern cos, 2 (— + sin.? 2 cos.? 24-2 sin.ex — 3 ms . 143, But if m and n are negative, these pede sab quire some modification. The first gives @).. desin.™ x sin.™—"x cos.” & mM—n COS" x m—1 dx sin." *z ~ m— Tl cos.” x dz sin, x This brings the fluent to depend on that of cos.” x” or-of 2, according as mis an odd ot an even number. bi te a Sep aenb Cretan er tert tinea edhe comes ——;: the fluent of this is obvious ; the fuent Treslael aan olen aes ~ The second mead gas le, by making n negative, and bringing the fluent in the second mem- ee tae ee allen, fh ly, changing n into 2— n, gives pdesint 2 sintt's — mmnt2 pdesin”™ 2 cos? ¢ (n—1)cos"—2 r—tl cos,"—2 z¢° By this, the fluent sought is reduced to that of dz sin.” x, = to 228i." ; Re cong? according as n is even or odd. ‘The second is found by formula (I); the first is present- ly to be noticed. 144. If we make m or n =0, we have . —cos, x sine | m—1 S sunrdss = T af ax sins sin. 2cos."—"z n= S corvds= ~, + ft cose * dt _ —cos.2 m—2 da ain 2 (m—i)sin”—2 m—,) sna dx ” sin. 2 n—2 dx i 008," — (i—I)cos."—*z tn cos." x been given in Art. 119. Case I; thence SJ se (04a FEI = fy Coes) And as cos. «= 1 —2sin.2 4.2 = 2cos.2 $x —1(A- riTHMETIC Of Sines, formule (T) ; therefore, 1— cos. =2:sin# 4 2, and 1-+cos, x = 2 cos.* }.x, so that 2. By a like process, putting cos, «=z, we find dx =i {wv 1+sin. x) cos.z U4/(1 —sin, x) 1 — cos. If in the formula [pene a= tan.t} 2, we putie—x instead of x, (# being 180°), we get i 1—sin. =tan,” —37)=—_.— > Ct terrae therefore, f° 22. =1. {tan (45 4 Fs) } 4 e!, 3. Let the fluxion be “#008 In this case, the numerator is the fluxion of the denominator, therefore (Art. 114, Rule IL.) 8 O88 of 2 =f decot.r=1. (¢ sin. 2). tan.z x sin, zy 4. In like manner, S SS dx tan. x =f S>{S}- cos. # cot. x cos.x Of the Constant Correction of a Fluent. 147. Let P be the variable part of the fluent of 2dx, o¢ the con. (z being a function of x), and ¢ the constant quantity stant correc. which ought to be added, in order that the fluent may tion of a be the most general possible, we have fz da =P+4c. fluent. While we regard the fluent merely as a function, of which the fluxion is to be identical with a fluxion, c may be any constant quantity whatever ; but when the fluent results from the solution of a particu- lar problem, it generally happens, that the constant pie c has to satisfy some condition, which restricts it toa inate value. If, for example, it be propo« 4416 sed to find the area CEQP=s, (Fig. 14.) com Method. od between the ordinates CE, PQ, ott) de abatia- Fig. 14. “constant arbilra : quantity. sx are AE=a, and AQ=4 ; because d sy d x (art. 71.) in general, s=fy d =P + c. But let us suppose, that when x becomes a, P becomes A, then, corresponding to the particular case of s=a, s=A+c. Now in the present case, when x=a, then s=0; therefore, ¢ is re- stricted to the i that makes A+c=0, that is, e=—A, hence s=P—A ; and if in this expression we + instead of x, we have the area, or the value of s, wom the Henke of ene ae oo ; : in, us su u x are two variable qiatities, ov telaten, that der ds, then, in general, ate But let us farther suppose it known, c= . a"+1 that when r=a, then u=/. In this case, k= aqit® and hence c—k— at and, in the question under con- sideration, it can have no other value; therefore « = pil on +k. In this manner, we may determine the n+ value of the constant correction c. Supposing a to be the value of zx, when the fluent =0, then a is called the origin of the fluent ; and it is said fo begin when x has that value ; and to end when x has completed the change in its magnitude, so as to have from r=a to x=b. These values of x are the /imits of the fluent. When neither the origin nor joe limits of the flu- ent are , It is definite. us, supposing A to be the value of the i ge 2=.4, on B its value when r—6, then B—A is the definite fluent. As c has the same value in A and B, it disappears from the de- finite fluent, which may therefore be found by putting 2=a, and x-=b in the indefinite fluent, and subtracting the first result from the second. All this will be illus- trated by examples as we proceed. Fluents found by Infinite Series. 148. When a fluent cannot be assigned in finite terms by algebraic quantities, nor by circular arcs nor loga- rithms, then recourse must be had to methods of ap- proximation. Let fd be the fluent. If we develope the function < into a series, proceeding according to the ascending or descending powers of x, and multiply the terms by d x, and then take the fluents, their sum will evidently be the fluent sought. We shall now give ex- amples. Ex. 1. Let the fluent of A be required, which, we know, comprehends in it ].(a+.2), (Rule(B), art. 26). acbaale derision, fot ere 1 we igts, 2 Saat al sami valet Oe. Therefore, multiplyi dx, > otorereacadeg jon, Aad dz z F id a agar Seed f sea a ear t sa Tere Pa In the most general expressiun for the fluent, ¢ ma be any constant quantity whatever; but regarding it FLUXIONS. as expressing the value of |. (2+4-a), ¢ is restricted to a particular value. pee acy ig arama when 1=0, then L (+e) becomes 1. (a); but when x—0, all the terms of series except c vanish, there- fore c= 1, (a), and 2 # x 1, (v4) =L.@+o—eat 5qs — &e- as we have already found, (Art. 53.) é Ex. 2, To find the fluent of 5", we expand it by division into the series dt — 2*dx4atdzr—2x°dzx+ &c. then taking the fluents of the terms, we find dx , sr—tz pig i4e ile i) ch i ath db As this fluxion is that of an are, of which the tangent is x, and radius unity, (Art. 35), by giving a suitable value to c, the fluent must express that are. To determine c, we must consider, that when the tangent = 0, then the are =0; therefore the fluent ought to va« nish when x0; hence c must be =0, and arc (tn. =2) = 25 +S 48. which is the series origi found by James Gregory, and perhaps prec 25 Leibnits,” Hence the ratio of the diameter to the circumference may be found, wee Anitumetic of Sines, Art. 82); and the $.14159265 ... which expresses the measure of two right angles, and is commonly indicated by the cha~ racter x, ’ d Ex. 3, Let the fluent of F ; = jorda(1—et) be required. In this case, we must the radical into a series by the binomial theorem, (Art. 53. or 54. See also Atcesra, Art, 323.) which will give a 1.3.24 ary f=14¢ + gq + &c hence we have dx x3 S x6 3,5 x7 Vas) =*+ 93 + ong t or67 t St This fluxion is the same as that of an arc, of which the sine is x, (Rule (D) Art. 26.) ; now the are vanish~ ae Antone by i Ata eee ie! ill express the arc. If we suppose arc to be ¥ the circumference, or 30°, then «= }. "Therefore ob« serving, that the are of 30° is ¥ #, we have gical 1 1.3 1.3.5 t7=3+ 939 + case t+aae70 + & 149° John Bernoulli invented a eral expression for any fluent, which is 8 Taylor's formula for any function of a binomial. Let z be any function of x, then any fluent whatever, containing only one variable quantity, may be represented by f/zda: em« ploying now the formula fu dt = ut—ftdu, we have prdzaz2—fadz fotenfierimiot fae a Fei! a as and taking the fluent ye eee ey ee az dD z ad Tat des jt atl at tnstead of f'rd, ft FE, Se. substitute thei dis dz® &e, FLUXIONS. 447 c for the constant quantity, which is the circular are of which the radius is a and the sine _ Inverse Inverse z, and this arc, supposing AD a quadrant, is PD ; let Method. alues, and pr to obrlete the foest, and we have == Fig. 10. ig. 9 dz 2 d?z 23 frteaetee- iF at dz 23 —~ *- This is Bernoulli’s Theorem. It may be otherwise readily deduced from Taylor's theorem, If in the de- velopement we make z = 0, all the terms, with the ex- ception of the constant quantity, vanish, therefore c is the value of the fluent when z = 0. d : Examp.e. To find the fiuent [== (a + x) by ate@ this method: When 2=0, then 1. (a + x) becomes 1, (a), therefore c= 1. (a): And because z = dz —1 © dtz 2 therefore dx (a+z2)?’ dx? (a+ 1 atx’ js? Oe ad z = x3 Liepal=} (9) +iye +3(apayt Hapa &e. This series differs from that found in last article, but the one may be transformed into the other. Quadrature of Curves. 150. Let «= AQ, (Fig. 14.) be the abscissa of a curve, y= PQ Phaaped ‘abe 2 Ards the ane CEOP, com ded between the indefinite ordinate PQ, and CE an ordinate having a given position. We have found, (art. 71.) that ds =yd-z, so that s=fyd «, We are now to apply this formula to particular exam- Exampre 1. Let the curve be a parabola, (Fig. 10.) in this case, a being put for the parameter, y* =a 2, and y=a* x4, andds= dz=a* x4ds, therefore, Coie tes deans 118) s=fyde=ia a* hemsyepe. Let us suppose the fluent to begin at the vertex A; then, when x= 0 we to have s=0. The ge- neral equation of the in this case becomes 0=0-+6¢, therefore c=0; and sos =}y-x, which with what was found in Conic Sections, (Sect. IL. Prop.1.) If s were supposed to begin when z had some given value 5, we would have O=3a?4* 40; then c= —30%6*, ands=}a4 (2*¥—53), Ex. 2. Let the curve be a cizcle, (Fig. 9.) and sup- ely of the co-ordinates z = and y= to be at O the centre; put a for the radius. © By the nature of the sant hak An mprate therefore, ydz=dx/ (a*—x*): Apply to this fluxion the for- mula fudt=ut— ftdu, (making 4/ (a?— 2*) =u, and «== 1?) and we have edz da (at—x*)=2/ (a — x*) + 7 amar 14 fe eda ST ray : io. natde Again, Waa) = bringing i teal es to a common de- nominator ; therefore, substivuting, and putting zy for ad : a? — xt) Now, (Art. 114, Rule V.) the fluent of a it be denoted by z, and we have ae af His daz+e. This is the complete fluent, which holds true, what- ever be its origin. Let us now suppose that the fluent begins when «= 0; in this case z= 0, and as then $= 0, it follows that c= 0; hence s (=area ODPQ)=42cy+ haz. Now if we join OP, the triangle POQ> }.ry, there- fore the sector POD = jaz. Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipse, (Fig. 11.) of Fig. 11. which the semitransverse and semiconjugate axes are a and 4; suppose the origin of the co-ordinates to be at A, one extremity of the transverse. The equation of the curve in? = (202 —24); hence safyds a dz @a2r—at), If a circle be described on the transverse axis as a dia« meter, and y’ be put for pQ, the ordinate of the circle, corresponding to the common ‘abscissa x, and s’ for the circular area AQp, we have y’? = 4/(2 ax —x*), and & = fy de=fde/ (2ax—2°). Hence, the variable parts of these two fluents have to each other the constant ratio of to 1, ot of 6 to a, and as they begin together, the fluents themselves must have the same ratio, that is s: s':: 6: a, as was shewn in Conic Sections, (Sect. VII.) Ex. 4. Let the curve be an 25.) and AX, AY its asym ; and let it be re- uired to find the area included by the hyperbolic arc P, the straight lines CE, PQ, which are parallel to one asymptote, and EQ, the nt of the other acymptote, intercepted between Let CE, one the Is, have a given position. Put AE =a, EC = 6, AQ= 2, QP = y. By the nature of the curve, b zy = ab, hence y = “~~, and tafyds=ab f= 0b1(2) +c, By the nature of the problem, when z= a, then s= 0," therefore in this case,0 =abl. (a) +c, hence c= —abl.(a), and s=ab fl (z)—1(@)} =.a51. (=). If we suppose a = 5 = 1, then s =], (=), hence the area s is expressed by the Napierean logarithm of the abscissa AQ, and these areas serve as a geometrical representation of Napier’s logarithms. On this account they were called by the early writers hyperbolic loga- rithms, but improperly, as any logarithms whatever may be represented by hyperbolic-areas: See LoGa- RITHMS, Ex. 5. Let the hyperbolic area PAQ be required; sup: ing PQ to be an ordinate to CA, the Aa cra’ am (Fig. 26.) Let C, the centre, be the origin of the ordinates ; put CQ=., PQ= y, = a, the semiconjugate = d, the semitransverse axis e equation of the curve (Conic Sections, Sect. VIII.) is y= by (t— a); hence 3 equilateral hyperbola, (Fig. Fig, 25 CO- Fig. 26, FLUXIONS. a if 4 448 Taveree Method. Fig. 12. Pig, 27. '@= 4AOxarec AH—} 0Qx QH = circ. safyde= & fas Vee’) We may proceed with this fluent, as with that in exam- ple 2d, or else by formula (B), art. 128, which gives at once d faz J/(t—o) = ha (a) —4 “fT5aey Now, by art. 123, Senay eh fre v(e—o)tte Therefore, oo ss Vena — 1, fe + Vat — = Now, from the nature of the figure, when r=a, then ¢ = 0; therefore, in this case, the general equation be- comes 0 = — “71. (a) —e3 hence ¢ = — “1. (a), and 6 cm s =i yee) — FL pti ve ot ors =4zy—" 1. {-+4} If we join CP, it is evident that 42y expresses the area of the triangle CPQ, therefore ab a omy Sector ACP = $l. {~+5}- Ex. 6. Let APD bethe common cycloid, (Fig, 12.) of which AB is the axis, AHB the generating circle, having its centre on the axis, AK a perpendicular to gree the axis at the vertex, and PR a to AK Se B tare pated ha tha coca, coll tcl a eee to find the external area APR. et leg che eqntee 2° the eaee Tend Pe perpouioae to , meeting the circle in H, join OH, Put AR=z, RP= y, AO =a, the angle AOH=v. Then AQ =a(1—cos.v), QH = asin. », arc AH = av; and since, from the nature of the curve (see Ericycioiw), PQ=AR = arc AH + HQ, there- fore x=a(v +sin.v), y= a(1 —cos. v), ‘de=adv(i +cos.v), fydx=a’ {dv (1—costv), Now this last fluent, or f‘d v sin.’ », is found, by art. 144, to be — 4 cos. v. sin. v. + $v, therefore 2 s= 5 (o—sin.v. C03. v) + c. When v = 0, then s t to vanish, therefore c= 0, ion putting for v, sin. v and cos. v their values, we . AQH. This agrees with what was shewn in the article Ep1- CYCLOID. Ex, 7. As an example of a polar curve, let us take the spiral of Archimedes, (Fig. 27.) Let A be the pole, AC the position from which the revolving radius AP ins its motion. Pat AP =r, the angle PAC = 0; let a be a given line, and # = 3.14159, &c. The nature of the curve is the ion 2aer= av. Now ifs denote the area AP’P, we have found (art. 72.) that in curves expressed by a polar equation, ds=jridv. Inthe present casedu= “Far, there. fore sah frdvatfrdra Zeige If we suppose the fluent to begin when r = 0, then c=0; therefore, when r has made a complete revolu- tion, so that v = 2, and r = a, the area generated will be “ = } of a circle, of which @ is the radius, To find the space which r passes over in the next revolu- tion, the fluent must be taken between v= 2, and v = 4-, that is, between r= a, andr=2a. Corre- sponding to the first value of r, we have s = = © and to the second = 5 at; the difference of these, which is the area required, ig 151. As the area ECPQ (Fig. 14.) of any plane curve fig, 14. is expressed by the fluent f'yd, in which y (PQ) is some function of the abscissa « (AQ), on the other hand, every fluent /"y dz may be represented geome- stan fi Sapa ne eto the ab- sci inate. geometrical represen tation of a uent shews distinctly wherein it differs from a common analytic function, such as a + 6.2", or a*, or sin. «, &c. These last have determinate Cone Fe ding to any assi value of x, and the valueof = cach function ia i of its preceding of magnitude to another. 152. The analogy of nearness. Let the fluent / y dw be required between the limits of = aanda= 6, Let CPD (Fig. 28.) be ig i Fig. 28. a curve, such, bag ye etc _ is begin at a given point A; ma x of the axis A, take AQ =a, : ig een re Se AQ” = 4, its greatest value, and draw the ordinates PQ, PQ”; then the area PQQ” P” will be the geome- trical expression for the fluent f(y dx, between the li- mits of « = a, and « = 6: and by whatever means that area can be found, the same will apply to the determi- eatin oe be divided ber of Let ivided into any num parts QO OO, he. and let the ordinates P’Q’, P"Q” fe. be drawn ; these will divide the figure into the curvi- lineal trapeziums PP’Q’Q, P’P"Q’Q’, &c. Let a series of rectangles PQ’, P’Q”, &e. be constructed, each ha- ving the shortest of two adjoining ordinates for its height; these will fall pains! within the figure, suppo- sing the curve to be entirely concave or convex to- wards the axis. Let another series P’Q; P’Q’, &c. be constructed, each having the lo of sroginns ordinates for its height; and all these will be- yond the figure. Because AQ = a, and = b—a, and the number of parts into which QQ’ is divided is known, the abscisse AQ’, AQ", &c. will be known, and from the nature of the curve; the cor- responding ordinates P’Q’, &c. will be known. Hence we can find the inscribed PQ’, PQ", &e, the sum of which will be less than the curvilineal sp PP"Q"Q;; also the circumscribed rectangles P’Q, > &c. the sum of which will exceed that space. Thus two FLUXIONS. Inverse’ limits may be found, between. which the curvilineal space oF the fluent is always contained. Besides, these may differ by as small a quanti dr diferente i manifestly tbe resangle PMT: for | I e which is containedby PM’=QQ’, andPR= the difference of the extreme ordinates; and QQ’ may Re sa soll 8. e pleas: If chords PP’, fasens Bs Gals, the gan tees lineal trapeziums PQQ’P’, &c. be a nearer approxi- pean iE ory aloe leccay pprpee pees p74 or inscribed - . As an example Set eyelicanians eA tis: iecthodp We tube pero Oo approximate to the fluent gr? between the limits of 220 Gnd 2 231: FH Aser ok ts — the equation of the curve CD is y = Let 9a” equal parts, ’ be divided into ten then, put- ting z= 0, x=.1, z=.2, &. to x=1, we oltain eleven equid ordinates ; the numeral values will be as WS: The Ist, 1.00000, . - The 7th, .73529. The 2d, .99010. | The 8th, .67114. _ The 3d, .96154. The 9th, .60975. The 4th, .91743. The 10th, .55249. The 5th, _.86207, The 11th, .50000. The 6th,. .80000. By the elements of etry, the area of the rectili- neal figure forured by the trapesiume, is found by add- ing together all the ordinates ex the first and last, and half the sum of the first and and multiplying the result by the common breadth of the iums, which is .1. peerala: ines 7.84981 for the area or value of fia veeween the proposed limits This fluent is the arc to the w, (art. 35). We have srpmanss hy.8. cutee) art. 148). If in that series we put «= 1 fluent, between ron ropa abe mits, will be 1 —+ 44 —44 &e. ; but is converges too slow to be of any use. The fluent ought to be glans 153. If the ordinates PQ, P’Q’, &c. go on continual- increasing, the inscribed will be construct- ed on the Ist, 2d, 3d, &c. ordinates, and the circumscri- bed parallelograms on the 2d, $d, 4th, &c. Observing, now, that the ordinates are the values of the function i corresponding to AQ, AQ’, &c. values of x which differ from each other by the common interval QQ’, we have manifestly the following rule for approximating to a flu- ent pes between the limits of x=a and r=b. interval between a and & be divided into equal parts, each to h. J per BER . . Y®, be the values of y corre- ©>= 4,@>=a+h, r=a+2h, &e. tox = +n h respectively, and let us suppose that Y, Y, &e. go on continually increasing ; then Syd UY4Y 4... 4¥P-), Sydz ah (VEY 4... pO). The difference of these is h(Y—Y), which, by ta- be.as as we Sep Reelicentiy small, may small ‘in ie oe which Y, Y’, ¥”, &c. curgitinibilivindtarmecet pip Y’, &c. first increase, but afterwards =a and «=é may be divided VOL. IX, PART I. 449 into two or more portions ; so that y may increase or decrease continually; from one extremity of each to the other. i cra Whatever be the values of y, provided they be al- ways finite from x=ato v= 6, if Y, Y’, &c. be de- termined as before, we have evidently, i Sydea=Vh+ Wap Yh... 4 YO h, neatly; and the smaller the increment / is, the more correct, will be the approximation to the fluent ;. so that the number 7 peng supposed to increase continually, and uently A to decrease, the expression will a - continually to the fluent, which will be its Leibnitz, and such as have taken his view of the subject, considered the fluent f‘y dx as the swm of the infinitely little elements Yh, Y’ kh, &c. Hence the origin of the terms integral, to integrate, integration, &c. (art. 112.) And as each was the difference between two infinitely near values of the’ integral, regarding hk as the differential of x, it followed that yd 2 (the general expression for each element) was the differential of the i This manner of considering a’ fluent is ex- tremely convenient, and on that ' account is ire employed in the application of'the integral or fluxional calculus, to physics and the higher geometry. 154; We shall now make some general remarks re- ‘ches Inverse 1. If an area s is contained between two curves CD, Fig. 29. ed, or two branches of the same curve, (Fig. 29.), let PQ=y, and p Q= y’ be their ordinates corresponding to the common abscissa AQ = 2, then fy dz = area CEQP, and fy’ dx = area cEQ p; therefore {(y—y') dx=area Cep P, 2. Or employing the calculus of infinitesimals, we may the area CP pc = fat —fot— ys. If area is to end at F where «= AF = 4/3, we shall find.s = 0, which pao that the areas ECH, HDF’ L lovene Methad. Of the recti- fication of curves. Fig. 10. rig. 450 FLUX equal but with opposite In fact, >= 1, weed that the area BC =venid the fluent | s*— 4 2* 4 ¢ between the limits x= AH=1 and 2 => AP =4/}{, we get the area HDF = —4.. In like manner, the area taken from~K to'H comes out = 0 because the space KOA below the axis is equal'to the space ACH above it. 155. Although it is not the abscissa x, then if we assume the ordinate y = =, we have ydx=du, and fyde=w pe. For ‘ex ample, let w = aa", ee ett aren Hence every curve of which the co-ordinates x and related, a fy Ba pi is quadrable in terms, and has its areas-aa2"+1+4¢. The case of pate Bs A ag te tga Pe Of the Rectification of Curves. 157. We have found, (art. 75.) that 2 and y being the co-ordinates, and 2 any are of a curve dz = dx + dy*); we shall this formula v(d oa : we now apply to Exampe 1. a ee 10.) Q=2, parameter = 2a. The equation of the curve 2adx = y', gives ade=ydy, anddz= dy “2 / (y+0*) ; the fluent (art, 128, formula (B), and art. 123.) is see¢ Ee v@+y) tbat fy+ vier}: If the fluent begin at A, then, when y= 0, z=0, in this case the general formula becomes 0=c + 4 a1.(a), and hence c= —}al. (a); therefore s=¥¥ (+2) + hal fetes te}. fais Re rae eis Se Alia the sea cul parabola, which the equation is 93 = aa%. In this ‘case: the general: formula gives d=" ayy (1492); hence, by art. 126, t= tral (14 92)" +c. This curve is ‘ectly rectifiable, and is remarkable on account of its eg owes thet cotrve thet tanning This dcovery wat de y Neil, and after- bra, chap. 77. Des Cartes’ , end of Ex, 3. Let the curve be a circle the radius OA =a, then, ; ig St wat OQ = z and QP= y from the centre, ep+yca’ KIONS. ewds sinh ee . —, Method. Wehr dey ala ea, e have an; inlining eles 4g rah inet a rad = 1. 8 a we have only to sub- ative = for x and = for a, we thus find: If the are. AD be a "and the fluent begin at D, then when x = 0, = 0; therefore in this case e=0,, “We have given a d ‘series in art. 148. Ex. 2. for an arc, in terms of the t ; and othersmay be found which shall. express it’ the cosine, cotangent, &c. from the formule of art. 35. But in no case what- ever can an arc be expressed by trigonometrical lines in finite terms. Ex. 4. Let the curve be be ge clipe t (Fig. $1. es Me SL ig oh the fiche (Ione FS ite =, ,w is 1l—c*),=e: (oe eee at ee eee CQ =eund PQ=y, and put the are BP (reckoried from the extremity a the empyema By the nature of the curve cy =4/(1— 2°), hence d y= exe vay vfi—asewe}ae a lemae VU Bs 0 AO The fluent of this’ cannot be found aaa tray eve withthe help of ciel reso ga therefore it can only be expressed by an infinite series. By-the binomia) theorem, we get 4/U'——*0= sH) 1.1.3: Lape oe ot oF eres Be pea ciao en grirr sp lp series by Faas amd take the uents, which will all be of eed the form A Va—ay and may be found by art. 130. and de" Thus, putting for the arc whose sine is x, we += elie te BP = m et Vag!) os geal 10 pss 1A aoe gai ~aaases—**) -ihereey che Ut? + a3 s*)va—=} 1S 1.3.5 . 4 ER f(t Fee +355" a. + &e. “im This expression vanishes wera 2D, a tought, therefore it wants no correction. a=1 all the terms containing ona) mak , as in this case 9 = } x, we Mi cniptis gy AB=ja(1— hem 1 LS pea This expression eeeeas Kargdre-mpar pestering have a complete solution, Eisley of ny wa Te SS Sere Fig. 31. FLUXIONS: Sie, neal te fecen at nearly = 1, Our.li- us torefer the teader. to the fol- ay er Se he Gp sy — Comm. Pet toma Xviii. te Mem. de UAcad. 1786p: 620; and Exercises de Calc. Integ. Ivory, Edin. Frank ‘Vol. IV. Wallace, Edin. Trans. Vol. V,. Woodhouse, Piil. 7 ioe eats os hype found exact length of a ic arc may be ithe same mane, omits equation cy = Va —1) 158. There is a very ic arcs, property of 171 Op. T. IL. p. sir) which has igen iby fe aes in the It be easily fl gn ar 7 rin ei of ce a at in (Fig. 31.) Draw C from the centre icular to EN ap A tantra con to wn tno D: also, ee nen dicular to the axis, As et, let CA We =c, the eccentrici- Tae CE =p, DE=t, Hp .snale AcE Cece ea the elliptic are AD = Because HK*= c# (1—CK?) und HK = CH 5 P* Of the Surfaces of Solids. a variable square Fig, 38. _ eh, «bt =f G@r—s)de= = (fas*—425) 4. 163. In Fig. 20, let AB be the axis of a solid of res of the sur- volution, and AP the oe ree Bae put AQ=z, faces of so- PQ =y, the arc AP = =, and the'surface generated by lids. the curve AP=v. The general formula is in this case Fis- 20. 3 supposing a = 6, have § ra? content of a sphere, > debater isa A et gee ede 9 is the area of a section of the spheroid v=2n fyo/(der+dy)=2" fydz the centre, it ‘that: the ~whole solid is 3 of We shall now apply this to some exam: Exampce 1. the solid be caohie at which the Ene ne nae eae renee te Gael be Pig, 34, r . surface of segment, tpl 7 AW gre oT ca etx + ama pendicular i of the sphere 162. If the solid APE (Fig. 19.) is not formed bythe °° SMaWPO sili uadinenie 20 teen & Waid; yot if theca =a, AQ the height of the =2; the radius of "be eferred to an axis AB, so that PE p, airy section of '° P&=y; by the = oe Netiwue the solid by a to axis, issome %42—x2*, hence ydy=(a—x)da, and dy= ’ known function of AQ = z, the segment of the axis be- tween the plane and a given A, its content le found fen the wiry taasd fornonle Bor ©. aiay-bo as m art. 79, that a ratio of equality is _ hence, du=2ryi/(d2*+dy)=2 rade, and vw=2 raz. 2, 8, F E : . equal to a rectangle contained by the height of the a ever and. a given point out of it ment, and a straight line equal tthe circumference of " Sito warn a straight that the whole surface of the sphere is four times the Fig. 39. of one of its great circles. Both of these conclu- sions were found by Archimedes. . congas reabry tees gi me Noe a A 19.), then putting AQ=-+, PQ=y, the parameter of - eer saiennenee (art, 157. Ex, 2.) that ¥de+dy= ~ dyvi(y? +a"), hence de=tay/ (de +dy)= SF ydyVly +0") and taking the fluent (art. 122.), = Sa If we we suppose the fluent to begin when x=0, then, because y is also =0, we have O=}ra? +o; hence c= —} 7a", and the adjusted fluent is sale {(fser—o} ’ 164. We have observed (art. 107--110), that the inde- finitely small increments quantities may often, on the grounds of convenience, be taken as their fluxions ; and, indeed, this is in effect the same thing as to seek the limit of the ratio of the Ente Sortiateeh. and then to consider it as the ratio of the fluxions. We shall now give two examples of this application of the infini- tesimals, Exampce 1. Let it be required to find the surface of ue cone, (Fig. 39.) be the centre of the base, V the vertex, VA the from the vertex, pent re pend in =H pert the civeumfarers take B any in the eineninfarenen aree draw the nt BD, CA_ produced in Ee draw VD icular to BE, and join CB, BA, DA, VE. The triangles VDE, VAE, are right-angled at DandA; AE? — AD? = VE* — VD? = “‘DE2; therefore "AD is porpenslictlar to EB, and uently lel to CB. us su) the radius of base to, be 1; put a fe fe istance of the from the cen- p for VA the altitude; and ¢ for the variable arc HB. P The trian les ECB, "BAD, are similar; hence EC: CB:: EA: AD; that is, sec. 9: 1: 7st. O— a sec. 0—a :AD = sec. @ = 1—a.cos. @, therefore,, DV= were acos.e) hs Take a point 4 in y near to B in the circum- ference of the base of. the cone; and join C 4, Vb; the small arc B 4 may be considered as coinci with its sma tengint. We are now to consider the indefinitely little arc Bd as the fluxion of BH=¢9,-and the VBé as the fluxion of the conical surface which the line VB poe over, while it moved from. the, position) H, along the are HB. We have therefore B J=d 9 ; and, as the area of the triang! Pee Nahe g ks 6x VD, if we put ¢ tr td eee a ie tons oe, dsx}doy fr+a 2u'@ con Oe a This is the expression for the fluxion of any conical, surface whatever, having a circle for its base. The des, termination of the fluent has long exercised the i of mathematicians ; and we .observe, that has at last; succeeded in expressing the whole app eeny (that is, the fluent between. the li- mits of @ = 0, and = 2 #) by elliptic arcs, ( Ezercises FLUXIONS. ore VE? — EA!—VDt— DA?;hence 4 2 0 cm'gul 9 il be te phere? surface APQ: de Cal. I 178). Bat the indefinite Aegot, ioe the n for the nace whatever, has not-been the conic. sections, pe for pa and p.° t f rf my cd If make cos. shen a sig rig tp eat Dash we ox oe Va—s) 1s)! The fluent be. fi Ph ge fy i on Bee A BT On UM A ate pres ds=4do FSi ty ve 1 ae the surface is Mire frodack of 3. acre fe sant side ofthe cone x. 2, Su circle to be di a Sm radius of the base of 1 eseibed aru an upright cylinder to be raised, here the hemisphere ; it eee the oval Hole made in the a the su which is bounded’ one of whichis DPAQD. Take P ae ate plane to pass tle re pose throu, P, m Spl the eee DPF, its its Sask me ocr: and fe of the cylinder in the straight line PE. Let CF meet rT es the base of the cylinder i in E, j join an _, The right angled triangles CEP, CEA have the sides, CP, CAy. ite .to the _ angle in: each, equal, and the side GE common to both; therefore the triangles are, equal, and the angle ECP:is equaltothe e ECA,. are FP is equal to the are FA: ee D. — pa ater eramnE nas UAE A and suppose another: ‘circle pq to ap fen indefitly near to the:former.»: We may consider the surface eontained»betweenA-PD and wh ACF or FCP ; then: the: AF, FP, and. AQ _ will each be, tae go to: ag; and Qq will res pendrin nt ears the are AQ;; and because the radius. of the small circle PQ iscw cos. 9,°we have a: aos, 9:29 (mare AF): PQ, hence PQ=a¢ cos. 9; and the area «PQ q p,. (= _—a xr ) Oss AF OP CO%.9 dQ; shenefucethasiads all the areas; (arre ts (art. 153,) “This fluent is a? (, but when ¢ = 0, then, the ; a = — a’, and,.the- (we omit the calculation for the sake of brevity,) therefore the expression which is put = 0, is an exact fluxion ; to determine it, we have p= ardz y dz STEFH* Ate = 0 /(2t +9) + are. (tan. the fluents being taken upon the ms) that y is constant, dP N—Wy ay z dy = J@+y) FF¥ Jon Bienen ees The fluent is therefore : ay (ey) + are (tan. =) 4 dy + o=0, Ex. $. Let the fluxional equation be wetmt® [+ 7eemh= z M=1+4 Matty)’ —7y dN —ry dz ~(#+y)¥ =36y, Hence it appears that the first member of the equation chap, 4. -=0, FLUXIONS. weed Tee eerie ot ee 76. hee ee We dition = 4N (which is called the condition of in- ility, satisfied, inquire ae ibe it said, we ny ext ini 1» and’, bY 0his ich, when the expression M de + N dy is mali, it may become a complete fluxion. Tet the Huxional equation be put under this form 72 4-K=0, K being equivalent to This equation’ results fom the elimination of a constant quantity ; ¢ between a pri mitive equation, which ma be expressed tas e in enna a sane Or else ie Gg) minated directly, ve to the form Fe 9 i Aan 8 Twilleaa ee Svan see Example in article 49.) Put w for F (#, y), —_ x for the fluxion of u taken relatively to «, and Qdy for its fluxion reetively toy; so pre oe Qadyand =P + QY=0; hence $Y 4% = 0. parpraferetsnneridbgiey Sonne ic er be identical with the equation 42 2 4K= 0; therefore P “Pas 4 Qady, ‘ =z Q(dy+Kdzj)=du. Now, the second member jon comeion fluxion, there- pond groaning 9 aay Urry cists n fluxional euction yp RAO be alii e fluxion Let both sides of this last equation be multiplied U, any function whatever of u, then we have " meEed Ne Udu. t Now, U duis still a com fluxion ; ‘therefore the other member of the equation will also be a complete — and as the factor UQ may have an infinite-va- ety of forms, ita rb me von oe Se num- nfinite re ‘actors, such, fluxional equation be multi- by any one of tens it aa oA oes fen ad f ving a fluxional Sele ctacel bites &c. “ These values being substituted in the series, we —_ u expressed. by ¢ known quantities ; we may then put «—a for ¢, andy— 6 for u, and the: result will, uns relation between x etard e might have proceeded wi original equation dy+ydx=ma"dx exactly as we have done with the transformed equation, assuming y= Az*4Ba*t! +&c. But as the result would not have contained a con- stant correction, it would only have’ given the relation of yand x upon the i :y=0, when z=0, The’ transformation, serves to introduce the constant correc- tion. 181, In the assumed series w= A" Bi**) &e. the exponents of ¢ form an arithmetical. progression, of whic the common difference is 1. In many. cases,, ever, the common difference will be a fraction, as. in this example (dz + dy)y = dw; here we may as-. sume Invesse: Method. 460 FLUXIONS. Method. yr Aae + Bay tC ae + KO yr" By proceeding as before, we find Avast? "yABos® F844. ACaa’ 4-&e. +ABee ty | pst 4 be. re facet yee | —! +A" +32 +e, Hence 2a— 1=0, a4+-b— l=a, a+c—1=4, &e. Therefore a= 4, 6=1, c=}, &e. Again, Ate=1, AB (a+-5) + A=0, &e. Hence A =,/2, B= — }, C=y'54/2, &e. and y= 2446/2 — dat y..t 28/2 —Ko This is the primitive equation upon the hypothesis that y=@ when r=—0. On the resolution of fluxional ee - mation, consult Euler Jnstit. Cal. nleg vol. i. sect. 2; Lacroix Traité du Cal. Dif: Partii. Chap. 6. Of Fluxional Equations y the Second and Higher ‘Se Of fusion. 182. Let f(z, y, c,c’) denote any function, or expres- al equations sion com) of the variable quantities x, y, and two ofthe s- constant quantities ¢, c’, besides, any other constant cond and = quantities. Then higher or- = at —— 3g uatio u aking the may y ve equation. Dy ; fluxion, (as explained Art. 45—50,) we obtain its, flux. ional equation of the first order, which will contain in addition to the other quantities, and may be expres- sed thus, S le 9 -, ¢,¢)=0.', (2) By taking the fluxions a second time, an equation will result, involving the fluxional co-efficient of the se« 2 cond order, which may be expressed thus, dy d* jes (x, » 7 ae Cc, e’)=0. (3) As these three equations will all hold ‘true at once, ‘we may exterminate the two constant quantities c,-c’, and the result will be a single equation P(=y, % $2) =0, (4) in which the quantities c,’ are not found. This will the constant quantities c,c’. ad We may arrive at the very same equation (4) in two, dz other ways. 1. We may give the primitive (1) these two forms, oa e)=e', (2, » c’)==e. pe pt ae per result of the first, nor ¢ in the result of the second. These results may thgre- fore be put under the form After eliminating a and 4 by these three equations, we get 2y— 229 4 ot SY x0, a fluxional equation of the second order, of which the complete primi ve equation is 2%—' az = We may otherwise put the primitive ples rhems or Taking the flaxions, and arranging the results, so that the constant quantities may stand alone, we have d at Qey— ne wet =2b, = 2a. ay = ay" I~ ae Yas taking the fluxion of either of these equations, the pe bien quantity in the second member disappears, and we find 2y— 29% 4 2 LY, the same as da? before. 183. As two of the constant quantities contained in the fluent of X dz, then taking the fluent ofboth mem- bers of the equation, and considering that, in the first member, dz in the denominator is constant, we have afxae= Pc, anddy=Pde4cda, — Taking now the fluents a second time, — y=fPdepoate + a » ¢ -. 1 gg menses = 4 ae 2-99 Pe er hte he FLUXIONS. 461 L cao As fPdz=Pr—fedPa2fXde—feXdz; dy Inverse “Method. i st; dp=Ydy, therefi => : F— therefor y= 2fXde—feXdeporten .° as Nidyp an pf mR git; Ueenehone pg.) Se ; Hemiaand aes den twa scenstmnhcommartinnaytnas '=54/(0-42 (Tidy) and a dy—ard£f= 0, here X= az, in this case, =f +7; eld ada ages She enter 7 (c+2f Ydy) n.the very same way, the primitive of the. uxional, where ¢ and c’ denote any two constant tities. sigs tall 1 apace aeipnete: eet TEs, "Hles the equation’ te ys powenndil or under the form aaa Xdz, then we have ie = ed =a+4y. Here Y=a+y, and 2f¥ dy=2ay-+y* fXdz=P +c, where P denotes the fluent /X dr. hence perp eprint ng aghemanyert soe td beeper pas dy "; rest the operation is the same as has been explained. “7 Jetiagty) + The primitive will contain three constant corrections : alike fluxional-equation of the fourth order would cons = = 1. fa +yt+ ve+2ayty)} +c’. (123) tain four, and so on. , ji ‘dy d?y eg — 187. When the equation contains os and x, aeiad dz dx?” # ut 9 it may be transformed to a fluxional equation of the d i put =p, then, dz being regarded constant, =~ = 22; the equation will now involve p, dp, dz, and constant ities, and it will be of the first order in respect of p and x: we may thence find dz = Pd p, P being put for some function of p; and since dy = pdx=P pdp, we have 2=fPdp, y=fPpdp These fluents being taken, and a constant quantity add~ ed to each, by elimi p, we get an equation expressing the relation between 2 and y. dy - d , Ex. Let aft sy (145% * — 0; when pis put d. dp, d’ : ad for 5% and Fp for 5 this equation becomes —~? + +p)* =0, hence OE ES ead LO (+p) (4p end takitg the Huents i i metelnnen expression problem : ae Ned Balen nde onan Me ead quantity. e primitive equa- tion just now found shews it to be a circle, which in- deed is sufficien! tly evident. frees first order, hentinae hated yond. Ses * for dy: then, if we can primitive of that fluxion- al equation, and thence the value of p in terms of z, we may have the value of y from formula y = Spas, or else, if we have the value of « in terms of p, then because fp dx = px—fxdp, we shall have y=pr—fedp. Ex. Suppose the equation to be _@e+ayh = y 5 OHryide _y dedy ~— dp " where X denotes some function of # then << Op and [= sh » OES aA 2 Vv Let V represent f/'S, then p= Ja=v) and, y= n Vda vaU—VYy As the first member: of the proposed fluxional equa- tion the radius of curvature of an cee: its primitive equation expresses the nature of a curve whose radius of curvature is a given function of the abscissa. 188, If the fuxional equation contain 5, and y, we may, as before, put p= 9, from which we got OY dP _ REP the -equation will now involve dp, dy, pandy only. When the primitive equation can be found, cdl Cette “lar Vitias be in terms of y, we may find z by the formula «= “Y; but when y is expressed. by p, we may then em loy the formula Shaul dy dx” to the same imitive equation. In fluxional equations of the order, however, it must always be under« Sars hkae: tion measure the fluxion of the other quantity, We have supposed y to be a function of x, sa. that d is consi- diese wo conctent, bet, to poss Sune ie of y a function of x, to that of za con- ? art. 96, and put 999° foe #9." A similar remark Oy a ee ee regarding = and y as functions the one of the other, they may both be referred to some other variable quantity ¢, by means of the formula above 4 a ey Exampte. Let the equation be (a4z) * ~— ar +2 49 0, in which de is constant te ho the above substitution, it becomes (a+) ian t a tay? in which dy is regarded as constant. 190. gg amainath ia ete pe which have this form, like ion of the first order, Fndecd, except in partodiar cases, there are no kniown methods of redu- i to the finding of the fluxion of a Ga variable quantity, that is, to ‘the quadrature of If R=0, in which case the equation is a ad Fo +P 5% +Qy=0, to a i be reduced to a fluxional equation of the first order by a very simple transformation. Putting ¢ for the num umber of which the Nap. log.=1, assuine y=e/*4*, then, taking the fluxions, by art. 26. rule ©. considering d x as constant, dy=udzel*@+, diy= e/uds (dudx+w'd x*), The values of dy and d'y being substituted in. the equation, and the common factors rejected, it becomes du (u'+ Pu+Q)dz=0. If P and Q were constant nem Me u might have been 4 constant quantity, we then have d u=0, and to u we have u+ Pu+Q=0. Let a and } be the roots of this quadratic uati then w=a and u=6, and hence these two values Spe ed Athy . Faby nine or putting C for e°, and C’ for e° ; FLUXIONS.: ’ as one of the ~ > y=Ce™*, y= lara es ony pr of ee, const quantity, bat by a owege if. rd y=Ce® Peo Rag or the complete primitive ara F To i th cml : re ¥ =a Ce age Be = +iCe * Bt cwcd* uC . T=7v7'\ From thi and the prinitve equation, fer elimina ting C and C’, we have : Papeete -- ions TR mom Hd il This will agree with the proposed proposed equation, i we ove a and 6 such values, that a +4 =p | If a and 6 come out impossible q ponents of ¢, Se Se will have the form “++ 8s/—1, but then the exponential e® "1, “may be! expressed by circular functions, Art. 123, and pe METIC io Sang pe” 191. wealeiile oueiibindiin. tos os, then fy and ae two. Pip of y, which. each mitra Sechide + Qy=0, we may take > WY 32 yaCu poy, 7 wr for the com equation. _ " _ sisviaattaad Sue Far the “3 al equation becomes (Fr + Ps ose WA Pes: ‘hy whe ster therefore the identical, d > the value of inte he Maes and 80 ue The property which we have china: fo, be linear equation of the second order applies to nae equations of all orders whatever. See Lagrange Theorie des Fonct. Anal. 65—70.. 192. As an exam —— of the manner of resolving a fluxional equation gig ie order by approxima tion, let the yt anyds =O, batters = see y= (ALB ott ae 2**4 ps JTS 00), thence we deduce 7% = Bui cy room yas Epa mb eyodng NBS Fade ax*y= aAx*t "+ &e. Fepeniste: mibsissing. in de usipond egeetie, we get _ ; ~a(a—1)A=0, Wk “ch 2+ 2 PNB SPARED, be, , “The first uation ppt ils sper corrections that enter into then the value of y; that have a = 0, a 8 Vetter 8 oe may be the case, we must - a aA ~— “TOF DE t D+ 2 va c = a A- Id ead 7a A sel series, but it is incomplete, because it contains only one arbitrary constant ity. Let us next consider the case of » = 1, and putting A’, B’, C’, &e. for the ing values of the coefficients A, B, C, &e. of which the SEE ET: eae il —aA’ ot /_ a See P= Gea) (2) “ ba: c re ham Al = (1+2)* —_—a@ 1.2. $(n+8)(2n-+5) (847) (242)5 “This 'eivéel's aeodnid Hcbanglati : aie, liy adding theltwo valties of 4, we get aa yr=At Bo cet Dee t ae Certs petty yas i 191. a (art. 19 gr ; D’= + &e. But then we may assume y= az, and the equation owill become a(a—1) + a@=0, which gives two values of a. Let them be a and 2’. The two incomplete fluents are y= “x and y= «'z", and their sum y=«2" 64 +-«'x is the complete primitive equation. See Euler Instit. Calc. Integ. vol. ii. cap. 7 ; Lacroix Traite du Calc. Diff. &c. Part i. chap. 6. This last work, as it is the latest and most copious, may. i i ing the most complete ‘view of any extant, Miscellaneous Problems. 193. Having now given as full a view of the prin- ciples of the Reseed erlesig as we conceive to be compatible with the nature of our work, we shall con- clude with a few more examples of its application to the resolution of parti lems. __ Pros. 1. To find the length of the enlarged meri- dian in Mercator’ s, or rather Wright's projection of the FLUXIONS. of e and z, then, by the, principles of the projection, —Miscelle be considered as exhibit- ; : 468 rad jet se Reale therefore, putting the ratio of the fluxions Problems. v cos.0 i . > gr wa? ee , z 1 Pane Oe peat Peep eee odes eae apd dt oe Therefore, taking the fluent (art. 146), 2=1. { tan. (45°44 of. Pui no correction is wanted, because when v= 0, then z=]. (tan. 45°) =I. (1) = 0, as it should be, If we compare the fluxion of z with that of the dif- ference of a parabolic arc and its tangent, (art. 158,) it will appear that they; are identical. Hence we have this elegant theorem... If, from the focus of a parabo- la, a dicular. be ‘drawn to any tangent to the curve, and a circle be Pn sem ee are as a cen- tre to throngh vertex ; the meridional 8 SE ee to the are of the circle between Bote tex, and the perpendicular to the tangent, is equal to the excess of the parabolic arc between the vertex and point of contact, above that portion of the tangent which is intercepted between the same point and per- Henry Bond, in the 1650, discovered, by chance, that the eniarged meridian might be expressed by the logarithmic tangents of half the complements of the la- titudes, a rule easily found from the preceding solution; but the difficulty of proving this was then considered so great, that Mercator off to wager a sum of money against any person that should undertake to prove it, either true or false. James Gregory, however, proved it in his Exercitationes Geometric, published in 1668, and afterwards Barrow, in his Geometrical Lectures ; their demonstrations, however, were intricate. After- wards Dr Wallis and Dr Halley gave demonstrations, which were sufficiently simple saidalagent Pros. 2. A body T proceeds uniformly straight line BC, (Fig. 43), and a body S in pursuit of T, moves always direct! 'y towards it, with a velocity which is to that of T in the given ratio of 1 to n ;“wHat is the nature of the curve described by S? Let the tangent AB, which makes right angles with BC, be put=a, the abscissa BR=z, the ordinate SR=y, dz the are AS = =, then the subtangent BASVa, : - (art 67,) and BT =e — 9 Now BT and AS being described in the same time, they are to each other as the velocities n and 1, therefore BT = n x AS, that is c— vs =n z, and hence, taking the fluxions, making dy constant, — y = ndz; butdz=,/(d2x* + dy?), therefore ndy _ ae yy ode+dyy Put dz=pdy, then d?x=dp dy; hence, by sub- stitution in the second member, ady___ ap" y A(+py Bid Ging eat tila i cml (el fr+ vit pt. along a Fig. 43. Moeeils- we Problems —_—\o Fig. 45. Fig. 4 464 Now, because p= 7 = um. RST (art. 67) when dew ena te Ry apeirof emery st hence » l(a) — #1 (y) = v fetyc +p )f and i Sal {reves ripe and and == p+V01 +P") a veitng thi epeliialonagtie and putting a adra 29 re, and taking the fluents a second time, a yin qayri ‘ <=— 7 adi +6; but when y=a, + is =0; therefore 0= | curve is at yi a ti 2na 88 — Tae aed Ce This line is the curve of pursuit remarked by Bou- guer and Maupertuis, (Mem. de U Acad. des Sciences, 1782). Pros. 3. If number of straight lines are drawn svcmecistentelaa tar; it is required to find the nature of a curve to which these are tangents. pts poh iri ogo crak r Po- sition, (Fig. 45), and K a 3 let number of lines KD, ED’, Oe: be Gevtiedewen,: oie in D, D’, &c.; and let lars: DC, D’C’, &c. be drawn to these lines; it is required to find the nature of the curve ACC’, to which perpendicu- lars are Without to the parti case, we shall re- solve the » and AE to be the axis of the curve ( re hee a of the co- oe cearn Fes ABoam Bios), Poseenie coe t in the curve, put AB=a, BC=y ; but again con- sieing Ce C as an 4;-~ whatever in the tangent, put AB=r’, Then, whatever be the conditions of the tangent, the relation rt A ms point in it, may be = P 4-Q, where P and Q disarm functions of con- gen may expres the mie which che selena anh &c. Let us now suppose, that the variable quanti anges ite Se eee ieee Be the new ion of the tangent corresponding to p+h ; then, considering P and-Ges finstions of 9, 0 oth lor’s theorem (art. 52.) P becomes P+ Sh 5S he. Q becomes Q. + ——- anh bt TOT + be. FLUXIONS. The relation of x’ toy’ in the new position of the tan- gut will now Ween eT -% ¥= Pr 4+Q4(Soe + SEHK + 8. whe 4 8 ptr al rng tem the series. Now, as this holds true of every point the tangent C’ Dy, and thoequation # = Pats =P Gs at ¢, the intersection of the:to aio wy is be true at the same time ; et ath ee ve Pre * Greta Fo) b+ Ke Be, =05 and dividing by 4, 92! oe +Kh+ &.=0. Colisaiva ape GS to “to coinci- dence ; when C’ come to C, then ¢ also fall at C; and fh, and all the terms into which it enters,. vanish ; also 2’ and y become « and y: and to determine the nature of the curve, we have these two equations = veer (1) = ip tap Ora = acterey Lea renredee XAMPLE 1. Letus now recur to the ses Su SE ae iB pe . K Fig. ts. to AE; AF pt Aten By KA KAS oan et DB ES Cm hh gain it will appear BaF a pli $ therefore” p= are o=t a? —P, ee SUED» a The second of tibee egutlncs pine Wane and hence the first becomes y= = — es therefore 4 a y= 2® is the tion of the curve, which is evidently a ps bol, of which AK isthe axis K the focus, and A the Bel ‘2. Sappoee w ray of tight RD (Fig. vane * from the sun to fall the concave po- asphere at D; atid te bestiened-xeteceed in the direc. tion DH; it is proposed to find the nature of the curve pln) a a all rays reflected in the same man- ‘a ieee ih the radios of the phere, and AE parallel Saecaeped ep theche let C orks = the reflected ra the curve ; let DC meet AE in BH, and draw CB icular to'AE: Put AD=a, aay the print vi be the variable angle DAE. ~ sae AD bisects the angle me whihs'te oceud oo HE, that is to the sum of angles DAH, ADH; therefore ‘the angles ADH, DAH ‘are: eqaaly aa angle DHE=2p: Now, by trigonometry, ‘ S = ¢ Fig. 44. Pig. 47. quantity p may also eliminate the tri- Fao capa ipo ja = gonometrical at he than scotons. 6t sh, anon. uebsia sm cloid, as we have demonstrated syn i article Epicyctom. The curve in a maiede Z Glee- tacaustic curve to a circle. of the curve a J(#, y, p)=9, / Q) that is, let some function.of 2’, and p, be supposed then be upposed arts curve HCD. and have. some other position H/C’ VOL, IX, PART U, is Let FL v XIONS. - 465 ‘) a : 3 AB’ =2", and B’C’= i esis on Salinabonsoh shi ans SADE x = ting a, other curve, and as, Tih , the two curves are eps. CHB Pre 1 ; exppeteed by evarap © the same form, we must xCB=—— 5s) ten “er f | BAS in CHE * pet Paretie fle’, y" pERy SOF Hence # = (AH+BH)= ae a4 op! tag Taylor's theorem, is equivalent sin. 2p sin. p h (2.) = ; a. (# m9 aap om ape x ys py ‘By comparing this with the general formula (1), it ¢p- LOY D4+——ap hp Kitp&c. ep SO 8B Gus SP = tiehaé;* * The fluxion being. taken’ upon the h is that w Pe eases co.2p rity alone is variable, and Kh?4 &c. being t for all C8 AO Sereda ahem: mliplcd bya power 1+ = »z= a: “Ep cos22p’ dp cos, 2 p a SP (hig intersect each other in c, and let Hence, by formula (2), Ab, and c=, be the common corinne then, Qu cos. p 2sin. 2p sin. pation (1) olde tone of crore Boe i cane cmap Yoon pt ~eomrap J* HEB sion Fane pth ake ci oa geet pope HO dily find, in them x and y, the: co-ordinates belonging to thei pan ay aeysaieey Ara Pe) o common point ¢; that is, we must have nr 8 Ae Sf (29 P) =O oe and PS aah that sin. p= 2ein. 0S. p, =e oy hor ceeetectbacriny tae? pf Anes, alse, oy pe spatertanohsin ner FCI?) A= Gy h+Ki24 &c.=0, c=}cos.p(142sinp) a; y=sin3p¢ ; , From these equations it is and hence ‘we'must also have _ os af (x; ys P) r eis F) Menos yak po 0. Let Cand C’! be now ‘the in which the curyes He.D;.H’e¢ D’ touch>the curve PCC’Q, whose nature is requited; then, if we su h to de- crease continually, and at last to vanish,: C’ and c will approach to C, and:at last -will-coincide with ‘it, so that x and y, which are.¢o-ordinates of c, the in- tersection of the two, curves. Hic'D, H’'c D’, will then become the co-ordinates of the curve PCQ. As all the terms which contain: will then vanish, we have evi dently this rules. i)s.»» Let the equation. of She, given carves, be S (YP) = 0% (*) « and y the ¢o-ordinates, and p a variable para- meter. From this iy the fluxion, sup- posing p to be variable, and all the other quantities con- stant, deduce this other equation, d @, Ys ob Ackiic Ba a ane var ea ee , which the nature of the curve, that touches all the given curves. This formula includes in it that of Pros. 3. Exampte. Let ACD, AC'D’, &c. be Parahols Se scribed by a projectile thrown from a en point A, wrish mgineds walodity tha "givin vertiod It is proposed to find the curve PCQ which touches them all, Let EF be the’axis of any one of the curves, AD an.ordinate to the axis, AP = a, the height due to the velocity of (see Prosectites), AB = 2, BC = y, the co-ordinates of C, any point in the curve, Put the parameter of the axis =p, and considering AD as a function of p, which isto be regarded as va- riable, put AD = q. 3 7... neous. Problems. —o Miwella- tio on —_—— a 466 FLUXLONS. the theory of of the =px BC; “ge—=py, (1) From the first of these, . Se pps + py—qe=O0," > and taking the fluxions, considering x and y as con- se ee “fires aie i ape ; a os “eRe therefore 2 20; bat frem equation (2); taking the fuxions, eee and hence ga wid by the first equation 2 = 1—, therefore > atic and sub- stitating for g* its value dyphncte hy sa (2), we get qz=2ap; ce, and by A= ptt aa A cdned te we have these two earns (2); ) boc ad 2a prery Me paeneteen ~ ay’ 42°? = (Sa? —4ay—2*) 2. Hence, 44 y = 4a* —x*, and this is the equation of the curve which is evidently a having ‘common intersection of all the 'para- ae on hot rameter = 4a.) 00 / of) on Ee d = yydee eoyutit 3 ee aryieey ) “ye -rdz=0, i constant quantity ; but besides Bie hat gulps satan ‘ —s=0, Son aichengh i edunic” an arbi Same praia a uation, peeps voit ithe eee The bounds within w ne to confine this treatise, have not allowed us to enter into this branch of the subject, pope although interesting, is Ly rs penceye - On this subject, see Euler, Instit, vol et 8 cap. 4. ; = m, Mom, de dead . 1774; also, ‘on, 5, 16, and 17; La- place, Mem, de l Acad. Par, 1772; dre, Mem. on. 1790; Poisson, Journal de ? Ecole Polytechnique 5. to be given by position, and that the force of each is. reel procally as the nth power of the distance from it; it is to find a curve in any of which a needle Gade i _ , its direction; when at Hes iff ia ee : or rejected, it be- . iican ‘etd ‘Seonbtibeal curve, We are now to number of points in it may ‘Let the CNS=— and CSN 8 the are of the curve NC. It appears roula 6,) that the tangent of the angle ACN el =r, therefore its secant carne but the numerator Sa ete ee of, We 6 formula 2,) Piette. 4 rec. ACN = ‘ sign in,positive, s eaninh ; Et, to gether:) we have therefore p*:q":: and pl :g"1::— de: dy; ‘bit teh NCS, scigoas eae road Aa orenanae! seistign eee hence we geen ay = Eriery =e =» nore ¢ an eae fe ie ah aid JSsin.gd Oto} tnsshihah se4 ‘ is exo or taking the fluents, ; CATIA WPS a4 cos. hia io ch enn a al gpa gina ie RP A Noe Se ORD Fig, 49. | Fly-Wheels, - Flying. ys onaha _FLUXIONS. of eivarde'D, with an intensity w. -is in the inverse. pc a clap ys gaa point from B: It is i anor to determine the a bait ap apne Let AB =a, AN=s, the space described t in a variable time ¢, Bis the vey which uires in the same time ; denote accelerating Bice,” whic it from N towards D, andm the: value of the force at some given distance, (an rt from thé point B: Dy oc eT oe Singtel ; or (t° =, therefore f= Again, let g des I eae a “ fore, whieh, act upon mov t from force F,, oe esr ao bite Fey asia Ben mpm Ke difference of these two forces, therefore F = f—g. From this , and the principles of Dynamics, (which see), we have these three equations i. F ras Fdvsvdv, dsSedt: en bythe Lelia eliminate any two of the fur re ae rch hie tal Ssbtiid Wr net vdv= ses ae, and hence, taking the fluents re 5 = mlog. (a+s)—gs+4e: To determine c, it is to be observed that have v='0, and s= 0, hence c= — m log, a adjusted equation of the fluents is it ace! a formula which is ‘ reed {eae CP) —2g eo “This equation. gives ip ag t has s described the space ‘o determine time Trt aaak vobatiente foro tes Be Saas canter and then take the flu- ent, which however rand be found by approximation or infinite series. If we sw DB to be a cylindrical tube, open only at the upper end D, and A to be a piston, ‘which fits the tube iy, em and descends xeviseliy te pti tg (Oh the air in AB the lower: Bein a e compressed air to piston Ai go is ee ‘to be inversely as space it occupies, that is inversely as AB, and cao the same time the piston is urged downwards by the force of 4 AF we abstract from ston, the pis-» ton will two forces e mipposed the materia point inthe entation of the, We have another example Of thia kindof. motion:in 467 as we have, sid a bullet fired from a musket or cannon:, By the inflam. - mation of the arenes Vee the it filled i is sudden- ly occu by a i al gr ty of elastic vapour, Shel uten ga forces the Pallet along the tube : If we ninpoee,«== AD, the. distance from the mouth, of Fe SPR 18 of the cannon, then 2! @ PAM MN Sae. wa be elocity with which the ball leaves it: We. may abstract from the resistance of the air eae t of the bullet, which alter this v very lit- pr, achrtn the pam ne baste ‘ey Aa is nothing: Therefore, making g= 0, we have raw f nba ()} to Gunnery. For other. of the icati FL Yy FLY-Warers See Mecuanics, a 1s _ FLYING, Artiercian. Mankind have a of the feathered tribes as an ve ascribed it to benge mae ere a ves, whose was courted or dreaded ra them ; and, after i and abilities of the human frame, that “to fly in the air” has universall pongo se one of those chimeri- cal + apresntee Hence ly as fancy.” Yet, on considering the nature of the in common with other fluids, the disposal — of matter of known specific gravity, and the applica- vicge hn Oe highest crane We Butso’ for a short time in the | its fins, fe oper” effect of the ‘ : Ein to levees eaatpe ee ‘ oe Bee sec Re asa to qi A species of ofcrelb Is ded with two broad membranes, connect-. ing the fore and hind li means of which it ace complishes leaps resem! lings ort flights. \ The nu- merous bats w inhabit » enjoy the pris, ow also en eg, is-a fish which ‘can leave the sea, ‘and ‘s _ by the * or two- win) insects; ne bd dala theapels le of support- ing the body. "The win of the motion of the: of fluxions to’ the theory of forces, see Dynamics, Sect. 5.. (&). i? sand ins, tself gs — are Pe ivaribly orms — Miscélla- neous Problems. which the move. ““Y~"” ers, bid od Flying. 468 FLY Flying. @d 6 feathers, Jong and light, and in general tapering at: those of: insects consist, (in some, of a thin pd cent Cam substance, covered with scales, which fall off ina powder, or of a reticulated frame, or of thick horny plates con) with the thinnest membranes. Bat all these varieties perform ana functions, in enabling the animals to accomplish theif aérial navi, tions. Nevertheless, their mode\of ction, is pot alike, and great specific gravity"is overcome by the rapidity of percussion on the air." ‘Thus, the broad wings of the butterfly, slightly exerted, sustain it as if floating above, while the wings of the humble bee are in the quickest raotion daring its flight. There is also'a considerable va- riety in the structure of birds, ‘and in their powers of flying. Some, as the kite, the eagle, and the swallow, rise to an incredible height, while in,’ the ostrich, and the emu, are incapable of elevating themselves from the earth. The penguin is provided only with short fea- thered stumps ; the ontrich has wings which are never ed but to assist it in rurining ; and the texture of the whole — of the emu plainly evinces, that it is not formed for flight. ‘It is not a covering of fea- thers, therefore, that imparts the faculty of aérial trans- portation ; nor is it essential that wings should be com- posed of light substances. poe ns Mankind have considered it possible’ to attain this faculty by the aid of artificial wings ; and have always resorted to them, in history and fiction, as the primary mode of rising aloft in the air. It is an idea that has been equally indulged by the ancients and the moderns. Dedalus thought to effect his escape from Crete, by the close iniitation of nature, as pictured by Ovid. Fistula disparit Tum lino medias, et cevis alligat imag Atque ita compositas parvo curvamine flectit Ut veras imitentur aves. ‘Meramonrn. lib. 8. But the ancierits went farther than ‘the mere concep- tion of such efforts} for we are told that they constructed machines in the figure of animals, which could actually fly. At the same time it must be acknowl] , that this is rather reported from tradition, than described by spec- tators, asthe wooden pi of Archytas, which is alluded to by Aulus Gellius, in these words, “Sed id quod Archy- tam Pythagoreum commentum esse atque fecisse traditur : , arash ms erry pobipro has videri dat hana rique nobilium Gracorum et Favorinus us memoriarum_ velerum (eo ogy affir~ ips i e. ligno ab account is less specific than could be desired of so. sin= gular a contrivance ; and, although it has been imita- ted by the moderns, there is the same defective expla. nation, After Charles V. resi oe, va various expedients were invented to amuse his leisure hours : Sot tea Seay ame oe cco ySrtin red fo epc fly, which having left his hand, flew about, and.at length, as if weary, returned to its master, -me- chanics have been content with representing the me~ ING. tions of birds on the earth, but not in flight ; though ee ; this is less difficult than may be supposed, Bishop Wilkins considers, “ that there are four se- veral ways beet this fyi in 2% geteniey may be atternpted, two em cae things, and two of them by our own strength. L. By —_ or angels; 2. By the of fowls; 3. By wings fastened immediately to the botly; 4. By a flying chariot/” The first he rejects as not being founded on nataral and artificial grounds, and the we have seen realised in the modern invention of balloons ; the second has se wht ne tried, though the extreme docility of animals mi it apparent! ‘be an encourage. ae the third has excited : notice, and the ingenious have endeavoured to reduce it to prac- tice. “5 wey 7 iy Se The chief and principal obstacle has ‘been found in that law of nature, whereby bodies of greater gravity than the fluids wherein they are immersed sink in them ; but this proposition is liable to modification, partly resulting from i of the body and the motion of the fluid. observers cannot fail to have remarked, that towards autumn the dandelion, a common » is covered with a do substance, Pals tr prota Uae tf gute Ixeale & ee Nighy falls to the , but ina e, it rises hi peckrtect eh ef mtaih in the air, until it ‘from our sight. 25 minute inspec tion, this substance is vered to represent a para- chute in miniature; the head, is feathery, and at the Oh at cae i vi e atmosphere. The One we see floating around us, is of considerable specific gravity; and it is sin, ‘ that it is not those birds eae erty ose bins it, nor those of a least specific gravity, that > greatest distances. the feathery Ganecaee could be put in motion while the air is at rest; or if an analogous machine, very light, could strike the surrounding atmosphere by any means that could be devised, its rise and progressive motion would be certain. sasefl Yeu I Weread of attempts at artificial flying in various coun- tries and at different et but we sod left without information respecting the means em : it has been conjectured, > stores that most of ne performances resembled the descent of ‘mountebanks on ropes, from lofty places, secured by a or traveller, while the agitation of) wi _ to their shoulders broke the force. of fall. Such was the exploit of an ese who, at the carder haga teed VL d ed a ; compared to a i ’s cable stretched from the ents of St Paul's steeple to the ground, running on his breast as if it had been an arrow out of a bow.” Of the like description were the exhibitions, of a juggler on: a rope stretched from’ pg gear age an Edinburg’ ed w the cross in 1598. | But these feats of address had frequently a fatal termination ; as’ that of ‘another from the battlements of St Paul's in the 4 of Mary; and as -at Shrew: in the year 1739, where one, who was no mount, having successfully performed several tricks on ‘a ‘rope a Tope ex- tended from the of St Mary’s: Seen oggdhe daient tnadinthe river, whe aenirind ie Was dashed to pieces by the fall: nett: poos. ret of old, exhibited in-these i 3° elsewhere, chigea ath repented alineldan Gouaaselayte divinities pro vided with wings, flying to meet soverei rinces on their triumphal entry into cities; bat dhe thode in-whidh this was accomplished ismot‘deseribed) 4 h, and fasten" “oe rm atrial E ; 471 FOC ‘a watchmaker of Vienna; actually realised the views of Flying the numerous projectors who preceded him, regardin A FLY + et wowee fying squirrels, bats, butterfies, fying fish, the flight of men in theair, We regret that we can- Pochsbers &e, with wings formed of compact mem! sail fly. not present a description of his machine in detail ; but and ion. pb reaped regions, In soiging operation, he particularly di- action of the air wi « the air is struck by the wings, ashen Sor dwtstmgt oy.A Se ag caused, pansive power air acting a resisting fore aginst the back edges of the wings, to glide for ward in a right line.” We shall abstain from follow- 2 | than 60 miles in 15 minutes. It appears, that in the year 1808 or 1809, Mr Degen, in. river § it seems constructed on philosophical principles, and to operate in a manner analogous to. the wings of birds, while the effect partly resembles the closing of a para- .chute stationary on its descent. A frame is made, prin- cipally consisting of rods of some strong but light ma- terials, on which the adventurer stands in‘an. erect pos- ture. A heart-shaped wing, nine feet long, eight. broad at the swell, and terminating in a ‘point, proceeds from that part of the frame close to each shoulder ; and a fan-shaped tail, apparently connected with both wings, proceeds from d as far as their swell, » Each wing is concave like a parachute, and, by a series of cords ~ from the extremity of the different. ribs, composing it,. can be suddenly contracted, so as to.give percussion agnipnt the air, and consequently by its resistance pro- uce elevation. It is not sufficiently explained how the i ph pe marae i ein aliges ed ; but Jhirto bene ferred, is is done by elevating, depressing, or re- volving a crank, connected. at each extremity. with the series of cords, which display or contract. the wings. M. is said to have mounted high in the air by the aid of his machine, and. to have exhibited a flight resembling that of a bird, not consisting merely in. as- cent or descent, but in real aérial navigation. | ~ We are hence entitled to conclude, that the elevation of man in the atmosphere by artificial wings, is not be- ond the bounds of possibility. Without indulging in fanciful theories, could it be reduced to practice, it-as- suredly would not be void of utility. @ reason why the invention of balloons has not hitherto been emment- ~ ly beneficial, arises from their unwieldy size,..which is an obstable. slinest ineupesile 9. gwcing. Utare.apd which leaves them at the mercy of the winds. be otherwise on the employment of wings, for a nar rower proportion could eserved between an oar.or a rudder, of whatever kind or description, and. the to- tal volume of the machine, than between the same im- plements and an inflated balloon. | Birds, however, present some physical A ised which man can ne- ver to imitate : ir muscular powers, their cor- poreal structure, and above all, their mode iration, are of a different nature from what.is witnessed among terrestrial somals,,, Hieneedt Fare pen ol stat she highest perfection of artifici t wo! a distant approach to the adptiaite prerogative which has been conferred on the feathered tribes. See Aulus Gellius, lib. x. cap. 12. Journal des Savans, 1678, p. 235, , Wilkin’s Mathematical Magic... Arch ia, We agp Grenie. vol. 1ii. ap pai Wal. s Treatise on. Artificial Flyi Si rge Cay- ley on Aérial Navigation, in Nicheloon's Somer mn xxiv. Annales des Arts et Manufactures, tom. .xxxi, Huber, Sur le Vol des oiseaux de proie,.. (c) FO. See Cuina, vol. vi. p. 243. FO-PEE. See Cuina, a vi. p. 219% rt FOCHABERS, is the name of a small town. in the, cone FORA, situated on the right bank of the pey, a few miles above its mouth, The town stands on a eae ground above the river, and consists of a square with streets entering it at, right angles. The houses are neat and well t, and the church, situated on the south side ics aA ae handsome building. A very large and elegant bridge, built of free. stone, md consisting of four eae i was latel thrown over the Spey at this town. The two middle arches have a span of 95 feet, and the other, two a span It might- is 568 feet. In the middle of the the building is an old tower in the 10th or 11th cen The is —_— — and if the A thriving state. An Account o, N= 2 Provines of Moray. (j) Asrnronomy, Conic Sections, and tiquittes, FOCUS. See Optics. FOG. See Merronotocy. : FOGGIA, a town of Naples, in the province of Ca- pitanata. In ence of the destruction of the old town by an uake in 1732, the present town was built with great regularity and neatness. The houses are well built with white stone, and the streets are The granaries, in which the corn is preserved, are built beneath the streets and squares ; ithi with stone, and the orifices closed with earth and stones. On account of the insalubrity of the climate, the town is in a great measure deserted in summer, but in winter it is supposed to contain about 20,000 inhabitants. ( 2 FOLKSTONE, the Lapis Populi of the Romans, and the Folcestane of the Saxons, is a town of Eng- land in the county of Kent, It is situated on unequal © ground near the sea, and consists of three i streets, built chiefl SS atyeed, te peiecioall 4 houses, many of which are good, are principally t of brick: The church, which stands directly on the cliff above the town, is dedicated to St Mary and St Eauswith. Ee ee annnton ualaamiaee tower rising from erent phn Frosh Which epeing: pemnted arc es, with lain large piers, mouldings. The market-house has been recently built at the of the Earl of Radnor. A free school was founded here in 1674, for 20 poor children. The Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists, have each a meet- ing-house in the town. There is also a custom-house Ks oto enjors mete good came wie isn F joys a coasting ,and shij d- ing is carried on here to a considerable extent. é in- i are, however, Sr ed in fish- an ing. ak is of : nara’ jan ae mackerel, herrings, soles, whi' , conger eels, ice, cipally by The ~ "was aml, = ed pine eipally by jetties ; but it recently much im- proved. Before the town there is 1 anchorage, with eight or ten fathoms of water. Folkstone is a member of the cinque ports, and is governed by a mayor, 12 jurats, and 24 common councilmen, '&c. This town was formerly very large, containing 5 pa- rish-churches ; but the part of it has been car- ried off by the sea. About a mile and a half to the north of Folkstone, on the top of a high hill, is an an- cient camp, corm ing nearly two acres. The small of Sandgate, is about a mile and’ a‘half west of Fol eA martello tower lias’ been erected in the centre of the castle of Sandgate ; and at Shorn Cliffe, on the hill above Sandgate, an ex- tensive range of barracks has been recently built, In the year 1511, there were in the town of Folkstone, Inhabited houses ..........5. 765 "GIRS eae ay 841 Do. employed in agriculture ..... 23 BE Se ais oes se OR 157 FONDI. See Funor. : FONTAINEBLEAU is a town of France, in the —— of the Seine and Marne. It is beau- tifully situated in the forest of the same name, and consists of a princi i ‘al smaller o Fontainebleau is chiefly celebrated for its royal which is built at the south end of the towr i = a qine four distinct chateaus, each of which has a garden, contains no fewer than about 900 its, most which are fitted up in the host ipl Pope was I odes i abdicated the throne 8 fos e ? woe aes in which Ponape > of France ; and | t before he set off for ai a6 x3 : ? ese, cae Haart ” foc beta . had not received ye since the revolution. The theatre is re . ibly e bai adorn th Bde aod geil ° middle ad a forest of Fontainebleau is almost round, tains about 25,000 acres. It covers several small and plains, and the surface of these hills is covered with thrown there accident. Many Re se talent for until his twenty-second year ; at which TARAS ACCOM BUWEEY GFE i bo have besa Kinled the perusal of some of the odes of Malesherbes. His first essays he was in the habit of submitting to the judgment of a relation of his own, who encouraged him to proceed, : uently used to read with him Quin- ie ta an é- best ron oars yk on- taine also endeavoured to improve his genius, by an ac- aintance with the Frerichi“aiid ‘Ttalian writers ; ana, uthors, he n the works of the most eminent Greeks author drew many of those fine moral oa among his which he has inte ples. A desire of enjoying the conversation of men of let- ters induced him to remove to Paris, where the inten- dant, Fouquet, soon procured him a pension. He was afterwards appointed gentleman to the Queen Henrietta of England ; but the corte Oe of that unfo: princess put an end to all his hopes of court maxims, t. —_— ao tee ‘Fontaine * oi —_—— FON Some time after that event, the generous and witty Madame de la Sabliere invited him to reside in her house, offering to provide him with an apartment and all necessaries. The invitation was accepted ; and he soon became so domesticated in his mp paniinens that » having once in a pet away er ser ea enes that she had an only her three ani- mals,—her dog, her cat, and La Fontaine., é‘ _ La Fontaine does not sppent to have any share of that lively sensibility, which has generally been considered as characteristic of the poetic tribe ; on the ‘contrary, he seems to have been gifted with a very ex- traordinary d of apathy and indifference. Ir his conduct and behaviour, he was plain, artless, easy, open, and credulous ; he displayed no envy or ambition; he never took umbrage at any thing that was said or done ; and he lived long in habits of the most cordial intimacy with the most celebrated wits of Paris, He made no in company, but frequently exposed himself to icule, in consequence of his awkwardness ani ab- sence of mind. Upon the death of Madame de la Sabliere, with whom he had lived upwards of twenty years, he is said to have received very flattering invitations from several of the English nobility ; ut he was induced to decline them, in consequence of the liberality of the Duke of Bur- gundy, and the emulation excited'among his own coun- trymen byithe generous invitation of the English lords. “Although far from being either an infidel or a liber- tine, La Fontaine had lived in extreme carelessness with regard to religious concerns. However, when in 1692 he was seized with a dangerous illness, the priest who attended him is said to have prevailed upon him to ress a ie piece, which was just going to be offered for representation, and to make a solemn apology, or palinode, in presence of a deputation of the members of the academy, for the publication of his tales. The singularity of his appearance and habits was such as to pass for stupidity among the vulgar, or with those who were not intimately acquainted with his character; The nurse, who attended him during his illness, observing the fervour of the priest in his exhortations to the sick man, exclaimed: “ Ah! my good Sir, don’t e him so ; he is rather stupid than wicked." He died at Paris in the year 1695. - La Fontaine is ly accounted one of the most original writers of France. His fables are esteemed as jae rye in that species of composition, and stand unrivalled by any writer of his own, or of any other « Ingenious thoughts are there unfolded with clearness and simplicity, clothed in at once easy and graceful, and adorned with t charms of a brilliant versification, while the most pro- found moral maxims and reflections are delivered in a style divested of tism, and seem to arise natu- rally and | t effort, out of the narrative. is tales, which are borrowed for the most part from the Italian novelists and romance writers, are nrg eps rid and vivacity ; but ae to 4 regretted, that the subjects in are such as ad- mit of no moral application ; ead wie no art can di. Vest of a colouring offensive to delicacy. (z) _ FONTARABIA, or Fuenta Rabia in ish, and ri rapidus in Latin, is a town of Spain in the dis- trict of Guipiscoa. It was formerly called Ooaso.. It is situated in a small peninsula on the sea coast, on the left bank of the Bidassoa, and the town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on a hill, which looks to the sea, on the south angle of the Gulf of Gascony, It is well fortified both by nature and art, being defended VOL. IX, PART IL. 473 _borde's View of Spnin, vol. ii, p. 349. FON by a strong fortress towards the sea, and on the land Fomtencile. side by the high mountains of Jasquevel. The har. “"\-——" bour would be good were it not left dry by the tide. Its position, according to trigonometrical observations, is, West Long, 1° 47’ 15", North Lat. 48° 21’ 36’. See La. (j ' FONTENELLE, Bernanv ue rice De, a French author of considerable celebrity, was born at Rouen, in the month of February 1657, His mother was a sister of the famous Corneille; from whom he may be sup; to have inherited some portion of that literary genius for which he was distinguished. Fontenelle acquired the rudiments of learning at the school of the Jesuits at Rouen ; and at the age of thir~ teen, he produced a successful Latin prize-poem on the subject of the immaculate conception. At fifteen, he had completed his course of studies, His father in- tended that he should embrace the profession of the law, which he himself had prosecuted with success ; and Fontenelle actually pleaded a cause before the par- liament of Rouen. But the discipline and habits of the legal profession were not congenial with his easy and indolent disposition ; he resolved, therefore, to abandon these pursuits, and to devote himself entirely to litera. tare. With this view, he accompanied his uncle, Tho- mas Corneille, to Paris; and commenced his literary career by the production of a tragedy, which, however, was unsuccessful upon the stage. But he bore the dis- appointment without murmuring; and undismayed at the result of his first attempt, he turned his attention towards other subjects, in which he was better quali- fied to excel, The first preduction which contributed to bring him into notice as an author, was his Dialogues of the Dead; which, although written in an affected style, and ob- jectionable in many respects, acquired considerable po- pularity. His Letters of the: Chevalier d'Her**® are much inferior to those of Voiture, and might have been suppressed without any injury to his reputation ; in. deed, he never expressly avowed himself the author of these letters. In his Lelogues he departed from the peculiar style and character of that species of writing, and introduced ingenious thoughts and fine allusions, remote from the simplicity of pastoral life, The two works of Fontenelle which contributed most to establish the prputation of his literary character were, _ his Plurality of Worlds, and his treatise on Oracles. The A of both of these treatises was bor- rowed; but his luminous and methodical genius gave clearness to subjects that were previously involved in obscurity ; while the graces of his style, sometimes per~ haps a little too brilliant and flowery, rendered the principles of the abstract sciences acceptable to general readers, by bringing them down to the eygl of ordinary understandings, Fontenelle. a epi to have had a great desire to dis. tinguish himself as a writer for the stage ; and after ha- ving failed to obtain the success he expected from his tragedy, he attempted the composition of operas; but of all his dramatic productions, the opera of Peleus and Thetis, which was first represented in 1689, is the only one which had merit sufficient to preserveit from oblivion. While yet a young man, he took an active part in the'eontroversy which then agitated the literary world, respecting the comparative merit of the ancients and the moderns. Fontenelle declared himself an advo- cate for the latter; and his conduct in this dispute is thought to have proved an obstacle, for some time, to his admission into the Academy,—an honour which he at length obtained.in the year 169), During a pes So Teowmie riod of nearly 66 years, he contributed to su VF oxfarvhire. —— yy bit moral conduct, character. rOR i 2 F lustrious body, by the and the splendour of his He was also admitted a member Academy of Sciences in 1697; and two years wards, when the constitution ‘of that learned underwent some change, he was clothed with », and became one of its celebrity of that bal 2 F : abe &8 E | re =F | | ided every kind of bodily and mental fatigue ; abstained from every sort of diversion that FOOT. See Mzasunes. FORCES. See Dynamics and Mecnanics. FORESTAFF, the name of a clumsy instrument a. exploded, for taking the altitudes of the hea- ly at sea. FORFAR-Suire, one of the maritime counties of 1. Natural History—The county of Forfar, known also by the name of Angus, is situated on the east coast of Scotland, immediately to the north of the estuary of the Tay, between 56° 27' and 56° 59’ of North Latitude, and between 6° 14’ west, and 0° 46 east of the meridian of Edi It is bounded on the south-west and west by the county of Perth ; on the north-west by Aber- deenshire ; on the north-east by Kincardineshire ; on the south-east by the German Ocean, and on the south by the Frith of Tay. The line by which it is divided from Perthshire is very uneven, and extends from Kingudie, to the westward of Dundee, in a northerly direction to the source of the Isla, The division between this coun- ty and Aberdeenshire is chiefly marked by the Water shed ; the containing rivulets running northward to the Dee belonging to the latter, and the ground with rivulets running southward into the Esk or the Isla to the former. North Esk divides the lower pet of the shire from Kincardine. It contains 977.97 English we —apeancapmectenats Scottish acres, is county, possessing both maritime; inland, and Sp near mera variety of aspect and climate. igh grounds, among the Grampian mauntains, where the snow is seldom Jong absent.even in the sum- mer months, the air is cold and piercing. In the inland 474 FOR districts, the climate is mild and genial; and might be said of the places along the coast, not occasionally visited with easterly breezes, previously chilled by the cold of Scandinavia. Several registers the have been kept in rrp uaa county, in which the quantity of rain, and the, state of the barometer and thermometer have been recorded with accuracy. One of these s ‘at Belmont, in Strathmore, twelve miles north-west aha ar two miles distant from any eminence, indicated - lowing quantities of rain, in inches and decimals, during six years. “tah 1 In the year 1790 sta) 5775 1791 87.1 1792 38.4 1793 39.5 1794 39. di 1795 pein During the three first years of the preceding period, the following appears to have been the state of the baroe Mean height of the barom. in the year 1790 29.59. 1791 29.61 1792 29.59. Mean height of Fahrenheit’s thermom. 1790 41° 5 1791 42 1792 42 Another register kept at the Crescent, half a mile west Inches. 1790 Rain 22.27 Thermometer 51°. 1791 24.8 48.5 1792 34,12 48, 1798 28.18 49. 1794 30,44 52. 1795 Ga 29. avs 46. Althou are many springs in , none of them i be considered a2 enna vatn either for the quantity of water which they discharge, or the mineral substances which they hold in solution. A few springs of the chalybeate kind are resorted to by labours ing under oo arising from debility « bith oe rf digestion. principal springs are, one in the bourhood of Montrose ; another at Wormy hills, one south-west of Aberbrothick ; and a third at Dumbarrow, in the parish of Dunichen. oF be" Formerly there were few in which lakes did not exist; now the number of these is greatly reduced. A few have been drained ahhinas tevingg oe Sees + of the arable ground ; greatest number, containing fine shell-marl at the bottom, have been drain« ed, in order to obtain that valuable manure. The lake called Lentrathen loch, situated amidst the Grampians, and in the neighbourhood of most magnificent scenery, is nearly of a circular form, about a mile in diameter, and yields to the botanist several rare plants, another of the Grampian lakes, is about a mile in and a quarter of a mile in breadth, In the 1 parts of the county, we meet with the lakes of F. and Roscobie; and among the Sidlaw hills, those of die, Balshardy, and Pittendreich. These are well with trout, pike, perch, and eel. : The eee) rivers in this county, or qwalers as are provincially termed, are, 1. The North Esk. river takes its rise from Lochlee, whose wa’ plied by many small streams, which flow 5 i rr) B E| dz inal inane BE : —<——» ., §™=-.—_— Lakes. rw Forfarshire. houring mountains. It descends from the high grounds _ “-_~— with considerable rapidity, and, after having been joined : y several small streams, as the Mark, the Tarf, the i“ ‘est Water, and the water of Cruick, it empties itself ; into the German Ocean, about three miles north-east of Montrose. 2. prints orarr wicca ree ade - mall Jake arising among the Grampians, fed by the moun- : Pceveuntive Gore Descending from the Grampians, “ by Brechin, empties itself into the basin at Montrose. these, an almost uninterrupted continuity. does not greatly exceed 1000 feet in height Tay. . It traverses the whole extent of the county from EERE ipie u 3 ap ! iy ge< 8 fifa i : HT i | E i Eee 2 3. Es ( t # ? i F = oe ‘BEF £ ? FORFARSHIRE. 475: very prevalent rock in this district. It rests upon: the Forfarshive. granite, and is fine-grained, compact in its texture, and 7 \o~ usually of a grey colour. It contains in several places ”"* 5" beds of hornblende rock. . Mica slate is by far the most abundant rock. The mica which it contains is termed’ sheep's siller. It seldom contains garnets. Granular limestone is by no means of rare occurrence; and were the Highlanders disposed to burn it, they would soon improve their pastures. Peat is at hand, and. answers well as fuel for the purpose. Clay slate occurs in the less elevated districts ; but in these strata no good beds of roof slate have as yet been discovered, owing probably - to want of skill and industry. These primitive rocks are traversed by veins of porphyry, consisting of a basis of compact felspar, with crystals of felspar, and grains of quartz, These veins are from 8 to 10 feet in breadth, and although occurring at considerable distance from-one another, yet they all observe the same direction. They stretch nearly from south to north. Lead glance has al- so been found in veins among these rocks. It was for- merly wrought to a considerable extent near the old cas- tle or Innermark, and yielded a sixty-fourth part of silver. In descending from the Grampians towards the valley of Transition - Strathmore, the transition rocks make their appearance. rocks. They consist of grey wacke slale, in which the shistose character is more or less distinct, and the imbedded grains of quartz more or less numerous. In this slate numerous elliptical masses of jasper occur, in some ca- ses extending to 30 feet in length, and 10 in breadth. - The slate likewise contains nests of slate spar. Compact occurs in beds of considerable magnitude, of a reddish brown colour, and a conchoidal fracture. Seve« ral varieties of trap‘ rocks also present themselves, under the forms of e and basalt. Limestone also oc= curs of a darker colour, of a less crystalline structure than the primitive limestones, and:is much traversed by veins of quartz and limespar. The-older members of this for- mation alternate with the newer portions of the primitive class, and constitute the fundamental rock of the flotz class, which we are now to consider. The fleetz rocks of this district, although they present Flat: variety of composition, may all be referred to the tocks. old red sandstone formation of Werner, as red sandstone isthe prevailing rock. The red sandstone-is, in some cases, fine grained, and answers for architectural purposes ; and, in other instances, it passes into loney or 2 rock’ composed of water-worn pieces of the more an- cient strata, imbedded in a basis of sandstone, or ferru< ginous clay. The sandstone is frequently in the form of slates, or flags, and is much used for the roofing of houses and pavement. Limestone is likewise common in this district, and in several places is quarried, and burnt fer economical purposes, It is commonly in the form of limestone conglomerate, a condition which appears pecu= liar to the limestones of the old red sandstone formation. Besides these rocks, there are extensive beds of trap, provincially termed scurdie, under the form of green- stone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacce, clinkstone, felspar, and porphyry. These rocks are traversed by veins of lime- spar heavy spar, and frequently contain traces of ores, ‘These floetz rocks rest. upon those of the transition class ; and, at their southern extremity in Fife, support the strata of the coal formation. The alluvial strata, as may-be expected from. the va- Alluvial riety of surface, very different in appearance and strata. composition. On the summit of the Grampians, there is ~ either a light gravelly soil formed from the decay of the primitive rocks, or the moisture of the air in those ele- 476 Verfarbire vated regions has #0 far aided the growth of the tribe of —y—" nlants termed Musei, that extensive strata of Botany. moss have been formed even on the summit of the highest hills. This substance is likewise ‘common in the inferior dis- triets, in those places where lakes have formerly existed. As an article of fucl, in a country where there is no coal, it is of first-rate importance. Marl, principally of the kind termed shell marl, is very common in Angus. It is found in beds under peat moss in old lakes, and is ex- tensively employed as a manure. When daid on grass ground, it promotes the growth of clover, rye grass, and other nourishing plants; but when employed as a ma- nure for. raising grain, it is found to thicken the husk, of oats in particular, in a remarkable degree. The shells in the marl, are those which are still to be found in plen- aa are light, gravelly, and of a red colour. no county in Britain, where plants have been investigated with such laborious industry, and success, as the county of Forfar. It was the birth-place, and latterly the permanent residence, of the late Mr George Don, whose knowledge of the localities and habits of the plants of Scotland, and of Forfarshire in particular, was never equalled, and who added more new species to the British Flora than any of his botani- cal predecessors or survivors. From his list of the na- tive plants of Forfarshire, published along with the agricultural survey, where a scientific botanist will find a storehouse of facts, we extract the following obser- vations. On the mountains of Clova, the botanist will find a rich harvest of the rarest kinds of alpine plants ; the Sazifraga ifida, Ranunculus alpestris, Eriopho- rum gracile, nd ongpe.seant Hieracium divaricatum, and Potentilla Among the cryptogamous plants, he will find the Grimmia Donniana, (named after Mr Don, crista-castrensis, Riccia fruticulosa, and Jungermannia sealaris. On the sea shore, he will meet with the Ely« selum vari 5 The zoology of Forfarshire presents fewer varieties than its botany. Mr Don has given along with his list of plants, a list of the animals of Forfarshire, which is re- was vague and inaccurate. Among the quadrupeds, we may mention jd, 9 to prove, that it extends far- i than Mr Pennant was aware of, for he restricted its northern limits to the river Tay. Among the birds, we may number the dottrel, (Cha- radrius morinellus,) which visits the f of the Grampians about the beginning of April, and continues about three weeks, before going to the fy ttre ge breed. It returns about the beginning of pimp ome after resting again for three weeks, it retires to the south, Sieeecde ee ee > Among the mollusea, we may notice the Unio mar« garitifera, or pearl-bearing mussel, as being found in the alpine rivers ; and in the rocks on the shore, the Mya suborbicularis, The sands of Barrie furnish the Echinus pusillus ; and the sea tathe adhering to the lobster cages, FORFARSHIRE. Bi: = 7 will yield the student-of ature the Sertularia li | Forfarshires trum and dumosa. Mie in 2. Civil History.—In ancient times, this county was uni- History ted with the Mearns, and'seems to havereceived the name of Herestia from Tacitus, in consequence of the moun- tainous aspect of its northern boundaries, It was, , . disjoined from the Mearns by Kenneth II. about! year 838, and bestowed upon his brother A2neas ; and from this circumstance, it was termed Angus. . But as Forfar is the town, it is now more known by the name of Forfarshire. It is at present vided into fifty-six parishes, distributed into five ] teries, which meet at Forfar, Dundee, Brechin, and Aberbrothick. These five i with the presbytery of Fordun, constitute the: Tos cucmeepapath here held by chaf- je greatest part estates are : ter from the crown, and are termed freehold. In so Past cases, the property holds of some ietor or tion, and in this case the granter of - Pak wisi of the lands the vassal or 3 : i H Mr Headrick could obtain, it appears that in 1808, the gross rent of lands, woods, quarries, &c. in ‘the county, and including farms in the occupancy of proprietors at a reasonable valuation, amounted to » £208,924 15 3 Estimated value of house rents . . 95,872 0 6 5 wy Se , Total rent from fixed « + £304,796 15 9 property The number of freeholders at present on the roll, Freehol- we olaneniie There are five royal borc — ORFAR, £, ABERBROTHICK, 4 Brecuin. (Sce these articles.) Before the Union, sent one or more commissioners, ing to its dee have been united with Perth, Cupar in Fife, and St Andrew's, in choosing a tative ; while Aberbro- thick, Montrose, and f ; to Invers - where only four are j The population 24,087 families, containing 45,461 females, making a total number of 99,127 souls. “In the year 1811, the had ine 8451; and at that period amounted to 107,578. The cause of the ex« cess of females in the preceding enumeration, must be sought for in the numbers of young men who enter the . a FORFARSHIRE.. taking into account the numbers who are occasion- ally er OCA Mid SAoe Gail booed aad Ws ORO Number of farms whose yearly rent is under £20, 1574 Dakoubesy ye £0 eR tebe tap 5} gk ss BDO tO L1LON ge ee ey? 682 Da, from £100 to £300," ee gh apie - "Total number of farms, a ¢ 4 2 4 . pre timer cares own) somarciy el bod which, when properly wrought, is no mean substi- tute for stone and lime. In general, however, ‘they'a built of red sandstone or whinstone, and sometimes r¢ ed with thatch, or blue slate, or sandstone | a farm of from 100 to 200 acres, there isa dw ~house built with stone and lime, of two stories, often and plastered on the inside. The offices commonly form three sides of a built of the same materials, of size cor to the extent of the. farm, The ordinary a lease is 19 years, and in some cases two years longer, ‘The rents, in general, are paid in money: where grain is paid in rent, it is usually con- verted into money at the fiar prices, In many parts, the farms are under the most judicious management, while, habits still preyail.. It would be difficult: to enumerate the different kinds of grain raised in the , any fare been here, and formed a considerable pors tion of the rent paid $0. sharkncien't thonasterscf tibeks by It has been known to weigh 17 stone 3} English, per boll. White wheat is the variety generally d; red wheat, although it yields a heavier crop, is more liable to disease. Spring wheat has been tried, but without success. Bear, here called Chester, still ae. stones Dutch per . meal and as pot~ bide quantities. Several kinds are cultivated, such as the 5 : g ‘Bey af bol is hich are unfit fc : 5 : e i gs f r at Moi t= ’ 477 trose, Panbride} Barry; and Monifieth. Faw is still vai- ‘sed in the county in ‘considerable quantity, although not to the‘extent which might be considered expedient. Hemp is never even attempted. ‘The manures principally em- ployed ‘are, farm-yard dung, lime, marl, and sea-weed. The ancient breed of horses’ was the small sheltie or garrow, and this breed still remains nearly pure and un- mixed among the Grampian mountains, where numbers of horses are required to convey home from the moun< tains winter fuel, and to perform other operations where there are either no roads, or those very steep and breed pians, from four to six Scots pints.of milk each’ day is the usual quantity ; and, in the more fertile districts, from eight to ten pints is the general average. Sheep abound in many districts of the country. The mountain shéep; ‘in. an unmixed state, maybe found among the Culley, or'the'Cheyiot br oe ntry. At least two breeds of swine are found te, brn and ed as natives. Datbits are end “as thei mands. the stag still exist in the county ; and the er has protection in one park. The manufactures of this county are numerous and tant. Among these, the manufacture of linen stands in the a Seas ran iat apr apna eA millions of yards stamped annually, the greatest. part which is exported from the county... Dependent on. the manufacture of linen, are several extensive, bleachfields and spinning mills. The. county likewise possesses se~ veral excellent. harbours, as Dundee, Aberbrothick, and Montrose,. are two. custom-houses, the one at Dundee, haying the jurisdiction of the ports in the Tay up to Newbury,; and the one at Montrose has. the super- intendence of the port:of Aberbrothick. | To the port of Dundee 147 vessels ; to Aberbrothick. 56 ; and to Montrose 67. ~The whole tonnage of the county amounts to 21,859 tons. . : The coast of Angus abounds with every useful variety of esculent fish. ie cod, the haddock, the flounder, and turbot, are in'abundance; and yet the quantity ta- ken is by no means great. In the Tay, salmon are Po ok cdnsiderable numbers, and sent to the London packed in ice. © Lobsters are obtained on different parts of the rocky coasts. = Forfarshire. Live stock. Manufac. tures. Fisheries. There are many excellent roads in Forfarshire ; and Roads. there are abundance of materials for keeping them in re- pair. The only bridge deserving of notice is the one over the North Esk, which connects the parish of Mont- rose with the county of Mearns. It was built by sub- eg to which government granted Shi Jiberal aid. or farther particulars,; the reader is to the Rev. Robert Edward’s iti Angus, first pub- lished in 1678, and an i a ir | 1793... Co- lonel Imrie’s «* Section of the Grampians,” T'rans. - Soc. of Edin, vol. vi, The Rev. James Headrick’s Agri« cultural Survey of Angus; 1818, Dr Fleming “ On the Rocks near Dundee,” Mem. Wer, Soc. vol. ii. (J. FO.) Forfar. —_—— 478 FORF borough, the capital of the coun- wage oo stands a eeagihat ot writin ge respecting a parte gs tithes, &c, the pa- rish is designed Forfar Restenet, The latter is the name of a priory, two distant from the town, and for- merly surrounded by a lake, which is now drained ; to be expressive of the for which it was built, viz. as a safe repository charters of the of Jedburgh. In ancient times, Forfar was honoured with the resi- . The ruins of a palace, or castle, are on the top of'a mount, which rises about 50 feet above the level of the plain. Here Malcolm Canmore held his first parliament, in the year 1057, immediately after the recovery of his kingdom from the usurpation of Macbeth of the castle, cut in the name of which is su miles eae the at A ice, whi ve Way under them, and’ shed, Their die were biterwatds fut and ig ascer- tained that they were the murderers of the king, were hung Git ptbets by the highway, "! >” 0 J During the usurpation of Cromwell, a detachment records. By that wanton deed, pate written memo- rial of its antiquities perished. The oe Premed which the year 1650 and 1662. The witch-bridle, as it is cal- i da npn. peg at di Aly. gh eh par: pd served. ep a Et ae og’s ; e pikes were story of this borough, is, that it obtained an act of the Scottish bg re in the reign of James VI. changing the weekly market-day from Sunday to Friday. At what time it was changed from Friday to peg yi not known, 7 ugh is governed by a provost, two baili twelve coe lors, aad four Ri Bell sete: Poe who rs present their respective mp All chosen annually, and the council mart pr nineteen members. In order to the election of tliese office- bearers for the year, some days before Michaels FORFAR. mas each magistrate names five four new deacons of craft elect, nineteen additional electors ; and by these — the new magistrates and council are chosen, It - of and often does happen, that the number of-electors falls short of thirty-eight, or twice nineteen ; because, if any of the old members die before the end of the year, and if one or more of the old deacons be re-elected, there are no substitutes for them on the new list. _ But if all the old nineteen be alive, and if four new deacons be elected, the number of electors must, by what is called the set of the borough, amount to thirty-eight, The twelve councillors may be annually re-elected ; th ost and bailies too may thus be members of coun- cil for life. None of them, however, can be elected to the office of magistracy oftener than three successive years in one series. But, after having been one year out of office, and returning to the rank” of common councillor, or private citizen, each may be re-elected aaa man he : wswaryt pekte oh . The coun the pri in conju with the town bre of Dundee, erth, pg ue and Cupar in Fife, of electing a representative in parli Went.” The vevente af ‘iosogiita from £ ye £1000, It is the seat of a presb , and of the eo ee lace where pa and cornmissioners ’ meet for transacting the business (of the county. — ‘On-a ite sadhana ee the town, several fairs are held throughout the year, which are well frequented ; the custom’ of which was many to Candlemas, a week free of custom, is held on the street every Wednesday, for the sale of fat cattle; and during the seed Wess coat ciel nite Ae tae ae the These tend to inc Eeveey:" Abdi the’ fear Thks, the ale uiieaes ee ety a ears pit ar tibet aftatly co Boeaiehe EE increase of the population o ; tory of the introduction of this manufacture phage) It was brought to Forfar by a ; who ' to market, made it into a web, and offered it to his merchant as a piece on which he was willing to lose. The merchant, who had been’ in Germany, “ag or, Sa the:similarity betwixt it and the fabric of aburg, and with difficulty pre- vailed upon the weaver to attempt other pieces of the samekind. The experiment, however, succeeded to his wish ; and a company was soon afterwards established at Arbroath, for the purpose of conducting the new from whence the discovery was brought late years, Osnaburgs, of the best qua- lity, denominated Strelitz, have been manu ed for the London market, with sheetings of all breadths, Bri- tish duck, Germans, &c.. The wee 2,500,000. yards annually, the average value of which may be es~ timated considerably above £100,000. Forfar has been long celebrated for brewing good. beer. About twelve years ago, one establishment was, formed, and afterwards another; for brewing porter, , who, with the — Forfi. e up the number of “VY” al a | Ae a , a ~ nae Dette: ae Bram Woon orise on 8 —— FOR These have succeeded well. For two or three years indeed, on account of the high price of barley, thediima - Various other improvements have’ of late years been’ carried on, which have contributed to the embellish- ment of the town, while they evince the public spirit of the inhabitants. these we may mention a botanic garden, the work of the late Mr Don, who was well known, and justly celebrated in the bo- tanic world.*; One of his sons is said to inherit his nius, which had also received some culture attider' hiv in 1790, which accommodates from 2000 to 3000 hearers ; and last (1814) it was ornamented with a 150 feet high, ich arrests the eye of the traveller in every direction, and is deservedly admired as a very ele- gant structure. The ion of the town and coun- ish is about eee eerie oes a 8 ih ll etal prosperity which ALP. FORF TURE. See Law. FORGE. See Iron. FORMIC Acip. _ See Cuemistry, FORMOSA, called by the Chinese ives Kaboski and 7 a FE g 3 Z s ‘ B E. i 3 = ¥ HE i i 479 Japan, was wrecked on the coast, and brought the first Formosa. FOR accounts of the country to Europe. About the year 1620, a Japanese squadron left a party on the island, in the view of returning to effect its subjugation ; but, in the mean time, a Dutch ship having touched there in its course from Japan, it ap to be so eligible a station for a commercial establishment, that they built fort Zealand in 1634, and thus secured ion of the principal harbour.” In 1661 they were driven from the settlement by the celebrated Chinese pirate, Tchin- tchi-korig, or Coxinga, (See ‘Cura, Vol. VI. p. 233, who made himself master of the western part, an held the sovereignty of the island during his life ; but, in 1682, his grandson Tchin-ke-sun, submitted to the authority of the Emperor Kang-hee ; and the island, since that period, has been tributary to China. By a chain of mountains running from north to south, it is divided into two parts, called the western and eastern inces, the latter of which is still occupied entirely y the native Indians, and the former contains the set- tlements of the Chinese. It is subject to the Viceroy of Fokien, but a governor with a large detachment, generally of 10,000 men, resides constantly on the island. Tai-ouan, the capital city and the seat of go- vernment, is sittiated on the south-west coast in 23° North Lat. and 3° $2’ 50" East Long. from Pekin. It place, full of trade, and equal to e first class in China. ama straight, about 40 feet broad, and some e in | 3 but they are badly ilt of clay and bamboo, account of the excessive heat of the sun, the streets are covered, during seven or eight months of the year, with awnings, which leave nothing to be seen but the ae on either side, in which various kinds of merchandize, ranged with the greatest order and show, present a rich appearance to ; poe many) or The town has no walls or , unless rb ree, built by the protected by four i-bastions, may be : asa fort. The eat fe ite en- becoming daily more difficult. e city is in every necessary of life and article of traf- , i cher rigor: apr, hice and In- , and Eu ; as ion ln oy eet estern ince contains, besides the capital, a number of poss! why tate and populous villages, in: which the Chinese permit none of the native inhabitants to reside pos 3s them, except those who act in the ca~ pacity of slaves or domestics. It appears that the Chi- nese lation of the island would increase with great rapidity, i if the ment would permit free emigra- tion from other parts of the empire ; but ission to new settlers is with great caution, and only upon the cay ang of a considerable sum for the proper passports, reason is, that the Tartar emp sive of a revolt among their Chinese $ proximity of this island to China, would render it a favourable field for the operations of malcontents. The district, which the Chinese possess, consists of extensive and fertile plains, watered by nu- merous rivulets, which flow from the mountains towards the east, The climate is temperate, except when the ay | i FL at 4 thousand, in allusion probably to the number of small islands in its vicinity ; and Formosa was a mame given by the Portuguese, on account of, the beautiful appearance of the country. FORMOSA. : with as much certainty as a European sportsman.could. Formosa, : 4380 Formos. sun is vertical, and the air is serene and-pure, cooled ~~ even in the hot season with constant breezes, The soil is in mountainous, but naturally produc- tive. Besides most kinds of grain, which it, yields.in abundance, there are found in the country the princi, pal Indian fruits, such as aranges, bananas, cocoa-pyts; guavas, papaws, pineapples; and amany, of those which are common in E.urope,. particularly peaches, apricots; figs, grapes, pomegranates, water melons; cinnamon, ar, pepper, camphire, tobacco, are, also among the = oe y productions of the country; and the moun- tains contain mines of gold, silver, copper, and sulphur, There is no good water to be found in the whole island; and strangers are said to suffer greatly from. its bad qua- lities. There are’few horses, sheep, goats, ar hogs, on the island ; but the inhabitants breed a great. number of oxen, which they train for the parpont of riding ; and, being early accustomed to this kind of service, they are sail to go very securely and expeditiously. Domestic fowls are reared in great plenty. The finest deer wan- der in large herds through the country. . Tygers, leo- monkeys, and every kind of game, abound in the ts; and the rivers furnish abundance of fish. The Indians inhabiting the western. oat are en- tirely subject to the Chinese governor, and pay a regu- lar cient grain. They compose about forty-five villages, most of which are found in the more northern quarter of the province. In each village is stationed a Chinese officer, whose duty it is to learn their/language, and to superintend the collection, of the impost;ibut these agents of the government often, act im such \a ty- rannical manner, as to occasion. the defection of the in- habitants, who have sometimes. been driven to unite themselves with the independent tribes in the eastern part of the island. Even those which are most \sub- missive to their invaders, still retain some of theit, an- cient institutions ; and in every village three ‘or!four of the most upright and intelligent old-mén‘are chosen as judges and rulers, who, have the power of determi« ning all disputes, and. disobedience to whose decisions would be punished by perpetual banishment. from the community. In these villages subject to China, and which are the most populous, there is a great degnee ‘of civilization ; and the houses are built con furnished .af= ter the manner of the Chinese. They are‘ clothed; with the skins of the stags, which they kill in hunting,; and. Wear on their heads caps of a cylindrical shape, made of palm leaves, ornamented with a succession of crowns one above the other, and surmounted with plumes of fea- thers from the cock or pheasant. The dress of the wo-« men exactly resembles that of the men,, ex that their clothes are longer, and their heads more, i ed with finery. But the southern or eastern, island~ ers are still in a most savage state ; and their habita- tions are mere earthen huts, without any piece: of fur- niture, having only a kind of hearth in the centre’ upon which they dress their victuals. They are remarkably dirty in their manner of eating ; and generally devour the flesh before it is half dressed. Whatever they pre< pare is placed ona plain board or mat; and having neither plates nor spoons, they make use of their for conveying it to their mouths. They have no! bets ter bedding during night than fresh gathered leaves; and no other covering through the day than piece of cloth, which hangs. from. their middie to their knees. They subsist chiefly upon rice and the produce of the chace. Their favourite weapons are lances, which they throw with the greatest dexterity and precision to the distance of 60 or 80 feet. They use also bows and,ar- rows, with which they can kill « pheasant on the wing 1 ey nn, ascribe to a custom which knees and int with a close 14, but whieh is, more probably, owing entirely to their constant practice in hunting, and roy estimation in which the qualification. is Those who are most swift and skilful in the chace, are pamee 7 1 by the honourable privilege of having figures of flowers, trees, or animals punctured on their skin ; and. the more or- dinary decorations consist in wearing bracelets; or crowns made of shells and crystal, and in staining the teeth with a deep black colour. The matrimonial con= nections of these islanders are remarkably simple and unconstrained, especially when compared with: of their Chinese neighbours, and are left entirely to the choice and arrangements of the young people. When a youth has fixed his affections, he appears for several days with a musical instrument in his hand, hoveri around the place where the young woman resides. If she is pleased with his. qualifications, she comes forth and joins him, when they settle together their fu- ture union. They then give notice of their intention to their parents, who the marriage feast, which is always held in the/brinle’s habitation, with whom the husband remains during life. ,. He transfers his filial dus ties to his father-in-law, and devotes himself ‘to the support of the new family, of which he has become a member. Hence the natives ofFormosa offer’ vows chiefly for female children,: who» ‘their’ sons-ins law to be the support of their old age.. ‘These: -— . mph rs iy eae P| — ip, and as guided by the pretended predictions of a set of priestesses or female jug ; but other aecounts seem to imply, that they are not without some ideas the; soul's immortality; :nor'so deficient in ci i and, ingenuity ; and many of them are said to retain a considerable portion of Christian knowledge, which had been communicated by the’ Dutch settlers. There is; in fact, very little known ing the eastern, or;as it is sometimes called, the southern part of the island and its inhabitants; and the accounts both of the Chi- and Dutch writers are filled with stories. so obvi+ 'y fabulous, as, to discredit their whole testimony: Some of these accounts bear, for instance; that one of the natives was seen who had a tail above a foot in length, covered with red hair, and n that of an ox, and who declared that all the inhabitants of the ~ southern districts were born with similar aj ; that the:men do not marry till they are fifty years of age, ate hoon are not suffered to oe ildren till they have passed their thirty-seventh year, andshould any of a we before that pe riod, the priestess is summ ‘to produce abortion by: ing on their:-womb. One of the most extraordina- ry of these:histories, and» which was afterwards acknows - ledged by its author to be a mere romance, was publish« ed about the year 1710 by the ae oe, In ponsequence, it is supposed, dhe 3 mines. in the mountains, nen ee across prriecnars ta island, it is subject) to ent quakes ; and, in the year 1782; one of cheec shoukietn attended with: so tremendous a hurricane and swell of the sea, as to. threaten the total destruction of the Chinese settlements. See Grozier’s Description of China, vol.i, ; Collection of the Voyages of the Dutch India , vol, vs ; Du Halde's: History of China, vol, ii, 5 niv. Mod. Hist. vol, viii, and x,° (gq) . : + -“~ < temple Am Forres. FOR FORRES) a'town ‘of, Scotland, in the province of Moray, is situated on a rising ground, about a mile to the east of the river Findhorn, and two miles from are well built, but the town con tains no public buildings of importance. On the sum- mit of Cluny-hill, a quarter of a mile to the east of the town, a monument has been recently erected to the me- mory of Lord Nelson. It is a lofty octagonal tower, about 70 feet high, and having a base 24 feet in dia- meter, 1¢ ix eueniounted byw battlashetit'and a flag- staff. The castle of Forres was situated at the west end of the town. About a quarter of a mile to the north- east of Cluny-hill, on the road to Findhorn, stands the celebrated obelisk called Sweno’s Stone, which is com- posed wholly of sand stone, though it is said that there is no of the same stone nearer than fif= teen miles. It is about 23 feet high, 3 feet 10 inches and 1 foot 3 inches thick, and is said tobe 12 or below the « On itseast side,” says the author of the. ities of the Province of Moray, “are several divisions, each occupied by variously sculp- tured ornaments. At the top are a number of beauti- ful Gothic ornaments ; and in the first division under-~ neath; are nine horses, with riders, marching in order. In the next, is a line of warriors brandishing their wea- . The of the third are now much defaced. bee tee Boiach caoreea? leh, armed with spears, seem to eee elenuadte aekanes si Bho jes ap ing to be piled upon the t ivi- sion. ‘A body of horse in the fifth division, and these are followed by men on foot ; the first line having is horses seized, their riders beheaded, and their heads © broad, 15 feet down, steps were lately built round its base, The Rey. Mr Cordiner, who has published an engraving of this monument, it to have been erected in of England, in 1002. Others have imagined, that it was erected in memory of the assassination of Ki DeGifeid tlle Gpinion id eobcelved to be strengthened by the discovery of eight human skeletons laid along a trench, in a little green mount close by the obelisk, to be the assassins of the king. On the decli- Hill, looking towards Sweno’s stone, of Forres is governed by a provost, elected nats ciate , who are an- nually ; it enj privilege, conjointly- with Inverness, Naim, and F , of unites ee wa me ~ a subscription now contains a considerable number of volumes.—The ty tecearara from the vi- cinity of Forres for nearly 20 miles upwards, is remark able for its fait tebuty; \ Fhehicihewad the the most rocky, and richly wooded, with every va- Gens, and height, and inclination Son #6 oF 481 . FOR three miles below, the rock is sandstone on each side, and to this succeeds above gneiss and granite. The forest of Darnaway forms the chief part of this scenery on the left bank of the river ;*and opposite to it, on the right, are the properties of Relugas; and Logie, and Altyre. The first of these is matchless for its natural beauties, and has been adorned with sin taste.- Three miles north of Forres, close to the shore ai the’ nang Moray Frith, there is one of the best examples inundation of sand which is to be seen in the island. The sand drifted from the shores of the Frith above, by the’ strong west winds, is accumulated in hills of considerable size; forming a chain about a mile, ora mile and a half in length, and at some ee quarter of a mile The hills are often undergo- ing of form and height, but have not for many years exhibited any tendency to general diminution. About 60 or 70 years ago their increase was very great, and very sudden, the inundation burying completely, in the course of a few days, the estate of Cubin. Five miles east of Forres, is the heath which Shake- is sw to have intended as the scene of Fortaven- t first interview between Macbeth’ and the weird. sisters. There are few places in Scotland better adapted for’ a cheap and pleasant residence than this small town. Its climate is excellent; its markets are 3 it is abundantly supplied with a variety of fish, from the neighbouring sea’ of Findhorn, which is only five miles distant, and the surrounding country is rich and luxurious, and abounds in game. ~ ; The following is the population of the burgh and pa-- rish in 1811: ; Number of inhabited houses. ........ 672 RAURITIAE 9 dfuge aie) hetinte thats Rey commerce, and productions, of the Canary Islands, see Canar¥ Istanvs. The position of the western point of Forta: - 182 according to solar observations, is West Long. ling brid: Thence, little interru now named Frith of Forth,) is resumed down to Fife- ness on the north, and St Abbs Head on the south, where it meets the German Ocean. Between these two points the distance is between 35 and 40 miles. The direct course of this river is scarcely less than 100 miles; but its sinuosities do not traverse a short- cr s than 200. Its depth from Stirling bridge to the mouth is from 3 to $7 fathoms, or more; be- tween Inch Garvie and the North Ferry it is 35; and somewhat further west, opposite to Rosyth castle, where the breadth is 3000 yards, it is 21 fathoms, whence it ually shallows upwards.* Part of the bottom is here covered with ‘sleech or mud 20 feet deep, deposited on freestone, The tide flows a mile above Strling bridge, or between 70 and 80 from ‘the sea in a straight line, until it is interrupted by a rock across the channel, where stream tides rise five feet. It flows and ebbs regularly twice in twenty- four hours ; but the flood and ebb run about two hours Jonger in the middle than along the shore, and it rises at most about four fathoms in,a ‘stream. Besides this, however, there are i ties, above Queensferry, and particularly from.Culross to Alloa, or, beginning at the mouth of the river Car- ron and Borrowstounness, continue downwards, These irregularities consist in an intermission of the tide dur- ing the flood ; and before high water the sea ebbs. On the contrary, while the sea and before low water, the ebb intermits, and a flow commencing continues some time ; after which the ebbing is resumed until low water. This is seen during two hours, and the ir- regularity oceupies more of the river according as it, i iss or tide. These irregularities are well. mere ‘the nae of leakies. Ane ¢ principal rivers tributary to the Forth are, the Goodie, rising in the Loch of Monteith, the Teith, and, Allan, above Stirling bridge ; and below it, the Dovan, Carron, Avon, Almond, Leith, Esk, Leven, Tyne, and. others. There is, besides, a communication, by means of a navigable canal, ne the river Clyde, which pre- Serves on intercourse between the east of Sato. and. west coasts t would take a long time to describe the natural productions of the Forth, and hitherto they have met FORTH. particular currents, or irregulari- b have accidentally strand- odtneonaalens 4s RIM We that five or six hundred years ago they also frequented this river. The porpoise is seen i in the water; one specimen of the | whale, was killed in 1815, near Stirling : the sun fish is occasionally taken; and the opah, or gold fish, has also occurred, But there are others, the constant source of valuable and productive fisheries ; such as salmon, mon is on at ing, W i all the. nei , and allows a ity for ex- Se ee ed at this part of the Forth, that the inhabi ‘of Stirling were, during a long time, ided with it at oaauinss thane einoaaer which became a particular eee nor is it long since it was al ed. Two ies on a smaller recently established on the south side of the river, at Abercorn, and near Queensferry, and their pee Vast shoals of herring resort periodically to the Forth, and afford employment to many hands in their capture, as well as ample subsistence to the poor ; but they are neither so large nor so much esteemed as those on the west coasts of Scotland. Nevertheless, their of the river KA six or eight miles above Queen a Haddock, cod, ee re fisheries, are lower down than Leith. Skate, flounders, and are common ; turbot is obtained in sufficient quantity to supply Edinburgh market at prices not immoderate, that is, from four to ten shillings, according to size and scarcity ; but most of it goes to London, Some time ago, contracts were made for turbot, at two shillings See it the sandy bays u ten aed Gan ht. This being ascribed to the un- skilfulness of the , an experiment was by others purposely brought from places noted for it; z | Hl tell 3 gn FS ep eiee Loeira! 35 if HE i aE if i e3 P25 | : is so in the metropolis, that appl ape ine hp. gto in ” pee ad nen umbers, they are sold FE per p A "Mony of the mollusca, rg besides the two latter. which we have alluded to, inhabit the Frith ; and pro- bably the majority are yet ; tinia, nereids, are seen in great variety and beauty ; learn from history, productions, Le < ma -% |B : FORTH. this very rich sort of ironstone, Pieces of fine jasper, Forth. | shells which may be recovered here. i ornithology ; for, except i resorting hither during winter, and in solan geese frequenting a small rocky Bass, there are no iarities. Few but on some of the rocks, and occa- the shore. a : SERS HE §s3,~ | a8 Fr EE found alike on each side of the river ; of these are not only on the banks, but penetrate far under its bottom—so far, that it is reported the workmen from the ite coasts can hear each other’s i tne rhe sone macro eh preemie Be Neither is this so improbable as might appear ; for the coal workings said to have been carried two miles and Ht 8 Fags if who publi aSeeest Aa sail itt zB eetEt i ? . tales E ef Hh it # AI 4 HI e 2, & ft ul au 5 Te = E i 4 i ie A é i ge 483 pebbles, granite, and petrifactions, occur,on many parts of the shore. There are severalrocks and:islands'scattered through- [slands. out the lower part of this river, where it has expand- ed into. a frith, of which Inch Garvey, Inch Colme, Inch Keith, the Bass, and the Isle of May, are the principal: On the top of the ‘first, which is: barren and rocky, stands a small fort, with two inconsider- able pieces of cannon, and one invalid soldier, who: is stationed there in solitude six weeks at atime. It was sometimes converted to -- state prison of old, but now belongs to a private family. This island, standing in the middle of a strait, between the Queen’s Cote, could effectually prevent any hostile approaches higher up the river. - Inch Colme, which scarce exceeds half” a mile in length, and is narrow, enjoys greater celebri- ty ; for one of the — of Scotland, having escaped imminent danger, w he found an asylum on it, shewed his gratitude to Divine Providence, by erecting a here in the year 1123. Its picturesque ruins are still extant. Soon after the commencement of the late war, in 1793, a battery of heavy guns was- constructed on Inch Colme, which, it was supposed, would command the eo rane Tse | the Forth, but no ity has been of trying their effect, which those who consider themselves well acquainted with the a ion of the channel have doubted. The island abounds in rabbits, and belongs to the family of Murray. Cramond Island, nearly ite, on the south side, is connected with the land at low water, but the access, unless in a certain direction, is very dangerous, from deep mud or quicksands. The island best known, at least to the inhabi aera a a is Inch Keith, which lies about half way between the coasts, and some- what eastward of Edinburgh. It is between two and ee circuit, of fertile ss and has always Circumstances have frequently render- deed this inconsiderable spot of importance, from an early date, either in civil or military operations. In the year 1497, when the venereal disease was making un- common ravages in Edinburgh, and was then, as in the rest of Europe, considered a pestilence, the magistrates directed that all infected with the “ grand ” should repair to the sands of Leith, where they find boats ready to convey them to the island, *‘ there to remain, untill God should provide for their health.” In the reign of Edward VI. the English sent two expeditions equally destructive into Scot- land, when Inch Keith was taken and fortified. They were expelled by the French, who erected fortifica- tions on a seale, consisting of a strong tower on the highest ground, with an interior court, 100 feet in diameter, as also an external wall of hewn stone, 20 feet high, and 9 feet thick, with Queen Ma- ry’s arms on it, and a motto sa vertue m’at- ture ; but the whole fort was afterwards demolished by order of the Scotish parliament. More recently, when a Russian fleet lay in Leith roads, during the war, ’ there was an hospital here for their seamen; and at t it has a lighthouse for the safety of mariners. Bass isa lofty precipitous rock, with a conical sum- mit rising from water, within two miles of the southern shore of the Forth, near North Berwick. This isle, which is less than a mile in circuit, is accessible only by a dangerous and narrow pathway: formerly it was employed as a state prison, and a small fortress upon it surrendered.to Oliver Cromwell. It was held in property by.a private family, and purchased by go- vernment in the reign of Charles IL. ; but after most of the kingdom had submitted to the sovereignty of Wil« 484 FORTH. Forth. liam, at the revolution, the fortress was held out by a anita copes ae eee ee —_——— Trade and navigation. few of the abdicated monarch’s adherents, which pro- duced an order for its demolition on their surrender. The Bass is now in the hands of a eybj leased, for a rent which is indemnified by the innumera- ble flocks of solan geese taken annually on it, (see Bass). The Isle of May lies — saat ‘ero ——— is bly the largest whole, being nearly three snes in mans and is situated six or seven miles south- east of the town of Anstruther... It affords.good pasture, and has a pool or small lake of fresh water. Anciently this island belonged to an English monastery, for the monks of which, King David I. of Scotland founded a call or priory of the order of St Augustine, and there was also a dedicated to St Adrian. pow latter was uently resorted to in pilgrimages, an icu- pe rpatactor of nabs though not for that.rea- son only, as Andrew Weod of Largo, a celebrated Scotish mariner, held certain lands in Fife for the ser- vice of piloting James 1V. and his queen to St Adrian’s Ali shanes. twas oredind have drhinanlainat Charles I., which has un e many successive im- provements, and receives a duty from all vessels navi- gating the river. Both it and the island being private ys ox} ems! changed their owners, and having passed by iage into the Duke of Portland’s fami ane ae pu the Commissioners for a a ights in 1814, for L. 60,000 sterling, when affording a very considerable revenue. ; There are numerous towns and harbours along both sides of the river and Frith of Forth, where le and manufactures are carried on in various branches, Com- mencing with Stirling, where it is crossed by a bridge of four , the principal towns are G: outh, Bor- -rowstounness, Queen’s Ferry, Leith, Musselburgh, Pres- tonpans, and Dunbar on the south side ; on the north, are Alloa, Culross, Charlestown, Inverkeithing, Burntisland, Kircaldy, Dysart, Leven, Pittenweem, An- struther, Crail, with a few of lesser note. The number of piers and harbours is not less than thirty ; and some -of them of ive construction, such as‘Leith, where there are considerable wet docks ; there is a fine basin at Borrowstounness ; and at the most re- cent improvements have been adopted. But storms from the east, attended with a tempestuous -sea, occa- sionally damage the harbours. Excepting Stirling and Leith, few of the towns contain 2000 inhabitants, and several of them not half that number. The princi- pal manufactures are of iron, salt, pottery, sal ammo- niac, some bricks and tiles, and recently Roman ce- ment and alum have been fabricated at ‘the ‘village of Blackness. There is also linen made on thenorth side, along the coast of Fife, and. soap on the south side, Se me ate lime, and grain are the chief exports of nata acts: but foreign products are brought from the west by the great canal, and carried eastward ; and there is a-vast quantity of artillery and iron manufactures from the Carron founderi The vessels belonging to the different are mostly oc- cupied in the coasting trade, but whole fleets resort to the Baltic; several vessels belong to «the Greenland whale fishery, and a few are in West India traffic. In ent of the manu’ res carried on in. the vicinity of the river, cotton, linen, and muslin goods are exported, and some groceries, wood, flax, and other commodities imported ; to receive the duties.on all of which there are custom-houses along both sides of the river. The chief trade, however, is conducted on the same side with the metropolis, When the Romans invaded Britain, they found the northern parts occupied by various barbarous tribes ; , by whom itis + . ed a strong rampart, now called Adrian's Wall ethe Frith of Clyde to the : : 8 5 2 F : 4 E 2, no strength, being commanded by several eminences. Nevertheless it has repeatedly been the ‘subject of anx- ious competition in the factious times of old, and is pre- served as a fortification by the articles of the Union. A more modern fort was erected between Leith and’ Newhaven, on the appearance of Paul Jones, a noted struther and Ely on 4 boats began to navigate from Leith w , in the year 1814, affording a cheap and means of conveyance. But it has been proposed, at various tinnes,;th:dacilitete.. ther mockineinieliten: Anish i west still farther, by rendering the river navigable from Stir- ling bridge to Gartmore, and to in the different curvatures of the land to the east of Stirling by a ty a i idge, by boats ixty feet , thirteen wilecant decting theahines satiate oneal the navigation could be ied downwards to Alloa, twenty. vival doubtless have resulted by putting the proposal into execution, but it was in fad io ‘by the canal /between the F and > a sity being experienced ok ' and of great ao cattle continually brought from the north of Scotland, it was thought that an eX« pedient would remedy these inconveniences, and it was is 8839 yards in breadth, was considered the most fa- vourable point for the south entrance; and the of water not exceeding thirteen fathoms anda ren- dered it erable aaee. _ between the Ferries. A long time was employ yy engineers in and boring ; but it appeared, on penetrating the bed the river, that a auficent rot eae nascar ed for the tunnel, which, conjoined w weighty objections, led to the dereliction of the project. See Siz Robert Sibbald’s Works. . Statistical Account, vol. vi. p. 21. Millar and Vazie on Tunnels. Knox's View of the British Empire.» (¢) itis te ae. ee ee ae ee 2 i Pe pera i et oy “485 os PORTIFICATION, ‘Fortifica- Davtecarcn is the science that teaches the best me- tion, thod of —— putting a town, citadel, or othermilitary position, in such a state of defence, asmay enable a small number within to hold out against the attack of a great num- besieged the best ‘orce, or idity, it would have re- warfare, taking ed. In this way, a very superior invading might q be defeated, or at least. ept in check a sufficient length of time, to allow the i state! either to march its - own armies'to the point of attack, or to the as- pa nasa be ar ames e ow ar — support a weak neighbour i attacks of a Were the political divisions of the earth so that the weaker states should always have prog tal ivonetior deere tong ai &c. on rom teres thee RE ONE Ap COTO A bein some measure compensated by natural forti But as considerations aattes difesent kind regulated the ition of terri ions of defence ; and that the construction of these pmeor been considered as an object of the highest means of placing a weak i , whether its Thornant obdtons! codtherl ae protecting -an open most obvious m of ing an ountry from sudden invasion, would be to carry a _ wall round the whole frontier. Of this species of forti- fication, is the great wall that China from Tar- tary, and likewise the Roman wall in the north of Eng- land, built for the purpose of defending the southern Seat the island from the sudden incursions of th . But the: insuperab jection, in y ible to command the : means of raising such , it was soon found that the prmnce Fr ing such an extensive line rendered them little use. Such methods of de- infinitely greater venture to leave these places of in their rear, without the greatest danger of having their retreat cut off; and uently a country, possessing such for- tifications, could se be subject to sudden attacks. Nor is this the only adyantage that is found to result from such fortified places. By making them ts for arms, ammunition, and other military stores, they be- come the surest protection of established governments inst rebellion or any internal commotion. To the art of fortification, then, may perhaps be justly ascribed not a little of that peace and good order among man- kind, which would otherwise be sacrificed to the law- less ambition of despots, or the madness of factious de- m Fortifica- tion. It is impossible to say at what time, or in what coun- Ancient sys- try, men first began to construct fortifications. Ina rude tem of for- state of society, when weapons of attack were few and tification. ‘simple, and when the success of war depended more on ‘the physical powers, than ‘the skill of the combatants, little ingenuity would be necessary to render a place impregnable, whatever might be the force of the assail- ants, An earthen mound, a deep ditch, or a single stone wall, would probably be sufficient not only for eae a garrison against sudden attacks, but even for enabling it to hold out against a regular siege. How long the art of fortification continued in this simple state, we have no means of ascertaining ; but it is evi- dent, from various of sacred history, that it had made considerable progress in Eastern countries in the days of Moses, upwards of 1500 years before Christ. From these countries, it probably travelled to the West, where it received great improvements from the Greeks and Romans. By inventing new methods of attack, these warlike states obliged the besieged to adopt new methods of defence ; and thus while they exerci- sed their own ingenuity in the art of war, they called forth that of the nations with whom they contended. A single mound, or stone wall, was soon found to be her inadequate to resist the force of the engines with which they were assailed. The wall or rampart was accordingly strengthened by towers erected upon it at convenient distances, and from these the besieged were enabled to defend the intermediate parts of the wall, which they could not otherwise have done with- out exposing themselves to the missile weapons of the enemy. Besides these towers, the rampart itself some- times consisted of a double or even a triple wall. Of this kind were the walls of Jerusalem and Babylon. The most obvious method of assaulting a fortified place in rude ages, would be ‘to’ construct an earthen Ancient sys- tem of at- mound or counter fortification, from which ‘the assail- tack. ants could en with the besi on equal terms. This method of attack was probably coeval with the art of fortification itself, as from the passages of sacred \ history to which we have already alluded, it appears to have been common in Eastern countries at the time of the Israelites taking possession of the land of Canaan. The same method of besieging towns was adopted by the Gréeks and Romans. hey constructed their circumvallation of turf, and, in some cases, they were made double at an interval of fifteen or sixteen feet. The interior wall was intended to preserve them from the sallies of the besieged, the exterior to guard them against the attacks of those who might come to the as- sistance of the town, The space between the walls - or mounds was fer ay with tents.and lodges for the soldiers. These walls were surmounted with turrets; 486 Fortiica- after every tenth of which was a tower, extending from ties. wall to wall, and equal in height to the fortifications of —_—— Agaers of the anchemts Tetada Approaches. the town. After all, this method of attacking a place was better calculated to starve it into a pase 5 than to take it by force. Another, and perhaps a more expeditious method of attack, was by means of detached mounds or aggera, erected opposite the weakest part of the fortification. These era were constructed of all sorts of materials, as wood, stone, earth, &c. and gradually carried for- ward till almost close to the walls. The besiegers were thus raised to a level with their enemies, and sometimes succeeded in throwing bridges between the and the fortification, by which they stormed the place. Still, however, this m of attack was liable to a serious objection. The laborious nature of the operations ne- cessary in constructing even single and detached mounds or aggera, afforded the besieged time enough to strength- en such parts of their rampart as were threatened, and thus deprived the assailants of no inconsiderable — of the advantage to be derived from their works. The in- vention of moveable towers or turrets was therefore a very great improvement in the art of attacking. These towers were erected on wheels and rollers, by which could easily be moved from one place to another ; and, in point of size, were proportioned:to the height and strength of the place to be attacked. In their most improved form, they consisted of wood, and were so constructed as to be —_ down and carried about with the army as of the But the great alticulty of i: fortified places in ancient times, did not consist in the prodigious labour, so much as in the danger to which the besiegers were exposed in constructing their outworks, From their si- tuation, the besieged were enabled powerfully to annoy their enemies, with comparatively little to them- selves. Huge stones, and other heavy ies, thrown from the ramparts, became formidable and destructive weapons, against which the besiegers could find no pro- tection in the ordinary means of defence. It was to prevent the fatal effects of such weapons, that the testudo was invented. , This consisted of a number of soldiers, ed in different forms according to circumstances, but all holding their shields above their heads, thus forming a canopy or covering over those who were em- ployed in the works beneath. The testudo was also sometimes employed, for the purpose of taking a place by storm, when the garrison was not in a proper condi- tion to defend itself. In this case, the front rank stood upright, holding their shields before them ; the second held their shields above the heads of the first, at the same time cp a little ; the third stooped still more, holding their shields also above their hands; and so on to the rear rank, which was in a kneeling posture, thus exhibiting the appearance of a tiled roof. On this roof, another body of men was drawn up in the same form, and protecting themselves in a similar manner. A number of successive stories being. thus constructed, those that formed the highest were enabled to engage on equal terms with the besieged, and frequently suc« ceeded in getting possession of the place. In later times works were constructed, and attacks made on fortresses under the protection of covered ways, or approaches. These ches. were generally the work of great expense and labour, being guarded on one sitle, and sometimes also on the other, with a mound of earth, and covered on the top with skins of animals, rafters, or bundles of rods, called Jfascines. At the ex- tremity of the approach, was erected as close to the FORTIFICATION. walls a3 necessary, either an agger, or a moveable tower, according to circumstances. Such were some of the defensive works used by the ogo ancients in oe on a siege, or in making a sudden vegan al attack on a fortified place. their offensive weapons, the ancients, we have already given an ample account under the ar- ticles Arms and Artitupry, to which we refer our. readers. Of the methods employed by ee for destroying, and otherwise rendering unserviceable, the machines of the enemy, we have also spoken under the article Ancuimepes, where we took occasion to state our opinion with regard to the wonderful power ascri- bed to the mechanical inventions of that ee mathematician. We would only observe on Mining. the subject of ancient fortification, that mining seems to have been practised at a very early period, and with ~ considerable success, capndidlly in destroying the tow- ers and aggera of the besiegers. The earth under these works being excavated, the place was filled with com- bustible matter, and set on fire. The superincumbent earth was thus rendered friable, and sinking down, the ; q } — were overturned. ats A e invention of , (anno 1330,) though : ultimately destined to produce a ner ert oe sys- fortihcation } tem of defending and ing fortified was not in modern) — immediately productive of this effect. great guns “mes. é began to be first used, they were so rude and unma« ‘7 nageable, that the batteri — of the ancients long maintained their groun ven so late as the be- A ginning of the 15th century, few towns had been regu- ly bombarded, though artificial fire works had been frequently used, sometimes in the form of rockets, and sometimes fastened to birds tails, for the purpose of set- ting fire to such parts of the town or as were ofa combustible nature. It was a device of this kind, that proved fatal to the camp of the Austrians before Saaz. About the beginning of the 16th enter the use of great guns € more common, their ef- fects to be more apparent. The circumvallations of the besi gradually assumed the form of fortifications ; and forti places themselves under went a considerable change both in form and strength. We cannot here enter into a detail of these 2 without supposing our readers to be acquainted with the caper ont of the art, which it is the object of this article to explain. It may, however, be d in general, that the use of modern had not of it- self the effect of shortening the duration of sieges, The advantages of great guns, especially men had ac- uired considerable dexterity in the ent of them, were no doubt very great to the besiegers ; but \ theyalso tothe besieged a powerful means of an- 4 noying the enemy. Besides, fortified places were some~ times so successively at eae as for a long time. to defy even the force of the heaviest ordnance. A. wall at Magdebourg, received 1550 cannon shot with-. out sustaining any damage. The numerous instancestoo,. which history affords of longand unsuccessfulsieges, even . after the invention of fire arms, wnt Fn ooo tion was not more advantageous for ing than for - defending fortified . The siege of an important pene ane, Caclivent See : not successful on the besiegers, generally terminated in the loss ob the greater part of thee ary. Such was the state of fortification, when, towards Change in: end of the 17th century, M. Vauban effected a com the method! plete revolution in the art. This celebrated er of attack ine Invented a new method of attack, against which no troduced by mode of defence hitherto adopted has been able to hold Vauban- Use of great guns. FORTIFICATION. _ Rortificas out, Wauban himself indeed soon discovered the su- tion. >. pert 2. wl during the latter : enn the equilibrium which he had destroyed. His "% ¢ PLATE CCLVIL ye distance from A to the _ Detaions. called the iority of his system of attack to that of his defence, ; of his life, endeavoured to disciples, as well as those who differed in some points from him, continued to labour in the same cause ; but after all the and improvements which they in- troduced into his plan of defence, it was found, that ir Pe wera ing to counteract the power which had been put into the hands of the That was soon pronounced to be irresistible, and at the same time so regular in its operations, that the du- ration of a siege was calculated as easily, and in man cases as accurately, as a question in dynamics. Su calculations applied to ee ant of moral causes, may indeed seem very ; but so deeply have en- Pe tibe gales 3 reeabeirube: Asn oe it is utterly jor gr one id out against the modern system of at-. , that a siege generally terminates after a certain progress has been made by the besiegers, whatever may 487 be the means of defence which the garrison still pos- sesses. Such a system appears to be an agreement en- tered into among belligerent powers, to eliver up to one another fortified places at a certain price, and cer- tainly has a tendency to suppress that fortitude and de- termined spirit of resistance, which the history of an- cient, as well as of some modern sieges, has proved to be the chief cause of a long and successful defence. In the remaining part of this article, we shall endea- vour to lay before our readers a complete account of the modern plan of fortification, with the art of attack- ing and defending fortified places. shall take an opportunity of noticing the various im- provements which have either been pro , or actu- ally adopted ; and among others, the plan of defence recommended by Carnot, who has long been distin- ished by’ mathematical, political, and military ta- fore. and well known for ‘his famous defence of Ant- werp, in 1813. . Partl. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FORTIFIED PLACES. SECT. I. Permanent Fortifications. ‘irw: of Every fortified place is in the form of « polygon, ces. for- more or less according to circumstan be considered as chords of In Plate CCLVII. Fig. 1, is exhibited the trace of a re- gular fortification of five sides,in which DEFGH is call- ed the exterior, and KLMNI the interior polygon. The i of the exterior polygon is radius, from A to the angle of the interior the small radius. The contained between two radii, as EBCF, is ¢ a front of the tion is the about the angle of the polygon, as VUFZC. curtain is that part of the front which areca BC. In the bastion VUFZC, the he U of the omen or the face and the curtain is called the flock: el angle of the tenaille. When the shoulders of tion are built in the circular form P, Q, they are called orillons, or tours creuses. The distance between the angles of the flanks, as VC. is called the of the bastion ; and CM, or MV, the demr-gorge. coe, line, drawn from the saliant angle of one bastion to le of the flank in another, as FB, is called a line of defence. If this line be drawn along the face, and pa- rallel to it, it is called a razing defence ; and if the line make an angle with the face, the defence is said to be Jichant, or oblique. When the line of defence meets the curtain short of the extremity, the part of the cur- tain between that point and the extremity is called the second flank. : The whole circumference of the works about a town, as represented in Fig. 1, is called the enceinte, or corps de la ee . Other works have each a particular name ; but they are in general called outworks. The chief In this account we. Fortifica. tion. —_——_ Permanent Fortifica- tions. strength of the corps de Ja place, as well as of the out- works, is a mound of earth called the rampart, and of which the trace shows the thickness at the bottom. On ae of ot em git is raised e another mound, called parapet, for the purpose of covering the besi and their guns from the fire of the lett. Behind thin are two or three steps called banguettes, on which the soldiers stand when they fire over the parapet ; and be- tween these and the town, is a ed the terre- plein, of sufficient breadth for the movement of troops, and the conveyance of cav: from one place to ano~ ther. The rampart is generally lined with a wall, call- ed a revetenvent, on the top of which is a round the parapet of about two feet in breadth, the way of rounds. The sloping surface of a work is called the escarpe, if it declines from the place; and if it inclines towards it, the counterscarje. Before the rampart in all works, is a ditch called the fossé, made by excavating the earth for the rampart. Round the coun of this ditch, and at a conve-~ nient distance from it, is cut out a passage called chemin- —— age ‘be add . From the parapet that ends thi clines by a gentle slope to- wards the field, and is called the ma ¥ : The command of a work is its height above the field, or above some other work, and is not to be confounded with relief, which is the height above the horizon. When a fortification has only a partial command of the field, it is called a razing fortification ; and when it is much elevated above the ground, it gets the name of a . If any of a fortification cannot be seen from the parapet, it is called a dead angle. The profile of a fortification, is a vertical section of the works from the extreme boundary of the glacis Commas for erie facie baw The following were given Errard : Ist, That the saliant of the bastion should ne- ver be less than 60°, pag! s! rere ry. hen practicable. 2d, Tiss, « Baska ae should be within musket ee meee viz. from 700 to 90 he Sth, That all the works of a fortification ought to be ye oa in elevation, that the one nearer the place I be higher than the one before it. Notwithstanding the excellence of these rules, how- ever, the frace of was very defective. He left all the lines to be determined by the constructor ; the ee ats a ehegelst greubt, ous dca to be " on 1 was cult to tra- Tt was also too small, and rendered less eas cosy. fo be defended, from being icular to the face. i i these faults, by deter- the various with more precision, and on more accurate principles. The improvements which fallowed, were adopted partly in one country, and part. ve rise to the different me- in another, and pa Luni ees rench, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch. sl Bod, however, may be considered as essentially the same, the difference among them be- ing chiefl mn the saliant angle of the bastion, and the form of the flan Whatever pan of fortification be adopted, it is of im to observe, that all the works ought to be traced out in the exterior poly, If they are traced on the interior, the different one ig ke cae be ger mined with the same accuracy Se tige, Spire gs we proceed to lay down the Pathe vie toc most plied Sits pore of Gee aioe deaty The of the bastion should never be less than from 160'to 200 feet wide, so as to afford a free com- munication with the bastion, and room for meunting two or three guns. The length of the flank depends on the } of the line of defence, and what it is required to defend ; but it ou: t never to be Jess than from 180 to 200 feet, anid id be perpenticiiie to the thon which it be. tended to flank. The orillon should never be larger than to allow two ee Sech ame 2 be Pleeed pe fhe aoreced Pash, If it be more, it weakens the flank. To increase the offensi er of the flanks, have sometimes been p in vaults cut out of the rampart beneath, These vaults are called casemates ; but they have been objected to on account of their di« minishing the strength of the flank, their annoying the gunners with smoke, and To lensive orillons. In Sect ia elena ean be a foe pet, and the ammunition DB ages in a vault Lea, —- of the higher Compared with case- lower flanks are undoubtedly an improve- at the same time, they’ certainly diminish, degree, the effect of the higher flank ; FORTIRPICATION. and it may choesfernhedevinappwiennk: hov:ie far they: are, in many The saliant of mange ap as less than 80. and if it could be made to exceed. ~ 90, it would ein arenes nae any mH Vv ston. The dunked age woul enlarged, on te toe eee se rar gh ata - greater distance from one The } of the faces is determined by 7y that of the. curtain and the side of the po polngie tv eg reenloy ought it to be more than $50; 230 feet. The curtain should never exceed 500 fet short. of 200, The depth of the ditch or fossé generally on the nature of the ground, th quant of ar wanhat in tec dente | res a be de-. niet ie circumstances, but t never to exceed. 100 or 180 feet. The ditch always to be dry. we there are no ger paca es e covert way is can ee eae ene- Covert . my from approaching too near the ditch iyi them to be more. watchful in arding Seis wee while, at the same time, it les the more easily to defend their outworks, as well as lect their troops in safety when they intend to a sally. The covert way is pees oe of the ditch, and varies in breadth: according to circumstances, In all cases, of such a width as to allow (ren manceuyre without: fending it, In order to. give cation a complete pay ored of the which the plane of the latter males ie ought to be such, that if the eae would pass through the highest part bot! wethe epace A’ in the’ be sl Lense i space A’ in the re-entering | way, is, called a place of arms, ef which lines focaing: the saliant ne eh ate in length, in the salian covered way ae yee places were ound to -great use i covered way, but were soon rendered them with a ditch toon th vered way, and on the escarpe of that ditch construct ing a rampart for the defence of the»men within. this form, Phe sock in callethentioasyaanaier peer ADCB, Fig, 2. The ori A teepires of the demi-1 In, taken. B ‘enlargin, ees ing * Senne to <2 more patensinely useful. orga Ha a to cure't E caiG a! -% _—- if i HE : i ” 2 f 7% x n@ ¢ A we z ? . Hu A) : Es a i - - §, 15 _ 4 4 {i i & i &e al | nae cman » ng, glacis, vata prevent. the eretion of wor in two positions very v ‘or won ov antageons fo attacking an f sigs Some engineers have erred” lunes before the a better » from affording, the works. constru the ¢ the faces. and flanks. oie ble to several objections. tains, and even the munication with the have.accordingly been Completely rejected. 9 6) > ¥ Fectibe ceaemeation tot. demi-lunes,. some have gi them their defence from the curtain, as ADC, Fig. 2. where EF, GH are from 48 to 60 feet, and the faces of = Prate CCLVET. the ravelin 130 to 180. Others have taken the defence Fig. 2. from the orillons,as IDK, where the faces are from; 200 to 230 feet. Sometimes also they have been construct- ed in the form LDM ; but all forms are inferior to what will be described afterwards. - ut Demi-lunes are surrounded in the same way as the enceinte, with a ditch and covered way, the former be- ing from 48 to 60 feet wide. Fausse- . A second enceinte, called the fausse-brave, has some- brave. i above, has undergone many changes, and received con- siderable improvements since the time of Errard. Of BEF He : 1 the side. t to the line of defence, orillons, w are curved outwards, one third RESLPE PtepeeR ae re 4 FE ae : possesses consi- over the method adopted by Pa- gan. sharon aa to local. circum. stances, as parts diminish with the side and angle of the The flanks have an advantageous po- baations are more spacious, VOL, IX. PART U. ; if FORTIFICATION. 489 » Vauban also!inttoduced a change in the construction Permanens - —— pb ok earth veined above the rest = ‘the fortification, for the purpose, of! commanding a , : distant part of the field.’ Formerly these had been jy the in- placed in the curtain and various other parts of the for-, vention of tification, and were sometimes used for defending the cavalicrs. ditch. In these positions, however, they were found to embarrass the manoeuvres of the soldiers. Vauban, therefore, enlarged their size, and placed them in the bastions, whence they could more effectually. defend the curtain. They are traced thus; A parallel 36 feet from the interior of the t, denotes the exterior side of the talud or slope of the escarpe, and 18 or 20 feet farther back, is drawn the fire-line or interior side of the cavalier, In small bastions, the talud is almost perpendicular, and the earth is prevented from falling down by a revetement. This revetement, however, ought in no case to be higher than the parapet of the bastion, that it may — ie o pect a the garrison may not be inj y the splinters. It is also a dianclviicbgae attending cavaliers of this. kind, that they ent the bastion from being intrenched farther . Nor is this defect remedied by carrying a as some engi have done, from the ca- valier to the bastion, and constructing a ditch before ba ey Aang iF am acorn as soon as a breach is made. A more advantageous method of constructing ca- valiers will be given in a subsequent part of this article. The improvements which Vauban introduced, were jn outworj:s, not confined to the enceinte alone. He also maie se~ veral advantageous alterations in the construction of outworks, though, it must be admitted, that he left not a little to be done in this way by his successor Carmon- taigne. The first outwork used by Vauban, is the te- naille aC t, Fig. 3. It is placed before the curtain, yention of and by a ditch sufficiently large to receive tenailles. the earth that may fall from the curtain, and which Prate might otherwise fill the terre-plein. Of course it, in a mah get entend on the use of the fausse braye, "8 > n his first illes, Vauban used flanks, as be, gf, th they were afterwards omitted. In constructing tenailles of this kind, h7, ef are parallel to the curtain, the first at 16, and the last at 60 feet distance ; a k, tl, 30 feet from the flanks of the bastion ; a b, tg, equal to one-half of aC or ¢C ; and the flanks 6 ¢,¢/; parallel to those of the bastion. Having determined a 6 e, and tg f, in the in- pra ee emer St per and. at the distance of 54 feet, akh 7 li for the interior side of the terre- plein. Thus the terre-plein of the faces and flanks of the tenaille is $0 feet, but that of the curtain only 18, In constructing tenailles without flanks, which are - found to be most advan’ » the flanks being easily destroyed, the faces a 4 and t g are continued till they meet opposite the centre of the curtain. By this form, the tenaille is not enfiladed, and the besieged may re- . tain it even after the fossé is taken. The form. would be still farther improved, if, instead-of forming an angle aC t, it were parallel to the curtain. It would thus af. ford a direct fire on the terre-plein of the ravelin, and a the ditch to be made larger. e tenaille answers several important purposes, It covers the sally ports of the curtain and flanks, by which of the tc. the besieged communicate with the ditch ; preserves a naille. communication with the ravelin, and secures the re- treat of those who defend it; protects the men in the fossé when dry, and the boats whem wet; affords a ra- zing fire on the enemy whem crossing the ditch, and covers the revetement of the curtain to a-certain height. Itis also of great usein case of a breach being attempt- 30 Advantages Be i i: : : Ati the H ff if Es ii i i gz :2 Ee i faces of the ravelin termi- nate on those of the bastion $0 feet from the shoulder. The object in both cases is to 3 4 : ry x ] to be as acute as is consistent with the best defence. In Vauban’s method, this angle is always ob- of the ravelin’ was at first equal to side of the polygon. Finding, how- shoulders were very much exposed, ‘he enlarged the angle by extending the faces of the in con- structing re- chuits, in the oo- ravelin to one third of the side of the polygon, and ma- terminate on the faces of the bastion 90 feet from the shoulders. He sometimes also used flanks to his ravelin as op, epee — two sere taking gp equal to 42 feet, and po to 60. ese flanks, : ever, are of little use, as they are easily en- filaded by the enemy, and afford little protection to the: tain. Formerly the faces of the ravelin terminated on the counterscarpe of the ditch, in the re-entering angle of which a small harbour was constructed for the boats that were used to keep up the communication between the ravelin and the In this form, however, the back part was found to’be easily enfiladed, and now the faces terminate on the lines Am, Bn, drawn from the sa- liant angles of the bastion to the end of the terre-plein. As an inducement to hold out in defending the ra- velin, which is too frequently given up without neces- sity, Vauban constructed reduits within the ravelin. These consisted at first of a single wall, two feet thick, and from six to seven feet high, and were intended to cover the garrison in retreating from the demi-lune in case the latter were taken. were of the same form as the demi-lune, their faces being 80 to 120 feet, and their flanks, where the ports were, 30 to 48 feet. They were Teo from the terre-plein of the demi- lune by a ditch 12 to 16 feet wide. When large demi-lunes were invented, reduits were converted into second demi-lunes, having faces 100 to feet, and separated from the first by a fossé. This has found very useful in defending the as the passage of the ditch. The width of the ditch before the curtain is from 100 to 130 feet, round the bastion 100 to 110, and before the ravelin . The saliant parts of all ditches are circular, described from the saliant angle of the work with a ra- dius equal to the width of the ditch. with faces from 72 to 100 feet, and forming an angle with the covered way of 100 — traverses Ses rare the covered way, w being enfiladed, and Semel cibaebtss thesoho ree dthomegta The traverses were perpendicular to the counterscarpe, and FORTIFICATION: distant from each other. | HUE apeehae Ht i i e 2 : | u e principal of these duit D, of which the faces rea ee rere tuse angle, and the flank v, prevented covered wag tolsitd fecin: bbs eiaiadeds also to take th in the na Enamel serve to take the enemy in the rear w! ing to ascend the breach in the demi-lune, velins might be still farther improved, ee eee faces ; but ved as that angle ought never to exceed 60 degrees, the the most advantageous form for a ravelin, is an equilateral triangle. The advantages of the ravelin, however, de- pend not a little on the angle of the -poly; The angle is, the farther will the ravelins extend andi for the illustration of-whidii Weanechiellyinduted to St Paul, the in of the French for- tresses. We say illustration, for the discovery, we be- particular a is due to Montalembert and Belidor, tter. ‘ : : The practice of enlarging the angle of the polygon has been by Et Pe engineers, not ‘only from the advan’ ition which it gives to the demi-lune, but because it is found to form the chief merit of the modern system of defence. on aw In Montalembert’s method there are no bastions, but: Montalem- angles; the former 60 bert’s me- and the latter 90 degrees. His lines of defence,. that’ thod. merely saliant and re-entering is the lines containing the angles, are from 800 to 550) eet, 4 In the preceding part of this article, we have: con- Thickness sidered the trace merely as a suite of lines, without re- of the diffe’ gard to the thickness of the works which these lines re~' Tent works. present. We shall now proceed to lay down the di- mensions of Lae aR aT at been de- termined by the most skilful engineers. | The terre-plein of the rampart breadth as to permit the soldiers to manceuvre, and ef- fectually to resist all attempts to make a breach in it, at the same time if it be too wide, it is much exposed to the enemy’s fire, occupies more than can be spared from the other works, and ex~. pensive. . By some old engi it was fixed at from 55 to 70 feet, a breadth impracticable, and in all: quantity of artillery be very small, guns seldom require to be removed from one place to another, thi x ara ein A piece of ordnance after being ged, recoils from 18 to 25 feet, according to its: calibre and the nature of its mounting. The breadth of the terre-plein, therefore, cannot be less than from ub ought to be of such @ Rampart * Soo aan Cavaliers. PLATE _ceLvi. 4 Fig. 3. FORTIFICATION. Pree RRR HH eng besegie? rain lodging u it, the surface in should incline rita the town at-the rate of one inch-of | icular descent in every foot of breadth. It to be planted with rows of Bet ic sd Loin noeendemeee w ‘or : ie detect tha dom tis to be finished. towards the town by a talud or slope, not, however, so but that the soldiers may ascend it without being to go round by the ramps or- passages deasling. oP to the ein. Between the houses and ram- part, there if possible, to be a street 14, to 20 feet wide; and if there is not space sufficient for this otherwise, the inner side of the rampart may be made more nearly perpendicular, and be su by a revyetement: It is always inconvenient to have houses ought therefore, if possible, Engineers have differed in opinion with regard to the construction of bastions, some recommending the * service. | it is on for i y lower. a aay depend said, afford facilities to the i or i a forming the escarpe of the faces of the bib His 9009 36 fort dissent, and GH coupures zm, zy are perpendicular and 20 to 50 feet’ distant from i gf F ty q i =e in g TEE ae eon iss fire. .. Another kind of cavalier called a barbette, is some- times constructed in the saliant angle of the bastion, as a, extending about 36 feet along the faces. The terre- = > iu = Fy i u i ae 2§ Ps LPT Bae He ‘ah Hie g@ ae TH fae 491 nature of the materials, The interior of the saliant Permanent angle is sometimes made circular, to admit a greater number of men than it could otherwise do. The height of the parapet above. the terre-plein ought to be 7 feet 6 inches, andthe banquette about 3 feet ; that is 4 feet 6 inches lower than the highest inner edge of the para- pet... When the banquette is higher than 2 feet, it ought to be provided with steps for the soldiers to ascend, . Its breadth should be about 4 feet, to allow two ranks of soldiers to act. As a banquette.is not on all occasions useful, it may sometimes be sufficient to have a mound of earth behind the parapet, ready to be constructed should it be necessary. Fortifica- tions. _ In order to give the fire of the garrison a complete Plonge of command of every on works, the parapet a slope outwards. To deter. mine this slope; which is called the plonge, is always a lem of great importance. If the parapet be too evel, the guns of the garrison cannot be brought to bear on such of the enemy’s works as are very near ; and should the slope be very great, it weakens the up- wer. pesto the parapet. The plonze, that is the verti- cal difference between the interior and exterior edge of the parapet, should not therefore if possible exceed 18 inches, but, at the same time, it ought to be so con- structed as that the garrison may completely command the coyert way and glacis. The guns of the garrison are fired through openings of the field, and the enemy’s the parapet. Embra- in the parapet, called embrasures. These openings are sures. not made when the pet is at first constructed, but are generally left Pa tp out as the position of the enemy’s batteries and other circumstances may require. The form of embrasures has undergone various change? but that now generally adopted is from six to nine feet in width towards the eld, and from 16 to 18 inches to- wards the place. The best method of supporting the sides of the embrasures is by means of saucissons or large. fascines. .Wood and stone are sometimes used, but are dangerous on account: of the splinters. The part of the parapet between two embrasures is called a merlon. Revetements should never be carried so high as to interfere with the embrasures ; nor should trees planted near them, as the roots become very trouble- some. When, from a scarcity of earth, it becomes ne- to construct the yale ay any pot of the para- » it ought to be from four to seven feet ay Rise ‘Traverses have in general banquettes, which the covered way is ded, and which are high as the crest of the glacis. Sometimes the ban- quette is carried across to the coun’ , leaving on- ly one at the extremity of the traverse next the rlacis. Th the faces of the ‘places OF uisind Mle axe ramps to facilitate the sorties, about 10 feet wide, and so steep as to prevent their being enfiladed. These snghe sfc thay‘ indy MO GABOONS a angle, where they wou too : passages from thie gates the glacis are from 1 to 18 feet wide, the sides of the walls, and the whole is heing lined. wi so as nowhere to ex- pose the covered way. .* brine £ Simple dood to F part Dimension of reduits. It has been proposed by some to cover the glacis with stones, or plant it with brush-wood, to prevent the ene- my from making excavations. Perhaps the same pur- would be better accomplished by planting it with This last method was adopted by the French en- subsequently to 1792. Another improvement ey denartetitn Ceahs'ytacks is to round off all the ought to look towards the bastion, because, if it were on the opposite side, it would be to the enemy’s fire, whenever oan dae: session of the saliant angle of the ravelin. The com- munication between the covered way and the ditch is formed by ramps in the counterscarpe of the places of arms. Such is a general outline of a complete fortification ing to the modern system of defence. A fortified place, however, when finished, seldom presents so sim- ple a form as what we have now described, being gene- rally surrounded with a great variety of other outworks. The nature and use of these we shall now proceed to A tenaillon is a kind of couvre face A, Fig. 4. construct- ed on each sideof a small ravelin B, toincrease its strength, and cover the shoulder of the bastion. To trace a tenail- lon, ce the face of the ravelin, and, leaving from 60 to 80 feet for the fossé, set off ab equal to 180 feet. On the coun’ of the bastion, set off cd equal to 90 feet, and ab dc will be the tenaillon. Works of this kind are sometimes a little different from that repre- are in consequence seldom et been sometimes before the ravelin; but the PLATE iH por | aa 1, before th seteduidioeree: ph igh ct ce ehetthety gor tm 240 feet, and CDabout g : : it may with the covered A we ete eer ; Coun’ ~ FORTIFICATION. 493 When there is a scarcity of earth, a ditch is some- Permanent times constructed before the covered way, or rather be- Fortifica- fore the glacis, called the avant fossé. It is not, how- SS) ever, of much use, unless it can be made wet and dry ayant at pleasure, and is rather incommodious to the soldiers fossé. when making a sally. The avant-covered-way is a second covered way be- Avant- fore the first-or before the avant-fossé; but is useful covered - only in large fortresses, which have numerous garrisons. *Y: It is constructed in the same way as the first, care being taken that the fire of the latter is not interrupted b the former. The avant-covered-way communicates wit the works behind by means of bridges or caponniers, the inner extremity of which terminates in the places of arms. Fleches are works of two lines or faces, forming an fteches. angle, and generally constructed over saliant angles. ey are sometimes useful in covering a passage, but in ne they are incapable of making any resistance. unettes are works resembling ravelins, but consist- Lunettes. ing only of a parapet, placed opposite the saliant angle Prats of the cov way, as H and K, Fig. 1. If the cover- a 8 ed-way has an avant-fossé, the lunettes are placed in Poel the fossé ; but if it has none, they are constructed at the foot of the glacis, as H and K, Fig. 1. When surrounded a ditch and covered-way, they form an excellent defence; and, by obliging the enemy to open his works at a greater distance from the place, they essentially prolong the siege. They are also uses ful in sorties. Lunettes ought-not to be placed too far from the en« ceinte ; their angles should be at least 60 degrees, that it sauyibe-defiesiod by guns; and the faces from 100 to 200 feet long. are always of the greatest ad- vantage, when the angles of the bastions are very open. The most advantageous arrangement of lunettes, and that by which they best defend one another, is where the straight lines joining them make saliant and re-en+ tering angles alternately ; the saliant before the ravelin, and the re-entering before the bastion. In this way, too, the greatest number can be made to defend one bastion, all which must be taken before the bastion it. self be assaulted. Flanks of from 50 to 60 feet are ne« in lunettes. The angles of these flanks increase as that of the bastion diminishes, and vice versa. The communication between the lunette and the co- vered way, is by means of caponniers; but lest these rh subterraneous pas- of covered way, to the If the communica- tion is not covered, it enters the gorge by steps; if it is subterraneous, the gorge is and the steps are in the middle of the lunette. the terre-plein of the lunette is not higher than the ground, gorge by a wall with loop-holes, at least i The covered A horn work is ted by ABCD, Fig. 2, and Horn is constructed as follows. From the saliant ce works. the capi ing EF from 450 to 500 feet. hy Fig. 2 F draw a icular BC, ing BF, CF each from 300 to 350 feet, and on this line construct a front, as on the exterior side of the polygon. Then draw the BA, CD directed to a t, about 30 feet from the shoulder of the bastion. If aravelin abe is constructed before the horn work, its faces ought to be 200 feet. ‘The ditch round horn works is about 72 feet. Various entrenchments, as Gand H, have been Permanett used to 494 crown works, but none of them have been of much advantage, — ’ Horn works are placed sometimes before the curtain, and sometimes before the bastion. In the former po- sition, they do not to be of advantage, as, in case of their being taken, the enemy becomes master of the whole front. Before the bastion any xi fay very use- ful; but in every situation they are liable to strong ob- jections, They require a great number of men to de- fend them—they form a saliant that is not easily sup- ported by other works—they present a straight front to the enemy, which is always weak, and they are very rouch exposed to an assault on their wings or faces. Crown-works differ from horn-works in having a bas- tion in the middle, as Fig. 3. In other respects, they are the same, and constructed in the same way. They are, however, liable to still stronger objections than horn-works. They are more expensive, and more dif- ficult todefend. They are therefore seldom used, un- less it be to cover some large and important position near the fortress, Detached and isolated works are such as are com- ly unconnected with the body of the place, and inte to or attack some distant position. Their form and magnitude differ with circumstances ; but they are always similar to some one or other of the works already described. Of the works placed in the ditches, or used as cou- ures and entrenchments, the most remarkable are Nfontalembert’s casemated caponniers, towers, and ravelins with ailerons. The caponniers are large stone buildings, with two or three rows of guns above one another, and between these rows loop holes, through which the soldiers may fire with musquetry. One half of the caponniers may be used as casemates, as the smoke is easily carried off. The whole is covered with a shell-proof covering. The angular towers, or fours angulaires, are round potas with a stair in the middle, and places all about it for menand guns. The sides are pierced with embrasures and loop holes, and the whole covered as the caponniers are, with a shell- proof covering. On the top is sometimes erected a watch-tower. Under the same denomination of works may be classed the English martello towers, consisti sometimes of several stories, with embrasures an loop-holes. The communication between these stories is by means of ladders. On the top is placed one gun, and sometimes more, the carriage of which moves on a pivot. The ravelins, with ailerons or orillons, do not differ from common ravelins, except that they are smal- ler, and have the orillons. The latter are. sometimes constructed of stone, but more frequently of earth, and are separated from the ravelin by a ditch. These orillons are of use in covering the bastion, when the ravelin is too small for that pur- But in every case it would be better to have a ravelin without the orillons, than a small one lrge gavel The orillons are in fact a sort of places of arms, which when taken, give the enemy the command of the ravelin. Of all the means of defence, none perhaps can be turned to greater advantage than water, when it can be readily commanded. An inundation, well directed, is not only a defence to the besieged, but may even be Sec too, of this method of defence, that it can be used wi out much expense, either of labour or ammunition. FORTIFICATION. the. shoulders of Casemates have frequently been resorted to as‘a cer- | tain means of defence ; but besides the general objec- tion that are expensive, it does not appear that they are so Ey eek eT The most useful works of this _are the double capon- niers, for the defence of the ditches, These are co- vered with a proof arch, and surrounded with a E z ‘I a] is the To cover the gorge of a work, a wall is some- times constructed with loop-holes, and stairs behind it to communicate with the terre-plein. Perhaps the best defence for any , is a tower like Montalembert’s, or the English tower, as it serves not only to cover the work, but also to protect the men in retreat- ing to the garrison. ' 1 eel , en casemates are constructed, they ought : leant sigs font. jn: Tavighty: 0nd SS seenam 9d with loop-holes at the distance of e t give the soldiers the command of the nd immedi. ately under the work, and to allow the smoke to dis- perse, If the caponniers are of a considerable length, they ought to have traverses at short distances, or walls wi holes, that they may be more obstinately de- fended the enemy get possession of one extre- mity. te VWs hep * It was formerly observed, that at a early pe+ vpines. riod, salneo, ween abglaned leeibedaiioed decree ing Shp sawerasel as nee Re anaes | near the . After the invention of gunpowder, is made ed a mine, and a countermine when employed by the parece. The construction, however, is the same in “they ought a tay 29 FS age Aare yy en escarpe the earth about the others. ; Having pointed out the general disposition of the SP te. FORTIFICATION. different works with regard to the trace, the next im- ( mi relief. This is done’ i f | 8, ~ is EB a5 r i H iu 4 ‘ : £ e _ To find the height of the saliant angle of the bas- tion. As the distance between the saliant angle of the bastion and the saliant angle of the place of arms To the distance between the angle of the shoulder eae reys third parallel before the demi- _ une :: So is the height of the glacis before the place of arms + 3 feet: To the height of the crest of the parapet at the sa- liant angle. The enemy’s third trench or parallel is generally at such a distance as to touch the exterior side of the glacis opposite the bastions and ravelins. aqie determine the height of the angle of the shou!- of the is: To the distance between the angle of the shoulder and the third in the ion of the sa- liant angle of the demi-lune : : So is the height of the glacis before the saliant of the demi-lune + 2 feet : To the height of the angle of the shoulder. eae nma: proportion thee and in the latter two feet, are od tothe hadche eee er ee glacis, that the fire of the body of the place may not injure the men in the covered way. The same is done in every other work, curtain is a s ' of the flanks. It may be observed, however, in general, 495 The command of the faces being determined, that of Permanent the flanks is made the same. traight line joining the crest of the angles that two or three feet, according to circumstances, are frequently added to the command determined by the preceding rules. To determine the command of the demi-lune at its of the gorge The command of the Fortifica- tions. gorge, or the extremity of its face on the counterscarpe of the demi- of great ditch. As the distance between the saliant angle of the place of arms and the third parallel : Saute To the distance between the extremity of the '_ demi-lune at its gorge, and the same paral- ‘lel:: j So is the command of the glacis before the place of arms + 3 feet: To the height of the demi-lune at its gorge. lune. To determine the command of the saliant of the of the sa- demi-lune. way to the third el: To the distance between the saliant of the demi- lune and the same lel: : So is the command of the glacis before the saliant + three feet : To the height of the saliant of the demi-lune. When the command of the demi-lune is determined by this rule, that of the enceinte, as formerly mention- ed, requires to have two or three feet more than the above rules give. The command of the reduit within the ravelin ought to be three feet. The p' methods of determining the profile of a place, will in ordinary cases give nearly the fol- lowing heights: For the saliant angle of the bastion 174 feet, and the shoulder 21 feet ; for the gorge of the demi-lune about 17} feet, and for the saliant angle 144. The interior side, or command of the glacis, as has been already stated, is 7} feet above the covered way, and its declivity towards the field ought to be 1 foot in 24, If the declivity be , it covers the enemy's trench or parallel; and if less, the covered way becomes liant of the As the distance from the saliant of the covered demi-lune. The revetement of the rampart ought to be equal in Revete- height to the crest of the glacis, and at least 25 feet ments. above the bottom of the ditch. This gives 18 feet for the d of the ditch below the covered way. Some- times the revetement is not carried so high as the crest of the glacis, and the above is planted with thorns, or defended by peliidee This is called a demi-revetement ; but it has the disadvantage of assist- ing the enemy in the escalade, and therefore ought not to be ado ded adios the ditch can be inundated with water. For the same reason, the revetement should not terminate at top, as it often does, with a derme or round way, which serves only to afford the enemy greater facility in fixing their scaling ladders. The thickness of the wall of the revetement should be at least 4 feet at top, and 5 if the height exceed 12 feet. At bottom, the thickness ought to be one-sixth of the height. To en the revetement, counterforis or buttresses of solid masonry, from $ to 33 feet thick, are built behind it, at the distance of from 10 to 15 feet between centre and centre, which support a consider- able part of the pressure of the rampart. When the ditch is dry, a row of palisadoes is sometimes construct ed in the bottom along the centre, 4 Pirate CCcLVHL rig. & To deter- Taine the relhef or uncren ground. to be considered as separate om le constructed by the rules laid down for that of oan. The profile of a place is represented in considerable i different works. The method now is as follows: A horizontal plane is su to pass through the i int of the d within the distance of 2400 feet of intended enceinte. From this plane, which is called the plane of comparison, vertical lines are drawn to every remarkable point of the place to be fortified, forming as it were a chart of soundings, in which the of comparison represents the surface of the sea. verti lines, as in the case of sound- ings, are called coftes, their different lengths being marked on the plane. If these lengths differ no more than from two to three feet, the ground may be consi- dered as level, and fortified accordingly. If the ine- walities are greater than this, re must be had to them in determining the relief. From what has been already said, it may easily be ived, that the crests of all the parapets, on the same front of a fortification, terminate in a plane more or less inclined to the horizon, as the different works are more or less elevated above one another. In the same manner, the surfaces of all the terre-pleins, and indeed of any other corresponding parts of the works, lie in a plain parallel to the former, and as far distant from it as these are lower than the Bs ope Such planes, in general, are called planes of that which passes through the covered way, the pia of view or of site, because it determines all the others. The plane of view ought to have such a position, that it will pass from four to six feet above the highest point within 2400 feet of the front. As three points are ne- cessary in determining any plane, the three employed in this case are two in the line intended for the covered way, and one on the summit, or rather five to six feet above the summit of the highest ground about the place. If the line joining the two first points be hori- zontal, the cottes of the plane of view, or the distances of the different points in the plane of view from the plane of observation, may be found by the rules al- ready given for determi the relief of a fortification or leve d. If that line is not horizontal, the angle of its inclination is first to be ascertained, and from that the cottes may be easily computed. If an eminence running along a front be nearly of an or height, the front ought to be parallel to it ; but if the eminence is higher at one extremity, the front ought to be at a greater distance from the higher part than from the lower. If a front runs across an eminence, the of the front at the bottom on each side are to be covered b saliant works on the top of the eminence, and the whole front may then be constructed on one plane of view. If it crosses two eminences with a valley between, it will require two planes of view, always taking care that there be saliant works on the eminences, by which the enemy may be obliged to open his trenches at a greater distance. If the place be surrounded by eminences on all sides, each front will require a plane of view for itself. efilement; and ly convex towards the enemy, iat Oe doe be level and i one another. e cou ; be n ts-have sire ‘of lees thaws Ne Hl g, ‘ eeH? to é junction of the river with other rivers—on eminences, or any other advantageous position. should also be taken to cover the sluices that constructed for inundating the country, when measure is rendered Fortifications should s E ie the frontier. But the side which chiefly demands the attention of the engineer, is the sea coast, which is al- ways more cme penetrated, and consequently requires the assistance of every advantageous position that can possibly be obtained. — sidan | The enceinte of a fortification may be a figure of’. number of sides, from a ards, the of the side in each being illy importance to determine the comparative merits of each. hoy ’ The square may be readily fortified, so as, by means The square, of ravelins, i and tenailles, to be equal- y strong on every side. But the garrison whi i capable of containing is com ively small ; scarcely possible to make it hold out a twelve to fifteen days. The same remarks are applica- ble to the pentagon, neither the one nor the other being fitted tor an important position. ae The hexagon is superior to either of the former. Its Hexagon. faces and flanks are sufficiently large ; it will admit of other outworks besides ae Ac, coun’ ds, tenailles, and will contain 2400 infantry and 100 ca- valry. It can only be used, however, in situations where assistance can be quickly obtained, as it cannot 4 mae to hold out longer than from twenty-two to ys. _ The heptagon and octagon i adore. sive: Of Heptagom from 3000 to 3500 men ; and, by the help of outworks and octa- and mines, resistance. defence te lhe: : my extend from twenty-two to thirty-five ) an t of the “ from thirty ¥ to pial - e enneagon, decagon, and en , are Capable Enneagony, of containing 4000 or 5000 men; an equently, &c. from so large a garrison, can spare a greater tines the defence of outworks, than a polygon of fewer sides. If, with the outworks, they the advan of inundation, they may be considered as places of the first order. Under these circumstances, they may hold out from forty to sixty days. ~ Dodecagons and polygons of more than twelve sides are considered as the stro of all fortifications. They gon, &¢. contain a garrison sufficient to defend not only the places © themselves, but also the i them, as. well as smaller forts in If all the gon. passages leading to the neighbourhood. hat cing capable of a considerable 8™ = e The penta- | ! ‘* : ji i FORTIFICATION. enemy not be tem to attack them first. If eT As adh witllotaihaehs if not, it must have a revétement. The souterrains of the ci- rit = lie Fs iE = & ul Tia) 3 HUGE 497 tified, and the entrance of the canal or river into the covered with demi-lunes, lunettes, &c. It will found most advantageous to let the river or canal issue from the place at the curtain. Ifa fortress be situated on a hill, the rampart should be constructed so as to enfilade the declivity of the hill as much as possible, dent of the outworks. ch fortresses are Kram esciowe but very strong. the situation of the place be in a moor, or ground any way i ble, it is still more easily fortified, par- ticularly if there be a command of wate A reser? el ceinte with demi-lunes before the gates, will in general be sufficient for such a place; but if there is a more easy access on any side, it is to be covered by stronger works. These ou’ s ought to have the gorge en- closed by a wall with loop-holes. When a fortress has a plain on one side, and a moor, height, or impassable marsh on the other, the side most to attack should be nearly a straight line, while towards the other may have a considerable degree of curvature. With to the works on each side, the observations we have already made will be found useful ; o 2 tiga ote pre can be given, a great must in e case depend on the skill and i of the i Fewite be observed in pithy hewetvte that ifications on un- equal eminences, or on eminences and plains, are al- ways disadvantageously placed ; but when it is neces- sary to construct them on such places, the side most — to attack should have as open bastions as possi- ; and if such sides have eminences in front parallel to them, or nearly so, it will be necessary, in many cases, to oceupy vdeo niente by detached forts and other strong works. acengpA (ag Sees mn Aor sea coast, the side next the sea may against a coup de main, a single enceinte, or by strong detached woe Whe ha place in at a distance from the sea, but communi- cates with it by means of a long canal, forts are to be these are general ‘sloced Sa au vhde ake. are ly at the ends of dams or dikes, and so formed as readily to enfilade the canal or its bank. | If the forts ean be approached by vessels, they ought to be of , and the guns mounted upon them should be 36 They ought also, in this case, to possess the means of making red hot balls. SECT. IL. Temporary or Field Fortifications. Sucu is a general sketch of the modern system of anent fortification, or the construction of fortresses that are to be ly used as of i We shall now to consider most ved plan of field fortification, or the construction of tempo- rary works for protecting an army, or a detachment in the field. Permanent Fortifiea- _ tions. Fortress on a hill. In a moor or marsh. On the sea coast. As field works. are constructed of the same materials, Giewiiwe and intended for a time to servethe same tresses, many of the ~ cr in the construction latter, are applicable to the former. The —— of” each Saas Te an earthen mound, with a ditch before it, and the only dif- ference, therefore, between them, is in the form, size, and number of works. The first’ object in field fortifi- it Ig ERE os = mmr a most capacious at a given expence. ing de~ fence should be as much as possible employed, and the flanked parts within the range of musket shot, that is 2 BR as for~ of field principles laid down above ¥o'ks- Fickt ¥ ectifixa- tere —ye Piate OcLVIU. Pig 5 The redan, Redoubt. The num- ber of mea necessary for different kinds of works. 498 400 or 500 feet. The. saliant, angles) are.always to be pong and dead angles, or points, that cannot be seen trom any other part of the work,.as much as pos- sible avoided. To render the faces more nearly paral- lel to the field, the saliant angle should. be very \ob- tuse, and its defence will be considerably improved, if, instead of furming an angular point, it be. truncated, rounded, or serrated, These diferent forms are repre- sented in Fig. 5. A, B,C. Saliants, like», where the faces cousist of a suite of small saliant angles, are useful in removing all unflanked angles; but the sides, form- ing each of the small saliants, ought never to exceed two feet ; when they are more than this, they, either weaken the parapet, or. they render it necessary to increase its chickeaee which both adds to the expense, and en- croaches on the room within. Perliaps, upon the'whole, the best form of a saliant is the circular represented by B. With these general remarks, we shall now proceed to enumerate the principal works employed in field for- tification, The redan is a work consisting, of two faces, like a demilune, sometiines also having flanks, in which case it is called a piece, , As the redan has an open gorge, it is easily taken in rear, and. is therefore never but to cover a road, dyke, village, castle, or other work. sree eo snes eonennennnerate ing a com enceinte, It is. generally triangular, aie or circular, and sometimes also a polygon. The form is seldom used, indeed, its angles being too acute, andthe within |too. small. ..'Phe.circu- lar redoubt encloses a large space, Lut is difficult to con- struct, and cannot be well fanked. The square, or pen- tagonal form, is therefore most commonly. used. As a redoubt is liable to be attacked.on. every side, its size ought to beso rtioned to the number of the arrison, that it may be defended on all sides at once. “o be sufficiently defended, a side. will require a man to every yard, and three ranks.of men. » The first! rank fires, the second loads, and the. third acts as a body of reserve. la The weak defence of such works generally arises from the net Capone of the men who are to defend them, an erefore great care is necessary in accom- modating the work te the number of the ison, A redoubt, whose side is about. 12, yards in length, will inclose 36 square yards, but will contain. men; enougly only for one rank along the parapet, and is besides much ex to the destructive effects of stone balls and shells. This is, therefore, the smallest redoubt that ought ever to be constructed; if the side be 14 to 16 yards, the space within will be 60 to 80 yards, and will contain men sufficient for one ne ad serve. A side of 18 to 20. yards will afford room for 144 men, being enough for two ranks, and, in general, the more the mY SYR ER the greater in tion will be the room. aff for the garri« son. This is to be understood, however, only of isola~ ted works, as those to which succours can be readily af- forded, sani : which is secured from balls, and which, at the same —_ Intrenched camps near the frontiers differ very much’ Jntrenched time, serves asa traverse for the men who defend the from permanent camps and frontier posts, having no’ camps, work, or to secure its interior parts. habitations for the troops in them, and being only in- Intrenched Lines or works connected with each other, and form- tended to'serve for a short time. They rally con- lines. ing intrenchments, should always be strong enough to _ sist of works constructed like field forti 3; but, sa o i mt, — a is to perros = arranged accordingly. sui eights, therefore, as do not allow the enemy to approach. , oa occur, are either to be occupied, or the position is Tétes-de-ponts, or bridge-heads, are smaller or larger Tetes-de- to be somewhat altered, which is in general easily fortifications, raised before a bridge inorder to cover it, pots. done, as the engineer will not be so much restricted Small tétes-de-ponts consist only of a single redan, as on any given place as in permanent fortifications. ABC, Fig. 6, the sides of which are favourably flank- Prater resist ; and therefore, if they are not above that the be tenable as as , they « eh ee the lines always remain commanded, advanced works always to be ‘constructed that the enemy ma: on these heights are of the greatest use. not attack them ; that the which they cover may Worksina Should a valley between two nies require to be not be by him ; that, while attacking, valley. fortified, strong advanced works will be advantageous. he may be in flank.. These works frequently re- If, however, the valley is very narrow, the line may quire a considerable space, either to contain divisions have very sali oe ights, and be frequent- of an army retreating by them, or to covera ly broken ; but if these lines do not cover the places of the river or its banks. Large tétes-de-ponts are re- peer mmr fore oye nvm ee : in Fig. 7. and still larger in Fig. 8. Téles- Fig. 7. and constructed at places as may be deemed ne-| $ must always be well enflanked towards the pj, ¢, : , enemy by the other of the works, and ought al: The next im it point to be considered, is the’ to have a proper ing fire of their own, The en- application of the works to the field. Small works and trances to them should not’ be too small, to retard the single posts may be established by officers of infantry, movements of the troops ; but they should be well de- but large and composed works only are to be directed fended, so as to deter the enemy from approaching quiing Soo- An army may be in want of fortifications in different An army which is weaker than that of its enemy, Ufcations. eases, viz. if it has to cover a large part of a country ; must sometimes either maintain its position, or secure FORTIFICATION. Field its moyements by the aid of fortifications ; and, in this ortifiea- Case, whole lines, or connecting works, are te be con- gues |, in which advantage is always to be taken of the natural impediments offered by the ground, so as “to these works as much as circumstances - ay . = those which are connected, and which form whole lines, are also of use, where any place is to be covered by a connected line ; and, in this case, it is more advantage- ous than works, The latter possess these advantages, ver, that they allow. the free movements ; they do not require so many men or even three, be formed of them, and then they allow:a s than connected lines.. The to be in ing lines, is that which most: the use of all: kinds of fire-arms; different figures ; PLATE Different engineers have proposed ' ecLvin, but what to us the most advantageous, is that ees ) Of detached d works possess in many cases, as we have works. already said, advantages over connected lines, and are. in times ly Where a part of a country, however, has been com) ly in- closed i 7 a F good profile, made as strong by the impediments of’ | Redoubts. ground as ‘circumstances itd permit. Of works, three lines of redoubts are the most advan as th il Fie : H i Fortification — Should it that a small post is to be defended sess otsuek of tho -dcmngy tnt : thei ir ; 508 and, if possible, strengthened by fortifying it. A single house, when it has no stone walls, may be fortified in the following manner: The walls may be strengthen- ed by boards in the inside, or by rafters applied as in blockhouses, or, if these are’ wanting; by making a ditch round it, and: using’ the earth'to strengthen the wall. The doors and windowsare fortified with boards, and barricaded. Loop-holes: are “every where made, but in such a direction that the enemy cannot reach ~ them with his firelocks; so as to fire into the inside of the house. If there is no ditch round it, other impedi- ments are to be made use of, to hinder the enemy from approaching close to the wall. The roof is broken down, and all combustible matter covered with earth. . and rubbish, to defend the house from an attack from above, which might otherwise be executed by lad-« ders Field Fortifica- tions, —_———_ ~ Im a stone house, the walls will generally be strong enough, or, if not, they are to be p as above. The same is also to be observed respecting the windows and the roof; and, if possible, it is to be made shell proof from above. The doors are either barricaded, or defended by a tambour constructed before them, to have a flanking fire. A church-yard, a farm, or an estate, is fortified in a Ofachurcl:- similar manner; but, if surrounded by a wall, either yard, &c.: loop-holes are made through it, or, if too high, a kind of scaffolds, called ech ages, are to be erected, ser- ving for the soldiers to stand upon while firing. The - church, or the building‘on an estate, are then erally used as a corps fet hee and made'shell proof, Fy kes: ing down the and the uppermost story, and using it to cover the . ‘The doors, and particularly the corners of the wallsround such a place, are gene« rally covered by tambours ; but, if time its, Hees niers, and other impediments to the advancing of the - enemy, are made use of. The street, and es, lead- ing towards them, are generally made impracticable by old or broken carts, harrows, boards with nails, wheels, &c. All the houses in the neighbourhood, which may. be advan for the enemy, or which may favour or cover his approach, are levelled, and the rubbish of them used to strengthen the walls. The - trees, near such a place, if , are hewed down or - sawed off, that even not a single rifleman may approach - covered by any of these parts. A small, or country town, if surrounded by a wall, is Of a small - fortified in‘a similar manner ; but echafaudages are ge. town. pm used behind eaten = i some nage ay iers are oyed, one firin loop-holes and the other man walls. : 3 Guns are placed wherever their fire is of the best ef- fect. The are barricaded, and covered by impe- diments which hinder the enemy from advancing there to attack them ; besides this, they are covered by tra- verses, and a flanking fire is established before them, if possible. Only such parts of the gates as are essen« ially to be open for the communication are not barricaded, but strongly defended. Every thing is to be done that may render the interior communica- tion better and more easy, by means of sufficient pas- sages ; but, on the contrary, every means is to be used for obstructing the enemy’s advance, - 5Ot Aviack and We come now to the Second Partiof Fortification, viz. Drefence of Vermasent Fortufica- tom —\y— Different methads of attacking 4 fortress. By surprise. the attack and defence of fortified and shall con- sider this part of our subject, like the former, under two heads, Permanent and Field Fortifications. SECT. I. Attack and Defence of Fortresses. Ix former times, there were six different methods of attacking and defending a fortress, viz. 1st, By artifice. 2d, By a surprise, executed either by a secret under- Toodien between the paeenete the stupidity of the gar- rison, or by masked soldi $d, By force; as the es- calade, the attack demblée, or the attack d’enfulte, 4th, By inclosing the fortress all round with soldiers, in order to take it by a greater force. 5th, By famine; and 6th, By the attack in form, or a regular attack. ._In modern times, however, a place is generally attacked by the following methods : 1st, By surprise; 2d, By an attack or escalade; 3d, By starving it out ; and, 4th, Phe regular attack, or strong bombardment. Of thesedifferent methods, circumstances must determine which is to be ed in one way, which it will be found ; and, therefore, it is not se fossés, the revetements of the ram position of the commander, the o' which the i in him,—how the fortress hours before dayli i is to be given, » 28 secretly as le, to Bp digs Vigemy nothing may be wanted, retarded in its operations from ums If a secret understanding with any of the garrison or the inhabitants can be , it always be very ~ RY, So entrance into the place. It is ible to la down general rules for this part of the subject ; nor A it necessary, as accident, and the circumstances of the FORTIFICATION. to gain a se- moment, will instantly point out to the xperien a an intended surprise changed to a at- tack. An open attack can onl - if the fos ofa fortress eal passed, oF if in it is not deeper than from four to five the re- vetements are not more than, twelve feet above the bottom of the fossé, and if the is not al- ways on the alert, so as to direct the fire of guns mounted on the flanks against the assailants. Should calade, other impediments may easily be cut off. Thorns, however, and bushes, are ae and requiré a considerable time, if they are planted e sy ae ae . yen ae i a sees et a ‘ Pant Il. ON THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF FORTIFIED PLAC Es E rs a ue A Sot FORTIPICATION. 505 scapEs, may be more easily, as well as more effectually, Attack and observed with respect to the movements of the troops, aoubenery Sonate have’ wrath rm canapeene been at~ tack is to be undertaken, the troops assemble, and march » to the covered way. pono Bepmmrsenternd obstructions, removed the other ns, and’passed the fossé, the te eronalnamiroue mere serene A number of men then mount by them, sufficient to make prisoners of the , at one of the gates, which is im- mediately openéd to a reinforcement previously posted near it. This is by a larger foree, the other gates are thrown , and the town taken possession of in a similar as by a surprise, described above. a eee eon ee boats, with ladders called sambukes, it will be almost im- possible to effeet an escalade. The garrison He i to know the real point which it is intended to attack, and se srr tac these ine a use, as are also several attacks at the same time. is equally ait at ze . The mode certain methodol forcing a fortress to sur- render is by famine; but it isvat the same time the most tedious, especially if the place is well supplied with visions, and if it is situated near a river, The taki a-fortress in this ' army from forming a connected circle. : we km meng tarp Y Remar blockaded, even by a small corps, than a fortress situated meow ree in an open country canbe by a large army. A town partly surrounded with water cannot be block« aded, unless the blockading troops command the water, whether it be the sea, a river, or a lake: In this case, a Sotijuyund frequently's feet; wilbbe mecetsary to blocks oa the place from the water sie a To assist the means of consumin enemy's provi« sions as soon’as possible, a eicnlber dupont is frequently of the use, as the enemy’s magazines andstore4 houses may thereby be set on fire, and the’ inhabitants exposed to much danger. The habitations of the garri« son will also be rendered unsafe, and the soldiers expo« sed to constant disturbance and fatigue. A bombardment is most advantageously made by-more- tars of a large calibre, and at great distances, with shells of 12 inches diameter, and guns, with red-hot balls. The shells used on these occasions should be filled with combustible matter, so as to set on fire the objects. near which they e. For the same » fire-rockets may also be used with advantage. Whatever, indeed, threatens to consurhe the place, must operate as’ an in- ducement to the garrison to surrender, particularly if their provision be destroyed. This may: sometimes: be’ effected by spies, or some other secret means, which: of ' course decides the fate of the place. It ought always to be remembered, however, that the siege is carried on, not as against an inhabited town, but a military post, and therefore the inhabitants are to be spared as: much as - possible. At the same time, it’ must be acknowledged, . that this is more the: business of the besieged than of the besiegers. The attack in form, or the regular attack of a fortress, By the at- begins, as in the last case, with investing, ‘or inclosing it ‘kin form, with troops. This investment is particularly necessary to cut off the communication between a fortress «and its army. Some towns, however, cannot be invested com~ pletely, as, for instance, when a fortress is situated on the sea, and possesses a greater naval force than ‘the besie~ gers. In this case, such a can al ‘receive suffi< cient reinforcements, and this alone will very much re« tard the siege. Those fortresses are also with: invested that are situated on the bank of a large’ river, the conflux of two rivers, in the middle of woods -and hollow ways, at a certain distarice from ‘them, or in genes ral ow ground which in any way’prevents: the’ besieging: It is also very: difficult toinvest a fortress covered by a large army, or by an entrenched camp. In this casey the i are miy has to ocetipy a very large s by:which ‘its force will be more dispersed, and driven back bya con centrated attack from the A fortress can either be invested by ‘the army which: is to carry on the siege, or by a-corps sent forward: bes fore that army arrives. This will frequently be of great unless the fortress is covered by’ an: army,” which of course must be! driven back before the siege’ or the investment can take place. It is always to béobser« ved, however, that the investment of a ‘fortress, ‘or the movements and preparations for besieging ity are to be “prepa~ sete dipbusse TRON Reyer jg em or te. Ni informati mS Previoat tab couaiedsoiend Pu yet of pr peheng gait Clie ary to ascertain not orily the hie siege, strength of the garrison, but elvo the troops which itimay mecesaty 10 oppose inthe neighbourhood, inorder tn determine the strength of the corps necessary to invest This ought never to be so numerous as. to impede the celerity or secrecy of its movements ; but at time it must be sufficiently, Sw ea may be opposed to it. besieging corps must also be proportioned to the nature of) the If the country be open, a greater quantity) of i required ; but if inelosed, the principal . This corps is to march without heavy baggage, that it may. move with expedition ; octur from its marching in too large a body, it will often be necessary to divide it into several columns, which are all.to rendezvous at a certain ment of the enemy. peas a anenanaaae appointed place, small parties are sent towards , tress, to bring away or destroy all kinds of provisions and, that the enemy may not profit by them... The: same is also to be observed with regard to the cattle, and, every thing else which may be of any service to the ene- my. If, at the same time, reconnoitring parties can be! of use, they .are to be sent out ; as also parties to drive back any reinforcements that may be sent to the enemy. Should a fortress be situated on, the sea-shore, a fleet will also be»necessary to blockade it; and, if possible, . this must be some days previous to the investment, in order that the fortress may be inclosed every where, as soon as the troops arrive. , The corps which previously invests a fortress, should be careful in preparing the best position for the large ar- my, as well as endeavouring tog gain all possible informa- tion respecting the place, in rah nnsep thing may be prepared by the time that the army arrives. . If, how- ever, the army be sent directly, it will be the business of the commander himself to choose the most advantageous position, and to obtain as much information as can be procured, As soon-as the investment begins, the engineers are to be employed in collecting information respecte . ing the exterior ground surrounding the fortress, as, well, Plans of the ground. as itself, Y ri I yrrrt All drawings which, may. have been obtained of the fortress and the country, round it, are compared with the impanres or corrected by ac-, the fortress can be procu-, red, the works, as well as the surrounding, country, are surveyed, in which each, engineer has his,own work to finish. If instruments, as rulers with diopters, boussoles, ; sextants, theodolites, and plain tables, can be used, the. survey will be executed with greater accuracy ; but where, these are not to be had, a single instrument for taking the, — angles will answer the purpose, and the rest may - be filled up by the use of the camera lucida, and by te-, lescopes with micrometers, as will be explained in ano« ther place. Plans of almost eyery fortress may now be plans are corrected by actual.com: bs themselves. All cane poe rr flanks, the faces, the curtains, the dimen- fossé, and all the outworks, are taken aS OX=— FORTIPICATION. - commander, as well as the quantity of .its/provisi i actly as possible ; and, if necessary, an engineer is into the covered way, pacer nies cious fae in this respect. Spies may frequently use for thi + instructed, . purpose, and from them, after,being i by ; the best information. may be tis also necess == sary to ascertain the disposition bie ee een aia penn in order di- stores of every kind, and, where they are e to know to what part the fire should be. i rected, or rendered of no use to the garrison... W : who have assisted either in building or repairing a fore. | tress, can give valuable information to.a I mn and therefore every means should be tried. to discover them, as the intelligence to be gained from them cannot be obtained from any other quarter. | 6 ¢0)4 5 os The camp of the army is to be regularly inspected, in Communi- order that every possible improvement may be made. for cation be- the greater security and convenience of the troops., — magazines and stores of materials and instruments Re» of the army. cessary for the siege, are to be made at different places, that the enemy, by their position, may not discover (to, what part of the fortress an attack will be directed. In entering upon a siege, the principal object of the come mander is to see that a good’ communication. is kept up: between all the parts of the army, and that the necessa- y anew have been ar areata Care is to be taken. that t bridges are sufficiently large, and, if possible, there should always be two together, one of which may still be of use, even if the other should be damaged. But in the eonstruction of these bridges, the besieging army. should endeavour, as much as possible, to place them out of the reach of the enemy.) 20) yh ee Should an army of the enemy be exp the country, round the camp is to be fortified, if it appears advan-, tageous ; but care is to be taken not to inclose the army, too much, lest its movements should by these means be. embarrassed, Single but strong forts appear to be far more. advantageous than any other, and are, “>. more frequently adopted...A besieging army may. also Army of be covered by an army of observation, or a corps, whose, observation. business it is to watch the enemy’s movements, and ei- ... ther to protect the besieging army from an attack, or at. least to give timely information if an attack is to be exe, i. *¥ ‘ i 2 ” Circumstances must determine, whether the army of observation, or the besieging army, should be the strong~ er. If the army of the enemy is numerous, the army of observation is to be the larger. In most cases, however, it should, in the first instance, be the smaller, as it may. easily be reinforced when necessary. _ Besides, the be- ‘ sieging army must never be very weak, lest it should fa-. 4 tigue the soldiers toomuch,and expose them to the attacks of a numerous garri - To defend them from such an attack, strong but inclosed works, which cover each other, ‘may be raised round the fortress, especially in such places as secure the communication with the different parts of. the army, and, at a conyenient distance for mounting Tneseree ts fe ; _cstiaietine it Posi ia ents for a si a most important. Position of consideration is to determine the cotton of depots and depots. military stores. These should never be at so great a dis. tance, as to produce any inconvenient delay in procuring. the necessary supplies, of which) a sufficient. quantity, must be collected before the siege commences... The first, with every thing necessary to render it effective, the are, t +L me Se ocala ae ce a = vt FORTIFICATION. my must be amply provided the moment it has taken up its The that be in any 3 position. ne Aor vtebich bell be considered afterwards, —— Next to ordnance, fascines, or rods and brambles for Necessary stongg. ud fascines; are peculiarly necessary. Theseare ei- ther 8 or 12 feet long, and serve to construct parapets, traverses, &c. and sometimes also to fill the fossé, in or= der to pass it. The great number’ of fascines generally wanting during a siege, may sometimes be procured near it : they” be: by: land its neighbourhood, may or water to thoes planes, lieve the-depotd of these aud si milar materials are formed. are constructed. atom Ran NS BE deacarswtere dha tar -excavations © , which are to’ be made over ly necessary in many cases, to have blinds and moveable parapets, forthe purpose of co vering the men who use small arms.’ gilihthe tonatmuntion+of. eardy-works,a. great variety of tools are necessary, such as shovels, spades, fascine knives, saws; hatchets, iammers, drills, &cvand of course @ sufficient number of these must be eae zines or depots: Thapshkal artillery'ie:pinced as close:to'e fbetrece de possible, always taking care that it be not molested by the enemy's fire. The most advantageous position is when it is covered by a height, or rising ground, and at the same time well protected by the troops from the sal- lies of the and the attack of an army; to relieve the fortress... Theypark of artillery is always to be placed dn a certain ‘order.».'The -heaviest guns should be sta- ‘tioned in one or two: lines,:the mortars and howitzers on each side of them, and: those \of light. calibres at’ the the hr a article belonging to each piece, inclucing se pean yi tn Ar tte tteaaly sameincel hind it. an wntve at i) & TAT OF The | where the fireworks are prepared, should not be far distant from this park, and the park:must be _ as closevas. ible to that side where the attack, or where one of the attacks, is to »be made. however,it may be placed before a different front of the - fortress from that which is to be attacked, in order the better to. hide the intention of the besiegers, or to take of a more favourable part of the ground. iebamichteriesdhcuthe chats oftuerpettior' the reception of the ammunition, or of the powder in pare ticular, are to be made so as to keep the powder dry, and must So aie ie a ee i Sagntrt in fine weather, may be open« for the free passage of the air. — ‘The powder is to. be Oc ag , under which the air may pass free, and in Srele oni chasiny i Seeeuteianes 4$ ammunition chests on the keer epaempareleetee pertivectneti a where the attack is to be made, that they may wood of this kind is to be’had in 507 easily be conveyed wherever rea however,'to- deceive the enemy, or for convenience, Defence pd aria et ae oa 1 conveyed: ‘to another front ; ‘on these occasions, It is not ner poopie placa ata tie alia sated pot, or too near storehouses, lest they should all be de- stroyed, and their destruction oecasion damage to the storehouses also. 4 Sometimes wail somietimes only a ditch, is construeted round the depots ; wana they os as round the powder magazines, sentinels are placed, = ee strangers or suspicious persons at a distance. pe tools and'sand bags, or similar stores, may be ; _ kept at the depots’ of materials, but if possible under shel- : are ove or other circumstances, sap ton por they are wanted. —Some- Attack and a == per dinite oftthe'front to be attacked, will principally Front to be be determined by the knowledge that has been procured ttacked. fromthe’ surveys, the weakest being always the most as- sailable.' That side generally . is considered to be the weakest which is: commanded: by eminences, or where the rampart can be hit at a great distance, where the terre-plein is very narrow, the bastions small, the con- _ struction or trace imperfect, the defence injudicious, the outworks*weak, the ‘covered way. easily taken, the fossé small andnot deep, the revétement damaged, or not of stones);wilrere ‘there -are-no-thines~and “where ‘the be- neo works cannot be commanded. ith regard to the surrounding country,” wnttye fain’ and open ground sloping towards the fortress is dha! ad« vi Avstony soil particularly retards the siege, as also moorish In these situations, the attack ie wees advance witha very =— front, which-is cer nly very: disadvan Hollow ways, hedges, walle, or similar objects, may serve also to cover thé’ bes sieger's works. | «If ‘a:country be rather low, it is of con- sequence to*know ‘whether it can be inundated, which is a very ‘serious disadvantage. | The side of attack’ also, in some méasure, depends.on the manner in’ which the ord nance und’ fascines canbe transported ‘The fortifications and»their strength, ‘however,'-generally determine ‘the Sap. pment eres ane csmaneS tr not very unfa~ vourable. The next thingewbe considered ‘is the plan of the at- Plan of*ate tack, which ought'to be such, that all the works shall be tack. conducted regularly, and as few as possible constructed; so that the fortress may be taken in the shortest’ time. All this is the business of the officer who is to conduct the siege, and who ‘is always en to direct and céns troul every thing on’the side of attack. The works'cons structed by the besiegers as a defence from the fire of the fortress, are in general called trenches: Of these there are different kinds, as approaches, parallel batteries, and traverses, A enemy in order to cover them. The direction of these | works is towards the place, but generally ign ‘so that they always’ approach the fortress in such a manner, that none-of them:can be’ enfiladed. They’ are-represented A, A, A, Fig. 1. pproaches are excavations about 3 feet deep, and 10 Approaches to 18 feet wide, the earth of which is thrown towards the oe Parallels are also excavations, about Piate 3:to 34 feet deep, and 20 to 30 feet “7 the earth of CCLIX,, which is thrown towards the enemy." They are construct- ed parallel to the front of attack, as B,'B, B. ' Behind the parapets are made banquettes, for the soldiers tg stand upon, as lin other;fortifications, ©" © Fig. 1, |, oF to cover troops. si Cavaliers of the trenches are traverses 10 to 12 fect 3 | : F 5 & & it, in order to enfilade the covered drive its garrison out of it. There are steps which to oaches and paral the capital, and its prolongation in the principal line for the construction of alt plan of the fortress, these capital lines first parallel Jaid down at about 600 .. b FF iy i] E E ang i | ere Rs Ey = 7 3 is next determined, in such a manner, that the its zigzag are as near to the capital line as pos~ and that they form the shortest unenfiladed way to parallel. The nearer the trenches come to the place, eee ees ea ee proaches ; but the longer time will be taken in approach- the fortress. Tine pest of the a which is the most distant from the fortress, is called the tail, and, on the contrary, that which is the nearest to it, the head of the approaches, “3% The first and second parallel, when a fortressis not very priate Strong,’ are generally like those represented in Fig. 2 ; cCLIX. but if the polygon which is attacked. -be well fortified, 5 rE Form. Fig 2 Fig, 1. is preferred: ‘The third parallel is generally con- structed at the foot of the glacis, and a fourth is some- times also necessary, Different The figure of the parallels, as well as the approaches, kindsof bat- being thus laid down, the places of the batteries-are next tcries. determined. Thereare three different kinds of batteries, viz. and breaching batteries. The former serve to dismount or so to damage them, or the parapet before » that they must be vation, by which the shots roll the inside of the parapet. Breaching batteries serve to make breaches in a work, or to destroy a part of its revetement, rampart, or other inclosure, in such a manner that it may be ate sa 8 and mounted ae little or no difficulty. ricochetting batteries are erally placed at the first or second parallel, in such a manner that they may enfilade the faces and flanks of all the works on the front which are attacked, and even some of the next, as also the covered way, and the works situated before it. They are therefore constructed in their prolongation of these lines. The dismounting batteries ead 9t;the second and thind paralioles or. between beth; and are parallel to such works as they are intended to annoy. hyn aheeneal wate ote ; are sti when crest of the covered wa nee oa — possible, ing batteries serve to enfilade the lines, in the prolongation of which they are placed. This consists in firi saacenasoblonarie i ele- angle of theglacis, about | FORTIFICATION. ved toweninsbe wowing If possible, a a a Ra, a remains 24 hours in the trenches, and is to be as numcrons as possible; and tice of every shot of the garrison, secure himself. Ca of the trenches is commanded by a bu this, the major of the trenches has the ‘immediate intendence of them, and of the police there. He shews each battalion its place, and gives every: commander his of ton, proper instruetions.. He generally has two to four as- . sistants, and is always accompanied a pend Fit Pa market, to order the provisions, and to see & proper of cleanliness is observed in the trenches.) All works which are to be constructed in one night are previously determined, and. i ions given, est possible dispatch.» The engineers, and all overseers of the workmen, are therefore in particular to be well in- structed. t ' 7% 4 ie “ears The first part to be executed in the plan of an attack is the opening ‘of the trenches, which is done as follows. The workmen, and the men ordered to cover them, or ied by some orderlies, to ~san Son the afterwards the guard of the trenches, are to-collect inthe most secret manner, in the evening, at some place not far distant from that where the attack is to be made. As soon as dark, about 200 to 300 of the best men are sent towards the fortress to draw a line, or to compose a chain of posts parallel to the front of the attack towards the fortress. After these soldiers, who must all be men jin whom the confidence can be placed, and who are to be cautioned not to make the least noise, and to see that-no one shall desert, follow the engineers, each at the head of a file of workmen. ee another, observing | strictly the movements of i neer, who marches on the line which is to be years his file during the night. Rg) vraag wT The workmen being thus conducted to their stations, and his as~ Each been ways to be taken, however, that there be not so many men as to cause confusion, and therefore it is better to employ no more than are absolutely necessary. All the FORTIFICATION. ‘employed in this undertaking should be perfectly At “men ce Of healthy, that they may not by coughing, or any other = noise, alarm i ordi They are ave tb be ace tions, ‘companied too, by the necessary number of officers and Ne Vion-comininsioned” officers, to keep them fn order.” As wire’ tollécted in the the engineers have no difficulty in finding his way, the lines tobe dug out are sly marked byacord pas- i fixed in the lines at con- “ , as well as all the engineers, may be better able to fad vals Way, costae men are placed at certain dis- with advantage. 2 . AS soon as the guard arrives at its post, or in the line which it is to occupy, it pushes a sentry towards the for- tress at every 10 paces, or even at a smaller distance, if necessaty, who lies down, in order to observe every thing that passes in or near the place. ‘The bulk of the aha tapes such a distance that it may advance the first notice or alarm. Tyere z i leave his post, on any pretence whatever. Should the enemy, however, have a large garrison, and hazard a sor- worker Way be’ Eroaghr heck 1o the places: Shere they may to the places where were collected, or to a proper distance, while the sued 509 of the trenches advances to oppose the enemy. ‘In such Attack ana ‘eases, cavalry to cut off the enemy’s retreat should al- erred of ways be ready. The workmen never should be allowed yorance” to disperse, but always be kept in order ; and disobe- — tions. dience should be punished on the spot with death, if né« —-~—— cessary. Strict discipline, added to a conciliatory mode of informing and instructing the men in their duty, will be of the utmost advantage, and is never to be negleéct- ed. The workmen who come at day-break, and even some of the guard of the trenches, may be usefully em- ployed in completing either the communication or the. parallel begun in the first night. The next morning af- ter the opening of the trenches, the engineers inspect it, and observe whether the enemy can enflank it. Where this is the case, they order a traverse to be constructed, They also see, that in the parallel the banquettes for the soldiers to fire irom are properly constructed, and that the crest of the parapet is as nearly of the same height as possible. As soon as the first parallel has been finished, the ri- Deena cochett batteries are constructed. These are placed ei- Geoitions tae ther in, before, or behind the parallel, according to cir teries, cumstances. The space between every two guns is generally 24 feet ; and between the mortars, about 15. Thedepth , of the batteries is from 80 to 36 feet ; and a powder-ma-« e is behind them. son Sah ws eat are kacet wi tia wii “ach he mortars in the middle. ides the ricochett batteries, others are constructed to fire at the magazines of the fors tress, in order, if possible, to detroy them. Such bat- teries also may be advantageously constructed, even be- fore the trenches are opened, on heights commanding the _ town ; and mortar-shells filled with combustible matter, or red hot balls, as well as fire-rockets, may here be of great use, in obliging a fortress to surrender long before a breach has been made. A battery in the parallel, however, is constructed in the shortest time, and there« fore often the best. Its construction is as follows: The parallel is made equal in width to the depth of the bat- tery; the platforms for the guns are laid; the’ inside of the parapet is finished to the height of the soles of the embrasures, and the embrasure ; then the parapet is finished, and afterwards also the embrasures, which generally, as well as the interior talus of the parapet, are lined with fascines. The batteries for mortars have no embrasures, but are lined like those for guns. The pa- rallel is in this case conducted round the battery, viz. be- hind it, in the same manner as ‘PARALLELS are built. The battery has generally a parapet, either at its flanks, or before them, but none behind. A battery before or behind the parallel is dug out, in ite a different way. The inner talus is determined at at a proper distance from the parallel and fascines being laid down to mark it out, a ditch is dug out before it, and the parapet constructed in the same manner as directed in field-fortifications, observing the above rules with regard to the construction of the embrasures, The two wings or flanks of sach a parapet are joined to the J, and serve to secure the communication with it. At the back of these batteries, generally behind a small traverse, a powder-magazine is constructed to contain ammunition enough for two days, or about 200 shots for each gun, and 150 for each mortar. The men employed to construct such a battery, should be acquainted with the work. These batteries being al- so constructed during the night, will hardly be complete Tt will be also an advantage, if these batteries can be regularly traced, and constructed by such a number of may as be fully employed during the time they are hours, this will forward the work very much, and consi- derably lessen the time usually required. Oper ing of As soon as the ricochett batteries are finished, and al- vee rieoshett 50 the first parallel, the fire of these batteries is to begin. Not a gun, however, is to be fired from any of them till they are completely finished, lest they should attract the enemy's fire ; as this would molest the workmen, and on- lygive rise to confusion, which might occasion the total struction of a battery, or the dismounting of its ord- same time from one battery, that the enemy may always be in a state ofalarm. The artillerymen on one battery are divided into certain parties, one of which always serves the guns. An officer has the inspection of each : , to observe its effect, to correct its levelling, and to make such repairs as may be readily done at the mo« ment, but which, if neglected, might lead to more serious consequences. Every officer, therefore, is to be made answerable for the effect, and the accidents in his bat- tery. Approaches Alier finishing the parallels and the batteries, those peep! places on the parallel are to be determined from: which i the approaches shall commence. An opening is then cut in the parapet of the parallel where the workmen are pla- ced to cut out the approaches, covered in a similar man- ner as in the first night. The soldiers serving to guard these workmen are, if necessary, covered by woolsacks, which they carry with them, and which, being about the height of three feet, will cover a man completely. — pa The second parallel is constructed exactly, in the same aie manner as the first ; but the work being much more dan- gerous, from its being nearer the fortress, it.ought to be executed with the greatest possible secrecy and dispatch. If any part of the parallel has been left unfinished during the night, it should be done the following day, or, at farthest, in the course of next night. After this, the approaches towards the fortress are continued in the same manner as before. Poy ye If any point peculiarly favourable to the: construction of ni batteries should occur, advan is to be ta- ken of it, even in preference to those which it had been previously proposed to raise. All sallies made by the garrison are to be met by the guard of the trenches, while the cavalry is endeavouring to cut off the enemy's re« treat. The guns on the batteries should always have grape-shot ready, and as soon as an attack of the enem is perceived, should be fired at those parts against which the attack is directed. er agh es In order the better to observe the motions of the ene« diemounting Y? the ground before the parallels should be illumina- baieries, ted either by fires, or by light-balls. The third parallel is the next part to be constructed ; or if it lies too near the enemy, the dismounting batteries are first to be con- structed. The proper situation for these is either before Third pa- FORTIFICATION. they are completely ready in ¢ spect; but when once opened, a. constant. be kept up, and the guns should be. fired. time, in order to cause as much confusion as. the place. ‘ie As the construction of -works between the.second, pa- Nature rallel and the place is very dangerous, an ingenious. mee raed thod has been devised fox covering. the workmen by “?? 7 This consists in placi ions means of the sappe, viz. the flying sappe, where all the baskets are ™ethods of placed at once by a number of men, and then filled as xappem soon as possible; the half sappe, where all the baskets are placed at once, but filled successively ; and the com plete sappe, where the baskets are placed successively, so that the man who places one. fe cones by ats Fes ceding one, or by a large bag, or a basket full of e rolled before him, Instead of the basket, or sack full of earth rolled before the men, a blind or board resting on two small wheels, with a thill, is made useok,. The flying sappe may be made by common wor and also the half sappe ; but, in. cting the com« plete sappe, men called sappers must ade RA who are particularly acquainted with this business. Of these men, asappe will require fi Se itn teenie the baskets, and partly fills them with earth, he digs a ditch behi sham 108. es deep, and two wide. He also places small bundles of rods, fascines, or sand< .._. bags, between every two baskets. The cgotaie af low him en’ the fosse half a foot in depth, and. much in 7 These four men take each others successively, and are relieved every two to four new ones, This work can be conducted by night as.¥ as in the day-time ; but not more Soa, ties oe : ; 20 to 30 yards can be completed in one day... - wit core pa eames er ‘shed by thei ‘ve denna ed and kinds of the pansies ype The first has baskets filled with ‘Ppes- earth, or a parapet, only on one side; the second has a parapet on both sides ; and the third has not only a pas rapet on both si also a shell-proof covering. The the simple sappe has been al explained. The sappe is constructed, by mak two simple ones le each other ; and ieanrent iy is generally deepe good phcten ea cng which at the is not constructed, but Perallel parals not used. The third: 5 vis FORTIFICATION. — 511 approaches = mer by the flying sappe, and the latter by the ordinary or double sappe, as i above. If a third anda fourth el are constructed, it is usual to fix there the dismounting-batteries ; but if the third parallel is at the foot of the glacis of the covered way, part of them is before, and part behind. _ Should it be found useful to remove the ricochetting- hatteries nearer to the are placed on crot- chets, or half parallels. If a fortress has lunettes, no fourth parallel will be wanting, but a will vered on them by a parapet. When it is necessary, however, that the sappers should be better and when only a few works of the fortress are dis- a fourth or a place of arms the saliant angles of the covered way, will be requi Dismounting- ies, too, may sometimes be too dis- A common covered way may either be taken by an assault, or ly by the . From the & es Ht ae : + ie q g5 a F P33 geass aT858 begun i simple kind of cavallier of the trench is used, ha’ only one row of i Trenaivsabséier thatteher. 1. Xe mount these parapets, stairs are raised behind are | against t or fut agli, mont the of the sappe being vered way, Fk ar As soon as the attack has arrived at the saliant ; the cavalliers of the trench are to be constructed, to the number of at least three pair. As soon as these are finished, they are filled with soldiers, who keep up a comptanns Sire slong Sie eavered way, S0:0e to prevent Mig nena remaining there with safety. Foe agg ayers ey co my coun Cov: 2 are not arate in e before the places of arms, If the enemy be tea eempete Places of arms, +e is to be driven out by stone mortars and _But if this fire should not induce him to quit the places of arms, and if they are very strong, Attack ang and not to be taken without a breach or an opening Defence of made. in their rampart, then breaching batteries must. Fermanent be raised against them. These are made like the dis- ““ions. mounting batteries, but more covered from the enemy’s ————~ fire either by traverses or higher oe : If the place of arms can be atta by rise, this. by surprise, may be done as soon as the sappe along the palisadoes.of the covered way, or lodgement on the crest of the glacis, is finished, Milita nde one is ascertained that none of the enemy are hidden beliind the traverses in the covered way. The place of arms being taken, it is usual to con- struct a lodgement there, or a place where the soldiers may be covered from the enemy’s fire, and can oppose to him a front along all the works. Another me a ig ing the covered way is byassault. This, however, can< not be undertaken till all the guns in the fortress are si- lenced, and the enemy’s works there can be assaulted without making a breach. But as the assault is generally attended with a considerable loss of men, a vigorous attack on the covered way is mostly | pg How- ever, when it is determined to bring the siege to a con- clusion in a short time, or when the works of the ene- my are say. Lagasse and when the chance of success is probable, assault is to be undertaken. This attack is usually made by volunteers from different regiments, and their way is cleared by pioneers or ters, whe nea dlomaihe i and remove all other ob- stacles. When such an attack is resolved on, it is to be made at day-break : he pana are cut down, the soldiers enter the cov way, put every one they meet to the sword, and proceed di to lace of og bag a agg emp a is can — yy surprise, it is always more advantageous, e m7 ype gah ch ag wine ppd ey sible, and covered with fascines, wool, or sand-bags. Wool-sacks certainly are of the greatest advantage here, as they may be easily conveyed from one place to ano- ther, and form a good parapet for the fire of small arms. If the sappe on the glacis, along the palisadoes, or Lodgement the Iplaadiet oak the wed of Vis erence wn » has not ° the co- yet been made, it must now be done. attack Vert ¥#y- As soon as it becomes light, these men retire into the lodgement, if it be ready ; if not, to the next part of the trench. The lodgement is finished, if pos- sible, the next day, if the enemy’s fire is not too de« structive to preyent the workmen from going on. ‘ To prevent accidents, the men who storm the co« vered way are to search for the heads of small mines, and if they discover these, or any other contrivance invented by the enemy as means of annoyance, they ge Reda oye Pape by mines being th e- a covered’ way, by mines e most tedious, is only to eye nee oy ae hla thods fail, or when the enemy uses mines also, way by The mines must, in this case, be so constructed, that mines. _ the largest globe of compression may easily burst, and 1 512 FORTIFICATION. Auack and that a proper tunnel or excavation may be made by it bags and wool- are here also of considerable advan« Defence f for constructing a lodgement. tage, and where are to be had, they should always. — a The first method of attacking mines, is to make — enn be acaake , ofabout ——> 4 feet square, and when this has been carri depositing the charge filled, blocked up, and fired. Experi guide in determining the powder to be used. In this manner the work proceeds, till it arrive near the covered way. As soon as a tunnel of a mine is formed, a t is directly made there, that the may vance and take possession of it, and thus oulaip opines the fortress. If some of the ene- my’s mines and wells are met with, or if his miner is heard, a mine is directly to be filled and burst, before he has time to do so with any of his. But should the miners be by the enemy bursting his mines, new ones must be which there is reason to ex- lp be more successful, as the enemy will then ve no more mines at his command. If the miners should chance to meet those of the ene- my, a subterraneous ent will ensue, in which smoke-balls, for producing a poisonous and suffocating smoke, may be of use. If they succeed in driving the enemy out of the mines, a large one is to be made, and the whole blown up as soon as possible. In all cases it will be necessary to keep the most accurate drawing possible of the progress of the mines, executed from surveys. If one of the enemy’s wells be discovered, it is to be filled at certain with quantities of meee these are to be blocked up properly, and the whole exploded, in order to form a |} ent or an approach, which, after bursting a mine, is finished by the sappe. In mining, it will sometimes happen that the ground is not firm enough, or that springs are met with, and that the miner is unable to proceed, in which case new wells are to be dug out, as before. The depth of these wells should, if possible, be 20 to 30 feet below the ground. Large mines are always very advantageous for the be- sieger, as they favour the construction of lodgements ; but small mines, which are not seen on the'surface of the ground, are of the greatest advantage to the be- sieged, as they are of no use to the enemy, but serve to destroy his works, and to obstruct his advances. The mines used to take the covered way may also be spies in destroying the traverses, and even the places arms, As soon as the covered way is taken, and the ment on it finished, the construction of the breaching batteries is begun, and, if possible, in such a way that the angle of the shoulder may be struck by the balls in a dicular direction. But if this cannot be done, and if the front has a large demi-lune, the breach is to heh cangapen: 10 to 15 yards from the angle of the The breach in the ravelin is made so as to destroy the intrenchments formed on it, at the same time that the breach is made ; or if this is not possible, the breach is laid 10 to 15 yards from its saliant angle. Breaches in counter- are laid as in the demi- SulbMerrane- our cogage- sochisy, Destruction of the ene- my’s mines, Breaching batteries, ; The breaching as well as the dismounting batteries are constructed by the aid of the sappe, in a manner similar to that before described. t sand. » lunettes, manteaux, &c. ' batteries is as soon as they be used, ese ae tei never poibedls oe may not be -—— covered way is to be formed by the sappe, and that the way to the fossé is , either by a raneous passage, or by the double and covered When the subterraneous passage is formed, it is to” lined and covered with wood, and carried on to the res vetement of the counterscarpe. This is pent either : by a small mine, or by piercing it, and making an en- trance, which is to come about two feet above the sur= Sees Cetin Sas6 eee ‘ossé. he passage over the fossé is differently constructed, ing to the nature of the fossé. A dry fossé may the fossé. be by a double or by a covered sappe ; a fossé, where the water does not flow, tasciad Geen and a fossé where there is a current, by a kind of fascine ater The sappe over a dry ditch is made, as above, either by mines, or like a double or a covered The dase over a: wet dikcty "tard alee aatiied rerit, has two 3 one at each if the enemy's fire is to be feared in passing the even though all his guns at this time should be ed, or at pamela. on oat attacked side, hts is ly and successively constructed, by forming layer of fascines, and ieunaidhs them with earth, Sod continuing with this tll it be sufficiently high, then t is constructed, a new begun, and ’ wk vi veods thus till tha wicks ielaioonis ii A ‘over a fossé which has a current, is more dif. . ficult. The first thing is to try w commtoe the water let off. e, the tervals are filled with fascines, the upper - >. -. i can be assaulted, ’ f cumstances allow it, the outworks are either passed, or the bastion and the outworks attacked e same time. As soon as a practicable breach has been made in the rampart, a sufficient number of volunteers nek sault the Mest bee in 8: this purpose to ace . company the soldiers who make the assault. FORTIFICATION. ' If this lodgement be practicable for receivi iy it is directly to be occupied, and this ‘het ascieats : day-break at latest, that the men may not suffer too mu tions fom the fire of the eye iatel! ap ee ro \—————_ ments are most expeditiously formed sand-| 7 How to be Wr paekeals Woo be repulsed, if the lodgemen ae to 5 t nm or if the t renewed if has not been made in such a way as to be occupied by fal at first. the men, and if they have been compelled to leave it, the attack is to be renewed as before. If any - hensions are entertained of the enemy’s mines, it will be to send the miners to lay amine and to burst it, in order to form the in eit» anil Preset Permanent a ‘Forté thus rendered assailable. ‘But if neither of. these be ing is allowed, heavy. contribu- ised, and divided among the sol- Capitula- ‘tion. articles in the treaty inventory made out of all stores, provisions, &c. possession farther 7 i ‘i { es 8 5 LEPEET? In this case those parts must. be attack- can be taken of ravines, hollow circumstances, of structed as betore. 513° places to bombard the fortress.» This is also to be done from several points, where the fire can reach the for- tress, in order, if provisions there. ; . tions. Fortresses situated on a stony or rocky soil are difi- ~~ cult to be attacked, and the works round them: can on only be constructed by.earth or wool-bags, and by fas- *"* cines, Should a town have a citadel, it will be necessary: to Case of 2 consider, before commencing the attack, whether the j,.9 4 cit- eitadel or the fortress is to be assailed first. Ini all gel, cases where the citadel commands the fortress, and where it will not be much more difficult to attack it than the town, the first efforts should be directed against the citadel, and not against the fortress. When a fortress is to be attacked in form, the operations-ma Attack and Defence of Permanent possible, to destroy the stores and ‘yortifica. they frequently be shortened, by forming a brusque attack, Brusque «‘- or beginning with the construction of the third paral- tack. lel as the first works of the trenches, and: afterwards making a communication from that to the camp. The attack proceeds then regularly, and ricochett batteries, as well as dism ing and breaching batteries, are con- The last method of attacking a fortress: is by tirail- Attack by leurs. Batteries are constructed at a great distance, trilleurs- and mounted with mortars and guns of large calibres. As soon as these batteries have begun their fire, a chain of tirailleurs is formed all-round the fortress, who ap- proach the works, covering themselves by the excava- tions and elevations of the ground, or by the pits, ditches, hollow ways, ravines, trees, houses, walls, hedges, &c. &c. From such places they fire at every: one who appears on the rampart, or any other of the enemy's works. The tirailleurs should always take aim, and avail themselves, of every circumstance’ that may direct their fire with effect. In general, they have little to fear from the fire of the garrison; but, if neces~ sary, they are still better covered, by giving them wool~ bags, or by constructing a parallel fr them, and also b pelene their operations with a brusque attack. irailleurs always ns rape the fortress by de- grees, and inclose it as mueh as possible, until the co- vered-way can be taken by storm; and the attack is Uheewepie continued as circumstances may require. The men ordered for this attack are to be properly instructed in their duty, and besides, rewards are pro- mised.to them on their executing it completely. ey always retire at night, or when dark, and reappear be- fore day-light, in order that their fire may begin with the dawn of day. While this attack of the tirailleurs is going on, the ordnance also endeavours to annoy: the enemy ; and ricochett batteries may be constructed to assist the others. These, however, may be brought- closer to the fortress, to increase their effect. This me- thod of attack was first practised by the French in the revolutionary war, with great success; and, combined with the attack in form, it certainly does appear well. ag pax to force an early surrender. ving traced the progressive ations of the be< Defensive inate te the first opening of the trenches-to the measures pane of the place, Ha ag now to consider the om by ensive measures adopted by the garrison. es A fortress, where a siege is to be expected, should “” always be put in the best possible state.of defence; by. Prepara- repairing all the works, placing the palisadoes, con- “OPS '°" * structing the necessary traverses, , in short, ne. >e* glecting nothing which may render it stronger. The ravelins should have reduits and weak fronts, strong places of arms, and lunettes, all of which are to.be ex- sr : L, 514 FORTIFICATION. Avmek sed ecuted before the siege commences. A sufficient quan- prise, as the may collect there, and act against Attack and Detenee of of ammunition, ordnance, materials for repairs, and the enemy with more ity, and with a greater Defence of = soitiary stores, is also to be provided. Embra- chance of driving him Besides, the Pe Fortifes- . ° ° ’ toms. Sues are to be constructed, and ordnance partly «town by a citadel is of verylittle useto the “tions. —— riounted. Powder magazines are to be formed in se- enemy. But should a have place, all the wy are be constructed. These consist of buildings of wood composed of two walls, which incline each other, covered with earth, so as to be shell- the ends by traverses. Some- i these blindages are only of one such inclined wall of wood, co with earth, in which case se pene towards a rampart or a traverse. Some- times old buildings, the roofs of which have been bro- ken down to make its upper side ar er serve as places where the garrison reside with safety. Only ; stone-houses, however, are chosen for this purpose. Inhabitants The inhabitants, unless their loyalty be suspected, bow ta be are to be divided into parties, and em as circum- stances may require. The surrounding country is to be vekdined as level as possible, that the enemy may nowhere approach covered. The bri round the town are to be destroyed, and every thing removed that might contribute to keep up a good communica. tion among the besiegers troops, that they may have to Provisions "@Place it before the siege begins. Sufficient quantities to be colle. Of fuel, and provisions of every kind, are also to be collected from the neighbouring country, and patroles or parties are to be sent out to observe the enemy's ma- neeuvres, Among the different corps of the army sig- nals are agreed upon, so that, if any troops should ar- rive for the relief of the place, the garrison may be able to communicate with them, and act in concert. Mes- sengers and spies are also engaged, to procure informa- tion of the enemy’s movements, and to keep up a com- Sidhe teats Precautions In order to guard against a surprise, most unre- sgainst@ mitting vigilance and stbéntioh are absolutely n : “apess: Each must have a full and perfect knowledge of as duty, and the place he has to command. As soon as the enemy is within 36 miles of the fortress, —— patroles of cavalry are to be sent out, to gain hourly in- telligence of his movements. The gates should never be opened before daylight, nor a number of men al- lowed to enter at once. The guards of the gates should be Se “id night. P... channels, s, &c. are to ept shut up. Every person w out or in must be strictly te and carefull Spatial par- ticularly the deserters of the enemy. Should a conspi- racy ve biog stare in the town, inhabitants are to be m and disarmed, and all ings are to be di Strong cavalry patroles should be constant- ly sent through the streets. The garrison must be kept in good spirits ; and, if ible, after great fatigues, some extra allowance, either in money or otherwise, scsten Glee ~ be made bere datieane e quarters men belonging to one troop yore tp should av be close together, that they may easily collect ; and the commandant should frequently make trials of their watchfulness, by giving false alarms, and keeping them constantly on ‘their Wear taking care, Meuisltas however, not to fatigue or harass them too pone. and pelssur. mever suffering any neglect of duty to pass unpunished, Prise, A citadel is always very useful in the event of a sur- troops are to collect at the spot fixed on, from which to join on the to be defended. As soon as the greater part of is collected, de- tachments are sent to the streets to the enemy, and. particularly to reinforce the to prevent a greater number from ing the town. The thing, fore the necessary instructions are to be previously given, that every one may know his place and his pro- ater Ay Te at lbp rae In an open attack, the Open at efenders have t advantages over the assailants, and ‘ck these being duly considered, and ly represented to the garrison, be contribute to increase its irit. such an attack is expected, great care is reconaty ‘aitasicing the meek: Sulieiead a " both with regard to the works that t to be defend- ed, and the number of men requisite for that purpose. of ee ee See Lt whee oema ier thrown in that ion, w enemy is per- Coie) he seeehhe Spey Sy eres nd As soon as he arrives in ¥ grenedes, Resistance + prepress Seeneee wae we avs attempts to mount ener tee wees other ent points, envy helio, a0b-46-ber oe over the parapet him ; and should he arrive, bayonets must be used. If he succeed in getting possession of the rampart, he must these also l, the streets are to be defended, and finally the iven for retreating pods dhe 3 which should be done with the greatest possible ns oe The defence a blockade, consists in Defence plenty of stores and and magazines where a The garrison besides should have safe habitations ; and sometimes sorties or ge peed ae or larger ies, against enemy, him, Lr seers he rovisions, (Td hawreviee, theoe sale - lies prove unsu ‘ is to be taken that the enemy does not penetrate into the fortress with the who make the sortie. 7 ae ‘ea e defence of a place against an attack in form, is —, subjected to greater difficulties. The first thing neces- form. FORTIFICATION. Same ome ment, those who may act contrary to the orders which nthe i then properly divided, that no part Distribu- is vided, no “tion of la- ssappincver enbets Anleat ev umilorgoithien ssheaher's. end _bour in the peyer should too large a number be ordered on duty, garrison. —_ unless the fortress has a very numerous garrison. A 5 journal isto be kept, in which every circumstance that ; sioameealins ite ieaphicdiy sd ts — enemy’s inf the ene- guar meal teks dal aptectescs, are to be Legal received with a discharge of grape-shot or balls. This $ , however, in case of ther approaching in parties, : sor tbaetindee gk eaintonla ee ee s single man. Small calibres are generally i purpose, to ent the from becoming ac- quainted sheen : 7 pikecnetgiagel before the covered way, The com- eee wt ree ! i " arearstorabees 4 reoke-bells of various Kinda, Yoo as do conbess sireined > sete armen a mah ti f them as can be enfiladed. In the beginning of the "attack suddenly with great noise. They then ‘farther away from the fortress, In 515 are rather to be withdrawn than destroyed ; but if one Attack and of the enemy’s batteries can be dismounted, all the force Defence of is at first directed against one merlon, and then against "e™ns2e"* the others successively. tone. Such parts of the fortress as have been damaged must ~—— be repaired during the night, that they may be in a P state for service the following morning. id the enemy’s el come so close to the co- Riflemen vered way, that the fire of small arms can reach it, rifle. how to be mapa hy agen aa ee lil ma Ss, partic y when the en. pes or officers appear. The fire of the om should also be directed against the head of the trenches, or where they are not quite finished, as also where bat- teries are to be erected. For the same purpose also, small pieces of ordnance, Counter ap- and in particular small mortars, placed in the saliant proaches. angles of the covered way, may be used with the great- est advan Counter approaches are sometimes used ; but certainly they are of no peanti it helps ridiculous to su a garrison can, with any advantage, be- sie, the army by which it is itself besieged. sy nother means of defence against a siege are sorties sorties ox or sallies, for the purpose'of ring provisions, open- sallies. ing a communication with the army, or attacking some —__ of theenemy’s works. They are undertaken some- times before, and sometimes after the place has been in- vested ; and they differ in the strength of the parties yed, poncntah to the object in view. ies against the enemy at some distance from the pjstant fortress, are sometimes liable to be cut off, and there- sorties. fore only to be undertaken when the retreat can be se- cured. As such sorties also generally cost a great many men, they should only be undertaken whenthere is a fair prospect of obtaining some particular adyantages, and where the garrison is so strong that a sufficient num- ber will remain to defend the fortress properly. Sorties which require a strong force, should never strong be undertaken unless they have a particular object. in sorties. view, and then they are to be made by a sufficient num- ber of troops to execute it without difficulty. Particu- lar circumstances sometimes determine a garrison to make a sortie; but it is never in this case to be done if the men could afterwards be of greater service in the defence of the fortress, What relates to the exe- cution of these sorties, the nature of the ground, and the different movements, will be farther illustrated neal Se candanieial made by parties of sorties are ly by ies of about Small 20 to 30 men, who secretly leave the covered woke une Sortics. 0 every thing i be the tenon oe geben." them, spike up the enemy’s guns, overload them, &c. for all which purposes rr ae provided with the ne- cessary assistance of wor , tools, and materials, taking care always to retreat as soon as the enemy’s reinforcements arrive. These little attacks are parti- cularly useful after a mine has been sprung, before. the. garrison of the trenches has recovered from its fright, and order restored. The most advantageous time for attacks is mid- post time night, or towards morning; when the tr in the for sorties, — are still fatigued by their labours during the ut no sortie should be made with two large a force, Sallying lest the enemy meanwhile make a successful attack on a. force has been drawn the num- another part, while the f An general ber of men employed in a sortie should never exceed long. 516 Avack and one half of the Defence f make a sortie Small garrisons should never enemy's works, particularly during the night, and to- wards the head of the in order to prevent him i i A tone the covered way. If there i made on the covered way, it will be advan place a greater number of soldiers to defend it, as also to make small mines under the traverses, and even un- has to construct his hearths of mines should be the re-en ; angle. If the ene- garrison cemyry by covered way, and one traverse to the a ead ae the mines are sprun y> the glacis. But if the enemy has isorderly manner, he is to be attacked, of arms, as well as some small guns will always most beneficially direct their fire upon the enemy, and be particularly useful in taking him in flank, or in firing at him when advancin Counter- anines. ways be If the enemy should not begin to mine, the ison must endeavour to spring theirs under some of his works, parti ly his batteries. This will retard not ‘only his advancing from the third parallel, but also force him to commence mining. The most favourable to mine and to dig a well, ere oe ey eee di ing a mine w it. .This is as fen e can be discovered. athe How to de- e-near approach of the enemy’s mine some- werk danatios Setetied by yhickajiarieens: tu Oa Greend proach of | and scattering a few peas on its top. If the miner be near, his digging will communicate a tremulous motion to the drum, and of course to the peas. When prem r-edbealad epi yabaoe i Ve? Regs sprung. If the enemy’s well is discovered before the countermine is , the former may be filled with the “poisonous smoke of fire-balls. The miners ¢ al- wares Oe oes istols, to defend them- selves should they fall in wi Sinn of the tnieaiet In this case subterraneous fortifications will also be ne- cessary. If there be any small works in the saliant angle of in these. the covered way, they will keep the enemy at a cer- Hants of the tain distance as as they can be occupied, and on. therefore this is'done til he is vesdy to:aseatht it, anid even then they are not to ‘be left, unless it be found i ible to defend them. n avant-fossé that is full of water, is frequently of the enemy's mine. labour is u in constructing with water. great use, er fe par of the defence of fortress. The assault here P*™ Should the covered way be. ’ where the water can be let in and out at to be, to make a sally after ing a mine, and to de- FORTIFICATION. i as as there are’ ‘to en= Attack and Syne ee ae oe So oe or es A second covert way, parti eee Se enemy sontirthass Whigary ‘irda detning er wage the enemy some ; it, care is to be taken that’ tt io not curpriaall wher oorate Sonnet o- way. should be directed principally induce the enemy to believe that many of the guns are enemy cov , and is endeavouring to construct his eheraoe to ef- fect his passage over the fossé, the that have been ed are to be opened upon him, and an unremit- ted fire kept up as long as they are fit for use. Such works as have sustained much i ways to be repaired with all possible di nance is to be planted behind them to be ready Pop team: pratt sr ph ew meeber nrtee rotor: will be necessary first to spri mines there, in or- der to throw him into conoahene and then to attack him and drive him back. i The defence of the fossé is the next most essential Defence of part ; but cannot be of long duration, for if the counter *% f0ss6- ~ scarp is lost, all is lost. Still, however, a'gun, or seves ral riflemen, will be of the use to hinder the — passage of the fossé ; and sallies’ also may be made if the ditch is dry. If the fossé be wet, fire-machines will be useful to set the fascines of the enemy on fire; and the enemy may be for a considerable time. Even when he thinks hi master of the fossé, his works be destroyed by a sudden inundation. The besieged al- ways Teuiin cinanemntarenomdaen their works, as confusion is likely to take place. In su circumstances too, a sally may be suce ; The defence of the outworks, after the has Defence of made a breach, is either on the top of the utworks breach, or from the work in its re-enteri mans + men, are to molest him constantly. are also to be sprung under his lodgement, or any work where he has constructed a an attack being always made upon him after every explosion. oe pg ner ee ema begins a subterraneous war, must be opposed as merly directed. — waits be tiled, A retool steven ethvtodtiios ' may be |, as we i i ps Me, and his miner be killed b : and shells thrown in the fossé, or by others hung before his well, and afterwards burst. ; . If, after the enemy has taken an outwork, he can be To again dislodged, ali endeavours must be used for that Meenemy: ; and to effect this, the most probable appear 9 work. his communication over the FORTIFICATION. Attack and ray be sustained, when a strong section is to be had, efence of or when there is a retreat to a place, where the garrison nay wait till a convention be concluded, or succours ive. Sometimes, however, circumstances do not al- ow the garrison to wait an assault, and, in this case, the commandant capitulates, either to save the lives of many, or to prevent the inhabitants from being plun- dered. When the defence of the rampart is resolved on, the same rules are to be observed as in the defence of outworks. Defence a- Circumstances must determine whether the enemy is gainst the to be in the breach, or attacked from the sec- —— latter is to be unless there is eve- ; reason to believe that the former will prove success- “a? 3 at the time of the assault may sometimes be useful; but is always in such circumstances to be assault, and when every thing has been sent Ghd thes ehahdl te txGope ene toreithctesir to it; taking care that the enemy does not enter al with them. Rather than run any risk of this, indeed, part-of. the beat prisoners of war and the deserters are, if possible, kept; but are also sometimes delivered up to the enemy. The magazines are either emptied and destroyed, or de- livered up. The works of the fortress, and the keys of all le care One gate is generally i 517 who are set at liberty as soon as the capitulation is ful- Attack and filled. The non-execution of any of the articles of ca- Retepra.ot pitulation on either side, will only cause reprisals, and" poritica- these frequently are attended with bad consequences. _ tions. To prevent this, every thing is determined as minutes —-\— th = possible, and all articles are then strictly ful- Various methods may be employed, and in some ca- Methods of ses successfully, for obliging the enemy to raise the forcing the siege, particularly if the garrison acts in conjunction Sie" '° with an army. The army may in these circumstances ,jege, either attack the enemy, or cut off his provisions and succours, which seldom fail in forcing him to raise the siege. The army may also attack either the besieging army, or the corps of observation ; but this should al- ways be done with the knowledge of the garrison, in er that it may act in concert. Sometimes a siege may be raised by the exertions of the garrison alone, as by sallies judiciously conducted, and mines well applied; but by whatever means this may be effected, the garrison ought to make sallies du- ring the night in which the besieger withdraws his ord- sons, Be purpose of annoying him as much as possible. « Should a fortress be attacked by éiraiileurs, as was ex- Defence s- plained in enumerating the different modes of attack- gainst ti- ing. a fortress, the best defence will be made by smal] leurs ns placed in the most saliant of the works for i shot. Riflemen will also be advantageous- ly employed in attacking them, in the same manner as attack the fortress. When, however, whole troops of the enemy’s men are ived, guns of a small ca~ libre, charged with grape shot, are chiefly to be de- pended upon. ‘In other respects, the detence is the same as has been already described. SECT. IL. On the Attack and Defence of Ficld Fortifications. Tue attack and defence of field fortifications, is nei- Arrange- ther so difficult nor so tedious as that of fortresses, ment of The arrangement of a whole fortified line is as fol- Toops ™ lows: The camp is generally about 400 paces from the = 5 ho lines. The works are usually occupied two men deep, > or with two rows of soldiers ; the reserve is placed about 100 paces behind it, in order to give support wherever it may be gue ie py battery, as well as each ttalion, has its icular place assign- ed toit. As eye as the Mitte 4 fired, pas pe must repair to his post as speedily as possible, com- pletely armed, and ready to act. , ope secure the fortifications from a pn, he light ‘antry posts are about 5000 paces before the works. &c, If, however, the country is i |, or woods are near them, the chain of these is thicker, viz. about from 500 to 2000 paces distant from the works, - Among these posts constant patroles are sent round. If the enemy be close to the works, at least one-half of these posts must always be under arms. During the day, the same is to be peer vest By, Ae teas and some~ times also by all the men ina arrival of the Pei is generally known ’ , as in the case of fortresses, eserters, spies, &c. When the enemy approaches, the outposts are to engage him, and to keep him as long as possible at a distance, that the troops may have 8 Attack and Defence of Field Forti. Costner. — Tefence of ungle forts. False a- Tunns, &e. Attack of fortified Lines. Order of the atubck, 518 time to form. The works are then quickly occupied, the artillerymen having previously made themselves Sibveny trad Oalv an ecbetnannet anal > may level their guns accordingly. guns che uitiantangies fh their Gow po cues te Miso annul is within reach. If a few guns, advancing, can take a part of the enemy’s force in flank, it will be of great consequence. The infantry begin their fire when the enemy is at about 300 paces distant. As soon as he comes sufficiently near the works, the $s are to be dismounted, and their places filled up By infantry. But if he should advance to the ditch, artificial fire- works are made use of ; and if he ascends the parapet, a brisk fire must be kept up, followed by a charge with the bayonet, and the first rank standing u the para- pet. Should the enemy have penetrated in any part, the cavalry are to him he forms. The reserve must now pay the greatest attention; and the horse artillery, as soon as the enemy has 4 will be of great use in throwing him into disorder, of which the cavalry must take advantage. In the mean time, the infantry forms, and returns to the attack. If the enemy sbould be compelled to retreat, he is not to be pursued too hastily, lest, by rallying, he should pote in entering the interior intren ts along with the troops that retreat thither ; but the ordnance must at this moment play upon the enemy with all pos- sible vigour. The defence of single forts is almost the same as above mentioned, except that the isons have to encamp in their respective forts; and that the single fe ear. 4 ver gem ordnance as well as by the infantry, being drawn up in line behind them. The artillery is —e wherever the principal attack is made, and must be employed with the utmost ef- fect. Should the enemy be repulsed, or be thrown in- to disorder at any point, the cavalry suddenly advances, charges directly, and pursues, but always keeps closed, and in good order. If the attack of the enemy should be undertaken in the night, then the country round the fortifications is illuminated by light-balls or by fires, for which purpose wood must previously have been brought thither. The troops should always be acquainted with what they have to expect from the works, and how they can turn them to the best account in their defence. The moment of the attack is intimated to them, as also the danger to which they will be exposed if should be defeated ; and, on the contrary, how much they will in if victorious. Convince a soldier that his honour 8 at stake, and the work which he is to defend will be easily fortified. To keep the men always on the alert, a false alarm may sometimes be given ; but care must be taken that this is not too ently resorted to, lest they neglect to be prepared when a real attack is made. The attack of fortified lines should not be underta- ken before an accurate knowledge has been procured : of the works which the enemy has constructed to op- pose it. The attack, as before observed, is most advan- tageously made an hour before day-break. Thie forti- fications should, if be taken in rear, by going round them, which may be most favourably done by a night-march, provided there be no danger of mistaking the road, which might lead to great confasion, and dis- astrous Consequences. Each attack is to be made in a column. The first are the grenadiers or volunteers; then a number of armed workmen, with shovels, fascines, woolsacks, lad- FORTIFICATION. ders, &c. for filling pet. “After the Ww second the Gute , Fie iar of cavalry artillery to support the whole.” Be- 2-\—_ attack, a feigned generally under- taken to mislead the enemy... ‘This Lacon the weakest points, are time, in order, as much as possi the attack, and fire. peer at ered 3 their fire, while commence workmen fill the fossé, and make it pr as the grenadiers cominence the fossé, the infantry also r counterscarpe. After the fossé is ments in the berm are removed, and the saulted at once, If the assault valry and more infantry directly follow, and form hind the to attack the enemy wherever he pears, and to increase the disorder caused i troops. The guns of the fortifications are povbeceion yiew bran eam yy, re preserved, and room made for a e trate, and attack with more vigour. ‘ Should detached works be attacked, there should be many columns of attack as there are works to be at- i z FRE ze i E 4 He Should artillery support the attack, it advances to tack is made. The attack and defence i and the chosen as the weakest points. cab onbpifler-oofinant pe es er a ue welt Vigilance, some outposts, ent patroles, are the best defence against a po vate oe it is expect« ed, one half of the men must always be under arms, Fortifications situated on rivers may be attacked:as Attack of deseribed above, but what relates to the manceuvres and previous movements, will with) be introduced under the article Taerics. _ A house or a small estate is most attacked by an howitzer or a piece of ce, as if struck by a single shell, it will be foreed tq surrender. If sucha house has no flanking defence, it may sometimes be set singe forts are conducted Attack of iant angles are always “gle forts. fortifica- tions on ri+ greater propriety vers, &c. Perhaps a secret entrance, or ladders, may be and are to be applied if circumstances will per- © pre tnd ating salt petite lle up very long. Even if pene- ‘one part, he may be again repulsed if not very or if his succours do not arrive in time. more circu to it are to be ta- and are works are to be oc- manner, that each ma to be SOR er nees Mannan WeeksaedS lee efend. * . fe ia | ek a i ; i tr 28 f i : el . z <= & ; FORTIFICATION. 519 render of the town. In all cases, however, the retreat Attack and of the enemy is if possible to be cut off. —— A most advan s attack of such a town is made “sions. by tirailleurs, in same manner as has been explain- —— ed in the Section on the Attack of Permanent Fortifica« tions. Sketch of Cannor’s Method of Defending Fortified et. Places. From the account which we have now given of the attack and defence of fortified places, the reader must have observed, that when a fortress is regularly invest- ed, however strong it may be, its fall after a certain iod is consi as a matter of course. The maxi- : mum of that period we formerly stated at 90 days. In Duration of the actual state of things, however, it seldom exceeds * sate ‘aa the half of that, and even this is considered a good Vivica, defence. In proof of these remarks, we subjoin the calculation which Vauban gives of the duration of a siege, supposing the place to be strongly fortified and well garrisoned. Days: From the investment of the place till the open- ing of the trenches . . 2. 2 se se . From the opening of the trenches till the attack of the covered way 22.0 55. 8) The attack and capture of the covered way . Passage of the fossé of the demi-lune . . . Making a icable breach in the ravelin Taking the reduit of the ravelin . . . . . Passage of the great ditch commencing before the 2 ea Senge dae tel ig aking a practicable breach in the place . . Defence of the breaches . . 1... . Surrender of the place after capitulation . . Negligence and errors of the enemy . . . Total . . We have already observed, that the application of such calculations to the operations of moral causes, may per« at first si absurd. Itis to be remem a ower tet Bien the superior force which the be- siegers can always command, it is impossible that any place can hold out for an indefinite period. It seems Laws tecog- reasonable, therefore, that certain laws should be esta- "ised by na- SHV OP MLO efea: blished nations with regard to the surrender of si the fortified places, in order to prevent the obstinacy of ap weer an individual being the cause of an unnecessary effu- pieces, sion of human blood. Such laws have accordingly Sounded on been generall ised, and those who ere in the above their defence of a pace, after it ought by these laws to > wa surrender, are considered as having deprived them- selves of the pri ted to prisoners of war. A modern writer on fortification, M. now Count Carnot re» Carnot, has, however, advanced a very different doc- jects these trine, _ Retsoning on that fundamental principle of mi- me litary discipline, that every soldier ought to die rather than give up his post, he maintains, that such calcula- tions as we have detailed above, are erally false, only to crush condemns every thing that tends in the slightest de« to depress or extin these. Such reasoning, ever, would scarcely be entitled to notice, and cer- tainly would never contribute, in any essential degree, inary way, silenced, and the fall of the place m out with shewing how the be retarded. This is pri to be done by lar sorties, so contrived, that the sallying force s be greater than the force to be attacked. ies commonly made in the t system of fence are too to be effectual. are . ways made at same points, where; the enemy is always prepared to receive so that, before they can succeed in destroying any of the works, they must combat a superior force. But by contriving to have a great number of points from which sorties can be e, the garrison may have fre- quent opportunities of attacking an inferior force, so as to insure success in destroying the works intended, without sustaining any considerable loss. By these, frequently repeated, the enemy’s p' is retarded, iseien are harassed, and he is bliged to employ a much greater number in defending his VERWE as it is only by a very strong guard at every ib int of stiack, that he can protect rs it ie ay 2 the disastrous effects of pene pn $2 piiys should he beventen enasgh. 7. Fe cient 's on every part of his works, by crowding great numbers into one place, he only exposes them to a more certain destruc- snd vertical tion, from the immense number of vertical fires ( feux ares. verticaur), which form the second, and indeed the prin- cipal I parts of Carnot’s method of defence. These con- sist of mortars of different calibres, elevated at an angle of about 45 degrees behind the parapet, and covered M blindages. In this way, the guns themselves, as we as the men who work them, are completely protected, both from the direct and ricochet fire of the enemy. When used, they are loaded with a sufficient to carry the shot to such a height, as that, by its descent, to prove fatal to the the effect produced by follow ; he enemy gs tion. Commence- The vertical fires are supposed to commence only =f prog when the enemy opens his third parallel, as the distance ious to this would render their effects less certain, ‘rom this period till the opening of the breaches, the ggg tye tes to be 100 yards from i e ravelin, of the exterior side of the polygon 360 ld occupied by the besieging army will be nearly. 36,000 square yards ; but, in eetow to calealake on the, miatmum effect of the fire, call it 60,000 yards. - It is now. necessary to ascertain how much of this space is actually covered by the bodies of the men who act as labourers and of the besi works, The penis. of, Sse men is generally estimated at’ a. Nomber fourths aang tees, ath pogo being foun sontained in too weak for resisting the sallies of ieeoae Sup- what space, posing then that the garrison consists only of 4000, FORTIFICATION. the guard of the trenches will be $000 men will be spread over the surface of the ground occupying the avenues or passages, ; ofthe squere sochh, dae nied of one man to 20 square yards. sth -geteindenli Let itnow be su that a man’s horizontally covers one square thus be uired to cover completely a square But it has already been calculated that there is he : : ; J a EFF g ry j E A a : as Bg Sn we ee dere so situated as to fire along the capital of each. mortars, as formerly observed, are 45°. to prevent the collection of smoke, and with a small fossé to secure it from the shells fall near it. ' To estimate the effect of each piece pound, may be is, each mortar, at, a single shot, will discha 600 such balls, being 3600 from the whole. But it has been shewn, that out of 180 balls, one may be supposed to strike the enemy ; therefore at each discharge of the six mortars, twenty of the besiegers.will be put hors de It remains now to inquire how many rounds may be fired in the of 24 hours, the fit beig continued during the night as well as the day. ‘These, ata mo- derate calculation, may be rated at 100, which allows nearly a quarter of an hour to each round. But at every discharge 20 of the besiegers are disabled ; there- fore ; but these avenues, in 24 hours, 2000 men will be destroyed or rens- Number of rounds in one day. ph ee eee . FORTIFICATION. Carnot’s dered unfit for daty.. In. the course of the ten days of then, between the opening of the third parallel and effecting:a breach in the: rampart, the besi will Effect inten Sustain a less of 20,000 men. But if the garrison con- days. sist only of 4000, the whole of the besieging ii Advan tthe sje. fortified place, whatever be- its size, if defended in this tem in way, can be taken by any method of attack presently point of in use. Nor is the certain destruction of the besieging economy force the only advantage of this new method. Econo- my, both in men and money, is another and a powerful recommendation in favour of the system. The garri- son is neither exposed to danger, nor harassed by a la- ‘borious defence. A few companies of are alone requisite, who can carry on their operations with- out any d from the enemy’s fire, and without any interruption from dismounted guns, or broken carri se bulk of the garrison have nothing to do but pay SSS = moment for making a sortie; y thus obliging the besiegers to keep strong guards gy render the vertical. fire more effec- f ii a the total effect would be the the some of Ang of his system, shew, that it is only by adopting it the the modern systems defence can be turned in favour of the latter. The Ey ctl if . 40 on six or seyen weeks, and, in most cases, does. not ex- tw ii Hl - 3 R be] 5 = 521 limited period-of defence i8 to be ascribed, he thinks, Carnot’s - partly to the impossibility, in the present system of oo ot defence, of mounting artillery, so as not to be very soon USSU: silenced, and partly to’ the want of such a method of firing as can reach the besiegers behind their intrench+ ments. Both of these desiderata are supplied by his method, which-he then proceeds to vindicate from some objections that have been started against it." These ob- jections areas follow : 1st, That the balls recommended are not large enough Objections. to produce the desired effect. 2d, That the besiegers would avoid the fall of the shot, by keeping out of their reach ; and, 3d, That the method recommended would consume a great deal of iron. i answer to the first objection, he observes, that Replies. there is nothing unreasonable in supposing that a square piece of iron, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, should, in descending through 120 feet, acquire velocity sufficient © to killa man. But should this be questioned, he ap- peals to the example of the ancients, who with their slings, which carried toa much less distance than mo- dern swivels, and with balls much lighter, easily killed or maimed their enemies. To the second objection he replies, that it can only be worthy of refutation, when it has been shewn that a ety: army may take a place without approaching it. On the third, he remarks, that for the very same rea- son a garrison should not use artillery of the common kind, use it will consume a great quantity of lead. But the force of the objection is still more completely removed, when it is remembered that stones may be substituted in the place of metal balls. . The ingenious author is not satisfied with replying to objections that have actually been made against his system ;—he also anticipates others that might be ad vanced, oa bere ier in particular, oe it would be i ible for i to approach the place un-~ rearey rotection of Siinisave hocense it anld be impossible for them to find either time or materials for the construction of such works; and even if they could, the slightest sortie from the garrison would throw them into confusion, and destroy in a moment the fruits of their long labour. 4 But it is not only before a breach has been made that Advantage - this new system of defence can be employed. It is of the sys- equally effectual in resisting an assault, provided there %™ ) ' be an interior intrenchment between the rampart and Ss cuh the place, when a few mortars have been mounted, and reserved for the moment of the attack. At this mo- ment, the garrison is to retire from the breach, and the mortars of the retrenchment are to open at once with a discharge of balls or stones. The consequence of this must be total destruction, or at least immense loss, to the breaching party. Should any of them in the mean time gain a footing on the jt aly they must be in great confusion, and may therefore be easily dislodged with the bayonet, the garrison taking care to attack them the moment the fire ceases. , Such is a bork outline of me apt ane . pro- pry mesg posed by one who appears to haye devoted the efforts of of Carnot’s a anal mind, and the labours ofa long life, to the ame - improvement of a science. interesting above all others to his country, but which military men, in general, have ‘ been too ready to regard as incapable of farther im-~ provement. In comparing this system with what is still commonly Teestteres Fe is impossible to avoid being u . . difference in the besiegers, sive operations. In ing the various kinds of projectiles that engin uote debeiiog a place, Carnot also recom- artillery in certain circumstances, but i should not be fired through embrasures, are mounted on the faces. Instead of these he proposes bags of earth, to be ery is to be with- drawn, Grenades, he thinks, might also be used with great advantage, and even in some cases the manubalisia and jon of the ancients. There is still another be so completely soaked, as to put a stop to their work. “ It would not be difficult to conceive,” says Carnot, “ that this idea was every where turned into ridicule. ye was however cope by a 1785, to put to the test of ex t, t experiment, to de ter me of the — makers, com pletely succeed The sappers could no longer their ets; the earth was converted into a liquid mud, which slipped from under them, and of which it was impossible to constract any intrenchment. Yet, notwithstanding all this, the experiment has never been followed up ;—a proof that it is not always sufficient to have experience, reason, and even the good of the state on one’s side—the inertia of indolence may resist all these. Perhaps an age or two hence, some extraordi- ~ nary events may shew, that the idea is neither extrava- it gant nor absurd.””. We should not be rised if the sentiments which Carnot has expressed with to Jomariére’s of defence, are hereafter found to be strictly applicable to his own. As might be expected from what has been already stated, present construction of fortifications is, in the opinion of Carnot, extremely defective. Of these defects he has given an enumeration, and has also il- pat them at considerable length.—They are as fol- 1st, There is no provision made for covering either the artillery, or the garrison on duty, from the fire of the enemy, mete wp oie ina the guns of the fortress are generally dismounted in a few days. 2d, There to “ne interlel Wakl or detrenchment;: « that whenever the besiegers make a successful assault, the place is in their power, and the inhabitants exposed to Bd, communication between the different parts of the place and the outworks, is too difficult for the prompt execution of any necessary movement. As an ’ FORTIFICATION. improvement in this respect, Carnot proposes, cond na ee there — tle slope or glacis, from covert fom of the fossé, so that if i cayeliges session of the former, the make i {| : if fee iH i : E it 2, = i £ ty 4th, The covered way is not constructed swer the purposes for which it isintended. | 1. To tolkect the Secs thetuandgbe ance of the place. 2. To form the for a sortie. 3.To serve as advanced venting surprises. 4. To cover revetement of the works: And, cond line of fire to the enceinte. our author observes, that the covert pacers trina 28 the field, it is a Ity for the auxiliary troops to wer they can enter and even tered it, if they consist of cavalry or artillery, iti difficult to find admittance into place. same reason it obstructs, rather particularly if the sallying force consists As to preventing ises, it is, in its of very little use, as besiegers ina nutes; make their way over the pallisade, by m covering the revetement of the works, it might ful, if its peop hi than the revetement ; " it is well that, in the greater part of modern for- tifications, this is not the case; and, with regard. to its aifordi pen cane ert abe Capen abr pre arto the are alwa a parapet, the ra- “ shede ont hoot bache fie 33 g s F f : ; ty yen: of dabaielaaaieinaesant greater cs of wood than can in most cases be pro- cured: And, tiar’s 12th, It exposes the soldiers to severe and incessant labour, without the possibility of their obtaining ne~ The great length to which this rtisle: has already: a oat — - FORTS, VITRIFIED. 523. Vitrified extended, prevents us entering’ so largely, as we should otherwise have done, on the system which we have now _ ——\~—" endeavoured to’sketch. From the preceding observa- pm erties: tions, however, our readers will readily ive, that the work is not unworthy of its distinguished or, and that the principle which it unfolds is iarly de- serving the attention of engineers. See'Vauban, T'raité de l Altaque des Places. Carnot De la Defense des Places Fortes, Paris, 1812, &c. a | See Minrrary Arcuirectune for the subject of Cas- trametation, and other topics connected with the pre- ceding article. FORTS, Vrreirrep. The lation Vitrified Forts, has been given to certain or vitrified masses of stone, which were discovered on the tops of some hills in the north of Scotland, about the year 1773 or 1774, by Mr Williams, a mineral surveyor, who published an pee Cebandeatie Mine, thay copied ‘ora i time, the attention of some cf the first uit ebaitticke and gave exer- cise to the ingenuity of antiquarians. Various conjec- tures and theories were announced ; and some went so far as to conclude, that nothing short of volcanic fire owing to an idea, that their origin was involved in impenetrab naednainedare seemed to be no prospect of the | world coming to an agreement of opinion, it is certain, that a long time has eihiee' thin lel of rencarchi hen been a curiosity apparently been asl H quavertagheyoraow dine i y aiff easily damped ; and we shall consider ourselves fortu- nate, if the brief notices in the present article shall lead to a more and accurate examination of the ten on this subject about thirty years and publish- ed intheTransactionsof theRoyal Societs cf Edinourgh,) «how curious it is, that the same appearances to diffe- rent observers, lead to the most ite opinions and conclusions!” Whaling of Opinions wher sometimen be owing to the different degrees of attention which have been bestowed on the facts, and their relative con- p< weal in that he ain te ’ ned a ; is: to view e thing with av Bydyohiel dea cally hal accohld wich his own fancy, to the entire exclusion of the views of others. But circumstances of importance often escape the most accurate observers, and lie concealed till ac- eident leads to their discovery, or till unbiassed obser- vers remove the tions, occasioned by fondness the structures in question |, or su the application (ever wae take) spe ery to has: arisen Shape acl irae pie opps oe ( ce of the Vitrified masses, from the want means to trace their first origin, It has fallen to our lot to diseo- ‘ver such means; and having been so fortunate, we have some hope of being able to reconcile many opi- ’ which at seem to be very site, and ‘to open a’ path which may lead to the For thi purpose) we shall begin by the facts which Ives to our view, mining the of Dow Crerer in Ww we think, the true origin of the vitrifications, which Vitrified speculation, has been found, _ Fors: have occasioned so m' We trust that it will appear evident, that making sig- nals by means of fire has occasioned not only the ap~ pearances in Dun Creich, but those on many other hills, and has probably been the origin of this singular me- thod of cementing stones, if indeed it was ever resort- ed to for pu s of architecture. : Near Creich, in the county of Sutherland, a ridge pro- jects into the Frith of Dornoch, terminating in an abrupt precipitous hill. This ridge lies nearly east and west ; and from the summit there is an extensive view of the sea, and the country towards the east ; and of the valley, containing the Dornoch Firth towards the west. - The access to the top is by no means easy, even where it is most practicable. Round the edge of the summit there is a ram: the remains It is about thirty feet square, the walls being three feet thick, but not now more than four feet high. On the outside of this building, as marked by the letter B, is another rampart of loose stones, which is probably the remains of a structure intended for the same use, but which has been exchan for the more substantial and ’ convenient building within. C is a well, which has been filled up. There is a very spring of water on the outside of the rampart, on the south side of the hill. D marks a line, on which there is a mass of stones bearing abundantly the marks of’ fire, and which we traced across the whole summit. The surface of the hill within the outer rampart is uneven and rocky ; and that part of it which is crossed by the vitrified mass, is rather lower than the eastern portion. The line D being the only one which is vitrified, no marks of fire appearing any where else, is a striking and important fact. This line extends from A to B on the sketch (Fig.3), passing over the in the only direction in which a range of signals could be made, so as to be distinctly seen further up the country. To be satisfied of the reason why the signal fires should be kindled on, or beside a heap of stones, we have only to imagine a gale of wind to have’ arisen when a fire was kindled on the bare ground. The fuel would be blown about and dispersed, to the great an- noyance of those who attended, The plan for obvia- ting the inconvenience thus occasioned, which would occur most naturally and readily, would be to raise a heap of stones, on either side of which the fuel might be placed to windward. To account for a large extent of vitrified matter, such as that along the line D, it is only necessary to allow the inhabitants of the coun to had a system of si A fire at one end, might denote something di from a fire at the other, or in any intermediate part. On some occasions, two or more might be necessary, and sometimes a fire along the whole line. It is evident, that the le who formed the struc- ture on Dun Creich, had no idea of spplying, fire for the of strengthening the ramparts, and had not en the hint aff them by the effects of the even i fires. Hence we consider the at oe ica vir this place as demonstrative of the fact, cations have been occasioned by the of signal fires, to warn the inhabitants of the of an ere- my, or to convey the orders of a chieftain to his depen- dants. It too, that such signals have been common after the use of lime mortar was known, since we find on this hill the remains of a building constructed of loose stones, marked on the plan (Plate Puare CCLX. ig-1.) by the letter R. A, marks the site of CCLX. a building constructed of stone and lime. "i of the hill, and Fig. 3. Pirate ccLXx. Vig. 2. with it. This may have served the double of a watch tower, and the habitation of the people who the stati the valley the remains of an old castle, with which the station was ly connected. While on the top of Dun polo pete pe us, that marks of fire would be found on a hill, which obstructed the view of Dun Creich from Strath Carron, a valley which branches from that of the Dornoch Firth. We went to the and found several masses of melted stones. A few miles th rock occupies an angle formed by the river Carron a tributary stream, are the remains of a fort, built in the circular form of the Duns, (or Danish, or Pictish forts, as they have been called,) with distinct traces of ditches and earthen ram- rts in With this also, the signal station of Dun Creich ma have been connected. Ww ~ nothing similar to Dun Creich, or other vitrified forts, has been observed farther to the ; though it is probable something of the sort may exist at the head of other firths. The next we shall take notice of is the first we meet with to the south- ward, and is situate at the head of the Cromarty Firth. The name of the hill is Knock Farri/, and it is one of those which arrested the attention of Mr Williams. It is about two miles from the town of Dingwall, in the county of Ross, and forms of a double ridge, which bounds the valley of peffer on the south, and se- parates it from the v. of the river Conan. The ascent from the east west ends is comparatively easy, but the sides of the hill are very steep. From the summit there is an extensive view pap tchin of Cc , and of the adjacent country ; and the hill of Cote Mock nau teense, pecs age Rese ars trifications which have been described by Mr Tytler, is distinctly seen.. The flat area on the top isa deal inclined towards the west ; its length being about 135 yards, and its medium breadth about 45. Round the area, and close to the edge of the hill, we find masses composed of stones cemented together by melt- ed matter, irregular in their positions and size ; and ex- tending at each end about 50 yards from the area. The vitrification is every where superficial, extend- ing but a very little way among the stones. There isa apnaiditablo quantity of rubbish seen in the cuts which Mr Williams caused to be made across the area in different places. This rubbish appears.to have been collected for the purpose of extending or forming the area on the top; and it would seem much la- bour had been bestowed in accomplishing in this man- ner what might, apparently, have been effected more easily by cutting down of the summit. On the plan Plate CCLX. Fig. 2), A, marks the cuts made by Mr illiams ; B what seems to be the vestiges of a hut, sud G sho pamela Oa Osis Rae SNE OE Eee ing rain water ; for there is no appearance rin, water ieonlag Gls bay pat of ie bal wep aan id sures nearly an English acre. This station may have been chosen to give warning of the approach of ships up the Firth of seoeucle aad wea weobekt gps coe post of the castle of Dingwall, Guay. bh i of the Earls of Ross. To account for the vitrification appearing all round the area, we have only to refer to our supposition of a system of signals, the shifting of the wind rénder- sae srceeary. te change the e on which the fires were to be lighted. vitrified masses appear in many instances to have been displaced ; and one fact eccurred to our notice which ascertains this displacement $ FORTS, VITRIFIED: ond a doubt. Qe tiatthing belome scan SiaaaY Vitrified — side of which was considerably inclined, we observed — Forts. some melted matter that had run down and consolidsted “V"™ a al posit cers ‘oat ken iaestetnay 4 inal position, would have i 5 Shey tereat right angles to the indlinndiwiiriedeusften: Many fortuitous ee may have ee to uce the present irregular appearances. #t can- psy t,hseen eS ee with as much regularity as the nature of the materials — would allow, both in order to render it more durable; and to make it serve the purposes of defence. _ For we re gone htm suet ee signals, was ren su strong to resist attacks of an enemy, We do nh however, consider that any appearance on Knock Farril indicates the fu- sibility of the stones having been used for idati theram DrAnderson was mistaken when he in the 6th vol. of the Archeologia, that the vitrifications are to be seen only on the outside of the ramparts of Knock Farril. e mentions, however, the fact, that on the hill called Top of Noth, in Aberdeenshire, the vitrification is only on the inside ; which is a very sa- tisfactory confirmation of the idea that it has been pro- duced by si fires. Had the outside of the rampart on Top of Noth been vitrified, we might have been warranted in concluding that fire had been used to strengthen it. Had the inside been vitrified with this view, it is impossible to conceive that no attempt was made to cement the outside also ; sincé in every struc< ture for defence, however rude, we find the strongest, - and not, as in this instance, the weakest, part opposed paleradie: mye of an enemy. On some hills, apparently intended for defence have been id, where there are no appearances of vitrification. In. such instances it is probable that the stones will be found not to be of an easily fusible nature ; if in reality, no vitrification can be found, on accurate search bei made. This last remark is occasioned by the di Cane ee ee ee ee ae . one of the stations the great chain’ eecaped the notice dé Mr T. Nimmo, civil engineer, and late rector of the at Inverness, ; . was FORTS, VITRIFIED.” tioned by Mr is noticed ; and it is added, * that a similar tower is in the same direction, contiguous to the house of In ; and that the tradition of the vargarry. country is, that those hills were watch towers for giv- ing signals upon the approach of an enemy by large It is about seventeen years since the writer of this article sug to several persons whom he accom- in their visits to Knock Farril, which is near his cemented by the fusion of a part of the materials, there no reason whatever to doubt it. it is not whether a wall can or cannot be con- structed of fusible materials, ore is the question ; appearances which now present them- selves justify the assumption that they bad such an — We have already le, who seen the possibility of heat being applied success- Creich, had on both sides, or throughout, So as to indicate a regu- deed, a regularity in the form and manner in which the ramparts are laid down, and which has been guided by the shape of the hills: but ing else than in the mass of which they are formed. We ‘of all those we have seen, and of a variety of which we haye read. We often. find masses of melted matter of a breadth far exceedi can i iPLETE fH | rEEtH U : ree nt bios BA Ff i i 2 ee Hi 1 it 525 such marks were discovered by Mr Nimmo, on the ‘Vitrified only part of the hill where signals could be made, so | as to connect the great chain of posts extending from coast to coast ; and along this chain it has been found necessary to make use of hills on both sides of the val- Jey, inorder to complete the communication. Here, then, is another instance in which the fusibility of the stones has not suggested the idea of strengthening walls by means of fire. But we have said enough on this part of our subject. Mr Tytler has accounted for the present irre distribution of the vitrified matter, in a more simple and in a more i ious manner than Mr Williams and Dr Anderson. He sup; that the cause of the vi< trification is to be fi , not in the mode of construct- ing, but in the means employed to demolish the ram~ ; which, according to his theory, were originally ilt with stones intermixed with wood, thus present ing to an enemy a defence easily destructible by the application of re. t is difficult to find any reason why such structures should be made, at a time when the effects of fire upon wood must have been as well known as at present. At a period when it was the only fuel made use of or known, little ingenuity was necessary for gr kd that any structure made wholly or partly of wood, could easily be destroyed by fire ; and the people must have been very silly indeed, who were incapable of foreseeing that the ingenuity of their enemies might enable them to find out so simple, and, to such fortifi- cations as Mr Tytler has constructed for them, so for- midable a w . It was ec teart fare such a strucs ture should be only once destroyed by fire, to prove to the inhabitants the frail nature of their defence. And if their enemies were expelled, it is natural to suppose that they would have renewed their forts, and con- structed them in a different manner, so as to resist the attacks of fire. But nothing has been found indicating any renewal of the fortifications. That a rampart may be constructed of stones and wood, which not be liable to destruction by fire, and that such ramparts have been formed, there is no reason to doubt. But, in the case before us, it is necessary-that the quantity of wood should have been so great, as to admit of fire being set to it easily. If Mr Tytler’s conjecture be right, we ought to find the melted matter i indiscriminately every part of the rubbish. But the vitrification is only superficial, extending but a very little way among the stones. These few considerations, together with what we have already stated in favour of another, has induced us to reject Mr Tytler’s hypothesis. On the whole, we are of opinion, that the antiquity of these structures is by no means so great: as that which has been attri- buted:to them. and that they have served as beacons to castles in their vicinity, the remains of which are, in almost every instance, to be found. We allow that, while these hills were chosen for sig- nal stations, they were also used as places of defence, And, indeed, it would have been strange if posts of so much im, had been left without the means without the possibility of his being annoyed from them; or if there was any risk of his progress being inter- Forts. Vitrified boats 526 rupted, the situation of the hills would render it easy for a small party to coop up the garrison. But as an always endeavour to approach unseen, and to prevent the country from being alarmed, these stations would undoubtedly be objects of attack ; and henee we should be warranted in supposing that they were, to a certain os fortified, varen were the ap- pearance of ramparts less unequiy Nor are we disposed to deny, that, in some instances, the fusibility of ane 8 have been cw: me of to assist in stren ing ramparts ; no- thing has yet occurred to our observation, or in the course of our reading, which we consider as carrying with it any thing like demonstration, or even the sug- gestion of any such method of constructing them. Our object, in this article, being chiefly to excite cu- riosity, and to induce such of our readers as may have an opportunity of visiting these curious remains, to ap- ly, on the spot, the different hypotheses which have stated, and to favour the public, through some channel or other, with the result of their observations, we shall now proceed to point out the situations of some of the most remarkable vitrified forts in various parts of Scotland, besides these already mentioned. In Kirkcudbrightshire, enemy wou ire, about half a mile S, E. from the church of Anwoth, is a steep rocky hill about $00 feet high, which has been fortified on the most accessi- Sepleg apresdeeet: coped Ghababees he davai ces t ves, as by the Rev. Hugh Gordon. “ The which forms a level area, 30 paces long and 20 broad, is nearly sur- rounded with an irregular ri of loose stones, inter- mixed with vast quantities of vitrified matter. The stones, consisting of the common blue schistus of the country, have been softened, twisted, and partly fused by the fire. These heaps of loose stones and vitrified matter are scattered irregularly over the top of the fort, and exhibit no nee of having ever formed a continued wall. e. vitrification is only partial and superficial, and seems to have been the accidental ef- fect of fires kindled on these high rocks, either for some estic purpose, or for signals to,alarm the country on the of an enemy. It was former- 5 hese that these vitrified forts were peculiar to ode of the island which is north of the Forth, But ides the one described above, there are two others in the re be and they all command a very extensive of the sea.” In the island of Bute, in the parish of Kingarth, there is a vitrified fort; and in Cantire, at the entrance of the bay of Carradale, on a small island, vitrified masses enclose about a rood of We believe that some others have been observed in Argyllshire, particularly one on the hill of Dunskeig, which commands the en- trance of Loch Tarbert. On the same hill, ramparts are seen constructed with dry stones, without any vi- trification. In Perthshire, the hill called hill, in the parish CY eee ified with particular care, Playfair thus describesrit : “ Its summit was levelled into an area 180:feet long, and 72 broad. A+ round the area, a mound of earth was raised from 6 to OS cae 20 StS Reodhies top. On this mound a wall of freestone was built, without any cement what- ever, The foundation of the wall was of rough granite, and still remains. It is of same with the summit of the mound; but the hei of the wall cannot be known. Gordon's estimate of it is very erroneous, Among the ruins there are several FORTS, VITRIFIED. ploces of vitrified stone; but these vitrifications must Bere if the hill gently slopes, there is a ditch10 and 12 to 16 feet below the foundation of the ¢ i Ze it i i a 3 E. ; 5 E e Es F - iF i i i ly vitri 2 am aster wall.:tho debtudiaeaiierhieida feet lower than the summit of the mound. T ; i j i ate ige of a well within the fort; but, westward, ge basis of ne mound ee ipice, there was a pond or lake, recently up nants im. thet neighbourhood, About a mile eastward, on the declivity of the hi some.remains of another oval fort, of less extent than - the preceding, consisting of a strong wall and diteh. Tronlition says that there was a subterraneous commu- nication between these forts, which ismot improbable.” attention fied that it must have been used as a bridge ; but he afterwards decidedly says that the approach to, the fort was on the north-east side, while bridge is at the south-east extremity. We are inclined to)think, that, The vitrifications on the. hill called Top»of Noth, have already been noticed, on: account: of their bei found insi _® fact con- to have Leith of “ The summit, on all sides, presents to a person whoap- FORTS, VITRIFIED. Vitrified waned mound, or pile of loose stones, of _ Forts. porsarsr te shapes, few of them larger than a Ym" man may lift with both hands, though some few are = 7 ont ten times that bulk. When you get on the top of this mound, or enter by an ing in the east end of it, you discover that it does not consist of a of such stones'so as to make a large cairn, but that is an area of grass ground in the middle, which may be 60 yards long, by 25 wide. The mound of stones which surrounds this space has, on the inside, the ap- ofa thick strong wall that had for a long time’ in ruins. The height of these ruins above the inner area is pretty uniform, and may be from 9 to 12 feet. A slight inspection discovers, that what has the’ appearance of a ruinous wall, has never been connect- ed together by any cement, as nothing of that sort can : : : : FE i z a sentderhaiel ies totaal vs davinden ct wakes waite by the force of fire in various degrees.” the same county is the hill of Dun o’ Deer, in the vale of Garioch, on which there are also vitrifications ; as on Dun Creich, the remains of a building con- structed with lime mortar. This toweris of larger di- pacer oy a oti , than that on Dun Creich, ‘being 60 feet square, and the walls about 12 of which have been used in its con- is cireumstance, however, does not mili- inst the supposition, that the hill was used as a i -station after the tower was built. About four miles east from Forfar, is the castle-hill of Finhaven, the vitrifications on which have led Dr Anderson to compare them to the effects of the fire in scanmtanaidealtockgtniahes-aecte wetec he’ ara the fire. : The walls in some parts of this fort have been laid bare, so as to appear at east ten feet high. We have no ion of the vitrification. Dr Ander- that the wall had been built previously to the applica- tion of fire, in whatever way that may have been made. The stones are in courses, and banded, as we have been informed by the Rev. Dr Jamieson, (to whom we are an teures state respecting this fort), and Seam hiaye Beet #ery nequatty and i lar~ ly affected by the fire, and many of them not at all. Se- ven or varieties of stone appear to have been made use of. there been an intention to vitrify this wall, the most fusible stones would to have been se- lected ; but instead of this, been placed in the wall indiscriminately with others. We have already re- oo ore Nwethenen ins seem, in some instances, to n taken to irregularities in the ground, in B00 for a level area GiTik eau Our informa- tion ing this fort is not so clear as to enable us to whether the unusual height of the wall can be accounted for in thisway. Fordefendinga fort from with- in, a rampart of less height would have been sufficient. There are several cross walls on this hill, and the ves- tiges of outworks ; and altogether it seems to offer much 527 satisfaction on a careful examination. We regret, that Vitrified to some of its peculiarities, us to visit the castle-hill of our information, in came too late to Finhaven, before it was necessary to send this article to the press... It is said, that between this hill and that of Laws, already noticed, there is another fort, which completes the communication over a very wide extent of country. By keeping in view the idea, that signals by fire have been in use at the period when these for- tifications were constructed ; and looking around from the summit of the hills on which they have been pla- ced, for hills similar in situation and shape, cu-- larly at the entrances of vallies, or on ridges which in« the view ; many vitrified forts will, we confi- dently expect, be discovered, and communications far more extensive than any hitherto observed may be tra~_ ced. As the repulsion of foreign invasion was an ob- ject of interest to the country at large, hostile tribes and clans would naturally unite for the common defence ;) and, as their Scandinavian neighbours were in the ha- bit of frequently molesting them, no plan for alarming the country with the utmost celerity appears so natu- ral, or so effectual, as the lighting of fires. A few miles from Fort-William, in the parish of Kil- malie, is the hill of Dundhairdehall, the summit of which is surrounded by a vitrified mass of stones, . This hill commands a view of a great part of Mamore, and the whole of Glen Nevis. It is extremely proba- ble, that this was the signal station of the ancient castle of Inverlochy. In this opinion the writer of this ar- ticle was confirmed by Dr M‘Knight, who visited this hill, and who mothers TH his a struck ~~ the probability of conjecture, in the account he has iven of "Ben Nevis in the Memoirs of the Wernerian atural History Par In the valley of the Beauly river, in Inverness-shire, about two miles north-west of the church of Kiltarlity, is a vitrified fort, called Dun Thionn. It is circular, and about thirty yards in diameter. The latest writer on the subject of our article is Dr M‘Culloch, who states his opinion in a memoir, published in the Transactions of the London Geologi- cal Society. He adopts the opinion of vitrified forts having been constructed as places of defence, by ce- menting the walls by means of fire ; and rejects, ina perem manner, the opinion which we have at- tem to defend, viz. that the origin of the vitrifica- tions is to be found in the practice, universally em- ployed by our ancestors, of alarming the country, when threatened by invasion, by fires lighted on conspicuous situations. Dr M‘Culloch has guessed, by pacing, the dimen- sions of the of the vitrifications on the hill of Dun Mac Sni paidee { ryote vt Pearly of the ruins of Beregonium. He acknowledges, that a great was concealed by being covered with sod, ernick’ he had no means of onivng: yet he has given a plan of an extensive and regular set of inclo- sures, He has not favoured us with the shape of the summit, on which the position of the vitrified masses observed elsewhere always depends; but, from the shading of his plan, we may presume, that the inelo- sures stand on different elevations, and that those ele. vations command a view of different portions of coun- try. It is stated, that the portion of ground inclo- “sed is in length about 200 yards ; whereas on the plan two inclosures are marked, one 56 paces long, and the other 37. One side of the latter appears to be Forts. Born. —\— as the edge of the hill at both sides, There is a third inclosure, 30 paces The want of a vertical section, or a drawing of the hill, pre- vents us from Prom rpg de pei a et title to set aside t fires having been the cause of the vitrifications. facility with which our author makes room for his own opinions, may be seen in the following sentence: ‘ The supporters of this opinion have asserted, that they (the forts) always occupy the highest elevation; and that ma- ny of them are so placed as to be ‘visible from each other, This is not true.” The vitrified forts have never been asserted to occupy the Aighest elevation. and we cannot discover where Dr M‘Culloch could find such an assertion to have been made. We do not remember an instance, in which there is not much on sp wae immediately contiguous to the hills on whi vitrifications are found. It has been assert- But this is very different from the highest elevation. That many of them are so placed as to be visible from each other, is known from the testimony of se- veral writers, and is consistent with our own obser- vation. The rock of which the hill in question is formed is limestone ; and Dr M‘Culloch very properly infers, that the stone of the hill was rejected, on account of the effects of fire upon it, and that other stones were, there- fore, collected in the vicinity. He supposes, that a trap breccia, found in situ about half a mile from the iat, was chilly: vancda seal on account of its being fusible. Yet he states, that only the foundation of the wall is cemented er by melted matter. . The masses of this rock are said to be rare on the plain near the hill; but it cannot be inferred from this, that they were not found in sufficient plenty at the time the rampart was constructed.. The building of the ram- occasioned the present scarcity of i thost 1 aaaser this kind om the plain, But this is compara- tively unimportant, since we- have vestiges, in various places, which demonstrate the great labour which the ancient inhabitants of the country bestowed in collect- ing stones of particular sizes and shapes to suit their a, The vitrification extending, according to ‘Culloch, “in no case more than a foot or two from the foundation,” does not, in our opinion, exhibit any sign of intention to construct a vitrified wall ; and the e of the fire a ing, in this instance, to di- minish upwards, is precisely what we should expect to be the consequence of lighting signal fires against the | rampart in the manner we have supposed. he reason why the i ing-stone is the prevailing material, ap- pears in its being more easily broken into pieces of a has convenient size than any other stone, and more eusily quarried (if quarrying was necessary) than the hard primitive rocks. From what we can collect out of this description, we are inclined to think it possible that a rampart of loose stones has been constructed on the vitrified mass, which is described as the foundation. Should this it will be an additional proof conjecture prove correct, that the fusibility of the materials has not always been made use of for the of cementing them. In- deed Dr M‘Culloch comes nearly to the same conclu- sion, as he has found it necessary to state the following which appears to us a very lame apology FORTS, VITRIFIED. partial neglect of tained its requisite height ; nor is is should aoehara Bene dition of cold stones, after a firm, obtained.” We do not see why i itri fied stones should be firmer than the. solid limestone rock, on which they are placed, Dr ‘M‘Culloch. ob- petpdin fs: “repented apiations ae en a y 3 an ob- re sap sh doa 3 pn pe meen a fires. We cannot di , along with our au- thor, any analogy canes aes we have censide: and the eplayed. Sosa mud walls employed in Hindustan. .. rtp Ate ing we consider as very different things. In regard to the plan which has been supposed to have been fol- lowed in constructing vitrified walls, and which is. proved by our author, we have only to observe, Gitithe tap paae weeny rat rpoincigne ny rae n get pe i ly be produced between two walls built of sods, any thing else, which would prevent a proper current of air from passing through the fuel. To us the ana- logy tothe glazed wall of Gatacre House in Shropshire, iy remote. , sera eT» e hope, by the time we come to the article. Virai- FIED Forts, that we shall have it in our to throw some additional light on this obscure subje , marks in this article, particularly those. on Dr M‘Cul- loch's memoir, shew how difficult itis to arrive at any opinion at present ; to us it y= dent that, to whate ose the ay of some stones been derived, really the fact, that w: ere built in it is remarkable that no trace is left by which we can determine the method which was followed in thei con- e y | seeey in favour of this mode of building. can presence of great varieties of stones, afew of which are fusible at a hi and of charcoal, which indicates com~ Society of Edinburgh, vol: Scollénd, im. Memoi ii. emoirs of fi oy ns ian Nat. His, FORTUNATE Ictanps., See Canany Isurs. » FOSSILS, See Mineratocy and Perriraction. FOSTAT. See Camo, p. 214, pigs FOU 529 FOU _ Fortrose © FORTROSE. See Ross-suine, 4259687,3227. Itis equal2V+4VI, bywhich itmay Fourth. a. FOULAH, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, connect« be tuned. —— Fourteents Minor (14), the octave or replicate of “Fourteenth, elieneietind, from which it is distant about 20 miles It is situated in North Latitude 60° 4’, and West 2 1° 45". It is about three miles long, and one ene etl bedeervrben ce mens and pre- senting to the-ocean.several precipices. from 800: to 900 - feetiin height. Thepesia rope bende hcp tiatiel can be taken in calm weather only. During foam and _ and the island is then inaccessible. The rocks are gneiss and mica slate, supporting horizontal beds of sandstone, slate, clay, and clay-ironstone. In the cliffs of sandstone, innumerable multitudes of sea- fowl hatch their ~ When approached in a boat, in the breeding season, if any noise is made, the old birds leave their nests in such numbers as ‘aby stom ampom Here the different kinds of gulls. resor the stormfinch (Procellaria ) 2 glen oe may be found ; and in the corn-fields saute caland. the voice “of the Jand-rail proe othe inhabits, east ap egg eagron oe ie se i ey Pato oe, In order to toy ws nc os oe eng ie mow igh presi be expe, Zaaayof tae a enturous natives Wein ete ey on = is matter o} tation, stage often be‘Heard to boast that they are the descendants of those who have gaen afore, or of those who have perished among the rocks. shore were pointed! out to the writer of this article, where these melancholy events had , The ‘island is ‘seen in clear weather from the Orkneys, and hence is with probability, to have inal Thule of Tatoos . rOUTeee tee See Essex. tenga op Fo pe eo tion,” practical tuners of organs and ft aj, by th b gt eg a eeace yy their an ce the others” above and below them are means FP aan many tuners are in the habit of Jaying:their Savon,» they call it, hatyroess shel’. thet fa below, and that which is above the Tenor-cliff C ; but we prefer the octave above the latter note, and te this octave Ce, are the tables of beats for different systems calculated, that are given in our work ; the lower note making 240, and. complete vabrations per second. (2) a F ERING. Verertnany Mepicrne, FOUNDERY. See Iron and Gunnery. FOUNTAINS. See Hypropynamics. FOURTEENTH, ee ee (14')} in Music, » is an interval, whose ratio is =. = 1131 B+ 22 m, and its log. =.4436974,9924. Iti amped. 2V-E0, by which its _be-correctly tuned. | .. = -Fourteentu or (XIV), cary sie SS nga - = 1167 = + 23 ee 101 m; and” its Tog. = VOL. IX, PART 11. the minor seventh: its ratio is 3° = 1120 + 22f+ 97 m, and its log. =.4490925,3112. Itis=V+-3 4ths, whence it may be tuned. ie(@) FOURTH, in Music, is the numeral designation of an interval of four diatonic degrees, or literal gradations. Of these fourths, the different writers on music a mentioned a considerable variety, and by a still er number of — as follows; (see PLatE Vol. IL.), viz | Bearing Fourrn of Holden: its ratio is ~~ a 240,060766 = + 5f+4+ 20m. See Lesser False Trumpet Fourtu. Comma-deficient Major Fourru (IV‘), has the ratio —_ —" =, = 2905 + 6f+425m; its common log. is = .8573324,9643, — 473982 x VIII, = 26.4442 xe; =IV—C,=44+d5, =T+2t, 3T—2e, =VS~c, =25ce+ 155 46f, > 67+ 138 €+ 102: it is also = VI—3, by which means it may be accurately tuned. It is the grave major fourth of Max- well and Liston; the sharp fourth, or the greater fourth of some writers; the sw fluous fourth of Chambers and Marsh ; the dow t tritone, and the tri- | rama of Wale, tara sti Minor Fourtu (4), has the ratio ere = 2482 4 5f 4 21m; its log. = 8804562,9528, = .897117 % VII, = 22.15811 x ¢; =tuc, =Iv—P, yt t =2t4+8, =21¢ + 122 ers & ates $ 4ths — —.h oR i tet Be tant It is the deficient fourth of Holden, the lesser fourth of Holden, the grave minor fourth of Liston, and the superfluous Comma-redundant Major Fourtn (1V’), has the ra« -. 512 “2. tio 99° = 30 = = S124 6F+ 27m; its log: = -8465424,3266, = .509772 x VIIE, = 28.44493 xc; er =4+P, =V—L, =8T, =3.P4 3 445 4+2c, =27 c+ 1524 6f, an f+ 1p 12/; itis alto & 3V—3 4ths, and so tuned. i ss Wacvion the acne peaien data otidanen Comma-redundant Minor Fountu (4°); its ratio is Oa a, = 265 2 + 5 f +4 23 m; its log. = .8696662,3150, = 432958 x VIIT, = 24.15811 x C; 440. =IV—S H1143; = 1X—V1, = 10—7,=3-47, =2 at a t+S, oe Has ay c, =23 rae 12 5 is also =2V — redundant of Gelileo, and the greater fourth of E | Deficient Founrst ‘of Holden, hay” the va 88 a wis 2:4:6 £4:8hen- See Comma-deficient Minor Fourts. : x > serth _—— ' =T+3S—t, =16c4+6243f,=8 FOU Diaschisma-excessive Minor Fountn (4°"); has. the 131072 _ 2", = 266 2 + 5£+ 23m; its log. imi ci = 8691751, 2437, =.494583 x VIET, = 24.24895 x C; + , = 218 4 4f 4 19m. See Extreme flat minor Fourtu. Double deficient fiat Fourtu, has the ratio —— 196= +4f+4+17m. See Least fat Fourtu. Double diminished minor Fourtu ; its ratio is eae 5 =m” = 182243 f +16 m, or as a regular interval = 181.858201 2 4+ 4f+ 15m; its log. = .9105187,9731, = 297249 x Vill, = = 16.58587 xc: 46nd, lv. —$—25, =34£, =35+¢, =V+E—II, = =T+t+6, +10€+472: it is also —6438—2 III, = =Xili—s fi by ei of which it may be tuned. interval also been called the extreme ‘inainished fourth by Chambers, and it is the enharmonic-excessive minor third. Double minor Fourtu (2 4th); its ratio is 2 = 508 5410f+4+44m. See Minor Seventu. ay Extreme diminished Fourntu of Chambers: has the visio 68° = 182548f416m. See Double dimi- nished minor Fourts. Extreme double sharp minor Fourtu (eitay i its ra« 256 tio is 376’ = ST T+ 7F 429m. See Extreme sharp 6561 sig?” — major F ounta. Extreme flat major Foortu (p IV); has the ratio 5, =254 245 £422 m. See Minor Fourtu. me age Pourtu (4) of Liston, &c.: its ratio is — =o = 218 +4 4f+ 19m; its.log. — = =+8927900,3035, =. = 19561435 x VIIL, =19.87198 xc; pond =IV—3—I, =243, —9—VI, =10—VI, =s =T+28 Teche Stitt 262 ft pices: it is a =6—III, by either of which it may-be tuned. It is the dimi- fourth of Tartini, &c. the flat (minor) fourth see wre; tote esiexceie ae i 530 ajo) Foorsn (Vo Lions ha valle 7m FOU mean-tone Extreme ( the ratio SO, = p= 987 24764 29m; ; its log. = Ronee ee x VII, =30.641154 xc; =1V4 pare fp = V—E, =2111—S, =ll428-4 + cab insentma/ 4st 122; it is alo=— 31 tuned. Iti likewise the redamdant (major) foursh of Liston, and his extreme double sharp minor fourth. .. Extreme sharp minor Fourtu (X 4): its ratio is %, = 3012 + 6f + 26m. See Major Foor. False Fourtu of Chambers; has the ratio > = 30126 £4 26m, See Major Fountu. hi Flat deficient minor Fourtu; its ratio is = 207: +4f+4 18m. See Lesser Flat Fourtu. Flat Fourts of Holden; has the ratio ale 221.947209 f 4 19m, andits ee hs In the incongruous oy te oi Fan i. Flat relpaant great rd Fours (pb siacsaereaeaaae mio naes4ar+ im See Extreme fat mix nor Fourtu, beheld wage Grave Fourtu, of ‘Holden ; feare the emg orm 240.060766 © 4 5f-4.20m.. See Lesser false Founre. Greater Fourtu, or sharp fourth, has the ratio = 30154 6f 4+ 26m. See Major Fourts. Greater Fourtu, of Holden; has the ratio 22 w= 055 4+5f+4+ 23m. See Comma-redundant ‘sninor Fourta. Greater Fourts, of some writers ; its ratio is 28, = 2902 + 6f4 25m. See Commacdeficient major Fourts. Cie ale Fourtn, of the trumpet (sf); has the ratio £=, = 260.89592 2 +5f4 euie yack aed ' .8716815,2274. Greater false Four, ofthe iinet (oe eds he the ratio =, =281. 1020403 + 6+ 24m, and its log. is .8616973,0183. Greatest sharp Fourtu: has’ the zation 3124+ 6f + 27 m. St Cina tj Fourtn. lepeyns Fourtn, of Good and Gregory: Iu the 4 ratio Poor = =228 5 + 4f + 200m; its] -8878851,0560, = 3724368 x Vinh = 20781186 x Xx C: =4—), =IV—2S—z,=2004 8E Je 47+ 12€ + 82; it is also=4 4ths— 4 III, byw pare a 3 ik oie ae eee mitone, = ; i FOU 531 oo Least flat Fourtn, of some writers; has the ratio 6561. ss B19? 25 ——196 4-4 f+417m; itslog.= .9035800,9412, = .3203038. x VUL = 17.87198 xc; =—4—'P,= V3 — Pj =lV — = —T, =Ill ~5,=845—s, =T +4 2L,= P+8L,=2t4+2S—T,=—t+S+L, =17e4+ 92 44f,=47 +9€ + 62; it isalso = 5 VII— 8 V, = 5 4ths —3 V,. by which it may be tuned. It. is the diminished fourth of Bemetzrieder, the double-deficient flat fourth; and the schisma-de- fective major third (III, ) Lesser False Founvu of the trumpet (aq gr &e. ) has the ratio 25, =240.060766= +5f + 20m} its log. == .8819006,8792, =.3923175 x VIII, = 21.89039 xc. It is also the.bearing or grave fourth of Holden. Lesser Flat Fount, ef some authors; has the ratio os Spr = 2TE + Af + 18m. Its logarithm or" dinisiosess, = = .338224 x VIII, = 18.87198 xc; =4—5, =IV—25, =HI+€, =3+L,=V+€—3; aor Tew aes mies =t-+, hae = =IV—t—z,=18c49544f,—4/41 ay i t is also =3 4ths—V i by i my eae It is the grave extreme flat ap A) oer sing pe Nr gee! of er) fourth wri- deficient minor fourth. , w= cae Rete ii has the ratio 243 43 ous 320° — + 5f421m. See the Comma-deficient Minor Fourru. Fourtx (IV), or Greater Fourth, has the ra- oe = pep = 901E 4 6F 426m; its logarithm 9374,6454, =.491853 x VIII, = 27.44423 xc; es, =II+T, =V—S,=5—€;: it} = =II+TII, 2, =VII—4, =VIif—5, =I1x—6, =X—7, Tomas arate, = ae EUR. ey +5, =25459+ =26e+415E = 6f/ SUC aE Ee it is equal V4 if III — 4, by whi means ‘it may be This interval is also the extra sharp tine forty the sharp four the re- of Euler, pg 2T+4t,) or tritonus, Mr F. Webb says, in icon,” app fiend hy yet = ry octave, or isotonic minor fourth, which ce te os in the difference bene in each case. _ , Major Founru of Hussey and Webb, has the ratio [> = 297.060766 = + 6f + 26m, and its logarithm fa ee they also denominate it a sharp ‘Majer Woostee of; Siltipi tap, “thnentio oe 307.53967 X+46f+426 m, and its log. =.8487323,2467. — Minor Fount (6), Himetlv ae Sahin Fourth, is a ‘concord, baving the ratio, = 2542-45 £4. 22m; its Jog. =.8750612,6339, =.4150974% VIII, =23.15811 ‘it is also =6—3, = VI—III, =VilI— . Sharp Fourtu of Holden; has the ratio FOU X ¢, = 254.921293 x E,=1.2892244 x IIL, =1.5778829 _ Fourtin x 3d; =IV—S, =3+t, =III1+S, =5—S, =V—T; =2+IIl, =IV—I,=5—2, =V—II, =7—4, Vul—IV, =8—5, =9—6, =X — VIL; =T4t+8, =2T+L, =T+t+L-+<¢, SU Eee OAS o =23T—1 4d, =22c+5r42E, = 22c412E45 $12E 495: ty either of which its tune may be examined and adj usted with the t exactness, This interval is the diminished ma najor) fourth of Liston, and his extreme flat major urth (pIV); the quatre of Euler ; the diatessaron, or tetrachord, of the ancients ; and the epitrites. It is the al. Ip of ‘the three Concorpant Elements, 3d, IIId, 4th ; see that article. It may be twelve times re- . peated, or tuned in succession, in five octaves, (11 4ths +4+4d=5 VIII), before falling again on the same note, or near to it, which is not the case with any other con- cord, except its complement the major fifth. Minor-comma defective minor Fourtu (4) ; has the - 512 23 ratio 675° — oS = 2445 4 5f-+ 21m; its log. = -8799661,8814, = 3.987441 x VIII, = 22.19905 x c: =4—€, lV, =HI+5, =34+8+5, =V— 28, =542=—S; =1+ Ill, =IV—2, =VIU—5, = X—8;= 2T4t_S, —2T +3, =21c+4 13=45f, =5 11€492: it is also = V-+ 2 U1 — 2 4ths, rE it may be tuned. It is the redundant (major) aaa of Liston, and his extreme sharp (major) third, Redundant Fount of Chambers : has the ratio aa nn 265 + 5f+4+ 23m; see Comma-redundant minor Fourtn. Redundant (major) Fourtx of Liston, has the ratio 375 = 8372 +7 f+429m. See Extreme sharp (major) Fourtn. Redundant (minor) Fountu ; it ratio is © iB = 3015 +2) 6f+ 26m. See Major Fourtu. Schisma-excessive minor Fourru (4*) ; has the ratio is ses unk a ete hob Bde Shams. tee, Tog, = Jo9ss’ — 37.5’ — -8745711,5626, = .416665 x VIII, = 23.24895 xc; =4+42, =IV—L, =V+=—T, =II1+P, =3T—S, =22c4 13245f, =5f412€+4 102: it is also = ay III — 4 4ths, hore it may be tuned ; and if Feira kn tenor-cliff C (of 240 vib. jit will be found sharp therewith 1.08387 per second: its length sing ring -7491541. It is the minor fourth in pean s Temperaments (see that article), and is equal CE’X, and to fourteen other intervals on Mr Liston’s Eunarmonre Organ. $2 Sharp Fourth, or Greater Fourth ; its ratio is B= 801546f+426m. See Major Fourrn. Sharp Fourrn, of Bemetzrieder ; has the ratio aa = 312546 f + 27m. See. Comma-redundant major Fourrn. pe 1 $14.947096> 4 6f+.27 m, and its log. = .8450980,4001 : | Aad pane , and the lesser fifth of Hussey and el : Sharp aa of Hussey and Webb ; has the ratio FOW 532 FOX &, = 297060706 2 4 Gf 4 25m. See their Major Fovartu. 18 Sharp Fovurtn of some writers ; has the ratio 5— = 200 2 + 6f 4+ 25m. See Comma-deficient Major Fourrn. Superfuous Fourrn of Bemetzrieder ; its ratio is aa = 31254 6f4 27m. See Comma-redundant major Fourtn. Superfluous Fourtu of Chambers and Marsh ; has the ratio 1°, = 2002 4 Gf4 25m. See Comma-tef cient major Fourtn. a Superfluous Fountu of Chladni ; has the ratio=, = 901 = 4+ 6f+4 26m. See Major Fourtn. Superfluous Fountu of Galileo ; has the ratio =°, _ 265% 4+ 5f+4 23m. See Comma-redundant minor Feurrn. Temperaments of the Fourtns, in galery tempered douzeaves: these are the same, ‘but wi oy signs, as those of their complemental fifths, respectively, 7. ¢. if the fifths have flat temperaments, the fou will have sharp ones, and vice versa. Thus, if eleven of the : fourths in an octave are alike tempered, the remaining one or wolf temperament will be = d— the sum of these 11 fourth temperaments. The eleven tem ents of the fourths, are each, = }c— } temp. Ill; ch is a large oiling, and seems to have been erected about the time of Edward IV. ‘It has a large and two smaller aisles, and a handsome tower on the west. The market-house is large and spacious, and over it is a neat town hall, some time ago by Philip Rash- | leigh, Esq, and Lord Viscount Valletort, who then re- presented the burgh in parliament, The town also contains two good free schools, an alms-house for eight decayed widows, and a poor’s-house. “The ancient mansion, called the Place, or Treffry-house, is situated on an eminence on the north side of the church, ‘and though now in a state of decay, has once been a hand- The erste pat of the. inhabitants of Fowey |are connected with fishery. More than 28,000 hogsheads of fish are annually brought into this port. The harbour is now by two small batteries, and by St Catherine's fort, which stands on the summit of a magnificent pile of rocks, that bounds one of the creeks of the river. This’ fort was built by the towns- men, in the reign of Henry VIII. On sides of the river Fawy, the scenery is extremely picturesque. TE sates ere Coveposes ok © Tate Disien one ane” ~~ jet quartz. The ruins of two square stohe to exist on the rocks on i o! teohartoan ete preeee iN SSIES, The following is the statistical abstract for 1811, ins “-Y—” cluding the town and parish; Mata howe nes oJ vo 227° — ; me oh aS obama mee See i - 380 d Ditto employed in agriculture,..... 50 | J Ditto employed in trade and manufactures, 75 t Males, CCC Vo ss eer TO DRL Pe Y q 4 pre Penarth me eee 765 ‘ : ‘population i yp 0% ear irens ee ARR ents . mill; 50°07 7", See Pelywhele'a History of Cormall mill, a. s Hi: ; Maton's ,Obserualions-on the Weblera path de and the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. p. 410. ‘(v) FOWLING-Prece. See Gun Manuracrory., FOX, Cnartes James, second son of Henry Fox, Lord Holland, and of Lady G. C. Lennox, was born on extremely i in his and to have been gratified Saran tt bemona tonto whimsical or ca equer, A goer) pees de “of ‘ F ih a t North and Mr Fox, ‘whio had yoy most determined enemies to each | \ Fox. FOX. in a vote, declaring the terms of pacification inade- quate, the treaty was condemned by Parliament, and he administration consequently resigned. A new ca- binet was formed under the Duke of Portland, and Lord North and Mr Fox became joint Secretaries of State,—a coalition, which some have considered as fix- ine sp on the political character of the latter; while have marked it with high approbation, as,a laud= able suppression of party feuds for the good of the coun- try. It was certainly, at the time, somewhat revolting to the moral feelings of the nation, and served to uce a deep impression of the insincerity of public men, The only transaction of im during this administra- tion, was the India Bill\of Mr Fox, which he intro. duced with great ability, and which the House of Commons by a strong majority. It was represent- ed by its naryoomire asa wise and s.rescue of the natives ia from oppression ; but was censured, on the other hand, as not merely an unwarrantable vio- lation of the India Company’s charter, but also asa measure full of to the constitution, inasmuch as, by lodging the who eof India in a few per- sons, 12 produced a of political influence, which might be equally cious, whether it was added or opposed to that of the crown, Some suggestions of this nature, privately conveyed to the royal ear by a out of administration, ‘caused its failure in the ee of Lords ; and a new administration was formed under Mr Pitt, in the face of a majority of the House of Com- mons. In consequence of a dissolution of parliament, many. of Mr Fox's friends lost their seats in the ae gs pet ee pyrene ye Westminster was made the ect a severe scrutiny, of which be oul id \ chiefly t harass the ministry, yet neither can it be denied, chen in te. He | : i : observed by the other coun« try, He condemned also the propositions for assimi- lating the commercial ne tary for England and Ireland, which nothi tthe jealousy of politi- cal independence in the latter have enabled the opposition to set aside. He resisted es- pecially the regency bill, during the king’s illness in 1788 ; a question in which the two great political lead- ers of the country seem to have, in, some , OX. changed political principles. It was | by Mr Fox, that the two Houses of Parliament hail no other power than to declare the Py Hg vacancy of*the throne, and. that the Prince of ‘ales had then an un- questionable right, without any limitation in.the pre= rogatives of ty, to assume the vacant place. Mr Pitt protested against this doctrine, as little less than “ treason against the constitution ?’ and maintained the 533 right of Parliament both to appoint a regency, and to limit its powers, as circumstances might direct. He admitted, indeed, the expediency of nominating the Prince as , and of leaving him unfettered by any council ; while Mr Fox also conceded the adjudication of the Prince’s right to be the privilege of Parliament. It is scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion, that each were in some measure, perhaps insensibly, sway- ed in their political views, by their own a sions and ex i ~The bill was suppo only by a small majority; but the king's recovery happily pre- vented ail farther discussion of its principle, which is perhaps one of the most delicate that can be publicly itated. aes Fox displayed all the vigour of his talents in ing the trial of Mr Hastings ; and it is worthy of remark, that the second article of the charge, of which he was the mover, was admitted by Mr Pitt as con- taining matter of impeachment. He succeeded also in resisting the design of the premier to prevent, by an armed mediation, the occupation by Russia of the con- uered territory between the Bog and the Dneister ; and thus probably saved the country from being involved in an expensive and unwarrantable contest. In a few in- stances, these rival leaders are found to have concurred in supporting some of the most important measures of fi- nance, and most essential principles of the constitution. Mr Fox su Mr Pitt’s motion for reforming parlia-_ ment; b ishing 36 rotten boroughs ; and approved of the bill for establishing a sinking fund. On the other hand, he received the concurrence of the minis« ter in his declaratory acts for asserting the right of ju- ries to judge in cases of libel. But the most gratifying instance of their agreement appears in the measures which were proposed for the abolition of the slave trade ; and, throughout the whole of this cause, so in- teresting to humanity, the character of Mr Fox is placed in the most favourable point of view. He en- tered, from the first, and with the greatest ardour, in« to the condemnation of that infamous traffic; and, without waiting for any enquiry into its accidental bar« barities, or its impolicy, wished, as every man of right feelings must have done, to denounce it at once, as, in every aspect, iniquitous and inhuman, He was one of the many excellent and enlightened indivi- duals in Great Britain, who hailed, with friendly feel- ings, the rising liberties of France in the commence- ment of the year 1789; but it has been considered as in- some measure de from his political sagacity, that he did not sooner detect, in the progress of that revolu- tion, the principles of anarchy with which it was fraught. It was in the year 1790, inva debate on the army. esti~ mates, that French revolution was first noticed in the British Parliament; and Mr Fox having expressed his approbation in eral terms, Mr Burke took oc- casion to point out anime which it threatened to regular governments... This drew areply from Mr Fox, guarding his commendations of the French patriots, yet differing from the doctrines of his friend ; and, though speeches were full of strongly compli- expressions, a separation was unequivocally implied between these two eminent characters, who so long pursued their political career as the most faithful associates. Even in a-succeeding session .of Parliament, after the King of France had remained another year as a prisoner in his capital, Mr Fox is understood to have characterised the revolution in that country as a stupendous and glorious edifice of liberty, Fox. 534 FOX. Fox. erected on the foundation of human integrity; and laws, against special —yY"" though he subsequently qualified his paseo. A by ance to these bills evidently rested only upon his disbe- limiting his a to the destruction of theab- lief of those seditious desi solute monarchy, yet his lan unfortunately con- which could alone have rend: Ls veyed to multitudes, who revered his authority, or who although future events, cularly the confessions of wished to avail themselves of his name, a sanc- O'Connor, have proved is tr tion of French principles. He was very far, however, ble practices, where Mr Fox had no suspicion of their j from being a republican theorist; enti Sngning par- being entertained ; the same discoveries rite ywnld : tiality to the French revolution may be bed to his 5 with par- general love of political freedom, his naturally ardent pen seers Fy any revolutionary B feelings, and particularly to his extremely i- fav was the impression made by his speeches cious disposition, which may have led him to confide in partiornant te. that: periess: ot Sette eeeee et too much in the good intentions of the first revolu- in 9 Noe a ee the tionists in France. When, in 1791, the French mo- _ list of privy i ; narch was cormmitted to custody, and preparing for hand, was his disapprobation of the trial, Mr Fox expressed in Parliament a wish to mter- by the ministry, that, yoo Jed the pose in his behalf, by some declaration “S of hi i his of the House ; but afterwards concurred with Mr Pitt in abstaining from all interference, lest it might serve likely to benefit his country. He b gee however, only to exasperate the National Assembly. In 1792, in his place, in opposition to the triple assessment bill, when seditious societies in Great Britain were corre- the incomeand tax, and particularly the Union sponding with the National Convention, and the Alien with Ireland, which he condemned principally on the ill was proposed, in order to provide against Jacobin ground of its being effected by means of influence, and Socrecrntinatymcenersscnpetiontinngpes. liswas conslenditiaes Senin aan utionary measures as e e was i wn retirement a sees uired ; and, while he execrated the date of coptivental aides) dal wat seaae »po murder of Loui XVI. he resisted the ions for every motion, which favoured the opening of negoc rechi dec chasecnight tealegslelGcguen’ io mceaeetiog « somtiaiegrene in aaeaae principle, whatever might as in ing a iati to the le ST appe ies: Coates ahyech ves es eee pepe rma cig as Grand Consul, « sued ternal government o! country. to the King ngland, inviting jation ; and, When a message from his Majesty, on the 12th of though it has since been admitted by those: awho: February 1793, announced the im; t intelligence, cur in Mr Fox's political views, that the a — that the French convention had declared war against Coe eat Piss ot tk cael Ran Great Britain and the States of Holland, Mr Fox, French Chief, was extremely correct, it is impossi- while he still insisted that the conduct of the British _ ble to vindicate the lofty tone and irritating proposals government had not been sufficiently candid and con- expend ii she. snares ie, ee rn ciliating, was willing that the address from the House Mr i ’s administration the to the Throne should convey a ise of support peace of Amiens in 1801, Mr Fox, 8 consistent inst every hostile attempt of France, and in such pressing the spirit of pacification, joi with | exertions as might be necessary to procure such im approving, or rather accepting terms of pacification as might be consistent with the that could have been expected. honour of his Majesty's crown, the interests of his _we may regard the war in its commencement, people, and the security of his allies. There can now scarcely be denied, that Mr Fox faithfully pointed | little doubt, that it answered the purposes of the se important errors in its progress, and in many despotic rulers who successively directed the mili respects gave good advice to his country. But his in- energies of France, to involve the nation in war with variable and inveterate opposition to almost every mea- foreign powers ; and that their triumphant troops could _ sure of the administration, occasioned scarcely be termed a nation of freemen resisting the which he uttered to be heard by Hu iE SERss = 2 eon of es et ae oe pat that Mr ee ed ay a ‘ox’s predictions, ure e ition against war in 1802, ‘ox great eloquence them, approached very near to the actual result. His support of peace; and must be allowed to have shewn, forebodings, however, of the ruin of the British con- that, however clesniger. geste of compitint 1 stitution, in consequence of the suspension of the the conduct and designs of the French ruler, the Seay “ee, chamaiag aes af she tines ae pete government, the prime minister announced his in : ently conformable to the spirit of our constitution, tion to withdraw from office ; and Mr Pitt recomm« which supposes parliament to provide, by temporary ed to the king the formation of a ministry on the broad. * The great question in the origin of the war with France, is this, whether the | to which this country was inpaoed fom ths hontle ecmteachatonte and views of the deck g were sufficiently’ pe yar to warrant our ne affine: them; and whether the wisdom of preparations was or was not the declaration of of France. We refer to the speech of Mr Pitt in the House of Commons, on the of February 1793, and t of Mz Grey the House of Lords on the 2lst of that month, as containing an authentic view of the arguments of both partiem but the mind of the sovereign was decidedly Git Lled Geet cancinned in oppovii 0 , continued in ition. Pitt, however, cd ar oan diffieult country at that time, his Maj ve testified any reluctance to Mr tment as forei of state; who, now advanced in years, and ining i was made the liament; and such a measure, i right of FOX. 535 hopes of accomplishing much as a public leader; andit Fox. is probable, that the prospect of being able to conclude “"y"" an honourable peace with France was one of his prin- cipal inducements to accept the anxious and arduous station of a British premier. The negociation for this great object, the last act of his politi life, commenced in 1806, and originated in his indignant rejection of a proposal to assassinate the Emperor of the French. As a basis for negociation, he recommended “ a honourable for both parties and their allies, and calculated to secure the tranquillity of Europe ; and, as a more specific ground of the intended treaty, the French government verbally agreed to the principle of uti possidetis, But new objects of ambition arising to the French, and the health of Mr Fox rapidly declining, they departed from their verbal essions, and, with many compliments to the British Secretary of State, and a little rudeness to the British plenipotentiary at Paris, terminated the negotiation. We have been unwilling to interrupt the preceding sketch of Mr Fox’s public career, by adverting to the history of his private life; and there is little space left for more than a few slight notices on the subject. The i habits of his earlier years were not forsaken in bustle of political contests; and, at one period, involved him in the greatest ig gn Ma 80g from which he was saree by Dea? iptions of - friends, upon the iti wi wing hi attendance from the gaming table, His better judg- ment seems to have condemned the immoral courses in which he engaged recurred to literary pursuits and epistolary composi- tions. Even in his youth, when the marriage act was under the consideration of parliament, he gave a public testimony to the miseries of a dissolute life; and, on the lax mod ss: the French philserph: e rench p) : deficient, therefore, in ice, in a:.dugees not to be justified, and particularly to be lamented in a character so distinguished in other respects; he ought not to be regarded as having been, upon principle, a mere dissipated man of pleasure. His marriage, which was first announced in 1802, though said to have taken place in 1780, may be considered, it has been justly observed, as ‘* a homage which he paid to virtue;” and his later years were hs spe with little interruption in the simple enjoyments of domestic life, or in an assiduous attendance on public duty. When residing in his favou. rite sat oa St Anne’s bil, ap ney a“ biographers, he usually rose before eight o’clock in the morning ; breakfasted, and read the newspapers ;_per- ‘used some Italian author with Mrs Fox ; t an hour or two in study ; sat down to a frugal but plentiful din- ner at three or ; drank a few glasses of wine, follow- ed by coffee ; relia eclodiyeete tll tontivne: employ- ed ore in reading, or listening to the i of history, till near ten ; and concluded the day with a gag of fruit, or of something equally trifling. residing in town, he generally went to his office at elevyeno’clock, where he remained until three ; and, as long as his peak Ses continued to bestow the most punctual and active attention upon his du- ties, frequently even directing in person the more mi- 586 nute transactions of his department. About the end —v—" of May 1806, his health was visibly affected, and his disorder was to be of a ical nature. On the 7th of August, he underwent the operation of tapping ; and, for several days after, was considered to be im a very hazardous state. He requested to be re- moved to his residence at St Ann’s Hill; but with dif- fieulty reached the house of the Earl of Devonshire, at Chiswick, where a second ing was performed on the Soth ‘of August. After the operation, he expe- rienced a temporary revival ; but, in.a few days, every hope of his recovery vanished, and his friends were permitted to take their leave of him. During his ill- ness, he is said to have expressed an anxious wish that he might live to witness the abolition of the slave trade; and he left it as his dying charge to his political friends, that they should persevere in their efforts for the ac- complishment of that glorious object. In his last mo- ments, he put the hand of Mrs Fox into that of Lord Holland, and then, om his own upon theirs, “ God bless you,” he said, “I die in : I pity you.” These are reported to have been the last words which he uttered ; and he expired on the 13th of September 1806, in the 59th year of his age. At a time when even Mr Fox's nearest relatives and warmest friends have declared that insuperable objec- tions exist to a memoir of his life, it is no easy to offer even an obscure and unpretending sketch of his cha- racter ; and, were there not some approved and experi- enced guides to point out the leading marks, we should never have attem the outlines of such a portrait. Mr Fox, in his Pie was rather under the mid- die stature ; and, though celebrated for agility in his youth, was of a ulent habit during the greater part of his life. His chest was capacious, his shoulders broad, his hair dark and thick, his complexion dusky, his eye-brows black and bushy, and his countenance, especially in the course of argument, peculiarly ani- mated and expressive. In his political life, he had been so constantly and eagerly en in compassing the overthrow of mi- nistry, that he will bly appear, to every indiffer- ent observer, more in the character of a determined -leader, than of an enlightened statesman ; and pec yet it may be doubted whether his ardent attachment to the political body of which he was the head, did not as much from the warmth of his friendship, as the spirit of party. This consideration may at least account as honourably as most others for the un- questionable fact, of his having consented, in the‘course of his public career, to join every one of those whom he had systematically opposed ; and which, though it will not exempt him from the charge of inconsistency, po Mcce a his name from the more heavy re of insincerity. He was almost uniformly the undaunt- ed champion of constitutional freedom; and. it can scarcely be doubted, that his resolute resistance to the slightest encroachments of government may have often acted as a salutary restraint. Yet, in some instances, he was opposed not merely to the popular cause, as in the case of Mr Wilkes, but even to the principles of li- berty, as in those of the Regency Bill, and the admis- sion of the Chief Justice into the cabinet. As a speak- er in Parliament, Mr Fox stands in the first rank ; and, though originally ar, of Mr Burke, he soon dis- played more comm ing oe He was more ve- hement in manner, more forcible in —— more consummately master of the science of debate. He FO X. sometimes hesitated in the commencement of a speech, Foxe. ; frequently indulged in digressions, and even in repetitions, or gave loose to a flow of penal declamation, instead of senatorial -; but he was always fluent when his ‘were roused, and was able, with the utmost skill, to tread back his step when hard pressed, without ante ie from an ; untenable position, or to return unnecessary digression. Whatever became of lis subject, he bent his whole force to trample down his enemy ; and exer- cised a degree of talent in parliamentary warfare has never rivalled: He was equally aa. perplex his adversary by ingenuity, to overawe him by violence, or to overwhelm him with a torrent of elo- wentabuse. He is acknowledged to have been liarly successful in reply, never failing to take advan. tage of the concessions or ctions of his oppo- nents, and to turn upon them with their own weapon, « T knew him,” says Mr Burke, in a papi wats subsequently to their tion, “w was teen; since which time, he has risen by slow ety 4 mimo wi * orig ccorayn life, Mr Fox’s reel attractive ; he was at all times plore the sl of ly cnatadiateon’ but even: somewhat inactive in con- versation. His superiority was never felt, but in th instruction which he imparted, or in the attenti which his generous preference usually directed to the more when it was not repressed’ by modesty ah sen was delightful. The try, perhaps, of no m a wit had so unl It it. His literature was various and elegant. In pe § etry, from the vulgarity snd ersten cf refuge in business. His own verses were and leasing, might have claimed no loi se Pion Shh the French call Vers de Socicté, He died polit conversation, and never sly took any p 7 ; part in i Perhaps a meas more s dyads pression e by amiable ‘his character, han Ghe wondsiot Ie Backs, whe, in January 1797, them had — a pipes ne, a left os doubt of their heart. sincerity. From these ities of his private, as well as from his public character, it probably arose, : * 4 FOX Fox. « Letter to the Electors of Westminster,” published in aeegeet 17095 the composition of which he is understood ome canta ke aered oebediclenahelsttenticks:; his correspon- writers ; afew Memoir of his of the Reign of James II.,”? left unfinished, and published after his death, remain'as monuments of his istingui talents, and testimonies of his relish for To the introductory chapter, to the last mentioned work, we must refer our readers for more minute information determinate. ~ aparece, aa admirers, who much of his i , during the last eight years of his life, who a his sick- bed, and witnessed his last moments, positively affirms Mr Fox’s belief of Christianity, and denies othe alight heard him utter a single expression, or give ight- cat indieation of doukt or disbelief of ite truth, At the same time, while he describes Mr Fox’s whole demea~ nour during his pai Snes eerie te tree reer not of stoic i patient resignation to Divine Providence, he has not recorded any direct al- one of his friends, «* What do-you think, my Lord, of the state of the soul after death ?” and to have * ed to observe, ‘ I should have believed in the immor- ed; but how fac when bo me eo capacity This, however, boon by Chretien” ‘One is certain, that both in private life, and whenever he touched upon religious fe con kal meeps een used the of reverence, and shewed.that he sacred the right of private j ent in 3 avoided giving offence to religious or eyen , and testified pect to every scruple onthe subject, which was tral cone conscientious. ‘“ On the score of ” says Mr ' who describes Mr Fox’s demeanour in his Sat at apn oh Spal tolerate, w ied to ition on sacred matters, but was truly denignant, for he con- Sielateathigy andthe ade pomaaaanr of siphons p> possession es ce eeruee to bs sontioelea by did not require the permission of others for this mental enjoyment, and that all were entitled to honour the Sein to Mr Fox’s History ¢: ‘To Memoirs of the latter Years of Mr Fox ; and Tife of Mr Fox, in the Christiaw Observer, vols, vi. and 4) ’ : ‘VOL IX, PART I. 537 FOX FOX Istanps. .A great chain of islands stretcltes across that part of the North Pacific Ocean bounded _!*!nds. by the peninsula of. Kamtschatka on the Asiatic conti- nent, and that of Alaska in North America. The first jyistory, of — a the west, was disco ee in me — part. eighteenth century, by Capt. Vitus Behring, a Dane dn Hiss Rowsiath Aorsicuertl suatrind after him ; and the second, twenty-seven miles from it to the east, was called Copper Island. Both were greatly fre- uented by the Russians, on account of the valuable obtained from the animals of the surround- ing seas; and a company of adventurers from Kamt- ochatha having prosecuted farther discoveries, ascer- tained, in the year 1745, that other islands lay farther to the east. Having wintered on one of them to kill sea otters, they continually. advanced farther on; and after various successes and discomfitures, at length, by means of intermediate islands, reached the American continent. This chain was known by different appel- lations bestowed on certain groups of it, which the progress of discovery proved were only a short way detached from the rest ; and they were in general divi- ded into the Aleutian, Andreanovi, and Fox Islands: but late navigators are di to include the whole chain under the name of Aleutian or Fox Islands ;,while it is sometimes proposed, though without any apparent good reason, to except Behring’s and Copper Island from the number. It is not difficult to anticipate, however, that this separation will soon be abandoned. The Fox Islands in position resemble a circular arc, extending from 165° to 195° of longitude east ; the’ most south- ern i lies in about 58° of north latitude, “and the most northern, at each extremity, in 55°. These islands are of all different sizes, below 104 miles in , Which is that of Behring’s Island, and are divided by channels of very unequal width. —'This last Fain iles from the harbour of St Peter and St Paul, in Island, which is mountain- ous, and twenty-five miles long, lies due east, and is the first of the Aleutian, or Fox Islands, ly so deno~ minated. Attoo is 60 miles in length, and 188 miles Copper Island: Next is me twenty miles distant, and six in length ; then Buldyr, an oval rock, six miles by ten, distant 70 miles; and so on, regarding the rest, to Omnak, Oonalashka, aes next . and Oon to Alaska. Some of these islands are disposed in clus- ters ; and the number of the Fox ‘Islands was to receive accessions: In the year 1795, a i ing obscured a rock which was the favourite resort of the Aleutians in their hunting excursions, thirty miles north-west of Oonalashka, they found the sea, on ap- proaching it, in a state of ebullition, and vast quanti- ties of vapour rising around. Concluding that it was haunted by evil spirits, no one would again venture thither during the lapse of five years, when a few more Sefict fee Shey tn we eke i up, re and smoke a crater in its seoeinits In the year 1806, this island had aug to about twenty miles in cireuit; lava frst ab to relade landing om that ptr ie as to landing on parti ide. There are pris: couke ‘oohaanadh: tis allir lth’ sitet these islands ; and Gthden, nee Rebireaatidire sind are now quiescent. Earthquakes are common from such subterraneous fires, and the concussions are violent. Huts were geet tea 1802, when a long-extin- ¥ 538 Fex guished voleano in Oonalaslika began to burn, and the ‘vaeds flames from the new erupted island ceased; but they =r" were renewed soon after. The Fox Islands are of bar- ren aspect ; the mountains are conspicuous, being in general high and conical, and covered with snow during & great portion of the year. Nothing is produced in the whole course of the Aleutian chain, except low shrubs and bushes. There are no trees ; but, to compensate for this defect, recourse is had to drift wood, often of large size, floated on shore from America and other countries by the tides. The lower vallies produce abundance of fine gtass, but the islands are destitute of cattle; and there are different indigenous roots, as also potatoes, re- cently introduced by foreign settlers, which afford sub- sistence to the inhabitants. Berries are collected, and laid up for winter provision. ‘Considerable variety of fish frequent the surrounding seas, such as whales, salmon, cod, herring, and holibut, of such enormous size as to weigh several hundred pounds. These are not common food, but they are cut to pieces in the water when caught, from being too heavy for the frail canoes of the natives. On their first dis- covery, the Russians found innumerable phoce, from which they obtained valuable furs ; and for many years they continued to kill thousands of sea otters, whose skins bore a high price at that time, and still higher now, because, from unceasing. pursuit, their numbers are wonderfully diminished. Not above two or three hundred are at present taken annually, whence their to- tal extirpation ina short time is anticipated. But others are of even greater importance to the inhabitants, which are as ardently sought as the sea otter is by strangers. Of one particular seal they eat the flesh ; oil is extracted from its fat, which serves to illuminate and warm their huts; thesinews are fashioned into thread ; clothes, shoes, and household utensils, are made of its skin ; its paunch blown up, is used for holding liquors ; and the cesopha- gus is fashioned into boots, impenetrable by water. Nor is this all, for the thin membrane of 'the entrails is converted to a substitute for glass, in admitting light to their subterraneous habitations ; and the whiskers are com into plumes for ornamental head-dresses. The feathered tribes, particularly the aquatic kinds, are also numerous here, such as wild geese and wild ducks, which are caught in spring, and salted for win- ter provender. Some of the rocks afford a retreat to and anks during the breeding season, when their cae are collected and preserved for the same purpose. les, partridges and buntings, are among those found always on shore, and there are some species migratory. Quadrupeds. W the Russians first discovered the Aleutian chain, they obtained the skins of foxes still more easily than those of the sea otter, and yearly carried away many thousands. These animals were so abundant on Fish. Birds. Foxes and mice are peds which the later visitors have observed here ; but set- and to impart ay Saenger fla to the The same has been the case with poultry fed on dried _ the substitution of coarse cotton, or sail-cloth, - FOX ISLANDS. fish, which the a likewise attempted: the fat becomes oily, a soft and spongy. i The natives of the Aleutian Islands sre-of middle —~— Pox the eyes black ; and the hair, whichis strong and wiry, to a club on the back of the head. The latter are rather handsome, and very complaisant. Both sexes, unlike uncivilized nations, are clean in their ; and their features, which are strongly marked, have an agreeable and benevolent expression. ro : 7 It is si , that among greater part, if not ; all the savage tribes with which wae pr are ac- T#toving. quainted, some artificial disfiguration of the accounted a oe Aleutian females — tattooing, icularly of the upper lip, neck, arms, chin : rvs are made nas at and a of coal-dust or charcoal rubbed in. By this means, while the bluish tinge, exhibit the ce of having ac- quired one. Sut from chief neslin ecttlens explain. ing to the younger females, that they do not esteem these sree ee as oan Sabet to prreee beau- ty, tattooin rat t into di a is eam, dre the decline. However, they still prac~ tise a custom much more tedious and deforming, in the perforation of the under lip, into which bones suspe ing beads and other tri are inserted, » the whole are retained by a kind of button in the inside of the mouth. Here, in like manner, the settlers have found means to signify to the Aleutian females, that their beauty is not embellished by it, and the custom ~ is daily decreasing. The ears of the women are per- ft all around with holes, to which beads are sus- pended ; and the nose of the men is likewise perfo- rated to receive a piece of wood or bone the size of a small quill, to which strings of glass beads are hung on solemn occasions. hep nd seg There is little*difference in the external ing of either sex, the upper garment being a kind of or, Dress. surtout, called parka, made of seal-skin, and formerly of that of the sea-otter, or of the skins of birds. Though simple in form, it is often neatly and vari orna= mented ; and the sn leather, ingeniously w or dyed ‘of gaudy colours, or long white goats hair, brought hither as an article of trade from Siberia. So much care and attention is_be« stowed on one of these frocks, that sometimes a whole ear is occupied in completing it. The Aleutians have ides a kamleika, or rain garment, made of the en« trails of the seal, oe we priests stance, excludes water ; and although pieces are only three inches broad, the whole are so united, that the kamleika, though exposed.a whole day to rain, is never penetrated. Seoertaan eat Aleutian costume is now undergoing some py th, "One ot the most important parts of dress is a wooden hat fa- shioned so as to project over the eyes like an umbrella. The material composing it is not extremely scarce, but difficult to be formed into with the rude and imperfect tools of the isl . After obtaining a thin plank, by laborious reduction, its ends are drawn together, and secured with tendons, an ion al< ways difficult and of uncertain success, Jt»is then : 1 Marriage. ustoms. FOX ISLANDS. ochre, which is procured from the painted with red eure different voleanoés, and ornamented with ivory, glass, or above all with the bristles of the beard of addition to their rarity, four: and a recent r acq ; ith the whiskers of 37 sea-lions, ce ii Hy in Hi] ae a as te - i) } LRT ree at a fib ee nt Hier li ti L ; t i , Vi F E yiteiy We i : HH i i | ( ated schopans, and w ve ever been taken to diminish i numbers; > - e it in their canoes, and watch the Reems rai- 539 The Aleutians dwell in excavations of the earth, the sides of which are lined with beams or poles of dritt- wood washed ashore, inserted to support a roof formed of similar materials. These, excavations are from 20 to 40 yards in length, and between six and ten in breadth; earth is thrown over the roof, which affords a soil for vegetation, so that after the habitations have stood some time, and are overgrown with grass, an Aleutian village bears no imperfect resemblance to an European church-yard. _ Fifty, or even an hundred and j individuals, dwell in the different divisions of the hut, which is lighted by a small window covered with the membranaceous intestines of the seal, or with dried fish. skin ;. and into which they descend by an aperture that at the same-time gives egress to the smoke. But little cold is felt within, and their habitations. are sel- dom heated with fire. . Travellers affirm, that they are so warm that the inhabitants sometimes sit naked in them. Their different divisions are made by partitions of seal skin. Fox Islands. Dwellings. As the chief subsistence of the Aleutians is derived Canoes. from hunting and fishing, a large portion of their time is detaedae tants pursuits ; and the greatest display of their art is in the construction of their canoes and wi . The former are remarkably neat, consisting of a wooden frame covered with leather, and in the . -inside is a hole to receive the body of the navigator sit- ting, around which a seal skin is so tightly drawn as to ude the water. In general, this vessel contains only sometimes two, and rarely three. The of the first is about eighteen feet, the breadth nearly two feet, and the depth eighteen inches, lightly yet ly.made, and capable of withstanding a consi- derable sea ; insomuch, that an Aleutian, in moderate one discovered), the Aleutians follow: near rows faint with the loss of blood, they revisit the spot fre~ quently in the course of the day, until at length, find~ is determined by the point of the w which occa- sioned the mortal wound ; a fact not t to ascer- tain, as all their implements have a i ' mark. But the Russians always elainy half of the whole fish. These darts, which are about four feet and a half long, are feathered ; some are coloured red, some black, and fashioned differently for the different animals against which they are to be directed.. They are thrown with dou alerts —— Monufec. ire. Amuse- meats. Population. FOX much force and ision, along a small board held ho- rizontally, to the distance of sixty yards. They have likewise lances, bows, and arrows; but warfare among them is now unknown. The Aleutians shew much neatness and dexterity in their different works. Besides the fabrication of arms and baidarkas, the men occupy themselves in carving diminutive figures of terrestrial or aquatic animals from the teeth of sea cow, which are much harder than common ivory ; and the women are engaged in making fine mats, little baskets, and pocket-books of straw, particularly during the long winter evenings. The lat- ter are woven hee ee “apree Bho such symmetrical figures, might be supposed the work of European artists. also dye various ornamental substances, as straw leather, of fine and florid colours, with very simple materials. Though reputed savages, the Aleutians are far from ing deficient in capacity; they are mild, pette, and hospitable ; and, in their intercourse with Europeans, are diligent and submissive ; but, if roused by offence or maltreatment, they become rash and malevolent, re- gardless of all danger, and even expose themselves to certain destruction. Dancing to the tambour or dram, with an accompa- niment of pebbles rattled in a blown bladder, is here a favourite amusement, which is free from those lasci- vious gestures usually seen among barbarous tribes. Both sexes, clothed int their beat attire, with richly or- namented head-dresses, join in the dance ; but the masks which they formerly wore on such occasions are said to be laid aside. An amusement am the young men of the island of Tanags, consists iu Lobping from the skin of a large sea lion held up and stretched out by some of their companions, from which they spring to an asto- nishing height. Their love of snuff eats is very strong ; and they will be content to labour a whole day for a single leaf of tobacco, which they contrive to grind to powder, adding a mixture of ashes and water. si decom of the Aleutian chain had a very siderab 5410 %8, FOY merly, on arriving from Ochotzk or Kamtschatka at For, any of the inhabited islands, the Russians were accus- pena doar rrrres = Pees errs as for security ; but now assume possession of a village as if it belonged to themselves ; distribute their traps, to be employed by the men in catching foxes ; select such women as p them beet ; and exercise a most despotic sway over the whole. Yet the state of their hunters is ted as very miserable. en and much exposed to the ravages of the , that not many “See Forster's Vi = the mes s Nags nea renee edn , vol. ii. ; Billing’s ee stronomi- ition ; Langedlort?s oyages and Travels. (c) FO See Huntinc and MamMatta. a; FOYERS, Fatt or, a celebrated and most beautiful cataract in the Hi pmb ee is situated mantic seat of Mr Fraser of Foyers. p fitasi= This cataract is about a mile from the brink of the lake, the banks of which rise so sud jer- 1 below. The chasm, or gully, into which it descends, is of a circular form, about 50 or 60 feet diameter at the ; its sides are wooded and and formed fall, is a projection of rock, which, e of the river, extends across it the directl H i a 8» i iu ; their “¥ FRA “Royers, rent of air is forced up from the bottom, and seems to the water, .as it pours from the rocks: or the “——" bushes on their surface, and to raise’ a cloud of spray into the distinctly visible’ at- the distance of 10 or 15-miles, and not less in height than 600 or 700 tly, on such ing the cataract, is pretty nearly that of porter Ce ee ris E coiae dal ence te than it flashes of the most brilliant many It is worth any person’s while who inspects fae and its scenery, to arent the bt ie , about 100 ; down the river Ser MaE Vis "Gil hace tos eantered the ctoosbied on the ity of attending particularly, for several morro vega Ai of the Fall of Foyers. alt? FRACTIONS. See Arczpra ARITHMETIC. Fraction, Greater (F), in Music, is an interval and so the i i Mr Mar- maduke Overend: its ratio in numbers is Ee 4,946 ,832,462,181,867,513,427,734,375 o£ 839,513 pa 4,951,760,157,141,521,099,596,496,890° Ps eae concordant i 27 4ths — 12 V—13 III, by which it might, ing to theory, be tuned ; above the tenor cliff C, of 541 FRA Fod+2f =6€ — P —z t “k =- oOo —2r—5z For + m-f =o —2f—9= =R + d —5r =e —fe—5z =8r-4- m— = c.f —1l0s =42-4- m-—% =d—f —i1lz =€.42f—Sy = wr —2f—l45 _ =c + m —? = Sar SE =1llz+2 m—? =26—S—5z _ =1524-2. m—D = 3E—S—5r =o +R —7 =f- 3 —5= . 27543 m—3 Fot4+d—8c—Sz. =16S4+ £/ —9T =t+16S— S —9T =17S8+2S—10T =t+16S—S —10T =2t +15S—10T =2t+16S+ 5 —11T =T+d —9c—5z F-=R —5= =T+d —10c—5r =VIII—13 5 2F= 3 — 3f 245 F=€ —f—5E 12F=58ce —571s—12f—41m = € — xy—65 =€—f-9r 3F= f 44d =3€ — f—45 7F=}7R—¥ Fraction, Medius (d), is an interval, so named and marked by Dr J. W-Callcott (in the Overend MS. vol.ii. . , 50,000,000,000,000,000 2°6,5*7 : rr =r—3 f4-m, = VIII-612—.4447360 x =, the error, insome cases, of its artificial comma 1 ; its common log. = .9997260,8915, = .000909912 x VIII, =.05077095 xc, = .5588795 x 2, which last is its re« ar value in our new notation. In tuneable intervals it is = 18 V4+2 VIII —17 VI, = 17 3rds4+-3 V—15 4ths ; and above the tenor-cliff C (of 240 vib.) it beats 15142 1’, or 15% beats in 100”, by which it may be ; Its value in all the other intervals of our Table, are shewn by their symbols, as follows, viz. nes. 7 d= 9— a = =F+42 = O— 4f— 95 =€—3y = 9— fé8yx = c— $f—105 d= 2+ m—3f = d— 3f—ils 1054 m—sy = D— fe— 8x = 354 P—4 = r— 4h 5 = 6247€—3 f = rm f— 8 = 8c+ R—t = &— % = 9c+ R— T =2c— S— R =10c+ R— T = f— 2ce— By =S— I 8y d= R—2@r— = =L— J— 8x = R—2f—5z = S— S— 8x = R— r— = P—4D— £ = €—3f—9r = P—49—175 = €— R = j— P— 8x =S€—f/ —2r ‘ Sey 2d=3—7 f—242 = aa m = ;€—32— f d=} F—f =2;€+22— Fraction; FRA __ $50,283,905,890.9097,963 _ Bh ee = "450,559,962, 787,040,600’ = Gage? SOTEt in the new notation by z, f, and m. Itis =VIII+612— 85395446 x 2, the latter term the error that may arise from considering the arti, comma of this interval to be 1. Its common log, = .9999266,5010, = .0000738,4990 x XVII, =. x VIII, = VIII +-4104.029, = .01359582 x ¢, =c +73.551994, = -14906096 x =, (which last is its regular value in the new notation,) = = + 6.681770, =19.03501 x m, =m 05253478. In tuneable intervals it is 21 4ths + 2TLl—16-V, = 24 4ths—14 V—2-8ds; and) above the tenor eliff C (of 240 vib.) this interval will beat as an im unison, .04054 per 1”, or near 4,', times in 100” ; but neither of which, or any other known method, except perhaps in the higher octaves, seems ogee’ this nearly unappreciable interval. equations exhibiting the value of this interval, in terms of all the others in our Table, Plate KXX. Vol. LI. are as follows, viz. f=4F-—id = _R—d—5s = reer =ljr—} fe $f=5 r—2 fe = 2r— =4+R—5 fe = 3r—2y = 24+ m—d = 5r—2R = RE re Tz = xy-3= = R+ xo 8&8 = 4y—S fe = R+fe— 9 _ = R+ fc—l0z f= >+4 m—F => we2F—24> = 242r— 0 = 6=+4+ m— Tf=- 32 d—245 = Rpere Ht ait av ‘iat e =e fe+ m—p fH 4 R213 = 2p ec nate ' =" R4 Re: =1PR-17 fe’ = 2+ 5-44 =3 R-5x = 224 P—sdt = f-41z> = 4x4 S64 = 5 fe—4 fe = £&+9—_D = fo-5 =. #+.9—_* =1hfe—2h-x% = c+ o— & = = s—3d f= €—. R— 4 : = €— F— 92 f= €4 R-—? =. o— ik fa =2ce+ = = % =3c4 1r-/ = co R—5E = 3+ os = c— F—10 =S+ o—L = &— R-— 62 = F+ 32—L = 4— F-liz = €4 34—L = D— d— 2 = €4 4a—P = D—_c— SE = P+ oS = D— €—42 =26410S—9S8 = e— d— $= =25S o—T = mm Co 4 = 7t+ 5S—9T = wr €—.55 : = f—2d— = = f— §&—4> = f-—2€—_5 = f—-2m—252 =2f/— S— 32 =mef— L— 4x ! sf= F—d = R—5> 542 Feetion. since been. made the middle term of Farey’s Notation ““Y" of Musical Intervals, (see that article). Its ratio is FRA . = S—5m—572 ry Ye het = P—5t— 8r = nai, lie = P—Sim—582 mf pat = Lae fete = _— + : rh aay => te x => oi. Seay ati = T— fc—10c en ee j f 4 f= r—} fe * = an Ws al? ta = Jr—d> =p fce—B tons aS; Sr at gle FRACTURES. | See Strcery: > 9) 6 ooh FRAGA, the Galica Flavia of Ptolemy, isa town of Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon. ’ It is situated.on the left bank of the river Cinca, which bathesits walls, and is built between two ins, partly on the de- clivity of each. The streets) are steep, narrow, and crooked, and are wretchedly 8000.. East Laborde’s View of Spaing vol. ii,.p. 246. (w), FRAMING or Timser. From our. Treatise on Can- pENTRY we have made a reference to the present head - for an account of the principles of Framing ; but having _ inted in receiving the article, we must.re- been disaj : to the article Roor. See also Jornine. fer.the FRANCAIS, Port be, is the.name of a bay on ae the north-west, bour on eoast, of America, situated in in La P CAV. name ; tm he —~~, ) SAS. } t Roetent Ginx. comprehended the whole country bes TISOr7- ween the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean ; it was therefore of greater extent than modern France, seen of as it existed previously to the Revolution; for to the Gaul. dominions of that kingdom must be added, to form an accurate and complete estimate of the size of ancient Gaul, the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and Pe Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Gaul was added to the dominions of the Roman empire, principally by the valour and talents of Julius Cesar ; but it was not divided as a portion of that empire, till This monarch introduced a di- states. |The colony of Narbonne gave its name to the sea coast of the Mediterranean, , Pro- colony of Lugdunum or Lyons on the country between the Loire and the Seine, which, however, was originally denominated Celtic Gaul. Be- yond the Seine the Belgic division lay: this portion- of Gaul, in more ancient times, had been bounded only by Rhine ; bata time before the conquest of Gaul CG a 3 assaulted by of part of Gaul, a small : the Ppeonen of Clots, ion Ssh, oC tape, Knee mentiones Even before this conquest, they ion in Shy FRANCE. _ tary’command was a buckler, on which the princes of this race were elevated: and the royal fashion of long hair was:the exclusive mark of their birth and dignity; while the rest of the nation’ were obliged) either by law or custom, to shave the hinder part of the head, to comb the hair over the forehead, and to content themselves with.two small whiskers.. The Franks were distinguish« ed from the inhabitants of the country in which they had now fixed themselves, by their lofty stature, and blue eyes ; by their close apparel ; their weighty sword sus« pended from a broad belt); a large shield ; and their ‘ex pertness in running, leaping, swimming, and darting the javelin or battle-axe with unerring aim. Of the particular circumstances attending the extension Clovis. of the. conquests of the Franks, little is known: their A: D. 481. regular and connected history begins with Clovis, in the year 481. This monarch atchieved the conquest of Gaul, by the defeat of the Roman governor; and by his mar~ riage with Clotilda, added dy, of which her father was sovereign, to his dominions, . Clotilda converted her husband to Christianity, and the conversion. of his sub= jects followed. Clovis conquered Aquitaine, bit retain- ed it. but a short time; he died in 511.’. In the last year of his reign, .he reformed and. published: the Salic laws: a few lines of these, which debarred women from inheriting what were called’ the Salic lands, have been applied as precluding females from the succession to the French throne. 4 The successors of Clovis were in Gente weak and Mayors o, wicked, till, on the death of Dagobert II. 638, who left the palace. two infant sons, the sovereignty was taken from them by A. D. 638. the mayors of the palace, who were the first officers of the royal household. This office, from a al di nity, became hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. His son, Charles Martel, succeeded to the power of his father, though he still retained the name of mayor of the palace. He delivered France from the ravages of the Sa- racens, by a dreadful battle, in which they were utterly defeated, fought between Tours and Poictiers, A.D. 732. His grandson, Pepin le Bref, removing from the throne the Merovingian race, assumed, by the authority of a papal decree, the title of king, and reigned for seventeen years with dignity and success ; the founder of the second race of the French monarchs, known by the name of the Carlovingian race... In his time, the monarchy of the catoyin. Franks was divided into two large districts, Austrisia gian race. and Neustria. On his death-bed, he called a council of his grandees, and, with their consent, divided his domi- nions. between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. Carloman dying a few years after, his father, Charles Cha»to- succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. . This monarch, magne. so honourably known in history by the name of Charle- magne, reigned 45 years, during which period he extend- ed the limits of his empire beyond the Danube; subdued Dalmatia, Istria and Dacia, all the barbarous tribes to the banks. of the Vistula, made himself master:of a large part of Italy, and attacked the Saxons, Saracens, Buiga~ rians and Huns with success, ‘The Pope first crowned him King of France andthe, Lombards, and afterwards Emperor of the West. He had no fixed capital, and even History. 544 Mistery. in his lifetime he divided his dominions among his chil- ro dren: he died A. D. 814, in the seventy-second year of his gin of Inthe time of Pepin Je Bref, the system of annual peckasnants i ts, held first in March, and afterwards in May, been established or restored. ordered these assemblies to be held twice a year, in spring and au- tuum. The business of the first assembly was to prepare and digest what the second was to enact into laws. Of this assembly he constituted the people a part, so that it consisted of three estates, The ign never was pre- sent, unless to ratify its decrees. In this reign also, the kingdom was divided into provinces and districts ; the latter were under the superintendance of royal envoys; chosen from the nobles and clergy, who were bound to visit their territories'every three months, and to make their reports to the sovereign at the general assembly. Lonis le Of all Debensaif® bonnaire survived him, who was consecrated Emperor A. 0.818. and King of the Franks, at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. Having very imprudently divided his territories, very soon his succession, among his sons, they made open war against him, and he was compelled to surren- der hi a prisoner to his rebellious children. His spirits were thus broken, his health decayed, and he ter- minated an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. D. 840. Lotharius, his eldest son, was =~ ae ret but the quarrels among the brothers, whi even in their father’s lifetime, rae continued. fide seg. in conjunction ‘with Pepin his brother’s son, took up arms sguiiie th tw Uther dood of Louie, Cacia! the ld, a son by a second — to whom Aquitaine had been given, and Louis, who had received Bavaria from his fa- ther. ‘A dreadful battle was fought at Fontenay, in which Lotharius was defeated. A council of bishops was ims mediately held ; Lotharius apne and grant rors were itted to rei > on condi- peeing te mel gpm rius, however, contrived to accommodate matters with his brothers in such a manner, that they to a new Division of division of the empire. By this division, A. D.'843, “a snets, the western part of France, called Neustria and Aqui- en taine, was assigned to Charles the Bald. Lotharius:re- tained the title of Emperor, with the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and the real possession ‘of Lorraine, Franche Compte, Provence, and the Lyonnois'; while the king- dom of Germany was allotted to Louis. FIM On the death of Lotharius, Charles the Bald assumed the empire, having it from the Pope, on con- dition of holding it from the holy see.. This prince was the first of the French monarchs who made dignitaries and honours hereditary : he died by poison, after a weak inglorious reign, A. D.877. During ae the Normans, who had first made their appearance in’France! in 843, sailed up the Seine, and burned Paris. Bald was succeeded by his son Louis the Stammerer, who, after reigning only about two years, ueen Adelaide t. He leaving his was succeeded by Louis IL, and Carloman II. his two’ marriage. On the death of these pri Emperor peepee Fat, ‘son of Louis rance. He disgraced ely the Normans; but this disgraceful, but impolitic, for it fresh incentive to emadetibn. Paris time, z not served only as a a "s lawful sons, only Louis le De-_ FRANCE. Count Eudes and Bishop Goslin, A truce was concluded, History. but the Normans, after leaving Paris, besieged Sens and ““Y—” was deposed by an assembly of the states, who conferred the crown on Eudes. His title to the throne, howev path e 1 oe by a great part of the states rance, who, on the contrary, their allegiance to Charles’ the Sipley!son:-of Lacis nye a reign was by no means’ tranquil, the nobles aspiring openly at independency, d body “of ie feollourt in-tha and , : midst. ol Sheet Intersil diaotdens the Normans gained a perma in mar iage. The new kingdom was called Normandy, of which’ Rouen was the capital. ro ented ‘Charles endeavoured to gain the assistance of the of Nor- mandy, and the Emperor of Germany ; but beii trayed, and thrown into prison by the court of Vi dois, he died there in 929.. yes Gos J of Charles, who had taken’ this circumstance he was ‘surn: Stranger. When Louis was called. to the throne he*was as ‘only 17 : but, of led to make peace with his vassal, and to confirm the’ ' of Laon, which comprehended almost the are Ph) i er. ste! a ~~ France) seized "the ercwn on the death of Louis V.3 and, as he possessed the dukedom of France, which ex- nded as far as Touraine, and was also count of Paris, and in possession of large territories in Picardy and Cham- ne, while the royal domain was reduced to the cities of 1 and Soissons, he in fact brought more strength to the crown than he derived from it. Though the right of succession bel ‘to Charles, Duke of Lorrain, uncle : J stor Hugh Ca- =o Hhetina.- In order to establish the 1 in his family during his lifetime, he associated his son Robert in the government of the kingdom, and prudently vested him with those insignia of y which he denied himself, Tedt SA AALS Gasp’ ibee Wid “ald been very lately being defeated, he was made ‘by. ee ee excommunication, that’ he was abandoned by all his courtiers and his servants, except two, who threw to the dogs all the victuals their master left, and purified by fire the vessels in which he had been served. The king, alarmed either at his spiritual punisiment, or at the com- mencing commotions in his kingdom, at last’ divorced his wife, and married Constance, ter to the Count of “Arles. ~The last of his reign were rendered very unfortunate by the disorders of his‘family. His eldest son Hugh, whom he had associated in the sovereignty, was ; and Constance, who’ was an imperious ter- magant, wished to her younger son Robert on the thtoriey but the Iifig. by the advice of his parliament, ‘confirmed the succession of Henry, his eldest surviving son. In the midst of these disorders the king died, in A.D. 1031, and was succeeded’ IL Bhi; rting the rights of her son Robert. Henry re- ‘some ‘time, but at length was obliged to take with Robert; Duke ‘of Normandy, received t sent an army France, while the king and royal party invaded it on ano- ormandy ' Soon after Henry was restored, the Duke of Norman- dy made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and, dying before. hus r , there was a dispute. Y succes~ sion to his dominions. His natural son had been ed by the nobles, before the of Robert ; and his guardianship was entrusted to the King of France and th Duke of Bretagne. A sen as the death of Robert was , the. nobles broke out into. VOL. Ix, PART i ‘ FRANCE. 545 persona! quarrels, whieh the Duke-of Bretagne in vain History. endeavoured to appease.’ Under these circumstances, the King of France had an excellent opportunity of display- ing his gratitude for the favours which he had received from Robert ; but he seemed rather willing to deprive his infant son of his inheritanee,\by invading Normandy. Not finding, however, the conquest so easy. as'he ex- pected, he reassumed the appearance of friendship and ity, united his forces with those. of the ‘young e, and the malcontents were totally routed ‘in. the battle of Val de Dunes, A. D. 1046. D364 4 In 1060, Henry I. was succeeded by his son Philip I. ; phitip 1. and about six years afterwards, William, Duke of! Nor- A. D. 1060. mandy, successfully invaded England. Philip was only © eight years old when his father died, and remained under the guardianship of Baldwin V., surnamed the Pious, Count of Flanders, a man of strict honour and integri- ty, till the year 1067, when Baldwin died, having, just before his death, concluded an offensive and defensive al- liancé between the crowns of Scotland and France. Philip incurred the excommunication of Urban IT. by his marrying Bertrand de Montfort, Duchess’ of Anjou, while her husband and his q were both alive; nor was the excommunication taken off till the death of the Pope and the Queen in 1097. Philip, however, though relieved from his domestic troubles, was exposed to the rapacious power of his nobles, who insalted him con- stantly, and cut off entirely the communication between Paris and Orleans. In order to remedy these evils, Phi lip associated with him his son Louis. This prince was _ active, vigorous, erous, affable, and free from most youthful vices. soon perceived the full extent and the exact nature’ of the dangers which surrounded him, and that nothing could be-‘accomplished by force. He therefore kept continually in the field with a small body of troops about him, whom he employed against such nobles as would not listen to the dictates of justice and equity ; he demolished their castles, and laid waste their ground ; and by these measures, and by compelling them to render restitution to those whom they had pillaged, he restored order to the state, preserved the monarchy from subversion, and gained the affections of the virtu- ous part of the nobility, and the reverence of the peo- In 1108, when he was 80 years old, he succeeded his Louis the father. From his great size in the latter part of his life, Gross, he was called Louis the Gross. Soon after his corona- 4 0. 1108, tion, he engaged in a war with Henry I. of England, the particulars of which will be found in our history of that ki “After the peace between these monarchs, which took place A. D. 1128, Louis devoted himself to the ion of the internal management of his king- dom: He re-established the commons, or third estate, which had’ long ceased to exercise its privileges ; he en- franchised the villains, or bondsmen; diminished the ‘authority of the seignorial jurisdictions, and sent com- missaries into the provinces to receive Mr ane re~ dress wrongs, and encourage appeals to the royal judges. ‘In the midst of these wise lations, his ebbehaye =. pulency on a disorder which terminated in his ‘death, in the 60th year of his age, and 30th of his reign, A; D. 1187. Lonis VIL, surnamed the Young, to distinguish him Louis the from ‘his father, was 18 years of age when he ascended Young, the throne. He was of a devout turn of mind, good= 4 ?- 1137- natured, and easy in his-temper ; but jealous of his ho- 3z y cmsgarig The chapter of Bourges, having be to the court, he or- a ch rr, a th caer ve rise to Aart ven pagne, and set to which the inhabitants of The effect of this was visit the Holy Land, in, order to expiate his To this project he was further incited say ah abbot of Clairvaux, who had been selected by Pope enthusiasm of she; Louis from, this enterprise. niences’ that, would result. from ‘it, and the which the king would be exposed ; but Bernard, oad other hand, made himself answerable for its success, and extolled it with an enthusiasm that passed for inspiration. Before his departure, however, the king had the good . sense to name Seiger minister to the regent, whom he in charge of the kingdom. ‘Embarks in ch was the rage for.the crusade in France and Ger- a crusade. many, at this period, that Louis reckoned in his army 70,000 men in complete armour, with a very great num- ber of light horse, besides infantry; but this force, though doubled by what the Emperor of Germany. brought along with him, was. rendered of little or no benefit to, the cause in which they were engaged, by its vey. num- bers, and if the total want of order and discipline. The Emperor of Germany fell into a snare. set for him by the Sultan of Iconium; and the same misfortune soon afterwards befel Louis. He met likewise, with another calamity still thore grievous, and ‘which gave him more uneasiness than the loss. of his army; for his queen Eleanor, whose affection and zeal led her to embrace the cross, and accompany him into Asia, was suspected of an amour with the prince of Antioch. His marriage and with her had been entered into contrary to the advice of 4 Seiger; and, after the death of that apg es ! convinced of the soundness of his opinion by the of his wife, divorced her, and restored abi die ro- whi vinces of Guienne and Poitou, which he had received with her.in marriage. Eleanor, soon after her divorce, married Henry Plantagenet, Dake of Normandy, who, the following year, became King of England, under the name of Henry IL The remainder of Louis's, reign i oe ee ERG presents nothing worthy of notice. He relled with Henry II. of England; but were soon made up. in 1179, he made his.eon’Phi who was then 14 years old, be crowned at Rheims; the following yea he did of «payee, athe age of yee 1180. Philip IL, who was afterwards surnamed Augustus, . A.D.1 PRAWN CE, on account of his of Flanders, He tpetived = # cess. by some of the. je frsg Faye ay but hi use his intreaties to these nobles to of the church, Haididsae 2M * “y € : ae : vages ; and at length found the necessity of, canis sihae speuge Bee eecenes: t thei Philip next attention to the ext pton of the bg who, under the name of Roti infested France, setting at nought vil and clesiastical power. In one battle he destroyed 7000 | The gral shih id exits hilip’s, fay Quarrets b ther and the King of England _ st d 5 , couraging tiful behaviou wards their father. : gree quieted, by the death of for the ee i “gbasden Pht however, her asa hy apparent. to ay Eee ‘ found himself obliged, at eel defend dominions aon Expose and his own son. _ Being un- ‘sponte 15 srneee od t0pay Si ek a compen for however, Poin felt h himself Fa i “hs ith of Fesens which took place A. D. ject of a hour 3 SH gain entertained. cheetah et 1pel Bath ce a pis an after snilitary, glory. their religious and had been so. unsuccessful, it necessary to ar Land, road ; me SE es Dts sry ya ‘me priigaats io ns ng by means of their wer, t preserve an. 7 ar ia tr their wn stat om a ome reps ays d ,000 Ae th ae ey : a i Pi Louis VIII. and 1X. A. D.1223 al ry ef e 4 wlohe, PES wt. d entered into a treaty with John, his. perfis ver. As soon as Richard recovered his’ free- turned his thoughts towards vengeance on Phi- t the latter gained several advantages over his opponent; and these two princes continued to harass each other, till the death of Richard; A. D..1199.. John, Guienne. FGI ge) MSHS ei) a4 bed be HOO r In 1213, Philip was chosen by the Pope to carry into meena ofa; dreadful eontest, the Pope persuaded John to hold his inions as a Sondasery abating tt with village 2 amounting to upwards of 50,000 men, was met that of Philip, which was rather inferior. A dreadful was fought ; the Emperor and his allies were route |, and $0,000 Germans are said to have been slain. r this victory, Philip entered Paris in triumph; the Flanders and Boulogne, his prisoners, gracing Pa Peoraet odes iicenitiogy, the tats 15, i total their liberties, their possessions; and their lives, in the ‘proceedings of John, offered the son. of Philip. Louis accepted 3. but disgusted the people his own countrymen, so that, on the the Barons ing to acknowledge the authority of his son + Louis was to 2 ary oa ra amen ee ilip aving the kingdom ‘rance twice'as) as he pec bs VILL reigned but abo ; os . is VILLI. rei, but about three years, the part of which was chiefly spent in a crusade against the Albigenses. He was succeeded, A. D. 1226, by his son Louis IX. called Saint Louis, then only 12 FPR HL the by his partiality years of age. Blanche of Castile, the Queen-mother, had been shone J the minority of her son, she the ambition ofthe powerful and tur- bulent barons, by her and, firmness. . As Louis advanced to i character developed it- form, This turn of mind was strengthened by a dangers ous illness with which he was attacked ; or his heated ' FRANCE. — 547 imagination made him fancy that he heard a voice ftom heaven, commanding him to:shed the blood of Infidels. Accordingly, he made a vow to take the cross, and spent four years in preparing for his expedition. He entrusted the government of the’kingdom tothe care ‘of: his mo- ther; and at;last, every thing being arranged’ A. D; 1248, ‘he ‘sailed: for) Cyprus, accompanied» by “his “queen, « his three brothers, and almost all the knights) of France. From this island, he proceeded to Egypt, instead of go- ing directly. to the Holy Land ; and, in 1249, he landed with his army near the city of Damietta.. Soon after wards, having received a reinforcement from France, his ‘army amounted to! 60,000 mens But this expedition -was as unfortunate as those which had preceded it.) Near- ly halfthe French troops fell a prey to sickness'and de+ -bauchery:, 'The rest were defeated by the Sultan’ of at Massoura; where’ Louis, two of his’ brothers, ~ and all/his nobility, were taken’ prisoners ; his third bro- ther having been killed by his side: The Queen ‘of France had been left in Damietta; this place was besie~ ged, but it made a gallant defence, till.a treaty was con~ cluded with the Sultan, by which it was given up in con sideration of the the ransom of the r prisoners, Eouis,.notwithstand+ ing all chance of success had long been at’ am end, was History. > s His expedi- tion to Egypt, A, D. 1249. Battle of Massoura.- Kings liberty s.ahd a Jarge sum paid for* still so bent on fulfilling his vow, that he set outfor Pas 9»: lestine, where he remained four years, without being able to accomplish any thing. In the meantime, the affairs of France were in the greatest disorder, in consequence of a monk having; collected upwards of 100,000. men, under the pretence: of leading them to the assistance of their sovereign.. This) multitade robbed and _ pillaged wherever they came; nor |werethey di without: considerable difficulty. In’ 1258, the Queen-motherha- ving died, Louis returned to France, where» he ‘reps the evils occasioned by his absence, and atoned® for the folly of his crusade, by his zeal for justice, his wisé laws, and his: virtuous example. He established, ‘on ‘a ‘more’ solid basis than before, the®right of appeal to the royal judges ; prohibited’ private ‘wars; substituted juridical proofs, instead of those by duel; and rescued France from the exactions of Rome. In his transactions with other sovereigns, he was also highly praise- worthy, and Louis re- - turns to France, A, D. 1258. consulted the real interests of-his' own kingdom, while - he behaved with justice and moderation towards them: He ceded Rousillon and Catalonia to the King of Arra- gon, in exchange for the claims of that monarch to some 3 King of England to renounce all claim to» Normandy, Maine, and other forfeited provinces, by restoring to him Querci, Perigord, and the ration, that he was chosen, A. D. 1264, arbiter “between the King of England and his barons ; and his sentence, though rejected by Leicester and his 5 was undoubt-4 edly that of justice as well as wisdom. In one instance he was deserted by his love of justice. He itted a crusade to be preached in France against the: King’ of Sicily, in behalf of his brother, who had no right to that throne. Soon after this, A.D. 1270, he prepared for another holy war. His object: was now the conquest’ of Tunis, or the violent conversion of its'sovereign to’Ohris- tianity» The. Infidel rejected, the: alternative: but the French army, soon after its landing, was seized with ‘an epidemic distemper, of which Louis himself, and one of his sons, as well as numbers of his:troops, were the yic- tims, A.D, 1271.. b Taibo at in Provence and Languedot, and persuaded’ the imosin, Such was his modes - 548 History. Philip IL. surnamed ‘the Hardy, succeeded to the mum rir throne when he was 25 years old. Had it not been for ® A.D. 1271, theassistance afforded him by his uncle, Charles of Anjou, he would have found it impossible to have extricated himself and the remains of his army from the Infidels ; but he having defeated them, concluded a peace for his nephew, on the favourable conditions that the King of Tunis should pay him a large sum of money ; Charles himself the ancient tribute due to him as King of Sicily; that the Christians in Tunis should enjoy the full exer- cise of their religion ; and that the prisoners on each side should be exchanged. Little of moment occurred after Philip's return to France.. In 1274, he declared war against Alphonso of Castile; on the subject of the suc- cession to that crown ; but the war soon terminated with- out producing any event of consequence. Philip's cha- racter led him frequently to engage in enterprises with great alacrity and zeal ; but he had not sufficient firmness to persevere in them. He was much under the influence of the Pope; and to him the papal government’ was in- debted for the Venaissin, which they retained till the Revolution. Philip naturally took great interest inthe affairs of his Sicilian uncle, Charles Duke of Anjou, King of Sicily. «And this Vespers, _ leads us to notice the Sicilian Vespers. The inhabitants A. D. 1982, Of Sicily, when Charles governed with more strictness than policy, resolved to rid themselves entirely of the French. They were farther excited to revolt by Peter ILL. King of Arragon, who laid claim to the throne of Sicily, and promised the Sicilians his assistance to expel the French. On the evening of Easter day, A. D. 1282, the massacre began. . Not a Frenchman was spared. » Pe- ter arrived ; was crowned at’*Palermo, and Charles was compelled to abandon the island. ‘The Pope, however, embraced the side of the latter ; excommunicated Peter, and gave his kingdom to Charles the second son of Phi-~ lip. The King of France immediately prepared toesta~ blish his son on his new throne by force of arms ;:but he was not successful, and in 1285, as he was returning from this expedition, he died at Perpignan. Letters of nobility were first used in France during this reign. They were granted to Raoul, a goldsmith. This, how- ever, was only a restoration of the old custom of the Franks, who were all esteemed equally noble. “A dis« tinct and privileged nobility first arose at the close of the second race of kings. Philip 1V. Philip was succeeded by his son Philip IV. surnam A. D. 1285, the Fair. The first object of this monarch was to coms fer all differences with his neighbours. To this step was led by the derangement of his finances. Al- though in thus settling his differences, he was much in- debted to Edward I. of England, yet he ungratefully, as well as are ag soon afterwards engaged in hostili- ties with him; he also rashly attempted to gain pos- session of Flanders, which had joined England. But in this envérprise he was unsuccessful ; though it cost him muely blood and treasure. ‘These events, however, were of trifling moment, compared to the quarre] between him Quarrely and the Pope Boniface VIIL. a man of a turbulent dispo- a the sition, arrogant, and overbearing. | He had _ prohibited Pope. the ‘clergy from granting any aids. But Philip, bei equally determined to secon his: own power, a biing Moreover very poor, resolved that the clergy in France should contribute, equally with his other subjects, to the i of the state; and he resolved not only on this, but also forbade them to send money abroad without his FRANCE. permission. ‘This gave rise to the quarrel b niface and the king. The former was by no means posed to yield; on the contrary, he appointed as his le gate to the court of France, Bernard Saissette, who had b rebelled against the king, and who on this, as well as on account of ‘his disposition, Boniface must have known would be particularly obnoxious to him, This legate fully acted up to the orders of his master ; he braved Philip at his own court, and threatened him with an in- terdict. Philip was so much under the influence of su- perstition, or so afraid of the impression it might make on his subjects, that he did not bring the legate to trial, but contented himself with delivering him into the hand “ of his metropolitan. On this the Pope, en |, issued a bull, declaring “ that the Vicar of Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of the earth; and at the same time, the French clergy were ordered to repair to Rome, Philip commanded the bull to be com- mitted to the flames, and the bishops not to leave France ; and he seized the possessions of those who did leave it. In this state of things, he had recourse toa most politic measure. He assembled the states of the kingdom, and they disavowed the claim of the Pope, and recognised him as an independent sovereign in his own ki . in Having proceeded thus far, Philip resolved to wi war against Boniface ; but the Pope was not intimidated. He displayed great coolness and courage. Having been insulted, ae nee in his own territories, by a band of desperadoes hired at the instigation of Philip, he was so 7 imuch uffected that he died in a'féwdays,| Jetediet XT. his successor, a mild and good man, took the interdict off Philip; but this Pope was too and wise for the age in which he lived. He was taken off by poison A. D. 1305; and his successor Clement V. being a French- man, and entirely in the interest of France, fixed his Fesidence in that kingdom. Philip being now at peace, turned his attention to the internal affairs of his king- dom. Supreme tribunals, called Parliaments, were in« stituted, and. the commons, or estate, were for- mally admitted into the assemblies of the nation. So wis politi- far his measures. were wise and) popular; but, in what cal and fi- ‘the finances, they were of an ©; charac- nancial ter. The royal treasury was exhansted ; and, to remedy ™**“"* this evil, the nominal value of money was raised. The dilapidation of his finances led the king also to adopt another measure still more unjust. The Knights Tem- plars, ‘a religious and military order, had ea cape 4 possessions in almost’every part of Europe, but iale in France. In consequence of the severity of the taxes Knights — which Philip levied, a sedition arose in Paris; the Knights Templars, Ter were accused of having fomented it; orders were issued that should all be committed to prison in one day; absurd ‘and enormous crimes were impu- ted to them. They were ‘put to the rack ; confession extorted, or forged confessions imputed to such as were firm ; and at last Philip succeeded in destroying most of them, and in obtaining possession ad their aaa ’ Soon ¢ after this disgraceful proceeding, A. D. 1814, Philip again : unsuccessfully attempted to ies Flanders to the crown of France; and his death is supposed to have been in a great measure occasioned by his failure. : He was suceeded by his son Louis X., surnamed Louis X. Huten, who was scarcely seated on his throne when he A.D. ordered his: prime rye 3 Marans. to + oern un- der the pretence of his being guilty of magic, but, in reality, that he might gain possession of his wealth, however, being improvident, soon spent the he had thus unjustly acquired; and he ‘was ‘to satisfy his wants, to extort money from the levy a tenth from the clergy, to sell their camped Mo Bias GF be me? mains ; and even to i f them to as wished to continue slaves. Thus the king’s avarice, or igality benefited his ‘subjects. It is remarkable 2F ms mhost bea ohilganem, otter of money concerns; and Charles ing discovered that they were gui of extortion, as of took % FeaR fi Qs FRANCE. ot ‘ te 3 i reign. , a chan tion o parliament, by ne’ citizens. It was also in this rei * Raoul, whom he ord 549 both the itors endeavoured to strengthen them- selves by alliances. In 1346, Edward invaded France with an army of 30,000 men, and Philip advanced to meet him at hd head of 100,000. On the 26th of Au- a gust, in that year, the famous battle of Cressy was ight, in which the French were defeated with great ater. In 1347, Edward took San $ e in a5 following year, he returned in triumph to England, having concluded a truce with France. In the midst History. The of his misfortunes, Philip had the satisfaction of seeing Dauphiny annexed to the crown of France, the last Count of that province dying without issue ; having ce- ed his territories to the crown of France, on the con- ition that the eldest son of the French monarch should assume the name of Dauphin. Philip died in 1350, of 57, worn out with distress and anxiety. took place in the constitu- incorporation of the coun- sellors named j Ss, who had formerly been taken exclusively from the noblesse, and the counsellors na- med %, who had been taken from the class of that the famous tax on salt, the gabelle, was im , or rather established and augmented. ; John, the eldest son of Philip, succeeded to the John, throne; but an act of injustice towards the Constable 4- D. 1350. to be beheaded without any =» form of trial, rendered him soon very unpopular. Of this, and of other circumstances, Edward IIT. took ad- vantage ; for Charles, King of Navarre, setting up a claim to the throne of France, Edward tens Be to ’ support him. In this emergency, John convoked the states-general in 1355, who agreed to a levy of 30,000 acts, edad 100,000 other troops, ati’ to a subsidy to Se them. At this assembly, a decree was pass- ed, no proposition should be admitted without the unanimous consent of the three branches or their depu- ties. Thus, the third estate, which hitherto had been too much and'too often the slaves of the nobility or clergy, obtained their due share of authority. In 1355, Edward invaded France in, and sent into Guienne the Prince of Wales, who gained so much fame at the battle of C On the 19th of September in the following year, this prince was again successful, at the battle oictiers, in which the French were complete« ly defeated, and their king taken prisoner. John was treated with great attention and generosity by his ca tor, who, having concladed a truce for pate pies broug: t him over be, age In ge eh the nH Men of their m , the le of France were plunged into the grea’ i and confusion. The Dau- phin, indeed, assumed the management of affairs, but is authority and influence were not sufficient to restore tranquillity ; and, as he was totally destitute of sup- pies, he found himself under the necessity of convo- ‘ing the national assembly; but that body, instead of ing his administration, seized the opportuni to limitations of the regal power. Paris itse was entirely under the dominion of the provost of the merchants: the dauphin was detained in a kind of cap- tivity. In the midst of these disorders, the King of Navarre, who had been thrown into prison by John in the year 1355, contrived to escape, and put himself’ at the of the malcontents ; but his conduct was so atrovious, that even those who had previously favoured * his claims, now forsook him, and resolved to strengthen . the er of the dauphin. For this purpose they ral- Shed Weed him, and the provost of the merchants ha- ving been slain in an attempt to deliver Paris up to the Riomery, —\~— A. OD. 1564. ie tite pl us 550 King of Navarre, that eapital returned to te aliegionans and France began again to assume the form, enjoy the advantages of a government. During these disturbances, Edward was restrained by his truce from taking advantage of them; but no sooner was it ex- pired, A. D. 1359, than he invaded France with the whole military force of England. In 1360, he,conclu- ded an advantageous treaty of with his prisoner King John, who thus obtained his liberty. On his re- turn to France, however, finding that his nobility were by no means disposed to allow him to fulfil his ments, he voluntarily came back to England, where died at his lodgings in the Savoy, 1364. John was succeeded by his son Charles V. surnamed the Wise, an epithet which he, well deserved, by the prudence and policy of his conduct: his first care was to repair the losses which his kingdom had sustained frorh the errors of his predecessors: and haying been made too sensible that recent calamities of France had, in a great measure, s from. the captivity and absence of the batmape oh Tega +; pares pares to appear personally at the of his armies, es was resolved to suit France, if possible, a match for England ; but, in order to do this, it was necessary not only to restore tranquillity, and to introduce order and economy into all his internal arrangements, but also to bring under subjection, or weaken the King of Na- varre, who, from the vicinity of his dominions, had it in his power always to prove a restless and formidable opponent, Against him, therefore, he first turned his arms; and he soon, principally by the valour of Ber- trand de Guescelin, one of the most accomplished ca) tains of the age, obliged him to sue for peace, A. D. 1365. He next settled the affairs of Bretagne. Thus having succeeded in these enterprizes, he turned his attention to the immense number of military adven- turers, who, having followed Edward into France, had, under the name of Companies, become a terror to the peaceable inhabitants: these Charles soon found were too numerous and formidable to be reduced by force ; he therefore had recourse to policy, _ Alphonso XI, King of Castile, was succeeded by his brother Peter I. surnamed the Cruel: against him, Henry, Count of Trastamara, took up arms ; but being obliged to flee into France, he obtained permission. from Charles to inlist the companies in his service. They readily embarked in an enterprise which promised them ciahonneal and booty ; and thus Charles freed his kingdom of t adventurers. A's soon as Charles was: satisfied of the- internal peace of France, he directed his thoughts to the reformation of the coin: he likewise lessened the taxes, encouraged agriculture and commerce, and em- bellished his capital. In the midst of peace, however, he was still oust ag war, and anxious to wipe off, the disgrace which successes of England had in- flicted on the arms of France. An opportunity soon’ presented itself: the inhabitants of Guienne, oppress- ed by the taxes of the Prince of Wales, to. whom that province had been given by his father, laid their com- laints before the King of France. The Prince of ales was cited,to appear to answer these complaints : he answered that he would certainly come to Paris, but it should be at the head of 60,000 troops: but he was no longer that Black Prince, who performed even more than he threatened; he was worn out both in. body and miind by sickness. In 1369, war was declared, The French were successful, Charles, relying on his supe- oy pronounced a sentence of condemnation against the Prmece of Wales for his contumacy in not appears FRANC E. died in 1380, after a reign to his subjects, With respect are some curious particulars wise and virtuous man, After dinner, he gave audi- . bis garde. p Oe , return, the queen b t in his children, whom he interrogated respecting their pro-_ walking, he gress in education. In winter, instead of. wal employed himself in reading the Holy Scriptures. He took little supper, and went to bed early, Though he. spent his time at home in this plain and simple manner, . abroad with iderable degree _ of dignity and eriont before his subjects he was rep £18100) Is aah: more following year, ted let citizens of Paris. _ This privilege baat fe ha till. 1577, when it was restricted to the provost of the merchan and_a few others. It was entirely suppressed in 1007 and re-established in 1707; and again supp in he V7 Beran reel ; sacabeth sneenmatieel tenilas deine Charles the Wise was succeeded by_his eldest son Charles V1. Charles VI. a minor: a few years before his death, 4- D- 1380. Chaves thinking i probable that sould Tear his son very young, d the ordi se, which fixed the majori- ty of the French King atthe age of 14. Charles VI. when - he mounted the throne, was 13. _ His uncles, the Dukes, of Anjou, Berne, and Burgundy, differed respecting the regency; but it was settled by those to whom. daeh rie oom of yecovered, His mad- FRANCE. t se, ana his general imbe- 1 pelente, on a ain imbe. jpse was occasion with rosin, powdered over, while Combustible habit of one of eid ptally set on fire: the Bains Slain : ‘some of the others, and the king was Nagel the Dukesof of Orleans, the ki Burgundy thority, hot so inuch on his relationship, as on the in- Or- “fluence which the duchess had over Charles’s mind, even’ in its most violent and disordered state. The great height ; but at last, A. ROM cae ta ee persuaded to enter gu amity, -17 : But the Duke of Burgundy was meditating treachery, jen wh ori for he bired every mod Butchery in carpenters ;—the fate of the capital de- id ey il During’ Jamitous state ance, En frained from invading her, till Henry V. ascended the was obliged td return to England sid ey: time ie was enabled to accomplish, of some qi rrels in lp batt was seized by him ; the dauphin difficulty; and t numbers of ere butchered. By this time ~ seeured to the TU Naru a irene ae Hm file? Boo- 551 - as the dauphin heard of this treaty, he assumed the History. ‘style and authority of regent, and:appealed to God and his sword for the maintenance of his title ; but being ‘unequal to his adv: , he was obliged to avoid a bat- tle. In less than two months after the death of Hen- d ‘ty V. A. D. 1422, Charles VI. terminated his unhappy ‘life; and the dauphin was crowned at Poictiers, (Rheims being in the possession of the English) under “the name of Charles VII. ; This sovereign was very popular in France ; and the Charles VIL. A. D. 1422. “situation of that kingdom required the exercise of all ‘his talents, and the influence of all his popularity, On ‘the Duke of Bedford was successful. ‘the other hand, the Duke of Bedford, the regent durin the minority of Henry VI. was a man of great talents “and prudence, and fully sensible of the difficulty of pre- “serving a newly acquired kingdom against the legiti- “mate sovereign, so well beloved as Charles was. At first, He defeated the French, and their allies theScots, in 1424, in the battle of Verneuil ; but his next enterprize was destined to pro- duce the ruin of the English, and their expulsion from France, by’ means so extraordinary, as in that age uni- versally to be deemed miraculous. In 1428, the Duke of Bedford tindertook the siege of Orleans. The affairs of Charles seemed desperate. He entertained thoughts ‘of retiring ‘into the remote provinces of his kingdom, where the influence of his Queen, Mary of Anjou, and ‘of his mistress, Agnes Soreille, who lived in perfect amity with’ the Shen’ changed his mind; and he declared his resolution to perish with honour in the “midst of his friends, rather than yield ingloriously to his enemies. In the meantime Orleans still held out ; and the Maid of Orleans appeared, who, by inspiriting. her countrymien, and appalling the English, obliged the latter to raise the siege. This extraordinary wo- “man had promised not only to raise the siege of this “city, but also to crown Charles at Rheims, which ‘was in } jon of the English. As soon as she had achieved thé first part of her prediction, ‘she insisted “that the King should march against Rheims. She was Maid of Orleans. “obeyed. Charles ‘set out for that city at the head of ‘12,000 men, and scarcely perceived as he passed along, that he was marching through an pet country. Every lace ior its gates to him, and Rheims sent him its keys. He‘was accordingly crowned there King “of Francé with’ the ustial ceremonies.’ Soot after this, the Maid of Orleans was taken prisoner, and condemned burnt for sorcery and magic; but she had already OR cis recovered the King’s affairs; and the Duke 1 : theit possessions ‘on the continent except Calais. ~’” Charles now had time to direct his industry and judg- “ment, to remove the numerous and v t “which 'Fran¢e had been ‘so long e of Bedford dying soon after, He weak prince, was obli from France, the 7 Viswho was’a very to withdraw his forces éntire- nglish Being ‘expelled: from all Charles's wise plans. ressive evils to He restored “the oo course of public justice ; introduced order mito the 2 Spee ay of Francs ~ but hrs ¢ King of England, and he received the © _, Princess Catherine in marriage, A.D, 1420. ‘As soon ~ Discontented ‘at court, he' retired into his province of . ‘ H : S af. ints > uv ‘ Ss , finances ; ~ established discipline among’ his “ 3 Tepressed factién in his court ; revived the lan- guid state of agriculture and the arts ; and in the cou¥%e of afew years, rendered the kingdom flourishing’ with- in itself, and formidable to its neighbours, In the midst of his’ and wise administration, Charles was ince was possessed of spirit aiid Courage ; qualities were tarnished ‘the roughness of his manners, and the savageness of his disposition. “extremely troubled by the conduct: of the Dauphin. in ¢ him ; afterwards he concluded the treaty ~ of Troyes, with the Queen and the Duke of Burgundy, | Ayn ths tacuibtal’ 9 the taeour Le, 1) 552 Himery. Dauphiny; but wnderstanding that his father =)". Sm ee + eetee be : > ‘3 waned net toiacin: he ek Wire ie the Good, Duke of Burgundy, wno witingty gave him an asylum, but would no means encourage him in the seditious ; which he entertained against his father. When the latter heard of the where his son had taken refuge, he observed, “ The Duke of Burgundy is nourishing a fox, that will eat out his en- trails.” But in fact, the Dauphin was the cause of the death of the king ; for the latter being apprehensive that he would poison him, refused for several days to taste any food, and being thus overcome with hunger and in, he died in 1461. Louis XI. ¢ Dauphin, under the name of Louis XI. succeed- & D. 1461 ed his father. His first and leading object was to - dize the monarchy, by d ing the power of the no- bles ; but the latter took the alarm, and armed to defend their privileges. The King also armed. The battle of Monteleri was fought 1465, which decided nothing ; road oma concluded on terms advantageous to — Re Miaces terms, however, heats never meant to fulfil ; for haying gained over many of his ents, he used his Ashes with the Amenity of the States to declare those articles of the treaty void which were most disadvan to him. Scarcely, however, had he succeeded in reducing his nobles to subjection by these dishonourable means, when he was again involved in trouble by his own rapacity, and became the du of his own artifice, For on the death of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, who suc- ceeded him, made preparations against Louis, To these he was prompted, from a Parag knowledge of his character, and a strong suspicion that Loyis would soon attack him. hag also armed 3 bts ah e mat always averse to war, e agreed to y the © a large sum of money, and he acai personal he ata Pen Picardy, then.in the possession of the Duke. is went to the place with only a few attendants, in the hope that Charles would come with as few ; but at the same time, his emissaries persuaded the inhabi- tants of Liege to revolt against the Duke. _ The latter was at first pleased with the apparent confidence of Louis in coming with so few attendants; but intelli- arriving, during the conference, that a rebellion Riad broken out in Liege, and that it had been instiga- ted by the emissaries of Louis, Charles. ordered. the King into confinement. _ In this state Louis i three days, when he was released by the Duke, on™ dition, heyshould march along with him, and assist him in bringing the inhabitants of Liege back to their duty... Liege was reduced, and Louis was permitted to for his own dominions, During the remainder of his reign, this monarch continued to act with his ha- bitual icity, He first excited his le to rebel, and then having crushed them, divided with his mini- sters, who were equally, infamous with himself, their ions, At last even his ministers conspired against im; but, being defeated in their schemes, they suffer- ed those puni on. others. His. brother. Charles was which they had so often inflicted Constable St Paul, his brother-in-law the Count of Ar- poisoned ; the magnac, and the Dukes of Alencon and Nemours, were . beheaded; and the children of the last named nobleman were.sprinkled with the warm blood of their father,and sent ip an ignominious truce for seven years, en to. pay annually 50,000 crowns of gold; and subse- y. he concluded a treaty at London with Edward V. by which he stipulated, that the truce should be “mented the kingdom of France. Soon that condition to. the Bastile. With England he _ te ing . FRANCE. ee kept for 100 years after the death of each of the Shenae Mae D In 1477, a the heiress to the large possessions of that duch prehending not only ; but Franche ‘compte, ‘the rest of the Nether. I marriage, seized on , the Princess Mary of was ects, she married the Archduke Maximilian, son of th haste Frederic IL. Hence arose those wars, ‘aS so long desolated the Low Countries, and created an implacable hatred between the houses of France and — Notwithstanding this marriage places in Burgundy of which he had taken and, by the further acquisition of Anjou, Maine, vence, Bar, Rousillon, and Boulogne, he have been more useful to him, had he not, in so many instances, trusted rather to his. artifice than to them. proaek, and yet resigned himself to the most 1 5 lous superstition. Yet to this king, the Pope gave the Greece and Italy, from whatev mulare, nescit regnar Had not Char his son, b good talents, as well as a good disposition, he must have A. D. 1483. 4 «% Rebellion the Duke of Orleans. FRANCE, gates; Charles made his entry into’ Rome as 2 conque- History. Ht Bs. ! oF . FE i! Ef rf ! : ea EyES - na i i at the meeting states, in « Tf,” said he, “ any dispute to the succession to the tions.of the , went into Brittany, where he sunsladithen tee -of- that groviaine $0\cotuaninich ans in, surrection ; but the war was of short duration. The ‘king was everywhere successful ; and the victory which his troops at Saint Aubin, completed the de- the rebels. The Duke of Orleans was made set him at liberty ; sense induced him to become a loyal sub’ he even used his influence with Anne of Bretagne, though he was ee ee fenite the ki 553 ror ; and the Pope was compelled to grant him the in- vestiture of the Kingdon of Naples. .He lost no time, but immediately left Rome for his new kingdom. Fer- dinand, his competitor, fled at his approach ; the city of Naples instantly declared for him ; and of the whole kingdom, only three towns continued in the interest of Ferdinand. _Had Charles not been dazzled by.the ra- —_ and splendour of his success, he would instant- ly have secured his conquests ; but he wasted his time at Naples in festivals and triumphs, and was indul- ging in the vain and presumptuous hope of being able even to extend his victorious arms to Constantinople, and to subvert the Ottoman empire; while a combination was forming against him of almost all the Italian states, supported by the Em Maximilian, and Ferdinand King of Arragon. les, therefore, was soon too fatally convinced, that, instead of eae ake 4 his con~ quests, or even retaining the kingdom he acquired, it would be absolutely necessary for him to secure his retreat into France. On every and embarrassments of his situation, the Duke of Or- leans neglected the cause of his pee BEF his country, to engage in an attempt against Ludovico Sforza. Charles’s vigour of mind was of great avail in. this : At the head of not more than 9000 men, he traversed the Alps, while the confederates, of though they had 30,000, were afraid to encounter him in the mountains, and patiently waited for him in an open plain near Placentia, Here the battle of Fornova was fought. Charles was among the first who charged the enemy; and his officers and soldiers, animated, by the example of their sovereign, fought nobly and suc- cessfully. The Italians fled; but Charles, on account of the very inferiority of his forces, either was not able or did not deem it prudent to pursue them, but continued his march unmolested, ant soon afterwards relieved the Duke of Orleans, who was blocked up in the city of Novara by Sforza. Notwith- standing his success, the 7 of France would pro- bably have found it very difficult to have extricated himself, had not a reinforcement of 16,000 Swiss troops joined him, by means of which he was placed in a si- tuation to dictate the terms of peace with Sforza. In the mean time, Ferdinand returned to Naples, which, er, he did not uer, till after an obstinate ce by the Duke: of Montieniier, to whom the government of it had been entrusted by Charles, In 1496, the King of France again prepared to in+ vade Italy, not for the of renewing his at- tempt on Naples, but in order to support the preten- sions of the house of Orleans to the duchy of Milan. But the Duke of Orleans, who was heir to the crown of France, refused to take upon him the command of the army destined for this This refusal pro- bably origi not so much trom his hension. of. the danger and difficulty of the enterprise, as from his railtby tong ibe worn out by debauchery, could not possibly survive. In consequence and of some other clecilssinasactin icularly his parent satisfaction at the death of e dauphin, opened up to him the immediate and certain of the throne, he was di |, and retired nore Reanlrence 16380 0 1e king being thus disappoin in hi ing Italy, and bein too sensible that his health was rapidly declining, torte ed his thoughts entirely to the internal economy of ‘his 4a side, his enemies col- “fortu-- lected in great force; while, to add to the difficulties ™** his refusal, Disgrace of the Duke which of Orleans, tscory. —_—— Death and r 554 kingdom, and at the same time relinquished his irre- guiarities with regard to'women, and retired with his queen to the castle of Amboise, Here, in 1498, he acckientally struck his head against the va of a door, which brought on a fit of apoplexy, of which he died character of in a few hours, in the 15th year of his reign, and 28th Chaska. Loais XII. A.D. 1498. The French D’Aubigny, and John Trev again in- vade luly, of his age. His character is admirably drawn by Co- mines: “ He was a man of little person, and slender understanding ; but so sweet in his disposition, that it was impossible to find a better temper. His widow, Anne of Brittany, was inconsolable ; and two of his domestics are said to have died of grief for the loss of their mas- ter. One of the consequences of the invasion of Italy by the French, in ‘this reign, is said to have been the introduction, among the latter, of a more refined and delicate cookery. Before this period, French cookery was distinguished by such a profusion, that their kings, more than once, were under the necessity of issuing edicts on the subj In Charles VIII. ended the direct line of the house of Valois; the crown on his death descended to Louis Duke of Orleans, grandson to the first Duke of Or- leans. He was 36 years of age when he’ became king: his disposition and temper were excellent ; and he was by no means destitute either of prudence or experience: He soon discovered that he was resolved to forgive the indignities he might have suffered before he came to the throne, remarking, with true magnanimity, that it was not for the king of France to revenge the quarrels of the Duke of Orleans. Louis the XII. (for so he was called) married a daughter of Louis XI.; a princess de- formed in her m, and incapable of bearing chil- dren, but of excellent qualities. As, however, it was on many accounts desirable that he should have an heir to the throne, he procured a divorce from the Pope, and married Anne of Bretagne, widow of his prede- cessor, Soon after this marriage, he turned his thoughts to the claims which his family had to the duchy of Milan. Sforza, anticipating Louis’ intentions, had made every preparation to defend his dukedom. He repaired all the fortifications, augmented his garrisons, and re- plenished his magazines; but he wanted the support and good opinions of his own subjects; and he had too much reason ‘to apprehend, that whenever Louis should appear in Italy, they would desert him. The republic of Venice also, to whom some part of the Mi- lanese territcry lay very convenient, were temp unite with Louis, in the hope, or on the conditi sharing in his conquests. Maximilian, who before had opposed the French in their invasion of Italy, was now on good terms with Louis; so that Sforza had every cause for despondency. Louis himself was persuaded not to lead his army in person ; but to give the com- mand to Louis of Luxemburgh, Robert Stuart, Lord eo, a native of Milan. The French army amounted to $0,000 excellent troops: with these, the assistance of the Venetians, and the dis- affection of the Milanese to Sforza, success beyond ex- pectation was accomplished. Even the castle of Milan was given up. As soon as the king of France was in- formed of these successes, he hastened to cross the Alps, and entered the capital of his newly acquired territories. He continued three months in Milan, du- ring which period he gave ling those who had been banished. by Sforza, remit- ting a fourth of the imposts, and establishing a court of justice. But, either from the natural fickleness of the Italians, from their dislike.of the dominion -of a foreigner, and that foreigner a Frenchman, or from t satisfaction, by recal-~ FRANCE. some other cause, scarcely had Louis reached Fra when Sforza, who had retired to Inspruck, ret and found the gates of the principal cities of lanese at his approach, Even Milan itself re- ceived him. But Sor be merce eae! hoy eae dl He had in his a ’ w troops: these conspired i against hiss, “and delivered him up to the French, b whom he was sent to Lyons, where Louis then resid he died after a captivity of ten years. 4 he could not ex to conquer without assistance ; therefore agreed to divide it with Ferdinand of Arra- gon: the city of Naples and the northern half were to be the portion of Louis. He also entered into a treaty with Pope Alexander VI.; but the simplicity and ho- nour of the French monarch were no match either for Ferdinand or Alexander. The confederates indeed were successful. The King of Naples fled from his own ter- ritories ; and distru Ferdinand, who had betrayed him, after having actually concluded a of al- liance with him, he threw himself on the liberality of Louis, who assigned him an asylum in Anjou, with a pension of 30,000 crowns. But scarcely was the con- quest of Naples atchieved, when Louis and Ferdinand turned their arms against each other: the began the quarrel, but the French were by no means slow in revenging the insult offered them, and Louis in a short time was so successful against his new ene- mies, that he might have added Ferdinand’s portion of Naples to his own, had he not been"persuaded to a re- concilement of their differences: In 1503, Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian, who had married the - ter of Ferdinand, passing h France, had an in- terview with Louis, at which he concluded a with him in the name of the King of Spain, who had granted him full powers for that purpose. By this treaty, among other conditions, the two monarchs were bound to a cessation of arms, and the provinces of Naples originally ceded, were to be teed to each. As soon as the treaty was concluded, it was announced to the commanders of the French and ish troops in Italy. The French commander immediately offered to retire with his troops, but Gonsalvo, who command- ed the Spaniards, under the pretext that fey had acted without powers from Ferdinand , Stated his deter- mination to wait for further instructions. In the mean time he was reinforced by 10,000 Germans sent by Maximilian; and receiving information that Louis was likely to be deserted by his allies, the Pope and the Ve- netians, and that 4000 French troops which had been intended for their army in Naples were disbanded, under the idea of peace, he was influenced by these circumstances to attack the French general. quisition of the whole of Naples, with the exception of a few places. As soon as Philip was informed of this treacherous behaviour, considering his own character and honour as deeply concerned, he returned instantly to France, and placed himself in the power of the French monarch, He also remonstrated strongly with Ferdinand; hisremonstrancesyhowever, were of no effect. Ferdinand preferred power to reputation; ~ 5 i Basia 9 “ ad - , to Milan, induced him to extend his views to Naples: but this kingdom to Neen he re- 7 _ sult of the battle of Cerignoles was the utter defeat of tnesme the French, the death of their commander, and the ac- niards. we ~ Argos yy __ History. . , - yed immediately to. crush the insurgen he assembled FRANCE. 4 still: eive Louis, he publicly offered to restore Na- ples to its rightful sovereign, while at the same time he sent orders to. use every endeavour tovexpel the French. These orders were obeyed, and were successful. Louis at first took this treacherous conduct of Ferdinand very coolly ; but soon afterwards he changed his feelings and his determination. He assembled three large armies, for the purpose of invading Arragon on every side, while, at the same time, a considerable fleet was fitted out, to insult the coasts of Catalonia and Valencia, and to inter- cept the communication between Spain and Naples. But a variety of unforeseen and untoward circumstances dis- appointed the hopes and the projects of Louis, while he himself was attacked by a fever that threatened his life. As soon as he recovered, A. D. 1505, he diligently ap- plied himself to terminate a war, which had proved so unfortunate; and a treaty was at length concluded, ac- cording to which, the Neapolitan nobility, who had been the ad of Louis, and on that account had been ienreped:Py the Spanish commander, were to be re- Soon after this treaty, the states-general were assem- bled at Tours. One of their first acts was to bestow on Louis the title of Father of his people. Their next was to repair a fault that their sovereign had committed. He had promised his eldest da in marriage to Charles of Austria, afterwards so well known under the name of Charles V. and along. with her part of the French terri- tories. To this promise, the assembly objected most strongly, urging that the king had no right to give aw: any portion of the French territory. _ Influenced by their his ae poused ie rp pawn hy rh i ter es rancis, Count heir apparent of the throne. : ; _In 1507, the city of Genoa, which was then. depen- dent on Milan, revolted from the French. Louis resol- ts; and for this purpose, a numerous and formidable army, forced the passes which the Genoese had occupied, and stormed their entrenchments. He then entered Genoa in triumph. But in the midst of his success, his natural mildness of temper was conspicuous, for he put to death only two of the insurgents, and levied a fine upon the At this period, no monarchy in Europe was more proud than the republic of Venice 3 while their wealth, acquired by commerce, excited the envy and jealousy of their neighbours. Pope Julius Il, in particular, re- ed this state with peculiar enmity ; and influenced this motive, he laid the foundation of the famous of Cambray. This league was composed of the the Emperor, the King of France, and the King of was induced to join in it, from the belief Venetians had contributed to his loss of the king- Naples ; but true policy should have kept under motive for going to war with the Venetians, as ere the, ont setae ages Alpe, on whose al- i he could depend. Pope contented himself ith issuing his anathemas against Venice; and after- repenting of the alliance which he to na peace with the V, if they would E eee F SEFELTE 220 He Louis seemed most in earnest the con : he assembled a large army, and imself at the head of it. crossed the Alps ; those barriers which v 554 had seldom been passed without calamity, by the sove- reigns of France. The valour of his troops, animated by the example of their monarch, triumphed over every ob- stacle. In the battle of Ghiarrada, the Venetians were defeated with the loss of 80600 men, active for his own benefit ; immediately seizing all the towns which the republic possessed in the ecclesias- tical territories. _ Ferdinand, on his part, reannexed Ca- labria to his Neapolitan dominions. At the same time, the city of Venice itself was threatened by the armies of Maximilian and Louis ; and the absolute ruin of the re« public seemed near at hand, when the confederates began to quarrel with each other. The senate of Venice lost ‘no time in profiting by this circumstance, and by well- termed concessions to Ferdinand and the Pope, dissolved the confederacy. Julius II, now projected a more arduous and extensive undertaking than the humiliation or conquest of the re- public of Venice,—he hoped, by his efforts, to expel every foreign power from Italy; and his first efforts were direc- ted against the French, against whom he declared war, invading the duchy of Ferrara, and laying siege to Mi- randola. At first the King of France was disposed to be- History, —_—— The Pope now was ° hold with contempt these efforts of the Pope. Perhaps The French he was retrained by religious feelings towards the head ?¥ ade the man of the church ; but at length, A. D. 1511, he ordered his Cenc. troops to repel the invasion of Julius, and even to pene- netrate into the Roman territories, Julius was soon un- der the necessity of retracing his steps, when the French A.D, 1511, general was suddenly seized with a mortal distemper, . which gave Julius a temporary respite and advantage; but: another commander haying been appointed, he was again pressed so closely, that he was under well-grounded ap- ensions, that it was the intention of Louis to depose im from his holy dignity. To this extremity the French monareh might probably have pushed him, had not his queen Nonencedon and saved his Holiness. Julius, in return for this clemency, displayed only in- creased bitterness and enmity against France, which he hoped to render efficient, by forming a new confederacy, called the Holy League. The principal parties of this con- federacy against France, were Ferdinand, the Swiss, end the Venetians. At first their armies were successful ; but the valour and skill of Gaston de Foix, a name celebra- ong heroes, retrieved the affairs of France. This 1, after relieving Bologna, and Brescia, and de- eating the Venetians with a very inferior force, laid Holy League, siege to Ravenna with the professed object of compelling Battle of or inducing the army of the confederates to give him Ravenna. battle. The two armies were nearly equal in numbers, being about 20,000 each. The battle was long and ob- stinate. The French were victorious, but their victory cost them the life of Gaston, The day was already gained, when he received information that a body of 4000 Spaniards still maintained their ground : anxious to render his victory complete, he rushed forward to the charge, with about 20 gentlemen ; his horse was killed under him, and he himself, after having fought with the greatest. courage, fell, pierced with wounds. The death Death of of this hero was a fatal blow to the French, for they Gaston de soon. afterwards lost all the places, which they possessed in Italy ; their generals did not with each other ; the king was without money; the confederates were much superior ; and there was no alternative left, but to evacuate the country. f Louis now, A, D, 1513, was threatened with a confe- OLX, 556 Mistery. deracy similar to that which had so lately humbled Ve- he om nice. The Pope, Leo X. was to Sergundy! the King eset » Cham ; the Swiss, indy ; with a of England, Piewly ; and the King of Spain, Guienne and Languedoc, But the elements of this confederacy were too discordant long to hang together : the Pope was not fond of war; the emperor ed subsidies, but neglected to supply an army ; and Ferdinand looked to his more immediate —- as well vr. a an ~~ sd terprise, in seizing on the kingdom of Navarre. the coulidarates, Hharelat Henry, King of England, was the only formidable one that remained ; and he was eager after : this he obtained at the battle of Spurs. But the Swiss, who had entered Dauphiné, having retreated, and the rest of the allies, as we have mentioned, havin deserted the cause, the King of England, on the piers of winter, re-embarked for his own country. Anne of Bretagne died the following year, 1514, and Louis, in the hope of having an heir, and in order to “Barrics the destroy effectually the confederacy against him, married sister of the the sister of the King of England. Louis was much old- ae. be er than his wife; this he forgot; and in three months me ey after his nuptials, he was seized with a violent disorder, which carried him off. In him expired the older branch of the house of Orleans, and the crown of France passed to that of Angouleme. The taxes, which had been lessened by Charles VIIL, were still further diminished by Louis, while, at the same time, by a judicious mode of levying and collecting them, he rendered those which were continued less irksome and unpopular. Even in the midst of his Italian wars, he laid on no new burdens. It is true, he extended and systematized the practice of disposing of offices for money, but he carefully excepted the judicial functions from this danger and disgrace ; they were always filled by men distinguished for their intelligence and virtue. The par- liament of Paris not being adequate to the discharge of its duties, since it had been made sedentary, Philip the Fair and his successors had instituted several other par- liaments. Louis XII. still further increased their num- ber, and he issued an edict, by which he gave them autho- rity to recal him to the fundamental laws of the state, if ever he discovered a disposition to evade or abrogate them ;—a proof this of his wish to govern according to law, but no surety of the object which he had in View. It is said that he always kept two lists, one of the places and favours which he had to bestow, the other of the persons in each province most fit to fill or enjoy them ; and on such alone they were conferred. This monarch made a wise, just, and humane distinction between those who offended him in his private character, and those who offended him as the sovereign of France: the last he punished, because he was of opinion that he thus best secured the safety and prosperity of the state ; the for- mer he suffered to pass unpunished. Perhaps in no part of his conduct did he display more good sense, or better consult the welfare of his subjects, than in the choice of his ministers ; and in the case of the Cardinal Amboise, he even seems to have had the merit, or the talent, of making the same man, under him, the instru- ment of happiness, who, under another, would probably have been the instrument of oppression and misery, Francis I. = A's soon as it was ascertained that the widow of Louis AD, 151% NTT, was not t, Francis, Count of ileme, and Duke of Valois, took the title of king. He was at this time 21 years of age, full of spirit and confidence, - FRANCE. fond of war and glory, and disposed, as well as enabled, from the circumstances in which he was placed, to give “-Y—~ way to that - ity. Before he ascended the throne, : he married Claude, the daughter of the late monarch, by Anne of Bretagne. Mary the widow of Louis bestowed her hand on Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. ' The first and darling object of the new the recovery of the Milanese ; and he resolved ‘to profit by the preparations which had been made by his cessor ; but as money was still wanting, Francis, by the advice of his lor Duprat, not’ only restored the taxes which Louis had abolished, but” the offices of the crown to sale, and endeavouréd to augment his treasures, by means, if possible, still more unjust, impo- litic, and arbitrary. As soon as he deemed ‘himself uite prepared for the conquest, he openly avowed his deterunitation to march against Milan. As his designs had been suspected, a confed had been formed as gainst him, consisting of Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ars ragon, Leo X., Sforza, and the Swiss. But the chas racter of Francis was of such a cast, that the knowledge of this confederacy, instead of leading him to drop or A suspend his designs, only prompted him to their more J speedy and resolute execution. As the Swiss guarded ‘ the Alps, it was necessary either to force the passes of the mountains, or to elude the vi ce of their tors. Francis chose the latter. ‘ His soldiers, into whom he had inspired his own zeal and ardour, cut new roads; and his forces were in Italy, before his opponents that he had disentangled himself from the Alps. first enemy which the forces of Francis encountered, were the papal troops, which were i , and ys Si hey aghh ‘Shcadngiel tes Oot tees oe he BO n these the French poured down, so t and with 80 much violence, that they were speedily and dis- Defeats the comfited. Hitherto Francis had 1 ed in his own Pspal ~ kingdom ; but as soon as he learnt’ of this be or hastened to put himself at the head of his armies, leaving his mother, Louisa of Savoy, t during his absence, As soon as Francis assumed the command, he enter- ed the Milanese, and pressed forward to its capital, For its ea and defence, only the Swiss troops were repared ; they were encam about a league from the city, at a be called Mari o. Francis knew that they were brave ; but lie also suspected that they might be allured to withdraw from their post. His suspicions were not unfounded. nk offer of lene crowns made as impression on them, an were ri : to yield Milan up to the French king, when t ween ; joined by 10,000 of their own countrymen. These troops - : were not di to desert the cause in which they were — embarked, and Francis found, that if Milan were to be } his, the Swiss must be fought and conquered. ‘ } The Swiss, probably ashamed of having listened to Battle of the offers of Francis, and Papen to wipe off their dis- Marig ae / grace, ht with more than their usual bra’ and per- September, — Crain The battle began about four in tie aher: a noon, in the month of September 1515, and three hours after dark, the combatants, fatigued with their exertions, h separated, but only to renew the contest, if possible, with more valour and animosity next aoue a For some time the issue was dubious, for the Swiss, though inferior to the French, ht only on that account more obsti- nately: At last they were obliged to give way; 10,000 of them perished on the field of battle ; the rest fled, but in their flight they remembered’ their — and no 7 History. . disorder or —\— also suffered . killed and ince te Lyons. % FRANCE. confusion was visible. The French army severely, 6000 of their troops having been lled and wounded. On this occasion Francis display- ed the valour of a brave man; Charles of Bourbon, his constable, the wisdom and experience of a t com- mander :' to him the success of the battle of Marignano ' The Swiss were now tired of a contest, in the issue of which they had no immediate concern ; and their army was recalled. Sforza, therefore, was left to defend his territories by his own forces alone. His cause was hope- less ; but he sought to prolong his fate, by retiring into the castle of Milan. The French army, however, full of ardour, flushed with victory, and guided: by the cool- ness and skill of the Constable, soon compelled Sforza fo surrender the castle, on the condition that he should enjoy a retreat and a pension in France. acted in conformity with this policy. He sought an in- terview with Francis, whom he received with a flattery which he knew would find its way to the feelings of the French monarch. After this interview, Francis return- ed to Lyons. Had not Francis been more ardent than penetrating, he would not have forsaken Italy at this moment; but he unife ed, through his whole life, qualities and which prompted him to enterprise, but for- success of his plans. Among the confederates against him was Ferdinand of Soon’ after the return of Francis to his own om, this monarch died. He had always opposed of the French against Naples; his death, doligun which, tle i ec sal chee igns, which, it is probable, were sti i by Francis. At any rate, a rival was removed, whose dread. Ferdinand, though his successor ; and by this want of foresight— for history compels us to his conduct to any other motive but a scrupulous regard to justice—not that Fran- ¢is was more lax in this respect than the other sovereigns of his age,—he suffered a rival to rise up in the fulness of his strength, still more formidable than the one from whom death had just freed him. The successor of Fer- dinand was Charles V.; and under him were now united a most formidable kingdom in the Old World, and terri- tories in the New, which promised an inexhaustible source _ In the mean time, the Emperor Maximilian had in- vaded the Milanese with an army of 40,000 men; but the Constable Bourbon, with an inferior force, obliged him to retire. Francis also made an attempt to rescue Navarre from Spain, and to reinstate on its throne its cocoa, a ge but in th gdpey baa principally by Sagacity ar ence of Cardinal Ximenes, who at that Emme riled ah Charles V., at his accession to the throne of Ferdi- ‘nand, was disposed to continue the war with Francis, especially on the side of Flanders, where he was when Ferdinand died; but the Flemin were averse to a war, ae ther to the los oftheir commerce Fran- on his side, was desirous of securing his conquests —" circumstances, a treaty of peace S, 557 was easily and speedily concluded at Noyon between tha History: ee two monarchs. By this treaty, Francis was to give in marriage to Charles his eldest daughter, and with her re- Peace be- tween Fran- sign all his pretensions to the throne of Naples. Charles, cis and till the marriage took place, was to pay 100,000 crowns Charles V- a year to the King of France, in consideration of his being already in possession of Naples ; and Francis was left at liberty tosupport the heirs of the King of Navarre, provided they could not make out their claim to the satisfaction of Charles. Peace was thus restored for a short time ;\ but in 1519, the Emperor Maximilian expired; and it was easy to foresee, that the election of a successor would give rise to hostilities. The probability of this event was still further increased, when it was known that Charles and Francis were competitors for the imperial dignity. pa aap r the im- They had indeed, from the first, agreed to carry on the competition with emulation, but without enmity ; and pity, Francis, with his natural and characteristic vivacity and frankness, declared to Charles, «« We are both suitors to the same mistress ; the more fortunate will win her, but the other must remain contented.” It was, however, not to be expected that the loser would be:contented. The prize was of infinitely too great value to be’ sought for and lost with quiet feelings. As the sovereignty at which they aimed could be obtained only by means of the‘elec- tors, money and influence, not arms, were to decide to whom it was to fall. Francis was profuse in his expen- diture of money on this occasion, but his influence was small. The Germans were partial to the house of Aus- tria; and the voice of Frederic of Saxony decided the dig- contest. Charles was raised'to the imperial dignity, and Charles ob- Francis retired disappointed, and rankling after revenge. tains it. Influenced by these feelings, he sought and obtained the alliance of teas of England ; but Henry was ‘of too fickle a character to be long faithful to his promises. Charles knew this, and a very short time saw the emperor and Henry united. Francis next turned his thoughts to- wards the Pope, who, hoping to serve his own interest, by employing one monarch to expel the other from Italy, gre encouragement to the expectations and wishes of rancis. By the German constitution, the kings of Na- ples were for ever excluded from the imperial dignity. According to this regulation, Charles ought not to have been elected emperor ; but as his election had taken place, Tapered Francis declared that he had forfeited his right aples. This was one cause for war ; and another was not wanting: The emperor, as king of Spain, refused ‘to do justice to the heirs of the king of Navarre ; and in this event, by the treaty of Noyon, Francis was at lie berty to support them. The kingdom of Navarre’re- The French ceived the French with open arms, Charles was taken invade Na- unprepared ; his forces were employed in‘ quelling some Y*'T¢ commotions which had arisen in Spain ; and Navarre seemed on the point of being completely conquered, when it was saved to Charles by the rashness of the French general, who, before he had completed the con- quest, entered Catalonia, whence he was driven with disgrace, and his army afterwards defeated, and himself taken prisoner. As this war had been carried on by Francis in the name of Henry D’Albret, who claimed the kingdom of Navarre, it did not immediately occa- sion “hostilities between Francis and Charles. In the mean time, the former was nearly deprived of his life by an accident. While he was en in the diversion of attacking with snow-balls the house of the Count de Pol, he was wounded in the head by a torch. For o long 558 FRANCE. Histery. time he was seriously ill; and, during the cure of his jealousy of the king with regard to the Constable =-— ‘wound, it was doomed neseseary t0 cut of bis hair, which bony ne Leena This nobleman, on he never would permit to grow again, but introduced the _ part, could not but indignant at the treatment fashion of wearing it short. ; . aed the As soon as he was sufficiently recovered, he prepared cially at the famous battle of Marignano, had never Lew Coum- for hostilities; and, taking the field with a numerous requited; on the ane the king, in more __ army, spread terror through the Low Countries. Charles, instance, had purposely slighted him, © Perhaps, on his part, was not slow in meeting his an ist; and ver, the feelings which this conduct on the part of near Valenciennes, the two monarchs, at head of king produced, would not have stirred up the Constable their respective forces, were opposed to each other. A to rebellion, had it not been for another : thick fog at this time prevailed, and the Constable Bour- The mother of Francis, forgetting her ge fell in love bon entreated his sovereign to take advantage of it, and with him. She offered him e commence the attack. Francis, however, jealous of the Her love was thus converted into the most hatred |. military reputation of the Constable, refused to listen to and revenge. A law-suit was commenced him a : z & z e1ag A Hi eficee. Hi his advice, and even manifested his jealousy, by bestow- for the estates, which he held in right of his deceased ing the command of the van, to which the Constable, by wife. The issue was such as might be ageiels virtue of his office, had an undoubted right, a myo justly ves rp no} Me pe the pr i D'Alencon, the first prince of the blood. From this found himself depri greatest part of his proper- pa the Constable's dislike of Francis may naturally ty. In this state, he began or renewed his intrigues with be deted. Henry and Charles, who gladly embraced his alliance, Nothing of consequence occurred in the Netherlands ; and formed an actual treaty with him, according to which but Charles, who trusted as much, or more, to his in- ‘the conquest of France was projected, and if it were ef- trigues as to his army, contrived to engage Henry VIII. fected, Provence and Dauphine were to be assigned to the Pope on his side. By the treaty entered into by the constable, with the title of King. In furtherance of them, it was agreed, that Pope and the Emperor this plan, the English monarch was to invade. Picardy; should unite their forces, for the purpose of driving the the emperor was to enter France by the Pyrenees; and newt French from the Milanese, which was to be restored to Bourbon was to penetrate with an army of Germans into nN Francisco Sforza; that Parma and Placentia should be Burgundy, where he expected to be joined by his nume- restored to the Pope, whom the Emperor should also as- ous and powerful adherents... The period for carrying sist in conquering Ferrara. Henry, on his part, agreed these enterprises into execution was fixed; as soon as to invade France on the side of Picardy with 40,000 Francis had crossed the Alps, the confederates were to men, and to bestow on Charles his only daughter, the put their respective armies into motion. waar Princess Mary. As soon as Francis was informed of this iracy, he which de- As soon as Francis was apprised of the storm which attempted to seize Bourbon; but he escaped, and fled’ in- apg threatened his Italian dominions, he prepared for their to Italy. Not deeming it prudent’ to leave his kingdom defence ; but as his forces were either employed in the at this juncture, he entrusted the command of the army Low Countries, or assembling on the frontiers of Spain, destined for the invasion of Italy to Admiral Bonnivet, he was obliged to hire a body of men from the Swiss. who was totally unfit for his station. The general of the For this purpose, he raised a large sum of money, which, Pope, however, being much inferior in. force, was com- however, his mother intercepted ; and, in consequence pelled toretire. The greatest part of the duchy of Mi- of the Swiss troops not receiving their pay, they retired lan submitted to the arms of France; and had Bonnivet Francis from the standard of Francis. At this juncture, Milin known how to act, Milan itself must have fallen. But: meh was betrayed to the general of the Pope; the other ci- he delayed attacking it till it was too late; the winter. sae” ties of the duchy followed its example; and the castle set in, and Bonnivet was obliged to protect his troops of Milan, with a few inconsiderable forts, alone remain- from its inclemency in quarters, In Burgundy and Gui- ed to Francis. This great success, however, was if@i- enne, the success of Francis was more complete; the rectly the cause of the dissolution of the confederacy; Spaniards and Germans were repulsed. Paris, however, for ae X. received the news with such transports of was threatened by the angiah, who, having landed in joy, as brought on a fever and occasioned his death. He Picardy, advanced to within 11 of the capital. had kept alive the confederacy, which expired with him. their career was, however, soon by the Duke of But Francis was still unable to reconquer his territories in Vendome ; and they were driven out of the French terri« the Milanese ; and in 1522, Francisco Sforza was re- tories with disgrace. . ; ais al stored to the whole of his paternal dominions. At the commencement of the next. campaign, the af- The loss of the Milanese was not the only misfortune fairs of Francis in Italy wore a very unfavourable aspect. which assailed Francis at this time. Genoa expelled the A numerous army of the allies threatened that part of French troops, and opened her gates to the army of the Milanese which the French had conquered; and Bon- Charles. Henry of England openly declared war; and nivet was quite unable to contend, either with the supe- : : : : of the invaders, by adhering to the politic plan of not his entrenched camp, and crossing the river. During Sgiion s narthas ot kot the nglish and Flemings were this latter movement, he received a wound in his arm, Resolves to COmpelied to retreat. As soon as Francis saw his which obliged him to quit the field. ous march into territories were secure on the side of Flanders, he resol- Chevalier Bayard was entrusted with the command du- the Mi- ved to march himself into the Milanese. Before, how- ring the absence of Bonnivet. He animated the cavalry ever, be could put this plan into execution, he was alarm- by his presence and example, to withstand the whole of a conspiracy formed against him at home, The the enemy's troops; but in this ae H A.D, 1524, FRANCE. immediately perceived to be mortal. of sitting on horseback, he was ground, with his face towards the enemy, and his eyes fixed on the of his sword, which he instead of a cross. In this posture, he address- ed his prayers to God, and where he lay, and his sorrow at his fate— “ Grieve not for me (said the hero), I die, as I lived, true tomy king; but I pity you, who fight against your king, your country, and your oath !” In consequence of retreat of Bonnivet, which was continued into France, the whole of Italy was wrested from his master. The Cardinal Bourbon, eager who advised or commanded him to lay siege to Mar- seilles. In this siege, forty days were unprofitably consumed. The King of France advanced to its de- fence, and Bourbon retired into Italy. Francis, again elated by his success, and untaught by all the reverses which his as well as himself, had suffered in their attempts against Italy, resolved to enter that country, and endeavour to regain the Milanese. From this attempt he was in vain dissuaded by the most pru- donkee eenennrs Se anges as well as by his mother. He persevered, success seemed to sanc- tion his design. The city of Milan opened its gates; the army of fled ; but Francis did not improve his successes, He consumed the precious time in be- sieging Pavia, when he ought to have pursued and at- the enemy in the moment of their consterna- tion and flight. He was still further elated by the Pope and the republic of Florence Sonning his adversary, and uniting themselves to his cause. It seemed to him as if the period were at come, at which it was decreed the French should be universally and per- manently successful in Italy. Regarding the Milanese as secure, he dispatched men into Naples, while he himself forward the siege of Pavia. This city; defended with the utmost try, must have fallen, as it was reduced to the last extremity, when an imperial army advanced to its relief. The battle of Pavia decided the fate of that city and of Francis. Lannoy and» Pescara, the generals who advanced to its relief, were reinforced by 12,000 Ger- mans, dispatched by Bourbon. Still Francis would not haye been unfortunate, had he either raised the siege, or continued in his intrenchments ; but a false shame Sieg pom pina ing the first measure, and the bei and rash advice Papel fet i induced him to leave agag ss heer position, battle to his adver- saries. was what they wished for, but hardly ex- pected. Even after the imperialists had their adversary meen circumstances most srvumble to themselves, ir success was extremely doubtful; and, in all pro- bability, Francis would have witnessed a drawn and in- decisive battle, or at least would not have suffered such a severe and fatal loss, had it not been for the treachery of part of his own army. In the midst of the ment, the Duke of Alengon, with the ek immediate command, that formed part of the left win went over to the enemy. ‘Abeut.(the duane: tite, the garrison of Pavia sallied out on the rear of the French ; and the cavalry of the latter, unable to withstand the imperial i gave way. Under these circumstances, 559 notwithstanding the exhortations, the example, and the exertions of Francis, the rout became general. The king was himself wounded, and thrown from yet he defended himself bravely, till at length, ex- hausted by — and his wounds, he was under the necessity of delivering his sword to Lannoy. On the several day after the battle, Francis was conducted to a strong castle near Cremona, and committed to the charge of an officer of great vigilance and integrity. As soon as the regent Louisa was acquainted with the disastrous battle of Pavia, by a letter from her son, containing these words, ‘ Madam, all is lost except our honour,” she put forth all her talents, which had hi- therto been expended on useless or dangerous objects, towards the safety of the kingdom; and that it was saved in this hour of unparalleled and imminent dan-~ ger, must be ascribed to her exertions and talents. She immediately assembled the nobles at Lyons ; collected the remains of the army, and recruited it so as to render it fit again to take the field; levied new troops; and, above all, endeavoured to conciliate the King of Eng- land. Henry had long been jealous, or afraid of Charles ; and Wolsey had not forgotten the promises of the papal dignity, with which the emperor had deceived him. But it was evident, that whatever steps the King of England might be induced to take, immediate measures on the part of France itself were indispensably neces sary ; and when the storm had passed away for a little time, it was discovered that it was not in the power of the Imperialists to profit so much the victory of Pavia ab had lagi and tnahe had teended: Lannoy found himself under the necessity of disband- ing the t part of his army for want of money. The character of Charles in a great measure saved France ; for, instead of pursuing his advantages by the same means by which he had acquired them ; instead of a ting his armies and pushing his conquests into France,—he scr We to gain “ayo his ro om captive, by intrigue negociation; what y could have arcand force. But Francis indi tly a the base and dishonourable terms, and oe a , on the occasion, such spirit, that Lannoy thoug it more prudent to send him into Spain, for the of a interview between him and Charles. But this interview, at first, was productive of no effect. Charles behaved to him with so much duplicity, and evidently endeavoured to extort from him such disho- nourable terms, that Francis, in despair, entrusted to his sister, the Duchess of Alencon,, a deed, by which he resigned his kingdom to the Dauphin. is cir- cumstance at last induced Charles to behave with more nness and honour towards his captive. He was also threatened with a confederacy against him, which had for its objects to liberate Francis, and to humble and curtail the power of his conqueror. By the treaty of Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, and, as the price of it, restored Burgundy to the emperor in full sove- reignty, as well as Artois and Flanders. As hostages for the regular and honourable fulfilment of these con- ditions, Francis gave his two eldest sons. In order to History. —_— his horse ; Francis te ? ken prison- Vigorous and wise conduct of the Regent. Behaviour of Charles to his cap- tive, who reco- vers his li- berty on certain con- render the union between him and the emperor more ditions, binding and lasting, he was to marry the 8 sis- ter, the queen-dowager of Portugal, and to. cause all the articles to be ratified and registered by the states. Even these terms did not satisfy the em ; for, sus- picious of the integrity of Francis, he bound him by an oath to return as a prisoner into Spain, if, within a limited time, all the stipulations were not fulfilled. It was not indeed probable, that the French sovereign 560 Hisery. would himself be willing to execute such stipulations —y— or, if he were, that hie states would permit the king- ahich be vades dom to be so dishonoured ; and, even while he was yet at Madrid, he assembled the few counsellors in whom he could confide, and before them solemnly Dylan against a treaty which had been extorted him, and which he therefore deemed null and void. The articles, however, were ratified in France, as, till that ratification arrived at Madrid, eg was not to be e ‘liberty to depart ; but, as soon as Francis passed boundaries between France and Spain, he mounted his horse, waved his hand over his head, and joyfully ex- claimed several times, “‘ ] am yet a king!” Scarcely had he reached Paris, before he disavowed the principal article of the treaty of Madrid, that by which he agreed to cede the province of Burgundy to Charles ; but, in order to colour and excuse this infrac- tion of the treaty, the deputies of that province waited on the king, in the presence of the ambassadors from Charles, and represented, that no sovereign could alie- nate their country from the crown, or transfer it to ano- ther, without their consent ; and that, therefore, as Frantis had done that, which he had no right or autho- rity to do, the cession of Burgundy must be looked upon as void. Francis assented to these arguments ; but at the same time he offered in lieu of Burgundy, to pay the emperor two imillions of crowns. Charles, as might be expected, rejected the proposal ; and resolved to have recourse to arms, for the purpose of compelling his adversary to fulfil the treaty of Madrid. But while the fate of Francis had excited thepity,—the ambition and power of Charles had roused the jealousy, or the apprehensions of the other European sovereigns. The Pope, the republic of Venice, and the Duke of Milan, entered into the confederacy, of which, under the appellation of the Holy League, Henry King of England was declared the head and the protector. Scarcely, however, was this confederacy formed A. D. ‘Phe Cardi- 1527, when its dissolution appeared at hand: The Mi- nal Bour- ben march. against Rome. S. A.D, 1527. had antici lanese, indeed, had been over-run by the Constable Bourbon ; but his soldiers not reaping from the con- quest of this exhausted territory all plunder they Rome, This march, perhaps as much as any of the ex- ploits of the Cardinal, proved the greatness of his mili- tary talents: it was executed in the depth of winter, with an army of 25,000 men, destitute of money, ma- gazines, and artillery, and in the face of a superior army ; but Rome was reached; and Bourbon was on the point of witnessing the capture of the capital of the ancient world, when a random shot deprived him of life. The command of his troops devolved on the Prince of Orange ; they were eager for booty, and for revenge, on account of the death of their general; and Rome became a theatre of carnage and desolation, the Pope himself being made prisoner. But the splendour of this expedition, and its imme- diate success, by no means com for the injury se it did to the cause of Charles: the Milanese were exposed ; Catholic Europe was indignant and hor- rified at the treatment of the Pope ; the states of Italy were wearied with the yoke of Charles, and an army sent under these circumstances by Francis, was recei- ved with congratulation and gratitude. After the The French French commander had succeeded in reconquerin succenfully Nearly the whole of the Milanese, he directed his marc in ly wade Iw- towards Rome, from which place, after paving i libe- rated the Pope, he resolv to proceed to les. The imperial army was unable to contend wid fie ; 1 , he was obliged to march them against” FRANCE, the fleet of the em all the Neapolitan ory, with the exception of the capital and Mis gs (a er to the invaders; ; e was defeated ve secured the at last seemed to object, i and so frequently directed their they had ‘so long = id and splendid rprises, than for such or rapid and splendid enterprises, a for suc! as required continued effort, circumspection, and fore- sight: Elated with his success, he forgot that his troops still must be supported and paid ;__he neglecte his Admiral Doria, to whose skill and valour he al been indebted for his naval’ vi ; he even or- dered him to be arrested, because, with atreedom, which the circumstances justified, which his republican bitth and education might have excused, and which proba- bly arose in some d from his attachment to Francis, he opposed some designs of the king, which he deemed injurious to his honour, as well as to the in« terests of Genoa. Doria, apprised of his danger, escaped the meditated arrest, entered into a negociation with the emperor, and sailed back to Naples, which he pro- tected and delivered. In the mean time, the discon- tents of the French army increased ; they were in great want of provisions ; constantly harassed by their op- ponents, and at last attacked with a contagious disorder: of this their general died ; and his successor found him- self under the necessity of evacuating Naples. Doria now triumphing over Francis, was resolved to effect the liberation of his native city ; and as the French ison of Genoa was reduced by desertion to a very Foconsiderable number, he had soon the satisfaction of of the Turks, the progress of the Frotestint sebapod in Germany, and the discontents in Spain. Francis, on his part, renounced all his right lanese, Flanders, and Artois, and espoused nope sister, the widow of the King of eno ' agreed to give two millions of crowns of gold for the ransom of his sons. With this money he was supplied But Francis’ character was much better suit- Their ad- vantages lost Francis, In consequence of this mu- Treaty of tual disposition for peace, the treaty of Cambray was Cambray. formed, Charles gave up his pretensions to esky A.D, 153 ts 4 by Henry VIII. of England. These terms were not . very honourable or advantageous to France. But the French monarch stained his em e by abandoning his allies, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Duke of Ferrara, to the mercy of Charles. Francis now had been for nine years, from 1525 to- 1534, almost constantly at war. His kingdom was. nearly exhausted ; and not only did. its finances require- his care, but its internal ations in almost every other To these objects, therefore, he devoted: some part of his time; but a we oye of it was. given up to luxury, the patronage of letters, and the protection of the fine arts. During this repose from war, the most important events were the annexation of the province of Bretagne to the crown of France with the consent of the states, and the marriage of his se- = son ax! with = Rees Catherine of Me. icis, by which union he again to open a . for the facies of the French into Italy. a Francis. had never regarded the terms of the : of: Cambray, as advan us.or honourable to him- self; and consequently eagerly “<— forward: * —s = Charles in- vades France fer e:noodempiatnnily: se excuse, in order to break them, after. of the French army, is said to have expired with terror; and every thing to promise a ra- pid fulfilment of the wishes of Francis. Again, > ever, he was destined to be disappointed. The Pope would not second his enterprise. of England . The princes of Germany, to whom, as the natu- of Charles, he next turned his attention, renounced his alliance, because he persecuted their brethren in France. He therefore was convinced, that on his own resources and vigour alone he must d in his war with Charles. But this consideration failed 8 he ne Rite arene conduct. Instead of pro- fiting by state of Charles, he suffer- cae dig ee tg get sa eg) et se At last he saw his folly. em was amusing him France, he entered Piedmont with an army of 40,000 i , and 10,000 cavalry. This country soon yield- ed to him ; and Francis next saw him direct his atten- tion and his march against the southern provinces of his ki On this occasion, Francis conducted him- self with a of prudence, which could not have _ of to the frontiers to give his opponent bat- tle, he to act entirely on the defensive; to gar- unsuccess- fully. i the strongest towns; and to lay waste the coun e diitiekd. po ai 2S deptiva bien of wl. i was entrusted to Montmorency ; entrusted, 8 5 8 ah ut Hh 1 : : ay iF Fi : com: came forth, and OA teva trode arpa Perhaps the emperor and his army might have to- ~~ of armis was - B6E a most poignant disaster overtook , died sud denly, not without suspicion of being poison< __In the beginning of 1537 a curious scene was exhi- bited, which seems to prove, that the natural foibles of Francis’ character were too deeply implanted to be en< tirely extirpated by age and experience. He summon- ed iD ateecta to aciske eke the parliament of Pa- ris, to answer as his vassal for the counties of Artois and Flanders ; and on his refusal, declared them for- feited to the crown of France. He even marched into the Low Countries ; but either not being sincere, or not able to carry his purpose into effect, a suspension upon, which was afterwards follow- ed, A. D. 1538, by a truce for ten years. Shortly af- ter this truce was agreed upon, Charles, on his: voyage to Barcelona, was driven to take refuge in a small island on the coast of Provence, As soon as Francis heard of this, he proposed a personal interview, to which the emperor consented ; and thus these two ri- vals, after twenty years of hostilities, met each other, and vied in expressions of respect and friendship. In the following year they had another interview. In consequence of the revolt of the people of Ghent, it was necessary for Charles to pass into the Nether- lands from Spain. _As expedition was necessary, he did not wish to pass through Germany, in which country, he must have travelled with so much ceremony and pocp, as must have delayed his progress. He did not ike the uncertainty and risk of a voyage; he there- fore resolved to through France ; and, in order to induce Francis to permit this passage, and not to take advantage of it, by detaining him, he repre- sented to that monarch, that he would cede the Mi- lanese to him. Francis agreed to the proposal, and received and treated Charles with the utmost respect and magnificence, during his six days abode in Paris. A bon mot of Triboulet, the fool at the court of Fran- cis, on this occasion, is recorded; He wrote on his ta- blet, that Charles was a greater fool than himself, thus to himself in pee through the territo- ries of his rival, ‘“ But w wail :you say, ge me Francis, ) if I let him pass unmolested?” ‘I shall.ef- + hey sare ac gies in its stead,” replied the As soon as the emperor had arrived in Flanders, the ambassadors of Francis required that the Milanese should be restored to their master. At first Charles ot gag tec gy an 4a till at, last having re- uced the Flemings to submission, he ly averred Interviews between Charles and Francis. Charles agrees to cede the Milanese, that he had never given any promise to restore the Mi- put breaks lanese. Francis was, completely ashamed at his own his pro- folly, in thus being the dupe of the emperor, and at mise. the same time was filled with indignation and the spi- rit of revenge; but he could not immediately com- mence a war, for, by his interview with Charles, he had excited the suspicion, or produced the indifference, of the king of England. The pope seemed resolved to maintain his neutrality, The sultan alone listened to his schemes of revenge and warfare. Still, however, Fran- cis could scarcely feel himself justified in the eyes of ‘Eufope to commence ‘hostilities, merely because the Se promise to restore the M had not that promise ; but a more solid reason was not ft pr Two French amy AD. History. Francis makes war oo hun. A. D. 1542, Mis affairs 562 bassadors were assdssinated by order of the Milanese government. This was amply sufficient, in the spirit in which Francis had Jong been: He demanded instant and full satisfaction for their death ; he was evaded and refused ; and he resolved on instant war. ly had Charles returned from a id expedition into Africa, A. D. 1542, when five formidable French ar- mies entered his dominions, Spain, Piedmont, Brabant, Flanders, and Luxemburgh, were at once the scene of war. The Duke of Orleans reduced the ter part of Luxemburgh ; the dauphin laid siege to Perpignan : but, on a report that the emperor was advancing to its relief, the duke abandoned his conquests in Luxem- burgh, and hastened to support the dauphin. Perpig- nan was defended by the Duke of Alva, who had in- structions from his master to hold out to the last ex- tremity, as it did not enter into his plan to raise the siege. The event proved that Charles was wise in his determination ; for three months the French endea- voured to reduce it, but their troops fell before fa- tigue and disease ; and after that period, they were un- der the necessity of retiring from before it. The ar- mies of Francis were equally unsuccessful in their other attempts against the dominions of the emperor, so that he saw his vast preparations rendered utterly useless. The year 1543 was distinguished by few events of moment. Rochelle had revolted, but it was soon redu- ced. Luxemburgh was occupied by the armies of Francis ; and the city of Nice was besieged by that mo- narch, in conjunction with his ally the sultan: but this alliance was by no means prudent or politic, as it gave great offence to those who might otherwise have united with Francis, that he shou!d have allied himself to an infidel’; and this evil consequence of his alliance was not counterbalanced by success, for Nice was not re- duced, The year 1544 was distinguished by the battle of Cerizoles. The young Cont D’Enghien, had pe- netrated into Piedmont, where he was opposed by the imperial general the Marquis del Guosto. The armies met at Cerizoles, and the Imperialists were defeated ; but the vi : of the count was of little avail. The emperor, and Henry of England, (who at length had Sais decided part against Frans.) had pris Pi- cardy with two numerous armies ; and, as Francis was by no means equal in force to his opponents in this quar- ter, the count was obliged to abandon the fruits of his victory in Italy, and hasten to the north of France. At i period were the — of toes monarch, to pearance, more desperate than at this period. The ae of his enemies p24 so powerful, and his own means of resisting that force, or delaying its progress, so inadequate, that had Charles and Henry united their armies, Paris, in all probability, would have fallen: But they were not men likely to agree long in opinion; besides being suspicious of each other, they were both obstinate in their dispositions. Charles wasted his time in the siege of St Dizier, while Henry’s imme- diate interest directed him against Boulogne. From these attempts neither of them would desist, even though they must have perceived, that if they gave them up for the present, Paris would be their imme- diate reward, and St Dizier and Boulogne would not pers An out after the capital was reduced. At this isis, Francis, who had been long unable, from illness, to head his armies, committed the command of them to the dauphin, who was not insensible to the dangers and difficulties of his situation, but who conducted him- self, on this occasion, with considerable skill and pru- dence. St Dizier was bravely defended ; nor would it FRANCE. have fallen if artifice had not been employed. On its reduction, though the em 's army was considerably weakened by the losses he had sustained siege, he resolved pl gery still farther into France. Champagne was in and Chateau-Thierry was ta- ken,—a place within two days march of Paris. The fate of the capital seemed inevitable, when the dauphin threw himself Y between it and the enemy ; but he still er avoided a battle, contenting himself with in- cessant skirmishes, and with depriving the enemy of the resources of the country. is plan had its desis red effect: Charles, straitened for forage and necessa- Treaty of ries, listened to terms of accommodation, and a definis ©5PY- tive treaty was signed at C . _ By this trea’ Francis resigned his ‘acdyulsitions ta Pi and rl voy; and the emperor engaged, in the of two years, to t his daughter or his aleos th 36 i to the Duke of Orleans ; and, as a porti , to give up either the Low Countries or the TMilentse, It is evi- dent, that this treaty, like the rest which Francis had entered into with his opponent, was favourable to the latter, in so far as the cessions to him were immediate and certain ; and of doubtful advantage to the former, in so far as it contained merely a promise of a future cession to him ; while, by such arrangements, reasons for future warfare were supplied. While the n iations between the Emperor and Francis were going on at Crespy, Boul Mead fallen into the possession of the king gland; and as that treaty contained no stipulation respecting Charles’ ally, it was necessary for Francis to recover Boulogne, ei- ther by force or negociation. He chose the former, and sent an army, under the Duke of Orleans, for that purpose. But, at a place between Abbeville and Mon- treuil, the duke died, and the enterprise was abandon- ed. The insincerity of Charles in this condition of the treaty of Crespy, was immediately made manifest ; for he declared that the death of the Duke had freed him from all his agreements respecting the Low Countries, or the Milanese. J The Count D’Enghien did not long survive the Duke; and the mind of Francis, already weakened by his long and severe illness, sunk before the impression of these calamitous events. Even an advantageous peace with England did not mitigate his grief, and re- new his energy ; for it was more than counterbalanced by the enmity and intrigues of his own mistress, the Duchess D’Estampes, and of Diana de Poitiers, the mistress of the Dauphin, who divided the court into open and implacable factions. The death of Henry of England, which happened in 1547, also preyed on the mind of Francis, as he had long known and personally loved that monarch. In this state of grief and des- pondency, he wandered about from place to place, in the vain hope of restoring his health of body, or reco- vering his Sr ea ‘and firmness of mind ; at length he died at Ram et, in the 53d year of his age, and 32d of his reign. | { The character of Francis was strongly marked. One peat) and of the distinguishing features of his mind was om poe of great Francis. tude and decision : hi C9 perception and activity, led him to resolve instantly, and to follow up his resolutions by vigorous action ;' but he did not per- severe ; difficulties, which at first only prompted him to greater efforts, ifthey were of long continuance, and especially if they did not promise any thing splendid in their overcoming, soon wearied him out. Thus he often abandoned his first designs, and relaxed from his origi- nal vigour,—-often through impatience, and sometimes — during the =—— as rather Character of Hot; which rose above ivity FRANCE, tions with ayowed heretics, he seized the first opportu- _ Histery- through mere fickleness. _His courage was undoubted ; but it courage which could act than sup- the greatest dangers, if they exertion, but which cooled, if called for acti be shunned or endured rather pci tively useless in this view, from the thoughtlessness of i ey and the warm sincerity Be oP Powia is mode of carrying on war was stam y the pe- culiarities of his character. At the edad ot a campaign, he darted on his enemy with all his force, and endeavoured to attain his object, by the decision and rapidity of his first movements ; but he seldom had any regular and com ive plan of warfare, the consequence of which was, that with whatever appear- ance of ultimate and success he commenced hostilities, he ly found himself, at the end of the ig _ It will appear from this sketch, that his faults as a sovereign were of that nature which seldom fail to cap- multitude, as real gentleman. To the period of his reign, we may justly trace those features in the character of the higher society in France, for which it was so long and so justly celebrated in Europe. Anne of Bretagne had begun to introduce ladies at court ; but it was not till the reign of Francis that th Lsppertesy Shere, ce gularly, or that they were consid as an essential part of it. The consequences were soon i : Seg, meensitny gave a softness and a polish to that of manners, which the rative ignorance and barbarism of the as well as its martial habits, necessarily generated. It was during this period, that the religious disputes commenced, which afterwards Spliated rence oe ge- nerally, and gave rise to such Calvin was a native of Noyon in tected by M of Navarre, sister of Francis: these circumstances some influence in causing his tenets to take root and spread in France. But those who em- them soon became the objects of tion, rancis at one period (as has been already mentioned) was desirous of uniting himself with Protestant inces of Germany, Sane Emperor Charles ; but é of awakening the indignation of the Roman pon- tiff, and the prejudices of his people, by his negocia- and bitter civil wars. i , and was yk 563 nity to prove the soundness of his faith, by ordering six of his subjects, who had embraced the Protestant reli- ion, to be publicly burnt ; he himself being present at e execution, and. declaring, with his usual and cha- racteristic yehemence, that if one of his hands were in- fected with heresy he would cut it off with the other, and would not spare eyen his own children if found guilty of that crime, Even before the time of Calvin, it that the French had imbibed the reform- ed elicit ; for the inhabitants of Cabrieres and Me-_ _rindol, small towns in Provence, followed the opi- nions of the Waldenses ; and on this account the Par- liament of Provence issued against them a decree, so barbarous and cruel, that the execution of it was sus~ pended by orders from the court. .But some years af terwards, in 1545, from what cause is not known, it was carried into execution by the Cardinal de Tournon, aman of a most cruel and bigotted disposition. At this period, of the Fendh army was returning’ from Italy ; and these were employed against the de- fenceless inhabitants of Cabrieres and Merindol, 3000 of whom, without distinction of age or sex, are said to haye been massacred. Nor was this barbarous work confined to these places ; twenty-two other villages or towns were reduced to ashes, in the vain hope of utterly bit ig the heresy. en Henry IT. son of Francis I. mounted the throne gent commands or requests of the dying Francis to his son, was, that he d never recal the Constable Montmorency, and that he should, by all means in his wer, repress the ambition of the family of Guise. enry, however, was inattentive to the injunctions of his. dying father. The Constable Montmorency was recal- - Jed and loaded with honours ; and the house of Guise were entrusted with his confidence. Henry did not long remain faithful to his wife Catherine of Medicis ; indeed it would appear, that at this period she either did not or exercise, those qualities and seducing arts for which she afterwards became so famous; since her hushand deserted her, and gave himself up, a blind and willing slave, to Diana de Poitiers, whom he crea- ted Duchess de Valentinois, though she was 20 years older than himself. Before Henry had ascended the throne, his Queen had brought him a son, who was named Francis. In 1548, on the death of James V. of Scotland, Mary his daughter, then an infant, succeeded to the throne of that ki Taking advantage of this circumstance, the ministers of England endeavoured, by force of arms, to obtain for Edward VI. the hand of the infant Queen of Scotland. This the ministers of Mary resisted, and the King of France sent a powerful army to the support of his ancient allies, Jn return for this assistance, the Scotch entrusted their Queen to the French admiral, on his return to France ; and soon after her arrival in Paris, she was betrothed to the Dauphin. In 1549, a dangerous rebellion broke out in the pro- . ‘ a Rebellion vince of Guienne ;,and, as Montmorency and the Duke 1 alee: A. D, 1549. of Guise were the most confidential ministers of the King, they were dispatched to quell it. Their conduct ou this occasion was diametrically ite: the con- stable endeavoured to repress the rebellion by the most violent and cruel measures ; while, on the contrary, the Duke of Guise reclaimed the insurgents by his concili- ating address, and lenient ‘measures. To this line of conduct he was probably led, by that ambition which afterwards so decidedly marked the character of his fa- he was 29 years of age. One of the last and most ur- Se Mery willy. To obtain the —v~" cossary that they should Be ulogne purchased. Henry pre- pares for war with Charles. 564 j of this ambition, it was ne- popular ; and the Duke, by his measures in Guienne, undoubtedly acquired great popularity. The reformed religion at this time was making certain, though not very rapid progress in some of France. e King was naturally of a mild temper, and a humane disposition ; but these qua- lities were not sufficiently strong or enlightened, to with- stand the blind and intemperate zeal of the age ; and H commanded a number of proselytes to the new doctrines to be burnt in his presence. The following year, Henry, by the advice of his mi- nisters, direct is attention to the reco of Bou- logne from the English. It is not improbable, that if he had gone to war with this object, he might have been successful, as the English councils, during the short reign of Edward VI. were weak and distracted ; but this very circumstance induced him to hope, that, hy means of negociation, he should succeed with even more certainty, and with much less expence and trou- ble. He accordingly opened a negociation with the mi- nisters of Edward for the restoration of Boulogne ; and on his offering 400,000 crowns, they immediately ac- cepted it, and surrendered this important place, A for- mal peace was soon afterwards concluded between France and England, in which Scotland was included. It was scarcely to be imagined, that the long and ar- duous struggles in which Francis I. had been engaged with the Emperor Charles V. should not have at an impression on the mind of Henry, and led him to regard that monarch almost as his hereditary and natural ene- my. His personal feeling was strengthened and con- firmed by political motives and views. The treaty of Crespy could not be regarded as advantageous. or ho- nourable to France, The only provision in it, which in the smallest degree bore this appearance, related to the Duke of Orleans ; and even he survived, and had Charles fulfilled this provision respecting him, the crown of France could only have been indirectly benefited : but there was too much reason to suspect, that Charles never intended to fulfil this part of the treaty, and at any rate, by the death of the Duke of Orleans, he pub- licly declared, that he was no longer bound by it. Hen- ry, therefore, considering the treaty of Crespy as injuri- ous to his interest, was not sorry that Charles, by refu- sing on the ws of the Duke of Orleans, to fulfi} his part of it, had a test against it. This he accordingly did, and immedi- ately afterwards prepared for war. His great object was the reconquest of the possessions which the French for- merly held in Italy ; and the state of that country filled him with the hope, that he should attain that object. The duchy of Parma had been given to Octavio Far- nese, the grandson of Pope Paul IIT.; and Julius ITI. on his accession to the apostolical throne, had at first con- firmed him in the possession’ of it. But he withdrew his support, and revoked his grant, as so6n as Gonza- governor of Milan, a sworn enemy of the house of arnese, prepared, by permission of the Emperor, to make pod master of Parma. In this critical emer- gency, vio applied to Henry, as the only prince powerful enough to protect Hien aioe Charles, at the same time disposed, both from his antipathy to Charles, and his anxiety to re-establish himself in Italy, to afford him support. Henry having not only settled his own domestic concerns, but brought his transactions with the two British kingdoms to such an issue as he desiretl, was at complete leisure to poms the measures, which his hereditary jealousy of the Emperor's power orded him a very fair pretext openly to pro- . FRANCE. aturall sigyesten. He accordingly listened t6 the History. pe Savio aii oT ef eek npeatniny Of pale | Y overtures of ing a footing in Italy, furnished him with what assist- ance he desired. The army which Henry sent into Italy, was commanded by thé Marshal Brissac. The imperial troops were under Gonzaga. Still, however, the two monarchs issued no declaration of war, but, on the contrary, affected to maintain inviolably the treaty of Crespy. The war of Parma, as it is called, was dis- citiguishad by no memorable event. The army of France rayaged dot of the ecclesiastical territories, while the Imperialists penetrated to the gates of Parma ; but they were obliged. to relinquish the siege of that city with disgrace. At this period, the council of Trent was summoned Council of to meet; but the alarm occasioned)in Italy by the war, Treat. revented most of the Italian prelates from repairing to te on the day appointed, so that the legate and nuncios found it necessary to adjourn to a future day, hoping that such a number would then assemble, as would ena- ble them to begin their deliberations. When that day eame, the French ambassador demanded audience, and protested, in his mf&ster’s name, against an assembly, called at such an improper juncture, when a war wan- tonly kindled by the Pope, made it impossible for the deputies from the Gallican church to resort to Trent in safety, or to deliberate concerning articles of faith and discipline with the requisite tranquillity. He declared, that Henry did not acknowledge this to be a. cecumenic council, but must consider and it as a particular and ial convention. The legate, however, affected to despise the protest of the King of France ; the prelates ed to determine the great points in controversy ; and the Emperor, by his autho- rity and countenance, endeavoured to ish the com- petency and jurisdiction of the assembly. It is unne- cessary here to Setar onry= the proceedings of the coun- cil of Trent. ‘They were so directl treat. princes, who, under the promise of liberty Emperor against the confederates of Smalkalde, were now made sensible that they had been duped by him, and that by their own force alone, could they to preserve the religion which they had embra from secution and probable ruin. But Maurice, who, from fis eaperite talents, as well as his superior power, took the lead among the Lutheran princes, was ring Hey ced, by his knowledge of the character of the Er that it would be absolutely necessary to proceed with the utmost degree of circumspection and caution, so as to excite no suspicion, till all his measures were taken, and his scheme was completely ready to be carried into full execution, By his former conduct he had lost, in a great measure, the good will and confidence of the Pro= testants. These it. was necessary for him to regsin's but while he was regaining them, it was equally desi- rable and necessary, though still more difficult, to're- tain the good will and confidence of the Emperor, In the execution of his enterprize he succeeded most tho- roughly, conducting an intricate plan of policy in such a manner, as to deceive the most’artful, experienced, and suspicious prince in Europe. Having negoci new confederacy of the Protestants, of which he was psn the head, it became necessary to ——— t confederacy by every means in his power. With this view, Maurice turned his thoughts to the King of France. There could be no doubt that Henry would most chearfully embrace any plan, the object of which inst the Protes- state of the tants, that Maurice of Saxony, and the other Lutheran Protestants of conscience, in Germa- and other advantages, had been induced to assist the "Y- el | eee Charles pree FRANCE. was to curtail the power and influence of the Emperor, rovided hi ious opinions did not create an objection, These, therefore, it was necessary to consider in the ne- gociation. It was also necessary for Maurice to antici- Biotest prises Se Goriuciy ight fel oy orang inces of Gi ight feel on i an alliance vith a prince, who rent not only a Catholic, but who had persecuted the reformed religion in his dominions. The and les of both phe however, were overcome by the wi and po- icy of Maurice ; and a treaty was concluded between Henry and the Protestant confederation. As soon as the ions of Maurice were comple- ted, and he had assembled his army amounting to 25,000 men, he published a manifesto, containing his reasons for taking armg; to secure the. Protestant reli- ion ; to maintain the constitution of Germany ; and to iver the Landgraye of Hesse from his and unjust imprisonment. To this the aus, * of France; his own name, added a manifesto, in icious of the in- e pre ions, of the Protestant confederates, and of Henry, he was not in a condition to oppose such formidable enemies. Lor- raine was immediately invaded by the French armies. The young Duke Charles, the nephew of the Emperor, was sei Toul, Verdun, and Metz were occupied. Nor was Charles, even after Rae ae le to the tu pte Be civil and ecclesiastical independence eayirge oe taawae oat In this treaty, however, the con- totally overlooked the services of Henry, and the union they had formed with him. There zppears, Se 8 Sete one baa ess teed A Soro g measures an ions, 'y such as weakened Clete’ aeeraa ed izement, even at the deavoured, by artifice, himeclt of the elty of ' ; i to possess himse e city of Strasburgh ; and had he succeeded in his attempt, the m of the Rhine would have fallen inte his power. ‘was to desist, by the in- being thi Ror oye and rae can- As Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which Henry had con- , formed the barrier of the ine onthe side of eeply affected by their loss; and ided the treaty of Passau, he resolved to employ the most vigorous and powerful measures for their recovery. He therefore left his re- treat at Villach, and put himself at the head of the for- ces, which he had assembled against the confederates. Boi yaa tg be At first, in order toe his real object, he. circulated a report, that he intended to lead it into Hungary against the Turks ; and when the line of his march unequivocally proved that such was not his intention, he pretended that he was marching, in the first place, to chastise Albert of DestidieriOUiiit who had refused to be included in the treaty of Passau. Henry, however, was not deceived ; but guessing at the true object of the emperor's arma- ment, he resolved vigorously to defend his conquests. As it was to foresee that the reduction of Metz would be the first. object of the emperor, Henry resolved that it should be defended in the best possible manner. He therefore inted to the command of it Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise. No fitter man could pos- sibly have been chosen for this arduous enterprise. He was full of military ardour and zeal ; anxious to dis- tinguish himself, and to be classed among the heroes of France ; delighting in bold enterprises, and aspiring after fame by splendid and extraordinary actions. ‘These qualities, however, had they more solid and useful, ge not so dazzling, Sane haps, have prevented his sovereign from makin Thales of him on this occasion. But he was no les distinguished for city and presence of mind, than for zeal and pict. nin To' this nobleman the de- fence of Metz was intrusted ; and he received the com- mission with joy. His zeal’and enthusiasm were hard- 565 History. —_—— The Duke of Guise op- poses him. not been united with others: ly necessary to induce many others of the French no- . bility to offer their services, so that Metz soon saw within its walls, some of the best blood of France, which, if necessary, would be most chearfully shed to- eit to the French kingdom. As soon as the e of Guise entered the place, he carefully examined « it: it was of great extent, ill fortified, and the suburbs: large. These defects, therefore, it was absolutely ne- immediately to remedy. For this purpose, the cessary Duke ordered the old fortifications to be repaired with all possible ition, even assisting and. animatin the labourers his example. The officers and ath: diers thus encouraged, chearfully submitted to the most ~ severe toil. After repairing the old fortifications, the Duke directed his skill to the erection of new ones, The suburbs were levelled to the ground, in order that they might not favour or protect the approaches of the ene- my ; and with a similar object in view, he gave orders that the country, for several miles round, should be laid waste. At the same time, he filled the magazines with provisions and military stores, and compelled all useless persons to leave the place; yet such were his ‘popular talents, and his power of acquiring an ascendency over the minds of men, that the citizens not only ined from murmuring, but seconded him, with no less ar- dour than his soldiers, in all his operations ; even in- the ruin of their estates, and in the destruction of their public and private buildings. In the mean time, Albert of Brandenburgh entered Lorraine, with 20,000 men, seemingly with an intention to join the French. The emperor, notwithstanding the vicinity of this army, and the advanced season of the ear, for it was now the month of October, resolved to ay siege to Metz, contrary to the advice of his most experienced officers. One of his first attempts was’ to secure the tion, or at least the neutr. ity of Al- bert. | This he affected, by rok up to his price, and he joined the imperial army. The emperor now flat- tered himself that Metz would be soon reduced ; ‘but he was most lamentably mistaken. The winter set in with unusual rigour, in little more than a month from the commencement of the siege. The imperial camp was exposed to almost constant alternations of snow and rain, which, of course, produced disease even among the hardy Germans ; while the Spaniards and Italians, History. —yY~" more sick! Charles obliged to raise the A.D. 1883, less € after dread- ful loss. 566 accustomed to more genial climates, were rendered still and i ive, In vain the generals and officers youred to animate and rouse their men ; their exhortations, their threats, their example, scarce- ly produced ‘any effect. When they were ordered to advance to the assault, they remained motionless and silent. The emperor, blinded by his obstinacy to the cause of this conduct in his soldiers, retired to his tent, complaining that he was deserted by them, and up- braiding them with disaffection or cowardice. In vain did his generals endeavour to persuade him to give up the hopeless and fatal enterprize ; in vain did they re- present to him, that he was his own enemy, in weak- ening and dispiriting that army, which, though it was not equal to The task of reducing Metz, so defended, at such a season of the year, might yet, if not totally de- stroyed in organization, strength and spirit, be adequate to the atchievement of such conquests as would compen- sate for the loss of Metz. Charles was still obstinate, even when he must age lost * hope ; nor did pesiee the siege, till after the of 65 days, spent in fruit- forts, and after the loss of 35,000 men. Metz, notwithstanding, was very near falling into his power, by a conspiracy of monks. The superior of the corde- liers of that city was a man of a bold and intriguing spirit, and warmly attached, either from habit, or prin- ciple, or interest, to the cause of the emperor. This man, by his address, had contrived to insinuate himself into the graces and confidence of the governor, and then treacherously formed a design to deliver up the town to the enemy. The monks of his monastery being privy to his plan, he introduced into it a number of soldiers disguised as cordeliers, who were to open the gates to the garrison of Thionville. The plot was so well concealed, that it was not discovered or suspected till the very day on which it was to be executed. On its discovery, the superior was condemned to death, with twenty of the monks. Before the sentence was to be carried into effect, the criminals were put into a cell, for the purpose of confessing one another ; and in this they murdered the superior, and beat to death ve of their brethren, who had been chiefly instrumental in seducing the rest. When, at length, Charles found himself under the painful necessity of raising the siege of Metz, A.D, 1553, his army resembled rather an assemb of worn out, diseased, and undisciplined people, those troops which he had always been accustomed to bring into the field, and with which he had advanced against this place. He was compelled to abandon a large pro- portion, who were utterly unable to keep up with the main body, on account of their debility ; while others, no longer under discipline, fell behind, either for the poreare of plunder, or to throw themselves into the s of the enemy, from whom they expected the in- fliction of less misery than they had suffered during this unfortunate siege. Under these circumstances, the Duke of Guise might easily and safely have increased the disorder and the loss—perhaps have pressed on, al- most to utter destruction, the army of Ris opponent : but either from motives of policy, or from the influence of humanity, he did not take al the ible advanta- ges of his success. On the con , his attention and care were almost exclusively di to heal the wound- ed, and restore the famished ; and those who recovered he sent home, under a eafe escort, and with money to bear their charges ; so thet the courage and skill which he had displayed during the siege were leled, if not , by his humane treatment of his prisoners. FRANCE. i e ever, defended with great courage by D'Esse ; but. his death, the Eeapersaliets pressed the siege with in- it r, an He then hastened his army, which he hz , the command of Emanuel Philebert, the Duke of Savoy, towards Hesden, which was also carried by It,, though Henry himself, with a strong force, advanced. to its relief. Charles, however, carefully avoided an en ent; notwithstanding the French threatened to lay necessity of retiring without accomplishing the object for which they had advanced. anor In A. D, 1554, Henry beheld his riyal’s ready too powerful for the repose of F increase the jealously, without intimidating the King. of France. THe ponctaane augmented his f ; and resolved, by carrying on the war in Italy yin Low Countries at the same time, to compel the empe-. ror to listen to equitable terms of peace, before the English sent any large reinforcements to him, large armies were accordingly equipped, with which he invaded and laid waste the provinces. of Hain- ault, Liege, and Artois, reduced Marienburgh, took Dinant and Bouvines by assault, and invested Ronti. Charles was now broken down by years, fatigue and illness; yet, on hearing of the rapid march of the he put himself at the head of his army, and advanced to the relief of Ronti. Henry did not avoid the con- flict ; an obstinate skirmish took . The imperi army suffered the loss of a considerable number of men and artillery. The Duke of Guise behaved in a man- ner worthy his reputation; and had the constable Montmorency acted wi skill, vigour, acti i , and would have been completely routed ; jealous of the talents and fame of the Duke, and, in- uenced by these dishonourable motives, he would not siege to Cambray, and the latter were under the. lands. A. D. 158 second his efforts. The consequences were, not only The that the imperial army escaped with comparatively little lg French a ves were ar after -. wards under the necessity of retiring. Charles was not slow in taking advantage of these circumstances. Im-, mediately on the retreat of his opponents, he entered Picardy, where he retaliated the ravages which the French had committed in Hainault, Artois and Li In Italy, the French were equally unfortunate : army there was placed under x a Florentine exile, who was defeated with the loss of 4000 men, in the battle of Marciano, by the Marquis de Marignano, general to Cosmo de Medicis. The Impe- command of Strozzi, in Italy, rialists, fully sensible of the advantages that might be - reaped from this defeat, ailieited laid siege to Siena, FRANCE Cardinal Rebiba was directed to protract his negocia- History. —— which was garrisoned soned by French ti , under the com- mand of Montluc. oe eta eon all in his ‘to who was opposed to the Duke of Alva. Notwithstand- ing the great talents of his rival, and the lly dis- couraging circumstance, that his were inferior in numbers to the Imperialists, he not only baffled the that he would seon compel him to retreat into France, but he even into that peror had hitherto his supplies, termination of abandoning his throne, and spending i is days in retirement. To this de- assumed the name of Paul IV. immediately demanded the ion of the French, affirmed the investiture endeavour to ne- The great bar against of France, was the hich Henry cluded with Phoadbetn G?"tihens An 567 tion as long as possible ; and Cardinal Caraffa was em» powered to urge the King of France to renounce the treaty, or to elude its engagements, and to renew his al- liance with the court of Rome. - The Cardinal was by no means unacquainted with the feeble and yielding parts of Henry’s character: he knew that he was en- tirely under the guidance and influence of his queen, the Guises, and his mistress Diana of Poitiers: to these, therefore, he applied ; and paving gained them by his address, they easily swayed the king, who al- ready leaned to that side towards which they wished him to incline, his own genius, warlike and enterpri- sing, his habits and his hopes, that the successor of Charles would be a less formidable ee strongly urging him again to try the fate of war. e only per- son of consequence int the French court, who bk om the measures of the Cardinal, the influence of the Guises, the queen, and Henry’s mistress, and the secret wishes of the monarch himself, was Montmorency ; but his efforts and remonstrances were unavailing. The Broken by nuncio, by powers from Rome, absolved Henry from Henry. his oath, and he signed a new league with the Pope. Paul, as soon as he learnt the success of his intrigues, immediately threw off the mask, and no longer pro- fessed himself the friend of peace, or the mediator be- tween the monarchs; on the contrary, he ordered the Spanish ambassador to be imprisoned ; he excommuni- cated the Colonnas, because they were attached to the cause of Philip; and when that monarch received this noble family in his dominions, the Pope proclaimed him guilty of high treason, and to have forfeited his right to the kingdom of Naples, which he was suppo- sed to hold of the Holy See. Against those proceed- ings of the sovereign pontiff, the superstitious educa= tion of Philip at first prevented him from proceeding in the manner in which a regard to his own dignity, and to the interests of his kingdom, imperiously de- manded'; but as the arrogance and hostility of the Pope Were only augmented by the moderation and supersti- tious reverence which Philip displayed, that monarch at ee resolved to adopt a more vigorous and deter- mined line of conduct ; and the Duke of Alva was com- manded to enter the ecclesiastical territories. No soon- er had the light troops of his army reached the gates of Rome, ned Paul a vomition of arms. To this, Alva consented ; and a truce, first for 10, and then for 40 days, was concluded, Henry entered on the new war with great alacrity and vigour. A numerous army, well appointed, was placed under the command of the Duke of Guise, who was ordered to lose no time in crossing the Alps, and advancing into Italy. This he accordingly did, A. D. 1557. As soon as the Pope heard of the advance of represented and injustice of sacrificing the undoubted and real terests of his country to any rash engagements into which he might have entered ; and this tation, with an express stipulation that the Roman iff should be included in the truce, removed the doubts His army enters Italy, A. D, 1557. z this powerful army, he threw aside all disguise ; breath- ed et ch war and revenge; and became more arrogant ever. He probably would not so soon have displayed his real character and wishes, had: not the Duke of Alva judged it prudent to leave the papal territories, and advance to the protection of Naple: against which it was supposed the Duke of Guise would direct his more immediate and principal efforts. » But the latter, though he had been eager for the war, and hoped to measure his talents against the Spanish com- mander, soon found that he should be able to atchieve nothing of im nce. The Pope, though so indig- nant against Philip, had neg’ to raise both the pe- euniary and military aids, with which he had engaged tosupply the F when they entered Italy, and the 568 Italian states either a strict neutrality, or ly declared for the King of Spain. The of ise, however, advanced into Italy, and laid siege to Civitella, a town on the frontiers of that kingdom; but the Spanigrds soon rendered it necessary for him to this enterprize, by threatening Rome, to the defence of which he proceeded with a fatigued and dis- pirited army. Here he in vain endeavoured to bring the Duke of Alva to an pos the latter perceiving the rav which fatigue disease were making among tie Pasa, carefully avoided a battle; and at last the Duke of Guise, mortified and disappoint- ed, begged to be recalled. No sooner had Philip learnt that the King of France had been indoced, by the intrigues of the Pope, to break the truce, than he resolved to penetrate into that kingdom, and by one vigorous effort to convince Hen that he was not to be thus treated with impunity. Wi this object in view, he assembled in the Netherlands a body of 50,000 men. He exerted his influence over his consort, Mary of England, so successfully, that, not- withstanding the repugnance of her subjects, she de- clared war against France, and sent 10,000 men to as- sist his projects against that country ; and he gave the command of his army to Emanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, one of the greatest generals of thatage. Philip himself fixed-his head-quarters at Cambray, while the Duke, after having kept the French for a considerable time in utter ignorance of his views and destination— threatening Champagne till he succeeded in drawing all their troops in that direction—suddenly marched to the right, and invested St Quintin in Picardy. This wasa place of considerable strength, but its fortifica- tions had not recently been put in a state of repair, and a large portion of its garrison had been drawn off to- w Champagne. It is probable, therefore, that it must soon have surrendered, had not Admiral Coligny ‘taken the gallant resolution of throwing himself into it, with such troops as he could suddenly collect for that pu This he accomplished, notwithstanding all the circumspection and efforts of the enemy, break- ing through their main body with 700 horse and 200_ foot. To this hazardous step the admiral was probably incited, from the consideration that the town was with- in his own immediate jurisdiction. Henry was fully sensible of the importance of preserving it, as, if the enemy succeeded in taking it, the road to Paris was nearly quite o to them. He therefore hastily as- sembled a small body of troops, not half the number of the army which was besieging it, and gave the com- mand of them to the Constable Montmorency. This general had hitherto been distinguished, not less by his prudence and caution, than by his skill and bravery. on this occasion, however, anxious to extri- cate his nephew, he conducted himself with fatal rash- ness. At first, indeed, his attempt to relieve the town was attended with success, for, by approaching the camp of the enemy, the brother of Coligny, with 500 troops, was enabled to force his entrance into the town. Here, however, his success ended ; for, in the execu- tion of this design, Montmorency had drawn too near the entrenchments of the besie, The Duke of Sa- voy, always on the alert, advantage of this cir- cumstance ; and, as soon as the French general began to retire, he pressed on him with superior numbers, In Battle of St yain did Montmorency use his utmost endeavours to Histery. —_—yo The Spa- hiards in- vade France. Quintin, his men firm and in order. The Count E t. 1, iak;, at the head of the Duke of Savoy’s cavalry, bende» fo: “ious charge, which the French could not withstand ; FRANCE. their ranks were broken ; and their men at arms, who } had hitherto digi. eafea lane) onl. Seem courage in the midst of the most imminent. danger, sought shelter in a precipitate and disorderly fli : soon as the horse gave way, the foot, who had d. ed on them for support ion, wa\ : second charge decided their fate; they also fled in the ~ utmost terror and confusion. Above 4000 peri in the field ; and the Constable himself, after in vain en- deavouring, by his example and ions, to reani~ mate his troops, and to put a stop to their flight, having received a s wound, was made prisoner, slong with the Dukes of Montpensier and Longueville, an the Marshal St Andre. Such was the result of the famous battle of St Quin- tin, which was fought on the 10th of August 1557. The intelligence of it spread consternation and terror Consterma. through France, almost to as great a degree as the bat- 5°? it tles of Cressy and Agincourt. Already it re eee, ee app 15 the - inhabitants of which prepared to quit it. In this pe- riod of general dismay, the firmness and i benef refused to almit the Grand Signior was solicited ; the Scots were incited to invade the North of England, for the purpose of draw- ing off the English troops to the protection of their own territory. The ban and arrierban of the frontier provinces were called out; and, in short, every mea sure was taken which could operate towards the weak- ening or distraction of Philip’s forces, or the ic of France. When we consider, however, the power of Philip, the consternation which pervaded rance, and the great loss which she had sustained in the battle of St Quintin, it may well be doubted whether all these recautions and efforts would have been availing, had Phil ursued with alacrity and vigour the advan’ which 3 had gained. But he refused to listen to the advice of the Duke of Savoy, who strongly and wisely urged, that, overlooking all. inferior and intermediate objects, they should march, without the smallest de- lay, by the shortest route to Paris. The cautious temper of Philip, afraid of committing his forces, in the heart of France, without a single place to retreat to in case of disaster, strongly objected to this plan ; and he asked the opinion of his other generals. They, easily ascertaining how their monarch was inclined, re~ commended that the siege of St Quintin should be con- tinued, which, it was supposed, could not now hold out many days. In this ex tion they were disap« pointed. Coligny, fully sensible that the fate of France ly d on his holding out till Henry had red sufficient means to oppose the progress of the enemy towards Paris, put forth, in a most wonderful and successful manner, all the resources of his great talents and long sapere For 17 days, he baffled the repeated assaults of the Spaniards, English, and Flemings ; at length, overwhelmed by superior num- bers, the town was carried by storm, and Coligny him- self was taken prisoner on the breach. St Quintin was St Quin thus taken ; but by this time it was no longer prudent taken. — to advance into France, and Philip became sensible that he had lost an opportunity that could never be recalled: he therefore contented himself with reducing the petty : towns of Horn, Catelet, and Noyon, which, with St ed ee I ee re 3 = z 5 = 8 tae! F q g as a Catholic king, to his». pressed the Duke of May- weak protection as a t prince. i Though the court of Spain and the Pope in vain en- ; and the Catholics of deavoured to allay that satisfaction which was gene- that rally diffused over France by the conversion of Henry,: f m. The yet this event did not immediately produce all-the be- were accordingly convoked, the Duke of neficial effects expected from it. The Marquis of Vitri, under pretence of sipporting their determina- who, on the death of Henry IL. had deserted the: Trance 5 EE | = E i ( te iit i 4 ; : Saar preparing to enter with a powerful king, and had been appointed by the League to the army, when the ¢ th of that Seth Honry pct ee ry Pana Ga ay aga Meeting of from a most formidable enemy. The states, however, turned to his allegiance.. He had often solicited the — met at Paris on the 26th of January 1593; but it was Duke of Mayence in vain.to make peace with the ‘A.D. 1593, 908 evident, that their deliberations and resolutions king, as the cause of the war was at an end; and om Hestery. —_—\y— Several cues ace knowlalge him. Attempt on his life. Defents the Duke of Mayence, A. D. 1595. 584 receiving no satisfactory answer, he resolved to dis- | rp thar he conceived his duty required of him. He ore ordered the garrison to evacuate the town, and, delivering the keys to the magistrates, he said, « I scorn to steal an advantage, or to make my fortune at other men's expence. I am going to pay my allegiance to the king, and I leave it in your power to act as you please.” This short, but candid and honest was received by shouts from the inhabitants, of “ Long life to Henry IV.!" and the example of Meaux was followed by the cities of Orleans, Bourges, Lyons, and Pontoise. When the deputies from Meaux waited upon Henry, they were so confounded, that they were incapable of speech, and threw themselves at the king’s feet. Having regarded them in silence for some mo- ments, Henry burst ‘into tears, and, lifting them up, said, ‘* Come not, as enemies, to crave forgiveness ; but come as children to a father, always willing to receive you with open arms.” The king determined to take advantage of returning prosperity to celebrate his coronation. As Rheims was still in the ion of the enemy, he was crown- ed at Chartres. Almost immediately afterwards, the winees of Orleannois and os were a up their respective governors to the king; and a sin- pa accident rn the capital to him. The Duke of Mayence having been obliged to leave it, to quell some Tietbenned in Picardy, entrusted the com- mand of it to the Count de Brisac. This nobleman seems to have formed the romantic idea of establishing a republic in France ; but his designs being received with contempt by the chiefs of the League, he deliver- ed up the capital to Henry. Villars, who had so gal- lantly defended Rouen, soon afterwards opened the gates of that city, and a asc Henry king. The young Duke of Guise also made his peace ; and, on the reduction of Laon by the king in person, Amiens, and a t aoa of Picardy, submitted to him. In A om midst of his successes, his enemies resolved to assail his life. On his return from Picardy to Paris, John Chastel, a scholar of the college of the Jesuits, struck him on the mouth with a knife, as, in the apart- ments of the Louvre, he stooped to embrace a nobleman that was presented to him. The blow was intended for his threat, but his stooping prevented it touching that dangerous part. Chastel was instantly seized, and de- livered over to condign punishment. On his examina- tion, he confessed that he had been prompted to this deed by hearing his p tors assert, that the murder of kings was lawful, and that as Henry had not yet been absolved by the Pope, he ought still to be regard- ed and treated as a heretic: hence he inferred that it would be a merit to put him to death. Father Guis- card, on whom were found some writings, which in- culeated the same doctrine, was also executed, and all the Jesuits were banished by a decree of the parliament of Paris. In 1595, Henry entered the city of Dijon in Bur- dy, convinced that his life would be safest while was in the midst of his troops, and engaged in mi- litary affairs. Scarcely, however, had he made himself master of Troyes, before he learnt that the Duke of Mayence, in conjunction with the Spaniards, had cros- sed the Saone. He immediately resolved to attack them ; and conducted himself on this occasion with so much boldness and impetuosity, that, with only 1800 troops, he routed an army of 14,000 men. In Picardy, however, his cause was not so fortunate; the Spanish army invading that province, and reducing several FRANCE. : cities of im which Henry himself, in com ance with the ambition of his mistress, the fair brielle D'Etrees, who wanted a principality for her son, pe ae ao a fruitless tion into Franche Compté. In su mee” 0 1596, the Duke of Guise surprised Marseilles, Henry was informed of this event, he was so much transported, that he ex- separate himself from them ; but he had formed a re- solution never to acknowledge Henry, til] that monarch had been absolved by the Pope. Henry, being made aequainted with his scruples, secretly su, to him to retire to Chalons, till his Holiness granted his absolu- tion; and the Duke had scarcely reached that place, when the Roman Pontiff, fully convinced that Her was firmly established on the throne, absolved him in form. e Duke immediately threw himself at the feet of the sovereign, and vowed a fidelity which he proved to be conscientious, by his future conduct. Soon after these events, Archduke Albert, who was now governor of the Netherlands, sent an army to besiege Calais, which was obliged to surrender, be- fore the king could come to its assistance. This cala~ pyouttes i mity was soon followed by another still more grievous, Henry. Spaniards. for Amiens was taken by surprise by the Nor were the demands on the king's ess and men tal resources yet exhausted ; he was harassed by the complaints of the Protestants, who expected that he would have ted them pyrene 2 eee a vileges; and the Dukes of Savoy Morceur, still re- fused to acknowledge his authority, unless on condi- tions with which he did not deem it proper to 4 The king at this time labouring under a severe in position, felt these misfortunes more keenly ; and his difficulties were greatly increased by the exhausted state of his finances. He was therefore under the necessity of assembling his nobles, and ing them acquainted with the real state of his affairs ; “ I have not called you Pn woes said he, “ as my predecessors used to do, to oblige you to adopt my measures, or im~« plicitly obey my will: I have assembled you, to take your advice, to which I will listen with attention and candour, and with a firm resolution to follow it, pro vided it will benofit the country.” Bur the nobility, though disposed to give their advice, were not in a condition to assist their sovereign in carrying into ef- fect the measures which they recommended; the were exhausted and dispirited. “Give me an army, cried he, “ and I will cheerfully sacrifice my life for the state.” Troops Low could supply him ‘with ; but as he complained, b for these troops could not be rocured. nes : In this critical and embarrassing situation, he had the sense to it the Marquis de Rosny, after- saci Dake of Sully, soperntendant BP ape in wards the celeb the finances ; and he soon placed the tion to support the expences of the war, financial measures were wise and efficacious, at the same time that they were not burdensome to the people. By means of them, Henry in a short time was at head of an army of 20,000 men, the best appointed that he had ever commanded. Elizabeth reinforced this army with 4000 troops ; so that in 1597, the king deemed himself sufficiently strong to attempt the recovery of Amiens, _ « Let us go,” said he, on setting out on this expedi- tion, “ and act the King of Navarre; we have acted the King of France long enough.” ‘The enterprise was nd perin 4 in a situa~ the finances, . PO Ee —$—$—$——_ FRANCE. History. worthy of the talents of the King ; for the Spanish gar- Wleemcaaipten idiporcance of the place, and knew that on that account’ the Archduke would’ mareh to its” relief, @ most obstinate and nt defence. “The Archduke did indeed advance to it, but not being able to force the French lines, though his army was composed of « 25,000 excellent troops, he retired, and Amiens surren~ dered to Henry. ‘The next enterprize of this monarch was against Dourlens, which he also hoped to take: But his troops were fatigued ; disease and discontent began to prevail among them; the works went slowly on from these causes, and the unfavourable weather ; the artillery could not be brought up, in’ consequence: of the badness of the roads ; and the vigilance of the Archduke had pre- pared the city with every thing necessary for its defence. Henry, therefore, had begun the siege, before he was convinced that it would be wise + Prccmeag it; = accordingly disbanded the greater part of his troops, an leaving his cavalry for the defence of the frontier, return- ed 13 Paris, ‘Here he was received with every mark of loyalty-and attachment; but his stay could not be long, for Brittany still was in possession of the 3 and * the Duke of Morceur, of the family of Lorraine, nourish- ed the flames of sedition there. The King, therefore, as soon as the return of spring permitted his troops to march, advanced to Angers. The Duke taken unawares, and deserted by the principal part of the nobility, ‘consi- dered ‘himself as utterly lost, when the lucky th 1 lought pre- sented itself of offering his daughter, the heiress of his at his request a con was held, the ipotentia- ries of iinie’ and Spain, at Veriae? a oa Picardy. ooght hnsell at what anonerier tachi meakty aud Pros it in what manner he might satisfy the Pro- testants, without offending the Catholics, or exciting their Fadict of Suspicions. This was no easy task; but he effected it in Nantes. © @ wise and’ politic manner, by passing the famous edict of Nantes in favour of the Protestants. This edict con- firmed to them all the rights and privileges which had pony tom egt them by former princes, and it added a free ion to all employments of trust, profit, and ho- nour ;-an establishment of chambers of justice, in which the members of the two religions were equal ; and liber- ty to-educate their children without restraint in any of the universities. _ The iations at Vervins were at- tended with considerable difficulties, but these being re- moved principally by means of the Pope, Hen signed a peace, by which he obtained the restitution of Calais, Ardres, lens, and all the towns of France which Spain had wrested from him, but at the same time gave up his pretensions to Cainbray, . ‘When this peace was concluded in 1598, France stood much in need of repose, The crown was loaded with debts and pensions ; the country was uncultivated; the people were poor “and miserable ; and the nobility, long VOL, IX. PART IL. task remained for him than 585 : aceustomed to a life of rebellion and plunder, were desti- _ History. tute of all sense of justice, moderation, or loyalty. -Hen- ry, therefore, “was convinced, that a ‘still more arduous Henry’s ef- any he had yet undertaken ; frts to im- to and that'it would be necessa Dring all his powers of P*°v* *h mind into action, if he wished to’ restore happiness to France. France. He was also convinced, that the’ measures which it would be necessary to pursue, would meet with violent opposition from all those, whose habits and inter- ests attached them to rapine and disordér; but he was neither intimidated at the greatness, nor perplexed by the intricacy, of the task which he undertook. No man in- deed was better qualified for it. Res His object was single ; he suffered no thought or wish to interfere with his desire for the public good ; and his talents were of that description, that what he desired ar- dently and sincerely, he could examine in all its bearings, and ascertain every possible mode by which it could be accomplished. He was aware that he must proceed with caution, and that many must be enticed to do or permit, what, if they were ordered to do, or reasoned with, they - would undoubtedly oppose. Among all men of the mi- litary profession, he’ possessed great influence, from his’ ‘success in war, and his courageous and open disposition ; while, to the nobility in general, he was recommended by his magnanimity, gallantry and gaiety. The people loved and reverenced him ; they were convinced, that all his actions were directed to their good, and they even gave him credit for aiming at it, when their ignorance or their passions prevented them from perceiving in what man ner his measures would promote it. As the more violent and factious had experienced his vigour and ie tude, they were afraid to excite his suspicion, by oppo- sing his schemes. Thus he found himself in a:condition to undertake the mighty and benevolent work of nerating France, and of curing the wounds which_a long civil war had inflicted on her morals, her happiness, and her finances. — Still, however, the task was too great for one mind, even of the highest talents, and purest views. ‘Henry, therefore, called to his assistance the Marquis de Rosny, whom he created Duke of Sully. This justly character celebrated man, in some respects resembled his master ; of Sully. and where he did not resemble him, thé difference was such, as rendered their dispositions ‘and talents mutually beneficial, instead of antagonist to each other. Henry was naturally fond of pleasure, and of a volatile temper ; hence he required a steady and thoughtful: friend, ‘pose sessed of more coolness and perseverance than himself: this friend he found in Sully. « Attached to his mas- ter’s person by friendship, and to his interest and the public good by principle, he employed himself with the most indefatigable ind to restore the dignity of the crown without giving umbrage to the nobility, or tres- passing on the rights of the people.” As all these plans of reform and amelioration depended on the restoration of the finances, Sully first applied his attention to them, and, in a very short time, he exhibited a statement of them so simple, clear, and satisfactory, digesting the whole system into tables, that the King became perfectly master of his own affairs, and was able, by a single glance, to see all the branches of his revenue and expenditure. As it was one of Sully’s maxims, that every man employ- ed in collecting the revenue was a citizen lost to the pub- lic, and yet maintained by the public, he levied taxes in the shortest and most frugal manner ; all the expences of the government were curtailed: but those which were ne- 45 walg agriculture. consequence of five years, all the debts of the crown were revenue was ted four millions of livres ; expenditure in the treasury, while the taxes were much Though Sully was convinced that while the finances i were embarrassed, the operations of govern- and with it in and viewed the re-establishment of the te giving due effect to its laws and regulations, consequently i finances as a measure first demanding his attention, he im laws are re- of a nation, he resolved to secure them b enacting good laws, and by every other method whi pt ewe gipee and sagacity could devise. He was, in- , not one of those politicians, who coldly, as well as unwisely, regard the real stength of a nation to consist entirely in its pecuniary resources, or even in its In Sully’s character, there was a grand and dignified simplicity, which accorded better with the manners, than with the feelings and wishes of Henry ; for though that monarch, in his private life, was free from ali unneces- sary pomp, and his gellen was forgotten in or companion, yet his t- ry and love of pleasure, too often led him aside from path of simplicity, and to prefer ostentation and show. Sully, on the con , could not suffer himself to entertain the idea, that Juxury was not prejudicial, ‘both to the moral feelings and principles, and to the real of a peo He therefore patronised most i pursuits, and seems to have formed the i that an agricultural nation possessed within itself all thet was necessary for its happiness and secu- were four millions of surplus above the regular i enjoyed himself most, when the king i the friend sisprucnani but she was violent and unguarded in her love. of plea- sure; and mingling the fervours of religion with the ex- cesses of dissipation, her time was alternately occupi by enthusiastic devotion, and unrestrained sensuality. enry, coldly averse to her from the very period of their marriage, was by no means select A, ges i except when some woman of uncommon beauty and ace complishments captivated him, For some considerable - time before the peace of Vervins, Gabrielle D’Estrees, whom he had successively created marchioness of Mon« and of legitimating his astoual children ; pte even made out a promise of marriage thstandi) he was not yet divorced from Margaret. This promise he shewed to Sully, who tore it to pieces. . “I believe you are turned a fool,” said . 1 know it,” re- an Sully, «and I wish I were the only fool in France.” otwithstanding this daring and virtuous freedom of Sully, Henry was so sensible of his real worth, and sin« cere attachment to him, that, so far from being offended, he added to his former employments that of master of the ordnance. At length, in 1599, the sentence of di- di vorce, which he had so long and ardently desired, was ‘pr from the court o reer poke oat, ‘Henry’s ion was cooled ; reflection t t him, BD. laweCeets fad Hecli’ Gn the’ pole of staining his character ‘and injuring ‘his people, Bier he made out the promise marry his mistress. He therefore resolved to be guided in his second marriage, -solely by the considera- tion of what would most benefit France ; and, in order to effect this, and please his subjects, he nominated Mary de Medicis, niece to the grand Duke of Tuscany. But ‘having done this, in compliance with the wishes of his people, and from a conviction that thus he had served their interests, he did not scruple again to deliver him- self up to gallantry ; and his attachment to the Marchio- ness of Verneuil was the frequent cause of disagreements between him and his queen. In the mean time, the intrigues of the court of Spain e him great uneasiness and alarm, His ancient and inveterate enemy Philip was indeed no more, but his successor ‘inherited his designs of molesting the throne of Henry, and incited the Duke of Savoy to make war against him. The Duke, however, soon experienced the evil consequences of his proceedin, Bresse, Savoy, and Nice, were immediately subdued by the armies of France ; and in a very short Aces Bry es ‘ore not supported, as he expected, by Spain, he implo' me- ‘diation of the Pope to extricate him out ofa war into which he had thus rashly plunged. In 1601, therefore, a treaty was accordi formed, on condition that the : Duke should cede to see einer ids onto extensive territory on the banks of the Rhine, and pay “freachery “100,000 crowns to defray the expences of thewar. The of Biron, during the war, had in a secret cor- em 10014 dence with the Marshal Biron, who, boasting that “he liad placed Henry on the throne of France, did not eee ae a ae ‘and felt hi ‘humbled, duri is ig- norance even of the sores Apion of learning. These motives and feelings operated to make him wish-again for war ; and even at the time when he was leading the _ French’ ormies into the territories of the Duke of Savoy, he was engaged in a correspondence’ with that~prince. This dence had not escaped the vigilant atten- tion of the king, who, when at Lyons; reproached him with his seditious designs. The Marshal acknowledged his crime; professed his repentance ; protested future fidelity ; and thus succeeded in obtaining the forgiveness of his sovereign, who endeavoured still farther to awaken ‘his gratitude, by the of a large sum of money ; and ‘to keep him out of the way of future guilt, by appoint- harry first to the court of England, and ‘ _to the Swiss cantons. But the Marshal had no sooner returned from these’ embassies, than he re- sumed his ambitious projects ; entered into an alliance with the courts of Spain and Turin; and succeeded in drawing over the Duke of Bouillon, and the Count d’Au- 3 -vergne, natural son to Charles 1X. Circumstances seem- - * ed favourable to the plans of the conspirators ; disaffec- tion was widely spread though France, in’ uence of Henry's yielding to the influence of his mistress in the ‘ nomination to ecclesiastical’ dignities; his ne- glect of the Protestants; and the numerous imports ‘which it was necessary to lay on, in order to support the state. These compleints, in some respects: well-ground- FRANCE. 587 ed, in other respects without foundation, were listened to _ History. and enco' by the Marshal and his associates ; and as the counties of Anjou, Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, Guienne and Languedoc, were in a state of revolt, they already anticipated the overthrow of the power of Henry. But their hopes and plans were disappointed. They had employed a person of the name of La Fin in their most secret intrigues, who, in a moment of di , revealed to Henry the whole of the conspiracy. Henry did not hesitate for the shortest period, in what manner he ought to act ; but first went into the seditious provinces, and~ having overawed the people by his firmness, or brought’ them back to their duty by his popular manners, and by’ the recollection of what he had done and suffered for’ France, he returned to Fontainebleau, determined to bring the principal conspirators to the block, before they were strengthened by the troops of Spain and Savoy. Biron was at this time in his government of Burgundy, strength- ening the most important cities in that province, when he received an order from Sully, as master general of the ordnance, to send back the cannon of Burgundy, under pretence of new casting them. No sooner, how- ever, were transported beyond the government of Biron, than Sully stopped the new ones, with which he had promised to replace them. This first excited the suspicions of Biron, which were confirmed by his learn- ing that La Fin had bad a private conference with the king. He now lost all his courage and presence of mind ; and though he could not hope for the royal clemency, yet such was his agitation, that he obeyed the summons of Henry, and along with the Count D’Auvergne, re« paired to Fontainebleau. Henry’still wished, if possible, to save him ; and, for ‘this purpose, endeavoured to lead him to: a fall confession of his guilt, in order that he might justify his clemency ; but ‘the Marshal was obsti- te; and Henry was at length compelled to give way to the regular proceedings of justice. The* proofs being clear and positive, the judges unanimously’ pronounced the sentence of death. At the’place of execution, Biron behaved: in a manner by no means becoming his situation, or agreeably to his former conduct ; for he was seized by alternate fits of terror and and thus disgraced, in his last moments, the character of Intrepid, which he had acquired amidst the dangers of war, The of Bouillon was yet in arms, and refused to Henry ad- obey the royal summons for his appearance at court. vances a- Henry, therefore, determined by his presence to reduce geinst the this rebellious subject. Accordingly he directed his course penai. through the provinces of Auvergne and Limousin, and 4 approached where Bouillon’ was, before that nobleman suspected he had left Fontainebleau. Astonished, there- fore, and unprepared for resistance, he ordered the go- vernors of the-towns which belonged to him to open their gates, and thus by his apparent sincerity succeeded in disarming the resentment of his sovereign. Scarcely, however, liad Henry returned to Paris, when the restless and discontented disposition of the Duke again broke out into acts of sedition; and he-found it absolutely necessa- ry to crash him at once and effectually, With’ a small but well-appointed body of infantry, supported by a train of artillery, under the command of the Duke of Sully, he pressed forward to Sedan ; and Bouillon again began to Biron ex- ecuted, consider his situation dangerous, On Spain he could not rely ; the Protestants, with whom ‘he had been a great favourite, were shocked at his disloyalty, and flocked to the standard of the King. He therefore again threw reg beeen His disho nourable at. tachinen' Charlotte de pepe Monune- rency. FRAN GE. 588 hieself on the royal mercy, and, however unworthy, ob- ul, about this period, experienced a greater share of domestic unhappiness than ever. The temper and ha- bits of the Queen were utrerly st, variance with his, She was cold, indifferent, and reserved ; blindly attached. to her Italian favourites, and regardless of the wishes or in- terests of the King. Such a temper and conduct were ill calculated to draw him from those amours, to which he was so much adlicted, The Queen complained of them, at the very time when she was rendering her own society repelling and disagreeable to her husband. Hence the inmost recesses of the palace were disturbed by their mu- tual and incessant complaints; and Sully, whose good offices were always required on these occasions, often found the utmost difficulty in accommodating these quar- rels. The King, wearied out with the arrogance of the Marchioness of Verneuil, sought a new mistress ; and was captivated by the wit and apres of the daughter of the constable, Charlotte de Montmorency. — So ardent - was his passion for this lady, and so completely did it ob- good. sense, and pollute the purity and honour that he formed the disgraceful resolution of marrying her to the Prince of Condé, that thus he might introduce her into his own family. The Prince, soon af- ter his , diseovered that Henry was still attached to his wife, and he desired leave to quit the court. This the King positively refused, and thus. confirmed the sus- picions of the Prince, who immediately formed the plan of secretly escaping with his wife band the limits of the kingdom. He reached Landrecy in safety, when ithe King, bearing of his flight, and transported with rage and ief, dispatched the captain of his guards to demand the itives from the Archduke ; but Albert replied,’ « that he had never violated the laws of nations on any occa- sion whatever, and that he could not begin. with a prince of the blood royal of France.” _ The. Prince and_his wife _ afterwards took up their, abode at Brussels ; but Henry, instead of being saa to a sense of duty and respect for his own character by the. reply of the Archduke, first ineffectually attempted to carry off the Princess, and then commanded the parliament to pass an arret against the Prince, and to condemn him to suffer whatever punish- ment he might chuse to inflict. In 1609, a dispute arose concerning the succession to wean he the duchies of Cleves and Juliers, which afforded Henry a f D.1609. pretext for taking up arms, and with the real view of hum- the House of Austria, and circumscribing its power in Italy and Germany. On. the death of Jobn William, — of Cleves, a number of competitors arose ; and it to two of them, who were Protestant princes, mperor meant. to of the vacant po 2 dh they applied first to ae Evangelical Union, a confederacy of Protestants, which had been recently form- ed in Germany, and, as the Emperor was in alliance with the Pope and the King of Spain, afterwards to France. Henry now had a sufficient excuse for breaking openly with the.House of Austria ; seal $8 tatoos) of the neko iteore ane the Prince and Princess of Condé at the same time, private re united with public policy in inducing him to poms Protestant envoys most favourably for their wishes. He therefore renewed his ancient alliance with the United Provinces, and cultivated the friendship of England ; while the Pro- testant princes of Germany readily united. with him. in his plan for humbling the House of Austria. Even the Duke of Sayoy, in expectation of acquiring ; the duchy of Milan, gpa Rpm ius m Austria, agreed to join the con » and to give up Savoy to. France ; and the Italian states, Jong worn out by ‘conti- nued warfare, and constantly exposed to irruptions from Germany, Spain, and Frio associated in the design, in the hope. of possessing undisturbed wr quill pand na- D ed than tional independence for the future, itis. bable, that the design of Henry went much merely to pruis the Labry Puss renee ier the peas and strength e House o tria, s might ha been the immediate and primary object, but there ipod reason to believe, that the plan of a Christian commons wealth, as it is exhibited in Sully’s Memoirs, was serious- , ly entertained by Henry, Concerning this scheme, there have been various ‘ideas, His grand To some it appears so romantic, that they cannot believe design. that it ever actually engaged the attention, or excited the hopes of such men as Henry and Sully ; but that a plan was really formed, which was known by the appellation, of the grand design, there can be no doubt, According to it, Europe was to.be divided into fifteen states, so” with respect to situation, and so. poised with yaa strength and resources, that there would either beno for war, or no probability of any state carrying it on success. In. order to compose sen tesa ones were to be united with the Biba me were to be bound bya such as would render it the interest of all to p een e sponte on. Sa aaeane rare plan, it.is scarcel le to conceive it could entertained -by..Henry or Sully ; and epegss! 294 to believe, that its object was at the same time more practicable, and less disinterested. In fact, meer der the knowledge of mankind, which they both sed.; the experience they ‘had of the. difficulties attend= ing even the arrangement of petty concerns, where dif- ferent states were interested, and the little i shat any ehines phennactes sitiethe inseeretarts ‘rance, would rouse their attention, or excite their wishes; we shall be induced to believe, that the t of their own country was the final end at which they 2s ed in their grand design, Or if thi tha te Bean net be admitted, there seems no doubt, ciated states into Siig eeepc on to be formed solely by: means of compulsion ; a yond the wishes and) the interests of those at east of the inferior states, were not to be consulted. _ That the object, whatever it was, which Henry had in reached Reps OherEe is evident bid ~« the field, he pepself had Pig en huciagn ah vn well-disciplined troops. Sully assured him eon forty millions in the treasury ; and added, « If not increase your army beyond 40,000, I np ay supply you with money sufficient for the prosecution of the war, without being under the perm of imposing any new, taxes.” pine Leable Sarge ae, resolved to command his 2 n oy agp made preparations . etting out from his go to the capital, cepital “Be Appointed the he oem but she in- “"™y- sisting on being crowned before his stay in the capital wap nerserer garam mean time, as his route lay through Flanders, sion from ,the Archduke Charles to march History. territories; t \— tertai ‘ aT. FRANCE. 589 the court of Austria pet have en- tertained suspicions of the real object of so great an We eth Geinewse tions, yet, as the rchduke was not for resistance, he answered in terms of respectfu Ri ibpauaacee Nothing now retard- ed his departure, but the coronation of the queen. Sully i as, the thoughts of this ceremony disquieted him greatly, and that he felt an inward, unaccountable, and obscure dread of some approaching misfortune. It is probable that the greatness of the object which he had in view, might have impressed his manners and countenance with unusual gravity ; and that this after- wards was attributed to a timent of his fate. At the same time, it must be admitted. that the recollec- tion of the narrow escapes which he had often made, and of the opportunity which a crowd afforded of at- ing his life, could hardly fail to arise in his mind ; and if it did occur, must have rendered him unquiet and mélancholy. Besides, he had often been displeased with the attention and indulgence which the queen dis- Baverfo Ber Italian favourites ; and he mig ta - d that, during his absence, they would conduct themselves with more than their usual audacity, and excite the Paras of the people. Notwithstanding tat ap ions, however, wg me ful e which he uni - expressed, and_ sincere a pageantry Sed odeaiiten te sae that the coronation should ificence, The next Sunday was fixed for the public entry of the queen, and on the Wednesday following, oH had resolved to quit Paris, and to put himself at the of his army. Isassassina- But the termination of the life of this really great ted. A.D. 1610. Jed from _ Epernon and Montbazon, the king was near at hand. Francis Ravilliac had travel- , his native province, to Paris, in order to procure a livelihood ; but being di inted, and reduced to extreme poverty and ess, he conceived the design of arming his hand against the King of France. after he arrived in capital, he conducted himself in such a manner as plainly proved him to be a wild and frantic visi ; and this frame of mind must have been rendered still more lomina- Sing Fy ea Sierewe SnCe Be Be - Being a bigoted i regard: , as he was going to assist the sits, an all a BereRiC i thems. Phone are & dened by enthusiasm, distress, and bi , he watched ty of striking the fatal blow. Henry had _ an opportuni proposed to visit the arsenal on the morning of the day after the coronation ; but he postponed his intention, in consequence of the indisposition of Sully, till the after- noon, when, finding himself disquieted and restless, he ordered his coach ; and, accompanied by the Dukes of ahr arshals Lavardin and Du Plessis, Liancourt, his master of the harse, he determined to proceed to the arsenal. The captain of the guards was ordered to a back and the royal footmen. ' e king might have a full and unobstructed view of the various ornaments and devices which the citizens had prepared on the oc- to a narrow street, where the was by the accidental meeting of two carts. Most part of the at- tendants, on this, took a nearer way, and only two footmen were left, one of whom went forward to clear the , and the other .was accidentally detained History, behind. Ravilliac, who had been watching a fit oppor- tunity to execute his p , instantly stept forward, mounted the wheel of the carriage, and, as the king turned to read a letter to the Duke of Epernon, he stabbed him over the Duke’s shoulder, Henry had scarcely time to exclaim, “ I am wounded!” before a second blow, more fatally directed, pierced his heart ; and, breathing only a deep sigh, he sunk down lifeless. The assassin did not attempt to escape, but remain, supporting himself on the wheel of the coach, with the bloody knife in his hand, till he was seized. He would immediately have been torn in pieces by the king’s at- tendants, had not the Duke of Epernon interfered. The same nobleman quieted the apprehensions of the multitude, by assuring them that the king was merely wounded, and that they were carrying him to the Louvre, in order to have his wounds » eae The crowd instantly gave way ; and the body being convey- ed to the palace, was laid upon a bed ; but it is said, that it was soon deserted by most of those who so late- ly had courted the protection and favour of their sove- reign. The most dreadful tortures were inflicted on Ra- villiae: his bones were broken by the arms of the exe- cutioner: his flesh was torn by hot pincers: into the wounds thus made, scalding lead and oil were poured ; and his mangled body, still quivering with life, was de- livered to be torn to pieces by four horses. Even after all these excruciating torments, the vital principle was not destroyed, when the multitude, mad with rage, rushed through the guards, and in an instant the last spark of life was extinguished. In the midst of all his torments, he isted, that it was entirely his own act, and that he had no accomplice ; declaring, that, “ im- pressed with the idea that the armaments of Henry were destined against the Catholic church, he alone had planned, and was payy to the deed, but that he was now convinced of his guilt, and trusted that his suffer- ings in this world would atone for it.” Of the character of Henry. we have already sketch- 443, charac- ed the leading features, as well as pointed out the be- ter. oT nefits which, during his reign, he bestowed on his sub- jects ; but the extreme rarity of such an assemblage of excellent qualities in a sovereign, will authorise us to recur to the subject. His master virtue undoub was his love for his country ; not a cold, abstract, or unenlightened love, but that feeling which constitutes the rarest and pages. order of patriotism, which leads him, in whose breast it dwells, to be zealous of his country’s rights, to be anxious for its happiness, and most keen and penetrating in examining into the means that will best promote it: while such a person is by no means blind to the imperfections or vices which m prevail in it, but, on the contrary, convinced that they are the enemies of his country’s happiness, his patriotism induces him to acknowledge their existence, and to us his utmost efforts to extirpate them. Under the di- rection of this warm and exalted patriotism, all the ta- lents of Henry’s powerful and well cultivated mind, were brought into exercise. His chief weakness was undoubtedly his inordinate passion for women, which eee inf many irregularities A but this was a blemish ra in his private character, for he never permitted his mistresses to direct his councils, ees influence him in the choice of his servants. It must be con- fessed, however, that the ers of the nation, at least of the court, were rendered loose and prota is loose- by the example of his libertine conduct: and 590 ness of manners rise to other consequences l rench gentlemen are said to have been in single combats, chiefly arising from amorous ls, during the first eighteen years of his i: a general, his emp otem. eaceely. 5 though his success t, Ps, to be ascri to the confidence and affection with which he inspired his officers and soldiers, than to the comprehensive plans on which he conducted his campaigns, or the masterly manceuvres which he put in practice during an ment. Having been accustomed to the profession of arms from his earliest youth, he not only set an example of la- bour, iety, and , but charmed the soldiers by his behaviour and discourse, which entertained them by its sprightliness and vivacity, at the same time that it convinced them that he was really their father and friend. It is scarcely possible to conceive with what yess even the common soldiers endeavoured, by their conduct, to deserve his approbation ; and it was not because they thus hoped to be substantially rewarded, for the least expression of praise from him was hailed with rapture, and acquired inestimable value. Nor were the soldiers the only class among his sub- jects who regarded him with the affection of children. he same feeling towards him the breasts of most Frenchmen,—even of those who differed from him with respect to religion, while he was a Protestant, and who suspected his sincerity when he professed himself a Catholic. Of this, they gave such undoubted proofs, as amply to justify the reply of Henry to the Duke of Savoy, when he asked him what the revenue of France amounted to ;—‘* To what I please; for having the hearts cay people, they will grant me whatever I ask ; if sees to my life, I will take eare that France be in such a condition, that every it in it shall be able to have a fowl in his pot.” e houses of some ts in Champagne having been pi by the soldiery, the King sent for their officers, who happened to be at Paris, and commanded them instantly to repair to Cham e, and restore or- der, and punish = a Ce “¥ gti “eit ruin my people, who shall support me; how will ee teen be mepecnten 5 who will pay_you, sirs? To plunder my people is to plunder me. e was ex- tremely attentive to his officers, and they did not hesi- tate to consult him ing all their distresses and difficulties: The Spanish ambassador, expressing his surprise at finding him one day almost besieged by them, the King replied, “ If you saw me during a bat- tle, they then ga still more closely round me.” Bat though he was thus affable, he knew when it was his duty to be firm and resolute. A person of bea vaca ee influence asked a favour for = Ww iad been guilty of murder. His sn. 94 Bi dignified, veithonk being harsh. “Tam sorry it is not in my power to. grant your request. It becomes to act as the uncle ; it becomes me to act asthe King. I excuse your request; do you excuse my refusal. To these rare and excellent qualities of the head and heart, Henry added a most ing physi y, which at once commanded and inspired affec- tion and esteem. He was of middle stature ; of a fine complexion, a broad forehead, etrating eyes, an = meal and brown hair, Phish. hiv be to turn grey when he was only 33 years old. On this nappening, he remarked, that the storm of adversity early commenced to blow against him. Such was Henry IV. a sovereign who restored_trah- FRA NCE. erse pdhe who introduced order and economy into administration of the cles, so many disorders, and so many enemies. By M. lis Malicis be had tix guildiroty Sail ht by his di mistresses, besides those whom he not acknow ; He was in the 58th year of his age, and the 21st of his reign, when he was assassinated. . . Louis, the eldest of Henry’s three sons, by Mary de Louis X11 Medicis, was only in the ninth year of his age at his father’s death, and consequently it was to int a regent. A parliament was held, at which Duke of on, laying his hand on the hilt of his sword, said in a threatening tone, “ It is still in its Medicis character, she soon became the dupe and instrument of Medicis her Italian confidents and favourites. Concini, a na- 8% tive of Florence, Marquis D’Ancre, afterw: Marshal of France, and his wife Eleanora i, possessed an entire ascendency over her mind, directed the af- — fairs of the state asthey pleased. The Duke of Sully, iving that he was no longer capable of benefiti Kia country by his advice or services, and dis; with what was going on, indignantly reti court to his estates, resigning his offices of governor i t of the finances ; was persuaded, by of but he his regard to the interests of the Protestants, to retain his situations as Master of the Prince of Asturias. The Protestants imm took The the alarm, auguring that their tion. would mediately follow this line of foreign politics. Duke the mayor, who was attachied to his interest, and i inted another entirely at his own devotion, 17 Queen, timid by nature, and conscious that her power was still weak, a endeavoured to pacify, i ‘@ourt in- FRANCE. and had the Prince persevered, itis probable that Louis Histery-. é i i le difficulty in ree “vy justified, the Duke of Rohan, by re- mayor. The Prince of Condé, who, on death of Henry, had quitted his retreat in ded the regency, as first prince of the been tempted to fore; apes fis sey a splended palace and a sum of money. however, he was disconten and set himself the-Florentine favourites of the Queen; but herself entirely guided by the Count of Soissons caper wag , the is D’Ancre found , the Duke of Mantua dying without male issue, the Duke of Savoy, who had long wished to ob- of Italy, conceived that this would be a moment for the accomplishment of his ob- He therefore attem to seize Montserrat, an to Mantua, which was also claimed by the brother of the deceased Duke ; the latter, finding him- self unable to resist his opponent, applied for assistance of France, who, in conjunction with Spain and Venice, to su him. The Duke of Savoy, alt «agpantin the force which : E H Ht = } v i The princes of the glected, and sensible that 591 would have experienced co ficu ducing him to subjection ; but, after publishing a most violent manifesto, he permitted himself to be duped, laid down his arms, returned to court, and was arrest ed in the middle of the Louvre in 1616. The impri- sonment of the Prince in the Bastile awakened the sus- picions and alarms of the Dukes of Vendome, May- ence, Nevers, and Rohan, who, accompanied by a num- ber of the nobility, retired from court, and prepared to take up arms. This was the signal for public dis- contents being loudly ex ; and it was farther increased by the dismi from office of of state, of Vi , an old favourite and faithful servant of Henry IV., and by the promotion of the Bishop of Lucon, afterwards the celebrated Cardinal Richelieu, in his stead. Scarcely had the Bishop taken his seat at the coun- Cardinal cils of Louis, before he infused talents and vigour into Richelieu, of the state. Three armies were 4: D. 1616. all the eaenee immediately raised, and took the field, to support the royal authority; the first in Cham e, under the command of Duke of Guise ; second in the Nivernois, commanded by the Marshal Montigni; and Civil war. the third was entrusted to the Count D’Auvergne, whom the queen, drawing from the long confinement to which he had been sentenced by Henry, placed at the head of the royal forces in the Isle of France. The Duke of Guise reduced Chateau, Ponceau, and Rethel. The Marshal defeated and took prisoner the second son of the Duke of Nevers; and the Count surprised and dispersed the scattered bodies of the confederates, and shut up in Soissons the Duke of Mayence. This noble- man, son to the celebrated chief of the League in the reign of Henry, must have surrendered, had he not been preserved by an unexpected event. The Marquis D’Ancre, th and .des- The Italian Btates-gene- _ In 1614, the States-general were assembled, in com- pised by all the nobility of France, had hitherto up- favourites i i i i Reld his power in spite of their efforts to destroy Sata es tations and authority of the attorney-gene- ral, gave this brief reply : It fe my Glesthine, a also ueen’s. The king was now of age, but he still suffered him- self to be under the guidance and i and her favourites, 5 28 gee Sop a him; but he met with a more dangerous enemy in. yesteq, young Licenes, whose fortune was as remarkable as his own. Licenes had been placed by the Marquis himself about the person of the young king, into w favour he soon a himself by his assiduities, and the ardour with which he en into his childish amuse- ments. The Marshal thought that no danger of rival- ship could be from one who was occupied by such frivolous pursuits ; but this behaviour Licenes only ‘pe in order to conceal his ambitious views igns. He soon succeeded in inspiring the ki with a jealousy of the authority of the Marquis, ps | in ing him to shake off the yoke of his mother. The resolution of Licenes to destroy the authority of the Marquis, was strengthened by the refusal of the latter to unite his niece to Licenes’s brother. From that moment his ambition was whetted by the spirit of revenge. The king listened attentively to the repeated suggestions of Licenes, respecting the removal of the Marquis and the Italian favourites of the queen; and was struck with his representations, that his father Henry had ed with aversion their influence over her mind, and only been prevented, by her tears and entreaties, from sending them baths ie Geeone mee try. Nor was this the only topic on which he dwelt ; he insisted on the unpopularity which the king was ex- posed to, from aay! Imprisoned, at their suggestion, the first prince of the blood, and on the calamities which were impending over France. The restoration of tranquillity and loyalty, both among the nobility 592 FRA Mixory. and the great mass of the le, he said, were ; —Y—" andl the same means which’ weuld render the King te. spected and beloved by his subjects, would put him in ion of that authority of which he had been so deprived. Louis listened attentively. At first, the habits of dependence and submission in which he had been brought up, rendered him timid and appre- hensive; but afterwards, the love of power, and a sense of his own danger, from the disturbed state of the country, made him anxious to free himself from the influence of the Italians. This resolution he immedi- ately communicated to Licenes ; and, by his ‘advice, he exacted an oath from the captain of the guard to execute what he should command. Having obtained this oath, he informed him, that the royal orders were, that be should arrest the Marquis. He immediatel prepared to obey. By this time, he, as well as his wife and the queen, had intimation given them of the danger which was hanging over them. The marchio- ness, intimidated, wished to leave France; but her husband declared, that he never would desert the for- time which had hitherto befriended him.’ On the morn- ing of the day fixed for his destination, he had gone to the Louvre, surrounded by forty of his favourites or dependants ; and was attentively employed in reading a letter, when the captain of the guard, and a few friends whom he had associated with him in the enter- prise, made their appearance. The attendants of D’Ancre, supposing that the king was approaching, gave way ; and the captain of the guards advancing, him in the name of the king. Astonished, and su i treachery, he laid his band on his sword. This mark of his resistance was the signal for his destruction : three pistols were instantly fired at him, and he fell lifeless on the ground. As the king was at a window where he could see what was going on, his presence prevented the adherents of D’Ancre from rising in their master’s behalf. His son and his wife were im- mediately arrested. The latter, instead of being tried for her real crimes, though they were sufficiently noto- rious, was principally accused of sor and magic. The judge having demanded what charm she made use of for the Purpose of fascinating the queen, she replied, hobly and truly, “ The ascendant which a superior ius always has over a weak mind.” She was con- Secttied: and suffered the severest tortures. Andhenelf ‘The disgrace of the Queen-mother followed the de- disgraced. struction of her favourites. “Licenes succeeded to the honours and situations of D’Ancre ; the captain of the ards was raised to the rank of marshal; and the Bi- shop of Lucon was compelled to resign the seals of secretary of state. The submission of the Dukes of Mayence, Vendome, Nevers, and Rohan, were among the first consequences of the fall of the Italian favou- rites. Licenes now turned his attention to the best means of securing the permanency of his high situa- tion, and of ennobling his obscure birth by an illus- trious alliance. At first, he aspired to the sister of the Duke of Vendome, the natural daughter of Henry IV. ; but he afterwards judged it more prudent to lower his Views to the daughter of the Duke of Montbazon, who with pleasure received as his son-in-law the favourite of the king. Still, however, further measures were ne- cessary, to make the nobility and people forget that one favourite had only been destroyed to make roém for another. Licenes, therefore, who had been created Duke, assembled the states of Rouen in the year 1618, and abolished the most burdensome i ts: he also appeared zealous to procure the freedom of the Prince : 1 NCE. of Condé, in order to secure the favour of the pee of the blood. By these , and by pointment of the Duke of Mayence to the governn of Guienne, and the Marshal Ornano to that of Nor- great measure, in accom- mandy, he succeeded, in a pee his object. The government of the Isle of rance he reserved to himself, as allowing bim, at the same time, to attend to his interest at court. — The Queen-mother, ase. 4 was still formidable, my — even in her exile at Blois: and Licenes, consi ntiy, could not deem himself perfectly seesarel" he Weta ret into a plot with the Duke of Epernon, who suddenly quitting Metz at the head of 100 horse, and ad to Blois, succeeded in rescuing Mary from her captivi- Ls ty, and immediately conveyed her into Angouleme, at the very time when Licenes had persuaded Louis to commit her a close prisoner to the castle of Amiboise. The king at first was highly enraged, and resolved to recover her mother by force of arms; but Licenes, ap- prehensive that such a proceeding would excite univer- sal disgust and dissatisfaction, had the prudence to op- pose this resolution. The Duke of Epernon and’ Mary, on their part, were sincerely desirous of a reconciliation with the king. In order to effect this, Licenes recalled the Bishop of Lucon, and by his influence tranquillity 4 was again established. The Queen-mother was restored + to liberty, and in lieu of the Saba eoe of Normandy, ¥ she received that of Anjou : her adherents were reinsta , ted in their offices; but the Bishop himself, who had been so instrumental in bringing about this wi reconciliation, concealing his passion fo ne more favourable Yate , at present displayed the appearance of an psn disinterestedness, and re- fused to accept of any situation, © == From the beginning of the reign of Louis, the Pro- 1 ouig mea. testants had been treated in such a manner, as justly suresagainst ri a ar rendered them apprehensive that the privil Nt- the Protess ed them by Henry IV. would be i ~ In 1617, tants, ~~ the King gave them great offence by an arret of coun- cil, ordering the restitution of the church lands in the district of Bearn, which the Protestants in that pro- vince had enjoyed above 60 years. Upon this a meet- ing was held at Rochelle, and they resolved to erect a peg gh the model of the Du About tie’s baie iod, e le at heger to bpabententane at th. aitaee of Few axes ee the nobility were displeased at the increasing fondness of the for his favourite the Duke of Licenes. The Duke of Mayence retired jy offends to his government of Guienne ; the Count of Soissons, the nobility. the Dukes of Vendome, Nevers, Rohan, and Retz, re- paired to Angers, where the Queen-mother resided, ‘ ho had slready begun to intrigue again. "The Duke : of Epernon also in her favour; so thet she F found herself in a condition to assume a lofty and de- cided tone, and to declare that she never would con-. sent to any future treaty, unless it were guaranteed by the Parliament of France, or by some foreign power. The King’s character for indecision and weakness, on é this occasion, had induced the Queen-mother and her adherents to pass all bounds of decency: But, to surprise and terror, he acted with vigour, activity, and. firmness: assembling his forces as rapidly as possible, he went into Normandy, where he reduced Caen, and prevented Rouen from joining the rebels. Mary on this took the alarm ; and the Bishop of Lucon, in whom she still placed the greatest confidence, her. to try the effects of a new 1 n, she deserted her party, and a new treaty, which confirmed the for- mer, was signed. The Bishop of Lucon, on this occa- oe ae he te om FRANCE. : 593 _ History. sion, threw off the mask which had.so long concealed "his aspiring and. ambitious projects; and entered into an: with the Duke of Licenes, to bestow the of his niece on his nephew, on condition that the Duke should use his: influence to raise him to the rank Protestants were apprised of their danger ; and scarce- ly needed the exhortations of the Duke of Rohan, son- in-law to the Duke of Sully, and of his brother the Duke of Soubese, to induce them to resolve on de- ir religious liberties at the hazard of their by his ari pr a ra a i npr thas oppose his sov convic- .@ tion. he surrendered the Saumur, which com- place was gallantly, ineffectually, defended, for ee ts aa ; and, on its surren- der, Louis had the magnanimity, as well as the policy, to Siege of permit the garrison to unmolested. From this Montauban. place, in 1621, the army to Montauban, into A.D. 1621. which the Protestants had thrown a numerous garrison commanded by the Marquis de la Force. The royal army i of 25,000 men ; but the place was so rss This fj , only filled the breasts Protestants ae en ignation, and roused their to a higher enthusiasm. The Duke of in Montpellier, and pre- Nantes was again confirmed; the royal forces were with. History. drawn from the gates and harbour of Rochelle; and the inhabitants of Montpellier agreed to surrender to their soverei, : The inal of Retz dying about this time, Cardinal Projects of Richelieu, by the influence of the queen, was introdu- ee, ced into the royal councils: npeals badete ot a share in the administration; (which ina time he entirely governed, ) before he formed three mighty projects ; to. subdue the turbulent spirit of the French nobility; to. re- duce the rebellious Protestants ;,and to’ curb: the en- croachments of the House of Austria. But it was, in the first place, necessary to remove his rivals in the cabinet; the care of the finances, therefore, about which he was most anxious for the prosecution of his designs, was taken from the Duke of Vienville, and given to Morillac, a man upon whose subserviency be could completely depend: other changes. of a less important nature werealso made. His next project, before he entered on the execution of his grand designs, was the expulsion of the Pope from the Valteline, which he ac- complished, of the remonstrances of Gre- gory XV. These, however, were only preliminary or rather intended as indications of the extent of serve peace with England. James I. at this time sat on the throne of that ,,and had determined not to bestow the hand of his.son Charles, except on a Princess of France or in, Richelieu, aware of this, negociated, in spite of courts of Rome and Madrid, a treaty between the Prince of Wales and Henrietta of France, sister of Louis XII]. He now turned his abilities to the destruction of the pink einai Ae Sa ely eee reer veral respects the court, they were preparing for renewed oatilities, when a new subject of Tibcontent arose. A royal fleet was stationed at L’Orient, to block up the harbour of Rochelle. This the Duke of Sou- bese offered to attack ; and if he failed, the Protestants were to disown his conduct. He succeeded, and his brother the Duke of Rohan immediately displayed the standard of revolt. A sharp but desultory war was carried on, which was terminated for the ti by the mediation of the Queen of England; the edict of Nantes was again.confirmed ; the harbour, of Rochelle freed from blockade ; and the King of France agreed that the King of England should guarantee to the Pro« testants the articles of the peace. _ A powerful faction now rose at court against. Riche- Cabals lieu. Not one prince ,of the blood was sincerely his ®gainst him. friend. Gaston, the Duke of Orleans, the King’s bro- ther, was his declared enemy. |The Queen+mo her. self, was become jealous of him; and, even -the: King was attached to him rather through fear than affec- tion, But the intrigues'of the. courtiers, thus sup- ported and encouraged, could not escape the vigilance of the Cardinal: he discovered and dissi all their iracies, and at last made himself absolute master of: the King and kingdom. During these cabals, the Protestants, complaining that the terms of the last treaty had not) been strictly with, displayed a di ition once more to themselves independent ; and in this were confirmed by the assurances of support which they re- ceived from England, where a fleet of 100 sail, and an army of 7000 men, were fitted out for the invasion of France. Thangeeea however, were entrusted ’ Fr : Hi 594 FRANCE. Hisery. toa man by no means fit for the enterprise, the Duke of Bucki , whose measures were so ill concerted, that the inhabitants of Rochelle, when he appeared be- fore their harbour, refused to admit his troops. ‘They were but a part of the Protestant body, they observed, and they must consult their brethren before they gave admit- tance to an army, of whose coming they had not been jously informed. The Duke next directed his force against the isle of Rhe, which was well isoned and for- tified, instead of attacking Oleron, a fertile and defence- less island. He did jndeed succeed in effecting a land- ing in Rhe, but he left behind him the fort of Prie, which covered the landing place ; allowed Tho- rias the governor to amuse him with a deceitful'ne ciation, till St Martin, the principal fort, was provided for a siege ; and then attacked it before he had made any breach, and thus threw away the lives of his sol- diers. He likewise guarded the sea in such a negli- gent manner, that a French army got over in small di- visions, and obliged him to retreat to his ships. The Protestants were now at the mercy of Richelieu, who had already, by separate treaties, secured the al- liance of Spain, and of the United Provinces. ‘The army he assembled was commanded by the King in person, attended by all the principal nobility. The Cardinal himself, aspiring to the reputation of a gene- ral, planned the lines of circumvallation, designed the forts, and directed the attack. The citizens of Ro- chelle, animated by civil and religious zeal, and abun- dantly provided with military stores, resolved to defend thinstlites to the last extremity ; and their Mayor, Guyton, a man of experience and fortitude, took the command, as neither the Duke of Rohan, nor his bro- ther Soubese, were in the place. The Cardinal, find- ing it impossible to reduce it so long as the communi- cation by sea remained open, attempted first to shut up the harbour by stakes and by a boom; but these me- thods being ineffectual, he recollected what Alexander had erie at the siege of Tyre, and erected a mole a mile in length across a gulf, into which the sea rushed with great impetuosity. ‘The inhabitants, be- fore it was completed, saw an English fleet approach ; they crowded the ramparts in the expectation of relief; but the English Admiral, after throwing in’a small supply of corn, either through cowardice or treachery, ined an engagement with the fleet of France, and returned to Portsmouth. The Duke of Buckingham then resolved to resume the command; bot while he was hastening the preparations, he was stabbed b Felton. Inthe mean time the mole was completed, and so strong as to resist all the attacks of the Bark of Lindsay, who succeeded to the command of the Eng- lish fleet. He was obliged to abandon the enterprize ; and as the sails of his squadron vanished from the view of the abandoned and deepaiting inhabitants, they con- sented to surrender, after a siege of 12 months. They were deprived of their privileges, and their fortifica- tions were destroyed ; but they were permitted to retain possession of their property, and allowed the free exercise of their religion, A. D. 1629. Searcely had the inha- bitants opened their gates, when a tempest arose so violent as to bury in the ocean that mole which had been the cause of their ruin; so that, if they had held out only a few hours longer, the pride of the Cardinal would have been humbled, and their freedom Richelieu, sd rt rR with the advantages that result from quickly fo owing up success,’ immediately after the fall of Rochelle marched into the other parts of France, where the Protestant party were powerful, ‘that he abandoned the sense of his own injuries, refused — land had concluded a peace with France, - abandoned the Protestants to their fate, had recourse to negociation, and obtained very favourable conditions both for himself and his party. The Protestants were ‘Pye Pro. permitted to retain their estates, and allowed the free testants exercise of their religion; all the privileges of the edict pas hg of Nantes were also confirmed to them; butthey were deprived of their cautionary towns, as dangerous to the state. From this period is justly dated Me ae ww ment of the French monarchy, which suffered considerable diminution by the power.that'the Protes- ” tants had acquired during the civil wars. Indeed; it 7 seems to have been Richelieu’s object, not. so much to subdue the Protestants, because they were of a diffe- rent religion from that established in France, as be- cause they had erected themselves into an i community, and aimed at an entire separation frc : monarchy, It was in their political, not in their reli. gious character, that he chiefly regarded them as ene- | mies to his plans of aggrandizing the power of the sove- | reign; and that this was his view of them, will fur. ther appear in the sequel, when we advert to the'as. sistance which he gave to the Protestants in Ger. ee ee a he many, : : ‘ aes | mu As Richelieu had displayed an extent and variety'of talent, during the siege of Rochelle, which he-was hot previously pa! Hye to possess, the King determined to commit to his superintendence the care of the ma- rine ; and for this purpose he’ persuaded the Duke of: Montmorency to resign that situation. This | depart. ment soon experienced the beneficial effects of the com- prehension of the Cardinal’s mind, and the activity and vigilance of his management. But he did not con- fine himself to this: or any other particular branch of public business. Indeed, the care of these: were amly subordinate to his grand and daring designs’; for, hav- ing subdued the Protestants, he now’ directed his thoughts to the humbling of the house of Austria. } This he perceived could be done most effectually, and Richelieu’s at the same time with the least risk to France, by sup- plans to porting the Protestants in Germany. There were, how. humble ever, other means, of a less extensive: natutep which 4° he did not neglect. ube. acs PAB 49 aes. 10 On the death of the Duke of ‘Mantua;: the Duke‘of ie to the dependent marquisate of Montserra oth -were supported by 'Philipj:Kingiof Spains"The Duke of Note, in his distress; knew not where to : turn for assistance. He hadi dl the suspicion of the Cardinal, by uniting with his secret enemies in . France. He was the object of ‘dislike to the Queen-~ mother ; but Richelieu possessed so much patrioti 2 to listen to the complaints of Mary de Medicis, and ~ ‘strongly advised the King to support the Duke'agai the House of Austria. An army was lingly - formed: Louis placed himself at their head. The The French: were passed ; the narrow pass of Suza penetrated ; and invadeltaly. the Duke of Savoy, alarmed, and unequal to the com- bat, was under the necessity of deserting his allies, and of uniting his troops with those of France. Casal was 4 at that time besieged by the Spaniards ; and when Louis a first entered Italy, he meant to have advanced with his. 4 whole army to its relief; but, 7, learning that the “i uc ~ Sh FRANCE, History: Duke of Rohan had again roused the Protestants in se- —~—" veral provinces, he himself returned with most of his troops, leaving 3000 chosen soldiers for the of Casal. The Protestants were soon red mean time, the Duke of Savoy, violating his engage- otection . ments, had joined the Spaniards in the siege of Casal ; hid > Unite with oly Rete rs ly us tary cly1 power, to reduce him to submission. In a short time, his troops approached Turin; but while the Duke was ing for the defence of his capital, lena he Givectiope« mannat against Pignerol, an important ‘ortress, whi from Dauphiné to Italy, vidik am 12 days. Louis now joined the army ; and, in a short time, reduced the whole of Savoy ; which so afflicted the Duke, that it caused his death. This circumstance facilitated the of she Kosei ~ their cameee as stopt by a pestilential disorder, that carri bea n “ a ateded. ton bodies and minds of of the survivors. . Notwithstanding this calamity, w to to the relief of Casal, of Rati was concluded, which of Nevers in the le marquisate of The designs of the Cardinal against the House of Austria sa pened ripe for execution. The Emperor Sn eh atone ances of Germany were at war: famous vus Adolphus of Sweden embraced ren eee ing this as an excellent opportunity of ing Austria, agreed to pay Gus- tavus an annual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres; in consi- deration of which, the Kin of Sweden was to maintain in Germany an army of 36. nen ; i gl i Duke oheBarare, sod a) ithe i of atholic e, provi not pou wane nt rights of the Ro- join the Finperor ; and to respect a herever he should find it esta- . blished.. Thus Richelieu avoided giving alarm or of- the princes of Saleen antral salons tion of the Duke of Orleans and the Queen-mother. His vigilance and activity were so that his ene- mies had no chance against him. Mary de Medicis was banished the kingdom.; her son Gaston was obliged to beg his life ; the Marshals Morillac and Montmorency were brought to the block ; and the most arbitrary sen- tences were daily passed, in a court erected for the trial of his enemies. ign of Richelieu, of humbli ey Ap pe orce in im from ho Oxenstein put Louis i ali : x aig is in possession Piilipabuegs and Alsace, on condition that France ae | 595 should take an active part in the war against the Em- or. Richelieu H0..c oe an alliance with we nited Provinces, in aining part of the Low Countries ; and he pi cl aise deed ae A frend rea a4. same time entered into with the Duke of Savoy, in order to strengthen the French inte. rest in Italy. History. Ina short time, the activity of Richelieu had pre- Immense five armies for active service. The first and Prepara- largest was sent into the Low Countries, under the com- mand of the Marshals de Chatillon and Bregé ; the se- cond, under the command of the‘Duke de la Force, en- tered Lorraine ; the third, under the Marshal de Crequi, entered Milan; the fourth was led into the Valteline by the Duke of Rohan ; and the fifth, under the Duke of Saxe Weimar, acted on the Rhine. But these im- mense armies performed scarcely any thing correspond- ing to their magnitude, or to the hopes and designs of Richelieu: indeed, they were too great for the finances of France to support, The Cardinal’s household alone, which was more splendid than the King’s, swallowed up four millions a year. There was no resource but in the by ee Jeng of money-edicts; and these were so rapidly, and to such a degree, that at one sitting, the parliament were obliged to register 42 of them, without examining, or even reading them. The uences were such as might be anticipated : the armies in Flanders and Germany mouldered away for want of provisions. The first campaign was every- where unsuccessful, e tin the Valteline, where the Duke of Rohan maintained himself with a few troops, against the Germans and Spaniards, while the Marshal de Crequi, though assisted by the Dukes of Savoy and Parma, could make no progress in Italy. Richelieu, in order to raise so many armies, was obliged to expose France, on the side of Picardy, to the incursions of the allies. The, Spanish army commanded by Prince Thomas of Savoy and the celebrated Piccolomini, en- tered this province— the Somme—made them- selves masters- of Corbie—and spread terror into the capital. _ Richelieu, under these calamities, remained cool and unshaken, and put forth all bis vigour and ac- tivity. His own guards were dismissed; the horses and domestics of the wealthy, and the personal services of the r, were put in requisition ; and, in a short time, 50,000 men’ were assembled for the defence of Paris. The command of these was divided between the Duke of Orleans and the Count de Soissons, who compelled the enemy to repass the Somme, and retook Corbie. Inthe mean time, the Spaniards rav. Bur- gundy, and invaded Guienne, but they no ad- vantage from these successes. tions of rance. Still, however, France had suffered considerably by Plan to as- the war in which she had en was known to be the. adviser increased, The Duke of Orleans and the Count de Soissons, as soon as had freed their country from the Spaniards, formed a plot to assassinate him in the King’s a ent; and the blow would have been struek, hadnot ‘song egg of ara ye at peavey moment when the conspirators ¢; e si for the assassination. Scarcely, however, had the inal thus narrowly escaped, when he was to danger from a quarter where he least dreaded it. Father Cau- pin a Jesuit, confessor to the King, employed the in- uence and oppertunityy which his character gave him, to exasperate mind of Louis, by representing the Cardinal as the oppressor of ctnsncther; the ty- ed; and as Richelieu sassinate the it, his unpopularity ©#4inal. 596 FRANCE. nie, and, above all, the of he- retics: but” ae Te ore corset tol pan ed in the banishment of the Confessor. The war still continued, grein reines Yn endeavonred to bring about a reconciliation. The Duke of Rohan, not being y supported, Jost the Valte- line. On the other hand, the Count D’Harcourt reco- - vered the isles of St Margaret and St Honorat, on the Success of the French in the Bris- ga. A. D. 1637. coast of Provence, which had been taken by the Spa- niards in 1695; the Duke of Valette reduced several forts, which the Spaniards had seized in Guienné ; Mar- shal Schomberg raised the siege of Lucat, and defeated Serbillon, the Spanish ; Cardinal de La Valette reduced Capelle again under the dominion of France ; the Marshal de C ilion obtained ion of Dam- villiers in Luxemburgh ; and the e of ille successfully advanced in Franche Comté. The Mar- shal Crequi, aided by the Duke of Savoy, defeated the By ea tel , under the command of the Duke of odena ; while Breda was obliged to surrender to the Prince of Orange. In 1687, Ferdinand IT. died, and was succeeded in the imperial throne by Ferdinand IIT. who pursued the same hne of’ politics as his father: hostilities therefore were continued. In the following year, the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, supplied from the treasures of France, took the field again; but he was surprised and routed in the siege of Rheinteld, where the Duke of Rohan, who served as a volunteer, from a friendship to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, was wounded. The latter, impatient to wipe off the di of his defeat, collect- ed all his'force, and ex all his talents and skill ; and soon conquered in his turn. General de Savelli, and the famous John de Wert, who led the Imperialists, were taken sce care ; and the towns of Rheinfeld and Fribourg, the capital of the Brisgaw, were reduced. The siege of Brisac was afterwards undertaken with the greatest confidence of success ; during which, the Duke of Lorraine, and the Im General Goentz, attempt- ed in vain to check the success of the Duke of Saxe- Weimar ; and Brisac was forced to surrender, after it had been reduced to such an extremity that the gover- nor was under the necessity of ren, Re somioeeepme burial-places, lest the inhabitants shou up and de- vour the dead. ‘ As soon as Richelieu heard of the reduction of Brisac, he immediately formed the scheme of annexing it to France; and accordingly made the pro to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. But this would not part with his conquest: “ To part with my conquest,” was his reply, “ would be to sacrifice my honour: ask a virgin to give up her chastity!” In 1689, the Duke died, not without suspicion that his death had been has- tened by the Cardinal, ‘who certainly, as soon as it hap- pened, sueceeded in procuring from his successor, not only Brisac, but Fribourg also. ‘Thus was the King of France, by the abilities and’ intrigues of his minis- ter, rend sovereign of almost all Alsace, and a great’ part of the Brisgaw. To retaliate on the Spaniards for their invasion of Pi- cardy, the Prince of Condé was ordered to lay siege to FPonterabia ; but he was defeated by the Admiral of Castile, and with the remainder of his army, escaped with difficulty to his ships. In 1641, the Emperor, though he to be desirous of peace, convoked a diet at Ratisbon, for the rpose of concerting measures for carrying on the war. pon this the Swedish 1 Bannier, having joined Erfart, formed the design of dis« ing the assembly, and even of surprising the city. Fie maveh'ene id and well planned. Teaetetee Hoff on the Sth of January, and proceeding with the same celerity, he crossed the Danube on ice, and’ took above 1500 of the.enemy’s » The Emperor’ — himself narrowly escaped rane prisoner. Ais‘ Attempt on Ratisbon was utterly unprepared for a siege, the ap- Buti of the Swedes a hey had planned to take advantage of the frost, and’ starve the town into submission; but the weather changing, it was resolved to repass'the Danube, before’ the ice thawed. Bannier, however, ordered’ the gene- ral of the French to advance as nearly as possible’ to Ratisbon, and to salute the E with 500 shot an insult which meee deprived powers of reason and recollection. After this ineffec~ tual attempt, the French ‘themselves from their allies, and marched towards Bamberg. After the death of Bannier, in united, and under the com- mand of Guebriant, the i the Archduke and Piccolomini, at the battle of Wolfe1 buttel. As soon as Tortensten assumed the commit of the Swedes, the French again separated ‘from by yee of the Cardinal, and Guebriant entered We phalia. . one pein cintinueyona ah testi tween Sw and France, most vi ' solutions taken for ing the war, — sunt crossed the Rhine, and understanding that Hasfeld was rene} ‘ ref aww and of the whole Imperial army ve escaped. consequence of this victory was the reduction of nearly the whole electorate of Co- On the oe a French army entered Rousil- Conspiracy lon, and reduced Colonna and P. self was at the head of this army, Richelieu, who accompanied him as - where he fell y ill. During his illness, confederacy was formed against him, at the head which was Cinq Mars, whose lively , agreeable address, and handsome person, seconded mendation of the Cardinal, had made him a great favou- rite with the king. Thus fortunate, he aspired to be made a Duke ; and on the Cardinal ing hi he became his secret enemy. Cinq very weak intellect, and it is probable that his intrigues would have been i i frustrated by his incapa- city, had he not been son of the ce- i : & ms lebrated historian De Thou, by w advice he con~ nected himself with the Dukes of Orleans and and soon afterwards formed a secret alliance with’ thie” court of Spain, which ised to su the con tors with money and a prmidable aruiy Bor Rise stem of vigilance and detection was so well organised, uk ards ing his extreme illness, it operated as powerfully and completely, as if he had been able to superintend it himself. He was informed of the long before it had assumed a ) ; and he immediately persunded Louis to return to Fran, even before the fall of Perpignan, putting into his hands a copy of the treaty which the conspirators | into with Spain. Cinq Mars: was arrested in Narbonne, and the D of Bouillon in Italy, where he had the erdinand ofall the ial army, led by was concluded be- Wd a eae ee re © ee a Sa Re ee i {2 a History. command of the French army. ‘The proceedings against! _—— = death : played - ing’ vigour FRANCE. had discovered himself totally unfit for the high office, History. —\y—— the conspirators were carried on at Lyons, under the eyes of ‘the'minister.. Additional proof was necessary to condemn them ; the Duke of Orleans was mean and base enough to furnish it, in order to.save his own life. The Duke of Bouillon his pardon, by giving the principality of Sedan; but Cinq Mars and De Thou were condemned to death, and-executed in 1642. Almost immediately after the execution, | the’ Cardinal having received intelligence of the fall of Perpignan, wrote to the king, «Sire, your’ enemies are dead, and our troops are in Perpignan.” It is said that Louis eo on his ‘watch; about the time when Cinq Mars was to suffer, said, “ thew an hour, the great man will pass his time very disagreeably” 1) wd Richelien having thus enenrped aves his enemies, at the very moment’ when he was himself’ , the grave, returned to Paris ; and as he was obliged to be carried in a litter, a breach was made in’ the walls of that to allow it to enter. He'survived a few days.” Om his death-bed, he ‘to Louis, that his ‘counsels had ever been directed to the honour'of the crown, and the welfare of the kingdom.’ The character of the statesman must have sufficiently appeared from hig actions. His plans were undoubtedly comprehen- sive and profound, and in the execution of them he dis- wonderful vigour ; but he was stained with the vices of ambition, hypocrisy, cruelty, pride, and avarice. The Emperor Peter the Great of Russia, however, con- sidered him as such a complete statesman, that on his visit to France in°1717, he is said, on viewing the mo- nument of Richelieu, in the church of the Sorbonne, to have exclaimed, “Oh, great man, if you had been alive now, I would have cheerfully given you the half of my empire, if you would have me how to govern the other half!” Mary‘de Medicis died soon afterwards in exile and poverty at Cologne. Somo time before hic “Richelieu had obtained a cardinal’s hat for Mazarine, and had introduced him into the king’s council. It was therefore supposed that he would sueceed his sae tys prime minister ; but Louis resolved to govern hi . ‘The servants of the crown were retained in their situations ; and the mo ar which marked the death of the Cardinal, was the - ling from banishment, and releasing from confinement, the principal objects of the Cardinal’s resentment and jealousy. The war or art with diligence and i 3 the Swedes, who were at first doubtful of the Ee an wreguictaars sh of the Cardinal, had begun to thi udi —— te treaty with the Emperor. Mazarine was not, indeed, possessed of the situation, or the influence of the Cardinal ; but he had sufficient power over the King to persuade him (to what indeed he was by no-means indi ) to pursue the line of: polities marked out by that statesman. All operations ‘of war were concerted with the same ies of every kind were ‘fur- the judgment ent as formerly su ished with equal pi ity. "In Germany, Guebri- ant, in conjunction with the Swedes, triumphed over the Imperialists; while, in Piedmont, Lorraine, Roussil- lon, and Catalonia, Schomberg, L’Hospital, and two other French generals, were successful. Louis, in the midst of these-successes, was fast ap- ree ox a latter end ; and; as the ‘tender years of is son would exposé the kingdom to dissensions, un- less a wise and vigorous regency were appointed,’ this subject oceupied his whole attention g the remain- der of” His queen, Anne of Austria, never partook of his.confidence ; and the Duke’ of Orleans him to the highest pitch of military 597 by his want of steadiness and vigour of mind ;.and un- worthy of it by his seditious intrigues.. He therefore Arrange. — resolved to: ‘distribute into different hands the power ments of Louis on the that: he be hed, inorder to:preserve the tranqguil- lity of Gor Eeccam during the minority of Mindubokes sor. -The leate of the) children’ was-entrusted to ‘the end, Queen, whovhad also the nominalicharacter of regent ;: the Duke of Orleans was appointed: head of the coun-. cil, and lieutenant-general of the kingdom. But:these appointments were. counterbalanced by others, from which Louis hoped that neither the Queen nor‘his bro-« ther would :be able to. create angen, or to weaken the kingdom by the»incapacity or folly of their governs ment.» In rar of the death “of the Duke; the Prince of Condé was to fill his situation ; \and, ‘after him, ‘the Cardinal Mazarine : and it was, in-fact; on the last, that Louis, by his a’ ents, devolved the real manage ment of the kingdom :during ‘the minority of his:son. As’a farther guard ‘against; the Duke of Orleans, the King directed that all. affairs) which came before the council should be decided by a-majority.of votes. The Queen and) the Duke swore»solemnly-to preserve invio- late the deed which they had subscribed ; and Louis, to render it still ni authentic, Tes neo it to be re-- gistered in parliament; After these arrangements were completed, Louis: lived) but +a very slescic shes expi- ring in the 42d reign was so completely under the influence of Riche- lieu, that his character is not marked very decidedly by his actions: ‘he: acquired: the epithet of Just; but his title to it may well be disputed, unless the severity and the cruelty of some of the public measures of his reign be entirely ascribed to his minister. Louis XIV. was only 44 yearsof age when his father- died. The prospects) of France during his minority ~ were by no means of a satisfactory nature ; the inter- nal ‘state of the country exhibited discontent and ex- haustion, created tlie measures of Cardinal Riche- lieu. The war which he had commenced with the house of Austria still continued. The Emperor Ferdi-. nand III. less formidable than his father, struggled inst the forces of Sweden and France, even though e forces ‘of the empire, in many cases, resisted hi will and his plans. Philip IV. of Spain had lost Rous sillon, Catalonia, and Portugal ; but he’ still continu- ed the struggle inst the Portuguese, the» Dutch, and the. French. “Bo gland, though involved in civil war, was already beginning to exercise that .energy which these troubles had created or brought into ac- tion, and threatened to become more formidable than ever. The will of Louis XIII. which ‘has been noticed) His willset - was violated almost: immediately ‘after. his . death ; his side. widow being invested ‘by an arret of the parliament of Paris with continued powers. She immediately gave herself entirely up to the direction and-influence’ of Cardinal Mazarine,-who was of a subtle and insinuating character. The court of Spain, imagining that the minority of The Spa- Louis afforded them an excellent opportunity of inva- niards in- ding France, marched an army from the Low Coun- vadeFrance. tries into Champagne, besieged Rocroy, and’ spread alarm on every side ; re ahey were oneeke. and un- expectedly were opposed by a general who, at this -pe- riod, commenced thas lorious canéer which has exalted i fame. Previous to the death of Louis XIII. Louis of Bourbon, Duke of 3 approach of his latter of his;age, and on the very day His death: that he had completed the 33d of his reign. This sove- A. D. 1643.. History. —vY~" great Condé, had received the command of the French View 598 Enghien, afterwards honoured with the title of the forces on the frontiers of Flanders. When the Spaniards plots of the invaded Champagne, he was scarcely twenty-one years great Condé. War in Flanders, Catalonia, and Ger- many, A.D. 1646. . 1645, of age; but his want of experience was amply compen- sated by his genius. His orders were not to risk a battle ; yet, on receiving intelligence of the ——— Rocroy, he resolved tovattack the besiegers. Hitherto the Spanish infantry had been deemed invincible, but in this battle, the of the French, directed by the talents of their young general, deprived them of that character: They were broken by his impetuous charge ; the Count of Fuentes, who comman the army, perished on the field; #000 were killed, 20 pieces of cannon taken, Rocroi was saved, and the character of the Duke of Enghien stamped as a great general. When he heard of the death of the Spanish general, he exclaimed, “ I] could wish to have died like him, had I not been victorious!” Thionville; which had long been the object of Richelieu’s ambition and intrigues, but from the reduction of which, by force of arms, he had been deterred by its » next fell before the Duke. After this he Rhine, and advariced to av the death of Guibriant, who had fallen at the a Rotuil. On the death of this general, divisions and dissensions took place, of which the Imperialists took advantage, and gained the battle of Dutlingen, as well as other inferior en; ents in Swabia; Fri- bourg also was reduced by them. The Imperialists, after the reduction of this place, had formed an en- trenched camp under its walls, on hearing ofthe ap- proach of the French ; but the! Duke was not intimida- ted by their formidable position, nor their superior num- bers ; he attacked them in their camp, and, after a bat- tle which lasted three days, he defeated them. Philips- burgh and Mentz were the fruits of this victory ; while General Merci retreated in such good order, as to prove that, at the battle of Fribourg, he had only yielded to a general of the first rate talents. In Flanders, durin the years 1645, 1646, the Duke of Orleans reduc Gravelines, Mardyke, and Courtray ; but the French were not so successful in Catalonia, where Philip IV. defeated the Marshal de la Motte, and took Lerida and ah, In Bohemia, the Swedish, general Torten- sten gained a great victory; to improve the ad- vantages of which, Marshal Turenne was ordered to advance into the heart of Germany; but he committed an error in separating himself from his allies, and thus exposed himself to defeat. At first, indeed, he was successful; he crossed the Rhine at Brisac, and, ad- vancing towards the sources of the Danube, routed ‘the Imperialists. He next attempted to relieve Fribourg, which was invested by the Bavarian army, under the command of a brother of General Merci, but he was defeated. As soon as Cardinal Mazarine learned this, he ordered the Duke of Enghien to join Turenne with a reinforcement; and the two generals attacked the Count de Merci near Fribourg with such impetuosity, that he was obliged to retire with the loss of 3000 men. This battle, which lasted seven hours, was im- mediately followed by another, in which the Bavarians at first were successful, but the Duke rallied his troops, and drove the enemy three times from their entrenchments, which they as often regained, till at last Merci, having lost nearly one-half off his army, resolved to. retreat. This he effected in good order, notwithstanding all the attempts of the French to harass him, leaying behind all their artillery and e, The consequences of this victory, were the reduction of all the towns situa- FRANCE. ted between the Rhine and the Moselle, from. Mentz to Histor After this, Torenne established his winter quarters — : at Marendahl, his troops di in the ‘ bouring villages. Pepe a1 pa hime he marched rapidly against him, and a victory. The Duke of Enghien was Saar = Cardinal to reinforce Turenne; and. the. two generals resolved to bring the Bavarians to a action. With this view, Turenne, whose day it was to com- mand, advanced at the head of his ca 3 position of the enemy was so strong deemed safe to attack them. As soon, the Danube, and had got-as far-as Nordlingen when. the Bavarians came up with him. He immediately arranged his army in order of battle, on the very same: plain where the Swedes had suffered a defeat soon,af- ter the death of Gustavus, ‘The Bavarians were drawn. Battle of up on an eminence of easy ascent. The action was be-:Nordling gun by the’ French, who, at first gave way,/and suffer-, 4.5 ed a great loss; nor could their utmost turnthe ~ tide of battle, till De Merci was slain-at the head.of his conquering troops. Even after his death, the Duke, would not have been able to have preserved his troops’ from destruction, had not Turenne attacked ‘the wight but the ready to gi Pavagien seme their cannon, were reduced, they were soon recovered by the Bere. The for he was sent, with an inferior army, very ill.equi ped, into Catalonia, to effect the pa ction of Le oe ipeseaBesbah gence e displeasure of Mazarine, and induced him to resign his command, |The Prince of Condé, on his arrival, found the lines of th M them, and the trenches i De Hag with a violins, eka ed ores manne very great skill and courage: he with continual sallies, and disputed pyr pe . 0 Lun difficulties in forming their mines, by the ix vention of a rock; the troops were diminished by | tigue; the season was unfavourable for labour, and)pre- judical to health, on account of its,extreme heat; the Spanish army advanced to the relief of the place, and the Prince of Condé was obliged to raise the siege. ‘ Hbieserta thasmageciatione. st mage a 4 had yaried according to the, fortune of war; but French and Swedes being now decidedly victorious, the _ Em , deserted by his allies, was obliged to receive the these powers; and consented to purchase peace, by ceding to France the bishoprics of Metz, ee Disturb- France. Retz. FRANCE. Toul, and Verdun, and giving up his pretensions to Pigneral, Brisac, and Alsace. This was the memorable peace of Wes i Signed at Munster, on the 24th day of October 1648, which, till the French Revolution, was considered as a fundamental law of the empire, and the basis of all subsequent treaties. ae France, however, was still at war with the Spanish branch of the House of Austria ; and as the United Pro- vinces, jealous of the former power, had concluded a separate treaty with Philip in 1647, the Cardinal found it nec to exert all his talents at this crisis, espe- ‘ially as his influence was now seriously threatened by inectfen Gite yas mY inet In 1648, the Prince of Condé resumed the command in Flanders, where he reduced Ypres. He was opposed by the Archduke Leopold, who, to balance this acqui- sition, took Courtray and Furnes, and advanced to the though superior, were defeated: 5000 were ‘hed; 3000 made prisoners ; and the Archduke him- The civil war in France now calls for our attention. cious Italian, who money due to the magistrates was not paid ; some quarters of the annui- i rent 3; murmurs € out; the ‘par- liament opposed the court ; and a civil war was on the ‘point of being kindled. An arret of union between the ‘courts of Paris gave the minister uneasiness, and was annulled by the council. The magistrates maintained ‘that their oe oe eho regarded as pepe tn or reprehensible ; upon whi azarie replied, * ‘kin must be obeyed ; if he forbid wenn tassels ‘to bani strings, it is less the nature of the thing prohibited, than ‘the prohibition, which -constitutes: the crime.” The parliament abolished ‘the situation of intendants of the provinces who were instituted by Louis XIII; on which the court, filled with indignation, resolved to have recourse to a very bold measure. During the ce- ebration of T'e Deum for the victory of Lors, a presi- dent and counsellor Wii: ari rma themsel . Py ves ‘in the debates, were arrested by o fthe Cardinal ; ‘upon which the ‘rose, chains «across the streets,’ formed: . fired on’ the «chancellor's coach, killed some soldiers, and the two prisoners liberated . i '¥y ; mela eder +A naae Carina de-” The coudjtor, archbishop of Paris)’ sfterwardurthe noe de Retz, fomented and took advan- ‘tage of these disturbances : he was a man of a restless, In 1650, the Prince of Condé 599 intriguing, and seditious character; excessively profli- _ History. gate in his principles and manners, but possessed of very superior talents. He was jealous of Mazarine, at the same time that he despised his abilities. Thinking himself better qualified to fill the place of prime mini- ster, he employed all his talents and his powers of in- trigue to inspire the nobles with the ‘same jealousy of “Mazarine, which filled his own breast; at the same time, he inflamed the people and roused them to sedition, by representing the ignominy of submitting to the op- pressive administration of a stranger. e parliament of Paris warmly seconded his pretended views of refor- mation ; and a civil war was inevitable. The talents of Mazarine were by no means equal to Anne of the approaching danger ; and Anne of Austria, entirely Austria. a guidance, was nearly as ne as himself. She could not appear publicly inthe streets without being insulted’; she was continually reproached with sacrificing the good of the nation to her attachment to a foreigner ; and ballads and madrigals were sung in the street, on the subject of her amours.” ‘The women took an ‘active’ and zealous part at this crisis; and many of the most celebrated generals declared for or against the court, as ‘they “were ordered by their respective mis- tresses. In consequence of this state of things, and of their apprehension of greater dangér, the queen regent, along with her children and Mazarine, left Paris, and retired to St Germains." Here; according to Voltaire; their distress was'so ‘that they were'obliged to ‘pawn the eown’ jewels cin order to raise money: the ing himself was often in want'of conamon iecessaries; and the pagés’of the chamber ‘were'dismissed, because they ‘not the means of maintaining them. The parliament now proceeded to extremities ; they decla- red the Cardinal-a disturber of the public’ peace, and anenemy to France: this ‘was the signal of revolt: a pp of parties took place. The Frondeurs, as the rebels were called, were headed by the’Prince of Conti; brother of the great Condé, anid»the Dukes of Beaufort, Bouillon, and Longueville.” 'Phe® Prince’ of Condé, though dissatisfied with the court, eng in'the royal cause, and joined the Queen at St Germains: » But the rebels wasted their time in disputes, or vain parade, and neglected to take measures even for the defence of the capital ; they were soon therefore thrown into alarm, when thePrince of Condé, at the lead of 6000 troops, ad- vanced against it. ;The Marshal Turenne, who had been allured by the Duchess de Longueville; sister of Condé, in vain attempted to defend Paris with an undisciplined rabble. A conference was “to; and a treaty con- eluded at ‘Rouel, by which a” general amnesty was granted, and the appearance of peace restored, with- out, however, any sincerity’of reconciliation or extines tion ‘of hatred on either’side. it hy wih ' The court returned: toParis, aiid’ the’ Cardinal was Intrigues of received with! joy by that’ very Panes who, ‘such ‘a the nobility, very short tins before; had" threatened “his life. . It is and fickle- this levity of the French nation,—the’ absurd and con. "¢5 “a the temptible mixture of a frivolous gallantry with’the in. P°°P'™ trigues of state, and even with civil commotions,—-and the influence exercised by the Duchess of Longueville, and other! women of @ libertine ‘character, in making the'most ‘eminent leaders several’ times) change sides, that mark out these civil wars, ‘otherwise contemptible, a objects of interest and: study ‘to:those wlio wish to gain a minute, profound, and intimate’ acquaintance with the character of the French nation. y insulted the Queen and the Cardjnal, while, by his haughtiness, he Hintery- —_—— The Freade. Civil war. Battle of St Antoine. 4. D. 1651. other: the King from an; eminence 600 pe gm the coadjuter who now unenete’ Mazarine, an whose advice the prince, t with his bro- ther Prince of Conti, and the Duke.of Lon ille, were arrested at the council teble.. The citizens of Paris, on this occasion, celebrated with public rejoicing» the imprisonment of these men, whom they had lately hailed as their eotenene oo however, had ~ gained dence, is tria ; of course, was short ae Conceiving himself secure, he affronted the Duke of Orleans, who immediately deserted the court, and became the head of the Frende. On this, the parliament again took co e, and demanded the liberation of the Princes of Condé and Conti, ‘and the Duke of Longueville; and passed sentence of -perpe- tual banishment against the Cardinal, who went in son to liberate the princes, in the hope of gainin favour; but they treated him with contempt. then obli to flee to Liege, and afterwards. to Co- logne. The. coadjutor this time remained faithful to the court; and by his intrigues, the Duke of Bouillon aud Marshal Turenne were detached from the Fronde. In 1651, Mazarine again entered the kingdom with 6000 men, upon which Condé took up arms, and the parlia- ment declared him guilty of high treason, though he was.only going to oppose the Cardinal, against whom they had so very lately passed a sentence of perpetual banishment, Condé, in this extremity, quitted Paris, to,arm in his, sw the provinces of Guienne, Poitou, and. Anjou, and to ally. himself with the Spaniards. During these convulsions, Louis XIV. being ‘now, of age, ordered the parliament to remove to,Pontage, and a few of the members obeyed ; but the greater part re- mained,.. Thus there were two parliaments ; their reso- lutions, however, had now; fallen into such ;contempt, that the riyal factions disdained. their mediation or sup- port, and prepared to terminate |their. differences by the sword. -Condé, in league with, the Spaniards,. appear- ed.in the field against the king,,and'the Marshal Tu- renne supported the court. |, The ing armies a each) other on the banks. ‘Loire, when the Prince of Condé attacked the ranks of the royal army with so much impetuosity, a snes were hota); ee court took the alarm ; an minister proposed to save the king by flight. Lr ee wne-sironeiy: oie Tareene, who, taki vantage of every inequality of ground, restored the confidence’ and. the hopes oF his party. The Prince of Condé,, in the meantime, entered Paris, where he was at first received with joy ; but the Car- dinal of Retz, having deserted. the popular cause, and succeeded in gaining an absolute sway over the Duke of Orleans, that Prince to become a-candidate with. the citizens for, their favour, )in opposition) to Condé. In this he succeeded, and the Duke of Lorraine deserting the cause of the Prince at the same time, while his troops were enervated by the pleasures of the: ca+ pital, Condé was not to learn that the approach of Turenne presented.to him the means more congenial to his talents and habits, of establishing -his cause: by the force of arms. In the suburbs of St Antoine, the two greatest of France were op to each i the battle. The Duke of Orleans remained in his palace, undecided what part to take: Cardinal de Retz was likewise neu- ter, and the parliament waited the issue, before it pub- lished any pee The citizens of Paris, afraid of parties, or affecting to preserve a strict neutrality, shut the city gates, and would permit no ingress or egress, The combat was long and bloody: the two generals eir e was PRANCE. gallant noblemen were killed or wounded ; at last the battle was decided. in favour of the Prince of Condé, by the daughter of the Duke of Orleans ordering the gates to be opened for the wounded, and the cannon cannon have killed Bag sentry when informed of the circumstance, hopes which the daughter of the Duke of , tertained of being Queen of France. yan The Duke was now declared by the Parliament lieu- tenant-general of the kingdom, and the Prince of Conde commander in chief of the armies of France, . But the popularity of the latter was of short duration: a tumult, in which several citizens were. killed, : which he was supposed to be the author, T with his violent an haughty demeanour, di irritated the inhabitants of Paris, and. he was to leave that city. On the other hand,, Louis, in-on to appease his subjects; dismissed Mazarine, who retir 2 ey ki iH The people, satisfied at this . sovereign’s attention to their ‘wishes, of their own cord sent deputies to invite him to return to the ci all ranka. "The fret acto of he royphanthodee ranks. The first acts o! ral.a ity, banishment of the Duke of Orleans,.and the arrestiand imprisonment. of Cardinal de Retz... The’ Prince) of Condé, condemned to lose his head, abandoned in France by, almost all; his partizans, feebly : by Spaniards, and pressed by. Turenne, carried on an un- successful. war on, the frontiers of Champs Yo sean To the storms, of this civil) war succeeded a calm. The Parliament was humbled; and Mazarine being called, again resumed all his authority, and was court« ed by every body. Even the Parliament, that had’ be- fore oa a R08 upon his-heed ae a pobtie robber, now sent es to compli t him. The Prince of C after this absurd war was finished, | job sve) Sonera served only to be stesngn 5 blank verse; and Voltaire remarks, that the name of Petits maitres originally. plied to that prince’s party, because they endeav: = to make themselves. masters of the’state, — i ifying overbearing and frivolous young men; and) pee Printoetes bestowed on. the censurers of govern- ment, are the only vestiges remaining of these troubles, Some parts of the kingdom were: still in the power of the insurgents. Bellegarde, a town in. 3 Was defended for the Prince of Condé, the Count de Bouteville, afterwards known as M Luxembu It was attacked by the Duke of Epernon at the of a royal army, but not surrendered till a practicable breach -was- made, and, honourable\conditions granted, In 1654, the Prince of Condé, in conjunction with the Archduke, laid siege to Arras. | At the same time, Ste- nai was besieged: by Turenne. As soon as the latter Pederpal in tae nelghiterbeod 0m helspeatird encamped in ' the i) used a stratagem to induce, or oblige them to aban= don the of Arras, but without effect. regpene terwards, Turenne having i wed, contrary to thesopinian df his-princinal officers, to force the Spanish lines.. The Spaniards were diiven out with great slaughter, and lost) their , ar and ammunition ; but the Prince,of » with regiments alone, after defeating a division of his op nents, covered therflight of the: iards, and thus sa ved the remains of their army. The King of Spain ac- knowledged and. characterized his services in iy z — FRANCE. and expressive letter, “ I am informed that all was lost, and that you saved all.” . re in. In 1655, Landreci and Quesnoy were reduced by Tu- vades the yenne, and thus a road was opened into the Spanish ine iy Pediat B00 amen. The-lines lenciennes with an 20,000 men. 2 ee Feee: , and the operations far advanced, when the Prince of Condé, and John of Austria, advan- ced with a superior army, and in the night-time forced that part of the lines where the Marquis de la Ferte commanded, Turenne, after in vain endeavouring to restore the fortune of the battle, effected a masterly re- treat, carrying off his artill and , and even halting on the ikndamen n less than a month afte he took Capell, in sight of the Prince of Condé and Don John. A short time before these events, Mazarine, more anxi- ous about the overthrow of his enemies, and the resto- Siakasinng 6 reduced Montmede and St Vincent, raised the siege Ardre, and concluded the campaign by taking Mar- which, according to the treaty, was given up to ege English ankneteme A.D. 1658. deliver it up to 3; Di “Oudenarde, Menin, Gravelines, and great oF wa 8 rs a ? 601 and, in order that the preliminaries of a treaty might be History. settled in the most satisfactory manner to each party, “~~” Mazarine, and Don Louis de Hare, met on the frontiers of both kingdoms, in the Isle of Pheasants, in the Py- 'renees, A. D. 1659. Much time was consumed in dis- putes about precedency ; but at the conferences “were begun, and, after four months, were concluded the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees. According Treaty of o this treaty, Louis received with the Infanta a dowry the Pyre- of 500,000 crowns of gold ; Alsace and Rousillon were AD 1660 confirmed to him ; and he restored the duchy of Lor- : ; raine to Charles IV. ; and St Omers, Ypres, Menin, and Oudenarde to the Spaniards ; he also consented to don the Prince of Condé, and solemnly reintansechal claim to any territory that might fall to him in right of his queen. The King of Spain, on his part, pardoned the rebellious Catalans ; gave up Verceil to the Duke of Savoy ; Reggio to the Duke of Modena; and the Duke of Newburgh, the long disputed succession to the city of Juliers, which had been sequestered by the house of Austria. - On the 9th of March 1661, a little more than a year Death of after the treaty of the Pyrenees, Cardinal Mazarine died; Mazarine. and his concern for his wealth was marked, even in the 4: D- 1661. last moments of his life. By a deed of gift, he resigned his riches to the king, who immediately res the instrument. His. immense wealth was soon dissi by the prodigality of the Marquis of Meillrai, who had married his favourite ter, or niece, Hortensia Mancini, and assumed the title of Duke of Mazarine. On the ruin of her husband, Hortensia retired to Eng- land, and subsisted on a pension allowed:her by Charles ** Historians have seldom done justice to the charace His charac. ter of Mazarine, whose political caution restrained the ter. vigour of his spirits, and the lustre of whose genius was concealed beneath his profound dissimulation, If his schemes were less comprehensive, or his enterprises less bold than those of Richelieu, they were less extra- vagant. He has been agcused of avarice, and seemi ly with justice ; yet, if we reflect, that, beingiae inde gent forei himself, he married seven nieces to rench ~servaeers Bom the —_— distinction, ~~ left his nephew e evers, we , perhaps, be inclined partly to forgive him. So many matches could not be formed without money; and the pride of raising one’s family is no ible passion. He had the singu- lar honour of extending the limits of the French mos narchy, while France was distracted by intestine hos- tilities ; sand. of twice ing peace to the greater of Europe, after the longest and most. bloody wars it had ever known. Nor must we forget his attention to the ish succession, which afterwards made the is a striking proof of his political foresight. ing maxim was, that force ought never to be employed but in default of other means; and his pert aeen ledge of mankind, the most essential of all.mental ac- quisitions for a-minister, enabled him often to accom-. plish his views without it, When absolutely necessary, we have seen-him employ it with effect”... On the:death of Mazarine, the officers of state inqui- Louis him- red of Louis, to whom they were to apply; They were elf governs. surprised and disappointed, when the mona years of age; he 5 : & Z z lec been ill e F was consequent] ignorant; addicted to pleasure, and had been carefully ept at a distance Sow all ener legen business by the cardinal ; ; : G 602 tiieery. but he had measured his own powers of mind ; and he —Y~—" already felt the first aspirations after that glory, which Cccunetan- was the ruling passion of his life. He had many eee io bis cireumstances in his favour, and which could not fall —— of impressing the minds of his subjects with loyalty, respect, admiration, and even esteem. He was Te. markably handsome in his , at the same time that there was about him a wonderful of majesty and dignity ; these, which of themselves might have only inspiréd awe, were softened and tem by affa- bility and politeness ; so that, if he was not the great- est king, he was at least, as Bolingbroke expresses it, «the best actor of majesty that ever filled a throne.” His dignity of mind, and loftiness of ambition, even in- duced him to render his pleasures more decent than ee have been, he been destitute of these qualities ; and his court, oes the example of the sovereign, was soon distinguished by its elegant gal- lantry. The French have always been characterised by their fondness for show, and their vanity: these he gratified in an uncommon degree, by the magnificence of his palaces, and the splendour of his public entertain- ments. Even his own want of literature was conceal- ed, or forgotten, in the patronage he extended to lite- rary men, not only in his own kingdom, but also over the rest of Europe. These qualities rendered Louis extremel lar with the great majority of his sub- ; while, with the more discerning, his reign was tna with pleasure, as soon as the measures of Col- bert began to and Louis, by te towards the advantage of France, e confidence he placed in this minister, discovered that his objects extended beyond mere plea- sure or glory. Though the king in other respects had no reason to be grateful to Mazarine, who had uent- ly misled him, and had neglected his education, and the ‘ormation of habits necessary for his high and arduous situation ; yet he had received one favour from him of tt moment, when he inspired him with confidence for Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen that France has produced. Fouquet, superintendant of finances, who dissipated the public money, was disgraced and imprisoned, after a sumptuous entertainment which he gave the king at his pleasure house, that is said to have cost him 18 millions of the then current money. | His successor Colbert, had only the title of comptroller gene- ral. Hesoon put the finances into excellent order ; raised enormous sums for the public service ; and crea- ted a navy, and supported a large standing army, with- out oppressing the people. . Trstances of _ L WO occasions soon presented themselves, on which his haughti. Louis had an opportunity of displaying his vanity, nessand haughtiness and ambition. A anaes ‘respecting pre- ambition. cedence, that ed between his ambassador and that of Spain, in ion, furnished the first occasion : The latter at a public entry insulted the former, because he would not yield the precedence ; upon which Louis threatened to commence hostilities, unless the superio- rity of his crown was acknowledged. ee and dispatched Count Fuentes to Paris, with the im- portant concession, that the ministers of Spain should no longer dispute the lency with those of France. His treatment of the Pope was still more arrogant. ‘The Duke of Acqui, ambassador of Louis XIV. behaved in’ such a haughty manner, as to be quite intolerable ; and his domestics followed the example of their master.’ Some of them having attacked the Corsican guard of re cbek oe ag tim allie p ie oy killed. On this the e left Rome. The French troops were put in motion towards Italy, and the Pope FRANCE. f fi i was obliged to send his into France, to ask History , and to allow a pillar to be erected in Rome itself, as a monument of his own humiliation, and the triumph of the French monarch. yt were rere experienced the lofty spirit of Louis: he ly re- aarti oy re mr ew Uregaan: marr a remonstrated, he e such vigorous preparations support his refusal, that the { &, to it it to desist. The King of England,” said he i to his ambassador D’Estrades, ‘may know the amount q of my foree ; but he cannot measure the elevation of : my mind. Every thing to me is contemptible in com- parison with glory.” Soon after his accession, he | Swemcre Dunkirk from the needy King of England. He immediately - ed 30,000 men to fortify it by land and sea; and dug a large bascn between the town and the citadel, of containing several men of war. He soon obtained, by menaces, the strong hold of Marsal from against Spain ; and Dutch against the Kii offered to abandon to department of the kingdom, his other favourite minis« ter, Louvois, directed his genius most successfully to the means of wy tetera arson at a distance by ~~ To ‘these armies to vi , the Prince = i dé and Marshal Turenne were still in the vigour F e. nao Louis, however, during this interval of 1, did Louis's em not confine his attention und his. leboues okey tthe Beymen poems me, | Pee RUS Ba. - and peace, : success. He embellished the capital, and paved and light- ed it.in a magnificent manner; and, for the security of the citizens, established a police, which, from its vigi lance and systematic proceedings, soon became astonishment of Europe. In the provinces, high and useful works were: In 1664, the ca- nal of custom, by which a female of a first marriage was fred to male het of «Second mariage on this p EB i E F i FRANCE. ; 608 monarchy should wished to invest him with the powens and the digni- History; 10) lh Bod i 3 8 e E 8 : ! Circum- ties of his ancestors. . De. Witt, however, had the com- claims. on Brabant, mand of the resources of the republic at the time when ast preparations, Mary Anne of Aus- Louis prepared to invade it; and he was blamed for : neglecting the land forces, and directing his whole care superstitious 1 confessor, np to the marine. Even after ue bei ke nee French inted grand inquisitor, monarch, projected. an invasion, by e seems to 7 ame ae ps eo r 8 i e%3 i i i & : have been deceived with renpect to the side on which it would be made ; for he taken his tionary of the, kingdom were and defensive measures almost exclusively on the side the opportunity thus pre- of Maestricht. Louis, however, having made an alli- army of 40,000 men, di- ance with Cologne, chose that quarter for commencing Colbert, aw amply sup his hostile operations against Holland. But it was first z a B i necessary to enter the territories of the Duke of Lor- ines or garrisons; raine, on which, as he had no hopes of gaining the condition, sur- consent of the Duke, he resolved to seize ; ee. Lisle. alone resisted ing to justify his conduct on the unsupported and fri- king returned to Paris, after , that intrigues dangerous to the French had been carrying on at the court of Lor- raine. Before he eet ae territories of the Dutch, the the Prince of Condé was roused by he issued a declaration of war against them. In this ~ re- he did not condescend to specify particulars, but con« hagenporads tented himself with the general and haughty assertion, Franche that the insolence of the Dutch had been so great, that on Flanders, or rather nga Det consints lee ingly any. lonete tn bert i. er the Spanish dominions, and _ Holland was now threatened with a greater force than they did had ever been directed against her. The combined vileges, and ruled fleets of England and. France, amounting to upwards rust entirely of 100 sail,.was ready to ravage her coasts; and a OE NASIR ana French army of 120,000 excellent » assisted and directed by the talents of Turenne, é, Luxem- in a very short time. burg, and, Vauban, was preparing to enter the fron- s Dole surrendered ; in three weeks of the tiers. Louis passed the Meuse at Visat ; and in a very the whole province was uered. few days, having made himself master of the intervens panish Nether- ing towns, approached the Rhine. The season was the other extremely favourable to him; the greatest rivers were olland, almost dried up by the excessive drought ; the French cavalry, ani by the presence of their sovereign, apprehensive of a more powerfu plunged into the stream, and were feebly opposed by queen’s ri to the tch ; so that the passage of the Rhine was ac- he complished with no danger or difficulty. In little more Rapid suc- last campaign ; than a month, the provinces of Guelderland, Overyssel, cess of and Utrecht, were in possession of Louis; and the only Louis in it. the — difficulties ining were in the provinces of Holland manner t and Zealand. The king here committed an error: in- stead of ing forward with his whole force, as he day, the French was advised to do by Condé and Turenne, he was pre- ambassador—‘ I yailed upon by Louvois to add new fortifications to his replied he, “ but conquests, which, acquiring additional garrisons, ne- affront was aggravated cessarily weakened his main army. : the States ordered a medal to In the mean time, the Dutch were successful at sea, De Ruyter having defeated the combined fleets of Eng- x informed republic had conciliated kings, and land and France in Solebay. The Prince of Orange, unable to withstand the vic- alone were sufficient torious and greatly superior armies of Louis, retired Louis to war, were now added, inthe case with his dispiri into the province of Holland. wounded pride. Underthe Naarden, within nine miles of Amsterdam, was redu- he prepared to humble the ced by the Marquis of Rochefort; and had he taken : es II. of Eng- possession of Meyden, the keys of which were deli- and bribing vered to some of his troops, but recovered by the ma- Charles XI. of Sweden gistrates, Amsterdam must have fallen. Louis himself, instead of pushing forward, remained at Utrecht, wast- enemy tothe jing his time in vain parade, At this period, John de the measures concerted for my %, In 1688, Colbert died. The advantages which he Death of had secured to France, wae ee and numerous: he Colbert. _ restored her finances, and lished or invi her 4. D. 1 principal manufactures. Subsequent events proved how much France’ was indebted to him; since, when he ceased to manage the finances, the mili succes- ses of Louis languished. As he found that the Pro- testants, no longer able to 4 distinguish themselves by ‘disposed to direct their attention to manufactures, he oe tent and perfection, as to have rendered them the sour- FRANCE. 607 of the : Telli i i ; im, F i Worms, and History. ey of the Chancellor Tellier, and his son, the Marquis reduced ; Manheim, Frankendal, Spiers, rms, ~ ‘ is, whose leading maxim was, that every enheim, also surrendered ; and the Palatinate was de Lonvois, ¢ n 1684, ae given up to the plunder and a rte of the Sts i ac ts troops into the Protestant districts; and Lou- soldiers, A. D. 1689. Men, women, and children, were hostilities, a. pa aL it was his majesty’s pleasure, that driven out into the fields, in the midst of a severe frost, 4 - 1689. er and left to perish of hunger and cold ; while their hou- The Palati- ses were reduced to ashes, their prepeey. seized, and ~~ again their possessions pillaged. More 40 cities, and an ‘4 waste. infinite nuniber of villages, were burnt ; the of the electors were razed. to the , and their very tombs opened in search of hidden treasures. This se~ cond devastation made the former one under Turenne appear mild and merciful. About this time, England was added to the number of Louis’s enemies. James II. had been deposed, and William Prince of Orange cho« ape SAME cmikde Geoplin copper she delueiesd ead Wikies to the most dreadful i to s the ed mo illi of as tlacly isdsiis cracls of rousing the parliament time; and a price was set on the and of his new kingdom against Louis. who were hunted like wild beasts. - The exertions of the French monarch, though great, Above 500,000 of. the most useful and industrious in- were prewar cxpimined rage tacts pei number of France were driven into exile, by the revo- of the states that op him. He n 400,000 Forces em- eation of the edict of Nantes; and thus the staple ma- men in the field. e army of Spain and United ployed — declined in that country, Pentceedanfiet de-tenaadtal ‘orced by the English under 2gainst him. nations by these exiles. the Earl of Marlborough, amoun phere PolinK i 9 FB rae By the revocation of the edict antes, liberty of conscience was abolished ; all the eT (ae ree i ane fee : can EEE TH . ae Beet 3 1 of zeal for the The Emperor and the German states supplied three ar- Catholic religion, was thus ing the Protestants, psy pcr ose wig agri, o naps = - he was insulting the Pope, and i him of Avig- on the U; Rhine ; the main army under t e omg te Pecttingethe hac of the Cathe at Locraist, onthe Milale Hbine; nad the third corti Pope. lic religion, sufficiently proves that Louis was actuated Lower Rhine, under the Elector of Brandenburg. The more frequently and strongly by ambition, and a desire Duke of Lorraine took Mentz, and the Elector of Bran- to exercise his » than by any other feeling or denburg took Bonne, while the Prince of Waldeck obli- ap aati hitelogs Ye un- ngereh in m inatich dey ware deleed. The pretences, his ruling passions opportunities le at Walcourt, in whi were defeated. ari ying themselves. The Pope moet Xl. was next year, A. D. 1690, Louis gave the command of this Battle of” of talents and abilities; and was extremely army to Marshal Luxemburg, who, in the plains of’ Fleurus. to destroy an abominable privilege which ren- Fleurus, defeated the Prince of Waldeck, with the loss 4- D- 1690. Seer ae Rene moran Ge ol ats et of 6000 killed, and 8000 taken prisoners. The Dutch criminals, the ambassadors of Catholic princes in that infantry behaved so gallantly on this occasion, that the i i dis- Marshal observed, “ Prince Waldeck ought always to from thei i He was also anxious to remember the French cavalry ; and I shall never i which whatever entered the Dutch infantry.” In Italy, the Duke of Savoy, under the sanction of an ambassador's name paid celebrated Victor Amadeus, was opposed by the Mar- Pee Datel seipciet Gees wea Tenders ets cinllat poet . i i ius soon im an ex t general. He completely defeated the Duke at Staffarada © and in to; consequence of this victory, the whole of Savoy, exce } ple the fortress of Montmelian, was reduced by the French, himself set an example to them; Catalonia was the scene of hostile ions, in which accordingly he sent his ambassador to Rome, with also the French were successful. But what was more i extraordinary, and more ing to the ambition of full exercise of these most unjust privileges. Louis, the combined fleets of Holland and En - Such could not fail to excite the nt 3% were defeated off Beachy Head, by: the French fleet : | He Bo ° Ek pele Fs i u 1 g & { 3, ¥ ¢ 3S z f 5 4 Ee i : 3 ei Ee : ‘ under Tourville. peror Leopold having succeeded in defeatingthe Turks, In the beginning of April 1691, Louis himself took ) in reducing the i _malcontents, and in secu- Mons, in ep Ki Prien Nothing farther re- to the House of Austria the hereditary possession markable happened on the side of Flanders. In Italy, of the throne of Hungary, resolved to oppose the power Marshal Catinat was held in check by Prince Eugene : of seems to have on the frontiers of Germany, the war languished ; and in . had a habitual and cherished hatred of Louis, readily Catalonia, the advantages. gained by: the French were League of entered into the views of the 3 and the league neither splendid nor decisive. The following spring, : Augsburg of Augsburg was formed, in to restrain the en- Louis and William set out on the same day to join their formed im, roachments of France, and to secure the jects of the respective armies. Namur was reduced, even in the - againet him treaties of West the Pyrenees, and Nimeguen. sight of William, by Louis, with an army, of 45,000 Spain, Sweden, Dent ar iden men ; while Luxemburg, with another army covered siege of in the league. rage ae greases the designs of these the siege. The reduction of this place was rendered Luxem- powers, resolved to strike the first blow; and accord- remarkable by.the circumstance, that Coehorn defended wg. ingly-sent the Dauphin, at the head of 100,000 men, into in person a new fort, while Vauban directed the attack, Germany. After a siege of 19 days, Philipsburg was In order to atone for his not having prevented the fall 3 608 History. of this im t town, William endeavoured to sur- —v—" prise the ch army under Luxemburg, at Stein- irk; but after the most daring efforts, he was com- led! to retreat. The next year, he was yet more un- ortunate; the army of the confederates being defeated with the loss of 8000 men at Landen: Huy and Charle- roi fell into the possession of the French, in conse- uence of their success at Landen. In the mean time, French fleet under Tourville, who received express and positive orders to t, that, if victorious, he might invade England, was defeated near Ne La Hogue, by the combined fleets of England and Holland. 4In the campaigns of 1694 and 1695, fortune seemed rather to favour & allies: Huy was retaken.; the Duke of Savoy penetrated into Dauphiné ; and King Wil- liam, taking advantage of the death of Marshal Luxem- barg, invested Namur, which, though it was gallantly defended, was tens te capitulate in the a of the Pemine in French army under Villeroi. About this period, a dread- Prance. ful famine afflicted France ; it was caused partly by un- A. D. 1695. favourable seasons, and partly by the war not having left labourers sufficient to cultivate the rene ‘Corn was brought from abroail ; and if this had been the only measure adopted, probably the calamity might have been in some measure alleviated ; but by attempts to regulate the price, the evil was Snatedaed many of the peasants perished of hunger, and the whole kmgdom exhibited a dreadful scene of poverty and distress. In consequence of the misery of his people, and the exhausted state of his finances, Louis ved the ne- cessity either of making peace, or of ing some of the members from the’ confederacy. He preferred the latter. A negociation was opened with the Duke of Savoy, who was induced to desert the allies, and to unite himself to Louis, in consideration of the restitu- tien of his deminions; the honours of sovereignty ; four millions of money ; and the marriage of his daughter with the young Duke ¢ rp ae son of the Dauphin. e campaign of 1697 was not distinguished by an remarkable occurrence, except the taking of Bercllouk by the Duke of Vendome, notwithstanding it was gal- lantly defended by the Prince of Hesse Darmstadt, with a garrison of 10,000 men. This event induced the King of pein to listen to the proposals of France. A congress for a general peace was opened at the Castle of Ryswick, under the mediation of Charles XI. of Sweden. The Emperor at first was unwilling to listen to terms of accommodation, -but finding himself deserted by his allies, he acceded to the treaty. Peace of By this treaty, Louis restored to the Spaniards all Kyswick. the places he had taken from them; but the preten- A. D. 1698. sions of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish succes- sion were left in full force. He acknowledged William lawful king of England: with regard to Holland, he adhered to the ‘terms fixed at Munster and Nimeguen. To the empire he restored Kehl and Philipsburg ; and to the Em , Friburg and Brisac: he even con- sented to destroy the fortifications of Strasburg on the Rhine ; and restored Lorraine, Treves, and the Pa- eee. to their respective princes. is peace was very unpopular in France, particular] with the inhabitants of Parts, who repeanelel | and rd sulted the ministers who made it, on their return to the capital ; but these people looked only to the vic- tories which the French arms had gained, not to the effects of such an expensive war on the resources of the boars ( and yet they were obvious, and plainly out a peace as absolutely necessary. the five first campaigns had cost more than 200,000,000 ex- Effects of the war on France. FRANCE. traordinary ; the finances were in the disorder; | that the e might not be oppresel with taxes re course Was to loans, to cting new offices, and to oe which in the end became more extensiv permanently oppressive itional taxes, The value of roe: Ae pier in coin had been increased three livres in 1689 ; by which the commerce was injured, the ki impoverished, individuals onjeiy treated, and the revenue y diminished. In 1695, the capitation tax was 3 by it 21,000,000 were raised, but they were at the expence of the other taxes, for the revenue of this year was not on the whole increased. beilt oe? r Bs | It has been noticed, that the succession tothe throne of Spain, which was claimed by the Bourbon family, was not settled by the terms of swic and scarcely was that peace concl evident that hostilities would soon recommence from consanguinity, ‘only the Imperial-or F a claim to the throne ; but there was:another competi- tor, who founded his claim on a will. The three com-' Competi Id, and for = petitors were, Louis XIV. the Emperor Leopo the Elector of Bavaria. Louis and the Emperor were oon both grandsons of Philip IH. ; in this respect therefore °?“™ their claim was : daughters of Philip IIL and Philip IV. . The Imperial family, however, asserted, in su of their claim, the solemn and . Seer a jations of Louis XIII. and XIV. and the blood of Maximilian, . the-common parent of both branches of the House of Austria. The Elector of Bavaria claimed, as the hus- | Ss e g “< : 3. : g, ee? Phi- of in preference to his eldest s de- the will of Philip 1V. must be set aside, before the claim of the Elector could be rendered null, 1 2 vigre fore In the mean time, a most extraordinary circumstance occurred. William, King of England, who was always ~ so jealous of the power of Louis,—who had used his utmost efforts to restrain or crush it,—and who seemed’ actuated even by a personal dislike to that monarch— concluded a partition treaty with him, A. D. 1698, by Pattition which it was stipulated, that, on the death of the King S°o", , of Spain, his dominions should be divided the" claimants, in the following manner : Spain, and all her. American possessions, were to be given to the Elector of Bavaria ; the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the ports on the Biespogprnag meng i Si to be given to auphin ; while the Emperor’s se« eond pnt the Archduke Charles, was to RA the dukedom of Milan. As soon as intelligence of this treaty reached the court of Madrid, the King of Spain made a will in favour of his grand nephew the young prince of Bavaria, who died almost immediately after- wards. Upon this, the disquiets and intrigues were Se A eee. renewed ; and a second of partition was signed February 8th, A. D. 1699. ‘This aty differed mate- 4. p, 16: ‘est Indies were rially from the re and the ¢ : to be given to the Archduke Charles; the Milanese to - the Duke of Lorraine, who was to annex Lorraine to France ; and the Dauphin was, as before, to have the Two Sicilies, the ports on the Tuscan shore, and Finals . 5 FRANCE. - To prevent the union of Spain and the Imperial throne F pa in one person, it was agreed that the Archduke should . na amet ie patsah tone, in case he was rai- ’ sed to the dignity of king of the Romans, by the death , of his eldest brother. Onthe other hand, in order to treaty of partition. The King of Spain nominated the Archduke Charles his universal basa that it was evident that the partition treaty would be of no effect, a ae pipet : é FEESTE Pipes fa : g cede : & a | | oF Paid fivurble F Og Sepmemennginar ear a oh a aa E # cH it le ii g $e ay a4 : : u H : i yi = 3 : TF Hi i by pee, eae es a ip V. His grand- father, at parting with him, exclaimed, “ There are no more ! He was acknowledged by the Pope, the potentates, of Savoy, Venice, the northern of 3 was to 4. D. 1701. prevent the union of France and Spain and the Frenc taking possession of the Spanish dominions in America ; 609 the death of the King of England, the main spring of History. this treaty, threw the allies almost into despair, and oc- “~~ casioned the most indecent joy at the court of France. The succession of Anne, however, and her immediate declaration that she adhered to the d alliance, revi- ved ths hopes and the fears of the confederates and the French. : Even before the grand alliance was formed, war had War in begun in Italy between France and the Emperor. Itly, Prince Eugene, ‘who commanded the Imperial army of 50,000 men, penetrated through the district of Trent ; the French general Catinat not conceiving himself au- thorised to obstruct his , In consequence of or- ders from his court. The Milanese was thus exposed to danger ; and Catinat was replaced by the Marquis of Villeroi. This general imprudently attacked Eugene, and was defea The first campaign, after the forma tion of the alliance, was not distinguished by any great event. In Italy, Eugene was not able to follow up his successes, as his army was greatly inferior to the combined forces of France and Spain ; indeed, he was obliged to raise the blockade of tua, and was de- feated in attempting to surprise the French general On the upper Rhine, the Germany, - Vendome near pati Es Prince of Baden was defeated by the Marquis de Villars, and lan- who, for this victory, was immediately afterwards crea- ¢¢* ted a marshal of France. On the side of Flanders, the cause of the Bourbons was not so prosperous. ‘The Earl of Marl h,; by his masterly movements, suc- ceeded in getti een the enemy and the principal towns of ish Guelderland, and reduced such of them as epened the navigation of the Maese, and afree. communication with Maestricht. By sea, Louis was unfortunate, the Priva having destroyed at Vigo a fleet of galleons, which had an immense ge fate ney on In the beginning of 1703, the of Savoy, who had been long wavering, concluded a trea- pt the Em . On the 20th of September in year, the Imperialists were defeated with slaughter at Hochstet, by Marshal Villars and the Elecs tor of Bavaria. The consequences of this victory were the reduction of Augsburg, and the epening of a pas- to Vienna itself. About the same time, the Duke urgundy made himself master of old Brisac ; and, before the end of the campaign, Marshal Tallard retook Landau, and defeated the ice of Hesse, who was ad- vancing to its relief. Soon afterwards, Louis was under the necessity of re- Revolt in calling Marshal Villars, in uence of a revolt in the Ce- the Cevennes. This revolt was occasioned by the per- Y™* secutions of the Protestants, who, roused by some pre- tended p and prophetesses, were maddened with religious ry and enthusiasm. Their war-cry was, “ No taxes, and liberty of conscience!” The more they suffered, the greater was their inveteracy and constan- cy. They pce inhabited lonely and desolate mountains, from which they rushed like wild beasts, and to which they returned when they were pursued or attacked. Marshal Villars, ashamed of having been re- called from scenes of real glory to war against these people, and moreover finding that they could not be completely subdued, thought it better to treat with one of their chiefs, a young baker, to whom the rank of colonel was given. The rebels, however, did not sub- mit at this time; but they were afterwards reduced, and almost exterminated by the Duke of Berwick. During the absence of Villars, Marshal Tallard was with the command. The lines of the Elec- 4u blimery. —_—\y— Campaign of 1706, 610 tor of Bavaria had been forced by Marlborough, near Donawert, with considerable loss; but the appearance of Tallard inspired that prince with fresh confidence, and it was determined to hazard a general battle. This battle was fought near Blenheim, and, by its result, im- mortalized Marlborough, and exposed the Electorate of Bavaria to the ravages of the conquerors. Upon this Villars was recalled, and by prudently remaining on the defensive, obliged the Duke of Marlborough to relin- quish his plan of penetrating into France by the course of the Moselle. : The Duke of Marlborough having returned to Flan- ders, Villars was employed in watcHing the numerous armies of the empire on the Rhine, and succeeded in baffling them by his skill. In Italy, the Duke of Ven- dome on Prince Eugene and the Duke of Sa- voy ; bought the bloody but indecisive battle of Cassi- nato; and menaced Turin with a siege. These advan- tages of the French were balanced by the good for- tune of the allies in Spain, where the Archduke Charles, whom they proclaimed king, made himself master of most of that country. In 1706, the Marshal Villeroi was defeated by the Duke of Marlborough at Ramillies ; and the greatest of Spanish Flanders rewarded the victors. Louis, instead of re ing, endeavoured to console the Mar- shal for this defeat ; ‘“ People at our time of life, Mon- sieur Marshal,” said he, “ are not fortunate.” In Italy, the siege of Turin was begun by the Marshal Feuillarde, son-in-law of the minister Chamillard. The siege was covered by the Duke of Orleans, the nephew of Lonis, who was however controlled by the superior, but secret wers of the Marshal Marsin. As the preparations for this si were immense, great expectations were formed of its success ; but Feuillarde was by no means fit for his situation ; he was ignorant, obstinate, and so conceited, that when Vauban offered to direct the ope- rations of the siege as engineer, he rejected the offer with disdain, The city, however, notwithstanding the in- capacity of the Marshal, was reduced to the greatest distress, when Prince Eugene rapidly approached to its relief. The Duke of Orleans rmiaiied to have lett his lines, and met the enemy; but he was overruled by Marshal Marsin, and the French waited the attack in their entrenchments. In two hours, the Prince obtain- ed a complete victory : the Duke of Orleans was wound- ed, Marshal Marsin killed, and the duchies of Milan, Mantua, and Piedmont, with the kingdom of Naples, were by this one battle wrested from the House of Bourbon. The affairs of Louis in Spain were equally te; but in a short time fortune changed sides there, and Charles was obliged to evacuate his capital, and fly before the Duke of Berwick, who triumphed at Almanza over the forces of the confederates. Louis having in vain endeavoured to the King of Sweden in his cause, began seriously to think of put- ting an end to.a war, by which his arms had been dis- graced, and his subjects impoverished. He according- y ordered the Elector of Bavaria to write letters to the Duke of Marlborough, and the field deputies of the United Provinces, ing a ess; offering, az a proof of his sincerity, to give up all the Spanish do- minions. in Italy to the ‘Archduke Charles ; to the Uni- ted Provinces, a barrier in the Netherlands; and to the Duke of Savoy, a com tion for the-waste made by the war in his territories. In return, he asked the re- storation of Bavaria to its native Prince ; and that Phi- lip V. should be allowed to possess Spain and her Ame- rican colonies. This offer was, however, indignantly FRANCE, and wantonly rej , the views of the allies i with their ptndes ing humbled Fenae diet now wished to conquer Spain. They accordingly in- formed Louis, that no peace set ke made ma 4 the House of Bourbon, so long as a prince of that house ‘sat on the throne of Spain, , ' - Louis was not so humbled in means or in hopes, as to be willing to accept these conditions, and he resol- ved to prosecute the war with vigour; but he was at a loss for money. In this emergency, he issued bills upon’ the mint toa very large amount, but most foolishly re-. fused to take them in payment of taxes. The conse-) quence was, that they fell into such discredit, as to be. at more than 50 per cent. discount. He therefore was: obliged to continue the practice of loans, and to antici- pate the royal revenue. Still his efforts were astonish~| His asto- ing: The coasts of the Channel and Mediterranean( Dishing ef- were defended by a line of militia; an army was sta~ tioned in Flanders, under the Duke of V e; an- other in the neighbourhood of Strasburg, under Vil-: lars ; two smaller armies were“collected in Navarre and: Rousillon ; and the Duke of Berwick, who still com- manded in Spain, was strongly reinforced. These re- inforcements came from Italy, where the French troops, amounting to 15,000 men, been obliged, b i~ tulation, to evacuate Lombardy. i} new In Spain, use of Bourbon was successful. The Duke of Or ho assumed the command after the, battle of Almanza, reduced Valentia and and took Lerida in Catalonia, which had formerly resisted the: great Condé. In Germany, Louis was also fortunate ; for Marshal Villars, having passed the Rhine, laid Swa- bia and Franconia under contribution. France itself, however, was exposed to danger in the midst of these: successes ; for Prince Eugene and the Duke of Savoy; being perfectly at liberty, in consequence of the French. army having evacuated Lombardy, formed a plan, in conjunction with the maritime powers, to reduce Toulon: or Marseilles, But, unfortunately for the allies, before the Prince appeared with the van of the Imperialists, the French had found. means to throw.8000 men inte> Toulon, the place which they ultimately had resolved to attack. ‘They had also taken ion of all the eminences that commanded the city ; and the allies, in attempting to dislodge them, were repulsed with con-— siderable loss.. In consequence, the rals deemed it. prudent to give up the attempt. Ineidentally, how-) ever, this expedition was detrimental to France; for the detachments drawn from the army of Marshal Vil-: lars for the defence of Toulon, obliged him to abandon . his projects against Germany, and to. ‘the Rhine. repass In the month of July 1708, the French army un~ Campaign der the Duke of Vendome was defeated by the Duke of 1708. of Marlborough at Oudenarde. Immediately after this battle, the former were joined by a re~- inforeement under the Duke of Berwick from. the Rhine, and the latter by Prince Eugene's army. The» iege of Lisle, the principal city in French Hiandese on the second in the dominions of Louis, was now be- + Seealy and’ Marlbsron meyer soem | directly, and Mar coveri siege. Into. this lai Marshal iteolamen old i officer, had thrown himself with some of the best troops. of France ; but notwithstanding his gallant.efforts, and 4 his utmost skill, in the +“ of two months he was Lisle taken n obliged to capitulate, I tempted to pass through Switzerland, in order to join } the troops of the empire in Alsace, and penetrate into France on that side ; but he was so vigorously opposed , the Duke of Savoy at- ay tea al. FRANCE. 611 by Villars, that he was content with securing his own the confederates continued their successful progress in History. inions against the invasions of the enemy, by re- Flanders: Douay surrendered, the Marshal Villars has “~~” La Perouse, and F ‘ving in vain attempted to relieve it; Bethune, St Ve- nant, and Aire, were also reduced. In Spain, the cause of the Bourbons was rather successful, and with their successes their drooping spirits revived. In 1711, a Change of change of ministry took place in England ; by which, istry in as the friends of the Duke of Marlborough were remo- ©s!"4. ved from their places, it was sup that he also of the Em. would be deprived of his command, and probably the peror, fa- war terminated ; but, as the war was popular, and the vourable to _ History. “——" dominions Alarm at Paris. ive Furnes, Ypres, Menin, Tournay, Conde, and Maubeuge, as a barrier to the United inces; to acknowledge the Elector of Brandenburg as King of Prussia, and the Duke of Hanover as the ninth elector of the empire ; to remove the Pretender from France, and acknow- ledge Queen Anne; to restore every thing required the cessions 8, already gloomy, the Duke a great favourite with the nation, the new mi- Lou's famine: Louis, nistry did not deem it prudent immediately to recal 4+: 17!!- him, or terminate it. Another event however occurred, which had still greater influence on the state of things ; this was the sudden death of the Emperor Joseph. He was succeeded by his brother Charles; and as it was contrary to the general alliance that the same person should Spain and the empire, the new ministry of Ragland. ware no longer afraid to avow their wishes . for peace. Hostilities however still continued; but the rigour of the season prevented the Duke of Marl~ borough from taking the field before the beginning of May ; and, after he did take it, no events of importance occurred. Negociations had been for some time se- carried on between France and England, and is re. atrived when Louis might be effectually on the 27th of September they were privately si Sees” netahind; Seutmohel/iio otditions finale at uibdion:) “Asithtalliee wears ce tittesind of ties to certain preliminary articles, which were iations, they were highly displeased at the intel- negociations, ligence that the preliminaries were signed. But, in the beginning of 1712, general conferences were open< pe en guveve ines A MT, MR ROC ed at Utrecht for restoring tranquillity to Europe; the explaining the ample concessions which he had offer- French and English ambassadors declaring, the ed, roused ‘their indignation and pride. Hiostilities preliminaries signed at London were neither binding amounting to 100,000 men, under Eugene rough, were opposed to Villars, who had been called to the command as the last hope of his country, and who was and advantageously between Cou- riere and The allies, reconnoitring his iti were afraid to attack him, and set down be- Tournay ; which, ere ne ie of the town and the citadel—the of which attempt to save it; but league from the city, his now fell, and its surrender concluded this campaign in on the Queen or her allies. While these negociations were going on, the Dauphin of France died ; and his elde&t son, as well as his son, died also. In conse- quence of these deaths, the Duke of Anjou, a sickly infant, only intervened between the King of Spain and the crown of France. L erm now ae to submit certain propositions to Louis and Philip V. rn a Spain ; the latter preferred the ties ty Het nish throne without hesitation, but Louis hesitated be- fore he to the choice of his grandson. . He at last complied ; and it was , that the renunciation of the of France by Philip V. should be regis- tered in the books of the parliament of Paris, and rati- fied by the cortes of Castile and Arragon. While these negotiations were going on, Prince Eu- gene to the Duke of Ormond, who had suc- ceeded the Duke of Marlborough, to attack the French army under Villars, in the mi of concluding the war with a splendid victory ; but the English general having orders not to act offensively, defeated, by his hesitation, the projects of the prince, who, however, reduced Ques- noy, and sent a detachment to penetrate into the heart of France. Soon after this, the Duke of Ormond made known to the allies the cessation of arms between France and England, and the British forces from thosé of the other confederates. Notwithstanding this di- minution of his army, the prince invested ; but on this occasion committed errors, which were ived and taken advantage of by Marshal Villars, who slaughtered or oon a body of 14,000 men near Denain.’ The Marshal followed up this success ; and, having reduced Marchiennes, where the principal ma- gazines of the confederates were deposited, he reco- vered successively Douay, Quesnoy, and Bouchain. The Dutch now, being sensible of their perilous situation of pacification settled between Their example was followed by of , the King of Portugal, and the the last of whom, finding himself unable to support any military operations in Spain, agreed to the evacuation fore, all the belligerent powers, except the Emperor, being disposed for peace, negociations were opened at Utrecht. Peace of On the 31st of March 1713, sam oo i Usecht, at Utrecht by the plenipotentiaries rance, En k A D-1713: Portugal, Prassia, Savoy, and the United Provinces the King of Spain refusing to sign the stipulations, till a principality was sieviden in the Netherlands for the Princess Orsini, the favourite of his queen. So far as France was concerned, the principal articles were, that Philip V. should renounce all claim to the throne of that tenes that the Dukes of Berry and Orleans, the next heirs to the French monarchy after the infant Dauphin, should renounce all right to the crown of Spain, in the event of their accession to the crown of France; that the Rhine should form the boundary of the German empire on the side of France ; and thatall fortifications beyond that river, possessed or claimed by France, should either be relinquished to the emperor or destroyed ; that Luxemburg, Namur, and Charle- roi, should be given to the United Provinces, as a bar- rier, along with Mons, Menon, Tournay, &c. already in their session; that Lisle, Aire, Bethune, and Dinant, should be restored to France; that Louis should acknowledge the title of Queen Anne, and the eventual succession of the house of Hanover to the British throne ; that the fortifications of Dunkirk should be demolished, and the harbour filled up ; that New- foundland, Hudson’s Bay, and Nova Scotia, should be gs up by France to England ; and that the title of ing of Prussia should be recognised Louis, who should at the same time to cede to him the town of Gueldres, with part of Spanish Guelderland. As the Emperor continued obstinate, two months were allowed to him to sign the treaty ; in the course of which, as Louis had now no other enemy, and Prince Eugene was not sufficiently strong to oppose Marshal Villars, the latter successively took Worms, Spires, and Landau ; pierced the lines which the prince had or- dered to be drawn from the Brisgaw, and defeated Gene- ral Vaubonne in his entrenchments, The Emperor now was anxious for peace, and conferences were between Prince Eugene and Marshal Villars at Radstadt. The terms of this treaty, which was concluded on the 6th of March 1714, were less favourable to the Empe- ror than those offered at Utrecht, as the King of France retained Landau, which he had formerly proposed to cede, and the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne fully re-establi in their dominions. About the same time, Louis persuaded the King of Spain to forego bis absurd claim in behalf of the Princess Orsini, and to o — aoe — pacification. Death is did not survive this peace: he died on character the Ist of ber a ron reed 1715, inthe 78th year of his ob 176, The events of his reign sufficiently illustrate his the: racter asa monarch. His love of glory and ambition were insatiable, and leapt over the boundaries of jus- tice and humanity, in order to attain its wishes. His has, however, been doubted ; it is certain, at Jeast, that he never exposed his person, and never, while he commanded the army, anhertdk the siege of # place which he was not certain to reduce, or fought a battle which he was not certain to win, It must be said FRANCE. in exculpation | of her generals, and Bourdaloue, and Massillon, taught him his duty ;—Vauban fortified his towns ; Riquet formed his canals ;—Perrault and Mansard constructed his which were embellish- ed by Le Pouissin, Le Seur, and Le Brun ;—Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Quenault, La Fontaine, Bruyere, and Boileau, relieved his more serious cares, by their wit and literature ;—and Fenelon, Huet, Flechier, Beauvil- liers, and Bossuet, were the instructors of his children. Louis seems to have seen the folly, if not the injus- tice, of his pursuits before he died; for he made use of the following memorable expressions to his successor— « Endeavour to preserve peace with your neighbours ; I have been d of war; do not imitate me in that, or in being ive. Take advice on all occa- sions, and endeavour to discover the best, that you may always follow it. Relieve your le as soon as you can ; and do that, which unfortun I could not do.” He also advised him never to forget his duty to- wards God. : By an edict, which was-regi in 1714, he called his legitimated children to succession, failing the princes of the blood ; but this 1717. The Duke of Orleans, soon after the death of Louis R ry XIV. appealed to the decision of the Parliament of the Duke: Paris against the will of that monarch, and was ap. ° Or pointed by them sole regent. Although ively ad- dicted to pleasure, yet, in the early part of his admi- nistration, his measures were ar, wise, and bene- ficial. He restored to the parliament the right of re- ‘monstrating against the edicts of the crown; compelled those who had plundered the people, by their extortions during the late reign, to give up their unjustly acquired washes sepengledl the towns and districts that had t been thinned by the ravages of war; nourished commerce and agriculture ; and entered into a close alliance with Great Britain and the United Provinces. But his mea- sures were interrupted, and his power threatened, by edict was revoked in the intrigues of the Cardinal Alberoni, first minister of Spain. This man, persuading Philip V. that his’ re- nunciation of the throne of France was invalid, and that he had a better right to it than the Duke of Or- leans, in case of the death of Louis XV. endeavoured to inflame those who were discontented with the mea- sures of the Duke. But his plots having been disco- vered, his adherents in France were executed, and the Duke’s authority was henceforth more firmly establish- ed. Soon after this, the Duke formed the quadruple alliance ; and Alberoni still continuing his intrigues, a declaration of war against Spain was issued by Great Britain and France. The e of Berwick, who had the command of one of the ba to Pe a —s-4 ed towards the frontiers of Spain, took possession St Sebastian and Fontarabia’; and having ‘caries parations for the siege of some other places in that a So ee Serer th ee oie ment, A. D. 1723,.of Bourbon, who was soon su shin aor the Dake of Ones ean the regerey, . FRANCE. son eaten into a peace, acceding to the quadruple alliance, and i i. joa at the thrones FE and Spain, the Duke of Orleans projected a ameemencene ; his own doughionhepa petedioge Prince of Asturias, and the I of Spain to the King of France. oa to fly for murder, and afterwards became an adventurer, was the author of it ; and the tness of the idea recommended it to the Duke of Or His mounmee sa penal e national debt, by the intro- with the Mississippi to his of credit, wasin a short time it. In 1719, the notes which he fabricated, exceed- in nominal amount fourscore times the real value of coin of the kingdom. At first, only the of the state had been paid is paper; but in in conjunction with the. bankers, exhausted eg me a i The consequence of this was, to con all at once. ards of to frit i : wanted sunk . it fixed for by the Duke pplanted by Cardinal Fleury, who had been preceptor to Louis XV. and was now 73 years old. The character of the Cardinal was differen t from that of statesmen in general. He tion of blessing which a sovereign could bestow on his subjects. This ing therefore he was extremely anxious, es w adminis- tration, to e; and, as Sir Walpole, the mi- nister of Britain at this period, was equally pa- cific, the 2 Aone a kal ary roe plntgs e death i nearly 20 years. At len of the of Poland, in 1733, rekindled the flames of war, and was induced to embark in it, in of Stanislaus, the father-in-law of Louis, (for the A. D, 1733, Infanta of Spain had been sent back, before the mar- riage projected by the Duke of Orleans was completed. France, on this occasion, united with Spain Pd Sa dinia, and hostilities commenced on the side of Ger- of Berwick 613 this, Villars died, and his successor, the Marshal de Coig- History: ny, defeated the Imperialists, under the walls of Parma. The Emperor, discouraged by these losses, proposed e; and Cardinal Fleury, sincere and constant in is wish for it, acceded tothe proposal. By the treaty, Stanislaus was to renounce his pretensions to Poland, in consideration of the cession of Lorraine to him du- ring his life; and Louis agreed to restore all his con- quests in Germany, and to guarantee the pragmatic sanction, or domestic law, by which the succession to the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria were “secured to the heirs female of Charles VI. in case he should die without issue. Soon after this peace, Charles VI. died ; and the disputed succession to his heredi dominions, notwithstanding the pragmatic sanction, kindled anew the flames of war in Europe. dominions belonged to Maria Theresa, the late empe- ror’s eldest daughter, who was married to Francis - Lorraine, Grand Dok of a, . Almost all the wers had anteed the matic sanc- tidal mae thaless A oink the iod eae in which it was necessary to support it, many of them took up arms to set it aside. e claimants to the dominions of the house of Austria, were the Elector of Bavaria, the King of Poland, the King of Spain, and the King of France ; but the last did not appear as a competitor, being afraid of awakening the jealousy of all Europe. These claimants were, however, astonished, when the King of Prussia also appeared among them ; and while they were inactive, actually invaded Silesia. Cardinal Fleury, notwithstanding this violent invasion of the pragmatic sanction, was still desirous of peace ; but he was unable to withstand the ardour for war in the ‘French councils ; and this ardour was increased by the idea, that the period was at length arrived, so long de- sired by France, for breaking the power of the house of Austria, and exalting that of Bourbon on its ruins. A with the Elector of Bavaria was accordingly concluded, by which the King of France engaged to assist him with his whole force, on condition that, if he succeeded in his projects, he would renounce the barrier treaty, and not attempt to recover any parts of the empire, which France might have conquered; a treaty was also concluded with the King of Prussia at the same time, the object of which was the total dis- memberment of the possessions of the house of Austria. The Elector of Bavaria was appointed lieutenant ge« neral of the French armies, with the Marshals Belleisle and Broglio to act under him, Louis XV. at the same time, issued a hostile declaration against the King of Great Britain, in his character of Elector of Hanover. The Elector of Bavaria was very rapid in his pro~ gress. Having entered Upper Austria, hetook possession of Lintz, and sent his detachments to the neighbour- hood of Vienna itself. In this extremity, Maria The- resa roused the Hungarians in her behalf; their nobi- lity were instantly in arms ; and the Elector of Bava. ria, threatened by the forces which Maria Theresa had’ collected, and finding the season of the year adverse to farther proceedings, gave up the plan of investing Vienna, and marched into Bohemia, where, being join- ed by 20,000 Saxons, he laid siege to Prague. After the reduction of this place, he was, on the 4th Janua 1742; elected Em Here, however, his good fortune terminated : the Prus- sians and Saxons having been unsuccessful, were obli- ged to retreat, and the Austrians seized this opportuni- ty of attempting to unite their whole force against the By virtue War of the ; of this sanction, the succession to the whole Austrian Pragmatic r, under the name of Charles VII. A. D. 1742. Listers. Siege of TAgUC, A. D. 1742. -neral fo 614 French, under Marshals Belleisle and Broglio. The King of Prussia, fortunately for the French, prevented their junction ; but this monarch soon afterwards sus- pecting the sincerity of his ally, the King of France, concluded a separate treaty at Breslaw. This unex- pected and alarming intelligence was followed by dis- astrous wences; for Marshals Broglio and Belle- isle, by superior forces, were reduced to the humiliating peeey, of offering to evacuate all the places which they held in Bohemia, provided they were pent to retire with jane, —_ epson ps a e. This proposal was tily rejected by oy of ears ; and Marshal Mail Bashy who com- manded the French forces on the Rhine, was ordered to march into Bohemia, at the head of 42,000 men. In Weems, he was joined by $0,000 French and Im- ialists. In the mean time, Marshal Belleisle, who find assumed the command in Prague, was closely press- ed by the Prince of Lorraine. The latter, on learning the approach of Marshal Maillebois, turned the siege into a blockade, and advanced with the main body of his army towards the frontiers of the kingdom, in order to oppose the French. He was soon afterwards joined, by a 1 Austrian army, and in the mean time Marshals Belleisle and Broglio formed the design of uniting with Maillebois. Prince Charles, however, by taking session of the passes in the mountains, utterly defeated this scheme ; and Maillebois was obliged to return to the Palatinate, whither he was followed by the Prince of Lorraine ; while the Austrian army, under Lobkouitz, obliged Belleisle and Broglio again to take refuge in ue, Soon afterwards, Brogiio baring escaped from this ci in disguise, took upon him the command of the Fren army in the Palatinate ; so that the fate of Prague, to- wards which the attention of all Europe was now direct- ed, depended solely upon the conduct and courage of Belleisle, and the smail remains of that gallant army, which had given an Emperor to Germany. Now it was that the powers and resources of Belleisle’s mind were made manifest ; having formed the plan of his retreat, by making in one quarter of the town a feint for a ge- , and marching out at another, he succeed- ed in eluding the besiegers, and in reaching the defiles with an unbroken army. In this march he had ten leagues to pass over; the ground was covered with snow ; the cold intensely severe; all the inhabitants were his enemies: and as soon as his flight was known, Prince Lobkowitz with 12,000 infantry, aud 8000 ca- valry, hung on his rear. After a fatiguing march of twelve days, he reached Egra, and entered Alsace with- out the loss of a single man from the enemy, though a thousand had perished in consequence of the rigour of the season. In 1743, the Queen of Hungary being victorious in Germany, and in sion of the territories of the Emperor Charles VII. the French became heartily tired of a war, in which they had suffered so severely, and made proposals of peace, on rather humiliating condi- tions, though Cardinal Fleury no longer influenced the cabinet of Versailles: he had died in the beginning of this year. But the Queen of Hungary rejected all pa- cific overtures ; and Louis made preparations for carry- ing on the war with increased vigour and effect. Af- fairs, however, were still gloomy: the French were driven from all their positions in the Upper Palatinate ; and Marshal Broglio was obliged to abandon a strong camp on the Danube, and to retire towards the Rhine. When he reached Donawert, he was joined by 12,000 FRANCE. men under Count Saxe; but his main body being near- ly ruined, he still continued his retreat. About this time, the battle of — was fought between the French and the English; for an account of which, see the article Barratn. st " On the 25th of October in this year, a family com- Pamily pact, or perpetual alliance, was formed between France compact and Spain at Fontainebleau ; in consequence of which oxy the irals of their combined fleet, in the harbour of g,,:n Toulon, resolved to give battle to that of England, by 4. p.'17 which they had been blocked up. The "particulars of this t are given in the article Brirain, Hi- war, therto France and England, ( engaged in hostilities, had 5 oe These, however, were put forth towards the end of March 1744. For the i of this war, we shall refer our readers to article Brirarn; and in this place confine ourselves to the ions of France against Austria and Sardinia. About the beginning Operations of April, the French and Spaniards formed of France © of penetrating into the Duchy of Milan, through the 98*"*" Genoese territories; but the republic not daring, in g.cinia, consequence of the threats of Admiral’ Matthews, to 4. p, 17 allow this the French and Spaniards defiled off towards Piedmont, and attacked a strong post, where the King of Sardinia commanded in person. This — they carried; i uence of which, the King of Sar« dinia drew off in order to cover his capital. In the nes nome eeasiedeinion invested Coni, the possession of which wou ve opened them a passage into Milan. The King of Sardinia, on learning. this, having been -reinfi by 10,000 Austrians, resolved to attempt the relief of the He accordingly at- tacked the French and Spaniards in their entrench- ments; but, after an obstinate he was com< pelled to retire, not, however, before he had reinforeed the garrison of Coni, and supplied it with provisions. As the winter was now approaching, the raised the siege, r the mountains, evacuated Piedmont, and entered Dauphiné. ‘ In the beginning of November, a treaty was cone» cluded at Frankfort, through the influence of France, between the Emperor and King of Prussia, the Ki of Sweden, and the Elector Palatine, the declan obliging the Queen of H _to acknowledge Charles VII. The King of Pressing however, by a se aurocanent, Wat nheiee ge Se eneeaeee till he should see France act. with vigour. In conse- ' quence of this agreement, Louis put himself at the Louis in- head of his army in Flanders, consisting of 120,000 men, and invested Menin, which surrendered in seven days ; several other places were reduced with equal fa- cility ; while the allied army, amounting only to. 70,000 _ men, were behind the Scheldt. But Louis was soon obliged to leave the scene of his triumphs, to go and defend his own kingdom ; for Prince Charles of . Lorraine having passed the Rhine, entered Alsace with ; an army of 60,000 Austrians. Against him, the ki i first the Duke of Noailles, and afterwards . marched himself ; leaving Marshal Saxe, ne aoe ¥ the troops, to oppose the allies in Flanders. is gee , neral, though now inferior to them, yet, by his con- i summate abilities, prevented them.from gaining any ( advantages during the remainder of the campaign. Before Pe Prince of honnen could atchieve por operst ion of importance, having. got information tha the King of Prussia had entered Bohemia, he judged it History. —— ' concluded a peace with the Queen of Hungary The French obstinately continue FRANCE, prudent to repass the Rhine; after which, Louis laid iege to Fribourg, and the reduction of this place ter- minated the campaign on the side of Alsace. In 1745, Charles VII. died; and his son being too young to become a candidate for the Imperial ve treaty, it was expected, would lead to a general pacifi- GREE, 0 thereainie’ of var ii Getusly io Vp edd ed; but the Marquis D’Argenson, the French minister, who had great influence in the cabinet, declared that France, having undertaken to fork head to the Ger- manic body, ought to hazard the last soldier, in su of what she claimed, and had declared she w . The cabinet of Versailles therefore offered the Im- ial throne to the King of Poland ; but he refused it. French were still obstinate ; and as they could the war, |, find no candidate of their own, they determined to continue the war, in order to™ ent the election of the husband of Maria Theresa. The republic of Genoa, which had been long wavering in its politics, now con- cluded a treat with the House Bourbon, which turned out fatal to the interests of the Queen of Hun- gary and the King of Sardinia. The latter was obliged to retire, by the conjoint fa of the French, Spa- niards, and Neapolitans, beyond the Tanaro; the city of Pavia was taken by assault, and Milan itself forced to surrender. Turin was next th ; but the con- federates, contented with their su ann osed the cam- i a triumphant entry into Milan, Paauhng the avowed object of Louis was to ent the election of the Grand Duke, yet he had also in view the con of Flanders... In r to carry into execu- tion these plans at once, he assembled two great armies; one on the Maine under the Prince of Conti, and another under Count Saxe, which invested Tournay. As the relief of this place was of, consisting of the Austrians, Dutch, overians, and: British, thou hninferior to the French, resolved to its relief. i rise to the battle of Fon ; for an account of which, see Brirarn. After this battle, while the allies were entrenched between Antwerp and Brus- sels, Marshal Saxe and Count Lauendalil reduced Tour- nay, Oudenarde, Ath, Dendermond, Ghent, Ostend, and every other fortified place in Austrian Flanders, But though thus successful in this obj Louis was less fortunate in the other object of the war ; for he was not able to ent the Queen of Hungary from raising her husband to the Imperial throne. ‘ By the treaty of Dresden, the King of Prussia was detached from the house of Bourbon; i i which, the King of France was determined to push his conquests in the Netherlands, while the King of Great Britain, enraged at Louis for supporting the er, was resolved to oppose his projects. Louis the campaign with his usual vigour. Mar- shal Saxe took Brussels in the beginning of F 1746. In April, the King joined his army, now 120,000 ; Antwerp was ~: She n debelttgggony, est in , held out only afew weeks ; an f by the 10th of July, Louis was master of Flanders, | Brabant, and Hainault. The confederates hitherto not able to m+ mae French, now mustered 87,000 — - Charles of Lorraine ; and with this force took up a strong position in the neighbour- hood of Namur, as they conceived this place would be next invested. Marshal Saxe, after itring their situation, did not deem it prudent to attack it ; in erder to-attain his object by other means,-he reduced | con ence, theallies,: came to nothing, however, as the 615 Dinant, and thus obtained the command of the naviga- tion of the Maese above Namur, while a large maga- zine of the confederates was captured at Huy. The communication being now cut off with Maestricht, Prince Charles, from a scarcity of provisions, was obli- ged to quit his post, and leave Namur to its fate. The garrison was numerous, and the place well defended ; yet, on the 6th day, the town was compelled to sur- render, and the citadel on the 16th. Marshal Saxe, who never lost 2 moment’s time, immediately after this passed the river Jaar, at the head of the whole French’ army, and attacked the allies in the villages of Leirs, Warem, and Roucoux, at the same time, by 55 batta- lions in brigad ther advanced ; so that the allies, wearied out, and, by some unaccountable neglect, destitute of artillery, were obliged to abandon the villages, and retreat towards Maestricht. The French, however, had suffered so- much, that they did not attempt to pursue them. This battle was not attended wi term . As soon as Louis learnt the defection of the King of Prussia, he made, without consulting the court of Ma- drid, such advantageous proposals to the King of Sar- dinia, that they were instantly accepted, and a cessa- tion of hostilities took — ; but the jealousy and in- dignation of the Spanish Monarch were so great, that the treaty was annulled. The consequence, however, was injurious to France, as, from the misunderstand- ing, the French and Spanish armies for some time ef- fected nothing. The king of Sardinia, on the breaking - off the , made himself master of Asti, which was es. As soon as one was repulsed, ano-* any vor hg conse- quences: with it, the operations in the Low Countries: History. y 5000 French troops. This circumstance Jealousy tended still more to foment the jealousy between France between and Spain, the French gner bein ery in’not succouring this place. The Spaniards im- mediately raised the siege of Milan, and the French, afraid that their communication ‘with Provence might” be cut off, retired to Novi. This misunderstanding and jealousy being at last removed, the French and Spa- nish armies again united, and attacked the yr pt camp at St Lazaro ; but they were compelled to retire, - after suffering a very severe loss. : On the death of king of Spain, the generals of the combined armies, doubtful in what manner his suceessor would act, were desirous of securing a com- munication with France, and accordingly commenced a retreat, which was conducted with great ability by « the Count de Maillebois, son of the Marshal of that name, The King of Sardinia pursued, and endeavour- - ed to harass them: at Rotto Fredo he brought them’ to battle, and defeating them, Placentia was obliged to surrender. The French and Spaniards next took shel- ter under the cannon of Genoa; but not deeming this situation secure, they left the city to its fate, and re« ae. the latter into Provence, and the former into voy. victorious Austrians aside from Italy, uaded France and accused of treach- Benin, ‘oy The King of Sardinia being desirous of turning the jnyasion of , France by in conjunction with the British cabinet, ‘to invade the, Aus- France. Count Brunn, who commanded the Austri- &™"- ans, accordingly invaded Provence ; but, by the mas- terly conduct of Marshal Belleisle, he was under the necessity of yeas the Var. Towards’ the end of this year, the King of France discovered some wish to make peace, and a congress was at Breda; it were exorbi- 4s 616 Hisery. tant, and even insolent, in their demands. After the —\—" rupture of this negociation, the States General agreed Immense to white with Britain and Austria in opposing the am- peepare- —bitious projects af Louis: they were to f 40,000, Cae & the King of Great Britain an equal number, and Maria as Theresa 60,000, all of which were to act in the Nether- 7 lands, Another army of 90,000 Austrians and Pied- montese, under the King of Sardinia; was to enter Pro- vence. To oppose the first army, Louis assembled 150,000 men in the Netherlands, over whom was ced Marshal Saxe, with the title of Mareschal de Cam Generale. The Spanish army in Savoy was greatly augmented, and 60,000 French troops were stationed in Provence. The grand army of the confederates took the field in March 1747; but it lay inactive for six weeks, exposed to the inclemency of the weather; while Marshal Saxe’s army was within their cantonements at Bruges, Ant- werp, and Brussels, furnished with plenty of provi- sions, and unfatigued. In May, the, King of France arrived at Brussels, and resolved to besiege Maestricht. The allies being’extremel y desirous to preserve this city, the battle of Val, fought on the Ist of July, was the consequence, in which, after various turns of fortune, the Duke of Cumberland, who commanded the allies, was obliged to quit the field, and retire to Maestricht. Marshal Saxe immediately dispatched Count Lauen- dahl with 30,000 men to invest Be: Zoom, the strongest fortification in Dutch Brabant. It was taken by storm on the 14th of September, and the French thus rendered masters of the whole navigation of the Scheldt. The French were equally active on the side of Italy; for Marshal Belleisle having the Var, took pas- session of Nice, and reduced the fortresses of Montal- ban, Villa Franca, and Ventimiglia. While, however, the French were thus successful in this part of Italy, a powerful army of Austrians and Piedmontese invest- ed Genoa, and probably would have succeeded in their enterprise, had they not been alarmed at the rapid pro- gress of Marshal Belleisle, which induced them to raise the siege, in order to cover Piedmont and Lombardy. The apprehensions of the King of Sardinia respecting Piedmont, were by no means groundless; for the Count Belleisle, brother to the Marshal, endeavoured to pe- netrate into it by the route of Dauphiné. He was, however, killed in attempting to force the pass. of Exilles; and his army having been repeatedly repul- sed, was ap pa to retire with considerable loss. As soon as the Marshal was informed of this misfortune, he deemed it prudent to retreat towards the Var. In her naval transactions of this year, France was who is suc- cessful in the Low Countries, A. D, 1747. Naval transac. tons, A. D. 1747. me Congress at ning of 1748. Marshal Saxe was not, however, in the —_—_ mean time idle: he invested Maestricht; and thou I D. 1748. the state of the siege was unfavourable to the French when the intelli arrived of the signing of the pre- liminaries, yet it was agreed, “that, for the glory of FRANCE. gh protect Hanover; but, attempting in vain to obstruct the arms of his Most Christian Majesty, the place should _ History. be immediately surrendered to his general, but restored on the conclusion of peace.” On the 7th of October Treaty of the definitive treaty was signed, and hostilities ceased peace. in all quarters, — France, now freed from external war, was threaten- Disputes ed with civil commotion, in consequence of religious between disputes between the Jesuits and the Jansenists. These ):° per disputes had existed in the latter end of the reign of jjament. Louis XIV, when the bull Unigenitus, i Hi the opinions of the Jansenists were condemned, threw all rance into the most violent commotion, The death of Lonis XIV. however, put an end to the dispute ; and as the Duke of Orleans would not allow the bull to be sated into effect, ey BS yaw tne In 1750, the disputes again broke out ; the parliament A. D. 17 and the naan wale intenical to the bull; the Arch- bishop of Paris endeavoured to enforce it, and Louis XV. at prohibited the interposition of the Par- 4 liament. ‘This body was not disposed to submit quiet- : ly, and the King at last banished the refractory : bers to different of the kingdom. In 1754, how- a. p. 175k, ever, he found it absolutely necessary to recal them ; 3 and the Archbishop of Paris, and two bishops, were in their turn banished. A tem calm was thus produced ; but the dispute ing the bull did. not subside, and ing at le referred it to the The decision Holiness, that the bull ought to acknowledged “ an universal yes so x cape liament, that t suppressed Pope’s bri an arret, This redewed the difference between them and their sovereign, who, in 1756, went to the Parliament a. p. 17 with all his guards, and suppressed the 4th and 5th Chambers of Inquest. Upon this, 15 councillors of the Great Chamber, oat 124 members of toed oa resigned ; and the King was again u necessity afterw: e Jesuits were expelled, chiefly by authority and influence of the Parliament, the members of which, elated at this victory over ecclesiastical ty- ranny, next attempted to set bounds to the absolute power of the crown. We have brought the history of these ecclesiastical disputes down beyond the —— which we broke off from the political history, be- cause it is thus rendered connected and complete, and because in it we may clearly trace the germ of those causes which afterwards uced the Revolution. Almost immediately after the establishment of peace Ambi by the treaty of Aix-la~Chapelle, France began to dis- projects PT: 2 mem- ¢ the Electorate of Hanover; in consequence of which, Great Britain united herself with the King of Prussia, while France formed an alliance with the imperial court of Russia and Sweden. One of the first attempts of the French was the conquest of Minorea, which, not being relieved by Admiral Byng, they succeeded in re- ducing. In 1757; a French army of 80,000 men pass- ed the Rhine, in —_ to — ae Ha- nover ; whilea smaller French force joined the imperial army on the Maine. The Duke of Cumberland was in- vested with the command of the troops which were to Invades | - A. DIT the of the enemy, he was to retire be- hind the Weser ; and afterwards, on 8th of tember, to sign the convention of Closter-Seven. 1 sm hn - 7 FRANCE. the Frenck ral had thus gained possession wie ‘ f, Ati he formed a junction with advanced against them, fought the battle of Ros- bach on the 5th of November 1757, in which he gained the Rhine. In 1758, eisle was at the head of the mi- ent in France; and the ministers, who h female influence, the Duke of had obtained their situations His first was to the army on the Rhine; but, notwithstanding this, it was defeated at Crevelt by Prince Ferdi and obliged to retire un- der the cannon of Cologne. In this battle, the son of man of great promise, and whose fate was equally lamented by his enemies and his own countrymen. Further reinforce- ments being sent to the French army, and M. de Coy- tades having assumed the command, Prince Ferdinand wa obliged Yo act onthe defensive a some time: he joined the British f put his army into winter quarters towards the October. - The nayal affairs in 1758 belong more properly to the History of Britain: nevertheless, it may be pr very briefly to notice them here. To French ships af the line were driven on the coast of Spain by Admiral Osborne. The same fate attended a fleet that was bound for North America. But the success of Britain country to expect, and of the latter to dread ; for an br nye Sse pr grok SEX , and from which great expectations were |, to the coast of by no means produced the triumph to Britain, or the loss and Sg Pe gh pe Pilar: Reda anticipated, indeed, was taken, and the fartiGeations. demolished ; but, fr uence of the accumulating force which the French collected, it was then « welder it In America, where the war may be said to have ori- Affairs in v caten ‘the French were unsuccessful. Louisburg and the - was besieged and taken ; and the whole island of Ca Hast Indies, Breton, as well as that of St John, submitted to arms of his Britannic Majesty. The French settlements on the river 5 the island of Goree, were al- so wrested from them. In the East Indies, however, . i i in, aren fon ‘was more having taken possession ee meee and Fort St Da- Ss. . - Gears; In the beginning of 1759, the French made them- of 1759. selves masters, by an act of perfidy, of Frankfort-on the As this isition. secured to them the course of the Maine and the Upper Rhine, the allies resolved a junction, which rendered it prudent for the Prince to retire. Nothing now intervened to prevent-them from VOL, 1X; PART 11, 617 taking possession of Munster and Minden ; and the ac- queen of them exposed Hanover to great danger, he Prince, therefore, in order to save the electorate, resolved to give them battle ; and the battle of Minden was fought, in consequence, on the Ist of August. Al- though the result of this battle was, perhaps, not so sa- tisfactory and nape to the Prince as it might have been, it enabled him to defend the electorate ef- fectually. No other event of c uence haying taken a this year on the Continent o pha in which French were concerned, we shall now briefly notice History. —— the disasters that attended them in the West Indies, Disasters of North America, the East Indies, and by sea. In the West Indies, Guadaloupe was reduced, though they saved Martinique from the attack of the English, North America, the genius and gallantry of Wolf strip- Indies, and them of all their ions, by the vi which by sea gained on the heights of Abrahisr. In the East In- dies, General Lally was at first ayer he even at- tempted the siege of Madras, but he was obliged to abandon the catipsl The French were afterwards defeated with great slaughter in two en ents. B sea they were Faeta as usually unfortunate this a4 for, making ions for an invasion of Britain, all their ports in the Channel were blocked up by Admirals ‘Rodney and Hawke ; while Admiral Boscawen, for a time, succeeded in blocking. up their fleet in the har- bour of Toulon.. The French Ee yes + ao an opportunity to escape ; an sea-fight off Ca ip best the uence, in which the Toulon fleet was defeated, with the loss of four ships of the line, Notwithstanding these disasters, the French minister seemed still bent on invading England ; and the Eng. lish fleet having been driven off the coast of France in a storm, Admiral Conflans put to sea with 21 sail of the line and some frigates: He was met by Admiral Hawke, and defeated with great loss, between Belleisle and Spe Quiberon. ' n the French in America, the East Tn and West order to compensate for these losses, the French Campaign Repteton: resolved to open the campaign of 1760 in of 1760. ‘urope with immense force ; and as the nobility and seconded the exertions of the government, it was enabled to augment the army in Westphalia, under Marshal Broglio, to 100,000. e allied army under Prince Ferdinand, though ‘less numerous, was better mp ay Nothing of’ importance occurred between till the $1st of July, when the French were de- feated at the battle of Warburg, and obliged to retreat with the loss of 3000 men. In consequence of this victory, Prince Ferdinand was enabled to protect Ha~ nover; but the dominions of the Landgrave of Hesse were still exposed to the French. Soon afterwards ‘both armies went into winter quarters. Int the East Indies the French were stripped of nearly all their pos- sessions this year. The death of George II. led the French government. to hope Sst his successor might be disposed te relax in his e to support the continental war ; but as soon as they were convinced, from the liberal supplies voted by the British parliament for the support of the Ger. man confederacy, that their expectations were ill found. ed, they, in conjunction with the court of Vienna, pro- terms of peace. A congress was accordingly appointed. to be held. at a a Te thie continen- tal. powers; while the separate discussions between Britain and France were to take place at Paris and London. Notwithstanding these negociations, hostilities were still carried on; and, with respect to the particular 41 618 dispute between France and England, it was soon evi- dent, that it was more likely to be extended than ad- justed, in consequence of the br amc which the court of Madrid displayed to unite with France. The pal scene of the French military operations was West- ag where at first they were successful, obliging vince Ferdinand to retire behind the Dymel; but that indefatigable general soon afterwards repulsed the united forces of Broglio and Soubere, and thus was enabled to effect his grand object, the protection of Hanover. Still, however, the campaign was as indecisive, with regard to permanent or extensive advantage on either side, as any of the former campaigns had been ; and it was evident, that such operations would exhaust the resources both of the French and the allies. As the British ministry felt their peculiar strength to consist in the command which they now possessed of the sea, they planned another expe- dition against the coast of France, which effected the re- duction of Belleisle. This, no doubt, was a great mors tification to France, but it did not induce her to weaken her Westphalian army ; and therefore, as a diversion in favour Prince Ferdinand, it totally failed, while it was impossible for the British to retain their conquest. The negociations were now again resumed ; but as the offers of cessions and exchanges made by the court of Versailles did not meet the expectations of the British cabinet, they were finally broken off. The cause of this failure was soon traced to the court of Madrid, between which and the court of Versailles a family compact had been sometime before entered into. According to this Spain assists compact, the Kings of France and Spain were to have France. common enemies and friends; so that war declared against one was to be regarded as war declared against both ; and consequently, on such an event happening, the whole military forces of both were to act in the most perfect concert. No peace was to be made except by mutual consent. Spain, however, was not to succour France when she might be involved in a war in consequence of her engagements by the treaty of Westphalia, or her other alliances in Germany or the north, unless some maritime power took part in those wars, or France itself were at- tacked... Between the accession of Spain to the cause of France in her war with Britain, and the peace of Paris, no event of im occurred, except the re- duction of the island of Martinico by a British arma- ment. In consequence of a change of the British ministry, France found that a peace was more practicable than for- merly, while she herself, as well as Spain, were more sincerely disposed towards it: negociations, therefore, were carried on at Fontainebleau, and on the third of November 1762, the preliminaries were si there. Peace of On the 16th of February, in the following year, the de- Paris, 1763. finitive treaty was signed at Paris. By this treaty France agreed to cede to Britain, Canada, in its utmost extent, with the islands of Cape Breton and St John, and all that part of Louisiana which lies on the side of the Mis- sissippi, except the town and territory of New Orleans. The French were itted to fish, under certain limita- tions, on the banks of Newfoundland: the islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, St Lucie, Goree, and Bellisle, were restored to them ; and the French East India Com- pany were placed in the same situation in which they were at the peace of Aix-la-~Chapelle, by the restitution #f Pondicherry, &c.; but they were not to erect any Histery. —_—— FRANCE. forts in the Province of Bengal. France agreed to cede to Great Britain the forts and factories she had Jost on =" the river Senegal, the island of Grenada and its depen- "a dencies, and to give up all claim to the neutral islands of St Vincent, Dominica, ‘and T ; she also consented to destroy the harbour and’ . the fortifications of Dunkirk. for, not only were Disputes France had much need of repose ; é her finances in a very dilapidated” condition, but: dis. ree" ne King and putes between the King and the parliaments the the Paria. minds of all: these disputes have been dy noticed. ments, And as the parliaments felt their own power and import- agets wile: the: lag eves, aaee SS ae they were dissolved, ps Louis, afraid of creating still greater disturbances, published a general amnesty, wished them to resume their functions. The parliament, however, convinced by this that the King was intimi- dated, and their cause was popular, refused to accept his proffered clemency. The indignation of the now extreme ; and he ordered such of the councillors of the parliament of Brittany as had refused to their functions, to be included in the list were to be drafted for the militia; and such « drafted were actually obliged to join their regiments, the rest were incorpora' tn thesciey gasrdi hes rity of this conduct appeased the stubborn spirits: parliaments for some time ; but the calm was duration. In the midst of these convulsions, tended to nearly all the parliaments in France, phin died, in 87th year of his age; and of Berri, his eldest son by his second marriage wi iz t 5 i H 8 e 3 7 & HE Josepha of Saxony, was created Dauphin in his stead. : As soon as .: had in some measure quieted thé Corsica n- parliament, he turned his attention to the acquisition of nexed to Corsica. This island had for some time resisted the ranny of Genoa, which claimed the sovereignty by righ of conquest: At last the Republic, unable to support pretensions, transferred them to France, on condition that Louis should put her in possession of the island of Capraria, which the Corsicans had lately reduced. Louis thought that the subjection of the Corsicans would be easily and speedily effected ; but he found himself much mistaken, as the Corsicans defended erage ty By intrepidity ; and two campaigns, wi ee ae. men, were necessary to bring them un- der the power of France, ~ ' quired the measures of a man of talents and experience ; whereas the Duke of Choiseul, who was minister, was neither, and by attempting to remedy, he actually in- creased the evil : he reduced, at once, the interest of the . public funds one half; and, as if this were not sufficient , to injure public credit, be took away the benefit of sur- vivorship in the tontines. The king at last was under the necessity of banishing him ; but, instead of remedying Bbteriage of the Dau- » phin, Death of Louis. His charac- ter. LouisX Vf. Was in personal danger A.D. LTT. poe % ~y FRANCE. the restoration of public credit and confidence, thority of the parliaments, Louis involved. him- self in disputes with them. As he had no idea of carrying In the midst of these disputes, which would scarcely sion, a dreadful nanos | sa the crowd hastening to be the spectators fireworks, pressed on one ano- ther in such a tumultuous manner, that several hundreds perished in the confusion. » As soon as Louis had freed himself from the oppo- sition of his parliaments ; ah ganapeingphcal page phd to debauchery ; but his health was not equal to the in- roads. made upon rece jay Wmran (patd required the constant stimulus of new beauty, and a succession of mistresses. One of these, who was infected with the small-pox, communicated the disorder to the king. The danger hourly increased ; and Louis, apprised of his ap- proaching dissolution, fondly hoped to atone for his past debaucheries, by his present penitence: He received the sacrament; and declared his intention, if he should sur- vive, of exerting himself in the cause of religion, and for the benefit of his subjects ; but in eight days after the first any he closed his reign of 59 years, and a life of been crushed, as far as he could crush it, by his tyrannical measures. He not seem to have been capable of any generous ing ;. his affections were confined within, the narrow its of his personal pleasures and security ; whoever administer the one, or accomplish the other, was a fayourite ; but, as soon as they ceased to be these they were neglected and forgot- the ioness of Pompadour, who had so his pa ay and shared his pir a without drawing a si igh of regret or affec- the breast Ba pong cain ny life, he and adored her ; and to the death of the Dau- parliaments would not have been made, though his a gt = § i Hu FF 4 ; : ; E : : 3 XVI. was twenty years of age, when, in the 619 year 1774, he succeeded to his grandfather. One of Historys. his first measures was, to remove those from office, who, by their errors or misconduct, had become unpopular, and had contributed to the distresses of the kingdom ; and to replace them by men of talents and honesty. He likewise gave t satisfaction, by suppressing the new, and recalling the ancient parliament of Paris, though, at the same time, he limited their privileges, and declared his intention not to submit to any power in them, which could possibly circumscribe his own. Scarcely were the members returned, however, before they displayed their spirit and pretensions ; but Louis, in answer te one of their representations, peremptorily declared that he must- be obeyed. . The state of the finances was still. such as to require Turgot at hese’ A . =o, .the head of care in their management, and in their restoration. tholinsneen: was placed at 4/1775. or this purpose, the celebrated Turgot their head in the year 1775. His measures, in some respects, were undoubtedly wise and salutary ; but, in other respects, he seems to have suffered speculative opis, nions too much to influence him. | Even his wisest plan,. that of rendering the internal commerce of grain, as well as its exportation, free and unrestricted, gave rise to se- rious disturbances, in uence of a scarcity of corn happening at the very time of his regulations. . The State of: tranquillity of the country, as well as of Paris, was so France much disturbed, that Louis found it absolutely necessary to have recourse to very strong measures ; and the Ma rechausse, a military body dependant on the. police, were. ordered to disperse the multitude, and to execute sum- mary justice on the most guilty. After the suppression of these disorders, Louis, in order to draw. off the minds. of his subjects from the unpleasant recollection of them, and-of the harsh.means by. which they had been quelled,. resolved to celebrate his coronation with great magnifi- cence at Rheims; and,.to- prove that the measures he. had Jately been compelled to adopt were not the result of acruel or tyrannical disposition,, he. issued an edict, which in future sentenced deserters to work as:slaves on the-public roads, instead of punishing them, as former- ly, with death. He also suppressed the mousquetaires, and reduced part of the regular army. By the former measure, he relieved the citizens of Paris from an im- petuous and overbearing body of men, the suppression of whom no former sovereign had ventured to effect ; and, by the latter measure, he gave gratifying testimony to the nation at large, that he was.resolyed to introduce the strictest econom Still, however, the situation of the world rendered it prudent for Louis to direct his thoughts to the not im- probable renewal of hostilities. Great Britain was at this time involved in serious disputes with her colonies. France, however disposed to remain at peace, on account of the state of her finances, was too interested in the humiliation of Britain, not to regard with. satisfaction the progress of a dispute, which might afford-her a fair opportunity of weakening her ancient rival. This would be best effected by being able to meet. that»rival on her own element. The navy of France was therefore an ob- ject of great interest ; and the appointment of Monsieur Sartine to the superintendance of the marine, did honour to the penetration. of Louis. He was fruitful in his-re- sources, and unwearied in his application; and in a short time, the losses of the last war were nearly supplied. But the finances were not so easily managed. Tur, not possessing the public confidence, had resigned, and .. France in- creases her marine, 620 Mistery. Neckar was soon afterwards placed at their head. In —— order that he might carry into fall and uncontrolled ef- Neckar mc- fect all his plans, the entire mi nt of the funds and cools Tu revenue of France was submitted to him, with the title a of director-general of the finances. : ; Voyage of The interests of science next engaged the attention of ducovery. Louis and his ministers. Several vessels were fitted ont on astronomical discoveries. The Chevalier de Borda was instructed to ascertain the exact position of the Ca- nary Islands and the Cape de Verd, and the different de- grees of the coast of Aftica, from Cape Spartel to the island ‘of Goree. The Chevalier Grenier, who had tra- versed the Indian ocean, for the purpose of improving the charts, and correcting the errors which had misled former navigators, was liberally rewarded. In proportion as the success of the Americans increased the probability that they would ultimately establish their independence, the French cabinet, as well as the French nobility, were desirous of uniting with them, and thus contributing to the humiliation of Britain. But the for- mer concealed their wishes and their resolutions, and even restrained the ardour of the latter, till a proper opportu- nity offered itself of openly taking part with the Ameri- cans. As soon as the measures of Great Britain had roused the people of her colonies to the daring resolution of rising against their mother country, Silas Deane and Dr Franklin were sent to Paris. Here they exerted se- cretly their influence with the leading men in the French cabinet ; and though, in a public capacity, they were not admitted to an audience, yet they received sufficient en- couragement to hope, that, before long, their country would be assisted by the arms of France. In the mean time, the American privateers were allowed to refit in the French ports, and even to bring their prizes into them. Warlike stores were sold or given to the colo- nists ; French officers and engineers, with the connivance of government, entered into their service ; and the Mar- quis de la Fayette, a young nobleman of affluent for- tune and high birth, sailed for America, where he was received with open arms, and appointed to a principal command. These circumstances naturally excited the suspicions of the British court ; but, as nothing was done openly, they had no sufficient ground for remonstrating, till warlike preparations were carried on in such an undis- guised manner, and to such an extent, as could leave no doubt that France was on the eve of hostilities with some power. Upon this, the English ambassador at Paris closely questioned the French minister, who replied, that when the seas were covered with English and American ships of war, and when large armies were sent to the New World, it became prudent for France to arm for the defence of her colonies, and the protection of her com- merce. The outward forms and the language of neutra- lity, were, however, preserved, till the capture of Gene- ral Burgoyne and his army, when they were at once dis- missed from the French. cabinet, and the independence of the United States of America was openly acknow- ledged. Silas Deane and Dr Franklin were received as public ambassadors, and a treaty of amity and commerce was signed in the month of February 1778. The recal of the English ambassador from Paris was the signal for the commencement of hostilities. The details of this war between Britain and France having been already given in our article Brrrarn, we shall confine ourselves to the domestic transactions of France. Monsieur Neckar still continued at the head of the France fa- vours the revolution in America, Treaty of amity and commerce States, A. D. 1778. FRANCE. : finances, and endeavoured to render the pressure of the war as light as possible, by plans of economy and re+ trenchment; a variety of essary uffiews in the house- hold of the King and Queen were abolished, and other important regulations adopted for the benefit of the king< dom. At the same time, the diplomatic ‘skill, experi< ence, and intrigues, of the different Frerich ambassadors at the courts of Europe, were successfully’ exercised in rousing them, either directly or’ indirectly} ‘to take ad- vantage of the present circumstances, and crush, or at least weaken, the naval power of Britain. As ‘a long and intimate connection had subsisted between'thecourts of Petersburgh and London, the French ambassador at the former was instructed to conciliate the inclinations of the Empress ; and he conducted himself with so much adroitness, as to be very instrumental in ding her to place herself at the head of the Northern Confederacy. In answer to the declaration which she addressed to’ the courts of Madrid, Paris, and London, on the subject of neutral rights, the King of France declared, that what her Imperial Majesty claimed from the belligerent powers bai corresponded with the pha a yrs to the French navy; and as he was convinced solid advantages would undoubtedly result, not only to her subjects, but also to all nations, she might depend that he would ad« here to his ustal practice, and comply with her wishes. Towards the close of the year 1780, Monsieur Sartine’, p, 1 was removed from the marine department, which he had superintended for five years. His Bee and leading ob« ject had been, during the whole of this time, to place the French navy upon the most extensive and efficient footing; and he had succeeded in raising her naval power to an unprecedented height; but his measures for this purpose necessarily required the expenditure of very large sums of money, at a time when the state of the finances loudly called for economy and retrenchment. Hence his measures and wishes were at variance with those of the comptroller-general of the finances; and his removal was the consequence. He was succeeded by the Marquis de Castries. el The disposition of Louis, naturally humane, was most Humane honourably displayed this year, by the abolition of the ee practice of putting the question by torture ; and his desire " or to relieve his subjects as much as possible from the pres- Louis. sure of the taxes, was evinced by the further diminu- tion of his own expenditure, and by his dismissing at once 406 officers belonging to his court. In this ad« herence to a system of economy so unusual in the soves reigns of France, Louis was undoubtedly strengthen- : ed by the advice, and perhaps the remonstrances, of Neckar. This minister continued to be uncommonly ¢,sacter active and faithful in the discharge of the duties of his of Neckar. important and arduous situation; but he was rather a - man of detail than of general principles or comprehen« sive mind ; and he did not always perceive the necessi- ty or advantage of accommodating his plans, in some | degree, to the habits and prejudices of the French na- tion. He conceived the impracticable idea of maintain- ing the war by loans, without additional taxes ; not re« flecting that loans cannot be raised in any country, in which there is not only a great superabundanee of capi- tal, but also the most implicit confidence in the’ faith of vernment. Unfortunately for his scheme, capital was far from being abundant in Yrarit,' and the measures of former sovereigns, as well as the nature of the govern« ment, were by no means calculated to inspire dence. a A. D. 1781. es id Peace of - FRANCE. There were besides other causes, which shook the popu- larity of Neckar; his temper was austere and unaccom- modating; the reforms and retrenchments which he had introduced into the various departments of the royal household, were represented as to the digni- ty and splendour of the crown; and his foreign birth ‘and mercantile education and habits, increased the jea~ lousy and dislike created by his temper and plans of economy. The King for some time endeavoured to op- pose his favour and countenance to the intrigues that adieehtaalb ied tontanetnes towards the close of 1781, he was dismissed from his office of comp- troller-g and Monsieur de Joli Fleury succeeded him. The people at large beheld this change with re- gret, which was by no means diminished when the new comptrol! reverted to the old plan of raising taxes.’ It was, however, soon ascertained, that the bur- dens of the nation could not be much more augmented ; anid the ministry, in order to multiply the resources of government, without pushing taxation toa ex- tent, endeavoured to kindle in Paris, and throughout the provinces, such a degree of enthusiasm as would pro- duce voluntary contributions towards carrying on the war. Their efforts were seconded by the consternation and feeling of humiliated pride, which the defeat of Count de Grasse produced t the kingdom ; and several states displayed their zeal in building and fitting out ships of war, to repair the loss which had been oc- casioned by this defeat. The clergy also’ came forward at this time, with a free gift of 15,000,000 of livres to- wards the exigencies of the state ; and also offered another million to be applied to the support of wounded Seamen, and of the widows and orphans of those who had been killed in the various naval en ents. About this period, the attention of the French minis- try was directed to the commotions that agitated the re- public of Geneva. These commotions arose from the agistrates and senate having increased their own au- ity, and diminished the privi of the people: pri the latter were still farther irri by the additional called for the interference of foreign powers. The King of France, as tok repiabhie, cousbetuih, "wh the King of Sern td the ania of Zr Be, wh measures as thought would restore tranquillity to it; and in order to give weight to these measures, an army France, thus dependence on that power, 621 Christopher’s, Nevis, and Montserrat. In Africa, she acquired the full sovereignty of the forts on the Senegal, and regained Goree; while she to Britain, Fort St James’s, and the river bia. In the East Indies, all that she had lost was restored, and some ad- ditions were made to her former possessions. But the most gratifying article of this treaty to the national glory of France, was, that the fortifications of Dunkirk were no longer to be forbidden,—the stipulations exact« ed from Louis XIV. and XV. respecting them being fore mally abolished by the peace of Paris. The joy created in France by the termination of a war, in which she had been so eminently successful in weakening Great Britain, was not of long duration. The state of her finances grew daily worse. Three different successors of Monsieur Neckar had in vain attempted to remedy or palliate the evil ; public credit, as weil as the public resources, were too nearly exhausted to be re- vived. Government refused, or delayed the payment of the bills drawn upon them by their army in America ; and nearly at the same time the Caisse d’Escompté stopt payment. This last circumstance created general and excessive alarm. Their notes having been hitherto always convertible into specie at the option of the holders, had circulated very widely ; and as they were not out to indi- viduals at this period to a larger amount than usual, or than their known capital authorised, the suspicion was created that they had, to the prejudice of the holders of their notes, and to their own interest, as well as that of the public at large, accommodated govern« ment with the specie, which ought to have been exclu« sively devoted to the payment of their notes. It now became absolutely necessary for government to interfere, in order, by supporting this bank, to restore the confi« dence of the public in it. Four edicts, therefore, were issued with this view: by these, the banks of Paris were ordered to receive the notes of the Caisse d’Escompté as currency ; and a lottery, with a stock of one million sterling, was established, redeemable in eight years, the tickets for which might be purchased in the depreciated notes. At the same time, government having procured money, paid their American bills. Public credit was thus restored ; and the stock of the Caisse d’Escompté rose considerably above its original subscription. The comparison between the measures adopted in England, when its national bank declared their inability to pay in cash, and those adopted in France on the pres oat oceasion, cannot fail to strike the reader. In the ‘ormer country, all that was absolutely necessary for the support of the bank was accomplished by individuals ; in the latter, it was the exclusive work of the govern« ment. In the former country, a tem alarm had shaken public credit; but the wealth and real confidence of the nation. remaining the same, as soon as that alarm subsided, public credit was again placed on as solid a foundation as before: whereas, in France, the shock -given to public credit arose from permanent causes, and the measures adopted only palliated, or put off the evil. The state of the finances of France, thus artificially kept from falling into utter ruin, absolutely required the most rigid and systematic economy : i , no other Ricesit Sada restore them even to temporary strength ; and yet, not began, the forces not reduced, but all the deficiencies in the diffe regiments were made good. At this period, there could exist no alarm or pro- History. Husery. —_—_— Franee in- terferes in the affairs of Helland. Alliance be. tween the two coun- tries. 622 bability of renewed hostilities, though, shortly afterwards, the disputes between the Emperor and the United Pro- vinces, respecting the barriers and strong towns in the Netherlands, excited the attention and jealousy of France. Before the late war, a French faction had scarcely ex- isted, or, at least, had not been powerful in Hi ; but that event, by detaching Great Britain from the United Provinces, had opened up an opportunity for such a faction to establish itself at the head. This fac- tion consisted of the hereditary enemies of the Orange family ; so that in Holland, as in America, the despotic government of France united itself with republicans, As soon as the Emperor extended his ions to the na- vigation of the Scheldt, the Dutch implored the media- tion of the King of France, their late hostility with Bri- tain having deprived them of any claim for protection or mediation from that power.. At this time, there were two ies at the court of Versailles, at the head of which were the Count de Vergennes and the Marshal de Castries ; the former, the favourite of Louis, was, like him, mild, humane, and a strong friend to peace ; the latter, supported by the Queen, was, like her, bold, in+ triguing, and enterprising, and the strong advocate for war. As the mediation of France had no influence with the Emperor, and the Dutch saw themselves threatened with hostilities, in consequence of having opposed his designs on the Scheldt, they applied to Louis for a ge- neral to head their armies ; and. the Count de Millebois was sent to them. Count de Vergennes, hitherto, had epposed any hostile or violent. measures; but, at this juncture, in consequence of the encroaching ions of the Emperor, he expostulated with the court of Vienna in more free and direct lan e. At the same time, the armies of France Bek yo degrees. to the borders of Alsace, Lorraine, and the Low Countries; and orders were given to form a camp at Lans of 80,000 men. The Queen of France, though ambitious and warlike, by no means approved of these indications of hostile measures against her brother the Emperor ; and therefore endea- voured to bring back the mind of the Count de Vergennes to its habitual feeling of moderation and love of peace; but the Count, though sensible of the state of the finances of France, and therefore desirous, if possible, of avert- ing hostilities, could not brook the idea, that the honour or interests of his country should be sacrificed; and, on the morning when a grand council was to be held, the result of which was to be conclusive with regard to the part France should take, and the Queen desired he would noton that day forget that the Emperor was her brother, he replied, that he certainly would not forget, but he must also remember that the King of France was her husband, and the Dauphin her son. Soni afterwards, the Emperor accommodated his differences with Holland, through the mediation of France, and thus the military preparations of the latter were rendered unn z The influence of France at the Hague, was thus con- siderably strengthened ; and the Count de Vergennes did not fail to make use of it for the advantages of his coun- try, by forming a new treaty of alliance. By this tre in case Holland was en in war, France was to-fur- nish her with 10,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, 12 sbi of the live, and six frigates ; and, in the event of a ma- ritime war, or, in other, words, in case. and France should recommence hostilities, the United Pro- vinces engaged, themselves to furnish six ships of the line, and frigates. If France were attacked by FRANCE. of C Jand, they were either to furnish 5000 infantry and 1000 . cavalry, or a proportionate sum of money. ey The internal condition of France was every day be- Calonne coming more alarming. i ; WAS. NOW the head at the head of her finances. He ; displayed ad- the dress and talents in the measures le SI for the re-establishment of the Caisse d’Es - He also established the Caisse D’Amortissement, or sinking fund, the plan of which was recommended. by, its simplicity, Accarding to it, government were to pay ally into the hands of commissioners, the entire interest of the tional debt, together with an additional sum of L,120,000 sterling. By this, it was estimated that annuities to the amount of L.50,000 would: be annually. extingui and in that proportion the sum ockepertiee eptindes | tion of the national debt would be increased. In om this sum, the annual receipt of the Cai its income, it would be impossible to raise the additions al annual sum requisite for the establishment and ope- ration of a sinking fund. The object of the financie of France ought to have been ively to relieve the existing difficulties, and not by any means to have exe tended their views and plans to a remote generation. There were besides other causes operating inst the success of any plans. of finance, which will ee ee : selves as we proceed in the history. As the manners and the talents of Calonne were more. insinuating and popular than those of Necker, while er wae, ai80 a accommodating to the necessities or the wishes of | court, he was their favourite; but with the nation at large, he was not so great a favourite as Neckar had oo bie ee eee out being ex to any consi degree of odiur till the year 1785, when, by the pL i anew a:p,1 East India Company, he Sunes mat censure, yd objections urged against this monopoly were brought ee in a style of boldness and freedom, hitherto un- usual in France; and, from the substance as well as the manner of them, it was evident that those philosophers who had hitherto confined their speculations on govern- ment and political economy to books, were extremely de- sirous of reducing them to practice. Monsieur de Ca- lonne was by no means in a condition to regard the dis- cussions which this eabiecs gave rise to with indifference; as they plainly indicated, that a body of men who at this time had great influence in France, were decidedly hose tile to the measures of his administration. _ He likewise was convinced, that the re-establishment of the finances was a much more arduous task than he had anticipated ; = for though France had now been at peace for three years, it was found requisite at the end ip io to sup. ply the deficiency of the revenue by a loan, Still, howe ever, had the rigid economy recommended ang paced by Neckar been persevered in, the expendi and the . income might have been brought more ona level; pressing necessity either to, erbourg, or to increase the 1 quired during the dispute between the Gaps FRANCE, 623 country, could not fail to ineréase the commotion, and _ History. and efficient footing, was more properly to let the people feel too sensibly their own weight and ee Dutch, for the purpose of placing the French army on goa laid out. ‘As the internal resources of France were the only gmented, it g x s8 is subject, strong and unfounded prejudice bore with Gown calm and clear inv on; but, In some re- England, spects, it must be admitted, that the framers of the A. D. 1786. treaty did not sufficiently advert to the nen which the weak and infant manufactures of ce required, : to enable them to rise to-an equality with those |, or, at least, to meet the lish manufac- tures in the markets of France. The mind was now in such a state of discon- irritation, that the smallest evil made it break out into bitter complaints against ment. It may therefore well be conceived, that edict at the end of the year 1785, for registering a loan of the enormous amount of £3,333,000 sterling, produced violent mur- murs. When this edict was presented to the parliament anddisputes of Paris, they selected a deputation to wait on the King between the with their remonstrances ; but he informed them, that Parliament he cet miey wen Donte mere obeyed ; and and King. the ceremony of registering took place the next day, ac- companied, erovar; with a resolution, that public eco- nomy was the only genuine source of abundant reve- nue, and that without it, the necessities of the state could not be ied, nor public credit and confidence restored. This was highly displeasing to the King; he ordered the records of rliament to be brought to him, and erased the resolution with his own hand ; at the same time , that-he in future they would communicate, in a ful manner. ing the measures of that minister, which were not to be ‘consequently, the distracted state of the country influence; in the second place, the deliberations of such an assembly would necessarily be tedious, and, would be prolonged. But the circumstance which weighed with the minister most powerfully against calling out the States-general; was the apprehension that they would be disposed to the reform much farther ‘than he wished ; and the impossibility of foreseeing what would be the consequence of putting power into their hands. The Notables, therefore, an assembly which had been occasionally substituted in the room of the States-general, was preferred by Calonne. ~ It consisted of a number of ‘ons from all parts of the kingdom, ered selected rom the higher orders of the state by the King himself. This mode of selection would render the delegation of power to them perfect- ly safe, it was expected; while their deliberations would be shorter, and more easily managed by royal influence. The writs for calling together this assem bly were accordingly issued on the 29th of December 1786: they were addressed to seven princes of the blood, nine dukes and peers of France, eight field mar- shals, twenty-two nobles, eight councillors of state, four masters of requests, eleven archbishops and bishops, thirty-seven heads of the law, twelve deputies of the pays delats, the lieutenants-civil, and twenty-five ma- gistrates of the different towns in France. The total number was 144 ; and the opening of the assembly was fixed for the 29th of January 1787. It ought to have been the leading object of the mi- nister, to have laid before this assembly his plans as soon as possible, and immediately after their sanction of them to have dismissed them. This, at any pe- riod, would have been the wisest method ; but it was more icularly required at a time when Paris was filled with discussions on points that went far beyond the mere re-establishment of the finances, or the re- form of acknowledged and gross abuses. When the day of meeting came, however, the minister was not 3 it was therefore put off till the 7th of Fe- ; but, before this day arrived, Calonne fell sick, and the Count de Vergennes died. The loss of this statesman was severely felt by his colleague, as he had entered fully and warmly into all his plans, whereas the keeper of the seals was his avowed enemy, and the minister of the marine department was ally at- tached to Neckar. The for the household was the creature of the Queen, and, consequently, at- tached to what was called the Austrian system. At length, on the 22d of February, the first meeting Their first and plans now went far beyond the measures he had at of the assembly of the Notables took place. Calonne ™*¢ting, first and it was proper they should laid before it his plan for re-establishing the fisted as ate be s2 a ermanertas, asw —_ and ‘seca credit of the kingdom, which he pre- '’°” than parliament. e€ was convin faced, inti t the it CAs 6 that the state of the kingdom was such, both with re- ¥ pointing out the necessity of adopting it, or some other. He stated, that when he was appointed Calonne’s e to the office of comptroller-general of the finances, P!#”. litical re- the deficiency of the public revenue amounted to £3,330,000 sterling. is, it was evident, must be made up, as well as prevented in future, if the finances SP uAna icahdianeraiea to a proper state: or purpose he proposed, that a terri impost, from which no olay or order of suet doth ‘be ex- empted, should be sanctioned by the assembly ; that the clergy, hitherto not considered liable to pay taxes, gem peace at a fair proportion to the exigencies ent and receipt of the taxes already existing, should be the subject ‘of minute, 624 Hisery- impartial, and strict investigation; and that, if these partial, vestigati measures were not adequate to the cure of the evil, the demesne lands of the crown should be mortgaged. If the minister expected that his statement and his plans would be implicitly received by the assembly, or at pr Ana vg nb me A te to — of discussion as would preserve the appearance independent authority in its members, while it did not essentially oppose the minister, he was most grievous- ly mistaken, He had the resources of France as very contracted, and her debt as large ; and om these grounds he had called w the assembly to eanction his plans: But before Neckar had retired the management of the finances, he had published a work, in which he represented France as possessing a surplus revenue of £425,000. It was not to be ex- pected, that the gloomy statements of Calonne would not be contrasted with the cheering statements of his predecessor. Before, therefore, the members of the assembly proceeded to discuss the plan itvelf, they in- i that there was no necessity for its ion ; and that, if the ministers were honest and able, France might easily, without any sacrifice or additional bur- den, be extricated out of her present difficulties.. These attacks on the ability and honesty of Calonne, were supported principally by the Archbishop of Toulouse FRANCE. go into Holland, and even sent tried and experienced soldiers for the’ , z 8 small influence in giving rise to these hostile indicas tions ; but as soon pay vse of the Stadtholder was’ re-established, and, of course, all pretexts for amna- F ; ii ments taken away both from cabinet was anxious to replace pow atees footing... Britain had begun to feel sequences of Mr Pitt’s measures of finance, and, reviving commerce; and France felt too sensibly inability to pl herself into a new if i pew be ordted. The navies of both nations, | laced on the footi ‘ore, were ment, and Pent was restored between them. |». | : ie : and the Count de Mirabeau ; the latter a man of bril- liant talents, of the most profligate principles and con- duct, and who was resolved that, his country. should, if he could possibly effect it, be plunged into such a state of anarchy, as would give room for the exercise of his talents, and the unrestrained play ‘of his most vicious and dangerous habits. Calonne's The minister soon found, that his plan met. the ap- piss op- probation neither of the nobility and. clergy, nor of the posed. ple at large. The ancient nobility and clergy had itherto been free from taxes; and, as patents of nobi- lity were easily procured, they were eagerly sought af- ter, for the of exempting the possessors from taxation. The nobles, therefore, both old.and new, were strongly averse to a plan whieh should oblige them to contribute to the exigencies of the state; and were supported in their opposition by the clergy and the magistrates, who also were exempt from taxa- tion. It might, however, have been expected, that the mass of the le would have regarded Calonne as their friend ; since, if his plan were carried into.effect, they would be relieved frem part of their burden. But at this period the people had no means.of making their epposition to it were now more. violent than before, as feelings or wishes known ; and besides, the measures of the minister, in other respects, had not been such as to evident, that their demands would go far to reduce the royal authority to that limited condition in which it had been before the reign of Louis XI. Louis, how- ever, had gone too far to recede ; and even if he could to recruit the finances of the kingdom? It was there- fore necessary to gain the good will, or at least toavoid, as much as possible, exciting the discontent and suspi cion of the assembly. ; and, fos hia paxposey tlie Ams bishop of Toulouse was appointed to superintend the finances, instead of Calonne. But he soon found:that ve placed the sovereign com: command or deserve favour and s . He pletely in their power. Louis, was thus placed ina was therefore eens doin hap here but, at he deter- iled, smpropeted by the nobility, clergy, and istrates, who were so blinded -by imperfect and selfish consideration of their own imme- ceived no su vantage, b ich, ‘ trary, had only increased the difficulties in which he was previously involved. On the dismissal of the as+ The w, sembly, royal edicts were issued for raising money ; to bles dis- these the parliament of Paris objected, in such peremp- missed. tory language, that Louis was under the necessity of holding what is termed a Bed of Justice, and elli France a- ninter- ¥inees between the in the Orange, again opened an opportunity for the cabinet disputes in of Versai ye ee -atho doa Seel es Kotan, _ had not the King of Prussia taken a decided partein ‘21787 support of the Prince of Orange, it is that the , aided by the French, would have borne all j The cabinet of Versailles, Siesratr, did act Loven poder. nein thane in an _ open manner, though they permitted their officers to resign ! _ In the year 1787, the disputes in the United Pro- republican party and the Prince of enrolment as sure ; and to declare that the first person who should f eet ia ans be pus —— to wear a formidable aspect, a few days after the FRANCE! nished as. a traitor to his country. At this crisis, the eer nearby Be ve As soon as the discontents and opposition e Notables , large bodies of me bad been these, Jiament ‘had entered their pro- brought into Paris; and some signified to each individual member the King’s test, . The Parlia- pleasure, that he should immediately leave Paris, and ment ba- nished ; vw proceed to Troyes. The Parliament, probably fore- warned or ive of this measure, had previous- ly regi their opinion, that no permanent tax could legally be imposed, except by the authority of the three estates of the ki ; and’ had, at the same time, the necessity of calling them together. : or a short period, Louis endeavoured to p without the Parliament, but he found it impossible. He was and economical in his habits and expendi- tare ; but the savings thus effected went but.a little way towards the removal of financial difficulties, while they failed in.gaining him the confidence or approba- tion of his subjects. He himself, indeed, was not very ; but the other branches of the royal family, particularly the Queen, and the Count D’Artois, were the objects of the Lets mere of the- Parisians. They could not be but sensible of the danger in which they, as well as the King, were 3 yet they acted in such a manner, as to increase that danger. The time for ty manners, and ical conduct, was e bye; yet the Count D’Artois did not accommodate hi self to the change of circumstances, but spoke and act- ed as if the sentiments and feelings of the people, and the influence and authority of the crown, remained ex- actly the same as og hag: been when Louis XVI. as- cended the throne. King at last yielded, and re- called the Parliament ; a kind of com ise took lace between them; Louis gave territorial duty, and the Parliament sanc- i of Toulouse of state. ese conces- of Louis, however, failed in concilia- i either as the effects of unjust just claims, ‘The King also soon found, ee eakr poses Hi 4 that. the Parliament itself regard pels thelesizacst as a triumph, and that they returned still less di to submission and obedience; for, about the middle of November, after he had laid before them two edicts, one for a new loan of nearly 19 millions sterling, and Seceraieietgias, tskssdaciag thecs odie Ly -opeech, ir civil rights, introducing these edicts by a 5 in which he intimated his e sented tones from the Parliament, a bold and animated debate took place, which was so offensive to the King, that he sud- denly arose, and commanded the edict to be instantly registered. - Scarcely had Louis sat down again, when te pers ing and consistant conduct; nor does he sauitahays boon fully aware of the bad consequences which would result from the display and exercise of a VOL, IX, PART 11. 625 stretch of authority, which interest or prudence might induce him soon to relax. His first action, after leaving the Assembly, was one of vigour and boldness. The Duke of Orleans was banished to one of his seats; and lettres de cachet were issued against two of the members of the parliament, who had been most violent in the — To hap ance robe aoe ian om against ose proceedings, Louis at first replied in aut! oritative : but about the beginning of 1788, he yielded, and the Duke of Orleans was recalled, and the two members liberated. . Hitherto the parliament of Paris had confined its ef- forts to opposing the measures of the King; or, when they did advert to the establishment of civil and politi- cal liberty in France, it was only in general terms; but they now directed their invectives against lettres de cachet, which had, the previous year, been remonstrated inst by the parliament of Grenoble. “These invec- tives again excited the severity of Louis; the parlia- ment was surrounded by troops, and the obnoxious members seized. . Their language on:this occasion was even more bold than it had ever been before; as they did not hesitate to tell the King, that his authority could only be esteemed and supported so long as it was founded er o-g Compared with this opposition to the royal ill, the measures of the Notables had been mild and respectful ; and Louis therefore resolved to’ assemble them again. As soon as they met, the keeper of the seals explained his Majesty’s pleasure, that a cour plenicre should be established ; this proposition was favourabl received by the Notables, but the parliament of Paris protested against it. This opposition, in connection with some serious disturbances that took place in the capital, at length induced Louis to recal Neckar to the inistration. This minister soon perceived that the royal authori- ty was very considerably weakened since he was in power before, and that he had only the choice of diffi- cult, and even hazardous, expedients. But decision was absolutely necessary ; and as it was of the utmost importance for the King to in the confidence and loyalty of his subjects, the minister strongly recom- mended that the States-General should be assembled. From the opposition which the parliament of Paris made to this measure, he augured that it would at least serve to pcr om influence. e principal difficulty respecting the States-Gene-~ ral, arose from the opposition of the nobility and ¢ to the representatives of the Commons being equal in number to the other two orders united. The Count D’Artois headed the party which contended that the representatives of the Commons ought to be confined to a third in number of the States-General. The opi-« nion of the Duke of Orleans was supported by Neckar, and sanctioned by the King. The number of deputies was fixed at upwards of 1000, and the representatives of the Commons were to be returned according to the population of the different districts of the ki - On the 5th of May 1789, the assembly of the States- General was opened by the King at Versailles, His Ma- jesty’s speech was conciliating and prudent ; he did not affect to conceal the discontents of the people, while he his firm conviction, that the causes of these _ discontents, so far as they were real and just, would be removed by the wisdom and patriotism the Assembly. He no longer used the lan ar 2 e of a sovereign, who ex- licit obedience: to his will ; on the contrary, d im e expressly peaeetenee Sane ae that of a just king ; kK History. The Nota- bles again assembled, A. D. 1788. Neckar re- called. ~ The States- General. Their first meeting, 5th May, A. D. 1789. Slat h erases the Avent o = these proceedings it was too evident that the Assembly was constituted in such a manner, as not to promise unanimity, and consequently that the ob- ject of its meeting would not be fulfilled. The dis- tresses of the state, which they were met to deliberate upon and remedy, could not be removed effectually and permanently, until a more equal and productive sys- tem of somite, ioee established. Nor could the at ified, until the abuses, seteat bch thay ed liked up their voice, had been put down; and yet as the nobility and clergy were principally’ concerned in both these objects, it was desi- rable that they should manifest a conciliating spirit. Between the period of its first rasp | and the begin- ning of June, several of the clergy, and a few of the no- bility, had agreed to act along eth the commons; but as the rest were refractory, the Abbé Sieyes, on on the 15th of that month, made.a motion, the object of which was to declare, that the commons, with snch members of the nobility and clergy as had united with them, were the known and acknowledged representatives of the nation. On the following day this motion was carried ; and the appellation of National Assembly was given to the meet- The Na- tonal As- sembly. Their bold "f neie very first measures Pay indieated the spirit measures ; which they were actuated. taxes were declared il egal, because ex had not received the. consent of the nation; but so as the National Assembly sat, they might be levied ; mn a moment it was dissolved, the peo- ple were no longer bound to pay them. The public debt was placed under the protection of the honour and faith of the French nation ; bs Toast edaces sna imme- diately appointed, to enquire into the causes and remedy of the dearth which then afflicted the om. Thus did) Louis find, that his authority was in a great measure wrested from him by the National Assembly ; and the great body of the nobility and clergy, by their refusal to unite with the commons, likewise saw them- selves shut out from power, and their privileges inva- ded. It was not to be Pe fpernnpca yal spp’. tienitly sdbmit. On the 21st of June, when the ties of the National Assembly attempted to enter their place of meeting, the door wean claal.againit ther, under the pretext, that preparations were for the roy- al presence on the 23d. They immediately retired to a tennis court, where they unanimously took an oath to weer themselves as inse le, and to continue to mect wherever possib could. On they MO day, Leap mestat sles ef them, Bailly was declared peeuident of the National FRANCE. Assembly. On the 2 the King met the three orders in the gushed We oceed ings lic in 1 ed, in which the subjects for deliberation, and es of the King, mm te bel ‘When his Majesty retired, > commanded the three : roel et The nobi almost unanimous . most We the commons a4 ny The crisis which now seemed fast i delayed for a short time, by the King’s desire quillity. This induced him to recommend the wen and clergy to join the commons ; and the junction ac- cordingly took place on the 27th of June. of the members of these orders, however, refused to obey the no ere were pit : or a dangeg he ely fe bate ; but ea sean feeling arose from an undefined and; vague desire. , Violent in its nature, and uncertain in its means or object. Srike catiosteana Patna Aeeatiads polis, and such the conduct of the a tase tanepneet. Cie seoiennainnen he king were se ms ne hey ld nt and firmness united, co! Digewthe him from the impending But no such qualities existed in his councils ; he aedines bkaekeeme liating ; but as such, his conduct was only. the more caleiilated to a harm, poser per esr 8 which he himself approved an 0 were done away, ps 1 bably gat day, by the harshness of his advisers, aps Brey ECE ORL sk ke om sanction to onan large bodies of troops in capital and its vicinity. as might have been anticipated. — sufficiently strong to keep down the citi , while they. were exposed to be insulted by them; tie took place ; srid during, the:iritated tate of the gaublio mind, Monsiear Neckar was di dismissed cction in Panis permitted with themselyes into this concession = too late ; a le. pate i nh it et ed; the governor, w d to a place of execution, and his his body, was carried in triumph cease History. —\—" ‘be on the takes place. excesses in different al Assem- ~ bly. FRANCE. The King now ived:that his sole reliance must y, since it was absolutely necessary to restore order and obedience before he could go on with his plans of reformation ; but the army, which had al- ways been characterised by their extreme devotion to the Monarch, openly declared that they would not fight against their fellow-citizens. No alternative theselors remained for the King, but concession. Neckar was tecalled ; the King himself returned from Versailles to Paris ; wridwiid obtiged So oububle to the speech of M. Bailly, (who had been chosen ca on delivering the keys of the capital, in which he plainly told him; that the le that day reconquered their king. * Louis already signified his approbation of the plan of forming a national militia ; or in other words, an armed body, who would obey not him, but the Na- tional Assembly; it had been accordingly formed, and the Marquis de la Fayette, whom we have already men- tioned as having gone to fight in the cause of American independence, was i colonel: this appointment, Louis deemed it t to sanction. At this period the more obnoxious members of the oe re ram as well as several of the nobility, determined to leave France ; this they were induced to do, not merely from Fr wet mrtg dro but because they hoped to i foreign powers to support the royal cause. these em> ts, the most cele’ were the Count D’Artois, the Prince of Condé, and the Marshal The King stil pursued his plan of concession and conciliation ; corn was t into the capital, in or- der to reduce its price there; and corporal punishment was abolished in the army. By these measures the hap were of Paris was preserved for a short time; but the provinces were in a state of complete anarchy ; the peasantry rose, and ed the churches and seats of the nob with savage fury: the more ob- noxious of the nobles were seized and exposed to the most barbarous and | ing deaths. The return of Neckar was celebrated at Paris with so much joy, that it was hoped his influence might restore ity and obedience ; but he soon found that cir- cumstances were radically and fatally changed during his absence ; and his very first attempt to procure a ge- neral amnesty was defeated. Fresh commotions arose, and were marked by additional excesses and cruelties. At St Denis, Caen, and S' , the conduct of the populace would have di most barbarous pe- riods of the most barbarous nations that ever existed; it was no longer the reformation of abuses, even by violent means, that they aimed at; but the gratification of the most diabolical passions. The revenge too, which they took, was, in most instances, iownsll in the extreme; and extended even to those who been their best friends and Geedoct of Had the members of the National Assembly been Nation- the enlightened advocates of liberty , and the true friends the tical or civil privileges of the people, Sot by om joyed by them, till they were restored to a sense of their 627 endeavouring to the capital and the provinces of France,—instead even of enacting laws which were applicable to the state of the country, and which’ might ually have condu- ced, at once, to restore the privileges and liberties of the people, and to repress their licentiousness ;—instead of acting in this sensible manner, they spent their time in di ing abstract propbsitions, which either were unintelligible, or could not possibly have any prac- tical application to the existing state of the country, Had France been in perfect tranquillity, and every law been passed which was essential,to preserve that tran- uillity, and to secure the liberty of the subject, such Senae ions might have been ‘excused, because they would have done little harm, and not have occupied time and abilities which had much more urgent de- mands upon them; but when the machinery of the state was in complete disorder, and at the same time working with the most mischievous and fatal rapidity, it was absurd and criminal in the highest d 5, to be discussing the principles on which it had been, or might be, constructed, instead of repairing its defects. Yet such was the conduct of the National Assembly. The abstract proposition of the rights of man, which, besides being abstract, and therefore improper for the discussion of the Assembly, was not very intelligible, occupied their time and attention at the very period when the smallest reflection, the most limited practical knowledge of mankind, might have convinced them, that the le of France could not be put in posses- sion of their rights with advantage to themselves, or with safety to the community, while they continued so forgetful of their duties, as to give themselves up to an- ar B plunder, and murder. The other discussions of the National Assembly were on subjects more practical, and therefore more fitted to their c er and situation; but even these should have been ed till they had proved their autho- rity over the people, by restoring order and tranquilli- ty. The feudal system, in all its branches, was abolish- 4 buses ed; the public burdens were equalized ; the most op- reformed. pressive taxes were repealed ; the clergy gave up their territorial rights ; and a resolution was passed to in« uire into the pensions granted hy the court. As the King did not oppose these pr: ings, he became po- pular for a short time, and was honoured with the ap- pellation of the Restorer of the Liberties of France. In- deed, it was now evident, that if he did not yield to the storm, he would be overwhelmed by it, for he had no supporters ; even the Swiss and French guards had deserted him, Could observation and experience have taught the National Assembly the folly of their conduct, in not be- ginning by ear p 4 the insurrectionary spirit of the people, they would have learnt wisdom by the events of éach passing day. In Paris corn was still dear ; and the le, let loose from all restraint, were still more quia a on to no eee bre a In the provinces, the , taking advan of the abolition of the fedal rights, plingel into the most dreadful excesses ; the nobility were murdered ; justice was set at nought ; and even the harvest, the means of their own fature support, suffered ftom their blind and ee fury. the revenue of the country was inadequate yer Financial the tumults which disgraced _ History. en the veto, tional Assembly to lay down the prin 628 History. falcation of man ‘of the taxes, payment of which was —rYm cluded or refused by the refractory Neck- ar, therefore, found his difficulties increase, while his means of removing them were diminished ; for he could not ex in the disturbed and discontented state of the country, that any financial measures would be well received, or could be rendered uctive. He soy fore thought it his duty, expressly to point out to the National “Assembly, chive when he attra there were in the royal treasury only 400,000 livres ; that the ex- iture immensely exceeded the revenue; and that blic credit was extinguished. In this state of things, he proposed a loan of thirty millions, at an interest of five per cent. ; but the Assembly, in the foolish excess of their mistaken patriotism, decreed, that the interest should be only 44 per cent. ; that no security should be given to the subscribers ; and that no period should be fixed for reimbursement. The consequence was, that, in 20 days, little more than two million livres were subscribed ; the finances became still more em- barrassed, and at length it was deemed expedient’ to vote a loan of 80 ions, at five per cent. to be re- deemed in ten years. They thus went into the con- trary extreme ; and, by the very favourable terms which po A rine and the large amount of the loan, gave pa le proofs of the wants of the state, and of their cnowledge or suspicion of the inability, or the unwil- po nee Lact porte ed men to supply those wants. Abolition of . “ ac s nee ie he next subject which occupied their attention, was the abolition of tithes. That they were a grievance, and detrimental not only to agriculture, but to the cause of religion, was acknowl by almost all the members ; but they undertook to abolish them, before they had well considered by what means this could be effected, so as not to injure any . They confound- ed the impropriate tithes with of the church ; that is, they confounded absolute property with what the state had set apart for the discharge of religious duty, and might therefore take away. The Abbé Sieyes on this oceasion, sup the rights of the clergy, and the Marquis de Mirabeau opposed them. The debates were long and eloquent; at last, a few of the curés having voluntarily surrendered their tithes, their ex- ample was followed by most of the clergy. This fund thus supplied, even if it could have been made imme- diately efficient and applicable, was by no means ade- quate to the necessities of the state ; and Neckar be- held a national bankruptey approaching. To avert this, as all the ar plans of finance had utterly fail- ed, he addressed himself to the patriotic enthusiasm of the people. The people were, in general, willing, but their means were , and they made no secret that they ex to be recompenced for their liberality, by a still further curtailment of the royal powers and privileges. The committee which had been appointed by the Na- | Asi — of anew constitution, expressly declared that the King ought to have an absolute veto on every law. This ae on oo ™met with violent and geamelie opposition from the peo- ple ; and, while it was discussed in the Assembly, nu- merous guards of militia, and several pieces of cannon, were stationed in different of the capital. From the first meeting of the Assembly, all their debates had been carried on in a large hall, into which admission was perfectly free: the as might have heen foreseen, were absolutely destructive of freedom of discussion, as the members, either. fear, or the desire of popularity, weretop qaseagoinguaaiien FRANCE. ad that side of ion which knew pa" meet the wolletlon pce thesnoltienden fo who Be led the galleries. The month of August was consumed in debates about the veto, which at length was indi- rectly negatived by the decrees that were passed for the pene cme Fe recy oe amc in some respects rational and practical ; they were preceded by a declaration of the rights of men and citi- zens, sO ive and metaphyeical, where it w well founded, as to be of no utility ; and in.other points calculated to mislead and inflame the ignorant and al- ready maddened populace. The decrees the constitution, went to establish a limited monarchy, and to separate completely the legislative from the execu- tive powers: but it is unnecessary to give the details of this or of any other of the numerous constitutions which were made in France ; it is sufficient to notice the lead ing principles on which they were grounded. ligent observer, the state of the ca~ o the most pital at this period must have a very threaten~ ing. _ Parties ran excessively high ; and on neither side was there moderation. But the most alarming symp- nie lukewarm, and ing far short of what they ought to have atchieved. On the feelings of the lowest of the mob, this third party operated’ with wonderful most mischievous effect. The scarcity which still ex- isted, was ascribed to government. A report that the King intended to leave Versailles, and y the kingdom, was Yee ge Aa Tt and the most inno- cent actions of the royal family were grossly misrepre- sented. Unfortunately the Queen did not conduct herself with that reserved and prudent caution, which her, un- ord al cockade, which had been Paris, where, while the people were suffering under the pressure of farnine, they learned that a splendid enter~ tainment had been given at Versailles, as if to insult their misery, and that. the symbol of that constitution, from which they expected the removal of their griev- ances, had been supplanted by the symbol of that. go- vernment, to which they pe them. The populace were joined by the militia of Paris and, the ancient’ Fren ards; and the Marquis de la Fay formed fiat to exterminate those who had insulted the. national cockade, and even to depose the King, if rotect and relieve them, The Marquis employed is influence and authority in vain. An immense num- ber of women of the yt rank, ——- ecaipone bread, and rather encouraged than preven ry ’ set off for Versailles. As soon as they arrived, they/be- also arri~ _ He first presented himself to the National Assem- bly, and afterwards went. ae he King and royal family. The Queen was the. object of the fu ‘attempt was made on her life ; but she, as well as the rest. of the royal family, were saved by the rise of La Fayette; they were determined to go to Versailles, sailles FRANCE. proper weight, and to preserve to the constitution’ the History. —— > was dread- y in‘its actual circumstances, but as a dread- of what was to come. Before, around, and behind’ the royal family, were a mob of frantic women, debauched pend rents attended and cheered The success and triumph of the unprincipled and fe- , who were anxious to lay ee power, in order that they might ify their diaboli i was now nearly complete. having forced ig the , and in virtually Le preteen diab ab te ) dal bomitey eck 629 reality as well as the name of a monarchy. On the 19th of June, a motion was made to suppress Hereditary all hereditary titles, liveries, and coats of arms. This titles sup- was also carried ; and, of all the King’s ministers, Nec. Pressed. kar alone, a plebeian, bred and born in a democracy, and who always professed republican principles, advised his Majesty to refuse his assent to the decree. _ The French are fond of spectacle; and of this fond- ness it was now resolved to take advan’ The Bas- tile had been destroyed on the 14th of July the prece- ding year. As the anniv of this event was now approaching, it was oath plain which adjoins the capital, was fixed on for the - ceremony. . In the midst of it an altar was placed, and around a altar an amphitheatre was constructed, ca- pable of containing 400,000 le. At 4 o'clock in the evening, the Marquis de ayette ascended the oy and took an oath gi pst = the pane the , and the King: the deputies e r troops and militia te! pai ttt The Marquis was fol- lowed by the president of the National Assembly, who took an oath varying in substance a little from that taken thee military; and each deputy repeated aloud, after president, “ I swear.” The King also, s ing his arm towards the altar, took an oath to emplo the power to him by the constitution, for the main- tenance of the constitution, and the execution of the law. ~ Neckar had long been convinced that his influence - The ipal proceedings of the National Assem was on the wane, and that, even if he still enjoyed it during the remainder of 1789, related to the undiminished, he could do no , either in restrain- erected ier hoary ts, and the con- ing the blind fury of political innovation, or in re- fiscation of the lands, ~ Early in the followi ing order to the finances; he was besides a vain man; and, as has been already remarked, more conversant that on that day a civic Civic oath, be taken. The Champ de Mars, a spacious 14th July. in detail than in general principles and comprehensive views. On the 4th of September he press, his re- Neckar re- signation. ’ signs. The hostile reparation: s of Germany, Spain, Italy;.,,._,; and Savoy, hal in the beginning of i791. assomed a porn of character that could leave little doubt they were intend~ Germany, ed against France, With respect to Germany, the Ger- &c. ee eer wnireas | ‘As the Assembly were sensible that their proceedings man princes, who territory of the Rhine, could not be indifferent tors of a revolution in their immediate neighbourhood, which had stripped the French nobili all their privileges, and, in many instances, had deprived them of their lives. Besides, the German its were not slow in following the example set them by their brethren in France ; so that what they had actually suffered, as well as the dangers they apprehended, stimulated the German princes against the Revolution. [n their ap- prehensions of future danger, the other princes, at pre- sent remote from the example and influence of the Re volution, were not slow in participating ; and these prehensions likewise took of several of the sove- reigns of E . There were also other considera- tions which influenced some of them: the Emperor of Germany was naturally anxious respecting the fate of his sister, the Queen of France, who was peculiarly obnoxious to the Revolutionists; and the King of Spai were viewed with suspi and by foreign could not behold with indifference one branch of the powers, they decreed that the French ; would ne- Bourbons stript almost entirely of regal power, and the ver embark’in any war with a view A tong wo nor King, as it were, the slave of his own le. ever their forces against the liberties of any peo- Parisians, alarmed at these hostile preparations; ple. tweet" femme og were suspicious that the King was consenting to them ; Lc pc of’ its unjust and 2 but and their suspicions were increased and strengthened by the departure, "in the ‘month: of February, of his on the north’ side 4+ 9.1791. H tery. Louis at- tompts to leave the kingdom ; 630 aunts from Paris. Nor were they satisfied by the de. claration of Louis, that, as the laws did not lay them under any restraint, he did not oppose their departure. They naturally ence hes the King had a design ‘ following them, and of joining an emigrant 5 which was Dow collecting on the borders of Alsace. All his motions were watched with so much jealousy, that, on the 18th of April, as the royal family were preparing to go to St Cloud, a rt was § that they were about to emigrate, and their were immediately surrounded and stopt by the people, La Fayette upon this, called out the national guard, . but they refused to act; and he was so much hurt at their refusal, that he resigned his command ; nor was he, without a very general and pressing solicitation, pre- vailed upon to accept it again. ‘ " The suspicions of the people respecting the intended flight of the royal party were well founded ; but it was delayed, till it was hoped it might be effected safely and certainly.. The Marquis de Bouillée, who commanded on the frontiers, removed the pera ua and re- ced them by such troops as he could de upon ; and in the whole of peng ta which the royal party were to pursue, every thing which could facilitate their escape had been pre with as much order and se- crecy as possible, the 21st of June, it was ascer- tained that the royal family had left the capital in.such a secret manner, that no doubt could be entertained of their intention ‘of quitting France, Immediately all was consternation and commotion, mixed with unbri- dled fury, among the populace. The National As- sembly were more cool and composed: they declared their sittings permanent, and assumed the government, As the route of the royal fygitives was unknown, messengers were dispatched in all directions. Their fate was not long in s . Monsieur and Madame arrived safely at Brussels; but the King, Queen, and Dauphin were arrested at Varennes, within a very short distance of the frontiers, This unfortunate att eX- cited in the multitude such an abhorrence of the King, whom they suspected of an intention to join the emi- grant army, and to invade France, that his most san- guine friends could now no longer hope he would re- gain their confidence or loyalty ; and this feeling of the multitude was cherished and exasperated by all those, who were determined to destroy even the name and ves tiges of a monarchy, and to substitute in its room, ei- ther an undefined and spomulayy democracy; or the unrestrained power of the mob; for about this period, those men began silently and secretly to. use their influ- ence, who afterwards P unged France into am unparal- leled state of crime and wretchedness. As the plan for the King’s flight had: been well ar- ranged, and consequently its success had been antici- , many of his friends , who had hitherto remained in France, now emi The Marquis de Bouillée, who was one of these, afterwards sent a very foolish and mischievous letter to the National Assembly, in which he denounced ven, ce to them, and the utter destruc tion of Paris, if lives of the royal family were in r. He added, that he would conduct the foreign armies into France, and that his letter was but the fore- runner of the manifesto of the sovereigns of Europe. As danger from abroad was nt aphabenigy the National Assembly considered it their duty to guard against it by every possible preparation ; but it was al- eo desirable to rouse the passions of the multitude to. such a pitch, as would induce them to come forward, as with one heart, in defence of their country. The FRANCE. letter of the Marquis de Bouillée had in some degree _ History this effect; but their purpose was still more y > answered, by the circulation in France of what was call- ed the treaty of Pilnitz, The authenticity of this Treaty of treaty has been denied; but whether authentic or not, Pilsits. as it produced a wonderful effect on the French nation, it requires to be noticed. Speenerte We aepertit tion treaty between certain of the powers of Europe, by which they agreed to make. war on France, and to re- compense themselves for the ces of the war, and the restoration of Louis to his fall authority, by annex- ing certain parts of the territories of France to their own dominions, In the mean time, the National Assembly, on the 3d_ of y uted the new constitu- tion to the King. For reasons already stated, it is un- necessary to give the details of it, especially as the lead- ng pencinien oe ue = is 9 ap noti- ore. The Ki i acupies the constitu- tion, the National Apmis Posen itself on the 30th of September. From its principal and professed: object having been the formation of a constitution, it is gene- rally denominated the Constituent Assembly. vey ' The next Assembly, which was elected according to Meeting of the forms nae § in the new constitution, met on ‘e the 7th of October. The members of it were entirely 6=°r>¥ new, as the members of the Constituent Assembly, by their own decrees, were excluded from holding seats in it. One of their first decrees respected the emigrants, who were assembling in considerable numbers on the frontiers of France: the punishment of death was des nounced against them, if they should continue thus af- ~ ter the Ist ay-aqg 1792. Severe pores onan passed nst e refractory clergy, or those who re« fused Pa the civic oath; but the King refused to sanction these decrees, In order to ify this refu- sal, he intimated to the Assembly, that the Elector of Treyes, on whose territories the emi ‘ commencement of the following year. T intimation ve considerable satisfaction, and in some measure, er aoat time, restored the popularity of the King. tious, and per! am da howevy cir igh ceca wah teeee. But it was ims ible that Louis could long retain his popularity ; Fe! ce of those who by, Go. neat Sens eters an of November. At this time the mayoralty of Bailly expired; the candidates were La Fayette and Pe- tion ; a very few months before, the popularity of the former was so great, that no person would have wished oF sierecigo hare opposed him ; — Petion, a vio# ent republican, was elected mayor by a great majority. Ie ie evident from this, that the republiaens wet Oso not strong, but well organised ; in parties: Gait ier apine Sima, hemo ttt i the place of their assembling, they had received or as~ sumed the name of Jacodius... To. oppose them, some Among them were Rabaud, Sieyes, Talleyrand, Montesquieu, &c, FRANCE. The hostile preparations of the emigrants, and of the ign powers, still;went on ; nor were they delayed in the least by the death ofthe Emperor of Germany, or the murder of the King of Sweden. Asthe French minister for foreign affairs did not use corresponding diligence and exertions, he was accused, even during his absence, by Brissot, apprehended, tried at Orleans, and executed. 'The management of affairs was next placed in the hands of those, who would not fail to make all due ‘preparation for the hostilities which threatened’ France. “Dumourier was appointed minister of war, Roland minister of the interior, and Claviere minister of finance. This com+ » Hi r. pleted the triumph, and established the power of the re- . publicans. One of the first’ acts of this party was to confiscate the property of the emigrants ; their next was War decla- todeclare war, on the 20th of April, against the king of red, 20. and Bohemia, in consequence of the Imperial a 1792, Minister demanding the restoration to the German prin- ces of their feudal rights; the restoration of Avignon to the Pope ; and that the neighbouring powers should : have no reason for apprehension, the weakness of the internal ent of France. The French armies immediately invaded the Austrian ; Netherlands ; but the plan of the campaign was contri- : ved with so little foresight or ee and, from the State of the want of discipline and experience in the troops, so misera~ ene and bly oocamaed it was productive of noadvantage to the- “Y' Prench. » Indeed it was evident, that unless their troops were more obedient to their officers, they would do more mischief to the cause of France than to that of the ene- my; and yet such was the state of the public feeling, both in the army and at Paris, that the evil seemed more likely to increase than diminish. In the capital, party spirit was very violent; but the Jacobins were evidently gaining ground ; and the measures they adopt- .ed for ineréasing their own influence with the people, and diminishing that of their opponents, could not’ fail of effect. They circulated reports of intrigue and con- spiracy in favour of the enemies of the country; the amob, credulous, easily alarmed, and now accustomed to regard the aristocratical party as deci hostile to their interests, as well as the lawful objects of their ven- , rallied round the Jacobins, and supported, in a violent and tumultuous manner, their most ex’ nt propositions. For some time the King yielded to them ; but, like all his former conduct during ‘the Revolution, after having given them his countenance, and’ thus in- creased their power, he altered his conduct, and, when it was too late, resolved to oppose them. ‘The ministry were dismissed, except Dumourier, who, by being thus pre see by the King, became an object of suspicion with the Jacobin club; he therefore resigned his office, and joined thearmy. About this time, Marat, afterwards so infamously notorious, appeared on the stage, and, by his’ i writings and es, ra Siu The mob © increase the unpopularity of the king. On the 20th of reeds mo tal armed ye marched t the ‘Assembly, “the Assem--under the pretence of presenting petitions ; ‘they after. bly. wards, to the number of 40,000, surrounded the ‘Thuile aft » Teries, and insulted the king. As soon as these disgrace~ fal events ‘were Known in the army, ‘La Fayette Teft it, and presented Himself at the bar of the National Assem. bly, where he expressed the indignation’ of eh and called upon the Rots to prevent the repetition o such’ scenes, by punishing the. promoters of them, and especially by dissolving the factious clubs. But the power 8 631 of the Assembly was vain against elubs supported by the _ History. most numerous, the most desperate, and the most worth- ¥ less part of the population ‘of Paris; in them, in fact, was centered the government of the capital, or rather in ‘the Jacobin club, which ruled ‘and moulded them at its. pleasure. Sey ' 'To'these dreadful internal evils was now added an ap-- proaching invasion. The King of Prussia, in conjunce- tion with Austria, was marching against France with an immense force ; while the French armies were compara-- tively few in number, and ‘by no means equal to their opponents in respect to the discipline and obedience of the' soldiers, or the talents and:experience of the officers. But their deficiencies, in’ these ‘respects, it was hoped, . would be more than compensated by their enthusiasm, and by the co-operation of the people. ‘These, however, it was necessary to rouse, and for this purpose the Assembly. ordered a proclamation to be made that the country was in danger.' This object, however, was more ‘effectually accomplished, by a manifesto, issued by the Duke, of Manifestdof Brunswick, as ‘commander~ of* the invading ‘army, at oe Coblentz,'on the 25th of July.! In this’ manifesto, de: Vi. os. struction ‘to ‘Paris, and the ‘executio#’ bf" all who resisted, July. were'dendwnced ; and’ the safety of the royal family Was . declared to'be the only condition on which the capital, or » the National Assembly, could ‘possibly escapt the ‘sé. Verest ‘vengeance of the allied powers. ‘The ‘immedi. ate’ consequence of this ign ent ‘and impolitic ma- nifesto, was the union of all partiés, for their mutual defence, arid the support ‘of what they ‘conceived to be the'will’ of the nation, ‘and the independence of France. However’ they ‘might ‘differ? pnd! quarrel among them. selves, all felt and acted on the necessity, at the present’ mometit, of opposing the allied powers, who ‘entered France with sibt detMeritodi of vengeatice.” ‘The friends - i of the King soon fatally experienced the extent of mise chief to him and his cause, which this mabifesto produ- eed, The republicans, long anxious ‘for his deposition, had now ‘too good an opporturlity to be neglected ;— for ‘who, thought they, would dare to defend a King, who was such an enemy to France, as to have his safety put in competition with its liberty and ‘independence ? But jit was necessary, even yet, to proceed with caution in the deposition of ‘Louis: the republicans could not exe pect that the ‘National, Assembly would willingly to it, They had accused La Fayette before it, and. he had been acquitted ; and hence they inferred, that their mea-- sures respecting the King would not be well received by that Assembly ; it was therefore their object to excite the worst passions of the populace against him. In Paris, at this time, there were too many, who might easily be made the zealous instruments of the worst of crimes ; for, besides the mob of the city, 15,000 Mara seillois had arrived at the period of the confederation, on the 14th of July, not the Jeast behind the most.un- . principled ‘and ferocious ofthe Parisians in their hatred of royalty and order, and in their disposition to excite disturbance, and to commit murder. ith these, and the mob'of Paris, the republicans intrigued, and. the friends of Louis were not long in perceiving that his life was in danger. The palace, therefore, was guarded by a number of gentlemen, by the Swiss, troops, and. by 12 pieces of cannon.. Mandat, the commander of the national guards, was at-their head, At midnight, on the Oth of August, the toesin.sounded, and the drums beat to. arms ; but the republicans knew that while Mandat 682 lived, their efforts against the life of the King would be unavailing ; they therefore contrived to persuade him to leave his post, and come to the commune, which was entirely composed of their own friends ; and as he was leaving the hall, he was shot, and Santerre appointed to command the national guard in his place. . Mamacreof On the 10th of August, Louis found himself placed in the 10th of such a perilous situation, in the palace, that he sought “> ection in the National Assembly. Immediately after left the Thuilleries, the insurgents, to the number of 20,000 men, attacked the Swiss who guarded it ; a bloody combat ensued ; but the Swiss were overpowered, and most of them massacred... The republican party, now strong in the success which had attended their: first ef- forts, and in. the terror which they had excited, resolved to push the execution of their favourite object imme- diately ; the royal authority was suspended ; the nation _ invited to choose a convention ; commissioners sent to bag amt a army ; and the royal family imprisoned in the Tem- e,.2 3 ' y The influence which Lia Fayette. possessed, with. the army, it was hoped, by the friends of the king and of justice and order, would preserve them loyal and obe- dient ; but they were not to be depended upon, and.La Fayette judged it prudent to leave the camp,, soon after History. Flight and confinement dae toseek his safety in flight. He escaped, from, his own troops, but he was made prisoner by the enemy, and de- tained in, Austrian and Prussian dungeons for several years. The commissioners now found no opposition to the duthority of which they were empowered to. exercise over the army; but were received with respect, by Ge- nerals Dumourier, Biron, Montesquieu, Kellerman, and Custine. Dumourier, having removed the suspicions formerly entertained of him by the republicans, was appointed commander-in-chief, on the flightof La Fayette., is general was at the head of about 17,000 men, and, with this inadequate force, his object was to watch, for he could not hope to oppose, the progress of the. allied forces. These had entered France so numerous and well equipped, that the conquest of that country seemed cer- tain and near at hand. The Duke of Brunswick had 50,000 Prussians ; there were 15,000 Austrians under Clairfait ; and the Hessians and French emigrants raised the total force to 90,000 men. Their success.at first was portioned to their strength and their hopes. Longwy and Verdun surrendered, and Paris ‘was already in alarm. This moment of alarm was not to be oyerlooked by the Jacobin party,—it was too favourable to their views, They declared that the safety of the country, and the destruction of foreign foes, could not be accomplished, while there existed in Paris so many domestic enemies of the people. The most horrid massacres accordingly took place, at which the forms of justice were either en« tirely neglected, or attended to in such a manner, as. to render the proceedings still more repulsive to humanity. For two days, the mob, under the direction of Marat, Roberspierre, and Danton, who now led the common council, had the entire possession of Paris; no person besides durst stir out of their house; the national guards at this crisis seemed disposed to interfere, but Santerre Was too strongly attached to the violent Jacobins to re- press cruelties which they had organized and directed. The massacres did not cease, nor was even the ap- pearance of order and tranquillity completely re-esta- blished in the capital, till intelligence arrived that the al- France. Masracres of the 2d and 34 of September, FRANCE. intelligence of the transactions at Paris had arrived; and lies had commenced their retreat out of France. For | some time after the reduction of Verdun, they had ad- vanced with little or no opposition; but as soon as Dus The allies mourier had organised his army, he opposed consider. "tes able obstacles to their farther and some battles were fought, in which the behaved with great coolness, and evidently shewed that they were improved in discipline. Notwithstanding this, however; and the additional circumstance, that the troops under his com- mand were much increased ; Dumourier would not have been able to save his country, had not sickness and fa- mine attacked the Prussians.',.The former origi from the soldiers eating Jarge \quantities of fruit, and from the unusual wetness.of the season; the latter took its rise from the inhabitents ‘absolutely refusing to carry provisions to the camp.of ‘the enemy. . It has-been.sus- ~ >" pected that, even in spite of the reduction in the str and spirits of his soldiers, which \sickness and e produced, the, Duke of Brunswick might have driven the French army before’ him, if the King,of Prussia had continued firm'to the cause of the allies. . However this may be, after a truce of eight ware he commenced his ree treat: He was not pursued, but Verdun and Longwy were retaken, and Thionville, which had been ly defended by, General Wimpfen was relieved. The Austrians were not more successful than the Prussians; for sha beees rhs ° Lisle for a fortnight without the least prospect of re- ducing it, they raised the siege. .On the side of Sayoy, © the French were the invaders, and they were received by the people with great joy and enthusiasm, ». The’ suc« cess which had attended the defence of their own. terri- tories, made them forget, that they, had declared they would not,invade the territories of other nations: not Successes only was Savoy invaded, but Spires, Worms, Mentz,, the and Frankfort were attacked and taken before the close of 1792. The last place, however, did not remain, in their possession, as it was recaptured on the 2d of. December in that year. In the Netherlands, the French were still more successful. On the 6th of Noyember,. Dumourier attacked the Austrians, who were strongly. fortified on the heights of Jemappe. The battle was most obstinate and bloody, but French enthusiasm, joined to, superior numbers, succeeded ; and this victory decided, the fate of the Austrian Netherlands...) In the mean time, the National Convention assembled}, National and as the republican party were by far the most. nume-. Convention, rous in it, and were besides sure of support from the, Parisians, they proposed, on the very day of the. meeting, the eternal abolition of royalty in France. This Royalty was carried by acclamation. The next day it was de- creed that all acts should be dated by the year of the Republic ; and the appellation of icitizen was universally adopted. . Still, notwithstanding these foolish and mad acts, San wae some poe. in the aaa not unite the. utmost profli of principle and, : a vity of conduct with their ‘lly i titer © mm : e p were the Girondists, or Brissotines ; the most celebrated = } anche ey, < and respectable of whom were Condorcet. Brissot. parties. The other party were denominated the Mountain, be-~ cause the members of it usually sate on the upper seats in the convention ; of these, the most p and in- famous were Danton, Roberspierre, Marat, and Collot ; D'Herbois. The Girondists. were anxious to punish : the perpetrators of the massacres of the 2d and: $d of September; but their motions to this effect were always eluded by the Mountain party, who had been a ~~ Hist chiefly i ental in these massacres, and looked for- = pics aw repetition as the means of intimidating : ° ¥ . a , ca . = 2 In ale eir opponents, and penis iy Git PORET I a, a, decree was passed, that all emigrants. when 4 seer aulize doting ae Louis XVL 4 owe a) Sey | tion, that they would grant fraternity, and assistance to : all people who were anxious to, be free ; and the gene , were ordered to give assistance to, all such, On the 11th of December, Louis was ordered to the bar of the,Con- vention ; and the act. of accusation being. read, he was required. Peng President to answer to each separate charge. . These charges were very numerous ; some of them were of a frivolous nature; others related done either before the Revolution had defined and limit- his own y, but the rance,; ought not to be sey i rt. tranquillity and happi Ht pet eon ig he. look- cope nasioans of is’s mind, which had displayed it- So frequently H.40 Jebel, epng. th0 Ren tion, isappeared when his misfortunes reached their height ; is whole conduct was. firm, composed, and digni- fied ; and he met his fate ina manner which surprised and even his enemies. , and Great Britain are given in the article Bairain, and need not be repeated here. ecmapen. sf the Austrian Netherlands, Du- towards Holland: but he did not con- duct. his operations. with, judgment ; for, dividing his after ing as far FRANCE. '¥ i ; ey e following month, Trial of the Convention declared, in the name of the French na- 633 powers held at Antwerp, it was resolved to invade France History. for the express purpose of conquest. This resolution ““Y™™ was immediately begun to be carried intoexccution. The Austrians advanced ; and, alter five, different engage- ments with the French under General Dampier, in the last but one of which he was killed, they succeeded. in reaching Valenciennes, and. commenced. the siege of it. About the same time, the Prussians having repulsed the French, army under Custine, laid siege to Mentz. . The advantages and progress of the allies created great alarm in Paris, but were not, unacceptable to the party of the Mountain. , Their object was the destruction of the Gi- rondists ; and to effect this, nothing else was necessary but to render them obnoxious to the people, as the ene- mies of liberty, and the friends of the allied powers. The Mountain party, on all occasions of violence and injustice, used as their instruments the mob of Paris, which was now regularly organised. for, that. purpose, The capital was divided into forty-eight sections, and section had its commune, or common hall, in which most iropaelet and, unprincipled directed the pros ceedings. On the 15th of April, the communes of all the sections petitioned the Convention, that the leaders of the Girondist party should be impeached and expel- led. The Girondists retaliated by impeaching Marat ; but he was acquitted. This, was the prelude of their fall,. The Convention was now no longer an independent body, but was overawed by the populace and the Mountain party. The latter, however, were not so powerful in the provinces as in Paris. .Most of the southern depart- ments declared the Mountain party outlawed, and broke out into, open revolt. The northern departments, in general, adhered to them. Soon after their triumph, they lost. one of their leading members,—Marat, who Marat was stabbed by Charlotte Cordé, a woman who came to venwenardoig Paris for that purpose, and who gloried inthe execution Corie. of a deed, which she thought the cause of freedom and of her-country called upon her to perform, In a fortnight after, the Mountain party gained the as- cendency over the Girondists. They framed a new con- stitution, but it was never put in practice. They also established, or at least gave more vigour to the revolution- ary tribunal, the object of which was to try crimes against the state in the most summary and arbitrary manner. ' The allies, in the mean time, did not derive so much : advantage from the distracted state of France as might have been expected ; for, however the French might be divided among themselves, they seemed. resolved. that no foreign power should interfere in their quarrels, or trespass with impunity on. their national independence. Valenciennes: held out till the 27th of July, and Mentz nearly as long. The possession of these places seemed to open a direct and easy road into,the heart of France. But success produced its usual consequences ; the allies could not agree in their future plans, and .on this account ‘The allies divided their forces. Unsuccessful attempts. were made are unsuc- on Dunkirk, Cambray, and Bouchain, , Prince Cobourg °**"- was repeatedly attacked by the French under Jourdan : The French soldiers, animated, by the, presence of com- missioners from the Convention, pt ya spiritu- ous liquors, which were supplied them by crowds of wo- men who attended the, army, for this. purpose, and to carry off the wounded, ;and.supported by a formidable and well-served train of artillery, were irresistible. The . he a 4L A : Alarm at Paris. History. 634 Austrians retired, and maritime Flanders was again inva- —Y— ded, and partly conquered by the French. Chel war is the south frontiers of France, and in la Vendée. At this period, when they were victorious on their bert their enemies, a-civil war raged in dif- ferent parts of France. Lyons, ‘Marseilles, and Toulon, still opposed the authority of the Mountain party, and of course of the Convention, who were completely subser- vient to the yop cmhree hited git! On the Sth of August, Lyons was attacked by the conventional troops, and ¢ h soon reduced almost: to ruins, it did not surrender till the 8th of October, when its walls and public buildings were razed to the ground, and an im- mense number of its citizens destroyed, by firing grape shot among them; the usual mode of execution by guillotine being too slow and easy a death for the vora- cious cruelty of the conquerors. Marseilles, terrified at the fate of Lyons, submitted ; and Toulon put itself in- to the power of Lord Hood, who, however, was soon Bm to evacuate it. p . “This civil war was between two parties, each of whom was friendly to the revolution ; but the civil war in La Vendée was of a different character. In this district of France, the Bourbons had numerous and powerful friends, Divided from the rest of France in some de- gree by its situation, and much more by the difference of the manners, language, and habits of the people, La Ven- dée had not participated in the change of opinions which had produced the revolution. Into it, as a secure re- treat, cory Beg the priests who had refused to’ take the civic oath fied, and as the inhabitants were supersti-' tious, the priests did not fail to call in the aid of reli- gion to the cause of the Bourbons. At first, the insur- gents of La Vendée were rapidly successful ; they besie- ged Nantes, and even threatened “Paris ; but a te- dious war, in which the most dreadful cruelties were committed on both sides, they were reduced to apparent and temporary submission. ‘ The grand conflict between the allies and the French, in the months of October, November, and December of this year, was on the Rhine. As the latter did not deem themselves sufficiently numerous to oppose their enemies, they had erected very strong ‘fortifications at Weissem- burg, on the Lauter. On the 13th of October, general Wurmser made an attack upon them with all his force, and, notwithstanding their strength, he succeeded with little difficulty in driving the French from their lines ; from thence they retreated to Hagenau ; hence also were driven ; and a were subsequently defeated on the 25th and 27th. The design of the allies to.conguer at least parts of France for themselves, was now mani- fested ; for Wurmser refused to accept the surrender of Strasburg, wmless to his Imperial Majesty. As the de- feats which the French had suffered were ascribed to , or to a want of enthusiasm, commissioners were sent by the Convention to the army, who, by the severity of their measures, as well as by the doctrines that-they preached to the common soldiers, succeeded in rendering them victorious. This effect, however, must also be ascribed, in part, to the numerous reinforcements, which the measures adopted by the convention supplied to all the French armies, the nature of which will be af- the difference in the ardour and efforts of the army op- syed to him, after the arrival of the commissioners ; , by the middle of November, his advance and success were at an end—the French became the assailants. Not FRANCE. only the Austrians, but also the Prussians, were defeated in all quarters ; they could not withstand the immense umerical aided as it was by the maddening Heaton: aisinsialls the French, even in their strongly forti cole anet Mabe they were d aon peuorul ab tay most all o , riven th is onet. Generals Hoche and zru directed these wonderful atchievements of the French. The campaign’ terminated in this quarter by the reduction of Spires and Fort Louis. aoe We have already alluded to the means by which the. French armies were supplied with such a great numeri- cal superiority, as to com , in some _ for’ their want of experience and discipline: it will now be proper to explain them. As the Convention had ‘com=" pleted the business for which they had been elected,’ viz. the formation of a constitution, they ought to have dissolved themselves ; but under the pretext, that, in the state of France, their dissolution, and the election of a new assembly, might be dangerous m) : , the Mountain a which was still’ triumphant, determined that it 5 continue till the end of the war. ‘They also succeeded’ in establishing what was called a i of public safety. Th rior committees ; and united in itself a wonderful degree’ of secrecy, dispatch, skill, and energy. It correspond" ed with all the Jacobin clubs throughout France, and’ sent cornmissioners, with unlimited powers, into all parts of the kingdom. It is evident that this form of govern-" ment possessed wonderful means of carrying all its mea- sures into complete effect ; and, as its members were ac~ tuated by one sole motive—that of establishing their pe- culiar principles,—these means were cted through inattention, or sacrificed to interest. In short, at this period, the whole population of France, with all’ its corporea ; wild and energetic enthusiasm, was directed by a body of men, who knew all the resources of the state, and who exercised their unlimited and almost unquestioned autho= ~~ rity, with a degree of talent, vigilance, secrecy, activity, and zeal, never perhaps before combined. were despotic, not less by the power which they actually pos~ sessed, than by the feeling which actuated France ; for such was the abhorrence o by foreigners, such the desire of rendering what they conceived to be liberty triumphant, that the people almost offered themselves to the of those measures, which, with different feelings, and under different circum stances, they would have as rand tyran= nical. Thus the decree for placing France in a state of requisition, by which all unmarried citizens, from 18 to 25, were ordered to join the armies ; while the married, the aged, and even the women and children, were to be employed in various ways in the service of their mre by forging arms, making tents and clothes, attending the hospitals, preaching hatred against the enemies of the res public, &c. was not op ; so far from this, it produs ced all the effects which aia d ihe ic safety (from which it originated, anticips r i The Mountain party having thus succeede oben the whole population of France against their enemies, in psy Sees Raion tee toy me of armies, resolved to destroy the Queen and the Girondist’ party. Against the former acct re : abhorrent to human nature, that even the most depraved : (error qn. A revolu- — ment, the principal engines of which was the committe tionary go is superintended a number OPT TS eared 1 and mental powers, stimulated by the most _ Pym History. _ Measures, TAD. 1794, sue of FRANCE. of the Mountain party were shocked, at their tendency : after a mock trial, she was executed’ on the 16th of Oc- tober. On the 30th of the same month, Brissot.and,20 * others of his party were executed ; and the Duke of Or, leans, who united perhaps a greater: degree of personal and political depravity, than any man with whom»the revolution has cursed France, was afterwards put to death, by that very party whom he had materially contributed to bring forward to serve his own purposes, «and who now accused him of having aspired to the sovereignty ‘from the commencement of the revolution." + As soon as the Mountain party had got rid of their abandoned themselves to the most extra- opponents, t ; vagant and most dreadful excesses. It seemed, in their mad and blind rage for innovation, as if they thought m ould daacan crea On ee ae provisionally ( ing republic, GaNOd Tadalde wo datacvere Whee, end taving completely succeeded in recruiting the armies, the Con- vention turned their thoughts to the state of the finances. them, .a law was passed establishing a maximum. This, however, it was soon discovered, increased the evil; ie arp pr PRE SA. Rare i assignats, by the sale lands belonging to the church, and to the emigrants i ie any ed by the revolutionary tribunals. The churches were plundered of their gold and silver ; even their bells were melted and cast into cannon. In order still farther to were manufactured and cast. The whole agricultural produce of the country was seized by the government, who distributed it to each district according to its popu- Neti Ape yaa Yet these very men, who seemed to have: bat one soul, then they acted forthe defence of France, were divided Into two most implacable parties. Roberspierte was at 635 triumphed, and by the middle of April all his most ac- _ History, tive opponents had suffered death. His own fate, how- ever, was not far distant ; for, on the 27th of July, se- yeral members of the Convention whom he meant to haye sacrificed, (among whom the most enterprising was Tal- lien,) accused him of tyranny: his arrest was decreed, fxecution and on the next day he was seized and executed. To of Rober-- him the Moderate party, as they were termed, succeed- ‘Pierre. ed; who, at the same time, that they stopt short of his atrocities, were undoubtedly inferior to him in talent, ac« tivity, and vigour; so that had not the great machine of the army been so admirably constructed, and so well sup- plied by Roberspierre and his party, it must have fallen in pieces, or at least worked with diminished effect under his successors. , The allies being now convinced that the French not’ only could bring into the field larger armies than they expected ; but that their generals possessed a very consi- derable degree of skill, and their troops steadiness and discipline, as well‘as enthusiasm, prepared to open the Campaign campai of 1794 with such a force, and on such a plan, of 1794. as, in their opinion, could not fail to render them gene< rally and permanently victorious. Their force amounts ed to upwards of 180,000 men, consisting of Dutch, Germans, and English, divided into six armies ; and their plan was, by getting within the frontier towns of France, to cut eir enemies from the interior. At first they met with some success; but the numbers which the decrees of the committee of public safety pours ed into the French armies, and the enthusiasm and are dour with. which even. these. raw troops were inspired, in a short-time not only deprived the allies of the fruits of their victories, but obliged them. to.act entirely on the- nsec He especially, was: eminently successful in ma ritime Flanders: Ypres surrendered to him, Charleroi was taken by Jourdan, who afterwards defeated the Aus- Grearens! trians at Fleurus. These misfortunes compelled the al+ cosses of the lies to retreat in every direction; and the French be- Fren held themselves advanced, victorious, to the confines of Dutch Flanders. On the Rhine, their success was equally erent, and from the same causes: before the-end of July, the Palatinate was in their possession. Iii the battles by - which these conquests were atchieved, they indeed lost immense numbers of men ; but their leading principle was to bring up superior forces every day till their ob- ject was accomplished ; and thus acting on their ene- mies with a , not only of greater weight, but of more rapid motion, they bore down all opposition, The only cases in which they were unsuccessful this eampaign, were in Corsica, and in their rencontre by sea with Lord Howe; the circumstances of both of which have been detailed in the History of Briain. From the pause which the Freuch army made, when it had advanced to the confines of Dutch Flanders, it was at first supposed that they did not mean to invade the United Provinces ; but aftera short pause, Pichegru - advanced, and the allies retreated before him, first across the Maese, and afterwards across the Rhine. On-the 7th of November, Nimeguen was occupied by the French,’ when they again paused in the career of victory. On the borders of Spain they were equally successful ; the Spaniards were unable to stand before them, and the greater part of Navarre fell into their power, while, on the east side of Spain, Catalonia, by the conquest of Rew . sas, was left totally undefended, . 636 History. —_—— Tumults in Parm. Executive Directory established. Members of it, Peace with Prussia, A. D. 1795. It is now time to look to Paris, at once the scene of constant intrigue, and the mutual massacre of parties, and the source whence all the victories of the arm flowed. The Jacobins, though defeated, were not di- spirited or inactive: they formed a most dreadful plot to regain their power ; and this plot, as usaal,-was to be carried into execution in Paris, for whoever ruled Paris ruled the kingdom; and in the most profligate districts of Paris, for hitherto whoever ruled there, ru- led the capital. The hall of the Convention was sur- rounded, on the 20th of May 1795, by. immense num- bers of abandoned and desperate women, who demand- ed bread, and the constitution of 1793; and the mem- bers were compelled to retire, till General, Hoche with the military, dispersed the insurgents, The Jacobins, however, returned to the charge in the evening; and by pointing some pieces of cannon against the hail of the Convention, intimidated the members into a promise that bread should be supplied, and the constitution of 1798 restored. The troops again came’to the relief of the Convention ; and, by attacking the suburb of St Antoine, the t focus of rebellion, they succeeded in reducing the msurgents, and in restoring the authority of the Convention. Inthe south of France, where the Jacobins also endeavoured to regain their power, they were not more fortunate ; so that the Convention might have established themselves firmly, had they been ne 4 sessed of that commanding talent and energy, which the state of France, both at home and abroad,’ at that time, imperiously demanded, But they were deficient in these respects; and their deficiency they were anxious to compensate, by the establishment of a new constitu- tion. The plan of this constitution was laid before the Convention, by the committee appointed to frame it, on the 25d of June. According to it, the legislature was to be composed of two assemblies; and the executive upc was to be entrusted to five persons, who were to called the Executive Directory. This plan was not received with much approbation at Paris; and an espe- cial provision made by the Convention, that at the ap- proaching election, the electors should be bound to re- turn two-thirds of the present members, or, if they did not, that the Convention themselves might fill up the vacancies, gave very great dissatisfaction. In this emer- gency, the Convention endeavoured to strengthen them- selves against the citizens of Paris, by an union with- the Jacobins ; and by this union, and the assistance of the troops in Paris, which were placed under the com- mand of Barras, Brune, and Bonaparte, the refractory citizens were compelled to submit to the Convention ; but the consequence was, that the Jacobins regained their ascendency. On the 27th of October, the Convention was dissol- ved, and the new legislature began to act. Their first measure was the election of the Executive Directory. Sieyes, Barras, Reubell, La Reveillere Lepaux, and Le- tourneur de La Manche were chosen. Sieyes, however, declining the honour, Carnot was appointed in his lace. All the members of the Directory except La eveillere Lepaux, had been connected with the Moun- tain party. At the commencement of the campaign of 1794, the King of Prussia had received a subsidy from Britain, on condition that he brought into the field an army of 60,000 men ; but as this army never arrived, it was suspected that he was about to make peace with France. This suspicion was confirmed ; for on the 20th of April, 1795, a treaty of peace with him was ratified by the Convention. Shortly afterwards, the Kings of Sweden FRANCE. __ of tlfe campaign of 1794, and before the conquest of Hol- and Spelt, and the cantons’ of Switzerland, also con- History. cluded a peace with France ;-and towards the end of August, several of the German princes followed their example. The rest were on the point of acting in the same manner, when victory began to desert the French standard. 4 , : this reverse, however, the military successes of the French had been very great. .We have already - mentioned, that, after the reduction of Nimeguen, their army halted in its career of victory. It \is le that they would not have invaded the province of Hol- land at this season of the year, (the winter of 1794-1795) ° had not the frost, setting in with uncommon severity, o oft for. ag Ba a 9s over the ice of very rivers and lakes, which it was hoped would have served as a secure protection, The allies in vain tempting to o their progress, they took ssi of hrneatoen ethene , without resistance, on the 16th of Ja- nuary 1795. They were well received fn dle, and increased their influence and popularity by the abolition of the Stadtholdership, Soon after this conquest, the Diet of Ratisbon seemed Holland subdued. isposed for peace. e allies, instead of overrunning and dividin arrardy as they had planned and ed, beheld the republic increased by an additi po- pulation of nearly 14 millions; while in the course even land, the French had taken 2000 pieces of cannon, and 60,000 prisoners. The wish of the Diet, however, notwith- standing these wonderful successes of the French; and the probability that they would continue, was not, met either by Britain a ae The former was still sue- cessful by sea; and hoped, by nourishing and sw i sist palin ‘in La Vendée, to. ish that which the allied army had failed in effecting ; but, the most disastrous expedition to Quiberon extinguished her hopes in that quarter. wen Austria directed her efforts with more wisdom. . By the middle of June, the French were in possession of the whole left bank of the Rhine, except Mentz. In August, Jourdan crossed this river, in order to besiege Mentz ; while Pich succeeded in gaining posses- sion of Manheim. The Austrians having been driven batk, the siege of Mentz was begun ; but Jourdan was ‘ 5 . h wc Bete _ soon obliged to give it up, in uence of a defeat which Pichegru experienced from Wurmser, It was now n for both the French armies to re- cross the river; and after had effected this, and - the Austrians had recovered eim, an armistice for three months was too. and In the mean time, the Directory and ‘the Jacobins were continually at variance, and, as usual, each endea- voured to enlist the citizens of Paris in their favour. The more respectable classes were decidedly inclined oe ee ee to su’ the di 3 but the mob, and the Legion of Pati, lvahaywrere called, isting of 10,000 men, were as zealous for the Jacobins. . ing on these, the latter attempted to carry into execution a plot, ac- cording to which, the members of the Directory were to be murdered, and a new directory and legislature appointed from among the most, violent. of their own party; but the plot was discovered, Py ea agents in it arrested. On. the 9th of June, this year, e Dauphin died in the pg aa pr fd soon Death of — afterwards delivered up.to the Emperor of Germany, the Dau- : in exchange for the commissioners, — Dumourier Phin- had sent prisoners to the Austrians, and for two French- men, who had been seized on their way to Turkey. _ ‘ As the campaign of 1795 had terminated unsuccess« i ee ee FRANCE. fully to the French on the Rhine, the Di Te- solved to exert their utmost endeavours to open that of 1796, in such a manner as would restore their superio- rity, and regain their conquests. But when they for recruiting 637 ra, Bologna, and Urbino, were the fruits of this victory, History. the Austrians retirmg into the bishopric of Trent. | Naples and Tuscany fought and obtained peace. The * Conse siege of Mantua was the next object of the conquerors ; 1" but they were drawn from it by the re-advance of the Austrians under General Wurmser, who had been ap- pointed to su le Beaulieu. This general was not more successful than his ecessor ; and being obli- , after repeated defeats, to retire to the Tyrolese tier, Mantua was re-invested. After a month’s re- spite, the armies again tried their strength, and the ustrians being again defeated, the victors took posses- sion of Trent. They did not, however, at this time, long keep possession of this district, for Wurmser ; by to examine sarge aa = the armies, supplying them with the necessary pro- — and te , they found a lamentable defceney ‘money. e assignats were excessively deprecia- ted; nor could their credit be any longer su by the most severe decrees, while an in issue only augmented the d iation. It was therefore resolved, on the 25th of March 1796, to dispose of the remainder of the church lands ; but it seems not to have entered into the of the Di , that, as the ‘ os ee a a Gwe his manceuvres, drew them out of it ; and though he sus- tained another ee! yet, in his retreat, he succeeded in encouragin e garrison of Mantua, by throwin himself ito that place. The Austrian hay was ow placed under the command of Alvingi, who, at first, was b nbeng successful, but was at length driven across the Brenta by Bona . Mantua, however, still held out at the end of the year 1796. : The armistice in Germany terminated on the 31st of Operations May. In consequence of the success of the French at @™ Germe- the commencement of this campaign, the Archduke ny. igre, W en dag ; . 2 ss SD gran I © lea greets ie 3 a ze e 8 3 a ing year, had the command of the third army Italian coast, from Nice to Genoa. The won- ‘derful advantages of in Italy, and the de- feat of Jourdan, and retreat of Moreau, in Germany, ‘portant. assumed the command, he threatened Genoa.. This induced Beaulieu, who com- manded the Austrian troops, to resolve on the attack of the whole French line ; but the attack being unsuc- As soon as trians, he defeated the former ; and, by his subsequent ing of Sardinia to the Lodi, im the Milanese. The bridge, at the Adda, was defended by 30 pi so very formidable, that all the Charles left the Palatinate, to force Jourdan down the Rhine. In this he succeeded ; but in the mean time, Moreau had crossed that river at Kehl, against him therefore the Archduke thought it proper to advance ; and Jourdan, taking advantage of this, again crossed the Rhine, and afterwards the Lahn, and gained pos- session of Frankfort. The Archduke, apprehensive that Jourdan and Moreau would form a junction, re- solved to attack the latter before it took place; but Moreau anticipated him, and the Austrians were com- pelled to retreat. Their army also, which was opposed to Jourdan, retreated, keeping up, however, a commu- nication with the main army under the Archduke. The line of their retreat was through Swabia; and, by the end of August, the three republican armies, under Moreau, Bonaparte, and Jourdan, were of the whole country from the frontiers of Bohemia to the Adriatic, with the exception of a part of the Tyrolese. riod, lese, and ea ed the Danube, the Em must have submitted to whatever conditions the French chose to dictate. The Archduke Charles being strongly reinforced, en- deavoured to oppose the advance of Moreau; but not su ing, he crossed the Danube, and attacked Jour- dan, leaving part of his army as a check on Moreau. Jourdan was now under the necessity of retreating, till, by the middle of ber, he arrived at Coblentz and Dusseldorf, from which places he had advanced at the beginning of the campaign. Moreau, in the mean time, endeavoured to drive be- fore him the part of the Austrians which were left to watch him’; but they, having been reinforced, he could : oreret not penetrate beyond the Iser. His communication with Jourdan was now completely cut off, and for some ee weeks he was ignorant of his fortune or movements. Moreau. F i As soon, however, as he learned: that he had been com- pelled to retreat, he was sensible that it was absolutely necessary for him to retreat also. In order to deceive the Pena who was opposed to him, he at first moved as if he meant to etrate further into Austria; and having thus compelled his adversary to fall back, he be- gan’ his retreat between the Danube at Ulm, and the Timtory. Campaign af 1797. Butle of Rivoli. 638 Lake of Constance. @n his rear the Austrian general hang incessantly: his route through the Black Forest was occupied iy numerous bodies of Austrians and armed peasintry, while his right flank was harassed by another arn ot 24,000 men, Notwithstanding the ex- treme difficulties of this critical situation, he continued his retreat in the most excellent order, and actually more than once turned = and the army thet was pursuing him. The dreadful passage of the valley of Hell, overhung with lofty mountains, and in some places only a few fathoms broad, was forced by the centre of his army in a mass, while the wings op- the Austrian armies that h on his rear and anks. On the 15th of October arrived at Fri- burg ; but he was soon afterwards forced by the Arch- duke to abandon all his positions on that side of the Rhine, except Kebl. This place also the Archduke was resolved to reduce ; but not being able to succeed, and the French, finding their whole frontier exposed, the latter evacuated it in the beginning of 1797. The first object of the Austrians in 1797, was the re- lief of Mantua. General Alvingi’s army was upwards of 50,000 strong. At first they were so successful against a division of Bonaparte’s army, that their im- mediate capture was expected. As soon as that gene- ral was informed of their critical situation, he hastened to their relief. On the 14th of January, a most obsti- nate battle took place at Rivoli. The centre of the French was on the point of giving way, both their flanks were surrounded, and the defeat of Bonaparte seemed certain, when, by a masterly manceuvre, he completely changed the fortune of the day, penetrated the right wing of the Austrians at various points, and threw them into such disorder, that 4000 of them threw down their arms. On the following day, 6000 more were surrounded and taken prisoners. parte now hastened to meet that of the Austrian army which was threatening the lines of the blockade, and succeeded in capturing the whole of them. The defence of Mantua being now hopeless, General Wurm- ser capitulated. The humiliation of the Pope was the next object of Bonaparte. The forces of his Holiness were soon sub- dued, and he was compelled to sign a peace, dictated by the French general. The French government having failed in their at- tempt to reduce the Emperor to submission by the campaign on the western side of Germany, resolved to a into his hereditary dominions on the side of taly.. They, therefore, sent strong reinforcements to Bonaparte. On the other hand, the Archduke Charles took the command on the southern frontiers of Aus- tria ; but, instead of walang the enemy in the moun- tains, he was directed by the council of war at Vienna to descend into the plains, and defend the rivers. The consequences of this absurd plan were fatal to the Aus- trians, who were driven from all their positions, and lost their principal magazines. In fifteen days Bona- parte took 20,000 prisoners, and effected the of the Alps, His way to Vienna was now open; but not insensible of the to which even his success- ful progress had exposed hin, he wrote to the Arch- duke on the 31st of March, ing peace. The latter replied, that he had no Pithority to treat ; and, in the mean time, the inhabitants. of the Tyrol rose en masse, Neither they, however, nor the ular Austrian armies, were able to stop the the French, who, on the 2d of a forced the strong de- files between Friesach and Newark. This success, and FRANCE — soothen defect wibichastine Anptalens moteinal sei , indu _Emperor ap ew ge on were to hile these operations were going Carasny’ apamie iinaten ied 7 vented the Austrians on the Rhine from sending rein- were still divisions and di government at Paris. A decided majori Ag = — were e Moderate ; but, in consequence of some violent Aliscanions respect finance, and the re- storation of the propert emigrants, the legisla- tive and executive fretthes became professed i to each other. General Hoche, with a division of | army, was brought into the neighbourhood of Paris Italy by the opposite . The latter surrounded the Thurs, and made Pi : ite faction pri ; Carnot escaped, but Barthelemy was put eo net afterwards the councils, in a most ner, voted the I own members, and 12 other were Barthelemy and Pichegra,_ In Fyne "the displaced directors, the legislature chose Merlin and Francis de Neufchateau. About this time. the nego-. a with England, conducted by Lord;Malmsbury, ‘ai “ = duct of the French towards the Pope, Switzerland, and arin happen teares dhe Romaicaeeeeeean ances ween the ion of the inhabitants who remained faithful to his oliness. In the course of these disturbances a French eral was shot, and Joseph Bonaparte, who was there as plenipotentiary, demanded his passports, and returned to nate. iy Ee, Ags ne qoveied she ion of Vienna, Spain, , t protecti ee Ee ent they would not in an pry. ecg inst Rome, subverted the dominion of the Ro- Pope, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the man le. Ever since the first successes of parte in Italy, the French had instructed their to demand, or take by apo, one mearm intings, antiquities, &c.; but on capture tes, Tistead of being sent to Paris, as) the. ther dines Resi. been, were, eh one aa In Switzerland, French principles had been fully ; [ solved to take advan of this circumstance, duce this country. A eee similar to that which th Z a i 4% E soon found, that not only a large portion Sf the inka ? story- tants of this canton, but also of the army, were disaf- , fected. Notwithstanding this, they imprudently de- , creed the rising of the people in a mass: the people did rise, but they dissolved the government, They were, ; however, by no means willing, that the French should interfere in their disputes, and therefore offered terms ‘to them, which were rejected. The enemy continued to advance ; the Swiss in vain them, and in- jured their own cause by murdering their officers, af- ter acomplete defeat that they suffered early in March. Berne capitulated, and most of the other cantons fol- lowed its example. A new constitution was framed at Paris for this country ; but the inhabitants of the small- er and more democratic cantons refused to accept it, and took up arms. At their head was Aloys Reding, a man of superior purity of patriotism and talents ; but all his efforts were imavaling, the confederacy being soon dissolved by the arts and the overwhelming power French. Scarcely, however, had an accommo- ce, when new commotions arose, which madness of ir ; even the women into the midst of the battle; and the robust mountaineers egg Beare Frenchmen to death in rt The F: retaliated, by the infliction of ies of cruelty that they could devise ; and, af- but aaa contest, overthrew the inde- or of Naples. he prudently placed i aples having impruden 80 lence in the cigshehiotione of the S of — L g% é i j . vi i 5 aay ote ; 2 the Nile, as to declare war against the French, to ; advance to the re-conquest of Rome, the Di re- o solved to crush him. This was an easy task ; the Nea- : abi ! troops, being driven from Ca- a against France. The Rus- commenced hostilities in the Levant, soon after they heard of the victory of the Nile; and being subsidized by Britain, they marched an army of 45,000 men to the confines of Germany. Austria, how- Soe ait first afraid to en a gerne not giving a satisfactory answer to the French, who declared, that thie entrance of the Russian into would be considered as a declaration of war, , on the 13th of March 1799, ordered the i against the Em- sdivitied'@n Hie sdaypits soon reduced the Grisons; FRANCE. ’ 639 but he was defeated in his next enterpr:ze. the re- History. duction of the post of Feldrich, which was held by "Vv" the Austrian General Hotze. The Austrians, how- ever, could reap little advantage from this success, but deemed it prudent to retreat into the Tyrol. The Arch- duke was opposed to Jourdan, and he was more suc- cessful ; the French general being obliged to retreat with considerable loss. Jourdan was soon afterwards removed, and Massena appointed to command his army. But the most important scene of operations this year Operations was Italy, where the Austrians were successful in se- kane veral en, ts, even before the junction of the Pro, soa Russians, This event took place about the beginning’ a ustrians, of April, and Suwarrow, who assumed the’comman of the combined army, resolved to pursue a bold plan of operations. Moreau was bse saree to him, but the Russian general deceived his adv , drove him from his entrenchments on the Adda, and obliged him to re- treat to Pavia, after having suffered a dreadful: loss. Moreau shortly afterwards gained some successes over a detached part of the Russian army, but Suwarrow adyancing, he was obliged to continue his retreat. At this crisis, Macdonald, who commanded the French army in the south of Italy, a forward for the pur- of joining Moreau. But he found that it would bow viously necessary to attack the allies; and Moreau endeavoured, by circulating a rt that he was about to receive reinforcements, to withdraw the attention of Suwarrow from Macdonald. The latter began his ope- rations on the 12th of June; and succeeded so far as to enter into Parma on the 14th; but his progress was arrested on the 17th. As soon as Suwarrow was inform- ed of his advance, he left Turin at the head of 20,000, and came up with him on the banks of the Tedone: for three days, there was a succession of desperate battles; and the victory was at last obtained by the Russians, in consequence of General Kray, who com- manded the army besieging Mantua, arriving, in direct opposition to his orders, with reinforcements. Suwarrow was indefatigable in his pursuit of the beaten army, and having surrounded their rear guard, it was obliged to surrender: the remainder took refuge in the Apennines and in the Genoese territory. Moreau, in the mean time, was victorious over the Austrian Ge- neral Pellets ; but his victory availed little, in con- sequence of the success of Suwarrow, and the Italian fortresses fell into the hands of the allies. Soon after~ wards, in consequence of a political change in Paris, Joubert was ordered to supersede Moreau, who, how- ever, continued in the army as a volunteer. It was the plan of Joubert to bring Suwarrow to battle as speedily as ible ; and being reinforced by the re- mains of Macdonald’s army, he succeeded in his plan at Novi, on the 15th of August. Scarcely had the en- tt commenced, when Joubert was killed, and oreau resumed the command : the victory was doubt- ful, till it was decided by the right flank of the French being turned. This division immediately fled, and the rest of the army joined in the retreat, whieh they con- tinued till they took up a strong position in the Ge~ po elon = ag The surrender of Tortona was alm the only t of this victory. : . The Directory, thus unsuccessful in Italy, resolved In Switzer to make Switzerland the scene of operations, and 4nd. to adopt a new plan. In the month of August, Mas- sena had the command here of 70,000. men; and be~ ing superior to the Archduke, whose position he threat- ened, Suwarrow marched to his relief. But the ca- 3 Return of Bonaparte from Egypt. A. D. 1799. Declared first consul. State of Italy, A. D. 1800, 6410 binet of Austria, jealous of the success of the Russian general, ordered the Archduke to go into Suabia with upwards of 50,000 men, and Switzerland was thus left exposed. Of this Massena resolved to take advantage, by attacking the remainder of the Austrian army before Suwarrow joined them, The French were successful, though the combat was long and obstinate, , Massena next advanced to meet Suwarrow ; and surrounded him in such a manner, that it was thought impossible he should escape ; but that general having discovered one pass in the mountains unoccupied by the, French, he made his way through it, with the loss of his cannon and baggage. Disgusted and indignant at the want of support from the Austrians, he withdrew his forces to the neighbourhood of Augsburg, and. transmitted his complaints to Petersburg. _ In the mean time, the Di- rectory had sunk into contempt ; and by their disputes among themselves, as well_as)the imbecility. of their conduct, promised an easy overthrow to any daring ad- venturer. Such a man was Bonaparte, who at this time returned from his expedition to Eaypr; an account of which is given in the Histories of that country and of Barrain. Bonaparte had several friends,in the councils and Directory, the most active of whom were Sieyes and Talleyrand. After several discussions,. they resol- ved that a consulate should be formed, and Bona) laced at its head. This scheme was concealed from Moreau, Berthier, and the other generals who were then in Paris, The majority of the assembly of Elders . agreed to the proposal ; but as the Jacobins preponder- ated in the Council of Five Hundred, they resisted. it. Bonaparte, however, rushed into their hall, while the were deliberating, on the 10th of November 1799, wit a military force, and expelled the a sag Three chief magistrates were appointed, with the a tion of Consuls; of whom [eres was at the a Cam- baceres and Lebrun the other two, . The senate was to be composed of 80 individuals; 100 .were to form a tribunate, and 300 a legislative body. In order to ren- der this violent change of the constitution less obnoxi- ous, it was decreed that the First Consul should hold his. office only for ten years, and the other two for five years. This change was.defended, on the ground that it was necessary to give to the government a greater degree of consistency. and stability than it had.hitherto possessed, One of the first measures of Bonaparte, after he had gos the supreme,power, was. to propose peace to ritain; but his proposal being. rejected, he began vi- gorous and extensive preparations for hostilities in Italy, and on the Rhine ; while an_army of reserve, amount- ing to 60,000 men, was erdered to be assembled at Dyoo, under his immediate command, An Italy, at the beginning of 1800, the French re- tained scarcely any of their conquests, except the re- public of Genoa, and this the Austrians were preparing to wrest from. them. In the city of Genoa,,.Massena took the command, and resolved to defend it to the last extremity. In the beginning of April, the Austrian general. Melas, and a. British fleet, invested it so.com- Pletely, oad the oe i aap with France was cut jeneral } ving thus prevented. the possibi- m4 of its relief, left aa — it, and march. with the main, bod opine. the French general Su- chet, whom, on the 7th of Ma penne defeated. In consequence of this defeat, te the Var, and entered France, and the Austrian general. became mas- ter of the whole department of the maritime On the Rhine, General.Moreau was.o “to Ge- FRANCE. neral Kray ; but the latter was fettered by the orders which he received from the council of war at Vienna, whereas Moreau refused to act according to the instrac- tions sent him by the Chief Consul, ¢ own judgment and observation convinced him they were wise and practicable. The plan of Moreau was to cross the Rhine; in this he su and drove Kray before him as far as Ulm: here he fortified him’ self ; but Moreau, popes wha og such a manner, as to threcten to cut him off from his i the Aus. trians were obliged to fight at Hochstet. The French were victorious, and the Austrian general, after in vain endeavouring to the enemy agein at Newibhe. was obliged to k to Ingolstadt. The electorate of Bavaria was conquered: the hereditary dominions of Austria were threatened, and at Vienna the demanded . ; Large Se ected at D marched th peated co) at Dijon, |, as soon as the i opened on the Rhine, towards Italy. The First Conail left behind. Thus was effected the rous and well-appointed army over the terprise so extraordinary, that the Austrians, rom firm conviction that it was absolutely impracticable, ne- ver thought of SRECSIDG i Aosta, the of Bard, Ivria, Romagno, and Vercelli, were taken, The Tes- sino was.crossed ; Milan, entered without opposition ; valuable magazines were captured at pian As centia fell into the possession of Bonaparte, who, b: his sudden and unexpected appearance, and by his sub- sequent masterly maneuyres, completely out-genera Melas, ey acs Pili He did not arrive, however, in time to relieve Genoa; Fall of for Massena, after one of the most i defences Genoe. recorded in history, ing which 15,000 of the inha- bitants are said to have:pessshed a Haeens SR ‘amin was compelled to surrender to Austrian and Bri- tish commanders on the Sth of June. _ As soon as Ge- noa fell, Melas dispatched General Ott. with 30 batta- lions to check the progress of the French, who hitherto had not pene farther than Piedmont; but -that al having suffered a dreadful defeat at Mon elas collected his whole foree between ssanc and Tortona. Here, on the 14th of June, was fought the battle of Marengo: for nine hours the Austrians Were victorious ; but an imprudent, or ee ment of General Melas, which was instantly k .<. vantage of by General Dessaix, who made ver change with a body of fresh cavalry, turned the fate of the day.. The victory was purchased by the death of Dessaix, to whose memory due honours were paid by his grateful countrymen, aak The Austrian general, intimidated by, his defeat, re- uested a‘truce, which was. d_on condition, Genta should be surrendered, as well.as the princi where his "™ Battle of Peace of Amiens, A. D. 1802. Extent of « Bonaparte’s aa ge FRANCE. One of the first measures of Bonaparte, after he had History. fortresses in Piedmont and the Milanese. General Kray was desirous of extending this armistice to Germany, but to this Moreau would not consent; and two battles were fought without much advantage on either side. The French, however, . in eee _ at length opened themselves a into the heart Bavaria. At this period, Count St Julien arrived with proposals of peace from the cabinet of Vienna, and the armistice was extended Ste This none did not lead to peace, for the Emperor, encow Britain, resolved to the chances of another cam- es therefore recommenced in bay A Moreau was’surprised by the activity, near- ly defeated by the i ity of the Austrians ; but the Austrian abandoning his strong ee the fatal battle of Hohenlinden was fought on the 3d of December. In this battle, the Austrian centre was ierced, and their wings thrown into confusion ; their toss was dreadful ; their route complete. Pushing into U Austria, the victorious French reached the banks ‘Ems. ‘The cabinet of Vienna was alarmed ; the Archduke, who had been deprived of the command of the army, was recalled ; but all his skill and efforts were in vain; and the Emp mournfully saw that peace alone could ‘save him from utter destruction. The treaty of Luneville was the consequence. Soon after Mr Addington became prime minister of Britain, a negociation was with France, which terminated in the peace of Amiens, on the 22d of March 1802. At this period, the territories of the Frerich republic ‘were very extensive, and her extended even be- yond these territories. With ce, as it existed: viously to the Revolution, was inco the N lands, and that part of Germany which lies on the west of the Rhine, as well as Geneva, the duchy of Sever and the principality of Piedmont. The Dutch repu Tic was completely eatin! to the will = rye the Swiss possessed scarcely a larger portion of nation in lence. Spain, one the appellation of anally, was in fact a vassal state. The Ci — republic was completely under the yoke of the First Consul, who had been appointed its Presiden t for ten years. This re- public not only bane sige oe the Milanese, but also a considerable part of the Venetian territories, the duchies of Mantua, Modena, and Parma, and some of the dis- be Salerro Rome. A vassal king go- verned Tuscany, which was thus in reality p' un- der the power of France ; and the Ligurian republic equally subservient. Over all this immense tract . therefore, extending from the Ems to the of Gibraltar, and from the Atlantic to the Adria- did Bonaparte, as First Consul of France, exercise an absolute sway. But his power in fact was-not limited, even when this immense territory was included within it. The Emperor of Germany the German Princes had suffered so much from French invasion, that they durst not ques- tion the authority of 3 the King of Prussia had very recently displayed his devotion to his wishes, as well as an unjust regard to his own interest, by the seizure of Hanover ; and the new ror of Russia ‘was too recently and mystetiously fixed on ‘the ‘throne, to come forward against the power of France. ; ‘Britain alone, therefore, which had'so long, and with such wonderful perseverance and sacrifices, ‘resisted France, came out of the contest untouched in’ her na- tional ce, s “ VOL, 1X. PART 11. ‘mation, than 641 placed France at peace with all her enemies, was the re-establishment of the Catholic religion. For this purs 4% concordat or convention was concluded between im and the Pope, of which the following are the most important articles. No bull, &c. of the court of Rome, to be circulated or put in foree without the authority of government: No nuncio, ] , &c. to exercise his functions in France, without the consent of the govern- ment: No person to be named a bishop who is not a Frenchman: No bishop to quit his diocese, without leave from the First Consul: No festival, with the ex- ception of the Sabbath, shall be established without the ission of government. The nuptial benediction shall be given to those only, who shall prove in due form that their marriage has been contracted before a civil magistrate. ~ All religions were tolerated and pro- tected, and special rules were laid down for theiz idance. ar this concordat, Bonaparte ten years were to be the duration of his authority ; he was now, however, appointed for life, and the power conferred upon him of nominating his successor. Short. ly after this, his plans for another war to deve- themselves. On the 21st of Fe 1808, a view the state of France was laid before the Legislative Body and the Tribunate, the most i ing and im- portant part of which related to the dispute with Bri- et oom the retention of Malta. The nature and result of this di , we shall not here enter into, subsequent war, are fully nar- in the History of Brirary. parte resolved on hostilities with Britain, As soon as Bona- he marched an army into Osnaburgh and Hanover, and gai gained possession of these districts without opposition. On Declared eclaret Emperor, 25th April 1804, the 25th of A il 1804, he was d Emperor, by a decree of Tribunate of France, to the following When the national will (it was said) could manifest :it- self freely,it declared for the unity of the supreme power, and the hereditary succession of that power. This desire had been for a time extinguished by the tyranny of the family of the Bourbons, and the nation were oven to adopt a democratical form of government ; from this form, however, only the miseries of anarchy proceeded ; and the state was in the most extreme » when «« Bonaparte, brought back Providence, suddenly a for its salvation :” t the rane ree | for life, and the power granted to the First Consul of’ ap- inting his successor, could not prevent internal in- trigues; in order, therefore, to avoid them, and at the same time to follow the example of all great states, an- cient and modern, and to comply with the first wish of the nation in 1789, the i ought to be declared itary. This declaration the nation now makes more strongly and generally than ever ; and her gratitude and affection point out Bonaparte, Jrom whom and his family France expects more than any other, the maintenance of the rights and liberties of the —_ + That there is no title more suitable to his glory, to the dignity of the supreme chief of the French at of Emperor. , Such was the decree of the tribunate, which was fol- lowed by voting, “ That Y Bonaparte, the First Consul, be proclaimed Emperor of the French, 4M ° ined great popularity Bonaparte with the mass of the nation ; and as he was almost ido- appointed lized by the soldiers, he experienced no difficulty in in. 600%! for creasing his power. When he was chosen First Consul, !- Sloatery. 642 and in that capacity be invested with the government —Y— of the French Republic: “ That the titleof Causes of the Revolu- ton, and the imperial power, be made hevoditery in hints mily in the male line, according to the order of primo- iture,” This vote was carried by acclamation, Carnot being the only person who spoke against its ion. The Senate and the army followed the example of the Tri- bunate, intreating to become Emperor of France. Thus easily and tranquilly did Bonaparte ob- tain the object of his desires. ; - Ashe had been long married without children, he was allowed to adopt the children or grandchildren of good his brothers, when they arrived at the rovided he had no legitimate children. On the fai- eae of both legitimate and adopted heirs, the crown was to be enjoyed by his eldest brother Joseph, and his descendants; and, failing them, by his next bro- ther, and his descendants, &c. The members of the imperial family were to be called French Princes, and the eldest son the Imperial Prince. Every Emperor, within two years after he came to the throne, was to swear to maintain the integrity of the French empire. Thus that revolution, ere ak es for the ex- press purpose of establishing a government,— Uhich, shortly after its commencement, destroyed the ‘king and the monarchy, and during which the very ‘suspicion of being attached to the royal cause ex the susi party to certain death, terminated im the establishment of a military despotism. We have hitherto deferred a a develope- ment and explanation of the causes which produced, ei- ther directly or indirectly, or generally or partially, this revolution, as well as of the causes to which we ought to ascribe the rapid and total change in the nation, from an a tly strong and sincere attachment to liberty, to at least an acquiescence in military despotism ; and of those causes which contributed to the astonishing, and almost un eled successes and victories of the French arms. All these we have hitherto deferred entering upon, in order that we might view them in connection with each other ; for, in our opinion, these three events are intimately and necessarily connected, springing out of each other, as well as all of them, in some measure, originating ‘from the same circumstances. We shall mow consider them in their order. I. With respect to the causes which produced the French revolution, meg directly or indirectly, either ially or generally, in France, it may be proper to olan some general remarks on the caus which al- ter the character or fate of nations. Before philosophy had lent her aid to the lessons of experience and ob- servation, so as to draw from them their legitimate con- sequences, it was that the fate of a nation de- on the character and conduct of the leading of eighteen, ‘individual or individuals insit-; and when that charac- ter and conduct were pointed out and . i it was taken for granted, that the icular circum- stances in the national history, which had attracted at- Scienty accounted for, Hut philosophy taught sat iently acco’ for. i taught, that no individual can operate changes, or poodle effects of an extraordinary nature, in any country, unless he act on materials suited to his purpose ; and that, as he must have been formed by the prevailing spirit and “habits of the nation on which he is su to operate, the very existence of such a character as his,is a proof that the nation was tending towards that change, which owas solely attributed to the influence of his character _we may regard these writings as having FRANCE. pre-eminence she did in warfare, or the advantages re- is correct, the history of Prussia, after the. of this and regards himself as a com of the most individuals can do Tittle pote oh — through the earoompae esd of the nation, by conform. ing to its character, employing its prejudices and feelings in the schemes which =, opinions and wishes of the French 3 but it uld be recollected, that on the mass of the these writings could have little er no influence, as | few of them they were read, nor could they have been understood had they been read... The hypothesis that ascribes the French revolution to this cause, confounds two distinct circumstances; or rather , that when it has accounted for one part of the 2 it has accounted for the whole. The events of the re- volution sufficiently prove, that, even at its commence- ment, it was indicated not more by a change in the character, opinions, and conduct, of the more intelli- gent classes of the French community, than by a change in the characters, opinions, and conduct, of the. mass of the people, on whom the writings of the phi sophers could have had no influence. While, therefore, way, in some degree, for the revolution among the higher and more intelligent classes, we ought not to consider them as being exclusively the cause, even with regard to them, and certainly as by no means the cause with regard to the mass le pe — Nearly the same remarks will to the second Return ¢ veause to which the French revolution been attribu- ted. It has been.said, that, by the return of the officers #4 “Mt! and soldiers who served in America, principles and feel- yica, ings of liberty were spread over France, which, meet- of such men as Montesquieu, the ph Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvetius, &c. produced on the Ph¢' a ee FRANCE. ing with favourable circumstances, developed them- etlochp dasdilep pale’ apdvesintirdltendeidjuene ilnitelths pe mr But, in the first place, it may well be t whether any great number of the officers and en ee ee inci and feelings of liberty there. - er rpm mae (especially in France at that period) seldom — to the nature of the cause for which they fight, or fee] much ven weed for liberty. Some, no doubt, went to America from the laudable desire of assisti in establishing the independence of that country ; am many who went from motives, may have return- ed with a change in their sentiments favourable to li- dered by their government ; fought there, as they would ery gen spirit of liberty, yet it by no means follows that they had it in their power to Defuse thie spirit into any large portion of their countrymen. Indeed, the remarks of travellers confirm this ; for while, even before the Ame- rican war, and much more so after it, they observe; that very free notions respecting government and reli- x | eer Re Rem the hi classes of the rench nation, they do not mention that such notions ie were entertained by.the mass of the people ;. and: we should recollect, that in France, at this time, there was no middle class in the country at large. The next cause which we shall consider, attributes the Revolution to the despotism at the period of the Revolution, this despotic govern- Feedom and the the subject, it had ever been period. To this cause, therefore, the ascribed. ing observations, it will be sufficient- that in tracing and operate lest effect. In the first » the causes which operated to pro- ution as they existed in the higher and classes of the community, may be kinds; those which originated liberty, and those which ori- a desire to throw off particular i ) = : : u & s i 1 643 me by the crown. The provincial noblesse be- _ History. held with contempt and indignation the follies, the “~~ fligacy, and the power of the higher nobility. The inferior y regarded their superiors with the same feelings ; but, more especially, “ the practising lawyers, almost entirely excluded from the chance of becoming j wished eagerly for a change of affairs, not doubting that their talents and professional skill would render them necessary amidst any alterations that might occur.” In short, there was a mutual repulsion among the leading classes of the community, arising from a change in their feelings and wishes, without this change being accompanied by a corresponding change in their situation, or in-the conduct of government towards them: It-ought also to be meas a say these who wished, or were prepared for a Revolution, i poe -it, either she realization of oe rong od opes respecting liberty, or the removal of their par- ticlar igrievances, there were; in Paris particularly, am immense number of desperate and unprincipled ns sons, who eagerly looked: forward toa convulsion which they had no doubt would be, the accompaniment of a- Revolution, and frem which they anticipated the full indulgence of their most violent and depraved. pas- sions. 1 The causes which revolutionized the great mass of the people, are quite distinct from those we have just enumerated. When, indeed, the first symptoms of the Revolution became manifest, many thought it would not spread over the nation, when they reflected how ig- norant the people were, how blindly-and obstinately at- tached to old establishments, how-passionately devoted to their monarch, and every thing that concerned him ; and that, though oppressed by the nobility, and neglect- ed by the government, they seemed quite insensible to the miseries of their condition, and exhibited more stri- king symptoms of content and happiness than nations — freer a highly favoured. How ae were such a people: , and changed so: com; yas to hear of rae nce of their monarch with expe tion? The cause when explained is very simple. ‘The peasantry, though accustomed, .were not utterly insen- sible to the tyranny of the nobles; nor could they be- hold with indifference, scenes of profligate and wanton extravagance displayed at their chateaus, at the very time when their own cottages were the abode of misery and famine. . Though utterly ignorant: of the meaning of political liberty, they knew what was meant by be- ss from the ressions, taxes, and vexations to which they were subject, and still more keenly did they enter into the prospect of having it in their power to retaliate on the nobility the ode they had suffered from them. In short, at the commencement of the Re- volution, they received, or seized on power ; and v naturally became attached to that-event, from whiak such a blessing in their estimation proceeded. Had the Revolution only promised them — liberty, they would have regarded it with indifference ; with them it would have found no su ; but addressing itself to their ions and feelings, they rose in favour of it, and in their exultation, at their liberation from the op- pressions under which re had long groaned, and at re their mi been Among mass of the people. the ruin of those who misery with indifference, or perhaps essentially contributed towards it, they forgot their loyalty, and beheld in their mo- narch only the chief of their oppressors. We are now to consider the circumstances in which . 644 Mistery. the nation was which allowed or wor —\—" those distinct causes to operate together with the effect. Embarras- We have already noticed the embarrassed state of ed wate of the French finances at the termination of the American > finan war in 1783; and that the government, finding all their ineffectual towards the bringing them into order, were at last compelled to assemble the Notables. Thus were collected at Paris most of those men who were desirous of a change ; and who beheld themselves in a condition, from the wants of the government, the appeal which had been made to them to t measures for the supply of those wants, and their own strength, to use their efforts for the accomplishment of their wishes. Their objects, indeed, might differ ; for while some wished merely to curtail the power of the crown, in or- der to restore the privileges of the nobility ; others wished to attack the power and privileges both of’ the crown and the nobility. Under these circumstances, it is evident, that the former was placed in a situation of peril, and that the objects of the nobility were not so likely to be attained as those of the other , since had to concert their measures in such a manner as at the same time to act against the crown, and agai that party. But in this view of the causes of the Revo- lution, the nature of the place, where those desirous of a were assembled, must be taken into considera- tion, In countries, where the mass of the people have been long habituated to regard themselves as interested in the acts of the government, and privileged 'to express their wishes and opinions regarding those acts, it is im- ible that the population of the capital, however nu- merous or intriguing, should possess an undue share of influence ; but the case is different in countries where the le do not think themselves authorised or quali- fied to discuss the measures of their rulers, expecially i the connection and communication between the capital and the provinces is by no means intimate, lar, and frequent. In such countries, the population of the capital gives the colour and tone to the feelings and actions of Cote of the provinces ; and whoever wields it, wi a machine, by means of which he may almost certainly succeed in overthrowing the government of the country. ‘This was very strikingly the case in Pa- ris, not merely from the political ignorance and bon- dage in which the —_ of Frahor haiileng been kept, but also from the peculiar character of the ulation of the capital ; in which, even before the Revolution, there was to be found a greater laxity of principles and conduct, and more intrigue, restlessness, and s tic depravity, than existed in any other capital of Eu- — There was also in it a] number of what are men of letters, who would willingly lend their talents to the ion and support of any doctrines, to the en on of any schemes or acts, however unjust or cious, t is not to be wondered at, therefore, if all the parties in the Revolution aimed princi at gaining over the population of Paris, which, both trom its influence as the population of the capital of France, and from its peculiar reach mo 8 Cnet such a state of thingy could not fail to be of essential service to their views, ; ' Character of Those who first a as the leading actors in the the first tremendous drama the French Revolution, were, it movers of may “be allowed, without any great stretchvof candour, den. men who at least did not contemplate or approve of violent and unjust changes in the state ; but at the same Influence of Paris. FRANCE. : ture—by principles Lon oe of their own unfitness, and of the total want of Le ets wr me a even for gradual and te reform. Thus ignorant, they roused: and armed the worst passions of the multitude ;_ i led into them ee eee them their own er. consequences were as be , when we reflect on ceocnadenedtaueen. pulation of Paris, on whom they at first acted, and who afterwards became the instruments of more daring and unprincipled leaders. Shy o) Cowen OEy ® ‘ Rill, however, it must be admitted, that it isdifficult to trace the formation, or understand the real features of the characters of such men as i Danton, Marat, &c. cepted eonalatiede a cruelty ; that no conception of the obligations pv: and justice, is too: ~ : but these horrid ualities were strangely mixed with some species of Ciotism; and even in theranidst of--unlicnited power, they seem to have had little or no ambition, and cer- tainly made no attempts toenrich themselves) - IE. With respect to the causes of the wonderfulimi> Causes of _ litary successes of the French, it appears to us that the three causes principally contributed to these successes, success of on previous to the'revolution, the Frenchy - In the first place, certainly as far back as the of Louis XIV. the the and most ly privileged, ‘ lee been distinguished by their love of glory, an a : weak and evanescent, and vi > at other times extinguished, that versal empire. ‘This meee —= ror National characteristic passion; i : > glory. ened and encouraged: by all the circumstances of the Revolution. pectry ha +N) Chieti Hayept -’ For, in the second place, there came imaid of this etiona passion, the strong which all nations, even ia slaved, - ina or less 5 ary fe tr ica te oo eh ted to political slav " Sanbeecasiienn tpteaeneaiae political liberty ; consequently to promise it to ee was to promise them that which could neither excite their hopes nor enter into: their’ conceptions. But, as soon’as they understood that their'country was about'to be attacked, that and almost instinc- tive love of national i endence, which operates'in = the breasts of the inhabitants of all countries, broke — case of France, too, this love ——e was tly aided by their love of national glory. » ‘They wanbas lend the idea, that France, the Great Na- = ‘ e of the Revolution, in the abolition of feudal services, and of those ions which are much more carl igecuvaliy hit thaspthe raniol iti bapa ence and liberty, by. the le at | , in all coun- tries, they were roused to the cause and exist- 23 le were so igt ing of national independence, independ- AS Oho ‘ —~ a a 4 a 4 » & i> FRANCE History. ‘ence of that Revolution ; knowing, that if they did not =~" succeed; they would be reduced to their former state of jon and misery. - . _ In the third place, it was of the ay essence of - Revolution, to create, or, more properly nourish and bring forth to notice, and beesicvn ind of every description ; and these talents were directed with single and undeviating energy and perseverance toone end. The military ardour, which was at first excited by the love of glory, and the wish to be instru- mental in rendering France mistress of the world, and by the determination not to permit foreign nations to destroy her national independence, or the effects of the Revolution, was cherished and strengthened by the conviction that: the path to the highest commands-was open to talents and'merit. Thus her armies were filled with soldiers, who despised death, and who fought with that enthusiasm which such passions and hopes natu- rh et while they were led by officers, se- solely on account of. their merit and fitness, for the command to which they were’ appointed. _ At the head of the. ’ t also, there were, at almost every period of the Revolution, men admirably caleu- lated tb direct the efforts of the great machine which the Revolution had put in motion. . Even the despotic and arbitrary nature of this government, such as it ex- isted in the time of Roberspierre, contributed to the success of their arms ; for it was the and secre- Ne eee goes national independence. fl When we reflect therefore on the operation of all . these ‘causes ; that nearly the whole powers, both men- tal and , of a lous nation, were directed to one object, in the attainment of which all were con- vinced they had the highest interest, and that all class- es were further stimulated to exertion and perseverance, by the knowledge, that, while they were securing the —— interest, and the apes which nr one tion had brought them, were treadi e which would certainly conduct them to sitet teak and influence in the state than they previously pos- sessed, we shall not be astonished at their military suc- cesses. But, in order more y to develope the causes of these successes, we reflect on the ene- mies they had to contend with. In the first the people of most of the countries which they invaded Saereen to receive ean eee from a belief t: came to destroy ressions under which they suffered. In the second lads the councils and armies of their its were directed by much inferior talents, and by men who, besides their inferio- ’ vity invtalents, did not feel the operation of the same powerful motives for exertion and perseverance. There me a8 nernen see ear that: many of them pro- ved ‘to their country, and fell before the influ- ence of French gold, not less than by the superiority of the French arms. Lastly, France was a single power against'a combination of powers ; the pressure of e defeat, brought into more closeand compact union the members that formed her oe we while success, speaking rerfully to their love of national _ glory, eq 7 ‘prodaced the same effect. On the con- trary, the combined powers had within them the ele- ments of discordance and disunion ; they were jealous ‘ef each other, and strongly disposed to separate, either _ danger to whi ey were all exposed from the:French Revolution; was not sufficiently strong, or so continual- / 645 ly present to their apprehensions, as to banish their mutual jealousy ; w fi " proved, that if they succeeded in putting down the Revolution, they would not fail to quarrel among them- selves about the spoil. Such to usto have been the principal causes which produced the military suc- cesses of the French, On their side, great enthusiasm, great talents, great exertion and perseverence, the strong motives of panne a and the love of naan! and in ndence, all operating to one single ob- 4 On rr of the allies, talents neglected, and prejudices hurtful to their cause persevered in; no com- mon bond of union; mutual suspicion and jealousy ; an inadequate sense of their own danger ; and treach~- and disaffection among their subjects. their: selfish views too plainly ~~ History. III. With respect. to the change of the French go- Causes of vernment, froma democratic form at least to a military the esta- despotism, it will be found, on examination, not to have Dlishment been ly to simple and natural causes. In the first place; the real change was not great ; for it would be difficult to point out any period of the Re- volution, in which the people were not, subjected to a most arbitrary government—a government which well fitted them even. for a military despotism. We shall not examine whether the state of France, threatened by numerous foes from without, and convulsed with intestine divisions, did not require and justify the ar- bitrary and. severe government which was exercised oyer it ; the cause or justification of this government is not now the object of inquiry. The fact is indisputable, and it accounts, in our opinion, for the ease with which the French passed from the forms of a democratic go- vernment, toa military despotism. Besides, we should always recollect, that the French: people had no con- ception of political liberty ; and if some idea and love of © it sprung up, at the commencement of the Revolution, it was whethanad by the tyranny and oppression. which soon succeeded. In the second place, the real change which took place from the form, of democracy. to military despotism, may be traced to obvious and satisfactory causes. The na- tional love of glory disposes all Frenchmen to a military life ; and throws round the military character a splen- dour which conceals its tyrannical and. oppressive na- ture. This splendour round the character of Bona- _ was, to the eyes of Frenchmen, of the most bril- iant and dazzli kind : he had gone further towards the realization of their fond hope; that France would attain universal empire, than any of their monarchs, and ae they not only submitted, but were fa- vourably disposed, to the military government of aman who had ave so much, and hon date their actual sovereign, they hoped would. perfect the great under taking which They had so near their hearts.. A people whose fondest wishes were centered in national glory and universal empire, could not but be at Ltoa military government, as the best suited to the accom- plishment of those wishes, and toa man. who they knew would conduct that military government with the great- est skill and» success. Even those who were not in- fected with this national and characteristic passion, hail. ed Bonaparte as the man who had put an end to the convulsions that had so 1] ‘agitated France; and though they still apprehended that his character, and the character of the people at large, would keep France in almost continual war, yet they at the same time at in reality, and that the change which actual- & ™it1y place was produced by the operation of very jn France. Asm Ubtory 646 trusted that, under him, the internal state of the king- =~ dom would be quiet, and they would at length be freed © D. 1805. from a rapid succession of tyrants. Bett'c of Austerlitz, Nev. 27. But there was another circumstance that reconciled the French le to a military government,—from the extension and long duration of the military system, a large portion of the population were interested in it. Their relations and friends were in the army ; and if France were to become pacific, or if her. government were not military, they would be thrown useless and un- supported on the world. Thus the same causes, which in part contributed to produce the military successes of the French, operated to render them fit subjects for a military government; and the Revolution, by increasing and calling into more energetic and general action their love of glory, as well as by destroying all the habits of settled and regular life, also fi them for a govern- ment which would cherish and flatter that love, and indulge their restless and irregular habits. We shall defer at present the consideration of the effects on the character and condition of the French produced by the Revolution, as some of these effects were greatly heightened by the —— of the system which Bonaparte established and acted upon after he became Emperor ; and therefore the subject will after- wards fall more properly under our notice, We shall now resume the hi S Moreau had long been the object of Bonaparte’s ha- tred and jealousy ; but no opportunity occurred of crush- ing or removing him, till the spring of 1804, when, in con- sequence of an accusation that he was implicatedin a de- sign torestore the Bourbons, he was seized and sentenced to be imprisoned ; but his popularity with the army was 80 great, that Bonaparte commuted this sentence to ba- nishment for life to the United States of America. Symptoms of approaching hostilities with Germany had been long apparent in France ; but did not leave Paris to put himself at the head of his armies till the 24th of ber 1805. ' As soon as he reach- ed this place, he issued a manifesto denouncing what he called the third coalition, which he attributed to the gold and hatred of England. » As the ions and result of this war are detailed in the History of Austria, we shall run rapidly over them here. The French army consisted of five dvidons: they crossed the Rhine the day after —— reached Strasburg. Hostilities commenced on 7th, when the Austrians a ore feated in attempting to the passage the French across the bridge of Donawert. The iain Austrian army was under General Mack’; but his con- duct, either from incapacity, or from the interference of the council of war at Vienna, was such, that the French advanced rapidly with upwards of 200,000 men, while he had not ve 80,000. Swabia, Fran- conia, and Bavaria, were overrun in a very short time. Mack was entrenched at Ulm, where, on the 15th day of October, the 3d day after firing the first shot, his army was so dreadfully beaten, that he was obliged to espitulate on the 17th, The Archduke Charles, at the head of 95,000 men, in vain endeavoured to prevent this dreadful disaster, by a id march from Italy ; but coming up too late, a not being sufficiently strong to oppose Bonaparte, the latter pushed on to- wards Vienna, which he entered on the 12th of Novem- ber. Austria, having been joined by Russia, resolved to hazard the fate of another battle, which was fought at Austerlitz on the 27th of November. The engage- ment commenced at sunrise; in less than an hour, the left wing of the allies was entirely cut off; and this FRANCE. was the forerunner of their total defeat. Onthe Sthof — December an armistice took place, which was followed by the treaty of Presburg, on the 26th of that month: Bw treaty, France was confirmed as King of Italy ; and to this kingdom the Ex Germany ceded his part of the states of Venice. ‘The succeeded in destroying, and thus adding to the of France. The whole peninsula of Italy had been to the French empire; Russia had been obliged to re- treat to her own territories 5 Austria had been saved Amiens, In the annual 7 French empire at thi iod were described. the 110 departments of Fr the protection of the Imperial Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and Naples. The France were, Bavaria, Wirtem » and | sides several other of the principal powers in’ Each succeeding coalition whi a had had only increased the te om the territory the boundary of the Rhine; the union of Helland e i : F : : f i : Hl , and wished now for repose, order that emia 0th : ly proclaimed King of Holland. xt Fy inthe year 1806, Mr Fox became Prime Mi- nister of Britain, in Pitt, and he immediately agen to put into execution such measures as he thought were likely to bring a peace with France, the object that had always been nearest his heart. The particulars of this are given in the History of Brrrain, and need not be repeated here. It is sufficient to observe, that it did not produce ; that Russia refused to ratify the treaty which her minister had made with France ; and in the possession Presburg, A.D. F i e ( Britain ab Louisa, Early in 1810, Ponsa began to unfold his de- 4- D. 1810, signs upon Holland. Frénch army of 40,000 men j w " $\ 4 FRANCE. | Mistory: occupied it ;. but at first he’ seemed disposed to be con- - tent-with the annexation of only part of it,—the left bank of the Waal. As tis, baer. did not ide his purpose of totally excluding British goods, about the middle of June 20,000 French ti assembled in the neighbourhood of Utrecht, and on 29th of that > : fore resi tis throne, but at first only in favour of Holland an- his son. Soon afterwards, however, H was an- aco nexed to France. As a justification of this measure, Bonapertic inj ammree 6 the Conservative Senate, 7 , that, in consequence of the English orders in council meee arenes 18 Sone es. internal navigation between France and the Baltic. About the same time, the Hans Towns and the Valais were annexed to France; and the Count of Semonville, i ‘genius that ever nature in her munifi- Seals waitiaeat Tad cas , and held in his trium- hands, the scattered wrecks of the empire of A to the plan of the annexation of Holland, Amsterdam was to rank as the third city in the French Rome, amounted to 88,080,443 persons, not including the mi- ly bearing arms. After these annexations, at 43,000,000. Hanover was annex- RFE a | bs ‘S85 ° 1 a 4 te i at) iE 8 eF i :* s= ce ly intimated that content with the em pire of Charlemagne, the most decrees were passed at Paris. ants of both sexes were obli kept by the Prefect of ‘olice. By another decree, the liberty of the nent... Not only were military governors appointed at the ports of Germany annexed to France, but at Dant- zic, Colberg, &c. for preventing its introduction. Ge- neral | , who commanded the army employed on ~ this service, had his head quarters at the for- mer. All English merchandize, whether taken by or sea, was ordered to be burnt. As, however, the prohibition of colonial produce crea- 651 ted great dissatisfaction in his dominions, a decree History was passed on the 25th of March, 1811, enjoining the ““y"~" culture of the beet root and the plant woad, to supply _ the place of the sugar cane and indigo; and so confi- dent was Bonaparte of success in this scheme, that the rohibition of the sugar and indigo of the Indies, as English commodities, was announced for the Ist of Ja- nuary 1813. On the 20th of April, the Empress was delivered of a son, for whom was revived the title of King of Rome. On the 17th of June, the French national ecclesiastical council was opened at Paris ; the proceed- ings and result of which were kept a profound secret ; but it is generally supposed that they were not eens ble to the wishes of te. On the 29th of June the minister of the interior presented the usual annual exposé of the state of France. On these state papers no gxposé for implicit confidence can be , as they evidently 19]1.- contain much of what mi; false, and much nat is ex- aggerated ; yet, by a ul comparison of them with one S: with what the other official papers furnish us with, and with what ’we know must have taken place, we may be able to glean some interesting and im-- portant facts from them. The expont of this. year states, that, “since the last session, the empire re- ceived an addition of 16 departments, five millions of , a territory yielding a revenue of 100 millions of ivres, 300 of coast, with all their maritime means, The mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt, were not then French ; the circulation of the interior of the empire was circumscribed ;. the produc- tions of its central departments could not reach the sea without being subjected to the inspection of foreign custom-houses. These inconveniences have for ever disappeared. The maritime arsenal of the Scheldt, whereon so are founded, has thereby re- ceived all the developement which it needed. The mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, place in our hands all the timber that Germany furnishes. The frontiers of the empire lean on the Baltic ; and thus, having a direct communication with the north, it will be easy for us to draw thence, masts, hemp, iron, and such other naval stores as we may want. We at. this moment unite al] that France, Germany, and Italy pro- duce as materials for the construction of ships.” This statement of the exposé deserves particular at- tention, as it at once points out the extent and resources of the empire of Bonaparte, at the.period when it was at its test height ; and demonstrates the extreme ae and madness of that ambition, which, not satisfied with such an empire, brought it to ruin by aiming at enlarging it. The restlessness of this ambition, which, when there pyrijoy en. was no opportunity for. making. real accessions to the Jargement French empire, employed itself in the nominal annexa- of the tion of territories, which in fact had been before annex- French ed, was displayed by the decree of the 5th of August ; 7" by which the territories belonging to the kingdom of Italy, situated on the left bank of the river that flows between Parma and Modena, were united to France, and its course, from its mouth to its source, was to be the future boundary between France and Italy, the boun- dary then proceeding along the Apennines to the fron- tiers of Tuscany. On_the 19th of September, Bona on a tour to the coast; visitin logne, where he. caused the attack on the English frigate, noticed in the History of Barrarn, and thence proceeding to Ostend, Flushing, and Antwerp, where he minutely examined . te left Compeigne \ History. Bonaparte's measures in Holland. Disputes between Russia and France. Gperations in Spain, 652 FRANCE. all the works that were going on in the dotk yards, ,a officer in the French ice, espe- and the ships that were Building. From Antwiep he ally as an engineer, and poe eden ibe went to Amsterdam, whence, on the 13th of October, which hhe Gould btrenythen' the Soctifleetions, or he issued a decree for assembling in council the depu- the of the Nothing, however ties to the legislative body, from the Dutch departments. could w the valour of the British, who carried In consequence of this meeting, a number of decrees the place by storm, after ring a severe loss, on the were issued, the most important of which were to the 7th of April. Soult had pus to relieve this following purpose: The departments and their bounda- anes al Sere of the French system of taxation into Holland, on 1st of January 1812—the establish. ment of two imperial manufactories of tobaceo—roads with their tolls—canals—aqueducts for conveying wa- ter from Amsterdam to the Hague—the proportion of the budget in Holland for the year 1810, by which the revenue is fixed at 95 millions of livres, and the at 111 millions—the establishment of two academies and secondary schools, on the French plan, &c. Bonaparte returned to Paris on the 11th of No- vember ; and soon afterwards issued an order for the immediate call of 120,000 conscripts of the year 1812. This increase of his forces was occasioned by the dis- putes. which, during 1811, had arisen between the Em- peror of Russia and Bon : the former, the treaty of Tilsit, had to exclude British goods from his dominions ; but the consequences of this mea- sure were so extremely prejudicial to the finances of his empire, already nearly exhausted, and to the interest of his nobles, many of whom depended entirely on the interchange of the uce of their estates for the merchandize of England, that Alexander was induced to connive at the infraction of the treaty in this 3 This gave umbrage to Bonaparte ; and as Alexander, moreover, would not yield up Finland to Sweden, which Bonaparte required him to do, the difference was im- creased and exasperated, The whole year 1811 passed in negociations and discussions between France and Rus- sia; but as neither party was prepared for war, hosti- lities were deferred. Bonaparte still saw the Peninsu- la not only unsubdued, but requiring almost constant- ly fresh ao 3 ; and the Emperor Alexander, fatally convinced of the ruin attending the bere peep of hostilities, before eve’ ing was and prepa- red, resolved not to pr Bar, Sabo hastily. But though Bonaparte was afraid to act in a decided. ly hostile manner towards the Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia received no such scrupulous treatment from him. Indeed he seemed resolved to humble that monarch as much as ible; and obliged him, much against his will, to join the confederacy of the Rhine, and to place a considerable body of his troops under the orders of General Rapp, the French commander on the southern coast of the Baltic. This confederation was now extremely powerful: At the beginning of this year, the states composing it contained a territory of 5703 square leagues, with a population of nearly 15 millions ; and the contingent of troops, which its 39° members furnished, was fixed at 118,682 men: these were taken, in the autumn of 1811, into the pay of France. See ConreDERATION oF THE Rute. As the history of the war in Spain, which is given under the article Brirrain, terminates with the reduc- tion of Ciudad Rodrigo, in January 1812, we shall re- sume and continue it in this place, “ The preservation of Ciudad Rodrigo being of the utmost consequence to the French, Marshal Marmont A. D. 1812. marched to its relief; before he arrived, however, it surrendered. . Lord Wellington’s next en ise Was Badajos, which had been rapelt time blockaded by General Hill. This place was commanded by Philip- expr, bowechwlemlernscre deve he commenced again retreated. : of Marmont were at Sa- ‘and of Soult at Seville. Lord Wellin at Fuente de Guinaldo. His Lordship, at this time, formed a plan to cut off the communication between the French army of Portugal, and that before Cadiz ; and, for this ries of masterly manceuvres, he made h the bridge of Almaraz, on the eastern side of the pro- vince'of Estremadura. Here again Marshal Marmont _ Thenext his Lordshi Boggs toate. igh is ip’s Marmont, however, he was not able, or didjnot deem it prudent, to attempt preventing the loss of Reem r im e to’ its recapture. A ingly, ected his ‘on the Douro, Pe and 19th of June. et refuse battle ; but beasts fi , however, a communication * some forts in the nei; pourhood of the city, which still held out... these forts Lord Welli having reduced them, he forward against Mar- mont. The latter retired, crossed the Douro, and took to Lord phage in order to draw Marmont away it, he moved such a direction, as seemed to threaten Madrid. — French general also, about the same time, endeavoured to carry into execution a scheme for cutting off the com- munication between the British army and Ciudad Rod. rigo ; and, for this purpose, having reinforeed, he moved in such a manner, as to threaten the left of the British. Lord Wellington, on ria ene retreated a little, so as to render it secure; an i thus foiled, attempted to turn the right. Lord Wi lington now manceuvred in such a manner, as would not only protect it, but enable him to take ad any blander which Marmont might commit. Thus several days were spent. Marmont, constantly ma- neeuvring to turn the right of the British, wi | Lord Wellington, making correspondent movements, in order to defeat his object. At last, Marmont, in his anxiety to out-manceuvre the British army, d the per defence of his own, extending his line to the so far as to weaken the main body considerab fault Lord Welli instantl vantage of it. The centre attacked with such successful and that they were soon beaten. The ri, 5 - g s bravery, would have as urpose, by a se- master of 7 Badajos tae ken, 7th April, 1812, — ) a et... aphersion: M i This Battle of Frc a took ad. S#lamanca of the French were History. atti Siteal Consequen- ces of it. .- now dark, but the French were pursued ; and. FRANCE. | an amicable adjustment, Bonaparte prepared for war, by _ History. ily shared the same fate, but it was reinforced by troops that fled from the left, and held out till it was attacked in front, when it also gave way. 2 was , during the battle and pursuit, suffered so severely, that only a few | to Valladolid. Marmont himself was Joneph Bonaparte bad left Madrid with the army of <—y the centre, in the hope of being able to join Marmont before his engagement with Lord Wellington ; but, on learning the issue of the battle of Salamanca, he retreat- ed in such a manner, as he trusted would draw off his ip from the it of the defeated army. In this also he was inted, and Madrid was now abandoned to its fate. Nor was this the only result of ’ the battle: Soult withdrew from the South of Spain ; aud the siege of Cadiz, which the French had continued so long, was raised. The object of this general, wradhes Marmont, was now to com roe tata en un- he would vin ined J drid to its fate. able to protect it ; but Soult ha- Bonaparte, th ish general the scuachy st bandeaing tas The commander, full and that, till it was reduced, i could not safely advance against Mar- it with gveat-ohill aid bravery. Little pression had been made on it, when his Lord- ship learnt that Souham, who had succeeded Marmont, Hil hee the foes of Mad her athoageand ; , was close! ‘It. This intelli {induced his Lordshi peach don the siege; and, in his retreat, he was y fol- Souham ; and General Hill retreating in such ‘direction as to join his Lordship, and being followed It, in a short time the two British and the two armies were united. As, however, the latter : mn 653 retaining possession of the Prussian fortresses in the north of Germany, and sending large bodies of troops lities ; but finding that i icable, he used his ut- most endeavours to render the resources of his vast em- pire available, in the event of a war with France, and he courted the friendship of Britain. The organization of the army was also improved. By these measures the Emperor Alexander saw himself, at the end of 1811, possessed of forces amounting to nearly 400,000 men, 300,000 of which he could bring against the French. When the dispute between France and Russia began, the forces which Bonaparte could have spared, in the event of an immediate war, were comparatively few ;_ he therefore protracted the negociation, till he had as- sembled a more numerous, and, in every respect, a bet- ter mee army, than he had ever before led into the field. The contingent of the confederation of the Rhine was augmented. The King of Saxony was call- ed upon to join in the war, on the ground that Russia threatened the Polish possessions, which Bonaparte had iven him. From the southern extremity of Europe, urat marched his Italian troops. The King‘of Prus« sia reluctantly contributed nearly all ‘his army ; and Austria was called u to fulfil her engagements, by “which, in the event of a war, she was to awe France. e Peninsula, All the best trvops that Bonaparte had in In short, all were marched to the north of Germany. Europe, from the to the Baltic on its western side, and from the extremity of Italy to the same sea on its eastern side, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the confines of Poland, was leagued, under Bonaparte, against Russia. For such an immense army, about to invade a country nearly barbarous and desolate, it was necessary to provide enormous stores of provision, am- munition, &c. These were all brought up to the north of Germany, and such arrangements {or their convey- ance made, as Bonaparte expected would furnish him with a regular and full supply, till the Emperor Alex- ander was intimidated into submission. For there can be no doubt, that he expected, by the formidable na- ture of his preparations, or, at most, by the decisive blow which he firmly, believed he should soon be able to strike, that Alexander would sue for peace, on such Russia pre- there. Nor was the Emperor Alexander idle ; he en- pare for deavoured, indeed, to prevent the recurrence of hosti- war. 4 a conditions as he chose to give. On the 9th of May, Bonaparte having collected an Campaign much more numerous than the former, they obli- army of at least 400,000 men, set out from St Cloud, of 1812. Lord Wellington to continue his retreat to the con- n of Portugal. On the 6th of June he crossed the Vistula. On the Bonaparte State of the At the close of the campaign, the French armies, ex- 22d of that month, he formally declared war against crosses the hostile ar- ¢lusively of ‘those which were wholly occupied by the Russia ; and two days afterwards, he crossed the Nie~ Niemen. mies. desultory warfare of the Spaniards, consisted of about men, and entered the Russian territories. 104,000 men ; of these, 72,000 infantry, and 2000 ea- Hitherto the Russians had made little or no resist« valry were under the command of Soult, who directed the armies formerly under the command of Joseph Bo- naparte, and Souham. Suchet, in the south of Spain, had with him 18,000 infantry, and 4,000 cavalry, to op- ance ; but as they had marked out the first line of de~ fence poe banks of the Dwina, it was supposed that there would seriously oppose their invaders. ‘The plan on which they had resolved to act was, however, ~naahog pose the Spaniards there, and an Anglo-Sicilian force, which lately landed. to the French ar- mies, were about 70,000 Bri Germans, and Portu- guese. But of the French, a proportion consisted We have already mentioned the causes of the dispute between the ‘or Alexander and Bonaparte. As the esac snage pall place in 1811, did not promise different. Knowing the impetuous activity of Bona- parte, and that he had been accustomed to astonish - and intimidate by the rapidity of his movements, and by advancing into the very heart of the country which he invaded, they h to draw him on into the inte- rior-of Russia, far from his resources, and to places where he could not support his army by plunder and contributions. They-also. anticipated the effects of a Russian winter, if he should be mad enough to con- tinue in it till this season. In order that this plan should be carried into complete and successful execution, it History. —_—\ A. D. 1812, Bonaparte rvtiers Wil- na Rattles at Witepsk. 654 was necessary the inhabitants and soldiers of the par der en at pea as the Russiahs were, both of them incapable of being seduced by the arts of the French,—even deaf to the promises of mips when that blessing was to come froman enemy. In short, the attachment, both of the Russian peasantry and the Russian army, to their and their coun- try is so strong, that no temptation, no difficulty, can possibly shake it. But the plan of the Russians was to draw Bonaparte into the interior of their vast, desolate, and barbarous empire, yet they at the same time determined to oppose him wherever they could do — advantage, and thus weaken him as he ad- vanced, Such was the plan of the Russians, and they acted up to it with a patriotic perseverance which does them infinite honour. Bona , indeed, was successful, in so far as driving back the Russians and advancing con- stituted success: he even succeeded in dividing one of the Russian corps from the main army. But as he ad- vanced, he found no signs of intimidation on the part ef the Em 3 no ‘proof of attachment or submis- sion from the people ; and he must have been sensible that he was leaving his resources far behind, while he could not hope for regular and sufficient supply from a country never well cultivated or fertile, now laid waste and deserted by the inhabitants as he Those disco ing circumstances, however, did not appear so ifestly while he was in Poland and Li- thuania, as the inhabitants of these districts, not at- tached to Russia, and mo ee Bonaparte’as their li- berator, received him wi stinde and joy. On the 28th of June, he entered W. which he did not leave till the 17th of July. His transactions during this stay are not clearly known ; but though he was stationary, the different divisions of his army were on the advance. His plan now began to unfold itself, and he seemed to be aiming at once on the destruction of the main Rus- sian army, and. the occupation of Petersburg. On the latter enterprize, a corps under the command of Marshal Macdonald was sent. The rest of his army followed the line of the retreat of the Russians. a At es the Dees had an eee ut as the corps which Bonaparte had succeeded in se- parating bad not yet come up, this was abandoned, and a position at Witepsk occupied. On the 24th of July, they arrived here, one of their corps having been pocvioney dispatched to the north to cover Peters- urg. On the 25th, 26th, and 27th, three battles took place; the Russians fi t obstinately ; and hav- ing succeeded in weakeni e French, again retreat- ed. In the mean time, Marshal Davoust, who had been sent after the Russian corps which was ted from the main army, came up with it, and brought it to action: but the result was not favourable to him, and he found himself so weakened that he was not able to prevent its rejunction. The French army which had marched on the route to Petersburg, was equally un- fortunate. The plan of its was to cross the Dwina, come round upon Riga, and thus cut off the communication with the odpitale. But in consequence of his losses on the 30th and 81st of July, in two very severe actions, he was obliged to.recross that river, and the communication between Petersburg and the main Russian arm on leaving Witepsk, retreated on Smolensk, ~~ eee: but on account of the nature country, e extreme difficulty of procuring provisions, he was obliged to disperse hie different corps FRANCE. was thus rendered secure. This:army, gu ; this of the Russian empire, there were no maps sufficiently accurate and minute for his purpose, and the fied at his approach. He thus advanced, £ & es : 2 2 : i g 5 ts 8 : till the middle of August. From this place he ee ae he at length thes the Russians to a cape p hare 9 had acted on ght the F great retreated. Soon afterwards, the command of monereupen sha tie ot eee improve upon the , se Tolly,be. dliieions a poeanapenty apt persevering re- — sistance to the enemy, but still retreating, even after success. On the 18th of August, the French having thrown a bridge over the Borysthenes, crossed that ri- ver; and.as it was now evident that the Russians meant to retreat in the direction of Moscow, Bonaparte en. deavoured to cut them off from that place. In thisvat- tempt, however, he did not succeed at this time ; and Ee. = Hi . rick uth natures with the French. aang ney ee d have reached Moscow. without. ing, preferred attacking Kutusoff, The force on each Battle of side was nearly equal, amounting to about 120,000 Berodina men; Son tiated the French, by the obstinacy of Rus- sian defence, the incursions of the Cossacks, who con- tinually harassed their march, and. the losses occasion tillery and infantry, for the purpose of supporting their centre. At six o'clock in the morning September, commenced the attack, by tempting to carry the Russian line by main force. contest was murderous, but the issue unfav ) ing confusion, , disorder, and dismay, testa heeeragee peerage tack should be made-on the heights ; ra most sanguinary contest, was partially rogoenatel ee these ions were going on in one part army i va the Fae were: the assailants, and drove back the French. Thus the conti- nued with varying success, till night ; and.though the French were undoubtedly masters. of one.part of the field of battle ; yet, insother parts, they were so much beaten, that Bonaparte judged it. prudent to draw off his forces. 3 boy gem gioel A.D. 181 1 FRANCE | : 655 The Russian general, having thus succeeded in the ceed: this Murat, who commanded the cavalry, attempt- _ Histor. ~ great object of the campaign, which was to weaken Bo- ed; but he was defeated with dreadful loss. In conse- 3 ene ~ na as much as possible, and at the same time to quence of this defeat, Bonaparte was compelled to aban- 4 gt ek draw him farther into the country, resolved to abandon don his intention of retreating by the route of Kalouga; )..¢2 Mos. Moscow to its fate; and this he was the more disposed but-in order to deceive Kutusoff, he began his march coy, to do,-as the French army after the ‘battle had been in that direction, and afterwards turned off on the road reinforced by a corps under Marshal Victor. Bona- to Smolensk. He himself marched with the van of parte now saw the capital of Russia within his reach: his army, surrounded by the Imperial guards: the and though, by the persevering refusal of the Emperor Viceroy of Italy brought up the rear. Alexander to treat, he could hardly expect that the | As soon as Kutusoff was informed of the route which ion of it would bring him to terms, yet he look- the French army had taken, he began his march in a ed forward to it as a place of refuge against the seve- parallel line, leaving it to the other divisions of the rity of the Russian winter, and as the probable depo- army, and especially the Cossacks, to hang on the rear sitory of those articles of provision po refreshment, and the flanks of the enemy. No words can paint the Their dis- ¢ French Which his army so much wanted. How great then misery and sufferings of the French during this retreat. 4sttous re- nter Mos- must have been his mortification and disappointment, ‘ Scarcely had they, worn out by a day’s march, along “°** . when, just as he was entering Moscow, he beheld the brokenand deep roads, during which they were constant- flames ing it! The patriotic governor, and no _ly obliged to be either on the alert, or actually fighting, less patriotic inhabitants, nobly sacrificing their vene- lain down on the wet and cold ground, to obtain a little rated city,—their own homes and property,—rather than rest or sleep, when the Cossacks rushed into their camps, that the French should derive any advantage from and before the men could prepare themselves for re- them. 3 « sistance or defence, many were killed—all were thrown Theirdread- Of the hopelessness of the situation of into confusion and dismay, and their artillery and stores fal situa- and his army, at this time, it is searcely possible to carried off.” While they were thus exposed to the ~ form an idea: he had indeed conquered Russia, if that sudden and irregular attacks of the Cossacks, Kutusoff could be called ar which consisted in advancing \seized every opportunity of bringing them to battle. into the interior of a country; after most severe and On the 24th of’ October, he attacked them most vigo- obstinate fighting, where no provisions were to be had, rously ; the French fought with desperation, but their where all fled from his approach, and in reaching the ee was at length worn out, and they were com- pell — sage of that country, only to behold it in flames. to retreat with the loss of 16 pieces of cannon. winter was approaching,—a Russian winter,—he After this defeat, Bonaparte pushed forward before his was at the distance of 500 or 600 miles from a hospi- army towards Smolensko, the Imperial guard alone ac- table climate, and from his resources; on all sides of companying him in his rapid and disgraceful flighty him were an peasantry, and an army accus- _It is impossible to describe the losses and sufferings ,,,, Rus tomed to the climate, acquainted with the country, and of the French till they arrived at this place. About the ;., “eh constantly increasing ; whereas his army could receive beginning of November, the Russian winter set’in with ter sets in. no increase ; nor even continue at its present force, di- - more than usual severity, and on the first day of the minished as it must daily be, by fatigue, want of pro- frost nearly 30,000 horses perished. ' «All possibility visions, and the severity of the climate. In this dread- of ing forward their artillery was now at an end: ful crisis, Bonaparte continued his usual and favourite the spirits of the soldiers completely deserted them ; system of deception, His bulletins, calculated to de- they crawled on, exposed to the most dreadful cold, ceive his subjects, meee the climate of Russia as exhausted with fatigue and hunger, emaciated and al- mild, the stores of Moscow as amply sufficient for all most naked. The road was literally blocked up with the wants of the army, and the peasantry as rejoicing the dead and the dying ; they had no power to defend in the presence of their invader. Notwithstanding the themselves against the C s, who constantly hover- approach of winter, he lingered in Moscow, inthe vain ed round them: they had no inclination to do it : death hope that the Emperor Alexander would agree to peace; to them would have been a blessing: at the sight of but he knew too well that the possessor of the an- the Cossacks they hoped their miseries would soon be cient capital of Russia was in fact at his mercy; and terminated ; but their enemies were not so merciful ely refused to negotiate. * as to put them to death ; piercing them with wounds, | . At length, the proud and obstinate spirit of Bona- stripping off the little covering they had, they left them parte gave way, and he resolved to retreat ; but even in the snow, there bleeding and naked, to the rigours - - this was represented in his bulletins, as only a lateral of a Russian winter. Whenever the French’ entered movement on . His resolution, however, any village, where there was the least chance of repose was formed too late: he left Moscew, as soon as or food, they exerted their little remaining poten ever his army was refreshed and prepared for retreat, and crawled on their hands and feet to seek it. Fre- and before the of winter was so near, he might quently, just as they had stretched out their hands to have unparalleled disasters which befel seize a little food, or vont, the threshold of a wretch- him ; but by delaying it till the middle of October, he ed hut, under which they Tooked for shelter from the rendered it im for him to far, before weather, perhaps for a few minutes sleep, the remnant, the severity of a Russian winter would attack his troops, of their strength failed them, and they expired.” v he vetime for the enemy to complete their opera- It may well be conceived, how little able such an tions for har them. These preparations, indeed, army was to resist the regular Russian en 3 yet oc- were extensive. On every side the Russians were col- casionally despair lent them strength, and they fought lected ; and especially immense numbers of Cossacks, obstinately, but never successfully, In addition to their calculated for this mode of warfare. —. miseries, they lost all confidence in Bonaparte, and in Before Bonaparte could leave Moscow, it was ne- fact could no longer be said to compose an army; ig- to drive back the grand Russian army, which norant of the roads, and s‘raid to meet with the Cos- -occupied the Kalouga , by which he meant*to pro-| sacks, they wandered in all directions, or actually laid History. —_—\— A. D, 1812. Bonaparte quits his army. Its im- moense loss. Plot at Pa- rls. 656 theniselves down to die. Every day witnessed the di- minution of their numbers, by defeat or the effects of famine and the climate ; but their most serious loss took place at Krasnoi, where Kutusoff completely routed them ; the division of Davoust, nena 24,000 strong, being for the most part, killed, wou ao gr soners, A few days afterwards, the division of Ney attacked the Russians, but they were repulsed, and be- ing surrounded, 12,000 laid down their arms, But it is not possible, within our limits, to icularise all the disasters to which they were : The e of the Beresina, however, must not be omitt dreadful destruction, both from the flames and the ene- my. After this their retreat to Wilna was not so dis- astrous; before, however, the troops arrived there, Bo- naparte left them, travelling in a incognilo, along with Caulincourt, and returned to Paris on the 18th of December. Murat was left in command; but he soon followed the example that had been set him ; and the command of the di ized remains of this once most numerous and formidable army devolved on the Viceroy of Italy. The loss of the French in this campaign cannot be estimated lower than 300,000 men; and this loss was entirely occasioned by the mad and obstinate ambition of Bonaparte ; for when we recollect that, “ at the close of summer, he led an immense army into the very heart of Russia—into a country, in which winter reigns with most intense and unbroken severity for half the year ; that in front, and rear, and both sides of this army, were immense bodies of troops, inured to the climate, and cutting off all chance of pro- curing provisions ; and that this army, when compelled to retreat, had to march upwards of 500 miles, without shelter, almost without food and clothing, on roads broken up, or rendered nearly impassable by the snow, exposed to the most intense cold, and harassed night and day by clouds of Cossacks, we may be astonished at the insane rashness of Bo , but we cannot be —- that nearly the whole of his army was de- stroyed,” hat division of the French army which marched on eae oem 8 , shared the fate of of Figend my ; for, not being able to gain possession iga, an beng aeiminlgteanned by the Russians, while Bona- parte would not allow it to retreat, till he himself had retired, it suffered nearly in an equal , both from the enemy, and the severity of the climate. ose thera an! ag ya woe r ’s advance into Russia as onuet of cat county, and his possession of Moscow =a completion of hi telanrtph.. ‘The real state of the case, however, was known at Paris; and even he, soon after he left Moscow, could no longer ,conceal it. His twenty-ninth bulletin exposed his disgrace and dis- asters in more complete nakedness to the citizens of Paris, than they ever before witnessed. They be- lieved, or hoped, that his situation was even more des- perate than he admitted. A report of his death was spread, Part of the national guard betrayed symptoms of open opposition to his government; but the plot, mii hiliag’ Lae stich Seelggueces eodlipeminn teemaaiens. ed, and the ringleaders a: . The intelligence of it is su to have contributed to induce Bona- parte to quit the army, and ¢eturn to Paris. As the yoke of Bonaparte had been impatiently FRANCE. ‘were ha ve: may easily be collected tory whi disposal ; and shortly in the annual ex- pee a very flattering account of the state of the rench empire was published, in which its Nering appaisteh the ieupovee tiuaeetitamag te ab- ving appoi press darir seen koh taeda of April, and ar- rived at Monta eaters This ap a a 12 corps, besides mperial 2 different di- visions were-directed to in such directions, as borne by the Prussians, the defection of a corps of them, ; er al P amp i on to ae aa fe poh neryricing ,. ” , who commanded army, being thus : a weakened, and being, moreover, harassed by the Rus- A.D. 1 sians, retreated in eth he ee berg to its fate, directing his flight to the Vistu Across this river the remnant of the French also fled, pursued by their unwearied and implacable The king of Prussia, being still the defection of his generals, and to the French; but he was ae parte recovered from his losses, he might again duced under his power. In these circumstances, on the 15th of Febri 1818 he made ps aac truce, on condition the Russians’ hind the Vistula, sand Nas Plog oe tigen So ving Prussia enti ign occupation. h cr pendnan eg i agreed. Setiea mean time, Bonaparte was deserted by the Austrian *”! % ‘he auxiliaries, who, indeed, had been of very little service during the campai The French still continued their retreat; for a short time they a as if’ Berlin; but finding the be re- ing morning, when they were received as friends anid deliverers. T from Dresden and Leipsick—the king adhering tne Sirti ae 2d of A sians and Prussians ght together against hinting in the vigniy 46 Luneburg: the combat and sanguinary, but a complete vi tala by tbe allow. The Russians divided into three armies ; one had crossed the. order to drive the French towards the Maine; cond was employed in the siege of Dantzic and and the third was posted at Custrin and Prussians were distributed in Saxony, burgh, and Rostock, and also invested Stettin. i Crown Prince of Sweden, who had long ——- assistance to the allies, was at nd, to take the command of 50,000 men. Fi of the extent of country over which the rom the loss of ch the French had sustained, Notwithstanding this loss, however, more important loss of his best soldiers, 1 which had been given to his mil reputation, naparte resolyed to hazard another campaign ; for he exerted all his activity and vigour in the resources of France, in order again to ona formidable footing. By a senatus cons 11th of January, 350,000 men were placed at. afterwards, E: i fe 2 if 3 2 ae arm ¢ F to form a junction near Jena and upon the Saale. . The by Hanpe- and the Emperor of Austria, from a m ' ory. head quarters of the Russian army, now commanded by Witgenstein, in uence of the death of Kutu- cof, were tthe north of Leipsic; the Prussians, un ‘Blucher, were to the south of that city. The first battle was fought in the plain of Lutzen. “It was brought on by che ttssiin general, who wished to prevent the junction of the different divisions of the French army. r to avenge the th em tea wae ed F. wron eir coun sustain rance, the ry a ; and ite soon became general along the lon. Thev: in front were several times taken and re- taken, and the action continued with great till seven of the evening of the2dof May. Theallies:kept possession of the field ; the 3d of May passed without fighting, and on the 4th Bonaparte retreated. But his zetreat was not continued far ; for the allies, though vic- torious, had so weakened themselves by their victory, that or could not oppose the advance of the French to the Elbe, which river they crossed at Dresden on the 6th and 7th; and at this place Bonaparte fixed his head uarters. The King of Saxony having now joined the rench with his forces, the allies continued to retreat, and took up a position on the heights overhanging the Spree, with the centre of their front line behind Baut- ‘ resolved to attack them, with his main army in front, while the divisions of Ney, Lauris- ier, turned their right. The latter part of this plan was foreseen, and frustrated by the Russian General, who ordered these divisions of the French to be separately attacked; this took place on the 19th. At four in the morning of the 20th, the d attack by the Frénch main army commenced ; after seven hours hard fightin so far prevailed, that the allies : soe poe er kirchen. . On the 21st good order, and presenting a formidable front to the ry oars was entered by Lauriston on of of the necessity under which the al- ee eee Seer eee cree om pets or, their or to put them out of ern advancing foe, Hamburgh was evacuated by short time, and an ineffectual resist« re yes rench, | hitherto been successful, and had dri« before him; but his successes and his ad- dearly purchased ; he therefore listened . uf Austria, who oe his mediation. consequence of it, a cessation of hostilities took place, and that a congress should ‘be held at But this congress produced no pacific result ; r, became , as soon as he saw that he was for The Crown Prince . apie st? th = E z 5 ene of tl pe rae, Semenal ten. minating in favour of the allies, their advanced guard encamped on the heights above that city on the 26th of Au On the following day, the French aban- their before Dresden, and withdrew into FRANCE. 6ST though estimated at 130,000 men, thus defended, the History. allies resolved to move: but their enterprise was un- successful ; and on the following day, the 28th of Au- gust, the French became the assailants, the allies oc- cupying a very extended position on the heights round the city. In this engagement, General Moreau, who had come over from America to oppose Bonaparte, was mortally wolnded. The result of it was, that the allies retreated in the evening, having sustained a very con+ siderable loss. _They were pursued by a large division of the French under Generals Vandamme and Bertrand ; who were at first successful, but being unexpectedly attacked on. all sides by fresh corps of the Austrians and Prussians, Vandamme and 10,000 of his men were taken prisoners. A. D. 1813. Death of Moreau, _ The allies were also successful in Silesia, the reco- Success of very of which from the French was entrusted to Blu- the Allies: cher. Having defeated Marshal Macdonald, and taken 18,000 prisoners, on the banks of the Katsbach, on the 2d of September, he encamped near Gorlitz, and in an address to his troops, congratulated them on the deliverance of Silesia from the enemy. ; On the 6th of this month, the Crown Prince of Swe- den having collected the Swedish and Russian armies, was informed that about 70,000 of the French, under pattle of the command of Ney, were in full march upon Juter- Juterboch. - boch, inorder) to attack a very inferior corps stationed there. He immediately ordered the Prussians under Bulow to support this corps, while he advanced as quickly as possible. The Prussians fought nobly against much superior numbers; and as soon as the columns of the Prince’s army began to appear, the French re- treated. Inthis action they lost nearly 18,000 men, and . 80 pieces of cannon. different directions ; but Bonaparte, not cured of that obstinacy which had occasioned the ruin of his army at pi, ee: in remainingin Dresden till he found that the allies, by directing their Coat efforts towards Leipsic, would completely cut him off from France, un- ae uitted it. On the 7th of October, therefore, e he whole of the allies now approached Dresden in» resden in company with the King of Saxony, , and took up a position in the neighbourhood of Leipsic; . About this time, he was desert ria, who ordered 55,000 of his troops under General Wrede, to act with the Austrians. The allies having collected their respective armies round Leipsic, resolved by the King of Bavas - to attack the French in various points. Several very - severe battles took place in consequence of this, in all of which the French were defeated ; and at length they were obliged to concentrate their whole force in the im- mediate suburbs of the town. On the 16th of October, the grand army of the allies made a general attack to the south of it; but after a dreadful slaughter, they could not succeed in dislodging the French. The 17th : was chiefly occupied in pre’ contest. the morning of the 18th, the different ar- ing for a renewal of the - mies of the allies advanced from the villages round gatite‘og ; Leipsic, for their grand attack on the city.. During the Leipsic. battle, some Saxon and Westphalian regiments abandon- ed Bonaparte, and went over to the allies. Few contests are on record, that have been more dreadful or more decisive than the battle of Leipsic; the result.of which was, that the French lost, in killed, wounded, and pri- soners, 40,000 men, and 65 pieces of artillery: seven- teen German battalions also deserted from them and joined the conquerors. On the morning of the 19th, the King of Saxony sent a flag of truce to the Emperor « , BDieitt 4 658 History. Alexander, requesting bim to spare the town; but an ray immediate assault was ordered, and by eleven o'clock ix, the allies were in possession of it two hours after Bo- had made his escape. In it were taken the rear guard of the French, amounting to 30,000, and their sick and wounded, nearly 22,000, besides their magazines, artillery, and stores. The retreat of the French was marked by the most extreme confusion and disorder; and if we take into account, that it was made at a more favourable season of the year, and through a country better adapted to a retreating army, it cannot be deemed less disastrous or disgraceful than the retreat from Russia. The line of their retreat was on Frankfort: they were followed by the Prussian General D’York, while the combined Austrian and Bavarian army was posted at Hanau to intercept them. Here, on the 29th of October, a par- tial nt took place, in which the French were successful. On the 31st, Bonaparte fixed his head quarters at Frankfort; and on the 2d of November he arrived at Mentz, whence he proceeded shortly af- terwards to Paris. On the 14th of November, he replied to the address of the Senate in language of apparent frankness, ac- knowledging his disasters, but appealing to the French His decrees. nation for support under them. Two decrees were im- mediately passed, one imposing additional taxes, and the other ordering a levy of 300,000 conscripts, as the enemy had invaded the frontiers on the side of the Py- renees and the north, and as those of the Rhine and beyond the Alps were threatened. The natural effect Bonaparte arrives in Paris. Holland, of his reverses now began to appear: a revolution Hanover, broke out in Holland, which, being assisted by the Eng- &c, recover lish, terminated in separating that country from France. =. Hanover also was entered, and liberated by the Crown Prince of Sweden. Bremen and Embden were reco~ vered. ‘The Viceroy of Italy, unable to cope with the Austrians, abandoned Trieste and the Dalmatian coast ; and Dresden and Stettin, with their numerous: garri- sons, surrendered to the combined forces. Declaration . The allied sovereigns, who had assembled at Frank- ofthe Allies, fort, published a declaration on the Ist of December, laying open their views with regard to France. Against that country they did not make war, but ‘against the insatiable ambition of Bonaparte, to whom they had already offered fair and honourable terms of peace, but in vain. It was for the advantage of Europe, that France should be independent and great. This they did not wish to prevent; so far from it, if they succeed- ed in their plans, they would leave her so; but they were also determined that their states should, for the future, be also’ independent,—no longer liable to the tyranny and ambition of Bonaparte. The last twenty years had witnessed unparalleled calamities: heaped on Europe: They trusted they had now in their power to put an end to these calamities, and they were resolved to do so. This declaration, so moderate and liberal; displeased Bonaparte. There was nothing in it on which he could lay hold, as manifesting an intention to injure the honour or weaken the just power of France ; he therefore replied to it in general and ambiguous terms, in his speech before the islative Body on the 19th of December, maintaining, that the allies alone were to blame if peace had not been concluded, as he had adhered to their preliminary basis; adding, how- ever, that if peace were made, it must’ be on terms con- sistent with honour. ; In the month of December, the allies crossed the Rhine and invaded France. This operation was per- who invade France, FRANCE. formed with titde or no opposition at various points, — not a single French army appearing in the field to de- == fend the frontier,’ The fort of Huningen, in 4-18 Alsace, was invested, and the allied troops spread over x that province and Franche Under: these cir- vy cumstance, Bonaparte issued a on the 26th of i December, announcing the mission of senators, or coun- cillors of state, into the military divisions, to act as commissioners extraordinary, armed with powers to provide and organize the means of defence; and thus, in fact, suspending all the magistracies, and other au- tries thorities in the country, and the immediate to rouse agency of military despotism to every part. ‘There frevcl were thirty commissioners inted, who were to be attended by as many law aftcats, These efforts, how- ever, were unavailing, and their result proved at once, that the French people were wearied out with calami- ty, and were disposed to regard the allies rather as friends than foes, and that the authority and power of Bonaparte were drawing to a close ; for he must have expected, either that the people would have .risen of their own ee called upon to defend their country, or that he possessed the means of ‘co: i their services on this occasion ; neither of Stach tok ‘ place to any considerable extent. We must now furn to the affairs of the peninsula, In Affairs of December 1612, the French main army, now under the the Peni command of Drouet, was in the nei ) od of Sa. Sa lamanca and Valladolid, occupying various on the line of the Tagus. | Joseph Dishesiencalan Matis) i and Soult had his head quarters at Toledo. all the central parts’ of Spain were in the power of the French. Lord Wellington was at Freynada, on the 7 frontiers of Portugal, about the middle of Mareh ; 4 ly all the French troops were withdrawn from La\Man- cha, and the army of the south was concentrated ‘be- tween Talavera, Madrid, and Toledo,—Joseph Bona- parte having quitted Madrid. These movements; and others connected with them, indicated that their plan was to retire from the central provinces, and take strong positions in the north and north-east. In the south-east of Spain, Suchet had been obliged to quit Valencia, in consequence of some successes gained by the Anglo-Sicilian army under Sir John Murray. In April, the main French army was'still occupied im mo- ving from the Tagus to the Douro ; but theirforce was much weakened, as, during February and March; near- ly 25,000 men had been:sent into France, to assist Bo- naparte in his German campaign, ius parece These movements and indications:of the French, de- termined the plan of Lord Wellington. On the 26th of May, he fixed his head quarters at Salamanea, Here a slight skirmish’ took a His army afterwards con- tinued to advance to Toro, the French persevering in their plan of Rey pe central provinces. -On the jth fo ar Lord Wellington crossed the Carrion, and . soon after ‘'reconnoitered a strong position which» the French oceupied at Burgos. ‘This, however, they did. not defend; but retired with their whole force in the night, marching towards the Ebro, on the road to Mi- randa. On the 14th and'15th Lord Wellir ‘cross- ed that river, and continued his march’ towards Vit~ toria. ia Joseph Bonaparte was now the nominal commander of the grand French army ;* but ‘the aetual command was vested in Marshal Jourdan. The army consisted of the whole of the armies of the south and the centre, of four divisions, and all the cayalry of the army of Por- tugal, and-some troops of the army of the north. -On FRANCE 659 the 19th of June, it took up a position in front of Vit- toria. On the 20th Lord Wellington’s army halted, and his Lordship reconnoitered the French. On the 21st he attacked them, and gained a most signal and glorious victory. The retreat of the French was:so ra- pid, that they were unable to draw off their ba; and artillery, the whole of which fell into the of the victors. The French retreated by the high road to country, first to Pampeluna, and on the 25th the road of Roncesyalles into France ; a brigade of army of Gallicia, under General Castanos, driving - them across the Bidassoa, the boundary river, over the idge of Irun. most importance, the Marshal collected about 20,000, and advanced towards it. Sir John Murray, not deem- scehliceinelshiatbtatsl aiunecbret tas conduct. In the mean time, the main French army had actually evacuated the Peninsula, and entered their own country, part of their troops still maintained them- so cisidainneelteeeipiet ey Cony anu esatvod its and strong positi seemed resolve to keep possession. inst them, therefore, a detach- ment of the British were sent, who succeeded in dis- would retire quietly before their conquerors; but Bo- purpose i greatly distinguished himself in the south of Spain, was inted, by an imperial decree, commander in chief July,;and on the 24th collected at St Jean the right left wings, amounting in all to 30,000 or 40,000 the French to abandon a y ip to be “ one of. the and most diffi- cult of access, that he had yet seen oceupied by troops.” Spanish frontier was entirely freed from the presence and occupation of the French. The strong fortresses of Pam and St Sebastian August, which cost the British many lives. This, how- ever, didnot deter Sir Thomas Graham from renewing the attack; but the attempt seemed nearly desperate, History. when the assailants having made repeated but fruitless exertions to gain an entrance, no man surviving the A.D. 1813. attempt to mount the narrow ridge of. the curtain, he adopted the eritical and venturous expedient of order- ing the guns to be turned against the curtain, the shot of which passed only a few feet over the heads of the men at the foot of the breach. This manceuvre, joined to the success of the Portuguese in another quarter, deci- pay of st ded the fate of St Sebastian. But Soult. was too deep- Sebastian. ly sensible of its importance to permit it to fall, male out making an effort to relieve it. He therefore made several desperate attacks on the allied army ; but, though several of them were directed against the Spa- ni and Portuguese, they repulsed them with great bravery and iness; and on the 18th of September the castle of St Sebastian surrendered. j On the 7th of October, Lord Wellington crossed the Lord Wel Bidassoa and entered France; but he did not com- lington en- mence offensive operations till the fall of Pampeluna had tts France disengaged the right of his army from its blockade. Having now all his forces at liberty, he resolved to ex« ecute a grand operation against the French. Ever since the prs age of August, they had occupied a position, with their right upon the sea, in front of the town of St Jean de Luz, their centre on a vil- lage and the high grounds behind it, and their left on a strong height. This position, naturally advan- tageous, they had fortified with t skill and care: Lord Wellington soon determined on his plan of at- Battle of st tack ; but the execution of it he was obliged to defer, Jean de in uence of the heavy rains, On the 10th of No. 1.u2. vember, however, the weather proving favourable, he commenced his attack, the object of which was to force the centre of the enemy, and establish the allied army in the rear of their right. The various attacks to ac- complish these objects began at day light, and it was night before the rear of the right of the French army was gained. On the next morning they were pursued across the Nivelle, and on the following night they re- tired to an entrenched camp in the front of Bayonne. As, however, they still held posts on the rivers Adour and Nive, Lord Wellington caused a series of man- ceuvres and operations to take ip on the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th of December, the result of which was, that the French were driven from most of their positions, and obliged to confine themselves to the vi- cinity of Bayonne. In the mean time, Suchet, in the south-east of Spain, seemed resolved to maintain himself, notwithstanding the retreat of the French main army from the Penin- sula, Sir John Murray having been recalled, Lord William Bentinck had assumed the command of’ the Anglo-Sicilian army. His first operation was to re- sume the siege of Tarragona, which Sir John had aban- doned on the advance of Suchet. But the Marshal again advancing with nearly 25,000, Lord William Bentinek was obliged to imitate the example of his predecessor, and retreat upon Cambrilly. ' By the middle of January 1814, part of the allied Advance of army occupied Langres, an ancient and considerable the Allies town, 100 miles within the French frontier: till they peNerrrs reached it, there was not a single shot fired at them by “*”:?°!*- any body but the military. Bonaparte had not yet quit- Paris, and had not been able to collect any consider- able force. The troops he had mustered were under the command of Marshals Victor and Marmont, the former of whom advanced into Alsace, to oppose the Bavarians, under General Wrede ; but not being able to cope with 660 tlistory. them, he abandoned this PONE Ss nan cme ote tinue his retreat to Luneville. By the middle of Ja- nuary, the Cossacks, who had entered France in great erm the gave a clear proof, in what a defenceless state it was, by pushing on between Epinal and Nancy, unsupported by any regular troops. The second French army, under the command of Marmont, was opposed to Blucher, whose had crossed the Rhine near Coblentz and Manheim ; but he found it necessary to retreat before the Prussian ge- neral, and take up a position behind the Saare. Even here he could not long continue; for by the end of January he had fled to Verdun, while Victor was at Commency ; and the additional which Bonapart had under the command of Mortier and Mac- ; donaid, were at Chaumont and Namur, The allies, at ikea —— Lorraine, as far as the Meuse, all Alsace, Franche Compté, and t of Burgundy. Such, however, was the aubhvaien a of Baenpaens ‘that he had not yet quitted Paris. Notwithstanding the tations of his force, and the favourable dispo- sition of the French, which were given in the French official news his means to cope with the allies were soi uate, that he resolved to sue for peace. The allied sovereigns had taken up their head quarters at Chatillon ; and thither Caulincourt, Bonaparte’s mi- nister, was directed to proceed. But peace was not , even by the most sanguine ; for though the allies were sincerely disposed towards it, and the Em- peror of Austria was suspected of a leaning towards his son-in-law, which retarded his cordial co-operation with ~ them, yet the character of Bonaparte left no doubt, that his sole object was delay, in order to augment his for- ces ; and , if he were again successful, his conduct would be as ambitious and overbearing as before. A congress, however, was held at Chatillon, which was attended by the allied sovereigns in person, and by Caulincourt on the of Bona , and Lord Castle- — on the part of Great Britain. n consequence of the rapid advance of the allies, the more young and active members of the Bourbon famil left England, and embarked for the continent tow the end of January. This step they took entirely of their own accord, since none of the allied powers had given them reason to believe that they would declare or support Louis XVIII. On the contrary, they had solemnly not to interfere in the internal go- vernment of France, and were even disposed to treat with Bonaparte. But the Bourbon princes knew their adherents were numerous in different parts of France, and these they wished to increase and animate by their ‘presence and example. of- ‘The situation of 1 Bonaparte, already extremely em- the national barrassing, was rendered still more so, by the stoppage bank. of the.national bank of France. By the report e directors, it appeared that their ready money amounted only to £600,000, which, from the ess of the holders of notes-to obtain payment, would be exhaust- ed ina very few days. In order therefore to prevent the draining of the bank, it was announced, that whatever number of notes might be presented for payment in the course of the day, not more than the value of £20,000 would be paid ; and that no-one would be paid, unless he were the bearer of a number delivered to him by the mayor of his quarter. This measure was by no means calculated to remedy the evil effectually ; and even as far as it was efficacious, it only produced an evil of Congress at FRANCE! pana ya wren mg) oe, Pao ame Atlength, havi: Maria Louisa regent, left Paris on the 25th of nuary. The French leaves armies were retreating from different quarters towards ‘ join Chalons on the Marne, for the of i within the em the Meuse. — allied armies were concentrating eeasy same point. Blucher by the way of Nancy Toul, and Schwartzenberg, who had the chief command of the Austrian and Rus- sian armies, by and Chaumont, About the beginning of Feb , these ~— armies came entirely ito communication with other, when two of Austrians were placed under the command of Blucher. ‘This general immediately made his disposi= tions for attacking the French, who rested their at Dienville, their centre at La Rotherie, and their near Tremilly. After somepartial movements and ope~ rations, by which part of the allies got possession of an important position, which in vain to recover, a most t took place at pie of La Rotherie. Bonaparte led on his in person, Rotherie. and at first was successful ; but the allies, ing under : the eye of their sovereigns, and animated by the exam- ple of Blucher, who bore a deadly hatred to Bonaparte, opposed them with superior firmness and perseverance. The battle lasted till ten at night, when the Russians ? remained masters of Ia Rotherie,: th the French held the ground beyond it, and at midni + 5 the Ist of Feb ; were in ion of the hei Brienne, paves ra their Night hed diane at commencement of the Bonaparte, fully mer ape ws wae es wrgegieninnens 4 e many desperate attempts to regain it, but being deponedligdibenbar te person, he was in all of them uns 3; and at last he was to retreat with a loss of 40 pieces of cannon, and 4000 prisoners. He retreated first to Troyes, and afterwards to Nogent. On the 5th of February, Marshal Macdonald was de- feated by D’York, between Vitrey and Chalons. _ The allies followed the beaten and retreating foe as rapidly as they could. On the 7th of February, they entered Troyes, where Prince Schwar' fixed his head quarters, Marshal Blucher about 20 miles a to the north of this town. The Fre beheld Indifference these disasters of their monarch, and the advance and of the successes of the allies in general, with equal indifference. French. Notwithstanding Bonaparte painted in the most dread- ful colours the cruelties quire them to rise in favour of the Bourbons ; and even in some cases, as parte at Chatillon, pressions of the sov As therefore , in favour of their im felt no affection for Bona~ pearance, almost coethent that wee santyicigaanialite ni Bonaparte finding himself. Y both the allied armies, pursued his usual plan of direct ing his whole force, first against one singly, in the if he succeeded, of overwhelming the other: and as FRAN CE on 661 follow him. Before, however, he did this, he made a bc saser ay movement to the north of Nogent, where he a a Russian corps, and took the whele of them prisoners. On the 14th of February, having joined Marmont, he advanced against Blucher, who ing inferior in numbers, and particularly in cavalry; formed his infantry into squares, and retreated. Bona- parte followed him, but nce series a attacks were almost incessant and very desperate, he made little or no impression, not one of the squares being broken. In order to intercept the retreat of Blucher, Bonaparte had ordered a corps*of cavalry to push forward and. get into his line fa Blucher forced his hx oer: by opening a fire of artillery and musketry.. At pi he reached Etoges, but rae was assailed by a of infantry, which had ap arge through bye caadecatihia flanks and rear ; was therefore again under the necessity of renewing the attack, and was again successful. In the mean time, the entrenched camp, which Bonaparte had formed for the protection of his army of reserve at Soissons, was assailed by Ge- neral Winzingerode with such impetuosity, that near] 3000 men were taken, and the town itself was entered. While was pursuing Blucher, the grand army put itself in motion on the left. On the 11th of February, a division of it carried by assault the town of Sens, 82 miles south-east of Paris, and afterwards joined the Bavarians under General Wrede. Other di« visions of the allies advanced nearly in the same direc- tion; so that by the middle of Lebtumy; they had themselves about 40 miles along the course of e Seine. Marshals Victor and — to sere soe protection of this important river been entr i alarmed at the advance of such superior numbers, aban- doned the left bank, and destroyed the bridges ; these, however, being soon re-established, Prince Schwartzen- berg, the commander in chief of the allies, fixed his head quarters at Bray. The allies, however, had now baggy wrk"> so much, and thereby so — ir line, Bonaparte returning quick] m pursuit of Nam. YS some advantages owe part of the grand army, in uence of this the com- mander in chief united the whole of it behind the Seine. Part of it was posted near a bridge over this river ; this repeatedly attacked, but was repulsed three times with great py, dag As, grein it was “e the im ce for him to gain thi ition, he re- ered the attack the fourth time, and Caan ing pos- session of the bridge, passed over a considerable part of his army. Blucher, though he retreated before Bonaparte, no sooner found that his adv: was gone against ano- ther part of the allies, than he resulved again to ad- vance; his object evidently being to press on, if pos- sible, to Paris itself. After having prevented Oudinot from crossing the Seine, and _ obli Marmont to re- treat, even after his junction with Macdonald, he push- ed forward in such a manner as to render the allies masters of the whole line of the Marne for above 80 aa. Seagate tg Heenan ca > comer ti eam sity of again turning his principal attention to Blucher; for it is observable, that whenever the French armies in this campaign were commanded by any of his mar- shals, they were unsuccessful. Bonaparte alone seémed to be able to procure them the chance of success. It was therefore absolutely necessary, that he should march ' with the utmost rapidity alternately from the grand History. array of the allies to Blucher,. and from Blucher'to the grand army. At this time, his object was to prevent the junction of this general with Winzingerode ; but being foiled in his project, he could not retreat without a battle. Between the 4th and the 9th of March, va- rious skirmishes took place between his troops and those of Blucher ; on the latter day, the Prussian ge- neral determined to give battle at Laon ; he was, how- Battle of ever, anticipated by Bonaparte, who, taking advantage Laon. ‘of a thick mist, attacked his right and centre, and obli- ged him to fall back to the very walls of Laon. ‘As soon, however, as the mist disappeared, Blucher’s army regained the nna which it had lost; and\a severe contest ensued on their right and centre. ‘The most important partvof the engagement, however, took place on the left of Blucher’s army, which the French attack- ed under 2 heavy cannonade. But Blucher immediate- ly reinforcing his left with two divisions, and ordering his whole army to advance, the French were not only repulsed, but actually borne down, and thrown into very great confusion, retreating towards Rheims. Jn. this engagement Bonaparte lost upwards of 70 pieces of cannon ; and the number of prisoners was immense. The negotiations at Chatillon were still going on, the allies, notwithstanding their successes, adhering to their former proposal to treat with Bonaparte as the Emperor of France. When he was unsuccessful, he di- rected Caulincourt to listen to their terms, but as soon as ever he gained the most trifling advantage, he dis- emp his characteristic haughtiness, and actually be- aved as if the allies were in his power. He seems, even at this time, to have calculated on the lukewarm- ness of Austria; and it is not unlikely that the nego- ciations were kept open longer than they would other- wise have been, and better terms were offered to him, in consequence of the connection between him and the Emperor of Austria.- He might be strengthened, too, in this belief, from. the circumstance that the Austrian army hitherto had done very little for the common cause, Blucher not having been sup , as he might, and ought to have been, by Prince Schwartzenberg. At length, however, even the Emperor of Austria t was convinced that no peace could be made with Bona- Rupture of e Negocia« parte ; accordingly, on the 18th of March, the final and {; complete ru e of the ope took place. Im- tillon. mediately this event, Bonaparte directed all his efforts in a most desperate manner against Blucher: for two days he poured his battalions against the immove- able army of that general; but finding that he could make no impression, he bent his efforts southwards against the grand army of the allies. On the 21st, the two armies were near, and opposite each other, ready for battle ; but Bonaparte, perceiving that he had not the smallest chance of success, moved off his columns on the road to Vitrey. At first he proceeded in’ a northern direction, but afterwards turned to the east on St Dizier, and thus found himself on the 24th of March exactly where he was on the 26th of January, when he opened the campaign. Let us now turn our attention to the movements and Operations operations of Lord Wellington. Though his army was * ” southy} + in the south of France, yet from the vicinity of its ° “™"°* situation to the foot of the Pyrenees, the weather was so very unfavourable, that he could not advance till the 93d of February. His first movement was across the Adour and two other rivers: These were successful; and by the 27th of February, the whole army had taken up a —— A. D. 1814. on at Cha~ History. —\— A.D, 1814 Buttle of Orthes. 662 ition within four miles of the French forces under Soult, poe ip in ers pala lt 8. _——< ition of the Fren eral was very strong, his oh tern al thrown back, edt both his flanks advanced on very commanding heights, Lord Welling- ton resolved to attack him, His plarwas, that Marshal Beresford should turn the right of Soult’s army,. while the third and sixth divisions attacked his left and centre; but the fourth division, to which the attack on the right was entrusted, meeting with = opposition, and being unable to possess itself of the heights, on which the ene- my was placed, Lord Wellington changed his plan, and turned the third and sixth divisions against the right of the French; and thus forced him to abandon the heights, lest he should be completely surrounded. We have been thus more than usually particular ‘in describing the manceuvres of the British during the battle of Orthes, as they afford a striking proof of the charac- teristic rages and decision of Lord Wellington’s mind. While these operations were going on in this part, Soult found his centre attacked and his left threat- ened, by the British division of Sir Rowland Hill ha- ving carried a position on which it appuyed: Here, however, the French having a numerous artillery, made a vigorous and formidable resistance, but the two points of the base line of his position, (for it was in the form of a triangle,) being hard pressed by flank-attacks, and the centre at the same time yielding to the British, he gave orders for a retreat. At first his troops retreated without confusion ; but soon disorder spread among them, and they dispersed and made the best of their way, in the same manner as they had done in the battle of Vittoria. In the night they retired across the Adour, the British being so much exhausted that they could not pursue them to any considerable distance that night. On the 24th, however, they continued the pursuit to St Sevre, where General Beresford having crossed the Adour, advanced to the chief town in the department of the Landes. At first Soult retreated in the direction of Bourdeaux, but being defeated by Sir Rowland im an attempt to defend his magazines at. Aireon the Adour, he changed:his route, and retreated in the direction of Toulouse, The main British army followed him, while Sir John Hope be; the siege of Bayonne. Such was the battle of Orthes,—certainly one of the most general and hard fought in which Lord Wellington had been engaged since the commencement of the Pe- ninsular war; and it may be added, that not only in the positions which Soult fixed on, but in his condnis du- ring the engagement, he fully made out his claim to talents and perseverance as a military man. The e of the south of France, notwithstanding all the efforts to represent the =e as even worse than the Cossacks, received Lord Wellington and his army as friends; treating them with the utmost confi- gence and kindness, and evidently shewing that they dreaded more from their own soldiers than from them, But though they openly expressed their wish to receive back the Bourbons, Lord Wellington could not pro- claim or support their cause, as the negociations for se with Sosenetl were still going on. As soon, wever, as the city of Bourdeaux, which had suffered dreadfully from the revolution, and éspecially from: the measures of Bonaparte against commerce, and in which FRANCE . issued by the mayor; deputies were sent to Louis XVIII, History, and the British were im protect it against the forces of ton accordingly gave directions for march thither; and the Duke of been for some time with him, though not acknowledged or received publicly, hastened to shew himself to the citizens of Bourdeaux.’ The reception both of the Bri- tish and of the Duke was most flattering, not only in the town, but in the country throagh which In order to bring the affairs of this part of France to a conclusion, we shall proceed with our narrative of them, premising that about this time Bonaparte had been forced to abandon the government of France, and Louis XVIII: had been owledged king. In- telligence of these events had been immediately trans- mitted to Lord Wellington and Soult, but it unfortu. nately did not arrive in sufficient time to prevent anos ther battle, Soult had taken up a strong position neat Toulouse ; on the 8th of April, part of Lord Welling- ton’s army moved across the Garonne; between this river and the canal of were the fortified heights, that formed the chief strength of the French position: his Lordship resolved at once to storm these in front, and to turn the right of the enemy, while a lete du pont, which they formed on the onal protect their left, should be threatened. The 9th ‘of) April was spent in preparing for these attacks ; and on the 10th they were orniéd into execution. ‘They were in all points so well planned, and so admirably executed, that at the close of the day, the French were ‘com+ * of his army to ro Soles hdl ‘ pletely hemmed in, the allies having established them- Battle of selves on three sides of Toulouse, and the road to Car- Toulouse. cassone being the only one left open. In the night of the 11th, Soult drew off his troops by this road; and Lord Wellington entered ‘Toulouse in triumph the fol- lowing morning. The close of the campaign in the south of France was marked by one unfortunate event : Before Bayonne, which Sir John H invested, the French had a fortified camp, from which made a sortie at three o'clock of the morning of the 13th of April, The nee of the British army were driven in, and Sir John Hope, in his gallant attempts’ to su ort them, came: une ly on part of the French: his horse, which was shot dead, fell upon him ; and in . this situation he was made prisoner. , Although the allies in the north and east of France had at different times, since the commencement of the campaign, reached within a short distance of Paris, yet they had always been obliged to fall back, in consequence partly of a want of concert, and partly of the wonderful rapidity of Bonaparte’s movements, who, with a force de- cidedly inferior, contrived to pass from one point to ano- ther, so quickly and unexpectedly, as sometimes to de- feat, and almost always to retard the plans of the allies, As soon; however, as Austria began to act ina more de- cided manner, he was rendered sensible that his fate could not be much longer protracted, unless he had re- course’ to some desperate expedient, and that expe- dient completely succeeded. On the 23d of March, the army of Prince Schwartzenberg directed its route to Vitry, which was in possession of the Prussians. “ naparté also marched on the same place, for the’ pur- pose’ of uniting with Ney and Macdonald, who were there were many merchants descended from British families, learned that Lord Wellington had’ entered France, that Soult was entirely defeated, and that his retreat was towards Toulouse, it determined to declare for the Bourbons. A proclamation to this effect was advancing from St Dizier; but the’ Austrians having Bonspate reached the place before the French, he threw himself’ .¢ into the into their rear; while he formed a communication with rear of the the army of Blucher. Perhaps at the time Bonaparte Allies. found himself obliged to adopt this measure; perhaps Bourdeaux declares for the Bour- bons. History. A.D. 1814. eS ee —_- FRANCE. it was the deliberate consequence’ of a concerted plan’; for, whoever has studied his campaigns, must know that he often obtained success, by doing those acts, which, by their very boldness and rashness, so astonish- ed and pepese his opponents, that, from the effects which they produced on them in this respect, their success in a great measure originated. In this case, the tea & Bonaparte, if his measure was preconcert- ed, which most probably it was, was to get into the rear of the allies; and threaten their communication with Germany. It may be urged that his force was not ea to destroy the communication ; but it must be recollected, that he could receive reinforcements from the garrisons of the towns on the frontiers, provided nothing occurred to prevent ‘his’ rea¢ them. It is not likely, however, that he would have abandoned Paris to its fate by thus getting into the rear of the allies, and leaving the road to the capital open to them, had he not believed that the measures taken for its safety were perfectly ; for he must have known, that whoever aris possessed France, so much influence does the capital possess over the provinces. The defence of ‘this city had been entrusted to Mar- mont, under whose command the national guards, and such other as could be spared for this object, were placed. allies, disregarding the position of in their rear, resolved to strike a d and decisive blow, by advancing in a body to Paris. There can be no doubt, that in it they had a strong party; even some of Bonaparte’s fayourites and former ad- visers, iving that their lives and all they had gain- ed in his service were put in extreme jeopardy, by his rashness, resolved to abandon him and court. the fa- vour of the allies. The mass of the lation too, were at least indifferent about him; they did not, there- fore, regard the or probable entry of the ak lies as any evil or disgrace ane consequently resolved not to oppose it, ially as their ition would have been fruitless. ‘The of the allies, which ad- inst the capital of France, amounted to w wards of 200,000 men. On the ni ht of the 24th, three divisions of the French arrived at Vitry, in the of joining there ; but were imme- itely attacked ‘by allies, and eytedtgre: This is one proof among many others, of the imperfect intelligence which the Freneh possessed, even in their own country; and indicated,” , a8 much as any other circumstance, the decline, not only of the autho- rity, but of the popularity of . In conse- of similar want of intelli , both respecting situation of Bonaparte, and the advance‘of the al- lies, aiconvoy, consisting of 5000 men, who were pro- teeting a large quantity of provisions and other neces- saries of the utmost importance to Bonaparte, were met by the allies, and after a gallant resistance, com- pelled to’surrender. ~~ By this time Bonaparte’ had reached St Dizier, but there learning that the allies, unintimidated by his throwing himself into their rear, were still pushin on for Paris, and being moreover ill provided wi many necessaries for ‘his army, he? resolved to hasten back to the capital as quickly as possible. In this march he was ly followed and constantly harassed by Winzin with 10,000 horse and 40 pieces of cannon. the 28th and 29th of March, ie allies crossed the Marne near Meaux. On the night of the 29th, Mortier entered Paris, where he found about 8000 and 30,000 national guards, under the Such is a brief sk of the condition and character of the different classes of the French people at the pe- riod when Louis ascended the throne ; and this sketch is sufficient to shew the nature, the extent, and the im-' minence of the dangers and difficulties with which he was encompassed, The manner, too, in which he came to the throne, by the assistance of the enemies of France. 2 of those enemies over most of whom she had formerly triumphed, but who now beheld her prostrate at their feet, could not fail to create something like aversion to Louis, even in the breasts of those who,, from loyalty, from interest, or from purer motives, rejoiced at his ace cession, as consummating the overthrow. of Poniperiea for the love of national glory is so strong in the breast r : ‘viewed. Of the ma- the restored dynasty with less mixed a TT nt cane” un were all moulded in conformity to such a allies had invaded. France, had dethroned Bonaparte, and bad seated Louis in his stead, for the express pur« of a Frenchman, as not uently to overcome ev: . other principle, sentiment, ling. = os poor Louis was by no means equal to the embarrassing si- of Louis ALD. 1814. FRANCE. tuation in which he was placed. In his character there was no decision eonepnatere er and yet all these qualities were imperiously called for. With the military he never could be , and even if he ‘could ity with them must have rendered him jobnoxious to the allies, and the mass of the French na- tion ; yet almost his first measure was to court the mar- shals and of : By a fatal inconsist- ency, w he courted their support, he lent himself to the intrigues of the emigrants, or at least did’ not, with sufficient promptitude, put down their extravagant pre- tensions to their former privfleges. Thus he doubly alie- confidence and attachment. Such _ Soon after his entry into Paris, he formed his minis- try. At the head of it was M. D’Ambray as chancellor ; T: foreign affairs ; King, as members of the chamber for life. This list com nearly all the and other chief ity of the time prior to lution, with some of the new titles; among latter were T. d, Clarke, Lebrun, Berthier, men, named by opened by Louis, in a speech too plainly shewing the ne- ee ecdne eas tothe ania vice ol ibeiow of ; for he was particularly careful to impress on the and through them on the nation, that the lo- Seer eee een ned veneezes! ne blennet t monuments of their valour remained ; and that the chefs d'ceuvre of the arts would belong to them hencefor- it, bore a considerable resemblance to that of Great Bri- tain ; but in some points it differed from it, for the King of France was invested with the privi not only of ing but of adjourning both the bers. By. i igi two ways— in respecting them to ministers were introduced into the chamber of to present a law on this subject. The was divided into two parts, the first respected the publi- press. According to the first, every work of above 30 sheets 1 be published freely, without previous exa~ mination; but the liberty which was apparently given on this part of the projet, was in a great measure withdrawn, 667 by the proposal that the director-general of the press might order all writings under 30 sheets to be commu- nicated to him before al printed. The 5 Aten ~of censors was to be vested in the King. No journals or periodical ings were to appear without the King’s authority. According to the second of the pro- law, no person could be a printer or bookseller, without the King’s licence, which might be withdrawn ; and all printing establishments not Loaued might be destroyed. The projet concluded with a proposal that the law should be revised in three years. This projet was referred to a committee, who de- cided by a mere majority of votes, that previous censor- ship ought not to serve as the basis of the law. When the report of the committee was brought up, several bold and eloquent speeches were made in favour of the liberty of the press, which seemed to prove that more practicable ideas of the nature and object of government -were beginning to prevail in France ; but the painful re- avleaes os the same men who spoke thus freely and warmly. on this important topic, gave applause, appa- rently oe zealous and saaedh es +4 ieee of Pena. parte, forces the mind to withhold from them the rarer and more useful tribute of disinterested patriotism. In the sitting of the 11th of August, the Abbé Montesquieu the chamber of deputies in defence of the plan of the law, which had been submitted tothem, conceding, however, on the part of the King, certain amendments, to the effect that no censure should apply to a work ex- ceeding 20 sheets, and that the law shenld cease to ope- rate at the end of session 1816. After an animated de- bate, the law, as amended by the concession on the part of the crown, was adopted by the chamber, there being 137 votes for it, and 80 against it. , The only other topic of considerable interest and im- ce, which came under the discussion of the cham- rs, related to the restoration of the unsold estates of the emigrants. A law to that effect passed the cham~ ber oe dapaties by alarge majority ; it was then carried up to the chamber ‘of peers, where it passed by a majo- rity of 100 votes out of 103 present. On this occasion Marshal Macdonald ounced a discourse of great ef- fect, at the close of which he announced his intention of proposing a projet of a law, the object of which should to t life annuities to those of the emigrants, the sale of whose estates had left them unprovided for! The nature of the law was most mali- ciously misrepresented in one of the Paris journals. According to the statement in it, Marshal Macdonald asserted that the military of all ranks’ were willing’ to contribute a portion of their pay to create a fund for the oer of the Pee ope The effect, and pro- bably purpose of this misrepresentation, was to increase the ill-will of the soldiery, already sullen and irritated, not only towards the emigrants, but also: to- wards the King and the government. The offending: journal was immediately suppressed ; but such was e1- ther the timidity or the indecision of the government, that in a short time it was again permitted to be published. History. —— ‘A, D. 1814. On the pro- perty.of the emigrants. On the 10th of December, Marshal Macdonald pre- Discontents sented tothe chamber of of indemnity for the emigrants: he estimated at 300 millions the amount of confiscations or sales made, and of course the amount of indemnities to be provided ; and he proposed to replace the value of the confiscated and sold estates by an annuity of 2} per cent. Such were the two principal topics that came under. discussion before the chambets during 1814: they were not only important in themselves, but they had a ma- terial influence on the stability and permanence of Louis’ government ; for the very limited liberty grant- a sketch of his system in France. History. —/ A. D. 1814 State of the military. Rumours of Bona- parte’s re- turn. Genjectures respectin.- Ashe of it 668 ed tp the prem alarmed and alienated the republican party, which were now beginning to assume consis- tency and strength; and the very agitating of the sub- ject relative to the property of the, emigrants, crea= ted serious and general apprehension in the minds of ely spread the very numerous and wi class. who had urchased confiscated estates. Discontent and dissatis-~ action began to manifest themselves in different parts of the kingdom. Among the a pee from which Louis, or rather his brother, had promised to libe- rate the French, were the droits reunis, or indirect taxes; but though the minister of finance, and af- terwards Talleyrand, officially reported the prospects of France, with respect to the produce of the taxes, and manufactures, and commerce, as v oe yet the King could not redeem his pledge that droits reunis should be taken off. In consequence of which, the collection of: them created such serious discontents, that his Majesty was obliged to issue an or dinance, which at once proved the serious nature and the extent of the evil, and the inability or apprehension of the government, to crush it effectually by vigorous measures, But all these signs of approaching misfortune to Louis, were ambiguous, or trifling, compared to those which might have been gathered from the conduct, the feelings, and the power of the military. To them the King had delivered himself up, even more completely than he had done when he first ascended the throne : Soult was minister of war, and consequently had an op nity of forming any plans which his former at- ts might suggest. e had, indeed, taken the oaths of fidelity to Louis; but weak and credulous must that man have been, who could put faith in the oath of a soldier of the revolutionary school, one of the most fa aay and eer poo agen of which was, that mili glory was of such paramount obligation, as to justity any means by which it could earn ty The King, therefore, had cast himself, bound hand and foot, into the power of his enemies, while he had ne- glected to make friends of the people. In the mean time, Bonaparte, in the isle of Elba, was nearly forgotten; when, to the astonishment and dis- may, not only of the French King, but ef all Europe, he suddenly landed near Cannes, in France, on the Ist of March, The arrangement of the plan, in confor- mity to which he was invited, or induced to land in France, is not accurately known. The following cir- cumstances, however, are either well substantiated, or highly probable :—Almost immediately after his depar- ture i France, his. numerous_ partizans, y among the soldiery in the southern provinces of the kingdom, began to talk in mysterious terms of the vio- let season, and to express a strong wish for its arrival. To those who compared and considered these terms, it was soon evident that Bonaparte was expected in France at the return of the violet season ; but it was not easy to ascertain whether this expectation was ded on any promise he had made, or plan which they knew was forming, or whether it was vaguely taken up by his admirers. The expectation, however, grew strong- er and more general as the spring a : there is good reason to believe that the ministers of Louis were informed of it, and that it would probably be re- alized: but what measures of ution could be ex- pected from men who were either lesgnedi ‘with Boba: parte, or who were so ignorant of the state of France, and of the character of the sovereign of Elba, as to see no danger to their sovereign from either? It is not so easy to trace the framers of the plan for bringing back Bonaparte, or the arrangements thst were FRANCE. made for carrying that plan into execution. We know, however, that Louis was disliked, both by the military and republican party ; and it is highly probable the restoration of Bonaparte was planned and achieved of defeat ; the lat- acquired, fter down to the observance of a free constitution. ‘ Bonaparte had been attended to the isle of Elba by commissioners from the allied po ; but soon after rectly charged with the Ge fo absence of sailed orto Ferrajo, on the 26th of F 4 with about 1000 men, very few of whom were F men, the rest being Poles, Corsicans, Neapolitans, and Elbese. Generals Bertrand and Drouet It was soon a dot th eddiaeta ane, i F : i cing. Grenoble was the first military rison town at which he arrived; here a General Marchand was posted : the ful, but the soldiers, on a short joined his ranks. So quick and unmolested was 1 that on the 8th of March he reached Lyons. As soon as the intelligence of Bonaparte’s landing sequences of Louis 2 773 zEee is, but he was not active in his behalf; and the troops with whom he marched against Bonaparte refused to act. Ofall the traitors to their a: Marshal Ney was the most he np ipled: pea oversea = og xeon bse bec i chan to take parte, or alive: troops were ‘ under his command for that p : he advanced ap- ee a but on the 14th of March, when parte had reached Lons le Saulnier, he joined him, and issued a proclamation to his army, in which he de~ scribes the Bourbons as unfit to reign, and recommends his troops to join the great Napoleon. Under these circumstances, the zeal of the friends of Louis was of no avail. Monsieur and the Duke of Or- leans had advanced along with Macdonald to Lyons; were disaffected, and the people either Baws History. y 4 hf ——_— He esca) Treachery of the Mar- shals and j the army, | but mabe pore A indifferent, and unwilling to expose themselves to dan~ _ FRANCE. regiment which should take Bonaparte alive ; but no regiment‘moved to obtain the reward. Measures Louis, finding that the army was decidedly against of Louis. him, endeavoured to attach the republican party to his interest, by promising them a freer constitution ; but, at the same tirne, he impolitically threatened the French nation with the invasion of 300,000 foreigners, if Bo- naparte should triumph. ' In reality, surrounded as he sence, in keeping down such parts of the wiventies pe ‘allesage, un panyi , and accom him, he idly from Lyons towards Paris. On pms eh a vanced brevet iy 40 leagues from the capital. In evening of the 19th, . Louis left Paris; and, at 4 o’clock in the net | puss of the 20th, Bonaparte entered it.’ The d Louis was unmolested ; and, during his j into the Netherlands, he no insult the peo- ple; and even the soldiery treated him with silent His addres. | As Soon as Bonaparte landed at Cannes, he issued sestothe addresses to the French people and to the army. In oy these addresses, et hehe gen ib Bes . suf. ‘Trinciple on which in future to act ;—to forget that pe tes orb ne py aps mea but not to suffer any in their affairs, In subsequent official declarations, however, the breach of some of the arti- cles of the te mer was seed for tae tering the jenna, Was assi for his ing re- ied the throne of France. fod were the preservation of peace with the allies, and the with the terms on which the repub- * the sove- filled with declamation against the Bourbons, as reignsof a not fitted for the French , from which Europe. _ therefore the nation had 5 ca upon him as their liberator; and with sentimental ons ad ear t:< Gani nvaciae torn to paring to act most vigor: inst him, he had re- course to the usual methods of deceiving the French na- tion, who were now inning to be alarmed at the probable consequences of his return, by representing 669 him, and by fixing the day History. of the arrival of the Empress, as a proof that the Em- ~~ peror of Austria would not support the Bourbons. A. D, 1815. The most superficial knowledge of human nature will not permit us to believe, that a man of such a decided character as Bonaparte, with military and des- potic habits so long indulged and so strongly formed, could, during his short residence in Elba, become a sincere convert to and liberty. His declara- tions, therefore, in favour of both, must be traced to the same miotive. Perceiving that war was inevita- ble, and that the people required a strong stimulus to rouse them, and being under the controul of the. re- publican » he consented to the drawing up of an additi act to the constitution of the F'rench empire, Promises In this, there were certainly many excellent enact. the French: ments ; but even if France had remained at peace, they — gy must, ‘with the habits and feelings of her population, © have been completely nugatory.. In order to give the of the free and general acceptance of this act, and to afford the Parisians a spectacle, a decree was passed, ordering the assembly of 20,000 re- ives of the whole people, after the ancient man- ner of the Franks, in the Champde Mai. . soon found that his newly acquired power Isurrec- was likely to be shaken, not merely by foreign war, but-tions against by internal commotion, while the despotic authority, him in dif- which he had formerly exercised, was peremptorily de- ‘mt parts nied him by the chambers. Nearly the whole of the west, ° “™"°* and many districts of the south of France, were rising in. favour ot the Bourbons, animated by the presence of the Duke de Berri at j the Duke d’Angouleme on the- shores of the Mediterranean, and the Duchess d’Angou- leme at Bourdeaux ; and though these illustrious per- sonages were soon compelled to leave France, yet they had succeeded in raising a spirit of resistance, not less formidable from its extent and union, than from its de- termined character. In La Vendée, that former abode of loyalty to the Bourbons, a reguiar and successful ware fare in their behalf was carried on. ; As soon as the allied powers were informed of the 5.5... ing of Bo e, they issued a declaration, dated gions of the the 13th of M in which he was declared to have de- allies, prived himself of the protection of the law ; to have ma- nifested to the universe, that there could be neither peace nor truce with him ; to have placed himself without the-pale of civil and social relations ; and to have ren- dered himself liable to public vengeance, as an enemy and disturber of the tranquillity of the world. Against him, therefore, and in sup of the legitimate sove- reign of France, wae ved to make war. This de- elaration was strongly censured in England, as encou- raging the assassination of igs cae ; and though this interpretation was explicitly an a gy disavow- ed by the British ministry, yet, in the treaty among the allied powers, which was formed on this declara- tion, it was thought proper to omit these passages. By this treaty, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, agreed each to furnish 150,000 men ; and not to lay down their arms until Bonaparte was completely depri- ved of the power of exciting disturbances. When this treaty was ratified by Great Britain, a declaration was annexed, that there was no intention to interfere in the internal government of France: To this declaration the rest of the allies gave their formal and solemn assent. Even before the treaty was ratified, the allied troops were in motion towards the frontiers of France ; The Eng- and two formidable armies, under the Duke of Welling- lish and the Prussians the English as friendly to ' ton and Prince Bluchet, were soon assembled in the vie oe ile in cinity of Brussels, . The aii, under the Duke of Wel-- 4}. Nether. lington were composed of British, Germans, Dutch, lands. 670 History. and Belgians: Those under Blucher, of Prussians and Saxons ; but, in consequence of the mutinous spirit of A. D, 1815 the latter, most of them were sent back into Germany. The preparations of Bonaparte were by no means ing, he left Paris, having nominated Generals Sebas- June 14. capital, dere POF=, tion and.nature would allow. On the 14th, he atrived at Avesnes, where he issued an order of the day, res FRANCE, 671 _ History’ minding his troops that the 14th was the anniversary tre it had various weak points. It ran from the Brussels _ History. pers. of the battles of and Friedland, attd-that «+40. road tothe right about 4 mile and a half in length ; and a SS every Frenchman who had a heart, the moment was then turned very sharply to the right, and crossed the A. D. 1815, _ arrived to mer or perish.” The position of his road from Nivelle to Namur : these two roads cross each > > army was as S: Imperial head quarters.at other,so that the British position formed nearly a quarter a Beaumont; the Ist corps commanded by General circle. At the turn of the bottom of a slope, was a farm D’Erlon, at Solfre on the Sambre ; the 2d. com- and orchards, called Mount St John, whi was the key manded by General Reille, was at Ham-sur-Heure; of the position, and the front of the centre. On their corps commanded by General Vandamme, was left, the British communicated with the Prussians at. of Beaumont; and the 4th corps com- Wavre, through Ohaim. manded. by General Girard, was at Phili ille. The At half past 10 o’clock in the forenoon of the 18th, patile of were established on the bre; these Bonaparte teem to put his troops in motion; and, Waterloo, he attacked at day on the morning of the 15th, about an hourafterwards, one of his corps attacked the June 18. and in the course of the day drove them from the river, country-house on the right of the British, where the and made himself master of the ground from Thuin to Nassau troops were posted : these were obliged to give Prussians, Fleurus, a distance of about 16 miles, on the Namur way; but the house itself’ was so well defended, that _June15. road ; whilst on the Brussels road, he forced back a the French could not gain possession of it. This at« i to Quatre Bras, about 12 miles from tack on the right of the British centre, Bonaparte ac- the Sambre. Bonaparte in this affair evidently hadthe companied with a dreadful fire of artillery ; under the advantage, and seems to have surprised the allies. cover of which, he made repeated attacks of cavalry Battleof Qn the 16th, the Prussian army was posted on the and infantry, sometimes mixed, and sometimes sepa- ‘igny ,, heights between Bril, and Sombref, occupying the vil- rate, from the centre to the right: but the skill of the lages of St Amand and Ligny, situated in its front. It Duke of Wellington, and the admirable moral courage i 3 the 4th aoe was not and physical strength. of his), were unconquer« vanced in able. Against one of these a of the French ca-« about three valry, General Picton, who was with his division on ] : Ney, w he had at the road from Brussels to Charleroi, advanced with the kength called to the army, was ordered to put himself bayonet. The French; struck with astonishment at at the head of the 2d corps, and attack General Picton’s the circumstance of i advancing to the charge of division, the corps of the Duke of Brunswick, and the cavalry, fired, and then fl At this moment, General ‘assau i which the Duke of Welli had Picton was unfortunately killed. The English life. dispatched in of the Prussians, and which had guards next advanced against the 49th and 105th regi- rae Saga dy $n about half past two o'clock. ments of French ee : to their support i cuiras« The. ject of Bonaparte was to gain possession Siers came up: most sanguinary cavalry fight per-~ of St Amand ; and he succeeded after a vigorous re« haps ever witnessed, was the consequence ; but the Bri- sistance. He next advanced against Ligny, where the were victorious, and the cuirassiers were annihilated. combat was of a most desperate and sanguinary de- — The battle had now lasted upwards of five hours ; scription. The Prussians, with their gallant commander, during which Bonaparte had lost an immense number were urged on to use their most strenuous efforts, of men, by his desperate charges, without being able every feeling of a national or individual nature, which to make any decisive impression... The Duke of Wel-. can men to brayery and vengeance ; for five hours _lington, with the skill of a consummate general, kept his. the near this village with doubtful success, troops entirely on the defensive; but though he thus while the Prussians by retaking a part of the village had saved their strength as much as possible, yet they of St Amand, regained an advantageous position on a wend beganning fo beeen: Sekt Ise com- height near that village. Still, however, the French mander frequently turned his anxious and vigilant eye were gradually overpowering the Prussians by their to that quarter where he expected the Prussians to arrive.. superiority of numbers; anxiously did Blucher look for © At break of day, the Prussian army had began to i of the move; the 2d 4th corps marched to take up a po pe Oe rags up, and the lat- rpc whence they mi 7 Pte yg —— on the rear, ter with difficulty mai i tion at Quatre if circumstances prov: vourable, e 1st corps was. Pes which he to operate on the right flank of the French ; and the 3d pushing it corps was to follow slowly in order. About 5 o’clock,, Bonaparte perceived the advance of of the Prus-« sian army, which at first he seems to have supposed to have been the division of his own army under Marshal Grouchy, who had been posted on the rear of the allies irassi to'take advantage of their anticipated defeat, _ As soon, main body of the Prussian army was taken in the however, as he ascertained that it was the Prussians, he at the same moment, the French cavalry succeed- his attacks with cavalry and infantry, supports, i ing several attacks of the Prussian cavalry : by artillery, in a more desperate and, m OuS | rt the success of : the Prussians. manner than ever; but the British were immoyeable, At last, about seven in the evenings he made.a last ef. not come up, afterwards to Wavre. fort, putting himself at the h of his guards. He The attack made by Ney on the English at Quatre succeeded for a moment in driving back the Bruns- Bras was equally desperate in its nature, but not so wickers ; but the Duke of Wellington, putting himself successful to the French in its result; for all their at their head, and animating them by a short speech, charges were repulsed in the steadiest manner. In this restored the combat. At this critical moment, the Prus- affair the Duke of Brunswick was slain. _ © sians came up: General Bulow advanced nip hi the. In of the retreat of the Prussians, the rear of the right wing of the French ; and Marshal. of Wallington retired on Waterloo. ‘The posi- Blucher had joined in nm. with a corps of his army tion which he occupied was , but towards the cen« to the left of the British army, by Ohaim, The Duke | | : | raih ue i i He 54 a2 af | : i : F 672 of Wellington headed the foot-guards; spoke a few words to them, which were replica to by a general hur~ rah ; and his Grace guiding them on with his hat, they marched at the point of the bayonet, to close action with the imperial guard: but the latter began a retreat, in which they were imitated by the whole French ar~ my. The British, completely exhausted, left the pur- suit to the Prussians, who, coming fresh to battle, soon changed the retreat of the French into a rout, the most pose gtelte Eprom ever known. In this battle, nearly ilistory. —— A. D. 1815. Total 9 300 pieces of cannon were taken, and upwards of 14,000 feat of the prisoners. ‘The loss of the French in killed, especially * on the 16th, when the Prussians neither gave nor re- ceived quarter, was immense; on the 16th and 18th, it could not have amounted to less than 40,000 men. On the 16th, the Prussians lost about 16,000 men; and on the 18th, the Duke of Wellington’s army about 13,000. and ruin of ~ No battle, perhaps, ever was fought of a more obsti- Bovapartes nate description, or more decisive in its consequences. In this one battle of Waterloo, the fate of was sealed, and his empire again overthrown. In this one battle, the fame of the Duke of Wellington was raised to a summit it cannot possibly surpass; and the British soldiers proved that they were worthy of being commanded by such a who fiiesto ° On leaving the field of battle, fled as ra- Paris, and pidly as possible to Paris, where he arrived onthe 21st, abdicates and convoked a council of ministers. On the 22d, the the throne. two chambers declared: their sittings’ Bonaparte was given to un was expected. ° a ee ee which hedeclared his political life terminated ; and pro- claimed his son, under the title of Napoleon TI, His ab- dication was accepted by the Chambers ;: but the ques- tion was evaded with regard to the title of young Na- poleon, A commission of five was chosen to exercise rovisionally the functions of government: the mem- beed were, Fouche, Carnot, Grenier, Caulaincourt, and Quinette. At first, the Chambers seem to have enter- tained some hopes that the of the allies might have been arrested; but on the representation of Ney, that it was impossible to collect 25,000 men, they voted that an nny eters be made to negociate an armis- tice with the Duke of Wellington. In the mean time, the Duke and Prince Blucher were advancing rapidly towards Paris. The latter was unsuccessfully by Marshal Grouchy, who hav- ing united some of the fugitives from the battle of Waterloo with his corps, at last reached the capital with about 40,000 men. With these, and some of the national guards, &c. an attempt was made to pre- vent the Prussians from taking a position’ on the left of the Seine, the only part whereon defensive works had been thrown up. the failure of this .attempt, and the refusal of the Duke of Wellington to negociate an armistice, Paris was surrendered to the allies by a mili- tary convention, the principal stipulations of which were, that the French army should march out of it, and take up a position behind the Loire ; that the duty of the city should continue to’ be performed. by the nation- al guards ; that public and private property should be ; that no person should be called to account for his conduct or opinions; and that the convention should be common to all the allied powers, provided it’ FRANCE. were ratified by the powers on whom the armies were dependant.* On the 8th of July, Louis entered his ca- pice! again, She prone aeeeenene ae cham- council, such others as the ki sponsible ministers, The latter are in number eight: con- ror of Talleyrand, president of the council, and’secre- tary for foreign affairs; Baron Louis, minister of finance ; His mini- Fouche, Duke of Otranto, of the police ; Baton ier, ***** the department of justice, and keeper of the seals ; Mar- shal Gouvion St Cyr, the a t of war; Count de Jaucour, the marine ;and the Duke de Richelieu, the household. Theappointmentof Fouche, aman moredeep- ly stained with the crimes of the Revolution, than per . ; iy - 3 be wr gy er principal surviving actors in that dread- { drama, excited universal astonishment and indigna- banks of the Loire ; and at length sent in a haughty, reluctant, and suspicious submission to Louis, commu- nicated in an address from Davoust, who commanded it, more like the state paper of an i t sove- sign, than the penitent submission of a‘ rebellious and ated general. Even after Louls had re-ascended ; the throne, the armies of Bavaria, Russia, and Austria, were obliged to fight their way to Paris; and-in those instances, where entered into n f - with Bonaparte’s generals, the latter were left in a condition : of i dence on their legitimate sovereign, and al- . most placed on a level with the victorious allies.. Not: withstandi e presence of nearly 300,000 troops of : the allies, seditious cries and movements constantly agi- — a prc eevee Nata In many of the provin= France, ces, a spirit of disaffection shews itself openly. In short, to judge from the present state of France, we should con- clude, that it was not the conquered but the victorious country, and that Bonaparte, instead of being an exile, was still on the throne. In this alarming crisis, the measures of Louis are timid and vacillating. A few of s creatures, who swore allegiance to Louis, | and then betrayed him, have been ordered to be arrest- . ed and tried ; but it is extremely doubtful, whether this order will be followed Aart Bac eee to take . them ; and if they are taken, by whom are orenbe tried ? by men as guilty as themselves! The para- mount feeling which thus ‘agitates France, is that of wounded self-love; the di and humiliation ‘of be« ing conquered, which, in the time of their success, they most insultingly poured on other nations, is returned : on themselves ; the demoralization which the national character has suffered during the Revolution, has be« come so deeply seated, aud so constitutional, that the severe remedies which have been applied serve’ only to irritate and inflame. Hence there-is reason to-aj hend, that it will require a considerable time, and measures of consummate wisdom applied ‘with ex treme caution, to restore France to that state, in which 7 to Aen wot ne rae safe, and useful member of the community of urope.” e aye ss F - ‘ : ‘ r #00. iti fate of Bonaparte, after his second) abdication, is rather the subject of biography than of | historyy yet we shall-here sub- « the ere Before the allies reached Paris, he quitted that ital and went to r ~vesse pace Rrepeset en, him and his attendants to America. The British government, however, informed of his plan, b ed this part of the ’rench coast so , that he found himself compelled to surrentier to Captain Mai of the Bell , who commanded the blockading : ‘In this ship he was to the coast of , but not suffered to land ; ‘and about the middle of August, he was sent ‘to the island- of St Helena with part of his suite, to be kept during the remainder of his life. ‘ pave ote Lay é' Bountaries, FRANCE. “STATISTICS. a CHAP. I. Boundaries and Extent of France—Progressive Geo- graphy—Division into Provinces and Departments —Military Divisions. By the treaty of Paris in 1814, the kingdom of France was reduced within the same limits that bound- ed it previously to the Revolution ; but its extent of aeedgmen deat for Avignon and the coun- ty of the Venaissin, which had formerly to the Pope, but which had been i ted with France before January 1792, were to be integral and permanent parts of that kingdom by the treaty. alluded to. France, as itis bounded at: present, is marked out, -as one of. the separate ki of Europe, by natural limits on three of its si These are, the Channel between it and England on the north ; the Bay of Bis- on the west, and the Pyrenean mountains and the eRnlatasDtek voset catalan chek: anxithie lent, north- east, and south-east, its limits are not accurately fixed by nature. On the east, it borders on Germany and Switzerland ; on the north-east, on those provinces which formerly composed the Austrian Netherlands, but which are now united to Holland; and on the south-east, on Savoy and Piedmont. It extends from the 424 to nearly the 51st degree of north latitude, and ds above 11 degrees of longitude ; the most of Alsace | 7 degrees eastward of the ssondeedaf Grecruteh, the most westerly part of Brittany rather more than 4 westward of the same meridian. _ Were it not for this province, which stretches about 100 miles farther into the’Atlantic Ocean than any other part of the ki the form of France would be almost a square, the breadth and length pretty nearly equal, 7. e. about 560 miles. rete vrenecws sitieinpeh beadenaostenenes ing inthe na : we ee ae eee RE orekes it 28,054 ; Defer, 31,278; Sanson, 31,657: the medium of these is 28,642. — reckoning 15 miles to a degree, fixes the extent of France at 10,000 square miles; the Marshal de Vauban makes it 30,000 leagues, or 140,940,000 arpents ; Voltaire 130,000,000 arpents. Tem gives it an extent of 138,837 ical miles ; but as he reckons only 60 piitastalaednaeonecthie. doutibens spnethlin-anaiiiendute 119,224,874 acres. Panclon, by cov: ing his map with shot to every indenture of outline, fi the kin, to pa py arpents, each of 100 y at 22 perch, or 13444 toises ‘e to the arpent ; instead of which, the arpent of Paris contains but 900 toises. A ing to this measurement, France arpents ; observing that, by the amount is 125,000,000. Abonne calculates it at 105,000,000.; and the author of logie sur l’ Edit de Nantes, at 185,600,000. M. Neckar seems to have been the first who ascertained the area of France with considerable accuracy. According to him (not including Corsica) it ds 26,951 leagues square, of 2282 toises, or 156,024,213. arpents of VOL. IX, PART IL. into four parts; G 673 Paris, which is equivalent to 131,722,295 English acres, ‘This calculation is nearly adopted by M. Jorse, author of the Credit Nationale, wid reckons that France contains 27,000 oe 2282 toises, 5785 arpents of Paris to a league, and also by Mr A. Young: This gives to France 156,225,720 arpents. The committee of the first Na- tional Assembly stated it soon afterwards at 26,463 square leagues; and this is probably pretty accurately the area of France as it is now bounded. The progressive geography of this kingdom presents Statistics, Progressive very differént limits and divisions at different times. geography. The ancient Gaul, as has already been remarked in the History of France, comprehended a larger portion of territory than France now contains. Under the name Gallia, was originally comprehended Gallia Cisalpina, and Gallia Transalpina: the former was entirely on the south side of the Alps, and the latter contained all the present France, and that part of Germany and Belgium westward of the Rhine.- According to the Abbe du Fresnoy, ancient Gaul, by which hemeans Gallia Trans- alpina, was bounded on the south by the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Var; on the east by the Alps and the Rhine ; on the north by the same river ; and on the west by the ocean. The Romans first il- lustrated the geography of Gaul, which they considered as divided into three chief regions, the Celtic, Belgic, and Aquitaine. The bounds of Gallia Celtica were the ocean, the Seine, the Marne, the Saone, the Rhine, and the Garonne. Gallia Belgica was bounded by the Seine, the Marne, the mountains of Vosges, the Rhine, and the ocean; and Gallia Aquitania by the ocean, Garonne, and the enees. Augustus divided Gaul ia Narbonensis, which compre- hended , Foix, Vivarres, Provence, Dauphiny, and Savoy ; Aquitania, which was of larger extent than it had been in the time of Julius Cesar, and compre- hended all the country between the Pyrenees, the ocean, and the Loire ; Lugdunensis, the Jargestof all, which was bounded by the ocean, the Loire,.the Seine, the Marne, and the mountains of Vosges; and Belgica, which was-bounded by the ocean, the country of Caux, the Seine, the Marne, the mountains of Vosges, and the Rhine. The Notitia Imperii, which was made in the fourth century, ts us with another division of Gaul; for there it is divided into five great provinces ; Lug- dunensis, Belgica, Germania, Vienensis, and Aquitania, each of which are subdivided into several others. The EmperorConstantine the Great divided Gaul into seven- teen provinces or governments, six of which were con- sular, and eleven under certaii presidents sent by the Emperor, who resided in the capital cities. The names of the provinces and the: capital cities were, 1. Nar bonnensis prima, capital city Narbonne; 2. Narbon- nensis secunda,. capital city Aix.in Provence ; 3, Vien- nensis, ital city; Vienne in Dauphiny; 4. A Graize and Pemine;. capital city Moustenon in Ta- rentaise, a province of Savoy ; 5. Alpes Maritime, ca« pital city Embranin eas pm ; 6. Lugdunensis prima, capital .city. Lyons ;_ 7. unensis secunda, capital city Rouen ; 8. Lugdunensis tertia, capital city Tours ; 9. unensis quarta, capital city Sens in Champagne ; 10. Sequania, capital city Besangon; 11. Aquitania prima, capital city Bourges; 12. Aquitania secunda, capital city Bourdeaux ; 13.. Novempopularia, capital city Auch in Gascony ; 14. Germania prima, capital city Mentz; 15, Germania. secunda, capital city Co- 4 ©. In the time of the Ro- mans, In the 4th century. Statistics. —_— In the time of the Franks, Union of the to provinces, 674 logne ; 16. Belgica prima, capital city Triers ; and, 17. Belgica secunda, capital city Rheims. After the death of Clovis, the dominion of the Franks was divided into a ar viz. Oesterric, or the East- ern Kingdom, called by corruption Austrasia; and Westerric, or the Western Kingdom, called Neustria. The former contained all old France, as it existed in the time of Clovis; that is, all the co that reach- ed from the Rhine to the Loire, and the country be- hind the Marne, jwhich the Franks had. conquered, to- gether with Rheims, Chalons, Cambray, and Laon, which was from that time a separate kingdom, the seat of which was Metz in Lorraine. Aquitania was not comprised under the name of France; nor Burgundy, even after it had been conquered ; nor the lower part of Brittania Armorica, which was at this time an inde- a state. Neustria contained all the country that ies between the Loire and the Meuse, and was divided into three kingdoms: 1. France, the capital of which was Paris ; this comprehended what is now called the Isle of France; 2. Orleans; 3. Soissons. Afterwards, when the Franks had subdued the Visigoths and Bur- gundians, two other kingdoms were erected, Aquitaine and Burgundy. Beate Pesach historians and geographers are of opi- nion, that under the Merovingian race of kings, the territory of France had nearly the same limits which it now possesses; that under the Carlovingian race near- ly the whole was wrested from the sovereign by the abuse of the feudal system ; and that, under the Cape- tian dynasty, nearly the whole was recovered. The iginal domain of the crown under Hugh Capet seems ve consisted of Picardy, the Isle of France, and the Orleannois. Berry was the first province that was reunited to the crown: It was governed by Counts, who continued in ion of it till about the year 1100, when Eudes Aspin sold it to King Philip I. who united it to his dominions. Touraine and Normandy were confiscated to. the crown, or conquered under Philip Augustus. 0 aye was next annexed, by inheri- tance, under Philip the Hardy; but, according to some, it was not absolutely united to the crown till the reign of King John im 1316; Cham e@ was go- verned by its Counts till 1274, at which period, Jane, who was the last Countess, was married to Prince Phi- lip, son of Philip the Hardy ; and thus this province was united to France, though the final and permanent usion did not take place till 1961, in the reign of King John. The province of Lyonnois came into:the ypos- session of the crown under Philip the Fair; Dauphiny under Philip de Valois. Poitou, Aunis, Limosin, and Saintonge, were conquered by Charles V. ; and Guienne and Gaseony by Charles VII. Maine and Anjou were acquired by inheritance, under Louis XI. The same monareh seized the duchy of Burgundy as an escheat to the crown, and took possession of all Provence on the death of Charles, King of Sicily, who was Count of Provence. Anne of Brittany, the only daughter of Francis II. the last duke of that province, married Charles VIII. and afterwards Louis XII. by the last of whom she had two daughters, the eldest: of whom married Francis I. who united Brittany to the erown of France in 1532, Under: this monarch, Auvergne, Bourbonnois, and Marche, were confiscated and:united tothe crown. Bearn, Foix, and a: of Gascony, were the patrimony of Henry IV. and thus were united to France when he ascended the throne of that kingdom, Rousillon formerly belonged to Spain ; but Louis KLIK took it in 1642, and it was afterwards yielded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, ‘The house of ‘ FRANCE. Austria had Artois till the reign but he having conquered great to ps bine V. King of Spain, and afterwards by Ch Il. his son. Alsace was yielded to the French by the of Ryswick, in the reign of Louis XIV. Franche Compté continued subject to the house of Austria till Louis XIV. seized it in 1668, but he was obliged to restore it the next year: He seized it again in 1674, and it was confirmed to him by the treaties of Nimeguen and Ryswick. That part of the Low Coun- tries which France retains by the recent treaty of Paris, were acquired by conquest in the reign of Louis XIV. Lorraine was the last acquisitior of France before the Revolution, wer os of it, the three rere “eer Metz, Toul, and hedung/spedingsaubilerlaaty I. and cee: weeitabnemer: Arvin Se in 1648: the other parts of this province, the ¢ of Lorraine rly so called, and the duchy of Bar, were seized by. ouis XV. and afterwards ceded to him by treaty. Before the Revolution, France was divided into $2 pjvisions distinct governments, 18 of which are in the circuit, before the The first na- Revolution and 14 in the middle of the ki tional assembly, by its decrees of the 15th of January, and the 16th and 26th of February 1790, divided France As, however, the divisions as © into 83 di they exhend eho the Revolution are still referred to, and as a an tee . n to the right understanding of the history tha img kingdom, we shall saeamraeatied pare te corresponding” ents. Itis ) ever, to premise chat cach ent is Sobdivided inte 3, 4, or 5 districts, called communes arrondissements. These districts are again divided into cantons, and, lastly, each canton is composed of a certain number of communes, that is to say, of towns and villages. A commune is sometimes a single town, and sometimes a union of se= veral villages, nape @ mayor and communal mu- nicipality.. Allthe considerable cities are divided into several communes, pesamenese I. The: province of Flanders, or the territories which Flanders. Franee | in the western part of the Nether- lands before the Revolution, and. which she still retains. This forms the department of the North, which con- tains 6 districts, 60 cantons, and 671 communes;; its territorial. extent is 6030 kilometers,—24 kilom smo es being very nearly equal to 7 square miles, of 60 toa i The principal edn this department is ouay. > II. The province of Artois forms the department of Artois. the Straits of Calais, which contains 6 districts, 43 can~ tons, and Yg53 communes’; its territorial extent is 70424 kilometers; its oe town is Arras, - IK. The principal part ment of the Somme, which contains 5 districts, 41 can- tons, and. 848 communes. Its territorial extent is a kilometers; its principal town is Amiens: — IV. Normandy is divided into the departments Normandy. of the Lower Seine, the Eure, the Orme, Calvados, and the Channel. The Lower Seine contains $° dis- tricts, 20:cantons, and 79 communes ; its territorial ex- tent is 63724 kilometers; its principal town is’ Rouen: The department of the Eure contains 5 districts, 86 cantons, and 8438 communes ; its territorial extent is 61824 kilometers ; its principal town is Evreaux. The department of the Orme contains 4 districts, $8 can+ — and 627 communes’; its’ a see ae 4 6875 ilometers; its principal town is Alengon. epart- ment of Calvados seanal 6 districts, 87 cantons, and 896 commues ; its territorial extent is 5640 kilometers ; its principal town isCaen. The department of the Chan- of the same monarch ; Statistics. part of it, it was ceded = Picardy forms the depart- Picardy. ae i Same Hwee fe Owe v The of the Isle of F _V. The province le rance is divided in« the departments of the Aisne, the Oise, the Seine, the Seine and Marne, and the Seine and Qise. The ants ape ieee arm VL The province of Champagne contains the depart- ments of the Ardennes, of the Marne, eee Marne, of the Aube and the Yonne. The repel on Chat The department of the i contains 3 districts, 28 cantons, and 552 communes; its territorial extent is.6540 kilometers ; Adosmaben teen The department of the contains 5 districts, 26 cantons, and 423 com- territorial extent is 7740 kilometers ; its principal town is Auxerre. VU. The of Lorraine is divided into. the province ea osges. lepartment euse con« tains 4 districts, 28 cantons, and 591 eommunes ; its territorial extent is 6275 kilometers ; its principal town is Bar-le-duc. The ‘he department of the Moselle contains 4 districts, 30 cantons, and 934 communes; its territo- rial extent is 65524 kilometers ; its town is Metz. The of the Meurt contains 5 dis« tricts, 29 cantons, and 718 communes ; its territorial ex- tent is 6430 kilometers; its principal town is Nancy. The department of Vooges containa 6 districts, 80 can: tons, and 550 communes ; its territorial extent is 65224 kilometers ; its principal town is Epinal. ince of Alsace is divided into the de« partments of the Lower and the Higher Rhine. The department of the Higher Rhine contains 5 districts, 39 cantons, and 703 communes ; its territorial extent is 6030 kilometers ; its principal town is Colmar. The t of the Lower contains 4 districts, 37 cantons, and 616 communes ; its territorial extent is 5695 kilometers ; i FRANCE. 675 Statistics. nel contains 5 districts, 48 cantons, and.669 communes; is 7660 kilometers ; its p principal to Nant The Statistics. —"\— its territorial extent is 6890 kilometers ; its principal department of Morbihan romain iekieioes shane” tons, and 231 communes ; its territorial extent is 70674 kilometers ; its principal town is Vannes. The ment of the North Coast-contains 5 districts, 47 can- tons, and 376 communes ; its territorial extent is 75674 kilometers; its principal town is Saint Brieux. The de- partment of Finisterre contains 5 districts, 43 cantons, and 287 communes ; its territorial extent is 72924 kis lometers ; ite principal town is Quimper, X. The province of Maine is divided into the de. Maine, partment of the Maine and the Sarthe. The ment of the Maine contains 3 districts, 27 cantons, and 288 communes ; its territorial extent is 54524 kilome- ters ; its cipal town is Laval. The department of the Sarthe nfincipa tome ed 33. cantons, and 413 com- munes ; its territorial extent is antes kilometers ; its principal town is Leillans. XI. The province of Anjou octal the —— of Anjou. the Maine and Loire, which contains 5 districts, 34 cantons, and 385 communes; its territorial extent is - kilometers ; its principal town is Angers. - The province of Tourraine forms the depart- — of the Indre and Loire, which contains 3 districts, 24 cantons, and 311 communes ; its territorial extent is 64523 kilometers ; its principal town is Tours, XIII. The province of Orleannois comprehends the Orleannois. ents of the Eure and Loire, the Loire and Cher, and the Loiret. wnat 57 of the Eure and Loire contains 5 districts, $6 cantons, and 843 communes; its territorial extent is 61824 kilometers ; its principal town is Chartres. The department of the Loire and Cher contains 3 districts, 24.cantons, and 309 communes; its territorial extent is 67174 kilometers ; its principal town is Blois. The department of the Loiret contains 4 districts, 31 cantons, and $63 communes ; its territorial aero is 70473 kilometers ; its principal town is Or leans. XIV. The province of Poitou comprehends'the ments of Vievere, the two Sevres, and La Vendée. The pony re of Vievere contains: 5 districts, 31 cantons, 344 communes ; its territorial extent is 7340 kilo- meters; its town is Poitiers. Thedepartment of the Two Sevres contains 4 districts, $1 cantons, and 363 communes; its territorial extent is 63373 kilo« meters ; its cipal town is Niort. The department of La Vendée contains 3 districts, 29 cantons, and 324 communes ; its territorial extent is 72424 kilometers ; its principal town is Fontenay. XV. The province of Berry ts of the Indre and the Cher. The department of the Indre contains 4 districts, 23 cantons, and 275 eommunes ; its territorial extent is 7395 kilometers ; its chief town is Chateauroux. The department of the Cher contains $ districts, 29 cantons, and ‘807 com~ munes ; its territorial 2 ee is 7385 kilometers ; its — town is Bourg: eS The Niverneks yfiwns the department of the Nivernois. Nievre, which contains 4 districts, 25 cantons, and’380 communes ; its territorial extent is 7866 kilometers ; its town is Nevers. + Poitou, ends the de- Berry: VII. The Bourbonnois forms the department of Bourbon- the Allier, which contains 4 districts, 26 cantons, and nois. 850: communes ; its territorial extent is 74274 kilome- ters ; its | town is IX. The Brittany comprehends ‘ ia, the Ile and Villame, the Lower Loire, orbihan, the North Coast, and Finisterre: The de- partment of the Ille and Villaine contains 6 districts, iy 43 cantons, and 352 communes ; its territorial extent XVIII. The province of y forms the d Burgundy. ( on aparece its principal towm is Rennes. The ments of the Cote d’Or, the Saone and Loire, and the = * | ctctine sd ateendnieemandaeiia Sitio , 45 cantons, and 209 communes ; its territorial extent 1 Ain. The departm ent. “of the Cote d’Or contains 4 dis« tricts, 86 cantons, and 783 communes; its territorial 676 Statistics. extent is 9192} kilometers ; its principal town, Dijon. —vo" The department of the Saone and Loire contains 5 dis- tricts, 48 cantons, and 609 communes; its territorial extent is 89124 kilometers ; its principal town, Macon. The department of the Ain contains 4 districts, 32 can- tons, and 416 me f its territorial extent is 5675 kilometers ; its principal town is Bourg. XIX. The province of Franche the departments of the Higher Saone, the Doubs, and Jura. The department of the Higher Saone contains 3 districts, 27 cantons, and 640 communes ; its territo- rial extent is 55824 kilometers; its principal town is Vesoul. The department of the Doubs contains 4 dis- tricts, 25 cantons, and 605 communes ; its territorial ex- tent is 5340 kilometers ; its principal town is Besangon. The department of Jura contains 4 districts, $2 can- tons, and 728 communes ; its territorial extent is 52374 kilometers ; its principal town is Lons-le-Saulnier. XX. The Pays d’Aunis forms the d ent of the Lower Charente, which contains 6 districts, 37 cantons, and 506 communes ; its territorial extent is 72474 ki- loenetnan 3 oe principal ons Saintes. XXI. The province intonge forms the depart- ment of the Chercuta, which contains 5 districts, 28 can- tons, and 455 communes; its territorial extent is 6310 kilometers ; its principal town is Angouleme. XXII. The province of Marche comprehends the ts of the mae Vienne, and the Creuse. The department of the Higher Vienne contains 4 dis- tricts, 26 cantons, and 224 communes; its territorial extent is 60024 kilometers; its principal town is Li- moges. The department of the Creuse contains 4 dis- tricts, 25 cantons, and 296 communes; its territorial extent is 59024 kilometers ; its principal town is Gue- Franche Compté. Pays a’ Aunis. Saintonge. Marche. ret. Limosin. XXIII. The Limosin forms the department of Cor- rege, which contains 3 districts, 29 cantons, and 294 communes ; its territorial extent is 58574 kilometers; its principal town is Tulles, XIV. The province of Auvergne comprehends the departments of Puy de Dome and Cantal. The depart- ment of Puy de Dome contains 3 districts, 50 cantons, and 458 communes; its territorial extent is 8450 kilo- meters ; its principal town, Clermont. The department of Cantal contains 4 districts, 23 cantons, and 270 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 59374 kilometers; and its prerns town is Aurillac. V. The ince of Lyonnois is divided into the departments of the Rhone, and the Loire. The depart- ment of the Rhone contains 2 districts, 25 cantons, and 261 communes; its sowie asimatie 2935 kilome-~ ters; its principal town is Lyons. department of the Loire = 8 districts, 28 cantons, and 327 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 5135 kilometers; its principal town is Monbrison. .XXVI. The province of Guienne is divided into the departments of the Gironde, the e, the Lot and Garonne, the Lot, Aveyron, the Gers, the Higher renees,,and the Landes. The department of the ironde contains 6 districts, 48 cantons, and 580 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 1170 kilometers; its cipal town is Bourdeaux. The ent of the ogne contains 5 districts, 47 cantons, and 642 com- maunes ; its were steep ie re sr ; = town is. Perigueux. department and Garonne contains 4 districts, 38.cantons, and ~ ae any extent -is fae sm e- 3 its principal town is Agen. ‘The t the Lot contains 4 districts, 41 cantons, 440 com« Auvergne. Lyonnois. Guienne. FRANCE. pore = oi Cahors. ap antn Sen of A Fas incipal town is ‘ t veyron: contains 5 districts, 43 _and 589 communes; its territorial extent is 94774 town is Rhodez. The districts, 30 cantons, and 700 communes ; its extent is 70474 kilometers; and its principal town is Auch, The department of the Higher Pyrenees con- tains 3 districts, 26 cantons, and 501 communes ; its territorial extent is 49874 kilometers ; and its town is Tarbes. The department of the Landes conta 3 districts, 28 cantons, and 368 communes: its territo~ rial extent is 9475 kilometers; its principal town is Mont de Marsan. re bag! XXVII. The province of Bearn forms the depart- Beara. ment of the Lower Pyrenees, which contains 5 districts, 40 cantons, and 660 communes ; its territorial extent is pe ere vi its principal town is Pau, XXVIII. The province of Foix forms the department Foix. of the Arriege, which contains 3 districts, 20 cantons, and $87 communes; its territorial extent is 5050 kilo- meters ; its princi i rn 4 XXIX. vince of Rousillon, forms the depart- Rousillon. ment of the. Eastern which contains 3 dis- tricts, 17 cantons, and 249 communes ; its territorial extent is 3874 kilometers ; its principal town is Per- , XXX. The province of Langu est eae of the Tarn, the Higher Garonne, the H t, the Aude, the Garde, the Ardeche, the Hig! Loire, and the Lozere. The ent of the Tarn contains 4 districts, 35 cantons, and 356 communes ; its territorial extent is 6080 kilometers ; its princi town is Castres. The department of the H ronne contains 5 districts, 42 cantons, and 691 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 80774 kilometers; its rincipal town is Toulouse. The department of the erault contains 4 districts, 36 cantons, and 333 com- pe ery am ae RC a kilometers 5 Peg rincipal town is ier. epartment Var mit m 4 Gintsieen 31 cantons, and 436 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 65424. kilometers ; its principal town is Carcassone. The department of the Garde contains 4 districts, 38 cantons, 365 communes; its territorial extent is 6280 kilometers ; its principal town is Nismes. The department of the Ardeche con- tains 3 districts, 31 cantons, and 335 communes ; its territorial extent is 5710 kilometers; its principal town is Privas. The department of the Higher Loire con- tains 3 districts, 25 cantons, and 272 communes; its territorial extent is 52824 kilometers ; its town is Le Puy. The department of the Lozere con- tains 3 districts, 24 cantons, and 193 communes; its ter= ritorial extent is 5390 kilometers ; its principal town is Mende. XXXI. The province of Dauphiny comprehends the Dauphiny. a shih lew; the Drome, and the Higher Alps. The ent of the Isere contains 4 districts, 44 cantons, and 558 communes ; its territorial extent is 8940 kilometers ; its principal town is Grenoble. The of the Drome contains 4 districts, 28 can- tons, and 360 communes ; its territorial extent is 6927 kilometers ; its principal town is Valence. ‘The de- t of the Higher Alps contains 3 districts, 23 cantons, and 185 communes ; its territorial extent is 5650 kilometers ; its pri town is Gap. XXXII. The ce of Provence contains the de- Provence. ts of the er Alps, the Var, and the Mouths © of the Rhone. The dopeineen eel: fe 8 ta eae FRANCE. tains 5 districts, 28 cantons, and 260 communes; its territorial extent is 7412} kilometers; and its principal town is Digne. The department of the Var contains 4 districts, $2 cantons, and 210 communes; its territorial: extent is 7510 kilometers ; its principal town Toulon. The department of the Mouths of the Rhone contains 8 districts, 26 cantons, and 108 communes ; its territo= rial extent is 5315 kilometers; its principal town is Aix. Avignon and the adjoining territory, which belonged to the P. before the Revoluti 7 tte nowin ted with France, and form the nt of Vaucluse, which contains 4 districts, 22 cantons, and 150 com- munes ; its territorial extent is 3700 kilometers ; its principal town is Avignon. The island of Corsica is formed into the two depart- ments of the Golo and the Liamone. The department of the Golo contains 3 districts, 39 cantons, and 235 communes ; its territorial ae ~ $2674 ne ; its principal town is Bastia. e department of the Liamone contains 3 districts, 21 cantons, and 156 com- of division. ; 5. Stras- burg; 6. Besangon ; 7. Grenoble; 8. Marseilles; 9. Montpellier; 10. Toulouse; 11. Bourdeaux; 12. Nantes; pay eo Seereste Rouen; 16. Lisle; 17. ijon ; 18. Lyons; 19. Perigueux; 20, Bourges; 21. Tours ; 22. Bastia. —s CHAP. II. Face of the Country—Mountains—Rivers—Etangs —Sea Coast Canals—Soil—Climate Tue face of the country in France is generally level ; elevations, deserving the name of mountains, occur- ees and in the southern provinces ; Aix to Italy. leme, have, in serts : most of the province is deficient in beauty. Picardy is of France. spc te Re BR and its marshes resemble even in _ France, and extend into sev branches. than any other province of France: the Vivarrais and the adjoining part of Dauphiny are the most romantic. The ue beauty of the hilly parts of France is much increased by the rich and luxuriant verdure of the chesnut trees, particularly in the Limosin, the Vi- varrais, Auvergne, and other districts where they are common. € is The most level tracts are the French Netherlands on the north ; on the western side, extensive morasses oc- cur in the department of La Vendée and the adjacent districts. From the mouth of the Garonne nearly to the borders of ‘Spain, the coast consists of a flat, sandy, and barren tract, called the Landes. The other parts of France are, in general, agreeably diversified with gentle risings and depressions. The principal mountains are, 1. The Cevennes, which are the principal centre of the primitive mountains of According to Delametherie, the principal branch runs along the ri- ver Ardeche towards Alis ; another branch traverses the Rhone, on the side of Tournon and Vienne, towards the plains of Dauphiny; a third branch forms the mountains of Beaujolois, passing by Autun, &c.. till it is lost at Avalone. This branch is about 70 leagues long, but in general very narrow, not ing in most places much above a league ; the fourth branch se rates the basin of the Loire from that of the Allier, and forms the mountains of Forez; the fifth’ branch the basin of the Allier from that of the Cher, and passes by Clermont to Montlucon ; the sixth branch stretches towards Lim ; the seventh stretchés from the Dordogne towards the Charent ; and the eight di- vides the Dordogne from the Garonne. The lofty Can- tal and-Mount D’Or seem to be part of the Cevennes, ‘oceeding from the main ridge in a north-westerly ine. The northern of the chain is styled the Puy de Dome; its elevation above the level of the sea is about 5000 feet ; Cantal about 6200, and the Puy de Sausi, which is the highest point, about 6300. | This enormous assem _of rocks covers an extent of 120 miles, and is chiefly basaltic. 677 S. ‘tisties . Mountains. Cevennes, 2. On the eastern border of France, the low and yocges, rounded chain of the Vosges begins, on the frontiers of Cham and Franche Compté, and running. south- ele pena to the course of the Rhine, terminates in Jura. 3. A chain of the Alps crosses the three departments AJps. of the Maritime Alps, Lower. Alps, and Upper Alps, and afterwards stretching to the north, divides France from the kingdom of Italy and Switzerland ; perha the Vosges may also be ded as a branch, of the Alps. In the department of the Drome, another branch of the Alps takes its rise, which crosses. the d ments of the Ardeche, Loire, Rhone, Saone and Loire, and Cote D’Or, as far as Dijon. 4, The chain of the of France from the port of Vendres, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to the Atlantic hi on e a of Spain. Its greatest breadth is 40 leagues ; its highest pt 1751 te oo above the level of the sea; the length about 212 miles. Mont Perdu is the highest elevation of the Pyrenees ; Mont Canigou is the chief of the Eastern Pyrenees ; the hill is of difficult ascent ; it is 1440 toises above the Mediterranean ; the summit of it is covered with loose ts, the ruins apparently of a rock once higher. The high cliffs of Canigou are composed of gneiss. The Pyrenean chain appears at a distance like a shaggy ridge, presenting the segment of a circle fronting France, and descending at each extre- ees stretches on the south Pyrenees. Rivers. Seine, Leire. 678 FRANCE. Statistics. mity till it disappears in the Ocean and the Mediter- ranean. To the south and west they only dreadfal sterility, while on the north east the de- scent is more gradual, and affords frequent woods and pasture: near the summit of Mount is a consi- derable lake, more than 9000 feet above the level of the sea, which throws its waters into Spain. Numerous rivers spread like veins through the whole of France, diffusing beauty and fertility as they pass. Of those the greatest number take their rise in the central ridge, and discharge their waters'into the Bay of Biscay. 1. The Seine’ rises in Burgundy, not far from Dijon; it afterwards runs through Champagne; and waters Troyes, where it formerly m to be navigable; but now it does not carry boats till it comes to Merz: at Montereau it is joined by the river Yonne ; afterwards it crosses the isle of France, where it waters Melun, . Corbeil, and Paris; before, however, it reaches the ca- pital, it is considerably augmented by the Marne, and six leagues beyond Parisit receives the Oise. The prin- ci + place by which it flows, after it leaves Paris, is Rouen : it empties itself, by a large mouth, into the sea at Havre de Grace. This river carries, near Paris, heavier vessels than any other river in Europe, in portion to the length of its course and the breadth of its channel. The whole length of its course is about 250 miles. The valley of the Seine, above Rouen, is PP ow in point of breadth, beauty, and fertility, to most the river valleys in Europe. In some places it has worn its channel h about 50 strata of chalk. II. The Loire rises in Languedoc : its course is first to the south, then to the west, and then to the north: it afterwards turns to the north-west, near Semur, where it receives some small streams from Burgundy, which province it divides from the Bourbonnois: it next en- ters Nivernois, where it washes Nevers, and receives the Allier ; thence running along the province of Ber- ry, which it divides from Ditesiuicis; it waters the city of Orleans ; here it turns to the south-west, and passing Blois, Amboise and Tours, receives the Cher, the In- dre, and afterwards the Vienne. It next runs by Sau- mur, and shortly afterwards is augmented by the ‘wa- ters of the Sarthe, which comes from Angers: leaving Anjou, it enters capers washes Nantes, and widen- ing its channel, in which are several islands, it falls in- to the sea between Croisic and Bourgneuf. Its course is estimated at 430 miles ; and it is navigable to the dis- tance of 80 or 90 miles from its source, From Angers to Nantes it is generally considered as one of the finest rivers in the world; the breadth of the stream; the islands of woods ; the boldness, culture, and richness of its banks, all conspire, (in the opinion of Mr Young, ) to render that part of its course eminently beautiful ; but, during the rest of its course, its character changes, and it loses all its beauty. The benefits which it ren- ders to commerce and industry are incaleulable ; hence it is bordered by rich and populous cities, and its banks announce fertility and abundance ; ‘but the quantity of loose sand which it carries down, renders its course un- certain and deceptive, especially from Orleans to the sea. To prevent the dangers aria from shoals, which shift with the frequent variations of the current, water- men are constantly employed in placing little branches of willows on these shoals, and in preceding large bar- , which are commonly united to each other in num- more or less considerable ; a little boat always at- tends them, with a pilot to lay down the buoys. To confine this river to its bed, a lnge dots has been con- and from that period care has been taken to keep it in repair. ' sis 25 feet, and their breadth 40 ; the aniddle is pavelor i, and III. The Garonne rises in the valley of Adan, in Ca- Geronne. talonia, between Valentine and St dens; where its course changes from the north-west to the north-east, it receives the Ger ; it receives several other small Pro Fed before it comes to Toulouse, ‘at which place it ag: turns to the north-west ; it afterwards forms an island, and receives the Sarebel Grenada. On its junction with the Tarn, it ——— its course to the west. Se- veral other streams fall into it, but none of ‘any consi- derable note, before it arrives at Bourdeaux.” Below this city it forms several islands, and receives the Dor- dogne, which rises in the mountuins of Auvergne ; after their junction, both lose their names, and are called to- gether the Gironde. The Gironde enters the sea near the town of Cordovan, by two channels; thé whole course of this river is about 250 miles. The shoals in it, between its mouth and Bourdeaux, are innumerable, and of so dangerous a nature, that few ships that get on them are ever able to get off; the bottom being a soft mud, and sandy, they make a bed for themselves, and in a tide’s time are swallowed up. The Garonne gins to be navigable about?Toulouse ; from whence to Bourdeaux it carries the ppt ne . ‘The tide flows up nearly 30 leagues from the mouth of the river, and it is said that when it is flowing in, there two different levels on the surface ; that which is towards the sea being considerably higher than that which is towards the source of the river. : IV. The great river of the south of France is the Rhone. Rhone. It springs from the glacier of Furca, near the mountains of Grimsel in Switzerland. After issuin from the lake of Geneva, it takes a western course ti it reaches Lyons, where itis joined by the Saone, which forces the Rhone into its own direction. Below Lyons it is joined by several rivers, the principal of which are the Isere and the Durance. Pursuing its course to the south, according to the direction which it received from the fost with the Saone, it disembogues itself into the Mediterranean by two principal channels, the one on the west, the other on the east, which form a small island called Banduff. Only very small vessels can en- ter this river by the west channel; the other entrance is the deepest, and by this the tartans, and other ves- sels which go to Arles, enter the Rhone. In several laces this river seems to have-changed its course. It Jivides itself into two branches just above Avignon, which unite again ‘a little below it, forming a pi considerable island, | It appears from many old ised and charters, that the branch which at present runs without the walls of iat Soe once had its channel where is now the centre of the town; and, by the same evidence, it is proved, that several centuries there was no water at the foot of the heights on which the town of Villeneuve stands, where now runs the princi-_ pal branch of the Rhone ; and, by examining the coun- try on the right bank of this branch of the river, where there is a valley, it was found that'the soil of this val- ley is very similar to that which now forms the bed of the Rhone, and that it has the same level. It is also a well-known fuct, that the river had only been kept from making its way into its former channel by means of very strong dykes ; and on a ridge of rocks that bor« —— oe oe eee a -Etangs. FRANCE rings have vineyards ; chateaux om comman eminen- ces ; cottages embosomed in trees, from the view ; the busy traffic of the river, and vil- lages on it a F Fi : ? i iE ha Fie F i i streams of the Rhone, we shal} notice ‘ the Isere, and the Durance. The tions, and can only be crossed near Valence boat of a peculiar construction. The Durance also ri< ses in the mountain Genevre, on the borders of Savoy, to all proved abortive. France is almost entirely destitute of lakes. There are indeed a few in Provence and Upper Languedoc, but they are of little depth, and over a consi- derable surface of ground, and by no means either plea~ ing or picturesque in their . Some of them in Upper Languedoc have i and ne pe ur Pt to the purposes of agriculture, the coast of these two inces, there are, however, a great number of inlets of the sea, which the French call etangs. They have a communication with the sea a narrow channel, by which they are supplied with thei waters, which are consequently salt. From the size of some of them, it might be supposed, that they were'ca~ pared Another pipe 679 pable of being converted into harbours; but though the Statistics. d; they are of ne “"Y—" waters cover a great extent of depth; and incapable of being navigated, except by fish« ing boats. » The principal etang on the coast of Lan« guedoc, is the. de Thou; on the coast of Pro« vence, the Etang de: Berre. »:The latter is about twen< ty miles long and’sixteen broad, and communicates with the Mediterraneam Sea by a narrow channel, in which are three islands, The Artesian wells the mode: appears to have been originally followed; _ they are now by: no means*uncommon in the north of France. The mode consists in boring, and then dri« ving a wooden pipe into the cavity. ' Through this pipe the borer is: made'to: act, and increase the depth: is then driven in, so’as’to sink the first still lower. By a continuation of this ss, the length of pipe is carried to a very great depthif necessa« eh and water is conducted from: the lower springs to ie surface, ; ing the sea coast of France, we must content Sea coast. ourselves with a few arid unconnected noti- ces. In thirty leagues of coast, Languedoc has not one harbour, whereas Provence abounds in them. his seems to arise from the'sand, and other accretions, which = aw i down, being ae to the westward on side of Languedoc; and this country being every where flat towards the sea, these accumu< lations elevate the’shore, and render the coast'extreme- ly shelving, and full of shoals. The coast of Proverice; on the contrary, is for the most part oe are rocky, and besides, inclines ually to the southward, from: the mouths of the to near Toulon. The flat cow on the coast’ of the rtments of La Chalchtwaad Tus Vendée, appears evidently to have been once by the sea. This is cularly iking in one where a vast mi plain is bounded to the east*by a , cliffs, which exactly like cliffs on the sea j and to the west by the sea itself, with the islands of Rhe, renee wy oh constantly in sight. In the department of Finisterre, chai adah 1S "ron dsigeaben especially during the prevalence of north north-west winds. Cultivated fields, and whole villages with their inhabitants, have been overwhelmed by it in one night: The states of Brit- tany maintained, at a considerable expence, a high dyke, planted with broom, and 600 toises in length, at the foot of which the sand accumulates ; but this dyke is frequently broken down. From the side of Lesne- ven in i , a dreadful sandhill threatens destruc- tion to the commune of St Pol. The principal canals in France, are that of Langue- Canals. doc, which unites the Mediterranean and the Atlantic ; that of Burgundy, which joins the Loire to the Saone ; those of Briare and Orleans,'which unite the Loire to the: Seine ; and that of Calais, which communicates with the canals of the Netherlands. ing to the article InLanp Navigation for a more particular de- scription of these canals, we’shall here confine ourselves toa cu notice of the most celebrated. Ubit I. It is supposed, that the Romans had a design to Canal of join the Mediterranean and the Atlantic nearly at the Languedoc. same where the canal of Languedoc is formed. It was several times thought of during the reigns of Charl e and Francis I. In the year 1598, under Henry IV. this plan was again examined, and found to be practicable. Cardinal Richeliew was determined to have it‘executedy but was prevented by more important may be noticed in this place: Artesian The name is derived from the:province of Artois; where wells. 680 Statistics, affairs. Atlength Louis XIV. inted commissioners —Y~" in 1664, to examine more narrowly the icability of this undertaking ; and in their the director of the king’s revenue in edoc, M, Riequet, under- took the cxecution ; but it is said, according to some ore teenage acy ing to Andreossi, an able mathematician, work was begun in 1666; and completed in 1680. Narouse is the highest place between the two seas. Here a basin 1200 feet long and 900 broad was made, which has at all times seven feet water, which is conveyed by means of a sluice to- wards the ocean, and by means of another towards the Mediterranean Sea. In order that this basin may ne- ver be dry, another is made 7200 feet long, 3000 broad, and 60 deep, two sides of which are by two mountains, and the third by a —_ and strong mole, through which there runs an aqueduct, that carries the water to the other basin. Great difficulties arose in the execution of this work, in consequence of the uneven- ness of the ground, and the mountains, rivers, and brooks. The unevenness was remedied by means of sluices, of which there are 15 towards the ocean, and 45 towards the Mediterranean... The mountains were dug through. The most considerable of them was Mount Malpas, which was dug through the space of 720 feet. The difficulties arising from rivers and s, were obviated by means of bri and aqueduets. . It is 150 miles in length, and has 26 falls. The most considerable is that near Bezieres. This is at the end of a reach 30 miles in length, and the fall is so great as to require eight gates. It is 60 feet wide, and 6 deep: 12,000 men worked at it. Theexpence was L.1,600,000, and it costs above L. 12,000 a year to keep it in order. The canal fallsinto the Garonne, about half a mile be- low Toulouse ; but the pace ae of the river isso in- different till its junction with the Tarn, being full of shoals and sand banks, that the boats upon it cannot carry any depth of lading, and it often requires many of them to take the lading of one boat: from the canal. It is therefore projected to carry the canal on.to the Tarn, by which means the navigation between Bourdeaux and oulouse would: be ly facilitated. The canal of Brien, so called from the Archbishop of Toulouse, after- wards prime minister and cardinal, was planned and executed, in order to join the Garonne at Toulouse with the canal of Languedoc. The necessity of sucha junc- tion arises from the presen ion of the river in the Tarn, being absolutely impeded by the weirs, which are made across it for the of corn mills. It passes arch« ed under the quay to the river, and one sluice levels the water with that of the Languedoc canal. It is broad enough for several —— to abreast ; but this ca- nal is seldom used, Mr oung remarks, that while the canal of Languedoc is alive with commerce, that of Brien is.a desert. II. The canal of Briare takes it name from a. small city situated onthe river Loire. It was made in order to have a communication between this river and the Seine, by means of the river Loing ; for which p they have been obliged to make the water go.over hi by means of dams and sluices. This canal was begun in the time of Henry IV. and: finished under his son Louis XIIL. It begins from the. Loire-at Briare, and passing by Montargis and Chatillon, falls intothe Loin at Cepoi. Formerly the duties paid by boats amoun to very great sums annually ; but they have decreased considerably since the et of Orleans was made, By means ofthe canal of Briare, a communication has been opened between Paris and the sea, and even between FRANCE. ‘Caius Marius, to ore a want of a safe and com- that metropolis all the inland provinces that are situated on the Saiiientinenecond akeareines that fall into this. : ‘ ’ iis Duke 1682, and finished in 1692, by the care of Philip of Orleans, pecenent father. During the ; halal yee Calonne, was i Soa the Seine a theta Meleenions In feast St Quintin to Carabeay,:in the lineiak the-cansly the country rises so much, that it was necessary to carry it in a tunnel under ground for a considerable under many vales as well as hills. Near Belle i it is 10 French feet wide, and 12 high, hewn entirely there are ma- livres. Other canals were projected and during the Revolution ; the aonnneirceee bee was, a se- former were to be united by a canal from the Rhine at Basle to the lake of Geneva, ing through the lake of Neufchatel. . Another pil ronne ; and, lastly, by the restoration of a canal for~ merly made from the Rhone near Lyons, to the Loire at Roanne, all these rivers were tobe united ; the Seine already communicating with the.Loire by means of the canals of Briare and Orleans, It was also posed to restore a canal which was made in the time of ——— mouths of the Rhone. modious navigation at h existence, remains of this canal are still in ly they served to fill up the annual exposé i panna daca were either not begun, or not carried on Pahoa t. png The soil of France varies much in different parts of Soil. the kingdom ; but it may be remarked, that there is scarcely any kind of soil in it, which in England could be called a clay soil. The soils may be classed as fol~ lows: : I. Fat loam, of different degrees of tenacity. The Loame. northern district of this soil extends over Bie prowess of Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Normandy, and the Isle of France, On the coast, it may be said to extend from Dunkirk to Carentum in Normandy. From thence to Coutances, the land is chiefly poor and stony, and con- tinues so, h with some variations, to Ina line a little to south of the coast before Caen, the first considerable change of soil from Calais is seen, In Normandy, on the side of Alengon, rich loams on a eal~ careous bottom are met with. Dunkirk to Ne- mours is not less than 180 miles in a right line; fron» 4 a eo odule FRANCE. Soissons to Carentan is another right line of about 200 miles; from Eu, on the coast of Normandy, to Chartres, is 100 miles. The breadth of this rich district in some places, i about Caen, &c. is not considerable, yet the will be found to contain not a trifling proportion of the kingdom. The fertile plains of Flanders and of Artois, are perhaps the richest parts of this valuable soil, which here consists of ‘deep friable mould, rather incli- ning to clay than sand, on a calcareous bottom, bearing evident marks of having once been covered by the sea. From Paris to near Cambray, by the road of Soissons, this loam is more sandy, but equally valuable and fertile. About Meaux, there is as fine soil as can possibly exist. It consists of-an almost impalpable powder, and of admi- rable texture and friability. In some places it is 18 feet deep, resting on a stratum of white marl. The line from Paris through Picardy is inferior ; but all the arable part of Normandy, which lies within the limits above de- scribed, is a rich, friable, sandy loam, in some places of a reddish colour; and very deep. The calcareous loams » are of much greater extent than the loams which have been described. To the east, they stretch across Cham- From Metz to Nancy, all is calcareous, but-not chalk. In the southern parts of Alsace, limestone land abounds. Immense districts of Dauphiny and Provence consist of the same kind of soil.._ Indeed, the chalk dis- trict extends east to about St Menehould, and south to Nemours and Montargis, or even farther, for it reaches ‘Auxerre in another direction, There is also much cal- ‘careous loam in is, Poitou, and through Tour- raine to the Loire. Most of the course of this river is calcareous. The chalk district, therefore, may be re- as stretching not less than 200 miles east and west, and about as much, but more irregularly, north and south. The next considerable district of fertile soil, is the plain of the Garonne. Through all this plain, wher- ever the soil is found excellent, it consists usually of a deep, mellow, friable, sandy loam, sufficiently moist, and in many places calcareous. The plain of the Garonne is entered about Creissensac, in passing to the south from the Limosin. Its fertility increases all the way to Tou- louse, where it is uncommonly rich. Its richness, how- ever, ny prem as we approach the Pyrenees. The breadth of this plain is every where inconsiderable. Ano- ther tract of rich soil is found in the vale, which stretch- es from Narbonne to Beziers, Moi ier; and Nismes ; but its fertility is inferior to those that have been previ- ously described. The soil of the Lower Poitou resem- bles that of the richest parts of the Lincolnshire fens, and is indeed of the same nature, being for the most part Jand drained, or gai from the sea. To the south of the Loire, in the direction of Bourgneuf, there is a tract of rich loam. Alsace, in respect to soil, resem- bles Flanders, but it is inferior to it.. The whole fertile part of the narrow plain of Alsace, hardly presents a sur- face of more than 1000 square miles. The flat, and chiefly calcareous vale of Auvergne, which commences at Riom, is a tract of fertility. The whole surface is a real marl, but mixed with such a proportion of soil as to be most valuable and productive. The French natu- ralists who have examined it, assert the depth to be 20 feet of beds of earth, formed of the ruins of what they style the primitive and volcanized mountains. The best on brig feng farther than from Riom to ‘aires, scarcely more than 20 miles. Mr Young calcu~ VOL, 1X. PART I. . 681 lates, that the whole of the fertile districts of France, Statistios. which we have just described, amounts to about 28 mil- lions of English acres. [*s IL. The district of heath is chiefly in the provinces of H Brittany, Anjou, parts of Normandy, ‘and Guienne, ‘and Gascony. The five departments into which Brittany is divided, are reckoned to contain 1609 French square miles ; the cultivated land amounts, according to some calculations, to less than one-third, and the heaths to 3,006,000 acres; according to other calculations, two- fifths of the whole province are uncultivated ; and some authors assert, that of 39 parts 24 are lande, which amounts to three-fifths. _Some:of the heaths -are ‘so ex- tensive, that a house is scarcely seen in ten leagues. The soil of the best part of the heaths in Brittany, is com- monly gravel, or gravelly sand on a gravelly bottom, of a very inferior and barren nature. In many places -it rests on sandstone rock : none of it is calcareous. An- jou and Maine are equally noted for the immensity of their heaths, which are reported to extend 60 Jeagues in one place. The soil of these heaths is, however, in some parts tolerably.good, and might be rendered useful by proper skill and labour ; consisting of gravel, sand, or stone, generally a loamy sand or gravel. The Landes, as they are emphatically called, lie west from Bazadois and Condomois to the sea coast, between the country of Labour on the south, Guienne on the north, and the ocean on the west.. They are divided into the greater Landes between Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and the lesser between Bazas'and Montmarsan. \ They are sandy tracts, covered with pine trees; cut regularly for resin, broken and enlivened however with cultivated spots for a teague or two. When the Moors were expelled from Spain, they applied to the court of France to be allowed to set- tle on, and cultivate these lands; but permission was not granted them. They are:said to contain not less than 300 square leagues, or 1,468,181 English acres,. occu- pying a large: portion of Gascony. Though the:soil of these Landes is among the poorest in France, it is not uts terly incapable of cultivation, and even the pines-with which it is covered yield from 15s. to 20s. an acre: eath ict, III. The district-of chalk, as distinguished from the chalk calcareous loams already noticed, is chiefly in the pro- district. vinces of Champagne, Sologne, Touraine, Poitou, Sain« tonge, and An, ois. The chalk provinces contain 16 ‘millions of acres. The soil of Champagne in. general. is thin and poor. The southern part, as from Chalons to Troyes, has from its poverty acquired the name of pow- illeux, or lousy. Sologne is one of the poorest and most unimproved provinces in the kingdom. It is a flat, con- sisting of a poor sand, or gravel] lying every where on a bottom of clay or marl, so very retentive of water, that every ditch and hole is full of it, except in the.dryest seasons. Touraine is betters Itcontains some consicer= able districts, especially.on the south of the Loire, in which good mixed sandy and gravelly loams:reston a” caleareous bottom. Considerable tracts in.the northern , parts of the province, however, are of a very-inferior soil, not better than the predominating soil of Anjou and Maine. Poitou consists of two divisions, theupper and the lower, the latter of which has already been mention ed as resembling the fens of Lincolnshire.» The upper _ division is generally a thin loam, on an imperfect quarry bottom,—a very inferior stone brash, A great part of Angoumois is a thin and poor chalk. : 42. Statisti District of gravel, District of stony soil. District of various loams. Mountain- ous district. 682. 1V. The district of gravel is chiefly in the Bourbonnois and Nivernois. The gravel in the latter is of little va~ lue, three-fourths of he. province being covered with heath, broom, or wood ; but notwithstanding the inferi- ority of the soil, these provinces are reckoned by Mr Young ationg the most improveable in France. form one vast plain, through which the Loire and Allier pass. The better parts of them consist of a sandy soil; and in some places the sub-soil is calcareous, In a few , good friable sandy loams are met with. V. The district of stony soils is chiefly in Lorraine, Burgundy, Franche Compté, &c. In Lorraine, there are commons of immense extent, which scarcely yield any thing. From St Menehould to the borders of Alsace, the soil is entirely stony, but of various kinds. Most of them are of the kind denominated stone-brash in Eng- land, ‘or the broken triturated surface of imperfect quar- ries, mixed by time, frost, and cultivation, with some loam and vegetable mould :” much is calcareous. © Districts of rich and even deep friable loams occur in Lorraine, but they are of inconsiderable extent. The soil of Burgundy varies much. The best part of it lies in the line from Franche Compté to the Bourbonnois by Dijon. . Here sandy and gravelly loams predominate ; but even in this part of it there are spots of poor granite soil. . The sub- division of the province called Bresse, is a most miser- able country. The grounds alone on a white clay or marl, amounting it is said to nearly 250,000 acres. The stony soil of Franche Compté is in general good. From Besancon to Orechamp, the country is rocky quite to the surface. The rocks are calcareous. A reddish brown loam rests on the rock. In the hilly parts, a red ferruginous loam, schistus, and gravel, predominate, Part of Alsace consists of soil of nearly the same character. VI. The district of various loams, mixed with sand, granite, a stone, &c. is chiefly in the Limosin, La Manche, Berry, &c. The loams of the two former are friable, and sandy ; e on granite, and others on a calcareous sub-soil. the granite, there are two kinds ; one hard, and full of micaceous particles, the grain coarse, with but little quartz, hardening in the air in masses, but becoming a powder when reduced to small pieces. This is very unfertile, as neither wheat, vines; or chesnuts will grow on it. The other sort is in hori- zontal strata, mixed with great quantities of spar. On it these plants thrive well. This kind of granite. and” chesnuts together, on entering Limosin ; but on the road to Toulouse, where there is about a league of hard this treé disappears, Berry has a poor soil, Chengde oa pon eaten ot Sologne. In some places it is sandy or ately in other places the loams are more tenacious, ying on quarries of stone or. lime. VII. The provinces of Auvergne, Dauphiny, Provence, the Lyonnois, Languedoc, and Rousillon, contain the mountainous district. The mountains that surround the vale of the Limagne of Auvergne are various. The white argillaceous stone in the hills, between Riom and Clermont, is calcareous. The volcanic mountains (as they are deem- ed) are more fertile than the others, except where they are composed of tufa, or cinders, which are so burnt as to be good for nothing. The calcareous and clayey mountains are 3 and the basaltic, when “spina eg sed, form excellent clay. The base is commonly considerable mountains, in the tract from fo'Puy ontelimart, are also what are deemed volcanic, pay shal are also extremely fertile. Provence and Dauphiny, FRANCE. bea pe exception vallies, are moun- Of Gen date the driest with respect to to soil in the sandy grayels abound ; and the course of the Durance is so ruined by sand and shingle, that, on a nyse ny above 130,000 mountainous districts of Bain Pro yvence: is mountainous in many parts, > Ston, and rough, with much waste land. ig of z province of Languedoc are mountainous. The vale | are rich, Rousillon, is in general calcareous. Mu it flat and very stony, as well as dry and barren. Mr Young observes, “ that the proportion of poor in England to the total of the kingdom, is greater than the similar proportion in France; nor have they any where such tracts of wretched. blowi sr ee alg aay met with in Norfolk and Suffolk. and wastes, not mountainous, which a and which are so frequent in Brittany, deeuitean Guienne, and Gascony,. are infinitely better — our northern moors; and the mountains, of Scotland and Wales cannot be compared, in. int of soil, with those of the Pyrenees, Auvergne, Dauphiny, Provence, and Lan- guedoc.” According to the same au are the proportional areas of the several divisions of the kingdom, classed according to their respective.soils:.. . juan Rich district of the north-east, containing the provinces of. rh ye oy xii Flanders, Artois, Picardy, | | +f 1 each pt a , pip ME iw. ale 8 18,179,590 Hihels aaa Plain of the Gitetng. se mie ene %y654,564, Was Plain of Alsace ore ee ev € © 687,880 é 7 Lower Poitou, &c. . «|.» sssinies Rich loam. - 25,380,070, The heath district of Brittany, 1 Anjou, and parts of Nor-) mandy, a ee HEAD IAA The heath district of Guienne, and Gascony...» « » ++ + 10,206,085 Heath _—_ 25,513,218 The TF aniggctie: district ete Dau-. phiny, Provence, -ae 98,707,087 The chalky district of Champagne, Sologne, . isa Tourraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois,, . &o, . ses vin ea a win nin 4 « 16,584,889 The district of gravel of ese Bourbonnois., 8,827,282 and Nivernois Mae» The district of stony soils. in ‘Lorraine, Bure | gundy, Franche Compté, &c.+ +. +++ * 20,412,171 The eet recon teens Kise hereon sant toe Berry, La Manche, &c. ... 8, Total, 131,722,711 It is to be dena, however, that this admeasurement includes the whole surface of the kingdom; deductions ought therefore to be made for roads and rivers, &c. Ac- a Mea 1 Unie 2” i fod ore dere Generat result. f _ , FRANCE | 683 ‘Statistics, cording to"M. Neckar, there are 9000 leagues of roads in France. On the supposition,that their average breadth is 10 toises, this will give for the whole area occupied by roads, about 193,207 acres. A much | space must be allowed for rivers; so that probably the number of acres. may be estimated at 131,000,000, the proportional areas of the different divisions of soil remaining the same. The climate of so extensive ‘a kingdom as France must be very various; but perhaps, on the whole, it is more favourable to the sustenance and comfort of human life, than any other in Europe. The climate of the northern districts is hotter, and at the same time more moist \in summer, than the counties in the south-west of Eng- land. In the department of Finisterre, the sky is ob+ secured by an almost continual mist.’ In Brest and Mor- laix, it rains almost i 3 and the natives are said to be so habituated to dampness. and wet, that too dry seasons prove prejudicial to their health. The heat in in the north of France are heavy, and conti-~ nue longer than they generally do in England. In the winter, heavy snows and severe frosts are experienced to a greater degree than in the south of England; and it is remarked there, whenever there is a long and sliarp frost)in the north of Europe, it is felt much more severely in Paris than in London. The central division of France possesses a wonder fully fine climate, especially the provinces of Tourraine and the Limosin. - In man there is no snow, and frosts are not frequent. There-are no fogs and vapours, as in Bretagne, nor the t humidity of Normandy ; peas cae Pre | ree from the burning sun of the provinces. The air is light, pure, and elastic. spring is a continuance of such weather as is seen in abont the middle of May.” The harvest be- gins about the! Jatter end of June, but is sometimes so late as the middle of July. The great heats are from 5 ject to violent storms of rain and hail, the latter occa- sionally beating down and destroying all the corn and vintage on which it may fall. Frosts also sometimes happen in the spring, even so late as the end of May and. beginning of June, so severe as to turn the leaves of the walnut.trees quite black, and to render it neces« sary to cover the fig trees with straw. Autumnal frosts also not unfrequently occur earlier in the central pro- vinces of France than they do in the south of England. On the 20th of September 1787, Mr Young says, there ~ happened so smart a one on the south of the Loire, be- tween Chambort and Orleans, that the vines were hurt by it: The high country of Auvergne is bleak and cold ; and all the district within reach of the mountains of Vosges are affected by the snow that falls upon them ; a circumstance which. sometimes occurs as late as the end of June. ; In the south of France, particularly in | Provence, a continuance of dry and hot weather may be ex the months of June, July, and August, and & part or perhaps the whole of September. The greatest 4. heats seldom occur till the 15th of July, nor after the «Statistics. 15th of September. Harvest generally begins the 24th “-\— of June, and ends the 15th of July: the middle of the vintage is about the end of September... During the con- tinuance of the hot weather, or les grandes chaleurs, as they are called, scarcely. any persons who can. avoid it think of quitting their houses in the middle of the day. During the.end of autumn and the beginning of winter, violent rains frequently fall; but, in the inter= vals between the rains, October and November may be regarded as the pleasantest months in the year.. In Des cember, January, and February, the weather is gene» rally fine; but, after February, the Vent de bize is very frequent. This wind seems to pierce through the body, and dry up all the humours, It is a strong north or north-east wind, accompanied generally with a clear sky, but sometimes with snow, It seldom lasts for'more than three days at a time. This wind blows. with’ peculiar violence and bitterness about Avignon ;, the winters there are sometimes rendered by it most distressingly cold; _ and the Rhone is covered with ice sufficiently strong to support loaded carts, and the olive trees sometimes pes rish to their roots. Some parts of the coast of Pro« vence, as about Toulon and Hieres, are still milder than about Marseilles and Aix; but the northern and more mountainous parts of the province often experience very severe weather in the winter, and are as cold as Eng~ land, but with a much clearer and purer air. The chief disadvantages of the climate of the south of Disadvanta- France are the plague of insects, and the peculiar vio- lence of its storms, especially in the mountainous tracts, The flies are excessively troublesome in the olive district of France; they not only bite, sting, and hurt, but they buzz, tease, and worry. The mouth, eyes, ears, and nose, are full of them ; they swarm on every thing eat« able; fruit, sugar, milk, every thing is attacked by them in such myriads, that if they are not driven away incessantly by a person, who has nothing else to do, to eat a meal is impossible. Sometimes it is absolutely ne- cessary to darken the room, in order to keep it tolerably clear of them. In the stables, they are obliged to che« rish the spiders, that their webs may. catch the flies, who would otherwise be an actual torment to the horses, In the night, the gnats are very troublesome; and, be- sides the torment of their bite, render sleep extreniely difficult to be procured, by their constant and loud noise. The author of the Essai sur la Mineralogie des Pyrendes describes a thunder storm near Bareges as extremely ims petuous and formidable; the cataracts rushing down the sides of the mountains, carrying ruin and desolation. along with them; those meadows, which a few hours before were covered with verdure, now buried under heaps of stones, or overwhelmed by masses of liquid mud, and the sides of the mountains cut by:deep: ravines, where the track of the smallest rivulet was not before to be discovered. The hail storms in the south, and even j,,.) in the central provinces of France, are not unfrequently storms, most dreadful and ruinous in their consequences. About thirty years ago, a violent storm of hail swept a track of desolation in a belt across the whole kingdom, to the da- mage of several millions sterling; and no year ever without whole. parishes suffering to a very consi- derable degree. In the south of France, where the hail storms are the most common and the most violent, it is - calculated, that, on an average, one tenth of the whole: produce is damaged by them. Young colts are some- 684 Statistics times so severely wounded by the hail as to occasion their death; and it has even been asserted, that men have been known to be killed by the hail, when they could not procure shelter. The climate of France naturally divides itself into four zones, according to the vegetable produce which each affords. The most northern of these divisions bears a considerable resemblance, in its vegetable produce and in its climate, to England: the second differs from the first principally in exhibiting here and there a few vine- yards: in the third, fields of maize begin to make their appearance ; and the fourth is distinguished from the preceding by the intermixture of olives, mulberries with corn, vines, and maize. The line of separation between vines and no ‘vines is at Coucy, ten miles tothe north of Soissons ; at Clermont in the Beauvoisis; at Beau- mont'in Maine; and Herbignac, near Guerande in Brit- tany. The ‘line of separation between ‘maize and no maize is first seen on the western side of the kingdom, in going from the Angoumois and entering Poitou, at Verac, near Ruffee: in crossing Lorraine, it is met with between Nancy and Luneville. If these lines between vines and no vines, and between maize and no maize, be drawn on the map of France, it will be found, that they proceed in an oblique line from the south-west to the north-east, being parallel’ to each other. The line which the vines forms is nearly unbroken ; but that form- ed by the maize in the central part of France, proceeds no farther north than the southern part of the Limosin. The line of olives is also pretty nearly from south-west to north, in the same oblique direction. In proceeding to the southward from Lyons, they are first met with at Montelimart ; and, in proceeding from Bezieres to the Pyrenees, they are lost at Carcassone. Hence it ap- pears, that there is a considerable difference between the climate of France in the eastern and western parts ; the eastern side of the kingdom indicating, by its produc- tions, 24 degrees of latitude of more heat than the western. Having made these general remarks on the climate of the different parts of France, we shall next proceed to lay before-our readers an abstract of the most careful metecrological observations, as they respect the thermo- meter, barometer, wirids and rain. I, The annual heat of London and Paris is nearly the same; but, from the beginning -of April to the end of October, the heat is greater at Paris than at London. If the annual temperature of London’ be-represented by 1000, the average degree of cold in January by 1000, and the average coe of heat in July by 1000, the an- nual temperature of’ Paris may be represented by 1028 ;’ the average d of-cold of Paris in January by 1040 ; and of heat in July by 1037. ‘The annual temperature of Bourdeaux will be represented by 1090; the average Division of the climate into four zones. Tempera- ture, degree of cold in January by 925 ; and the average de-" gree of heat in July by 1139. ‘The annual temperature of Montpellier will be represented by 1170; the average degree of cold in January by 850 ; and the average de- gree of heat in July by 1196. ° ' In the centre of France, the greatest heat averages 27 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer, and the greatest cold 7 degrees: in the north of France, the test heat is 28° 2’, and the least 6° 6’: in the ehet of Wiiaibh the FRANCE. ¢ test heat is 24° 8’, the least 9° 5’: in the west of runce, the greatest heat is 24°, and the least 6°. In the south-east, at Mon » the heat is 28° 1’, the least 3°.7’.. At Marseilles, meteorological ob- servations of nine successive years an average of 25° 3’ for the heat, amd 3° 1) for the least. IL. In the neighbourhood of Paris, the barometer ne= po: omoter, ver continues twenty-four hours without ing. . The barometer rises and falls sooner in Seceettiae. than in the eastern. M. Burckhardt, after 15,000 baro- metrical observations, in order to calculate the influence of the winds on the barometer in France, found that the south wind gave, for 2 mean height, 27 inches 11.3 lines, while an east wind raised the ‘to 28 inches 1.9 line. He also found, that the tht of the baro- meter-on the Mediterranean shores of France was 28 7 inches 2.2 lines, while its height on the Atlantic shores was 28 inches 2.6 lines. i wy / ; In the centre of France, the greatest height of the mercury in the barometer, on an average of several years, is 28 inches 5.7 lines, its least height 27 inches 3.3 lines : in the north of France, the greatest height is 27 inches . 10.10 lines, the least 26 inches 8.5 lines: in the west, - : the average height of the mercury in the barometer is eg 28 inches $ lines: in the north-east, at Montpellier, the greatest height is 28 inches 5.3 lines, the least 27 inches 5.5 lines. At Marseilles, the height of mercury in the barometer is 28 inches 7.2 lines, the least 27 inches 3.7 lines. ; son III. It appears from the result of observations made Winds by M. Cotte, at 86 different places in France, that along | the whole south coast of that kingdom, the wind blows q most frequently from the north, north-west, and north« east: on the west coast, from the west,. south-west, and north-west ; and on the north coast, from the south west. In the interior parts of France, the south-west =» © wind blows most frequently in 18 places; the west wind in 14; the north in 13; the south in 6; the north-east in 4; the south-east in 2; the east and north-west, each of them, in one. About Dunkirk, according to the’ same author, the prevailing winds are the ‘south-west. As, however, the result of other observations differ:from those given by. M. Cotte, we shall subjoin them, © ? According to these observations, in the centre France, the prevailing winds are the south-west and north-east ; in the northern districts the south-east wind. is most common ; in the eastern districts the north-and south-west winds ; in the west of France the north-east is the prevailing wind; inthe south-east at Montpellier, the north and north-east are the prevailing winds; and at Marseilles the south-east and north-west. IV. The mean quantity of rain that falls at Paris isp ~ 22 inches ; the evaporation is generally greater than the rain; the mean evaporation being $3 inches. In the centre of France, the average quantity of rain is rather more than 20 inches; the number of rainy days in the course of the year 164. In the north of France there are 126 rainy days; in the east 145; in the west 150 rainy days ; in the south-east, at Montpellier, there are | 74 rainy days, and the quantity of rain is u is of 27 inches—a proof of the violence of the rain when it does fall. At Marseilles, the quantity of rain is rather more than 21 inches, and the number of rainy days 57. a ——sS Se ~ CHAP. III. ~ Natural History—Mineralogical Geography—Ba- sin of the Seine—Basaltic district of Auvergne—Geo- logy of the Pyrenees—Strata in different parts of ’ Fesnce—Miseillancons Mineral icalremarks—Mines of Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, &c.—Coal Strata and Mines—Jet, &c.—Salt Springs of Salins, &c.—Mine- ral Waters—Natural Curiosities—Botany of France— As our limits will not permit us to enter minutely and fully into the natural history of Franee, we shall content ourselves with noticing, in the first place, the most im- portant and curious features of its mineralogy and geolo- gy ; subjoining to this notice, an economical, account of the principal, mines, and a brief sketch of the mineral i waters and natural..curiosities-most. deserving of atten- & tion: in the second place, the Botany of France: and, = lastly, the most interesting parts of its Zoology. _ Mineralogy I, With respect to the and of _ antligeology. France. Modern French geographers, in a branch of = that science, to which they have properly given the epi- thet physical, have divided the kingdom into what they ‘ call basins; that is to say. into several great plains, through which the principal rivers: flow, and which are formed of several ridges of mountains, either original, L that is of granite, or secondary, of caleareous and other materials. Of these basins, the chief are, 1st, The ba- sin of the Loire, and all the rivers that fall into it. 2d, of the Seine and its branches. 3d, Of the Garonne. 4th, Of the Rhone and Saone. There are likewise some smaller ones, but of much less account. As the basin of the Seine, or of Paris as it is fre- quently called, is the most interesting to the geologist, and has moreover been very carefully and scientifically ‘Pillustrated. by the labours of Messrs Cuvier and Brog- niart, in their Memoir on the Mineralogical Geography of the environs of Paris; of M. Lamanon, in his Me- moir on the gypsums and their fossil bones ; of M. Des- marets in -his description of Montmartre, and by other authors, we shall confine our account to this basin. The basin of the Seine is separated for a long space _ from.that of the Loire, by an. extensive high plain, the greater part of which bears the name of Beauce. This plain is bounded towards the north-west by a higher and more broken district, from which the rivers Eure, Aure, Orne, Maienne, Sarte, &c. arise. On all other ‘sides, the plain of Beauce overlooks every surrounding dis- trict. The slope from it, towards the Seine, is divided into two inclinations, one of which, on the west, looks towards the Eure, and the other, on the east, looks to- wards the Seine. These two inclined plains, however, are not straight, but in all directions unequal and rug- ged, the slopes are generally very abrupt, and all the ra- vines, valleys, and wells dug in the high parts, shew that one prodigious mass of fine sand covers the whole surface, passing equally over all the other soils, or inferior plat- forms, which this great plain overlooks. The edge of this platform, towards the Seine, forms. the natural li- mit of the basin of Paris, on this side. From below the two extremities of this platform, issue two portions of a platform of chalk, which extends in every direction to a great distance, forming the whole of Higher Normandy, icardy, and Champagne. In some parts of the two FRANCE. 685 latter provinces, the chalk is covered with sandy plat- Statistics. forms, similar to that of Beauce. ; weary Hence it appears that the materials which compose the basin of Paris have been deposited in a vast gulf, the bottom of which is chalk. This chalk lies in hori- zontal beds, with flints, and is wholly, or in part, covered » by certain argillaceous, siliceous, calcareous, gypseous, and alluvial strata. The basin, measuring directly from Epernay to Gisars, nearly from east to west, is 87 Eng- lish miles in length, and from Nemours to the neighbour~ hood of Noyon, nearly south and north, it is 70 miles broad. On the south-west, from near Nemours to the’ mouth of the rivulet called the Maulde, a direct distance of about 45 miles, it is limited by a covering stratum of Beauce sand, and in all its remaining sides by the na- ked chalk stratum. The chalk is undoubtedly the most ancient, and the sandy platform the most recent of the formations in this basin. Between them there are two great strata ; the first, lime, either siliceous, containing’ no shells, or lime with coarse shells; the second, which is named by the French geologists gypso-marley, is not generally spread, but merely scattered in spots, very different from one another in thickness and in their com- ponent parts. These two intermediate soils or Strata, as well as the two extreme strata of chalk and sand, and all the vacuities which they have left, are partly filled by a fifth sort of soil, mixed also with marl and silex, which may be called fresh water soil, because it abounds in fresh water soils only. If each of these large strata, however, are subdivided, Strata in there will appear 10 distinct kinds of strata in the’ basin the basin of of the Seine. Of these we shall give a short sketch, be- P*"* ginning with the lowest. ; 1. Chalk, either in distinct beds and with few flints, or with many layers and nodules of flint, constitutes the first formation. In it are found 50 species of fossil re+ mains. 2. The second formation consists of plastic clay ; white, grey, slate-grey, and red potter’s clay, from four inches to 52 feet or more in thickness. This contains no fossils, but in some parts fragments of bituminous wood. 3. The third formation consists of sand, coarse, red, or bluish grey, without fossils ;—of coarse limestone in beds, alternating with their marls and clay; the lower beds are sandy, containing greenish earth, and though . hard, decompose quickly on exposure ; they contain ex- traneous fossils in good preservation, amounting to more than 600 species ;—of soft greenish earth, exhibiting on its lower surface brown marks of leaves, and stalks of ve- getables ;—of grey and yellowish strata, of different de« of hardness, and of building stone rocks ; these con- tain shells.;—of hard earth, containing seams full of shells ;—of hard calcareous ruble marl, and soft calca- reous marl beds, without fossils ;—of calcareous sand, sometimes agglutinated, and containing chert, quartz crystals, and variegated crystals of carbonate of lime ; and of hard calcareous ruble marl, and soft calcareous marl beds without fossils. 3 4. The fourth formation is still more various than the third; it consists of two distinct parts, viz. the fresh water formation, containing a mass of selenitous gypsum in thin beds, with numerous marl beds, with- out organised fossils; next marl strata; then a second mass of gypsum beds, with thin marl beds, containing fossil fish ; then marl strata again, and above them ano- ther mass composed of three parts, with mar! strata ine —y—" sum, columnar gypsum, and Gypsum quury of Montmar- tre. 686 FRANCE Statistics. tervening between each; three parts are siliceous gyp- m in thin. beds, con« taining skeletons of unknown birds and quadrupeds, bones of tortoises, skeletons of fishes, and of mammifere, and sometimes fresh water shells, The uppermost parts:of the fresh water formation consists of a white calcareous: bed, with large siliceous trunks of palm trees; of marl! beds calcareous and argillaceous, and of argillaceous and calcareous marls, thick without fossils. The marine di- vision of the fourth formation consists of* yellow scaly marl, two feet thick, with a few shells ; of n potter’s earth without fossils; of marl in four or five beds; of yellow argillaceous marl with the bones of a fish; of marl beds, containing sea bivalve shells; of marl with a seam of very large oyster shells ; of whitish marl with- out shells ; of marl with several seams of small thin oys- ter shells; and of argillaceous sand without shells, 5. The fifth formation consists of argillaceous strata: without organised fossils, and of siliceous freestone and sea sand, with numerous shells, of the same. s as those which occur in the coarse limestone of the third for. mation. 6. The sixth formation consists of plastic clays ; of siliceous limestone, containing burr-stones, but no fos- sils; of argillaceous marls, and of freestone without: shells. 7. The seventh formation consists of free stone withuut shells ; of loose sand used in the arts, rape vf freestone without shells. 8. The eighth formation consists of kao idiie. stone, which decomposes and contains burr-stones ; it’ contains four kinds of fresh water shells, and in some parts: siliceous wood and vegetables. 9. The ninth formation is alluvial, in putrid marshy vales, containing skeletons of large animals, trees, &c. of various kinds. 10. The last formation consists of alluvial sand on the sees of Beauce, to the west and south of the basin of aris. In the fourth, or gypseous formation, the gypsum quar- ry of Montmartre occurs ; it is wrought to the depth of about 400 feet ; the strata are about two feet in thick- ness, and the lowest are considered the best ; about 200 feet from the surface is a single stratum of argillaceous limestone, which breaks with a conchoidal fracture ; above the gypsum is an irregular bed of clay marl, about ten feetin depth. It is in this quarry that Cuvier found the fossil bones which have excited the attention of na« turalists so much. The. gypsum is calcined on the spot by a moderate heat, which expels the water of crystalliza- tion, and reduces it to. a powder. Though somewhat out of place here, we may mention other economical products, which are obtained in this basin: French burrs, which are used. in making: mill- stones, are found in Fontainebleau forest, in the S, S. E. district of the. basin; the covering of the siliceous lime~ stone, of which the burrs are composed, is: in some. pla- ces alluvia, or argillaceous marls; and in) other places: free stone without shells. Burrs are also found at Trappe, 14 milessouth-west from Paris, with shells suppo- sed to be of fresh water origin. At Meudon, six miles south-west from Paris, there is a stratum of coloured pot- ter’s clay, without fossils covering the chalk, which ex- tends in a south-east direction towards Gentilly; there are also in these two places, and elsewhere, quarries of excellent freestone. At Sevres, seven miles west from Paris, ea ec oe bearer: sands : and near the ve mass of chalk is cleva- ted near 50 above yrs ohm i enigen Livee’ highest part of it in the basin of Paris ; the stone is sibly inclined towards the river: this the only ‘inclining sre i ba a e shall conclude our account sin, with an enumeration of some of the most remarkable « re- mains which have been found in it: Skeletons o birds have been found at Montmartre, in the first, or ups per gypsum mass: elephants bones in ‘the alluvium, ninth formation: fish, and fish skeletons, at rota and several other places; leaves and pers of reams changed into silex ‘in the alluvial sand: large ern of palm trees converted into silex, in the fourth or gypseous formation : skeletons of various quadrupeds are found, not only in pe same formation, but also in'the ninth fore - mation, or the valley alluvium. Sharks teeth are found: in the chalk, or first Rertansibes Tortoise bones at Mont- tion, in whigk Fae xives edmanialaae been found. Secestanea Oysters are found in the chalk strata, in the lower beds - of the coarse limestone, tiitiep Sroraroties and all over ant gypseous formation. Next in importance, in a geological point of vie ab Yas Basaltic the basin of Paris, isthe province » of. Auvergne. — has been cursorily referred to in mentioning the moun-' “urea tains of France; but it deserves more notice’ in this place. Proceeding northward from Autillac, a vein of chalk in a country Ma it nina nar be d, a mountainous tract t extent aie itiieorte the basaltic mountains vf ie ov vergne, the modern departments © per Cantal. The northern part of the chain is st ae ws de Dome, and the southern that of Cantal: the Monts D’Or form the centre. The chief elevation is that of the Puy de Sausi: this enormous assemblage vers an extent ofabout 120 miles. It is a most and interesting tract, independently of these high moun- tains: great part of it is extremely and unimpas sable, the whole surface being cov: with blocks of granite or basalt. A stratum of basalt scems to have covered a large part of this district, the remains of whieh are seen on every eminence, forming horizontal crests on the same level. There are about 100 cones, besides nu- merous longitudinal ridges, all of which are basaltic ; and at the base of some of cones, M. D’Aubuisson diss covered currents of the same substance. Near St Cha- mont some masses of basalt present the appearance of columns bent in’an extraordinary manner. Ofte of the most celebrated of these cones is called La Tour d'Au- vergne. Among the scorie, about three leagues’ from Clermont, are the charred remains of many trees. No appearance of a crater is to be observed any where. Such is a general description of the basaltie district of Auvergne; according to some it is of voleanic origin ¥ but a chain of volcanoes, such as on this supposition the cones would indicate, it has been asserted, Beam be too bold even for conjecture. It is foreign to of this article to cous this Poe fat y-ned fore only observe, that, according to Dolomieu, who ex- amined this district very elle the lavas of Italy and Auvergne are perfectly : is, however, a marked difference in the of the two volcanic - fields, In Italy the subordinate hills are disposed in, ae f age of rocks co= a ; s, round the principal volcano; whereas -in Au- Sled elevations are detached, and seemed to have Prk ong ar ae In Italy, the ashes, scoriz, &c. have’ tions over an im- frequently approximated to each other, and that the of, granite detached by eruptions, are more or less calcined, ue, or deprived of their water of ization. Mr Birkbeck, one of the latest and most actite and observant English travellers in France, ts of opinion that the cones and longitudinal ridges of basalt in Auvergne, have been formed entirely by sub- sidence, and are the venerable remains of the ancient surface. ; The of the Pyrenees in some respects is in- emer Paella ever cre they pre- sent appearances, and even shells, near or age nye which are in the centre of he Abbé Palasso, in his Essay on - i panslogy of these mountains, gives a mineralogical chart inka! feoca with" Mppenet thatthe granite occupy one fifth of the horizontal surface on oning from one end of ite whatsoever ; a55 He ea Jeo8 : a few of the interspersed with vertical the latter primitive or , and marbles of and Antin, of beau- with white. The colour of the gene- mass is . The summit of Mount Per- the highest elevation of the Pyrenees, marine exuvie ; hence La Peyrouse infers, all that central and most elevated i of these mountains, which also include a profi 3 4 z 5 HI stone, uniformly destitute of ic remains, alterna- eee ae abe yry, trap, -hornstone, petrosilex, all of the same fe , and a common igin ; and, 2. Limestone, containing vestiges animals, which is never bl with iis gignde different a 3 a z g 2 4 Z inclination of the primitive beds is in a contrary direc- the followin strata. 5 are the order and depth: , mud, and sand, 15 feet. 2. Earth FRANCE. consist entirely _ 687 pei. Pa 2 feet 6 inches. 3. Mud and sand, 3 feet. 4. Hard marl, 2 feet. 5. Marly stone, 4 feet. 6. Pow- dery marl with sand, 5 feet. 7. Sand, 1 foot 6 inches. 8. Marl and sand, 8 feet 6 inches. 9. Hard marl and flint, the same depth. 10. Gravel or mar] in powder, 1 foot. 11. Eglantine, 1 foot 6 inches. 12. Marly gravel, the same depth. 13. Stony marl, 4 feet 6 inches. 14. Sand and shells, 1 foot 6 inches, 15. Gravel, 2 feet. 16. Stony marl, 3 feet 6 inches. 17. Powdered marl, 1 foot 6 inches. 18. Hard stone, 1 foot. 19. Sand and shells, 18 feet 6 inches. 20. Brown freestone, 8 feet. 21. Sand, 22 feet 6 inches ;—in all, 100 feet. In the hills near Etampes, a considerable town in the Statistics. department of the Seine and the Oise, seated on the ri-. ver Loet, the strata are very different; exhibiting, 1. Vegetable earth, 4 feet. 2. Marl and turf, 135 feet. 3. Freestone, marl, and shells, 12 feet. 4. Brown peb- bles, 4:feet. 5. Marl and shells, 6 inches. . 6. Sand and grit, 45 feet. 7. Sand and rounded pebbles, 18 feet. 8. Sand and shells, 6 feet. 9. Sand and gravel, 16 feet. 10. Tufa and shells, 4 feet. 11. Soft strata, 4 feet. 12, Marly clay, 8 feet;—in all, 256 feet 6 inches. Between Rouen and Louviers, the Seine has worn its channel through about 50 strata of chalk. The strata are from 18 inches to two feet in thickness, and are di- vided by flints. The chalk is soft and mouldering. These cliffs differ from the chalk cliffs of England, from their horizontal position, the number of their strata, and the thickness of the layers of flints, as well as the soft- ness of the chalk. To the south of Moulins, no more flint appears. At St Urban, near Vienne, there are pea pebbles in vast beds, 800 feet at least above the el of the Rhone. A few miles to the north of Va- lence, the mountains of ite give place to stratified rocks of sandstone and limestone. Opposite this town is a remarkable rock of crumbling sandstone, in hori« zontal strata. Between the same place and Avignon, the Rhone flows between mountains of stratified lime- stone. Avignon itself stands on a bold rock of lime- stone, of immense blocks, in vance nearly resem= pine erenie. In leaving the Pysetiies, and descend« ing Foix to Pamier, alluvial hills of quartzose sand, or of schist, assuming the character of clay, with some calcareous rocks, are found. At Caylus is a stratum of chalk between strata of limestone, which occurs in other of France, but is uncommon if not unknown in Britain. In a northerly direction from this is the volcanic country of Auvergne, which has been already noticed. Having given this cursory description of the geology and mineralogy of some of the: most interesting parts of France, we shall now proceed to offer some miscella~ neous remarks, which may serve to fill up any omis- sions of importance that may have occurred. 1. With to primitive and secondary compounds. The principal localities of granite and gneiss have been already mentioned. J Primitive 5 nd d- is found in the south of ar oa: France, reposing on granite. Porous porphyry, appear- pounds. ing as if it had undergone the action of fire, occurs in the mountain of Estirete in Provence, on the road from Frejus to Antibes. \ Primitive trap, alternating with nite and with gneiss, occurs near St: Maloes. limestone, in vast masses, irregularly rifted, in the Vi- varrais. The secon limestone of Mount Perdu has been already mention The gypsum of the quarries near Paris has also been noticed ; but it may be added, that lenticular gypsum is a curious variety, that seems peculiar to Montmartre; that crystallized gypsum is al- 688 Statistics. go found near Paris; fibrons ‘near Riom in =e Auvergne, i in'the volcanic district ; and ala- . q FRANCE — : baster in Franche Compté, and at Lagny on the Marne, about 20 miles from Paris. Fluor is abundant in France, occurring in almost inexhaustible mines, in a4 primitive mountains of Gyromagny, in the Vosges, the neighbourhood of Langeac in Auy Forez ; it is also found in ag mountain of vergne, and not far from L ons. Basalt, or perhaps whinstone, worn aed with aesnsdicas occurs near Ville leneuve-de-Berg, a town in the department of the Ardeche, 12 miles north-west * of Viviers. The coal mines of France will be after- wards noticed : at present we shall confine our remarks to a singular dyke that has been discovered in the coal field in the district of Boulogne. It runs in the form of a crescent from north to west, and consists of a 8 cies of marble, found in several quarries in the vicinity. This dyke has been traced to the dicular depth of 600 feet, where it is succeeded by a schistus rock, and this, following the same course and inclination, conti- nues to intersect the horizontal strata. Granite dykes, ste an inch to six feet in thickness,—the quartz, feld- , and mica of which are of larger size than are usu- ally found in the granite of mountains,—occur on the great road between Limoges and Cahors, traversing ho- rizontal strata of illaceous schistus, a ies of stone that has generally been considered of for- mation than granite. 2. Metallic veins and ores. The economical account of the mines of France will be afterwards given. Our subject at present i meg mineralogical. Small quan- tities of native cinn silver ore, red silver ore, and corneous silver ore, are found in France; the last at Allemont, where black silver ore also occurs. Of the ores of copper, France possesses native copper, and yellow copper ore. Native iron occurs at Oulli, near Grenoble. The chromate of iron has been found in con- — abundance in veins and nodules, in beds of tine, in the department of the Var. Of the ores of lead, brown lead ore, a rare species, occurs in the lead mines of Brittany.’ 1 them also native bis- muth is found. Native antimony, a very rare species, striated sulphuretted antimony, and red antimonial ore, are found at Allemont in Dauphiny, where occur yel- low cobalt ochre, red cobalt ore, a sulphuretted nickel, It is worthy of remark, that antimony has been found at this place imbedded in a matrix of pit-coal. The mine at Romanésche, in the department of the Sone and ae Loire, is distinguished by the follow- ing parti 1. It nomen a very considerable uantity of sul mts; not of pate of tye mixed, but in a state of chemical combination. 2. The total ‘absence of iron from: its composition is the more extraordinary, because the af- finity between these ‘substances is so ‘great, that few iron ores are destitute of manganese ; and no other in- stance of manganese devoid of iron has been found. 3. The hardness of those portions of the ore that con- tain the least quantity of oxygen is so considerable, that they not only scrateh t even xock-crystal, and fr bright sparks w ‘struck. 4. When plunged a minute in water, the variety that contains the mantity of ox absorbs. a certain quantity tthe iquid ; and when taken out of it, emits a very s odour, though no clay has been de- in its composition, 5. In the same circumstan- ces, that variety which contains a larger portion of oxy- gen, rapidly absorbs a great quantity of water, with a hissing noise, and disengagement of air. The odour , about one-sixth of the sand, Ci ei 3. Y avide enumerated the most remarkable of compound rocks, and metallic veins and ores, we. now notice the other mineral mubetamces, not nein in these two classes. + Earths and stones. Of the genus. Zircon, the ] cinth has been found in the rivulet Expailly, in the partment of the Upper Loire. Of the siliceous gen Olivine is found in the Vivarrais ; 3 grenetite in ny; the emerald, of a bad colour and confused lization, however, has lately been discovered in cinity of Limoges ; the 1, in a large vein a traversing tyes tourmaline, ava zite, or glassy pool of Kirwan, in Teuihearase on the surface iy ens FE varies of common quartz, held in ape evens estima~ been found near Vastes, in the department. of sy Two Reverie De " form of sonnted ag are n 1 depattmnent ura, ses of flint occur, with cavities conifatiniine sittin Chalcedony, in thin layers, al with neem 3 ane agate, imbedded in granite, uot nodules of the same granite, and penetrated with iron pyrites, have been found near Vienne, in the department of the Isere; menilite, the pitch-stone of Kirwan, at Montant, near Paris ; veins of rehnite, i in Dauphin = or efflorescent pam in the lead sage roth fi was first Hapnvered A in the grani' the department of the ioc as and a Lone, A it ce pies a vein of common pe pale hollow spar, a subspe- cies of feldspar, is imbedd in the mines Brittany. Of the stidlleceoen Canes cath is 5 found ‘, at Limoges and Bayonne. ° ive slate forms consi- derable at Mewil Monten, in which beds the me- nilite already noticed is found. The mountain of A- verne, near Frejus, which abounds in mineral produc. tions, — Jargs kpeir patty a sort of pani resemb ver |, wi the ra: Sats the most brilent offecr So rich do these that a representative of the people, not versed in eae ees , CYOSS= ing this mountain in 1793, « collected a quantity of this beautiful sand, rise Gay it with him to the Convention, as a proof of the negligence of the adminis- trators of the department of the Var, who trod under their feet treasures og oe to sustain the expence of the war against all the kings of the universe.» Besalt, lava, indurated lithomarge, &c. are also found in France. - Snow ofa very bright red colour has stuetintietieen found on the summits of the mountains. The matter which colours it, burns with a smell similar to that of a great many vegetable substances, Saussure, who often collected suéh snow on the Alpé, was indu- ced, by this property, as well as by its being found in summer, and in places ta a great many plants were a ———— eS —- - ett a ee” a Ee a my FRANCE. - Statistics, in flower, to consider the colouring matter as the farina Barytic genus. this , that Franee. , eee rier abound in “1” of some plant. Ramond, who found this dust on the Of the ian genus, fullers’ earth, though not so good in quality, nor so abundant as in England, is found There are also other species of this genus, _ but none that require particular notice. Of the ealcareous genus, the great body of chalk which traverses France from Champagne to Calais has’ already been mentioned, and also the marbles of the Paris, as well as the other most interesting species of ted mass ; it was about the of 15. or 16 feet in clay, which had been digging for some years before at Sonved hese Toul. " Petroleum and asphaltes are found in great abun- dance in Alsace, in a bed of sand, but upon two beds of organic remains found in the basin of Paris have already been noticed. They also occur in other of France; but we can only afford room for the follow- ing instance. At St Chaumont, near Lyons, is found an of some ferns, all of rance, but peculiar to the East Indies, or ee eee enna oe See tree which s on the coasts alabar Coro- por ply et hen uret of iron, some fine specimens of native gold ; it was not i rich to defray the expence of the ipcantal tian contain Rhine, the Doubs, the Garonne, Ardeche, and anes small rivulets which , - : - also a part of Al- ; and at Allemont in ; but silver is most attached to the and copper ore; and the former metal in some parts of France is particularly rich in this respect, containing for evéry quintal.of lead nearly 16 ounces of silver. Tron is found in abundance, parti in the north- eastern The ore is not unfrequently found in large lumps on the surface, and the strata are most but a few feet below it: wenn large banks ining iron ore. ‘There is an iron mine of considerable repute at Vicdessos, situa- VOL, IX, PART I. = 689 ted very high in these mounfains, about 15 miles to the _ Statisties. south-west of Tarascon, and not far from the frontier of ““~y” Spain. The “ chantiers,” or places where the ore is dug, are some hundred fathoms deep ; and the passage to them in re parts very narrow and steep. Up these passages the ore is brought with amazing toil, on the backs of the miners.’ Some 100 lb. some 120 Ib. and some even more, according to their strength. The mine is the property of government. There are generally 400 persons at work in it, under inspectors, but paying themselves by the sale of the ore to the forge masters. It is miserably wrought, without a sin- gle improvement, Mr Birkbeck supposes, since the days of Julius Cesar. The ore is rich, and containing cal careous spar, is reduced without the addition of any other substance. It lies very irregularly, under lime of a schistose ce. The mass of ore is in some parts upwards of 60 feet in thickness, The miners are mostly proprietors of land. The whole surface of the mountain is divided in patches of different dimensions; all cultivated and watered with the utmost assiduity, and clothed with luxuriant v tion. There are also abundant mines of iron in Upper Languedoc, in the mountains of the Rouergue, which bound the western part of the province ; and in the county of Foix, which joins to the south, there is a mine of iron, so extensive, that it has supplied 40 founderies for up- wards of two centuries. In these , the furnaces to: the iron founderies, instead of being blown with bel- lows, are supplied with a current of air, by means of water precipitated through a vertical tube, to which is given the name of a trombe, the same word which is’ used in France for a water spout. This practice is of very ancient standing. There are also iron mines in Franche Compté, ine, Champagne, Berri, &c. Great attentior- has been paid to the working of all the iron mines, since the Revolution. The number of for- ges for the working of iron and steel are computed at nearly 2000; but included the forges in those de« ts in the north-east, which no longer belong to rance. Before the Revolution, France im iron tothe annual value of 11 or 12 millions-of livres, A great quantity of steel is still im from Germany into France. There are some ri per mines in the Coppez: Pyrenees, in the departments of the Rhone and the Up- per Alps, inthe mountains of Rouergue; in the depart- ments of the Loire, the Lozere, and the Ardeche, and in a near the mountains of Vos« The principal copper founderies are at Saint Bel Cicee, Avi , Bedarieux, Montpellier, &c. Former. ] ‘almost all the copper used in France -was brought om Sweden. Two-thirds of the lead of Frarice are from Brittany, Lead. icularly the mines of Poullaoven and Huelgoet. here are also lead mines in the ent of the Channel; but they. have been re ly abandoned, in consequence of a deficiency of coal for working them. Mines of lead also occur in the ents of the Ma~ ritime Alps, the Lozere, Ardeche, &c. and in the Moun- tains of Most of those that are worked, yield silver at the same time. ; bich ‘ight France possesses mines of antimony, which mi, suffice for lying all Europe with that commodity. The. princi ores are those of Creuse, Cantal, the rm, poy La Vendée, the of the Ar« and Allier, and at Allemont in Dauphiny. Antimony. Zine is the most common of the French semi-metals. 71, It is found in three states in the mines; viz. in blende, 458 , ‘690 white vitriol, and lapis calaminaris. The latter is very abundant at Saint Sauveur, in the Cevennes, at Pierre- ville in the department of the Channel, at Montalit near Saumur, and other Cobalt is found in the silver, and bismuth in the lead mines. The former is chiefly met with in the mines of Alsace ; and bismuth in the mines of Bextasly, Saint Sauveur, &e. Manganese. Manganese is in great abundance. ; The mine of this metal at Romanéche in the department) of ‘the Saone ms Loire, nants of te - bat were rsa pain ide in the departments e Loire an osges, and near Perigord, whence it is sometimes ae Pierre de Peri- rd. o" The only mine of mercury that is now wrought, is sat Menildot, in the department of Calvados. The quick- silver mines in the department of the Channel have been abandoned. Before proceeding to our economical account of the coal mines of France, we shall notice some particulars connected with their mineralogical and geological cha- ae which we thought it better to refer to this The coal strata of Provence are situated at the foot of the highest mountains of Lower Provence ; they run along a soil of a whitish red colour, and traverse a pretty uniform range of hills, whose internal structure presents nothing very remarkable to the ordinary ob- server. To the first layer of earth, a hed of stone suc- ceeds, of various thickness, and followed by a layer of earth of the same nature as the first, which in turn on new beds of hard stone. » This series con- tinues to a mane d “ee and then the earth layers are no lon hey are succeeded by those of coal, which are ; ceed included between beds of lime- sae org seldom va! any considerable orn vea texture, and in proportion as a proach to the coal, change ac sk from a lath shade ; hence the as schistose; thong Statistics. —\— Cobalt. ‘Mercury, Coal strata in Pro- vence, Phite toa blue of li bet oF d might at first sight they are unquestionabl careous, and abound in: ma- rine and river shells; is disposition of the coal strata of Provence extends over a district of more than 20 leagues in length ; but the thickness of the seams seldom exceeds two or three feet. This situation of coal is cu- rious, as it puts beyond a doubt the existence of coal in limestone, which been long denied. . The coal of Alais, a town in the department of Gard, near the foot of the Cevennes, presents a mixture of: calcareous mat- ter, and is often t for the express of ob- taining lime. The geology of this provincial district of France also furnishes an instance of the occasional interposition of layers of peat earth between those of coal, thongh: it dony-he bted whether the alleged peat may not more properly be classed with vitriolic or bituminous earth, ,or even perhaps with fossil wood: Many of the coal strata in France are encompassed: by — rocks ; while most. of those in ‘England and landers are insulated in secon soil, ~Other coal The.other most considerable coal mines in France are canines, those in the Lyonnois at Forez, in the department of the Rhone and Loire, in Burgundy, Auvergne, and Franche Compté. The mines inthe Lyonnois, and those at Forez, are among the most important; they are situated in a valley extending from the Rhone ;to the Loire, in a direction from north-east to-sbathemest, be- tween two chains of primitive mountains, occupy- ing in length a space of six or seven leagues, from Rive-de-Gier to Firmine. In one part of the valley, FRANCE. equal ; sometimes amounting to ud sells ted thant dee gr om Ino neigh, bool of Rive Se eran work; and in one 2, tals of coal. Pears wel no longer 2 ee belies co Pause is not n to notice its: vie extendive and valuable pete tae g bet ves t In French H plinpairieitec sions fnipannentis villages of Fresne, Conde, Augin, &c. which have been wrought for a considerable of time: there are also mines in the Bourbonnois, Boulonnois, Ni coal is found within three feet of the surface ; tras meux ; between Beaune and Autun’ in the of the Cote D'Or; in several places in reer near Chapelle ;_Montrellois, and Niort ; ‘at Livry Lower Normandy; and in the neighbourhood of Paris, Buffon estimated the coal mines which were constant- ] ee at 400 ; and added t 200 more were capable wrought. In 1798, Lefebre published sopunt of the different coal mines in France ; the abetanse of which we uhall give; though of course it includes the mines in those departs ments, particularly those formed out nao the permed of Liege, which no longer to France. ea kees a -eoal -was-actually State ofthe wrought in 47 departments of the empire ; that indica- col mines ioe enema gsacrr er em traced in’ 16 others ; ® 179%- t the yearly produce mines of 84 departments had been fairly estimated at 77,600,000 quintals ; that p Sak monue anna number on quintals termin ents would be 81,700,000, ‘which, if converted into on the coal grounds, would fetch 38,280,000 francs ; and that more than 60,000 individuals earned their sub- sistence at the coaleries, independently of those who In the annual of the French government Of the Caniod tiie each t-tocp ceasilagharleaies totais is e,) a is drawn of the sheto of the aninee ta Rise for it was Somat put in requisition. | of course must be. Pm am there were, in 1814, 478 mines of actually working, which em 17,000 men, and produced a raw material of the of 26,800,000 francs, and a revenue’ to the state of 251,000 franes. From the small number of men em< ployed, as well as from the estimate of the value of the Fa mater oe expression raw materiai it- ‘statement must as not coal mines, but only mines thedi Speamennitaat in Frances. . - Pitney paveePry on det. ia} found toi the of the Aube, the Jet, Garde, and the Ardeche ; principally in the i bourhood of. three ‘villagenj fn Ae’ t of the. Aube, in the south-west of Languedoc. It is in beds FRANCE. ‘Statistics like coal, but not continuous, and is sometimes render- —r~ ed impure by a mixture of pyrites. It is for the most 691 that they proceed from some natural magazine of rock _ Statisties salt in the neighbourhood, Such are the mineralogical “—Y—" mm os Peat earth, peat earth along met in a kind of rusty earth, of an ash co- , and sometimes occurs in masses of the weight of 50lbs. about 5 or 6 toises ‘under the surface of the ground. It has been manufactured from time imme- morial, in the three vi alluded to, into rosaries, crosses, buttons for black dresses, &c. being an article of great consumption, chiefly in Spain. in 1786, it employed more than 1200 workmen, and the annual supply of the mineral was computed at 1000 quintals. Besides » to Germany, Italy, and the Levant, Spain i these jet manufactures ‘to the annual amount of 180,000 livres. ‘Latterly, however, the mines in France seem to have yielded a diminished supply, as jet was imported from Spain for the manufactures. Solid bitumen, or asphaltum, is obtained chiefly in the departments of the Ain and the Lower Rhine; ghatinoos bitumen, called pisalphaltus in the ent of the *uy de Dome; liquid bitumen, called naphtha and pe- in Auvergne, (as has already been noticed,) and in the de ts of the Herault, and the Lower Py- renees.. Rosin is along the banks of the Rhone from Seisal to Fort Ecluse. is found in consider- able quantities in the of the Aveyron. In the province of Berry, ochre, which is used for melting of metals, and in dyeing: Beside the extensive morasses of the Somme, and Essone, which seem to have been used for fuel at'an early period, there are many other situations, particularly in the north-western departments of France, where this combustible sub- stance is found in or less women oar Within these few years, in consequence of the increasing scar- i fuel, the attention of the government, well as of the mountains of the Rouergue,’ already »the principal mine is at Simoze. ies of animal, of which the teeth copper | the turquois stone, are found in the depart of the Ain. Vitriol, ochres, sulphur, and excellent argil for ies, are also found in these mountains. I sorts of earths and sands used in manufactures, as kaolin or in earth, arena-~ ceous: F &e. nd in France. Be- sided thd tquttsteerdll Sreadhinis:ta‘the tuitiedlate neipts deveyitioahefy anes Stevan rte Serta, a 7 near , tow erne, along the Rhine. These aes afd hard nd slid stones of a surprising size, some being 24 feet long Gi feet broads and. quarrics: of kind - vt} mo inck Salins in Franche Compté, some blocks from which are large as.to be ca of making columns of from 12 igh. The marble quarries of the Pyrenees ly mentioned. hos ae at Salins in Franche Compté, about ate eterna pnsa and as many east from mixed with clay, gypsum, ied in different placés.’ “There are three distinct. ings, the. strongest of which contains 23 per cent. of salt, and the weakest only one. As not only the quantity, but also the strength of these sources, is increased, very soon after rain, it is probable _city' wall, ‘Phe tem ciréumstances connected with these springs, as given by Hassenfratz, in his “ Observations on the Salt’ Springs of Salins.”) With respect to the economical circumstances relating to. them, we may observe, that the Great Salt-work, as it is called, isa strong place’ by itself in the middle of the town, surrounded with thick walls, round and adjoining to which are build- ings for the wheel-works, cranes, &c. which serve to raise the waters, and for the furnaces, &c. employed in the manufacture. In other places are three great stone reservoirs, which together hold ubove 25,000 hogsheads of water: there is also a fourth cistern in’ the nd, which holds above 15,000 hogsheads. he whole extent of the subterranean caves is about 400 feet in length, by 50 or 60 in’ breadth; the de- scent isby 61 steps. At the bottom of this cave, there: issue from the same rock, within the space of 14 feet, six springs of salt, and two of fresh water. In another part of the cave aré six'or seven springs of salt water; along with ten or twelve of fresh water : the waters, of course, are kept quite separate.’ The‘salt water is col- lected in a bason, whence it is raised by wooden pails, linked together about a t_ wheel, which is turned by a horse. These pails are filled in the bason ; and whilst some are filling; the. others’ empty’ themselves into another bason'that stands higher, and outeof which re ies oh runs into the crabeeg tas The ditferent springs have different degrees mess)! If 1 ‘ewt; of witabiddes hue ypevtlucs at least: 18 dr 20 lib>of salt, the profit will not answer the expence: ~The overseers of the springs try the strength of the waters once a week, upon their report, those who mix them may do it in'a wr Hise 3 ‘according to their respective degrees of saltness; “In the evaporating process, there is nothing that-requires notice: ‘The surface, or upper most part of the salt; which, for its whiteness, bright~ ness, and: i, is called sé/ trié, is sent to Switzer- land-in casks; sold at’ a’ moderate price ; the re- mainder is moulded into cakes of three or four pounds weight. The salt is manufactured at Monter and Arq, as well as at Salins. There are also salt springs at’ Dieuze and Chateau-Salins, in the province of Lorraine, and salt refineries at’ Moyenvie, in the district of the- Three Bishoprics, ‘as it is called. |’ . Sea salt is made in’ great abundance ‘on the coast of Sea salt. France, particularly on the coaste of Brittany, Sain- tonge, Aunis, Normandy, Poitou, and Languedoc. The salt marshes of Saintonge and Aunis produce the best salt in Europe. “In the department of the Channel,’ salt is prepared from sea sand on a very extensive and beneficial plam ©) [te rr The principal‘mineral waters ’in France are those of Mineral Aix, Bagneres, “and . The waters of Aix in Provenee must have’ béen' known to the Romans, as the name of the town ig derived from Aqua Sextea, from the baths established in it by C. Sextius Calvinius. The source of the baths; however, was lost, till the begin- ning of the last century, when it was discoy in @ forthe foundation of a house, just without the ature of ‘the water is about the same as that of the Queen’s bath at Bath; its contents similar to those of Aix la Chapelle, principally sulphur, carbonate of lime; and muriate of soda. Bagneres, in the eastern part of Guienne, derives its name from its baths, which were frequented by the Romans. The hottest spring raises: the mercury in Fabrenheit’s ther- mometer to 123°, while the most moderate causes it to ascend only to 86.- Two are exactly equal in heat to Statistics, —_——~ Natural cue riosities. La Crau. - Caves. 692 that of the human body ; ten are below it, and eighteen are above it. The waters of the ee ek a are strongly purgative ; those of Salut iure- tic pa acdns, The degree of heat in Salut is 884. is situated in a frightful chasm of a valley, shaded on both sides by rude, barren mountains, and the Baston, a foaming torrent, filling the hollow. The situation is such, that the inhabitants dare not stay here during the winter, but remove all their furniture, and even their doors and windows, to such houses as are most out of the reach of mischief from the floods and avalanches. The mineral waters issue out of a hill in the centre of the village, and are distributed into three baths: they are strongly sulphureous, and con- sequently i: Shaq Their degree of heat is from 80 to 1123: are to the touch, and tinge silver black. The waters of St Sauveur, near Luz, are not so hot as those of Bareges, but their taste is still more nauseous. There are other mineral waters at Cauterets, in the midst of beautiful . The hot- test spring raises the mercury to 118° ; in the coolest, it falls to 69°, de may also be men- tioned: it is a town on the river Neste, complete- ly hemmed in by lofty mountains on the borders of Catalonia. The baths are at a small distance from the town, and near the springs, which issue out of a rock, and are three in number, ete y dhgor ge 4 their of heat, but all tepid. e of them is rated by a plank from a copious stream, which, fur- nishes the coldest and purest water in the valley. Their streams are suffered to unite soon afterwards, to fill the tepid baths. The other mineral, waters of any note in France, are those of Forges, Vichi, Bourbonne, Bala- ruc, and Plombieres, Of the natural curiosities in France, we shall cipally confine our attention to those. which are inte~ ing from their connection with ip paytcslgingrs: phy. In this point of view, the plai of La claims our first notice. It is ed on the east side of the Rhone, between ales ae Dee eee triangular ; it covers an area of al 20 uare leagues, or 136,780 English acres. Thia ava is coveted entirel with quartz of gravel, some of the size of aman’s head, but of all sizes less, and the shingle of the sea shore is not more barren of soil. The basis of the whole plain consists of horizontal layers of pudding stone; and as, on examination, the stones on lain- have been ascertained to be exactly of the same kind, there can be little doubt that on vast body pO re read over pe yee ager oan ie ge inatec e ction of layers of the same which may perhaps have risen a great height above what is now the surface. This is the opinion of Saussure, and is more probable than the suppositions, that the gravel has been brought down by Durance from Alps of Dauphiny ; that the Rhone has formed it ; or that,it is the work of the sea, This plain was known to the ancients by the names of the nay a Lapidius, or Campus Herculeus, The origin of the first name is sufficiently obvious ; the latter was derived from its having been the reputed scene where Hercules, fighting with the sons of Nep- tune, and being in want of weapons, was supplied from heaven with a shower of stones. , There are some singular caves in France, particular- ly that in Franche Compté, near the village of Beaume, and those of Roquefort ; the former is remarkable from its containing a glacier. This cave is at the bottom of a small valley, in the middle of a thick forest. The FRANCE. ; i i tf high, and this a passage leads to the chamber taining the glacier, the descent to which i a of 40 feet, In this cavern are stalactites of solid which are in some parts nearly joined by a sf Hi i gs same material, rising from a magnificent floor. Reaumut's » which of the cave was at 20} fell within Penagennty) by mere among the a calcareous mountain. In the month of October, the thermometer of Reaumut cone in app 9 to 54°; net de 138° in open air; Chaptal, on the 2Ist of August 1787, with a good thermometer, which stood at 23° in the shade in the open air, found the of a — current of air in one of the caves to be 4°. He was informed that the thermometer had been seen, in that ex position, as low as 2° above zero. The hotter the exters nal air, the cooler the caves are found to be, because the current is then stronger. These caves are used in the manufacture of a. i esteemed cheese. The fountain of Vaucluse, immortalized by Petrarch, Vaucluse. termina- : E i aes Az = tain of Vaucluse, The entrance to the cavern is 60 feet in height ; before it rises an immense rock, which qui conceals it : this rock the water filters, gushi out at its base in innumerable little streams. » is the ordinary state of the fountain; but when, in the ing, the snows of the mountains melt, the water rises : aentons age jana vinahe diocemsah Aispinn : e territory , in Aix, isa spring called the fountain of La Foux, which has the same periodical risings as the fountain of Vaucluse, but it is little known,’ 2 they attack the former by leaping on their backs, when they force the head to the ground, and thrust their petainte shew in a meee of a dreadful hug: _ ere are many hunting days every year for desttoy~ ing them, several parishes joining for that purpose, A bear never ventures to attack a wolf; but several.wolves ee her, when hungry, ul sew and Volves are very common in different parts of France, and very destructive to the sheep. "Ties also found in some parts. of this kingdom. _ The ibex, rock-goat, or bouquetin (or. bouctain, from bouc, a goat, because they resemble goats), are found in - nees, and in the Alps of Dauphiny. grey colour, with very long and strong mountains of Volni, near Rochecourte, in the mountains of Dauphiny, the chamois is found, of the antelope: class.. The Becca-fico, and the Cicala, of the Italians, are not uncommon in the southern provinces of France.’ The Cicala never ceases making its peculiar makes is said not to proceed from its throat, but from two membranes underneath the wings towards the tail, which it fills with wind, and blows tike bellows, os ‘it. CHAP, IV. ~ Agriculture of France. > the Agricultural - Berore the Revolution, agriculture in France wih nearly in the same > which it is still in almost i eS — Money rent. FRANCE. country in continental Europe. About two-fifths pp is land susceptible of cultivation, were in what is termed culture and and produced, on an culture, on the produced. at benefit and good must be looked for in the state of her landed property, and in the'condi- tion of her agricultural population. Before the Revolution, the land in France was held by various tenures, almost all of which were decidedly and extremely unfavourable to agriculture | The ma- nor rents of the clergy have been variously estimated. Condorcet, in his Life of Turgot, gives it as his opinion, that the cl enjo ednear & fish part of the property of the ki eckar calculated their revenue at 180,000,000 livres ; but it is probable that their manor rents may fairly be estimated to have amounted to about 120 of livres, or £4,800,000 sterling, exclu- sive of their tithes, which may be rated at about £3,600,000 sterling. The domains of the crown and of the princes of the blood, rented for about £1,200,000 sterling ; the feudal and honorary dues paid to the no- bility, with corvées, militia, &c. amounted at least to £5,000,000 sterling. Besides, the government drew from the produce i the sum of £8,000,000 sterling. In short, it has been calculated, that, exclu- sive of the rents of land paid to the lay-proprietors, and of the duties of excise, consumption, and the like, the uce of the soil was charged annually with up- wards of £21,000,000 sterling. } But agriculture laboured under disadvantages still more di ing and ive, previously to the Sra tnlotelster che‘ iicenk wtsioe ch-ictey> to ider the di t ° - ing land which then existed, some of which, ag ever, as we shall afterwards see, still remain. In the first place, there were the small ies of the pea- sants. These were to be found every where to a de- gree of which we have no conception in England, and which we should not ae See in the midst of the enormous possessions, and the oppressive privileges, of the nobility andthe clergy. Even in dante proces where other tenures prevailed, they were to be found ; but principally in edoc; Quercy, which now forms the department of Lot; the whole district of the a sg Bearn, Gascony, part of Guienne, Alsace, nders, and Lorraine. The condition of the peasant- ry, who possessed these small ren varied much in different parts of the kingdom. In Flanders, Alsace, on the Garonne, and more particularly in Bearne, they were in comfortable circumstances, and might rather be called farmers than ; and in Lower Britta- ny many of them were rich; but this character could by no means be applied to them ms geneaey. In fact, the minute division of property produced the effects which might be e from it; and poverty and mi- sery were too visible, especially in Lorraine, and the parts of Cham which are contiguous to it. The presto ee of possessing land, was rent. This, before the Revolution, was el in Picardy, Normandy, of Flanders, Artois, Isle of France, and the Pays de Beauce. It al- so existed in some of the southern districts of France, particularly in Bearn, and about Navareens, a town in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, These a mo- gene- — 695 tenures were also found in other parts of France, scatters Statistica. , ed among those which were different and predominant ; but, upon a moderate estimate, before the Revolu-. tion, they did not exist in-more than a sixth or a se- venth of the kingdom. Feudal tenures were the third mode of occupying land. They abounded most in Brittany, Limosin, Ber- ry, La Manche, &c. but they were scattered in a great- er or less degree through the whole kingdom. These feudal tenures were fiefs granted by the seigneurs of the parishes, under a reservation of fines, quit rents, forfeitures, services, &c. As they formed the most op- pressive evil under which agriculture laboured previ- ously to'the Revolution, and from which that event must certainly be allowed the merit of having freed it, it may be proper to notice some of them. Even to enumerate the whole of these oppressions would far-ex~ ceed our limits ; and indeed, the English language does not supply terms by which many of them can be ex~ P Among the more mild and tolerable of these feudal tenures, may be mentioned the obligation the tenant was under, of grinding his corn at the mills of the seigneur only ; of pressing his grapes at his press only ; of baking his bread in his oven. The peasantry in Brittany were obliged to beat the waters in marshy districts, to keep the frogs silent, in order that the lady of the seigneur, during her lying-in, might not be disturbed by their noise. In short, every petty op- pression which could render the lives of the peasantry miserable, or interfere with the operations of agricul- ture, was authorised by these feudal tenures; though it must be confessed, that, before the Revolution, some of the seigneurs, convinced of their injustice as well as impolicy, forbore to exact them. Nor were the op- pressions of the feudal tenures the only ones to which agriculture was exposed. There were numerous edicts for preserving the game, which prohibited weeding and hoeing, lest the young partridges should be disturbed ; steeping seed, lest it should injure the game; manu- ring with night soil, lest the flavour of the partridges should be injured, by feeding on the corti so produ- ced ; mowing hay before a certain time, so late as ta spoil many crops ; and taking away the stubble, which would deprive the birds of shelter. These were op- pressions, to which all the tenants of land, as well as those who held under feudal tenures, and even the poet of land, in many cases, were exposed. The er, indeed, were dreadfully tormented by what were called the Capitainries, which, as affecting them in some measure, as the feudal tenures affected the farmers, may be noticed under this head. By this term was to be understood, the paramountship of certain dis- tricts, granted by the king to princes of the blood, by which they were put in possession of the property of all game, even on lands which did not belong to them, and even on manors granted long before to individu- als ; so that by this paramountship all manorial rights were annihilated. ‘The privileges thus conferred, were most grievous and oppressive ; for by game was under~ stood, whole droves of wild boars, and herds of deer not confined, but wandering over the whole country to the destruction of the crops ; and if any person presu- med to kill them, he was liable to be sent to the gallies. It may easily be conceived, that the minute vexations, as well as the more prominent tyranniés, to which the feudal tenures gave rise, would occasion frequent disputes between the seigneur and his tenants; but the latter preferred submitting to them, rather than ap- Feudal te- nures. Metayers. an engine of oppression ; for, under the pretence that the work might be done without in ion, those who were liable to the corvee had it frequently allotted to them at some leagues from their habitations. Besides these corvées, which were an ion to agri= culture over the whole of France, there were the military corvées, which fell noe erahae os. lying in the route of the troops ; the inhabitants of which were obliged to leave their occupation, however inconvenient and injuri- ous it might be, and repair the roads along which the sol» diers were to travel. Such area few of the i under which agriculture in France laboured, previously to the Revolution, arising either from the fi tenures, or from the more general o ion of the laws and measures of government, the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and the usages of the country. The fourth mode of occupying land, resembled that which is common fe Tavlomets and which is there com- plained of as a great grievance, and as the source of much misery and oppression. Men possessed of some P y, hired great tracts of land at a money rent, relet it in small divisions to metayers, who paid half the produce. This mode of occu land was most common in La Manche, Berry, Poitou, and Angoumois, but it was also met with in-other provinces. ra spogastf icine thes geobglp eliestet nthe are a species of farmers that ys to the slave cultivatory of ancient times, and who, in Latin, are called colont partiarii, have been so long in disuse in England, that there is no English name for them. They may be generally described, as supplying the la« bour n to cultivate the land, while the proprie- tor furnished yp bry Na gk 6p aE of husbandry, and, in short, w stock necessary for cultivating the farm. The common agreement was, that the produce should be equally divided between the proprietor and farmer, after setting aside what was ne- cessary for keeping up the stock, which was restored to the proprietor, when the farmer either quitted, or was turned out of his farm. F Before the Revolution, seven-ei of the lands in France were ane ae this tenure. It pervaded al+ most every part of Sologne, Berry, La Manche, Limo- sin, Anjou, Burgundy, Bourbonnois, Nivernois, Au» vergne, &c. and was found in Brittany, Maine, Pro- vence, and all the southern districts. In general, the half of the produce was paid to the ietor ; but in Champagne only a third. There were varia- tions: in some parts, the proprietor found half the cat- tle and seed, and the metayer the labour. and imple- ments, besides paying the taxes ; the last, in other dis- tricts, were partly paid by the proprietor. | In Norman- dy, a singular ies of this tenure prevailed, viz. on the farms which the proprietors kept in their own hands, 1 696 FRANCE. ing to the decision of judges, who were absolutely It is scarcely necessary to point out the miserable Statistics: cuiGesenlgatiols. state of agriculture, which must exist in a country SaaS hilet Re meats See Since, So pedlees i Saehaaae aan abla seanedtl taxes iarly oppressive and injurious to agriculture, place, it proves a agricultural : not confined to the tenure we are now consider+ > sear beret prog = omar ing. By the corvées, individuals were obliged tomend dency to perpetuate this and to keep the tenant in the by their 1 labour; hence it is evident the lowest, state of dependence, misery, and poverty. that this tax must have fallen exclusively on the poor ; pach prone senate or ns Bom a or if it was performed by those who kept labourers, it and consequently so dependent on thei , that must have deprived them of the means of fully attend- they were almost every year obliged to borrow from impolitic, in so much as it placed the repair ofthe | Such were the tenures of land before the Revolution. ape the care of those who were destitute Let us now enquire what effects that event has of the little skill requisite for such a task, but it was duced on them, -and-oti the condition of die wptishiae exposed to sale during the pecuniary the revolutionary government. For the ation of the lowest order of purchi they were divided into small portions, five years were allowed for com- ; nd of yee de ae to aoe , an Ls Tarte ie eee a prietors, possessing from one to ten acres. They ease i by ree pers Notch at same time, neighbou mers. The number of small i Me ae ee creased from another cause, since the Revolution. Be- fore that event, it seems to have been the law, . least the invariable custom, in some of France, to divide the landed all the children. | inbtts eihiginonaeiens --— ution, to w ingdom ; so the pre- seat law of Featon bends Of dandioth of bite ieee, . is divided, by the law itself, among his The deplorable consequences which must ‘ultimately result from this division and subdivision of little ies in a country like France, already so fully opri : ty has been affected by the Revolution ot n second place, hiring at money rent is much more genetal since the Revolution ; and if France con« : tinues quiet, and recovers from the injurious conse- : quences of the Revolution, it ma‘ be ex- pected that this species of tenure will become more and pay a es 2 In the third place, feudal tenures are done away, as Pe apr rao he pach ~ ; ‘hired t is, ly, W men : ceeniiat Gnd na Gancoty-sent, aiovadne eR visions, and the system of metaying, still exist, not nearly to such an extent, or in such an and ruinous form, as before the Revolution. — a when we consider that these species of tenure were the unavoidable and necessary s of inadequate agricultural capital, we cannot expect that they should be abolished by the mere operation of law, or by’ the direct effects of any revolution, however wisely planned and carried into execution, If, however, we find that FRANCE. . 697 of land of course is proportionally low. Before the Re- Statistics. 1 die “ we may safely and rationally maintain, that. the Revo- lution, besides the direct benefits which it has bestowed on agriculture, by the abolition of feudal tenures, and partial and oppressive taxes, has indi } ferred on the agriculture of France, and which have manifested themselves, notwithstanding the military : a9 ae ing and ple? her or the purpose of enslaving the continent of > has at length ecnighaclowe ‘ene hewn jus veteilietica for her too ready acquiescence in its schemes. These, however, are only partial and tem evils ;- and we confidently predict, that when they are passed away, the agriculture of France, which, her ex- cellent climate and easily worked soil, must always be the staple branch of her national industry, and the prin- cipal source from which she must draw her political influence and military er, will be found to have 5 yine 5,000,000; in woods 19,850,000; in meadow and rich pasturage 4,000,000 acres; under lucerne, sain- foin, &c. 5,000,000 ; and the and wastes oc- eupy 27,150,000 ; thus making a total of 131,000,000 acres, This estimate, however, as as respects the number of acres under wood, is certainly over-rated, — Mr Young on this point follows the authority of Neckar ; for a committee of the first National stated the whole extent of territory covered with wood at 13,100,691 arpents, of 100 perches of 28 os French feet each; whereas, according to Mr man’ The puaeatctocpeion of he nti the xt ‘occupation of the land in the north- Son poorliices of France, dante conceived, from the fol- account of the distribution of a small commune. Ww and meadows in the occupation of the propris: tor, 250 acres; two farms let, keeping two ploughs each, eight horses, 300 acres; 10 freeholders, keep- ing one pl each, together 20 horses, 750 acres ; 28 freeholders, ing no horses, occupying 250 acres ; in all, 1550 acres, of which 1300 were arable. These are distributed as follows: under fallow 433, under wheat 433, under oats 433. Those who have no ploughs 40 francs (33s. 4d.) per acre to their neighbours ed the team labour of the whole course, viz. four ploughings on the fallow, arid one ploughing for oats ; oads of dung per acre carted on the fallow, and ing. rietors who possess no ploughs are labourers, and in general work for the person who performs the ing of their land. The number of acres ploughed in this commune annually ‘is 21 65, or about 7} acres per day for 14 p , leaving sufficient time for harrowing, harvest, and ing of d The rentof land is low in most parts of 3 fore the Revolution ree ety ~ roe pape land was averaged Mr Yo at 158. 7d.; e woods at 12s. ; Srxhe i uaniree £3:16:6; of the meadows at £2: 3:9; the wastes at 1s. 9d. At extremely good land in Normandy may be got 30s. per acre ; 18s, and 20s, are more common. In other districts, it is even very much lower. The price VOL. 1X, PART IL away, which seems to be the case, | r] volution, the average price of all the cultivated land. in the kingdom, was estimated by Mr Young at £20 the English acre. In 1814, Mr Birkbeck mentions an estate near Cosne of 1000 acres arable, and 500 wood land, let on lease for nine years for £375 sterling, which might be bought for 22 years’ purchase, or £8333, It is pro- per to add, however, that one-third of the arable land of this farm’was poor cold clay, of little value; two- thirds pretty good wheat land; part dry enough for turnips. In 1807, Mr Pinckney states, that the average rents from Paris to Maine were about 15s. the English acre; and the purchase from £15 to £18. The value of lands in the vine districts of France, is much higher, amounting on an average to upwards of £60 per acre, according to some authors ; but others rate it only at Size of £41 per acre. The size of farms is’ in’ general small; arms, few, even in Normandy and the other provinces where agriculture is conducted on the best plan, and with the greatest capital and skill, reaching 300 acres. With re- spect to the capital employed by the farmers, Mr Young ©*Pi**" calculated it on an average of’the whole kingdom, not to exceed 40s. per’acre, In this, however, he was bably much mistaken. At any rate, at present, the average must be much higher. In French Flanders, it is calculated that a farm of about 250 English acres will require a capital of upwards of £1500 sterling, or about 26, 5s. per English acre. In this estimate, the live-stock is sup to cost £716:16:8; of which 15 horses at £16: 13:4 each, 14 milch cows at £9 each, and 180 sheep at 17s. 8d. each, form the chief ar~ ticles. The instruments of husbandry form the next division of this estimate, and amount to £138. Of these the large waggon is rated at upwards of £45; and the lighter wagyons, of which there are three at nearl £20; four ploughs at £2, 10s. each, besides a Du plough at £2: 12:6; the harrows, all of wood, at 8s. 4d. each. The third branch of the estimate is the ser- vants’ wages for 15 months. The number is eight ; three ploughmen, one man to take care of the young horses, a shepherd, two women, and a swineherd ; their wages, one with another, being £4: 11:8 per annum each. The wages of the labourers are rated at from 8d. to 1s. per day. The maintenance of the 15 plough liorses and 10 young horses for 15 months, is estimated at about £150. It is probable that capital to the same amount is required in the other parts of France, where. iculture is well understood, and carried on with spi-- rit and success. In the other districts, where it is far behind, of course the capital will be much less. The prevailing opinion, that France is entirely an tnclosures. co’ , is very erroneous, It is certainly much toe inclowed than England. All Brittany, the fei part of Normandy, and the ‘northern part of that pro- vinee as far as the Seine, niost of Anjou and Maine, Lower Poitou, Touraine, Sologne, Berry, Limosin, the Bourbonnois, and a great part of Nivernois, part of Au- vergne, and Quercy, are inclosed. The whole district of the is thickly inclosed. This district of coun- SF rer 11,000 square leagues ; so that if the parts of France that are inclosed be added, they will raise the total to a full half of the kingdom. But though’so lange a portion is inclosed, the inclosures in coon are ill planned, and badly kept ; and their va- ue and utility so little understood, that the same rent is given for inclosed and fields, provided both are le. Perhaps the province of Bearn exhibits more attention to the proper ae of inclosures than T Imple- anents. _ 1-6th of the w 698 FRANCE: Statistics. most other districts of France. There is not a in England closer, thicker, or better inclosed ; what is uncommon in France, the and stiles are in order. Commons are not met with in France, at ect ie tien.namne conse. i Weis AT AIE a England; but common fields abound, they are cursed with all the mischievous consequences w attend them in England, such as rights of common pas- turage commencing on given days when under corn, and throughout the fallow year. There is a great deal of common field land in Picardy, Artois, part of Nor- mandy, the Isle of France, Brie, the Pays de Beauce, and a ang whole neg aren Loire. E oatk aie district, ‘armers are in the practice ing an exchange with the poor, who have the right of common pasturage. This they buy. off, assigning an acre or more to every cottage in the parish. It is a singular circumstance, that some of the poor- est and least improved provinces, are precisely those which are best and most generally inclosed: hence it is easy to perceive, that the mere existence of inclo- sures is not in France, as in England, a proof of the advancing state of agriculture. The chief cause of new inclosures in France, is, that the communities in many parishes, in different parts of the kingdom, and more especially in the vicinity of the Pyrenees, being pro- prietors of the wastes, sell them to any person who ap- plies for the property, in absolute assignment ; in con- sequence of which, the purchaser has the power of in- closure: whereas, in the waste plains of Brittany, An- jou, Maine, and Guienne, the seigneurs are the sole and absolute proprietors, and they will not sell, but only feu their estates. Herice the waste lands remain un- changed and unimproved. The government of France, before the Revolution, took some measures to enforce or facilitate a general inclosure with respect to some of the provinces, more particularly with regard to Lor- raine, in 1764 and 1765; but the ular objections and prejudices against inclosures, such weight, that at the commencement of the Revolution, strong remon- strances were presented against them, and certainly the proportion of inclosed land has not considerably increa- he cereal vey lem eral F icultural implements in use in France are very rude and anetliek in seneiats as well as in construction ; the plough in most parts is almost entirely of wood, and scratches and pushes forward the soil, in- stead of penetrating to any depth, or turning it over. In the vicinity the Pyrenees, a light imperfect plough, similar to what the Romans , and drawn by a pair of weak cows, is not uncommon. In the neigh- pet of Toulouse, a better plough is seen, Keety good construction, to which two strong oxen are yoked, theploughman driving them by meansof along staff, that answers the double purpose of a goad and a paddle. TRS. se, Of Cease She AHeOw, te, PROC Sonn AR France, and are yoked in a different manner from what is ised in England: A piece of wood, of about ight of an English yoke, is put across the forehead of the cattle, the extremities of which are neatly hollowed out, so as to fit the mould of the head, and the hollows lined with a piece of woolly sheep skin, to answer the purpose of a soft pad or cushion. This light and yoke is braced to the horns with a small thong of leather, to the middle of which the beam of the h is attached; the animals are thus complete- ly eqnipped for their labour. It seldom that more than two oxen are yoked in a plough. In the north of France, as well.as in some of the eastern, western, and middle provinces, horses are more com- manner, some farmers havethree binotsto eight some two binots to five ploughs. Only one and two ployed ; the furrow which it makes is from five to si es in depth, Its operation is different from that the common plough, since it does not turn over land, but elevates it into small ridges, by which the weeds are exposed i the dry weather. After the binot, the land is ah det a for the seed furrows, The harrows, in ge- neral use, are eaeeny imperfect in principle and con- 0 E as By Ss 4 5 2 Fs z Picts i France, each drawn by a single horse, with about half a dozen drivers a’ in common use, consists principally of two parts—the carriage and the body ; dhe carriage Gurt vey GEN, being composed of two long shafts of wood, about 20 feet in length, connected together sion may require: in the same manner, the sides, a front and back may be added at pleasure. The axle and wheels are in the usual place and form. The move- able body is fixed on this carriage ; it consists ofa simi- lar frame work, of two shafts, connected by cross bars. This body moves upon an axletree, and extending some feet beyond the carriage behind, it is let down with ease to recover its load, while the body, moving on a pivot, or axle, is easily purchased up from before. In France, before the Revolution, and even since that Roads. event, the construction and repair of the roads is lodged with the government. The great military roads, especially that over the Simplon, are excellent, with re- to the principle on which they are constructed, the materials of which they are formed, and the whole of their gn But so bare which were not n ‘or military purp ve in shaancnelly negl H although it was stated, in the year 1806, by the minister of finance, that more than thirty-five millions of francs were annu- ally requisite for the reparation of the roads and public works. - 1809, a nonere of laws was pri garding the management e roads ; in-which a lz passed in the time of the Republic, for establishing the use of broad te 1 ye wheels, is strongly enforced. According to this law, the wheels of heavy waggons were to be nine inches three lines broad ; and they are allowed to only a certain weight, which varies du- ring the five winter and seven summer months. It was also enacted, that in those parts of the kingdom where the roads were paved, the passing upon the pavement should be suspended during those seasons when they by cross bars, so as _ to form the bed ; on this the boards are laid; ‘as ocea- FRANCE. w . have been very partially enforced; so that some of the best roads in France, undet'the old government, have fallen into complete disrepair. This has boundaries of the ki ls have been established since the Revolu- | epee ache rece . state i in any country may gene- pon ie 7 -C Som puligaliiel, ediartheo-eole erat ich i : If these are conducted on agri vi on the contrary, if bad rotations are pursued, agriculture has made very trifling advanees towards perfection. If we judge of France according to this rule, we shall decide, that, though over by far the est part of the kingdom agri is ina misera- state, yet in some parts it is well understood and We have mentioned the divisions of France into districts, eomaee i ee ane e shall now note the principal rotations pursued in district. a. principally prevail, according to one of which, in Flan« Sieo-aaed gunvetAetold; there isino tallow, but a con- stant succession of crops. The most and pro- ductive rotation is found between Valenciennes and Lisle: it consists of wheat, and turnips after it the same year; oats, clover, wheat, hemp, wheat, flax, coleseed, wheat, beans, wheat. In the provinces of Picardy, Isle of France, Normandy, and the other parts of Artois, the usual rotation was not in pane of fallow, wheat, and a open comma Ate nem sete and in other i een Di Rouen, where the soil is a deep hazle dedi. wpon frog Saw mer pena src we tion being fallow, wheat, pease, vetches, flax, or seed ; wheat, clover, oats. In the rich plain-of Alsace, the fields are never fallowed ; the fallow crops being potatoes, poppies for oil, , maize, vetches, clover, beans, hemp, tobacco, ras err the Limagne of Auvergne, one of the richest districts of France, fal- lows are partially used; but the usual: rotations, in other respects, are so severe, that only such a soil and climate could bear them ; it is not unusual to sow rye after wheat, and wheat after rye. The latter grain is often sown on their best land; and wheat on ‘their worst: a common rotation is barley, rye, hemp, rye: wheat is grown also after beans: two crops in the year are not unusual. As soon as ever the maize district of France is enter- 699 ed upon, fallows disappear ; that grain being cultivated . insuch a manner as to preclude fhe necessity of a fal- low. In the plain of the Garonne, the usual rotation is maize, wheat; and here also is first found the culture of different species of vetches, which are sown both in ber and in the spring ; and, er with hemp and maize, assist ih banishing fallows. Yet even in this highly favoured district, rye is often grown where wheat might be cultivated with advantage. Turnips are a second crop after wheat and rye. ‘ The culture of the white lupin is common here. ; In the heath district great quantities of buck wheat are grown, and in some parts parsnips: but broom is the great object and source of profit; the common course being broom sown with oats. The broom is fed for three or four years, and then cut; after it wheat is taken, then rye, buck wheat, and oats, or broom. This last is cultivated for fuel, as the district has neither coal nor wood. When the land is exhausted by this mode of cropping, it is and burned, abandoned, and by time recovered, that a succession of crops may bring it once more into the same situation. Statistics. in the maize district ; in the heath district ; In Gascony, the usual rotations are maize, wheat, in Gascony ; and turnips ; maize, clover cut once, and then plough- ed up for maize again ; rye, millet, haricots or bhinoys beans ; maize, rye, millet; and maize, rye, clover. In the districts of the Pyrenees, where irrigation is practised with considerable skill, and on an extensive scale, ‘fallow is superseded by the culture of clover, millet, maize, and haricots. Maize, however, is not cultivated in such large quantities as in other parts. Two crops are gained every year ; but where irrigation is not practised, the ground is fallowed, and afterwards millet, haricots, or barley sown for forage, before the wheat is put in. In Dauphiny, buck wheat is sown on the wheat stubbles; and, such is the earliness of the climate, that it is frequently in full blossom by the end of August. At The rotation in the stony district is particularly dis- tinguished, by the introduction of potatoes in some parts of it, as a preparation for wheat. Where this root is not cultivated on a large’ scale, and as a in regular rotation, the common course is fidlow: wheat or rye, and barley or oats. In the district of chalk the rotation is in ' The est in the south of ce” ‘com- Harvest. mences about the middle or end of June, in the cen+ tral provinces about the middle’ of July, and in the north of France about the beginning of August; but in the high grounds, especially in Auvergne, the har- vest is very late, oats aes unfrequently green in the middle of August. It has ‘already been mentioned, that women are pri employed in the harvest operations ; indeed, agricultural operations of all kinds are conducted more frequently, and on a more exten- sive and independent scale, by them in France than in most other countries. ‘The Hainault sickle is used in French Flanders, and in parts of the north and east’ of France: The sickle more generally, and’ the commen scythe in some districts, even for the wheat. The har- vest operations are by no means carried on with neat- ness or method ; and the excellence of the climate is such, in most of prother Foet that these: defi-« ciencies are seldom attended with much loss.” epson any corn ae orale to ae ent ar ‘the corn r er put into barns, the size Tewwhich, in‘ some Gin is enors y after harvest, in ing, however, can Thrashing. mous, or thrashed’ out imm the open fields ; this mode of th Statistics. be practised FRANCE. in the southern parts: of the kin. st cl he Ym" There harvest is not considered as finished. thrashingis done. Where it is performed by the flail in poe > cater ein, repo arermern family ner of it, ifthrashing-floors they may be called ; for all the ee eee shovelling aside the loose mould ind a good sweeping. The size of course is in propor- tion to the number of le, which is from two to twelve ; rarely more than the latter. They thrash and winnow about seven Winchester bushels in a day, Where the corn is trodden out, instead of bei a ed by thie flail, horses and mules are employed: oxen, which are used in most of the ‘other operations of hus- Eeieyaees weitons chSensonengiie adie tbs. The num- ber of horses or mules varies: sometimes there are four mules and four men ; sometimes only two mules and two men; Coe eae twelve or fourteen mules or horses Eo rim sometimes even as many as twenty-four. The mules or horses, as well as men, are hired at forty sous for each mule or horse, the same for each man: the latter have their boatd besides. With 24 horses or mules, their drivers (who are paid in kind, grain ed,) ande15 they can thrash of wheat from in tags args me a Gigi ie ge bags per day, it costs about per English. bushel. The common practice is to lay three or four: layers of wheat, barley, oats, &c. upon some of the field, under, a; central tree; the and: mules are then driven upon and round it, in all directions, a woman being in the centre, like a pivot, and holding the reins: horses, are sometimes driven. by little 1 on in, the open air, through t any means of protection against a sudden change. Indeed a soaking rain could possibly do harm, as a day’s sunshine, or even the the night, would soon evaporate it. means used in France to improve the soil or par- See veer y paring and burn- and irrigation... In. most of districts, there is peculiar in the manures employed, or in managing them, The small towns and e 5 4 ie j ‘ s. i Be RE £ i “8 sf = : 8, & : 3 a E dong.af cattierand horvas withthe: tries ashes; lime; the urine of animals collected with care in brick cis, 3 marl; refuse of horns, VOL. IX. PART I, 705 Although the price of this last article is only 3d. Statistics. ton —— scavengers, “the town -and 9d. to the farmers, the town of Lisle alone produces as much as would sell for about 1.4200 a year. Besides these manures, Dutch ashes are extensively employed as a dressing for clover: these are the ashes of the peat or turf brought: principally from Friesland: by their application, great crops of clover are raised, and the subsequent crops are also im- ved.. From the nature of the soil and climate, drain- ing is requisite only in very few parts of France; and in the practice, there is nothing particular or commend able: The marshes in. some of the sea districts have been partially drained, but this improvement is by no means carried on with spirit, Louis XIV. made a pre- sent to Marshal Turenne of the marshes of Bourgoigne, in the department of Isere, on condition that he would drain them; but neither he nor his api is Be a accomplished it... In some provinces, a singular kind o' husbandry is practised ; thes nds are drained, and cul- tivated.for a few years, till they lose their fertility, when the water is again eniaed to: accumulate, and the same ois repeated. Respecting: paring and burning, which is very partially practised, and, scarce« ly ever for any other purpose, or at least with any other effect but to impoverish.and exhaust the land, itis un- necessary to enter into details. Irrigation is the most remarkable feature in the mode Irrigation. of improving land. in France, or, to speak more cor+ rectly, in the mode of increasing its fertility ;—and its effects are. wonderful, Irrigation, however;:is by» no means general: in trayelling from Calais to the Pyren- nees, Lo oe observes, he first met with it in La Marche, between La Ville au Brun, and. Bossie,: after he had passed oyer considerably more, than half the i ; thence. it is practised, with little interrup- tion, to the Pyrenees, and the whole, district,of those mountains from Perpi almost) to Bayonne: is wa- tered, Through all the north of France; comprehend~ ing every thing north of the Loire, there are only afew im traces of it in some of Normandy, and in the Beauvoisis. In Picardy, Flanders, Artois, Cham- e, Franche Compté, Burgundy, and the Bourbon- nois, it is unknown. In Alsace and Lorraine, it is par- tially practised for their meadows. .,On,the whole, hard- ly more than one third of the kingdom. can be said ‘to understand and practise irrigation... nT estibes . But where; it, is ised, it.is upon, a large scale, and. with wonderful. spirit. and: success. , By means of it, artificial fertility is conferred on some of the barren mountains, ef theCevennes,,, As the ‘waters that run In the Ce- considerable, quantities of earth vennes. down the sides into the ravines, walls, of loose stones are constructed, which it the waters. to pass when, they. are. clear; but when turbid, their load of earth is gradually de- posited inst the wall, and afford a quantity of ex- cellent Par Successive ramparts are thus erected to the very top of the mountain ; and the water having no longer.a violent fall, nourishes, instead of injuring the crops. In order to give security and consistence to the new acquisition of soil, fruit trees are planted at certain intervals. Perhaps the greatest exertion, in ir- rigation.to be seen in France, occurs in Lan, Raney of the. town of Gange: a solid. s timber masonry is, formed. across a considerable river between two rocky mountains, to force the water inte a very fine canal, in which. it is, on an average, six feet broad by five deep, and half a mile long, built on the side, of a mountain, and. walled in; a wheel, . AD , in In Langue. stank of 49% 706 Statistics. with a hollow peri , Yaises a ion of the-water —v~" of this canal to the height of $0 feet; an aqueduct cons across the river, Sener te tonne Onna to water the higher grounds; while the canal below carries the larger part of the water to the lower fields. Meadows are watered in some parts of Gascony, and in the vicinity of Avignon;—an unusual thiing in the South of France. But the most instances of irrigation; are to be met with in the si desert of La Crau, already described, and in the Pyrenees, In advancing from Salon into the Crau, about four miles before it commences, the road crosses the canal of Borsgelin. « The old canal of Crappone, at the same place; is seen distributing water in various directions, for the amelio- ration of one of the most arid tracts that is to-be met- with in the world.. The canal of Crappone takes its waters from the Darance at La Roche, and carries it to the southern part of it at Istres.. This»canal is 40 miles long. | That of Bois Selin receives it from the same: ri- ver at Malavort, and ing the other; divides it into three branches: one of which leads to the lands in the neighbourhood of Istres ; the second to St Saumus and Magran, and this part of the Craw; the third is a small one that turns to the left towards Salon. In conse- quence of water being thus conducted:to a region where it is so much wanted, some very capital improvements have been wrought. Some large tracts of the Crau have been broken up, and planted with vines, olives, mul- berries, and ‘converted into corn and meadow.’ The corn has not succeeded ; but the meadows, according to Mr Young, are amongst the most extraordinary spec- tacles that the world can afford, in respect to the ama- zing contrast’ between the soil im its natural and in its watered state, covered richly and luxuriantly with clo- ver, chicory, ribgrass, and avena elatior. In describing the irrigation of the eastern Pyrenees, we shall use the words of Mr Birkbeck, who, in his tour France in 1814, observed every thing re- ‘lative to its agriculture with the eye of a most shrewd -and intelligent observer, and who has recorded his observations in the most clear and impressive man- ner, “ The copious and pure streams issuing from the P. Tee digit lnosed $6 thnie-unbes with the Medlaresens, are most economically and’skilfully di- rected to the p of irrigation. On the mountain sides, the streamlets, as they trickle fromthe rocks, are collected) into channels, above every little portion of arable ground, which they render surprisingly fertile. These rills uniting, form larger streams ; and these, with great labour and ingenuity, are kept up by artificial channels, and only ‘to descend as they the office of irrigation. The'same attention is paid to the larger streams united, which become’a considera- ble river in the lower lands of Rousillon. | This is di- vided and subdivided, unites, and is again divided, so that every portion of the surface seems to enjoy its due share. The soil of Rousillon is sandy, and appa- rently not very rich ; but, by the joint influence of wa- ter and sun, vegetation is vigorous beyond any thing I had ever before witnessed: Where a mountain side, or a portion of the land, is so situated, as to be inaccessi- ble to the water, it is planted with vines, to which wa- tering is not applicable, as it injures the quality of the wine, without increasing the quantity sufficiently to compensate, On the contrary, to olives, irrigation’may be with prodigious advantage, an instance of which came under my observation. This crop had ge- FRANCE. nerally failed, owing to the inary coldness of Statistic the early’ part of the tamiaans and one of a la m4 =~ olive ground was, like the rest of the country, out fruit ; the other half, which had been watered seve« irrigation, systematically arranged! for on nee . the whole, is a be ag ah have not heard i master’s hand seems to have planned and pt a all, before the iation of the soil, others wise private interest have interfered and marred the desi However that may have been; every man now finds a ‘ canal d’arrosement’ passing above hi field, and a ‘ canal de dessechement, at the bottom, which latter is the ‘ canal d’arrosement,’ in its turn’ for ss ecealaesei manner of ing the water is’ex ple. yep estar he, oad bade auth, om Seen which the water flows gently into a w made by the pine? sede higher side of the field, and in a few ours soaks : the whole soil, until it reaches the lower side, which jetes the op re &: i aL if it ree Ll ik f aS LE a P u i ig iE eat es the clods ing the surface. is is equi to our S dis splstehiing is to our plougting. The weeds a stubble are but little affected by this process ing and ing. However, that matters water is now introduced ; the trefoil starts .as | instantaneously ; and in October or November deep, and fed off by the sheep. Water is applied time to time; and in Jan or February it i again ; and lastly, in May it is mown for ha: crop. Immediately as the hay is gro on, eolren terpenes goes on, the crop is reaped, and four’ hings, as a preparation for tl er amd) irre or November.” the history of one year, under familiar and | ractice.” , 4 The richest arable land, when watered, sells for nearly double what land of as good quality not capable of being watered will bring. Besides the districts already men. tioned, where i ion i z : é zg 7 7 > z z E 22d i % i HI t very productive. Irrigation is applied ‘to the culture of hemp in Auvergne. a iol Besides e reg ug the mountainous districts in the centre an materials for a low wall around the edge. The int val is afterwards filled with earth, and’the barren moun tain is crowned with luxuriant terraces, 17 =——) © FRANCE. thrown together without being trodden, it loses the Statistics, ce, whicha —_— sun acting on it, while “~~” Ir must have sufficiently. from the‘account already given of the agriculture of France, that the meadows and p of that country bear a very small Eprcton to the arable land, and that comparatively dependance is placed on their produce, for the breeding or ing of cattle or . Indeed as the cattle and of tracts of land are entire- ly ty agree edeyi lucerne, &c. and as the climate of by far the greatest part of the kin, is not well their husbandry. The calculates the meadows at 15,000,000: arpents ; is, at one-fourth of what he makes the arable land. But they do not amount to one- quantity, and estimates the meadows and at 4,000,000 English acres ; not arable land. This ‘seems a very small : can form a ‘very small proportion indeed of the area of France. most extensive, and certainly the most fertile, oospes-orbidy ete are to be Sethi ganashe Goce moisture climate, aided by the generally and rich soil of this province, is extremely fevectitbble to ; and as the farmers here are certainly equal at in intelligence, capital, attention, and skill to those in other of France, those ad are turned to the best account. oA ne, Seat d’ Auge are i celebrated ; and of these, ‘to be found in any country, In 1789, when Mr Young visited these pasturages, the rent of the highest was about £4: 7: 6 the acre, measured by the perch of 22 feet; and the price about £87, 10s. the acre. In seve- ral of the provinces, there ate also salt marshes that are as meadows, to the fattening of cattle, particu» in Normandy, about Isigny and Carentan, in Poi- &e. tou, Sain’ itonge, 7] The of hay in is very slovenly. ‘It is not unusual to see the produce of a field carried away in sheets and blankets, or even in the arms, ‘and one-fifth of the crop lying scattered in the roads and the fields. It is‘in al too much exposed to the sun. The women here, as in all the other of agri- cultural labour, the ipal part of the work, sa tin: hay into the cart. The fork they ‘make use of for this purpose is a very awkward one. In the central and southern provinces, where the cli- ‘midte is very steady, the farmer stacks his hay in small cocks, where it grows, and only carries it away at his leisure, - When -carried: to the hay loft, being merely 3 107 little fi it was making, had left.it. The clover hay, however, especially in the northern provinces, is better mana-~ ged; after standing for some days in large cocks, it is tied with straw bands, in bundles of 14Ib. each. The lucerne also, in these districts, is with great care, so much, indeed, that the colour is beautiful; the green is often not in the least faded, but so vivid that it al- most appears improved in drying. Normandy, the Limosin, Auvergne, Brittany, Franche Horses. Compté, Poitou, and Burgundy, are most celebrated for their breed of horses. Normandy has long been noted for eters It is said moe liam I. won the’ deci- - sive le of Hastings, by the superiority of his caval- ry which he brought over with nek: The Norman hors - ses are in general low and thick, and very steady, sure, and strong. They will make a of 30 miles with- out a bait, and eat the coarsest food. They, as well as the horses in other of France, and also the cattle, are accustomed to feed aboutthe lanes, and in the com- mon fields, after the corn is carried off. The best sad- dle horses are those ‘of Limosin. They are seldom fit for riding till they are six or seven’years old; but then they are very useful, and last a long time. This breed has been lately much im , by crossing it with the - Arabian, Turkish, and English. Auvergne produces some good hacks for common use. ‘A great many foals are reared in Brittany, which are sent to the pastures - of Normandy. A t many horses are also bred in Franche Compté, especially in the hilly part of the country. One year with another, their studs produce: of 5000 colts, most of which are bought, when six months or a year old, by the horse dealers in Cham- pagne, Burgundy, Brie, and Berry. ' The’trade in hor- ses is an object of some importance and value in Franche Compté. In different parts of the i ; there have long been Haras, or depots de che- vaux for the supply of the royal studs ; and Bonaparte, sensible that cavalry is one of the main sinews of war, paid ee ere attention to the breed and supply of hor- ses; bu t, as in many other that he undertook, his plans were not calculated to produce the object he had-in view, in ence of the impatience, obstina- , and tyranny of ‘his disposition. On the whole, erefore, i balls of honed and probably the num- ber, are not equal to what they were previously to the Revolution. os the year 1802, the total number was, of plough horses 1,500,000 ; horses kept at Paris 35,100 ; in all other towns 200,000; in the armies 100,000: making in all 1,835,100. With respect to the Hie assigned for agricultural purposes, it may appear high, when we cobiled that Rs are v thy 9 oot fet only in the pl h, but in carts ; that where hor- ses are employed in the plough, there are seldom more yoked than two. The number of horses in Paris is sin- y small. Between 1802 and 1812, the number of , at least of those bred in the government studs, was probably much increased ; but during the Russian ign, ina few months of 1812 and 1813, the loss, according to the of-the year 1814, amounted ‘to 230,000- , which, it is stated, could not be repla- ced at a less expence ‘than 105,200,000 francs. ‘The rice of farm horses in the northern districts of France, is about £17 sterling. Mules are much employed in the middle and south Mules. of France, especially ‘in the latter, for treading out the corn. Anjou carries on # particular trade for these ani- mals, known by the name of! Miredalais, In the de- 708 Statistics. partment of Aveiron, especially in the vicinity of Rhodez, —r— the princi earn, Chop teal 6 viata Oxen. in which the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade ; for it is said that during the two fairs that are ‘kept yearly at Rhodez, this trade rg in ‘above 300,000 crowns. The breed of mules in Poitou, is particularly celebrated for their size and strength, and is in great demand all over France. The provinces in which oxen and cows ‘are princi- pally bred or fattened, are, Perche, ‘Cham e, Lor- raine, Alsace, Hainault, Flanders, Normandy, Brittany, La Maine, Anjou, Poitou, Berry, Nivernois, Burgun- dy, Limosin, Auvergne, Bresse, Languedoc, and Dau- phiny. ‘The prevalent colour of the cattle in France, trom Calais to the Pyrenees, is a reddish, or rather a cream colour. This is decidedly the colour of »the cattle of the Limosin, which are .an excellent breed, probably the best in France. From this district, num- bers of fine oxen, fattened in winter, are sent to the Paris market, which is also supplied by those fattened in Normandy during summer. » The cattle of the Li- mosin have short’ legs, ‘strait and flat backs, well arch- ed ribs, deep and h car¢ases, and their weight from 60 to 80 stone, 14 lb. to the stone. Tew thay singular circumstance ing them is, should be in excellent condition in the month of May, the season when they are usually driven from Limoges to the Paris market, as at this time of the year there is in most countries a scarcity of fat cattle, when they have not been fattened on spring grass ; and any which they could have in a climate not v erent from that of the south of England, could have but a small share in bringing them to the condition in which they reach Paris, The method by which they are brought into this condition is very extraordinary: they are put on grass till the beginning of November ; then on raves ‘or turnips. When the turnips fail, they give them rye- flour, in a peculiar manner: the flour is mix- ed a. water, so as to make a’paste, which is suffered to stand till it ferments. In some instances the fermen- tation ene and accelerated by the addition of leaven. is ‘rye- is never given to the oxen till it becomes sour. .At first they refuse it; but when they -take to it, they prefer this acid food to any other. A large ox will eat in this manner about 22 Ib. of the paste a-day: it is given thrice a-day. The oil-cake of -walnuts is also given to oxenin the Limosin, with the greatest success, In some -of this district, boiled potatoes and chesnuts are given); in other parts, boiled maize rendered tender by pouring -boiling water upon it. In other parts of France; oxen are fed on leaves. This seems to- have been an established custom in the time of Henry IV. as it is particularly mentioned by Oliver de Serres, who wrote, under the auspices of that monarch, the Theatre d’ Agriculture. e ‘practice was formerly usual in England also, in Henry Eighth’s time, and even so late as the reign of Charles LI. as ap- pears from Evelyn. The leaves used in France are principally those of the beech. They are gathered when ‘.on the point of falling, or immediately after they have fallen, and are* preserved as as possible by bein -covered with ero The _ t of ete of ing cattle is best understood .in Franche Com Auvergne. ; Where the Rhone divides’ between Tarascon and Arles, an island or delta is formed,called Camargue. This island is nearly an -equilateral triangle. of about seven leagues each way. It was formerly covered with wood, FRANCE. are computed to be bred annually, withoxen and sheep in proportion. The oxen are reserved cag le sup- a being a‘small black ‘breed, not: t e. They make excellent beef. . They are very. wild, of thers be Posen hip cob clscpecsivestetiion to T ne rare a go ick with a javelin in bi : i! ield. This provinee, y the Jagny in Lower Normandy, and Brittany, especially near Lanion, in the department of the North, and the Boulonnais, supply excellent butter, both fresh and salt. Gournay, a town in the department of the Lower, is particularly celebrated for its market of fine fresh but- ter, which is chiefly consumed in Paris. In the neigh- bourhood of Ma where cows are seldom seen, milk is furnished from sheep and goats : paces: | made from sheep’s milk: a kind of curd is also from this milk, erpabscerrepmeting 1 mgs is: into little pots, and brought tb country: ple for sale: . Chess latvengeBidle in France. . edoc, Provence, Brittany, Normandy, .Forez, and furnish it in the est qui Vi nk They are sent to very distant parts in little feeding young oxen, 1,456,000 ; cows, 1,016,000; making a total of 6,084,500. — i eeaeks lf Fo srapeteenert wi The native breeds of iS. carcases, and coarse wool ; t bad. The same characteristics prevail south, except in the north the sheep are larger. arse moc Pe es ¢ wever, nants om i daeaie vf fone Louis XVI. in 1786, first established.a flock of Me- Merinos. rinos at Rambouillet. .The produce, for some time, was given away. Recourse wan. gheo ee ew Bato sale. The sheep sold high, but weg My at a not giv roportion i i wool. this ‘crisig jai peace digs a on. There were | unl, theerot eckenlicen hibinalberaren, aed namely, ert if eoes - r; but the Revolution still farther depressed the demand for their wool. In 1811, Bonaparte pub- Butter, in France are, 1, The sheep. ' FRANCE. 709 Statistics. lished a decree, by which he intended and hoped.to flocks to the countries through which they pass, and Statistics. _ advised measure, the final blow was given'to the Me- rino breed. From that time they have been declining in France. In the exposé for the year 1814, it is as- serted that Bonaparte’s forced attempts to introduce the Merino breed of sheep, cost the government 200 mil- lions of francs; and that, after all, so far from succeed- ing, the breeds of native sheep were rather deterio- Sheep are kept in all of France, but principal- ly in Rousillon, Provence, Denghing, yea vergne, Guienne, Gascony, Bearn, Marche, Limosin, Poitou, Maine, Anjou, Brittany, Touraine, Cham 3 Alsace, Franche Compté, Normandy, and French i- ders: In most of France, the sheep are shut up in stables at night, and sheltered from the sun at noon, during the summer. They are generally folded in the fields till November. . When the snow is deep, they are mom ee és fed on _ eet trees. On the whole, management of sheep is in France, especiall in keeping them too hot duri night in thee oases, sand too vetifined.in-theit: folds. he flocks are not — seldom reaching 400. j the mountains of the Cevennes, which run along the northern of the Lower or Eastern Languedoc, numerous are fed in the summer on the aromatic herbs with which they abound. During the: cold of Emigration the winter, they descend into the plains. But the most efsheep- extensive and singular emigration of sheep is that which takes anni , and as regularly as in Spain, from eaten Sondbden oft Rhonej:end. the desert of La Crau, to the mountains of Provence and Dauphi- ny, especially to the mountains of Gap and Barcelo- netta, and back again. The migration to the moun- tains takes place in May, whence they return again in October or November, and se earlier. The migration is not regulated by an er written laws, siecle anttaiad thagealinncatts limit their roads to five toises of breadth. If they do any damage be- The migration is conducted with all the order andregu- larity of the march of an army. The flocks belong to se- veral i who reside princi about the Crau, History of Provence, as well as other writers, calculates million. They travel in flocks of from 10,000 to 40,000, and are from meee: to thirty days on the journey. ‘Among the that have the care of them, one -is chosen as chief during the season. He regulates every thing relative to the march, and is treasurer for the company ; all the money for the expences of the being lodged in his’ and he paying for sans wap bane! torr ape scene br AN or ‘com; is i secretary. In his presence: all = etn pet and he enters them Jonmmediately in his book, The rest of the shepherds form a coun- lowed, each of whom has his, dog. «In. the centre:of the flock, a number of asses m , carryin the pro- visions and . . The chief also takes his station in the centre : issues the daily allowances of pro- ‘visions, and transmits his orders, by his assistants, -this situation ; and if any irregularity is committed, he is found there to receive the complaint. He also ex- amines into any mischief which may be done by the —\~" cover France with fine-woolled flocks ; but, by this ill- pays the person who has received the injury: he next determines, whether it was occasioned by negligence or through accident: in the former case, the sum paid is levied on the offender; in the latter, it is taken from the common fund. Besides. the sheep, there are always a number of goats, which take the lead of the former. Some of the ‘oldest he-goats have bells round their necks, The dis- —— in which these are kept, and the intelligence which they display, is remarkable. At the command of the shepherds, they either halt or proceed; and when the flocks rise in the morning, the moment these goats receive the order to proceed, they repair to their _ Stations in the foremost ranks with great regularity. If they come to a stream, they halt, till the word. of command is given, when they instantly plunge in and eross it, and are followed by the rest of the flock. When the flocks lie down at night, the shepherds and dogs still continue on the watch, relieving each other at stated intervals. When they arrive at the mountains, each shepherd has his particular district. allotted him by the chief. The feed is hired at the rate of 20 sous each sheep for six months; and the price for the win- ter feed in the Crau and. the Camargue is the same. During the whole time of their stay on the mountains, the —— live almost, entirely on bread and goat's milk, sleeping upon the ground. in the open air. The shepherds in France never inhabit a house: Shepher they go to the cottages in which their wives and fami- lies live, to take their meals, but sleep in their sheep- fold, in huts made of reeds and clay, upon a mat spread on the ground: these huts are placed on wheels. . The wages of the shepherds are in general high; and they © are a superior class of men, in all r to what they are in England, . The w: of the chief shepherd are about L.12 sterling: besides this, he is allowed a cer- tain sum, often three francs per head, for every sheep sold ; his board at one and a half francs a day ; anda cottage, rent free, for his family. The wages of the inferior shepherd is about L.8 sterling ; and he has.the same allowance for board as the chief shepherd. The Pyrenees. breed of shepherd dogs are particu shepherds larly celebrated. They are black and white, of the size dogs. of a large wolf, a large head and neck, armed with collars, stuck with iron spikes, so that-no wolf can at- tack them. But bears are more potent adversaries. If a bear can reach a tree, he is safe: he rises on his hind legs, with his back to the tree, and sets the dog at de- fiance. These dogs are fed entirely on bread and milk. In most parts of France, when it 1s necessary to catch a sheep, for the pu of examining it, the shepherd orders his dog to pa the flock round his master, which he does by going round them in avcircle, gra- dually decreasing, till the shepherd takes any one he wants, The average weight of the fleeces of the native sheep Wool. of France is about 24 or 3 lib. ; that of the. Merinos about 6 lib. The wool of the former, in general, is of an indifferent quality. The wool of Rousillon is the finest; that of Narbonne jis nearly as fine, but more ottony, and of a shorter staple. The wool of Bezieres is; next in quality ; that of Pesenas, in Languedoc, son the side of Montagnac, is somewhat less fine. The wool of the sea-coast is heavy and coarse: the wools of the mountains of Montpellier and De Somieres are of three sorts ;. the first. equal to the wool of Pesenas, the second less fine, the third very coarse. The wool of Berry is fine; that of Rheims inferior. The number Statistics. —— Goats, Pigs. Poultry, Honey and wax, Woods and forests. TLO FRANCE. of sheep in Franteis estimated at 30,307,728 : the total of the wool they yield may be rated at 106,770,000 lib. There are a vast number of goats in France, princi- pally, of course, in the mountainous districts. Pigs are chiefly fed in the neighbourhood of woods, or where grain abounds, as Normandy, Champagne, Limosin, &c. They are also fed on acorns; and, in the Limo- sin, on chesnuts. Aa Leptin all of Immense quantities are in all parts France ; to coh an one, ina that it is a question whether there is more weight of mutton consumed, or of poultry. They are of an excellent quality. Great ns are taken in rearing and fattenin In rench Flanders, as well as in other districts, they are fed with the flour of buck wheat, or rye, or potatoes: their food is frequently changed; and the vessel into which ape et as is washed hen: apkag Pon every repast. After feeding, are in darkness till the next meal.’ In een whet ies called ver- miculaires are expressly kept for them ; that is, places in which worms for their food are collected served. Capons are fattened in many parts of the dom : those which are fattened at ieuz, a town in the department of the Charente, are so much esteem- ed, that they are sent to Paris for those who keep the most delicate tables. Narbonne honey is much celebrated, but it is not the ce of the neighbourhood of that place ; at least it is seldom to be procured there: what is so called is more commonly, as well as much more abundantly, | - esne at Perpignan. The bees wax of Champagne, ormandy, Sologne, Languedoc, Auvergne, it- tany, is es the best. Bleaching wax is a busi- ness of. importance in France. The yellow wax of Brittany bleaches. with the most ease, and becomes a beautiful white: it is principally bleached at Chateau Goutier, about eight leagues from Angers. By some, this is esteemed the very best in the kin 3; by others, that of Champagne is preferred. wax of Amboise, and of Chaumont near Troyes, is of an infe- rior quality ; and that made at Rouen is esteemed the worst, on account of the large quantity of suet they add to it. At Montpellier, there is a large manufac- ture of bees wax, and the process is conducted with great attention and skill. d'asthey hav always been of great iportanee, bot and as e always im ce, on aceount of the fuel they supply, and of their appli- eation to other purposes, many ions and conjec- tures have been made with respect to the surface which they cover. The Marquis de Mirabeau ts them as 30,000,000 arpents ; in this opinion M. coin- cides. By the author of the Credit National, they are reckoned so low as'6,000,000 arpents. Mr Young en- deavours to determine this fact by two methods ; by the of Cassini and by the consumption of the peo- gato dhy the first method, he makes the extent of wood about 19,000,000 arpents, or one-seventh of the king- dom ; by the other method, he finds, that the quantity of wood is about 20,800,000 arpents ; the mean of the two results which he thus obtains is 19,850,515. We have already observed, however, that his estimate is —- , at least it is above that of the committee of the first National Assembly, which reckons the wood only at 13,100,691 arpents. Mr Young, in his calculation, reckons the annual value of the woods to be about 12 millions sterling, the rent being taken at 12s. per acre. Some of the forests are very extensive, particularly that is to say, the diocese of In another place he says, it extended from the of the Rhine, and the country of Treves, to that of the Nervii, that is Hainault, Cambresis, feeeth Seon ders, comprehending 50,000 paces in . | Thi rest has been cut down in a great many places, especially . towards itsextremities: however, it still extends over the greater part y ern of the bishopric of Liege, and of the ft icceenied since neni with sev i ions. It was re- nowned for events of chivalry. The forest of Fontaine- ,, , Oaadiana ot pout verbolng mareaiegten, am |,424 acres i I where the trees have been cut down. : The wood of France may be divided into six classes : 1. For ship-building. 2. For the use of house carpen- Sg” 5 For nego bfec ta Cake they joi . §. For vine . For fuel. is chi ail REP oa for the.second, oak, fir, linden, and trees ; for the third, ash, oak, er a fe eci elm; for the fourth, fir, beech, a tree, cherry tree, cornil tree, aspen, poplar, i den, &c. ; for the fifth, osiers, and branches of different = that Seay are pele divided ge new an old, and is distingui names, bois perdu, boi: carnard, and bois pore aaA cork-tree flourishes on the French side of the Pyrenees, and produces very fine cork-wood. Under the old government, the national forests em= y,,:0.,.) braced 3,000,000 arpents, and gave about 12,000,000 forests, franks to the royal treasury. the Revolution, all the forests formerly held by the corporate bodies and the emigrants were annexed to those of the state, which thus were increased to upwards of 4,000,000 These, added to the forests in Belgium, and on the left added to the national domains, and declared inalienable. In the year 1800 the national forests were thenceforward exempted from the land tax. The Revolution did not ish the laws under which the private —— ose woodlands epee be agi 2 to ws, vernment appointed persons, who were perjedgvexttuhip timber, to examine a Green: and to mark such trees as they deemed fit for their pur- pose, after which —_ etor durst not lay the axe to the roots of them. Besides, no individual proprietor of woodland could cut down his timber, or clear his land, under a hea ity, without making, six months previously, a tion of his intention to one of the conservators, whose report determines the government either to grant or refase permission to that effect. FRANCE, Statistics. _ To this general account of the woods in France, we | Orange trees. shall add some short notices of such trees as are sources national wealth, independently of the timber which. as an. aj ‘iate introduction to our ac- vine-hu » and the wines of France. turpentine. tree is found in the southern a aa fey gasy of Chio, and alga e juice is Chio, or Cyprus turpentine Considerable ‘quantities “of ntine are A Ee UW it is known by the name of Strasbu F pounded, is very common in some parts of France, i in the ent of the Aisne, and is used instead of butter. the oil has been extracted: from the mast, the marc, as itis called, is also used for food, in various as the extraction leaves it, in boutted ; or asa kind n Bur ly and Franche pté, marc of walnuts is made into this kind of JSromage, after the oil is extracted from it. Walnuts are grown very extensively in France, and a great deal of oil is made from them. Chesnuts abound in France, particularly in the Li- mosin, where. the land is almost every where covered with chesnut trees. The fruit serves for food to the country people, but not, as has been asserted, reduced into flour to make bread. Their manner of preparing chesnuts for food is as follows: they take off the first 1 or rhind, when they are dry, then they boil thema ittle, to take off the second peel ; and afterwards they Thess tamper apres mh tralord pleco pa us pr « are said to a pleasant neeloe article of food - to the peasantry of the Limo- sn, and other of France. pane ip caper grows in great perfection in southern provinces, ially in the vicinity of Cuges, between 7S he Toulon, where an extensive val- ley is wholly devoted to the culture ofthem. The caper is not suffered to grow here, as it does in many places, into a bush ; but is made to creep on the in long runners; and being cultivated only for the trade, is never left to flower, it being the little bud of the flower that is used for pickling. The fruit also, which re- sembles a very small in, is pi ; but these have the name of corni , the French name for gher- kins: it is the flower-bud which has the appellation of > When suffered to flower, it is a very beautiful b, ’ The islands of Hieres, not far from Toulon, were for- merly famous for their orange groves. In the year 1565, Charles IX. visited these is in a progress he made the south of France: he was accompa- nied by the young King of Navarre, afterwards Henry LV. and the deans Sens and there was then an orange tree so large, that these three royal personages, taking each other by. the hand, could but just encircle the stem: it had produced in one year 14,000 oranges. But the climate even of the south of France, is not steadily warm enough for this fruit; the severe winter of 1789 killed every tree in the Hieres, down to the roots; and the trees at present there are only such as have shot up from their roots. Most of the oranges of Hieres are sent to Paris. In these/islands, and in some other parts of the south of France, the lemon, citron, Til date, and pomegranate, are not uncommon ; the lime is also cultivated, especially in Provence. . The trade of almonds carried on in France is con- siderable, both on account of. their oil, and the large quantity of them used in Lent, either shelled or unshelled: a great quantity of the sweet almonds are used in sugar« plumbs, and of the bitter ones in biscuits, confectionary, &e. The grocers and ists of France have both sorts from the provinces in the middle and south of France, especially Provence, Languedoc, Tourraine, the county of Venaissin, Avignon, &c. The best ave those of the county of the Venaissin ; those from Chiron in Tourraine are the worst. The environs of Aix are parti~ cularly noted of all parts of Provence, for the abundance of almonds they produce: they are an ‘uncertain pro duce ; a frosty night will sometimes come on, while are in blossom, which is commonly about the end of January, and in a few hours the greatest part of the crop will be destroyed. At the time when the almonds are gathered, it is a curious sight at Aix to see the wo- men ya at their doors cracking them for the mer- chants. The shells being an excellent article of fuel, great interest is made to get the almonds to crack, which is paid by having the shells: a certain measure in the shells is expected to: produce a certain measure without them. The person cracking them has a basket of fruit on one side of her, and another basket on the other side to receive them when cracked : she has’a flat iece of stone on her knee, and a bone with a knob to it in her hand; and laying the almond on the stone, she strikes it with the bone, which seldom fails to crack it at the first stroke : it isthen thrown shell and all into the receiving basket, and when,that is full, the almonds are emptied out upon a large table, and the kernels picked from among the shells. The whole process is performed with wonderful dexterity and rapiliog. Figs are another im t article among the pro- ductions of Provence, as well as of several other dis- tricts of the south of France.. The most celebrated is a very small green, or white fig, as it is often called, which grows only in the territory of Marseilles, whence it takes the name of the fig of Marseilles. Brignolles in Provence, a town about thirty miles from Marseilles, is one of the most famous places in the kingdom for the dried plums, which are so well known by the name of French plums. Prunes, or St Catherine’s plums, constitute a lucrative branch of traffic, almost exclusive- ly carried on at Tours and Chatelherault. These prunes are gathered at La Haie, Sainte Maurevaux, Maudion, &c. They are with the greatest care at the places where they are grown; and’ sent to the mer- chants of Tours and Chatelherault, who supply eve other of France, as well as foreign countries, with them. The grand purchases of this fruit are made at the commencement of the new year, and of Lent: du- ring the latter season, the demand is particularly great at Paris, and in other large cities and towns in France. Dried plums of excellent quality are also prepared at Agen, Cutroen, Toulouse, and Bourdeaux. Mulberries succeed best in the olive climate of France; Tours being the only place north of the maize climate, where they are cultivated for silk with any success ; the spring frosts being fatal impediments to their cul- ture im the central, and even sometimes in the southern districts of the kingdom, Considerable experiments have been made for introducing them into Normandy, &c. but without success. In ing from Paris to the south, they are not met with till we come to Cau- sade near Montauban ; there are a few at Auch; and Statistics. —_——— Almonds. Figs. Plums, Mulberries, r Smtistics. Olives. Vineyards. 712 even at Tours, the district in which are Le aege is of small extent, . Before the time - oe Vv. ay mulberry trees had been propagated for silk worms on im the Lyonneis, Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc ; but that king carried them as far north as Orleans ; he also planted them near Paris, and to breed silk worms at the Thuilleries, Fontain , and the castle of Madrid, but without success. In the Lyonnois the white mulberry succeeds extremely well, and a great many silk worms are reared: the worms are kept in houses, and the leaves conied to prem . a — lar cle to see whole trees stri of their ae § pay ot the appearance of wiiter when other trees are in full foliage. A second crop of leaves, how- ever, comes out, but not with the beauty and luxuriance of the first ; and the ee to paar sheep and cattle when other fails. The white mul! tree bears a more delicate kind of leaf than the black, for which reason they are always given to the silk worms, as the silk produced from them is of a much finer quality: the fruit is vapid meet for nothing. The leaves are purchased and ‘paid for ac- cording to the size of the tree, by those who keep silk- worms, but have not mulberry plantations of their own. The limits of the olive climate have been defined: They comprehend a very small portion of the south and south-east of the kingdom. In France; there is a great difference in the quality of ‘the oil pro- duced from them ; that of the territory of Aix is reck- oned the finest. Here the trees are very small, com- monly from about eight to fourteen or fifteen feet in height. About Toulon and Hieres the trees are taller, but the oil is of a less delicate quality. The tree re- sembles a pollard willow in its general appearance, and is by no means either beautiful or picturesque. The fruit is gathered. green for making the oil, but if left to ripen, it becomes almost black. When they are preserved, or pickled, they are salted first for a few days, and then put into jars with oil and yinegar. In most houses in Provence lamps are used in the kitchen instead of candles; and among the lower classes they are used universally, Olive oil is used in them. | The wood of the olive tree makes excellent fuel when a brisk fire is wanted ; but it partakes so much of the nature of the fruit, that while it burns very it also consumes very fast. The time of ga- thering the olives is soon after the vintage. In the hard winter of 1789, so many olive trees wese destroy-~ ed by the frost, and during the Revolution so few young trees have been planted, that Aix, which was the principal seat of the commerce in oil, has almost entirely lost this its first. and most lucrative branch of. trade; and as these trees are many years in coming to perfection, this loss is, not likely to be soon compensa- ted. As there were aides and, customs levied on the con- sumption and export of wine previously to the Revo- lution, it might have been supposed. that the quantity. of vineyards in the kingdom might have been estima- ted with a tolerable degree of certainty, yet there is an amazing difference of opinion: on this subject. M.de Trone, author of a work on the provincial administra- tion of the taxes, is of opinion, that their extent is 1,600,000 acres. In this calculation M. Mirabeaw co- incides; but the author of Credit National, who pub- lished only one year afterwards, calculates the quanti- ty at 18,000,000 arpents. M. Lavoisier supposes. the produce. 80,000,000 livres. The economists in. the FRANCE, would give 2,857,1 dering tue nion, that the vine is cultivated on an extent that con- Nismes ; in the vales of Dauphiny and the Loire ; and in short, on every sort of land in the wine provinces. bib oriig gsoge vey poe oe The general routine of cultivation is as’ follows = Cultivation The vines are planted promiscuously, three or four of the feet, or two and a half from each other. In the middle vine. of January they give the cutting, /ail/e; in March they dig the ground; in April May vient’ a provins ; in June tie hve the = are tied to the with small straw ,—the hoe which is used is crooked; in hoe again ; in October, or if the season has been le in September, a . To in en ee There are 8000 plants on an acre, 2400 seps. e pi cost 500 livres; to keep up the stock of props 30 livres ; » It is three years before the vines bear any thing, and six before’ the wine is . The amount of: labour per acre is about £2: 12:6. The net profit varies from 7 to 10 pesneets Great attention is paid in the choice of the unches, and in freeing every bunch from each grape that is the least unsound. Sixty women are necessary to gather the grapes for four pieces of wine. Such is the general outline of the culture; &c. of the vine in’ France. The variations from this mode will be after- wards noticed, tle: boat hint rags I. The province of Champagne, which i now divide conn e Marne ‘Higher wines.” into the d ents of Marne, has long been celebrated for its vineyards. In this district there are two kinds of wine; the white wines, called Riviere de Marne wines; and the red wines, called Montagne de Rheims wines. ‘The white wines are produced from vineyards situated in the val- leys, and upon the sides of the hills in Epernay, Dizy, Avenay, Cramant, &e. It is a singular citeumstance, that the estate of Cumieres, in the midst of so ma vineyards celebrated for white wines, and under the same exposure, uces red wines only. The country wes 2c, J the white wine, is all contained in five: feaan ength. Among all the vineyards on the’ yar. the cantons of Hautvillers, Marcueil, Cumieres, pernay, are the most advantageously situated : They ra along the Marne; and it io vemathedl that the q of the wine falls off in- proportion as the vineyard is distant from the river. South expo- sures on the banks of this river produce excellent white wines. The slope which overhangs Rheims is divided ing tothe quality of its wines: Of these, 3 wines of we Lee hfe earns ; e wine ' Clos. St Thierry, which is penrtdceds eat ths archbishopric of Rheims, is the only vies qa ae the rich colour and flavour of Bur~ iy. wit sparkling lightness of Champaigne. Clos St Thierry holds the a rank Cham: ne wines, that C/os-vougeot does among those of urgundy. Sillery wines, once so famous, were in a great measure composed of the wines ced in the ‘wW Sa Statistics. —— FRANCE. territories of Verznay, Mailly, and St’ Basle. They were made by a particular process by the Marshal D'Estrees, and for this reason were long known by the name of Vins de la Mareschal ; but at the Revolution this estate was divided and sold. In Cham , and indeed in all the vine districts of France, the south and the east exposures, and the middle grounds, are preferred. In general, through- out this province, the soils proper for vines rest on beds of chalk: they are planted in November or December ; the plants are inserted into turfs, or in longuettes. Graft- ing is not in use. A plant will last 50 or 60 years. is not much variety in the grapes of ; the black are general] erred to the white. There are whole cantons, foveet anes there are very few black a aa their wine isin high estimation. In this province, the vine is pruned about the end of February or co | of March. It is never allowed to rise higher a foot and a half. At 5. next trimming for the shoots. 6. Pared and tied in June. 7. Second trim- ming in July, 8. Third trimming in August. The vintage is in September or October. Many tions are necessary in making white wine; steeping before pressing makes red wine, be- ine- ing allowed to remain in the vessels till the first fermen- tation has in the colouring pellicle of the fruit. In making white wine, great care is taken to keep the grapes from the sun; ce ete ce i covered with cloths, from which they are not emptied into the press till after sun set: these are necessary to prevent fermentation. rom twenty to forty panniers are put into the at atime; the contents of two panniers produce half a piece of wine. Forty panniers yield nine or ten pieces of white wine, and each piece contains 200 bottles. The fruit is pressed by three successive and rapid turns polos py leekare: sy mugen’ 68 Bee hes others. The whole of the operation be finish- ed in less than an hour. When the three have been effected, the wine produced from the juice is cal- ad enero or choice wine ; after this vin d’elite is extracted, juice is out by ano- Cheenti ofthe bereers:ahde ts iere taille, the first cut, and is often added to the vin delile. Ano» ther pressure is given at a subsequent period, and the wine is called deuxieme taille, or vin de tisanne ; lastly, phe, yon moar epaemesgalio Orr. Bele duced by repeatedly pressing the husks ti are perfectly dry. The white wines are clarified with isin- glass; are generally bottled in the month of March. . About the middle of August, the fermentation in the bottles ins, and frequently there is a loss by the end iene of. Srouss va to ten pestlbdgt. by Une bots tles breaking. When the white wines deposit a sedi- ment in the bottles, very minute care is requisite to ex- tract it. The wines eheprernys vs oe Prey | put into circulation, preserve their good qualities for ten years ; but when they are kept in the cellars of their native province, which are superior from the nature of the soil, (being dug out of beds of chalk), they will continue good for 20 or 30 years, VOL. IX, PART II. 713 The price of an acre (100 rods and 22 feet to the Statistics. acre) of the best vineyard ground in Champagne, va- ries from 2000 to 6000 livres; the vineyards at Ay sel- ling as Pgh as 6000 livres. The price of an acre of yards, ni the second quality varies from 1000 to 3000 livres. The ordinary expence of cutting, hoeing, tyeing, and prun- ing the vines, is 80 livres the acre; of occasionally propping such as have fallen, 60 livres; of props, 16 or 18 bundles, 50 in each bundle, 30 livres ; dung and carriage of the vines, 42; five puncheons for the’ pro- duce of an acre, 50 livres; expence of gathering, prun- ing, &c. 46 livres ; making a total expence per acre of 308 livres. With respect to the produce of an acre of vineyard in Champagne, it is generally understood, that taking the average of 10 vintages, five pieces or pun- cheons of wine are obtained from every acre ; three of these are of the first quality, or choice wines, and two of them are ordi wines. Valuing the three pun- cheons of the best wine at 150 livres each, and the two others at 50, the total produce will be 550 livres ; from which must be deducted, besides 308 livres for labour, &c. the expence of bottling, cooperage, and fining, 30 livres for the best wines, and six for the inferior ; the annual interest of the money laid out in the ground, 100 livres; taxes, &c. 72; making in all, with the la- bour, 516 livres; which being deducted from 550, leaves 34 livres as the net produce of an acre of vine= yard in Champagne, on an average of years. This net produce, however, it is very difficult to fix, as the wines of Ay, Haut Villiers, Epernay, and Pierry, frequent- ly sell for 300 or 400 livres a piece, while some of the other wines do not bring more than 90 or 100 livres. It has already been mentioned, that this province is Red wines. equally famous for its red wines, and some parts of the rocess by which are made have been hinted at. o make red wine, the black grapes in general are on« ly picked and gathered. The juice is allowed to fer- ment, and the degree of fermentation is ascertained to be advantageous, when a lighted candle cannot be held over the tub without going out. When the fermenta- tion has entirely pao ap = puncheon is hermetically sealed. About the end of December, and if possible in dry weather, the wine is drawn off. About the mid~ dle of May, it is again drawn off. A puncheon of red wine contains 240 bottles. In general, the red wines of Haute Montagne are bottled in the month of Novem- ber, i. e. 13 months after the vintage. The-wines of St Thierry can remain three or four years on their lees. The best red wines of Haute Montagne, will:keep in bottles in cellars for six, eight, ten, or twelve years, These-cellars: (already alluded to) are regs to A feet in-depth. ‘Fheir temperature is 'y. five degrees of Reaumur below that of the anaes the varia< tions are seldom above halfa degree. The cost of an acre of vineyard, for red wine of the best quality, varies from 900 livres to 2000. That in Haute Montagne bears the highest price; the second class sells from 300 to 900 livres. The annual expence of cultivating an acre of red wine vineyard, including the expence of vintage and of pruning, is about 200 livres. Such are the general details of the culture of the vine in Champagne. There are many vineyards, how- ever, and particularly in St Thierry, where the greater part of the vines are always raised to the height of about five feet, and supported by props of oak six feet high, and an inch in diameter. . i he following are the classes of the white and red wines of Champagne: j x 714 First class White Wines. Red Wines. Ay. Verzieto. ore Villiers Boa ierry. é Cramant. Faissy. Cumieres. Second class. Avernay. Mailly. E y- Damenay. Le Meuil, E Ye Avis. ly. Oger. Montbret. ti ierry. i Third class. ? mig onnere oigny. Chaldy Barna: Ludes, Chamery. Sadu. Ville Domage. Troispuits. Parguy. illiers, Safllecomte. The first class comprises those wines which have long been considered as luxuries at the French, E lish, and Dutch tables ; the second class comprehen wines, which are not much inferior in flavour and qua~ lity to those of the first class; in the third class, are comprised “es bios most commonly used in France. As many of the details respecting the managements, &c. of the vineyards and wines of Siiapheue are ap- gan to the other wine districts of France, we shall more concise in our observations ing them. II. The vines in the Bordelais, and generally in the higher Guienne and Gascony, are not suffered to lie on the ground like those of Provence and Languedoc, but are su poles, something like hops in Eng- land. The wines produced in this district, are distin< ished into Medec, Haut Brion, Valence, St Emilion, Grave, &c. The best Medoc wines, are Lafitte, La- tour, and Margouz. Those of Vins de Grave, are Haut Brion, Haut Valence, Morignac, Pessac, Laugon, Ville- nave, &c. The Vin de Laugon, so called-from a small town near which it is made, is reckoned the best of all the white wines of the Bordelais, which are included under the general name of Vins de Grave, from the sandy and gravelly soil in which the vines grow. It has very much of the claret favour. There are other sorts in different districts, such as St Julien, St Manubert, Pouillac, St Laurent, Ludon,; Macon, &c. Those which hold the first rank among the white wines, are Carbon. nieux, Serons, Barsac, Prigniac, Saulerne, Baume, &c. Of the white wine exported from this district, the total annual amount may be from 85,000 to 90,000 tons, From 20,000 to 25,000 tons used to go to the French colonial settlements in the East and West Indies. About an equal quantity was Soe ap to Normandy and Flan- ders. Those that are called crude wines of Medoc, are almost all exported to England. The red wines of Haut Brion, Valence, and in general those named De Grave, are sent to Holland, Hamburg, and the Hanse Towns. The best red wines of Montferant go to Holland. Those of inferior quality, used to go to the French colonies, or the western departments of the kingdom. The white wines of Grave, Carbonnieux, Martillac, Loegnau, &c. are sent'to Denmark, Sweden, and the Baltic; but the best of these go in bottles to Paris. The red wines of St Macaire, formerly went in part for the use of the FRANCE. rest to Bremen } III. Throughout Provence and the souche, or stem of the vine, is never to higher provence ength. The grapes grow in a cluster round pannel el poe pl oe ng. as by an umbrella. The cu of the vine into fi for fuel. The vintage middle ber. i pie caplet ca, erie apes ion ; but there are some of a superior ity, uscat wines in particular, which sre dite dolorioe to ee from Nans, is famous for Muscat tities are dried for raisins. i process. The Muscat wines are boiled in as are also all the eae a — pra making is very negligen’ ormed in Provence in general ; dias ‘athe sllectne of grapes; red, white, a and unripe, are pressed promiscuously % The method of pressing is very rude and simple. A man, and commonly two or three children, pull off their shoes and stockings, and jump into the vats, where they trample on the grapes till ihn sine oareeerne The only sort of grape used for drying, besides. the Muscat, is a large white grape called the Panse. Four or five bunches of the fruit are tied together, and ther dipped into a cauldron of ley of wood ashes and water, as it is boiling over the fire, till the grapes look streaky. Without this process, they would turn black and wither when laid out to dry, instead of retaining their sweet- ness and moisture. After the dipping, they are h upon a line for 24 hours, and then separated, and apres upon a sort of hurdle made of reeds, which is out in the sun all day, but taken in at night, to protect the fruit from the dew. An excellent sweetmeat is made in Provence, and in other of France, by boiling down the juice and and stones, till it TERESI ION or ony onee melon, lemon, , &e. are preserved in it. It by the name af confiture raisinée. yr IV. The province of Burgundy. many, produces the choicest of the French wines, best is made at Baom, Nuitz, Romanée, Premeau, Cham- bertin, Belz, Coulange, Chassane, Volenay, Macon, and Clos-Vougeot. V. Wine is also the prod France. A t deal of the wines made in the Beau- jolais, are under the name of Macon, The wines of Anjou and Orleannois are thick and heady. Auver- nat, yer called Casse Taille, is made at Orleans, and is a full good wine. Another Orleans white wine is Genetin. Poitou produces a tolerably good. white wine, which resembles Rhenish. H is the produce of a vine, which is grown w e banks of the Rhone, between Valence and St Val-: lieve, | Near this also, the Cole roti is made. It takes its name from the hill on which the vines grow, aap tally exposed to the warm rays of the south sun, which: con- tributes so much to the excellence of the wine. The avi year] “sen is nearly 1000 hogsheads, The true Vin de ors, which has a great reputation, is the» Ip of the grape, freed from the skins — in the opinion of of Burgun- 1 ot a uce of many other parts of Of other a FRANCE. Statistics. produce of a range of vineyards rocky, on a ri —— of hills to the south of Cahors, ail ie enlled Vin de Grave, because growing on a gravelly soil. The wine of Condrieaux, a small town in the Lyonnois, on the - banks of the Rhone, about seven leagues from Lyons, is very much esteemed. The original plants from which this wine is made, were, to tradition, brought from Dalmatia, by order of the Emperor Probus. Luscious wines and liqueurs are common in of France, as well as Provence, of which those of > and St Laurent are the most esteemed. Frontig- niac, a town in the department of the Herault, is re- markable for its ane S95 tot wine jee are the most perfect, an best ada’ or keeping. Lunel, an old town in the meer ped Gand, i another place, in the vicinity of which muscat grapes are cultivated in great quantities, the soil being peculi- arly suited to them. The muscadine of Lunel is of a more delicate flavour than Frontigniac, but it will not keep so well. The muscat grapes grown here are also dried, and are sent all over Europe. They are called in the country passerilles. Aubagne, between Mar- seilles and Toulon, uces also muscadine wine. The Malvoisie d’ A , as itis called, is particularly ce- lebrated. The muscadine of Rivesaltes, a town in the of the Eastern Pyrenees, is richer than ei- aapemaietincetie and comes very near the Cape wine, is of a quality inferior to Rivesaltes, Frontigniac, and Lunel. Liqueurs of various sorts are made in different parts.of France. Those of Montpel- lier are most esteemed. In the beginning of the , France exported, upon an average of five years, from the year 1720 to 1725, annually wine to the amount of 20,880,200 livres ; in 1778, the ion amount- - ed-to 24,570,170; in 1788, to 33,032,100. The Revo- shil lution nearly ted the exportation of French wines. The brandies made in ne Pe esteemed a best in Europe. They are distilled in every o! the kingdom where vines are 3 and in de dis. tillation, not only wines of an inferior, but also those uality, are used. The brandies most cele- brated, or made in the tities, are those of Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Ne en harente, Isle of Rhe, Orleans, the country of B: is, Poitou, Tourraine, An- Nantes, Burgundy, Cham , &e. Brandy is al- Scante atkatuianes at Montpellier. It A of a milder quality than most of the brandies of the south of France, and therefore better adapted for making the li- for which Montpellier is so celebrated. Of all the French brandies, those of Nantes, Cognac, and Poitou, which are nearly of the same quality; are the most es- teemed, because have a finer taste, and are strong- er. The English, ee ne ee e brandies of Anjou, Tourraine, Orleans, which are not of so good a as those of Nantes, &c. are most com- monly sent to Paris, and into Flanders. In the begin- ning of the Jast century, the value of the brandy ex- ported, amounted annually to 5,852,900 livres ; in 1778, to 4,660,221; in 1784, to 11,360,200; in 1787, to 14,689,600 ; and in 1788, to 14,657,300. Vinegar is made in Provence, Guienne, the Orlean- nois, Anjou, Aunis, Brittany, &c. The Orleans vine- gar is esteemed the best. flavour of the vinegar made in Provence is also good, but cee A Fg lour, from the hue of the grapes from which it is pro- duced, it has a singular a’ to a person unused to it, The exportation of vinegar in the beginning of utch, Flemish, and Ham ers) 715 the last century, amounted annually to 34,400 livres; Statistics. in 1778, to 141,893 ; in 1784, to 124,400 ; in 1787, to 130,900; and in 1788, to 201,700. Cider is made in most of those provinces, the climate Cider. of which is not favourable to the grape. Normandy is particularly celebrated for this liquor, where they also make brandy of it. We shall conclude this Chapter with a few words re« yyorticy). The fruit gardens at ture. specting French horticulture. Montreuil are a curious instance of the aceumulation of capital in a small space: ‘These gardens are said to be worth £400 sterling an acre. All the occupiers are proprietors. The environs of Lyons are celebrated for their excellent artichokes: They are carefully con~ veyed in great quantities to the tables of the rich all - ‘over the kingdom. Vegetables for the table are also cultivated in great ection in Provence, and parti« cularly about Aix. The country for some distance with~ out the town, especi on the south side, is a conti« nued scene of kitchen garden. The vegetable for which they are_most famous, is what they called cardes: a plant very. much resembling the artichoke, but not growing to a head in the same way. The roots always make part of a Christmas dinner. Aix is so famous for them, that at this season presents are sent of them from thence all over the country. The salads of Aix also, particularly in winter, are esteemed uncommonly The tomato or. love apple, the aubergine or it of the purple egg plant, gourds, and capsicums, | are likewise much cultivated in the gardens of Pro« vence. The inhabitants of Roscoff; a town on the northernmost point of the department of Finisterre, par« ticularly apply themselves to the raising vegetables for the table ; and in this they are so eminently successful, that Brest, Morlaix, rer § several other towns, draw their supplies almost entirely from them ; and they are sometimes sent.as far as L’Orient and Quimper, in the southernmost districts of the department. Cauliflowers, brocoli, cabbages, turnips, asparagus, and artichokes, are ially produced here in amazing abundance, and of an excellent quality. But though France has made great advances in the » useful branch of horticulture, she is far behind in the ornamental: The strait avenue, the terrace, and: the parterre, with formal basons, and jets-d’eau, are still : the only objects which, in the opinion of the generali- ty of Frenchmen, can constitute real grandeur and . - beauty in a garden, ; CHAP. V. Manufactures of France—Historical notices of then + —their Situation and State previously to the Revo- lution—Effects produced on them by that event. Tue consideration of the agriculture of France -haS detained us long. The account of the manufactures and commerce of that kingdom will not occupy nearly so much space ; for France always has been, and pro~ bably always will be, more distinguished by the pro- ductions of her soil, than by the productions, of her manufacturing and commercial industry. : In considering her manufactures and commerce, We Manuface shall, in the first place, present some historical notices tures, respecting them,—pointing out their origin and their principal eras, so far as they can be ascertained. In the. second plage, we shall give an account of their state and condition previously to the Revolution : And, lastly, we shall notice, in most cases briefly and gene< = 716 Statistics. rally, but in some instances more particularly, the effects —_Y~ which that event has produ upon them. We are induced to dwell more fully on their state previously to the Revolution than since it occurred, from two con- siderations: In the first place, even if their state since could be accurately and impartially ascertained, it would afford no just and permanent picture of them, on account of the t fluctuations, or rather the depression, to which the Revolution must have sub- j them ; but, in the second place, it is impossible to gather correct details regarding the manufactures and commerce of France as they now exist ; for, al- though annual exposés have been published, yet the falsehoods and e ions which they notoriously contain, mptorily prohibit us from placing any faith in them. All that we know, in general, is, that by the revolutionary wars the commerce of France nes ope —— panies and that many branches of her manufactures have been tly depressed. As, however, her commerce will mes sce fm, ¥5 it revives, revert into the channels in which it flowed iously to the events which have nearly destroyed it, and as such also will probably be the case with her manufac- tures, we have deemed it ay to consider more par- ticularly their state previously to the Revolution, sub- joining what information we have been able to collect ing the effects that event has produced on them. And first, with respect to her manufactures : I. The earliest notice which we can trace fof any branch of the manufactures of France, occurs in the fourth century. It is afforded by St Jerome, in his second book against Jovinian, where he speaks of a * manufactory stuffs which was then at Arras, and which was much esteemed. But the first establishment of the cloth manufactures of that kingdom, a branch for which it has always been greatly celebrated, can~ not be accurately traced. That they were extensive and important in the beginning of the Mth century, is evident from some letters which exist from the King of France to the King of England, in which he ex- — great anxiety to procure English wool at St ers and Lisle. In 1346, the King of France attempt- ed to detach the Flemings from the interest of King Edward, by sending them the wool of France at a low price, and obliging his subjects to use no other wool, while their cloth made of French wool was to be u- red: Thus offering to sacrifice the woollen man of his kingdom. The next notice we have of the ma- nufactures of France occurs in 1453, at which period some branches of them appear to have flourished con~ siderably. This is evident from the account which her historians give of Jacques Ceeur, who, by his loan of 200,000 crowns, greatly contributed to enable the King to expel the English. This merchant, at a time when trade was scarcely known in France, is said to have employed 300 factors to his vast com~ merce, that extended to the Turks and Russians in the East, and the Saracens of Africa, at that period the most remote nations known to the merchants of Eu- rope. His exports consisted chiefly of woollen cloths, linens, and paper, then the principal manufactures of France ; and his returns were silks, (which proves that this manufacture was not then established, or at most only in its infancy,) spiceries, &c. Indeed we know, from other sources, that the first considerable and regular attempts to establish the silk manufacture, occurred in the eo ig of Francis I. in the year 1521, This monarch took great pains to procure workmen from Milan, while he ie that duchy. In this FRANCE. manufacture the French made a , princi- pally af Aipena; 4nd othe futenabahe Nachof rance, and soon supplied man »of Europe with silk goods; yet it was after time, as we shall afterwards shew, before she got into the methodof raising raw silk from the worms. In the reign of pop crs some at- tention was paid to manufactures. At this peri were neither numerous, nor advanced to a state of any perfection. Articles of elegance and luxury were im- ported from foreign nations,-and even such as were of gee consumption had not. attained beyond their ins cy. Leather and t, however, were pre- pared with some dexterity at Troyes in Cham 3 and this place was likewise renowned for the of its dyes, in which occupation the inhabitants were principally employed. A manufacture of white paper was extablished at ray Re in Provence, about the beginning of Henry the Second’s reign; and there seems to have been others in the kingdom. In the manufacture of iron and steel the French were then very deficient, Their fire arms they procured from Lombardy. Charles 1X. indeed, endeavoured to intro- duce among his soldiers musquets made at Metz and Abbeville, where manufactures of arms were establish- ed, but they were so heavy and awkwardly made that the attempt was laid aside. The same monarch brought to Paris, Italian manufacturers, whe finished there the. morions, or head-pieces, which were manufactured and purchased at Milan. In the reign. of Henry III. gun« powder was made in France, but not in sufficient quan- tity to render the importation of it, as well as of saltpetre, unnecessary. Genoa, in particular, supplied the French with gunpowder, : But the first grand era of the manufactures of France must be fixed in the reign of Henry IV. The monarchs before him had occasionally encouraged particular ma- nufactures ; but their en t being partial and temporary, and not proceeding from any clear or pro- found views on the subject, went a little way in the completion of the object they had in view. Henry IV, on the con’ , maturely considered the best means for promoting and cherishing manufactures; and though we can hardly suppose that Sully, who greatly prefer- red agriculture to manufactures or commerce, entered very cordially into the views of his master, yet there can be no doubt that Henry profited by his penetration and sense. Before this reign, the silk-worm and mulberry trees had been propagated only in the Lyon- nois, Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc; and so certs =. Frenne of articles of ny that in 4000; issued an edict prohibiting importation foreign silks. The inhabitants of the city of Tours had fextorted from him this ition by their im- ities, un ing to supply all the national de-« mand for silk, as well as for gold and silver stuffs. But could not perform their engagement ; and in 1603, the King was obliged to rescind the edict. Sully entertained great and t insurmountable prejudi- ces against the silk manufacture, and was impressed with the belief that the climate of France was unfavour« able to rearing the silkworm. Henry, however, was not to be disco As we have already mentioned, in 1608, temporary buildings were constructed at Fon- tainebleau, at the castle of Madrid, and at the Thuille- ries, for silk-worms. Mulberry trees were planted in various provinces, in which they had not been previous- ly cultivated, especially in the vicinity of Paris, Or- leans, and Tours. The government caused pamphlets on the art of cultivating trees, and preserving the Statistics. —— In the reign of Henry IV. FRANCE. 717 Statistics. silkworms, to be distributed. A council of commerce and Portugal; wi ich i isti | vorm aie gal; wine, which is sent to Flanders, Eng- Statistics. “=~ was instituted. In 1605, the king procured silkworms land, and the coasts ‘of the Baltic; salt, made by the a tee > ame bo] wer " 1s es hig stated, that the southern : admired over all Eu was the suburbs of Paris, under Mis Beoctioas | the art of making leaden pipes an from Valencia in Spain. These measures were success- ful, so far as they respected the southern and some of the central provinces of the kingdom. But Henry’s at- tempts to rear the silk-worm so far north as the capital proved abortive. Before his death, however, he wit- nessed the general good effects of his exertions and per- severance, Forei began to repair to Lyons, which city was soon enriched by the silk manufacture ; and it e vinees of Lan- gu Dauphiny, and Provence, ived from it, in course of only seyen bay from its establishment, greater profits annually, from the joint produce of ir oil, wines, and sweetmeats, the ancient and natural productions of the country. Henry did not confine his attention and his encou- ent to the silk manufacture, though this appears to have excited and retained his warmest interest. Gold and silver tissues, of various kinds, and of exquisite beauty, were manufactured at Paris, by workmen whom he brought from Milan, and induced to settle in the ca- pital, under his immediate protection. The Gobelins , of such unequalled delicacy, and afterwards n in one of artists from Flanders ; but as this manufacture seems to have sunk, and was not revived till a future reign, we shall after- wards have occasion to notice it more particularly. Looking. in imitation of those cast at Venice, and which had been formerly made in the reign of Henry IL. at St Germain, were again undertaken with success at Paris and at Nevers. Earthen ware, white and painted, was fabricated with the same beauty as in Italy. It appears from a passage in Sully’s Memoirs, that the art of enamelling had attained, before 1603, a very considerable of perfection. Crapes equal to of , were manufactured in the castle of Mantes, upon the Seine ; and the manufacture of linen, similar to that of the Dutch, was eo age In the sub- urbs of St Honoré and St James, the lower orders of the inhabitants of Paris found’ employment ; as there were there manufactories of gilt leather for the Cer aed epticby the hand ; bot valle’ thoes piatte cut and split e ; but mills for ! established on the river Estampes: pity og so mu heat of the sun on the shore of the Mediterranean, and also of the ocean as far north as Saintonge. The fourth consists of hemp and cloth, “ of which, and of cordage, great quantities are carried to Lisbon and Seville, for the shipping ; and the exportation of the articles of this fourth class is incredibly great.” It might have been supposed, that the civil wars, by which France was convulsed during the 16th century, would have been fatal to her manufactures, or at least would have depressed them for a considerable length of time. This, however, does not seem to have been the case. ‘ I remember,” says Brantome, “ in the first civil wars, Rouen was carried by storm, pillaged and sacked during several days; yet, when Charles IX. and his mother passed through it, about fifteen or six« teen months afterwards, to their astonishment all traces of that calamity had disappeared, and nothing but opu- lence was visible.” The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu gives us some insight into the state of the manufactures of France about the year 1635; and from it, it appears that even then she abounded with the finest and best of manufactures ; such (says he) as the serges of Cha- lons and of Chartres, which have superseded those of Milan. The Turks prefer the French draps de sceau of Rouen before all others, except those of Venice, which are made of Spanish wool. Such fine plushes are made at Tours, that they are sent into Spain, Italy, &c. ; also fine plain taffeties, red, purple, and spotted velvets, finer than at Genoa. France is the only place for silk serges. Mohair (camblet) is made as good here as in England, and the best cloth of gold, finer and cheaper than in Italy. The manufactures of France, however, do not seem to have met with much encouragement from the go- vernment during the reign of Louis XIII. The next im t era is the age of Louis XIV. His minister, Colbert, was extremely anxious to establish new manu- factures in France. The principal of those that were either introduced, or established and extended in this reign, were those those of Sedan, Abbeville, the Go- belins, and the glass manufacture of St Gobins. 1. The manufacture of fine cloth at Sedan, both black and coloured, which has been so long celebrated, owes ment of the - In the 17th century. In the reign of LouisXIV. Establish- were now which had been previously procured from Piedmont, its birth and perfection to Nicolas Cadeau. This per- ‘loch M® | began to be man ed in the suburb of St Victor in son was a native of France, who had become acquaint 2'ja,. Paris. A native of Provence discovered a method of rigehgs ga agp kind of coarse linen, with the bark of the white mulberry tree ; and an inhabitant of St Germain carried to a perfection | gilda unknown, spouts for the con- ducting of water. Before this reign, white lead was always imported ; but it was now prepared and sold at a moderate price. Manufactures of gauzes, and thin linen cloth, as well as of woollen cloth and serges, were also and extended by Henry. Giovanni , an Italian author, who, in 1590, wrote a small treatise on the causes of the ificence and greatness of cities, represents France at this period as among the greatest, richest, and most populous king- doms of Christendom. According to him, it contained 27,000 parishes, and 15,000,000 of people ; and was so fertile e nature, and so rich, through the industry of its inhabitants, as not to envy any other country. In another place he represents France as ing what he calls magnets, which attract the wealth of other countries, viz. corn, which is exported to Spain ed with the mode practised in Holland of manufactur- ing fine cloths. In 1646, he entered into partnership with John Binet and Yves de Marseilles, two rich mer- chants of Paris; and, in the same year, they obtained a patent for the manufacture, for twenty years, of woollen cloths, black as well as all other colours, that should be made after the fabric and manner of Dutch cloths. For their further encouragement, they had each a pen- sion of 500 livres for life, and their children were’ en- nobled in France; their foreign workmen declared to be denizens of that kingdom, free from being quartered on by soldiers, and from all taxes and excises. The directors were also allowed 8000 livres annually, for carrying on the manufacture during the term of the tent. 2. The exclusive privilege of Cadeau and his part~ ners was on the point of expiring, when Josse Vanro- ,. roposal to set up 2 ville, bais, a Dutch merchant, made a e new manufacture of fine cloths at Abbeville in Picardy, in imitation of those of Spain and Holland. This pro- posal was immediately agreed to by Colbert, who t Abbe~ Statistics. brought Vanrobais from Holland, —Y~" tent, and settled him and his wor Of the Ga- belins ta- pestry. 71s ted him a en at Abbeville. a this t, which was dated in October 1669, Van- is obliges himself to set on foot thirty woollen looms, with as many fulling-mills as should be necessary, -and procure fifty Dutch workmen to be employed in the manufactory. Encou ents and privilages: similar to those granted to C u, were bestowed on him. In 1681, having punctually fulfilled his ents, he obtained a renewal of his patent for fifteen * amy on condition of setting up fifty looms instead of thirty In 1698, a third renewal was granted for ten years, to the brothers and sons of the projector, who now eighty looms in their manufactory. In 1708, the looms exceeded a hundred ; and there were about six hundred men, women, and children, employed upon the spot, in picking the wool, winding, warping, weaving, shear~ ing, &c. At this time, a fourth patent was granted, in which the King gave permission to all noblemen to enter into partnership, without derogation to their titles or honour; and, to encou the sale of these and other French woollen in Turkey, he advanced money to the merchants of Marseilles out of his trea- nll to be repaid after the return of their ships from urkey. 8. We have already mentioned, that Henry IV. esta- blished a manufacture of tapestry in the suburbs of the metropolis, but that it does not seem to have succeeded. This manufacture was revived with more success by Colbert: it obtained the name of Gobelines, because the house where the manufacture is carried on was built by two brothers, whose names were Gobelines, who first brought to Paris the secret of the beautiful searlet dye, which has preserved their name, as has also the fittle river Bievre, upon whose banks they first settled. Colbert purchased the ground from these bro- thers, for the purpose of establishing there a manufac- ture of tapestry, similar to that of Flanders. He was particularly anxious on this point, in order that he might procure suitable furniture for the royal palaces, which he had rebuilt and ornamented, particularly the Louvre and Thuilleries. With this view, he collected er some of the most able workmen in the cn i dom, in all sorts of manufactures and arts, particularly painters, tapestry-weavers, engravers, goldsmiths, and workers in ebony. The tapestry-weavers were pro- cured from Flanders ; separate superintendants of the raised and of the smooth tapestries were appointed ; and another Fleming was vested with the management of the wool-dyeing department. The manufacture of tay ies commenced in 1663, but did not flourish till 1066, when it was endowed with many privileges, and denominated, in the edict, the Royal Manufactory of the Crown Furniture. At length, the celebrated ter Le Brun was appointed chief director of the Gobelin manufactures, to which he communicated that beauty and grandeur, which his admirable talents were so well calculated high pag pelted ta ies were brought to a high state of ection during the ad- Seinieerallag of Colbert and Louvois. "During the administration of the fomer, Alexander's battles, the four seasons, the four elements, and the history of the principal acts of Louis XIV. from his iage to his first conquest of Franche Compté, were wrought at the Gobelines, from the designs of Le Brun. Lou- Vois caused tapestries to be made, during his admi- nistration, after the most beautiful originals in the king’s cabinet of Raphael, Julio Romano, and other fa- mous painters in the schools of Italy, which were first FRANCE. as La Fosse, the two Coypels, Jouvenet, erson, &c. The at one pe- riod, adecline. Great abuses had into. it; to remedy which, and revive the establishment,. many committees were held at the house of M. Fagon, the ier, in 1787. At this time also considerable improvements were made in ing secon! see Pae nation, and are also — sree Bsns. sae used in the tapestries are d in a manufactory appropriated to that Lag riety of tints and shades, which are The ma~ terials are ready spun wools from the south of France, and the silks of Lyons. 4, Louis XIV. seems to have been particularly anxious Venice, and the king, for their encouragement, the directors and proprietors many privileges Eaton munities, and supplies of money. He was not, however, disheartened by his failure at but by. verance at length succeeded to such a degree, that the glass manufactured at St Gobins was superior to that of Venice, both in quality and quantity. In order. to fa- cilitate and secure a good market for this manufacture, Louis, by an edict, laid a duty upon foreign glass im-— rted into France to such an amount, as nearly to pro« ibit it; and a few years afterwards, finding that the home manufacture had still need of further ion and encou ent, he absolutely prohibited the im- portation of foreign glass. One circumstance in par- ticular seems to have retarded the establishment and progress of this manufacture at first. We have already mentioned, that in the reign of Henry II. and Henry IV. it was ap oo in the ig stage 3 vicinity of the metropolis; the consequence was a sci wood was felt; and it was removed inte the neigh- bourhood of a large forest, with the advantage of a . This forest was. that of St Gobins, whence the manufacture took its_ river, to ease the expence of carriage. name. The whole is situated at the of a small hill, close to the vi of St Gobin, near La Fere and Chaumy, two towns in Picardy. The very white sand used in the manufacture is bourhood of Creil, a place 11 distant from Pa- ris: the glasses are sent by water to the af are polished and silvered.| those which we have just mentioned. By an edict of the 19th of October 1688, he granted to Noel de Varennes different immunities, to encourage him to on the manufacture of Drap de Londres, or cloth e in imitation of what was sent from London to Turkey, in the province of Languedoc, Afterwards that province was obliged to furnish Magi and his part~ ners with 30,000 livres to on the same manufac- ture at Clermont and Sette. It also appears by another edict that this Monarch yearly appropriated a million of livres, exclusive of ind: ces In the customs, to en« and reward skilful masters and artificers, who un- Pac to set up fabrics of cloth, silk, camel and pu , as it would be otherwise very difficult to procure the infinite va~. _ of. brought from the neigh- _ capital, where - V. encouraged other manufactures besides - Glass nufacture at St Gow bins. iJ i . | Statistics. goat’s hair, crystals, oP other eoménodities State at the In 1695. a patent was granted to Isaac Robelin, engineer, di- rector of the fortifications of Burgundy, for the exclu- sive privilege of settling a tin manufacture in different parts of the kin By an arret of 1703, it appears that the manufactures of bays, perpets, and serges, which had been a after the union between the crowns of France and Spain, had already attained such ection as to rival those of England. Holland received most of these articles, besides saffron, soap, wood, honey, &c. The revocation of the edict of 7 felt cera ae Lesatulig; Goethe were gen > out ts, ariffiona; ead manufac- turers of that kingdom. Those who had most money retired into England and Holland; but the most indus- trious part of them settled in Brandenburg, where they eager serpent petinke megan . peat draggets , crapes, , stockings, also the dyeing of all sorts Stedlours. he goldsmiths, jewel- lers, watch-makers, and carvers, settled in lin. From this account, and from the additional fact that is indebted to the refugees for her silk manu- factures, and also for improvements in the manufacture , hats, glass, watches, cutlery ware, jacks, 8, surgeon's Instruments, hardware, &c. we may * circumstance in the history of the manufactures of France, me ig | the 18th century, previously to the commencement of the Revolution, re- ig the establishment of the cotton manufacture. precise era is not accurately known ; but it was certainly carried on at Rouen in Normandy, a consider- able time before the middle of the 18th erg 2 and it is said to have been introduced by a Mr Holkar, probably an Englishman. Before the year 1747, the manufacture of cottons, or cotton-linens as they were then called, was established at Nantes in Brittany, where it was supposed it would succeed better than in Rouen, as cotton, wool, and indi, were cheaper. Such are the principal eras in the history of the manu- factures of France; we shall now to consider their state, before they were affected by the Revolu- Manufac- ‘IJ. It may be proper to premise, that they are con- tures at the sidered to have flourished most between the years 1650 Revolution. and 1750 ; and that, subsequently to the last period, se- veral causes, but chiefly the rivalship of English manu- factures, acted unfavourably on them. The following are the principal manufactures which were carried on in France, before the Revolution, most of which still FRANCE. 719 exist, though several of them are now very much de- Statistics. ressed, —— 1. The woollen manufacture. Cloths of different qua- Woollen. lities form the most important and extensive part of this manufacture ; and the finest cloths are those for which France has always been chiefly celebrated. The very superfine French cloths are made at Louvieres in Normandy ; those of Abbeville, in Picardy, though fine, are not to be compared with them in taalieh: The Londrines, made at Carcassone in Languedoc, which were formerly the most suecessful manufacture in France, so far as concerned the rivalry of England, and were manufactured expressly for the Turkish and Chi- nese markets, are also of fine quality. The cloths of Julienne, and the superfine fabrics of Sedan, as well in scarlet as in other bright colours, and in black, are fit only for the rich, Fine cloths are also manufactured at Rouen, Darental, Audelis, Montauban, and in va~ rious places in Languedoc and Champagne ; but these are of various “i. of fineness, and applicable to va« rious purposes. of Andelis in Normandy are fine mixed cloths, similar to such as are made at Abbeville. There are fabrics of a second sort of cloth at Elbeuf in Normandy, and at Sedan: those of Elbeuf are best suited for workmen and mechanics, Chateaurouge, be« fore the Revolution, furnished a great deal of live cloth. Romarantin, Issodoren, and Lodeve, furnis cloths for military clothing. There are still inferior coarser cloths, made for the wear of the paysans and country labourers. The fabrics at Rheims, before the Revolution, beside the sort called draps de Rheims, con« sisted of an imitation of Silesian drapery, called Silesies, imitations of our Wiltons, called wilions, and casimeres, which they called maroes. Ratteens were made at Roy=' bons, Crest, and Saillans; cloths and ratteens at Ro« mans; cloths for billiard tables at St Jean-en Royans. Cloths of different descriptions and qualities were also made at Grenoble, Valence, Troyes, St Leo, Bayeux, Amboise, Niort, Coutange, Lusignon, &c. In the rank of coarse cloths, may also be placed the woollen stuffs of Aix,.Apt, Tarascon, Oleron, Orthes, Bagneres, Pau, Auch, the valley of Aure ; the cloths of Cevennes, Som- mieres, Limoux, &c. The greater part of these cloths bear the names of the various places in which they are fabricated. Besides cloths, properly so called, camblets, callimancoes, baizes, kerseys, wool and hair plushes, are made at Amiens; ts, flannels, blankets, at Rheims ; blankets in the suburbs of Paris; flannels at Beauvais; serges at Aumale, Bicomt, &c.; camblets and plushes at Margny ; hosiery at Compeigne and Rheims. In endeavouring to ascertain the state of the woollen manufactures, previous] to the Revolution, other par ticulars regarding it will be noticed, as -well as other places pointed out, where the several branches were carried on with success. The above is only a general sketch of it. In the flourishing period of the manufactures of Pi- cardy, it was calculated, that, in the city of Amiens only, they made 129,800 ap of woollen stuff, be- sides 50,000 pieces brought from the adjacent parts, which for that reason were called etoffes foreignes. The value of the woollen manufacture at this place was computed to amount to nearly 1,600,000 livres annual- ly. e extent and value of the manufactures of Abbe- ville were little inferior to those of Amiens. At Beau- vais, 500 looms were employed in making the two sorts of cloth manufactured there, and 40 fulling-mills: 68,000 pieces of cloth were manufactured of 745,000 pounds: 1 In Picardy. Statistics. Tn Cham- pagne. In Poitiers. In Anjou, &c. Tn Brittany. in Nor- mandy, In Langue- doc, In French Flanders. 720 of French wool, and 115,000 pounds of Spanish. The wool grown at this period in the province of Picardy, and used along with Spanish wool in their manufac- tures, amounted to 524 milliers. In that division of Champagne, which, previously to the Revolution, was called the department of Rheims, there were made, in the flourishing period of its manufactures, 84,000 pieces of stuff. In this department were included Rheims it- self, Sedan, Vervins. In the generality of Poitiers, principally at Poitiers itself, and Niort, were annually made from 25,000 to 30,000 pieces of stuff; in the Or- leannois, about 25,000 pieces of cloth. Romarantin, in this district, already noticed, made nearly 6000 pieces. In the provinces of Anjou, Tourraine,’and Maine, about 18,000 pieces of stuff. In Berry, there were 34 places where cloth and other woollen stuffs were made 3 seven of which made from 3000 to 4000 pieces each ; six from 2000 to 3000; and the rest ‘about 800 or 900 pieces, The tapestry made in this generality amounted to 80,000 livres annually. In Brittany, 800 looms were employed, chiefly in making light stuffs. The princi- pal places, Nantes, Rennes, St Brieux, &c. In Nor- mandy, the woollen manufacture flourished extremely : in the generality of Rouen (that is, a division of the vince over which an i rx of the woollen manu- actures was placed), there —_ 12 looms, pon employed in manufacturi oth, serges, and tapestry. The chief places for cloth 5 were Darental, Elbeuf, and Louvieres, In the generality of Alencon, another divi« sion of Normandy, upwards of 60,000 pieces of eloth, and other drapery, were made: the princi places were Alencgon Aumale, in which latter 1200 looms were employed in the manufacture of serge. Bur« gundy, mig: ah and Provence, were not very cele« brated for their woollen manufactures. There was, however, a considerable manufacture of i at Dijon: about 1000 pieces of cloth made at St Jean-en- Royans, and about éoo0 pieces at Romans. The manu- factures of Languedoc were very important and flou- rishing. ‘At Lodeve, 45,000 pieces, white and grey, were made ; at Bezieres, Sept, and Carcassone, the ma- nufactures were equally flourishing. In the middle of the last century, the annual product and manufacture of Languedoe, so far as it relates to our present topic, was as follows: sheep 1,000,000 livres ; fustians and basins 90,000 ; blankets 230,000 ; bergames and tapes- try 20,000 ; woollen stuffs, fine and coarse, 4,100,000 ; cloths, principally fine, 8,450,000; woollen stockings 40,000 ; hats 400,000 ; making a total of 14,330,000 livres. In French Flanders there were also pretty con- siderable manufactures of woollen goods, of various de- scriptions. At St Omer’s, 350 looms were employed in making cloth, dru , besides a great many stock. ing frames. At Lisle there were nearly 1000 looms employed in making camblets, besides several hundred in making’callimancoes, &c. ; and 200 frames in making stockings and caps. Above 800,000 pieces of stuff were made annually at this place. At gt Pour, between Marseilles ~ Toulon, there is a manufacture of red worsted caps, which are very much worn by the santry of Provence, and the fishermen of Marseilles, Hence arose the bonnet rouge during the Revolution. It was introduced by the Marseillois as the fashion of their country. To this account a few miscellaneous ar- ticles may be added. were made at Rouen, at Asa and at Felletin, a small town in the Lower Marche : these were called ta carpets ; those made at Tournay were called ag! moucade ; at Arras, as well as the other places mentioned a ve 5 FRANCE, blankets in Normandy, Auvergne, and Languedoc ; Dartenat in N ly, the best and finest ; at Vernon, imperfect, € manufactures of period of their most ishing state. Long before the Revolution, however, had declined to a considerable degree. A few years previous to that event, the woollen manufacture at Car- cassone was by far the most important. In 1786, the following is the state and balance of the trade in cloth Smcorporana to the Levant, manufactured at this . They manufactured every ieces of cloth, of which 800 only were sold in the king- Nae for home consumption : the remainder to the Levant. The whole amount of cloth exported. was worth 11,136,000 livres. The greatest of the wool used in that manufactory was wool, chiefly from Rousillon and loc. They used a vast quantity of.tin and cochineal in their dyeing, The cost of Nis ee estimated at 6 livres comk The price of the 300 bales of wool, from Spain to mix with the native wool, came to 270,000 livres. The price of the drugs to 284,000 ; making a total sum, paid for raw materials from abroad, 654,000 livres, They sold’ to the merchants of Marseilles, for CF por into Tur. key, to the amount of 11,136,000: ving a balance for the workmanship, and the price of the raw mate- rials of the growth of the ki , Of 10,482,000 li. vres, or £458,587, 19s. sterling. In 1784, France ex- ported cloth to the value of 15,530,900 livres ; stuffs to the value of 7,600,000 ; and plush, &c. to the value of 4,425,100. The exportation. of cloth, in the ojo 1787, had fallen to 14,242,400 livres; and that stuffs, in the same year, to 5,615,800 livres, The produce of the whole woollen manufacture was rated, in 1789, at 140,000,000. of livres annually. ; 2. The next manufacture in im is the silk manufacture ; but of the state of this, when it was most flourishing, we cannot collect» such details as we have given relative to the woollen manufacture y because, fon the old government, the: of the king- dom, where there was any woollen man was can toned into several departments, or districts, called gene- ralities, with an in: r to each, and a superi: over the whole; and thus a particular,account of this manufacture might vA tan We so axetone, be obliged to specify the princi places w silk manufacture is pa a epee afterwards to give such estimates of its value before the Revolution as we can collect. The quality of French silk, and particularly that of Languedoc, is very good. It is made into woof, and even very beautiful i Since the - establishment of the silk mills at Vancauson, the French organzine has obtained a superiority over that of fo- reign countries. The woof-made in edoc and at Alais is preferred. The annual export of raw silk from the latter, in the most flourishing state of its trade, was 1,200,000 lbs. The most considerable manufactures of silk are those established at Tours, Lyons, Nismes, Avignon, Mar« seilles, and Paris. The silks of Tours Lyons are esteemed of the best quality: Those manufactured at Nismes are far inferior. Elorentine taffetas, English taffetas, and damask, are manufactured at Ss ay There are also silk manufactures at Rouen, ouse, Auch, Narbonne, Amiens, and several other places. Statistics. —— of year at Carcassone 64,800 At Carcas- sone in 1786. extn Silk manu- and extent Statistics. —— FRANCE, The best gold and silver laces are made at Paris and poh ama edger: mean at Montmorency, Sarcelles, Estrepagny, &c. Ribbons are chiefly made in Paris and Lyons: There are also large quantities manufactured at St Etienne and St Chaumont. Silk stockings, gloves, and mittens, are manufactured at Paris, Lyons, Nismes, Montpellier, Dourdans, &c. ing the most flourishing period of the silk ma- ~ nufacture of Lyons, it is computed that 18,000 looms were constantly and regularly at work, of which about 12,000 were employed in the manufacture of figured silks. The state of the manufacture in 1786 was as follows: The Sa silks eel were < different kinds, independent of the silks of the grow teeter eo They imported at Lyons, chiefly by the way of Gene- va, raw silks from Piedmont to the amount of 668,850 livres ; from Naples, to the amount of 263,400 3 and pm res on native silks to the amount of 447,300: ing the total value of the raw silks 1,399,550 livres, The fourth of this amount was sent to different parts of the kingdom to be manufactured ; the three parts were employed at Lyons,—which gives an amount of 1,049,661 livres. pon this computation it results, that they manufactured yearly in that ci 349,887 pieces of stuff of all kinds. “ It was computed, that each piece t a benefit to the manufacturer of 36 livres, or 12 livres for each of silk ; which ives 12,595,932 livres. In the year 1787, the manu- of rate employed 15,000 looms ; in 1788, i 14,777; and number of workmen was 58,500. In the most flourishing state of the silk manufacture, it was that nearly half the looms of the king- dom were employed at Lyons. There were besides at Nismes about 3000; at Tours from 1200 to 1500; and about 2000 at Paris. There were besides about 20,000 used for the makin: of silk stockings, and 10,000 for that of ribbons, , and lace. In 1775, nity ef mative il tothe whole’ Hingiom at 390,000,000 th t itappears thatthe native silk was worth 56,000,000 livres silk articles annually sent out of France were estimated as follows: Silken stuffs, taffetas, sattins, &c. 14,884,100 livres; ditto, mixed, 649,600; silken gauzes, 5,452,000; handkerchiefs, 118,000; ribbons, 1,231,900; 2,589,200; various other articles, 445,300; ing a total of 25,370,100 livres. 5. Linen is manufactured in most of the provinces, but incipally in Brittany, Normandy, Picardy, Hainault, ambresis, Flanders, Maine, Dauphiny, Auvergne, Beaujolais, , Gascony, and Anjou. Brittany and some parts of Normandy are most celebrated for this manufacture. The principal articles of linen cloth made in Normandy are those called low cloths, made in the vicinity of Fecampe, in the department of the Lower Seine; h tow-cloths, made in the valley of Longueville, in the adjacent vi , and near Rouen ; cloths used in the formation of oil-cloths and umbrellas are made at Ourville ; a particular sort of linen, former- sent to the Brazils, at St "s ; toiles a veste in icinity of Bacqueville; strong flaxen cloths at VOL. IX. PART Ir. 721 Dieppe, Havre, Fecamp, &c. ; tickings at St Loo, Ev« Statisties, reux, and other parts in Lower Normandy ; coverings for mattresses at St Vallery, St Laurent, &c.; linen cloth with blue and white grounds, for sailors’ shirts, at St Laurent, Toqueville, &c.: damasked linen at Rouen, St Vallery, and Bolbec ; in the article of printed linens Snly, the sale at Rouen, when the manufacture flourished, was computed at from £20,000 to £25,000 sterling per week. The quantity sold in the hall an- nually, averaged about 35,000,000 millions of livres. The principal linen manufactures of Brittany are sail- and canvass at Rennes, Angers, Agen, (also at Marseilles: and Mont de Marsan,) and what are called Crez and Bretagnes. In the middle of last century, 6000 bales of Crez and Bretagnes, were annually export- ed from Morlaix alone ; 20 goats afterwards the expor- tation fell to about. 4500 bales; and at the commence- ment of the Revolution it fell below 4000. The annual value of these cloths made in Brittany, in the flourish- ing state of the manufacture, was about 1,200,000 livres. In several of the villages of this province, particularly at Vitry, the women and children used to be much employed in knitting thread stockings and gloves, which were sent to Spain, and even to the East Indies. They sold about 20,000 livres worth of them every year. Be- fore the Revoltition, France exported linen cloth to the amount of from 12,000,000 to 13,000,000 of livres; and lawn and cambric, manufactured principally in the French Netherlands, to the amount of 6,000,000. 4, Though the cotton manufacture is of tively late establishment, yet it had begun to flourish considerably before the Revolution. The principal seat of it was then, and indeed still is, Rouen and its vici- nity which has not inaptly been called the Manchester of France. Here cottons, made from materials called tutacotin, brought to France by way of Holland ; cotton handkerchiefs; a sort of coarse cotton cloth, called siamoise ; besides fabrics of mixed cotton and thread, were manufactured. There were also small manufac- tures of cotton in some other parts of France, at the period of the Revolution, particularly in Beaujo- lais, edoc, and Flanders; but we are not acquaint~ ed with any data on which to estimate the value of this manufacture. The quilts of Marseilles, which are still as much in use as ever in that of France, where a blanket is a rare thing ; the muslin’ of Rouen, Nismes, Bezieres, and Rheims ; and the dimities and fustians of Alengon, Lyons, Troyes, and Toulouse, may be classed under this head. 5. As the laces manufactured in France are made Laces. both of silk and thread, we shall consider them sepa- rately. Before the Revolution, they were a flourishin and important branch of trade. They are manufactu at Lisle, Valenciennes, Dieppe, Puy, Paris, Caen, Ar- ras, Alencon, and Argentan, in the greatest quantity, and of the best quality. At Paris are made black and white laces of thread; and also at Valenciennes, Dieppe, and Puy. At Arras, minionette and entoilage laces, eat quantities of which used to be brought to Eng- fand. The point lace of Alengon has long enjoyed a great tation France, England, Germany, &e. The point lace of Argentan, called point d’ Argen- tan, is also celebrated. 6. In the beginning of the last century, there were Paper. seven provinces in France where the paper manufac- ture was chiefly carried on: Champagne, Normandy, ~ Brittany, An ois, Perigord, Limosin, and Au- vergne, At that period, a and other countries Y compara= Cotton, 122 Statistics. imported a great deal of paper from France; towards ~~" the middle of that century, however, the paper trade of Hides. Hats. Nails. Steel, Jewellery. France declined, in consequence of these countries ma- king paper nearly sufficient for their, own consumption. Previously to the Revolution, the chief paper manufac- tures of France were at Annonay, in the department of the Ardeche, very fine paper is manufactured here; at Montargis, in the department of the Loiret ; at Es- sone, Courtalin; Rambervillier, in the department of the Vosges: Besancon, Ornant, Villafaut, Arbois, Ar- ches, Archettes, and St Bresson, The total number of manufactories before the Revolution was about 200. Three classes of white for writing and printing are made ; each class is divided into eight ar ten diffe- rent sorts : different coloured papers and pasteboards are also made ; and paper hangings, executed with con- siderable taste, at Paris. Before the Revolution, the pa- per manufactured in France amounted to the annual value of 8,000,000 livres ; 1,350,000 of which were ex- ported to foreign countries, and $50,000 livres to the colonies, 7. The best hides are those of the oxen of Au- vergne, Limosin, and Poitou. Leather is p at Bayonne, Lectoure in the department of Gers, and St Germaine. The best tan-yards are at Paris, Dijon, Troyes, Coulommier, Rheims, Mezieres, Laon, Soissons, Rouen, Caen,. Bayeux, Verneuil, Perche, Chartres, Or- leans, Tours, ed Beauvais: leather for harness is ma- nufactured at Nemours, and Louviers.. Goat skins are ed at Paris, under the name of maroquins. Cha- mols leather is made, or imitated, at Niort, Strasburg, Grenoble, Annonay, &c. Buffalo hides are also ma- nufactured in France ; and parchment in Poitou, Lan- guedoc, Flanders, Alsace, and at Paris. The parch- ment made in France is esteemed the best in E and in time of peace is frequently imported into gt A ‘ 8. Hats are chiefly manufactured at Lyons, Mar- > seilles, Rouen, and Paris. Before the Revolution, con- and siderable quantities were ex to the French co- lonies, and also to Spain and Spanish America, by the way of Cadiz ; at that time, there were about 70 hat manufactories in, the kingdom. 9. Nails are. made in almost every province in France ; but the most considerable forges are in Nor- mandy, Cham e, and Limasin: at Limoges, great quantities of nails, particularly for horse shoes, were made, and sent to Paris, previously to the Revo- lution. Pins and needles are made at Paris, Rouen, Bourdeaux, Limoges, Evreux, and Aigle. Cutlery at Montargis, Chateaurault near Poitiers, where it is made with scarcely any division of labour, being in the hands of distinct and unconnected workmen, who go through every branch on their own account, and without assist- ance, exert from their families; at Cosne, Moulins, &c. Steel is chiefly manufactured at Amboise, where it was established by the Duke de Choiseul; at St Etienne, Colmar, and Grenoble. Works in bronze and or-moulu are carried to great perfection in Paris, Clocks and watches are made in different parts of France, par- ticularly at Paris, Cluse, and Carouges; the coarse movements are made at Di and its vicinity, The number of watches sold annually in France, before the Revolution, was supposed to be 200,000, At Paris and Lyons, at the same period, 70,000°workmen were employed in the manufacture of jewellery ; in the ca- ass: Sa ipmot eae pu kind, as well as all a expensive and tasteful toys, are carried to great perfec- tion, A few years before the Revolution, the art of FRANCE. casting cannon solid, and then boring them, troduced by W. Wilkinson, who i fi for that purpose, in an island in the Loire be- iow Nantes. ; 10. China is principally manufactured at where io Pea lens Ween cercion Shame apeanae pee of ware, fection. Several manufactures chiefly of the coarse kind, are carried on at Aubagne and other places ; imitations of our Staffordshire ware are made at Chantilly and Paris ; they are called terre de pipe stone-ware is made at arseilles. 11. The glass manufacture of St Gobins still retains Glass. its pre-eminence for and beautiful mirrors ; there are also glass manufactures at Moulins; at Baccarat in Lorraine, where three kinds were made, plate-glass, common glass for windows, and table-glass, the wood used in this manufacture amounted to between 8000, and 10,000 cords ; it was brought down the Meurthe, and in other parts of the kingdom. A considerable trade in curious works of enamel was carried on at Nevers before the Revolution. 12. Under this head we shall notice all. the princi- Other arti pal remaining manufactures of France, which flourish- “** ed previously tothe Revolution. Soap of the first qua- lity is made at Marseilles, where, and at Paris, great quantities of wash balls were also made: inferior soap was manufactured at Toulon, Bourdeaux, Rouen, Lisle, Abbeville, Amiens, and St Quintin. The amount of this manufacture was 60 millions, only two of which were exported. The principal manufacture of starch is at Paris. The manufacture of tobacco and snuff amount« ed to 22,000 cwt._of the former, and 2000 ewt. of the latter. Verdegris, chiefly at Montpellier ; alum and Epsom salt in the neighbourhood of ezieres ; Glauber ts, which are esteemed of excellent quantity in the re- ing of sugar was principally carried on at Marseilles ropes Toulon, Abbeville, Dunkirk, and Havre de Grace. Bleaching is carried on toa governs eens principally in the vicinity of St Quintin, - he course is carried on at the seats of the principal woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures. The waters of the Saone are excellent for ing, containing, it is said, a soapy unlit; those of the Rhone fom hee purity, are equally adapted for dyeing; the waters of the Title river Sornin are also reckoned remar! Ill. Ps ution, such as that which for upwards Eiffeets of of 25 years has afflicted and the political and te Revo moral state of France, could not fail to press very se- i.) inu. iron te Way @rent Cegnee ; others Nore espe eenatee France. the trial not so much manufacture, which supplied that commerce, no longer being in equal demand, were no er made in equal uantities. Another cause of the ign, wine he ‘sought reign, m h in many instances, absolutely stript the manufactures of. FRANCE. 723 . Statistics. nearly all their workmen. But though the general fact the Aisne, and of the Somme, ‘and particularly at San- Statistics. - =~" is suffici well established, that the manufactures of -terre. Cotton hosi at Rouen, Troyes, y Pr dion 9 “thee | oy al France are at present, almost universally, far inferior to Aube, and Sens.. And in the-departments of the North, cs of tion upon what they were previously to the Revolution; yet the and of the Maine and Loire, thread stockings are ma- tion upon the manu- ise degree of deterioration cannot be ascertained, nufactured. Sweetmeats at Paris, Rouen, Tours, Or- the manu- facturesof even with respect to the most im t of them. We leans, Dijon, Sedan, Bourdeaux, &c. Cotton velvet at factures of . Amiens, Muslin, and other cotton goods, at Rouen. France. shall therefore be under the necessity of confining our- selves to a few brief and unconnected notices on this t. Phe silk manufacture seems to have suffered the most. The number of looms employed at Lyons in 1788, has been already stated at 14,777. In 1801, according to Peuchet, author of the Statistique de la France, there were but 7000 looms, and many of them were unemploy- ed. The exposé of the French government rates them at nearly the same number in 1814, The woollen ma- nufactures of Carcassone were languishing cco to the Revolution ; and that event has still further de- them. Mr Birkbeck visited the fine cloth ma- nufacture of Louviers, in 1814. He represents the esta- blishment there for spinning woollen yarn as being on a large scale; and mentions that their ing or shearing machines -were performing their office with are wide awake to mechanical improvements. it would appear, that whatever injury this important manufacture may have suffered from the Revolution, with respect to the demand for its goods, it has been advancing in improvements during that time. The cotton manufacture undoubtedly has extended during the last 25 years ; by the immense drain on the population which aparte’s wars with Russia, and from that period till the of Paris, occasioned, it has latterly in a declining state. Probably the searcity and the enormous price of the raw material also contributed to their depression. Mr Birkbeck visited* a cotton mill at Deville, near Rouen, which employs 600 ; and he describes the machinery as good. Indeed, it is well known, that all the inventions and improvements in the cotton machinery with which we are acquainted, are used in the French manufactories at Rouen. Cotton manufactures have lately also been established at Chantilly, in French Flanders, &c. ; and it is worthy of remark, that the same complaint is made with to the influence of this manufacture on the morals of the work e, as has long been made in this country. The li manufacture of Brittany, and the manufacture of snuff and tobacco which is carried on there, ially at Morlaix, have suffered greatly during the Revolution. The Gobelin manufacture be- gan to decline before that event ; ta was not so much in fashion ; and that branch of it which was con- fined to the dyeing of scarlet cloth, is now almost en- tirely at‘an end, in consequence of cloths of that colour being very little worn in France, and theSwiss regiments, the officers of which formerly consumed vast quantities of cloth dyed of the Gobeline scarlet, being no longer employed. We shall conclude this C with a brief enumeration of those manufactures which at present are the most important in France. Mineral acids at Paris, Montpellier, and Rouen. Alum at Paris and Montpellier. Baracans, for lining pelisses, at Lisle, Amiens, and Valenciennes. Dimities, (éasins,) at Troyes, Lyons, Tou!ouse, Chaillot, and Alencon. Lawn and cambrics at St Quintin, from which place former- ly there were exported to Russia annually a million i and Cambray. Prussian blue at Paris. Silk Fosiry at Pas, Lyons, Nismes, Montpellier, Ganges, and ; worsted hosiery in the departments of Cutlery at Paris, Moulins, Langres, Chatelleraut, Thiers, Lisle, &c. Crapes at Lyons and Avignon. Gold and silver lace at Paris and Lyons. Silk lace at Fontenai, Purseaux, Louvre-en Parisis, Saint Denis, Montmo- rency, Gisors, &c. Lace made of flax, at Lisle, Valen- ciennes, Charleville, Sedan, Besancon, Dieppe, Havre, Caen, Puy, Arras, &c. At Dieppe, about 4000 women, chiefly wives and daughters of the seamen and fisher- men, are employed in this manufacture ; and at Puy about 6000. Cloth at Abbeville, Elbeuf, Louviers, and in Languedoc. Brandy at Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cog- nac, the department of the Charente, Isle of Rhe, Or- leans, Blois, Poitiers, Angers, Tours, Nantes, &c, Imi- tations of Hollands gin at Calais and Boulogne. | Artifi- cial flowers at Paris and Lyons. Gloves at Paris, Ven dome, Grenoble, ‘Avignon, Blois, Montpellier, Grasse, &c. Olive oil in the departments of the mouths of the Rhone, of the Gard, Var, &c. Serges at Atimale, Seignelay, Gournay, Auxerre, Sedan, Abbeville, Beauvais, &c. Liqueurs at Montpellier and Rouen. Writing and print- ing paper at Angouleme, Montargis, Annonay, &c. Stained paper at Paris and Lyons. Perfumeries at Montpellier, Grasse, agen and Paris. Porcelain at Sevres and Paris. Ribbons adorned with gold and sil- ver at Parisand Lyons. Other ribbons at Paris, Lyons, Tours, St Etienne, St Chaumont. Ferret-ribbons at Amiens and other places in Picardy. Ribbons made of flax at Ambert. Bilks at Nismes, Lyons, Tours, &c. Silk and cotton stuffs at Rouen. Taffetas at Lyons, Nismes, Avignon, &c. Carpets at La Savonnerie, Au~ busson, Beauvais, Rouen, Arras, Felleton, &e. Linen cloth at Rouen, and other parts of Normandy, Brittany, Courtray, Arras, Beauvais, Compeigne, St Quintin, Noyon, Peronne, &c. Velvets at Lyons. Verdegris at Montpellier. Vinegar at Orleans, Blois, Angers, Nantes and Paris, Glass at St Gobins. CHAP. VI. . Commerce— Shipping—Coasting and Inland T'rade— Fisheries—Total Produce of all kinds of Industry. As the commeétce of France has been nearly annihi- Commerce. lated by the Revolution, we shall give a statement of it at the commencement of that event; and, in order that some estimate may be formed of its previous pro- gress, we shall prefix a statement of it as it existed at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. I. The importations from Spain into France, at the Between of Louis XIV. amounted to the value France and of 17,600,000 livres. Of this value, a great part con- SP2in- end of the rei sisted in specie. There were three methods princi- pally, by which the French, at this period, obtained part of the “ees or precious metals, which the Spa~ niards brought from their South American possessions. In the first place, French merchandize was carried to Cadiz, and exported thence in the galleons: in the se~ cond place, the productions and manufactures of France found a ready and extensive sale in ; and, lastly, the inhabitants of Auvergne, Limosin, and Gascony, annually went into Spain, — they assisted in Statistics. —_—\— Between France and Portugal, Between France and italy. 724 harvests, or in other occupations, and returned, when they had obtained a competency, into their own coun- At the period of the Revolution, the imports from Seeelideatbondionsann, btieenmreiamaiaaan vres in mi e alone, t &c. to the amount of 62,500,000 er The ot from at this consi Seaisine aime oil, ptt lemons, 4 raisins, brandies, luscious wines, chincona, eae liquorice, dyewoods, inlaid work, ashes, iron, wool, silk, Lethate, hides, skins, i enchineal, vermilion, beasts of burden principally sedan, «sil handkerchiefs, toys, jewell » household and caane for i his value “7 33,300,000 vres ma’ arranged into the classes : : 1. Raw materials, principally wool, ashes, a beasts of yas neg to the a of 20,000,000; 2. Eat- ables, as well animal as vegetable, to the value of ‘7,000,000; 3. Wines and liquors, tothe valueof 4,000,000; and, 4, upwards of 2,000,000 in manufactured articles. The ex ions from France into Spain, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of 20,000,000 ; at the period of the Revolution, they had increased to the sum of 44,400,000 livres. In this lat- ter period, the exports chiefly consisted of the follow- articles : grain, vegetables, flour, cod, salted fish of a kinds, ions of various descriptions, bran- dies, wines, sheep, mules, pigs ; cinnamon, pepper, su- gars of all sorts ; pitch, tar, wool, cotton, silk stockings, hats, laces, woollen cloths, stuffs, handkerchiefs, gauzes, ribbons, linen, leather and skins, books, stationery, mere cery, ironmongery, household goods, wooden works and metals. The manufactured articles amounted to the value of 26,500,000 livres; the raw materials, and beasts of burden, about 5, 200,000 livres ; the eatables about 11,000,000 ; and the wines and liquors about 1,500,000 livres, II, The importations into France from Port at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the trifling sum of 340,000 livres, and consisted chiefly of hides in the hair, Brazil tobacco, olive oil, and dried fruits. At the period of the Revolution, the value of the imports increased to the sum of 10,400,000 livres. They consisted chiefly of olive oil, cocoa, le- mons, 0 , Sweet wines, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, cotton wool, ivory, uni goat skins, indigo, dye- woods, inlaid work of the East and West Indies, India cotton, and Brazil tobacco. ‘The exportations from France into Portugal, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of ho ee and con- sisted of woollen goods, linen goods, earthen ware, paper, &c. At the period of the Revolution, the ex ont amounted to the sum of about 4,000,000, a: sh no chiefly of grain, vegetables, hams, cotton, woollen stuffs and stockings, laces, ribbons, paper, skins, hides, mer- cery, glass, books, &c. The manufactured articles amounted to about 2,300,000 livres; the raw produce and provisions to about 1,600,000 livres. IIl, The importations into "France from Italy, Pied. mont, Savoy, and Switzerland, at the end of the rei of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of 10,700,000: at the period of the Revolution, they had increased to 82,000,000, and consisted chiefly of corn, rice, vegeta- bles, flour, olive oil, lemons, oranges, raisins, figs, cheese, lemon juice, liqueurs, manna, opium, senna, fresh fish, silk, goats and camels nav hares wool, wood for fuel, aahes, a Ban | em ioe 8, shumacy tartar, saffron, indigo, n stuffs, gauzes, pene. essences, a yo ribbons, white FRANCE. was of raw silk: Sdk Batables othe smountof 28,300,000, of which 11,500,000 livres was for olive oil employed in the manufacture of fine soap at Marseilles The ex tions from France es at the end o 400,000 Iv tured articles to the amount of 30,800,000 livres ; 2d, Raw materials, or such as had undergone only the first ation, as cotton thread principally for Switzer~ to the value of 11,800,000 livres ; 3d, Eatables to the value of 10,700,000 livres; 4th, Wines and li 5,000,000 ; and 5th, Colonial produce 20,000,000. IV. In 1686, the actual value of the i from England into France, amounted to-18,000,000. of France materials ; and 3,200,000 in other articles,. At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the im England into ce, amounted to the sum of 13,876,000 livres: viz, 6,000,000 in woollen and cotton goods, prepared skins, earthen ware, and other manufactures : 4,100,000 in metals, coal and horses; 3,700,000 in eatables, &c. At the period of the Revolution, they amounted to about 58,500,000 livres; and consisted pone inelly of butter, salted meat and fish, colonial pro- uce, corn, flour, rice, coal, copper, iron, lead, pewter, woollen goods, cotton goods, ware, ware, leather, ivory, whalebone, alum, copperas, white lead, horses, leaf tobacco, saddles, glass, kc. They may be arranged under three classes: Ist, Manufactured arti« cles to the amount of 33,100,000 livres ; 2d, Raw ma- terials, particularly the metals, and coal, 16,400,000 livres; $d, Eatables, &c. In 1686, the exportations of France into England amounted to 23,300,000 livres: viz. 1st, Manufactures to the value of 11,700,000; 2d, Raw materials about 2,000,000; and $d, _ wines, liquors, &c. 9,600,000. pat the - deci of Louis XIV, ie exportations greatly not amoun more than 18,000,000: viz. 12,000,000 of ailkigpade, cambrics, laces, &c, ; 1,000,000 in raw materials, prin- cipally leather, cochineal, and indigo ; and 5,800,000 in eatables, wines, liquors, &c. The exportations from France into Great Britain and Ireland at the period of the Revolution, amounted to about 38,000,000 ; con- sisting principally of plums, salt, roe brandies, trea- pone hai matey ot = Se glass, perfumery, ‘gloves; millinery, vinegar, toys, Jewellery, They may be divided into four classes =* Ist, — articles to the value of 7,300,000 livres ; 2d, Raw materials 11,100,000 livres, of which two-thirds consisted of cotton from the French 5 / ui Between and livres: viz, 8,400,000 of manufaetures ; 6,300,000 raw England. | PRANCED 798 Statistics: West Indiaislands; 3d, Wines, liquors, &c. 13,500,000; timber, hemp, iron, and other metals. At the period Statistice. 4th, Eatables 5,500,000. " of the Revolution, these importations amounted to ™ Between France and Between France, and Germany, Prussia, &c. V. The importations from Holland into France, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to about 12 millions ; viz. 2,500,000 manufactures, 4,700,000 $4,600,000 livres, and may be divided into three clas« ses: viz. Ist, About 5,000,000 of manufactured articles, principally those manufactured of flax and hemp, and India muslins, brought by the Danes from their pos- sessions in the East Indies ; 2d, 24,000,000 of raw ma< terials, particularly copper and lead, through the Hanse towns, timber from Russia and Denmark, iron, pitch, and tar from Sweden, and hemp ‘and’ tallow from Russia ;. 3d, 1,800,000 livres, are wis for dried and. salted fish from Denmark and Sweden. The exporta- tions from France to these places at the end of the reign of Louis XIV: amounted to the sum of 6,800,000 : viz. about 856,000 in woollen and linen goods; about 480,000 in copper, cork, &¢c. ; and about 5,400,000 li- vres in eatables, wines, liquors, &c. At the period of the Revolution, the exportations from France to all these places, amounted nearly to the value of 80,000,000, the period of the Revolution, the toFrance and may be in five classes : viz. 1st, 3,600,000 amounted to about 46,000,000 ; consisting’ of colonial livres in m: ize and manufactures, chiefly for the produce, corn, honey, rice, wines, brandies, plums, ju- Russian market and the Hanse Towns, and a small niper berries, hops, tar, quantity for Sweden and Denmark 2d, About baceo, galls, ochre, woad, | turpentine, silk stuffs, gau- 7,100,000 in raw materials, particularly indigo, and zes, cambric, paper, soap, glass, leather, gloves, milli- other drags for dyeing, and cotton, for the Hanse peeenien Germany, oland, and Prussia, into France, —— of 9,000,000, prir ncipall in three classes : Ist, 3,700, manufactures ; 8,000,000 rawmatecials: and 2,300,000 towns, Sweden; and Denmark ; 3d, About 12,000,000 in wines, brandies, &c. ; about one-half of this went to the Hanse towns, about a fourth each to Denmark and Russia, and only about one-eighth to Sweden ; 4th, About 2,000,000 in v 3, minerals, and ani« mals; and 5th, About 55,000,000 in sugai fee from the French West India inds ;* of which > VIII. The commerce between the United States of Between America and France, owes its existence entirely to the France and rupture between them and Great Britain, which termi- A™*tica- 13,700,000, princi : many and ex from France to these countries at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amounted to the sum of 14,100,000 in three classes : Ist, 5,100,000 of manufactures ; 2d, 2,000,000 of raw materials ; 37,000,000 of eatables, wines, liquors, &c. At the of the Revolution, the exportations a- pedi | mm sum of 95,600,000 livres, and may be divided into five classes: viz. Ist, 39,100,000 livres for manufactures of various sorts, ially silk stuffs, em- broidered with gold and silver, for the different princes in Germany, and the rich nobility of Poland, lawn and woollen stuffs for the itary possessions of the house of Austria in Germany and Flanders ; 2d, 12,900,000 livres in raw materials, principally wool and coal, a re- ion for Austrian Flanders and em 3d, Upwards of 10,000,000 in wines, brandies, and vine- , for Germany, Poland, and the Prussian ports of the Baltic; 4th, 22,000,000 of colonial produce, particular- ly sugar and coffee, for the states of Austria and Ger- many, and the Prussian ports in the Baltic; 5th, 11,000,000 in vegetables and animals for Flanders and VII. Atthe end of the reign of Louis XIV. theim- into France from , Bremen, Lu- Denmark, Sweden, Russia, amount- Russia, &e, ed only to 300,000 livres, and consisted principally of nated in their independence. During the three first years after the treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and France, concluded in January 1778, the im ion from them into France averaged annually the sum of 2,460,000 livres: viz..136,000 in rice and dried cod ; 357,000 in wood, indigo, skins, and other raw materials; and 1,900,000 in leaf tobac- co. The exportations from France at this period, as - mounted to 3,200,000: viz. 191,000. in spiceries ; 79,000 in wines and liquors ; 33,000 in raw materials ; and 2,900,000 in manufactured goods, particularly woollen cloths, linen, silk, cotton velvet, hosiery, hats, mercery, earthen ware, East India goods, copper uten- sils, and warlike stores. The importations from the United States to France, from’ 1781 to 1783 inclusive, averaged 3,494,000 livres: viz. 69,000 in rice and salt« ed cod ; 192,000 in raw materials; and 3,233,000 in leaf tobacco. ‘The exportations from France at the same period, amounted to 11,500,000 livres, and may be ar- ranged under four classes: 1st, About 825,000 livres in previsions and groceries; 2d, About 457,000 in wines, brandies, &e. ; $d, About 378,000 ‘in raw materials ;. - 4th, About 9,800,000 in manufactured articles, princi- pally of the same description as those uring the former period. ~— the average of the three years which preceded the French Revolution, the im< portations from the United States into France amount- ed annually to. 9,600,000 livres, and may be arranged - under four heads: viz. 1st, About 600,000 in rice, and other articles of food ; 2d, About 900,000 in raw ma- terials ; $d, About 700,000 in fish; and, 4th, About..; * Sratistics. Between France, the Levant and Bar- bary. 726 7,300,000 in leaf-tobacco. The principal articles were, besides rice, tobacco, _ fish, corn, maize, er of every sort for ship-buildin , undressed skins, tar, tach flax seed, &c. The a from France to the United States at this culpulndlinhinene 1,800,000 livres, of which 1,200,000 were in -wines, &e. and the remainder in manufactures, IX. At the end of the reign of Louis X1V. theim- s from the Levant and the coast of to France, amounted to 3,400,000.) At the ‘period of the Revolution, the importations amounted to 37,700,000 in three classes: Ist, About 1,500,000 in the stuffs of the Levant ; 2d, Avout 29,000,000 of raw materials, Heyer seg y cotton, silk, wool, goat’s skins, leather, é&c. t 7,000,000 in wheat, barley, pulse, olive oil, a Turkey coffee, The ex s from France ‘for the Levant and the States of Barbary, at the end of the of Louis XIV. were only 2,000,000; At the pe- of the Revolution, they had risen to the'sum of catbonbe livres. They'’may be under four heads: Ist, About 8,100,000 in West India coffee, su- gar, and liqueurs: 2d, About 3,200,000 in indigo, and other dyeing stuffs ; 83d, About 9,300,000: in woollen cloths, hosiery, silk goods, and handkerchiefs ; 4th; About 5,000,000 in specie, as sequins, piastres, &e. Nearly the whole of the cochensbdb hatnocasbh France and the Lannion Barbary States, was carried on at Mar- seilles.. From this port, were sent to the ports of the Levant the cloths of edoe, chiefly those manu- factured at Carcassone, ont, and Lodeve, dye- woods of various descriptions, sugars, coffee, indigo, cochineal, cinnamon, and other spices, lead, iron, pewter, tin, paper, liqueurs, syrups, fruits, ‘millinery, silken staffs, lace, linen cloth, toys, &c.; and in return, France received b Marseilles, raw and spun cotton, wool, gum, wax, silk, s, madder, opium, goat’s and camel's hair, raw and dressed hides, w, carpets, cof- FRANCE! X. The commerce between France Men China was established in 1694. At the end of the reign of Louis XIV., the ‘Prenchyporsesions in the rage and of little moment ; saileiietnige only some country houses at Pondicherry, , Mazulipatam ; an establishment at oF ployed in it ; their cargoes, however, viraie'bave tant valuable, since, at the end of the reign’ of Louis XTV., the importations from the East Indies amounted to 6,368,000 livres, principally, Ist,’ and coffee, to the value of 2,757,000 ; 2d, of mus 2,790,000 ; and lastly of gold in ingots, 200,060: ese The exportations from France to /at the same pe-~ riod, amounted to 2,852,000 livres, of which there were 2,173,000: in piastres, 542,000 of ste and 107,000 in-metals, &e. At the period volution, the from Asia into— end were valued at 34,700,000 livres, on the # ated 1785, 1786, and 1787, mere Ist, of man commodities, § “— of about 26,600,000 livres: 2d, of cirmssmnots;' pepper; tea, and Mocha coffee, to the value of 6,000,000: 3d,’ of wood, raw silk, cotton, iv , &e. to the 1,150,000 livres: 4th, of the value of 493,000 livres ; and, 5th, of di woods, to the value of» 367,000 livres. © tioris from France to! Aniayat the Maine : ed to 17,400,000 ; and consisted, Ist, o vres, in piastres: 2d, of manufactured articles, to the value of 654,000 livres : 3d, of wines and ior’ , to’ the value of 745,000 livres: 4th, of wood metals,’ to the value of 700,000; and, lastly, of various other articles, to the value of 72,000 livres. : ’ fe nea 15,253,000 i= as, fr fee, incense, myrrh, rice, sal-ammoniac, tamarinds, sen- XL. "At the end of the reign of Louis XIV., thieton? Between na, ostrich feathers, grain, oil; &c.. Before the Revolution, into France, from the western coasts of Afri- France and Summa- ry of the commerce the trade to the Levant employed 400 vessels of the’bur- ca, amounted to about 500,000 livres, chiefl fy in gums, west of ‘slaves an. Africa. den of about 47,000 tons, and the value of their cargoes nearly 41,000,000 francs. The importations of all the countries of Europe into France, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. amount- ed to.the sum of 71,000,000 ; and at the period of the ana 4 Revolutionto 380,000,000, being an augmentation in the France an all thecoun- Proportion of nearly 54, The exportati tries of Eu- ‘zope. ions from Franceto all the rest of F , at the end of the reign of Louis’ X1V.amounted to the sum of 105,000,000 ; at the period ofthe Revolution to 424,000,000, being an increase in the proportion of 4 to 1. The ex ae at both periods may be arranged under five The first compre- heude thee prodnctions of the soil,of France. ‘At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. these amounted to 36,000,000 ; at the Revolution to 93,000,000. .The second class comprises the articles of French i y amounting at the first to 45,000,000 ; and at the Revolution to 133,000,000. The third class comprises the produce of the French West India islands re-ex- from France, amounting at the first period to 15,000,000 ; and at the Revolution to 152,000,000. The fourth class. com the re-ex tions a Fn reer a produce brought b French from the East Indies, and North American possessions, in —_— amounting on the first period to 2,650,000 livres; and of Louis XIV. amounted to 16,700,000 livres, vi anes Wen at the Revolution to 4,460,000. The last class’ com- Pewbents foreign merchandise and manufactures re~ from France, amoun at the end of the py of Louis XIV, to 6,000,000; and at the Revolu-- tion to 40,000,000. elephants’ teeth, hides, &c. ; the number nually —_—, was about 2000. eee iednaee ported rance, at this period, to this Afri- ca, amounted in value to about "650,000 Tres At the period of the Revolution, the for the western coasts of Africa, amounted to 18 ,000,000," of pe a nearly eee on consisted of . commo- ies re-exported ; an about 8,000,000 of t uce or mannfactures of Fraivce: The im Ler average of 1785, 1786, and 1787, ° this part of Africa, amounted to about 1,400,000 livres, in gums, elephants’ teeth, and hides principally. At this period about 30,000 slaves were annu ‘bought. No trade was carried’ on to the isles of France and Bourbon, previously ‘to the year 1735, when La Bourdonnaie was sent out as governor. At the period of the Revo- lution, the exportations from France to these islands amounted to 4,600,000 livres, chiefly in metals, wood, wines, brandy ; and some manufactured goods, cloths, and gilt toys. The returns amounted to 2,700,000, ao in Bourbon coffee. XU. The im ions into France, from their West Between 11,000,000 in sugar and chocolate ; 4,081,000 in indi- N. America g0; 775,000, in cotton, hides, ekins, &c.; and 200,000 in tobacco. The exportations from France, at the same period, amounted to about 9,000,000 ; viz. 4, 160,000 in manufactures ; 1,900,000 in provisions; 1 "564,000 General summary. _ tures. FRAN CE: Statistics. in wines, brandy, &c.; and about the same amount in =~" timber for building, metals, &c. At the : period of the Revolution, France received from her West India and American possessions, about 185 millions; viz. Ist, . about 134,000,000 in sugar and coffee alone: 2d, about 26,000,000 in cotton: 3d, about 11,600,000 in indigo, and other drugs for dyeing: 4th, about 10,000,000 in cocoa, chocolate, ginger, &c. The i from France, at this eigen were about 77,900,000 livres, which may be arranged in five classes ; 1st, 42,447,000 in manufactured goods: 2d, about 19,611,000 in flour, pulse, salted isions, cheese, &c.: 3d, about 7,285,000 in wines and brandy : 4th, about 6,513,000 in. wood, metals, &c. ; and, lastly, about 2,057,000. in articles of t must ious, perfect: accuracy respectin the value of the particular or total exportations an importations cannot be obtained ; we need not, there- fore, be surprised to find them estimated differently by different authors. - According to: some, the tation in 1787 amounted in all to 542,604,000 livres; of which, 311,472,000 were the raw produce of the soil, mines, and fisheries ; and 231,132,000 the produce of French. manufactures. , author of the treatise De la Balance dw Commerce de la France; is of opinion, that, about the same period, the value of the exports of the produce manufactures of France was SE ROREN sine Nai eamenes to be Unesssiyided the different the kingdom. The mari- time districts ok to the amount of 228,000,000 ; the frontier districts to the amount of 77,000,000; the interior districts only to the amount. of 11,000,000 ; the cidevant _ ity of Paris, to the amount of 18,000,000 ; and the district round. Lyons, compre- hending the t of the Rhone and the Loire, tae epee ri, ai imports rance, upon an av of the — 1785, 1786, 1787, are: calculated. at 611,008,200 ivres. In 1792, the average imports. amounted to no more than 319,000,000, ing tothe report of Ro- land to the Convention. By an official report laid before the Consuls, 22d 1800, it that the value of the imports was 325,116,400 livres: of which, 114,190,100 was in isi liquors, &c.; 133,591,500 in raw materials; upwards of 35,060,000 of this being cotton wool, and 39,265,500 was in foreign manufac- The exports that year amounted to 271,575,600 ; of which, 87,562,500 consisted of isions, wines, li- quors, &¢; 33,693,000 of raw materials; and 140,854,200 of manufactured goods ; of these last, the silk amount- ed to 41,222,000, the linen and hempen cloth to 34,866,000, the woollen to 23,146,000, and the cotton stuffs to 12,335,000. . In the same’year, the Spain were valued at 64,446,500; the ports from rian rep were 26,561,600; the exports 23,010,700: . The total imports from neutral powers were 84,783,300; of which, upwards of 82,000,000 were from Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, the Hanse towns; and only about. 2,000,000 the United States. The exports tothe same ers were 33,527,400 ; of which, only 557,700 were to the United States, There are no data on which an estimate of the numr 727 ber or tonnage of the French shipping, at the end of Statisties: of Louis XIV. can be formed ; but in 1669, —~~—— Amount of the ton-- nage of tlie” ed to much above 800 vessels, of from.100 to 250: shipping. the rei Colbert reckoned that France employed only 600 in foreign commerce ; and it is supposed, that at the be- of the 18th century this number had not in- tons burden. If this latter supposition be correct, they must have declined in the middle of this century; for the anonymous author of a pamphlet, entitled the Present Siate of the Revenue and Forces of France and Spain, compared.with those of Great Britain, 1740, as- serts, that in France there were not then more than 600 sail of merchant ships at the most, of all sizes; and that, reckoning 25 sailors to each, one with an- other, all the seamen of France did not exceed 30,000, including 11,000 seamen elassed by the king, who had leave to serve aboard the merchant ships, till they were wanted for the king’s service. » At the period of the Revolution, the n of ships employed in.long voy~ ages either to: the East. and West Indies, or. to» the whale and-cod_fishieries, ‘amounted to 1000, ‘averaging . 250 tonseach. The to different countries in Eu- a eg loyed, at this period, about 580,000 tons ; of which, little more than one-fourth, or 152,000 tons, were French. In 1792, an official report was made by Roland to the National Convention ; from which it ap-= pears, that in that year there entered inwards into the ports of France,7607 vessels, amounting to 639,225 tons; of which, 1823 vessels, or 147,821 tons, were French ; 1940 vessels, or 145,012 tons, were lish ; and 33446 vessels, or $46,402 tons, belonged to other nations: and in the same year there clea outwards 8618 vessels, amounting to 544,935 tons ; of which, 1940 vessels, or 147,410 tons, were French; $111 vessels, or 90,662. tons; were lish ; and 3567 vessels, or 306,863 tons, belonged to other nations. From an official report laid: before the Consuls in 1800, it that at that time the. total number of ships employed in foreign com- merce, that entered inwards, amounted to 7581, or 273,187 tons; of which, 2975 vessels, or 98,804 tons,. were French; the rest belonged to foreigners: That: the number of vessels cl outwards, amounted to 8636, or 312,967 tons; of which, 3358 vessels, or 104,687 tons belonged to France. That the coasting trade between res ee of France employed — 26,000 vessels, (includi ee ») or about 700,000 tons, A ree thawhe of hehe French. The colonial and fishing vessels entered inwards were 71, or 4769 tons; and cleared outwards, 296 vessels, or 10,000 tons. The coasting and inland trade of France, before the Coasting Revolution, were both very considerable ; indeed, it has ~ inland the products of the “°° been calculated, that the bringi south parts of France along the coast, to: those of the north, for the supply of the capital. and. the northern provinces, constituted a ing trade only inferior in itude to the coal trade of England. The ships led at Bourdeaux, with wines and fruits of all sorts, used to set out in a fleet, and under conyoy in time of war; and stop. near. the:Isle of Rhe, where they were joined by the ships. from Rochelle, laden: with wine, fruits, and corn; hence they proceeded to the: coast of Brittany, where they: were joined by-another fleet from Nantes and St Maloes, laden with brandy, corn, &c. The fleet thus collected used» frequently to amount to 160 or 200 sail. The very supplying of the city of Paris with wood for fuel, employs an immense number of boats, carts, &c. A large portion of the inland trade of .France is still carried gn by means of the numerous . Statistics, —— Pairs, Fisheries. Cod fishery. 728 fairs, which are in various parts of the kingdom : a if oe yn wanting, that this country is far ind Great Britain in commercial industry, habits, and capital. We cannot pretend even to enumerate all bee eral rma but the fair of Beaucaire must not was formerly over entirely without notice. It pt within the city of Beaucaire, in Lan- guedoc ; but, when the reputation of it increased, it was found n to keep it principally in the open country ; and the Revolution has affected it, yet it is still much frequented. It begins on the 22d of July, and continues three days, The conveniency of . the Rhone, on which Beaucaire stands, draws to its fair the merchandise of Bu dy, Lyonnois, Switzer- land, and Germany. The , from which it is but seven distant, brings the merchandise of the Levant, Italy, and Spain ; and by the canal of Langue- doe, it receives all that comes from Upper Languedoc, Brittany, and the ocean. Besides eptals from most parts of continental Europe, before the Revolution, there used also to be there Armenians, Persians, &c. The chief articles sold here are spices, drugs, hard ware, woollen and silk stuffs, Spaniah ‘ecth- Rathebeypcoeeel; French wool, &c. The French fisheries, as they existed previously to the Revolution, naturally divide themselves into two branches. The first branch comprehends the distant cod fishery on the banks of Newfoundland, Iceland, &e. and the whale fishery in the Greenland seas and the Southern Ocean ; the second branch comprehends the near fisheries, on the coasts of France, in the Me- diterranean, and inthe ocean. These consist of the fisheries of the herring, the mackerel, the sardine, the anchovy, the tunny, &c. The French government does not to have id any attention to the cod fishery on the banks of ewfoundland till the year 1660 ; and then a monopo- ly of it was granted. A few after the peace of trecht, that is to say, about the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the whole produce of the cod fishery did not amount to more in value than a million of livres. When France Jost Newfoundland, she established these fisheries at Breton ; and, in 1745, more than 100 vessels arrived there from the mother country to inthem. There were, besides, at this period, from the Gut of Causo, down along the shore to Louisburg, and thence to the N. E. part of Cape Breton, annua employed at least 500 shallops, containing in all 2500 men ; and 60 brigs, &c. containing 900 men; in all, 3409 men. The total number of fish annually caught and salted at Cape Breton was estimated at 186,000 quintals. There were also cod fisheries at other harbours on these coasts ; so that, on the most moderate estimate, it was reckoned that there were 1,149,000 quintals of salted cod brought to France from all her North American fisheries ; the value of which, and of the oil made, was estimated at upwards of £800,000 sterling. The war of 1756 was ruinous to this fishery ; nor did the treaty of peace in 1783 quite re-establish it. ‘In 1786 there were cured 426,400 quintals of fish, and upwards of 1000 tons of oil were made. In the following year, the quantity of both had greatly diminished, there ha- ving been only 128,590 quintals of fish, and 323 tons of oil. In 1788 and 1789, the quantity of both in- creased ; but, during the first years of the Revolution, both had fallen almost completely away. At the pe- riod of the Revolution, the produce of the French cod fishery was valued at 15,731,000 livres. In this sum is in the value of the sedentary fishery, as it is FRANCE. termed, of the inhabitants of the isles of St Pierre and , Statistics. os Maquelin, which is rated at 1,300,000 livres ; that of the inhabitants of Dunkirk, near Iceland, which is rated at 1,200,000 livres. — ‘ With to the whale fishery, it we in the begmning of the 16th cen pon. tants of Biscay, toa considerable with gr pre tye or oe ier and, corals thdentaaie of the 17th century, was very productive. The inha- bitants of St Jean de Luz, Bayonne, and Ciboure, sent there between 50 and 60 ships, the Dutch not having yet embarked in it. In 1690, it wore a different aspect : the Basques scarcely sent out 20 Dutch gent out more than reign of Louis XIV. the to this i the South Seas ; which is nually sailed yee weber deem ! ' The produce was valued at 700,000 livres. In 1794, 40 vessels were employed at Dunkirk in this fishery, = — afterwards it was totally aa by te re vt herring was pursued by French the 11th. cen , chiefly on the coasts of the ( never found in any of the rivers. They are met both in the ocean and the Mediterranean, especially in frequently cure their sardines in red wine, and when thus prepared, call them anchovied sardines. Fresh sardines are conveyed on horseback from the ports of France to the i iti and towns of that . Anchovies are fished for on the coast of Provence in the months of May, June, and July, at which season shoals of this fish come re- places in Provence. Vast quantities to foreign countries. Pilchards are taken on the coasts of Brittany, and employ annually about 300 small vessels. The bom! of Dl om nean 1s a singular an important ustry : the manner in which this fish is t, has been called a sort of hunting at sea; the best and most cer- tain methods are the thonnaire and the . The former in many places is only an inclosure by nets for catching the tunny; but at St Tropez, and on the coast of Provence, the thonnaire is a net placed in the name of anchoisées, or . | ; : : —! pee ee Ce een Ger 6 aes EEE (le eg pe Statistics. FRANCE. a spiral form, in which the tunnies, when ht, are almost always dead, because it closes their gills, and chokes them, for which reason the madrague is pre- ferred. This is, in fact, a vast inclosure, three large nets, divided by others into many cham- bers or compartments : before the net, towards the ‘sea, is a large passage, formed by two parallel nets: the tunnies, running in between them, enter the madrague, and ing from chamber to chamber, they arrive at last at what is called Boa chenbe of death, or the corpou, or vi a eve ing has been made ready, the fiahenings draw w “ihe iets of each cham- ber, in order to force the The tunnies awe Sree force in their tails, so that much eaution is required in getting them into their boats. i i ight of the une, from a y 25 lb. each ; but they have been known to weigh 50 1b. celebrated, as to be sent all When it is pickled, it is cut into slices, zt z a Are 5 | : e g F ashed, and which is pressed out when , is used by tanners. The tunny fish- been less gt ae since the war, for mi ight ; ing of the batteries on eee kane vege at a great distance. are four madragues at Marseilles, which are rent- paar compat fap town, at a considerable ad- There are two at St Tropez, which are by the government at 10,600 francs. Two nets to and each net costs about 3000 For the net of the corpou, 250 Ibs. of cork are required. This net sometimes remains for a year or two in the sea ; but those which form the in pace nt Hi and the entrance passage, are changed every six months. The sea, in the spot in which the madrague is placed, is generally 40 fathoms deep. When Louis XIII. vi- sited Marseilles in 1662, he was invited to a tunny , at the principal madr of Margion, and the diversion so much to his taste, that he often Hitt ih u France, are the palamede, which, though much smaller ey es of the same species ; it is mentioned by , in his description of Constanti- nople, as, at the time of the foundation of that city, the variety of -excellent fish ta- most celebrated among the in the Propontes ;' the d'orade, the pageau, the 799 en cross, in the centre of which is a heavy leaden ball; Statistics. The divers =“ at_each extremity is fixed a round net. push one or two arms of the cross into the cavities of of such rocks as contain coral, and the boatmen draw it up. The other machine is used for drawing coral out _of the deepest waters. It is a long beam, at the end of which is fixed an iron ring, having a reticular bag, with two round nets at each side. The ring breaks off the small branches, and the nets entangle and retain the others. A company,has long been established at Mar- seilles for this fishery. There are seven or eight men to a boat, one.of. whom is the. patron or proprietor: When the fishery.is ended, which produces.on.an ave- rage 25 quintals of coral to each boat, it is divided into 18 , of which.the proprietor has four, the caster two, the other six. men .one each; the remaining one belongs to the company. Coral is part of the traffic of Marseilles.. Bracelets and necklaces are made of it there and at Genis, and. sell very. well up.the Levant.. Oysters are found in various places on the coast of Oysters France. At the mouth of the Seine, they are few in number, but of excellent quality. On the coast of Caen in Normandy, there is a bank six miles in length and one in breadth, They are also found in the bay of Isigny, and in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg. Thiose’ in particular are highly*valued which are. collected at the mouths of some streams, where. the sea. water is sometimes thrown. entirely back, and which are. called huitres de pied.. Granville in Normandy gains 50;000 livres by this fishery.. On the coast of Brittany:there: are very large oysters, particularly at Curcale, where a. great many. are preserved in places inclosed for that Pp . . The oysters of Roscoff. are also particularly ted; they are. brought in great abundance to Morlaix, and are by some preferred to those of Curcale. The bank at Painpol.is almost. entirely exhausted. At the mouth of the Loire, between the rocks on th coast of Poitou; on the coast of Aunis and Saintonge, where those who make bay-salt transplant.oysters to marshy laces, also d la.tete de Buch, near Bourdeaux, oysters are ound. In Languedoc, near Cape Leucate, there-is an oyster bed at the depth of 20 feet. There is also one at the mouth of the Rhone. At Paris, those oysters are most esteemed which come from Brittany, Rochelle; Bourdeaux, and particularly from Medoc, so celebrated for its claret. The incipal fish which the rivers of France yield, are nig, carp, frout, pike, and eels. The importance and value of all these branches of home fishery are very. considerable: At.the end of the reign of Louis XIV. their value was at least 1,700,000 livres ; at the commencement of the. Revolution, it ha increased to 9,300,000 livres... > as Having thus given a detailed account of French in- dustry, as exercised-in agriculture, manufactures, com- merce, &c. we shall-conclude with laying before~our readers an estimate of the value of the annual repro- ductions in, these. branches,.or their gross: produce at the close of the 17th century, and at the commence. ment of the Revolution; premising, however, that such an.estimate must necessarily be only an approximation to the truth, and that it is pasting and important, not'so much from its general result, as, he com arison which, it he between the value of different Beaches of industry. : * In 1698, D’Avenant reckoned the general produce Génetai of the land, and of the interior and external commerce produce. of France,—in short, the produce of all the occupa- tions of her citizen$,—at 81,000,000 sterling, ,or : Vek ee ‘ 730 Statistics. 1,984,500,000 livres tournois, or 36,750,000 marcs, at Y=" 54 livres to the mare, General produce, The economistes, some years previous to the Revolu- tion, valued the me reproduction at between 8,134,000,000 and 4,000,000,000 livres. In 1789 there in France a memoir on the coramerce of that kingdom and her colonies, which sup- plies the following details on this subject. ~ 1. Agriculture. Livres, oe eee A ee + ++ 700,000,000 Cattle, igevival is ys its beer: Syke + 400,000,000 Hay andforage, . ..... + 60,000,000 Wine, brandy, &. . 2. 1 « 850,000,000 Oil, oiled Tah a6 |. 0) 4). Bitte Ae 60,000,000 Wood, . ‘ . 146,000,000 Wool, .. ‘ 35,000,000 Silk, jhe e ‘ 25,000,000 Hemp and flax, 50,000,000 Total of agriculture, . . 1,826,000,000 2. Manufactures. lie, Aptos be gyre 161,250,000 Woollen, S) SRW Sees is ata 92,500,000 Ss ey age id"? AE Sis ayes xe 41,600,000 Millinery, . . 2 2 5,000,000 Tapestry, , &e. - 800,000 Mercery i eniries é 75,000,000. Leather, « .°. . . . 6,000,000 Pazlery:* Lente 7,200,000 Jewellery, &c. livres 2,500,000 Glass, iron, earthenware, &c. 38,200,000 Soap, . interes Lett t4 5 - 5,000,000 i refineries, = - 4,800,000 a Eee > 2 . 2,700,000 Tobacco, . . u + 1,200,000: Starch, . 25. - ‘ - 1,200,000 Fisheries, ... 20,000,000 Different other branches of art, 60,000,000. Total of manufactures, &c. 524,950,000 Produce of the agriculture of the colonies, 200,000,000 Houses and other buildings, . . . . 300,000,000 Articles omitted, . . 149,050,000 Total of agriculture, manufactures, colo- nial produce, &c., . . . . . 8,000,000,000 In this general result, M. Arnold, in his treatise De la Balance du Commerce de la France, M. le Trosne De U Administration Provinciale, 1788, and M. Dupont Lettre ala Chambre du Commerce de Normandie, near} agree : the first gives the total at 3,400,000,000 ;.M. rosne calculates it at 3,134,000,000; and M. Dupont at between 3,200,000,000 and 4,000,000,000, CHAP. VII. Population at different Periods—Wages— Poor—Fuel and Provisions—Religion—Finanees before and pond the ag) Meese 2 Navy — Weights, casures, and Money— Language and Literature— National Character. Tuere are scarcely any data, on which we can Cal . senatus consultum of the 4th of FRANCE. culate the extent of the population of France, previous- Statistics. ly to the Revolution; yet it may be to notice some of the conjectures on this 1577, the Duke of Nevers calculated that in- inions of France, there were 3,000,000 of hearths; each of them at si to pee ined at persons toa uy, , polation of only 18,000,000. Bat at hia period, nether tes Burgund , Rousillon, Ardagne, nor Bearn, ware included in the monarchy. In 1581, the whole the : not increased, sinceby themit is rated only at 20,093,000; and at this period great additions had been made to the territories of France. In the year 1754, the Marquis de Mirabeau rated the whole ion still 4 viz. at 18,000,000, In 1772, the Abbé d’Expilly esti- mated it at 22,140,357 ; and nearly at the same peri Buffon estimated it at 21,672,777. In 1785, rated it at 24,676,000. In 1789, M. Bouvaliet-Desbro« ges estimated it at 27,957,267 ; and in 1791, the Com- mittee of the National Assembly, from a more accurate calculation, stated it to be 26,363,074. In 1798, ac- cording to M. Prony, the population of France, inclu- ding Corsica and the conquered countries; amounted to - $1,123,218 ;. viz. 26,048, 254 in the territories of an- cient France ; 3,511,055 in the Venaisin, Savoy, Nice, 1,563,909 7 , Geneva, the Austrian Netherlands, &e. ; and in the countries situated the Rhine and the Moselle. In 1799, M. | whole repletion of France amount to 33,111,962. This number, however, does’ not include Piedmont and the Isle of Elba, From these and other data, we may safely conclude, that the population of the kingdom of France, within the limits now prescribed to it, is near ly 26,000,000 ; or, that if the destruction caused by the ambition of Bonaparte has reduced it below that amount, it will soon rise to it again. a yor , Of the 26,363,074 inhabitants which, the report of the committee of the National Ass a constituted the lation of France in the year 1791, 5,709,270 orencinkabiaits of the cities, towns, &c, and 20,521,538 were inhabitants of the country. From this it aj 8, that at this period Jess than one-fourth of the e inhabited towns; and from Mr Birkbeck’s..re- marks, it is evident that this is the case at errant, least to an equal .. His observations to - be quate. “ The Ce vest at Eien a to be us: a town (Moulins for instance) depends Ss nce on the lands i it. . The eg a as, wip een spare ; because, as theit is a sort of garden« ioe it country population, and has in ing, it requires a pai A Sag nity of produce... Tanade Soaaas saree: be ironght all from the country ; on pata is whom th me. loys is beyond tion. titudes, in, ploy th "ay | a ; cei t for his surplus produce in sous, and he poate parepeine, The tadetman is on par with the farmer ; as they receive, so they.spend. And thus FRANCE. . 50,000 persons may inhabit a district, with a town of Fs net apg in the centre of it ; bartering the super- ‘the country for the arts and manufactures. of the town. Poor from generation to generation, and i rs ef per as they increase in num- in the country, by the division and subdivision of property ; in the town, by the division and’ subdivision of trades and professions.” ; The following Table exhibits the population’ of dif- 731 ferent districts of France, a8 it existed at the end of the 17th century, and a few years previous to the Revolu- tion ; with the number of people to the square league, at each period, and the increase in the latter period. . It may be proper to premise, that the population of the former period is taken from the’ of the Intendants, and that of the latter period from the book of the ad- ministration of the finances of France. maladie Square reat ry a he cme Nee rarer Inhabitants} y,_ e e [to the square|few befe th Leagues.) meh century. rade the Revolution! Teague. oo ¢ aritime districts, ...... . . | 10538|°8,775,000 832 |10,180,000| 966 |134 rontiers, comprising Lorraine, . | 7848] 4,383,000 583 | 6,182,000 781 «+1198 + terior districts,.......0- 6991) 4,995,000 714 5,94 9,000; 850 |136 istrict of Paris, ...... es 1157) 1,577,000 1368 1,782,000; 1540 |177 istrict of Lyons, ........ |: 416} 863,000}. 875 634,000] 1522 |647 26,950!20,093,000 782 24,677,000 915 1133 }. “Assuming the population in 1802 to have venth of its inhabitants, notwithstanding it is one $8,111,962, in all the territories at that time an- fifth of its extent. Thus it appears, that alt ough one nexed, except Piedmont and the Isle of: Elba, French third of France, as it existed in 1802, only Jay on and Austrian Flanders, which comprised the d the north of the parallel of Paris, yet the population of ments of the Scheldt, the Lys, and the North, con- the northern part, Paris included, was not much in- i 1,748,669 inhabitants within a territory of 41364 miles, which is somewhat more than 422 in- habitants per mile. The population of the country round Paris, notwithstanding the weight of that city in the scale, was inferior. If we take the two of the Seine, and the Seine and Oise, the d ent of the Marne, exclusive of the district of Fountainebleau, and besides the two dis« tricts of Beauvais and Senlis, which belong to the de- partment of the Oise, we shall find in 1802 only a po- pulation of 1,496,223 over an extent of 4198} square miles. Next to Flanders, Normandy is he dee popu- lous district in France. The five ents of which it is composed, exhibit a population of 2,465,507 souls, in 1802, over a surface of 9175% square miles, equal to 268} inhabitants per mile. The population of the south- east of France, on the contrary, is very small. In the ete ay ant ere was not in 1802 more than 80 inhabitants per mile. The population of the Py. renees was also yery thin, though superior to that of t Alps. The three ents of the Pyrenees and that of the Arriege contained 900,167 inhabitants over ‘an extent of 65324 square miles, or nearly 138 per square mile. The most populous of all the departments, to the south of the 48 degree of latitude, is that of the Mouths of the Rhone, which, however, in 1802, contained only 920,072 inhabitants over a territory of 1550} square miles, or about 205 inhabitants square mile. The tion of most of thie rest of the departments in this portion of France was very inconsiderable: if, for in- stance, the eleven departments of Aude, Aveyron, Cher, Drome, Indre, Landes, Loire and Cher, Logere, Nievre, Var, and Vienne, be taken er, their pas in 1802 will be found to be only 2,599,911 in- itants over 23,778 square miles; that is, 109 inhabi- tants per square mile, which islittle more than one-fourth of the population of Flanders. If the population of these eleven ents be added to that above stated of the Alps and the Pyrenees, it will appear that in 1802, there were only 3,017,320 inhabitants over a territory of 126,869 kilometers; whence it appears. that this southern part of France contained then only the ele« inferior to the southern division. Taking the whole population of France as it was in the beginning of 1802, when its territorial extent was 30,505 square leagues, it gives 1086 inhabitants for the square league. Esti« mating the acres at 131,722,295; and taking the popu« lation to be, as it was in the beginning of the Revolu- Statistics. —=—— Population. tion, 26,363,074, there will at present be nearly five: acres a head. In 1802, Paris was calculated to contain 546,856 in« habitants ; there were 3 cities, that contained above - 100,000 each, viz. Bourdeaux, Marseilles, and Lyons; 8, from 100,000 to 50,000; but in these were includ- ed Antw erp, Brussels, Ghent, and Liege; 12, from. 50,000 to 30,000; but in these also were included: Cologne and Bruges ; 22, from 30,000 to 20,000; 24, . from 20,000 to 15,000 ; and 45, from 15,000 to. 10,000. In short, at this period there were calculated to be 500° towns in the French republic as it then existed, cone- taining 5,405,119 inhabitants. - « The annual number of births in France is as 1 to 25: and of these every 47th child in 1780 was illegi- Births, M arriages, timate ; the proportion of illegitimate children since and Deaths. the Revolution has very much increased, the calcula~ tion being that évery 11th child is now illegitimate. The number of marriages is as 1 to 110. The number of deaths is as 1 to 30. The prefect of the de; ent of the Doubs, on comparing the accounts of the children: that died under 10 years of age in 1800, and. of those that died under 10 hae of age in 1802, found that 939 more children had died in that single department in 1800 than in 1802, and ascribed the difference to the t progress which vaccine inoculation had made in e latter period. In 1801, M. Morgues published a statistical Essay, containing the result of 21 years ob servations on the relative and actual number of births, deaths, and marriages at pps st from 1771 to 1792. The average of the whole population, during the whole 21 years, was 32,897: during the three au« tumnal months there were one-fourth more births than during the three spring months ; yet the greatest num- ber of births. was_in January, and the least in June. The average annual births were 1197 or 3*;, one-half of Condition of the peo. ple. Prices of labour. 782 the whole tion. The number of males'born was to that of es as 20 to 213. The illegitimate children formed 5th of the whole annual ction, whereas in Paris they formed }th. The number of was 282, which to whole population was as 1 to 118: of these that were born, 1 in 2} was married. The number of deaths each year was 1112; and their proportion to the whole population was as 1 to 204: of these 546 were children under 10 years old. Win- ter and spring were the healthiest seasons. The bu- rials in August were to those in May, as $ito2, In 1774, 1778, and 1783, the small-pox was epidemic, and in those years the annual cncetatity was increased by 423 children. In the 21 years above mentioned, three men and 18 women died at the of 100 and up- wards; and one person in 74 arrived af the age of 70. The condition of the great mass of the people in France, with respect to their pecuniary circumstanees, since the Revolution, may be ess. as on the whole improved ; but at the mpg time, it WC oer a state of society by no means far advanced. ie in most places, as well as the small class of je eyen- the more extensive class of farmers in some eens of the kingdom, grow, or make within ‘themselves, nearly all that their families consume, or wear; the same comparatively little advanced state of society is indicated by the not uncommon mode of paying for labour by a part of what it produces or performs. With respect to pecuniary wages, they are nominally lower, not in fact. higher than they are in England ; for though the money given is less, yet from the cheap- ness of provisions, &c. it commands more of the ne- cessaries and comforts of life. In France, however, as probably in all countries, at least in Europe, not only the nominal but the real rate of wages has increased dually for a considerable length of ‘time, and _per- aps in a greater proportion, within these last 30 years. In 1756, the price of labour at the places mentioned below, was as follows: At Lisle, the wages - of journeymen stocking and camlet weavers, was about 24 sous per day, that is about 13d. English: the journeymen weavers and cloth-workers at Abbe- ville gained, according to the nature of their work, and their dexterity, from 20 to 50 sous a day; whereas women, at the same place, engaged in the same manufacture, did not gain more than 12 sous a- day. Hedgers and ditchers in the country only 10 sous a-day. At Nantes, the journeymen ship nters, about 30 sous a-day. At Castelnandary, labourers, mending the canal of Languedoc, by the job, earned about 12 sous a-day. At Nismes, journeymen weavers in the silk and cotton trade, from 30 to 35 sous a-day. At Marseilles journeymen tailors 30 sous a-day.. At the same place, nters 30 sous; silk weavers from 30 to 35 sous. At Toulon, journeymen carpenters, in the King’s yards, 30sous per day. At Lyons, journey- men workmen had several prices, according to the silks, velvets, gold stuffs, laces, &c. from 50 to 100 sous a-day. Land carriage of goods, from Marseilles to Lyons, 230 miles, from six to seven livres, per 108 libs. - lish, (Tucker’s Essay on Trade, p. 75.) When Mr Young travelled in France, immediately before the Re- yolution, he averaged the earnings on all the fabrics manufactured in that kingdom, at 26 sous for the men, and 15 sous for the women ; the wages of the spinners being nine.sous. At the same time he calculated the wages of the men employed in the manufactures of England to average 20d. a-day, or rather more than 40 sous ; the women 9d, or father more thay 18 sous; FRANCE. and the spinners 6}d. or about 13 sous, Ona sen of thuie quiets, scien that, at wages of the men in England was. nearly wages of the men in France, whereas the of the women in the former country was little more what it was in France. The pie geen gs ; out.the kingdom, employed in all sorts of work, — Young estimated at 19 sous; masons and carpenters, however, got $0 sous: He considered that the price of labour had risen about 20 per cent. in the course of 25 years. The same author calculated the av rate of wages for all kinds of labour in England, to be, about 1760, 1s. 3d. a-day ; and in 1789, when he travelled in France, about 1s, 43d. a-day. The result of his enqui- ries respecting the comparative price of meat and bread and the rate of w: in the two countries, in 1789, was, that labour in England averaged 33} sous, while meat was 84 sous, and bread 34 sous per pound; whereas in France, labour aver: 19 fur? and meat was 7 sous, and 2 sous the poun: ence it appears, that the nominal price of labour was nearly 76 per cent. cheaper in France than in England ; the real price, considered with reference to its command over meat, was less, while its real price, considered with re« to its command over bread, was nearly the same in both countries. In 1814, Mr Birkbeck seems to have taken a good deal of pains to ascertain the com rative price of labour and provisions in France: He found that, at Rouen, women who attended the joass earned 15d. per day, equal to 11 pounds of bread ; labourers employed by a small farmer in the neigh« bourhood of that place, had 10d. whe by and their board ; and 20d. per day without . On this he remarks, that, “ as all provisions, every article of ex- pein, may be taken at something under half the nglish price, by doubling their wages, we may find the proportion they bear to ours.” In the south of France, near Vienne, the French labourer received three bushels and one-third for ing and thrashing, for - every 18 bushels thrashed ; the English labourer re- ceives for the same work only about a tenth: money wages are nearly in the same proporti About Lunet, the wages were 20d. per day for the men, and from 10d. to 15d. per day for the women employed in agricul- ture; the former rate, considering the price of provi- sions, Mr Birkbeck considers as equal to 3s. 4d. in England. ° Before the Revolution, the poor versally sepporied, either by the ecclesiastics, or by poor. begging. Not long after the seizure of the ecclesias- tical estates, the National Assembly publily declared, that they would consider the care of € poor as one of their duties. They appointed also a commit- tee of mendicati, whose business was to enquire into, and re to the Assembly, the state of the poor, and the best means of extinguishing indigence in France. Of this committee the Duke of Lioncourt was the chair- man. Four reports were laid before the Assembly ; in their third report, the committee examine the ic of establishing a poor's rate, but with great wisdom ab-= solutely reject it. In their fourth report, however, they declare that the poor have a right. to pecuni assistance from the state ; that the National Assem ought to consider such provision as one of its first and most sacred duties; and that an expence, with this view, ought to be incurred, to the amount of 50 mil- lions of livres a-year. The unsettled state of France, however, seems to have prevented the execution of any plan founded on this report ; and, at present, the poor ae in France were uni- gate of the towns by aammaliciuty paid at the entrance of these towns, on. every commune are authorised to apply relief... : Wa i ghoat France, and in especially in Paris, isa very expensive arti- though, as we have already seen, it is by no means scarce, is seldom used, a prejudice existing against it: where turf or peat is found, it is used. The common in general consume but little meat ; i wine, even where it is and abundant. Their selves, are coarse, but are better especial- ly with linen, than the peasantry of England. To a person who has been accustomed to see nearly the same mode of dress in all parts of England, even the most remote, it seems singular to observe in France-such a diversity of fashions: so little is the intercourse even and the adjacent provinces, that, in dress are seen which have not pre- the former probably for, nearly a century. cottages of the peasantry are in general small; but in many parts of France by no means destitute of con- or i ‘ E ‘3 & 5 venience or taste. In ty oy sien, - Vignerons inhabit cottages out sides o' chalk hills. and 112 bishops in France, besides number of parishes at that time was There were 800 convents of monks, 281 nun- has been variously esti- of course varied ; but the general opinion of su ported for the ministers of the reformed church, either of the adopted, archbishops and 51 bishops in France proper; As the constitution of France is yet unfixed, or, at least, is liable to alteration, we shall not pretend to give Sete.) pen ee be semngnenete Se iwnde ternal government of the country will probably be pers FRANCE. The number of religious of 733 mitted to remain, they may be shortly mentioned; premising, that there are ten ministers and one secre- tary of state, viz. a minister for the department of the administration of justice, called the Great Judge; a minister for the foreign department—for the home de- ent—for the financial administration of the king- om—a chancellor of the exchequer—a-war minister —for the administration of the war department—for the administration of naval and colonial affairs—for the’ general police of the kingdom—and for the reli- gious institutions of the country. ‘There is an inferior court of justice in every district, and a justicé of the peace in every canton, There are a number of courts of appeal, and two supreme tribunals, Each’ depart- ment is acininibeaabl ty a prefect, and as many sub- prefects as it contains districts. The details of the ad« ministration descend from the subprefects to the mayors, who are not chosen by the people, but by the govern- ment. The taxes paid before the Revolution may be classed under the five heads of direct taxes, monopolies, du- ties of excise, custom and transit duties, and stamps. The produce of the direct taxes amounted to about one-third of the whole revenue. One of these, the ca« pitation tax, which fell very lightly on the’ nobility, and not at all on the clergy, yielded about one-fifth of this sum. The other direct taxes were the vingtiemes, which nearly resembled the English land-tax—and the taille, another species of land-tax, so unequally levied, that it fell almost exclusively on the poorer proprietors. The monopolies were that of salt, which, under the name of gabelle, was levied by government on about two-thirds of the kingdom ; that of snuff, and that of brandy and other spirits, which was levied only in certain provinces. The excise comprehended taxes on leather, on the manufacture of starch, and of cards, on iron, oil, &c. besides other contributions. “The transit duties included not only the customs payable on the export and import of merchandise at the sea ports; but also those which were levied at the gates of the towns, and a variety of tolls of different kinds. The stamp oe were levied on almost all kinds + be nee and all changes of property. Un e old mo- narchy, according to Neckar, the expences of collection amounted to 10 per cent. on all the taxes paid by the people. At this period, the farmers-general, the ge- neral and particular receivers, and all the subalterns in the service of the treasury, advanced sums to the’ go- vernment as securities for the faithful discharge of their trust. For these securities they were paid an interest of 5 per cent. and in some cases of 7. » The following were the taxes on land under the old government, according to Mr Young. ~ Paxes om Latid French Money. | English Money. Vingtiemes . . . | 55,565,264 | £2,430,980 Taille. ... .» « «| 81,000,000}... 3,543,750 ‘Local impositions ... 1,800,000 78,750 Capitation ... . «| 22,000,000 962,500 Decimes . . « « «| 10,600,090 463,750 4 Sundries} 0: {e sys cena 60,000 | - 26,250 171,565,264 | £7,505,980 FRANCE, 734. Taxes on Consumption. Fame, Dgeite ‘English Money. Re sos es 58,560,000 | £2,562,000 Wine, Brandy, &c. 56,250,181 | 2,460,444 Tobacco. . - - 27,000,000. | 1,181,205 Leither .”. 5,850,008 255,937 Paper and Cards 1,081,509 47,315 Starch and Powder . 758,049 $3,164 ee eee 980,000 42,875 Ral one adc 763,000 33,381 Glass. . 150,000 6,562 Soap... 838,971 |. 36,704 Linen and Stuffs 150,000, 6,562 Octrois, &e. . ss 57,561,552 2,518,317 Cattle . arnt 630,000 _- 27,562 Customs . .. : 23,440,000 1,025,500 Tas... ; 5,000,000 218,750 Stamps . , . |. 20,244,473 | 885,695 Local duties 1,138,162" 49,575 260,390,905 | £11,391,548. General Revenue. Taxes on land . 171,565,264 | £7,505,980 Domaines . 9,900,000 433,125 Consumption 260,390,905 | 11,391,548, Piast 44,240,000 | ~ 1,935,500 Monopolies . 28,513,774 1,247,496 Sundries . . . . .» | 12,580,000 550,375 Taxes not received on account of govern- 95,900,000 4,195,625 ment r Wir, 622,999,043, | £27,259,649 At the Revolution, the taxes of excise were com- pletely abolished, and all. the other indirect taxes ma- ially simplified. The present regular revenue is des rived from.a land-tax, which is about 15 per cent. both for landlord and. tenant;\a i} tax; a tax on moves ables and sumptuaries; on houses and windows; on pas tentees; on the penne of exercising any profession ; additional centimes or hundreds ; from the produce of the national domains and forests; customs, ‘post-office; lottery, salt mines, &c. All these taxes in 1803,) pro ref a total sum of 569,500,000 francs. The expen- diture the same year amounted :to 589,500,000 francs. The nce of collection was, between 15 and:16»per cent. It was calculated by the minister of finance, in this year, that the capital value of the real-property-of France was at least 30 milliards of francs. , Every village and commune of France has a collector or- tax gatherer, who pays over the amount of his receipts to a treasurer, called a particular receiver, of whom there is one for every district. There is also-a receiver-ge- neral for each department, into whose’ hands the parti- cular receiver pays the sums drawn from thé’ collectors, and who communicate directly with the treasury. They are all under the superintendance of an administration, entitled the Direction of the Taxes. In 1805, the num- ber of ory snes belonging to the direction of taxes, amoun throughout the empire, without including Piedmont, to 1044. ae ‘It must be evident, that it is 7 atis evi ee eas Gee since the Revol ABPEEE Halal ee He i a 24:9 posidoas eclly-puve taka vcs yeciett gain an accurate knowledge of the real state of the. finances. Premising these reasons for caution, we shalt tS ed a deficit of 312,000,000. of the wat in the Peninsula, all were more than covered by foreign pillage: ; that, while the very the national debt’ of 1,645,469,000° ployed in paying off former debts. The whole o Venandable debt at the accession of. Louis, an ws to 759,000,000 franes : “at the time of the Re it exceeded three milliards, or 3,000,000,000 of francs. The receipts of 1814 were calculated by the minister of finance at 520,000,000 ; the ex at 827,415,000, leaving a deficit of 307,415,000. The ences of ie - a9 doriains, and woods, (the domainal forests still amounting to 1,400,000 hectares 3), 120,000,000 ; sts, (Aetresin' TIS shes lottery, salt-works,’ tolls’ on navigation, and inciden receipts,28,000,000; partes Ar 80,000,000; making a total of 618,000,000. We have given these calculations, though subsequent events.rendered it im-. —_ that they should be'realized, because they ex- »it a probable picture of what will be the resources and expenditure of France, when that kingdom is re- a rpm Few ht Eng ‘The-amount of specie existing in France before the cireulating Revolution, was « ted francs, In the 1789, it is stated ws Bouvallet in his Tableau des Richesses de la France, at’ 2,474,254,960 livres, 350,000,000 of which consist- ed in’ Notes of the Caisse d’Escompte. In the year 1807, Peuchet, in his Statistique de la France, su it to have amounted, within the limits of the old territo- , to 1,850,000,000. ' In’ 1789, it was calculated, that, in the maritime departments, the ch ‘fing medium amounted to’ 1,05$,838,350 livres; and the business transacted by ‘its means, to 4,485,600,000,000 livres. In those on the boundaries of France, the money in cir- culation amounted only to 885,227,000 livres, and the 1 by Neckar at 2,200,000,000 medium. Statistics. Bank of France. re it FRANCE. business done with it to 453,600,000. In the central departments, the circulating medium was 1,035,189,600 livres; and the trade. carried on with it amounted to it gives recognizances bearing interest. Its general as- eembly.s composed. of 200 holders, .each of five shares or above, who elect fifteen directors and three censors, each of whom must be holders of at least thirty shares. Between 1783 and 1803, the bank of France was ex- posed to four tem y suspensions, viz. in 1783, 1787, Pa aca oot ee Sr ager Tree omer page 3 » in 1814, allies entered France, and just before left Paris, to put himself at the head of his army. The public funds of France consist of, 1st, Bank shares, or actions de la banque, as they are called ; and, 2d, Third consolidated, or tiers consolidé,. The latter is a 5 per cent. stock. The bank stock is disposed of in shares, or actions of 1000 francs each. the Ist of ag! age the land forces of France amounted to more 520,000 men, including all de- Tita) of all renks Seinckens tata i Y enjoying half pay: in Prussia, Rus- sia, Austria, and England, there were 160,000 prison- ers. The pay of men. in active service for the-year to 202,000,000 franes; the half pay to 735 annually. }Each cohort-consisted of 7 great or superior Statistics. officers or dignitaries, 20 commanders, 30 officers, and. “"y"—" $50 legionarées.. The great officers had an annual in- come of 5000 francs; the commanders 2000 ; the offi- cers 1000, and the legionaries 250... The knights of eis apa honour amouht!to between 6000, and In the reign of Louis XIV. the French’ navy was Naval strong enough ‘to equip a fleet of 63 ships of the line, ‘7 force. frigates, 36 vessels armed en flute, and 14 cutters, under the orders of Tourville, in the year 1690. In 1704, the French fleet that fought the combined English and Dutch fleets consisted of 50) ships of the line, 8 fri- gates, and 9 fire-ships. In 1791, the French navy consisted of 73 ships of the line, 67 frigates, 19 cutters, 29 armed brigs, 7 gun-boats, besides several rs ships, galliots, &c. But the war with Engs land ann ihilated the navy of France. The efforts of Bonaparte, however, were incessantly directed to its re-establishment. According to the exposé for 1814, the most absurd of Bonaparte’s schemes were those which related to the establishment of a numerous .and powerful saa! Paris itself saw a dock-yard formed within its walls. And what now remains of all these armaments? The wrecks of some of the vessels and ac- counts, which prove that for the successive creation and destruction of this monstrous and useless flotilla, up= wards of 150,000,000 francs have been sacrificed: since 1803. The grand works executed at Cherbourg, and the fine squadron of Toulon, alone present useful re- sults.. All the arsenals are completely dilapidated ; the immense naval stores collected by Louis XVI. are squan- dered; and during the last 15 years, France lost 43 ships of the line, 82 frigates, and 76 corvettes, which could not be replaced at an expence of 200,000,000. | In _ the total debt of the navy amounted to:61,300,000 cs. . : ua ] During the republican government, a system of tints Weights’ form weights and measures was established upon a sim- a aie. ple plan. The elementary measure is connected with sures. tries ceded by France, in the treaty of Paris, cost, since the dimensions of the terrestrial globe. This ‘measure, the 1804, 115,000,000, — : which is called metre, ‘or mésure par excellence; is the we may now hope that the army of France, ten millionth part of a of the terrestrial meri- that engine by means of which. in- dian, that is; of ‘the distance of ‘the’ ‘from’ the flicted on E so many evils, is put beyond the power of farther mischief, pot Ta shag hoa tingoattedestil to Notice its constitution during the »period. of its most feeeieiinaten atin ddl beme-wrene mp eres try regimen ts, at 3230 men ; 27 regiments light infantry, at the same number of men each; 2 re- giments of carabineers; 12 regiments of cuirassiers ; 30 regiments of dragoons ; 24 regiments of chasseurs ; 10 regi of hussars ; 8) re 1s of arti on foot; 6 regiments of horse arti ; 22 battalions of the artillery train ; 16 companies of artillery labourers ; 2 battalions of pontooners ; '9 companies of miners ; 5 battalions of sappers ; 1 battalion of gardes du genie. These were commanded by 15 warshale of the empire, 150 generals of division, 800 generals of brigade, and 135 adjutants-commandants. The army was recruited by voluntary enlistings, and by a rigorous concription, which comprised all Frenchmen from the age of 20 to 25, without any distinction of rank, fortune, or busi- ness. Every soldier might rise to the highest rank ; no commission could be sold. The military spirit was also animated by the decoration of a mili order, called the Legion of Honour, which is still retained. It was originally composed of 16 cohorts, each of nati domains to the amount of 200,000 francs pole; it is equal to 3:feet 11,44 inches, The are serves . to measure the surface of the soil, in' the same manner as the arpent ;-it lates to 100 square metres, or 94833. square feet. e' stere is equal to a cubic me- tre, or’ £22 eubie feet! The oe is the measure of capacity ; it is equal'to a cubic decimetre, or 504% cua bis inches, or sth of the former pint of ‘Paris. “The gramme marks the weight ; it is equal to the weight of a cubic centimetre of pure water, at its maximumr of density. It has been found equal to 18.827 French grains, of which 5.76 make 472.5 nee ; and 489.5058 pe make a pound of the stan ‘aris ef i These five primitive measures are successively mul- tiplied or divided by 10, in order to form the greater or smaller measures, by analogy to the decimal system of arithmetic. The three divisors are deci, cent?, and milli, expressing the tenth, hundredth, or thousandth part ; thus decimetre is the 10th part of the metre, de- ciarc the 10th part of the arc, &c. The four multipli- cators are deca, hecto, kilio, and myria, denoting ten times, hundred times, thousand times, and ten thousand times: thus the decametre is 10 metres, the hectare 100 arcs, the kiliometre 1000 metres, the myriagramme 10,000 grammes, of the mint at , Comms. Language. Character of the French, 736 The standard coin of France is a piece’ of silver of the weight of five grammes, or five times 18), grains, pr vecve Be ag alloy and ,% ths of pure silver, and very ly the 24th part of the sterling metallic value, being nearly the same with the livre tournois: it is called a franc, and divided into decimes and cen- times. There are pieces of 5 francs, 2 francs, 3, } and } franc. The gold coins, like the silver coin, contain +sth of alloy and ,%,ths of pure metal. They are called Napoleons d'or or octo grammes: an octo gramme of gold is worth 25 francs. The basis of the French lan is Latin, on which are engrafted Celtic and Gothic words and idioms. It is more remarkable for refinement and precision, than for energy or dignity. Their writers have rendered their language amiliar to the lovers of literature throughout Europe; and in the value of their uc- tions, they have no equals am the moderns, with the sole exception of the English. Even the mathe- matical sciences have been cultivated by them with a success, certainly not inferior to that of any other na- tion. Their taste in letters is than in the fine arts, in which there is a cajeenisiBienes of ornament - and an affected manner. Before the Revolution, there were 21 universities, and 39 academies and literary so- cieties in France. During the Revolution a regular sys- tem of schools has been repeatedly decreed, ——— does not that they have been actually establi ed, or have.at least proceeded so su ly and use- fully, as the official reports represented. On the whole, however, education is more general now ‘than it was previous to the Revolution. : ** The essence of the French character is an exube- rance of animal spirits, ‘producing excess of mobility, and a restless activity. They are quick, in- genious, fertile in expedients, buoyant against difficulty or raya ; but mutable, trifling, confident, vain, cre- dulous, and incapable of moderation. With: much that renders them amiable in society, as readiness to oblige, delicate attentions, kind sympathy, and lively ibi- lity, they are often of insecure commerce, from laxity of principle, unmeaning professions, jealous irritability, po tages propensity to intrigue. Their feelings of every kind v to excess ; and there is nothing either good or bad, of, which they are not capable, under the influence of their. impetuous ardour. No cabinet has excited so much disturbance among the neighbouring states, from ambition and the spirit of in ing; as that of France ; and we have seen, that no change af political system at home has made an alteration in their foreign policy. The French, beyond all people, are the creatures of society: by it their manners and sentiments are fashioned, and in it are centred. their chief pleasures and gratifications.. They would excel FRANCE. all nations in the art of conversation, were not the de- Statistics. sire of shining too universal. The love of glory ope- rates upon them with i force, and stimu- lates them to great exertions; but it is often attended _- CFP LMI se and vis ns les 102 » de ance, Bion . ei in & ne xe) par Voyage fait en 1787 ct 1788 dans la Haute et Basse Auvergne, par le Grand D’Aussy. 3 vol. 1795. — ' Voyage les Departemens du Midi'de la France, par Millin, 4 vol. 8vo, 1807—1811. ar — - Mines, be as ‘84vol. ‘etallurziques, jars. | 3 vol. 4to. : Atlas, et Disctigion "Meson de la France, par Statistique de la France, Peuchet. 1807. Analyse des Procés Ver des Conseils Generaux des i mit Mie pour Tan 8. ° De la Balance du Commerce, &c. de la France, par M. Arnould. 2 vol. 1791. , Du Commerce Frangais,dans 0 Etat actuel de ? Europe, par J. B. Dubois. 1806. De 0 Administration des Finances de la France, pax M. Neckar. 3 vol. 8vo. 1784. Memoires sur l’ Agriculture du Boulonnois, 1785. | L’Agriculteur du Midi, par A, L. Sinetz. 2 vol. 1808. ; 4 Mey seam d’ Agriculture, par Ollivier de Serres, reprint« 1802. : y Instructions sur la Culture des Turneps, ow gros na« vets, par lés Intendans de Soissons, &c. ‘i786 ‘ Instruction sur les moyens de Pourvoir a ta dinette des Fourrages. Supplement. a? Insedelies &c. 1785. G Memoires d’ Agriculture, publies par la Societe Ro. d’ Agri te Paris, V761;) &e. Yay Sah er emoire sur le Mais, par Parmentier. “ preity wpa of France, by Tinseau, 1803 and Travels in France, by A. Young, Travels h several of the Mi and Western Hewuesle 2 France in 1802, by the Rev. W. Hughes. . Narrative of a three years residence in France, from 1802 to 1805, by Anne Plum ROS Ag , Travels th h the South of France in 1807 and 1808, by Lieut.-Col. Pinckney: DB Sats Notes on a Journey through France in 1814, by M. Birkbeck. ., Letter on the Genius and Disposition of the French Government, by an American (Mr Walsh) 1810. Sketches of ihe intrinsic Strength, &c. of France and Russia. Hague 1808, (oak ‘ wf a =F A Index. Abbeville, manufacture of fine —— ‘cloth at, p. 717 lture of France, 694. Va- By the produce of, 730 Aix, mineral waters of, 691 Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 616 Alencon, Duke of, puts himself at the head of the malcon- tents, 579. Unites with the Protestants, ib. Almonds, trade, &¢. of, 711 Alps, mountains of the, 677 Alsace, its divisions, 675 Artois, its divisions, by Augsburg, league of, a- gainst Louis XIV. 607 © Austerlitz, battle of, 646 Austria prepares for war against France in 1808, 649. State * parte, Aavergne, its division, 676. Ba- saltic mountains of, 686 Avignon, its wang 677 jos taken by the British, pr ae ee Petts sets Bank of France, 735 ee Bareges, mineral waters of, 6! Barley, cultivation of, 700 Barometer, state of the, in France, 684 a district of Auvergne, Bastile destroyed, 626 Bayard, the Chevalier, his cou- rage, 556; and death, 559 Beans, cultivation of, 700 Bearn, its divisions, 676 Beech oil, 711 Belleisle’s, Marshal, famous re- treat from Prague, 614 or entered by Bonaparte, Berries, French, abundant in the south of France, 704 “Berry, its divisions, 675 Beza, Theodore, disputes with Cardinal Lorraine at Paissi, 574 Biron, Marshal, treacherous to the King, 587. Discovered and pardoned, ib. Resumes his ambitious projects, ‘ib. Enters into a conspiracy, ib. Delivers himself up to Hen- ry, ib. Condemned and ex- ectited, ib. Bisrnuth found in Brittany, &e. 690 FRANCE. INDEX. Bonaparte appointed to the command in Italy, 637. His great successes, ib. Defeats the Austrians at Rivoli, 638. Compels the Pope to sign a peace, ib. Obliges the Aus- trians to make the peace of Campo Formio, ib. Returns from Egypt, and is declared First Consul, 640. Proposes peace to Britain, which is re- jected, ib, His extraordina- ry passage of the Alps, ib. Defeats the Austrians at Ma- rengo, ib. Grants them an armistice, ib. Extent of his power, 641. Re-establishes the Catholic religion, and con- cludes a concordat with the Pope, ib. Appointed Consul for life, ib. Declared Em- peror, ib. The vote for this carried by acclamation in the tribunate, 642. Commences hostilities against Germany in 1805, 646. Captures the Austrian army under Mack, and defeats the combined ar- mies of Austria and Russia at Austerlitz, ib. Makes the treaty of Presburg with Aus- tria, ib. Is recognised as King of Italy, ib. Defeats the Prussians at Jena, 647. Enters Berlin, ib. Defeats » the Russians at Pultusk, ib. Fights an indecisive battle with them at Eylau, ib. His operations against Sweden, 648. Defeats the Russians at Friedland, ib. Concludes the peace of Tilsit with Russia, ib. Prepares for the inva- sion of Portugal, ib. His schemes against Spain, ib. His operations there, 649. Prepares for war with Aus- tria, ib. Holds a conference with the Emperor of Ruésia at Erfurth, ib. His ambi- tious and aggrandizing mea- sures in different parts of Europe, ib. Enters Vienna, ib. Fights the indecisive battle of Aspern, ib. De- feats the Archduke Charles at Wagram, 650. Makes peace with Austria, ib. His speech to the legislature, ib. Divorces Josephine, and mar- ries Maria Louisa, ib. His decrees, 651. Has ason born to him, ib. His measures in Holland, 652. Disputes with the Emperor of Russia, ib. Prepares for War with Russia, 653. Cros. ses the Niemen, ib. Enters Wilna, 654. Fights the in- decisive battles of Smolensk and Borodino, ib. Enters Moscow, 655. Dreadful si- tuation of his army, ib. He leaves Moscow, ib. His dis- astrous retreat, ib. ‘Quits his army, 656, Plot at Paris against hin, ‘ib. ‘Deserted by the Prussians and Aus- trians, ib» Prepares for an- other campaign, ib. De- feated at Lutzen, 657. De- feats the allies at Bautzen, ib. Sustains’ a terrible de- feat at Leipsic, ib. Arrives in Paris, 658. Tries in vain to rouse the French people, ib.- State of his af- fairs in Spain, ib, Leaves Paris to join his army, 660. Is defeated at La Rotherie, ib. His desperate attacks'on Blucher, 661. Attacks Blu- cher at Laon unsuccessfully, ib. Throws himself into the rear of the allies, 662. Is deposed by the senate, 663. Renounces the sovereignty, 664. Departs for Elba, ib. Causes of his downfal, 665. Escapes from Elba, and lands in France, 668. His pro- gress, 669. Arrives at Paris, ib. His addresses to the na- tion and the army, ib.. His letter to the sovereigns of Europe, ib. Promises the French a free constitution, ib. His inadequate forees, 670. Joins his army, 671. De- feats the Prussians at Ligny, ib. Defeated by the Duke of Wellington at Waterloo, ib. Flies to Paris, and abdicates the throne, 672. Is sent in- to perpetual banishment in St Helena, 672 Boniface VIII. Pope, interdicts Philip IV. 548 Bon mot of Triboulet, the fool at Francis’s court, 561 Bordelais, cultivation of the vine in the, 714 Botero, G his t of France in’ the 16th centu- ry, 717 Bouillon, Duke of, joins in the conspiracy of the Marshal Biron, 587. Is repeatedly pardoned by the king, ib. Boulogne purchased from the English, 564 Bourbon, the Constable, con- Spires against Francis I. 558. Lays siege to Marseilles, 559. Marches against Rome, 560. Succeeds, but is killed in the attack, ib. Bourbonnois, its divisions, 675. Bourdeaux declares for the Bourbons, 662 Brandies, quality, &c. of the, 715 Breda, peace of, 602 Briare, canal of, 680 -Brissot executed, 635 Brissotines, the, 632 Britain attempts to make peace with France, 646 Brittany, its divisions, 675, Li- nen manufactures of; 721 (735) Brunswick, Duke of, his mathi- » 631 Balbiferoue plants, 693 Burgundy and Orleans, Dukes of, quarrel, 551 Burgundy, ‘its divisions, 675. Wines of, 77% c Cabbages, cultivation of, 701 Cadeau, Nicolas, a great manu- facturer, 717 Calais besieged by the Duke of » ‘Guise, 569. Reduces it, ib. Calonne at the head of ‘the fi- nances in France, 622. Pro- poses to assemble the Nota- bles, 623. His plan for re- establishing the finances, ‘ib. Resigns, 624. Caivinten pevigries of, in France, 570, 571 Calvinists send-a-petition"to the king, 573 Camargue famous for feeding oxen and sheep, 708 Cambray, league of, 555 Campo Formio, treaty of, 638 Canals of France, 679. Of Lan- guedoc, ib. Of Briare, 680. ~ Of Orleans, ib. Caper shrub, the, 711 Capillaire abundant near Mont- - pellier, 704 Capitainries explained, 695 Capital of the farmers, 697 Carcassone, woollen manufac- ture at, 720 Carlovingian race, 543 Carnot speaks against the de- cree of the tribunate making Bonaparte emperor, 642 Carraway, cultivation of, 703 Catherine de Medicis, her cha- racter, 570. Her conduct du- » ring the minority of Charles TX. 574. Tries to unite’the Protestants on herside against - the Duke of Guise, 575. In- — trigues with the King against the Protestants, 577 Catholic religion re-established in France, 641 Caves, 692 Cerignoles, battle of, 554 Cerizoles, battle of, 562 Cevennes, revolt of the Protes- tants in the, 600. Mountains of, 677. Fertilized by irriga- tion, 705 Chalk district of France, 681. Chambres Ardentes, | courts: for persecuting the: Protestants, 572 Cha e, its divisions, 675. Wines, 712. Classified, 714 Champ de Mai, por igene the, 670 Charlemagne, reign of, 543 Charles the Bald’s reign, 544 Charles the Fat disgraces him- self, and is deposed, ib. Charles the Simple deposed, and dies in prison, ib. Charles II. of England obliged by the Parliament ‘to make peace with Holland, 604 Index. (736) Index. Charles IV. of France succeeds his father John, 550 Charles V. of Spain a competi- tor for the Imperial dignity, 557. Obtains it, ib. Endea- vours to gain from his pri- soner Francis I. by intrigue, certain conditions, ib. Has recourse to arms to enforce on him the treaty of Madrid, 560. Invades France unsuc- cessfully, 561. Agrees to cede the Milanese to Francisy but breaks his promise, ib. attacked by Francis and the Protestant Confederates, 565. . Prepares to recover Lorraine, ib. Besieges Metz, ib. Qbli- ged to raise the siege, 566. Sustains great loss in that affair, ib. Invades France, ib. Makes a truce with the King of France, ib. Aban- dons his throne, 567. Charles VI. of France succeeds his father, 550 Charles VIL. of France crown- ed, 551 Charles VIII. of France suc+ ceeds to Louis XI. 552. In- vades ir ae Death and character, Charles [X. of France ascends the throne of France, 574. His person seized, 575. His character, 576. Enters into a treaty with the Protestants in 1570, 577. Intrigues with Catherine against the Protes- tants, ib. His cruelty at the massacre of St Bartholomew, 578. Makes a new. treaty with the Protestants, ib. His death and character, 579 Charlotte de Montmorency be- loved by Henry IV. 588. Married at the King’s desire to the Prince of Condé, ib. Chastel, John, attempts the life of Henry IV. 584 Chateau Cambresis, treaty of, 569 Chatillon, congress at, 660. Rupture of the negociations there, 661 Christianity renounced in the National Convention of France, 635 Cider, manufacture of, 715 Cing Mars and De Thou execu- ted for a conspiracy, 597 > pact medium #, France, Civic oath taken by the King, military, &c. 629 Civil war in France, 551. The first, 575. The second, 576. ~~ third, 577. The fourth, Clement, James, assassinates Henry ILI, 581 Cleves and Juliers, senewtion for the duchies of, Climate of © France, oes. Its FRANCE. disadvantages in the south, ib. Its division into four zones, 684 Clover, cultivation of, 702 Clovis, reign of, 543 Coal strata in Provence, 690. Other coal mines, ib. Their Coligny’s, the Admiral, brave de- fence of St Quintin, 568. His character, 571. Presents a petition from the Calvinists to the King, 573. Plot against him and the Prince of Condé, from which they escape, 576. Invests Poictiers, 577... Fights the battle of Montconcour, and is defeated, ib. Massa- cred on St Bartholomew's day, 578 Commerce between France and Spain, 723. With Portugal, 724. Italy, ib, England, ib. Holland, 725. Germany, &c. ib. Denmark, &c. ib, Ame- merica, ib. The Levant and Barbary, 726. India and Chi- na, ib. West of Africa, ib. West Indies and North Ame- rica, ib. Companies, France delivered from them by the policy of Charles V. 550 Condé, Prince of, his character, 571. Suspected and hated by the court, 572. Offers to vindicate his honour by sin- gle combat, ib. Accused of treason by the Duke of Guise and Cardinal of Lorraine, 573. Tried and condemned, 574. Saved by the death of Fran- cis, ib, “Asks satisfaction for the massacre of Viessy, 575. Begins the civil war, ib. De- feated and taken prisoner at Draix, ib. Enters into trea- ty with the court, 576. An- ticipates the hostile projects of the court, and has recourse to arms, ib. Attacked by the Constable Montmorency at St Denis, and defeated, ib. Prosecutes the war vigor- ously, and agrees to a Suspen- sion of hostilities, ib, ‘ A plot against him and Coligny, from which they escape, ib. Active in preparing for war, 577. Taken prisoner, and killed in cold blood at Jarnac, ib. Condé, the young Prince of, breaks out into open rebel- lion, 691. Allows himself to be duped, is arrested, and thrown into the Bastile, ib. Condé the Great, Duke of Eng- hien, ee the Spaniards at Rocroy, 598. Defeats the Bavarians at Nordlingen, ib. Excites the jealousy of Car- dinal Mazarine, ib. to raise the siege of Lerida, ib. Arrested, 600. Defeats Turenne at St Antoine, ib. é pardoned employed by Louis XIV. 601. His operations in Flanders, 604. Lays waste the Pala- tinate, ib. Conference. between the Catho- mn and Calvinists at Paissi, 57 Copper mines, 689 Coral fishery of Marseilles, 729 Corsica annexed to France, 618. Its divisions, 677 Corvées, a tax oppressive to agri- culture, 696 Cote roti, wine called, 714 Cytton manufactures, seat, &c. of the, 721 Council of Trent, 564 Court of France extremely de- bauched in thereignof Charles VI. 55 Cows of Normandy celebrated for milk, 708 Crespy, treaty of, 562 Crops, rotation of, 699 a ae Pr engaged in by Louis D ry Marquis of, killed, D’Ancre, Marchioness, con- demned for sorcery, 592 Dantzic surrenders to the French, 648 Dauphiny, its divisions, 676 De Thou and Cing Mars exe- cuted for a conspiracy, 597 orca Executive, establish- 6 - Directory, the, declare war against Germany, 639. Sinks into contempt, 6 Doria, Admiral, ungratefully treated by Francis I. 560. Resents it, ib. Delivers Ge- noa, ib. Draix, battle of, 575 : Dumourier deserts to the Aus- trians, 633 Dunkirk surrenders to Louis XIV. 601 E Harths and stones, 688 Ecclesiastical state of France, 733 > Edict of Nantes, revocation of the, 606 Edward ILI. of England claims the throne of France, 549 Emigrants, debate on the pro- perty of the, 667 English lose most of their pos- sessions in France, 550. Ex- pelled from France, 551. Ad- vance within 11 leagues of Paris, but are driven out of France, 558 Epernon, Duke of, enters intoa plot with Mary de Medicis, 9: Erfurth, conference at, 649 Etangs, in Proyence and Upper Languedoc, 679 Executive Directory establish- ed, 636 of France, 727 Eylau, battle of, 647 F Pairs of France, 728 erdinand of Spain, his disho- nourable conduct to the French, 554 : Ferdinand of Arragon dies, 557, Flax, cultivation aoe 703 Fleurus, battle of, 607 Foix, its divisions, 676 Fontainebleau, assem- bly at, 573, . Forest of, 710 Forces, land, statement of, 735; naval, ib. Forests, numerous and exter- sive, 710, National, ib, Fornova, battle of, 553 France and pe’, between, “ytd cial distress, 618. Suit or. at the accession of Louis XVI. 619. Favours the Re- volution in America, 620. Interferes in the affairs of Geneva, 621. Her financial embarrassments, 621, feres in the affairs of land, 622. Alliance between the two countries, ib. Com- mercial treaty with . 623. Discontents in, i Emigration from, at the com- mencement of the Revolu- tion, 627. Commotions in different parts of, ib, Hos- tile pre against her, 629. clares war against the King of Hungary and Bo- hemia, G31. Invaded by Prussia and Austria, i Their progress, 632. Obli- ged to retreat, ib. .At war - with almost all Europe, eg Le: of her enemies, ib. hey are at le unsue- cessful, ib. — Civi | war in, 634 Drives out the _— in every direction, 635, I vades the United Provinces, ib. Causes of the establish- ment of military despotism, 645. War between her and Prussia in 1806, 647. Its boundaries, 673. Extent, oo. ie i ie SS” en hi — email gia iC . 4 } " td 4 % , | ib. ts geogra- phy, ib. Its divisions in the ses it, ib. Nearly killed by 4 torch, iB. Invades the VOL. 1X, PART IL FRANCE, Resolves to march ifto the Milanese, ib. His platy de- layed by a conspiracy, ib. Sends an army under the command of Botinivet, who partly succeeds, but is at length obliged to rétire, ib. Again invades Italy, ib. Loses the battle of Pavia, and is ta- ken prisoner, 559. Treat- conduct on re-enteringF rance _ 560. Evades the conditions of his release, ib. His troops invade Italy successfully, ib. Loses his advantages by mis- conduct, ibs Devotes some time to the internal regula- great ib. Sum- mons emperor to a r before the ietielel Pa ris, ib. a truce with Charles, ib. war on him, 662. His affairs des- perate, ib. Attempts to re- cover Boulogne English, ib. His death, and character, ib. , Francis IT. “ascends thre throne, 570. His death, and cha- racter, 574 ‘Franks, account of the, 548 French, under Louis XII. in- vade Italy, 554. Invade the Roman territories, 555, De- feat the Spaniards, Swiss, and Venetians at Ravenna, 555 French ambassadors assassina- ted the Milanese, 562. The French defeated at St Quintin, 568. Consternation the Swiss, ib. To the Nea- politans, 639. Their love of , extent ofthe, in 1806, Population of, after the en ae of Holland, 651. her en » ib. Defiated Dy the allies. at Luneburg, 656; and at Ju- terbock, 657. Hatred excited by their tyranny, 665. De- feated at Waterloo, 671 Friedland, battle of, 649° Fronde, the, 600 Funds, public, 735 G Gardette, gold mine at, 689 Garonne, the river, 678 A waa rotation of crops In, Gaston de Foix, a celebrated French general, 555 Gaul, ancient, sketch of, 543. Its extent, 673 Genoa revolts from the French, fromr the | 554. Expels the French troops, 558. Delivered by Admiral Doria, 560. Defend- ed by Massena, surrenders to the allies, 640 General Assembly at Fontaine. bleau, 573 Geneva, France interferes in her affairs, 621 Geology of the Pyrenees, 687 Ghiarrada, battle of, 555 Girondists, the, 632 ry gg of St Gobin’s, 718 Gobeline’s tapestry, manufac- ture of the, 718 Gold mine at Gardette, 689 Grain, produce of, 700 Grand fares against Louis XIV. Gravel district of France, 682 Gravelines, battle of, 569 Guienne, its divisions, 676 Guise, Duke of, defends Metz, 565. His humane conduct, 566. His character, 570. His servants massacre the Protes- tants at Viessy, 575. Defeats the Prince of Condeat Draix, ib. Assassinated, ib. Directs the massacre of St Bartho- lomew, 578. Takes the field in 1584 against the Protes- tants, 580. Invested with the supreme power, ib. Quar- rels with the king, ib. Is re- conciled to him, ib. Quar- rels again, ib. Is assassina- ted at the instance of the king, 581 Guienne, rebellion in, 563 Gypsum quarry of Montmartre, 686 H Hailstones in France, 683 Harvest, time, &c. of, 704 Hats, manufacture of, 722 Hay, management of, 707 Heath district of France, 681. . Rotation of crops in the, 699 Helena, St, Bonaparte banished to, 672 Hemp, cultivation of, 703 Henry I. ascends the throne, 545 Henry EE. succeeds to Francis I. : Recals the ve Montmorency, ib. rns some Protestants, 564 Pur- chases Boulogne from the English, ib. r war with Charles V. 564. Sends an army into Italy, ib. Concludes a treaty with the Protestantconfederation, 565. Invades Lorraine, and seizes Toul, Verdun, and Metz, 565. Forgotten by the con- federates in the treaty of Pas- sau, ib. Invades the Nether- lands, 566. His troops obli- ged to retreat, ib. Is unfor- tunate in Italy, ib. More successful in Piedmont, 567. Makes a truce with . ib. Breaks it, and renews his league with the Pope, ib. His army enters’ aa ib. A 7187 Makes a treaty with. Eliza beth of England, 569. His death and character, 570 Henry ITI. ascénds the throne, 579. His character, ib. Pa- /cifies the Protestants, and concludes a treaty with them, ibe He disgusts the Catho- lics, ib. Joins the League a- gainst the Protestants, 580. Held up by the proclamations ofthe League as debauched and heretical, ib. Concludes a peace on the most disho- nourable terms, ib. Attempts. against him by the Duke of Guise, ibs rrels with the Duke, ib. Retires to Char- tres, and appeals to his peo- Be ib. Is reconciled to the ke, ib. Quarrels with him again, ib. Assembles the States, ib. Procures the as- sassination of the Duke, 581. Is thereby subjected to the resentment and abhorrence of his subjects, ib. Enters into a confederacy with the Protestants and the king of Navarre, ib. Assembles a large army, and marches to Paris, ib. Is assassinated by a Dominican friar, ib. Henry IV. his birth and educa- o 581. — bt with the League, 582. Repulses the Duke of Mayence ay Ar- ques, ib. Marches for Paris, ib. Gains the battle of Ivri, ib. Blockades Paris, ib. His humanity to the people, ib. Is forced to raise the bloc- kade, ib, cond attempt to take Paris, 583, Is declared a heretic by the Pope, ib. His ¢ool- ness and fortitude in the midst of difficulties, ib. “Be- sieges Rouen, ib. Forced Defeated in ase- _ Index. ~ to raise the siege, ib. Re- - solves to renounce the Pro~ testant religion, ib. His con- duct does not satisfy the Ca- tholics, ib. Acknowledged by Meaux, and several other cities, 584. Is crowned at Chartres, ib. His life at- tempted, ib. Defeats the Duke of Mayencé, ib. Ab- solved by the Pope, ib. His trouble and difficulties, ib. Makes peace with Spain, 585. Passes the famous edict of Nantes, ib. Endeavours to improve the kingdom, ib. Takes into office the Marquis of Rosny, whom he’ creates Duke of Sully, 585. Patron- ises manufactures, 586. Un- happy in domestic life, ib. Indulges in amonrs, ib. Pro- to raise his mistress Gabrielle D’Estrées to the throne, ib. Is opposed by the Pope, ib. Proposes mar- riage to his mistress Henri- ette de Balzac, and is pre- vented by Sully, ib. Obtains divorce his Queen, 587. Marries Mary de Medicis, 587. Returns to his amours, 788 ab. Betrayed by Marshal Bi- fon, 587. His lenient treat- ment of him, ib. At length ve him up to - trial, ib. vanees against the. Duke of Bouillon, ib. Pardons him, ib. Disagrees with the Queen, 488. His dishonourable attachment to Charlotte de Montmorency, ib. Causes her to be marri- ed to the Prince of Condé, ib. unworthy conduct in this af- fair, ib. Takes up arms a- gainst Austria, 580. His grand design, ib. Makes great preparations, ib. Is assassi- nated when preparing tojoin his army, 589. His charac- ter, ib. Henry of Navarre marries the sister of Charles IX. 577. Abjures the Protestant relix gion, 578 Henry VIII. of England de- clares war against Francis I. and invades Picardy, 558 Herring fishery, 728 Hohenlinden, battle of, 641 Holland invaded by Louis XIV. 603. Its weak and divided state at the time, ib. Saved by the Prince of Orange, 604. Supported by the Emperor and Spain, ib. Subdued by France, 636. _ Louis Bona- parte made king of, 646, An- nexed to France, 651. Holy League, formed by Julius IL, 555. Boa of Narbonne, celebrated, 71 Hops, cultivation of, 704 Horses, breed, &c. of, 707 Horticulture, French, account of, 715 ‘Hugh Capet seizes the crown, 545 I ; AImperialists defeated at Hoch- stet, 609 Implements of husbandry, 698 Imports of France, 727 - Inclosures, state of, 697 Iron mines, 689 Irrigation extensively employ- ed, 705 d Isle of France, its divisions, 675 Atal Jeyeees by Louis XIII. Ivri, battle of, 582 Jacobin party, its rise, 628. Their power established, 631 Jacques, Coeur, his exertions as a manufacturer, 716 Jarnac, battle of, 577 Jemappe, battle of, 632 Jena, battle of, 647 Jet found in several depart- ments, 690 Jewellery, manufacture of, 722 Jews banished during the reign of Philip V. 549 John, eldest son of Philip de “Valois, succeeds, 549 — Julius II. attempts to expel every n power from I. defeated by the “PRAN CE. Juterbock, battle of, 657 g Raights Templars persecuted, F] L Lebrun, pieces of, 732 Laces, manufacture of, 721 La Crau, account of the plain of, 692. Irrigation in, 706 Landed property, its state be- fore the Revolution, 695. How affected by that event, 696. Its distribution, 697 Language, French, 736 Languedoc, its divisions, 676. Canal of, 679. Irrigation in, 705. ‘ Laon, battle of, 661 La Renaudie, the author of the conspiracy of Amboise, 572. Is killed in attempting to ex- ecute it, ib. , La Rotherie, battle of, 66 La Vendée, civil war in, 634 _ Lead mines, 689 League, origin of the famous, against the Protestants, 579 League of Cambray, 555 League, Holy, formed, ib- League, the triple, formed a- gainst Louis XIV. 603 Leather, manufactories of, 722 Leipsic, battle of, 657 Leo X. dies with joy for the expulsion of the French from the Milanese, 558 Liberty of the press, debate on the, 667. Licenes alienates the affections — of the king from the Italian favourites of Mary de Medi- cis, 591. Is promoted, 592. Endeavours to secure popu- larity, ib. Ligny, battle of, 671 Limosin, its divisions, 676 Linen manufacture, state, &c. of, 721 Liseux, Bishop of, prevents the massacre of Protestants, 578 Lisle taken by the allies, 610 Loam district of France, 680 Lodi, battle of, 637 Loigniac assassinates the Duke of Guise, 581 Loire, the river, 678 Lorraine, the Cardinal, his cha- racter, 571 Lorraine, its divisions, 675 ar ae contests of his reign, Louis le Debonnaire, his reign and death, 544 Louis the Stranger’s reign, 544 Louis the Gross succeeds his _ father, 545 Louis VII. ascends the throne, ry Embarks in a crusade, Louis VIII. 547 Louis [X.‘his character, ib. His expedition to Egypt, ib. Dies at Tunis, ib. ae succeeds to the throne, 5 7 XI. succeeds his father, 55 Louis XII. succeeds, 554. Mar- ries the sister of the king of England, 556. His death, and character, ib. Louis XIII. succeeds to the unsuccessfully, . ib. His cruelty to the Protes- tants at N esse, . ib. Makes a treaty with the Pro- testants in 1622, ib. Invades Italy, 594. Reduces Savoy, 595. His death, 697. His * will set aside, ib. ‘ Louis XLV. succeeds, 597. En- ters Dunkirk in triumph, 601. Resolves to govern by himself, ib. Cireumstances ~ in his favour, 602. Instan- ces of his haughtiness and ambition, ib. uses to pay the honours an the re England, ib.. Makes the peace of Breda, ib. His em- ployment during the peace, ib. Claims the Spanish Ne- therlands, ib. Invades them _ successfully, 603. Subdues Franche Compté, ib. The — Triple League against him, — ib. Detaches England from . it, ib. His rapid success a- gainst Holland, ib. Baffled by the Prince of Orange, and _ obliged to recal his forces, 604. His operations in Flan- ders, 605. His operations by sea, ib. Gains the battle of Mont Capel, ib. His en- croachments after the peace of Nimeguen, 606. Besieges Strasburg, ib. His violent conduct in the Spanish Ne- therlands, ib. His attention to his navy, ib. Makes a truce with Spain and the Em- peror, ib. Insults the Pope, 607. League of Augsburg formed against him, ib. He begins hostilities, ib. Again lays waste the Palatinate, ib. Makes the peace of Ryswick, 608. Concludes the partition treaty with William of Eng- land, ib. Grand alliance a- gainst him, 609. His affairs desperate, 610. Unsuccess- fully attempts to negociate, ib. His astonishing efforts, ib. He again offers peace, and is refused, 611. Hiscir- cumstances bettered, by the change of the ministry in England, and the death of the Emperor, ib. Makes peace with England, Portu- gal, Prussia, Savoy, and the United Provinces, 612. His death, and character, ib. Louis XV. assumes the govern- mentof France,613. Invades . Flanders, 614. Obstinately continues the war, 615, Im- mense preparations against him, 616. He is successful in the Low Countries, ib. .. death, and character, ib, Louis XVI. succeeds his grand- father, 619. State of France 629. Takes the civic oath, ib. Attempts to leave the kingdom, 630. Is stopped, ib, His attempt excites great abhorrence, ib. He and his Loos XVII, is XWIIL. chosen sovereign of France, 664. Enters Paris, ib. State of France when he ascends the throne, 666, His character and conduct, 667, Betrayed by the Marshals, 668. His measures, 669. En- ters Paris again, and appoints new ministers, 672. , Louisa, regent in. the absence of teaness I. saves France, 5 ; Lucerne, cultivation of, 702 Luneburg, battle of, 656 Luneville, treaty of, 641. > Lupins, cultivation of, 702 Lyonnois, its divisions, 676 Lage silk manufactures of, M Mack, General, capitulates te Bonaparte at Ulm, 646 . Madder, cultivation of, 703 Maid of Orleans appears, 55%: Maine, its divisions, 675 Maize, cultivation of, 700 | ; Malcontents, their origin in 1574, 579 P Maltplaquet, battle of, 611 Manganese abundant, 690 Manifesto of the Duke of Bruns- wick, 63L — Manufactures of France, histo- rical notices respecting the, 716. Patronised by Henry IV. 716; and by Colbert, 717. The state at the close of the 17th century, 719. Effects of the Revolution on ee ae the, 722. Value of the pro- SS tear 190 Manures, system of, 705 Marat stabbed by Charlotte Cor- dé, 633 Marche, its divisions, 676 Marciano, battle of, 566 Marengo, battle of, 640 Margaret, Queen of Henry Iv. her character, 586. Divor- ced from the King, 587 Marignaro, battle of, 556 Marilla, Archbishop of Vienne, speaks against the errors and corruptions of the church of the King, ib. Is crowned, 589. Made regent, 590. Be-. comes the dupe of her Italian favourites, ib: Her plan a- FRANCE. Millet, eultivation of, 703 Mineralogy and geology of France, 685 Mineral waters, 691 Mines in France, 689. Ac- count of them in 1814, 690 Mississippi scheme begun, 613 Montauban, siege of, 593 Mont Capel, battle of, 605 Monteoncour, battle of, 577 Monteleri, battle of, 552 Montluc, Bishop of Valence, speaks against the errors and corruptions of the church of Rome, 573 © Montmartre, battle of, 663. Gypsum quarry of, 686 Montmorency, the Constable, recalled by Henry II. 563. His character, 571. Has great influence with the King, 569. / Killed in the battle of St De-” by Bonaparte, 655. Burnt by the Russians, ADEA sii Most Christian, this title given by the Pope to Louis XI. 552 Mountain party, the, 632 Mountainous district of France, Nails, manufacture of, 722 Nantes, edict of, passed, 585 Nantes, revocation of the edict of, 606 Naples subdued by the French,” 639 628. Discuss and negative the King’s veto, ib. Suppress hereditary titles, 629. National Convention assemble, 632 Natural history of Fsance, 685 Naval force, 735 Navarre invaded by the French, 557. Saved by the rashness of the French general, ib. King of, his character, 571. Killed, 575 Neckar succeeds Turgot, 619. unsuccessful nego- ciations at, 605. Treaty of, ib. Nivernois, its divisions, 675 Nordlingen, battle of, 598 Normandy, kingdom of, esta- blished, 544 Normandy, its divisions, 674. R Sa" of, celebrated for milk, Normans, invasion of the, 544 Notables, the, in France, as- sembled in 1787, 623. Dis-' missed, 624. bled, 625 Noyon, treaty at, between Fran- cis L. and Charles V. 557 : re) Again assem- Olives, 712 Orange, Prince of, saves Hol- land from Louis XIV. 604. Rejects Louis’s proposals, ib. Reduces Naarden, ib. Re- fuses the mediation of - Eng- - land, ib. Orange trees, 711 Orchilla weed found in” aus vergne, 704 : Orleannois, its divisions, 675 Orleans, canal of, 680 Orleans, Duke of, rebels against the regent Anne of France, Orleans, Duke of, regent of’ France after the death of Louis X1V. 612 Orleans, Duke of, protests a- gainst a command of Louis XVI. 625. Encourages the ~ revolution, 628. eee. 635 Orleans, forest of, 710 ' Orleans, States. General meet at, 574: Orthes, battle of, 662 Orthes, Viscount, refuses- to massacre the Protestants in Bayonne, 578 Oudenarde, battle of, 610 Oxen generally used in the ee 698. Feeding, &c. 708 . ote, fisheries of, 729 P Paissi, conference of, 574 Palatinate laid waste by the French, 604. Laid waste a-- gain by them, 607° Papal forces defeated by Fran= cis I. 556 Paper, mauufacture of, 721 Papilionaceous plants, 693 Paris, the basin of, 685. Strata of, i. Organic remains in, 686. Blockaded by: Henry IV. 682. IS relieved’ by the Duke of Parma, ib. Its ’ dreadful situation during the faction of the Sixteen, 583. Meeting of the states there in 1593, ib. Peace of, 618. In- fluence of, 644. Insurrection in, 626. Entered by the al- lies, 663. "Surrenders to the British and Prussians, 672 Parliament, change of its con- stitution in the reign of Phi- lip de Valois, 549. Of France banished by Louis XVI. 625, And recalled, ib. Parliaments, origin of, 544 Parma, war of, 564 Parsnips, cultivation of, 702. Partition treaty, 608 Passau, treaty of, 565 Pastures, account of the, 707 Pays d’Aunis, its divisions, 676 Peat earth abundant, 691 People, French, condition, 732. Their character, 736 . 789 Picardy, its divisions, 674 Pilnitz, treaty of, 630 le I. succeeds to the crown, Philip I. his reign, 546. Un. dertakes an expedition to the Holy Land, 546. Prepares to invade England, 547. War apnemeed him and the empire, Philip III. His reign, 548° Philip IV. his reign, ib, Philip V. succeeds ‘his’ prettier; 549 Philip Il. of Spain invades- France, 568. Loses the ad- vantage he obtained by the victory at St Quintin, 568, His reconciliation with the "Pope, 569 Plums, 711 : Poitou, its divisions, 675 Poltrot assassinates the Duke “g Guise, 575. Poor, state of the, 732 Population of Sraleey view of: the, 730. Posts established in France by Louis XI. 552 : piece cultivation of, 701 - Poultry extensively used, 710 Pragmatic ere: war of the, . 613. Prague, siege of, 614 Presburg, treaty of, 646. Property, landed, its state be. fore the Revolution, 695 Protestants of Cabrieres and Me- rindo] massacred, 563. Their state in Germany, 564. In France, measures taken pre- ’ paratory to their persecution, 571. Severely persecuted, 572. Increase in spite of Opposition, ib:- Makeva trea- ty of peace-with: the govern-- ment, 576. Have apprehen- sions of renewed persecution, ib. Defeated at Jarnac, 577: and at Montconcour, ih. Fight bravely in the battle of Jarnac, but are defeated, ib, Make a favourable trea» ty with the- government, ib. Massacre of, on St Bartholo- ' mew’s day, 578. Origin of the famous league against the, 579. Hostilities between them and the Catholics in » 1681, 580. Alarmed by the plans of Mary de Medicis, 590. Finally reduced, 594, Roused again by the Duke of Rohan, but soon crushed, 595. Persecuted by Louis XIV. 607 Provence, its divisions, 676. Coal strata in, 690 Prussia, King of, makes peace with the National Conven- tion, 636. Declares war a- gainst France, 647 Prussians desert Bonaparte, 656. Defeated at Ligny, 671 Pultusk, battle of, 647 Pyrenees, treaty of the, 601. Mountains of the, 677. Geo- logy of the, 687. Rare plants in the, 694. Rotation of crops -in the district of the, 699,. Irrigation in the, 706 . Index; » Index. , 740 Q worm Queen of France executed, 635 Retz, Cardinal de, his character, 599 Revenue and expenditure’of the government, 734 Revolution of France, causes of the, 642, Character of its first movers, 644. Effects of struction of the Protestants, ib. Cabals formed against him, which he ‘defeats, ih. and finally reduces them, 594. His plans to humble Austria, ib. His numerous and ac- tive exertions, 595. Brings Bingent plants, 693 Rivers of France, 678 Rivoli, battle of, 638 _ Rousillon, its divisions, 676 Rouvenis, battle of, 547 Pay abolished in France, Russia, the Emperor of, pre- FRANCE. oare for war with France, 6 Russians, their mode of resist- ing Bonaparte’s forces, 653 Rye, cultivation of, 700 Ryswick, pe ws 608 Saffron, cultivation of, 704 « Sainfoin, cultivation of, 702 St Bartholomew, massacre of, 578. Gives joy to the Pope and the King of Spain, ib. Occasions gloom at the court of England, ib, St Germain en Laye, treaty of, 577 f St Gobin’s, glass manufactory of, 718 St Jean de Luz, battle of, 659 St Quintin besieged by the Spa+ niards, 568. Battle of, ib. Taken, ib. ’ St Sebastian, fall of, 659 Saintonge, its divisions, 676 Salamanca, battle of, 652 Salic law enforced, 549 Salins, salt springs at, 691 Salt, common, 691 Saone, the river, 679 Sardines, fishery of, on the coast of Brittany, 728 Savoy, Duke of, makes war on France, 587. Unsupported, and obliged to make peace, ib. Attempts to seize Man- tua, and is unsuccessful, 591 Sea-coast of France, 679 Sea-salt, 691 Sedan, manufacture of fine cloth at, 717 Seine, the river, 678. The ba- sin of the, 685. Sforza surrenders himself to Francis I. 557 Sheep, breed, &ec. of, 708. E- migration of, 709 Shepherds of France, account of the, 709. Their dogs, ib. Shipping, the, of France at dif- ferent periods, 72% Silver mines, 689 Smolensk, battle of, 654 Soil of France, 680. Divided into five classes as to fertili- ty, 700 Spain, competitors for the throne of, 608, Attacked by Bo- naparte, 648 Spaniards invade France, 597 Spaniards and French enter in- -- Sie little knowledge of the Greek and Latin 3 and his’ t~ ance with classical au was derived pri the works which have been already mentioned, he wrote letters on patriotism and on German literature ; and left behind him in manuscript, Memoirs of his own Time, the el 1740 to ma Peace o; fas y wy History of the War of Seven Year. “a 7) the tb Rest "fron the Peace of Hubersburgh ; w! AA were published after his death. His pi compo-~ sitions, consisting of his on the art of war, with a variety of odes and epistles, are collected under the title of Ouvres melées du Philosophe de Sans Souci. He displayed, in his capacity of a ruler, more of personal ability than of political wisdom. He was constantly * FREDERICK. 753 Frederick. aiming at the aggrandisement of his dominions, which “1 he neyer hesitated to accomplish by the most unpro- voked hostilities and unprincipled usurpations. He devoted, nee the is. Sueuly years of his life to promote the p ity of his subjects; but always inci; of despotism, and 7" subserviency to . In attention to his army, his go- yernment, and the internal policy of his kingdom, he was probably the most indefatigable sovereign that ere existed. ae vigi rm was waren ting: his in- ustry unweari vi epartment vernment was under his own ainedinte aiepecdn - and the most minute particulars did not escape his observation. “He conceived himself capable of every thing, and de- spised the talents of others. His numerous nominal ~ counsellors he never consulted ; and to his various mi- nisters of state he delegated no portion of superintend- ing power ; but he would direct and almost perform “every thing himself. This intermeddling and controul- ing spirit was the great error of his administration ; and rendered many of his financial and commercial amend more icious than profitable to his le. ' Sr taieaerdit oh cn-tn qedieiel pacteatticisrsan iterary “questions ; and made ‘himself the supreme reviewing tribunal in all matters of equity and taste. He intro- duced a kind of military ism into every de- partment ; and “ was constantly working mischief by -working too much.” It was at the head of an army, that his talents to the test advantage ; and he must be wledged to rae accomplished warrior of modern times., He possessed an extensive knowledge of military science ; and is ranked next to Maurice, Prince of Orange, and Gusta- vus Adolphus, as an inventor in the modern. art: of war. He introduced the use of flying artillery, and improved the oblique or ar order of battle, of which he profi y studied the principles, and_skil- fully illustrated the efficacy, in not less than forty-two engagements. He was eminently rang dep by the promptitude and energy with which he executed his plans; and was always sure to prevail wherever active age a could ensure success. , His personal in- idity, his astonishing presence of mind in the mo- a of danger, and his Bisa endurance of hardships and privations, could not be su ; and in all his severest reverses, he discovered a mind that could not be subdued. Yet, with all his great endowments, there was little in his character to make him either amiable as a man, or venerable as a rt Many of his faults may, no doubt, be traced to the despotic senti- ments in which he was educated, and the military ha- bits in which he lived; but there are traits in his cha- racter, which incontestably demonstrate, that his su- ior powers of intellect were united with a radical Fittlenese of mind. - His parsimony, ingratitude, cruel- ty, and injustice, are proved by a thousand instances. He examined every evenin bill of fare for next day’s dinner, squabbling with his domestics about the prices of every article, and paying with his own hands the of his kitchen, stables, &c. He never be- stowed one smile of favour upon the relatives of his friend De Catt, who-had sacrificed himself in his behalf. To the family of the Wrechs, who had befriended him in his imprisonment at the risk of their lives, he neither id the sums which they had pinched themselves to raise for his accommodation, nor distinguished them by any act of patron He broke the heart of his i brother, William Augustus, by harsh usage ; and ruined the health and happiness of. his youngest VOL, IX. PART It. _ Sarcastic raillery e been the most. sister Amelia, by his barbarous persecution of her lover Frederick y, the F Trenck. He lavished, with unfeeling prodigalit blood of his soldiers ; and dismissed in time of his bravest officers, because they were not of noble ex. traction ; though he had invited them to enter the army when he needed their services, He uniformly quar- relled with his most intimate associates ; and often dis« carded, with the harshest injustice, those who had most faithfully spent their lives in his service. He com- manded his favourite Secretary Galser to coin fifteen millions of ducats with an alloy of one-third of base metal ; and, when the matter was discovered, he pu- nished the unfortunate secretary with disgrace and ba« nishment, as the author of the fraud. He treated his literary companions and dependants with insolent familiarity, making them the butts of his ; and, after enco ing them to simi- lar freedoms, suddenly silencing them with his kingly authority, or with the most passionate abuse, and some« times even with kicks and blows. He delighted to in- dulge in the most impious discussions ; and bestowed the highest marks of his favour upon the most atheisti- cal gre meet His general spirit in short was sel- fish and unfeeling; and, though he wished for the: praise of virtue, he was ready to sacrifice every consi- deration to the love of fame, especially to the attain~ ment of military renown. His intellectual powers, how- ever eminent, were at least of that inferior order, which can submit to be guided by profli of principle, and stoop to seek assistance from dishonourable means. His abilities thus often appeared much greater than they were in reality ; because, when wisdom failed, he recourse to wickedness, and accomplished objects which would have baffled others, not because they were weaker, but because they were better men. Such, in fact, is often the chief superiority possessed by those who have received the appellation of Great; a “title, which is the less honourable, that mankind have gener- ally agreed to bestow it, where gratitude was least of all due.” See Gillies’ View of’ the Reign of Frederick II. of Prussia; Tower's Memoirs of the Life and Reign of Frederick of Prussia; Thiebault, Memoires de Frederic le Grand; Johnson’s Memoirs of the King of Prussia ; Baron Bielfeld’s Letters ; Observations on the Military Establishment of the King of Prussia, with an Account of his private Life; the King of Prussia’s Campaigns written by an Officer, and translated from the French ; Anecdotes and Characteristics of Frederick the Great ; Riesbeck’s Travels in Germany ; Thomson’s Military Memoirs ; Voltaire’s Idée du Roi de Prusse, (q) FREE Masonry. See Mysrerins. - FREEZING. See Corp. FRESCO Parntine:. See Painrine. FRIBOURG, or Frisurc, a town of Switzerland, and the capital of a canton of the same name, is situa® . ted partly on. a horizontal plane on the banks of the Sarine or Saane, and’ partly on.the declivity of a ridge of rugged rocks, which form a singular contrast with the walls of the town and the towers of its convents . and-churches, When a stranger ascends the street of the Great Fountain in coming from the Baixs des trois Suisses, he can scarcely persuade himself that he is in the middle of a large town. The fortifications. of Fri- bourg, consisting of lofty walls and towers, are about four miles in circumference,. and inclose a large space, a great part of, which is occupied with ee and or- chards. The descent to the town is on all sides extreme« ly steep, and the street of the Great Fountain forms the roofs of the houses of the Court-chemin. A communica~ 5c i] FRI Fribourg tion is made between the two parts of the town by three 4 Friendly “Islands. bridges, from which there are very picturesque views. The most advantageous stations, from which an idea may ——~— be formed of the extraordinary situation of Fribourg, are ‘ing among their inhabitants, and the courteous the top of Schonenberg ; the meadow situated beyond the crucifix, which is seen in guing out by the gate of Bourguillon ; and the meadow which extends behind the Place @ Armes, near the gate of Romont. The houses of Fribourg, which are raised above each other in regular gradation, are built with a grey sandstone from an adjacent quarry, and are in general neat and well built, though the town has a dull appearance. In the middle of the principal square, is the celebrated limetree, of great size and beauty, which is said to have been planted there in the 22d June 1476, by a soldier, on his return from the battle of Merat. For some years, this venerable tree has been losing its vigour.. The town- house is an ancient edifice, which was built on the spot where the palace of the Dukes of Zubringul formerly stood. The cathedral church, dedicated to St Nicholas, was founded in 1283, Its tower is 356 feet high, being the highest in Switzerland. The bells are reckoned the finest in the country. The ci-devant college -of the Je- suits, situated in the highest part of the town, affords, from its lofty towers, some of the finest and most exten- sive views. The other objects of interest at Fribourg are, the gate of Bourgillon, situated between two preci- pices ; the principal altar of the church of the convent of Augustins ; the great reservoirs situated near the college of Jesuits ; the mill of Motta, opposite to the convent of Maigrange ; and the defile of Gotteron. The cabinet of natural history belonging to M. Fontaine; the library, pictures, minerals, and philosophical mstruments belong- ing to M. Joseph Praroman ; the collection of books and MSS. relative to the history of Switzerland, belonging to M. Ignace Gady ; and the small botanic garden of M, Odet, are worthy of the notice of travellers, There is at Fribourg a seminary of priests ; a gym- nasium ; schools for young persons in the convents of the Ursulines, and the Visitandines, and other inferior schools kept by the Franciscans and the Capuchins. There are 28 public fountains in Fribourg, of which the water is excellent. The inhabitants of the lower town, however, were formerly much. afflicted with the goitre necks, but the disease is now less general. The line of demarcation between. the German and French Janguages passes through Fribourg. The inha- bitants of the lower parts of the town speak German, and those in the higher part French, while the two langua- ges are confounded in the middle of the town. The principal manufactures of Fribourg are hats, ean- dles, beer, earthenware, cotton cloths, &e.. The chief promenades are in the square, planted with limes and in the Place d’Armes. Population 6,000. East Long. 6° 48’, and North Lat. 46° 50. FRIBOURG, ‘Canton or. ‘See‘Switzer.anp. FRICTION. ‘See Mecuanics. FRIEDLAND, Barrie or. See France, p- 648. FRIENDLY Istanps, are situated in the eastern of the Pacific Ocean, and lie between 163° and 21 4°South Latitude, and between 176° 30’ and 185° 50’ East‘Lon- gitude. Their name expresses the firm alliance gubsist- havi- our which they testify towards strangers. Their num- 754) be i fish, old wives, parrot fish, soles, leather jackets, albicores, FRI ber exceeds 150, but the gr part are mere rocks and ° shoals, or barren and desert spots. Nearly one half, however, are of considerable size, but the situation and extent of a few only have been ascertained. Sixty-one are marked on Captain Cook's chart, and t pa peiecipel in formation concerning them is to be found in his es The most important are, Tonga, Tong + wor ae sterdam, discovered by Tasman in 1 $i n 21° 9’ South Latitude, and 175° 1’ West Longitude. It is rather of an oblong form, bearing some tere to an isosceles triangle, stretching in length from east to west, broadest at east end, and about 20 leagues in circumference. It is a low Jand, nearly all of an equal height, never rising more than 80 feet above the level of the sea; and is surrounded by a reef of coral rocks, extending about 100 fathoms from the shore, and break« ing the force of the sea before it reaches the land. A deep lagoon on the north coast, forms a secure and capa« cious harbour with a good bottom, but there is gr scarcity of good fresh water in all these islands. kind of rock appears also to be the basis of the island, as scarcely any other stone is seen either on the coast urin the interior. The rock projects in many places above the surface, but the soil is generally of a considerable depth, and in the cultivated parts is a loose black mould, apparently produced by decayed vegetables. The surface ..at-a distance appears to be clothed with trees of diffe- ‘rent sizes ; but the tufted heads of the cocoa palms pro- duce the most striking effect. The largest tree is a spe- cies of fig; and the most common bushes on the uncul- tivated spots, are the pandanus, saitanoo, and several sorts of hibiscus. Though the climate is more variable than in countries farther within the line of the tropic, yet the foliage is only shed by degrees, every leaf as it falls being succeeded by another ; and th the couns try exhibits little of that landscape beauty, which is pro- duced by a variety of hills and vallies, yet it is well laid out in plantations, and altogether presents the appearance of perpetual spring, and exuberant fertility, It abounds in the richest productions of nature; cocoa nut trees, bread fruit, plantains of fifteen varieties, bananoes, shad- docks, sugar-cane, a kind of plum, fig, and nectarine, yams white and black, the latter of which weigh from 20 to 30 pounds, gourds, Jesuits bark, bamboo, &c. and an innumerable list of uncultivated plants. The only qua- drupeds are hogs, dogs, rats,and small lizards.* The land birds, besides large domestic fowls, are pigeons, turtle- doves, parrots, parroquets, cuckoos, king’s fishers, rails, .coots, fly-catchers, swallows ; large bats, measuring from .three to four feet between the tips of the wings when ex- tended ; a kind of green-coloured thrush, the only sing- ing bird observed in the island; and several smaller birds.. The water fowl are ducks, tropic-birds, herons, noddies, terns, small curlew, and large spotted plover. . Nearly fifty different sorts of insects have been noticed, particularly very large spiders, and the most beautiful . moths and butterflies; and of the reptile tribe, sea -snakes about three fect long, scorpions, centipedes, and guanoes. The variety of fish is not so great as might magined ; and the most common aré mullets, silver botinelos, -eels, pike, and devil fish; but there is great abundance of shell fish about the reefs and shoals, espe- cially huge eockles, pearl shell and some other oysters, * M. Dentrecasteaux was informed in 1793, that the horses’ and cows left by Captain ‘Cook were all dead ; ‘but found that the hogs had been greatly improved by the cross with those of Europe, some of them weighing not less\than 200. poundsy.» F FRIENDLY ISLANDS Friendly (but none of the common sort,) cones, crabs, cray fish, ‘Islands. tie sea curious kinds of star fish. There are no towns on the island, and the houses are built in the midst of separate plantations. These plantations are in- closed by fences of reeds:about six feet high, and these inclosures called Abbeys, frequently contain four or five houses. Smaller spaces round each habitation, are call- ed Ladores. : uci : Sell Eooa, named by Tasman Middleburgh, lies to the south-east of Tongataboo, in 21° 24’ South Latitude, _ and 174° 30’ West Longitude. It is of an oval form, Anna- moka. Hapaece Mayorga about 12 leagues in circuit, of greater height than any of the neighbouring islands, and presents a more varied and delightful. aspect. The coasts are shaded with a variety of trees, among which the houses and plantations are scattered ; but the interior parts are little cultivated, and possess a high degree of natural beauty. The. south- east side rises immediately from the sea with great ine- qualities, and is rather hilly, though not mountainous. The plains and meadows lie towards the north-west, ow are covered with | interspersed with groves o trees at irregular giao with sional dee tions and numerous paths, in every direction, and in beautiful disorder. Thisisland, like Tongataboo, and indeed most of the tropical isles in the Pacific Ocean, is surrounded with coral rocks; but there is good anchorage, called by Cook, English Road, on the north-west side, with conve. nient landing for boats.at all times of the tide. , Annamooka, named’ Rotterdam. by Tasman, lies in 20° 46’ South Latitude; and 185° 12! East. Longitude, It is a small triangular island, each side of which is near- ly four miles in length, and is the most known of a clus- ter called Arbai. . All the rocks and stones are coral except in one place, where a large mass of calcare- ous stone, of a yellowish colour, was observed. . In the centre of the island, is a salt water lake about a mileand a half in breadth, which has no apparent communication with the sea; but there is not a single stream of fresh water to be found in any part of it, and only afew brack- ish springs too small for watering a ship. There is a considerable proportion of waste land on the island ; and -its inhabitants are much affected with a kind of leprosy, or scrofulous disorder, which chiefly attacks the face ; but in its productions, and in other respects, it greatly resembles Tongataboo. Hapaee islands, namely Haanno, Foa, Lefooga, and Hoolawa, lie in 19° South Latimde. They are very low land, extremely similar to each other in appearance, and each of them about six or seven miles in length. Le- foogu, which lies in the centre, is superior in point of cultivation to Annamooka, and many of its plantations are inclosed in such a manner, that the fences running parallel to each other form spacious public roads. These islands are joined to each other by a reef of coral rocks, which are dry at low. water, when the natives can walk on foot from the one to the other, Mayorga, a group of islands about 100. miles north- west of Hapae, were discovered in 1781 by the Spanish navigator Maurelle ; and were visited by, Captain Ed- wards in 1791, who named them Howe’s islands. The Jargest is nearly as extensive as Tongataboo, fertile and well cultivated, affording all the vegetable productions of these latitudes, and particularly stored with the cloth plant. 755 Neootabootaboo, and Kootahé, situated in South Latis tude 15° 55', and 173° 48’ West Longitude, were disco- vered by Schouten and Lemaire in 1616. The former is one of the larger islands in these seas, fertile and populous. They were visited by Captain Wallis in 1767, who call« ed them Keppel’s and Boscawen's islands; and in 1787: by Perouse, with whom the natives traded very fieely,: but had a more ferocious appearance than the more south=: ern islanders. ; Toofoa, or Amattafoa, is situated about 12 leagues: north north-west from Annamooka, and is about five. leagues in circumference. It is thinly inhabited, but was reported to afford excellent water. It is chiefly remark- able as containing a voleano, the smoke of which was seen by Captain Cook at ten leagues distance ; and which was described by the natives of the adjoining islands, as having been observed to ascend without intermission as far back as their memory and traditions could reach. They added, that it sometimes threw up large stones. It was at this island that Captain Bligh, after the mutiny of his crew, attempting with 18 of his people to procure a supply of bread, fruit, and water, was attacked by the na- tives, who killed one man, and wounded. almost: every individual of his company... Three very considerable islands, or rather groups, were described to Captain. Cook, Jarger than any yet mentioned, but they. are still very imperfectly known to Europeans. Their names are Hamoa, Vavaoo, and Fee- jee. Hamao, which is two days sail north-west from Vayaoo, is: said to be the largest of all the islands, afford+ ing safe harbours, good water,. and all the refreshments produced in the other places. Vavaoo, or Afootouou, is the name not of one but of a group of islands, of which little is known, except that they are abundantly stored with hogs. Feejee, which is three days sail from Ton- gataboo, in the direction of north-west by west, and which is surrounded by a cluster of islands, abounds. in hogs, dogs, fowls, and all the fruits and ether vegetables found in these islands. Its breed of dogs are very nu- merous, and from them had been procured the few which were seen at Tongataboo, where they were not introdu- ced till after 1773, and from which they had not,been sent to any of the other islands in 1777. The natives of Feejee * are of a darker colour than those of the other Friendly islands ; more formidable in war, by their dex- terity in the use of bows and slings ; more savage in their manners, especially in the practice‘of eating the enemies whom they kil) in battle ; and more ingenious in their ar- ticles of workmanship, of which Captain Cook saw several specimens ; such as variegated mats, earthen pots, beau- -tifuly chequered cloth, and clubs and spears covered with great ingenuity. These islands of Feejee appear to. be the same which Tasman named Prince William’s Isles, and were explored both by Captain, Bligh in the Provi- dence 1792, and by Captain Wilson in the Duff 1796. They reach northward as.far as 15° 33’ of Latitude, and south to 19° 15’, and lie in 178° West Longitude. Captain Barber in the Snow Arthur, visited the western part of the group in 1794, and was attacked by a num- ber of the natives in canoes, who attempted to board the ship, and wounded several of the crew with their arrows. All these islands which have been described, and all those which form the archipelago named Friendly, are under the government of one king, excepting Feejee, % ‘The most recent account ofthe Feejee islanders, is furnished by an extract from the Sydney Gazette, published in the Scoteh’ Maga, aine for 1810, page 601. Friendly ae Neootaboo~ taboo. ~ Toofoa. Govern - ment. 756 Friendly which is supposed to have become but recently known to Islands. the others, and whose warlike inhabitants, scarcely yet Govern Subdued, are greatly dreaded, and their friendship care- ment. fully cultivated by the other islanders. The capital and seat of government is Tongataboo ; but the king resides decasionally on the other islands, particularly Hamao, the inhabitants of which appeared to be held in great es- timation. The king was said to possess unbounded «u- thority, and to have the absolute disposal of the lives and property of his subjects ; but there appeared rather to be a kind of subordination, similar to the feudal system which formerly prevailed in Europe, as the more potent chiefs acted the part of petty sovereigns among their re- spective followers, and frequently counteracted the mea- sures of the monarch. ‘Tongataboo is divided into nu- merous districts, each of which has its proper chief, who dispenses justice, and decides disputes within his own territory, and who generally possess estates in the other - islands, from which they receive supplies of provisions. This island is called by the natives the Land of Chiefs, while the subordinate isles are stigmatized withthe ap- pellation of Lands of Servants. Its ordinary name also Tongataboo, signifies the Sacred Isle, because it is the residence of the Duatonga, the head of a family, suppo- sed to have come originally from the sky, * and who seems to hold the station of high priest. ‘The king bears the title of Tooe Tonga, according to Cook ; but according to later narratives, Duganaboota. The utmost order and decortim are observed in his presence, and in that of the other chiefs! Whenever he sits down, all the attendants seat themselves before him in the form of a semicircle, leaving a sufficient space between them and him, into which no one, unless he has particular business, presumes to come. When any person wishes to address his ma- jesty, he comes forward, and’ seats himself before him, delivering in a few words what he has to say. In direct opposition to European manners, it is accounted the greatest rudeness for any one'to stand while he speaks to a superior ; and even when the king is walking along, all who méet him must sit down till he has passed. hen it is intended to do homage more directly, either to the sovereign or tlie chiefs, the person who pays the obedi- ence squats down before the supérior, bows his head to the sole of the prince’s foot, which he touches with the under and upper side of the fingers of each hand, and then rising up retires. The crown is hereditary ; but it was mentioned to Captain Cook by the reigning king, that if he were to fail in his duties, the collective body of the chiefs and the people would authorise the comman- der of the forces to depose him, and put him to death. This very ‘prince dying before his son was of age, the sovereignty was wrested out of his family by a powerful chief, after it had continued about 140 years in one line. The king seems to be considered as lord of the soil, and upon him devolves the landed property of ‘every subject at his death ; but it is customary for the sove- reign to grant the estate to the eldest son of the decea- sed, upon condition of providing for the other children. The different classes of the chiefs are very numerous ; but few of them possess extensive districts of territory. They are called by thie people, * the lords of the earth,” and exercise a despotic authority over their respective vassals, The most profound silerice and respectful at- * The missionaries were in like manner called by the natives of T peared to touch the ocean in the distant horizon, and i come through the sky to arrive at their island. FRIENDLY ISLANDS. tention are observed, when any of them addresses a body Friendly of their dependants; and ns of dissatisfaction Islands - pen no symptoms or disobedience were ever perceived the latter, Every ——_ their possession is sictinden belong« ing to the chief, who takes from them without ceremony. whatever he may need. However scanty their supply of provisions, they are required to cook a: portion of it for his use; and, in a time of scarcity, he often:sends his attendants round the district, with orders, for a certain quantity to be prepared in.a limited time, which he stores up for himself and his household, while the wretched _ people are reduced to subsist on the coarsest roots, or to beg back a little of their own fruits, to keep them from starving. Nor do the lower classes merely labour for themselves and their respective chiefs, but are free quently sent, as a species of tax or tribute from their lords, to work on the lands of the sovereign ; and, inad« dition to all these arbitrary exactions, they are treated by their superiors with the utmost harshness and brutality. The inhabitants of the Friendly islands acknowledge Retigion. a supreme divinity residing in the heavens, and directs ing the elements ;. but worship at the same time a plurality of deities, each of whom has a peculiar admi- nistration, one presiding over the wind, another over the sea, another over the rain, &c. They ascribe earthquakes to the motions of a giant, who supports their island on his shoulders ; and, as. they imagine the shaking to be occasioned. by his becoming drowsy, they hasten to shout as loudly as possible, and to beat the ground with sticks, in order to rouze him, lest by his stumbling through sleep, he should throw the island from his shoulders. Each district also worships its appropriate god; and even every individual is supposed to have a particular spirit attending him, who sends afilictions and maladies when he is displeased, and, when. irreconcileable, occa sions death itself... To render him propitious, the rela- tions or dependents of the patient frequently wound them- selves, or cut off their little finger, and sometimes even ‘some of his wives, children, or domestics, are put to death. They consider the power of their deities.as con- fined to the present life, and their evil deeds as meeting always with punishment upon earth, Hence they em- ploy every method to render them. propitious, applying to them for a continuance of plenty, and supplicating their aid in time- of suffering. They solemnly implore the blessing of the supreme divinity when they plant their crops, and express their gratitude when they gather them. Hence there is an annual assembly of the chiefs of Ton- gataboo, and of all the neighbouring islands, at the dwel- ling of Duatonga, the high priest, to offer the first fruits of their fields to him, as the minister and representative of the god who causes fertility. They do not appear to worship any visible part of creation, or any idols formed by their own hands; nor do they offer any animal vic- tims, although on certain occasions they sacrifice human beings. : : They have no priests, but every man presents his own offering. They discover a wonderfully just idea of the immortality of the soul, and in some degree also of :its immaterial nature. They believe, that, immediately af- ter the death of the body, the souls of the chiefs are swiftly conveyed to a distant island, where are no longer subject to death, where every kind of is spon« . “ The men of the sky ;”” because observing that the sky ap- knowing that they came from a great distance, they concluded that they must have FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 757 tandcusly produced, and where they ‘enjoy perpetual’ before his house, a stranger passing by’ will sit down. Friendly \. peace and abundance, under the protection of the sus among them without ceremony, and expect a share of _[slands. —“Y~"" preme divinity. ‘The lower. élasses,- howévet,- are sup- the meal, siedtinnaeptatanae posed'to have no share ‘in this future bliss; and seldom ~‘The houses of the natives are- constructed with little. Habita- ingenuity or taste, and are, properly speaking, nothing tions. ng these superstitious practices, may be mentioned the“ taboo,” although it may probably be nothing more than a political regulation. The word is used with. great latitude of meaning, but seems to signify “prohibited,” or set apart from common use. A house becomes tabooed by the king’s presence, and can no longer be inhabited by the owner ; and hence there are 'y houses provided in every quarter for the use of his majesty. A space of ground may be ta- booed, and all persons are then interdicted from passing overit. Any article of food may be tabooed by the offi- cer who has the proper authority, so as to be withdrawn from use for agiventime. By assisting at a funeral, or consid deutitendidy the hands are tabooed, and can- not be employed in taking and is applied to the ki is called Eree-taboo, to the residence of the king of the Friendly Islands, Tonga-taboo, * - + - As cultivated roots and fruits form the chief subsist- ence of these islanders, they are all employed in hus- bandry, in which they have attained a considerable de- gree of skill. Their plantations are generally surround- dispersed without any order, and soon require little até tention; the sugar-cane, which is usually crowded into small spots, without any order; the mulberry, from which cloth is made, which is allowed an open space, and kept very clean; the pandanus, planted in close rows at the sides of the fields; the yams and plantains, which are put into'the ground with great exactness, so as ‘to form squares in every direction. The instruments used for the purpose are nothing more than wooden stakes, flattened and sharpened at one end ; and sometimes the largest have a short piece fixed transversely, by means of which press the implement into the ground with the foot. With these stakes they make small holes for the reception of the roots, and then dig up the surrounding grass. Notwithstanding, however, the fineness of the climate, and the fertility of the soil, there generally oc- curs a period of scarcity before the gathering of the new fruits, which may be owing to the improvidence of the natives, the deficiency of the produce, or the difficulty of preserving it; and sometimes to the prevalence of in- surrections, preventing cultivation, so as often to pro- duce an actual famine. Though there is no community of goods among them, it is the custom to apply freely for provisions to those who have plenty; and it would be accounted a gross breach of hospitality to refuse, while any stores remain- ed. Should any one be sitting with his family at meat more than thatched toofs or sheds, supported by posts and, rafters: ~The floor is raised with earth, smoéothed and levelled, and covered with thick matting. |. Some of them are open on-all sides, but generally they are enclosed om the weather side with strong: mats, or branches of the cocoa-nut tree interwoven with each other. » A thick mat, about three feet: broad, bent into a semicircular form; placed edgewise, and sometimes fastened to the beams, encloses a ‘space as a bed-room for 'the master of the fa- mily and his wife ; while the rest sleep upon any part of the floor, the unmarried men and women lying in differ+ ent places ; and if the household is large, there are little huts adjoining for the children and servants. . The: habi« tations of the lower class are only wretched hovels, scarces ly sufficient to shelter them from the weather; but those of the chiefs are more comfortable and commodious, their ordinary dimensions being about 12 feet in height, 20 in breadth, ‘and 30 in length. The house of the second chief in Tongataboo was 50 feet in length, and of an oval form. One large and lofty post was fixed in the centre, and an oval ring of lesser ones were planted round it at equal distances, forming the sides of the building. Upon those posts, layers were fixed, and from these, rafs ters were extended to the pillarin the middle, thus unite ing the wliole edifice. The inside of the roof wasyornas mented with beautiful matting, which was protected by an outer thatch of plantain branches, interwoven like bas« ket work. In rainy weather, screens of matting, made of the cocoa tree, were fastened to the outer posts, but the door-way was left open night and day. The floor was covered with beautiful matting, of so close ‘a texture as to be impervious to insects. The furniture generally consists of some wooden stools, which are used as: pil- lows ; two or three wooden bowls for holding their fa« vourite liquor kava ; baskets of different sizes, into which they put their tools ; fish-hooks, &c.;'a bundle ‘or two of cloth, a few gourds, and cocoa-nut shells. They discover more ingenuity in the construction and Canoes. ornaments of their canoes, which are the most perfect of their mechanical productions, and which surpass in neats ness of workmanship all others in the South Sea. They are built of several planks of the bread-fruit tree, sewn together with ¢ocoa-nut line in so neat. a manner, that they appear on the outside as if they were composed of one solid piece. The fastenings are all on the inside; and pass through kants or ridges, wrought on purpose on the edges and ends of the different boards. They are of two kinds, double and single. The single canoes are from 20 to 30 feet in length, about 22 inches broad in the middle, and 18 inches deep, with the head resem-- bling the point of a wedge, and the stern terminating in a blunter point. At each end is a kind of deck, extend- ing one third of the whole length ; but they are open in. the middle. They have all out riggers, and are some- times navigated with sails, but more generally with pad- dles, the blades of which are short, and broadest in the middle, The double canoes are composed of two vessels, about 60 or 70 feet long, 4’or 5 broad in the middle, and 3 deep, exclusive of the deck. These are fastened together, about six or seven feet asunder, by strong cross beams, secured by bandages to risings on the open mide 5 Friendly Islands. < , 758 dle spaces, and over these is laid a boarded platform. They are rigged with one mast, with a form, which can easily be raised or taken down ;.and are navigated by a latteen or a triangular sail of mat, ex- tended by a long yard, a little bent or crooked. ,On the platform is generally erected a little shed or hut for the master and his family ; and these frequently contain a: moveable fire-hearth, composed of a shallow _ square trough, filled with stones. These vessels are capable of carrying about 50 persons, and sail ‘at a great rate. They are fitted both for burden and distant navigation, and can scarcely sink in any circumstances, so long as they hold together, The only tools which they possess are hatchets or adzes of a smooth black stone; augers made of shark's teeth; rasps composed of a rough fish-skin fastened on flat pieces of wood ; and knives made of sharp shells ; yet with these defective instruments they produce many ar= ticles of neat and curious workmanship, which at once testify their ingenuity and patience. Their weapons, such as clubs, spears, and darts, are made of hard wood, ‘curiously carved and ornamented. Their stools or pillows, which are made of brown or black wood, are finely polished, and frequently inlaid with ivory. Their cordage is made of the fibresiof the cocoa- nut husk, from which they form four or five-inch rope, laid exactly like those. of Europe ; and fishing lines as strong and even as the best cord. Their small hooks are made entirely of pearl shell, but the larger ones are only covered with it on the back ; and the points of both kinds are generally of tortoise-shell. They have small nets of the most delicate texture; and their baskets, made of the same cocoa-nut fibres, are at once durable and beau- tiful, being generally composed of different colours, and studded with beads made of shells or bones, Their ma- nufacture of cloth and mats, which is the chief employ- ment of the women, is executed with wonderful skill. The cloth is made from the slender stalks and trunks of the paper-mulberry, which rarely grows above seven feet in height, and four fingers in thickness. » From these stalks they strip the bark,’ which, after scraping off the exterior rind, they roll up and macerate in water. It is then beaten with a square wooden instrument, sometimes smooth, and sometimes full of coarse grooves. This operation. is frequently repeated ; and the pieces, which are generally from four to seven feet in length, and half as broad, are then laid out to dry. These pieces are.join- ed together with the glutinous juice of a berry, and, be- ing then placed over a large piece of wood with a sort of stamp beneath them, are rubbed hard with a bit of cloth dipped in the juice of some bark, which gives to.the sur- face a dry brown gloss, while the stamp at the same time makes a slight impression. This glazing renders the stuff both more durable, and capable of resisting rain, The finer sorts, in addition to this operation, are dyed of different colours, and stamped of different patterns, In this manner they proceed, joining and staining, and gluing spare bits upon any holes or thin spots, till they ve produced a piece of cloth of the requisite length and breadth. The mats are of seven or eight different sorts, and excel those of most other countries both in,texture and beauty. Some are intended merely for ornament, and are made from the tough membranous part: of the plantain tree; others are worn as a part of dress, and are generally prepared from the pandanus ; and a coarser 1 FRIENDLY ISLANDS. kind for beds and sails is formed from a plant called evarra. id 4 Biba hen nal The food of these islanders consists principally of ve getables, such as cocoa nuts, bread-fruit, plantains, yams, and tarros, a root resembling a carrot. . Their chief ar~ ticles of animal food are hogs, fish, and fowls, which are, however, only occasional dainties, reserved for persons of rank; but the common frequently eat rats, which abound in all the islands. Their food is generally. dressed by baking, and they make several palatable dishes from different sorts of fruit. imes boil’ their fish in the green leaves of the plantain tree, tied up so as to form a bag, which holds both the fish and the water, thus producing a kind of fishsoup. Hogs are ge~ nerally baked whole, in holes dug in the earth, having the bottom covered with red hot stones about the size of aman’s fist. Some of these stones, wrapped in leaves of the bread-fruit trees, being at the same time introduced into the belly of the hog, and the carcase having been placed on cross sticks, and covered with leaves, the whole is closed around with earth, and left, without farther-at« tention, wo the influence of the Neat. They are not-very cleanly, either in their cookery or manner of eating ; and, except in families, seldom sit down in companies to a so« ciable meal. Their usual drink at meals is water, or the milk of the cocoa nut ; but they use at breakfast, orvas a morning beverage, a favourite liquor named kava, which: is prepared in a manner sufficiently disgusting to Eu- ropean feelings. The kava is a species of pepper, which is carefully cultivated around the habitations, and which generally grows to the height of a man. The-root of this plant, after being properly cleaned, is split into small pieces, which are distributed among the young people who have clean teeth, to be chewed. Each of these has a leaf placed before him, on which he lays his portion of the masticated root; atid, when it is all chewed, the cons tents of the leaves are emptied into a large bowl. It is then mixed. with a proper quantity of water, and,squeezed hard with the hands, to préss out the liquor’; then. put three or four times t h a fine strainer, made of the inner bark of a tree. It is ncxt served out in, cups, made of plantain leaves, and about.a quarter of a pint is put into each ;.but they often continue to drink in con- siderable quantities. When taken by some of Captain Cook’s sailors, it operated like spirits, producing. intoxi- cation, or rather stupefaction ; but seemed to have very little effect upon the natives. The ordinary dress of both. sexes of the better. class eonsists of a, piece. of’ cloth or matting, several yards in length, wrapped round the body, and fastened below the breast by a peculiar kind: of knot, from which it hangs loose. down to the knees ;- and, being tied close with a belt, is sufficiently long for the upper part.to be thrown over the shoulders. This, however, is a costly dress, and is not always worn even by the. chiefs. That which is more generally in use, is made of the leaves of the gee plant, which are very broad and strong, and which, being finely shredded, are thickly entwined in a belt; and fas- tened round the waist, from which they hang down to the middle of the thigh like a full fringe. This, with the addition of a few strings of flowers, is: commonly, the - sole dress of the women in their festive dances.. The inferior class, however, often wear only the maro, which is a belt about four or five inches broad, passed between the thighs, and fastened round the waist; and, especially Islands. Fool.” Dress. Friendly Islands. PRIENDLY/ ISLANDS! en, in war, in fishing, or any active occupa~ this covering composes the ‘whole of their dress. and women occasionally defend their faces sun with little bonnets, made of different mate- The ornaments, also, as well as the dress of both is the same, and consist chiefly of necklaces made ‘the fruit of the pandanus, and various odoriferous or of small shells, sharks’ teeth, the wing and of birds pendant on the breast ; rings of tor- toise-shell on the fingers, and several of these joined to- gether, forming bracelets, on the wrists; a polished mo- -of-pearl shell, or a ring, on the upper part of the arm ; and cylindrical bits of ivory, or of reed stuffed with a yellow pigment, as ear-rings. They dye their hair of different colours, brown, purple, or orange, and wear itin a great variety of ways, sometimes growing to REESE He iz z d the other, sometimes entirely cut away except a single lock on one side, or on the top of the head.. The beard is cut short, and sometimes shaved close with sharp shells. Both sexes pluck the hair from their arm-pits, and anoint their especially the head and shoulders, with cocoa-nut oil, women ruv a fine yellow powder like turmeric over the whole of their bodies, and have a few blue lines tattooed on the inside of their hands.. The men are stained or punctured with these lines and figures from the middle of the belly half way down the thighs ; and are also partially circumcised, or rather supercised, by cutting off the upper part of the foreskin, They are all peo deck cleanly in their persons, and bathe fre- quently in the ponds, which they prefer to the sea, as they reckon the salt water injurious to the delicacy of their skin. Polygamy prevails among the Friendly islanders with- out any apparent limits ; and-the power of divorce seems to be equally unrestrained. Every man may take as many wives as he can maintain ; and also dismiss them when he pleases. The part of the commonalty content themselves with one ; but the chiefs have gene rally from four to eight. The young women have no liberty of choice in their matrimonial connections, but are disposed of by the fathe: or his representative. They pride themselves much upon their virginity ; and, as.a token of that state, wear their hair uncut till they are married. The daughters of the chiefs are, from. their birth, placed under the care of women, who may be cal- led duennas ; and, even after marriage, similar. atten- dants are provided by the husband. The forms of courtship and marriage ere sufficiently simple. The intending husband makes known his wishes. to the pa- rents of the other party, sending at the same time a. pre- sent of provisions. If the present is accepted, whichis not always done at the first offer, his proposal is consi- dered as favourably received ; the affair is then commu- nicated to the daughter, who, having no power, never attempts to refuse. Upon a day being fixed, the bride is brought in her best apparel, at the head of a large company of females, one of whom, taking her by the hand, places her by the side of the bridegroom; who is waiting with his friends before his house to receive her ; and the ceremony concludes. with a feast and, a dance. "59. Sometimes’ marriages are contracted, like the Jewish Friendly espousal, many years before the consummation of the nuptials. Where there are several wives, the children take the rank of their respective mothers ; and, in all Domestic cases, probably owing to the frequency. of divorce, and life. of illicit intercourse, family dignity descends through the female. Their mode of domestic life, especially among the chiefs, is much after the patriarchal. form ; and the younger and inferior branches surround the head. of the family in one household, and in the greatest har« mony. There is much- social intercourse among. the members, of the family, especially in the evenings, when they’ retire to their matti which is commonly done about seven o'clock ; but instead of then going to sleep, they are accustomed to converse till ten or eleven with much cheerful pleasantry and shrewdness of remark ; and so fond are they of chatting in this familiar manner, that, should one chance to awake during the night, and find another in the same predicament, they will renew. the conversation for.an hour, and perhaps. rouse, some of the rest to join in it. Yet, with all this freedom of intercourse, there is a strict observance of proper re« specty-and even of ceremonious politeness ; and the beha« viour and language of the higher classes are thus refined and improved above the lower, in the same proportion as in civilized countries. * This may be exemplified by the orderly manner in which the household of a chief is arranged and served at. breakfast, which consists in drinking kava, and eating baked yams, &c. and is ta« ken at day-break, as soon as the family rise from bed. The company forms. a large circle, sitting cross-legged before the chief, on each side of whom stand the princi« pal servants to direct the preparation of the kava, by ~ the younger persons, while the rest of the company are silently forming their temporary cups of plantain leaf. Persons appointed to the office, then rising from the cirg cle, approach the bowl with those plantain’ vessels; and when the distributor of the liquor has filled one of them, — he asks, «* whose kava is this?” The principal domes< tic replies, * take it to such a one;” and the person, whose name is pronounced, claps his hands, as a signal to the waiter where to convey it.. These waiters conduct themselves in the most becoming and regular manner, arranging their apparel with the greatest neatness, walk- ing with all possible grace, and presenting the cups with ceremonious politeness. Other servants, during the pre- paration of the kava, are busily employed in baking the yams, which are brought in as soon as the liquor is dis- tributed, and placed before. the company, who eat, their portion, and talk together as they please ; and,-in all the different steps of the process, the word of command is given and observed with an exactness and attention resembling a regiment at parade, At this entertain« ment they often continue from day-break to noon, and then lie down and sleep two or three hours. It is a fae vourite luxury of the principal. people, to have their bo-« dies and limbs, while they are asleep, thumped or beaten with.the fists of women, who relieve each other during the operation. After rising, they proceed, like too many of the higher, ranks in most countries, to contrive amuse ment)for the day. 5 ‘ * Their manner of bestowing a present, as Mentioned by the English Missionary, who resided among them at Tongataboo, shews a high degree of refinement, and may be idered as a parallel to.the complimentary style ofthe Orientals. ** If he sent me a pig, _them, for Mulk Aamair’s sake, to accept of.it,” Compare 1 Sam. ixv. 27 those who brought it would say, they had brought a pig, but it was very small, and intended for the, servants, if I, would permit Friendly Islands, Amuse- ments, 760 One of their most favourite amusements is bathing, in which they generally indulge two or three times a day ; and they have different water games, in which both sexes join. ‘Two posts are fixed about a hundred distance from each other, in a depth of water about four feet; and the company, dividing into two parties, a large stone is placed between them: »'The contest ‘is, which side shall first drag the stone to their own post ; and the divers generally remain a considerable time struggling around the stone, at the bottom of the water. Another bathing diversion consists in going out at high water, when the sea rolls in on their flat shores with great force, and then ride in on the swell, steering them- selves on the top of the wave with the utmost dexterity, stretching out one hand like a prow, and guiding them- selves with the other like a rudder. When a ‘spectator would apprehend that they must infallibly be dashed lifeless on’ the beach, they will turn on one ‘side with surprising agility, and darting through the ‘next: wave, swim out to sea to renew the sport; or, if tired of the amusement, will shoot through the refluent surge, and Jand in perfect safety. ‘another favourite diversion, ese pecially of the chiefs, is rat shooting. The cocoa nut roasted and chewed, is strewed by the servants near the holes of these animals; and the sportsmen take their stand with bows and arrows. By making a squeaking noise like that of the rats, they entice them to come out, and, while they are feeding on the nuts, they take aim alternately, and whosoever kills most in the same num- _bver of shots wins the game. Wrestling and boxing matches furnish another source of entertainment ; in both of which exercises they have been’ generally conquerors, when engaged with Europeans, and are particularly re- markable for the good’ humour’ which they preserve when worsted. » Though a very active people, they fre- quently spend whole days in luxurious indolence, walk- ing among’the plantations, or collecting in one another's houses for the sake of conversation ; but these:more se- dentary days are generally concluded by dancing ‘and singing, which is their most favourite amusement. The chief sends through his district, collecting about 40 or 50 young persons, ‘of both sexes, to ‘dance by toreh light with his regular attendants. The women, on these oc- casions, are clothed with a thin drapery, having their necks and shoulders encircled with wreaths of flowers, and their dark ringlets bespangled with the whitest and most aromatic blossoms. Their dances are said to be beautifully diversified, and to be performed by compa- nies of eighty or a hundred, with the greatest prompt- ness, regularity, and gracefulness of movement. This amusement is frequently continued till midnight, and sometimes till morning, ‘one set retiring to rest, while another rises to dance. It is their great pastime on all occasions, and pers concludes even their ceremonies of mourning. It is however too often performed with little regard to decency, and is generally an incentive to the most licentious excesses. Their music is very sim- ple and pleasing, but extremely monotonous. (Their songs are lively and ‘melodious ; but their instruments are very defective. One, composed of unequal sized reeds, resembles Pan’s"pipe. Another is a flute of bami- boo, about 18 inches in length, closed at both extremi- ties, with a hole near to each end, and four others in the middle. Into this instrument-they blow with one nos- tril instead of the mouth, and, with’ only three notes, produce a pleasing simple music. The principal instru« FRIENDLY ISLANDS: | ment is a kind of drum, formed of a log of wood, hollows ed throughout with a long narrow aperture, laid length. wise upon two solid pieces, and beaten with bamboos of different lengths, so as to yield a sound accordi ; Seiwateek: eo en ama have a variety of ceremonies to express their ief for the dead; but they are of such a fatiiresiithat and fanseat it is difficult to decide, whether they give. r proof rites. of humanity or barbarity. When any of them dies, he is wrapped up in mats and cloth, and interred in burying places called Fiatookas. These are large inclosed “spas ces, having in the middle a lofty Rnebil ile, of a pyras midal form, around which the bodies of the chiefs,. (for the inferior people have no particular spot’ of interment are collected for many ‘generations, and e | style of rude but solemn dignity. When the deceased is a person of distinction, some of his wives, or other rea lations, are strangled at the moment that his corpse is deposited ; and the nearer relatives, in every case, in- flict upon themselves many bloody marks of sorrow. The most common way of testifying grief, is ‘to strike their faces and breasts with thei chai pas any uf them have scars on their cheek bones,” Abtiig a:chele produced'by burning, occasioned by the frequent’ abra- sion of the skin. At other times they strike a shark's tooth into their foreheads, beat their teeth with’ stones, and even thrust Spears through their cheeks, or into their sides and ‘thighs. Around the graves of theit kings and principal chiefs, they often mangle one ano« ther in a kind of bacchanalian frenzy, of which 'the fol lowing account is given by one of the missionaries, who resided lately among them for several years, “ The space round the tomb was, on this occasion, a palestra for savage gladiators. Hundreds ran about it with fero- cious emulation, to signalize their grief for the venerated chief, or their contempt of pain and death, by inflicting on themselves the most ghastly wounds, and exhibiting spectacles of the greatest horror. ‘Thousands, ere the period of mourning was over, fought with each other, and cut themsélves with sharp instruments. It was an awful scene indeed! Night after night we heard, for some weeks, the horrid sound of the conchshell rousing these deluded creatures to these dreadful rites of mourn- ing for the dead ; and shrieks and clashing arms, and the rushing and: violence of the multitude, re-echoed round our abode, and rendered it a scene of continual horror and alarm.” : The natives of the Friendly Islands stature the common size of Europeans ; and are generally strongly built and well proportioned in their figure, their shoulders are broad, and their whole form conveys the idea of strength rather than of beauty. ‘They have good eyes and teeth, and are free from that uncommon thick« ness about the lips, which is found among the inhabi- tants of the other islands in the Pacific. ‘Their hair is thick, straight, and strong, though sometimes bushy | and frizzled ; and its natural colour is black,’ but many of them stain it of a white, brown, purple, or orange hue. There is obscrvable among them a great variety of features, many Roman profiles and E ‘faces ; and the only general likeness which characterises them, is a fulness at the point of the nose. The general co- lour of their skin is a cast deeper than copper) brown ; but several of them have a true olive complexion. The greater part of the people have a dull hue, and a d of roughness on the surface of the body, especially where seldom exceed in Natives. & eho li FRI 761 FRI ¢ it is uncovered ; but, in the hi » there i iti ; catachs i. t ae Sees isa essing woniaere wits Milded em naling a child ‘tartar’, Paasiend- utmost mildness and good nature is depicted on their countenances ; and they preserve a degree of self-com« mand in their conduct, very unusual in the state. They are, at the same time, chearful, open, and good humoured ; and the females particularly are unusually merry and talkative. They were described, in short, by their first European visitors, as a le not only adorn- ed by all'the virtues, but also as possessing many of the most estimable qualities of human nature; but more recent information proves them to be capable of the most feroctous cxeoccos, and overturns all the decla- mations, founded upon their character, in favour of unci- vilized society. In their wars, particularly, they present all the features of barbarians ; and the fiercest savages of America are not more merciless towards hostile tribes, than these Friendly islanders are to one another in their intestine commotions. . One of the common, modes of warfare among them is to “ lootang,” as they express it, that is to come upon the adverse party by surprise, to massacre in secret, to carry off plunder, to cut down the plantains and cocoa-trees, and to commit every species of devastation. Women, children, and prisoners, are mur- dered without merey ; and the dead bodies, after being exposed to the most bruta] indignities, are roasted and devoured with voracious satisfaction. Their cruelties are perpetrated with the most wanton levity ; and more than ordinary barbarism was witnessed by one of the ish missionaries, who had adopted their customs, joined in their expeditions. * Speetacles too shock- ing for humanity to contemplate,’ soon sickened my sight, and sunk my spirits: I beheld, with’shaking hor- ror, large stacks of human bodies piled‘ up, by being Jaid transversely upon each other, as a monumental tro- phy of the victory. Proceeding a little farther, a horrid spectacle shin Toes my blood, It was a woman in a WOL, IX. PART 1. - attitude.” breast, as in the act of suckling it. Upon approachin them, I found both the Sa at child « cold and sti with ates rin killed them while in this posture, and in their ‘savage rev in amusin themselves with Sane the dead bodies in this affecting In the course ‘of the civil war to which this extract refers, several of the missignaries stationed in Tongataboo were cruelly butchered, while harmlessly looking upon a victorious party, who were passing their habitation ; and while the facts above related clearly shew how unadvisable it is to establish Christian teachers where their persons rice sigh lawless violence, they prove, at the same time, how much the humanizing ins fluence of their doctrines is needed, by those who have been most highly extolled as the inoffensive children of nature. See Cook’s Second Voyage round the World, 4to. | vol. i, p. 211; Cook’s last F eooat round the World, vol. i. p, 141, 267, 285; Authentic Narrative of four years residence at Tongataboo ; Wilson's Missionary Vi nes tr the Ship Duff... (q) -ERIESLAND, West, in ancient times called Frisia, one of the seven united provinces, is bounded’ on the north by the German Ocean ; on the south by Overyssel and the Zuyderzee ; on the west by the Zuyderzee; and on the east by Ommeland, Drenthe, and Overyssel. » It lies between 52° 45/ and 53° 30’ of North Latitude, and between 5° 8’ and 6° 5’ East Longitude from Greenwich ; extending from 10. to 13 leagues from north to south, agd nearly the same distance from west to east. It is divi- ded into four quarters ; namely, Oostergo, Westergo, Zevenwolde or Seven Forests, ‘and the islands on the north coast. It contains about 100,000 inhabitants ; and sends five of the, 55 representatives, who compose the assembly of the states-general. Oostergo, the north« east quarter, is divided into 10 districts ; Leeuwerderdeel containing 14 villages ; Ferwerderodeel containing 11 ; ‘West Dongerdeel 14; Kollumerland 6;. East Donger« deel 14; Dantumadeel 12 ; Tzetjerksteradeel 15 ; Small~ engerland 7 ; Idaarderadeel 8; Aauwerderahem 6. Wes- tergo is divided into nine districts ; Het-bilt, containing 9 villages ; Harlingen 8 ; Wonseradell 27 ; Waterland 9; Wymbritzerdeel 28; Hennarderdeel 12; Baardere deel 16; Menaldumerdeel 12; and Franekerdeel. 11. Zevenwolde is divided into 10 districts ; Gaasterland.con= taining. 8 villages ; Haskerland. containing 7 ;, Utingers deel 7; Doniawerstal 14: Opsterland 13 ; Angwirden 5; Schoterland 18; Stellingwerf-Oosteinde 10; Stelling. werf-Westeinde 20 ; and Lemsterland 5. The largest.of the islands on the north, coast of the province is Ameland, which is about four leagues in length, and one in breadth, and. contains» several villages; Hols lum, Ballum, Nes, &c. - The principal ‘towns: im Fries« land are situated on the north-west coast, namely, ‘Leeu- warden, the capital of the province, a well built town, about 25 leagues N: E. of Amsterdam, and containing 2000 inhabitants; Franeker, a small but handsome trading town, the seat of an university, and about leagues west of Leeuwarden ; Harlingen, a fortified an populous place, with a convenient harbour, byt of dif ficult access, about 20 leagues north-north-west of Am-« sterdam, and containing 7000 inhabitants ; Dockum, an ancient and neatly built trading town, situated in a fine corn country, containing 3000 inhabitants, and about four leagues north-north-east of Leeuwarden ; Bolswert, 5D _ 4 veel ” 762 ii of baize or light woollen stuffs, containing 2000 inha- hitants, and about 44 leagues south-west of Leeuwar- den; Workum, a small open town, surrounded by a ditch, and celebrated as the birth-place of Lambert de Bos, about 7 miles south-west of Bolswert; Staveren, anciently the residence of the Frisian kings, now an inconsiderable place in. a. marshy country, near, the south-west point, of the province, and about. 7 leagues south of Harlingen ; and Slooten, a small, but regular, and trading town, surrounded by. lakes, and. 4, leagues east of Stavereme oop iin oy po oat toa! , The ancient inhabitants of. Friesland ‘were: distin- guished by the obstinate defence which they made of their liberty, against the power of the Roman emperors, and by their repeated attempts to shake off the yoke of their conquerors. After the death of Drusus, by whom they had been compelled to submit, and after having been 40 years in subjection, they expelled the Romans from their province, and even made encroachments on the territories of the empire. ‘Their ambassadors re- paired, with the utmost boldness, to the court of Nero ; asserted in his presence that they were excelled by uu nation in equity and valour ; \professed’ their’ desire to live in friendship with the Romans, but not’ in subjec- tion; and even demanded a place in the publie thea- tres, to which they understood they had a right as am- bassadors. . Though driven back by the Romans, and obliged to confine themselves within their ancient boun- daries, they continued for:a long series of years to main- tain their independence asa state; but, towards the decline of the empire, they fell under the dominion of the Franks, About the beginning of the 8th century, Adalgise, who is considered as the first Christian, ki of Friesland, refused to pay homage to the Franks, an a war ensued... Radbode, his son, was defeated, by Pe- pin ;. but so recommended himself by his valour to. the esteem of the conqueror, that he received, his daughter in marriage. Charles Martel, afterwards attempting to reduce the Frieslanders, was routed with great slaugh- ter, and Jeft them for a time unmolested. Returning, however, with a numerous army, and wearing them out by a succession of bloody battles, he compelled them at length to acknowledge his superiority, but not his sovereignty. Under Charlemagne they were still far- ther subdued, and obliged by pay an annual tribute of thirty pounds of ‘silver, As now a proyince of the Franks, the country was governed wy counts or lieute~ nants, with the title of Potestas or Podestad ; but, un- der their first governor Forteman the Great, they ren- dered such essential services against the Saxons, that Charlemagne exempted them from every mark of ser- vitude, and left them free to choose their own form of government. » They made no alteration, but continued Forteman in his office. About the middle of the ninth century, the province» was repeatedly ravaged by the Normans and the Danes; but'the valour of the people finally prevailed, and cleared their coasts of every in- vader. In the year 935, William, Earl of Holland and King of the Romans, bestowed many valuable privi- leges upon the inhabitants of Friesland, in hopes. of ing their affections, and persuading them to ac- nowledge his sovereignty. But the Podestad Sier- dama, fepported by a powerful body of his country- men, d that they would never betray their coun- try to Bratify an. emperor, and struck a medal expres- sive of their determination to be free. This was con- strued as an affront by William, who twice led his ar- my into the province, and was slain in his second ex~ _ FRIESDAND. Friesland. g small but ancient town, celebrated for its manufacture ray pedition: One of the most warlike of the Friesland Friesland. ‘odestads was Martena,.from whom many of the noble ““~" families in the province trace their descent, This ac- tive chief baliane. a exertions -e the Hollanders to a puhanneinen cif stzins 4 ie wekatmhesmedats sha toe aicion the invaders. After his.death, the election of a suecessor rise to two mulevcleraenes mere euaeeniene> _ the coun« try with.confusion,; i er wi pressure of a war with Albert of eg reduced the province to so low a state, that several persons to accept the office of Podestad. At length, to. please both par- ties, He Rovere dg eae yan’ ue each fac- tion; but this measure, instead of prom reconci i. liation, served only to aggravate their arlehpce till at last they had recourse to arms, and seemed to be bent only upon extirpating one another. These dis- sensions reduced Friesland to the verge of destruction, and were the means of its becoming subject, in 1417, to Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. At the termina- tion of a long war between Joan of Bavaria, and Phi- lip the Good ‘of Burgundy, the province of Friesland was gained by the houec uf Dourbon. It became sub- ject afterwards to the house of Austria ; and never re- covered its freedom till the general revolt in the Ne- therlands gave birth to the republic of the United States,:of which, since that period, it has formed one of the seven provinces. The inhabitants are said still to retain that ardent love.of freedom, by which their ancestors: were so distinguished, with ma of their ancient customs and modes of living. E their dialect and accent are said to be peculiar, and the language of the peasantry, in’ particular, is. often unintalgili to the other inhabitants of the Low Coun- tries. brik: ideo zt The proyince of Friesland is a flat country, and the north-west coast particularly being. below the leyel.of the sea, is, secured against the encroachments of, the ocean by very. strong dikes, constructed and preser- ved at a vast expence. In former times, when the care of these dikes was left to the proprietors of the adjoining estates, they were often, suffered to fall into decay, and the most destructive inundations were fre« quently the consequence of this neglect. In order to preserve themselves and their effects in such calamities, the inhabitants, in the want of matural sand hills, con- structed circular eminences about twenty or twenty- five feet in height, upon which at length they gradual. ly built their habitations, so that many of the towns and villages of the province are now situated on these artificial mounds. | Since the year 1570, when the dikes were all raised and strengthened at the public expence, these irruptions of the sea have been less fre« quent and fatal. : her Friesland very much resembles the provinces of Hol« land in its climate and soil. The country has been ori- ginally full of marshes ; and many lakes are still found in the south-west districts; but in the south-east are several extensive heaths and woods, The whole coun- Be yp tpn tne agree which at once carry _ oO the superfluous water to the sea, and facilitate the intercourse of traffic. One of them extends from Har« dings to Lieuwarden, and thence by smaller branches to Groningen ; and another from Slooten to a small on the south coast. The north-west dis- tricts-abound in excellent h paabanness and, in these quar- ters, immense quantities of butter and cheese are pro- duced. The cow-pock is said to have here been known among the peasantry from time immemorial. Besides 4 FRI excellent cews, sheep, and oxen, number of large horses are reared in these pastures, and ‘sent for sale to Ger- my and other countries. In the more elevated parts corn land is found, and the wheat which it p uces is greatly esteemed for the whiteness of its flour, Barley, pease, and potatoes, also are commonly raised; but oats and hemp are the principal ucts, , The inhabitants, however, derive their chief support from the fisheries, which are numerous’ al the coast. Friesland is famed for its woollen stuffs, and still more for its linens, which are said to be the finest in Europe. The fuel princi used in the country is or turf, but of an inferior kind to that which is found in Hol- Jand. See Modern Univ. Hist. vol. xxxi. ; and Playfair's CORTESE AND, East, ae in the circle of Ww ia, is bounded on the north by West Friesland and the German Ocean, on the east by Oldenburg, and on the south by the bishopric of Munster, and on the east by Groningen. It lies in 53° 20’ North Latitude, and 7° 20’ East Longitude, extending 40 miles from Soh sa remteand nae. Ces lame Gennes Hops: west to east. It contains sev towns, about 103,000 inhabitants, The aes Aurich, in’ the centre country, a castle, surrounded by a marshy territory, and by forests full of game, for- gs hot ir ao residence, and containing 2000 inha- bitants. Norden or Noorden, an old, unfortified town, near the north-west extremity of the country, about three miles from the coast, and 17 north of Embden, has a tolerable harbour and a little trade. Embden, a flourishing sea- near the mouth of the Ems, and 28 miles east of Groningen, is the largest town of East Friesland, tolerably well built and fortified, situated in a fertile tract of country, and containing 8000 inhabi- tants. The harbour is excellent, and the trade of the place considerable, ially in cheese, linens, and wines. Frederick the Great of Prussia exerted himself anxiously for the extension of its commerce ; and, in 1750, established an East India company. But his forcing system did ‘not comport with the republican spirit of the people ; and many of his schemes were very ineffectual. a Se i , which he laboured to encourage, succeeded well, and brings in t sums annually. Jengum, a wealthy town on the Fiver Ems, about 11 miles south-east of Embden, is remark- able chiefly for gains. ber scene of several battles. . Leer or Lehr, a well t manufacturing town on the Seda above its confluence with the Ems, and 15 miles south-south-east of Embden, is situated in a marshy bat fruitful country, and contains 4500 inhabitants. Strickhausen, a citadel built shan city of Hamburg, about 9 miles east of Leer on the river Seda, is 24 miles south-east of Embden. Friedburg, a fortress on the frontier of Oldenburg, 26 miles east of Embden, is si- tuated in a heathy and marshy soil, and is now ina ruined state. Essens, on the sea-coast, 21 miles north« east of Embden, is a tolerably well built town, with an old citadel. Witmund, a small burgh and citadel in - the north-east corner of the principality, between Es- sens and Friedburg. There are many small islands the north coast, viz. Juyst, N , Baltrum, &c. The country of ar Friesland is el ta generally marshy or territory. tracts along a cami eaden Gotankoahake rivers, have a bot- tom of clay or mud, and are extremely fertile, abound- ing in excellent pastures; but the inland are chiefly sandy, heathy, and marshy, in which great quantities of ‘pest sre dog for fuel. The climate. is 768 “heavy appearance ; small round figures, yellow complexions; and flaccid bodies. The fowls, cattle, sheep, eA mt on the contrary, are of a large breed; numbers of. the latter animals are exported. for heavy cavalry and. coaches, even to Russia and Italy. There are few corn, fields in the country, and butter and. cheese.are the principal, products of the farms, One third of the whole is uncultivated, and there is abundance. of PRO sel cold, the seasons late ; and the inhabitants have a stunted. Frodsham, Frome... - ——— game. The river Ems traverses the south-west dis. - trict ; and contributes essentially to the trade and pro- sperity of the country. The chief articles of com- merce are horses, horned cattle, cheese, butter, oats, beans, rape-seed, and fine linen. The prevailing reli- gion is Lutheran, but’ the Catholics, Moravians, Jews, &c, are freely tolerated. See Riesbeck’s Travels in Germany, vol. iii.; and Playfair’s Geography. (g). FRODSHAM, a small town of England, in. the county of Chester, is agreeably situated on a risi ground near the confluence of the rivers Weaver Mersey, and beneath the hills which form ‘the north- ern extremity of Delamere Forest. The town, cons sists of. two wide and well, paved streets, intersect- ing cach other at right angles ; and. at the upper extre- mity of one of them, upon very high ground, stands the church, which is an old and handsome building, It was repaired and beautified in 1790. Near the church is a school, with an excellent house for the master, having a cupola for the p of erecting an observatory. ‘ Beacon Hill, which stands behind the school, commands a fine pros of the estuary of the Dee and the remote parts of Lancashire. The hill is now cut out into walks, which lead gradually to the - summit. There are butts for the practice of archery at the foot of the hill. Frodsham Brid Weaver, is about a mile to the east of the town; and at some distance from it, on the river side, are works for the refining of rock salt, which giye some employment to the inhabitants. There is a small cot~ ton man in the town, anda graving dock and yard have lately been erected for building and re- iring vessels. One ofthe springs which supplies the town with water discharges 1700 gallons in a mi- nute, and is used as a cold bath.. Great quantities of: potatoes are cultivated in the parish, amounting some- times to 100,000 bushels, of nearly one hundred weight each, annually. P The following is the population of the township and : lordship together for 1811. Number of houses . .. . o*e 888 Do. of families ... . . « «eth 5G Do. employed in agricul! Pe er ee Do. in trade, &e. wre ot 9h% 72 Males 1.2 as MES AG 1037 Females a $ ee 1068 Total population eoplan gos TERS See Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. i FROME, or Frome Setwoop, a town of England, in the hundred of Frome and county-of Somerset, is situated on several abrupt hills, at: the bottom of one of which is the principal entrance: to the town, My a good stone bridge of five arches across tlte river. The town is irregularly. built; and the streets, which are numerous, are narrow and ill paved. The houses are built of small rough stones, and are covered with stone tiles, dug in the adjacent quarries. The church of Frome, situated in the east of the town, is , over the - FRO 764 FRU Frome. a large and handsome building: it is 150 feet long and the banks of the river erate eh =| aw 56 tecelh, Wiel tenidlata ofa nave, w claastel, ‘ngedlt wie and wool cards, are made. There are in south aisles, and four chapels. A quadrangular tower, pm rye get Bem wath ph en an neat stone spire 120 feet high, stands of é le on the south of the entrance to the nave from the ted fer its fine strong beer; and, at the of ‘the chancel. The chancel is very elegant, the area round Bell, a kept | ich cor 10 the communion table being paved with black and white less than 600 puncheons. The position of * marble. The altar piece is placed if a fine oval win- Meepl, according to twigonometita observations r Snes ee ae ee pind ee ae i AAG ther all superbly gilt. organ at the west is i population parish, in waty hahuane? aside the ceeds are are me. 1811. 7 COP ties ing-houses for the Baptists, Independents, Presbyte- Number of houses, .. + «+ «+ +++ 1722 Number of families, et eee e's eee 1909 There are at Frome several alms-houses and other Harmslics eipnliwed is auneu x0: charitable institutions. Among these is a charity school, Ditto in trade A pis emia Sera vag which stands near the bridge, and is a large and hand- ace Fi s 4179 some building of freestone. There is also a free-school, Haenatees Co roe sip my Ne aE Eg ia founded by Edward VI. Vallis House, the ancient TR RC OI ed Tai? seat of the Leversedges, stands on the west skirts of Pop Dotter s 1 0498 the town, and near it is 2 beautiful romantic vale, cal- See Beauties of Exetond and Wales, vol. xiii. p. 462, is Botto ine di i istory of Somersetshire. (w) tion to Mells. FRONTINUS Sextus Junius. ‘See History of The principal manufactures of Frome, are broad HypropyNamics. m7 cloths ana kerseymeres, which are made to the cacent FROST. See MrerzoRroLoey. of nearly 150,000 yards annually. There are several © FRUCTIFICATION. See Borany. mills for falling, and for the rolling of iron, &e,on |§ FRUIT Trees. See Gardenine. “ch “is : * XS MBGRE oa re : ; PENS a wey Wer “ 7 mi . Wy a) — os G LEAS St feet