¢
. op — e Pe i - agosd of Hooghly, var 70 miles
P “ tant; and so rapid is e tide, that it
Devonshire, is situated in a delightful vale, upon a passes throu h thie extent fn hours. It d
amen, on the winch ia oes « run on the Caleutts side; but proceeds slong the oppo.
commanding a fine view of the surrounding country, site bank, from which it crosses at Chitpoor, ebeat bear
a nee re ne as * % ae
terw genetally practised, _ It passed into Holland
and Germany, — was hardly known in France until
the year 1695. See Histoire de la Mesure du Temps,
tom. iL. p. 100.
At the time when this clock of Clement's appeared,
Dr Hooke claimed the invention of .it.as. his, .and af-
firmed, that after the great fire of London, in 1666,
he had shewn to the Reyal Society « clock with this
very | t. . Considering,” says Sully, in his
Histoire t « the genius, and the ot
ace
The dead. beat ‘scapement of Graham’s next succeed- Graham's
ed, which was invented some time after the beginning of dead-beat
tended to measure time very accurately. , & Lepaute’s
very ingenious watchmaker im Paris, about improve-
the-year 1753, or sometime before: it, a ‘scapement pe upoh ;
founded on. that of Graharh’stlead-beat one. See Fig. 7. fig 1,
In Lepaute’s, the rest of the teeth on the pallets was al.
118 HOROLOGY.
Eseape- ways with the same effect, because it was on the same could be adduced of the excellent performance of clocks — Escape-
ment. —_circle, whichever of the pallets it rested upon; theimpulse which had the recoiling ’scapement. Vi ee. ment. ©
Lepaute’s given was also always the same on whichever pallet it Let us now make a similar comparative trial with the Conpediad va
escapement, Was given, the flanches of the pallets being planes equal- dead beat ‘scapement. An additional motive force be- of the dead
Prate ly inclined. This was no doubt some improvement on ing put to it, we find that the are of vibration is consid- beat and
ccc, raham's; but the teeth of the swing wheel in Lepaute’s erably increased, and the clock, in consequence of this, recoiling
Big. 7. consisted of sixty small pins, thirty being arranged on goes very slow. There are two causes which produce ‘Pe
each side of the rim of the wheel ; and where pin-teeth this; the one is, the greater pressure by the swing ™°™
are ysed, oil, which is in some degree necessary, can- wheel teeth on the circular part of the pallets during
not easily be kept to them, the attraction of the rim of — the time of rest ; the other is, the increase of the arc of
the wheel constantly draining the oil from these pin sort vibration. It was observed in the case of recoil, that
of teeth; an evil which is perhaps not easily to be got ‘ an additional motive force made the clock go fast ; and
the better of, unless by using stone pallets and hard the same cause is found to make the clock having the
tempered steel pins. dead beat go slow. As the causes are the same, and yet
Recoiling otwithstanding the seeming superiority and great produce effects diametrically opposite, does not this
*seapement, character which the dead beat ’scapement had long ac-
evidently point out what is necessary to be done?
Fig. 8. quired over that of the recoiling one represented in Fig. 8. The pallets should be so formed, as to have very little
this last had, however, its partizans; and among them of a recoil, and as little of the dead beat ; and here any
were artists and amateurs possessed of first rate talents. variation in the motive force, or in the are of vibration,
Such were Harrison, Professor Ludlam of Cambridge, will produce no sensible deviation from ita settled rate
Berthoud, Smeaton, andothers. Harrison, indeed, always of time-keeping. We have been informed, that a clock
rejected the dead beat ’scapement with a sort of indigna- was given by Mr Thomas Grignion to the Society
tion. The author of the Elements of Clock and Watch for the prego i of Arts, Manufactures, &c..
Making, has said a great deal in favour of the dead beat, ‘* which had a dead beat ‘scapement, so ‘constructed
and as much against that of the recoiling one, without. or drawn off, that any diminution or addition of motive
having shown in what the difference consisted, or what force, would not alter the time-keeping of the clock.”
was the cause of the good properties in the one, or ° All the ’scapements of this kind which have been hith-
what the defects in the other. It appears doubtful erto made, were commonly drawn off nearly in the
if these causes were known to him; yet he was very same way as Mr Grignion’s, that is, the distance be-
deservedly allowed to be a man of considerable genius, .tween the centre of the pallets, and the centre of the-
When pallets are intended to give a small recoil, their swing wheel, is equal to one diameter of the wheel,.
form, if properly made, differs very little from those and the line joining the centre of the pallets, and the-
made for the dead beat, as may be seen by the dotted acting part of them, is a tangent to the wheel, taking in
lines upon the dead beat pallets in Fig. 6. ten teeth, and ’scaping on the eleventh. This is nearly the-
Comparison | We shall endeavour to point out the properties and © same as that represented in Plate II. of MrCuming’s book.
of the dead defects naturally inherent in each: When the teeth of
The only difference is, that Mr Grignion’s circle of rest
beatand —_ the swing wheel, in the recoiling ’scapement, drop or is the same on each pallet. But whether it possesses the-
meting ts, fall on either of the pallets, the pallets, from their form, artes which have been ascribed to it, shall be left
pement®- make all the wheels have a retrograde motion, opposing to the determination of those who may chuse to try
at the same time the pendulum in its ascent, and the
descent, from the same cause, being equally promoted.
This recoil, or retrograde motion of the wheels, which
is imposed on them by the reaction of the pendulum,
is sometimes nearly a third, sometimes nearly a half
or more of the step previously advanced by the
movement. This is perhaps the greatest, or the on-
ly defect that can properly be imputed to the re-
coiling ’scapement, and is the cause of the greater
wearing in the holes, pivots, and pinions, than that
which takes place in a clock or watch having the
dead beat, or cylindrical ’scapement; but this defect
may be partly removed by making the recoil small, or
a little more than merely a dead beat. After a recoil-
ing clock has been brought to time, any additional ,
motive foree that is put to it, will not greatly increase
the are of vibration, yet the clock will be found to go
considerably faster ; and it is known that where the arc
of vibration is increased, the clock ought to go slower,
as would be the case, in some small asec’: with the
ct af pendulum. The form of the recoiling pallets
tends to accelerate and multiply the number of vibra-
tions, according to the increase of motive force impres-
sed upon them, and hence the clock will gain on the time
to which it was before regulated. Professor Ludlam, who
had four clocks in his house, three of them with the dead
beat, and the other with a recoil, said) “ that none of -
them kept time, fair or foul, like the last: This kind
this experiment with it.
Clock makers in general have an idea, that, in a
*scapement, the pallets ought to take in seven, nine, or-
eleven teeth, thinking that an even number would net
answer. This opinion seems to-have arisen from the old.
crown wheel having always an odd number of teeth,
because an even number could not have been so fit for it.
There seem to be no rules (as some have imagined).
necessarily prescribed by either the recoiling or the-
dead beat ’scapement, for any particular distance, which.
the centre of the pallets ought to have from. that of the--
swing wheel. The nearer that the centres of the swing
ack and pallets are, the less will be the number
of teeth taken in by the pallets, when a tangent for
them is drawn to the wheel. It is very obvious, that
when the arms of the pallets are long, the greater will
be the influence of the motive force on the vibrations.
of the pendulum, and vice versa, when the pallets.
are short, the angle of the ’scapement. will naturally be.
greater than may be required, but this can be easily
.lessened by making the flanches so as to give any angle
-equired. When this angle is not quite half a degree
oi it side, a very small motive force will keep a
pretty heavy pendulum in motion. We have known a
very good clock maker; who thought that the flanch of
the pallets was an arbitrary or fixed point, which could
be made only in one way, and it was some little while
before he could be convinced of the contrary. The
of ’scapement gauges the pendulum; the dead beat leaves flanches may be made so long as to act something like
it at liberty.” Were it necessary, many good proofs detents, so as to stop the wheel altogether by the teeth,
HOROLOGY:.
(a . made so short, as to allow
wheel teeth to pass them altogether, without gi
Seen worsens: -
necessity ving oi
ns Ruta seems to be !
ve very rarely been adopted in
anoint of oseha nature, that v
be competent to execute it properly.
: stances which led to the invention of them, were men-
5
Piarc
oe this
%
and this ix
he
ich he
About two or
of this tract, Mr
nearly
Sartre Tema bela, hich gosol oye’ i durin
thetime of the descent. In this’scapement, or
motion of the pallets is independent of that
verge, although the same, and concentric
two detents were applied for locking
pin v
y commenced. In that
; which have no place in that of the other.
119
inion, that Mr Cuming borrowed his from Mudge’s.
the *scapement of the clock made by Cuming for his
Majesty the king in the year 1763, is of the free or
detached kind, a name which was not then known.
The improvement which he himself made upon it
two or three years after, was to keep up the motion
of the pendulum by the gravity of two small balls,
inde} lent of the motive force the wheels
of movement. In this ‘scapement, he insists on
the adjustment between the pendulum screws and
crutch being made so as just to unlock the swing wheel
and no more. This can then be only unlocked at the
time, when the force of the pendulum in its ascent is
nearly gone, and that the dulum should not then
meet with the arm of the ball, but to receive it, as it
were, just before the descent of the ulum has
of Mr Mudge’s, each tand
detent were formed in one, and the unlocking takes
place a considerable while before the end of the vibra-
tion. Thus, the springs which maintain the motion of
the balance are bent up, not only by means of the ac-
tion of the swing or balance wheel teeth on the pallets
at every vibration till the wheel teeth are |, but
are still a little more bent up when unlocking by the
exertion or momentum of the balance, or ulum it-
self, ious to yo vibrations being apy finished ;
and this is one greatest ies of this ‘scape-
ment, whether fs applied to ie tala and spring,
or to the ulum. No ’scapement appears tobe betters
calculated than this is, to keep the pendulum or balance
constantly up to the same arc of vibration, notwithstand.
ing its having what some have been pleased to call a
defect in the recoiling one, that of opposing the balance
or pendulum in its ascent, and promoting its descent.
In the spring pallet ‘ t, as in the recoiling one,
the ulum is in its ascent, and has its descent
equally + but there is still a difference be-
tween valle notwithstanding this similarity. In the
spring pallet ‘scapement, no retrograde motion is given
to the wheels, pinions, and pivots, which produces that
early wearing on them, where the seconds’ hand
partakes also of this retrograde motion as in the com-
mon recoiling ’ ent. These are circumstances
In such
ts as those now mentioned of Mudge's or
Cuming’s, it has been said by some, that it matters not
what sort of work the clock movement is, or however
ill it may be executed ; since the motion of the pendu-
lum is mar by a force, which, in some degree, is in-
dependent of the motive force produced through the
ae the movement. Flog ote true, yet
no ‘scapement, w any i ity in the
pitchings, pinions, &c. of the movement will be more
readily discovered than in this, during the going of the
clock, which gat aia’ f ible to the ear at the
time of raising up the balls, or that of bending up the
i We would therefore by no means advise, that
this sort of *scapement should be put to a movement of
indifferent execution: on the contrary, it seems to re-
quire one finished in the best possible manner. The
motive force put to it requires to be greater than that
which is usually put to clocks having the dead beat
‘scapement. It may be asked, whether weights or
springs are the best for these sorts of ‘scapements,
which is perhaps a question not easy to be resolved.
We confess that springs appear to be preferable ; they
seem to have, as it were, an alertness or quickness of
action, when com to the t heavy dull
motion of gravity in the balls. pivots which are
8
Escape-
ment,
—_——
120
Eseapt- at. the centre of motion’of 'the:pallets’and balls would
ments. be regarded by.many-as objectionable, from the belief
that oil is necessary to them. Oil does not seem to us
in the least degree requisite, considering the very small
angle of! motion whos they would have; and we have
always thought; for the'same reason, that oil was) not
necessary to the pivots of such detents as were some-
times used in ‘the detached ’seapement.
We shall now proceed to give a description of a
clock ‘scapement, on the same principle as that of
Mudge’s in his marine: time-keepers, which was put
to a very capital regulator or astronomical: clock,
madeésome years ago by: Mr Thomas Reid, for Lord
Gray’s observatory at Kinfauns Castle. It had a
mercurial compensation , pendulum, and ‘its time: of
going without winding up was forty-five days. The
great wheel, the second. wheel, and the swing wheel
pivots, were’ run on rollers, three being put to each
ivot. Rollers were first applied by Sully to the ba-
face pivot of ‘his marine time-keeper, and have since
been adopted by Berthoud, Mudge, and others. They
have sometimes been used: for clock. pivots, but ‘in
such an injudicious manner, that, in place of relieving
the friction of the pivots, they have at last jambed'
them ‘to such a degree, that the pivot could not at all.
turn’ or revolve upon them.
Description ~In Fig. 1. SW is the ’seapement or swing-wheel,
of a clock whose teeth’ are cut not unlike those of the wheel for
’scapement. g dead beat, but not near so'deep.. P, P are the pal
| &,~ ng lets; the wpper ends of whose arms at s, » are made
Pirate very thin, so as to form’ a sort of springs, which must
cccl. be made’ very delicate; for, if they are any way-stiff,
Fig. 1. the force’ of the swing wheel will not be able to
bend them when raising up the pallets. In order?
that these springs may have a_ sufficiency: of ee
and at the same time be as delicate as possible, they
are cut open at the bending parts, as may be seen at’
Fig, 2. Fig. 2. These springs come from a kneed. sort of sole,
formed from the same piece’ of steel, by which sole’
they are serewed on to cocks, which~are attached to
the back’ or pillar plate of the clock-frame.. The pallet
arms must’ be made very light’ and ‘stiff, in order that
their weight'may have the least’ possible load’or bur-
den on the: springs; a, a are the’ arms: of’ the’ pal-
lets, as represented in the front’ view, Fig. 1. and are
fully as broad ‘as is necessary. Their thickness may be’
niade much less than this: An edge view of the pallet
arms is seen in Fig. 2; The acting parts of the pallets
at P,P, Fig. 1. shouldbe made of'such thickness'as to al-
low room for inserting-a piece of ruby, agate, or any fine’
or hard sort of stone; the thickness’ of the stone’ be»
ing a very little more than that’ of the: ’scapement’
or swing wheel. Each of these stone’ pallets, has a’
sort of nib or: detent for the wheel teeth, which is
left at the end of the pallet flanches, as may easily
be seen at the left hand: pallet, Fig 1.. These’ nibs
are made for the locking of’ the swing’ wheel: teeth,
and’ their use will-be more’ particularly explained af-
terwards. On the back of the pallets are’ screwed to
each a-kneed light brass piece ¢, c, as seenat Fig. 1.)
‘On the lower ends ‘of these kneed pieces, the screws’
d,d-are put through, serving the double purpose of
lege the *scapement, and setting the pendulum on
beat. The upper part’ of the pendulum-rod is com-
of a sort'of frame, whose steelplates'A, A, A, Aj.
ig. 1; are represented as being contained within the
dotted circular lines; the thickness of these ring-sort’
of plates is'seen-at A, A, A, A, Fig: 2. This frame has’
hree pillars to keep. the -plates-properly together’; and‘
HOROLOGY.
though they are not represented in the drawing, yet
Hecapes
any one may readily conceive where their piece ought | ments.
i At, ar
to be, and what should be their length an ”
e, e, Fig. 1. is seen on each side the-ends ofa thin steel
plate, or traverse bar, which goes from plate to plate, :
and is fixed in the frame... An oblique view of one of
them is seen at e,¢, Fig. 2, In the steel frame plates,
there is a circular opening, as represented by the dot-
ted inner circle, Fig. 1. This opening must be of such
a-diameter as to allow the swing wheel and the cock
which supports it to come freely throngh; a part of
the cock is seen at»; f, Fig. 2. the sole of which F is
serewed to the back
the other knee K turns up:to receive the pivot of the
the pillar plate of the clock ;.
arbor of the swing wheel, the pivot at the other end of .
this arbor: being supposed to run in the fore plate, or
in a cock attached to it, and is the pivot which carries
the seconds’ hand. This description of the manner by
which the swing wheel is supported within the pendu-
lum, it is to be hoped will be sufficiently understood,
notwithstanding the want of a proper drawing of that
part. The swing wheel S W, bach part of its pinion arbor
g; are seen ‘edgewise at Fig.2. ; also the arm a.of one
of ‘the pallets. P, and. its screw d bearing on the steel.
bar e,e. At the point of contact between the end of
the screw d and the bar‘e, a small piece of fine stone:
may be inserted into-each bar. This will prevent any
Wearing or magnetic: attraction which might) otherwise
take place, if the screw: was: left’ solely to act on the:
steel bar ; for the smallest wearing here would in some
degree alter theeffects of the’scapement. In Fig. 1. B
represents! a part of the bar of the pendulum rod,
which is fixed into the lower part of the: steel frame >
an edge view of this: bar is seerat B, Fig. 2. At:the
upper part of the steel frame is inserted a piece.c, c,
Fig. 1. and:2.; in this: piece: the pendulum spring is
fixed, whose top piece into a strong brass cock,
which : firmly attache me the back of the clock-case,.
or toa stone pier; the end of the projectin
of this aa is ss at DD, Fig. 1, phn Hi
of this part of it at DD, Fig. 2. The top piece of-
the pendulum spring has a long: and. strong’ steel pin
through it, which lies in.a notch made across on the -
upper side and projecti of the pendulum cock.
By. this. strong: ithe deuksiaes is suspended. In.
the: side of the. pendulum-spring top-piece, is made
a large hole, so as to admit freely a. strong. screwy
the head of which. is) seen at. E, Fige 2. This
together, after the pendulum has been made to take
a true vertical position. This strong: pin and screw
are not represented in the drawing, but.the descri
tion which has been given will, itis presumed,
supply this want. In the pendulum spring 4,4; Figs.
1. and 2, maybe: seen ‘an opening:in it; so as to have
the appearance ofa intern as seemath, h, Fig. 2.
This opening is made to allow the:spring parts: of the
pallets s, sto be brought very near together, and this at
the bending part of the: aaa spring,.so, that it
and the- bending part of pallet springs should be
as it were in one common centre. A. partionly of the
cocks on which the spring pallets are screwed, is repre+
sented by~ 4, &, Fig. 1.; m,m are the heads: of the
screws by which they are fixed to these cocks. It.
must'be observed here, that the spring pallets are so
placed, that they should act on the line. of
and ‘gravitation of the pendulum, which necessarily
brings the swing wheel to the place where it is; no
verge, eruteh, or fork are required ; the influence of.
o
screw serves: to pinch the top-piece and cock firmly, ©
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ld be the time which is kept by the clock. Having
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following is a scheme and description of another
VOL. XI. PART I. -
HOROLOGY.
121
clock ’scapement, which the writer of this article con-
trived about twelve or fifteen years age. .
In Plate CCCI. Fig. 3. SW is the swing wheel,
whose diameter may be so large, as to be sufficientl
which
this swing wheel are cut thus deep, in order that
wheel be as light as possible, and the strength
thie teeth little mare than what is necessary to reat the
action or force of a common clock weight through the
wheels. They are what may be called the locking
teeth, as will be more readily seen from the use of them
afterwards to be explained. Those called the impulse
teeth, consist of very small tempered steel pins, inserted
Go Ciibastien of tha: tee of thewhesk cn che idecnly.
Th
them relatively
as well be
may be, so that their centres of motion may coincide as
nearly as possible. A perfect coincidence of the centres
might be obtained by using a hollow cylinder for the
detent arbors running in the inside of
yerge, with the
» & this would have occasioned more trouble. That
part of the pallet frame, as it may be called, in which
stone for receiving the action or impulse
small pin teeth, is formed into a rectangular
so as to allow room for a dovetail groove, into
lets are fixed, as may be seen
at P, Fig. 4, which also gives a
4
is seen as fixed on the verge. At 4, Fig.
seen outer end of one of the stone pallets
made flush with the steel. dergee aes jd - a
lets upon which the pin teeth act, may be seen in
3, where they are i
sitions relative to the pin
that which gives the dead beat. In Fig.3. are
daseaal A, 2 chau tothe of medion 16 of C, Cs
They are fixed on their arbors by a thin steel socket,
made as forged with the detents, much in the same wa
as the pallets were, as may be seen at c, Fig. 5, which
ives a side view of one of the detents and its arbor.
screws ec, ff, in the arms of the detents, have a
ce made to receive them, which is more readily seen
in Fig. 5. than in Fig, 3. Khe sees 6500S or the
i part of the ‘scapemen
Po dike Sa) mag pushing the detents out from locking
he ends of
the stone pallets, one of which is sented at b, Fig. 4.
The screws f, f, serve to adjust the locking of the wheel
teeth on Se eee De een Tewceapeer pleees ox
studs, which are fixed to the inside of the pillor frame
plate, and may be near an inch in height. The ends of the
screws f, f rest on the side of these studs, and according
as they are more or less screwed through at the ends ot
wo
ss
Another
1en 'Y clock
free of the arbor of the wheel that runs into its pinion, ’scapement
in eight day clocks is the third. The teeth of by Mr Reid.
PLATE
Fig. &
Fig. 5.
ent
192 HOROLOGY.
Escape- the detents, so much less’ or more hold will the detent
ments.. _ pieces have of the teeth, These holding pieces of the de-
Another tents'are not represented in the drawing, as they would
nk have made other parts of it rather obscure. They are
*scapement’ made of stone, and are fitted im by means of a dovetail
by Mr Reid. cut ina piece left for that purpose, on the’ inside of the
Prats —_ detenitarms, as may easily be conceived from the draw-
CCCT. Migs. ino, where'it is’ renresented in part at e, Pig. 5; and
$4,555 : I ss cd :
Chg is in-the line across the arm with the’serew e, which
is close by the edge of the detent stone-piece, which
projects a little beyond the end of the screw. Having
described’ the’ parts of the ’scapement, we shall now ex-
plain their mode of action. On the'left hand side, the
pin-tooth is represented as having just escaped its pal-
let, asseen in Fig. 3; but, previous to its having got
on to the flanch of this pallet, let us conceive that the
back of’ the pallet, or end piece 5 of it, had come, in
consequence of the motion of the pendulum, to that
side, and opposing the screw e, which is in the detent
arm, pushes or carries it on with it, and consequently
unlocks the tooth of the wheel| which’ then endeavours
to get forward; but the pin-tooth, at this instant of un-
locking, meeting with the flanch of the pallet at the low-
er edge inside, arid pushing forwards on’ the flanch, by
this means impels the pendulum, and after having’ es-
éaped the pallet, the next locking tooth is received by
the detent on the right hand'side, where the wheel is
iow again locked. In the mean time, while the pen-
dulum is describing that part of its vibration towards
the left hand’ free and detached, as the pallets are now
at liberty to move freely and independently of the
small pin-teeth, on the return of the pendulum to the
right hand side, the detent, by means of the back of the
pallet on that side, is pushed out from locking the
wheel, and, at the instant of the unlocking, the wheel
gets forward, and the pin-tooth is at the same instant
ready to get on the flanch of its pallet, atid give new
impulse to the pendulum, as is obvious by what is
represented in the drawing, Fig. 3. After the pin-
tooth has escaped the pallet, the wheel is again lock~
ed on the opposite or left hand side; the pendulum
moves on to the right freely and independently till thé
next locking on the left takes place, and so on. It may
be ahbervod that the unlocking’ takes place when the
pendulum is near the lowest point, or point of rest, and
of course where its force is nearly a maximum. Without
attaching any thing to the merits of this’’scapement, wé
may remark that the clock was observed froma time to
time by a very good transit instrunient, atid, during a
period of eighty three days, it kept within the sécond,
without any interim apparent deviation, This degree
of time-keeping seemed to be’ as much a mattér of ac-
cident as otherwise ; and cannot reasonably be expécted
from this, or any clock whatever, as 4 fixed or settled
rate.
Method of | This *scapement being a detached of free ’scapement,
thie scan. © at pleastire be converted either into a recoiling or
caeak ake a dead beat one, without so much as once disturbing ot
inion x6: stopping the pendulum a single vibration. To make a
coiling or a dead beat of it, put in a pés of wood; ot a small wite to
dead-beat each, so as to raise the detents free of the pallets; arid
ne these being left so as to keep them in this position, the
ini-teeth will now fall on the citcular parts of the pall
, and so on tothe flanch, and the ’scapementis then,
to all intents and purposes, a dead beat one. To make a
recoiling one of it, let there be fixed to each arbor of the
detents, a wire to project horizontally from them about
84 or 4’inches long ; the outer ends of the wires must be
tapped about half an inch in length; provide two small
brass balls, half ant ounce weight each; having’a hole
through them, and tapped so as to screw on the Fscape- —
wires; the’ balls'can be put more or less home, and be’ ments.
adjusted ‘proportionably to the force’ of the clock on the’ k
pendulum. No recoil’ will be seen by the seconds” hand);’
“
yet these balls will alternately oppose and assist the mo=
tion ofthe pendulum, as niuch’ as’ any recoiling pallets
can’ possibly do; and) as their ‘effects on the pendulum! i
will be exactly the same, it may'be considered as a good’ ;
recoiling’ ‘scapement. This sort of detached ’scapement, ‘
by becoming a dead'beat, or a recoiling one, at any time’ :
when required, makes it convenient for making various’
experiments with the different ’scapéments.
We shail now proceed to describe a‘ clock ’scape¥
ment, whose pallets require no oil, invented by the laté
Mr Jotn Harrison, who received the patliamentary
reward of £20,000 for a marine’ time-keeper.
In Plate CCCI. Fig. 6. SW is the swing-wheel, Harrison's —
whose teeth are shorter than usual. On the verge is a “lock
brass arm, of a sort of cross and flat pro form, as wittat aati
may be seen at ¢; ¢, ¢, Fig. 6. and at ¢, e, Figs. 7. and 8. Prave
Upon this arm are screwed two brass-cocks, marked d, d, CCCI. Figee
in Fig. 6. and din Figs. 7. and 8; the upper pivots of 6,7,8.
the’ pallet arbors, as seen at a, Figs.’7. and’ 8. run in
these cocks, arid: thé lower pivots In the end of the
prongs: On'the lower end of the pallet arbors is a
brass socket to‘each, having freedom to move easily on
them, and also'a proper end-shake between the pro
and the pallet arms. On the end of the sockets, aye
pallet arms, is rivetted a thin piece of brass to each, the
piece on the socket of the driving pallet being shaped as
seen at h, h; Figs. 6. and 7. and Pavan two holes in’ it;
one of thesé holes has a range, limited by a pin fixed to
the brass arm from the verge; the other hole, which is
at the outer end, allows range to a pin, which is fixed
to an arm on the pallet arbor, as may be seen at Figs. 6.
and 7. The piece of brass on the socket of the leading
pallet arbor is sh as séen at F, h, Figs. 6. and 8.
having a tail which comes to rest ofi the outer edge of
the cock d, after being carried a little way by the mo-
tion of the pallet; at the outer end, at 4, is a small
brass screw, serving as a counterbalance to the opposite
arm of pallet hook. In this pallet arm is an opening,
throtigh which the swing-wheel comes, as may be seen at
1, Fig. 8. the‘arm at the other end being filed thin down
leaving a sort of shoulder on it. AB, Fig. 6. is a sto
piece of brass rivetted, or screwed; to the verge collet ;
CC is the steel erutch, having another arm, which comes
up on the ifiside of the piece of brass; the ball or paume
of the crutch is ag to the verge collet by a sort of
spting collet, which has two scréws outside, and through
to thé verge collet, the crutch having liberty to turn
on the verge. The piéce of brass AB has two short
knees turned up, having a hole tapped in éach to ré-
éeive the’ two screws s, s, Fig. 6. whose ends bear on
the upper atm of the crutch, and servé to move the
atm to one side or the other, so as to put the pendulum
or clock on beat ; p, p, is a piece of wood put on
the lower end of the crutch, having an opening in it,
y clip or take in with the middle rod of a gridiron pen-
alum. d
The parts of this ’scapement being described, it now Mode of aca
remains to éxplain their action. The tooth of the tionin Hare
swirig:wheel, which has hold of the hook of the ledding-rison’s pale
or right hand pallet, carries it on, until another =
meets with the hook or notch at the end of the
driving pallet arm. When this takes place, the wheel
ig made to recoil a little back; at this instant, the
hook of the leading pallet gets free of the tooth, and is
made to rise clear of the top of it, by means of the
eounterbalancing of the brass arm, and the screw & at
possible. The nice execution required in a
manner as
7 whether for a clock or a watch, formerh,
‘ in 1763, “
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HOROLOGY.
iplanen S7aS . from inciples,
same time knowing nathing afhs properties, the gene-
pallet ral ice was to taper , so that the coils, when
= unbending, should preserve an equal dis-
tance with one another ; and this method has been used
ever since the application of the spiral spring. Those
who finished watches for Mudge and Dutton, were. never
employed to. make the pendulum spring. This was ed
ways done at home by either M or Dutton th
selves, who, no doubt, endeavoured to make them as
nearly isochronous as possible. This, among other causes,
perhaps gave their watches the celebrity which they at
that time had deservedly acquired.
The pallets,of the ‘scapement at the turret clock in
Greenwich Hospital, are said to have been contrived by
Mr Smeaton. The .following narrative will show how
he came to be concerned in it. It may be observed,
that at that time he was one of the commissioners,
The turret clock, whichis in the of Greenwich
Hospital, was undertaken by the late
Escapement
r John Holmes, of the tur-
and executed under his directions by Mr Thwaites, ret-clock at
But before any thi
ed two gentlemen, w to be his most inti-
mate fends; the one was the Rev. Mr Ludlam of
Cambridge, the other Mr John Smeaton, both of whom
were very eminently qualified to give such advice as
was wanted in this business, not only about the ’
ment, but how every of the clock should be fitted
“ty and utility in its performance.
and may
that
ingenuity. They agreed that the ‘scapement
the nee ae planes,as wy
pallets, im ving was common
their acting , should have curved surfaces, the Jead-
ing pallet-being concave, and the driving one convex ; and
miedo jolum was at or near to the extremity of
the vibration, the ‘scapement should then be nearly
dead. This was,as he said, what “old father Hindley at
York had ultimately come into!" Mr Ludlam advised,
that the swing wheel teeth should be thick and deep,
and of such a shape as to roll as it were on the pallets,
and not to slide on them, which would prevent biting
or wearing. The pallet arms were of brass, made soas
pales in the power ogee clockmaker to take the
v y out, when repairing was necessary.
had before this been used by Har-
rison, and were ina clock of bisin Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge,as mentioned by Mr Ladlam, Broad rub-
ing surfaces were strongly advised by them. Mr Smea-
ton at this period took away gudgeons from a mill wheel,
whose diameters were only 24 inches, and putothers in
their of 8, inches with great success, .as it after-
wards proved. On thesame principles which have just
now been mentioned, was the ‘scapement made for the
clock, which Mr Thomas Reid put up in St Andrew's
Chureh, Edinburgh ; and although it has been going
for about thirty years, Uere.is,not yet the smallest ap-
pearance of biting or wae the pallets.
‘Scapements bave been divided into classes, one of
which has been called those of the remontoir kind.
Now, the mechanism of a remontoir may be applied to
any ‘scapement, and even then. it can hardly be said to
form a part of it, more. than the wheels of the mevement,
. the ‘
was done, Mr Holmes consult- Greenwich
Hospital.
oan mae Ss wheels, may Remontoir.
Escape-
ments.
Description
of the re-
montoir
which was
applied to
the clock
of St An-
drew's
Church,
‘Edinburgh,
124 HOROLOGY.
toirs; that is, that the movement should at intervals be
made to wind up either a small weight, or bend up a
delicate spring, which alone should give its force to the
’scapement, by which means the pendulum or balance
was supposed to be always impelled by an equal and
uniform force, The earliest thing of this sort was used
about the year 1600. Huygens applied it to some of his
clocks, and gives a description of it in his Horologium
Oscillatortum ; and Harrison had one in the marine
timekeeper, which gained him the great reward. We
are of opinion, that they are of no great use either to a
elock or aspring time-piece ; for if the pendulum of the
one is well fixed, and the momentum of the ball is not
too little, any small inequalities of the motive force
through the wheels will hardly be perceptible; and in
the spring time-keeper, the isochronism of the pendu-
lum or balance spring is’ sufficient to correct any ine-
qualities whatever in its motive force. As their me-
ehanism, however, is curious, and has been rarely de-
scribed, it may not be uninteresting to our readers to
have such an account of it as would enable them to
make and adopt it should they think it proper. :
The one which we propose to describe, is that which
was contrived by Mr Reid for the clock of St Andrew’s
church. Suppose a small frame, separate and indepen+
dant of the clock frame, to contain two wheels, one of
which is the swing wheel, having within it the ’scape-
ment work. The other wheel is crossed out, so as to be
as light as may be, the rim being left just so broad
as to admit fixing on it seven kneed pieces or teeth,
each about a quarter of an inch thick and half an inch
long, three of which are on one side of the rim, and four
on the other side. Three on each side have the knees
of different heights, corresponding each to each. The
fourth is a little highet than either of the third highest.
The wheel on which these are fixed, has a tooth pro-
longed beyond the rim, of the same thickness and length
as the others, making eight teeth in all, having a small
space left between each. These teeth become as it were
so many wheels in different planes, and are at equal dis-
tances from one another, with the same extent of radius
coming to the centre of the swing wheel arbor, being
just so much larger than that of the swing wheel, as to
allow the swing wheel teeth to clear the arbor of it.
The edge or side of the teeth which rest on the swing
wheel arbor is a plane, and rounded off on the opposite
side, to the point or angle formed by this plane. The
arbor of the swing wheel has eight notches cut into it
a little beyond the centre. These correspond to the
eight teeth of the other wheel, and are sufficiently wide
and deep to allow the teeth to pass freely through them.
Each notch stands at an angle of 45 degrees to the one
which is next it, which difference is continued along
the arbor through the whole, making 360’ degrees. for
one revolution of the swing wheel. On each of the ar-
bors of these wheels was fixed a pulley having a square
bottom, in which were set about ten hard tempered steel
pins a little tapered, something like the pullies at the
old thirty hour clocks, whose bottom was round in place
of square. The pendulum was fixed to the wall of
the steeple, as well as the frame containing the ’scape-
ment work, and the apparatus which has been descri-
bed. The arbor of the eight toothed wheel had one of its
pivots prolonged with a square on the end outside. ‘The
clock frame containing the movement was in the cen+
tre of the steeple, and the pinion in it, which suppose
to be that of the swing wheel, had one of its pivots also
prolonged, and squared outside. These squared pivots
were connected by a steel rod and Hooke’sjoints. The
7
main weight of the clock being put on, must-urge hot Escape-
only the wheels to turn, but that of the wheel having the nae
kneed teeth ; but some one or other of these teeth pres- |
sing on the arbor of the swing’ wheel cannot turn, con- Description
sequently none of those in the large frame ean. turn, o the re-
nor can the swing wheel turn here unless’ some other weccaryalle.
means are used. An endless chain was provided, and applied to
passed over the two pullies fixed on the wheel arbors, the clock _
and through two common pullies; to one of which jis of St An-
hung the small weight which is to turn round the swing “"e"'s |
wheel, and to the other a counter weight. The paprsine ‘he
weight which turns the swing wheel, has its” force urge
placed on that side so as to make the wheel act proper-
ly with the pallets; now, while the swing wheel is turn-
ing, (the pendulum being supposed in its motion,) one
of the other wheel teeth is gently pressing on its arbor.
Whenever this tooth meets with its own notch, it will,
by means of the-main weight, be made to pass quickly
through it ; while passing, the small weight is wound
up a little by the main one; the succeeding tooth then
meeting with the swing wheel arbor, rests oa/it for a.
quarter of a minute, till its notch comes about ; it then |
passes in its turn, and so on. The swing wheel makes
a revolution every two minutes, in which time the -
wheel with the eight teeth makes also one. The mi-
nute hand, by this mechanism, when passing one of the:
notches, makes a start every quarter of a minute; at
every such passing, the small weight is wound up a lit-
tle by the great or main one. After the clock had gone a
considerable time with this, it was found that the kneed
teeth got a little swelled on their parts of rest, b
the force of the main weight Whitly nade them fall
on the swing wheel arbor. To remedy this, an endless
screw wheel was put on the arbor of the remontoir wheel,
(or wheel with the kneed teeth,) working into an upright
endless screw, on the upper end of whose arber was
fixed a pretty large fly, in order to lessen the velocity of
the remontoir wheel, and make the kneed teeth fall
gently on the swing wheel arbor. This helped the
swelling greatly, but did not entirely prevent it, though
it existed now in a less degree. The endless chain had
also a tendency to wear fast ; in consequence of this, and
of no provision having been made for the swelling of the
kneed teeth, by making the notches on the’ swing
wheel arbor much wider than was required for them. 7
when newly finished and first applied, this part of the .
remontoir was taken away, and the rod, with Hooke’s .
joint, was put on the square of a pivot of the swing ,
wheel prolonged on the outside of its frame. These :
matters being guarded against, it might be well for «©
some artist in future to try such a remontoir. During _ @
the four years it was in use, the clock went uncommon-
ly well, and was the admiration of a gentleman who
lived opposite the church, and who was.an amateur in
horology. One of Mr Reid’s men who-took an interest
in this clock, said it did not do so well after the remon-
toir was taken away. This, however, may have been
more owing toa change in the position of the weights,
than to any thing: else, occasioned by a chime of eight
large bells being put up in the steeple. For the weights,
in place of having their natural fall, were carried-a great.
way up in the:steeple above the bells and clock, in order
to fall down again; and. here a complication’ of rollers
and pullies became requisite. id DiS be
Harrison’s remontoir is a. very delicate spring, Harrison
whichis bent or wound up eight’ times in a minute. temontoir.
Were it necessary, a more obvious description could be
er of it than that which is given with his time-
per. In Haley’s, the remontoir spring is bent’up Haley's.
=
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spring nto fall into the teeth of the ratchet,
: HOROLOGY. 5
is fixed; and, on winding’ u
pry ing th b
is, e its
‘a applying
its end to the face of the ratchet teeth; by this
the main spring must unbend itself very slowly, the
motion of being checked by. the ’scaping of
the v with society cioieian-ehaeats _ ie can-
non pinion, put spring tight on arbor o' second
ie aberieker tania goes outside or beyond
the dial; where it is squared for the - of the
minute hand-being put on it. Tis the minute wheel,
its pinion ; the cannon pinion pitches into or leads
Te clnestt whechel ther henben V having a hollow
or socket /, is put on the cannon pinion, and is led.
minute pinion which pitches into its teeth. It is
of the hour wheel which comes a little
stiches ldva'pleins ahd eashn! aleipinioa
i ith a pinion turns it, inion 4s
dsivim bythe whet if che’ pinion tarne the
wheel is then said to be led by the pinion. The
or balance spring ss has its inner end fixed
which goes spring tight on the arbor of the
=
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the sq
The first watches may readily be supposed to -have
been of rude execution. Having no pendulum spring,
and only ae remtyert oe wound up a
day, not be ex to time nearer than
-- bla ar in the twelve whew 2 After the appli-
cation of the alum spring, they would no doubt
considerably sual dnd masiy trow bovanile! we Meepiaione
sufficiently correct for the ordinary purposes of life.
Indeed, when the crown wheel and verge ‘scapement
is executed with care, it will do uncommonly well.
Let the angle of the verge be 93 or 95 degrees, the Crown
teeth of the crown wheel undercut to an angle of wheel and
28 or 30 degrees, and scaped as near to the body of Y«Tse
the verge as just to be clear of it, (it is to be under. ““ipement,
stood here that the verge holes are jewelled.) To carry per method
the matter still farther, the body may so: far be taken of esecut-
away as to admit the teeth near to the centre, which ing ix
Les iedy wtb tabeteadielaenanbiae eitiines ook
more and independently ; but this ires such
sded euneationt here, and in-other parts of the “scape-
ment, that from not having encouragement, few are fit
to execute it, and therefore it may in general be safer not
to bring the wheel teeth sonear to the . Care must
also be taken to have the balatice of a proper diameter
and weight, which has of late beea much neglected
126
Kseape- since the old fashion of half timing +has ‘been left off,
ments that is, making the watch go without the pendulum
spring, if it goes slow»$0, 82, or $3 minutes in jthe
hour, the balance may be considered of such a weight
as to be in no danger of knocking on the banking from
any external motion the watch may meet with in fair
wearing. When the pallets of the verge are banked on
pins in the potence, they should, to prevent straining,
both bank at the same time, alternately the face of one
pallet ona pin, when the back of the'other is on its pin;
or the banking may be done by a pin the rm of the
balance, but mot near the edge of it. ‘Which ofthe two
is preferable, we shall not stop to determine.
he verge watch, as has been,already said, when pro-
perly executed, will perform extremely well, Aboutthir-
ty years ago or more, the writer of this articlehad some of
them made up in such a way, that'they went fully as well
as any horizontal ’scapement, and for a longer time ; this
last requiring oil tothe cylinder, after going ten or twelve
months. Oil, however, should never be allowed to
come near the wheel teeth or pallets of a verge.
Nerge or contrate wheel watches have, of late years,
been very much overlooked and neglected in many
respects, and in none more so than in the relative
osition of the balance wheel, and contrate wheel ar-
Relative ‘bors. They are rarely seen but at a considerable dis-
position of tance from one another, which gives a very oblique
the balance divection in the pitching of the contrate wheel with the
balance wheel pinion. It is well known, that where
force is indirectly or obliquely applied, it will »work
under great disadvantage. These arbors ought-toibe
placed as near to each other as canbe. In order toob-
tain this, reduce the balance wheel pinion arbor towards
the end to the smallest size it will bear, and turning a
hollow out of that of the contrate wheel, will allow
them to come very near the line of their centres. To
get this pitching to the greatest advantage, some place
the counter potence within the arbor of the contrate
wheel, so as to have the line of the balance wheel :pi-
nion direct'to the centre of the contrate wheel, as may be
seen in Plate CCCII. Fig. 1.
It has been recommended by a very celebrated ar-
tist, that the movement wheels should be placed in such
amanner as to act at equal distances from the pivots of
those :pinions which they drive, in order to divide the
pressure or action of the wheel between the pivots, and
that one should not bear more than the other. Thisis ap-
parently sound reasoning; but having put it in execution,
the pivots unexpectedly seemed to wear very fast, even
more so than in the common barred movement ; the
pivots, it is true, were small, and the motive force ra-
ther great. . It is to be wished that it were again tried
by others to bring it to the test. No pivots have
been found to stand so well.as those in movements of
the double barred sort.
On thepen- A pendulum spring collet, made as it ought to ‘be,
dulum is as seldom to be met with, as that which we have no-
Pring eol- ticed regarding the position of the contrate and balance-
wheel arbors. Yet simple as the thing is, it seems to
require a rule to shew hom it should be done, there
appearing to be none, if we may judge by the greatest
part of those which have hitherto been made. The
ring of the collet should be no broader than to al-
Jow a hole to receive the pendulum spring, and the
pin which fixes it. The slit in the collet, for the pur-
pose of its being always spring tight on the inside taper
of a cylinder or verge collet, should be put close to
where the small end of the pin comes, when the spring
contrate
wheel ar-
bors,
4
HOROLOGY.
is pinned in. The pendulum spring, in:this»case, ‘will
ion the first or eoriend at such a distance, jas to al-
low the point of a small screw-driver to get into:the slit
without any danger to the spring, when it is wanted to
set the collet and spring to any required place. If the
slit is put at the other end. of the-pin, where it is oftener
than anywhere else, it is evident that the workman can-
not get into it without danger. The outer end of the
pendulum spring ought to be pinned or fixed into a
brass stud or cock, in performing which operation it
goeseasily on; whereas with steel cocks, or studs, there
isa kind of crossness and trouble, which shews that
they should never be used.
Studs .are, in general, very improper]
at a greater distance trom:the cu pins aoe
site. We have seen this distance so great, that the mo«
tion of the pendulum-spring between the stud and the
pins was such, as to take away a part from every vibra-
tion of the balance ; which is:something like a pendu-
lum when suspended toa vibratory cock, where it would
not be allowed to have half the :motion .it would other~
wise have acquired.
A few years ago, our ‘modern improvers would
have the joint transferred from the pillar plate to the
brass edge, than which nothing worse could have been
proposed. In the old way, ‘the whole of the move-~
ment was kept in its place by the united assistance of
the joint,iand of the bolt and its spring; whereas, in
the other way, the movement had its sole dependence
on the pins of the brass edge feet, from which it would
be disengaged by violentexercise on horseback, &c.
From what has been said of the imperfections in
watches, it may be seen, that they are inevitable, ari-
sing from a want of energy of mind in workmen, of
which not one in a hundred is possessed. -Csn it be
supposed, 'that)every new watch, which is purchased,
is complete; and requires no assistance? Whoever
thinks so, must be disappointed. . Persons of this de-
scription, on finding it not to go as they expected, bring
it to a-watchmaker, many of whom cannot put it ina
better state than that in which the workman leftit. But
it is not brought to him with the view »of any thi
being done to it, but to see what is the matter with it;
never considering, that any irregular going or stopping
must:imply some fault or other,and is the very cause that
brings them to the watchmaker. Jt does not follow,
however, ‘from this, that every watch which stops is
badly executed ; this will happen sometimes with those
of the very’ best execution, and frequently from an over
nicety of execution. On its being left with him, ‘he
takes it down, ‘to examine what is wanting tomake it
keep.time, The owner, on being told afterwards that
it will cost somuch to make it .do what is required,
strongly suspects, though he is -polite enough not :to
say it, that there must be some imposition on the
part of the watchmaker. Much is the trouble which
many have of rectifying the faults of work given
in to them, and thought to be complete, and much
money is paid to others to have them rectified. We
have known four guineas paid toa workman for do-
ing a particular branch; and mot being executed
to the satisfaction of the watchmaker, he has gi
half as much more to another to have ‘it corrected.
There are as few excel in this art ve > poe
ture, painting, and aving, which are :
fine th pooh to which the other in equally enti-
tled, but which labours under the great mi that
few or none are able to appreciate its merits.
—_—\~—
Escape-
ments.
placed, being Pendulum-
is requi- spring studs,
”
}
.
HOROLOGY. 127
= a tooth ‘the wheel impelled the pal-
let, and w
time-keepers, were much larger than those of our box dropped on the of the eylinder, near the |
chronometers. The contrate whee! was cut into teeth edge, resting on the cylinder durin g this vibration of the
of the same form as those of the common crown wheel, balance after poog the lle ede and mecting «litle
» arid mace to ’scape with a verge of the usual kind. On recoil, it got on the pallet, gave a new impulse,
sy the axis of this was a sort of contrate or crown which was given only itt a Cyr vibration. An
othe teeth like the ordinary contrate wheel, oe ee ae ih this’scapement, that
eal drove « pinion fixed on the axis of the balance. any inequalities in the motive force made no deviation
Prsre | The verge, when ‘scaping with its wheel, caused the in its @; but the’ friction of the balance
Cecil. balance to make several revolutions from every impulse wheel teeth on fh ara ome oe lp agd ay
on the Some of them ha: nopenduluny spring, and destructive, that big Hep Maclay gregh oben
i cael before its application. When Knowing what —— been doing, being bred Graham's
the made revolutions in vibration, under him, Graham, a gootl many years after, set to ‘scapement.
each being two seconds, this "scapement would be bat ill work with the “scapement, atid ultimately
suited for the coils of a pendulum-spring. Those having succeeded. Although tlris “scapement is now pretty
the shen opricigappaared sbext 1075. Thiswasthe generally known, yet we may be allowed to give an
of half-timeing, upon seeing, when the pendulum. account of what he did. Ih place of Tompion’s solid
was ; it made the balance give two cylinder he made a hollow oné; or the points of the
im the same time that it gave one without it: wheel teeth of Tompion were raised something like
Trenght fuse otis stnall pins or stems, on the tops of which a sort of in-
PLATE
cccll.
Fig, 3.
had two Balances, on the axis of each of wisa anil the heel of the other. A notch of opening was made
toothed wheel, ven bee one another. The v across the cylinder, not quite half way down the dia-
or axis of these had éach a pallet on it. meter ; the edges of the cylinder made by this opening
- balance-wheel was flat, having a few ratchet of axw-like were dressed so that the curved edge of the tooth might
teeth ; its arbor run in the frame, parallel to those of operate easily on them; the t hand edize was flanched
the balances, at a equally distant from them; the outward, the left one ; when the balance was at
as i roe Ama tgs Lala d «lM an aH ad spent
hen « tooth of the balance-wheel tooth got then just in on the cylinder ed and no
the more; a second notch was le below the other, to
of the two wheels, was brought about to meet another allow the bottom of the wheel to pass, leaving hardly
tooth, (after the wheel had escaped from the pallet on a fourth of the circumference of the cylinder, the other
the opposite side, ) in order to receive impulse in its turn. eating more than a semicirele. The highest part of the
Sanaa a paniba on one of the balances, wet ae Un aie eae eee re
and the of their ater seen to that on which the point was, it is evident that, if
- prevent the effects of motion on , while it the wheel is urged forward, it will make the cylinder to
coche oho penance apnea ord about torn, and the of “sea will be according to
the pallets, which still gave some recoil to the wheels by the height of the w : a tooth of the cylinder
; the reaction of the balances, Although this was a very wheel escapes from left of the cylinder, the
ingenious contrivance for « "scapement, yet it appears point of it falls into the inside of the cylinder, after re-
t not to have that satisfaction which was expected From, Nome beeen me and impelling the right
A from it, from indifferent execution, which, edge ; on eseaping it, the point of the succeeding
, from Sully’s account, was the case,) and the old one was tooth drops on the outside of the cylinder, where it re-
again adopted. However, some other cca on the return of the balance, Sea aaa
, artists, among whom was , Were attracted edge, giving = new impulse, “oon. The
: this ‘seapement of Dr Hooke’s, and were led, from time teeth impel at both of the cylinder, giving by
4 to time, to make improvements on it. From it each a vibration to the balance.
nated the duplex ‘scapement, which has of late years ‘This ‘sea being the best of any that had pre-
been so much in repute. A large old German clock ceded it, (Debaufre’s perhaps except | iprocuted fee
had a ‘seapement on the same iple as the above, of Graham's watehes a very considerable reputation, as
i which the maker's name is unknown. Dr Hooke’s claim their performance was much superior to that of those
to his own remains however undisputed. of the old construction. However, on comparing the
Tomes The famous Tompion, who contributed greatly to of some of Graham's with those of a later
Gunton hich in England to that re- *, we confess that none of his, though excellent,
* which it had for a long period of were ever equal to them in this. e cylinders
. A peed oa ihenries he practived it, were rather large in diameter, the balance too light,
= & ‘seapement about 1695, and flattered himself the motive force too weak, and he had great diffi.
being very successful. The verge ot axis of culty in obtain peal ogee lum spring wire, meet-
var Wasi GMD CAP paain, oon ing eontmte’ th ue
iron, where he expected steel
128 HOROLOGY.
Escape- wire, Watches haying, the cylinder ”
nents.
ent were
not known in Byrance’till,.1728, when. Julien Le
Roy commissioned one of them from Graham. They
were losing their character here, some time before the
introduction..of the duplex, which contributed after-
wards still more te bring them down. The duplex will
in its, turn bes ‘for, reasons. which will be
afterwards noticed. Flat movements, shallow balance
wheels, steel and brass ofjbad materials, from the diffi-
culty of getting them good, injudicious execution, and
low prices, must have tended.to make thecylinder ’scape-
ments so bad as they. were-of late ; many of the cylinders
were destroyed and.cut to pieces ina very few years, and
some .of them could -nat,Jast so long. Let these be
compared with the cylinder, ’scapements of old Hull,
many of which that-we have seen, have little or no im-
pression even .on, their edges, after having been in
use thirty years and upwards. Of what did Hull’s art
consist? There must’ have been.some causes for it ;
but what these are, we .shall not attempt to conjecture.
As Graham, with whom he was instructed, did, Hull
soldered in the plugs of. his ’cylinders, with silver sol-
der, which. caused,a very tedious process afterwards in
making the cylinder ;. but this is not offered as any rea-
son for his excelling in the art of cylinder ’scapement
making, The acting edges of the teeth have hitherto
been made too thin, particularly for steel‘cylinders, with
the view of lessening the friction; but, from cutting
soon, this friction increased, .and was worse than a
greater friction which .was constant,
When the vibrations of the balance are at the lowest
point, the resistance of the pendulum spring is at the
Jeast ; but the more it is bent,or unbent, the greater is
the resistance ; consequently, when at the height-of the
wedge or tooth, it is greater than when the tooth first
begins to act... Two or three different curves for this
purpose have been imagined; one approaching nearly
to a right line, which is suppesed to give the wheel
time to acquire. a velocity during the passing of two-
thirds of the curve, and the least resistance of the
spring, by which the other third more readily over-
comes, when the resistance to it is at the greatest.
This has been thought to give a greater extent to the
are of vibration, and has. been adopted by the French
artists. Another curye, where equal spaces make the
balance describe equal portions of a circle, is thought
to give the least wearing to the edges of the cylinder,
aan is that which is practised by our ’scapement mak-
ers, Arguments equally good for either, it appears,
anight be given.
he weight and diameter of the balance, are circum-
stances very materially connected with the wearing on
the C hrstiad edges. Whatever will prevent this wearing,
should be carefully attended to. When the diameter is
large, the balance must of consequence be less heavy ; a
sort of sluggishness in its motion takes place, the pendu-
lum spring making great resistance to the teeth passing
the cylinder edges, and causing wearing to go rapidly on.
On the contrary, when the diameter is small, and the
weight at a proper medium, there is an alertness in the
vibration ; the momentum of the balance has such force
over the pendulum spring, that it allows the teeth to
pass the edges quickly; and hence there is a less tenden-
cy to wear them. The diameter of the balance should be
less than that in a verge watch of equal size, nor should
it be heavier than just not to allow setting, unless where
a going in time of winding is used. The cylinder
*scapement, on the whole, must be allowed to be a
very excellent one; and where care is taken to have it
3
made as it ought to be, such watches will give very Escape
good performance. Provision for oil on the cylinder _ ™ents-
should be made as ample as can be admitted; that is, the
part where the tooth acts, should be as distant from 7
the notch where the wheel bottom passes as possible,
and at the same time more distant from the upper c
per plug ; the lower notch should not be longer than te
give freedom to the wheel bottom to pass easily.
When they are made long, which they frequently
are, the cylinder will break there if the watch re«
ceive a slight shock from falling. The acting pait
of the tooth, as has already been noticed, should
not be too thin, nor the stems too short. If the
diameter of the balance is too great, any addition of
motive force will make the watch go slow; if too little, |
the watch will go fast; and if, of a proper weight and f
diameter, any addition of motive force will make no .
change on the time-keeping. We have made the me-
tive force more than double, and no change took place ;
the pendulum spring no doubt had its share in keep-
ing up this uniformity. Balances whose diameters :
are rather small, will have a natural tendency te :
cross farther, that is, the arcs of vibration will be ;
greater than where the diameters are great. Their ;
weight will be in the ratio of the squares of their dia-
meters ; from which it follows, that if the balance is Method of —
taken away from a watch which has been regulated, &tmating
and another put in its place, having the diameter only pias ‘
one half of the former, before the watch could be re= of watch ba- ¢
gulated with the same pendulum spring, the balance lances.
would require to be four times heavier than the
first. One way of estimating the force of a body
in motion, is to mig | the mass by the velocity.
Let us then calculate the respective forces of two
balances whose diameters are to one another as two to
four. The radii in this case express the velocity.
According to this principle, we shall have for the
small balance two for the radius, multiplied by eight of
the mass, equal to sixteen, and for the great one, four
of the radius by two of the mass, equal to eight; six
teen and eight are then the products of the mass by the
velocities ; consequently they express the force from
the centre of percussion of each balance; and as it is
double in the small one, it is evident that the arcs of
vibration will be greater, having the faculty of over-
coming easily any resistance opposed to it by the pen-
dulum spring, without requiring any additional mo-
tive force.
Let us take an example done in another way, which :
is the square of the product of the diameter multiplied 4
by the velocity or number of degrees in the vibration,
and this again multiplied by the mass or weight, so as 6
to compare the relative momentum of two balances of
different diameters, &c. so one balance to be
.8 of an inch in diameter, the degrees of vibration
240, and the weight eight grains; the other .7 of an
inch in diameter, the are of vibration 280°, and th
weight 10 grains. 4
240 X .8=192 x 19236764 x 8= 204112.
280 x.7=196 x 19638416 x 10=384160.
The balance having the smaller diameter, has its mo-
mentum to that of the greater, as 384 is to294, When
the ares of vibration are great, the nearer to isochron-
ism will the long and short ones be. pact
When a little expence in the cylinder or horizontal |
*scapement is not grudged, a ruby cylinder is certain.
ly a great acquisition to prevent wearing on the edges;
if it is not steel cased, and wholly of stone, it is so
much the better, giving a little more scope to extend
HOROLOGY.
would prevent either the cylinder or the cock pivot from
breaking. A little practice should make the stone cylin-
der easier, and perhaps made, than the cased one;
at all events, even on terms, it ought to be the
preferable of the two. From what has already been said,
it appears that the w and diameter of the balance
are matters not y arbitrary ;
force is too great for that of the force of the balance, the
watch will go fast when in the laying or horizontal po-
= sition, and when in the vertical or hanging position:
the motive force, i
be made to
of the
q
3
ef
Hi
&
rf
:
fl
:
fs
£
ce
7
5&2
eI
whose name was Debaufre,
the business of watch-jewelling.* Facio's
129
short cylinder of two-tenths of an inch im diameter; Escnpe-
the end of the cylinder was cut down nearly _™ents-
one-half of the diameter, and flanched to the lower end
and opposite side, rounded off from the circular of
the base left at top, to the lower end of the flanch, re-
sembling something like a cone bent over, and want-
ing a part of the top. Two flat balance-wheels, having
ratchet or crown wheel sort of teeth, were on the same
arbor, the teeth of the one being opposite to the mid-
die of the spaces of the other ; the distance between
these wheels was a little less than the diameter of the
cylinder ; the drop of the teeth in ing falls on what
was left of the upper base of the cylinder, (the lower
base being taken away in forming the | army. and near
to the edge formed from the flanch ; they rested
during the time of the vibration of the balance. On the
return; the tooth gets on the flanch, and passes over it,
during which, giving impulse to the balance, and esca-
ping at the lower end, a tooth of the other wheel
opposite on the same base of the cylinder, and so on. A
watch having this ’scapement, and bearing Debaufre’s
name, was put for trial into the hands of Sir Isaac New
; ton, who; in shewing it to Sully in 1704, gave a v
flattering account of its ance. It attracted Sul-
ly’s notice very much, but thinking it by no means
well executed, and not being quite satisfied with two
wheels, it was thought that an improvement would be
made by having one wheel only and two pallets, which
was of the scheme of the ‘scapement he
for his marine time-k made in 1721. Considering
the genius which Sully was allowed to ) this was
by no means an improvement on Debaufre’s ’scapement,
Although an Englishman, Sully’s name was unknown
to his coun’ ; and would have remained so, had
it not been for the accounts given of him by the French
artists, in whom he excited an emulation, and whom
he inspired with a taste to acquire such a pre-eminence
in their profession as had been before unknown to them.
Julien le Roy, who was intimately inted with Sully, account of
Berthoud, are uncommonly lavish of their encomi- the labours
umson him. Soon after he had completed his apprentice- of Sully,
ship with Mr Gretton, watchmaker in London, he went *>? fn
over into Holland, Germany, and Austria, and attract- vee degg
ing the notice of several of the princes and nobility, he keeper.
was much employed by them. Having scen, in
brary of Prince Eugene, the Memoirs of the Royal Acade-
my of Sciences of Paris, he eagerly acquired the French
language in order to read them. This excited in him
a strong desire to see Paris, to which he repaired about
the year (713 or 1714, under the patronage, and inthe
suite of the Duke of Aremburg, at whose hotel hel F
with « pension of 600 livres. He had not been long
there, when our coun Law of Lauriston, under
the authority of the court of Versailles, got him enga«
to establish a manufactory of clocks and watches,
n consequence of this he came twice to London, and
having carried away a great number of workmen at a
vast expence, and spent much money on tools and
other articles, Law to murmur, and the esta-
blishment in two years or little more fell to the ground.
This made him complain bitterly of his bad fortune
to a friend ; but fortunately a nobleman to whom this was
mentioned, feeling much for the disagreeable situation in
which Sully was , sent him in a present some shares
in the ic funds, value 12,000 livres, which enabled
him, for several years afterwards, to pursue very zea-
lously his fav scheme of making a marine time-
* Some of Debaufre’s family, or name, were at this profession in London so late as 1773.
VOL. XI. PART 1.
x
130
Escape- keeper to ascertain the longitude at sea. In this at-
ments. tempt he was not so successful in his first trials, as he
had led himself to expect. It was in general believed,
however, that had he lived he would have been the first
to have deservedly acquired one or other of the pre-
miums which were before that time offered by four of
the greatest maritime powers in Europe, to those who
should produce a time-keeper which could ascertain, to
Rewards of. a certain extent, the longitude at sea. Philip the Third,
fered for as- who ascended the throne of Spain in 1598, was the first
aE a who proposed a reward of 1000 crowns for this inven-
eal 7 tion. The states of Holland soon after followed his ex-
ample, and offered 100,000 florins. The British Parlia-
ment, in the reign of Queen Anne, voted £20,000 ster-
ling for the same purpose ; and the Duke of Orleans,
Regent of France, in 1716, promised, in the name of the
King, 100,000 livres. Sully may literally be said to
have died a martyr to the cause in which he was enga-
ged. Having got a false address to a person who it was
said was occupied in the same pursuit with himself, he
got so overheated in his anxious and vain endeavours
to find him out, that he died in a few days after at Pa-
ris, in the month of October 1728, and was buried with
great pomp in the church of St Sulpicius. Sully act-
ed so conspicuous a part in the profession, that no apo-
logy is necessary for giving this short account of him.
Nebaufre’s Lt may be observed here, that Debautre’s ’scapement
*scapement has this advantage which is not in Graham’s, that the
possesses an impulse is given the same in every vibration ; and the
advantage time of rest on both sides is the same, bearing mostly
oe on the foot pivot end, and a little on the sides of the
aire pivots; and not wholly on the sides of the pivots, as
in Graham’s. Having made one or two watches, to
which this ’scapement was put, they were found to per-
form very well; and we would recommend it to the at-
tention of ’scapement makers: A little practice will
make the execution of it very easy. The two thin steel
wheels may at pleasure be placed at any distance from
one another ; their diameters should be as large as can be
admitted between the potence foot and the verge collet.
An agate, or any hard stone for the pallet, whose height
is half the spaces between the teeth, or a little less, is
fixed on the verge or axis of the balance ; the level of the
hase of the pallet on which the teeth rest being a very
little above that of the line of the centre of the balance-
wheel pinion. The teeth must be a very little under-
cut, so that the points only may rest on the pallet. The
nge should. be placed more inward in the frame than
e common contrate wheel movement, in order to
give room for the balance-wheels. The necessity of a
contrate wheel movement for this ’scapement is a trifling
objection, which will wear away in spite of prejudice.
In 1722, the Abbé Hautefeuille, who long before this
had at Paris disputed, in a process of law with Huy~
gens, the right of the invention and application of the
pendulum-spring to the balance of a watch, published
a quarto. pamphlet, containing a description. of. three
new constructions of ’scapements for watches. One of
these was the anchor, or recoiling ’scapement, on the.
verge of which was attached a small toothed segment of
a circle, or rack, working into a pinion, which was the
axis of the balance. The idea of the axis of: the ba-
lance being a pinion, seems to have been taken from the
‘scapement of Huygens, with this difference only, that
the balance should not make so many revolutions as that
of Huygens, and is contrived so as to make scarcely one
revolution at every vibration. This ’scapement is the
same as it came from the hands of Hautefeuille, without
any improvement haying peen made upon it even to this
ve
m
Abbé Hau-
tefeuille’s
"scape-
ments.
PLATE
cccil.
Fig. 5.
HOROLOGY.
day, although a patent was taken out for the same in- Escape
vention above twenty years ago, by some person in Li- | ents.
verpool. The name of lever watches, which they. re« ~~
ceived from the patentees, is that which is generally gi-
ven to those having this ’scapement, which is the same: |
that Berthoud has described in his Essai sur L’horlogerie,
published in 1763; see tom. ii. No. 1933, and plate. i
:
4
xxiii. fig. 5, of which our Figure is a copy. Ber-.
thoud, under certain modifications, introduced the prin-.
ciple of this ’scapement into some of his marine time-
keepers. é ;
A very able and ingenious artist at Paris, M. Duter-. putertre’s. _
tre, who was zealous in his profession, and had consi-. ’scapement
derable success in his pursuits, invented, in 1724, a for a wa
new ’scapement, or rather improved that of Dr Hooke’s Prarz
with two balances, which has already been described. CCCI.
The additions and improvements, however, which he. Fis:
made, were so great, as to give him. a sort of title to,
claim it as his own, and to render it, in the opinion of
good judges, the best ’scapement by far that was known
at that time. The additions which he made, consisted-
in putting another wheel upon the same arbor with;
the first, but it was considerably larger in diameter,.
having the same number of teeth with the other, and.
forming the principal merit of the ’scapement. _The-
balance arbors at one place were made rather thick
er than usual, for the purpose of having notches cut,
across them, and as deep as to the centre. This on
of the arbors becomes then a semicylinder. The lar«
ger wheel, which may be called that of arréle, or re-
pose, is placed on its arbor, so as to correspond with
the semicylinders and their notches, the points of
whose teeth are made just to clear the bottom of the.
notches, alternately passing one of them, and resting.
on the semicylindrical part of the other. The action of,
the two wheels shall now be explained. Let us sup~
pose, that one of the larger wheel teeth, after reposing
on one of the semicylinders, is, on the return of the vi-
bration of the balance, admitted to pass through the
notch ; after having passed, a tooth of the impulse-wheel:
falls on the corresponding pallet, gives impulse, carrying
it.on till it escapes ; when another tooth of the wheel of
repose falls on the other semicylinder, and rests there,
until the return of the vibration of the other balance ;-
when it passes the notch in its turn, and the corre-
sponding pallet presenting itself, is impelled by a tooth
of the impulse-wheel, and so on.. Hooke’s ’seapement
had a smal] recoil; the aim of Dutertre was to make a,
dead beat one of it, in which he succeeded, There is
Sen ee eonen wo ies. at
” aaa
a drawing of this ‘scapement in Plate xiv. fig. 4. of
Berthoud’s Histoire de la Mesure du Temps. He says,
“ that the properties of this. ’scapement are such, that
sudden shocks do.not. sensibly derange the vibrations ; ;
that the pressure of the wheel-teeth of arrée on the
cylinders, corrects the impulse that the balance re-
ceives from the wheel-work, which, on the motive-«
force being doubled, prevents the vibrations from being
affected.” ’
In Plate xli. fig. 16. of the,first volume of Thiout’s Dutertre’s —
work, is a drawing of this ’scapement, modelled for that clock scape.
of a clock, described at page 101. He says, “ Fig, 16, ™e"*
is an escapement of the Sieur Jean Baptiste Dutertre, Fig. 7.
which has only one pallet, on, the axis of. which as’ the ¢
fork. The two,ratchets or wheels are on the same arq.
bor, when. the pallet escapes from the small ratchet ; a
the larger one, which is called the ratchet or wheel of
arréte, rests on the arbor of the pallet, anc es the
vibration to be pretty free. On the pallet’s returning to .
meet with the teeth of the small ratchet, the pallet-ar- .
i
Sees
olay
Hy
bat
i
f
#
rr
i
i i
ae yet
f
:
|
i
ft
:
i
BY
'
f
I
2
L
Fy
i
i
z
I
:
:
:
fF
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t
:
t
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‘
t
131
Why should they not be made as thick as the pallet of a
detached A bon t? There is no ‘scapement which
requires to have the balance wheel teeth more correctly
cut, or the steady pins of the cock and potence more nice-
ly fitted to their plow! seen ate. The minu-
tie alluded to were, too much or too little drop of the
impulse teeth on the pellet, the ‘scapement not set quite
so near to beat as might be, the balance rather heavy, or
the points of the teeth of repose too much or too little in
on the small cylinder. In a good sizeable pocket watch,
the wheels having fifteen teeth, the ratio of the diameter
of the wheel of repose to that of impulse may be as .520
of an inch to 400, the cylinder .030. The angle of
’ t will be 60 taking from the esca
of the impulse tooth, to of the tooth of repose
ling oxte cylinder ; the balance passes 20° of these,
before the — tooth gets again on the pallet, con-
sequently it has only 40 degrees for the acting angle
of the ‘scapement. There is a variety of ‘scapements
in Berthoud’s Histoire, which appeared in 1802, man
of which are of very inferior note to that of Tyrer’s, and
et he takes no notice of the latter. _ This is remarka-
le, as he surely must have seen it, considering the great
namber of them which were made.
While Dutertre was engaged with Hooke's ‘scape-
ment, an artist in England, whose name is unknown, pro-
duced a " t with the dead beat, which seems at
that time to have been the great object of pursuit. Ja-
lien Le Roy having got one of these watches, showed it
to Sully in November 1727, and told him that it was a
‘scapement very deservi
it as a “sca t of M.
of repose ; and says that it had much
tion of the English watch-makers, who had made it for
three or four years. bang page 108, plate xliii. fig. 26. of
his first volume.) With our workmen it went by the
name of the ‘scapement with the tumbling pallets. The
axis of the balance had two semi-cylindrical pallets,
whose faces stood in the same plane or centre of the
axis; the balance wheel was the common crown wheel
one, the teeth of which got a very small hold of the
pallets. When escaping from the face of one pallet, a
tooth on the opposite sic reese the semi-cylindri-
cal part of the other pallet, where it rested during the
going and coming of the vibration ; getting then on the
face, it gave new impulse, escaping in its turn ; the pal-
let on ite end of the verge received a tooth on
the semi-cylindrical and soon. After having been
laid aside for some time, it was of late years taken up
by several, who no doubt must have thought well of it.
of ce ee ae “ Ae
ville having two _
sttreehed the atiens sae
pallets.
P.ate
cocit.
Fig. 5
Escape-
ments.
Scapement
tumbling
Among these was Kendal, a man possessed of no com- Kendal's
mon talents. He transformed it into one having two ‘scapement.
crown wheels on the same pinion arbour, the tops of the
teeth in the one pointing to the middle of the spaces
in the other, and with only one pallet, the diameter of
the semicylinder being of any size. (See Plate CCCIIL, prare
Pig. 1.) About thirty years ago we had some watches CCCIIL.
made with this ‘scapement, and after a few
gave them up. The principle of the ‘sca
good, as long as the
and the oi) continues
: pement is
vot te remain unimpaired,
resh ; but the acting parts hav-
ing such a small hold of one another, get soon altered,
which Genet sree: devdetli, Beat Teaeaner dee
with which it first sets out. They cannot be expected
ng, unless a a st
to last long, unless with a diamond pallet, and a steel
wheel of the hardest temper.
The free or detached ‘sca
years trial Fig. 1.
ent is that in which the P**¢ °%
greater part of the vibrations of the balance is free and}.
independent of the wheels, the balance wheel being
scapement.
detached
*scapement,
Berthoud’s
model of a
detached
*scapement.
132
then locked ; when unlocked, it gives impulse which
only takes place at every second vibration, In Mudge’s
detached ’scapement, the impulse is given at every vi-
bration, The progress which has of late years been
made in improving the detached ‘scapement has been
very wonderful, when we consider that half'a century ago
the name of this ’scapement was unknown. The first
rude draught of an thing like it, appears to be that of
Thiout’s, described, at page 110 of the first volume of
his.work, and shewn in Plate xliii. fig. 30, which he ealls
*« A’scapement of a watch, the half of whose vibrations
appear independent of the wheel work, during the time
yy are made. A hook retains the ratchet or balance
wheel ; the return of the vibration brings the pallet to its
place of being impelled by the wheel ; in the returning,
the hook, is carried outwards, and leaves the wheel at li-
berty to strike the pallet, and so on. This sort of
‘scapement cannot act without the aid of a spiral or
pendulum spring.”
Peter Le Roy’s ’scapement is the next step that was
made towards this invention. He contrived it in 1748;
and, like Thiout’s, it has hardly ever been made use of,
Both of them have a great recoil to give the wheel be-
fore it could be disengaged, and their ares of free vibra-
tion are not much extended. Berthoud informs us, that
in 1754 he made a model of one, which he gave to the
Royal Academy of Sciences, Camus, onits being shown
to him at that time, told him that the late Dutertre had
made and used such a *scapement, having along detent
and free vibrations. Nothing appears now to be known
of the construction of Dutertre’s, and Le Roy seems to
have acknowledged the priority of it to the one he con-
trived in 1748. < My thought, or invention,” he says}
‘* was not so new as 1 had imagined. Dutertre’s sons,
artists of considerable repute, shewed me very soon af-
ter, a model of a watch in this way by their late father,
which the oldest Dutertre must still have. This model,
very different from my construction, is, however, the
same with respect to the end proposed.”
The detached ’scapement in Le Roy’s time-keeper,
which was tried at sea in 1768, is very different from
that of 1748,
Berthoud, in his Traite des Horloges Marines, pub-
lished in 1773, has given, in No. 281, an account of the
rinciple on which the model was made in 1754; and,
in No, 971,.a particular description of the parts com-
posing it, which are represented in plate xix. fig. 4. of
that work. It may be somewhat interesting to lay be-
fore our readers what is contained in No. 281. “I
composed,” says he, “in 1754, an escapement upon a
rinciple, of which I made a model, in which the ba-
ance makes two vibrations in the time that one tooth
only of the wheel escapes, that is to say, the time in
which the balance goes. and comes back on itself; and,
at the retarn, the wheel escapes and restores, in one vi-
bration, the motion that the regulator or balance had
lost in two, The ’scapement-wheel is of the ratchet
‘sort, whose action remains suspended (while the balance
vibrates freely) by an anchor, or click, fixed to an axis
carrying a lever with a deer’s-foot joint, the lever cor-
responding toa pin placed near the centre of the axis
of the balance. When the balance retrogrades, the first
vibration being made, the pin which it carries turns a
little back the deer’s-foot joint, and the balance conti-
nuing freely its course, its liberty not being disturbed
d the whole of this vibration, but by a very small
and s resistance of the deer’s-foot joint ‘spring.
When the balance comes back on itself and makes the
second vibration, the same pin which it carries raises.
“tooth, as has been done by some, when the drop is on
HOROLOGY.
the deer’s-foot lever in such a way, that the anchor Escape
which it carries unlocks the wheel, in order that it ment
may restore to the balance the force which it had. lost 1... Or de.
in the first vibration. This effect is produced in the fol- tached
lowing manner : In the instant that the deer’s-foot joint. ’scapement
ed lever is raised, the wheel turns and acts upon the lever
of impulsion, formed with a pallet of steel which acts
upon the wheel, and with another arm) which acts on a
steel-roller placed near the axis of the balance; and; in
the same instant that the wheel acts upon the lever of
impulsion, the second arm, which its axis carries, and
which is the greatest, stays on the roller, and the mo-
tion of the wheel is communicated to the balance al-
most without loss and ‘without friction, and by :the
least decomposition of force: As soon as the wheel
ceases to act onthe lever of impulsion, it falls again,
and presents itself to another tooth.” ‘ To render the
vibrations of the balance more free and. independent of
the wheel-work,” continues Berthoud in No. 282. “and
diminish as muchas possible the resistance it meets with
at every vibration, the pin must be placed very near the
centre of the balance, sothat the lever may not be made
to describe a greater course than that required to render
the effect of the click perfectly sure, and while the ba-
lance turns, and makes its two vibrations, prevent only
one tooth of the wheel from escaping ; an effect which
would be dangerous, by the seconds’/hand,:which is
carried by the wheel, announcing more seconds, or time,
than the balance by its motion would have measured. It
was the dread of such a defect that made me then give
this ’scapement up, which, I confess, seemed to be rather
flattering ; but it did not give to the mind that security
in its effects which is so necessary, icularly in ma-
eS an or. S
rine time-keepers, the use of which is of too great con-
sequence, to. allow any thing suspicious in them to be
hazarded.’”
The principle given here by Berthoud is the same as
that of the detached ’scapements now made, although
the parts of the model are more complex. | This no
ment had received a variety of modifications under his
hand. In 1768, he had five marine clocks planned to
have spring detents to their ’scapements, the lifting
spring being placed on the roller, or pallet, which recei-
ved the impulse. These were not finished till 1782.
Subsequent improvements, made by the late Mr Arnold
and others, can hardly be considered as differing very
materially from those of Berthoud. ‘This *scapement
in pocket watches may sometimes come under such cir-
cumstances as have been noticed with Tyrer’s; but no
other can well be admitted into box-chronometers, whe-
ther it is made in the manner of Arnold, or in that of ‘
Earnshaw. In ‘the ’scapement of Arnold, (see Fig. 2.) Amol’
that part of the face of the pallet, at the point or nearly *scapement
so, on meeting the cycloidal curved tooth to give impulse, pr arn
rolls, as it were, down on this curve, for one half of the CCCI,
angle, and in the other goes wp ; or it may be thus ex- Fig. %
pressed—the curve goes in on the pallet for the first
part of the impulse, and comes out during the last. In
making this curve too circular near the point of the
the nice side, the pallet has to turn a little way before
the wheel can move forward, which has sometimes caus-
ed stopping; but, where attention is given to the proper
form, this is not likely to happen. In that of Earnshaw, Farns
(see Fig. 3.) the face of the pallet is considerably under- ’scap
cut. Here, the point of the tooth will slide up for the pig, 3,
first part of the impulse, and down in the last; in the
first it seems to have little to do, and may acquire some
velocity in order to overcome the part it has to perform
HOROLOGY. | 138
Baap i ‘he face of the pallet being undercut, had 60°, it is required to find the ratio ofthe diameter of the Esenpe-
ments. dasntpatl matehe Sebtoamaumete said, in or- Settle palm mpc 4cen heer) eerie aie — ,
“—\~"_der fo prevent cutting or wearing. In Berthoud’s box- being taken at 15°, eof impulse must Free o
aaa coke the face cf..the pallet is 45", whichidrather wide nt cher@ ide jtbut it withbe less ©,
! than this, when the thickness of the points of the teeth, ’scapemait.
i
if
oe
El
E
F
i
es
i
bie
Hf
fs
Fe
lf
tt
and the spacés for drop and, escape, are not taken into
the computation. Now 300° being divided by twelve, the
number of the wheel teeth, gives 30° for the quotient ;
and again divided by 45, the number of degrees for the
of im: , the quotient will be 8°. The diame-
ter of the w is supposed .to be .6 of an inch. To find
that of the roller, say, as 12:6: 8:4. Four-tenths of
an inch is the diameter required for the roller, which
will give somewhat less than 45° for the angle of im-
pulse. The diameter of the roller may be found in ano-
ther way, sufficiently near for practice. The diameter
ofthe wheel is .6 of an inch, or .600; then say, as
118: 355:: .600 : 1.885 ; this last being divided by 12,
the number of the wheel teeth, gives for the quotient
-157, the distance between the teeth. This distance ta-
ken as a radius for the roller, would give 60° for the
of impulse. About one-fourth more of this added,
|
e
i
i
balance pi- will give .200 for the radius, so that the angle may be
the rollers, which were more than about 45°. b
diameter ; and from them and the suspen- Nothing should be overlooked, which can contribute
arose that ease and i
ti
l
F
to make the balance unlock the wheel with the least
possible resistance. When the wheel is locked by
the extremity of the teeth, it must. be easier unlocked
than wher the locking is at a less distance from the
centre. The unlocking cannot be done easier than
with such a wheel for a detached ‘scapement as was
contrived about fifteen by Owen Robinson, o,,.... po.
(see Fig. 4.) a very judicious ‘scapement maker, who pinson's
t with late Mr Arnold. This wheel is ‘scapement.
like that for Tyrer’s ‘scapement. The long teeth of ar- p, ..>
time. Three screws réle rest on the detent, and the upright teeth give im- cccitt.
this ¥ pulse. It is evident that the unlocking with such teeth Fig. 4.
a
fe i
na
8 Es
ue
i
iH
FF
|
S
i
ip
Tip
‘
2
E
3
Fr
g
[
;
4
De NE ee ete a
When the diameter of the pallet eto must be very easy, when compared with the teeth of
those wheels which are made after the ordinary wa ;
Lest what has been said concerning the principle of
a detached ‘scapement may not be sufficient, we shall en-
deavour to describe the ‘scapement itself, such as it is
at commonly made, so as to give an idea of it,
of the manner by which it acts. The balance-wheel
of a pocket chronometer h.s fifteen teeth not very deep
cut, and a little under cut onthe face. A notch cut in-
toa round piece of steel or roller, which is thicker than
the wheel, forms the face of the pallet. Sometimes a
small piece of ruby or ire is inserted into the notch
at the face of the pallet, for the wheel teeth to act upon,
so that no wearing may ensue. The ratio of the di-
ameter of the wheel to that of the roller, is that of .425
to .175. When the wheel and roller are in their places,
the wheel supposed to be locked, the roller must turn
freely between two teeth, having only freedom, and
not much more. From the centre of the roller to
the point of one of the teeth, that next the last es-
caped, let a line be drawn at a tangent to this tooth.
On this line is placed the detent and lifti — gs.
The detent piece, on which the wheel is foc ed, is
a small bit of fine stone, either ruby or ire,
set into steel, formed into a delicate spring, of such a
length as to be equal to that of the distance of two or
three spaces between the teeth, with a sole and steady
in at one end, which must be fixed to the potence plate
bya screw, This is what is called the detent spring, the
end of which within a little distance of the circle
described by the extremity of the lifting pallet. On the
left hand side of the detent spring jis attached another
Escape.
ments.
Mudge’s
detached
*scapement,
PLATE
cccill,.
Fig. 5.
-rather thin than otherwise.
134
called the lifting spring, which cannot be too delicate,
but is made a little thicker.towards the outer or lifting
end than anywhere else. Thisend of the lifting spring
projects a very little beyond that of the detent spring.
On the arbor of the roller and balance, and-placed near
the roller, is twisted a short and thick steel socket, in
which is set a bit of precious stone, the face of which
is made flat, and nearly in a line'with the centre, be-
hind it is chamfered on towards the point, and made
This is called the lifting
pallet. The length or height is made so as to unlock
the wheel to the best advantage, that is, by only
‘carrying the detent a short way beyond the unlocking.
This excursion is to be confined to as small an angle
as may be. Near to the detent piece is fixed a stud,
in which is a screw to regulate the depth of the detent
into the:wheel teeth. The point of the screw should
be hardened, and have a part of the ruby detent to
rest upon it, when the detent spring presses that way.
When the balance is at rest, the face of the lifting
“pallet is very near to the outer side and end of the
lifting spring. If the balance is brought a very lit-
‘tle about to the left, the lifting pallet will pass the end
of the lifting spring. On the balance being now turn-
-ed towards the right, at the moment of the wheel being
unlocked, the main pallet or roller presents itself, to re-
ceive the point of one of the teeth, and is impelled with
considerable force ; meanwhile the detent falls again to
its place, and locks the wheel. The balance having com-
leted this vibration, returns. In the returning, the lift-
ing pallet pushes the lifting spring easily aside, being no
longer supported by the detent spring when turning
in Sis direction, that is, from the right to the left, the
detent is again ready to be disengaged on the next re-
turn of the balance to the right, and so on.
The detached ’scapement of Mudge was contrived
about sixty years ago or thereabouts, if we may reckon
from the year 1766, when he showed it to Berthoud,
who was then in London, and who informs us that it
had been made a considerable time before.
This ’scapement consists of a wheel and pallets, like
those made for the dead beat ’scapement of a clock, on-
ly the wheel teeth are not cut half the depth. On the
verge or arbor of the pallets is placed an arm of any
Jength, Lee a little more than that of the pallets.
The end of the arm is formed into a fork-like shape.
On the axis of the balance is a short pallet, whose act-
ing end may be of a small circular form, having the
sharp part of the angles blunted, coming a little way
within the prongs of the fork, which alternately acts,
and is acted upon. There is also on the balance axis a
small roller, having a notch in it. On the end of the
arm is attached a small steel piece or index, in a plane
which may be either above or below the prongs of
the fork ; this index is on the outside of the roller,
when the free part of the vibrations is performing,
and prevents the wheel teeth from getting away from
the place of rest. -On the return of the balance, the in-
dex passes with the notch in the roller to the opposite
side. Meanwhile the short pallet gets into the fork,
meéting with one of the prongs, pushes it on a very
little way, and thus disengages the teeth of the wheel
from the circular part of the pallet, where they rest du-
ring the free excursions of the balance. During the dis-
engaging, the teeth get upon the flanch of the pallet,
and give impulse, which causes the opposite prong of the
fork to come forward on the short pallet, and commu-
nicate impulse to it. In Mudge’s ’scapement, as drawn in
the plate for the work published by his son, there are two
HOROLOGY.
short pallets, and the prongs of the fork lie in different
planes. The impulse in this ’scapement is given at
every vibration ; and it seems to have done uncommon.
ly well, particularly in the watch which he made for
her Majesty Queen Charlotte. It is by no means suit-
ed for the execution of ordinary workmen, as it re-
quires more address than usually falls to their share.
The late Emery was much taken up with it; and al-
though he had a little success, and had the aid ofa v
excellent hand, yet he experienced considerable diffieul.
ties. It might be somewhat easier managed, by adopt-
ing Lepaute’s mode of Graham’s dead beat, which we
have tried.
In 1792, a very neat and ingenious detached ’scape-
Escape
ments.
Howells’
ment was contrived by the late Howells, founded on detached
that of Kendal’s, (in whose hands he had occasion fre- ’scapement.
quently to see it,) in which the wheel teeth rested on
the cylindrical part of the pallet, during a part of the
going and returning vibrations of the balance. See Fig.
6. Inthe other, after impulse is given on the face of the
same semicylinder, and just before the tooth is quitting
it, a detent is presented to receive one of the wheel teeth,
by which the action of the wheels is suspended during
the greater part of the going and returning vibrations,
the pallet being then free and independent of the
wheels. This ’scapement is composed of two crown
wheels on the same arbor, the points. of the one being
opposite to the middle of the spaces of the other. On
the axis or verge of the balance, which stands quite
close to that of the balance wheels, is a semi-cylindri-
cal pallet, whose diameter should be according to the
angle of ’scapement required, which will also regulate
the distance of the wheels from each other. The pallet is
put near to the collet on which the balance is rivetted ;
a small arbor, having very fine pivots, is run in so as
to stand parallel with that of the balance, and placed
at some distance outside of the wheels, but where a
line drawn from it, and passing at equal distances from
the points of the wheel teeth, when continued, shall
fall in with the centre of the balance; on this arbor is
fixed an arm, at the end of which is a small fork and
index ; on the verge or balance axis, and near the lower
end, is a short pallet, and a roller connecting with the
fork and index, in imitation of Mudge’s, acting in the
same way as has been described, but only in the lock-
ing and unlocking part. Where the arm passes between
the wheel teeth, which may be at ninety degrees or so
from where they act on the pallet, are fixed two detent
ieces, one for each wheel ; opposite to the arm, and
in the same line, A part of it is prolonged beyond the
arbor outside, by way of a counterpoise, where two
screws in fixed studs serve here as a banking to it. It
may easily be conceived, that one of the wheels bei
locked, suppose that on the left, the balance, when re=
turning from the left to the right, will, by means of the
short pallet and forked arm, &c. carry the detent away ;
PLATE
cecil.
Fig. 6.
.
as corresponded well known, in a common y watch, w
, n 1665, Sie Robert Mo- the balance holes baigt vehgore its Fado will be kept
up for a longer time than when it runs in brass holes,
The friction at the balance holes cannot be supposed to
be less than at those of the fusee; for, in the time of
one-fourth of a turn of the fusee, the balance must
The natural answer is, that make more than what is equivalent to 9000 revolutions.
Berthoud regretted much that he had not an opportu-
does a chronometer depend so much as nity of getting the pivot holes of his time-k jew-
i gnelha.of Se pesiioians. 9 ing: as elled; yet, from that versatility of genius which he pos-
: i Pa iy regu- sessed, he supplied admirably the want of this, in
, extraordi- a manner that very few could have equalled. Some of
regulating the motions the balances in his time-keepers were madle to give six
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138
of vibrations in a second, while others gave only one.
‘’ His number eight made one vibration in a second, and
was the one which gave the best performance of all
those that he had constructed. It seems to have been
considered as a wonderful discovery, that jewelled holes
wore down the pivots, and thickened the oil, after
they had been used for upwards of a hundred years.
How came this not to be sooner observed, when. so
many were engaged in making chronometers, and that
too in considerable numbers? That pivots, from a
length of time, even with good oil, and with greater
probability from bad oil, may have got, as it were,
glued in their holes, there is little reason to doubt ;
but this never arose from particles wearing away from
either the steel or the stone, by the friction. of the
pivot. Let any one try to whet a pravets which re-
mie some degree of force, on a polished Scotch pebble,
or instance, and they will find that no exertion what-
ever will make the graver bite the stone, or the stone
the graver: for where any effect of this kind takes
place, it must be nearly mutual, The hardness of the
Scots pebble is well known to be much inferior to that
of the ruby or sapphire, After being exposed to the
air for a considerable time, oil gets viscid and thick,
which arises, as has been observed by chemists, from
its absorbing or attracting, oxygen. We suspect. that
oil, from this cause alone, may become more glutinous
at a jewelled hole than at a brass one. By ‘its applica-
tion to brass it soon acquires a bluish green tinge, as
if something acted upon it. This is owing to the metal
becoming oxidated by the joint action of the oil and air,
The oxide thus formed combines with the oil, and forms
a metallic soap, which is much less tenacious than that
formed at a jewelled hole, By the continuation of this
process, the hole in brass in time becomes wider, and
the oil disappears, leaving the pivot and hole in a great-
er or less degree wasted ; and instead of the oil we have
the metallic soap, which has hitherto been considered
as rust. To be convinced, however, that this is not the
case, we need only attempt to wipe it off from the pivot,
from which it easily parts, and which it would not do
were it really rust. Oil, however, can have no action
on the jewelled hole, and any change that is effected by
the oil must be confined to the steel pivot, on which its
action is so exceedingly slow, that a’ great length of
time must elapse before the oil is decomposed and dis-
appears ; and hence what has been called rust in a brass
hole, is seldom or never met with ina jewelled hole. If
a little fine Florence oil is put into a small phial for
about two-tenths of an inch yo. and remain for a few
years, it will become exceedingly viscid and glutinous,
and will be intermixed with parts tinged with red of
various shades, The same appearance is sometimes seen
at jewelled pivot holes, and has been erroneously sup-
posed to be produced by the operation of the pivot.on
the hole. It is singular that oil will act more forcibly
on fine brass than on the .common sort, or even on cop-
per; a metallic soap somewhat resembling verdigrease
will soon show itself on the former, velifle th
have no appearance of being injured. But we are not
to infer from this, that copper holes would be preferable
to those made in fine brass; for although the oil in this
case would be more durable, from its acting more slowly
on copper than on brass, yet the increase of friction from
the inh 198 would more than counterbalance this advan-
tage. It can hardly have escaped the eye eyen of the
most indifferent observer, that oil acts more readily and
forcibly on new than on old work. On the former, it will
frequently show itselfin the course of 24 hours. Oil varies
e latter will .
HOROLOGY.
so much in its quality, that some will become so thick and Jewelling of
viscid in the course of a few months, as to stop the ma- FivotHoles,
chine altogether. This has occurred in the experience of “ ¥—~
a very celebrated artist, who informs us that “his regu-
lator, which has been found to go toa greater degree of
accuracy (though not to a second in two months, as has
been said of others) than even that at Verona, as observed
by the astronomer Cagnoli, or that at Manheim, as ob-
served by Mayer, was found to perform very indiffe-
rently after being cleaned, and at the end of three or
four months sto; altogether, which arose from the
application of bad oil.” We are of opinion, that where
the pivots are small, and the revolutions of the wheels
Hah jewelled pivot holes are the best, It will not
be an easy matter to do without oil, particularly
in pocket or box chronometers, although astronomi
clocks or regulators may be so constructed as not to re-
quire it.
CHAP. V.
On the Machinery for going in time of Winding,
Tue earliest machinery for going in time of winding, Machinery
is the simplest and best, that has yet been produced, al- for going in
though, upon the whole, it may not be so convenient ‘™¢ of
in its application. In the old thirty hour clocks, the “™4i"s-
first, wheel of the going part had on its arbor a fixed
jagged pulley A: (See Plate CCCIV. Fig. 6.) On the
arbor of the first wheel.of the striking part was a move- P
able jagged pulley H, with click and ratchet to it. Over pz aoe
these, and through or under the pullies of the counter cCCIV.
weight p and main weight P, went an endless cord, woven Fig. 6.
either of silk or cotton. .Both parts of the clock were car-
ried on by asingle or’main weight; and, when winding
it up, this was done by the striking pulley; by which
means, the weight acted constantly on the going part.
This is a method which we adopted in some common
regulators, and afterwards found it was the same that
Berthoud had used in some of: his. The moveable and
winding up pulley with its ratchet was on a fixed stud,
having a click and spring, which were fixed to one of
the plates, as was also the stud. The other pulley was
on the arbor of the first wheel, and fixed to it. The
only inconvenience and objection to this contrivance,
articularly in eight day clocks, arises from the wear
ing of the cord on the jagged part of the pullies, which
produces a great deal of dust, and makes the clock 4
sooner dirty than it would do, ifthis was effected ina dif
ferent way. In clocks which go a month, or six months,
as some of Berthoud’s did, this will be very much obvia-
ted, particularly with a fine and well wove silken cord.
There is a very ancient way of going while winding, 4. siney
which was long applied to the fuseesin clocks and watch- jrechanism
es. On the inside of the great wheel is another wheel, for going in
whose teeth are cut to look inward to the centre, upon time of
which acts a pinion of six, which runs in the bottom Winding.
of the fusee, and is turned round with it. The fusee
arbor is free within both the great wheel and the fusee ;
upon it is fixed the fusee ratchet, and a wheel with about.
half the number of teeth of those in the inward toothed -
wheel. It is evident, that if the fusee arbor is turned.
round, the wheel fixed on it, which acts also into'the
pinion of six, will by this make the pinion turn ; and
this again, acting on the inside wheel teeth, will apply
as much force to it, as the fusee requires in setting up.
When wound up, the click in the great wheel, as in
the ordinary way, stops the fusee by the ratchet from
-& i:
First mecha-
nism for this
: HOROLOGY. 139
y running back. This method takes six times longer of several of which it was The third wheel has a Machinery
wi ay clit eadkx d-tocan one ; nd Os oan socket (with a small sb ) tral fitted to it, the hole *°* sving im
Sects sth iniiage the pastes tod fide wheel Cake i soundly and smoothly broached. That partofthe wii;
: them. With a little more afu- third wheel pinion arbor, which works in thesocket, must — ding.
see of this kind can be made to wind up whichever way also be truly turned, and made as smooth as any pivot,so Mr Reid's
the arbor is turned ; hence it got the name of the drunk- as to be free, easy, and without shake. The end of the contrivance
ene. ‘See the particnlars of it in Thiouw!, vo). ii. socket, which is not in the wheel, should be smooth f° going in
p- 383, and Plate xxviii. Fig. +) and flat; its diameter outside about three tenths of an U6 %f,
A going in time of winding, of later application to inch, and to apply to a flat smooth steel shoulder formed
dicts tnt regulators, consisted of an within on the pinion arbour. On the side of the wheel opposite
the frame, on which was a pin, and an arm inside, that on which the socket shoulder is placed, let there be
fixed asmall steel pin, distant from the centreaboutthree-
tenths of an inch, the height of it being about one-tenth,
pass the third wheel teeth; a spring Make a piece of brass so as to have a fine small ratchet-
the nib in a contrary direc- wheel on it, of about four-tenths of an inch in diame-
ich i ter, with a sort of hoop or contrate wheel rim on one
inding, side of it, three-tenths and a half in diameter inside,
ofthe teeth, the thickness being a little more than that of an ordinary
in contrate wheel of a watch, and the depth one-twenti
of an inch. _ The ratehet-wheel and hoop have a socket
common to both, which is twisted on the third wheel
pinion arbor ; this socket on that side of the in-
tchet; the other side, is the smallest matter lower than the ed the
hoop ; SaEnD Dns © fhe. corhet Ss Fed the inner end
of a small and weak spiral spring, of two or three
when the force of turns, the outer end having fixed to it a small stud,
i with. a hole in it, that goes over on the steel pin of
on the great wheel, and not being allowed the third wheel, which works in a short circular open-
i ESP Ue Whee cx. potion, of Se hoop, of a
sufficient range for the spiral spring to keep the clock
run in the frame, and an arm ing during the time of winding up. The detent
ili Te the setchet han ctie of the pivets ot iis arbour in
the back frame plate, the other runs in a small cock
i attached to the maide of this frame plate, and sufficient-
steel spring screwed or made ly clear of the third wheel on that side. The of
inside of the great wheel ; in the hoop, when the socket is twisted home, should al-
is a small hole, opposite to which is made a low the third wheel to have freedom during the action
in i of the spiral spring on it. In, applying this going in
as to correspond to the hole time of winding apparatus to a clock, it will easily be
seen in which way the small ratchet teeth must be
slit gre range for the cut, and diso in which way the spiral spring must ex-
Coaing Seat se See. hen the force of the main ert itself. During the action of winding up, this al-
i not act on the fusee, which istaken off when lows the minute hand to make are motion, but
wintlig up; the auxiliary ratchet, and detent which hes it resumes its place as soon as the weight is at liberty.
oeindes easing to kup © je ip plows, serve the same In. the early SAL ah ie, ae Coy 9 Peamneralls
n described for the clock. intercourse was carried on between Holland and Port
The mechanism of this going in time of winding, was Seaton, by the ship owners of Prestonpans, in East
exhibited by I ek Lothian. Among the imports, was ld iron in hogs
plaining its principles to the commissioners who were heads, and many of the articles were little worse for be-
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ithad been applied tokeep home, were some Toutyat C of a very ingenious con-
origin. Two or
: oci ing to the ighty.. The frame mounted on an upright stand,
aes siti mbicls the sgl eight.be was about four fect or more in height, A thin and
The water-jack, which has been known in this country of it was toothed like a straight rack, and work-
for more than seventy is convenient in this into. the ‘pinion of the first wheel, by means of
respect, as it is so easy to the of water at a weight or weights hung on a hook at the lower end
the cock to run full, half, or.quarter, on the small kind of the bar; when the weight and bar came to the low-
of mill-wheel which drives the whole of the machinery est point, it was aanlly seared up to the t height,
= ; pep wound pinion had a
‘great many years we contrived an easy way hollow could turn freely round the arbor of
atts ine of. winding fers deck, the first wheel ; on the lower end of the socket was a
140,
Machinery ratchet which rested on the first wheel, where the click
for xoiag and spring was placed to act with the ratchet, which by
the hollow socket allowed the pinion to turn freel
backward when winding up; on the weight being al-
lowed to act on the rack, all the wheels were made
to turn the proper way, and so on, An idea occurred to
us, that, im place of the rack moving, a machine might
be made to go by its own weight, by means of' a pi-
nion turning down on the toothed edge of a fixed rack.
A scheme shall be given for a box chronometer of this
construction, which supersedes the necessity of either
fusee, barrel, spring or chain. A contrivance of a si-
milar kind, has lately been communicated to the Socie-
ty of Arts in Paris, by M. Isabelle, and is described in
the Bulletin de la Société d’ Encouragement, No. 52.
The same method, which has been known for a consi-
derable time, is used at Liege by Hubert Sarton, who
makes eight day sprin doth on this plan. ;
On the arbor of the first or great wheel, is fixed what
may be called the fusece ratchet, working with the click
ait spring, which are on the auxiliary or going ratchet ;
in the last is fixed a pin, which comes through the end
of the auxiliary spring, and the circular notch in the
great wheel, which is keyed on in the same way as in
the case with a fusee; and having also a detent and
spring for the going ratchet, the whole forming the great
wheel, and the mechanism for going in time of wind-
ing. On the great wheel arbor, close to the main
ratchet, let a small bevelled wheel be fixed, of any small
number of teeth, fully stronger than those in the great
wheel, the back of the bevelled wheel lying against
the main ratchet: indeed both might be made from one
and the same piece of brass. Supposing the diameter
of the pillar plate to be 2.25 inches, that of the great
wheel would be 1.5 inch, and the number of teeth 72;
the bevelled teeth being half an inch in diameter, would
admit @4 teeth; and if made a little thicker than the
great wheel, the teeth would be sufficiently strong.
Another bevelled wheel, of the same diameter and num-
ber of teeth as the other, is fixed ona pinion arbor, (a
hole being made in the potence plate, toallow the bevelled
wheels to pitch together, ) whichis placed within theframe
in ahorizontal direction, inthat line which passes through
the centres of the great and second wheels ; one of the
pivots runs in a cock inside of the potence plate, and
placed near to the great wheel arbor; the other, which
is a little beyond the pinion head, runs in a cock fixed
on the outside of the potence plate. This pinion has six-
teen leaves of the same strength as the teeth of the
bevelled wheels, and runs in with the edge of a toothed
rack ; every revolution will be over the length of one
inch on the rack, and equal to four hours, or one turn
of the great wheel ; the second wheel pinion being 18.
The length of rack supposed to be 8 inches, would
allow the time of going to be equal to 32 hours, 8
inches multiplied by 4 being equal to 32. Were the
rack 12 inches long, it would admit the time of going
to be 48 hours ; or the diameter of the pinion might
be increased from .333 to .500 parts ofan inch, and
the time of going would then be somewhat more than
30 hours. Let a slip of wood be made 15 inches long,
ths of an inch broad, and rather more than 4th thick,
on one side of this, and close to the edge, let another
slip of the.same dimensions, but not quite so broad, be
set on edge at aright angle to the side of the other;
this will form a pattern to have two such cast in brass
from it; after being dressed up, one is left plain, the
ather so as to have twelve inches of teeth made on one of
the edges ; the plain one is screwed to the inside of the
ease, and the other is screwed on to the plain one, having
HOROLOGY.
the toothed edge on the right hand side of the pinion, so Machinery.
as to make the second wheel and pinion turn the proper
way. To the ring or cap which incloses the move-
ment of the chronometer, are attached three pieces
of brass, kneed up at each end; the distance from ~
the ends is about two inches and a half, in which are
holes made quite parallel to one another, and go on
three steel rods, 15 inches long’ and 3,ths of an inch
in diameter, fixed in the lower and upper ends of
the case, and parallel to one another, and near to
the dial of the chronometer. The case may be either
of wood or brass, having a door on one side, which
serves the purpose of getting at the chronometer, ei-
ther to observe the time, or to push it up after it is
nearly run down. In the lower part of the cap, a recess
may be made to receive any additional weight requi-
site to load the chronometer with, in order to give
greater extent of vibration to the balance; the upper part
of the case should, if necessary, be hung in gimbols,
and the lower end loaded with lead to keep it steady.
A chronometer might be easily fitted up in this way
to go eight days, by giving more length of rack, 4
greater weight to the bottom of the cap, more teeth to the
bevelled wheel which is on the horizontal pinion arbor,
fewer to that which is on the arbor of the great wheel,
and the second wheel pinion to-make more revolutions
for one turn of the great wheel. Suppose the great
wheel 80, and the second wheel pinion 16, one turn
will be a to five hours; the bevelled wheel which |
is on it (being 16) will have a revolution also in five
hours ; the bevelled wheel which turns it, having 24
teeth, will make a revolution in seven hours and a half.
The rack being 25.6 inches long, the pinion of 16 ma-
king a revolution on it in seven hours and a half, and’
25.6 X 7.5 = 192, the number of hours in eight days.
The length of the case, being thirty inches, could be
no inconvenience where eight days going without
winding is obtained. A similar, and we think a
preferable, construction might be adopted, by having
the chronometer fixed, and a weight hung to thie lower
end of the rack, which, as in the case of a jack, would’
keep up the motion required for the chronometer. This.
plan, however, of a moveable rack, would require a
space for the rack to move in equal to twice its length. —
CHAP. VI.
On the Dividing and Cutting Engine.
Amone the inventions in the art of Horology PrO= Dividing
‘and cutting
duced in this country, may be mentioned that of the
wheel-dividing and cutting engines, which are said to engines.
have been invented by Dr Hooke. In the to
the fourth edition of Derham’s Artificial aka
er, he remarks, that “ the invention of cutting engines,
(which was Dr cree fusee engines, and:others,
were never thought of till towards the end of King:
Charles the Second’s reign.” It is well enough known:
that he contrived and used an endless screw and wheel
for-the purpose of dividing astronomical instruments,
in 1664, The wheel-cutting engine was contrived by.
him in 1655 ; and, about the same period, he discover~
ed that the barometer indicated changes in the atmo
sphere, and i Sineenna wande weather. mae
ears afterwards, he pro a clock to register the.
yes and fall of the bakunecinnd which was executed by
Mr Cuming, in a clock made for his present Majesty.
Sully carried over to Paris, »wheel-cutting engines,
which were much admired there, not only for. theiz.
3,
HOROLOGY. 141
‘ . and fanciful execution, but also for their utility. the late King of Spain, is very true. It is more than Equatiow
ues The artists unwillingly admit our claim to this twenty years since,ench clocks were mada in London, Clacks.
. invention ; and could they haye brought forward docu- and I believe that I am the first who applied this me. —~ “~
~ ments to the contrary, it Would most readily have been chanism (for equation) to a pocket watch, twelve or
. They maintain, that it could not have been in- fourteen years ago.” onl
the The follo ing is a description of a very excellent and
i : pd grape apie : A curious tion clock, which belonged to the late Ge-
wheel-cutting engine, and one which could divide al- eet ra It was left, with several other things, to
r by means of an endless screw and the late Sir John Clerk, and entailed on the house of
toothed wheel, was made about 70 years ago by Hind- Pennycuik... _
ae 1ot ae afterwards into possession The clock goes a month, strikes the hour, and has a Descriptior
Mr from. whom Mr Reid purchased it 30 strike silent piece. The ’scapement of it is made after of Sav"~
yearsago. As Hindley knew what had been done in this that of John Harrison's, requiring no oil to the pallets; %°" @
ha any Dr Hooke, this seems to have been made inimi- (see p.1 10 jena poetaten is a gridiron compensation -
was executed on this principle, the great merit of which hour as the minute hand does, only for the most part it
consisted in ha' a more perfect screw than had (rms semetinenenaet Dts soretaea’s, waters £
va 35 fora copious history of Dining Engen, oa ine, and swe atl
’ , for a i ines, time, ws at times
and a full account of the engines invented by Ramsden peg wpm sg The age and phases of the moon are
roughton, also represented, the days of the year and of the month,
tha degrees of thn. lige, porn pipes asmall motion progressive, accordin
the minute and sun hands are near] . One
half nearly of the sun wheel is out, on that side
in which the sun’s hand lies, in order that the equili-
brium of the hand and wheel may be as nice as
sible, whatever may be the position of the sun hand.
From the centre wheel hole on the fore frame plate,
towards the left hand, and a little upwards, take, with
a pair of com adistance of 3.8 inches, and sw
ee ed cee tee ee heirs ak chat, in whi
illar plate; the other runs into a cock screwed on the
front of the fare famuse plate; a notes is media on the acige
of each frame plate to admit the arbor to come into its
place. gee ay ls aga panache page
pillar plate, is a or segment of a circle
5 inches radius, having $2 teeth cut on it, and cut from
a number on the plate of 318; the rack-teeth
pitches into the wheel of $2, which lies behind
pillar plate, whose centre coincides with that
the minute pinion arbor, as mentioned before. On
other end of this arbor, and beyond the fore frame
a little, is fixed an arm of 4.5 inches long,
ing at the end of it a smooth hard steel pin, whi
on the edge of the annual elliptic equation plate,
made to rtp lomnayplbs ber Yl tpt agiasen
ing not very strong, at to the arbor, near
Thosita of the tore fensun, plate, the outer end be-
ed to one of the pillars, or to a.stud fixed for that
purpose on the inside of the fore plate. The elliptic
equation. plate is a very irregular sort of a » as
may be conceived in some degree by the description of
its shape ; its greatest length over all is 6.5 inches; the
centre is 3.8 inches from the broadest end, and 2.7
inches from the narrowest; the nearest edge across the
centre is about one inch, and the edge opposite is 1.8
inch; the greatest breadth of the broad end is near to
4 inches, of the narrowest end is 2.8 inches. Du-
ring the course of its annual revolution, the edge of the
elliptic plate makes the arm which has the steel pin in it
rise to various heights, and fall as variously to dif-
ferent By this rising and falling, the rack which
is at the opposite end of the arbor, is made to have a
motion sometimes backward, and at other times for-
ward, which it communicates to the small wheel of 92,
behind the pillar plate, and of course to the bevelled
wheel of 38 on the same arbor, with it. This continually
causes a small of place, to the bevelled wheel
of 38, consequently a change of place to that which
turns on the stud, and hence to the wheel carrying the
sun hand; this change is what gives the equation,
shewn. by the difference of time between the minute
and sun hands... When the pin in the arm falls, the
equation or sun hand goes forward, and when rising it
goes backward? The negative equation for
1815, on the 3d day of November, is 16 minutes, 14.9
seconds, which, added to the test positive equation
for the same yearon the Lith of Februaty, is 14 minutes,
36.5 seconds, making in all 30 minutes, 51.4 seconds ;
so that one tooth of the wheel of 32 may be nearly
equivalent to one minute of equation. To trace
perly a true figure to the equation plate, meuthbee
3
ree
ue
g
3
gE
e
. - tO of an equa-
equation ; and there are four times in the year when tion clock.
144
Fqnation very ‘tedious and nice operation; for this purpose
Clocks. the rack, and all the wheels immediately connected
edanae with the equation, must be put into their places, as also
scription ° * :
ofan equa. all those which give motion to the annual plate, and to
tion clock. have a spring ‘tight arm, having a sharp point to it,
bearing on the face of the brass plate whichis to be the
elliptic one: the sharp point must lie so as to coincide
with the side of the steel pin, when bearing on the
edge of the elliptic plate. The sun and minute hands
being on, and the annual plate set to the Ist of January,
the equation hand set’to the equation for that day, then
by setting forward the minute hand until 12 or 24
hours have elapsed, the equation hand may be changed
to what it ought to be, in the same time; so by going
on step by step in this way, the figure of the equation
plate may be truly done. The rack must be artificially
made to assist in this ; and when the revolution is com-
pletely at the end, before taking out the rack and the
equation wheels, marks must be made to one of those
teeth, which must be marked by ‘its corresponding
space in the other wheels, so that when they are again
put into their places, they shall give such equation as
was done when tracing for the elliptic plate. -
Mechanism Besides the days of the month, which are shewn on
for shewing the annual plate, there is a common month ring, havin
the day of g} figures engraved on it, placed as usual at the’ bac
pert of the dial. One of these figures is shifted every day
shifting, ex- through the whole ring when the month consists of 31
cept in days ; and two figures at the last are shifted at once
leap years. when the month consists of 30 days, to bring the ring
to the first day of the succeeding month; and at the
28th of February four figures are shifted, so as to bring
the ring to the ist of March: by this means the day of
the month ring requires no shifting or correcting at
these periods, as those in the common way do. To
produce this motion, five short steel pins are placed in
a circle, on the under side of the elliptic plate, whose
radius may be about half an inch, and set at such a dis-
tance from ‘one another as to correspond with the num-
ber of days between February and April, between April
and June, between June and September, between Sep-
tember and November, and between November and
February. This may be done by applying the elliptic
plate on a cutting or dividing engine, ‘having the num-
ber 365 on the dividing plate. When fixed on the en-
gine, and set to the first point of the number, make a
point for February on the elliptic plate, then count off
61 from’ the dividing plate, which will giye the place
tor the pin on the 80th of April ; another 61 will bring
it to June S0th ; 92 will give the 30th of September;
61 the 30th of November ; and 90 more will bring it
to the 28th of February, the point which was set out
from. When the pins are put in the elliptic plate, that
for February will require to be longer than the others,
for a reason which will be explained when we come to
shew the use of these pins. The month-wheel of 84
teeth, and whose diameter is 2.75 inches, has its centre
on the left hand side, distant from the central perpendi-
cular line 1.4 inch, and from the centre hole in the fore
frame plate 2 inches. The month wheel, as usual, is
turned about by the month nut. A long piece of brass
forming two arms, each four inches in length, has a
‘on, and presses it down grad
HOROLOGY.
with its end nearly below the circle in which are the Equation
five pins, in the annual eg plate described as before. Clocks.
A spring is placed below this upper arm to keep it up, -
unless when any of the pins get on the end of the arm of an
and press it down. ‘The end of the arm is chamfered, tion clock.
or made se that any pin, when tapprechiag it, gets easily ~ “>
, by means of rite f vias
ing the chamfered part as it were; and when past this, © ©
it meets with a flat and very narrow place, where it
cannot remain longer than sometime short of 24 hours,
say 16 or 18 hours, or perhaps not ‘ . After hay-
ing passed the'flat part, it, meets with @#chamfered side
opposite to that of the first. “Besides that of freeing the
pin, this is made for the purpose of more easily ‘setting
back or forward’the annual plate.
The month wheel has ‘its socket equally long on both Prarz
sides, end quite ‘straight ; the length of each may be .6 CUCIV.
or .7 of an inch. Two small brass pillars are rivetted Vis*. 8. %
on the upper side, and opposite one another, each at a
distance from the centre ‘of the wheel about .7 of an
inch, (see Figs. 8,'9.) the height of the pillars from the
wheel to the shoulder about half an ‘inch ; and from the’
shoulder of each pillar a sort of ‘straight pivot is
longed, about one half inch more ; the diameter of has
pivots about one-tenth of an inch; that of the pillar .2
of an inch, There is another socket which
on the lower or under socket of the month wheel, whic
is rivetted in a rectangular piece of brass, about an inch
long, and half an inch bread, or nearly so, say .4 of an
inch, In this piece of brass, on the side opposite that
of the socket, are also rivetted two small and straight
brass pillars, about an inch in length, and the diameter
about one-tenth of an inch. There are holes in the
month wheel, to allow these pillars to go easily back
and forward in them ; their places will be equally be-
tween the month wheel socket and the pillars which
are rivetted nm the month wheel. The other ends of
the small straight pillars are made fast, by two small
steel screws, to a piece of brass, which is formed to cor-
respond with two broad crosses of the month wheel.
Only one of them is made to have at the end a segment
of a circle, whose radius is nearly equal to that of the
month wheel. On this segment three teeth are cut, 7
equal in their spaces and form to those of the month
ring. In the arms or crosses of the segment are three
holes, one of which goes casily over or on the npper soc-
ket of the month wheel ; the other two holes go easily
on the small straight pivots which have been already Z
mentioned. This segment cannot be put on the ends
of the small pillars, till the socket of the rectangular
piece of brass is put on the lower socket of the month
wheel, having previously made the pillars connected
with it to pass through their holes in the month wheel,
It will be easy to perceive, that when the segment is
put on to its pillars, and a sufficient space left behind
the month wheel and the rectangular piece of brass,
its socket may be made to pump up and down on that
of the month wheel, and at the same time carrying the
segment back and forward with it; a pin in the month *«
wheel stud keeps the month wheel socket always to its
proper end shake, notwithstanding any motion of the
segment backwards and forwards. Below the rectan-
a Le: ofS
small arbor through the middle of the‘whole length of gular piece on its socket, a small groove is turned out
eight inches. The pivots of this arbor run into small
cocks, attached to the front of the: fore plate, keeping
the long piece of brass very near to the plate; indeed a
great part, particularly the end of the wpper arm, and
towards it, is sunk partly into the fore plate. This lon
piece of brass is placed so that one of the arms shal
come to the socket of the month wheel, and the otlier,
of it, for the purpose of'a forked piece getting in on it ;
this forked piece is formed on that end of the arm
which lies along the fore plate, and on to the socket or
centre of the month wheel. s Susy
From tlre preceding description, it is evident that
‘when any of the elliptic plate pins come to press down
that end of the long arm which lies near and under
HOROLOGY. 145
vention is given by Mr Derham in his Artificial Clock- Repeating
maker. aid in his Histoire, has ios the fol- Ee ah
lowing account of it, which is taken chiefly from Der- atches.
Fe
ie
Fir
i
1
Th
2
Hl
“ The art of measuring time, (says Berthoud,) was
again enriched with two fine and useful inventions be-
t i are 30 fore —— nes One was the
the pins in the elliptic plate, which press equation ; other, which is most precious,
of the pumped u sul of the most general utility, is that kind of striking
back which has been called i
i than the nious mechanism, and w ded to a clock, serves to
two; one being shifted by it, and an- make known at pleasure, at every instant of the day or
i night, without seeing the dial, the hour and the parts of
the hour, which are pointed out by the hands of the
i in i clock. Both these inventions are due to the English
month of February being longer than presses artists.”
’ “ The clocks in question here, (says Derham,) are Repeating
those which, by means of a cord when pulled, strike the motion-
hours, the quarters, and even some the minutes, at all work in-
times of the day and of then’ t. This striking or repeat- ty
in in the month wheel, are ing was invented by a Mr Barlow, towards the end of . We
to shift four teeth of the month ring, viz. from the reign of King Charles LI. in 1676.”
the Ist of March ; and, by this It is not mentioned by Derham, whether Barlow was
i a watchmaker or not. We have heard it said by old
watchmakers, that he was a clergyman. ‘This seemsin
-years. It may be some measure confirmed, by his having ap lied to Tom-
fixed pin in the day of the month pion to make his repeating watch, w was about
i to obtain a patent for the invention.
“ This mgenious invention,” continues Berthoud,
“which had not been before thought of, made at the
outset a great noise, and much the attention
of the London watchmakers. On the idea alone which
each formed of it, they all set to work to try the same
thing, but by very diferent ways; whence has arisen
per stg he Ye a fa a a
5 rab raged andes ich was seen at this time in London.
construction of the month wheel, and of the ap- — “ This di continued to be practised in cham-
Lore nate bara month ring, will be better un- ber clocks until reign of James II. It was then
from Figs. 8 and 9, where AA isthe month applied to pocket watches. But there arose disputes
i pind mi eer ere the invention, of which I shall
simply the facts to the reader, leaving him to
goes freely on the upper socket of the month wheel ; on j ca phe ry ae
one arms is a of a circle, nearly of the ‘owards the end of the reign of James II. Mr Bar-
as that of the month wheel, having three low applied his invention to pocket watches, and em-
like those of the month ring; a,a, are ployed the celebrated Tompion to make a watch of
the upper side ofthe month this kind according to his ideas; and at that time,
i ivots; conjointly with the Lord Allebone, chief justice, and
wheel socket, thesegment is made some others, he endeavoured to obtain a patent for it.
freely up and down. cow ae et es Mr Quare, an eminent watchmaker in London, had Quare’s re-
into i i meer eer the — a some ae aatine, but peating
not having brought it to ection, he thought no motion.
more of it until the noise excited by Mr Barlow's *°™*-
patent awakeved in him his former ideas. He set to
work,and finished his mechanism. The fame of it spread
abroad among the watchmakers, who solicited him to
oppose Barlow's privi to obtain a patent. They ad-
dressed themselves to the court ; and a watch of the in-
vention of each was brought before the king and his
council. The king, after having made trial of them,
cock d, having gave the ce to that of Mr Quare.
ring
Hh ii
aH
Leg2E G2
betty
a
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bee
i -
Patt
fi
. Itis of the most inge-
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The di between these two inventions is this:—
The repetition in Mr Barlow's watch was rn egeab 4
ing in two small pieces,one on each side of the
CHAP. VIII. = pine sithes repeated the eumthusthon tes enan-
On ters. Quare’s wi po naps pe wc gga in onl
rT Repeating Clocks and Watches. fixed in the pendant of the case, which, ara gato wd
'@ those who do not well, can be more in, made the repetition of the hours and quarters, the
convenient and useful au it isin same as is done at this present time, by pushing in
small fixed A history of thisin- once only the pendant which carries this pin.
T
:
‘146
Mac wf This invention of repeating’ the hours in small fixed
Cleeks and ¢locks and in watches, was soon known and imitated in
Watches. France; and these machines were very common in 1728,
Difference When the celebrated Julien Le Roy was much occupied ix
between _ their improvement. | It was at this period that he made
Quare and the repeating clock of which a description is: given at
Barlow's the end of The Artificial Rule of Time. This was made
repeaters. for the bedchamber of Louis the Fifteenth of France.
The first repeaters, even those of Quare’s, as well as
others, gave the number of the hour according to the
length pushed in of the pendant ; which was very in-
convenient, by striking any hour, whether the pendant
was pushed home to the’snail or not. This frequently
caused’ mistakes, in regard to the true hour which ought
to have been given. From the report of our predecessor,
Mr James Cowan of this place, who went to Paris in 1751
for improvement in his profession, and who executed
some pieces under Julien Le Roy, it was he who intro-
duced the mechanism into repeaters, which prevented
the watch from striking any thing but’ the true hour.
This, we think, was done to the repeating clock for
Louis the Fifteenth’s bedchamber. In this construction,
unless the cord or pendant made the rack go fully
home to the snail, it either struck none, or struck the
true hour, which was a very considerable improve-
ment. The piece employed for this purpose is called
the all or nothing piece. Considering the great talents
which Julien Le Roy possessed, we have no reason to
doubt of this improvement being his.
“« Although the repetilion,” says Berthoud, ¢ such as is
now in practice, is a particular kind of striking, its me-
chanism differs totally from that of the striking clock; Ist;
Because every time that it is made to repeat, the main re-
peating spring is wound up, whereas, in the common
striking part, the main-spring is wound up only once in
eight days, fifteen, or a month: 2d, In the repetition we
must substitute for the count-wheel, which determines
the number of blows that the hammer must strike, a con-
trivance wholly different. The first author of this in-
genious mechanism substituted for the count-wheel
a piece, to which, in regard to its form, he gave the
name of the snail. The-snail is a plain piece, divided
into twelve parts, which form steps, and come u-
ally in from the circumference towards the centre. It
makes a revolution in twelve hours. Each of the steps is
formed by a portion of a circle. Every time that the
clock is made to repeat the hour, the pully which carries
the cord is connected with and turns a pinion, which
leads a rack, whose arm falls on one or other of the steps
of the’snail, (on the cord being pulled), and regulates the
number of blows which the hammer ought to give; and
as this snail advances only one step in an hour, it fol-
lows, that if it is wanted to be made to repeat at every
instant in the hour, we should have always the same
number of blows of the hammer; whereas; in setting’ off
the wheel- work of an ordinary striking movement more
than once in the hour, we would havea different hour. A
count-wheel would then not be fit fora repetition. The
mechanism of the repetition has a second snail, which
bears four steps also in portions of a circle, to regulate
the blows which the quarter hammers must give.”
The count and hoop wheels, and locking plate of the
old striking clocks, for regulating thé number of blows
of the hammer, and locking the wheel-work, was ex-
cellently contrived: It had only one inconvenience, for
when set off by accident, it would prematurely strike
the hour to come: this made it requisite to strike ele-
ven hours before it could be again brought to the hour
wanted. Had it not been for the invention of the re-
peater, these would have continued, and would have
5
Difference
between the
repeating
and striking
motion-
work, +
HOROLOGY. .
been still made in the modern clocks, the same as inthe Repeating
ancient ones. But the snail of the repeater showed that Clocks anc
it could be adapted for regulating the number of blows _W* ors
for the hammer of a common striking clock, and has \
prevented the inconvenience of striking over a number
of hours, before the clock could be set to the right hour
of striking. (
« We owe to Julien Le Roy,” continues Berthoud,
“ the suppressing of the bell in repeating watches, a
change which has made these machines more simple, by
rendering the movement larger, more sqlid, and less ex-
posed to dust. Thesewatches, whichhe raised brass
edges, are of amore handsome form. From the time of
this celebrated artist, all the French repeaters have been
made according to this model; but in England, where
repeating watches were invented, they make them for
the most part with a bell; and in Spain, this construction
is still more preferred. In repeating watches. without
a bell, the hammers strike on brass pieces, either sol-
dered or screwed to the case. _ Repeating watches with
a bell, have also, as those without one, the property
of being dumb, that is to say, of being able to make it
repeat at pleasure, without the hammers being allowed
to strike on the bell, or brass pieces.”
This effect is produced after the' pendant is pushed in,
by putting the point of the forefinger ona small spring
button, that comes through the case. Being a little pres-
sed in, it opposes a piece against the hammers;which pre-
vents them from striking either a bell or the brass pieces
inside of the case; by which means the blows for hours
and quarters are felt, though they cannot now be easily
heard. This makes this kind of repeaters very conve-
nient for those who are deaf, as during. the dark of
night they can feel the hour at a time when they can-
not see it. These sourdine or dumb parts have been
left off of late years; yet they are not without their ad-
vantages, as has been now shown.
The late Julien Le Roy had tried.to render repeat- Le Roy’s
ing watches more simple, by suppressing the. wheel- repeaters.
work which serves to regulate the intervals between the
blows of the hammers, and also the main ing
spring. This celebrated artist succeeded in these, to
construct new repeating movements, of which several
have been made. But it appears that the public have
not found them very convenient; so that this mode of —
composing them has not been imitated.
The only one of this kind which: we have seen: of
Julien Le Roy’s, was a: ‘good one in: the pos-
session of John Rutherfurd, Esq. of Edgerston. Al-
though they have not been copied; they certainly de-
serve to beso.
Repeaters have of late been made with springs in place Repeaters
of bells, which are a very ingenious substitute, it must/be with spring:
allowed, of Swiss invention; h they areas superflu- a ge. of
ous as bells. Considerable trouble is necessary in mak-
ing and placing them. » They ought never to be recom-
mended, if it could be avoided; but we are often obli-
ged to yield to the fashion of the day, even when it
does not cvincide with our own opinion. When three
or more hammers are used to give the quarters, we then
would admit springs in place of bells, as when they are
well tuned, they give a most beautiful chime for the
quarters: were bells introduced for this purpose, they
would give a clumsy appearance to the watch. Julien Le
Roy saw good reasons for setting aside the bell; and no
plan of a repeater will ever be superior or equal to that
of his, which Graham frequently adopted in many of his f
watches, though Sn perme en mone Ju- we
lien Le Roy’s having whatiscalled theplain, and Graham's 6
the Stogden motion, a most ingenious contrivance, re- F
Ree
HORO
and nice execution in
learn. * oe
Lar age or pane ag er made aon
ipti ing movemen motion-wor
ja a ype ge toe we have taken princi-
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> hands point
1 A ppd of the dial work, Fig. 3.
ed,and outside of the back of the pil-
Conley pear ear ey cere
name of minute wheel to what Berthoud
the centre or third wheel,
=
LOGY. 147
and which serve to regulate the number of the hours
which the hammer must strike. For this purpose the
pulley P carries a pinion a, which pitches in with a
a ection ofa wheal... Fig. 2 sallnd she! ravk. When
the cord is- , and the rack is in
made to advance towards the snail, the arm 5
on such a step of the snail as it may meet within
its course ; and, according to the depth of this step,
the hammer strikes a greater or less number of blows.
It will strike only one hour if the arm b of the rack is
stopped on the step 1, the most distant one from the
centre, as then the pin wheel getting only one of its pi
engaged, the hammer strikes only one blow. If, on
the contrary, the step 12, which is the deepest and
nearest the centre, is met by the arm @ in its course,
which cannot get there until the pin wheel shall have
made one turn, then the spring im the barrel bring-
ing it back, will cause the hammer to give twelve
; blows.
Clocks and
Watches:
—_—o_
It remains to be seen how the quarters are repeated. pratr
The piece s, Fig. 2. which turns the star wheel, and cccv.
takes one hour to make a revolution, is carried by Fig. 2.
another snail A (called the quarter snail,) formed by
four divisions, three paths or steps, on one of
which, eo ogy gape gree Q of a piece
fgg Ls » places itself, and as
eg rsee on Rather fee dhncgntzcat die snail,
the D of the finds itself more or less aside
from the centre « of P; so that when the
distance from
tion of the arm D, and this is what determines th
blows for the quarters : thus when the fin lots, wae
on the pin nearest the centre of the , the
hammer strikes only the number hours that the
snail L and the arm 6 of the rack have determined, if
i pin, it does not stop
ill after the hour hammer has struck the
ment.
ge vrei ne gp 1, 2, and 3. ee all the
parts of a repeating clock, seen in » ‘Fig. 1. re-
Sndheuphanl apddelsarmensubeedcts in the
, or what are put between the two plates, with
the exception of the anchor A, which is placed in this
way, to shew the ‘ t.
wheels B, C, D E, F, are those of the move-
ment. B is the barrel, which contains the clock main-
epeing. The great wheel is fixed to the bottom of the
B, and pitches into the pinion of the wheel C,
which is the great intermediate wheel. D is the third
or the centre or minute wheel.t E the fourth wheel, or
that where the contrate wheel was usually F the
ratchet, or ’ t wheel. The centre wheel D
makes a revolytion in an hour. The pinion on which
this wheel is fixed, has its pivot prolonged, which pas-
ses through the fore plate, Fig. 3. This arbor or pivot,
Fig. 4. enters spring tight into the cannon of the minute
pipe wheel m, seen in perspective, Fig. 5. which makes
also, by this means, a turn in an hour. This cannon
carries the minute hand; and its wheel pitches into
work, with the dial wheels, go under the general name of the motion work.
gives the name of the returning wheel; and whathe calls the minute
language.
in conformity to their
Repeating
clock with
an anchor
*scapement.
PLATE
cccyv.
Figs. 1, 2,
3, 4, 5,
148 HOROLOGY.
Repeating, the returning or minute wheel S, of the same number
Clocks. of teeth, and of the same diameter as the wheel m. The
pinion of the wheel S makes twelve revolutions in the
time that the hour wheel C makes one. The wheel C,
which is one of the dial wheels, takes then twelve
hours to make one revolution, and is that which car-
ries the hour hand,
It must be observed, with regard to these three wheels,
C, m, S, which are called dial wheels, that they are al-
ways the same, whether the clock is a striking one or
a repeating one; their effect being, to cause the hour
or wheel C to make a revolution in the. space of
twelve hours. The wheels G, L, M, N, Fig. 1. and
the fly V, form the wheel work of the repeating part.
The object of this wheel work, as has already been
mentioned, is to regulate the interval between each
blow of the hammer. The ratchet R, and the pin
wheel G, are fixed on the same arbor in common with
the wheel L, within whose centre it freely turns.
The spring r, and the click c, are all placed on the
wheel L.
When the cord X, which is wound round the pulley
P, Fig. 2. is pulled, the ratchet R, Fig. 3. fixed on the
same arbor as the pulley, retrogrades, or goes back-
ward, and the inclined planes of the teeth raise the:
endof the click at O. Then the repeating spring brings
back the ratchet, whose teeth butt or stop against the
end of the click, which carries about the wheel L,
and the wheel work M, N, V: but while the ratchet
R thus carries the wheel L, and while the pin wheel
G, and the pulley P of Fig. 2. which are fixed on
the same arbor, turn also, the pins of the wheel G act
on the pieces m, , Fig. 1. whose arbors prolonged car-
ry the hammers /, m, Fig. 2. Each piece m, n, is
pressed by a spring, to bring forward the hammers, af-
ter the pins had made them rise up or go backward.
The spring ry is only seen, which acts on the piece m ;
that which acts on the piece n, is placed under the plate
which carries the motion work, Fig. 2. The piece o
serves to communicate the motion of that of m to the
arbor or piece x, which carries the hour hammer.
The piece, (bascule,) or see-saw mx, Fig. 1. is move-
able on the arbor which carries the quarter hammer.
On this arbor below m.z, an arm like that of m moves,
on which act the three pins placed on the under side of
the wheel G, These three pins serve to raise the quar-
ter hammer fixed on the arbor which carries the piece
m. It is this hammer which the spring r presses. When
the cord is pulled, the wheel G is made to go backward,
the pins of which come to act on the back part of the
arm m, which yields, and comes from m to z. The
small arm which is below for the quarters, makes the
same motion; and when the repeating spring brings
back the wheel G, a small spring, which acts on these
pieces m, obliges them to get engaged between the
spaces of the pins, and to present the right planes on
which these pins act to raise the hammers.
The pulley P, Fig. 2. carries the pinion a, which
pitches into the rack 4 C, the effect of which is, as has
been said, to make the point 6 go upon the steps of the
snail L, and determine the number of blows which the
hour hammer must give.
The star wheel E, and the snail L, are fixed together by
two screws. ‘This star moves on a screw stud V, Fig. 2.
attached to the piece TR, moveable itself inT. Thispiece
forms, with the plate, a small frame, in which the star E
and snail L turn. One of the radii or teeth of the star
bears on the jumper Y, which is pressed by the spring
g. When the pin ¢ of the quarter snail turns the star
x
wheel, the jumper Y moves out, receding from V the
centre of the star, until the tooth of the star arrives at
the angle of the jumper, which se pte when it has
made half of the way which it oug
pushes it as it were behind, and makes it precipitately
finish the other half; so that from the changing of one
hour to another, that of the star and of the snail is
done in an instant, which is when the minute hand
points to the 60th minute on the dial.
The janet finishing thus in turning the star, each
tooth placed in ¢ comes on the back of the pin ec, and
makes the surprise s, to which it is fixed, advance.. The
surprise is a thin plate, adjusted on the quarter snail ;
it turns with it by means of the pin which comes
through an opening made in the surprise ; the advance
which the star wheel teeth causes the surprise to make,
serves to prevent the arm Q of the finger from falling
into the step 8, which would make the three quarters
be repeated when at the 60th minute. As soon as the
star changes the hour, it then obliges the surprise to
advance to receive the arm Q; so that if the cord is
pulled at this instant, the hammer will strike the
precise hour.
The arm Q and the finger are moveable on the same
centre. When we have drawn the cord, and when the
pins of the pulley have freed or left the finger at liberty,
then the spring p makes the arm Q fall on the quarter
snail, and the dogee D presents itself to one or-other
of the pins in the pulley. These two pieces can turn
one on the other, and be moved separately: This serves
in the case where the arm Q going to fall on the step
h of the quarter snail, and the finger D being enga-
ged in the pins of the pulley, this arm bends and
yields to the pins of the pulley, which at this in-
stant cause it to retrograde or go backward ; it is ne~
cessary that the pin for the present in hold can make
the finger move separately from the piece Q. The
spring B brings back the finger D, as soon as the pin
has retrograded, so that it may present itself to the pin
which stops for the hour alone, or for the quarter, if
the arm falls on the step 1, &c. .
Having seen the most essential parts of the repeti«
tion, there remains only one of which an idea must be
given, and which we shall endeavour to make the read«
er understand. This is the all or nothing, which: has this
property, that if the cord is not fully drawn, so as to
make the arm 4 of the rack C press on the snail L, the
hammer will not strike, so that by this ingenious me-
chanism, the piece will —e the exact hour, if other«
wise it will not repeat at all. 4
We have seen, that when the cord X is pulled, the pin
wheel G, (Fig. 1.), oversets the piece m, and makes it
come to a; and that before the hammer can strike,a small
spring must bring back this piece m, to put it in holding
with the pins; after that, it is easy to see” that if, in
place of allowing the piece m to take its situation, it
were made to be still more overset, the repeating spring
bringing back the pin wheel, the hammer would not
strike while this piece remained overset; this is precise-
ly the effect that the piece TR (Fig. 2.) produces,
which is on that account called the all or nothing
piece. This is effected in the following manner: ‘The .
iece m (Fig. 1.) carries a pin, whi through,
the a by. oe opening 0, (Fig. 2.) ; if we bull'the
cord, the pin wheel causes the piece m to move, as we
have just now seen. The pin which it carries comes
to press against the end 0 of the all or ee piece, and
sets it aside, so that the pin shall arrive at the extremi-
eons]
t to do. Having cccy.
escaped this angle, the inclined plane of the jumper jig, 2,
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HOROLOGY.
149
or which serve to measure the time, as the
wheels B, C, D, E, F, and those ofthe repetition, which
serve to
Watches
the interval between the blows of the py ,7¢
hammer: such are the wheels a, 5, c, d, e, 7, whose cccvi.
is called the little wheel work, or runners. Fig. 1.
The spring of the movement is contained in the bar-
rel A; B is the great or fusee wheel; C the centre or
second wheel, whose arbor prolonged carries the cannon
pinion on which the minute hand is fitted and adjust-
ed ; D is the third wheel; E the fourth wheel ; and F
the cylinder, ’ t, or balance wheel. The fusee
I is adj on the | ter wheel B, a spring-tight col-
let pin i ¢ wheel to its place on the fusee ;
the chain is w. round on the fusee, and holds like-
wise of the barrel. The hook O of the fusee serves
the hand, on the watch being full wound up,
ing against the end of the guard de
ee Arg cote Fete neniebe sedis ete (4
; the modern name of it is the fusee stop,) C (Fig.2.)
attached to the other plate ; its effect is the same as in
the plain watch.- Fig. 8. of Plate CCCII. ts
the cylinder ’seapement, of which a description has al-
ready been given in p. 127.
B is fixed on the cylinder ; F is the cy-
is the balance
ji wheel, which is represented as tending to act on
the cylinder, and cause vibrations to be made by the
balance. None of the pieces are drawn here, such as
the cock, slidé, curb, and pendulum or spiral spring,
as they would have rather made the “scapement part
obscure. The wheel work, or runners of the ition,
is com of five wheels, a, 6, c, d, ¢, and of the pi-
nion f, and of four other pinions. The effect of this
wheel work is to late the interval between each
blow of the hammer ; so that if the first wheel a is made
to have 42 teeth, the second 4 36, the third c 33, the
fourth d@ 30, and the fifth e 25; and moreover, if all the
pinions into which these wheels pitch have six leaves
or teeth; then in the time that the first wheel a makes
a turn, the pinion / will make 4812) revolutions ; but
the ratchet R, which the first wheel a carries, is com-
monly divided into 24 parts, the half of which are after-
wards taken away, in order that there may remain only
12 to strike 12 blows for the 12 hours. If, then, we di-
vide 4812 by 24, we shall have the number of turns
that the pinion makes for each blow of the ham-
mer, which gives 2004 turns of the pinion f for one
tooth of the ratchet R.
The first wheel a, or great wheel of the striking part,
carries a click and a spring, on which act a small ratchet,
put under the ratchet wheel R, which forms click and
ratchet work, like what has been seen in the first wheel
of the repetition (Plate CCCV. Fig. 1.), which has the
same use ; that is to say, when we the nt or
pusher, the ratchet R , without wheel a
turning ; and the pring which is in the barrel B:(Fig.
2.) bringing back the ratchet R, on whose arbor g, the
inner end of the spring is hooked ; the small ratchet
comes butt against the click, and turns the wheel a;
and the ratchet R makes the hammer M to strike, whose
arm m is engaged with the teeth of this ratchet.
The spring r attached to my we (Fig. 2.) acts on
the small part n of the arm m (Fig. 1.) The effect of
this spring is to the arm m against the teeth of
the ratchet ; so that when we make the watch to re-
peat, the ratchet R , and the spring r brin
always back the arm m, in order that the teeth of the
ratchet may make the hammer to strike.—Let us now
on to the of the motion work.
Figs. 2, s.
pass description
Plate CCCVI. Fig. 3. represents that part of a repeat- Fig. 3.
150
* “Repeating er which is called the dial or motion work. ..It is seen
Big. 4,
in the instant where the button or pendant is just push-
ed home to make it repeat. In first taking off the hands,
and then the screw which fixes the dial of repeating
watches, we will see the same mechanism that this Fi-
gure presents. This is the kind of repeating motion
work most generally adopted ; it is solid, and of easy
execution. P is the ring or bow to which the pendant
shank or pusher is attached, and this enters into the sock-
et O of the watch case, and moves within it its whole
length, in tending towards the centre. It carries the
piece p, which is of steel, and fixed in the pendant shank,
both composing the pusher; the under side is filed flat.
A plate of steel fixed to the case inside, prevents it from
turning round about, and permits it to moye length-
wise only. The end part of the steel in the pusher is
formed so that it cannot come out of the case socket,
this being also prevented by the small steel plate.
The end of the piece p acts on the heel ¢ of the rack
CC, whose centre of motion is at y, and at, whose ex-
tremity c, is fixed one end of the chain ss.. The other
end keeps hold of the circumference of a pulley A, put
by a square on the prolonged arbor of the first wheel of
the runners. This chain passes over a second pulley B.
If, then, we push the pusher P, the end c of the.rack,
will describe a certain space, and, by means of the
chain ss, will cause the pullies A, B to turn. The
ratchet R (Fig. 4.) will also retrograde, until the arm
4 of the rack comes upon the snail L; then the main
spring of the repetition bringing back the ratchet,
and the pieces which it carries, the arm m will present
itself to the teeth of the ratchet, and the hammer M
will strike the hours, of which the quantity depends on
the step of the snail, which is presented tothe arm 6.
In order to have a better idea of the effect and dis-
ition of this repetition, itis only necessary to look at
Fig. 4. where the rack y ¢ is seen in perspective; the
hour snail L, and the star wheel E ; the pullies A and
B, the ratchet R, the wheel a, the part of raising mn
of the hour hammer ; and these are the principal parts
of a repetition, which are drawn as if they were in
action.
The snail L is fixed to the star E by means of two
screws ; they both turn on the pivot formed from the
screw V, carried by the all or nothing piece TR, move-
able on its centre T; the all or nothing piece forms
with the plate a sort of frame, in which the star and
hour snail turn.—Let us now see how the quarters are
repeated.
Besides. the hour hammer M, there is another N,
(Plate CCCVI. Fig. 1), whose arbor or pivot comes up
within the motion work, and carries the piece 5, 6 (Plate
CCCVI, Figs.3, 4.) The prolonged pivot of the hour or
great hammer passes also within the motion work, and
carries the small arm q: these pieces 5, 6 and q serve
to make the grater strike by double blows. This is
the effect of the quarter rack Q, which has.teeth
at the ends F and G, that act on the pieces g, 6,
and cause the hammers to strike. This piece or rack
Q is carried about by the arm 4, which the arbor of the
ratchet R has on it, by a square above the pulley A,
in such a manner, that when the hours are repeated
the arm é acts on the pin G fixed in the quarter rack,
and obliges it to. turn and raise the arms g and 6, and
consequently the hammers,
The number of quarters which. the. hammers, must
strike, is determined by the quarter snail N,-aceording
to the depth of the steps h, 1, 2; or $3 which it presents:
the quarter rack Q, pressed by the spring b, retro-«
grades; and the teeth of the rack engage more or less
HOROLOGY.
with the arms.g, 6, which get also a\vetrogyade motion,
and are brought back by the springs 10 and 9: The
arm / bringing back the quarter, rack, its arm m acts
on the extremity R of the all, or nothing, TR, the
opening of which at , traversing against a stud fix-
ed to the plate, allows R to describe a small. space:
the arm m, coming to the extremity of R, this last pressed
by the spring i, is made to return, into its place,
so that the arm m rests on the end R, and by this
the quarter rack cannot fall or, retrograde, unless.the
all or nothing piece is pushed aside. The arm wu, car-
ried by the quarter, rack, serves to overturn or: set
aside the raising piece m, (Fig. 4.) (which is moveable
on the arbor of the hour hammer,) whose pin.1, comes
up within the motion work ; so that when even the
hours and quarters are repeated, the quarter rack still
continues to moye a little way, and the arm wu turns
aside the raising piece m, by means of the pin 1,
which comes within the motion work, and by this it
is put from having any holding with the ratchet R, so
PLATE ~
CCCVI.’ >
Figs. 3, &
long as the all or nothing TR does not allow the quar-
ter rack to retrograde or fall; which can only hz
in the case when, having pushed home the pen
against the snail, the arm 4 of the rack CC presses the
snail, and makes it describe a small space, at the-ex-
tremity R of the all or nothing: then. the quarter, rack
will fall and disengage the becs or lifting pieces, and
the hammers will aalee the hours and quarters, given
by. the snails L and N,
The great hammer carries a pin 3, Fig. 4. which
comes up to the motion work through an opening
marked 8, Fig. 3.: the spring r acts on this pin, and
causes the great hammer to strike: this hammer carries
another pin 2, which passes also through to the motion
work by an opening 2, Fig. 3.; it is upon this that the
small tail of the raising piece g acts, to make it give
blows for the quarters :,the small hammer -has.also a
pin which. passes engl to ye pays work by the
opening 4; it is upon this pin that the spring 7 presses,
to cause the quarter hammer to strike. The spring 'S is
the spring jumper, which acts on the star wheel, E,
Figure 6. represents the cannon pinion and the quar-fig. ¢.
ter snail N, seen in perspective. The quarter snail N
is rivetted on the cannon pinion c, the end of which
D carries the minute hand ; this snail N carries, the
surprise S, the effect of which is the same as. that
for the repeating clock ; that is to say, when the pin
O of the surprise shifts the place, or causes the star to
advance, and the jumper having done. turning it, one
of the teeth of the star comes to touch the pin O which
is carried by the surprise, and causes the part of the
surprise Z, Fig. 3. to advance, so that when the arm Q
of the uarter rack falls on this part Z,. and. prevents it
from falling on the step 3 of the snail; by this the piece
repeats only the hour. The changing from one hour to
another is by this way made in. an instant, and the
watch strikes the hour exactly as marked by the hands. -
The socket or cannon of the cannon pinion cD, igre is
slit, in order that. it may.move spine tight on the ar-
bor of the second wheel, on which it enters witha de-
gree of stiffness or,friction, slight enough tobe able to
turn easily the. minute hand to either side, by. setti
it back or forward. according as it may be requir a.
which sets also the hour hand to the hours.
It is proper here to undeceive those who think that
ahey injure their watches in setting the minute hand
backward. In order to.convince one’s'self that there is _
the position .
nothing in. this, it is sufficient to rem e
which the pieces must have in a repeating motion work,
when it has to repeat the hour, when the pendant or
acne es
LAS Se,
et
_
a
a
cee
4
«
|
HOROLOGY.
has brought back and set aside all the pi
with the snails LN; for at thistime
or connection -between
if
|
HIE
sat
ee
§
i
:
i
FL
hours and as marked by the hands.
Ses teaneeianniae: ikebehabdewere waned in
same instant that the watch is made to repeat, they
: it is necessary then, before
wait til it has
clock or watch, to
ted the , So that all the pieces
shall have taken their natural situations. ;
It is easy to conclude from this, that since with a
ke aay gp we can set. backward or forward the
minute , according as it ge Be! required, we may
with mach reason do this in a plain watch,
to it.
of a
peater does not strike the marked by the hour hand,
when it would be necessary to put it to the hour which
es the! repeater of itself by the
| i F with the hou r i the watch
a _ jumper S, or the pin
yes well the effect they ought
returning or minute wheel,
mo menas
E
:
wheel, Fig. 8. makes then four turns
hour wheel ; the cannon pinion conse-
turns for one of the hour wheel,
tH
the dial » so that between the
f
151
or of the = plate, is sunk a little way, with
scien ts hepe fast by means of keys, or griffs 13. and
14. The brass is covered by the dial, fixed after
that of the brass , by means of a screw.
A is to strike the hour which it in«
Repeating
Watches.
dicates the moment we press in ee so that»
the pr osna ine must be een a pres he ae
may to in the pendant, and that the blows
of the hammer may be the a ible. With
respect to the first, on two things; the given
force of the spring, and the } pethebeashbe + chad
is to say, the space described, and the manner of making
the act on the rack, With regard to the last, the
rack must be in such a manner, that the point
of contact of the pusher follows the are described by
the rack, in such a way that the force shall not be de-
composed, so that the action of the hand on the push-
© With regard pecs ‘ubiacgll depep dow
i to , its length depends on the
int where it acts on the rack ; that is to say, accords
ing as it acts farther or nearer the centre of motion. It
is obvious, that if it acts near the centre, more force
is required, and it will describe a less » and
vice versa. As to the force of the blow of the ham-
mer, it is limited by the force of the repeating main-
spring, and by the force that the runners —— tomove
or them in motion ; for it is clear, that it is only
the excess of the force of the spring over the resistance
of these wheels, that can be employed to raise the ham«
mer. The number of blows of the hammer, for one
revolution of the ratchet, determines again the force of
the blow.
CHAP. IX.
On Compensation Pendulums.
Compensation Pendulums are those which are con-
structed to counteract the effect of heat and cold, in
lengthening or shortening a pendulum rod.
Godfroi Wendelinus, canon of Condé in Flanders,
who published a dissertation, in 1626, on the obliquity
of the ecliptic, seente'eo have beats the iret whio oben
ved that, by change of temperature, metals changed
their lengths.
Graham was the first person who thought of maki
a am rod that should counteract the effects
heat and cold on it, by a combination of rods or wires
of different metals, such as brass, silver, steel, &c. ; but
he never put it in execution, from the opinion that it
would not be effectual enough in its operations. It oc-
curred to him at the same time, that mercury, its
great ion by heat, would be more adapted to the
bp he was in pursuit of. ——— a pendulum on
is principle, it was applied to a clock, and set a-going.
= jie we in the "ei ical reateaieay | No
392, in a paper which was given into the Society in
1726. He says, “ the clack was kept continually go-
ing, without having either the pendulum or the hands
altered, from the 9th June 1722 to the 14th November
1725, being three years and four months.” Some time
eee eee Harrison fags the nye Barrow in
i , was engaged in experiments on
brass and steel rods wi aden tion) tat ced
what is now called the Gridiron Pendulum.” See De-
scription of tro Methods, &c. by John Ellicott, F.R. Si
London, 1753.
Some estimate be formed of the advantages of
a compensation. lum, by comparing the going of a
Compensa-
tion pendu-
lums.
First sug-
gested by
Graham
in 1715.
Errors of
simple pen-
dulums,
152
Compensa- clock which had one, with that which had a simple pen-
tion = dulum, as shewn ina letter from Mr Bliss, at Oxford,
Pendulums. dated 12th July 1752, to Mr Short, in London. “I find,
upon examining my book, that the greatestdifference in
the going of the clock, between the coldest weather of
the two last winters, and the hottest weather of the
two last summers, is no more than one second per day ;
and this was occasioned by the levers being made too
short, of which I advised Mr Ellicott above a year
since: Whereas a clock with a simple pendulum and
brass rod, made by Mr Graham, and which pe to
Dr Bradley, in the coldest weather lost above fifteen
seconds per day, and in the warmest gained above thir-
teen seconds per day, and went very near the equal time
in temperate weather.” It is plain that Mr Bliss must
have meant, gained in the coldest weather, and Jost in
the hottest, otherwise there would be no analogy with
the effect of the temperature in summer and winter on
the brass pendulum rod. See Ellicott’s pamphlet, al-
ready quoted.
Graham’s Mercurial Pendulum.
Graham's
mercurial
The mercurial pendulum, invented by Graham, hay-
ing been the first that was applied to a clock for the
pendujum. purpose of compensation, we shall begin with the de-
scription of it, taking the others nearly in the order of
their invention. This pendulum eonsists of a pendu-
lum rod, which carries a large glass jar filled with mer-
cury, so that the expansion or contraction of the rod
may be counteracted by the opposite expansion or con-
traction of the mercury. .To make this pendulum in
the way which has hitherto been adopted, is attend-
ed with considerable trouble. From the nature of the
material, the construction of such a pendulum must
always be troublesome, because any filling in, or taking
out of the mercury from the cylinder or glass jar, to bring
about the compensation, will cause a change of place in
the index point on the graduated arch or index plate,
if such a thing is used. A pendulum which will reme-
dy this evil will be afterwards described, so that we
shall now proceed to give a description of one made
in the common way. :
Dimensions The length of the a over all, from the bot-
of a mercu. tom of the sole to the upper end of the pendulum
rial pendu- spring, was 43.95 inches; the inside bottom of the jar,
iim, .6 of an inch from the bottom of the sole; and the
height of the column of mercury in the jar, about 7.47
lection. From the upper end of the spring, take a length
of 39.2 inches on the pendulum downwards, then
43.95 inches — 39.2 +- 6, will give that part of the co-
lumn of mercury below the centre of oscillation equal
to 4.15 inches, and that above the centre 3.32 inches.
The height of the jar outside, was 7.8 inches; a wire
ut down inside, measured 7.6 inches ; mean diameter
inside, 2.018 inches; weight, 7.5 ounces, Although it
would be still better to have it of a less weight, yet it
is doubtful if it would be then strong enough to sup-
port such a column of quicksilver. The weight of the
stirrup or cylinder frame was 1 lb. 6 ounces, and was
reduced 6 ounces; that is, from the sole was taken 2.55
eunces, and from the top 3.45 ounces, both equal to 6
ounces. When the clock was set agoing after this. al-
teration, with the pendulum the same length as before,
it went slow at the rate of 46 seconds.in 24 hours, and
when shortened by touching up the regulating nut, it
was found to be about .15 of an inch less. than the for-
mer length.
The length of the stirrup bars outside, including sole
and of the top, was 8.125 inches; the breadth of
the frame from outside of the bars, 3.25 inches; the
HOROLOGY.
thickness of the pendulum rod and bars, 0.136 inch; Compeosnail
breadth of ditto, 0.384 inch ; thickness of sole outside, ion i
0.515 of an inch; distance from bottom of the sole to rom .
upper side of the jar cover, 8.187 inches ; jar sunk into pimehcons
the sole about or near to 0.25 inch; distance from up- of amer- 4
per side of jar cover to under side of stirrup top, 1.25 curial-pen-
inch ; height of stirrup top for flat of pendulum rod, dulum.
1.75 inch; thickness of the flat, 0.220 inch; diameter
of the regulating screw, 0.218 inch; ditto of the nut,
1,150 inch. The screw had 36.25 turns in an inch; and
the nut was divided into 30 prime divisions, each being
equal to a second ina day. The prime divisions were ,
subdivided into four.
Inches,
Length of stirrup bars inside... ....... 8.05
Thickness of sole outside ..... vie oye « D515
Length of stirrup top ....... elec cere e LIS
From the stirrup tep to the upper end of the
pendulum spring ....... oles « 0) 0% GEARS
Length of the pendulum over all .... ... 43.800
Inch.
Length of pendulum spring. .........-- 625
Breadth of the double lamine, including 164
the space between them, eachlamina being.168 .500
Thickness of ditto’. 0) os eos 5 aye one 6 SOOT
Ib. oz. dramsé ~
Weight of quicksilver in the jar... . 11 12 5.36
Ditto of stirrup frame ......... 100
Pendulum rod and spring, regulating nut, —
Jarcover, Be.) ieee Vala e s $203) Oe:
DAP Sie ta nie ie via ohne ns dau sik boned : 078
Total weight of Pendulum 14 O 13.35
Before the pendulum was altered, the rate of the
clock shewed that the compensation was not sufficiently
effective, although the height of the column of mer-
cury was 7.5 inches nearly, and the jar being full, al-
lowed no more to be put in: By reducing the weight
of the jar frame or stirrup, the rod required to be short-
ened, as has been stated, .15 of an inch; whether or not -
this will be enough, remains to be determined. The
daily rate for a month or six weeks was 0”.1 slow, when
the temperature was from 36° to 40° of Fahrenheit’s ther-
mometer, and got gradually slower as the height of the
thermometer increased. When between 60° and. 66°,
the daily loss was from 0".37 to 0’.45 ; for about two
weeks, when the weather was extremely cold, the ther-.
mometer at the freezing point and under, the clock
showed a tendency of rather gaining. i
Of late years, the mercurial pendulum has been
adopted in some astronomical clocks; and it seems u
the whole to answer very well. ‘The author of the Ele«
ments of Clock and Watch-work thought, that it was not
fit for this purpose, being too quick in its operations of
expansion and contraction ; but if the cover is well
fitted to the top of the jar, we can venture to say, from
the resistance made by the glass toany of tempe-
rature, that the operations will be too slow; and for thi
reason, it is pro to make such a pendulum with a
thicker rod gin, bars, that they wit not take
heat and cold too hastily. A steel jar would perhaps.
answer the end as. well as any other contrivance; but
some would object to this, on account of the danger of
netism. But even a jar of this kind, from its bei
e thin, (for it would be heavy were it as thick as
the glass one,) would be easily affected by the changes
of temperature ; and mercury being still more suscep
HOROLOGY.
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153
screwed into the upper iece, it binds to it the
lower end of the pendulum rod, which is formed into
a shape something like a compressed A, having lugs or
soles, through which the screws for fixing it passes.
The regulating screw has an untapped or plain part,
which turns freely in a hole in the middle of this upper
cross piece, formed in the same way as the upper cross
iece for the jar frame ; the nut or head of the ane
ing screw is shaped so as to lie under the hollow of
the x, at the lower end of the pendulum rod, and on
the u side of the cress piece; the lower ends of
Geanicicihithe) cutee femee ano punt , and
fitted into holes in the brass wheel, thro: the edge
of which are put pins to fix them and the wheel to-
gether ; this outside frame has no in the compen-
sation. The brass cover for the jar, has the lugs hol-
lowed out a very little, so as to come in on the rods of
the jar frame ; the ends of the upper traverse, of which,
as well as the lugs of the jar sole, are hollowed, and
take in with a part of the rods of the outside frame,
frame is moved up and down.
the glass jar, outside, is about eight
eight and other dimensions nearly
the same as those stated for the former pendulum;
and the diameter of the rod and A part is .331 of an
Compensa-
tion
Pendulums.
inch. A view of the improved mercurial pendulum is Pratr:
given in Plate CCCVII. Fig. 1.
cecv iL
Philosophers seem not to be oe seeing the Fig. 1.
expansion of mercury relative to that of other metals;
some making it 15 times, others above 16 times that
of iron, panies & She colntn:
sion downwards. The second action up ‘is
by the exterior tube, whose intemal di just al-
lows the interior tube to pass freely through it: its bot-
tom is connected with the lower ends of descri-
oJ . "
HOROLOGY. 159
{ Compan m4 bed wires. To:complete the correction, a second pair Compensa
, '. of wires of the same‘diameter as the former, and occu. Ward's Pendulum. pisgianiel
Pendulums. 5ying a position at right angles to them, act downwards, , K : ly
— - w little: below ‘the exterior tube, having also — The rod of this pendulum consists of two flat bars of Ward's
* en's tubu- the interior one without ingeither. steel,andone of zinc, connected together by three screws, pendulum.
pee s lowerends of these wiresare fastened to.ashort cys asshewn in Plate CCCVII. Fig. 10. No. 2. whichisaside », ..¢
qua. ical piece of brass, of the same diameter asthe exte- view of the pendulum rod when the bars are hers cccvil.
re, i is sus; itscentre. hh, ii,” says Mr Ward, “ are two flat rods or of Fig. 10.
Buse, Teen atisa ts wenumdaccdlicettbecsdiathich iven,phtutes cighthef axiach tick; bé is aes of sing Ne 26
Fig 9. edn adiodastathtioople teieatd torepresentthe interposed between them, and is nearly a quarter of an
on twotubes;and the rectangular position of thetwopairof inch thick. The corners of the iron bars are bevelled
wires round the middle one, are shewn by the five small off, that they may meet with less resistance from the air;
é circles. By ing this arrangement, from the ecle- and it likewise gives them a much lighter appearance,
construction of your own half seconds pendulum, These bars are kept together by three screws (, /, /, which
Phil. Journal for August 1799;) I avoided nmuch trou- pass through oblong holes in / h and &k, and serew into
which must/have occurred to me, unless; indeed, +i. The bar AA is connected tothe one k k by the serew
I had been impelled on the same idea, by the difficul- m3 which is called the adjusting screw. This screw is
ty of contriving the five wires to act all in arow, with tapped into hh, and passes barely through ££; but
9. sufficient freedom and in so small a space. Pig. 9. No.$. that part of the screw which enters £ & has its threads
No 3. ins the part which eloses the upper end of the in- turnedoff. The bar i i has a shoulder at its upper end,
scenes ‘the two small cireles are the two wires turned at right angles, and bears at the top of the zinc
whichdepend from it, andjthe three largecirelessshew bar k k, and is supported by it. It is necessary to have
the holes in it, through’ which the-middle and other several holes for the screw m, in order to adjust the
pair of wires pass. compensation. No. 3, 4, 5, are a side view of each bar
Fig. 9. Fig. 9. No. 4. eS part which separately. No. 6. shews the flat side of the zing bar.
No. Pig..10, No. 1, is a front view of the pendulum rod Fig. 10.
in the centre is where the middle wire is fastened to at screwed aon The letters have the same re- No. 1.
it; the others'the holes for the other four wires to pass fereace to thé different figures.”
Yig-9- through: Pig. 9 Nous. is the part whieh closestheup- The front steel bar being lengthened by heat, and Method of
No. 5. er end of the external tube; the large circle in the centre having its expansion downwards, will carry along with compensa-
Rte place where the brave covering forthe part it the zine bar, whose lower end jis su by: a tion.
i erted; and deal) cincles rn ge we or hosel riees oma wre biter
denote the fastening for the wires of the last i ve its expansion upwards, and carry up the steel
‘bottom | weeds, pate en rst mca of a knee onthe
places for upper zine bar. penda ball hangs
the wires of the second exy aartinerdan to the lower part of the back steel bar which has
the holes for the other parr of to pass through, expansion downwards ; but the two expansions down-
fastened to it, and the hole iv the middle is that where- Mr Ward's pendulum must be allowed to: be-a very
‘it is pinned to the centre of the bob. The fastening excellent one, as it possesses the advantage of permitti
q of the tubes; but at the lewer ends they are all fixed, tions of the Society for the tof Arts, &e:
5 as : by No. 7. Phave: to-add to this for the year 1807, and in the pamphlet which Mr Ward
- . description, that the pieces represented in Fig. 9. have published at Blandford in 1808, contain sufficient des
— : each «jointed motion, by means of whieh the fellow tails toenable any common clockmaker to copy it. We
- p id be stretched, although have only to add, that there should be a spare screw, for
A me egee Md = dower shifting the compensation; and that the screws con-
. Soieatiins ae connected, the middle wire will necting the two steel bars and the zine one should
be: by the weight of the whole; the interior never on any account be moved. It will be found of
tube will support at ita top the whole except the middle great advantage to have a spare screw, which may be
wire; the second pair of wires-will be stretched by all put into-that place which is supposed requisite to cors
ne middle wire and interior tube ; the exterior rect the compensation ; and then release the one sup+
at its top the weight of the second pair posed to be, where the compensation is thought to be
of wires and the bob, and the second pai ipvatainene too much or-too little. Our experience with it soon led
stretched by the weight of the bob us to this contrivance. Having made one ofthese
te to oem 1 made of the tubolar culams, we shall now give an account of its dim ;
kind, had pcan eee Es above &c. The distance from the pene eee
the bob; that een ene gre oné*up; lum spring to the centre of the ball, is 40.75 inches;
onl ity w ae gw short to-cor and oo thts lower endl of tie feamt steal Uae, Bie 31.5
was compensated: for, by extendi inches. From the upper end of the zinc bar, where
those ml and ing the back bar of steel. rests om hangs;ony to the centre
of the ball, it is 2 feet 6.25 inches. The steel bars are
.
ul
i
Hf
zt
isan forged from cast steel; and’ annealed ; their breadth is
the rod reaching about 18 span n loweredge three quarters of an inch, antl their thickness about one-
of the bob, otherwise it is not it ior-to the one first tenth of an-inch.. The of the zine bar-is 24.8
described.” inches ; and its thickness-a little more than two-tentirs
160 HOROLOGY.
Compensa- of aninch. The centre of the ball hangs on the end of
p bens the tube ofthe regulating nut, where it was tapped, to
wep work on its corresponding screw, made near the lower
Ward’s _ part-of'the back bar, formed here into a round rod) the
pendulum. lower end of which isa oe. or index, to a graduated
late fixed to.the back of the case, and 5:25 inches be-
at the centre of the ball. The weight of the ball is
13 lb. 20z.; that of the zine and steel bars, nut, pen-
dulum spring, and connecting screws, 2lb. 134 0z.;
weighing in all nearly 16 lb. In making up steel bars
or rods for any compensation pendulum, it is re to
heat or blue them after they are finished, which will
dispel whatever magnetism they may have acquired
in working them up. The zinc bar of this pendulum,
when brought near to the length of compensation, was
about 21 inches. Taking the length of steel to be
compensated by this at 61.75 inches, we may find what
the compensation of the zinc should be, if the steel is
zightly taken at 138.
Steel in inches 61.75, ...... Log. 1.7906370
Matio 1388 .. 2... eee » Log. 2.1398791
8.9305161
‘Zinc in inches 21......+... Log. 18222193
Ratio 405.7 .......+-.. Log. 2.6082968
$.9305161
The expansive ratio here is greater than $73, as given
by Mr Smeaton ; but is not equal to 420, as given by
Mr Ward, from trials made with his pendulum,
Remarks on © The three zinc pendulums which have been descri«
zine pendu- bed, have each their peculiar properties. The zinc rods
dums. of the gridiron ene are very troublesome to make ;
but they are more exposed to the air, or to changes
of temperature, and are adjustable by means of the
shortest traverse, and the sets of heles which are in
them and'the centre'rod. When this pendulum is well
- executed, it is perhaps the best of the three. The one
with the zinc tube is the strongest, the bearing on
it being more firm and direct than in either of the
other two ; only it has no means for adjusting the com-
pensation, unless by shortening the tube from time to
time. According as the excess of its compensation is
shown, something might be contrived to adjust it,
without taking it from its place, but this would be too
complicated ; so that the shortening of the tube b
degrees is rather the better way. Ward’s is muc
more easily made than the other two. Those who use
gridiron pendulums should have a half traverse, with
three pins on it, similar to the shortest one in the
pendulum, which will be found very convenient, when
it 1s necessary, to shift for compensation. The half
traverse and pins should be put into the holes, where
the traverse in shifting is not to come. . This will
keep the pendulum rods in their places, and serve in
€ same way as the spare screw proposed for Ward’s
pendulum.
CHAP. XI.
On the Wooden Pendulum Rod.
Wooten Tue wooden pendulum rod does not come under the
pendulum ¢lass of those which have just now been described ;
rods. nor can it be supposed equal to any metallic compen=
sation one. pty. a good opinion of it, however, we
put to trial one of them made of a very fine piece of
straight-grained deal, that, for the purpose of seasoning, -Woodex
had kat for five years near a parlour fire, whi , Pendulum
was almost constantly lighted throughout the whole
year. The rod, when dressed up and fitted to the ball,
and the pendulum spring put to it, was well varnished,
so as to exclude any possibility of its being affected by
damp. It was then applied to the clock, which, when
regulated, went for about sixty days, during the
months of June and July, without any apparent devia-«
tion from time ; the very dry weather made the fixings
for the clock case shrink a little. When these were
again made more secure, the clock, during a trial of
many months, could not be brought to give the same
satisfaction. Whether this was owing to the wooden
rod, or to what cause, we shall not at present pretend
to determine, On this pendulum being taken away
from the clock, a mercurial one was put in its place,
having the same pendulum spring which was at the
wooden rod, and every thing else being in the same
state as before. The difference in the good going of
the clock after this became truly pelea se and may
be considered as a striking proof of the great superio<
xity of the one pendulum over the other.
It must here be observed, that, although the compa-
“ative trial by the same clock with the mercurial and
wooden rod pendulums was in favour of the former, yet
this clock and another were fixed on two planks, exactly
the same as those described in the next Chapter, and
strongly fixed to a stone wall, opposite the brick wall
where the other two clocks Lagi which ae — to the
disco’ of their pendulums affecting ers mos
tions, Not being aware of this at the time of trial, the
errors of the going of the clock, while the wooden rod
pendulum was used, and the good going of it when the
mercurial pendulum was applied, may have arisen from
various causes, such as the icity of the upper plank,
or the pendulums being of unequal length and weight.
This much may positively be affirmed, that they were
not going under se payer as to crt Boyd
trial. We propose however to repeat the experim
the lates rod pendulum, applied to another clock,
placed in a more insulated situation, An eminent A«
merican philosopher says that deal has little or no lon-
gitudinal expansion, making it less than glass, as may.
be seen in Table under the article Expansion in
this work.
Rods.
In the Astronomical Observations published at Came 7 yaam’s
bridge in 1769, by the late Reverend William Ludlam, wooden
Professor of Mathematics in that university, he has pendulum
described a very neat and ingenious method of fit< tod.
ting up a pendulum with a wooden rod, construct
ed for the purpose of preventing any gyratory motion
from taking place, as well as to have some resistance
from the air. This was effected by having the pendue
lum ball of an equal mass round the centre of a round
wooden rod, and by athin flat hard steel crutch, to
give impulse on the hardened ends of two screws put
through the rod, which screws were to keep the flat
crutch as near as possible in the plane or line of the dias
meter of the pendulum rod, or at right angles to the
middle plane of the pendulum ball. This ball was nears
ly of the form of a cheese, or the middle frustum of a
globe. For a more particular description of it, see Lud«
lam’s Observations, page 81, Plate v.
From the description given of this by Mr
Ludlam, it appears to be a very complete one, and se=
veral persons were on that account led to it; but,
from our ience, it was found to be much inferior
dele ght have been expected, and to possess, rae
4 HOROLOGY. 161
in a great degree, the very defect which Mr Ludlam from drawers, whose sides and bottom were of cedar, Wooden
bo to avoid. The ‘coming and going of the there issued effluvie, that inspissated the oil at the =
pendulum rod by heat and moisture, causes the screws locks, and thickened it so much, that the locks became _—”S,
—*—" to come and go from the crutch, sometimes to clip it Tio.ens. lh they were talien off end choles
hard, and at « it to have more a yur pe have roeree been made of Fe Pendulum
om between the ends or points of the screws than is wood, are objectionable on this account, as il rods of ce-
proper. Biating that it had a strong tendency to gy- at the pivot holes of the clock becomes thickened by it, dar wood.
w was set agoing, (which P. if pendulum rods of cedar were strongly var-
however diminished some time after,) arising from the ni this might deprive the wood of this inspissating
mass of the ball being carried wa ae aan quality.
passing
centre, we thought of the following pendulum, which _It is of the utmost importance to have the pendulums Method of
was afterwards put in cititiens thee the greater of clocks well fixed at the point of their s ion ; fixing pen-
part of the mass of the ball! is kept at the centre, and and the cock to which they are suspended should, at “W!ums.
where the least quantity possible is towards the edge. the same time, be strong and firmly fixed to the wall
| Mr Reid's Fey ee ean ge ea iven in PlateCCCVII. of the place where the clock stands. This oe
peadalum ; 2. ball is of a lenticular form, to be particularly attended to in turret clocks, and still
_ with 7 inches in diameter, thickness at the centre 2.5 inches, more so in clocks intended for astronomical purposes.
peoles tod. 4, seen at AA, AA, having a round wooden rod of These last ought to be placed upon an iron bracket,
eccvit. about .6 of an inch in diameter, or thereabouts. The strongly fixed to as massy a stone pier as can pessibly
Fig.11. rod be either round, flat, rectangular, or ellip- be got into the place where the clock is to stand. We
tical. This last is perhaps the best form; the trans- have had an instance of a pendulum which ‘was so
verse diameter being 1.5 inch, and the conjugate 0.5 well fixed up, that there did ed ps a possibility of
bd ofaninch. aa,aa, No. 1. are two small round steel its being made any firmer, or that the motion of the pen-
wires, whose diameter is less than .2 of an inch, or dulum could in the least affect the cock and suspension,
say .175 of an inch, the beret he pin to pin abdéut yet the arc of its vibration was a little increased, after’
8.5 inches. be
4
'
They shorter if care were wing made considerable exertions to put farther home’
taken to — the length of the roy the the screws, &c. concerned with the fixtures of the cock
c ; i ir length; in and the suspension of the pendulum. The are of vi-
“case, they need not project more than .2 of an bration did not exceed two degrees on each side of the
the diameter _ The centres of point of rest, so that its ene native pone ety
are one inch ing through could not be great at the point of suspension ; yet
half Inch fleas the area 62, eanall os thie Saree ‘wes, it a clear that it wey satScluatly
1, and 2. are two pieces of brass, into wiuth the great to affect the cock there, as this cause made the arc
the r i ir of vibration of less extent than when the suspension was
their
ree in the drawing. In one of them afterwards more firmly fixed. We have suspended the
1 icectinnta whi the:lewer and of the rad
lifting
turns. The letters a, a, a, a, a, represents a section or
end view of a brass piece thus shaped. The length
depends on that of the: barrel, and the number of
hammers to be let into this brass piece, which is called
the hammer frame, the length of it being sometimes
three or four inches, sometimes ten or twelve. The
flat part of the hammer tails fills up the thick part of the
hammer frame, into which slits are made to receive the
hammers. Near to the outer and lower angular part atia
of the frame, a hole 4 is made through the whole length
of it, not drilled, but ploughedeas the workmen call it,
and this is done before any slits are made in it for the
hammers. A wire is put this hole; and through
corresponding holes in the flat part of the hammer tails,
This wire is their centre of motion, and the holes in them
are made so as to have freedom on it, and the flat part
of the hammer tails are also made to have freedom in
the slits made to receive them. On the under side of
‘the hammer frame at 6, the hammer ‘sprin
c, ¢ are
screwed, one for each hammer, acting on that part of
the hammer tail just where it comes out of the thick
part of the hammer-frame. When the pins in the bar-
rel raise up any hammer 4 the nib, and carrying
it away from the bell, at: the instant the pin quits
the nib, the x 1808 c,c, by its returning force, makes
the hammer head give a blow on the bell to elicit
the sound. To prevent-any jarring in the bell by the
-hammer head resting or touching it after having given
the blow, each hammer has a) cou wos
near the lower end of the shank, and insite of i 1
the counter-springs are made to project from one slip
of well-hammered brass, and screwed on the top of three
kneed brass cocks, fixed to the upperside of the brass
frame. dd is a view of the side of one of the cocks;
and
Lu iid a i]
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174
Bells. ;
— 9th . Oth
3K z ~. — |
LA Li Ly t
10th
x | =
Ces rT
On Bells.
Bells. | It is still a point undetermined whether the com-
mon shape of the bell, or that which is called the
dish-form, and used .chiefly in house clocks, is the
best. ‘The great expence which attends experiments
on bell founding, will probably keep this point long
undecided. Being in possession of a manuscript, con-
taining some of Professor Ludlam’s remarks on the sub-
ject of bell founding,* which we conceive to be very
lam’ valuable, we shall lay them before our readers, “ I
ba and saw a great deal of the art of bell founding,” says Mr
on bell Ludlam, ‘in the time of the late Mr Thomas Eayre
founding, of Kettering, a man who had a true taste for it, and
spared no expence to make improvements. Much of
tone depends on minute circumstances in the shape ;
and Mr Eayre had crooks or forms cut on thin boards,
carefully taken from the inside and outside of all the
good bells he could find. This county (Cambridge)
and Northampton abounds with the best bells I ever
heard, cast by Hugh Watts of Leicester, between 1630
and 1640. Ringers in general, who are commonly
constituted the judges of bells, (and as such are feed
by the bell founder) regard neither tune nor tone,
The hanging of the bell is all they regard, that they
may show their dexterity in change-ringing. That
shape of a bell that is best for tone, (a short one) is not
the best for hanging, so tone is utterly disregarded ; to
please the ringers, and to get money, is all. In my
opinion, the thinner the bell and deeper the tone the
better, provided it is not shelly, that is, like a thin
shell, with such a tone as the fragments of a broken
Florence-flask will give. A deep tone always suggests
the idea of a great bell, is more grave, and better suited
to the slow strokes of a church clock, and is heard
farther. The clock in St Clement Dane’s church in
the Strand, London, strikes the hour twice—once on
the great bell in peal, and again on its octave or 12th,
I know not which; listen to them, and you will per-
ceive which is most agreeable and best heard. ‘The
son of Mr Thomas Eayre, who was a good bell founder,
east a dish-bell of five or six hundred weight, for the
ehurch clock at Boston, in Lincolnshire, the tone of
which was very deep and wild. Mr Thornas. Eayre,
very early in life, made a curious chime for Sir T.
Wentworth, afterwards Lord Malton, and father of the
Marquis of Rockingham, which had thirteen dish-bells,
the biggest about two hundred weight. This is at
Harrowden, near Kettering.. Thomas Eayre, his son,
and his brother Joseph, being all dead, to their bell«
founding business one Arnold: succeeded, who had
worked with Joseph Eayre, and is now at St Neot’s,
Huntingdonshire. Arnold I believe to be a much bet-
ter bell founder than the White Chapel bell founders,
though by no means equal to old Thomas Eayre. Ro-
milly always would confound Thomas Eayre with Jo-
HOROLOGY.
seph Eayre, and so imputed the faults of the one to the-
other. milly was so conceited when at Leicester,
where there is undoubtedly the best peal of bells in
the kingdom, (partly old Watt's and: partly Thomas
Eayre’s) that he would not so much as deign to ‘hear
them. I cannot help thinking that a bell of five or
six hundred weight, .of the dish form, might be cast
far fitter for your purpose, than one of the church form.
But who will do it?) Who has had any experience of
bells of this form? It must also be observed, that
small differences, in the form, in the shape or thickness
of the sound-bole of a church bell, will make great dif-
ferences in the tone. All I can say is, itis not the-
weight of metal, but something resulting from the
shape of the bell, that gives both freedom and
of tone, as I can prove by many instances. What that
shape is that makes a bell so willing to speak, isa
question which a good bell founder ought to be able to.
answer, It is a known and undoubted: fact, that a
bell speaks. much better, when both the~clapper and.
‘the bell is hammer hardened, and when they are works.
ed in to touch each other in many points. I now re-
recollect, {that above 40 years ago, Thomas Eayre
made a large turret clock, with quarters, for Lady E.
Germain, ae Lord G. Germain’s) at Drayton; near:
Thrapton, Northamptonshire, all the bells of which are
Dish-Bells of a large size. [know not their weight ex«
actly, but suppose the biggest four hundred weight
they are heard a great way.”—“ There is an instrument
brought from China, called a gon or gong, madeef
hammered brass, or of some sort of a metallic cony
sition, about 16 inches over. The drawing isa section.
of it. B B on What J cal the sides
ped
AA are about four inches deep, and seem to supply the
office of the sides of a drum, while the flat part BB
answers to the stretched parchment ; only thereis a
round part in the middle to stiffen it. On this raised .
you beat with a ball of packthread of four or five-
inches diameter, fastened to the end of a stick. The»
metal, at a mean, is about one-eighth of an inch thick,
but unequal, the whole form being manifestly raised.
out of a flat plate by the hammer. The tone is aima-
zingly deep, clear, and sonorous. The note of that I
saw, and had some time in my possession, was F, an
octave below the F fa ut cliff in the bass.” See our
article GonG.
That music which is produced by clocks with organ Constrne-.
y preferable to, that of bells; tion of or-
the tunes on clock bar- gan clocks.
barrels must be great
and the apparatus for marking
rels is equally suited to do the same on barrels intend-
ed by machinery to work or to sound the pipes of an
organ ; the difference consisting in marking off on the
barrel the spaces of the longer and shorter notes, as in
lace of pins they have staples or bridges of various
lengths, according to the length of the note, or the
time which the pipe should be allowed tosound it: The
very short notes are by pins of different thicknesses. .
When an organ part is put to a clock, considerable
power or force of weight or spring is required ; small -
as the organ may be, or its wind-chest, some force is
required to work the bellows, so as to keep the wind-
chest full and no more. To work the bellows, that is,
to move the lower board of them up and down, on the
inside of which is an air valve that opens on the board
being moved downwards, and. on the motion upwards.
* These remarks are contained in a series of unpublished letters written by that eminent Professor, and copies of which ‘are in the posses
sion of the writer of this article. See p. 123. col. 2. of this article.
bd
a7 5 HOR
HOR
it shuts, and the air being then compressed, it is forced being made like that which has been described, will Horology
into the wind-chest by a communication between them serve to put or mark the places for the notes both on neo
0 for that and is ready to give sound to any of the and the plate-wheel ; the only difference is, Hoey.
; the Lora seen ir valves that the barrel will require to be marked. by a curved jjusic from
arm sliding on a steel rod. The concentric ¢ircles on steel
palit
felipe
i Be
(Hi at
Beh
itt FE
bleh
Ht | 32
Ht
rit
fal
i
Ef
s%
Ce ego er ag wear is
Lil
1
Ht
; Y
j
3
tft
:
J
8
:
i
Li
{
{!
other arms of these levers are in an opposite direction,
and are about the same length as those which are lifted
a te re on the barrel when turning, and are a
and flattish towards the end, where the
ci
é
38
then by this means the valves of the pipes,
and the sound is according as the lift is pins
!
fruit gardener,” and a “ kitchen gardener.” _—ihis writings under the borrowed name of Thomas Mawe.
13. Im 1724; appeared: in two octavo volumes, the It is said he was patronized and by the
first edition of the “ Gardener's Dictionary,” ae celebrated Dr Oliver Goldsmith. He was son of &
Miller, of the Botanic Garden at Chelsea. pro- near Edinburgh, and had gone into
fesses to collect and digest the labours of his predeces- when a young man, and after acting as a
w
sors; but the book partakes largely of the character of for some years at Kew Gardens, been
an original work, and it soon attracted notice. enabled to begin business as a nurseryman at Hackney.
He asserts that gardening never to any consi- The work entitled « Every Man his own Gardener” has
derable pitch in till within thirty years last passed through at least twenty editions. This is form.
past, «. ¢. from 1690 Seven years after the ed on the plan of a calendar, a in-
publication of the octavo edition, which is now very structions under detached monthly Before his
scarce, the first folio edition came out. In the preface death, which ha in 1806, he had prepared an«
Engl garden smeaoees of Seodeent hich the = naan rove sean "
the Second whi systematic is of i
William and Mary. The jons of numerous under one article every thing relative to the culture of
introduced into England, from America, the same plant. This: last been ished ‘in th
ieee me ana of the 18th century, with details form of a thick duedecimo volume, Masons
* Sketches of Botany in England, Vol. I.
ilistory.
Marshall.
Speechly.
Forsfth.
Botanical
Magazine.
Maddock.
Cushing.
Knight.
180
« The British Fruit Gardener,’ ,“« The Complete For-
cing Gardener,” and “The Complete Kitchen Gar-
dener and Hot-bed Forcer,”? and still other books of
similar import. It is perhaps to be etted that he
was induced by booksellers to multiply his publica-
tions so much, this circumstance having tended to bring
upon him the imputation of book-making, and to ex-
cite some degree of prejudice against him. In point
of fact, however, he understood the business of garden-
ing extremely well, and his ne altogether afford a
very complete view of horticultural operations.
16. Another deservedly popular work on horticul-
ture remains to be noticed. It is written by the Rev.
Charles Marshall, a clergyman of the church of Eng-
land, who is evidently a very zealous amateur gardener.
The title is, «« An Introduction to the Knowledge and
Practice of Gardening.” A great deal of correct infor-
mation is here condensed into little space, and convey-
ed in perspicuous and unaffected language. There is
subjoined to it a compendious calendar, better calculated,
we think, to be useful as a remembrancer, than any
one published since the time of Evelyn.
17. The * Dictionary of Gardening,” bearing to be
written by Alexander Macdonald, gardener, in two vo-
lumes 4to, is an expensive work which has not acquired
much reputation. It appears to be little more than a
compilation, and is certainly not the work of a practical
gardener ; but it necessarily includes a great deal of use-
ful information. Of late years, the culture of the vine
and of the pine-apple has been very well treated by
Speechly, in separate works. Forsyth’s ‘“ Treatise on
Fruit-trees and their diseases, with a particular method’
of cure,” first appeared in 1791, in 4to.. The royal
patronage, kindly bestowed on an old and meritorious
servant, secured to this work a considerable degree of
attention, and even procured for the author the extraor-
dinary distinction of a parliamentary reward. Many
excellent remarks are to be found in the book. In
1802, it was republished with improvements in an oc~
tavo form.
18. Curtis’s “ Botanical Magazine” was begun in
1787; and it has been continued in monthly numbers,
with little intermission, ever since; Dr Sims having
edited the work since Mr Curtis's death. Important
hints are frequently thrown out as to the habits, mode
of cultivation, and uses, of the plants described and
figured. Maddock’s “Florist’s Directory,” appeared in
1792; and it is-still the standard book of instructions
for the cultivation of the hyacinth, tulip, ranunculus,
anemone, auricula, carnation, pink, and polyanthus,
the favourites of the florist, strictly so called. The
«« Exotic Gardener,” by J. Cushing, foreman to Messrs
Lee and Kennedy of Hammersmith, is the latest and
best treatise on the management of the hot-house, green-
house, and conservatory ; and on the soils suitable to
tender exotics in general.
19. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1795, the
first of Mr Thomas Andrew Knight’s horticultural pa-
pers made its appearance: it is entitled, Observations
on the grafting of trees. In the Transactions for 1799,
1801, and 1803, are contained his ingenious papers on
the fecundation of fruits, and on the sap of trees. His
excellent little «« Treatise on the culture of the Apple
and Pear,” was published in 1797. He has presented
several interesting communications to the Horticul-
tural Society of London, which are published in the
cis co cn of that Society, to be afterwards no-
ticed.
In the a
sketch which has now been given
of horticultur
writers in England, many have been
HORTICULTURE.
passed over, some of whom would déserve notice, and History,
perhaps commendation, in a more detailed account.
20. Scotland has been more distinguished for produ«
cing excellent practical gardeners than good publica-
tions on the art of gardening. There does not appear
to have existed any Scottish system of gardening, as a
separate book, till the beginning of the 18th century,
when “ The Scots Gard’ner’ was published by John
Reid, gardener to Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehai
The work is divided into two parts ; the first treating
of contriving and planting of gardens, orchards, ave-
nues, and groves; the second, of the propagation and
improvement of forest and fruit trees, kitchen herbs,
roots and fruits ; with a gardener’s calendar; the whole
adapted to the climate of Scotland. The style is very
inaccurate; but the matter evinces not only an ac-
quaintance with previous horticultural works, but a
practical knowledge of the subject. About thirty years
after the publication of Reid’s book, there a
** The Scots Gardener’s Director, by James Justice, Justice.
F.R.S, and one of the principal clerks of Session,” (¢.e. of
the Court of Session or supreme civil court of d.)
This is characterized by tee Martyn, as “an ori--
ginal and truly valuable work, founded upon reflection
and experience.” Nearly at the same time Dr Gibson Gibson.
published an anonymous octavo volume on fruit-trees,
containing many useful remarks, and some curious no«
tices concerning the history of the most esteemed apples
and pears of Scottish origin, or which are generally
supposed to be of Scottish origin. In 1774, there ap-
peared a small octavo volume entitled, ‘“‘ The Planter’s, .
Florist’s and Gardener’s Pocket Dictionary, by James
Gordon, nurseryman at Fountainbridge near Edin-~
burgh.” It is avowedly a compilation ; but the author
being a practical gardener, occasionally gives his own
opinions and practice. It has already been seen, that
several of the Scottish gardeners who have settled in
England, have attained distinction as authors. We al-
lude, in particular, to Abercrombie, the voluminous
writer lately spoken of, and to Forsyth, the author of
the Treatise pao i (te athe
21. Among the recent Scottish writers on ening,
one remains to be mentioned, who will long eid a dis-
tinguished place,—the late Mr Walter Nicol. - He was the .
son of the gardener who planned and executed the ex-
tensive pleasure-grounds of Raith in Fifeshire ; and here
he received his horticultural education. He afterwards
acted for some time as gardener to the Marquis of
Townsend at Reinhamhall in the county of Norfolk ;
but he left England in order to take charge of the fine
gardens and grounds of General Wemyss of Wemyss-
Castle in Fife, the improvements there having been
conducted under the directions of his father. Here he
observed a praiseworthy practice now too much ne-
glected by head-gardeners,—that of instructing his
young men or assistants, not only in botany, but in
writing, arithmetic, geometry and mensuration. He
used to remark, that he thus not only improved his
scholars, but taught himself, and made his cnowletiae
so familiar, that he could apply it in the daily business
of life. In this way he gradually became qualified to
communicate his information. to the public, “In 1797
the first of his works appeared, under the title of «* The
Scots forcing Gardener,” in one volume octayo, About
this time he changed his mode of life, and dedicated
his whole attention to the planning and vin Weg of
ornamental grounds. In 1803 he published the « Prac-
tical Planter,” a book which both increased his reputa-
tion as a writer, ‘and extended his employment as an
improver. In 1809, appeared the “ Villa Garden Di-
h. Reid.
Gordon.
Nicol
HORTICULTURE.
rectory,” a littlé book which the
e
he died, on the 5th March 1811. His last work just
mentioned, has since been completed and publi: by
in Fife. j
~ Horticul- 22. In 1805, a Horticultural was instituted
tural So- at London, under the of Earls Dartmouth
ciety of snd Powis, Sir Joseph Banks, end other distinguished
_ London. characters. The first volume of its Transactions ap-
peared, in 4to, in 1812, containing several useful and
scientific communications, by Mr T. A. Knight, Mr R.
A: = pe Te ingenious horticulturists. In
Caledonian 1809, the jan Horticultural Society was esta-
: ag at Edinburgh by the individual exertions of that
‘ y-
versity there. The Society has
ee ae eae
of
gentry, the Duke of Buccleuch, the
Frey and March, the Earl of Leven, Sir James Hall,
: but a propor-
’ SbIDA cocaplssnh knuplolgs cfd lass cnciooed
a. - a ’ mentioned
. branch of horticulture, are extremely ill informed con-
181
oon es meme of fruit-trees. 1, The — History.
botanical gardener implies, as already remarked, ““~\~"
She cultivation cf all eorts.of rare either in the Povencr.
open border, in frames, in the green-house, the conserva- ‘
tory, or the stove; the adapting of the soil and artificial
climate, to the respective kinds of plants; a discrimina~
ting eye, and an acquaintance more or less familiar with
the characters and names of the genera and species of
plants as described by Willdenow, at least of such as are
contained in the Hortus Kewensis, or the Cambridge Ca-
talogue. To these qualifications must be added, general
taste inthe disposi oy citemttiemadone dheteon
ing and keepin ornamen a Be ruit- Fruit-gar-
4 have a correct know of the different dener.
inds of fruit-trees, and the principal varieties of each
kind; he must be familiarly acquainted with the method
of training and pruning suited to each sort, and must at
the same time judgment and experience to en-
degree of ing or mode of
e must understand the formation of fruit-tree
borders, the operations of ing and budding, and
the preserving of blossom. peach-house, the vine~
matters. Much may be learned from authors ; from
Miller, ears Hitt, = ly, and others ; but an in-
timate acquaintance wi proper training, and the
ming and disbudding of wall trees, is to be
Kitchen
be very simple and easy; but he who can 2
it neatly and with success, may be accounted aise
% rem rearing of soe culi-
nary articles requires particular attention ; such as as-
celery, ose-cale, mushrooms, and above all,
dener and Nicol's Calendar ; oper fren
ver witnessed nor practised any of the nicer parts of
the kitchen-gardener’s duty, will be but ill qualified
to attempt them.
The public nurseries are useful seminaries to young
gardeners. The overseers of these establishments are
generally well-informed persons, and dexterous work-
men, having been selected on account of ing
these qualities. Many very useful of the profes«
sion may here be acquired ; such as the level-digging of
ground, and neat finishing off of beds or borders,—ap-
parently simple matters, in which, however, many gar-
deners are extremely deficient. In some nurseries ex-
tensive collections of hardy and green-house plants are
kept, and a knowledge of the culture of these may thus
be acquired. Nor is the knowledge of the modes of rai-
sing the seed and rearing in nursery-beds, of the
various forest-trees, an inconsiderable matter: in many
places, indeed, the head-gardener is required to maintain
a nursery of seedling forest-trees, for the use of his mas-
ter's estate. In the — nurseries a knowledge of ne
processes of grafting and budding may be acquired ; but
the gardener whe ies studied ihe in this 2 school, will
afterwards discover how much he has to learn as to the
wood to be used for a8 well as to the size
and quality of the stocks, Under any of the first rate
market- Sorennes atapiagen mae porte of
his profession with great advantage, particularly the
raising of all sorts of pot-herbs salads, and the for-.
cing of many of them. But here too he will labour un-
H istory.
Scottish
gardeners,
€lassifica-
tion of,
gardens.
182
der disadvantages ; for'in few such ens .can he ac-
quire any knowledge of the managementof fruit-trees,
particularly peaches, apricots, and the finer sorts of
rs
A young gardener: who has spent his time in. places
where the proper management of fruit-trees was not at-
tended to, or where no opportunity of attending: to it
existed, may possibly be willing to — lower wages,
in order to compensate for the defect of his education.
But the proprietor of ‘the garden will soon find him-
self a loser by the injudicious economy of employing
him : and if it were a general rule steadily followed by
gentlemen, not to employ as their gardeners persons
who had not duly sought opportunities of gaining an
acquaintance with the different branches of their pro-
fession, young men of merit would; instead of grasping
at the situation of head-gardener immediately upon the
expiry of their apprenticeship, be convinced of the ne-
cessity of practically studying every department of their
‘‘maultifarious and’ numerous employment,” as Evelyn
happily styles ‘it. Im: Germany, it) may be, remarked,
a gardener has not only to serve a long apprenticeship,
but to pass certain examinations, before he: can, be re-
commended to a situation as head-gardener. | In this
country there is no such regulation ; and the greater
necessity, therefore, for the employer: being able: to
judge of his gardener’s qualifications.
24. Seotland has long been distinguished for produ-
cing gardeners in greater numbers than any other-coun-
try of Europe; and: several of: them have risen to the.
highest eminence in their profession. At. the present
day many of the nobility:and gentry of England em-
ploy Scottish head-gardeners ; while the numbers of
those of an inferior order, to.be found in every county,
south of the Tweed, is quite surprising. Some of the
causes of the very great number, and of the real ex-
cellence, of the Scottish gardeners, have been assign~
ed in the 9th chapter of the * General Report of Scot«
land.” One is to be found in the early education. se-
cured to the children of the labouring class, in. that
country, by the ancient and most laudable institution,
of parish schools: another, in the hardy mode of. life
and sober disposition of the young men, which have
very generally gained them the esteem of English
masters ; anda third, in the tendency which struggling
with a very variable climate: at home, has to call into
action all the powers of the mind, and to create a habit
of unceasing attention to the duties of the station. It
may here be mentioned as a striking and very honour-
able trait in the character of the Scottish master-gar-
deners of the last age, (already mentioned, § 21.) that it
was a common practice among them to spend a:part of
the evening in instructing their apprentices in different
branches. of education, particularly arithmetic, mensu-
ration, drawing of plans, and botany. Even at. this
day, there are still in some places of) Scotland to be
found the remains of this praiseworthy custom. A turn
for reading and study. was thus created among young
operative gardeners ; and to this, their rise in life might
in many instances be traced. The. taste for reading
was perhaps never more prevalent: among gardeners
than at thisday. Nor do they entirely neglect geome-
try, though it must be admitted that) this. kind of
knowledge is. on the decline among them. It is not;
indeed, now nearly:so necessary as formerly to the pro-
fessional gardener, grounds being no longer planned.
into mathematical figures, and topiary work bes
ing altogether exploded.
- 25. We have little fear of being accused of partiality.
when we give a favourable report of the character of
HORTICULTURE,
Scottish gardeners, the justness of their claim of merit
being universally. recognized: but, without enlarging
farther on the topic, we proceed to give some very ge-.
neral account of the different kinds of gardens now ex-
isting in Britain, All of them, we think, may be ar-
ranged under one or other,of the following divisions,
a. Royal gardens, and public botanic gardens. b. The
gardens of noblemen and gentlemen of great opulence.
c, Villa gardens. d. Cottage gardens, e. The public
nurseries, which, especially near London, may without,
impropriety be ranked as gardens. f. Market gardens.
On. each of. these heads, a few examples and observa-
tions seem necessary for illustration, and at the same.
time they may prove not unentertaining.
Royal Gardens.
Horticul-.
ture. ~
—_——
26. The Royal Gardens.at, Kew, on the banks,of the. Royal gar-
Z veg planned
‘or variety of plants. They were originally p d
by: that datngiiehed pat Frederick. Prince. of
Wales, father of King George III. The extent. is about
120,acres. The surface is flat; but: owing to the taste-,
ful disposition, of trees.and.shrubs, the
a considerable variety of scenery... They
surrounded by wood, amidst. which rises:a :
Chinese temple, to the height of 160 feet: this was de~
signed by Sir William Chambers, who afterwards, pub-
lished a description of the gardens and palace of Kew,
in folio. The exotic garden, was.established about the
year 1760, after the Prince’s death, chiefly. by, the.influ-
ence of the Marquis of Bute, a great. enco of bo-
tany and gardening, He placed it under the care. of
Mr William Aiton, who had long been assistant to. the
famous Philip Miller at'Chelsea, The principal green-
house and orangery is. 145 feet long, 25 high, and 30.
broad. About:1794, a large green-house, 110 feet:long,
was erected, for, the reception of African and, Cape
plants only. There are twelve other hot-houses of va-
rious descriptions. Adding together the lengths of all
the hot-houses, the garden contains no\fewer than:839-
feet:in length of glass; and. besides .this,, about, one-
half. of the houses | es covered borders in. front, for the
protection of different kinds of bulbs, and.alpine plants,
during winter. One of the-hot-houses is aPRPapestety
to the palm and. fern tribe, displaying the. atic.
species of warm. climates almost in. their. native luxus
riance and beauty.. Another; is. devoted. to the plants.
of New Holland, which have. a character of foliage pe-
culiar to themselves, so that the, botanical visitor finds
himself suddenly carried, as it were, into a new world.
A third contains chiefly the plants of China, and of these-
the collection is very. rich, a magnificent. assortment.
having some years ago been ured from Canton, ac-
companied by,a Chinese er to take care of them.
A. catalogue of the plants of the garden, entitled « Hor.
tus Kewensis,” was first. published in 1768 by Dr Hill.
A more scientific work, under the sametitle, was given
to the publi¢:in 1789, by Mr Aiton the, superintendant,.
assisted. by Dr Solander; this extended to three vos
lumes, octavo, Between 1810 and 1813, an improved.
and enlarged edition, in five volumes, octayo, was pub=
lished by Mr William Townsend Aiton, who. had suc-
ceeded his father: he was assisted in the first three vos.
lumes by the late Mr Dryander, and, after, the. death
of that:botanist, in the remaining two volumes, by Mr.
Robert Brown, author of the “« Prodromus Flore Nove
Hollandiz,” and justly considered as,one of the very,
first botanists of the age.
The Royal Gardens at Hampton Court were
are: nearly,
or
ondon, are perhaps the first in the world. dens.
Kew.
unds exhibit _ .
laid out Hamptoa
by Londen. and. Wise, already mentioned as nursery- cout.
HORTICULTURE.
men and gardeners : of eminence in'the reign of
William. A b Feet nae en
cumference ; one. incipal branch, trained back, mea-
sures 114 feet in ;_and the plant has produced,
in one season, 2200 weighing on an average
183
higher character in the botanical world. The collec- Hertitul.
tion, however, cannot be accounted very extensive.
The many editions of the Hortus Cantabrigiensis, pub —-V—™
lished by the late Mr James Donn, the curator, tend-
ed greatly to spread its fame. Not that it is to be ima-
gined that al/ the plants enumerated in the Cambridge
catal: are to be found, at any one time, in a livi
state in the garden; if they were ever cultivated there,
itis enough. The catalogue was printed in the shape
of a pocket volume, and formed a convenient compa-
nion to the nm or greenhouse: in fact, it long re«
gulated the nomenclature of plants in this country.
Now, however, many give the preference to the Hor-
tus Kewensis, as a more accurate pwr ool and
oe pocket edition of this has also been pub-
lish
The botanic garden at Liverpool was established by Liverpool.
subscription, under the auspices of the patriotic Mr
Roseoe. The suite of hot-houses is perhaps the finest
in Britain, and the whole establishment is highly cre-
ditable to that opulent commercial city. The collec-
tion of plants is great ; and the many opportunities of
procuring seeds from ships, constantly arriving from
every quarter of the world, are eagerly embraced by
an active and intelligent superintendant, Mr William
Shepherd. Here Sir James Edward Smith, the cele-
brated author of the Flora Britannica, and Presiderit
of the Linnean Society, has occasionally delivered a
course of lectures on botany.
A public botanic garden has recently been set on foot 43,11,
at Hull ; it is on an extensive scale, and can already
boast of a very ample collection of plants. For it the
blic are in a great measure ind to William Spence,
well known not only as a naturalist, but as a wri-
ter on —_ ; ions of political economy.
28. At in, there are now two botanic gardens; puptin.
one ing to the Dublin Society, and another to a
Trinity College.
The former was established about the year 1798. It
contains twenty-four acres (Trish), The collection of
plants is very extensive. The general ent of
the hardy herbaceous kinds, is according to system
of Linnseus ; each Linnean class standing separate in
a large grass lawn, and an alley leading from one class
to another. Aquatics are necessarily placed by them.
selves ; and = the i ncaa hei a piece of
marshy ground for rubs form another
division, rine wt . The collections in all of
the there is an arrangement, on a smal
occur likewise i
ment. They hav
set a eMac ager experiments on the different
pe Ps grid By ager t are called artificial Lay
a3 : t,
if properly attended to, is evidently calculated to be
very useful.
"Ths College botant garden established only i
e ic was only in
1806. It occupies no more than three acres and a half,
It is enclosed by a wall twelve feet high, the south-east
aspect of which is faced with brick, and on this the
more delicate of the hardy climbing shrubs and others
which require shelter are trained. Here, for instance,
hibit the Flora of the country at one view ; but they
ve
184 HORTICULTURE.
Botanic Metrosideros lanceolata flowers every year, and here and the products are not oy plentiful, but every kind Private
Gardens. may be seen the finest specimen in the three kingdoms, of fruit and culinary vegetable is of the first quality of By
perhaps, of Ligustrum lucidum, or the wax-tree of Chi- its kind. _It may be affirmed, that in Britain a gentleman
na, and which escaped unhurt in this situation, during may derive from his own garden, with the aid of glass and
the severe winter of 1813, when the original plant _of fire-heat, a more varie and richer dessert, through-
from which it was taken perished in England. ‘There out the year, than is to be met with on the most luxurious
is in the garden a general arrangement of herbaceous, table in any other country. To prove this assertion, it
perennial, and biennial plants ; the annual plants and will be enough to run over the fruits successively af-
the gramina being each kept separate. Although the forded throughout the year, i a _well-conducted Bri- hore 3 ef
space is small, there is not only a Fruticetum, but an tish garden. Strawberries, planted in pots and forced jivcq).”
po oT a and, with equal taste and judgment, the _in a hot-house, produce their fruit about the middle of p,itin.
principal part of this last is so contrived as to serve for pel and forced cherries are ready. at the same time.
a screen to give shelter to the rest of the garden. There These are followed by early melons, about the begin-
is an extensive collection of the hardy medicinal plants, ning of May. In June the first forced grapes and
arranged according to Jussieu’s method. Thereisonly peaches are ready for the table, with the luscious pine- .
one stove and one greenhouse ; but the exotics cultiva- apple: may-duke cherries on good exposures now ri-
ted in these are curious and numerous. Upon the pen, and different kinds of strawberries in the open
whole, this small botanic garden contains a richer and _ ground are abundant. These, with early melons, grapes,
more varied collection than is perhaps to be found any _ peaches, nectarines, and pine-apples, continue plentiful
where else in Europe within the same compass. It till August, when the currant and gooseberry come in.
does honour to the liberality and public spirit of the By the middle of August the early pears are ready, and
heads of the College ; and they seem to have been pe- _ the later houses of peaches, nectarines, and grapes are
culiarly fortunate in their gardener, (Mr James Towns- _ in perfection, with melons; and by September, the open
end Mackay, originally from the Botanic Garden at . wall crops of peaches, apricots, and nectarines, green-
Edinburgh), who has here proved, that, to a thorough’ gage plums, and jargonelle pears, with the late preser-
knowledge of practical horticulture, and extensive ac- oa gooseberries and currants, and the early jenneting
quisitions in botany, he adds an acquaintance with the and oslin apples, swell the dessert. In October, late
principles of landscape gardening. ‘ cae of melons and grapes, with peaches, nectarines,
Edinburgh, 29. The Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh was _ and figs, join themselves with the ripening apples and
lanned, in 1767, by Dr John Hope, then professor of pears ; tilt towards the end of it, the careful horticultu-
Bsny. The collection of plants, both hardy and ten- _rist gathers and stores the remaining fruits of his la-
der, formed by Dr Hope, was uncommonly great; and ours, that he may possess a supply during the winter
some of the rarer trees and shrubs planted by him now season, The autumn pears, such as the beurré and the
afford admirable full grown specimens: the Constanti- crassane, are in season till the new year ; when the col-
nople hazel, (Corylus anda) Bi example, now ap- mart, St Germain, and chaumontel, still prolong the suc-
par as a fine and lofty tree. Theassafcetida plant was cession of pears: then many varieties of keeping apples
ere first cultivated, by the Doctor, ia the open air in present themselves, till the season revolve, when early
this country. The quarter where it grew was shelter- . strawberries, cherries, and melons may again be procu-
ed by a yew hedge, and saw-dust was generally laid . red. Several fruits not generally cultivated, such as
over the root of the plant during winter. There are oranges and shaddocks, have not here been enumera-
two hot-houses, a dry stove, and a large greenhouse; ted; and our nuts, such as filberds and walnuts, are
all of them at present in a state of decay; but likely intentionally omitted.
soon to be rebuilt in a magnificent style, and on an exten- The general extent of the walled garden is from
sive scale. Dr Hope was a zealous disciple of Linnzeus, two to five acres. It is to be observed, that a walled
and on the death of that illustrious botanist, he placed garden of three or four acres at the Penns day, affords
in the garden a square monument, surmounted by an as much space for the production of fruits and kitchen
urn, with the simple inscription, “ Linngo posuit Jo. vegetables, as did a of perhaps five or six acres
Hope, 1779.” It deseryes to be recorded, that in the at the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th centu-
dry stove a dragon’s-blood tree (Dracaena area) plant- ry, when the garden was invariably connected with
ed by the Doctor, attained the height of thirty feet, ex- the mansion-house; so that the portion next the house
actly double that of the largest specimen of the plant at was naturally laid outas a parterre,and large spaces were
Kew ; but this invaluable plant, which ought to have occupied by arbours, fountains, and plats for sta-
been the pride and boast of the Scottish capital, abso- tues or obelisks. A very few only of our modern fine
lutely perished, owing to the want of funds for raising gardens can here be particularized, In all of them,
the glass-roof of the house! In this garden lectures fruits and, vegetables are cultivated with care, and
are delivered by Dr Daniel Rutherford, Professor of with remarkable success. In most of those to be now
botany in the University of Edinburgh. The herbari- specified, besides these more ordinary productions,
um of the late Dr Hope is kept at the garden. The there are rich collections of curious and ornamental
present superintendant is Mr William Macnab, who was _ plants. j t
bred at Kew Gardens, and. who is at once an excellent 31. To begin with England. The gardens at Chis-
cultivator of plants and an acute botanist. Under his wiek House, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, near
management the collection of hardy herbaceous plants Kew Bridge, are very extensive; and remarkable for
has been so greatly enlarged, that it is now excelled containing a most magnificent range of hot-houses, At
only hy that at Kew Gardens. White Knights, near Reading, the Marquis of Bland-
icc 2 very. oat panied istingui ead es-
Private ; ’ i or a choice collection of ornamental plants.—
ae feces veces pall near Blackheath, the seat of the illustri-
Gardens of 30. Many of the private gardens in this country are, ous President of the Royal Society Sir Joseph Banks,
nobility and i¢ is believed, superior in some respects to those of any affords a very fair example of a well kept English gar-
gentry» other. They are maintained in a more liberal style ;
den. Here, in the open air, grows a noble specimen of
5
HORTICULTURE. 185
(Araucaria imbricata,) the most admi- flower more freely. Mr Vere, ‘at his villa at Knights- _ Publi¢.
n Pam discovered and bridge, possesses a very ample collection of rare exotics, Nurseries.
enzies: of this Spri Cot . . a
justly tage Gardens.
35. Under the title of gardens, must be in Cottage gar-
cluded all gardens of an inferior sort, such as those 4s.
common about villages and towns. lens.
Pp : so oo are ye guess Lone Beye and
; well. ‘ording not only an agreea! axation to
Brentford; the “a! but contributin very much to the com-
forts of their family. In South Britain, however, they
are neither so useful, nor so well managed, as in some
parts of Scotland. While in the former the vine may
i i sometimes be seen extending its shoots over the cot-
a princely style ; the gravel walks of the place are about _tage-roof, indicating a mild climate and a fertile soil, the
PY sig 5 epee hy Though the soil of the garden really useful produce of the ground seems much ne-
Seer fen ne Fhe Seb ° papropetions, glected. In ind, on the contrary, too little atten-
a most productive state tion is doubtless paid to ornament ; but the healthy kale
Fig! ingenuity and j of his Grace’s gardener, and cabbage plants, and other useful pot-herbs, with
James M. as will afterwards be more par- well-earthed rows of early potatoes, shew that the in-
ticularly mentioned. The Earl of Eglinton’s garden at ae rengay he a yr of ey ae]
Eglinton Castle, A ; the Duke of Montrose’s at spots, w to draw em the most effectu
seven ay the Earl of Mansfield’s assistance to their families.
Public Nurseri
many excellent private gar- 36, The public nurseries, especially near London, are Public nur-
Bi = Li me of the first ae, These, besides being remarkable for series.
| apo collections of plants, are hoon be distinguished
‘or excelling th some particular department. Thus at
Lee and Kennedy's at Hammersmith there is not only a
most extensive general collection, but more particularly
of description, collected comers Lodilige Oy at Hacky ie “tan orhed
ers of every wi ope ts, ige’s at ey is distinguis
i for stove plants; Whitley, Brames and Milne, at Ful-
i ham, have a general collection ; as have also Malcolm
at Kensi and Jenkins & Gwyther near Padding.
ton. At Thomson's at Mile-End, besides a rich Pil
lection of young plants, are many fine old American
trees of the rarer kinds, and a very large gingko tree of
Japan, ae adianiifolia): at Colville’s, on the
King’s , there is a great extent of glass for the grow-
ing of showy plants for the London market ; Davy’s, in
that neighbourhood, is famed for a fine collection of tu-
lips, certainly the first in Britain: Milliken at Walworth
excels in auriculas, ranunculuses and anemones ; and
5 Chandler, near Vauxhall, in camellias ; Gray and Wear
at Brompton Park (formerly the nursery nds of
are under the management of Scotsmen. ee gt be ny a sg if ruit-trees,
. r Joseph Kirke, also at Brompton, ut a small
Villa Gardens. nursery, but it is rich in the pia introduced fruits,
particularly those raised by Mr Knight, and those re-
commended by the Horticultural Society of London.
i Ronalds at Brentford, and Wilmot and Lewisham at
gar- Deptford, may also be mentioned as excelling in the
i culture and training of young fruit-trees. At what is
called the Botanic Garden at Sloane Street, kept by
us
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individuals, who devote their study of Mr William Salisbury, the partner and successor of
vee e eakiretion of curious plants, must be Curtis, there is a considerable collection of curious shrabs
at one Cpegh in see recpects Sr and plants in general. Several of the nurserymen pay
qos most extensive is the fork tbattion tothe pepdection of seeds fr the marker,
Count 1! pin at ater, on the Ux- sites eC calinaty glants.c¢ of orevmeeneel Bees. Ofthe
bridge road, for a very rich collection of principal kinds of the former, such as cabbages, turnips,
plants; and Mr Kent's, at near Hackney, and peas, they annually raise a small quantity of the diffe-
. where aquatics, both hardy tender, are grown in_ rent varieties, in their own nursery grounds and under
Pi = eae The tender aquatics are kept in a their eye, taking care however that each variety be as
A stove uring winter; but, in the summer season, the far as possible from any similar crop; they
Vessels containing them are placed on slight hot-beds examine the plants when in flower, and reject such as
under glass-frames, where linings of horse-litter can be are spurious. The whole seed thus procured is k
added at pleasure; it being found, that in this way they CO sean engi it ip then sent to some a Biles
KI. PART I. “2A
186
Market. their employment, perhaps in a remote part of the
Gardens. country, and grown by him. In this way there is year-
Market
gardens.
ly procured a large stock for sale, and which in gene-
ral is not only better saved, but more genuine than
what can easily be got in a private garden.
Throughout the kingdom there are public nurseries
near all the principal towns. At Edinburgh there are
several, which it may confidently be affirmed are kept
in a state of greater order and neatness than any in
the south ; they are particularly distinguished for the
excellence of their seedling forest-trees. The number
and the flourishing state of the public nurseries may be
adduced as a strong proof of the general attention paid
to horticultural improvements throughout the country.
Towards this they afford great facilities, furnishing,
when wanted, every possible variety of plants, at pri-
ees comparatively low. In one important article we
believe all of them are deficient,—fruit trees. These,
indeed, they contain in sufficient numbers ; but their
quality is often. doubtful. This is particularly the case
with apples and pears. The grafts for these are often
collected from the nursery lines, instead of being taken,
as they ought to be, from bearing branches of fruitful
trees. Sometimes, no doubt, they are selected from
fruit-bearing trees in gentlemen’s gardens in different
parts of the country ; but it is frequently impossible for
nurserymen to procure grafts of the desired kinds in
this way. Ifany judicious nurseryman, therefore, would
form a collection of fruit-trees of his own, to be main-
tained in a fruit-bearing state, he would thus not only be
certain as to the kind which he propagated, but have at
his command yearly a moderate quantity of proper grafts
from the fruitful boughs of bearing trees. He would
thus, no doubt, be limited in the number of his grafts,
and might find it necessary to ask a higher price for
his plants ; but this would most cheerfully be given by
judicious purchasers. A nursery orchard of this kind
could only, with propriety, be formed on ground the
property of the nurseryman, or of which he held a very
long lease. Till some such establishment take place,
gentlemen who wish to avoid disappointment, must, in
general, be content to graft their own fruit-trees.
Market Gardens.
37. The market gardens near the metropolis are won-
derful in extent, and managed in general in the best
style. High rents are paid for the ground, so that as
many crops as possible must be taken, and those must
be of the most productive sorts. At the same time,
such is the competition in Covent Garden market, that
unless the produce be excellent of its kind, it will be re-
jected. The accumulated heaps of kitchen vegetables
to be seen very early in a summer morning in this
place, are quite surprising, and would confound many
who have frequently passed through the market in the
day time, after vast quantities have been sold, and car-
ried off by retailers, and other quantities have been
placed out of sight. If from an inspection of Covent
Garden green-stalls, one may judge of the general state
of horticulture in Britain, it may be said to approach per-
fection. It cannot however be denied, that although
the kitchen vegetables exhibited for sale in this mar-
‘Ket excel in size, they are inferior in flavour, and per-
haps in wholesomeness, to those raised. at a distance
from London. Much of the land here occupied:as mar-
ket-gardens has been heavily cropped every year for
perhaps a.century past, and the soil has been. annually
replenished with manure from the city. It thus ac-
quires a grossness calculated to. give size certainly at
-exclusive altogether of late
HORTICULTURE.
the expence of delicacy of taste. The vegetables of the
London markets, however, ought not to be judged of
from specimens to be met with in taverns : these are of-
ten kept steeping in water for a day, or perhaps two
or three days, as if it were intended to extract all fla-
your, or otherwise sweating in a heaped basket in the
cellar, the alliaceous and strong-smelling plants taint-
ing the others. Every one, possessed of a garden is
well aware of the superiority of pot-herbs when re-
cently salteted ; but those sent to the London market
are gathered and packed on one day ; they are carried,
by the indefatigably. industrious gardeners, during
night, either in waggons, or by boats on the Thames,
so as to reach the market very early the next morning.
Even in this way, a complete day and night must
elapse before the inhabitant of London can set on his
table the freshest vegetables to be procured in the
markets. But as the gardeners come to town only
three times a-week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Sa-
.turdays, pot-herbs must very frequently be two or three
days kept before they be used. They must therefore
unavoidably suffer some deterioration ; and the wonder
is, to see an enormously overgrown city so sply and
regularly supplied, and with articles so excellent in
their kind. ;
38. Fuller, in his ‘* Worthies,” fixes the date of the
establishment of a market for pot-herbs at London, to
be 1590 ; but Lyson properly remarks, that entries oc-
cur in dinner bills of fare, detailed in the account of
Queen Elizabeth’s progresses, which shew, that “ pars«
ley, sorrel, and strong herbs, with peason,” were to be
purchased at least twenty years before that period.
Rathripe or early peas were then accounted a dainty
for a queen ; and they still continue to be a dainty,
selling, when they first come in, at a crown or even
half a guinea a pottle (less than a quart.) _ Other ar-
ticles, when produced early, give prices high in propor-
tion ; asparagus, 6s. or 7s. a hundred; and earl
tatoes, 3s. Gd. a pound. These and several other culi-
nary plants are therefore extensively forced by the Lon-
don market-gardeners ; that is, they are forwarded by
the artificial heat either of a hot-bed or of a flued pit.
Some idea may be formed of the encouragement given
to horticulture by the demand of the metropolis, from
considering the extent of ground occupied in the pro-
duction of kitchen vegetables and fruit within 12 miles
of London. Mr Lyson, above named, author of the * Ac-
count of the Environs of London,” and who, in the
course of his minute investigations and inquiries, had a
good opportunity of forming an accurate calculation, es-
timates that at least 5000 acres are employed, within
that circuit, in raising kitchen roots and pot-herbs,
tatoes, and of vegetables
raised for cow-feeders. e states that 800 acres
are cropped with fruit, including apples, pears, goose~
berries, currants, raspberries, and strawberries. Not
fewer than 1700 acres are planted with potatoes for
the market ; and 1200 with cabbages, turnips, and pars-
nips, for the feeding of milch cows. The raisers of
these articles are properly farming gardeners: they ma
nure very highly, and raise garden crops, and then re-
fresh their land by sowing with corn. They abound
near Camberwell and Deptford. The production of
medicinal herbs employs about 300 acres ; and from 400
to 500 are in the hands of nurserymen. In this way,
the employment of about 9500 acres of the richest and
most highly manured lands in the vicinity of London is
accounted for. At Hoxton is a very extensive and well
conducted market garden, Mr Grange’s; and this may
}
Marke
Gard = 4
; HORTICULTURE. 187
+ ot ir example of all the others. But effectually concealed, by means of shrubs and low Situation of
-“Teanien Spee mn fehfty stunted ed near the Thames, growing trees, so as not to be seen, at least from the # Garden.
oth m1 pCa, Sec aoe enarenieacy 9 windows of the public rooms, and the garden yet be “~~
ler © ng duce to market, and situated much nearer to the house. . It is scarcely ne-
: gp gehen Vatomead cessary to observe, that an access for carts and wheel
‘construction of hot-beds and the manu-
ee —
rroun
mous for strawberries ; and in the last alone, there are
bout 400 acres in fruit-trees, the produce of which is
chiefly sent to London. et ig ae as Mia
of the surrounding country at same emporium,
Jot itis believed the demand is seldom stisGed. It
an eminent horticulturist, (Mr Knight,) that the pa-
r fruit is seldom p with strong
nte and that as feeble causes continually
tog ultimately
2
:
produce extensive effects, the supply-
with pe at hse rate wy
to o rourab! on the physi
health of the eee” Isleworth parish is re-
for producing great quantities of ies,
hich are poe, to Covent Garden market, but
sold to distillers, or makers of sweets.
In Fulham parish, there are nearly 1000 acres under
‘cow-feeders. In Mortlake parish there are gene-
ners 1
‘p-
z
1
i
z
i
E
i
produce having ired reputation all over the coun-
try. What “called the physic gardens are chiefly
near Mitcham, nine or ten miles from Westminster
important when a new garden is projected. Most of
them are appli i ta covial dasios Of giedbs . ‘bes
when not o ise stated, a garden of the first charac-
ter is to be understood as in view.
Situation, Sc. of a Garden.
39. The consideration of the position of the garden
with to the mansion-house properly belongs to
the su of Lawpscare Gardening Te ay only
here be remarked, that of late it has fashiona-
barrows, without touching the principal approach, is
indis le. Some of the cireumstances which are
consi as constituting the best kind of situation
may here be mentioned, and these, it may be remark-
ed, ought never to be altogether sacrificed to effect.
Shelter is, in our climate, a primary consideration. ghetter.
This may in be derived the natural sha)
and situation of the ground. Gentle declivities at the
bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or the
sloping banks of winding rivers with a similar expo-
sure, are therefore very desirable. If plantations exist
in the neighbourhood of the house, or. of the site in-
tended for the house, the planner of a garden naturally
looks to them for his principal shelter ; taking care,
however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them,
so as to guard against the evil of being shaded. If the
plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and
other tall-growing trees, allowance is, of course, made
for the future progress of the trees in height. Itisa
rule, that there should be no tall trees on the south
side of a garden, to a very considerable distance ; for
during winter and early spring, they fling their length-
ened shadow into the garden, at a time when every
sun-beam is “valuable. On the east also they must be
sufficiently removed to admit the early morning rays.
The advantage of this is conspicuous in the sprin
months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds
and flowers: if this be gradually dissolved, no harm
ensues ; but if the blossom be all at once exposed to the
powerful rays of the advancing sun when he overtops the
trees, the sudden transition from cold to heat often proves
destructive. On the west, and particularly on the north,
trees may ap nearer, perhaps within less than a
hundred feet, and be more crowded, as from these di-
rections the most violent and the coldest winds assail
us. If forest trees do not previously exist on the tere
ritory, screen plantations must be reared as fast as
sible. The sycamore (or plane-tree of Scotland), is ofthe
most rapid growth, making about six feet in a season ;
next to it may be ranked the larch, which gains about
four feet; and then follow the spruce and balm-of;
Gilead firs, which grow between three and four feet in
the year. Excellent instructions for the formation of
screen-plantations, as well as for the regulation of forest-
trees in , may be found in “ The Planter’s Ca-
lendar,” already mentioned, § 21. Walls and quick
are subordinate means of shelter, to be spoken
of by and by. The best general exposure for a gar-
den must evidently be towards the south; and a Cp
tle declivity in that direction, equal Price) to a fall of
one foot in thirty, is deemed very desirable; effectual
draining being in this case easily accomplished.
Water is not to be forgotten. If a streamlet can be Water.
brought to flow through the garden, it may be render-
ed conducive both to convenience and amenity: where
this cannot be accomplished, the situation should be
such that water may be conveyed by pipes from some
ci eatrsigy | stream ; soft or river water being ly
preterable, for the purposes of the horticulturist, to
that of springs or wells. Where running water cannot
be commanded, recourse is had to a aks or pond, it
bees known that water freely exposed to the air and
sunshine for some time, becomes comparatively soft,
and fit for the nourishment of plants.
Tn selecting ground for a garden, the plants growing
Enclosure
Walls,
188
naturally on the surface should be noted, as from these
a pretty correct opinion may be formed of the qualities
of the soil. The subsoil should also be examined. If
this be radically bad, such as an iron-till mixed with
gravel, no draining, trenching, or manuring will ever
prove an effectual remedy; if, on the contrary, the
subsoil be tolerably good, the surface may be greatly
meliorated by these means. In every garden, two
varieties of soil are wanted, a strong and a light one,
or, in other words, a clayey loam and a sandy loam,
different plants requiring these ‘respective kinds. For
the general soil, a loam of middling quality, but par-
taking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is account-
ed the best.
vf Enclosure Walls.
40. When the situation is fixed on, the next con-
sideration is the enclosing with walls. Supposing a
garden to be about an acre in extent, and the ground
sloping gently to the south, the rule is, that the north
wall may be 14 feet high; the south wall, 10; and the
other walls, about 12. In a larger garden, containin,
rhaps four acres, the north wall is sometimes raiaad
18 feet high; the side walls, or those on the east and
west, 15; and the south wall, not more than 12. On
a dead level the north wall is generally made 16 feet
high ; the east and west walls 133 ; and the south wall,
11. It may be observed, that walls higher than 12,
or at most 14 feet, are necessary only for pear-trees ;
peach, nectarines, apricot and plum-trees seldom re-
quiring more than 12 feet. It may also be right to no-
tice, that the terms north and south wall are here used
to denote the north and south sides of a square or pa-
rallelogram ; but that, in speaking of wall fruit, if it be
said that peach or fig trees require a south wall, this
must be understood to mean a wall with a south aspect,
or what is in reality the north wall of the garden,
There are two motives therefore for raising this wall
some feet higher than the others; first, sheltering the
garden from the northern blast; and, in the next place,
the procuring of ample space for training the finer
Kinds of fruit-trees on the south side of the wall, or
best aspect of the garden. Under the denomination of
finer kinds of fruit-trees are to be understood not only
peaches, nectarines, apricots and plums, but some of
the French pears, such as the chaumontel, colmart, and
erassane. Many gardeners are of opinion that the best
aspect for a fruit wall in this country is about one point
to the eastward of south; such walls enjoying the be-
nefit of the morning sun, and being turned a little from
the violent west and south-west winds. South-east is,
for the same reasons, accounted by many a better as-
pect than south-west. The south-west and west walls
are assigned to fruits which do not require so much
heat to ripen them as is necessary to those above men-
tioned ; such are cherries, many kinds of pears, and ap-
ples. The north walls are appropriated to apples and
pears for baking, plums and morella cherries for pre-
serving; and a few may-duke cherry, white currant
and gooseberry trees; are trained against these walls
with the view of their affording a late crop.
Bricks, it is generally allowed, are the best material
of which to construct the walls. The foundation and
basement are often made of common building sand~
stone, while the superstructure is brick; and some-
times the back of the wall is of sandstone, and the
front only of brick. Sandstone which rises in flags is
the best. substitute for bricks, Both kinds of materials
admit of the branches of the trees being nailed-in regu-
larly, and without difficulty. ‘Where the walls are
HORTICULTURE.
of common rubble building, a trellis of spars is some« Enclosure:
times placed
branches are ti
is regarded as a very good plan; but the expence is
considerable, as, to prevent the lodging of insects, the
trellis must be smooth and painted. The trees thus:
enjoy the shelter and reflected heat of the wall, without
being injured by its dampness in rainy weather; and
as the wall is not injured by the driving and drawin
of nails, there are fewer lurking-places for the wood~
louse and the snail. The rails of the trellis are made
closer or wider according to the nature of the tree to be
trairied against it. In a few instances in Scotland,
walls have been built of different kinds of whinstone,
chiefly mstone and basalt. These minerals, on ac«
count of their almost black colour, are calculated to al«
sorb and retain more heat than stones of a light hue:
but it is to be considered that it is not the heat retained
by the wall which benefits the tree, so much as the heat.
reflected from the wall. The proposal of painting walls
i pe them, and to this trellis the
black, is, on the same principle, not admissible. It.
may here be of some importance to remark, particular-
ly as applicable to Scotland, that in building brick
walls, bricklayers only should be employed ; stone-ma-«
sons working as awkwardly and clumsily with bricks,
as-bricklayers would do with masses of whinstone.
As the walls ofa garden form one of the principal
sources of expence, it is proper, before proceeding to-
build, to ascertain correctly the average level of the-
borders, if the ground be unequal, so as to suit the
depth of the foundation to it. If the inequalities be
considerable, both walls and borders are made to. sink
and rise, so as to humour them. Declivities in a gar-
den are not unpleasing; and when they happen to
slope to the south or east, they afford the earliest crop
of different legumes, such as peas or beans. Some im-
provers have constructed a series of low flat arches as
the basement of the wall, these arches having their tops
on a level with the surface of the borders; the piers
left are from two to four feet broad, according as the
foundation is firm or otherwise. The advantage con«
sists not merely in saving much building, but in pers
mitting the roots of the wall-trees, which are planted
opposite to the arches, to extend themselves in eve
direction, and draw nourishment from the soil on bo’
sides of the wall. In some places projecting stone but-
tresses are set at intervals in the walls, in order to.
strengthen them, and to break the force of the winds
when’ sweeping along. But to this latter purpose they
contribute little: temporary screens of reed, projecting
at right-angles from the wall, and removed after the
blossoming season, when the chief danger is over, are
thought better: and if any sort of strengthening co-
lumns or piers be necessary, they can be built so as to
project only on the outside of the wall. In this coun-
try, walls are generally made of the thickness only of
three bricks laid side by side, or somewhat more than
a foot; and to such walls in exposed situations, but-
tresses may be very proper. When the walls are ins
tended to be high, indeed, they are commonly made
sixteen inches thick for a few feet above the basement,
and then gradually reduced to twelve or thirteen. The
basement, whether of brick or stone, is always about
six inches thicker than the lower part of the wall.
Walls have sometimes been built with curves; and
in perfectly calm weather, the trees in these curves
must receive more heat than on a straight wall; but
it jis found that in windy weather they suffer much
more; and that even when there is only a slight air of
wind, a draught is produced around the trees, renders
Walls.
with osier-twigs or rope-yarn. This “Vv
HORTICULTURE. 189
Hot Walls ing their situation colder than if they were at a distance for 45 or 50 feet of such frame-work. When the new Hot Walls.
—"Y~" from the wall. Curved or semicircular walls are there- wood of the tree is sufficiently ripened, the whole is ““v¥“"”
fore no longer constructed. The inclining of walls to taken down and carried under cover. When there is a
the horizon, pe teed ivi sun's rays considerable — of hot wall, adapted er recep-
more directly, is excel! theory, not ada tion of glass es, perhaps 250 or 300 feet, particu.
to practice. Trellises may be so Vcinseds oc tains lar trees may be forced or omitted, and an opportunity
wooden : such indeed have been successfully is thus afforded of restoring trees, by allowing them a
some gardens, as at Brechin Castle, the year’s rest. For these hot walls, fire heat is required
; only for about four months, from the end of February
stone or brick wall, however, to the end of May, and again for two or three weeks,
be sufficiently inclined witheut the support when the new wood is ripening.
= ion i Flued walls, — an apparatus coe tA covers
continually damp A coping is neces- ings of canvas, oiled paper, or woollen nets, are neces-
po Be oD he’ A weer Ho cary for the perfect production of the finer sorts of
sinking into it at top, but to throw it off from and nectarines in all of Britain north ef
where its —— would do much Yorkshire. Without the aid of artificial heat, the young
ing is form i wood of these trees is seldom sufficiently ripened, in
i to ensure a supply of good flower-
SHEE
Ste
Ree 7 =
Lege
BE>S
Frei
dis:
rpte
é
Hy
FSse
eae
ordinary seasons,
i made to buds forthe following year, and unless the buds be
project the wall about two or inches, and strong and plump, the chance of a crop the ensuing
pl run underneath the plinth, to collect season is lessened ; and frequently, after
throw off the drops. a sufficient tity of fruit has been brought to full
‘What is commonly called the kitchen-garden has, in size, unless be supplied artificially, in autumn, ma-
ps heen ra thee pens ae te tagr fpr turation is not Inthe raesthern:: parte of the
sure. It is likewise the fruii walls being island, therefore, it is always proper to construct a por-
chiefly intended for the and training of fruit- tion of the garden walls with flues: the additional ex-
to be understood, are on a ing the flues, particularly where the inside
ig
defended generally by & sunk fence and an deration be attached to the expence of the small
a the } i
#
E
:
J
z
i
|
j
:
Poke
|
|
f
Lt
ft
f
[
|
:
a
:
:
i
3
§
walls are not placed nearer to each as many turns as the height of the wall will
hundred mit. Former! made only three turns ; but it has
it is perhaps better. They can scarcely been found, that oftener the flues are returned,
i
!
;
§
z
|
papeertt
it
rll
uf g
Hid
th
ull
Fui®,
ffi
ah
sires
batt
itr
[ieee
crt
plastering. In some places a wooden trellis covers the
: a Hot Walls. wall ; but in general, the trellis i
» 2 than the first range of the flue, the heat above this
He wa. 41. + fon eed so nchenert, were ty lak not injuring the trees : where neatness is much studied,
of as ch the best their con- the trellis rods are sunk into a small recess purposely
struction is at the original enclosing of the garden. left in the wall, thus preventing the appearance of
; are intended to bulging, which is otherwise unavoidable,
have sloping glass-frames attached to them, thus to a
t certain extent forcing the fruit; and such as are not Soils
have screens over the blossoms in ing. #2. The improvement of the soil naturally becomes ¢,1.
are rally built about ten or twelve feet high. eR ge) lan dee adi wegen
farapnen tet high, aad se citasonecFerhons re Erecsi-"ar gurdsacs ome hr e maser ea
7] ¥ n * as term it, is a matter of
the wall, is in some places, formed for the interest. 2
giant eeees 0 Fest epon, thene ing heavy and strong; The various soils di ished leners and
trees are trained on a trellis within a few inches of horticulturists consist of the simple earths (as they used
the wall ; arid along the border in front of the trees, to be called) of the chemists, argil, silex and
ois age tat -beans, or strawberries are lime, mixed in different i It is well known,
raised. In other places, frames are of very slight that some of the principal offices of the soil are merely
cep toyed oe ohn Mad wes mechanical ; such are, the giving proper su to the
' two feet shorter than t of the wall; and this vegetable by means of its roots, and the supplying these
es
‘TEE
with water in aslow and convenient manner, the super-
fluous moisture: draining off. A mixture of clay and
sand is called loam according as the one or other
of these earth pretioniinates, the soil is denominated a
é
!
i
Ai
li
on
Soils,
190
clayey or afsandy loam. In the same way, in some
counties of England chalky loams are common ; and
in other districts, gravelly loams are not unfrequent.
When oxide of iron prevails, and renders the clay hard
and of a dark brown or red colour, the soil is called
ferruginous loam, or more commonly till. Boggy or
heathy soil consists of ligneous particles, or the decayed
roots, stems and leaves of various ecarices, heaths and
sphagna, and the coaly matter derived from these, ge-
nerally with a slight mixture of argillaceous earth and
sand. While the nomenclature of soils remains so im-
perfect and unsettled as it now is, there seems no pro-
priety in enlarging further on the different varieties:
Some judicious remarks on these, and on the principles
on which they should be distinguished and named, may
be found in the Agricultural Report of Ross and Cro-
marty, drawn up by Sir.George Mackenzie, Bart.
Carbonaceous matter, and certain salts, in small pro-
portion, are likewise ingredients in a good soil; plants
deriving not only support from the soil, and nourishment
from the water and from the decomposition of the water,
supplied by the soil to their roots, but also other pecu-
liar sorts of food from the carbon and salts alluded to.
48, Any substance added to a soil, either to supply
a deficiency or to rectify what is amiss, is called a ma-
nure. The use of manures is, of course, very various.
They may be destined to render soil less retentive of
moisture, or to make it more retentive ; or they may be
calculated to communicate carbonaceous matters or
salts. With the former view, clay or argillaceous marl
form a suitable manure for a sandy soil, and sand or
lime for one that is clayey ; while dungs and composts
of every kind yield the other requisite materials to the
soil, For opening clayey soils in gardens, marls are
excellent, particularly gravelly marl. Where marls
cannot be had, shelly sand, coal-ashes, or wood-ashes
mixed with chips of wood, may be resorted to. For
binding sandy soils, argillaceous marls or calcareous
loams are proper; and the scourings of ditches are of-
ten, for this purpose, valuable.
The improvement of cold’ or sour clay is sometimes
effected by scorifying it, or burning it, as it is common-
ly termed. The sward, with two or three inches of the
clay adhering to it, is collected in heaps, and brought
into’a state of red heat, by means of furze, peat or
coals, taking care to add clay on the exterior so as to
confine the fire. Acids and vegetable matters of noxi-
ous tendency seem thus to be driven off, and a soil fit
‘for garden culture produced... This is an old practice
which has been lately revived.. In Hitt’s Treatise on
Fruit-trees, published in 1758, there is a chapter “ Of
the burning of clay for the improvement of land.”
44. The soil of a garden should never be less than
two feet and a half deep; the best gardeners prefer
having it fully three feet. The natural soil, therefore,
however good, is seldom of sufficient depth. If it be
not two feet, a quantity of earth from the fields is car-
ried in. The cleanings of roads and grass-turf of any
‘ind, form valuable additions to garden soil. In the
course of trenching, a portion of the subsoil is brought
to the surface, and gradually meliorated ; but to bring
up much of it at once, is very injurious. -Soil of the
usual depth may be trenched two spit (spadeful) deep ;
and if this be done every third yedr, it is evident that
the surface which has produced three crops, will rest
for the next three years; thus giving a much better
‘chance of constantly producing healthy and luxuriant
crops, and with one half the manure that would other-
avise be ‘requisite. Nicol insists for the deeper soil,
HORTICULTURE,
and recommends that, after taking three crops,
the Soil
ground should be trenched three spit, by which the =v
bottom and top are reversed ; three crops are again to
be taken, and the ground trenched #wo spit, which
the soil which formed the top goes to the middle, and
that which lay in the middle goes to the surface. Af.
ter other three crops, the trenching is to be'again three
spit deep. By thus alternately trenching two spit and
ree, after intervals of three years, the surface soil is
regularly changed, resting six years and producing
three ; and.an approach is thus made to the desirable
object of having always a new soil.
It is agreed on all hands, that nothing contributes
more to the preserving of the soil of a garden in good
condition, than exposing it as often as possible to the ac-
tion of the sun and air. It is a rule, therefore, that
garden ground, when not in crop, should regularly be
dug rough, or if possible ridged up, and left in that state
to the influence of the atmosphere. If it be allowed
both a winter and a summer fallow, the oftener a new
surface is exposed the better; after it has lain ridged
up during winter, therefore, repeated diggings are given
in the spring and summer months. Whether some noxi-
ous matter be exhaled, or some fertilizing substance be
imbibed, or what may be the precise nature of the ope-
ration that goes on, we do not here inquire. The fact
is certain, that aéraiion, as it is sometimes called, is of
the greatest advantage to garden soils,
45. It has been already remarked, that it is desirable to Mould.
have soils of different quality in the garden. One of
the most generally desired is what is called mould, by
which is meant a soil in which vegetable earth predo-
minates. Such as is of a bright chesnut colour is pre-
ferred; it is usually styled by gardeners, hazelly mould,
or hazelly loam, from. being of the colour of the hazel
nut. The characters of the best mould, according to
Miller, is, that ‘it cuts like butter, does not stick ob«
stinately, but is short, tolerably light, breaking into
small clods, is sweet, well tempered, without crusting
or chapping in dry weather, or Kenn mortar in
wet.’”’ It should be so open, as not to stick to the spade
or the fingers after a shower of rain. Dark grey and
russet-coloured moulds are likewise Gonsiderer’, good:
ash-coloured are commonly bad; yellowish still
worse. Good moulds after being broke up by the spade,
or after rain, if the surface have been recently dug or
hoed, emit rather a pleasant smell. What are called
brick moulds or loams, are much esteemed both by the
gardener and the florist, as auxiliaries to mix with
other soils.
For some purposes a sandy soil is wanted. In this
case, either the surface sand, from a sandy pasture, is
alone used,-as it contains a considerable portion of ve-
getable matter, or if pure sea or river sand be employ-
ed, light rich mould, nearly in the proportion of one-
half, is mixed along with it. For a very great number
of plants, particularly in the flower garden, an excellent
Soil is to be found in the turf of old pastures, and the
earth which adheres to the turf to the depth of six or
eight inches, mixed with a portion of cow and horse
dung in a rotten state, laid together in a heap for at
least a year, and frequently turned over. This is a
compost, and naturally leads us to speak more particu-
Jarly on the subject of manures. oy
Manures.
46. Many authors have treated of manures, and given Manure
theories of their beneficial action; Fordyce, Hunter,
Cullen, Ingenhousz, Senebier, and others. The learned
HORTICULTURE.
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t during the progress of
191
and it is no less evident, that if this p
to go on beneath the surface of the soil, tbe par-
icles must first be applied to the roots of the plants,
before they can escape.
a Fruil-tree Borders. V9
50. The proper forming and managing of borders for fruit-tree
fruit-trees is a matter of great consequence, especially borders.
when peaches and nectarines, vines, and the best sorts
of plums and pears, are cultivated. In many old gar-
dens the borders are only five or six feet broad, and are
crowded with perennial flowering plants. Such borders
are too narrow, and such plants must greatly rob the
trees of their nourishment.| The border, according to a
gardener’s common rule, should not be less in breadth
than the wall is in height; but the general breadth
is only from 8 to 12 feet. If care be taken to make the
soil good below the walk, such a border may prove suf-
ficient. Ifthe bottom be not dry, it is made so by means
of drains. Many are of opinion, that it should at the
same time be rendered impervious to the roots of the
trees, by means of lisbewrubbish, or clay and gravel rolled
hard, or by complete paving: this precaution is particu-
larly necessary where the subsoil is a cold wet till.
The monastic cultivators of fruit-trees in the 1$th and
14th centuries were well aware of the importance of this
matter, and seem to have been unsparing either of la-
bour or expence. When Mr F. of Pitfour was
laying out a new orchard in Aberdeenshire, he found,
in clearing out the remains of the garden of the ancient
Abbey of Deer, which is included within the precincts
of the orchard, a border which had been prepared for
fruit-trees in the following laborious and expensive
com moulds as have been already
yt 3 natural soil is to some extent re-
tained, if it be a , itis opened by adding sea
wep au sen been kept a ° a
i quicklime
this is seldom ad le, If, on the other
soil be loose and sandy, the clayey
tter to be found in ditches and open drains in plough-
is resorted to, and laid about six inches thick at
of the border. Many cultivators are parti-
in adapting the quality of the soil or compost to
nature of trees to be planted. For apricot
le trees, the compost usually preferred, con-
sists of three-fourths light earth, and one fourth
TH
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the loam, well mixed and incorporated with some thorough
ly rotten cow dung. For peach, plum, and pear trees,
a stronger soil is prepared, and the proportions are re-
versed, the loam constituting three-fourths, and the
light soil one-fourth. Cherry-trees, too, like rather a
coal bottom ; and equal parts of light earth and of loam
form for them a suitable soit.
In forming a new garden, it is advantageous to
have the borders sihiainneioen before plant-
ing the trees, equally, whether these consist
mainly of travelled soil, or of the natural soil enriched
by some composts, If the ground be repeatedly turned
5
® made Fruit-tree
Borders.
——
‘
192 HORTICULTURE.
Fruit-tree and ridged up, it is found ultimately to be ina much = Division of
Borders. better condition for receiving the sian Division of the Garden, &. the |
The soil of the borders is at first made higher by some
inches above the walks, than that of the quarters in the
interior of the garden: the reason is, that the quarters
annually receive a large accession of manure, whereas
the fruit-tree borders are afterwards to receive compa-
ratively little that can add to their depth. Some judi-
cious gardeners contend, that such borders are to be
manured only with composts, rendered as homogeneous
as possible by frequent turning and intermixing. Others
do not hesitate to use well-rotted dung: this is dug in
with a three-pronged fork, so as to avoid injuring the
roots of the trees ; and it is generally applied in the
month of November, after the winter dressing of the
trees. ;
51. The borders, particularly those next to south walls,
are in most places cro) with early peas, or turnips,
or some other plant which does not extend its: roots
deep into the earth; avoiding therefore cauliflowers
and beans. But many puter disapprove of this, es-
pecially in the case of peach and nectarine borders ;
and certainly if a crop be taken, it should be of the
lightest kind, such as salad herbs, and perhaps: a few
scattered patches of ornamental annuals next the walk,
In order to avoid using the fruit-tree borders, there-
fore, it is a custom, in some well ordered gardens, to
have low reed hedges or palings run across some of the
quarters ; to these the earliest peas or beans are close-
ly attached, as they advance in growth, so as to enable
thaie to escape the frosts of March and April more ef-
fectually, even than in front of a south wall. It need
scarcely be remarked, that fruit-tree borders are kept
carefully clear of weeds, and that frequent stirrings
with the hoe, or the three-pronged fork, and frequent
xakings are practised, the maintaining of the surface in
a fresh and porous state being found of singular ad-
vantage. hen the season proves very dry, they are
watered perhaps three times in the week, after sun-
set.
52. In many situations and circumstances, it is found
impossible to form a soil for fruit trees, with the care,
sa. at the unavoidable expence, which have here been
supposed. In these cases it is necessary to adapt the
kind of trees tothe soil. On soils naturally very light,
gravelly, and sandy, peach and nectarine trees do little
: it is better to plant apricots, figs, or vines, which
agree with such soils, and, when trained against a wall
having a good aspect, will, in the southern parts of the
island, afford excellent crops of fruit. On such soils,
even espalier and dwarf-stendard apple trees are short-
lived, subject to blight, and produce only stunted fruit.
Next to renewing the soil, the best remedy is to engraft
and re-engraft frequently, on the best wood of the trees,
giving the preference to grafts of those kinds which
experience has shewn to be most productive and healthy
in that particular place. In shallow soils some have
been in the practice of making troughs or hollows, and
filling them with rich earth, for the reception of ‘the
trees: but this is not to be approved of ; the roots of
the tree will probably be confined to the trough, and
it is possible that water may be retained init. In thin
soils, therefore, it is more proper to raise the surface in-
to little hillocks than to dig hollows. If a tree be
planted on the general surface, and have earth heaped
around it, it will spread its roots in'every direction, and
to a great distance, in the shallow soil; and some sub-
soils, such as decomposed trap-rock, or chalk, are them«
selves caleulated to afford much nourishment.
~the keeping of tender exotics.
53. It is, of course, understood, that the wall-tree Divi Bis! -
borders extend all around the in of the garden; the gute
It naturally follows that a gravel walk should run pa-
rallel with them. On the other side of this walk, in -
very many gardens, there is a row of espalier-trees, (or,
to speak. more correctly, coun ier trees), fixed to
trellis-rails, If the enclosure be tolerably extensive, the
centre is traversed by a broad walk. Ifit be of the
largest dimensions, and possess a cross wall, or cross
walls, the arrangement of the walks falls to be altered .
sonogsling’y's a main walk proceeding directly to the
doors in the centre of the-cross walls. The rest of the
garden is divided into compartments, and most of these
compartments, in some of our best gardens, are laid out ~
in beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many
alleys, mo doubt, occupy a good deal of room; but the
advantages of conveniency and neatness in enabling the
workmen to clean and gather the. crop without tramp-
pling the ground, seem to compensate’ the sacrifice of
space. For currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes,
the quarters are of course, reserved undivided; and nar-
row beds are unnecessary in the case of large perennial
plants, such as artichokes or rhubarb. | Border-edgi
are not in use, excepting for the walks next the walls,
and the cross walks in. very large gardens; for these,
dwarf box is almost universally employed. In the in-
terior quarters, however, parsley may sometimes be ob=
served forming anedging ; and ae: winter savory, or
hyssop, are occasionally employed in the same way, and
harmonize very well with the crops around.
54. Hitherto nothing has been said of the situation y1¢¢_jouses,
of the range of hot-houses. In many gardens, these
occupy a very considerable of the south wall, that
is the wall on the north side of the garden: In the
area behind them, are sheds for tanners bark, rich
mould, and other requisites; while there is a cart ac-
cess to the doors of the furnaces, and these, with all the
rubbish necessarily attending the operations of forcing,
are completely hid from view. In some places all the
forcing-houses form a continuous range ; but generall
the mi stove and succession pit, being of different ai
mensions, are placed separately. In some elegant gar-
dens, as at Raith-House and Wemyss-Castle in Fife, the
hot-houses have a flower-garden in front of them, while
every thing offensive is excluded: from view; as in the
former case. In other places the hot-houses are dispo-
sed in a different manner: the several kinds of houses
stand detached from one another, each being set down
as it were in a separate grass lawn; the back 3
where the furnaces are situated, is concealed by shrubs,
so that the houses seem to stand in little thi and
-thus form an agreeable variety with clumps and
-ches of trees in the park. Donibristle, the seat shake
Earl of Moray in Fife, may be mentioned as an exam-
ple of this sort of arrangement.
55. In many instances, the flower garden is separa- Flower
ted Som the po fe edge. B garden merely by a wall, den.
r! by a qui . But in modern places, (as
Ssciandak speak ) this garden is removed from the —
by a considerable distance. To it belongs the
house and the orangery ; there is often connected withit
a conservatory ; and sometimes, where the/owner has a
taste for the: culture of rare plants, a stove merely for
Where the interior of the walled garden does not afford Slip.
space enough for raising a sufficient supply of culinary
vegetables for the family, a piece of ground is fenced off
HORTICULTURE. 193
on the outside of the walls, on one or more sides, and is mus); the medlar (Mespilus); the red and the black — Fruit-
called If the melon and be the Ribes) ; the Garden
—— Seton adeeb of tn ipal suite of hot- (Rubus); and the nero bith ee Te an. ———
houses, it may very conveniently be in the slip. _ tic fruits are, the peach, nectarine, and almond (Amyg-
ene ee yet to emnd crighal checien he
, for thickness; but itis consider them as of the same original species. The
’ in clayey chestnut (Fagus) ; hazel-nut (Corylus) ; sorb’ (Sorbus) ;
Se- elder-berry (Sambucus) ; and berberry (Berberis), are
oyed, such as likewise natives: tne apn pee any o —
i ly in the pleasure-grounds exterior to gar-
ferred. den. The walnut (Juglans) is a foreign tree, ted
hes wt eideot tie The
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3 speaking of the more common. ;
rench tamarisk ; the last two, howe- _ Before treating of each of the fruits in detail, it will
centesateecmenisclcet ap tanphicesiene as Sotaes
ties, where the can withstand the of ordi- ding, trai ting, all of which must
divi- prone be frequently referred to. }
most frequently —— for that pus- Stocks for Grafling.
are composed of different kinds of rose- es, 58. When a cion, or part of a cion, is taken from a Stocks for
sweet-briars, and em ewer the lately introduced fruit-tree, and inserted either on Sos on ween the grafting.
a
Rosa Indica, maki conspicuous appearance, of a full grown tree, it is grafting. But
oa Fyre i is Uo tumer cece are camaanialotios.
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the year. Garden of kind are now much red; and in this way, chiefly, and are
lew fre than:they used to be: In our pegated; -ated‘snenctimen Je rh rch
climate must be surrounded with cion may generally be cut into two or three pieces,
. the gation of fruit-trees, will properly fall under the
flower-garilen, however, is still chiefly sheltered by article Nunsentes: a few ee in
i or this place may therefore suffice. The subject is not
a » forming a his garden and orchard well supplied with fruit-trees,
egy eeeaeieal eqnsent: etalogoas to the lr ive-centl of should establish a small private nursery, in which, up-
the From the interior of this garden, how- on stocks of different according to the end
ever, hedges have been nearly banished, by the change view, he may graft or bud the kinds of frait which ex-
of taste, and dislike of every thing formal. perience shews to be best suited to the soil and climate
- In this og ere Rares 4 remarked, the Fruit- of the place, and which best meet his own views.
garden and the garden are locally blenied to- 59. It is necessary that the stock should be a mem-
, both being inclosed by the same walls: the ob- ber of the same genus or natural fimily. with the
of each, however, are quite distinct, and may con- graft or bud to be inserted on it The principal kinds
er atted enpreniy. The general dispo- of stocks employed, are the following :
sition of the departments of the garden has been alrea-
dy spoken of, and likewise the forming of fruit-tree For appler,
borders. Other matters icularly connected with Common apple, from the kernels, for full stand-
the /ruit-garden shall now be considered. ards,
Crab apple, from the kernels, for half standards,
— ___] Codlin, from layers or cuttings,
Paradise, from layers,
FRUIT-GARDEN. Creeper, from layers, all for dwarf trees.
57. Tur kinds See mnienied sichinthe For pears,
cx. Walled garden, but in the open air, are eighteen in num- Common pear, or wilding, from tlie kernels, for
; and of these ten are considered as indigenous to full standards.
country, and eight are exotics. The native fruits Quince, from the kernels, of by lnyers, for dwarf
and espalier trees,
VOL. Xi. PART I. 2a
Fruit-
Garden.
—
Stocks for
grafting,
194 HORTICULTURE.
For plums, apricots, peaches, nectarines; and almonds,
Ted-wheat plum, either from stones, or layers, or
suckers. é
Black mus¢le plum, the same.
Greengage ‘plum, the same.
Bullace-plum, a common native species, which
has'received its trivial name P. insititia, from
being used for stocks,
For cherries,
a black cherry of the woods, Prunus cerasus;
and,
Wild red cherry of the woods, P. avium.
‘60. It may here be remarked, that seedling stocks
which havea natural tendency to attain the full height
of the species to be grafted on them, are by horticul-
‘turists universally denominated free-stocks. If the seeds
of different varieties of apples-and pears be sown, free-
stocks suited for the grafting of apples-and pears, are,
generally speaking, produced. When very great num-
bers of peck stocks are wanted, the seeds are procured
from the manufacturers of cider and perry ; but where
a private gentleman wishes only to have a'‘few-hundreds
of stocks, itseems much better to employ only select seeds,
that is, the kernels from good specimens of hardy and
healthy kinds of choice fruits, when in a ripe state. Crab
stocks are very much used: the seeds are to be precured
dn quantity only where verjuice is made from the fruit.
The paradise apple is of no estimation as a fruit; but
the tree being naturally dwarf, grafting on it tends to
dwarf the engrafted tree: The creeper apple has got
its name, from its tendency to throw up suckers, which
are easily detached with roots: it is sometimes called
the Dutch paradise. Pear-trees, as already said, are
grafted either on free-stocks from the seeds, or on
-quince stocks from layers or suckers.” The latter are
employed chiefly for dwarfing the trees, and throwing
them more early into bearing ; but with the view also
(whether well or ill-founded isnot the question) of im-
parting some degree of hardness and sharpness to the
melting sugary pears, the hard and breaking pears, on
the other hand, being placed on free stocks. For, all
practical gardeners, it may be observed, concur in stat-
‘ing, that the nature of the fruit is, to a certain extent,
affected by the nature of the stock. Miller says de-
cidedly, that erab stocks cause apples to be firmer, to
keep longer, and to have a sharper flavour; and he is
equally confident, that if the breaking pears be grafted
on quince stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony,
whilé the melting pears are much improved by such
stocks. This is scarcely to be considered as inconsist-
ent with Lord Bacon’s doctrine, that “ the cion over-
ruleth the graft quite, the stock being passive only ;”
which, as a general proposition, remains true; it being
evident that the graft or the bud is endowed with the
power of drawing from the stock that peculiar kind of
nourishment which is adapted to its nature, and that the
specific characters of the-engrafted plant remain unchan-
ged, although its qualities may be partially affected.
Quince stocks, it may be added, are also proper where
the soil of the garden is naturally sioiet hie quince
agreeing with such a soil. Peaches and nectarines are,
in this country (as noticed in the tabular view) gene-
rally budded on plum stocks, particularly the black
muscle: but the more tender sorts are placed on seed-
ling stocks of their own kind, raised from peach-stones;
or perhaps on apricot stocks. In France, almond stecks
are much used; and for this reason the French peach
trees seldom last good more than twenty years, while
the English endure twice. that period. Apricots also Fruit. —
are chiefly budded on plum stocks, the red wheat plum =, Sarden._
‘being’preferred for them. a ee
61. In the second volume of the London Horticul- grating
tural Transactions, Mr Knight has given a few re-
marks on the effects of different kinds of stocks in
grafting,—well deserving of attention, as being the re-
sult of more ‘than thirty "years experience. ‘He is of opi-
nion, that a stock of a species or genus different from
that of the fruit. to be grafted upon it, can rarely be
used with advantage, unless where the -object of the
planter is to restrain or debilitate. If, therefore, ex
tensive growth and durability be required, the peach,
nectarine, or apricot, should not be grafted on the
plum ; but if it is intended to diminish the vigour and
growth of the tree, and if durability be not thought
an important quality, the plum stock is proper. ‘The
same remark is applicable to the grafting of pears on
quince stocks. The finer sorts of peaches and necta~
‘ines are often budded on apricot stocks. Of this Mr
Knight approves; but he , that, if lasting and vi
‘gorous trees be wished for, the bud cannot be placed ~
‘too near the ground.
62. The seeds for stocks are commonly sown in
March, in four-feet beds, The germination of some
kinds is promoted by placing’them in moist sand, in a
greenhouse or-cellar, for some time previously. Next
season, the seedlings are transplanted into nursery rows.
Here they remain till they reach the size wished for; in
order to the forming of wall or espalier dwarfs, or dwarf
standards, half standards, or full standards,—the cha-
racters of which will be immediately explained. . For
the first three kinds, they are generally ready after two
seasons: for the last, not sooner than after three or
four. The finer kinds of plums are budded or grafted
on plum stocks, raised from the stones. The common
kinds of plums, and the almond, are propagated chief-
ly by suckers; figs, mulberries, and quinces, principally
by layers ; gooseberries and currants by cuttings. Se-
veral varieties of apple, as the original or bur-knot,
the brown apple of Burntisland, and some others, grow
by cuttings ; and many kinds, indeed all those sorts of
fruit trees that have small buds, may be propagated by
laying down branches, having a ligature of leather or
wire ed firmly around them, either above or below
a bud, in the part buried in the earth. At the place of
binding, the circulation of the sap being interrupted,
a swelling ensues, and roots b: forth. . The lives
is separated the following year, and planted where it
is intended to remain, This mode of propagating fruit
trees is well known and often practised on the conti-
nent, though little attended to in this country ; by it,
in the course of three years, bearing trees are produ-
ced, without the trouble of grafting. Stocks for cherry
trees, raised either from the native black cherry or
guigne, or the wild red cherry, are considered as less
apt to prove gummy or diseased, than those raised from
the stones of garden cherries, and they are at the same
time accounted more durable. .
Nursery Training.
63. Fruit trees are trained as standards, of different Nursery
kinds ; as wall trees, or as espalier trees. For these, training. -
stocks of different ages or sizes are requisite. Standards
are subdivided into three kinds, full standards, half
standards, and dwarf standards. ;
Full standards are less used in Scotland than in Eng- Full stan-
land, where stems six or seven feet in height before dards.
3
HORTICULTURE. 195
the branches set out, are indispensable in orchardsto 65. The mode of grafting most commonly, ad » _ Bruic-
which cattle are frequently admitted. and in forming y fruit-trees, is called ton ing.
alike para ec ig pry a hy the eet Tia
cherries and efit et extremity of the graft, should be nearly of equal dia- Tongue
have shorter stems, perhaps from three meter. are cut off obliquely, at co ing an-, stafting-
‘ gles, as nearly as the eye can guess ; and the tip of the
in small : stock is cut off horizontally. A slip (or very narrow
Dwarf stan- ‘standards have low stems, from one foot to two angular opening made by cutting out a thin piece) is
feet high; ma an the most dwarfing stocks then made in the centre oy itiedeaene aate
i apples on paradise stocks, similar slip in the graft upwards. (Plate CCCIX.
and pearson quinces), to them produce low heads, Fig. 1.) - sharp and narrow b knife is ne-
suited to small compartments or borders ; come cessary. The thin point of the upper half of the slo-
soon into bearing, produce large fruit, and in con- ping end of the is then inserted into the slip in
eteisieap-edanite esched nprthe Iand..-Apples; of uieck sad gu arn rengot clnclp in eslhest ext
may of stock are b t ly to unite, at least
oe ae Ye arama da aad on the right hand side, so as not to be displaced in tying,
as ; and sometimes-apricots, peaches, which is always done from left to right, or in the course
and figs. The French frequently train themtoa cylin- of the sun. Strands of fresh bass-matting, steeped for
drical or somewhat pyramidal shape (en amen) a little time in water to render them more pliant, and
their i ed, and to prevent the knot from slipping, are generally used for
eed aarpaacaenge we etapa ann png ee ties. A quantity of clay is worked fine, and mixed with
must prove detrimental to the fruitfulness of the coma hap chapped madi Son APSE and some-
tree. In this country, they are usually trained like times with a little salt. It is found better to have
bushes (en duisson) ; from which, it is presumed, Mr it prepared a day or two beforehand, and to beat it
Nicol denominates them buzelars. up with a little water as needed. The tying is then
For dwarf wall trees, stems five or six inches inlength covered with this clay, in the form of a collar, or ball
are sufficient ; these, it will be observed, are the trees tapering at both ends, the upper end bein applied
which are ultimately destined to cover the garden wall, closely to the graft, and the u Arey A hese
being named diar/sonly from the humble stocks on balls are not removed till after midsummer. A neat
h they grow. substitute for clay is mentioned by Abercrombie: a
Riders are wall trees grafted or budded on tall stocks, composition of turpentine, bees wax, and rozin, at first
pes pemiy mene for the temporary purpose of melted together, and afterwards heated as wanted ; care
filling the wall till the dwarfs get forward. The term being taken not to apply it too hot. A coating, laid on
riders is of Scottish origin, English gardeners having with a brush, to the depth of a quarter of an inch, is
no jate name for wall trees trained in this man- said to be less liable to crack than clay ; and, it is add-
ner, merely calling them standards. ed, that when the full heat of summer arrives, the com-
- Espalier trees are intended for being trained against position melts away of its own accord. It may be re-
low treillages or latticed work or rails which consist marked, that the whip grafling mentioned in old horti-
ee tree Sane se arene See cultural books, is ly kind now described,
i — wanting the important improvement of the tongues or
y
en espalier is their term for what 66. When the stocks to be grafted upon are strong, Cleft graft.
we call wail training, and that our espalier training is or perhaps branches of | trees, rafling is of- ing.
(See ee a Br ag ’ ten aed to. The heal of = leh er branch,
The management of these it kinds of trees, prac we may suppose to be two or three inches in
th jiameter,).is first cut off obliquely, and then the sloped
— the raising of stocks, part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the
to the nursery department. operations of i slope; a cleft, nearly two. inches long, is made with a
and budding, however, oy ne meaner stout knife or thin chisel in the crown downwards, at
in ight angles to the sloped part, taking care not to di-
be described. ide the pith. This cleft is kept open with the knife.
(Plate CCCIX. Fig. 2. a.) The graft has its extremi-
Grafting. ty for about an inch a half cut into the form of a
wedge, (Fig. 2. 5.); it is left about the eighth of an
oy ed may be performed in several different inch thick on the outer or bark side, and is brought to
ways. ‘The most important points are, to apply the in- a fine edge on the inside. It is then inserted into the
ner bark of the stock and of the graft precisely to cach opening prepared for it; and the knife being with-
other, and to bind them firmly in that situation. M. drawn, the stock closes firmly upon it. A circular in-
Thouin of Paris; in his laboured but excellent papers cision is now made in the bark of the stock at the base
in the Memoires du Museum d’ Histoire Ni » has of the wedge, to the extent of three parts of the cir-
made many minute distinctions, enumerating and de- cumference of the stock ; by this means a shoulder can
ee ee ae be formed on each side of the cleft.
pendent altogether of modes of grafting by ap- 67. Old stocks are sometimes din another, 6, wn
ae . We-shall content ourselves, way, called genying © the bark or rind, or crown grafl~ grating.
, with ing only the principal hinds ing. The of the stock or thick branch is cut off
practised by our own These, as well as se- horizontally ; a perpendicular slit is made as in bud-
veral other votes ee are distinctly de- ding, (to be presently described) ; a narrow ivory fol-
scribed, by igure, by the late Cur- der, or a silver fruit-knife, is thrust down between the
tis, in his “ Lectures,” vol. ni wood and the bark, at the places where the grafts are
Saddle
grafting.
Side graft-
ing.
Znarching.
Root graft-
ing.
196
to be inserted. The graft is cut, at the distance of an
inch and a half from its extremity, circularly through
the bark, not deeper than the bark on one side, but
fully half way through, or beyond the pith, on the
other, The cut portion is then sliced away ; the end of
the graft is pointed, being sloped a little to the point
on the outside, but left straight on the inside. A B os
der is likewise left, to rest on the bark of the stock.
The grafts are then inserted into the openings made by
the ivory folder; and either three or four grafts are in-
serted on a crown, according to its size. This mode
cannot be practised till the sap be in full motion, per-
haps in the end of March, as till then the bark cannot
easily be raised from the wood. When the grafts are
placed on old trunks, they are apt to be drawn from
their places by violent winds ; it is proper, therefore,
to bind them to stakes for the space of perhaps two years,
when they will have acquired a sufficient hold of the
stock.
68. Saddle grafting consists in cutting the top of the
stock into a wedge-like form, and in making a corre-
sponding angular notch in the bottom of the graft, to
fit the wedge like a saddle. It is a mode sometimes
adopted in the grafting of orange trees.
69. Side grafting is merely tongue grafting, per-
formed in the side of a branch, or in the body of a
stock, without heading down. The bark, and a little
of the wood, are sloped off for the space of an inch and
a half, or two inches; a slit is then made downwards,
and the graft is cut to fit the part, with a tongue for
the slit, (Plate CCCIX. Fig. 3.) ; the parts being pro
perly joined, are tied close, and clayed over. ‘This
mode is sometimes employed for supplying vacancies
on the lower parts of full grown fruit trees. It cannot
properly be performed till the sap is in action, or till
about the middle of March.
70. Grafting by approach, inarching, or ablactation as
the older horticulturists termed it, is practised on some
kinds of fruit trees, chiefly tender, such as oranges, le-
mons, pomegranates, and mulberries, and on several
ornamental trees which do not readily succeed by the
ordinary means, such as myrtles, jasmines, andrachnes,
and some rare species of oaks, firs, and pines. Walnut
trees are sometimes also increased in this way. The
principle is, that the graft shall continue to have a de-
of attachment to the parent plant sufficient to keep
it alive, until such time as its bark shall have become
united to the bark of the stock which is approached to
it. The stock is often planted in a pot (Plate CCCIX.
Fig. 4. a.) at least a year before, and is brought close
to the tree or shrub to be grafted on it, (Fig. 4. 6.); if
too low, it is raised on a slight s to the required
height. Where the tree is strong, the pot is sometimes
fixed upon one of the branches of the tree. The ope-
ration of inarching is.seldom performed before the mid-
dle of April, or the beginning of May. When it can
be accomplished, tongue grafting is even in this way
advisable. In four or five months the inarched graft is
generally found to be fairly united -to the stock ; the
head of the stock is then cut off; but the graft is not
separated from the parent plant till nearly a year have
elapsed. Sometimes, for sake of curiosity, branches of
contiguous trees are joined by approach-grafting. To
make this experiment succeed, it is necessary to fix the
branches to poles, to prevent wind-waving; and in-
fleed this caution is in general necessary in all kinds of
inarching practised in the open air.
71. Recourse is sometimes had to root-grafling, either
for curiosity, or on account of seedling stocks being
HORTICULTURE.
scarce. A piece of the root of a tree of the same genus,
well furnished with fibres, is selected, anda graft placed Garden
on it, tied and clayed in the ordinary way. Thus uni-
ted, they are set with care in a trench in the nd,
the joining being covered, but the top of the graft be«
ing left two inches above ground. Some -gardeners
have thought that in this way the plant must preserve -
a nearer resemblance to the t tree; but Aber-
crombie remarks, that though it is an expeditious: way
of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot’be mate-
rially different from a cutting or layer.
72. What is called shoulder or cheek grafling, was fors shoulder
Fruit.
merly much more frequently employed than it is nowy grafting.
The head of the stock being first cut off horizontal«
ly, one. side of itis then a The graft is sloped
in the same manner, and a shoulder left at the point
where the sloping a This shoulder is applied to
the horizontal head of the stock, and the bark is brought
to join at each edge if possible. Another old method
of grafting was called terebration or peg-grafling: the
head of the stock was cut off heiciaesiaadly and a hole
was bored in the centre of it; the graft was selected of —
pw bole with the stock ; within an inch and a half
of the lower end of the graft, a circular incision was
made, and the bark and a great part of the wood were
removed, leaving only a peg to fit the hole bored in the
Cions for Grafts.
73. The cions are gathered'a good many weeks be- Cions for
fore the season for grafting arrives: the reason is, ‘that
experience has shewn, that grafting may most success-
fully be performed, by allowing the stock to have some
advantage over the graft in forwardness of a re
It is desirable that the sap of the stock should be in
brisk motion at the time of grafting ; but by this time,
the buds of the cion, if left on the parent tree, would
be equally advanced; whereas the cions, being gather~
ed early, the buds are kept back, and ready only to
swell out when the graft is placed on the sree Cions
of pears, plums, and cherries, are collected in the end
of January or begemning of February. They are kept
at full length, sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach
of frost, till wanted, which is some time from the mid-
dle of February to the middle of March. Cions of ap-
ples are collected any time in February, and put on
from the middle to the end of March. The selecting
of proper cions is a matter of the greatest. importance,
if we wish to enjoy the full advantage which may be
derived from grafting. They should be taken-from a
healthy tree in full bearing, and from the outer side of
the horizontal branches of such a tree, where the wood
has freely enjoyed the benefit of sun and air. It is
however the observation of a judicious practical garden-
er, Mr James Smith at Hopetoun eae. that.
ticular notice should be taken, whether the tree to be
fted from be in a luxuriant or in a debilitated state.
ff the former be its condition, the grafts are very
perly taken from the extremities of bearing Pei me:
but if it be in the latter predicament, the most, healthy.
shoots in the centre of the tree should be: resorted.
to; and if no proper shoots exist, the amputation of
some central branches will quickly tend to produce.
them. The least reflection must convince every one,
how extremely improper it must be to take cions from
young trees in the nursery lines, as is too often done.
It may be remarked, that the middle of the .cion ge-.
nerally affords the best graft.
-
>»
.
4
HORTICULTURE. 197
. are carefully cut off. ‘The head of the stock iy not re. Fruit-
"eee er xtgeuites 4 © moved till ‘the following March: after this, the bud _Gs‘en-
—— += 74. Budding; or , as it is sometimes, grows vigorously, and in the course of the summer — ‘—
Budding. though correctly depends on the same makes a considerable shoot. Against the next spring,
principle ee between abud the shoot is headed down, in the manner of young
and a graft being, a is a shootimembryo. On grafted trees. : r
Production of New Varietics of Fruits.
75. From the well-known facts, that some of the fa- ‘Production
vourite cider a of the 17th century have become ° Dw va-
extinet, and that others are fast verging to decay, the [°°
fruits.
re Cot
——— ee me
speak, the root of the bud has gone
of remaining withthe bark. Itis to be noticed, that the
bud, and the portion of bark above and below it, receive
“Shee moved puta otarher the mocks
Ona part of the of the stock, a trans-
verse section is now made, through the bark down to
the wood: from this is made a longitudinal cut down-
ward, aboot an inch and a half long, so that the inci-
‘somewhat resemble a Roman T ; by means of
the flat haft of the » the bark is
raised a on each side of the inal incision
°
~e
a
=
;
4
i
ei
a0
part is then cut off transversely, and the bud ohes
upwards till the bark of the bud and of the stock join
together. (Fig. 5. d.) It is retained in this situation by
Biecealdtaenianinniae ee
In about a month after the operation, the tying
nearer Abt Wiel | Aa and
the footstalk of the old leaf falls on being
conclusion has been drawn, that our varieties of fruit
are but of limited duration. Each variety springs from
an individual at first; and this individual has been ex-
tended by means of gratting and budding. Dr Dar-
— — in his Ph ba has ——— oe!
d is a separate t, viviparous o sprin
a bud of the seeming webs; and deriving pee
pr ee of a set of lengthened radicles
oe . This opinion cannot be supported.
r Knight's view is more rational, and more consistent
with > rs ther All the extensions ee of
grafts buds, must naturally partake qualities
of the original ; Shere the ovigieal is old, there must
be inherent in the derivatives, the tendency to decay
incident to old age. Some popular writers, such as
pra te te pooimgre ee oat
wi t of t madryads, or as equivalent to sa’
that a graft could not survive the wank from which ft
was taken: but these authors are more lively than ac-
curate ; for such an absurdity was never taught by any
horticulturist. It may be assumed as a fact, that a
variety or kind of fruit, such as Lom oe pippin or the
ribston, is equivalent only to an individual. By careful
management, the health and life of this individual may
be ; and grafts placed on vigorous stocks,
pot woe. rd favourable situations, may long survive
the parent plant, or original un tree. Still there
is @ progress to extinction ; and the only renewal of an
individual, the only true reproduction, is by seed. This
doctrine seems Se eee
more particularly as to i } u
caktivesion : whether it can safely be pore A ne mieten
in general, may admit of some doubt.
76. As the uction of new varieties of fruit from
the seed, is a subject which now very much occupies
the — of horticulturists, nbon Le oP
state the precautions adopted r Knight end others
in conducting their trials. It is, in the first place, a
rule to take the seeds of the finest kinds of fruit, and
from the ripest, largest, and best flavoured specimens
of that fruit. When Mr Knight wished to procure’
some of the old apples in a healthy and renovated state,
he the following method: he prepared stocks
of the kinds of apple that could be ted by
cuttings, and planted them against a south wall in very
rich soil ; these were next grafted with the stire,
golden pippen, or some fine old kind. In the
course a the following winter, the young trees were
dug up, and the roots being retrenched, they were
replanted in the same place. By this mode of treat-
ment they were thrown into bearing at two years old.
Only one or two apples were al to remain on each
tree ; these consequently attained a large size, and more
The seeds from these fruits Mr.
ess maturity.
night then sowed, in the hopes of ring seed~
lings of or of promising qualities ; and
198 HORTICULTURE.
Pees . It may here be mentioned, that in order to pro- roots carefully traced, and raised at full length if poss — Fruit
ae “ene duce a hybrid variety, possessing perhaps a union of sible: should this be inconvenient or thought unneces- Garden.
Production the good properties: of two known kinds, Mr Knight sary, the roots should be cut with a sharp knife, not -~—~
of new va- had recourse to the nice operation of dusting the pol- hacked with a blunt spade. A tap root, or one which To
rieties of | Jen of one variety upon the pistils-of another: He penetrates straight down, should not be left more than
fruits, opened the unexpanded blossom, and cut away, with a a foot long at most. If the trees are only to be car~
pair of fine-pointed scissars, all the stamina, takin
great care to leave the styles and. stigmata uninjured.
The fruits which resulted from this artificial impregna-
tion were the most promising of any ; and: the seeds of
these he did not fail to sow. Mr Knight has generally
observed in the progeny a strong prevalence of the
constitution and habits of the female parent: in pre-
paring seed for raising new pears, therefore, he would
employ the pollen only of such delicate pears as the
chaumontel, crassane, and St Germain, upon the flowers
(deprived of stamina) of the swan-egg, longueville,
muirfowl-ege, auchan, or green yair, which are hardy.
Every seed, though taken from the same individual
feuit, furnishes a distinct variety : these varieties, as
might be anticipated, prove of very various merit ; but
to form a general opinion of their value, it is not neces=
sary to wait till they produce fruit > an estimate may be
formed even during the first summer, by the reeemblance
the leaves bear to those of the highly. cultivated or.
approved trees or to those of the wild kinds; the
more they approach to. the former, the better is the
prospect: the leaves of goed kinds improve in charac-
ter, becoming thicker, rounder, and more downy every
season. The plants whose buds in the annual wood
are full and prominent, are usually more productive
than those whose buds are small, and shrunk into the
bark. But their future character, as remarked. by: Mr
- Knight, must depend very much on the power the
blossoms possess of bearing cold, and this power is.ob-
served to vary in the different varieties, and can only
be ascertained by experience. Those which produce
their leaves and blossoms early, are preferable ; because,
although inore exposed to injury from frosts, they are
less liable to the attacks of caterpillars. It is also to
be observed, that even after a seedling tree has begun
to produce fruit, the quality of this has a tendency to
improve, as the tree itself becomes stronger and ap-
proaches maturity ; so that if a,fruit possess any pro-
mising qualities at first, great improvement may be ex-
cted in succeeding years,
Mr Knight has of late.brought into public notice se-
veral new varieties of apples, pears, and cherries,
Some of these seem likely to maintain a high character
of excellence: they will be noticed in their proper
places. He has, at his seat at Downton in Hereford-
shire, many hundreds of promising seedlings coming
on, some of them annually improving in character.
. 77. From this digression we return to the young
grafted or budded fruit trees. When they have been
trained one year, they are called. maiden plants; and
these, especially in the apple and pear, are considered,
as forming the best plants. But trees of two, three
or four years growth, or even more, succeed very well,
provided due care be taken in transplanting. .
Transplanting.
Trensplant-. . ‘78. Here it may be enough to observe in general,
ing. that in raising young fruit-trees from the nursery lines,
or in transplanting them from one part of the garden
to. another, much more care should be bestowed thanis
often given, pecteuiariy in. public nurseries. The
surface earth sho’
uld be removed, and the horizontal:
ried: a short way, the roots should be as little cut as:
possible. When they are to be carried) to a distance,
it is thought best to prune off the small.and soft fibres,
which are apt to.rot and injure the whole root. . If the
tree be several years old, and have a large head, it is
proper to dig a trench all round, and to scoop out the
earth from under the root... In this way a ball of earth
rises with the tree, and its success is ensured. A bass=
matting is sometimes introduced as far as possible be-.
neath the tree on one side; and when it comes to be.
turned over on the other side, the root and ball of earth
are completely included in the matting ; but this.is sel-
dom necessary.. As it unavoidably happens that.some
roots are destroyed at the time of transplanting, and,
the means of drawing nourishment are thus lessened,
many consider it proper to prune the. tops of the trees.
to.a certain extent, that the demand, on the.roots.may
be diminished. This however must be done.cautiously,
and by an experienced gardener ; to lay down rules.
for it, is.impossible. '
It may here be observed, that when the plants are of
considerable size, they are prepared for transplanting,
by cutting the roots .a year beforehand, or in some sorts.
even two years before lifting. In this.way.the remain-
ing short roots are induced to. set out many radicles or
fibres, and the entire roots of the tree are contained
within a small compass. . If. the trees be young, this
abridgment of the roots may be effected by.a downright
cut with a sharp spade all around, at a short distance
from the stem; passing the spade entirely under the
plant on one side, if it be wished to cut off the tap root.
- It may scarcely be necessary to remark, that an es-
sential preliminary to transplanting, is the preparing of
the ground to receive the trees, by digging it over.
The distances should likewise be fixed, even the
holes dug. Some gardeners make a point of digging
the holes for the trees perhaps a fortnight before plant-
ing: in this way the soil into which the fibres are like«
ly soon to penetrate, is softened and meliorated by the
action of the air ; but this. practice is more applicable
to orchard planting. In putting in wall-trees, it is not
uncommon not only to have the border well Se
generally, but to have a quantity of very iable
mould for each tree in particular, into which it may
strike young fibres freely: this mould however should
not be screened or made fine, but should be of the or-
dinary degree of roughness natural to garden soil.
When the trees have been brought from a vi
distance, so as to have been several days on their jour-
ney, Miller recommends the placing the roots in water
for eight or ten hours before planting.
It may be considered as a sate general rule, to plant
shallow, more especially for dwarf’ standards and half
standards, the soil for which is not particularly prepared.
Whether the general soil be cold and moist, or thin and
gravelly, it is found. better to place the roots of the
young trees almost on the. surface, and rather to
earth over them in the form of a hillock than to si
them into the soil. Sup the subsoil be a moulder-
ing rock, and a hole be dug in it, it is evident. that the
tree will be placed in a sort of well, which will at once
retain water, and, hinder the spread ofthe roots. If
the.tree be placed, on the surface, it will insinuate its
3 HORTICULTURE. 199
1 into and draw nourishment from many invisible ed: in this way they find that a tree can much sooner Fruit
Pokal —_ i Seallehanpradeaontalds be brought to ri igh , andthe loss ‘of a Garden.
—"—" ed, it follows as a necessary consequence that stakesare branch can much more easily be
ee t+
ae ie iil
-
standard and half standard trees. For lower walls, the horizontal m is preferred ;
they settle or subsi om ier steady eabgeme nae
border. Were they nailed to the wall, they would run
the risk of being suspended.
must be i
30. pare A methods of training wall-trees
which are followed in this cou 5 ane ealied the fin
and the horizontal modes. In the , the branches
few of the wall-trees are trained in a stel-
late form, the stem being led about six feet,
and then some branches others la-
From about: , orafter the shedding and the same plan is almost universally on es-
of the leaf, till the end of November, is consi as ier rails. fir Hitt strongly recommends this mode
the best time for the ing of fruit-trees in this coun- most sorts of wall-trees ; and for he adopts
what is called the screw stem, or training the stem in
a serpentine manner, the branches going off horizontal-
ly as in the ordinary straight stem.
In the first volume of the Transactions of the London
Horticultural Society, Mr Knight has made some inge-
nious and excellent remarks on the training and pruning
of fruit-trees. His year old plants are headed down as
usual, early in the spring, and two shoots only are train-
ed from each stem in ite directions, and in an eleva-
tion of about 5°. (Plate CCCIX.Fig.6.) To procure the
shoots to be of equal lengths, the stronger is depressed,
or the weaker elevated. ll lateral shoots are destroy-
ed. - Thus far it may be remarked, Mr Knight's method
agrees very much with Hitt’s, described in his Treatise
on Fruit-trees. This shape, Mr Knight observes, ought
to be given to young trees in the nursery, and is per-
jhaps the only one that can be given to them without
the risk of su’ ent injury. Next season, as many
branches are suffered to spring from each plant as can
be conveniently trained, without shading each other ;
and by selecting the strongest and earliest buds towards
the points of the year-old branches, to be trained low-
est, and the weakest and latest near their bases, to be
trained inclining a each a tae will be
in vigour. (Fig. 7.) In the following win-
ihettens se cians shertened, and Toft at full
length. In the course of the third year, (Fig. 8.) ifthe
tree be a peach, the central consists of i
wood: And, upon the whole, the size and general heal
vageler distribution ofthe sap'than Mr Knight has wit.
i tion of the r Knight has wit-
nessed in any other mode, 5:
The distance at which the branches are laid in, in all
the different modes, varies from eight to ten inches, ac-
cording to the nature of the tree, or the size of its foli-
age or fruit. While fan-trained trees are still in pro-
gress, a few more shoots are preserved at the summer
ing, than are likely to be ultimately laid in : this is
‘or fear of accidents. Trees that have filled the
tase thet lppeats Wosd-bade.on ol peas wv vivayn
: ds on old are alwa
displaced. "Trees n
i to; all the buds
that ed, till enough be
procured to lay right and left, and form the tree. All
wood-buds on the horizontal branches, excepting the
leading one, are displaced. The fan-training is consi-
dered as best for apricots, cherries, and plums, placed
inst walls, even though the walls be low. None of
kinds of fruit answer well for iers ; cherries
or plums succeed better as half standards or dwarf stan«
dard
Ss.
81. The wall-trees which have now been spoken of
prodbgpmant ste: dyes orm It is a very come
mon Learn a standards on the intermedi-
warf trees; such trees are in
fed at any tne. n'a
Fruit-
Garden,
Espalier
trees,
fy warf-stan-
dards,
200
they would otherwise draw from the border: but if the
border be tolerably rich, and be only slightly cropped
with herbaceous plants, it does not seem likely that the
temporary trees can do much injary.
82. In popular language, the term Espalier is some-
what equivocal: it means either rows of fruit-trees
planted like hedges, or the individual trees composin
the rows ; or ly, it means the stakes or rails to whic
the branches of the trees are tied. By using the terms
espalier-tree and espalier-rail, ambiguity may always
be avoided. Of late years, some have proposed to ba-
nish espalier-trees altogether, alleging that they injure
the kitchen-garden quarters, by depriving them of sun
and air. But in point of fact, they exist in the greater
number of kitchen-gardens, and are not likely soon
to be laid aside. If they are sometimes injurious by
mapevone the plants of air, they are at other times
very useful, acting as a hedge in protecting the young
crops from the violence of strong winds. Espalier trees
generally produce excellent fruit, the sun and air ha-
ving access to both sides of the tree; they common-
ly afford abundant crops, and the fruit is not apt to
be shaken by high winds. Further, they tend to hide
the crops of culinary vegetables from the eye, and to
render the walk of the kitchen garden as pleasant as
an avenue in the shrubbery.
Apples and pears are the fruits best suited for es-
paliers. The apples are generally grafted on crab
stocks, to keep them of moderate size; or, if the tree
be wished still smaller, on Dutch paradise stocks.” The
distance allowed between the former is from 20 to 40
feet ; between the latter, 25 is found sufficient. These
may seer large spaces at first; and, to take away
the naked appearance, a small cherry-tree, or white
currant bush, is sometimes planted in each interval.
It is to be studied that, in the same line of rail, trees of
similar growth be planted: so that the whole may be
nearly equally filled. The trees, when planted, should
be of one year’s growth, or at most of two years. If the
rail be not previously erected, so that the branches can
be tied to it, a stake is necessary, to prevent wind-wa-
ving. Very often, the permanent rails are not put up
till the trees have been two or three years trained on
‘temporary stakes. Simple ash-poles firmly stuck in the
ground, and either charred or smeared with tar at the
bottom, to retard rotting, form a very efficient substi-
tute for a rail; for it is to be observed, that during
¢ummer, when the leaves are expanded, they equal-
ly hide the roughest poles, or the most finished rail.
Mr Nicol, however, recommends sinking hewn stones
in the earth, and fixing a wooden rail in them: and
2 writer, in the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, vol. i.
has described a kind of cast iron espalier-rail, which of
course must be highly durable, and, what is remarka-
ble, is cheaper at the first than a wooden one. Some
gardeners shorten the head of the tree in the usual
way; others preserve the original branches at full
length, never cutting a branch unless where there is a
real deficiency of wood for filling the rail. The prun-
ing is chiefly done by disbudding in the summer season.
The distance at which the branches are laid in depends
on the size of the fruit and leaves; when these are
large, seven or eight inches are required ; when small,
four or five may be sufficient.
83. Dwarf trees were formerly much in vogue; and,
strange as It may appear, the prospect of fruit was ge-
nerally sacrificed to a fine shape. It was thought ne-
cessary that the lower branches should spread horizon-
tally near the ground, and should decrease in width
upwards, so that the tree should have a conieal form.
HORTICULTURE.
Now, it is well known that the fruit-buds of ne and
apples in general, and of many sorts of plums and
hustle: are produced at the end of the former year’s
shoots, which therefore should remain at full length ;
yet these were necessarily shortened, in order to pre-
serve the desired shape, and it may easily be conceived
that trees so d could not prove fruitful. For
these reasons, the training to espalier-rails has generally
been preferred. A few dwarf trees, however, prove or-
namental, and they sometimes afford a great deal of
fruit. The kinds of dwarf fruit-trees now in request
are chiefly pears and apples. ‘The pears must be of the
summer and autumn sorts, the later fruits pat a
wall in our climate. Dwarf pears are chiefly ed
on quince stocks, The trees are planted out, at two or
three years old, where t are to remain, and they
are placed from 20 to 25 feet asunder. A few stakes
are driven into the ground, and, by means of tying
down, the lower branches may soon be made to acquire
a horizontal direction. No branches must cross each
other, and no central upright shoots are permitted.
The only other particular to be attended to is, when the
trees are to be trained in a concave form, that, in short.
ening the shoots, the uppermost eye or bud is to be
left outwards, as in this way the hollowness in the mid-
dle of the tree is better preserved. Sometimes the
branches are trained round a hoop, which es
by three or four small poles. Dwarf-sta “ le
trees on paradise stocks may be planted very close-
ly, as they occupy butlittle room: they do not require
more than 10 or 15 feet; on crab stocks they need
at least 25. Plums are now seldom planted as dwarf.
standards ; cherries more frequently ; apricots scarcely
ever,
Preserving of Blossom.
84. In this country, particularly on the east coast
and in the northern division of the island, it is an im-
portant part of the gardener’s duty, to preserve the
blossoms of apricots, nectarines, peaches, and the finer
sorts of plums, from being destroyed by spring frosts,
and especially frosty winds. One of the means0first
employed is still occasionally resorted to ; namely, sha-
ding the trees slightly with branches of spruce-fir, yew,
or beech: but the branches ought to be'so firmly fixed
as not easily to be displaced by the winds, or to shake
much: if this precaution be neglected, they will be
ready to beat off the blossom which they are intended
to defend. Strong fronds of the common brake (Pte-
ris aquilina) have been used with advantage in this.
way ; being the remains of the former year’s growth,
they are light and dry, and much less apt to injure the
blossom than branches of trees.
The most effectual protection, however, is afforded
by canvas-screens, in moveable frames ; the fabric of
the canvas being made thin enough to admit light, and
yet affording sufficient shelter, The stuff called buntine,
of which ships flags are sometimes formed, is recom-
mended by Nicol ; and he adds, that it may be render-
ed more transparent, and more durable by being oiled.
The stuff called osnaburg, manufactured in the towns
of Dundee, Arbroath, and Montrose, answers equally
well, especially if made on purpose, of a wider texture,
so as to resemble gauze. These screens:are kept clear
of the tree, a foot at top; and 18 inches at bettom. If,
when not in use, they may be stowed int adry loft, they _
last for many years. Sometimes the canvas is 1 in
the form of sheets to hoist up and down; and in some
laces (as at Dalmeny Park garden, one of the finest
in Britain) the contrivance is such, that the comeing
Dwa
dards,
ga
of blossom.
‘
.
HORTICULTURE. 201
i : freezing moistened Fruit
ne higher pedir i prec gna a _ Gaaden.
85. We now proceed to the consideration of the dif- Garden
ferent species of fruits cultivated within the walled gar- fruits.
CX LY
the winds, screens made of reeds projected,
ears r= with the wall, to the distance
ten and at intervals of thirty or forty feet
from each other; and at the same time nets wrought
straw nets are deserving the attention
deners whe vary nd thelr walls too much exposed to
east winds during the spring months. Old fishing-nets,
kept at the distance or eighteen inches from
Re orang Sawn ae germ rare a
played 5 may be doubled over, in order to ren-
the interstices closer. But nets made of coarse
woollen or worsted, are preferable to these.
At in Lothian, woollen nets for this
ee en ee ee, eae ite te
at much They are woven
thick, the meshes not bei Laolitr’ thpio'to wsait the
OS a as
wi over is
evident; very small mesh ing in effect rendered still
smaller, by arash material, and its con-
stant tendency to contract ; from its aptitade to at-
tract and concentrate moisture, such as cold dews and
VOL. XI. PART 1
den, and the principal varieties of each. The orderin
= op Poa ey by Srewnp tps bad tee
ment: the following ‘arrangement is b: Parehy: at
account ofthe importance of the fut, and partly be-
cause of natural alliances:
. Recarines
Red Currant, i
Gooseberry
Raspberry,— Rubus. ’
Strawberry, six ca eS gga
Some other hardy fruits and nuts, which are planted
exterior to the en, will afterwards be noticed ; as
also the pine-apple and the melon, which require a
constant high temperature, and the orange, lemon, and
2 a which are rather inhabitants of the green-
se.
All the common fruit trees and fruit-bearing plants,
are extretnely well known, both here and on the con-
fre unnecemry. ‘The genic an Wil ba even
‘ore . i trivial names given
by Linnwus ne aa mentioned, and at the
same time the class and order in his system, and the
family in the Natural Method of Jussieu, to which the
ee Occasionally, when it may a use-
1, some of the foreign names of the trees or the fruits
shall be given.
Ganpen Fauits.
‘ daa beter wim ang Persica of Lin-
order Icosandria Mo- Pes
firm ; the ski doer erly on tne te ten.
next the sun, and of a yellowi the
stones. Those with a firm flesh, to which both the skin
and the stone adhere, are the pavies of the French, by
2c
Fruit
Garden,
202
our gardeners named cling-stones. The latter require
more shelter and better seasons to bring them to per-
fection than the former. In countries possessing suffi-
cient climate, as in France and the warmer states of
North America, the pavies are preferred: in this coun-
try, the preference is generally given to the free-
stones, pavies being chiefly planted in forcing-houses,
where the climate can be made.
87. Parkinson, in his Paradisus, enumerates twenty-
one kinds of peaches, several of which, particularly
the Old Newington, are still cultivated. Miller gives
a list of thirty-one, with their characters; but as these
are taken only from the fruit, without any notice of the
bud, blossom, or leaf, they sometimes prove unsatisfac-
tory. The following are the names:
1, White Nutmeg, Boudine,
Red Nutmeg, Rossana,
Early orsmall Mignone, Admirable,
Yellow Alberge, 20. Old Newington,
5. White Magdalen, Rambouillet,
Early Purple, Bellis (Belle de Vitry.)
Large Mignone, Portugal,
Teton de Venus,
25. Late Purple,
Belle Chevreuse,
Red Magdalen,
10. Early Newington, Nivette,
Montauban, Royal George,
Malta, Persique,
Noblesse, Monstrous Pavie,
Chancellor, 80. Catherine, vNF
15. Bellegarde or Galande, Bloody Peach.
Lisle, f
88. The characters of such of these as are chiefl
cultivated, and chiefly deserving of attention in this
country, may be mentioned.
' The White Magdalen, or Early Magdalen, is a round
fruit, of a middling size, with a deep furrow; of a
pale colour, and the flesh white to the stone; melting,
juicy, with considerable flavour ; ripening in August ;
the tree sometimes succeeds on the open wall, even in
North Britain.
The Red Magdalen, however, is altogether a supe-
rior fruit ; it is large, round, and of a fine red next the
sun; the juice very sugary and of exquisite flavour ;
ripening in the end of August: the tree isa free grower
and great bearer: the blossoms are small. Nicol re-
commends the red magdalen as the “ best peach we
have, either for the open air or the hot-house.” In
doing so he is justified by the experience of Scottish
gardeners; for the peach commonly known in Scot-
land by the name of red magdalen ripens well; in ordi-
nary years, even in the northern districts of the coun-
try. This we believe to be the same which goes b
that name in the south; ‘but we have reason to think
that the same name is applied, in some parts of Eng-
land, to another peach; for English hortiultanists
sometimes complain that the red magdalen does not
succeed well,
The Large Mignone is somewhat oblong in shape,
and generally swells out on one side; the juice is very
sugary, and of high flavour: this, though a free-stone,
being rather a tender sort, is generally budded on a
ween or apricot stock.
The Early Nemington or Smith’s Newington (sup-
posed to be the pavie blanc of Duhamel) is a fruit of
middling size, of a fine red next the sun; flesh firm,
with a sugary well-flavoured juice; ripening the be-
ginning of September: a clingstone: the tree a good
bearer. 4
HORTICULTURE.
The Noblesse is a large fruit, red or marbled next the
sun; flesh greenish-white and melting, very juicy, and,
against a good wall and in a favourable season, the juice
becomes rich and well-flavoured ; ripens in the begin-
ning of September ; and should be eaten sharp ripe, as
the gardeners term it, the fruit being apt to become
mealy if not taken just when it ripens,
The Boudine, sometimes calle + the bourdine, is a
large round fruit, of a fine red next the sun; the flesh
white, melting, juice vinous and rich; ripens from the
beginning to the middle of September: the tree a
plentiful bearer, especially when old. In favourable
situations in the south of England it has sometimes
produced fruit on standards. Pex ;
The Old Newingion, already mentioned, is a large
round fruit, of a beautiful red next the sun; the flesh
white and melting ; when ripe, the juice very rich and
vinous ; a clingstone, and not ready before the begin-
ning of October.
The Rambouillet, often called rumbullion, is a fruit
of middling size, deeply divided by a furrow ; the
flesh melting, of a bright yellow colour; juice rich,
and of a vinous flavour: ripens about the middle’ of
September: the tree a good bearer. ug
The Téton de Venus is a fruit of middling size and
longish shape, of a pale red next the sun; flesh melt-
ing, white; juice sugary, and not without flavour ;
ripens the dod of September: the tree is a free bearer,
ona warm light soil; but the fruit comes to perfection
only in fine seasons. if
The Royal George is an excellent peach; and in a
very good soil and aspect, the fruit becomes large, dark
red next the sun, juicy, and high-flavoured. If the soil
and aspect be not favourable, the tree proves a shy
bearer.
The Catherine is a large round fruit, of a dark red
next the sun; the flesh white, melting, full of a rich
juice; aclingstone; ripens from the beginning to the
middle of October, against a good wall and im a fa«
vourable season; the fruit, however, is improved by
lying two or three days before being used: it is some-
times called the October Peach. sob |
89. To the ample list of Miller, a few others might
be added. The ake Peach, sometimes called the Early
Ann, isa small round fruit, of a yellowish white co-
lour, faintly tinged with red on the sunny side ; ripen-
ing about the middle of August. This is'said to be of
English origin. The Royal Kensington is described by
Forsyth, and the tree is said to grow freely, and not to
be liable to blight. The Orange Peach is mentioned by
Nicol as the most elegant he was acquainted with, and
the best-flavoured of the cling-stones; rather large
than otherwise, round, dark red or pupils next the sun,
and bright orange on the other side; the flesh of a deep
orange colour, but purple at the stone ; the tree a very
great bearer. It is possible this may be the Yellow
Alberge, the fourth in the tabular list above given.
The Double-flowering Peach is sometimes cultivated for
curiosity, on standards, being very ornamental while in
bloom; the flowers being only semi-double, fruit is
generally produced, and in fine seasons abundantly ;
in most cases, however, it is fit only for preserves.
90. That indefatigable and excellent horticulturist
Mr Knight, has produced several new peaches of the
most promising qualities, at his seat of Downton in
Herefordshire. After due precautions to bring his
trees (small ones planted in large pots) to the highest
state of health and vigour, he im ated the pistil
of one with the pollen of another: three peaches
x
HORTICULTURE. 203.
were suffered to remain on each tree: from sowing the wood-bud, which may become a leader, toattract nour- —_Fruie
Gardens aecheret Conearemigdinde Maa tare winiation. si- ishment towards the shoot; for a shoot possessing Garde
—"—" tustion of Downton being rather high and late, it may flower-buds, but having no wood-bud to act as a lead- “~~
- reasonably be pr that fruits produced there, er, may blossom, but will produce no perfect fruit.
will succeed in all places not less favourably situated Branches which are considered as too weak to ripen
these new peaches deserve par- fruit, are commonly cut, as they must tend to rob the
peaches. ticular notice ; 1. The Acton Scott Peach; the fruit ri- other parts of the tree. When the trees have com-
early, and uniformly attains perfection; it is juicy pletely filled the spaces allotted to them, the principal _
sweet, with a rich flavour; where secluded from shoots are not shortened unless with the view of filling
the sun's rays, the skin is very white: the tree isan vacancies, or when the extremities of the shoots have
abundant bearer, and not subject to mildew: and Mr remained unripe and been checked by the frost.
ight considers it as calcu to succeed in many |§ Mr Knight has explained the nature of what are
| cated unfavourable situations, where the more de- called /wruriant shoots, and also the right mode of ma-
y Tieate varieties would certainly fail. 2. The Spring naging them. Most gardeners have directed the short-
; Grove Peach has a firm fiesh, but not hard; the ening of these in summer, or the cutting of them out in
exterior colours are bright yellow and dark red; it the following spring: But Mr Knight has experienced
the mouth, resembling anectarine in consist- great advantages from leaving them wholly unshorten-
taste, having a remarkably rich, brisk, ed, but trained with a considerable inclination to the
really from the horizon: for, in this way, they have uniformly produ.
which is of a greenish cast: it never becomes cohen ataerensatnp eth Sn ths aqcsiing
ovet-ripe or mealy, but is apt to shrivel a little, and is year ; and so far is this practice from tending te render
then most perfect: the tree grows slowly, but the wood naked the lower or internal parts of the tree, whence
: is , and i ity early in the season: these branches spring, that the strongest shoots they
eee Seana tf tis dpcioct too A plum stock, * afford, invariably issue from the buds near their bases.
: By persevering im the track pointed out by Mr The laterals from luxuriant shoots, if stopped at the
in time, to obtain peach-trees first leaf, often afford very strong blossoms, and fine
every fruit in the succeeding season.
— Pi. In the milder nat of England, the blossom of
irginia, trees are peach-tree scarcely requires protection : in less fa-
Pad oN voured places, it is coeeed by some of the means al-
i ready specified. Dr Noehden, in the second volume
rs of the London Horticultural Transactions, has mention-
of these American ed rather a singular mode of preventing the bad effects
i i of frost on the blossom or young fruit of the peach-
tree. It is this: after a frosty night, the first business
: fruit, i ; of the ing is to sprinkle cold water over the trees
lume of the London Horticultural Transactions, under by means of aoe engine, taking care. that the
the title of Braddick’s American Peach, pe ie or young fruit receive their share, and that the
In arranging the different varieties of peach-trees in operation be performed some time before the rays of
: the late kinds, ially the pavies, the sun strike the trees. Whether the water is useful
( must have the full south aspect ; others may be a a a a gradual thawing, has not been
ascertai
at the same time should, as far as possible, be placed When the fruit has attained the size of lar s, or
rata ie this afterwards saves much trouble in cole of small hazel-nuts, it is thinned, to the distence of five
p
iF
i
:
H
:
i
|
it
i
il
i
:
z
i
:
E
i
-
f
r
Z
a1
iH
lecting for the dessert, especially in a large garden. or six inches between each fruit.. In this way it ac-
91. The fan mode of training is conslered as best quires a larger size, and the tree is not Pas wor § The
suited to peach-trees, and is the plan generally ad picking off of leaves which overshadow the fruit, as
ed, These trees may, to a certain extent, be - recommended by Nicol and others, is not a good
ed as constantly in a state of training. In pruning tice; at least it must not be pushed toan considerable
Ee ow ony ast of the ive extent ; Sor the florwer-bud for the socenwiing ‘year ber
arin » that is, with a ing lodged in the axilla of the leaf-stalk, must greatly
of new shoots, laid in to the wall every ear. on the leaf for its nourishment.
This is to be attended to in April, and spe in n dry seasons, and especially in soils naturally dry,
the wood and young shoots laid in aiter- a hollow bason, about six feet in diameter, is sometimes
ripen sufficiently to stand the winter. formed around the root of the tree; this is covered with
os, at that early season, the sw shoots can mudoh (small dung moistened, mixed with a little loam,
be 1 ~ Lot wt of the knife. peda. rf: er like mortar,) and water is occa-
1 it may rise imme- sionally according to the state of the weather.
diately from the eyes of the shoots ; a fv round, This is practised only while the fruit is growing, and
; r shoot buds the intention is, to cep it always in a state of pro-
gress. :
end of October till the Mr Knight seems to think, that in the milder parts
end of February ; but the early part of winter is gene- ot Eng) plentiful crops of fruit might be procured
is not a great deal of wheeer, i ured. Ii ee ral should be planted in ae
. ot . prun ty ers : su t i
la belind & in the Uinection of nest endl epntha they should
| © These two varieties were sent by Mr fm the spring of 1916 to the garden of Sir George Mackensieet Coul, in Ross-shire
& south wall. eipmabkdtes san inecaekteese mec ae ‘
|
Fruit
Garden.
Nectarine.
204
not exceed five feet in height ; and that while the blos-
som is exposed to danger from frost, mats should be
thrown over them, so secured as to descend on each
side nearly in the angle of an ordinary roof of a house.
On account of the usual mode of training and prun-
ing peach-trees in this country, they do not occupy
much space on the wall. Some of the old horticultural
writers speak of twelve or fourteen feet as enough:
but the trees are now permitted to spread wider, from
fifteen to twenty feet being allotted to each tree. Near
Paris, a single peach-tree may sometimes be seen co-
vering sixty feet of wall. It is at Montreuil that
peaches are cultivated in perfection, peach-gardens be-
ing here established for the supply of the capital, Ma~
king due allowance for the difference of climate, advan-
tages might probably be derived from copying some of
the practices of these French cultivators, whose whole
attention is devoted to the management of peach-trees.
In 1814, Mr John Mozard, who was bred under the
famous gardener Pepin, and is himself one of the prin
ci roprietors of peach-gardens at Montreuil, pubs
lished a little piece, entitled, “ Principes pratiques sur
Péducation, la culture, la taille, et ’ébourgeonnement des
arbres fruiliers, et principalement du pécher,’? which is
well deserving the attention of horticulturists in this
country.
Nectarine.
98. The Nectarine, as already observed, is merely a
variety of the peach. The English name may be sup-
posed to be derived from the nectareous flavour of the
fruit. The skin is smooth, not downy as in the peach ;
and the flesh is rather more plump than in that fruit.
Nectarines, like peaches, are either free-stones or cling-
stones ; the former are called by the French Péches
lisses, smooth peaches; the latter, Brugnons. Miller
enumerates ten varieties :
Fairchild’s Early. Red Roman.
Elruge. Murrey.
Newington. Golden.
Scarlet. Temple's.
5. Brugnon or Italian. 10. Peterborough.
Of these the following are in most esteem.
The Elruge, a middle-sized fruit ; when ripe, of a
dark red-or purple next the sun, pale towards the wall ;
ready in the middle of August; the tree grows freely,
and is a sure bearer; indeed it is perhaps the best
nectarine for the open air, especially in the less favour-
ed counties.
The Newington nectarine is rather a large fruit; of a
beautiful red next the sun, and, on the other side, of a
bright yellow ; flesh melting; juice very rich, racy and
highs flavoured ; a clingstone, not ripening before Sep-
tember: the tree a good bearer, when in a favourable
situation.
The Red Roman nectarine is a large fruit ; deep red
or purple next the sun, and yellowish on the other side;
flesh firny and of excellent flavour ; when quite ripe, it
shrivels ; a clingstone, not ready before the middle of
September. ’
The Murrey (i.e. murrey-coloured) is a middle-
sized fruit, ofa dirty red colour next the sun ; the pulp
pretty well flavoured ; ripens from the beginning to the
middle of September.
Temple’s nectarine is a middle-sized fruit, of a light
red next the sun, and yellowish-green on.the other side;
pulp melting, with a fine poignant flavour ; the skin
HORTICULTURE,
shrivelling when the fruit is perfectly ripe, which sel«
dom happens before the of September: the tree
grows freely, and is generally productive.
To these may be added the Early Violet nectarine, of
middle size, violet purple next the sun, pale yellow on
the other pn flesh sugary, juice with a vinous fla~
vour ; a clingstone, ripening in the beginning of Se
tember: the blossom is wy small, but the wee sea
productive ; it requires a good situation, and su
only in warm seasons,
The production of a new and early nectarine, suited
to the climate of Britain, may be considered as one of
the desiderata in our horticulture. It may here be
mentioned, that a new variety of white nectarine is de-
scribed by recent French writers as being remarkably
early and of excellent flavour ; the foliage of the tree
is of a pale or whitish green; it was raised by Mr
Noisette, a nurseryman at Brunoy.
The ent of the nectarine-tree is in every re«
spect the same as that of the . In this country,
nectarines require the best exposure in the garden;
and to the northward of Yorkshire, they seldom i
ney, without the aid of a flued wall and artifici
eat.
Almond.
Fruit
94. The Almond-tree, (Amygdalus communis, L.) aimond
this
can searcely be ranked as an effective fruit-tree in’
country. In clumps of shrubs on the lawn, it makes a
fine appearance in early spring, when covered with its
beautiful blossoms. In good seasons, such standards
produce some ripe fruit: but ornament is its principal
recommendation ;' and if the fruit be no object, the
double-flowered variety is preferable. Trained against
a wall, the almond-tree perfects its fruit in our ordin
seasons, when the outer cover opens naturally to give
out the stone containing the kernel. They are very
sweet and fit for the table when green, and they are
sometimes kept in’ sand till winter. R
In France, the almond tree is much cultivated. Bas-
tien enumerates nine varieties; among which is an
amandier pécher, or peach-almond tree, sup’ to
have been derived from an impregnation of the almond
by the pollen of the peach. On the same tree, he tells
us, two sorts of fruit occur; the one round, fleshy, and
divided by a furrow like the peach; ‘the other oblong,
not fleshy, and resembling the common almond.
*The kinds of almond chiefly cultivated for their fruit
are,
The common sweet almond ;
Tender shelled ;
Hard shelled ;
Sweet Jordan; and
Bitter almond.
These different varieties are propagated by budding
on plum or peach stocks, or on almond stocks raised from
the stones ; plum stocks being preferred for strong and
moist soils, and peach or almond stocks for such as’ are
light and dry. In this country it often happens that
the varieties are little attended to. Almond trees are —
raised from the stones, and of course are liable to sport,
as gardeners speak. It may be remarked, that even
when they are raised from the stones, budding or
working of one new variety upon another, is extreme-
ly oat in ehis the production of fruit. x
The general management in re, to pruning, &e.
is jg to that of the peach pe ap that the bear-
ing twigs are often left six inches long without being
nailed to the wall.
Garden.
—_———
.
‘Fruit
_—_o
HORTICULTURE.
Apricot.
ii
I
ze
ail
fF
fr
i
:
?
juice,
v le -Seusaned os
apricots, and the tree is a liber-
Moorpark is a fruit, flat of a
colour, and very hi devoured. Wiel declare
one Moorpark is three of any other kind of
; and it is esteemed by many the richest of
stone-fruit kind. The tree ires a soil
as of
;
r
|
F
j
ty
B
. warmer districts of
205
to lay in and protect a sufficiency of new wood for next
season. In June, the superfluous and fore-right shoots
can be displaced with the finger and thumb; late in
the season a knife must be used. The young shoots
cut off, it may be mentioned, may be used for dyeing a
fine cinnamon colour. Some good fruit, it must be ob-
served, ~ tte apes orn curzons or
upon two- e shape of the buds in-
dicates those likely to be fruitful, and which of course
are to be . The winter pruning is done any
time from October to March. Not only all decayed
and very old wood is as much as possible removed,
but some of the most naked parts of the bearers of the
two last are cut out, so as to make room for a su
ply of new wood. ete eee med
shortened a little, and are always cut next a wood-bud,
which is to act as a leader. The full grown apricot tree is
much in the same way pow my but its
late or autumn shoots do not agree with being shorten-
ed; when wanted as bearers therefore, they are laid in
at full length to the wall. The small and subordinate,
or late shoots of the apricot, are more apt to be destroy-
ed by frost than those of the tree. On this ac-
count, the pruning is often delayed till the end of Ja-
nuary, when it ean be seen which shoots are alive, and
which have perished.
98. When the fruit is over-crowded, it is thinned,
but cautiously, in the early part of summer. In the
beginning of July it is finally thinned, and the best of
the thinnings may then be used for tarts. Some
deners recommend thinning the Moorpark to a fruit to-
every foot square, and the smaller kinds of apricots to
a fruit to every eight inches ; but, in general, the thin.
ning is not po so far. As the fruit approaches ma-
turity, it is nailed close in to the wall, in order to its
gaining as much reflected heat as possible. In this
country, apricots begin to ripen in the end of July, and
continue till peaches be ready. Before the intro-
duction of the new style, they were sometimes —
early in July, and hence received the name of Mala
oa to which epithet our English name may be
tra
Apricot trees are generally placed against an east or
a west wall; the heat of a full south wall being apt to
render them mitaly before they become ripe. In the
northern parts the island, however, a south-east
or south-west aspect answers best. In some of the
ha ae several varictics of the
apricot, i oorpark; transparent, Bre-
da, and rsenta, es frequently saleited un espalier
trees, horizontal branches aaa tied to the rail, but
the left loose. Occasionally some of these, es-
My the Breda and Brussels, are tried in the form of
warf standards; and in fine seasons, they yield the
highest flavoured fruit.
hen an apricot tree has been greatly mismanaged,
it may be cut down very much, as it sets out st r
branches sent per tree, and these may soon
trained so as to fill the former space. The strong branch-
es of this tree are very apt to throw out gum at places
where any accidental hurt has been received: the usual
remedy is to cut out the diseased part, filling up the
space with pitch and rosin melted together, or merely
with a little tar; or any sort of mild paint.
Apricots are seldom forced, as they do not in general
answer expectation in this way. The Moorpark, how-
ever, is 1 a seen on the flued wall along —
peach trees ; dwarf or espalier plants e early
masculine and Brussels, are scclenally introduced inte
Fruit j
Garden.
——
Plum.
206
the border of the cherry-house or the peach-house, with
success,
Plum.
99. The Plum-tree,( Prunus domestica, L.) is complete-
ly naturalized in this country, but can scarcely be said
to be indigenous to Britain: itis however admitted into
our F lore Sir J. E. Smith, and is figured in English
Botany, plate 1783. There are many varieties, of which
seme of the oldest and best marked are P. praooz, the
primordian ; damascena, the damask or damson ; julia-
na, the St Julian ; pertigona, the perdrigon ; and cerea,
the magnum bonum.. Parkinson enumerates no fewer
than sixty sorts. Miller describes only about thirty.
100. The following are the kinds chiefly cultivated at
present; ©
White primordian, Apricot plum.
Early damask. Mirabelle.
Black damask, Drap dor.
Precoce de Tours.
White imperial, or mag-
Maitre Claud.
num. bonum,
Monsieur’s plum. Red imperial.
Imperatrice. St Catherine.
White Perdrigon. Orleans.
Blue or Violet Perdrigon. Fotheringham.
Red Perdrigon. Winessour.
Queen Claudia, or true La Royale.
green-gage. La Roche-corbon.
White gage. Coe’s golden drop.
Blue gage.
The While Primordian, which is also called St Barna-
by’s plum, and sometimes Jaune-Hative, is the earliest
plum we have, commonly ripening in the end of July.
The fruit is small, of a longish shape, sugary, but with-
out much flavour. One tree on a wall is reckoned
enough, the tree being a free bearer.
The Early Damask, or Morocco, immediately succeeds
the white primordian. The Precoce de Tours and Mai-
ive Claud are well flavoured plums, and the trees grow
freely, and bear well as standards. 5
Monsieur’s Plum, or the Wentworth, is a large fruit,
somewhat resembling the white magnum; the tree is a
copious bearer, and answers very well as a standard :
the fruit is much used for tarts and in sweetmeats. The
Imperatrice is remarkably late, seldom ripening on stan-
dards till the end of October.
The Perdrigons ave melting, sugary, and perfumed
fruits; the trees are not very free bearers, but are in
many places planted as espalier and dwarf standards.
The Queen Claudia of Rouen, or Verte-bonne, seems
to be the proper Green-gage ; “the best (says Mr Nicol, )
the most generally known, and most highly esteemed of
the plurn kind.” A few trees of this sort are generall
trained to a south-east or south-west wall ; but ina shel-
tered situation, and where the soil is a rich deep loam,
with a dry bottom, the fruit acquires a higher flavour
when produced on standards. The white or yellow gage,
and the dlue or red gage, though inferior to the green,
are much cultivated.
The Drap-dor, golden drop, or cloth of gold plum, is
a good fruit ; but it requires a wall, and the tree is not
in general a plentiful bearer.
he White Imperial,or white magnum bonum, has also
several other names, as yellow magnum, Holland mag-
num, Mogul plum, and egg plum. Itis a very coms
HORTICULTURE
mon fruit; of a large size; sweet, but with no great
flavour ; excellent for tarts and sweetmeats: the tree
grows freely, and seldom fails to bear, either on a wall,
or as a standard. ] ,
The Red Imperial is likewise called red magnum bo-
num; it is also a large fruit, and of fine appearance ;
but it is-principally used for baking and rving: the
tree is a free bearer as a standard. The St Catherine
has a rich sweet juice, and is fit either for the dessert,
or for being used in confectionary. ~
The Orleans is ammiddling good plum, of which there
are several varieties, as the old or red, the new, and
white. The tree is a vigorous grower, and great bearer :
it succeeds perfectly as a standard, but is sometimes
placed Ss ra a wall: it is well suited for a market
fruit-garden.
The Fotheringham, or sheen plum, is a beautiful large
red fruit, of considerable flavour ; ‘* there is hardly any
plum that excels it,” says Forsyth: the tree answers
equally well for a wall, or as an espalier or standard.
The Wine-sour is a plum said to be of Yorkshire ex-
traction; it is not much cultivated, but seems deservi
of attention ; it is very late, and chiefly used for pre«
serves. :
La royale is an excellent plum, of a red colour ; the
tree however is generally a dull bearer. The Roche-
corbon, or red diaper plum, is large and of high flavour.
Coe’s Golden Drop is a late ene. plum, the me-
rits of which have within these few years been attended
to, in consequence of a recommendation by Mr Knight
in the first volume of the Horticultural Transactions of
London. This gentleman considers it as a new varie-
ty, while others allege that it has been known for many
ears. The tree is distinguished by the great size of
its foliage, the leaves being often five inches long and
three broad. The flesh of the fruit is of a golden co
lour when ripe; on the side next the sun, the skin is
dotted with violet and crimson. | It is beautifully figu«
red in Hooker’s Pomona, t. 14; and is there announ-
ced as superior to any late plum at present in the Bri«
tish gardens, y
tions, that he suspended some of the fruit by their stalks
in a dry room in October, and that they remained per
fectly sound till the middle of December, and were
then not inferior, either in richness or flavour, to the
green gage, or the drap dor. This variety requires a
wall, but succeds extremely well on a west aspect.
The Bullace-plum is the fruit of a distinct species of
Prunus, P. insititia, which grows naturally in hedges
in England. It is often planted in shrubberies or lawns;
it is a great bearer, and the fruit is excellent for baki
or preserving. There is a variety with wax-colour
fruit, called the White bullace. The Myrobalans, or -
cherry-plum, is by some considered as only a variety of
the common plum ; but others rank it as a distinct spe-
cies: Willdenow describes it under the title of P. cera«
sifera.
101. If the wall be high, or above ten feet, a plum-
tree is allowed about 24 feet in length; if it be low,
perhaps 50 feet, horizontal training being in this case
adopted. An east, south-east, or south-west aspect is
found to be better than a full south exposure, in which
last the fruit is apt to shrivel and become mealy. Se-
veral kinds bear well as espalier trees; and ened as
standards. Even in some parts of the Highlands of
- Scotland, the yellow magnum and the green-gage trees
may be seen thriving luxuriantly, and bearing excellent
aie of fruit. The late Mr Hunter of Blackness, a
zealous Scottish horticulturist, describing the garden of
’
It keeps many weeks: Mr Knight men-
a oe
HORTICULTURE.
Macdonald of Glenco, says, “ The ums were large,
well sha fee fom gen, and of ach yellow colour
gees
ail
fi
‘|
H
af
ne
i
Li
i
2
:
Fl
Hy
1)
it
i
ft
i
i
1
ae
Hl
u
g
rks
ne
Hl
FFE
the trees into bearing. When the fruit come in close
bunches, some are thinned out, in the beginni
ly, when the stoning is over, to allow rest to ac-
pcre pe care is taken to lay in
close to the wall, so that the sun and
oa ; the y
og mt rein Ley Penelope
or ; m0 are
pr after being planted. Dien
raise the roots at full
ee Sere ens Dee ereaapencwich
i :
cherries were introduced into England
by the fruiterer of Henry VIII. ; bat Professor
has shown that they were known much earlier. Lyd.
his account of the London cries in the mididle
of the 15th century, mentions that |
207
Ryse is a word not yet obsolete in Scotland, signifying
spray or twigs ; and on the stalls of the Edinburgh fruit
market, cherries may sometimes be seen “ in the ryse,”
or at least stuck on the thorns of hawthorn sprigs, in
order to catch the fancy of children. The white pescoct
is a kind of plum. wnt
103. Parkinson's list in 1629 contains about thirty)
varieties of cultivated cherries, several of which are.
still known, and in esteem, as the mayduke; heart,.
. amber, and morello, but others have entirely disappear=
ed. Miller enumerates only twenty-one ; and of these
it is not necessary to notice more one half, being:
those commonly cultivated.
May-duke. Carnation cherry.
Archduke. Morello.
Harrison's heart. Lundie guigne.
Hertfordshire heart. Black coroun.
White heart. Tartarian cherry.
Black heart. Kentish.
OF the May-duke Nicol observes that we have no’
cherry equal to it, and that the tree thrives in all situa-
tions. It does very well as a standard ; but against a
good wall, and with a southern aspect, the: fruit be-
comes considerably larger, and, contrary to what a
pens in other fruits, it seems to acquire a higher fla-
vour. It ripens early in June ; and before the change
of the style, it was often gathered in May: this was
cere the case with a Small variety called the
ay.
Archduke is also called the Late duke: it is a
good cherry when ripened on a wall ; but the tree does
not answer well as a standard.
Harrison's heart is a cherry, of qualities,
and the tree bears freely. The Hertfordshire has a
firm flesh and excellent flavour : it is a late cherry, not
ripening till A The Carnation cherry has re-
ceived its name the fruit being variegated red and
white: it is a late c , and requires a good wall.
Though the taste of the Morello cherry, a
that of the mulberry, is not agreeable to many, yet
when ri on a wall in the full sun, it acquires a
size richness of flavour superior to any other:
The tree grows freely, and bears well.
The Laniicquqne fa dak nalows, andl neatly a0
large as maydukes which grow on standard trees : it re-
ceives its name from Lundie in Fife, the seat of Sir James
Erskine, where the original trees still remain. The
black coroun resembles black heart; it is an ex-
cellent fruit, and the tree is a healthy grower and
great bearer. The dlack and the white Tartarian cher-
ries are much cultivated at Petersburgh, and were in-
troduced from Russia about 1797: the fruit is of good
flavour, and ri early ; and the trees produce plen«
tifully. The Kentish is chiefly planted in
orchards, and in market gardens : the flowers being late
in expanding, they generally escape the spri ‘those,
and efford a plentiful crop: the
: Spring fr
it, however, is fit
only for tarts.
Fruit
Garden.
104. That indefatigable and truly meritorious horti- New ¢he:-
culturist Mr Knight, has lately
new cherries raised from seed ; they have been called
the Elton, the Black Eagle, and the Waterloo.
The El'on is the offspring of a blossom of the graf.
fion, or ambrée of Duhamel, fecundated by the pollen
of the white heart ; it is distinguished by a very deep
tinge of crimson in the petals, and by the extraordinary
length of its fruit-stalks. The pulp is very juicy, and
to our list three rics
208 HORTICULTURE,
Fruit of delicate flavour. The tree grows vigorously, andis a shoots being displaced by the hand in the early part of _ Pruit
Garden. free bearer: am 4} 4 summer, Much fruit. is produced on small baat Garden, —
—y—" The Black Eagle was from the graffion, with the proceeding from wood two or three years old; these ">"
pollen of the mayduke, and the tree and its fruit re- side-spurs are therefore carefully preserved. — . e
semble the mayduke in a considerable degree. When the fruit begins to colour, it Is assailed. by
The Waterloo was of the same origin. “It sprang blackbirds, jays, and_other birds. The most. effectual
(says Mr Knight) from the largest and finest ambrée
cherry that I ever saw ; and I imagine it was the best
fed ; for it stood alone upon a tree which was well ca-
ane of bearing at least half a dozen pounds of cherries.”
he Waterloo is somewhat later than the black eagle.
It is nearly as hardy as the mayduke ; and it has been
observed to acquire tolerable perfection even in cloudy
and rainy weather. On approaching maturity, one side
presents a dark livid colour ; but in’ripening, it acquires
a rich and deep red colour, nearly black, It is larger
than the black eagle, and more conic towards its point.
All of these three varieties possess valuable qualities,
and deserve the attention of cultivators in every part of
the country. The only plants of these yet brought to
Scotland, as far as we know, are in the garden of Sir
George Mackenzie, Bart. at Coul in Ross-shire, where,
as it is situate far to the northward, their qualities in re-
gard to climate will be put tothe proof. They who pos«
sess opportunities should also attempt the production of
new kinds. The cherry, it is believed, sports more exten=
sively in variety when raised from seed than almost an
other fruit ; and Mr Knight justly remarks, that it is
probably capable of acquiring a higher state of perfec-
tion than it has yet attained.
105. The finer kinds of cherries are trained against
the wall, chiefly in the fan manner: they are placed
about twenty-four feet distant from each other, and, at
the first planting, a temporary tree is usually put in
between each. When favoured with a south aspect, they
not only produce early, but large and excellent fruit,
highly worthy of a placein the dessert. To:prolong the
cherry season, some of the duke and heart varieties are
generally placed againsta west wall. The morello bein
chiefly wanted for preserves, has frequently’ a’ nort
aspect assigned"to it. This variety in so far differs in
habit from the others, that it is produced rather on the
young wood of the former year than on spurs; it is
necessary therefore, at the time of pruning, to have a
supply of young wood in view.” Cherry-trees are some-
times trained on espalier rails; and inthis case, as in
wall-trees, it is a great object to keep up a stock of
young wood, or at least a quantity of young spurs, or
eurzons. The branches are’ generally tied to the rails
by means of willow-twigs, or strands of bass-matting.
All stone-fruit trees being liable to become gummy at
places where they are galled, attention is necessar:
that the tyings do not injure the bark. Cherries, it
may be added, succeed much better as half-standards
or dwarf standards than as espalier-trees.
It is a general rule to bud or graft cherries at the
height where the head is intended to begin. Some
prefer having only two main branches for a wall cherry-
tree; but three branches are, in general, found more
commodious. Miller suggests, that budding heart
cherries on stocks of the birdcherry (Prunus padus),
might have a similar effect as grafting apples on para-
dise stocks ; that not only might the tree be thus kept
in less compass, but rendered more fruitful.
In pruning cherry-trees, the shoots are not shortened,
for they produce many fruit-buds at the extremities.
It is a common remark of practical gardeners, that
cherry-trees dislike the knife. The branches there-
fore are trained at full length, superfluous fore-right
remedy is found in hanging a net in front of the tree,
or over it, if it be an espalier or dwarf-standard. In
gathering the fruit, care should be taken not to break
the fruit-spurs, which are very brittle: to avoid the
risk of this, some gardeners are at the pains to cut the
fruit-stalks with a pair of small scissars, ;
Apple.
106. The Apple-tree (Pyrus Malus, var. sativa, L.) bes Apple.
longs to the class Icosandria, order Pentagynia, and
natural order Rosacee of Jussieu: The crab-tree, P,
malus, is a native of various parts of Britain, and jis fi-
gured in English Botany, t. 179... Like the wild pear,
it is armed with thorns. Many of the cultivated kinds
have been imported from the continent. at different
times ; and many others have been raised) from) the
seed in this country. Ray, im the close of the 17th
century, described seventy-eight sorts, then accounted
good: several of these still retain their character, but
many more have either lost it, or have entirely disap-
peared. The ane which was then so: com-
monly sold in London that dealers in apples were styled
costard-mongers, is not now known. At this: time
among the favourite cider apples were the redstreak,
the golden-pippin, the gennet-moil, the white and red
masts or musts, the fox-whelp, and the stire; allsof
which, as remarked by Mr Knight, are now fast hasten«
ing to decay and extinction. Several new apples, hows
ever, possessed of excellent qualities, have of late years
been brought into notice; and so many amateurs of
rdening are now engaged in raising new. varieties
m seal, that there seems little reason to. apprehend a
deficiency. This is as it should be; the apple bein,
doubtless the most useful of the fruits freely produ
in this country. ;
107. Forsyth, in his Treatise on Fruit-trees, describes
no fewer than 196 varieties, exclusive of many, of which
he gives the names only, without descriptions. » In this
place only a few of the finer apples: cam be noticed ;
such as are‘commonly cultivated in gardens, as wall or
espalier trees, or as half and dwarf standards. The
other standard apples used for baking or in the manu-
facture of cider, will be treated of under the: article
Orcuarps.
Golden pippin, « Aromatic pippin,
Balgone pippin, Royal Russet,
Nonpareil, Codlin ; al, Kent-
Scarlet nonpareil, ish, Carlisle; and
Ribston pippin, Keswick.
Oslin pippin, —
Hawthorndean, Newton pippin, and
Margaret, Spitsenberg.
Jenneting, —-
Nonsuch, Rennets, grey, golden, .
Margil, and Canadians
Quince apple, Violet apple.
The Golden pippin is a well known excellent fruit,
ripening late in autumn ; when fully matured it keeps
long, and forms, during winter, one of the choicest
dessert apples ; it is generally small, but beautiful, and
the juice is sweet and high flavoured. The tree re-
HORTICULTURE.
i light but good soil ; if the subsoil be wet, it is
casenelp to canker. It is rather of low growth;
p acm te however, it freely, and produces
of fine fruit.
Seer
free-stocks instead of crab-stocks ; the latter, we believe
ee ree a ore ney
old age. — ippix, so named
prea sein Lort Lothian, much re-
it k few cll Apel
t v . remaining quite ill A:
or May. Me Nica fe festly im ranteres with it “It
eee nen cpio in taase hinges; i
will thrive and even ripen at John-o-Groat's, and it de-
serves a at Exeter or at Cork.” It was long sup-
— been raised at Ribston Hall in Yorkshire;
it is now ascertained to be a Normandy pippin, in-
troduced early in the 18th century.
The Oslin pippin is sometimes called the Origi
and sometimes the Arbroath pippin: by F. it is
named Orzelon. This is avery good apple, excelled in
the nonpareil, over which it has the ad-
i
fl
i
i
!
i
fF
4
|
Hee
| i
ter
in
aH
ATFLEE
He
u
i
of
i
‘
i
f
i
; continued
So erp
bf
209
summer apple, but does not keep long; it is juicy and —_ Fruit
good, excellent for kitchen = The wha free _ Garden.
grower, and bears quickly and ifully ; it is how- Pra.
ever but short-lived, generally ing symptoms of
decay when twelve or fifteen years old: it is well cal-
culated, therefore, for a temporary tree in any situation,
and for this purpose it is much employed. :
The Margaret apple is also called Magdalene apple ;
it is an early fruit, of good flavour, but does not keep
long. The tree is of middling size; commonly produc-
tive, ;
Jenneting, or Geniton, as Dr Johnson has it, is ge-
nerally supposed to be a corruption of June-eating. It
is a small fruit, but very early ripe; certainly how-
ever not in June, nor earlier August. It is per-
haps inferior to the Oslin, Margaret, and one or two
other early apples; but no one possessed of a healthy
jenneting tree in full bearing would willingly part
with it,
The Nonsuch is a well known pippin; the tree is
rather subject to the canker, but it generally bears more
or less every season. :
The Margil is a ey A late apple, fit for the des-
sert in January ; the fruit is much improved when the
tree is trained against a wall.
The Quince apple is a small fruit, shaped like the
quince ; the side next the sun of a russet colour, the
other side yellowish ; it is an excellent apple for about
three weeks in September, but does not keep much
longer. The tree is of low growth.
he Aromatic pippin receives its name from its fine
flavour ; the side next the sun is of a bright russet co.
lour. It ripens in October, and is fit fur use from De-
cember to February.
The russet, or leathercoat russet, is so named
from the russet colour of the skin; it is a large
fruit, of an oblong figure, broad towards the base: it
is an excellent kitchen fruit, and may also appear in
the dessert ; it keeps till April. The tree grows to a
size, and bears very freely.
different varieties of Codlins are chiefly baking
apples, although they may also occasionally taken
to a! they are op L but none of them are
good ing a) The trees are t bearers, and
a gpa ious half and Ramet ceil he gar-
dens ; the latter are frequently trained around hoo
to support their branches. An account of the valuable
ies of the Carlisle and Keswick codlins is given
by the Right Hon, Sir John Sinclair in the first volume
the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs. The codlins
are frequently pr
trees thus procu
than grafted trees,
The Nenton pippin and Spitsenberg apple are two
American sorts, which have of late years become fa-
yourites in some of thiscountry. The former was
introduced from Island, New York: it is a beau-
tiful and excellent apple ; it ripens best on a wall, but
in favourable seasons it succeeds on ier rails, or
even on dwarf standards, Ze. is alsoa
very good fruit, with somewhat of the pine-apple fla-
vour; the tree requires a sheltered situation and a good
soil; it is observed to thrive better on a west than on a
south wall.
The Grey rennet, Reinette grise, is a middle-sized
fruit, of a grey next the sun, but on the other
side intermixed with yellow ; a juicy apple, of a quick
flavour, yet sugary: it ripens in October, but does not
2p
by slips, suckers, or layers,
yielding fruit much more quickly
a
<1 S
New
apples,
210
keep long. The Golden rennet, Reinette dorée, is a
very good apple, ripening in the end of September, fit
either for the table or the kitchen, and keeping till Fe-
bruary. The Canadian rennet is called by the French
horticulturists Reinette de Trianon: it is a large fruit,
of a yellow colour, with a tinge of red: it keeps till
February.
The Violet apple, Pomme violette, is a middling large
fruit, of a long shape ; pale green on one side, but
deep red next the sun; flesh delicate, juice sugary,
with a slight flavour of the sweet or March violet. The
tree grows vigorously, and the fruit ripens in the end
of October.
The Eve apple is originally from Ireland, but now
very generally cultivated in the west of Scotland. The
tree is nearly as ample a bearer as the Keswick codling;
and it is peculiarly well calculated for forming small
standards, to be trained either hollow, or like a cylin-
der or a cone, the tree growing close and compact, and
the fruit-spurs being regularly distributed along every
part of the branches. The apple is of a fine colour,
and well tasted, fit either for table or kitchen use. It
keeps nearly four months. The tree produces fruit the
second year after being grafted; and, like the burknot,
it may be propagated by cuttings or by layers.
Several excellent and well known garden apples are
not included in the list above given, in order to avoid
prolixity ; such as the summer and the winter Thorle ;*
different varieties of Pearmain; the Wine apple or
Queen; the red and the white Calville; Wheeler’s Rus-
set; Holland pippin ; the Strawberry apple; the De-
vonshire Quarenden, the Crofton, and the Kerry pippin.
It cannot be too often inculcated, that the choice of varie-
ties of fruits, and especially of apples and pears, ultimate-
ly to be employed as standards and dwarf standards in
gardens, ought to depend very much on eaperience,—
on observing. which kinds succeed best in the particular
soil and situation in question.
108. As formerly mentioned, several new apples
have of late been brought into notice. Of these, the
following have deservedly acquired a good character :
The Yellow Ingestrie pippin, the Downton pippin, and
the Wormsley pippin.
The Yellow Ingestrie pippin was raised a few years
ago by Mr Knight, from a flower of the orange pippin
dusted with the pollen of the golden pippin. - It is si-
milar in form and colour to the latter, which it almost
rivals also in richness and flavour: it ripens in Octo-
ber, but does not keep. The tree is very productive.
The Downton pippin, named from Mr Knight’s seat,
had the same origin ; and also possesses very good qua-
lities in certain upland situations; but in the low grounds
about London it is not good.
The Wormsley pippin is another of Mr Knight’s ap-
ples, a very large fruit, and, in the consistence and
juiciness of its pulp, nearly resembling the Newton
pippin ; it ripens in the end of October, and keeps for
some time. called Hughes? th 4
The apple e es’s new g0 nm pos-
sesses the finest qualities ; but oo inpsced te “wilt be
found to be, not a new fruit, but a French apple, cul-
tivated in Normandy, and not unfrequently shipped
for this country at Charante.
Some varieties are cultivated chiefly by way of cu-
viosity ; particularly the Fig-apple, which is remark-
able for producing no seeds, and indeed for having no
proper core ; it is said also to shew stamens and pistils
only, or to be destitute, or nearly so, of petals. The
Dwarf rennet is also deserving of notice; when graft-
HORTICULTURE.
ed on a paradise stock, the tree searcely exceedsin size Fruit
a large plant of gillyflower. It is therefore sometimes
kept in pots and forced, and placed in a
on the table. The fruit completely resembles the com-
mon French rennets.. To these may be added, the
Pomme d’ Api, or nS apple, a very small fruit, of
a yellowish colour, but bright red next the sun; and
the Pomme de deux ans, or John apple, remarkable for
having apples and blossoms on the tree at the same
time.
Garden,
owing state “"Y—™"
109. Apple trees intended for full standards are graft. Apple trees,
ed on free stocks, or crab stocks ; those for espalier rails
or walls, on paradise and codlin stocks. A young graft.
ed apple tree should have three branches; and, if in<
tended for a wall-tree or espalier, the centre brancly
only is cut down, perhaps to a foot in length, to encou-
rage the setting out of a succession of branches. The
fruit of the apple tree is produced on small side and ter-
minal spurs, or short spurs or curzons, from an inch to
more than two inches long, proceeding from branches
two, three, or four years old, the same wood continuing
fruitful for a number of years. The nonpareil, and
some other varieties, indeed, yield a few fruit from
shoots of the former year ; but this isnot usual. Espa-
lier and wall trees are pruned twice in the season, in
summer and in winter. In May and June, foreright and
other superfluous shoots are taken out, a few being laid
in, to supply wood where wanted. Any time between
December and March a selection of these is made ; and
unfruitful, decayed, or cankered branches being cut
out, new branches are led along in their place. At the
same time, old rugged spurs, and useless snags, are ta-
ken clean off close by the trunk, applying any mild
ointment to the wound. - On walls from nine to twelve
feet high, the fan-training is preferred; but on walls
under nine feet, the horizontal method is often adopted.
About twenty-five feet are allowed to each tree. Stan-
dard apple-trees receive, and indeed require, but little
attention. The ground is dug over, lichens and mosses
on the trunks or branches are destroyed, dead branches
are cut out, and such as cross each other so.as to rub
together. When a standard or a dwarf standard is hea-
vily loaded with fruit, several clefted or forked stakes are
stuck into the ground, and made to support.the droop-
ing branches, which are otherwise apt to break down.
Standards in gardens are placed ly thirty feet
apart ; espalier trees on dwarf stocks, fifteen feet apart ;
on free stocks, perhaps twenty-five feet.
110. The on tree grows and thrives on very various
soils. It equally dislikes a strong clayey and wet soil,
as one’ that is open, dry, and gravelly ; a deep rich cool
soil answers best. To lay down more particular rules
would be nugatery. It is a fact, that im each particu-
lar place, certain kinds of apples are observed to succeed
better than other kinds. When therefore the cultivator
has discovered the varieties most congenial to the soil
and situation, it will be his wisest plan to encourage
them, by multiplying grafts of them on his other and
less productive trees, or by forming new additional
trees of those successful sorts. Where the soil is shal-
low, and the subsoil bad, it is by following this plan on-
ly that large crops of apples can be regularly procured ;
the new wood of the grafts bearing for a few years, and
then giving place to other E Soy:
This may be illustrated, by instancing Dalkeith Park
garden near Edinburgh, belonging to the Duke of Buc-
cleuch. Formerly few or no apples were here produ-
ced, the soil being very shallow, and the subsoil perni-
cious, But his Grace’s gardener Mr James Macdonald,
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pears.
212
longueville of Jedburgh, in Roxburghshire, it may be
remarked, seems to bea variety, the fruit possessing the
quality of keeping for many weeks: the trees at that
place are very old, and evidently the remains of or-
chards or gardens belonging to the rich religious esta-
blishment which once flourished there.
The Green Yair, or Green Pear of the Yair, is a small
green fruit, sweet and juicy, but with little flavour:
the tree is a copious bearer, either as a standard or
espalier tree. It is supposed to be of Scottish origin,
the Yair being an ancient seat on the Border.
114. The Bromn Beurré, or Red beurré, is a large
and long fruit, of a brownish-red colour next the sun,
melting and full of sharp rich juice, slightly perfumed ;
indeed it is one of the best autumn pears we have; it
must however have every advantage of soil and shelter,
and a good aspect on the wall. The fruit varies con-
siderably in colour, the difference seeming to depend
on accidental circumstances of soil and vigour.
The Autumn Bergamot often gets the name of Eng-
lish Bergamot: it is a smaller fruit than the summer
bergamot, but resembles it; the flesh is melting, and
the fruit richly perfumed: the tree is a free grower
and great bearer.
- Gansel’s Bergamot is of English origin, having been
raised from a seed of the autumn bergamot by the late
General Gansel at Donneland Hall near Colchester.
It is nearly allied to its parent. In good situations, the
tree answers excellently as a standard ; and if the fruit
be gathered in the middle of October, it is in perfec-
tion about the middle of November, and continues a
month on the wall: it sometimes attains a large size ;
we have seen one produced at Torry in Scotland, which
measured in circumference 14 inches, and weighed,
when taken from the tree, nearly 1lb. 10oz.
The Swiss bergamot is a round fruit with a tough
skin, of a greenish colour striped with red; flesh sis
ing and full of juice, slightly perfumed: the tree a co-
ious bearer. ‘a as
The Verte lon (long green pear,) or Muscat-fleuri,
is a handsome fruit, of hee qualities : ina dry soil and
‘warm situation, the tree produces great crops.
The Green Sugar pear, or Sucré vert, has a very
smooth green skin ; flesh melting, and the juice sugary,
with an agreeable flavour: the tree is a free bearer.
» The Great Mouthwater, or Grosse mouille-bouche, is
a very good pear; and the tree answers equally well
for the wall or espalier rail. :
The Red Orange pear is middle-sized, of a round
shape, greenish colour, and purple next the sun; the
flesh is melting, and the juice sugary, with a slight
ume,
The Orange Rouge was formerly the most common
pear in France, but it is now much less cultivated.
The Great Russelet, or Gros rousselet, is a large ob-
long fruit, of a brownish colour, becoming dark red
= the sun; the flesh tender and agreeably perfu-
med,
The Red Doyenné or Dean-pear is smaller than the
common doyenné; it is usually a little turbinated or
top-shaped, sometimes, when the fruit is clustered, al-
most globular, crowned with the persistent leaflets of the
calyx; colour yellow; when ripe, rednext the'sun; ripens
from the end of October to the end of November, and
continues in perfection a fortnight or three weeks; the
flesh is pale-coloured, melting, and, though not very
juicy; agreeably perfumed. The tree is a great bearer
even in unfavourable seasons, answering perfectly well
either as a standard or espalier. .The Dean-pear has
HORTICULTURE.
been long known in this country, but rather neglected, Fmit_
perhaps on account of Miller's characterizing it ge- Garden.
nerally as “a very indifferent fruit.” Mr R. A. Salis-
bury, however, having recommended the red doyenné pears,
in the Memoirs of the Lrortienlearad Society of London,
particularly for high and exposed situations, it has
risen in estimation,
The Auchan sometimes receives the epithet of gr
or red: it is an excellent pear, said to be of Sooftish
origin: in Scotland the tree is often placed against
an east or a west wall, but it answers better as an
espalier or a standard. It probably deserves more of
the attention of English gardeners than it has met
with. The tree isa ie grower and plentiful bearer,
even in light soils. The fruit is sweetish, with a pecu-
liar and rather agreeable flavour. When the name
Auchan alone is used, this is the kind to be understood:
What is called the Summer Auchan is a gins, # oni
fruit not worth cultivating ; and the Black or Winte
Auchan is a smaller and later variety.
The Muirfow! egg is another pear of good qualities,
said to be originally Scottish. It ripens in September,
and keeps for many weeks. It is often p against
walls in Scotland, but the fruit from standards is much
higher flavoured, though not of so large a size. ;
115, The finer sorts of winter pears are of French __
origin ; and in this country they require all the aid of Wir
a wall with a good aspect, and very considerable atten. °°“
tion after they are taken from the tree, several kinds
attaining’ maturity only in the fruit-room.
The Chaumontel, or winter beurré, was raised at
Chaumontel near Chantilly, where, it is said, the original
tree still exists. It is a large rich flavoured ES ne
pear; the skin a little roug 3 often of a pale green
colour, but becoming purplish next the sun; some-
times with a good deal of red. The tree may be con-
sidered as in general requiring a wall, and a pretty
good aspect : in a few places it succeeds on espalier-
rails in good seasons. ‘The fruit is left on the tree till
the close approach of winter ; it is fit for eating in the
end of November and continues till January. The
Chaumontel is produced in great perfection in Guernsey
and Jersey, and considerable quantities are yearly com-
missioned from these islands by the London fruiterers.
The Colmart, or Manna pear, is large and excellent ;
the flesh very tender and melting, and the juice grently
sugared ; both in shape and quality, it considerably
resembles the autumn or English bergamot: it keeps
throughout the winter, and till the end of ore:
The tree requires a large space of good wall, but de-
serves it.
The Crassane (said to derive its name from crassus
thick,) or Bergamot crassane, is a pear of a large size
and round shape, with a long stalk ; the skin is roughish,
of a greenish-yellow when ripe, with a russety coat-
ing; the flesh is very tender and melting, and full of a
righ sugary juice. It is fit for use from the middle to
the end of November, and is one of the very best pears
of the season. The tree requires a good wall.
The St Germain is a large long pear, of a yellowish
colour when ripe; flesh melting and very full of juice,
with considerable flavour. If the tree be planted on a
dry soil, in a warm situation, and trained against a
good wall, it bears pretty freely: There are two varie-
ties, a spurious, and the true; and it is believed the
former is by much the more generally disseminated,
The spurious fruit ripens in December, remaining green
when ripe, and generally decays by the end of January ;
unless the soil and season be favourable, it is insipid
HORTICULTURE.
9138
The Marquise, or marchioness’s pear, is a long pyra- Fruit
midal fruit, of a greenish-yellow colour, with a litle _ Garden.
brown ; the flesh is melting, and the juice rich and yi
sweet. In season in November and ber... In s
this country the tree requires a good wall and favoura-
ble aspect.
The Ambrette is an oval middle-sized fruit, melting
and sugary ; when produced from a ary soil and against
a south wall, the fruit acquires a flavour resembling the
scent of the sweet-sultan or ambrelte of the French.
The Poire d' Auch is described by Forsyth as resem- —
bling the colmart, but fuller towards ‘he stalk, and
« without exception the best of all the winter pears.”
The § is a very good late pear, for use in
November December. It is egg , of a
colour, thinly ted with brown; -melt-
ing, and abounding with a pleasant juice. On stand-
ards or i e fruit acquires a higher flavour
than on wall-trees; indeed it is only trained against a
wall in high and bleak situations.
116. With the exception of five, all the pears which
have now been enumerated and described are of French
on of ay: five, two are pee yt Pas of Eng-
ish origin, the Gansel’s bergamot an wan-egg ;
and cones of Scottish origin, the Muirfowl-egg, Green
Yair, and Auchan. Some,other Scottish pears, which
occur chiefly in country ens, but are of qua-
lity, may just be . Such are Pear-James, the
Early Carnock, Late Carnock or Drummond, Golden
Knap, Crawford or Lammas, the Grey Goodwife, and
the Joku Monteith.
Among English pears little known or attended to,
may be mentioned the Elton pear, figured in the Lon-
don Horticultural Transactions, vol. ii. It ripens, on
standards, for which it is best suited, from the mid-
dle to the end of ber; but it must be ga-
thered ten days before being ripe, else it is apt to
get mealy. in ion, it is ibed as uni-
ting much of the fine flavour of the bergamots with the
melting softness of the beurrés. The fruit is without
seeds, and indeed almost without internal cavity. The
original tree stands on its own roots in an orchard of
seedling pears at Elton in Herefordshire. It is about
a hundred and fifty years old, but still healthy.
The Aston-town pear is regarded as a native of Che-
shire, and said to have received its name from Aston-
te ave ‘ ne lpneenn 6X, fae Siew Seve 8
jar tendency to twist round in growing upwards.
The young shoots are pendent, and fg a
produced chiefly at the extremities. The leaves are
small and oval. a fruit somewhat resembles ore
swan-egg ; is of a greenish colour, errs
russet; when ripe, the flesh is melting, and high fla-
It is mS + pean early in October, but does
keep. The fruit seems to be improved when the
i i toa wall; but in order to have fruit in
shoots should be trained downwards ac-
i their natural inclination.
new pears of any kind, our list. is very scan- New Pears,
Wormsley bergamot has of late years been rai-
r Knight, from the blossom of the autumn
stri of its stamina, and dusted with the
A? _ 259%
yond
z
3
Siz
=
the St Germain. It is a good melti »
and the tree grows freely in any common Sait aors
other -trees thrive ; blossom appears to possess
the advan of bei hardy ; fruit remains
tage
on the tree till the of Gctober. and is in ection
about three weeks afterwards. Atthis time, we have
scarcely any winter keeping pears sufficiently hardy to
Bruit
Garden.
214
grow on standards. Mr Knight, however, confidently
predicts, that winter pears will, in the course of ano-
‘Trainmg of ther generation, be obtained in the utmost abundance
pear trees, from standard trees; that is, that new varieties, com-
bining perhaps the hardiness of the swan-egg with the
valuable qualities of the colmart or chaumonte), will
be produced.
118. All the kinds of summer pears ripen, in ordi-
nary seasons, on the different sorts of standards, or on
espaliers ; the autumn pears, on dwarf standards or es-
comer Espaliers, however, are in both cases prefera-
le to dwarf standards, as the tree may in the former
way stand on a free stock, and yet have ample space
allowed it. The finer French winter pears in general
require a wall, with an east, south-east, or south-west
aspect ; and in the northern parts of the island a full
south aspect. Several of the kinds, however, answer
on espalier-rails; and as the fruit ripens more slowly
and equably when hanging in the open air, than when
assisted by the shelter and reflected heat of a wall, it
is found to keep longer. While the espalier-trees are
in blossom, and till the fruit be fully set, they require
some protection ; such as screens of reed or straw, or
woollen nets.
A pear-tree, especially on a free-stock, cannot do
with less" than forty feet of wall. In many varieties
the fruit-buds are produced chiefly at the extremities of
the new shoots: if the dimensions of the tree must be
much cireumseribed, therefore, it will often happen,
in the ordinary .way of training and pruning, that the
fruit-buds will be cut‘away. One well-trained horizon-
tal tree, is, on this account, better than two or three
upright or fan trees; and theres little danger of keep-
ing the wall covered, however high it be. Miller men-
tions a summer bonchretien which extended fifty feet
in width, and filled a wall thirty-six feet high, and was
at the same time extremely fruitful. The object of
the French gardeners, such as Quintinye, was to keep
their pear-trees within narrow bounds: hence their
prolix and confused descriptions of the mode of’ train-
ing and pruning, forming a perfect contrast with the
concise and: perspicuous directions of Hitt and Miller.
119. For wall -trees horizontal training is now
very generally preferred to the fan mode; chiefly be-
cause in this latter way, the nearly upright position of
the branches encourages the throwing out of numerous
strong shoots, in producing which the sap of the tree is
exhausted ; these shoots are destined to be cut out in
the winter pruning, and the middle part of the tree
comes in this way to be barren. In the horizontal mode,
provision is made for having fruit-bearing wood near
the stem as well as at the extremities of the branches ;
and it is estimated that, on an average, wall pear trees
so trained afford a third more of good fruit than such
as are trained in the fan way, or suffered to ramble on
the wall as chance may direct. It is a general rule,
therefore, that the branches of pear-trees are not to be
shortened unless where wood is wanted to fill up a va-
cancy ; the only effect of shortening being, that in place
of small fruitful spurs, rambling and unfruitful shoots:
pes hee During the summer, foreright and su-
perfluous shoots are ‘displaced with the finger. In this
way, no wood buds are left to form shoots next season ;
and if disbudding be carefully performed, there will be
little to do at the winter pruning. It is a rule, that the
fruit spurs, especially of the finer French pears, should
at all times be kept as close as possible to the wall.
120. But the mode of managing wall pear-trees re-
commended by Mr Knight (in the London Herticul-
HORTICULTURE.
tural Transactions, vol. ii,) deserves here particular
notice. . It will be best understood by describing near].
in his own words, his mode of reclaiming an old St
Germain pear-tree which had been train
form. The central branches, as usually happens in old
trees thus trained, had long reached the top of the wall,
and had become wholly uctive. The other
‘branches afforded very little fruit, and that little never
acquired maturity. It was necessary therefore to chan
the variety, as well as to render the tree seodnctive:
To attain these purposes, every branch which did not
want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular,
was taken out at its base; and the spurs upon every
other branch intended to be retained, were taken off
closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches,
at their subdivisions, grafts were inserted: at different
distances from the roots, and some so near the extre«
mities of the branches, that the tree extended as widely
in the autumn after it was grafted, as it did in the
preceding year. The grafts were also so disposed,
that every part of the space which the tree meraare f
covered, was equally well supplied with young
As soon, in the succeeding summer, as the young
shoots had attained sufficient length, they were trained
almost perpendicularly downwards, between the ——
branches and the wall, to which sa pee. cies
most dicular remaining branch, upon ide,
was opteccebows four feet below the top of the wall ;
and the shoots thus procured, were trained inwards,
and bent down to occupy the space from which the old
central branches had been removed; and therefore
very little vacant space any where remained at the end
of the first autumn. In the second year, and subse-
quently, the tree yielded abundant crops, the fruit
being equally dispersed over every part. Grafts of no
fewer than eight different kinds of — had been in-
serted; and ‘il afforded fruit, and nearly in equal
lenty.
By this mode of training, Mr Knight remarks, the
bessiog branches being small and short, may be
every three or four years, till the tree be a century old,
without the loss of a single crop, and the central
which is almost necessarily unproductive in the fan
mode of training, and is apt to become so in the horizon-
tal, is rendered in this way the most fruitful. Where
it is not meant to change the kind of fruit, nothing
more, of course, is , than to take off entirely
the spurs and supernumerary large branches, leaving
all blossom buds which occur near the extremities of |
the remaining branches. In some varieties, particular-
ly the crassane and colmart, the dependent bearing
wood must be longer than in others.
The training the bearing shoots downwards, has alsa
been found to throw young trees much sooner yoda
ductive state. Fruit isin this way generally obtained the
second year: eventhe colmarttree, which seldom produces
sooner than six or seven years from the time of grafting,
yields fruit by this mode in the third season. Mr Knight
recommends giving to young trees nearly the form above
described in the case of the old St Germain, only not
itting the existence of so great a number of large
branches. In both cases, the bearing wood
should d wholly beneath the large branches which
feed it ; for, in Mr Knight's opinion, itis the influence
of gravitation upon the sap which occasions an early
aah plentiful produce of fruit. ‘
121. To destroy old pear-trees, if they be tolerably,
healthy, is in any case very injudicious, because, by
proper management, they may again be brought into =
Pruit’
Garden.»
VW
of
in the fan pear trees,
HORTICULTURE! 215
bearing state. If the soil be bad, it be mended; disagreeable smell, and an austere taste when raw; — Fruit
if the tree be fll of wornost spur ew herent ee coures re x “Geil or aesaeaiiel 2.
branches, or new dependent as exempli- portion of it to stewed or a © ouince
the of fruit be bad, useful for giving quickness and flavour. Quince mar-
: i as we have seen, malade is commonly sold in the confectioners shops.
James Smith, gardener to the The Portugal quince is the best, but the fruit is pro-
Earl of at House, has written a duced sparingly. Like the others, it is of a yellow co-
anima
These are commonly prepared spring. 157. The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum, Linn.) is also pisck cure
in
: They should consist of last sean deme proceeding considered as a native of Britain, and is described and rant.
from bearing branches, and may be from nine inches to figured as such in English Botany, t. 129]. It is very
2 foot in length. They are planted ina border of light generally cultivated, not in great quantity, in
earth, about four or five inches deep. Inthe spring, private gardens. The berries have avery peculiar taste,
if the weather prove op Finer tage nce man which however to many people is not disagreeable. In
eh thahenes Cronpenked In the course of the sum- England, chester pelt uddings and tarts. A well
mer, all the shoots are di excepting three: in- hsncwn jellpeis \niitio Beak than; and if a small -
deed, some gardeners prevent the th of more tion only of sugar be used, an agreeable rob is formed.
extracting, i i
i
t
E
i
i
5
|
Z
to that of green tea.
black currant bush agrees with a damp soil bet-
than the red. The ent of both is much
same ; the shoots of the black are not cut to
err ty the fruit ee ea Aap oa
way. The are regularly ev
winter, k thie toa foaxth part ef the old oF es
hausted wood being cut out annually, and the straight-
ih
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Bat in these spaces, coleworts be planted in bly larger. :
‘ ‘Ifthe ground be not Gooseberry.
cropped in this way, it should lie rough Sithe winter.
-) 155. Mr oon at Dalkeith- House, 158: The Gooseberry-bush (Ribes grossularia, Linn. Gosseberry,
; and white, of the finest qua- rough-fruited gooseberry, Eng. Bot. t. 1292, and 2.
A good deal depends on the way in which he wea crispi, L., common or smooth-fruited, Eng. Pot.
4
Vruit
Garden.
oo
Gooseberry.
224
t. 2057), if not 4 native plant, is at least completely
naturalized in this country. | It often sin woods,
and not unfrequently on the walls of ruinous buildings;
but to these places the seeds may no doubt have been
carried by birds. The culture of this fruit has for a
number of years been particularly attended to in the
north-west of England; and the size and beauty of the
Lancashire gooseberries have procured them the first
character. In the south of Europe, we believe, the fruit
is generally small and neglected: and when foreigners
witness our Lancashire berries, they are ready to con-
sider them as forming quite a different kind of fruit.
In France, the gooseberry is called groseille a maque-
rau, from its being used as a seasoning to mackerel.
159. The varieties of the fruit are very numerous,
perhaps not fewer than two hundred. They are dis-
tinguished by names not less sonorous, nor less fanci-
ful and unmeaning, than those bestowed by the Dutch
on their tulips and hyacinths ; such as, leer: of Eng-
land, Glory of Eccles, Bank of England, Nelson’s Vie-
tory, &c. Many new ones are constantly coming into
notice, and others are falling into neglect. They are
classed according as their colours are red, green, yel-
low, or white. The names of a very few of each of
these, which are at present most in esteem, shall be
mentioned.
Red.
Old Ironmonger, Smooth Red,
Early Black, Hairy Red,
Damson, or dark red, Red Champagne,
Large Rough Red, Nutmeg,
Red Walnut, Captain,
Warrington, Wilmot’s early red.
Green.
‘Green Gascoigne, Green Globe,
‘Green Walnut, Green-gage.
‘White’ Smith,
Yellow.
Great Amber, Sulphur,
Globe Amber, ‘Conqueror,
Great Mogul, Yellow Champagne,
Hairy Globe, Golden-knap,
‘Golden Drop, Royal Sovereign,
Honeycomb, Tawny.
White.
‘Large Crystal, White Dutch,
‘White-veined, White Walnut.
‘Royal George,
It must be admitted, that although the large goose-
berries make a fine appearance on the table, they are
often deficient in flavour, when compared with some of
smaller size. Many of them have very thick stro:
skins, and are not eatable unless thoroughly ripened.
Some of the large sort, however, are of very good qua-
‘lity, such as the red champagne and the green walnut.
Among these, also Wilmot’s early red deserves further
notice. It was raised by Mr Wilmot at Islesworth in
1804, and has been cultivated by him very extensively
on account of its valuable properties, being early ripe,
of excellent flavour, and extremely productive. It
usually ripens from the middle to the end of June.
For culinary use in the month of May it is larger and
better than most others, the skin not being tough, but
the whole berry melting to a fine consistence. The
gooseberry, it may scarcely be necessary to notice, is
HORTICULTURE. 5
used not only for tarts, pies, and sauces or g
Fruit
creams, before being ripe; but, when at maturity, it Garden.
forms a rich addition to the dessert for several months.
Gathered unripe, gooseberries can be preserved in bot~ Gooseberry.
tles against winter: the bottles are filled with berries,
close corked, and well sealed ; they are then placed in
a cool cellar till wanted. By plunging the bottles after
being corked into boiling water for a few minutes,
(heating them gradually to prevent cracking, ) the berries
are said to keep better. ae
160. Gooseberry-bushes, like currants, are propa<
gated chiefly by cuttings, preferring for this purpose
clean and strong shoots of the former year, about a
foot in length. They may be planted any time early
in the spring. They are trained for two or three years,
and should have a stem six or eight inches high. ‘ Strong
suckers of straight growth are sometimes used, but
they are considered as apt to produce suckers again. °
In many places little attention is paid either to the
soil in which the gooseberry-tree is planted, or to its
pruning and management ; yet the fruit is greatly im~
proved by attention to these circumstances. The best
practical gardeners now prune the bushes so as to form
them somewhat like a hollow sphere ; no main stem is
encouraged, as was Grundy done; but the centre is
cut out, and eight or ten side branches preserved, ac«
cording to the size of the plant. All water-shoots of
the former season are removed ; but any young shoots
wanted for branches, are left at full length. In this
mode of pruning or training, the stem may be short,
perhaps half a foot, instead of a whole foot. The
bushes may also be planted nearer to each other than
such as are allowed to rise many feet in height. They
should not however be less than five or six feet asun«
der in every direction, the free admission of light and
air being quite necessary. If the bushes be attended
to in the month of June, and all central water-shoots
and suckers be displaced, the additional light and air
thus admitted, will be found very beneficial to the
fruit, while the labour of winter pruning will be at
the same time diminished. In many gardens goose«
berry-bushes are still en in single rows along the
sides of borders; but this is not so a plan as ha«
ving a separate quarter for them. They may be plant.
ed in November, or any time before February ; and
the plantation should be renewed every seven or eight
ears.
: 161. The plan above described for prolonging the
season of currants, by matting up the bushes when the
fruit is ripe, it is still more important to adopt in regard
to gooseberries, as this fruit forms a more desirable in-
gredient of the dessert. If some of the late yellow
sorts be matted in September, they remain good till
November. A few plants of the finer kinds are some-
times trained against a south or east wall; here the
fruit not only comes earlier, but attains greater size
than usual. They also do very well on a low ier=
rail. In some places, gooseberry-trees on the sides of
the borders, are trained to a single tall stem, which is
tied to a stake: this, though six or eight feet high,
occasions scarcely any shade on the border, and it does
not occupy much room, nor exclude air; while at the
same time the stem becomes closely hung with berries,
and makes a pleasant appearance in that state. Some
sorts of gooseberry-bushes, and those producing the
largest fruit, have a natural tendency to bend their
branches downwards. In this case the branches must
be supported with small forked sticks, in order to
admit air, and to save the fruit from» touching the
ground.
HORTICULTURE.
werp; Nowish-white Antwerp ; cane or smooth-
Zelda flled red ; twice bearing white,
red. Some still the common
kinds of red white, thin’ an increase of
the expence Saker toasier, bee the vw vartoliaraner epee
- new varieties are, u
See ae st edeee kind e nd
i is in 1 t
tech aro a ie; bt yt he
berry season is ti nning of Novem-
ber. Srirteh) pedtety watieedl howtres, Cour dhs
ee ene tapes eae
should be almost ly used after being gather-
ed: it will remain good on the bush for a few days af-
ter ripe, but a dish of ies kept in the
house two will ly be found to have
flavour, i
ae
e wring. They are, plate
bearing. are any time from Oc-
tober to February. A menos seldom less than
three feet between the plants, and the quincunx order is
adopted, five feet left between the rows.
the larger varieties be , the distances are in-
creased. A raspberry ion continues good for
six or seven years ; but after the lapse of that period, it
bat
should be entirely renewed: it is genera! "C=
tien the third year shor planting ; Gaavet nn
berry quarter should be prepared two years before
&
|
:
i
:
i
=
r
i
Hi
FFE
it
fe
:
fi
‘
if
i
i
:
225
bear fruit in one year die in the following winter ; leav-
ing in
awe been produced during the summer. Where the
stools are very strong, six or eight stems are allowed to
remain ; but in young or weak plants, only half: that
number are suffered to carry fruit. At the same time,
the tender tops which have been injured by frost and
hang down, are cut off. Plants pruned or dressed be-
fore winter, it be observed, sustain most injury
from frost; the old stems, when left, affording a degree of
protection to the young shoots. In exposed situations
stakes are found necessary for supporting the stems ;
but in general it is t sufficient to twist the
shoots loosely together, and to tie them at top with a
strand of bass-mat: Sometimes, the tips of half the
shoots on one stool, are tied to half the shoots of the
next; and in this way a series of festoons or arches is
formed, producing a very agreeable appearance, and at
the same time affording security against the highest
winds,
Li teen ae! Toe ws freely in any good garden
soil; but it is better for being slightly moist. Al-
though the place be inclosed by trees, and even slightly
shaded, the plant succeeds. in an inclosed and weil
sheltered quarter, with rather a oma soil, containing:
a proportion of peat-moss, we have seen very great
aan of large and well-flavoured berries produced ; for
le, at Melville House, the seat of the Earl of Le-
ven in Fifeshire. Sometimes a few plants are trained
against a west wall, or a trellis or rail, and the fruit
here comes more early and of larger size. By trainin
ee err cone crop is proportionally retard-
New varieties of are easily raised from the
seed ; and they come to bear in the second year.
Strawberry.
166. The Strawberry (Fragaria of ee nr belon,
to the same class and , and natural family, as the
r ; the plant is called /e Fraisier, and the fruit
la Fraise, by the French ; and it is the Erddcere of the
Germans. Several ies of strawberry are cultivated
in our gardens, po pore varieties ; indeed new hy-
brid juctions are yearly appearing. We shall men-
tion the kinds which are at present most esteemed.
167. The Scarlet Sir
of the Hortus Kewensis. only sort of
small strawberry cultiv for the Edinburgh market,
a place distinguished for excelling all others in the
abundance excellence of this kind of fruit. It is a
native of Virginia, and very different in habit from our
wood plant, the leaves being dark green, of a more even
surface, the flowering stem shorter, and the fruit com-
monly concealed the leaves. It is a hardy
—_— producing plenty of fruit on high and rather
bleak situations, near Edinburgh, where the Chili straw-
berry does not
168. The Alpine CF. collina is larger than our wood 2. Alpine.
species, the stem higher, the “es broader ; the fruit
red, (sometimes white,) tapering to a point, and of
considerable size. The fruit is of cupilioes flavour ;
and being produced from June to November, the plant
is well ing of culture. The summer shoots, it may
be mentioned, must not be cut off ; for they flower and
yield fruit the same season, and it is on this property
that the autumn crop depends, From observing this,
Mr Knight was led toa new mode of treating the al.
QF
their place a succession of new stems, which _Grden.
, (Fragaria Virginiana |, scarier,
his is he:
226
pine strawberry. He sows the seeds early in the spring,
in pots which he places in a moderate hot-bed in April.
As soon as the plants have attained sufficient size, they
Strawberry. are planted in the open ground, where they are to re-
main. They begin to blossom soon after midsummer,
and continue to produce fruit till stopped by the frost.
The powers of life in plants thus raised, Mr Knight re-
marks, being quite energetic, operate more powerfully
than in plants raised from seeds even in the preceding
year; and he therefore concludes that the alpine straw-
a might with propriety be treated as an annual
plant. .
169. The Carolina (F. Caroliniana) is very regular
in form, and of a fine red colour ; but inferior in flavour
to the scarlet. It does not appear to be a distinct spe-
cies.
170. The Wood strawberry (¥F.vesca, Lin.) has been
cultivated from time immemoriel, and in some places it
is still preferred. It is a native of most of the woods
of Britain, and figured by Sowerby, t. 1524, There
is a variety with white fruit. :
171. The Pine strawberry (F. grandifiora, Hort. Kew.;
F. ananas of some writers.) The'leaves resemble those
of the scarlet, but are somewhat larger, and evidently
.of a thicker substance; the flowers also.are larger, and,
the fruit approaches in size and shape to the Chili, be-
ing large, tapering, very pale red on the exposed side,
and greenish on the shaded side. When the plants are
kept free from runners, this kind is very productive of
fruit, and is therefore highly deserving of cultivation.
172. The Chili (F. Chiloensis, Hort. Kew.) is dis-
tinguished by its very thick oval ‘leaves, which, with
the leaf-stalks, are set with hairs. ‘The flowers and
fruit are both uncommonly large. Some English gar-
deners speak slightingly of this kind, saying that it is a
bad bearer: it has therefore been rather neglected. In
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, however, it proves
abundantly productive: 50 Scots pints have frequently
been gathered from an acre, by a single person, in the
course of a day. It is the only large strawberry cul-
tivated for the Edinburgh market, and is generally sold
‘there under the name of hautboy. The Chili, it may
be noticed, has a red berry; while the true hautboy is
of a greyish colour,
173. The Hautboy, or Hautbois (F.elatior, Smith,
Fi. Brit.; Eng. Bot. t. 2197.) is remarkable for its very
large oblong fruit, with a musky flavour. -There ‘is a
variety called the Globe Hautboy, which is much es-
teemed, but apt to degenerate.
174. Of late years many new varieties have been rai-
sed from seed: Some have for a time acquired a name,
and have again been forgotten: others however are
likely to retain their character. When ripe seed. is
_ wished for, the fruit should be allowed to wither some-
what on the plant before being gathered. It may, in
passing, be observed, that although, in compliance with
popular practice, we term the fruit a berry, it is not
such in correct botanical language: a berry (dacca@)con-
tains the seeds within a pulp; but here we find the
Fruit
Garden.
8, Carolina.
4. Wood.
5. Pine.
6. Chili,
7. Hautboy.
seeds on the outside; it is, in fact, a fleshy receptacle, -
having the surface studded with the seeds.
In Covent Garden market, strawberries are sold in
small pottles, the fruit having the calyx-leaf attached.
In the Edinburgh market, they are sold in wicker-bas-
kets, each basket containing a Scots pint, or four Eng-
lish pints, the fruit being freed from the calyx-leaves.
Edinburgh 175. As it is generally admitted that the market~
strawber- gardeners in the vicinity’ of Edinburgh excel in the cul-
ries, ture of strawberries, their mode shall here be detailed.
HORTICULTURE,
A claneg soil or strong loam is considered as best
suited to the straw 3; on a sandy or very light soil,
it never succeeds. Indeed as the fruit naturally ripens
in June, when drought may be expecta we might Strawb
conclude @ priori that. a retentive soil would be much
more proper for it than an one., New plantations
are formed eitherin September or in the beginning of
April, the soil being trenched or at least deeply delved,
and at the same time manured. The offsets are always
taken from the runners of plants of the preceding year,
in preference to those from plants of longer standing.
They are placed in rows two feet distant, thus afford.
ing sufficient room for delving, or turning over the
surface. earth between them, a practice which is
found very beneficial, both during summer and winter.
Three ‘plants are commonly put in together at each
place: the distance between each th cluster of
plants, is at least fifteen inches ; sometimes a foot and a
half. When the weather is dry at the time of plant«
ing, they are watered ‘every day till they be well esta«
blished.. For the first year few berries are produced ;
and the common practice is, to sow a line of carrots, or
some such crop, between the strawberry rows. In. May
the runners are cut off, this being found to promote the
swelling of the fruit. Every stool is rendered quite
distinct and free from another, and the earth between
them is stirred with the spade or hoe. _ In the dry wea~
ther of summer, strawberries are (by some careful cul-
tivators, for it is not a general practice) watered, not
only. while in flower, and when the fruit is setting, but
even when it is swelling off; as the berries begin to
colour, however, watering is desisted from, lest the fla~
vour should be injured.
About eighty acres in the vicinity of Edinburgh are
occupied by market-gardeners, in strawberry crop, for
the supply of the Scottish capital ; and the amazing
average quantity of 60;000 Scots pints (240,000 Eng-
lish) are yearly sold in Edinburgh and its neighbour-
hood. In a favourable season, about 75,000 Seots pints
(300,000 English) have been brought to market ; and it
will be remembered that the berries are freed from the
calyx-leaves, which leaves in the English market greats
ly swell the measure. When the distance is consider«
able, the wicker baskets are packed ever-each other in
a hamper-creel, and conveyed to town: on: a light cart
hung on springs. The highest price is commonly half
a guinea a Scots pint; but this.is only got for a few
pints at the beginning of the. strawberry season: the
average price is about 1s.; the lowest 9d. a Scots pint.
The berries are picked as they ripen, by. women and
children: hired for the purpose,to whom the-strawberry
harvest is a profitable time.
As soon: as the strawberry season is past; the plants
are shorn over, and all runners are-again cut off. To-
wards the end of October; the ground. een the rows
‘is delved over. The cultivation of strawberries is thus
attended with a good deal of expenee, requiring much
labour and constant assiduity in digging and hoeing be-
tween the plants, clearing them of weeds, cutting off
runners and leaves, watering (where that is preceny
and picking the berries for market. They may, wi
success, be continued on the same land for an indefi<
nite space of time, but the plants must be renewed
every fourth or fifth year, and manure) at that: time
supplied. It is ‘however found. preferable to change
the crop altogether after twelve or fifteem years. —
176. Strawberries are: generally ] ina quarter
of the garden by themselves, and itshould be one which
is freely exposed to sun and air, They are sometimes,
Fruit —
——
a
HORTIC
: edging in the-shrubbery. In
prodace their fruit perfectly well, and
aan
!
4
|
F
i
i:
&
:
ULTURE.
227
very beautiful, oh arr a pra vame -_.
granate is generally propagated by layers. lowers
proceed from the extremities of branches produced the
same year. The stronger branches of the former year
are therefore shortened, in order to obtain a supply of
new shoots. The best time for this pruning is Novems'
ber.
ia; Jasminece, Juss.) which constitutes much of the
riches of the south of France, Italy and Spain, with
difficulty survives in the mildest parts of our island.
Protected during winter in the same way as the myrtle,
generally by short litter laid around the stem, and by a
slight temporary screen of evergreen branches, it some-
times flowers ; and in some very warm seasons, it has
produced a few unripe fruit.
182. The Pishamin or date-plum, (Di
L.; Polygamia Diacia; Guatacane, very is chiefly
ealibediedcaih account of its fine shining leaves. Its
fruit, however, is relished by some. It is the size of a
cherry, of a yellow colour, and eaten, like the medlar,
in a state of over-maturity or incipient decay. The
plant is tender for the first year or two; and even afs
terwards requires a sheltered situation, and rich but
dry soil. It was known in the time of Gerarde, but is
stil very little attended to in gardens.
183. The Cornelian c
much cultivated as a frait-tree, and it is enumerated as
such in all the old books on gardening. The fruit was
used: in making tarts, and a rob de cornis was kept in
the It is now transferred to the shrubbery,
where its early flowers, a ing in February and
March before the leaves, render it ornamental. The
wood is remarkably hard; so that spears were in an-
cient times formed of it.
e- Fruit
181. The Olive, ( Olea Europea, L. Diandria Mono- Olive.
Lotus, Pishawin.
(Cornus mascula, L.; Te- Cornelian
trandria Monogynia; Caprifoliacea, Juss.) was formerly cherry.
apple, pear, and quince, Apple ge-
“st ae tP Pyrus genos are cultivated The us.
inese ap A abils, L.) is planted in many Chinese.
quietest, de idberion. de Ooo voeahs of Ragin
chiefly on account of its fine show rere Aen buds
in May. It is
on crab stocks. Beautiful trees
The Siberian crab (P. prunifolia, L.) is prized
for its
ries, whi
; 3 . the quass or cider of Siberia is made; and we ma
Pruits occasionally cultivated. add, that it makes an excellent preserve with psn
180, The Pomegranate-tree hear » L.; The Japan apple, (P. Japonica, L.) blossoms and Japan,
Jemandria Monogynia; Myrti, Sass.) is a native of the bears fruit if trained against a south wall; but the
Levant, bot naturalized in the South of E It fruit is of no value. The plant requires to be covered
was introduced into England toward the end of the with a bass-mat or close cA meg we winter. The
Sorb, or Service-tree, (Pyrus torminalis
Crataegus torminalis, L.) is a large: tree, ing na-
turally in some parts of England, as in Hertt ire,
from whence the fruit is brought to London in large
quantities in autumn. It is figured in Sowerby’s “ Eng-
lish Botany,” t. 298. The fruit is of the shape of the
common haw, but ; of a brownish colour when
ripe; if kept till it be soft, in the same way as med-
lars, it has an agreeable acid flavour, It succeeds in
any strong clayey soil; it is scarcely ever cultivated
as a fruit-tree, but is often planted in lawns and about
orchards,
Hort. Kew, ; Sorb.
¢
Fruit
Garden.
Azarole.
Bullace.
Sloe,
228
~ 185, The Azarole-tree ( Crategis axarolus, L.; pro-
perly a Mespilus) has a still larger fruit, but does not
roduce it so freely, being a native of the Levant.
When fully ripe, the fruit has an agreeably acid taste,
for which it isso much esteemed in Italy and the south
of France that it is frequently served up in desserts.
It is the pommeite of the French. In this country it is
seldom used.
Native Fruits.
186. Of the genus Prunus, we have several species
growing naturally in our woods, and by the banks of
rivers. The small black cherry or guigne, (P. cerasus,
Eng. Bot. t. '706,) and the red-fruited variety, common-
ly distinguished as Prunus avium, have already been
mentioned, as well as the common wild plum, (P..do-
mestica,) which if not native, is at least completely na-
turalized. To these may be added the bullace, the sloe,
and the bird-cherry. The Bullace plum (fruit of P. in-
sititia, Eng. Bot. t. 841,) when sales by frost, is not
unpleasant ; -indeed it is one of the best of our native
productions. It may.be made into an excellent con-
serve, by mixing the pulp with thrice its weight of su-
gar. It varies with dar geen or almost black fruit,
and light or wax-coloured fruit. The Sloe (fruit of
' P. spinosa, Eng. Bot. t. 842.) likewise requires to be
Bird-therry.
Barberry.
Elder
berries.
Roan ber-
ries.
mellowed by frost. To home-made wines, it is calcula:
ted to communicate the colour and roughness of red
Port ; indeed it is said to enter as an ingredient into the
manufacture of this wine. The juice of the unripe fruit
forms.the German acacia. When the fruit is ripe, the
juice affords an almost indelible ink, which is sometimes
used for marking linens. Mr Knight (in the London
Horticultural Transactions, vol. i.) seems to consider
the sloe as the original species from which all our cul-
tivated plums-have been derived ; but on what grounds
he passes over the common wild plum and the bullace,
which are more nearly allied, he does not enable us to
determine. The Bird-cherry, ane of P. padus, L. Eng.
Bot, t. 1883.) in Scotland the Hag-berry, is, to most pa-
lates, nauseous. The fruit is scarcely used, unless oc-
casionally that in Scotland.an infusion of it is made in
the favourite liquor of the country, whisky.
187. The. Barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris, L. ;
Hexandria Monogynia; Berberidew, Juss.) is a native
of various parts of this country; and is figured in
« English Botany,” t. 49... The fruit is in consider-
able > paca for preserving ; and the berries of the va-
riety without stones are preferred for this purpose. If
planted in good soil, and pruned somewhat in the man-
ner of gooseberry-bushes, barberry plants yield both
larger bunches and larger berries. In the shrubbery,
while in flower, they are ornamental ; and the sensi-
tive stamina may afford entertainment; for when the
antheree are ready, if the bottom of the filament be irri-
tated with the point of a knife or a straw, the stamen
rises with a sudden jerk, and strikes the anthera against
the pistillum. In autumn, the scarlet fruit makes a fine
appearance.
188. The Elder (Sambucus nigra, L.; Pentandria
._Trigynia; Caprifoliacee of Ventenat,) is a well-known
native tree, figured in English Botany, t. 476. In Scot-
land it is called Bourtree. Elder berries may be in-
cluded in the list of native fruits ;-for they are still
sometimes gathered for the making of-elder wine.
189. The Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia,L. ; Ico-
sandria Trigynia ; Rosacee, Juss.; Eng. Bot. t. 337.)
is perhaps the most ornamental native tree we possess.
5
myrtillus, Eng. Bot. t. 456.) is
HORTICULTURE.
It is deservedly planted in pleasure grounds; its’foli- Fruit
, flowers, and berries being all beautiful in success Garden.
sion, and the whole tree forming a fine object. Roan- ““Y—
berries are still held in some esteem in the Highlands
of Scotland, and in Wales; and in both countries, the ;
boughs of the tree are used in many superstitious ce-
remonies.
190. Of the genus Rubus, the raspberry has been al-
ready mentioned. The Common bramble (R. fruticosus,
L. ; Eng. Bot. t. 715.) may be added as one of our na-
tive fruits, and not one of the worst. The Stone bramble,
(R. saxatilis, Eng. Bot. t. 2233.) is another: In Scot-
land, the fruit a a distinct name, Roebuck-berry.
Cloud-herries, or knot-berries, (the fruit of R. chame-
morus, Eng, Bot. t.'716.) are perhaps the most grateful
and useful kind of fruit gathered by the Scots Highland-
ers: on the sides and near the bases of the mountains,
it may be collected for several months in succession.
It is not cultivated without difficulty, and it very seldom
yields its fruit in a garden. With this may be si, 0
the Dwarf crimson bramble, (R. arcticus, Eng. ;
t. 1585.) This is found only on the highest and wild-
est mountains of Scotland. The berry is excellent; but
it is not easily obtained in ‘sufficient quantity; for ;
though the plant grows freely in gardens, and shews its .
flowers, it rarely produces its fruit in low situations. . i
191. Of the cranberry (Vaccinium, L.; Octandria Mo-« ;
nogynia; Eric, Juss.) there are various species, three
of them native ; but the most important is a transatlan-
tic species, which however we may be excused for in« ¢
troducing in this place. It is called the smooth-stem- {
med American Bom a (V.macrocarpon). Thisisan American
addition made within these few years to our list of cul. cranberry.
tivated fruits. The plant was indeed known; but the
opinion given in Miller’s Dictionary was general, that
«‘ they can only be cultivated for curiosity in gardens,
for they will not thrive much, nor produce fruit, out of
their native swamps and bogs.” ‘To the indefatigable
Sir Joseph Banks, we are indebted for pointing out the
practicability of cultivating it for use. Wherever there
is a pond, the margin may, at a trifling mce, be
fitted for the culture of this plant, and it will continue
productive for many years. All that is necessary is to
drive in a few stakes, two or three feet within the mar-
gin of the pond, and to place some old boards within
these, so as to prevent the soil of the cranberry bed from
falling into the water: then to lay a parcel of small stones
Cloud.
berries,
or rubbish in the bottom, and over it peat or earth
to the depth of about three inches above, and seven
inches below the usual surface of the water. Insuch a
situation the plants grow readily ; and if a few be put
in, they entirely cover the bed in the course of a year or
two, by means of eye long eaer: which take _ at
different points. From a very sma pets a very large
quantity if cranberries may be gathered; and they
prove a remarkably regular crop, scarcely affected by
the state of the weather, and not subject to the attacks
of insects, P
192. The native species of Vaccinium, which afford
berries in the highlands of Wales and Scotland, are the
following. The Common cranberry, or moss _berry, Common |
(V. oxycoccos, Eng. Bot. t. 319.) Great quantities of cranberry.)
this berry are gathered in upland marshes and turfy |
bogs, both in England and Scotland. The berries are |
made into tarts, and have much the same flavour as the
Russian imported cranberries, or those — by cul-
tivation. The Bilberry, blaeberry, or whortleberry, (V. Blac
in autumn for
making tarts: in Devonshire the berries are eaten with
HORTICULTURE.
cidedly inferior to the cran! . It makes however a
good rob or jelly, which in Sweden is eaten with
of roast meat, and forms a sauce for venison,
which is thought superior to currant jelly.
dessert,
193. The Hazel, { Corylus avellana, Lin. ; Eng. Bot.
t. 723; Monecia Polyandria ; Amentacee, Jussieu,) is a
ive of Britain, and very common. In Se r,
nuts are collected by coun-
sent to market. There are several va-
the White Filberd, and the Red Fil-
for its size; the
; and the Dwarf er 7 In some
plantations of dw bered trees are
are not allowed to rise more than
‘Hype
it
fF
the grown
by the expanded branches is about six feet
Each tree is twelve feet from another.
i ied with different
TF,
if
i
3
Fe
tif
4
repeated stirring
is the produce of nuts from
trees in this way, that in some parts of
such plantations are with a view to the
of the London market. The trivial name Avel-
may be remarked, is derived from a town near
inhabitants of which have long cultivated
the Spanish filberd tree to a great extent, much of their
riches depending on the sale of the nuts.
The hazel tree s vigorously in a strong loam, or
in any soil which is somewhat retentive and moist. It
is sometimes suckers, but better plants
&
ly about the end of
male flowers, and the fe-
bright red styles, i
l
fret
al? p
H i
ih
He]
iit
int
E
a large bush or tree of it is seldom to be met
In the Botanic Garden, Leith
Edinburgh, one of the finest specimens in Britain
is now (1816) about 25 feet in height, and fifty
Wi
BE
The dete offi introduction is not
and old trees of it are very common in
it ri its fruit _
In ea trey the frail qomes. to periee-
tion, only in fine seasons: in ordinary years it attains
h
229
clotted cream : in the lands of Scotland, they are that state in which it is fit for ing. Several Fruit
sometimes SE . but more common! x oo varieties are cultivated, particularly the round, and the Garden.
- into jellies. The Red bilberry, or Cowberry, (V. vitis oval walnut; the large walnut; and the tender shelled, “>
The chief thing to be attended to in the culture of the
tree, is to induce it to spread its roots near the surface,
and to prevent their getting down into cold wet soil.
As it generally attains a large size, it must stand in the
lawn or park, or a row of walnut-trees may form.
of the screen of the orchard. Mr Boutcher of
burgh long ago recommended the inarching of a branch
of a bearing tree, the quality of whose fruit was known,
upon a common stock, and added, that fruit was thus
roduced in one-third less time.. The same idea has
Ieealy. scuurved tn Mr Knight, and in this way he has
ap gene lants which proved fruitful in three years.
t is evident that the peculiar varieties can only be
continued by /ayering and grafting; for large planta-
tions, however, the nuts are sown. The nuts are
teady in October, and are gathered by ing the
trees with long poles ; they may be kept through the
winter, by covering them with earth in the manner ot
toes, and mixing some dry mould among them to
the interstices ; for this last purpose, dry sand be-
i le
196. The Chesinut-tree Fagus castanea, L.; or Cas- Chestnut.
tanca vesca of Brown; Monacia Polyandria; Amen-
tacea, oe) “a compere as a native of ee a a
parts nd, w » at any rate, it
ori Ses It has a place ah “ English Botany,”
t. 886. It is not much cultivated for its fruit in this
country. As a forest-tree it is well known, though
perhaps scarcely duly prized. The variety preferred
is called the Spanish tnut. It may be proper to
observe, that when fruit is the object, grafted trees
should be resorted to. The ing of chestnut-trees
has long been practised in Devonshire, and it is now
likely to become The stocks may be raised
from the common nuts, but the grafts are to be taken
from bearing branches of such trees as yield the largest
and fairest fruit. The timber of these grafted trees is
of little value; indeed the tree generally continues in a
dwarf state: but the fruit is not only sooner produced,
but is of better quality and more abundant. The nuts
are not so large as those imported from Spain; but
they are more sweet. They may be kept in earthen-
ware jars, in a cellar somewhat Pp, or covered with
earth or sand in the manner recommended for walnuts.
The French call these trees, marroniers; and
the forest trees, chataigniers. The chestnut is suited
to the “ kind of situations as the walnut-tree above
197. The chinguapine, or dwarf Virginian chestnut,
(Fagus pumila, L.) a long been known in English
ph aaaly but the fruit is small, and has not been much
attended to.
198. In this country, even in ordi seasons, se-
veral of the fruits which have now i treated of,
such as the grape, the noe and nectarine, and the
fig, and more particularly the finer varieties of these,
are found to be brought to greater perfection, or the
trees are more effectually kept in a healthy and fruitful
state, by having recourse to a certain of artificial
heat. If this be true in the south of England, much
more may it be affirmed of all that part of the island
which lies to the north of York. Glazed houses, under
various names, have therefore been contrived for the pur-
pose of forwa anddefending the blossom of the trees,
and the setting of the fruit, in the spring, and for ripen.
ing the bearing wood for next year in the autumn, the
Chinqua-
pine.
Fruit
Garden,
Dry stove,
“many weeks before the natural season arrive.
230
maturation of the fruit itself, at least in the case of
peaches and nectarines, being left as much as possible
to the influence of the sun and air. The vinery, the
peach-house and the fig-house, ought not, in general,
to be considered as forcing houses; but as calculated
rather to assist the natural efforts of the plant and to
make up for the imperfections of the climate, every
possible use being in the mean time made of the natural
climate. ‘They may, however, be converted into for-
cing-houses, by varying the time of applying the arti-
ficial heat; ‘and in this way, not only cherries and
strawberries, but grapes and peaches, may be a
1e
pine-apple, which has not yet been spoken of, requires
continually an increased, and even high temperature ;
while the orange tribe needs little more than to be
saved from frost during winter.
The disposition of hot-houses, in regard to the gar-
den and pleasure grounds, has been already spoken
of. A’suite or range of glazed houses is generally form-
ed together, with only glass partitions between them.
In this case the green-house is sometimes placed in the
middle, and the stoves at each end, so that, during
winter, a person may pass into either hot-house with-
out opening a direct communication between it and
the external air, which, on account of the rarefaction
of the air-within, is ready to rush in,
Hot-houses are comparatively of modern inyention.
They were unknown in the days of Gerarde and Par-
kinson, that is, of Elizabeth and James VI. After the
civil wars, horticulture seems to have received more at-
tention; but a glazed house, with a furnace and flues,
does not appear to have been constructed previous to
1684, Sir Hans Sloane, writing in that year, mentions
that Mr Watts, gardener at Chelsea Garden, then re-
cently instituted, had a new contrivance for preserving
tender exotic plants during winter ; “‘ he makes under
the floor of his green-house a great fire-plate, with
grate, ash-hole, &c. and conveys the warmth through
the whole house by tunnels, letting in upon occasion
the outward air by the. windows.” The green-house
was thus converted into a stove, or made to answer the
purpose of both. Separate houses for plants belonging
to very warm climates were soon found to be necessa-
ry; and in 1724, Bradley describes a stove or conser-
vatory, with flues and every thing in the manner of a
modern dry stove. The bark stove was soon afterwards
introduced ; the heat resulting from the fermentation
of tanners bark being employed, however; in the cul-
ture of pine-apples before it was applied to ornamental
plants of hot climates. Two kinds of stoves are at pre-
sent in common use, the dry stove and the bark stove.
Dry Stove.
199. The dry. stoye is generally constructed with
upright glass frames in front, and sloping glass frames
by way of roof, extending perhaps to within four feet
of the back wall of the house, which space of four feet
is commonly covered with slates. The angle at which
the glass is made to slope is usually about 35°. The
floor is raised two feet above the exterior surface, in
order to give room for the flues, which if sunk low do
not draw freely. The flues are carried to the extremi-
ty of the house, and returned several times, according
to the length and breadth of the building. They are
constructed of fire-brick, and the covering is com of
square tiles, about an inch and a half thick. In Scotland,
where sandstone abounds, the covers are usually form-
3
-HORTICULTURE.
of flags, two inches or somewhat more ini thickness. The
flagstones of the Hailes Quarry, near Edinburgh, are
excellent for this purpose: the finer lamine from the
— at Carmylie, in Forfarshire, commonly called Ars
broa vement, are apt to crack and shiver from expo-
sure to heat. They are generally made about 18 inches
deep, and of nearly equal breadth, and horticultural wri-
ters have in general recommended these dimensions ; but
there canbe little doubt that the breadth should be nearly
double the depth. Mr Stevenson, civil engineer, found-
ing on some experiments made in constructing a dry
ing-house, has strongly recommended this improve-
ment. (Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 143.) He observes,
that “ the flues in general use are of too small dimen-
sions ; there is not capacity in them for allowing the
heated particles of air to expand; so that the heat pas-
ses rapidly through such narrow flues, and makes its
escape with the smoke, in what may comparatively be
called a latent state, without being allowed to act on a
surface er enough to rob it of its caloric.” He far-
ther remarks, that an apartment heated with flues of a
wide, but shallow form, is less liable to sudden
of temperature, than where the flues are small; and
that such flues possess the advantage of seldom or ne-
Fruit
Garden,
Dry Stove,
wer requiring to be cleaned. The furnace is generally -
So situated, as. that the upper of the arch is as hig
as the top of the flue, where the heat is introduced in-
to the house. The height of the body of a furnace, of»
the usual dimensions, is two feet four inches, varying
however, according. to the slope of the ground; the
width is nearly the same; the length of it inside: three .
feet ; the door a foot square; and the length of the
back of the furnace two feet. In the dry stove a stand.
is erected for supporting shelves on which the plants
are to be placed ; the stand and shelves together being
called the stage. In this stove all kinds of succulent
plants, such as cacti, mesembryanthema, stapelie, and
aloes, are preserved, with many other
which do not require bottom heat.
It may here be noticed, that it having been found
that certain parts of hot-houses where one furnace only
is employed, are not heated equally-with other parts.
nearer to the furnace, it has been proposed to convey
to these heated air from the furnace by means of
tinned iron tubes. Nicol and others object to these tubes .
resting on the flues,as being apt to diminish the evolution
of heat from their surface: might, however, be car-
ried free of them, and: certainly deserve further trials,
Such tubes, it is to be observed, are only necessary in hot-
houses already built, In the constructing of new houses,
a small flue, perhaps 23 inches or a brick square, can ea-
sily be carried along in the back wall. Heated air drawn
from the furnace into this flue can be conveyed to the
opposite end of the house, and there admitted by a
valve or door at pleasure. Matters must of course be
“ contrived, that no smoke can pass into this small
ue.
Bark Stove.
200. The bark stove is distinguished by havin,
large pit, nearly the length of the house, three feet
deep, and six or seven feet wide. This pit is formed
with brick walls, and has a brick pavement at bottom,
to-prevent the earth from mixing with the tan, which
would hinder its heating. It is filled with fresh tan-
ners bark, well dried ; and in the bark, pots containing
plants from the East or West Indies, or tropical cli-
mates, are plunged. The bark acquires and long re-
tains a moderate heat; but besides this, it preserves a
a Bark stove,
—
HORTICULTURE. 231
degree of genial moisture, well calculated to keep the the operations of nature are ual; and a good gar- _Fruit-
roots in constant vigour and action. Ex- dener will always fellow narnia cmettomaton. Garden.
: n can be He will never willingly apply artificial heat before buds poo
Store. heated by one furnace, If thoug proper; have naturally swoln ; he will then increase the tem- jouse.
ea gmc sen ep ober natioe A two perature ually for some weeks; he will in parti-
house being divided in cular, guard against any sudden decrease of warmth,
i ee it being most necessary towards success, to continue
one division, the course of vegetation uninterruptedly, through fo<
liation, inflorescence, and fructification. In all kinds
of forcing, it is of importance that free admission of air
the succulent tribes, such as be given ing to the state of the atmosphere ; and
i it too should be given and withdrawn by degrees, espe«
cially in the early and cold time of the year: the sashes,
bark stove is considerable, from 68° to 81° Fahren- or the ventilators, may, for instance, be partially open-
i ed by 8 in the morning, top air being given before
front air; full air may be allowed about 10; a reduction
should take place before $3 P.M., and the whole be
furnace, and out of reach of the sun’s closed between 4 and 5, according to the season and
other circumstances.
mon to give air tosach ahot- | We shall now proceed to notice the peach-house,
day, to shut it up close at cherry-house, a and fig-house, in succession ; then
increasing the temperature in the the pine-stove and appen 3 and the orangery.
udicious horticulturists reverse the prac- Here we shall take occasion to introduce a short de-
that in the West Indies, scription of the magnificent and commodious suite of
hot-houses at Dalmeny Park, near Edinburgh, plans
nature, by shutting up the and elevations of which we are enabled to lay before
ing i ig evaaeab eatin Ghee hte staanianemast dara bie
only be followed, in our provements whi ve been or pro-
J posed in this branch of horticulture. The cultivation of
of modern invention. In the melon, being allied to that of the cucumber, will
lead us to the kitchen-garden, |
Ee in which pots of The Peach-house.
204. A peach-house, intended to be commanded by Peach.
perhaps dwarf-cherry- one furnace, is commonly made about 40 feet » 10 house.
ccaihinaintieReeapae It has a
is bark-stove, no upri in front ; a parapet 18
high, which the rafters immediately rest, In
thus introduced, which yield an some the peach and nectarine trees are trained
acceptable addition to the spring dessert. In some , toatrellis next to the glass, none being placed on the
the more delicate kinds of grape-vines are here also back wall ; in others the trees are trained only to the
cultivated, and trained along the rafters of the upper wall, or to a trellis placed against it ; but in the great-
— - er meer ees coe mmeh etree nearly half
ing stoves are intended chiefly for peaches, nec- way up the glass roof, and at same time others of
oge! i fail dhaeeoe pleou’ ‘mguiabe thé: thasle: wil The flue
passes in front, but at some distance from mm
gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The w and is returned also at some distance from the back
area of the house is filled with well prepared rich com- wall; so that both flaes taken together, with the space
= os ene The trees, having been previous- between them, nearly the centre of the house,
trained to near a bearing size, are transplanted into ‘The old ice of wren Tae dma te |
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be is now discontinued, standing flues within the house
is ga- being found preferable. 1 parapet and flues rest on
i perhaps pillars, so as to allow the roots of the trees free egress
altogether removed, in order to admit air and rain, and to the border on the outside of the house. If early or
thas harden the annual shoots of the trees. In this foreed fruit be wanted, the house is made narrower and
state, the houses remain till after mid-winter, when shorter, so as to give a greater commund of temperas
are partially shut, in order gradually to prepare ture. In such houses, either three or four dwarf trees,
the trees for the ure. Different kinds with intermediate riders, are planted ; the riders being
require different of management, and taken out at the end of four years at farthest. When
: im all first-rate gardens, small trees are aleo trained in front, three are commonly
i peach- sufficient there, or nine or ten trees inall Fire-heat is
to cherries, called generally applied about the middle of February, the tem
; & third to the production of grapes, perature being for a time kept at 45°; and afterwards
or G house, and in some places, gradually increased to 50° or 55° Fahr. The temperae
. to led the Fig-house. The di ture is fegulated by a thermometer, every morning and
structure of these houses is not considerable. evening ; during sunshine, air is admitted, to keep down
general it may be remarked, that what is the heat, as near as possible, to the average point. Trees
mg is the more perfectly performed in pro- thus forced, generally shew their blossoms in March.
less forcing or violence is employed. All While in flower and till the fruit be sci, gentle steam-
tae
cyt
if
k:
=
F
Fs
Fy
ruit
Gardens
—
Peach-
house,
Gherry-
house.
232
ing is practised, by sprinkling water on the surface of
the warm flues. After this, washing the foliage with
the garden engine is found very conducive to the health
of the plants. When the stones of the fruit are formed,
the temperature is raised to about 60°, and the crop is
thinned, if thought necessary. _Water-is now liberally
applied to the border. After . May, little fire-heat is
given, and air is very freely admitted through the day.
Mr Knight strongly recommends the exposing the
fruit, when ripening, to the full influence ‘of the sun in
warm and bright days, and covering it with the glass
roof during cold night, air or rains. He has, in the
London Horticultural Transactions, vol. i. p. 199, de-
scribed an improved peach-house. The angle of the
roof is only 28° in Lat. 52°. In order that the lights
may be moved to the required extent with facility, the
are made short, and divided in the middle. The bac
wall does not exceed nine feet high. Two rows of
trees are planted; one in front, tramed on an almost
horizontal or very slightly inclined trellis; and the
other on the back wall. The house is 50 feet long,
but commanded by a single furnace.
The usual displacing of useless buds and spray, and
laying in of new shoots, are operations which must, of
course, be attended to, as in the management of peach
and nectarine trees on the open wall.
Some of the best fruits for the peach-house are, the red
magdalen, the white magdalen, royal George, noblesse,
late mignone, early Newington, teton de Venus, and Ca-
therine peaches; and of the nectarines, the Newington,
the red Roman, and the violet. But all the kinds former.
ly mentioned § 88. are occasionally placed in the peach-
ouse,
The Cherry-house.
205. The cherry-house, if one furnace only be em-
ployed, is nearly of the dimensions mentioned for the
peach-house. The cherry-house is always considered
and managed as a forcing-house. There is commonly
a glass front between two and three feet high; thus
givingroom in the fore-part of the border, for some dwarf
trees, either cherry or fig, or perhaps apricot ; the prin-
cipal cherry-trees being trained against a trellis in the
back wall. The flue along the front and at each end,
is covered with a small horizontal grate or trellis of
wood, and on this pots of strawberries or of kidney-
beans are forced. For the dwarf trees in front, such
as have been kept in pots or tubs for some time, are to
be preferred. Poecing in the cherry-house is usually
begun about the new-year ; but for a month: before the
fire is lighted, the house is shut at night, so as gradual-
ly to accustom the plants to the confined air and in-
creased temperature. At first the temperature is kept
at 40°. Till the flower-buds appear, air is admitted, in
the day-time, freely ; but after this, till the season be-
come mild, with great caution. by the upper sashes
only. When the fruit is setting, in the beginning of
March, the temperature is kept as steadily as possible
about 50°. After it is set, water is given plentifully. at the;
root, and also dashed over the foliage, and air is freely
admitted. when the weather will permit. When the
fruit is colouring, little water is given, the temperature
is raised, and as much air as possible is given, When
the crop is gathered, the house.is generally. thrown
quite open ; in many cases, even the glass-roof is taken
off, By much the best cherry for forcing is the com-
mon Mayduke. ;
206. The kinds of strawberries preferred for frcing,.
HORTICULTURE.
are the scarlet, the alpine, and wood.strawberry. The
plants undergo a course of pre
they be forced. They should alwa
the most fruitful plants ; and the offsets nearest to the
parent plant are to be preferred. During the first sum-
mer, they are not only regularly deprived of all run-
ners as they appear, but the flowers are also picked off:
vigorous plants, filling the pots, are thus secured for
fruiting in the following spring. If the fruit be wanted
very early, the plants are placed in a hot-bed frame in
the end of October, and there brought to flower, be-
ing transferred to the forcing-house when the furnace
is set agoing. They generally yield ripe fruit early
in March, and continue to afford successive gatherings
till the end of April, making a pleasing appearance at
this season, and a rich addition to the spring dessert.
Water is pretty liberally supplied till the fruit begin to
ripen, when it is given sparingly. It may here be re-
marked, that if strawberry plants which have been pre-
pared as for forcing, be planted in front of a hot-wall,
they can scarcely fail to ripen fruit early in May. :
207. Of kidney-beans the best kind for forcing, is’
the early speckled dwarf. The beans are sown, in small
pots, (called 24’s or 16’s,) in any sort of light rich
earth, three beans in each, and placed in the house
when fire-heat is begun. As they advance, they re~
quire frequent watering, and as much air as circum-
stances will permit. The pods should be gathered
when rather young, as in this way the plants continue.
longer to yield them,.
The Vinery or Grape-house.
208. A vinery with two furnaces is generally fifty Vinery.
feet in length, and fourteen or fifteen in width within ;
the height of the back wall being ten or twelve feet,
and of the parapet about eighteen inches. When one
furnace only is employed, the length of the house
should never pr irty or thirty-five feet. The
arapet wall is generally supported on small arches or
rt. 4 as mca described in the peach-house, so that
the vines, which are planted inside the house, may.
send abroad their roots in search of suitable nourish-
ment, Sometimes the vines are planted without, and
introduced through slanting apertures.
209. Very commonly the roof is formed of sashes,
which can be let down for the admission of air. Ina
grape-house described by Mr Knight, (Hort. Trans.
Lond, vol. i. p. 100,) the air is admitted at the ends,
where all the sashes are made to slide; a free current
may thus be made to pass through the house. Besides,
about four feet of the upper end of every third light
of the roof is made to lift up, being attached by hinges
to.the wood-work on the top of the back-wall; and in
this way, air is given in hot and calm weather, with-
out any additional shade. Here it may be remarked,
with great submission to that eminent horticulturist,
that currents of air are seldom wanted in hot-houses ;
they often indeed prove hurtful. To give air, there-
fore, principally by means of currents seems not a i
plan ; for the ] openings in the roof are not
to be able to. counteract the rush of cold air at the ends.
In giving air to vines, it is of great importance to have
a free and soft circulation : this will prove. highly sa-
lubrious to. the plants, while, in the same temperature
of the atmosphere, a current would be hurtful.
210. In planting a new grape-house the young vines
are put in, in February or March, and little or no fire
heat is given ; they make strong shoots the first year,
ation fora year before Garden.
s be taken from SY
HORTICULTURE: 238
such 2s are wanted for the trellis are means, and where the roots and branches bear arelative —_ Fruic-
pe ; pho. ee ion to each other. But supposing they were Garden.
poche smegma nadhigasomiti oo “ 2
easily keep grape-houses cons with, Vinery,
y fruit-bearing plants, and that the kinds may
be almost at pleasure. When it a sen that.
too much bearing wood has been trained in, the plants:
are relieved, and sufficient sun and air admitted, by thus:
removing two or three shoots; and supposing these
to contain each several bunches, _ amen fine sort of
grape, are not lost, but may be ripened, by setting.
the sommes. side-shelves, or flue trellis, of the pine-«
ry, or any hot-house.
212, The proper management of the grape-house has.
now become an important part of the duty of a gar-
dener. To lay down particular rales in this place is
d, impossible ; a few general hints only can be given. A
t deal of useful information on this subject may be
found in the excellent Treatise on the Culture of the
Vine, by’ Mr William Speechly, London, 1789; and in
the Forcing Gardener, by Mr Walter Nicol, Edinburgh,
1809. These and similar books the gardener should
study, as containing the results of experience; . but
many cases will occur, in which he must on
his own practical knowledge, and be guided solely by
his own judgment.
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wood containing a joint, into the soil in the The forcing of the earliest -house is often begun
The earth is kept in a wet state ; pore Boren Brsatener is Janmary. “Zill all the buds be broke, air ia daily adq
@ moist warm air is maintained in the house. Inabout mitted by the sashes, and the heat is kept moderate, so
a week or ten days, roots are found to have proceeded that the thermometer may indicate only 50° or 55° in the
t
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F
i
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f
y mornings and stows when the sun has no influence.
may be seen by merely stirring the surface of the earth, The temperature is then gradually raised, in the course
or sometimes may be observed ing to its ofa fortnight or three weeks, to about 70°. .When the
safely dletachest Very flowers appear, it is increased nearly to 75°, and the
house is frequently steamed, by sprinkling water on the
flues, or on the walk when the sun shines, expe be-
ing found to set best in a strong moist heat, gar-
y dener now selects his bearing wood for next year, and
toning Sashentaso es pepe trellis, a foot above the
other, and the wires of which are perhaps two feet
method, above described, in apart; while he nips off all lateral and superfluous
to be made onthe produce, and at the same time shortens the bearing
cut, and removed to the shoots at an inch beyond the uppermost cluster. While
the berries are swelling, water is moderately given.
a covered with shoots, and next sea- Nicol, indeed, recommends, that it should be given li-
they
fieteae
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rf vein
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i
ield a full crop of grapes. It is berally till they begin to ripen ; but this has been con-
: Id be allowed to do so, if per- sidered as likely Se hear the grapes of their proper
manently plants be wished for: on the contra- raciness and flavour.
ry, they should be suffered to carry only « very mode- = The thinning of the bunches deserves attention. This
Sr are teeta are On Saas cand net is sometimes neglected; but in many kinds, without
sustain a full one; or at any rate, that this attention, the berries in the middle of the bunch
the plants would necessarily shew their exhausted are apt to get mouldy and to rot ; and in all cases where
state, by barrenness in the following season. By this thinning is practised, the berries become larger and
the more delicate kinds, as the frontignac, may more equal in size. In the operation of thinning, par-
be quickly propagated we have seen layers of the ticular care should be taken that the left hand, with
Gibraltar or oye pean in the beginning of which the bunch is held, be kept cool, and also quite
July, reach the feet before the end free from ired matter. For this pu , the gar-
of the month, i cS the same time two or three dener shewla hove a vessel with pure Til eae beside
bunches of oom 2 more hardy, such as the white him, into which he may now var then dip his hand, to
muscadine, stronger plants in that space of keep it cool aud clean. Without this precaution the
time. - Little difficulty is experienced in removing the berries often suffer from being handled, acquiring a
from the pots into the holes prepared for them: rusty diseased look, and not swelling freely.
if there be fears of preserving a ball of cart! tothe new | When the grapes approach Naatnitty, sib abe nerend
roots, the pots may be sunk with them, and then bro- that no more watering is proper. Air, however, is free-
ken and removed ; or the plants may be kept in the pots ly admitted. In general,.a proportion of the foliage,
till autumn, when they may very easily be taken out of especially on the stubs on which the clusters hang, is
‘them wichout detriment. “Mr Macdonald’ experience removed. The fruitought to remain till it be fully ripe ;
does not lead him to think that plants ted in but this the impatience of the owners seldom permits.
this way are Jess durable than those by slower When the fruit is all gathered, the stubs which bore it
OL, XI. PART I. 26
Fig-house,
Pinery,
' pine-apple: a bark pit, for nursin
234
are cut off, and the new shoots:are let down from’ the
upper trellis to their proper places. Watering both of
border and foliage is now resumed; and the house’ is
usually left fully exposed tothe atmosphere. The ge-
neral pruning is performed from’the middle to the’ end
of October, and time is thus’ given for the ‘healing of
the wounds before forcing be again commenced: At
this pruning the loose part of the outer bark on’ the
old wood is carefully peeled off, and the whole plant
and ‘the trellises are washed with some penetrating li-
quid, calculated to destroy the minute eggs of insects.
For about a fortnight after this severe pruning: the
house is kept shut, but it is afterwards freely exposed
as before.
The management of the late ie eter entirely res
sembles that of the early, making due allowance for the
difference of season, It is not intended for forcing the
fruit, but merely for supplying the deficiencies of our
natural climate in spring and autumn.
As the vinery may remain without its glass-covers
for many months in the year, in some places, especially
in the south and west of England, the peach-house is
formed exactly of the same dimensions ; and, when the
peach season is over, the glass frames are transferred to
the vinery, and, if the blossoms have escaped, a crop of
ripe grapes, of the best sorts, is thus procured in
tember or October, and the new wood is thoroughly
ripened,
Fig-House.
213. The fig-house is generally constructed on the
same plan as the cherry house, with fig-trees on the back
wall trellis, and either dwarf figs, cherries, or apricots in
front, the flues being likewise covered with a small trel-
lis for holding pots of strawberries or kidney-beans, A
separate hot-house, however, is but seldom erected for
the cultivation or the forcing of figs ; a few dwarf trees,
such as the brown Italian, and purple Italian, intro-
duced into the peach or cherry house, being by most
people thought sufficient. It has been found by expe-
rience, that dwarf standard fig-trees, planted in the
middle of a vinery, between the flues, and so under the
shade of the vines, bear fruit plentifully, ripening both
the spring and autumn crops. This may be seen in the
vinery which forms a ber of the splendid range of
hot-houses at Preston Hall near Edinburgh, designed
by Mr John Hay.
The Pinery.
214, Three sorts of frames, pits, or houses, are res
quired for the successful or extensive culture of the
the’ crowns and
suckers ; a low stove, generally called the succession
pit, where the plants are kept till they be ready for
fruiting; and a pine-stove or fruiting-house.
215. The Pine-apple is the Bromelia ananas of Lin-«
neus, (belonging to the class and order Hexandria Mo-
nogynia, and to the natural family Bromelie of Jussieu.)
Some have supposed it to be a native of Africa; but
Linneus considered it as a Brazilian plant. It was in-
troduced into this country as a curiosity about 1690;
and Bradley has preserved to us correct’ information
concerning its first cultivation for the sake of the fruit.
In1724, Henry Telende, gardener to Sir Matthew Deck«
er, at Richmond, had forty ananas, which ripened their
fruit by means of the artificial heat arising from’ the
fermentation of tanner’s bark ; and by the year 1730,
HORTICULTURE.
pine-stoves, of various kinds, were established in all the
principal English gardens.
Garden,
The name pine-apple seems to’ be derived from the “~V~
general resemblance of the fruit to some large cone of a Pine-appl
ine-tree. The' fruit may be described botanically asa
ind of pulpy sealy strobilus; composed of a number of
coadunate berries. In richness of flavour it cannot be
surpassed ; and it is one’ of the greatest triumphs of the
gardener’s art to'be able to boast, that this fruit can be
produced in Britain in as high perfection as in'a tropi-
cal climate. Its culture is however very expensive, the
plants requiring constant attention for at least two years,
very commonly for'three. ¢
216. The following are the most approved varieties:
The Queen pine. The King pine,
Brown sugar-loaf. Green pine.
Striped sugar-loaf. Black Antigua.
Montserrat. Black Jamaica.
The Queen pine is perhaps the most common in this
country, and in Europe, as it is the hardiest. The fruit
is of an oval or rather tankard shape, of a yellowish
colour, but the _ pale. It grows to a large size,
sometimes weighing 3 lb. :
The Brown sugar loaf is of a pyramidal or conical
shape, with a yellow or straw-coloured pulp, and brown-
ish leaves. The plants may be distingui by the
leaves having purple’ stripes on’ the inside throughout
their whole length. The fruit also grows to a tango
size. Its juice is‘accounted less astringent than that of
some other varieties, and consequently it may be eaten
more freely. ;
The Striped sugar-loaf is’ so named, from its green
leaves being striped with purple; in one sub-variety
they are prickly, in another smooth. In colour and fla«
vour, the fruit resembles'the Queen pine, and it is near«
ly as hardy.
The Montserrat pine is distinguished by the leaves
being of a dark brown, inclining to purple on the inside;
and by the pips or protuberances of the fruit being lar-
ger and flatter than in the other kinds,
The King pine is a large fruit, first raised in this
country by Miller; its leaves are of a grass n Co-
lour ; the pulp is hard, and rather stringy, but of good
flavour when ripe:
The Green pine is not common; when ripe, the fruit
is of an olive hue.
The Black Antigua pine is shaped like the frustum of
a pyramid. The leaves of the plant have a brownish
tinge, and fall down; they have strong prickles, thinl
seattered. The pips of the fruit are large, often an in
over ; it attains a large size, wT caeetedeed Sb. or
4lb.; it is of a dark colour till it ripen; very juicy,
and high flavoured. ‘
The Black Jamaica is likewise a very large kind, and
similar in habits and. character to the black Antigua.
217. In gardens of the first order, the pinery is now
nerally placed in a detached situation, and the three
inds of pits or houses above mentioned conveniently
form a continuous range or suite by themselves; the
fruiting-house, being higher in the roof, occupies the
centre, and the nursing pit and succession house are
placed to the right and left.
ie
218. The nursing pit is commonly about three or four Nursing pits
feet high in front, and between seven and eight at the
back wall, or the difference between the height in front
and in rear does not ner tears <; — ~ > -' of »
w , oo “y tess Leuven ne
oe “be aides
The pine-apple is by planting either the
or w c
it, or by the suc-
er
i
il
i
of ior quality, may be en-
ockare, by plunging them i
Ht
ne
i
i
E
an
hay
cf
al
Fs
+
¥
if
i
eg
+
n
i
i
;
i
:
HE
‘
ie
Ht
7
Fe
TE
. The. now used
inches across, SP iaaiery teed
roots are carefully cut off, and a few of the
or lowest leaves are removed.
220. In the /ruising-house, more room, greater height,
’ succession frame, so that the lower
235
and at the same time a higher temperature arerequired. Fruit-
The here used are from 8 to 10 inches in diameter,
and 10 inches deep. In the bottom of these fruiting-
pots, it is better to put half rotted grass-turf than shivers Fruiting
in to shew house.
or gravel. From the time that the plants
fruit, the temperature is not suffered to fall below 65°
Fahr. ; it is kept generally at 75°, or at least above 70° :
in sunshine it is allowed to rise to 85°, or even 95°, as
fresh air can thus be more freely admitted. Water is
iven very cautiously, sufficient only to keep the plants
y, but not to injure the flavour of the fruit. Pine-
apples should be cut a short time before they attain
complete maturity, or be dead ripe. When the fruit
changes colour, in most varieties when it becomes
ish-yellow or straw-coloured, and when it also dif-
fa its peculiar odour to some distance, it may be con-
sidered as fit for cutting.
221. A clearer idea of qed par tase, in the
nursing pit, succession pit, and fruiting-house, ma *
haps be Stained from the following pouipendions wate
of the operations, sug by Abercrombie, in which
specific days or months are assumed, merely in order
more distinctly to mark the anniversary or relative pe-
riods,
Norstxe Prr.
1616, Aug. 15. Crowns or suckers planted.
—— Oct. W. df the plant», from rapid growth, require more room,
some are removed i
Three-year fruiting plants.
Nuxsino Pit continued.
1817, May. Plants intended to
Succession Prr. -
1817. Mar. 30. Forward plants
complete abe ne peop moans | along
are ted ; having to larger
The ball of earth iia teonghe Ge oleae
away, and the old root here.
fibres pruned off. —— May or June. Succession
pines are sometimes in-
Suocnssion Per. termediately shifted,
—— Aug. 15. Plants that have Mimepe Poe yas Meas
} wpe the nursing pit
previous year, are
i transferred
shifted and Favttixe Housr.
—— Aug. 15. Plants from the
succession pit, after be-
ing only one year in the
first and second y
are shifted into the
Ce ae tee
re.
1818. Aug. 1. Such plants afford.
it fit for cutting.
Paortixe Hover.
188. Aug, 16. Plants which have
remained one year in the
nursing pit, and a second
year in the succession
- pits axe removed to this
1919. Aug. 1. Such plants ri
L. Su pen
222. Success in the culture of this fruit, it may be
remarked, very much depends on two circumstances ;
on giving them plenty of-room in the nursery pit and
= of the plant
may swell out and increase in bulk, without being
drawn up ; and on keeping the fruiting plants in a con-
tinued healthy or vi i state: for this last purpose,
early in the spring the tan of the fruiting house should
be stirred, anc. a fresh quantity intermixed, so as to
Fruit-
Garden.
—\—
Pine-apple.
Orangery.
Orange.
236
raise a new fermentation and accompanying heat. In
the different pine-stoves it is found very diattageias
frequently to white-wash the plaster, and to repaint the
wood work, 76s
223. The plants, especially if weak or not: healthy,
are subject to the attack of a small species of coccus
C. hesperidum, Lim) commonly called the pine-bug.
he insects adhere closely to the leaves, often near the
base, and seem almost inanimate. Mr Miller recom-
mends turning the plants out of the pots, and ‘cleaning
the roots; then keeping them immersed for four-and-
twenty hours in water in which tobacco stalks’ have
been infused : ‘the bugs are then'to be rubbed-off with
a sponge, and the plants, ‘after being washed in'clean
water and dripped, are to be repotted. Mr Muirhead,
a gardener in the north ‘of Scotland, ‘has describeda
similar mode, (Scottish Hort. Mem. vol. i. p.209,) only
in place of tobacco juice he directs flowers of sulphur
to be mixed. with the water. With a bit of bass-mat
fixed on a'small stick and dipt in water, he displaces as
many of the insects as he can see. He then immerses
the plants in a tub of water, containing about 1 lb:
of flowers of sulphur to each garden-pot-full. They
remain covered with the water for twenty-four hours,
as desired by Miller. They are then laid with their
tops downward, to dry, and are repotted in the usual
manner. What share of the cure, in either of these
ways, may be due to the sulphur or to the tobacco liquor,
does not clearly appear ; the rubbing off or loosening
the insects is evidently important ; and it is not unlike-
ly that immersion, in simple water, so long continued,
may alone be sufficient to destroy-them. Indeed, the
experience of one of the best practical gardeners in
Scotland (Mr Hay) leads him to conclude, that even
moderate moisture is destructive to these insects. Du-
ring many years, he regularly watered his pine-plants
over head with the squirt, during the summer months:
this was done only in the evening ; it never injured the
plants ; and the bug never appeared upon them.
The Orangery.
924, This is merely a green-house, and indeed is
generally employed in part for protecting ornamental
plants and shrubs. In a few places the orange trees
are planted in the border soil, in the manner of shrubs
in a conservatory. The genus citrus includes not only
the orange, but the shaddock, lemon, citron, and lime:
it belongs to the class and order Polyadelphia Polyan-
dria, and natural order Aurantiz of Jussieu. In warm
countries the trees rise to the height of perhaps fifty
feet ; here they seldom exceed the size of shrubs. The
species may readily be distinguished by the petiole or
Jeaf-stalk: in the orange and the shaddock, this. is
winged ; in the lemon, citron and lime, which are con-
sidered as varieties belonging to one species, it is na-
ked. The orange and shaddock fruits are almost sphe-
rical, and of the yellowish-red colour known by the
name of orange; the lime is spherical, but of a pale
yellow ; the lemon is oblong, with a nipple-like protu-
berance at the end; the citron is oblong, and distin-
guished by having a very thick rind.
225. Of the Orange (Citrus aurantium, Lin.) there
are two principal varieties ; 1. The sweet orange, inclu-
ding the China orange, the Portugal orange, and simi-
lar kinds; and, 2. The bitter orange, including the Se-
ville orange, and other varieties called Jigarades by the
French. . The Seville orange-tree produces its fruit
more readily in this country, and has larger and more
beautiful leaves than the China orange: -the former is
HORTICULTURE.
therefore more generally cultivated, but the latter also
the willow-leaved or Turkey orange, the dwarf or nut-
meg orange, the double-flowering, and many other va- Orangery. 1
pera some with the leaves variegated yellow and
white. ;
' Sir Francis Carew is said, by Mr Lyson,' (Environs
of London, vol.i.) to have introduced orange trees into
this country, in thé reign of Elizabeth ; Bie whether
he brought plants, or raised them from the ‘séeds of
oranges brought’ home by Sir Walter Raleigh, is not
clear ; it may be remarked, however, that it has long
been known from experience, that in this climate orange
plants raised from seed shew no inclination to Lobeiae
fruit ; whereas Sir Francis Carew’s yielded plenty of
fruit. What is further curious in the ‘history of these
eatly orange trées, is, that they were planted in the
open border, and bapa during winter’merely by a
moveable shed. They grew on the south side of a
wall, not nailed against it, but at full liberty to spread;
they were 14 feet high, and extended about 12 feet
wide. ‘They were finally cut off by the great frost of
1740, after having stood a century and a half. Profes-
sor Martyn informs us, (Miller’s Dict. in loco), that
. they had, the year before, been inclosed in a perma-
nent building like a green-house; and he very just-
ly remarks, that the dampness of new walls, ht en
want of the usual quantity of free light and air to which
they had been accustomed, might probably have killed
them, even had the great frost never occurred.
226. The orangeries of this country are supplied in
two ways; either by plants raised from the seed, and
budded, inarched, or grafted by our nurserymen and
gardeners; or by small budded trees imported in chests
from Italy. :
shee A stocks are common citrons, this tree mak-
ing strong straight shoots, and receiving readily either
orange or shaddock buds ; they are procured by sow-
ing ripe citron seeds. Next to these, Seville orange
stocks are desirable ; the seeds may be taken from rot-
ten Seville oranges, which are generally the ri
They are sown in pots sunk in a bark hot-bed, and,
about two months afterwards, each plant is transferred
to a small flower-pot, about five inches in diameter.
They are gradually hardened, by admitting air, till
the end of September, when they are transferred to
the greenhouse for the winter. Next spring they are
forwarded, by being again plunged in a moderate hot-
bed; but after midsummer they are hardened as much
as possible, and in August they are ready for budding.
The buds should be taken from trees in a bearing state,
and which are known generally to afford a good crop,
preferring buds from round shoots to those from flat
shoots. ‘The plants are again preserved in the green-
house through the winter; and inthe following spring,
they are once more planted in a gentle hot-bed, the
stocks at the same time being cut off about three inches
above the buds: By this means, the stem of the fu-
ture tree generally grows up straight in one season. |
Trees raised in the way now described, require no
less than fifteen or sixteen years to attain the size of
those imported in boxes from the Mediterranean. The
latter, if they be good plants, if they have not suffered
greatly from the voyage, and if they be properly ma-
naged on their arrival, will bear fruit in three or four
‘years. But it is chiefly the shaddock and citron that
are thus imported. Those stocks which have two buds
inserted in them, it is observed, make finer heads than
such as have one only. To recover the trees after their
being so long out of the earth, requires some care and
Finite
succeeds very well in some places. There tre besides, Garden, _
r
ee ee ae) ee
»
zm,
HORTICULTURE. 237
attention : planted in fine vegetable mould, in orange; but it is more hardy than that species, and re- —_ Frutit-
peared = ct of some inches in the qhr une the air duri Y inti: It should also be _ Garden.
tin oe aneieinees re uous moisture, and watered somewhat more liberally. In ge ety ie doe
are placed in abot-bed; at the same time, hay bands England, lemon-trees succeed very well in the open
are w round the stems, to prevent the sun’srays border against south walls: they are sheltered during
fen ertnaeying che task. . _ winter by moveable glass frames, and produce plenty
~ 227. Young. trees are every season repotted, of large fruit, making a pleasant variety on the wall. —
in i for successive years, till they pro- 232. The Lime is and treated much in Lime
earth or compost must be at the same way as the lemon. x
be completely rotten. V
conue locas, that Jasin cr sight Routt: Tunlghey they are
generally planted in wooden cases or tubs. When old
ge trees have been mismanaged, it is found very
neefal i ee
plished by. planting them in baskets, and sinking these
tae Wie bakits ant anade of & laweine than
are restored to these, the
are cut away, and the empty space filled with
It is shee np ler egit every season,
are removed to the air: the place
Secliared frons high srinde' and it 1s found best thet the
LEE
iH
Hi
win
wilt
Hat
fit
|
Indifferent places of England, Seville trees
ee ee ee ee border, mn emu-
lation of Sir F. Carew’s trees, and covered during
fed,
afforded
|
Citrus decumana, L.) is the
pelmous of the French, Dela however describi
the chadec a8 a large variety of C. aurantivm: the de-
nomination Shaddock was given from the name of the
officer who first conveyed the from the
East to the West Indies. It is managed like the orange
tree, but is somewhat more tender, and must be treated
large and rij
as at Wi
230. Se
like the orange ; ing rather
in
be the warmest and most sheltered in the garden. There
ee - | oom
v it, poncire rench.
~ 281, j paar y budded or inarched on
acitron stock. Its culture is the same as that of the
; vers, in which are two ventilators to admit: air,
- at right angles, a wall is extended di
233. Having thus given a general account of forcing.
houses, or hot-houses for producing fruit, taken ty
rately, we shall now describe a range or suite, and at
the same time shall illustrate what we say by refer-
ence to the plans, elevations and sections contained in
Plates CCCX, and CCCXI. The magnificent suite of
lazed houses ted in the former Plate, it will
G observed, is by no means ideal, but exists in the
en of Dalmeny Park, the seat of the Earl of Rose-
am near Edinburgh ; and the accuracy of the plans
may be relied on, Mr Hay, the designer employed at
Dalmeny, having, with permission of the noble pro-«
prietor, fav us with them. We shall at the same
time give a short description of the garden, and particu-
larly of the walls, as illustrative of some improvements
in this branch of horticulture introduced by Mr Ha
234. The garden at Dalmeny Park lies on the face Dalmeny
of a bank having a considerable declivity to the south Park gars
and south-east. It is bounded on the north by a low 42
hill crowned with trees cos about 40 years old ; on
the west, by rising ground with trees of the same stand-
ing ; and on the east, by hollow marshy ground, like-
wise covered with trees. On the south flows a little
rill, the bed of which terminates the slope on which the
garden is placed: from this lowest point the d
rises gradually to the south, to some height. Part of
this risin on the south side of the streamlet is
included within the ring fence which surrounds the
en, and is laid out in shrabbery and parterres
through these the walk from the house to the fruit.
garden is conducted. The soil of the lowest part con-
sists chiefly of bog or peat earth, admirably adapted for
the growth of American shrubs, such as rhododendrons
and kalmias. The contains about two Scottish
acres within the walls. The fruit-tree borders are 18
feet wide, and the walks seven feet broad; the soil
beneath the gravel of the walks was with the
same care as that of the borders. The walls in gene.
ral are 14 feet high; the east wall is somewhat more.
are built of bricks manufactured at Leven in Fife,
and regular bricklayers were brought from Newcastle
forthe purpose of rearing them, The whole extent of the
south wall, 961 feet in length, is flued, the heat being
supplied by twelve furnaces placed on the north side of
the wall, stx on each side of the central door. The tops
of the furnaces are covered with flags, which are on
the same level as the soil of the garden; and the stock
holes or entrances to the furnaces have hatchway co.
In
this way the furnaces produce no disagreeable appear-
ance. The trees on this wall may, at the same time,
be covered with the osnaburg canvas mentioned in
§ 84. From the corners of the walls where they meet
ly about
17 feet. This extension is found very useful in break-
ing the force of the wind when ranging along the
walls. At the same time it does away in a considera-
ble ee the formal box sha of the garden when
Pe from the higher in the neighbourhood.
grou
apex of the projecting wall is rounded: here a
238
Fruit- jargonelle pear-tree is planted ; the branches are train-
oe ed to’ both sides of the wall, and the fruit of course
PLaTE
ccoxX.
ripens at different times.
235. The contrivance for watering or washing the
foliage of. the wall-trees in this garden deserves par-
ticular notice, . Water is supplied to the garden from a
reservoir situated on.an eminence a considerable height
above the) garden walls. Around the whole garden, |
four inches below the surface of the ground, a groove
between two and three inches deep has been formed in
the walls, to receive a three-quarter-inch pipe for con-
ducting the water.. About 50 feet distant from each’
other are apertures through the wall, two feet and a
half high and ten inches wide, in which a cock is placed,
so constructed,.that.on turning the handle. to either
side of the wall, the water issues from that side. It
has a screw on each side, to which is attached at plea-
sure a leathern:pipe, ,with a brass cock and director,
roses pierced \with holes of different sizes being fitted to
the latter. By this contrivance all the trees, both out-~
side and inside the wall, can be most effectually water-
ed and washed in.a very short space of time, and with
very little-trouble.. Oneman may go over the whole
in two hours. At the same time, the borders, and
even a considerable part of the quarters, can be water-
ed with the greatest ease when required. The conve-
niency and. utility of this:contrivanee must at once be
perceived by every practical horticulturist. The same
plan of introducing water is adopted in a garden which
Mr Hay planned and executed. for Lord Viscount Dun-
can at Lundie House near Dundee; and after the ex-
_ perience of several years it has been greatly approved
of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to the garden
from a considerable height, and is thrown from the
point of the director with great force and to a good dis«
tance. A sketch of the cock, pipe and director, is
given in Plate CCCX. Fig. 6; a the cock; 6% the
leathern pipe; c the director.
236. In the middle of the north wall of the garden
is the great range of hot-houses, consisting of seven, a
central one, and three on each side, The entire suite
extends from east to west 181 feet. .The elevation of
this fine range is :seen in) Plate CCCX. Fig. 2. The
houses differing: considerably in breadth, the eye is not
offended. with monotonous: uniformity ;, and: the addi-
tion of a central door, with a diamond-trellis \arch,
ornamented with tender and showy climbing: plants,
is a great. improvement in point of appearance. The
ground, plan. of, these houses is given at Fig. 1. of
the same Plate. The middle division A, with those
on the-right:and left of it, B,and C, are peach houses,
On the) back wall.are placed. trellises, to which the
principal, peach-trees are trained. Small trees: are al-
so trained on low sloping trellises in the front, over
the flues. The farthest east. division D, is. what is
called a Double Peach-house ; peach trees being trained
on the back wall as in the other houses, and likewise in
front on a wire trellis on the roof of the house, reach-
ing upwards as far as-the first or under sash only. The
trees on the front part of the house may be forced -be-
fore those.on the-back wall. To accomplish this, the
upper sashes of the house are kept off, thus admitting
air freely tothe trees on the: back wall; while mean-
timethe front trees.are inclosed within the first two re-
ommeen the flues, by some of moveable shutters: made
for urpose, one of them bein aced omhin
spalitoed. as a door. . Hence the one ee Double Peach.
house... The partition remains only until the fruit be
set; at which time it isremoved, and the roof-sashes
put;on. . By:these:means the fruit season in thisshouse
HORTICULTURE.
is protractefl a considerable time, perhaps a month or.
more. Fig. 5. in Plate CCCX, is a section of this
double peach-house.
The other three divisions of the range, E, F, G, are
grape-houses. The back. walls geal covered with
trellises. A vine is planted in the middle, and trained
on the trellis at the top of the house, where in general
there is plenty of light in the early time of forcing. The
lower part of the trellis is covered with fig-trees, which,
as already mentioned, § 213. have been found to suc-
ceed very well in such situations. Fig. 3. Plate CCCX,
is a section of division F. A;
In all the houses of this suite, air is given by moying
the'upper sashes by means of weights and pulleys placed
in a cavity in the back wall, as seen at aaa, in the
sections, Figs. 3,.4, and 5.
Into. each of the hot-houses is introduced a three«
quarter-inch pipe, coming from an inch one, which
passes along the back of the walls. ‘The.cocks are of
the same kind as those in the walls already described ;
andthe directors, when screwed upon them, water the
houses with very little trouble, and are exceedingly use«
ful in keeping under the red spider, and other insects,
237. On the.north side of this range, opposite to the
middle hot-house, is a mushroom-house, constructed on
Oldacre’s plan, (to be afterwards described), It has a
large and. a small pit, with four shelves on the. back
wall, and three shelves on each of the two ends, all of
wah hone be used for the purpose of raising mush-
rooms, either at the same time,.or in succession. The
large pit is partly filled with earth, and kitchen vege-
tables are kept/in it in time of severe frost. Sea cale
can also: occasionally be! forced.in this pit Fig. 4.
Plate CCCX. is the section of the mushroom-house, and.
also of the middle peach-honse, the ground plan of the
pa rie, being at H, and of the peach-house
at A.
238. On the east side of the en is situated.the
melon ground. The garden wall. is extended onthe
north of it tothe of 152 feet, of the same. height
as the other walls, and flued like the rest of the. .wall
having a south ct. The pine-stoves are situated
here. The ground on which stand falls consider-
ably from north to south. The _are placed on
the south side of the stoves; and, on the same side,
there is a narrow nursi
length of the house. This pit may, at pleasure, be divi-
ded, at the fctniomeasiareiiedae
pit, four feet broad, the whole. «
divisions, p;D,p. The prare
lass-roof of the pit covers the top of the furnaces, and CCCXL.
thence heated air is introduced, by means of aper-
tures with dampers, into either pit as it may be want-
ed. » Heated air can also be admitted from the stove to
the small pit, by means of openings in. cast iron. doors,
which can be shut when required. When still more of
the warm air is wished to be communicated from the stove
to the small pit, the doors are made. to lift out altoge-
ther, and as the front flue of the stove passes these
doors, the heated air has free access to rush in ; or it
can beadmitted from the vacuities between the flue and
front wall. As the tan in the small pit is of no great
body, and cannot long maintain its heat, the front of the
‘pits built of brick, with pillars and holes similar to a
‘pigeon house ;,and there is an inclosed, space in front of
it, to:receive a lining of warm dung, when the heat, is
‘wished to be increased. This. linmg is covered over
with flooring, which forms. part of the walk, tends to.
prevent the dissipation of the heat, and gives the whole
a neat and clean ‘appearance. — : 7
The spaces over top of the furnaces can at plea~
sure be converted into distinct or separate forcing
-«< Ryan
HORTICULTURE.
natural heat do not abound, the form which admits —Fruit-
test quantity of light through the least breadth Garten.
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- dicularly as
‘239
the
of | and which affords the greatest’ regu
with the least expenditure of fuel, must be the’ best.
It is evident that the sun’s rays ought'to fall as perpen+
ible on the glass roof’; because the
pened of light which glances off without entering
house, must be inversely proportionate to the de-
gree of ~n with which it strikes upon the surface
of the glass, Mr Knight made many experiments to
ae what elevation of the roof the
quantity of light can be made to pass through it; and
he found that in latitude 52°, the best angle of eleva-
tion is $4°. But it canndt be denied, that the rays of
the sun will fall, in a directly icular direction,
on this inclined plane, only twice in the year, and then
for only very short of time: at all other periods,
they must fall in an inclined direction, and never per-
icular to the plane of the glass. Without expect.
ing, therefore, that the rays will ever fall precisely per-
a upon it oftener than twice in the year, it is of
portance
test
t they should do so as much as possible,
during those periods when the influence of the sun is
most Seaired. Mr Knight (in Hort. Trans. Lond. vol. i.
p. 100.) and the Rev. Mr Wilkinson (same volume,
p- 162.) do not agree as to the proper inclination of the
lass-roof: instead of 34°, pro by the former, the
would Wave the angle 45°. It seems unnecessary
to detail the reasons assigned by either writer.
240. It has been remarked by Sir George Mac-
kenzie, that if a form for the glass roof can be found,
such that the rays will be icular fo some part
of # during the entire period of the sun's shining,
not on two days, but on en ton f of the year, that
form must be considered the This form is to
be found in the ; and he proposes the quar-
ter segment of a , or a semi-dome; though, to
catch the sun at all times, the would have to
See ee
e does not propose to bring each
into the form of a small segment of a
1 ee: sive, but unneces«
of a glazed house of this kind can scarce
yee propriety exceed a radius of fifteen feet, that is,
irty
by ae oom and scientific horticulturist,
have been publi by the Lendon Horticultural Soci.
Be the second volume of their Transactions ; and in
CCCXIL. we have given these, with considerable
ts sinee made by the author. It has been
may
remark, is that commonly used for a slip of any mate.
rial so cut, as when peat tee ks ta or
any round figure. ‘The frame-work might also be made
of wood ; but the wrought iron isnot only much cheap.
er at first, but far more durable. The under frames
be about thirteen feet high ; they are rivetted into
an iron ring at top, and made fast all round to the coping
and upright wall. [ton rods may be placed for supports
at 2, 2,2,2, Fig: 3. if t necessary. The width
of the at the bottom is about a foot, diminishing
to six inches at the second set of ribs ; when they begin
again at one foot, and contract upwards to four inches,
eet of length for training. The plan, elevation p
and section of a vinery constructed on the principles thus COCXIL.
Fruits
Garden. ged if thought proper, in the
240
Air is admitted by sliding shutters, which may be gla-
pet wall in front ; and
also by wooden shutters, moving on pivots, and opened
or shut by means of cords along the back wall; and by
windows in the pediment roof, The glass-roof itself is
immoveable; but the upper part of it may be made into
moveable sashes if required, by forming a. sufficient
number of ribs with grooves, and fixing stay rods on
the under sashes, to receive the upper ones when let
down: and Sir George Mackenzie mentions, that, from
viewing the structure of the roof of Short’s old observa-
tory at Edinburgh, he is convinced that the glass semi-
dome might be made in two parts, and. placed. on rol-
lers, so as to expose at pleasure every plant in the:inte-
rior to the direct influence of the sun. If it is wished
at times, to defend the plants from the sun, a. gore of
canvas may be so contrived as to cover one-half of the
glass. The general appearance of such a house (as seen
in the elevation, Plate CCCXII, Fig. 1.) is doubtless
highly elegant; and it seems. pretty evident, that .se-
veral such houses, tastefully disposed in a garden, would
have a much finer effect than one great range, although
the latter must necessarily be more, economical... Mr
Knight, we understand, highly approves of this inven-
tion, and is of opinion that it will answer every pur-
pose, better than any form hitherto contrived.
242, It may here be mentioned, that Mr Robert
Fletcher, at Bonnyrig, near Edinburgh, a good many
years ago, constructed a grape-house, in the form of a
regular polygon of 24 sides, having a base 24 feet in
diameter. A thin brick -wall, two feet high, passes
around, forming the proper angles: on this wall rest the
couples which support the central or flat part of the roof,
which is eight feet in diameter. An iron ring connects
the couples at the base as.well as at the top, The length
of the couples is 10 feet $ inches. Between these are
glazed sashes, 3 feet, wide at base, and tapering to 1
foot at top. In this way the ceiling is.8 feet 6 inches
from the ground, and the sashes incline at an angle of
40°. The door of the house is to the north ; the -fur-
nace close by one. side of the door; the flue makes
a circuit around the house at the distance of 2} feet
from the wall, and the smoke escapes on the other side
of the door. _ Air is admitted, as wanted, by means of
three ventilators on the south-west side; but in point
of fact air can pass. in by many crevices, particularly at
the flat part,of the roof, and no putty has been used in
glazing. The brick wall being founded merely on the
surface of the ground, the roots of the vines pass under
it in any direction. The soil is dry and rather shallow.
In the end of June, Mr Fletcher forms a heap of vege-
tables, commonly the weeds from his garden, in the
centre of the floor of the house ; when this heap begins
‘to decompose, some degree of heat is produced, a good
deal of vapour rises, and nutritious gases are exhaled :
the heap is occasionally fed, so as to keep up the fer-
mentation till about the middle of September. In this
house, and under this sort of management, has this in-
genious person, for a number of years, raised very.
good crops of grapes of different sorts, particularly the
black Hamburgh, the Lombardy, and the white sweet-
water, the berries of all these kinds becoming large and,
of high flavour..- wack. Snel
243. It may also be noticed, that Mr. Henderson,
nurseryman at Brechin, has constructed. a small het-
house, which he styles. the triple meridian. The nar=
row end of it is placed to the south, and the roof, which
is ridge-shaped, is inclined in the same direction, by a
slope of one foot in six. In consequence of the posi-~
tion of the house, one side has the sun’s rays approach«
HORTICULTURE,
ing to perpendicular at 9A. M, and the other at 3 P. Mi;
and, on account of the to the south in the roof,
the sun’s “ys are enjoyed partially all the time he is
above the horizon. Air is ‘admitted by ventilators,
After several years trial, Mr Henderson has found
such a construction to answer all his expectations.
If melons be the crop raised, no furnace is necessary».
In place of fire heat, the warmth arising from the fer-.
mentation of weeds, or a mixture of grass and rushes,
is sufficient; proper chambers for holding these, and
enabling them to communicate their heat, being pre-
pared within the house. The employment of refuse
vegetables in such a melon-house, or in Mr Fletcher's
grape-house, must ae as a premium for the de«
struction of nettles, thistles, and other weeds, re
244, At Lord Mansfield’s garden at Scone in Scotland
the hot-houses are constructed on a new plan, inas-
much as they have no upright front glass, and all the
sashes are fixed, or not calculated to slide up and down.
Air is admitted by ventilators in front, and at the top
of the back wall. The houses are 12 feet high; the
back wall two feet higher, or 14 feet; and the front.or
parapet. wall only two feet. The advantages of this
plan seem to consist in saving the expence, at, first, of
upright wooden rafters or pillars, and in preventing the
breakage of glass, which must toa certain extent be oc~
casioned by the moving of sashes upand down. But it
is not.to be-concealed that these immoveable sashes are
attended likewise with. some disadvantages, . A liberal
circulation of air is sometimes necessary to the.health
of the young fruit, which, without it, drops off at the
time of the first swelling ; and an equable exposure to
the air is highly important for communicating flavour to
peaches and nectarines when just approaching to ripe-
ness, . Air admitted, however, origins openings in the
front parapet and in the top of the back wall, must in.
some measure form currents, which, as formerly remark-
ed, (§ 209.) are seldom desirable, Even in avoiding ins
juries to the glass, the advantages cannot be very con~
siderable, particularly if the moveable sashes be drawn.
up and down in a steady manner by means of pulleys.
and weights. Whoever erects a house, with a glass
roof, must of course lay his account with occasional ac-
cidents, whether the roof be fixed or moyeable, and one
would be apt to think, that the repairs of panes acci-
dentally broken on fixed roofs, could scarcely be accom-
plished without very. considerable risk of-increasing the
damage, in clambering over them with ladders,
Gathering and keeping of Fruits.
245, Fruits in general should be gathered in the
middle part of a dry day ; not in the morning, before
the dew is evaporated, nor in the eveni
gins to be deposited. Plums readily part the twigs
when ripe: they should not be much handled, as the
bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be ac-
counted ready when the side.next the sun feels a little
soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. They ad-
here firmly to the tree, and would over-ripen on it.
Peaches and nectarines, if moved upwards, and al-
lowed. to descend with a slight jerk, will separate if
ready ; and they may be received into a tin cup ok
nel lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching with the
fingers,or bruising. If this funnel have a handle two or
three feet long, the fruit may be gathered with it from
any low or ordinary wall.. The old role for Jndging of
the ripeness of figs, was to observe if a drop of water
was hanging at the end of the fruit; a more certain one
is, to notice when the small end becomes of the same
colour as the large end. The most ss hel grapes
when it be-)
tei
i
Fi
‘
HORTICULTURE.
243 3
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flavour. Winter a
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VOL. EI. PART I.
241
pears till April ; the terling till June; and many kinds of
who emp sap ake, #8*
ed by Mr White: in his History, of Selborne, must
have been used by our Saxon predecessors, for. they
named the month of February sprout-kale, Cabbage
was a favourite vegetable with the Romans; and their
Italian kind would doubtless be introduced during the
long period of their sway in the south of Britain... To
the inhabitants of the north of Scotland cabbages.were
first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising
Cromwell. ort
274. Of the common white cabbages there are ma=
ny subvarieties, some of which are preferable fora sum-
mer crop; others for an autumn crop ; and a third set,
for winter supply. The Small early dwarf, Large ear«
ly Yorkshire, Early dwarf Yorkshire, Early Battersea,
and Early sugar-loaf, are generally preferred for sum-
mer use, and are ready from May. to July; in some
early situations, even in April. The Imperial, Large
sugar-loaf, Hollow sugar-loaf, and Long-sided, are ex-
cellent for autumn use, and also, in private gardens,
for the winter crop. The Large drum, the Scots, and
the American cabbage, resist the severity of winter,
and grow to a large size; but they are better suited
to field culture and the feeding of cattle. ;
275. Very few remarks on the kinds of close cab-
bages seem requisite. The Long-sided is also called
Large-sided ; it is an excellent sort, but rather .ten-
der, so that it should not be sown till May, nor plant-
ed out till July. The Scots cabbage is much cultiva-
ted in cottage gardens in Scotland ; it grows to a
size, and is seldom affected by the severest frost... Th
Drum is named from its flatness\at top, resembling he
head of a drum: it is also. called White Strasburgh,
and of it chiefly the Germans make their sour-krout.
The American also grows to a large size, and
good till a late period in the spring. The Musk or
med cabbage is almost lost, being preserved only
in a few private gardens. , A.small firm cabbage called
the Russian has also become, rare, being very apt to
degenerate in this country: it is the least and most
1
HORTICULTURE. 247
pede = ayant el , quick of year, very fine cabbage. ts are produced, not much Kitchen
The Wlrien es quality. 00 meall young cba, as,
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and eight or nine inches between the
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278. Young zebbege. plants ore, sheo. ARE RY Cee:
worts or greens.
ect, dr iggy wanting Yeas oak |, such as the
large York, or the sugar-loaf. The seed is sown in the
latter part of summer at different times, so that the
plants may be ready for use during winter and in the
followi i
spring.
279. The Red Cabbage, (Brassica oleracea capitata b.
‘ ickling; and the dwarf yy
rubra) is chiefly used for
red variety certainly does make one of the most beau-
tiful pickles that can be presented at table, It is also
Fa oddewe ie wegee gia. alge ier ae
and, a sort of cabbage is much cultivat
by the common ak under the name of Aberdeen
280. Of the Savoy Cabba,
da), which is distinguished b
there are two principal sorts, the yellow and the green,
the latter being esteemed the hardiest. Savoys are
sown about the middle of April, and planted out in
June. They may be planted considerably closer than
the common cabbage. If savoys are wished before
winter, the seed is sown in February, or even in the
ing autumn; in which last case, fine large plants,
coleworts, as al-
pede He w of the different sorts
em it to man in
of land, It is well eee. Gat no
Apr payer amg
ts of any icu-
lar variety, when in flower, be kept at a LF a or
pmpursalincopermpapestany Megs meee, ia Bower, bese
are extremely apt to carry en one to the
other, pes hats confusion in the progeny. Market
and many private individuals, raise seed
or their own use. of the handsomest cabbages
of the different sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk
in the ground to the head; early next summer a flower
ready mentioned.
281. The raisin
of cabbage, a
various ,
are more liable to be
stem & , which is follow abundance of seed,
A few of the soundest and iest cabbage stalks
furnished with sprouts, answer the same énd, When
the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will
for six or eight years. It is mentioned by Bastien, that
the seed growers of Aubervilliers have learned, by ex-
perience, that seed gathered from the middle flower«
stem ces plants which will be fit for use a fort-
night earlier than those from the seed of the lateral
flower-stems ; this may deserve the attention of the
watchful gardener, and assist him in regulating his
successive crops of the same kind of cabbage.
ith this view some of the pages,
, ( Brassica oleracea sabaue savoy Cab-
by having wrinkled leaves, bage.
‘Kitchen
Garden,
See ee
Coleworts.
‘Open Kale.
Colewort.
248
In the neighbourhood of all considerable towns,
market gardeners and others raise white cabbage and
savoy plants for sale at very easy rates: this proves a
t conveniency to those who have only small gar-
ens, and who perhaps require only 200 or 300 cab-
bage plants.
‘Open Kale,
Colewort, Kale, and Borecole, (Brassica oleracea,
vars.) are general terms for greens that do not cabbage
or form heads, but remain loose and open. The com-
mon colewort is plain ; the others are generally curled
or crumpled.
281. Common coleworts, (or Dorsetshire kale), being
intended chiefly for winter and spring use, are com-
‘monly sown in July, and planted out in August. They
-are set pretty close tegether, perhaps not more than
-eight or ten inches apart every way. They withstand
completely the usual frosts of our winters. But young
plants of the common cabbages, particularly of the large
sugar loaf variety, are now generally used as coleworts,
and sold in the markets, under that name, from De-
cember to April. So completely, indeed, have these
cabbage coleworts supplanted the true kind, which is
more hardy, but at the same time coarser, that one of
‘the most popular modern books of gardening (Aber-
crombie’s Practical Gardener) describes only the for-
mer sort under the title of coleworts.
282. The principal kinds of ‘ale are German greens,
Scots kale, Buda, Red curled, and Milan.
Of the German Greens, a tall growing light coloured
kind is preferred, as producing a large quantity of
small tufts or loose heads of delicate leaves on the
“stalk in the spring months, when coleworts are gettin
scarce, ‘German greens are sown in May, and plant
out in June, at eighteen or twenty inches asunder
every way. Some are also sown in June, and planted
out in August, to be ready for use late in the following
spring.
The seed of the Scots kale, (Siberian borecole, or
choux pancalier), is sown in the beginning of July ;
and in the course of August the young plants are set
out in rows a foot and a half wide, and ten inches dis-
tant in the rows. This green bears the severest cold
without injury, and indeed is not reckoned good for
use till it have endured some sharp frosts.
The Milan kale cultivated in this country has a thick
stem, the leaves of a dark green colour, and much
curled or fimbriated. Milan greens are greatly prized
in France, and different varieties are there cultivated.
The Anjou kale grows to a large size; as does likewise
a sort called Cesarean kale. “Neither of these is so
tender as the other kinds; but the
they might probably be found u
cows.
A vg A variety of open kale is described by the
late Mr Delaunay, in the last edition of « Le Bon Jar-
dinier” published by himself. It is called Choux pal-
mier. It frequently rises to the height of six feet, with
a straight bare stem, the leaves displaying themselves
only at top, and thus producing the appearance of a
little-palm tree. The leaves are much puckered, and
so much rolled back at the edges, that they appear
natrow, while at the same time they hang in a curved
manner ; thus aiding the illusion. ‘This variety is evi-
dently to be considered merely as a curiosity. It was
first raised in Italy, and is not very hardy. Another
tall sort, sometimes rising nearly to the same height,
is described by the same author under the name of
roduce being great,
ul in the feeding of
HORTICULTURE.
Capousta, or Russian kale. The leaves are of a fine
purple colour, much cut and fringed. This variety is
represented as extremely hardy, resisting the utmost
severity of a Russian winter.
283. The Borecoles, properly so called, are of two
kinds, the tall purple and the dwarf purple. But all
the curled and cut-leaved kale or colewort plants, are
commonly called Borecoles. There is a variegated sort
which is very ornamental when growing, but not so
good for the table as those of more ordinary appearance.
All kinds of kale seeds are sown in the beginning of
April; the young Pome! are generally pricked into a
nursery bed for a few weeks, to enable them to gain
strength ; and they are finally transplanted in June or
July, in rows three feet asunder, and two feet apart in
the rows, giving water if the weather be dry. A few
are generally not haere out till September, that they
may afford a supply late in the following spring. The
only other attention requisite, is the drawing of earth
to their stems before winter, in order to support them
in times of snow or storm. ah
_ Brussels Sprouts.
284. The variety called Brussels sprouts may be
classed with the kale plants. The leaves come out in
small crowns or sprouts all along the stem, and are very
delicate when boiled. The culture is nearly the same
as that of coleworts in general. The seed is sown in
March or April, and the seedlings are planted out in
June, preferring showery weather, or watering care-
fully at root. They grow upright and pyramidal, and
may therefore be placed nearer to each other than more
spreading kinds. They are earthed up in October, are
ready for use by midwinter, and continue good till March
or April. Brussels sprouts are much used in London
during the spring months; but they seldom appear in
the Edinburgh market, nor is’ the plant so much cul+
tivated in Scotland as it deserves. U
Cauliflower.
285. Cauliflower and broccoli, (Brassica oleracea, var.
botrytis), are curious varieties of the cabbage; the
flower-buds forming a close firm cluster or head, for
the sake of which alone the plants are cultivated. These
heads or flowers being boiled, wrapped generally in a
clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate ve-
getable dish. Cauliflower is a particular favourite in
this country. ‘« Of all the flowers in the garden,” Dr
Johnson used to say, “I like the cauliflower.” Its
culture, however, had been little attended to till about
the close of the 17th century; since that time it has
been greatly improved, insomuch that cauliflower may
now fairly be claimed as peculiarly an English product.
Till the time of the French revolution, quantities of
English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland;
‘hed the Low Countries and even France, ded on
us for cauliflower seed. Liven now, English seed is
preferred to any other. 1 Rt
The two varieties called the early and the later caus
liflower, are scarcely different. The first is the kind
generally produced under hand-glasses, and the difference
consists merely in the seed having been saved from the
most forward plants. A variety having the stalks of
the head of a reddish or purple colour has lately been
introduced, under the name of Red Cauliflower ; and it
is reputed more hardy than the other sorts."
286. The seed for the early sine-$ is sown about the
Kitchen
Garden.
_—s
Coleworts.
Borecole.
Brussels.
sprouts.
Cauliflower,
oe eee
HORTICULTURE.
i
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strife th
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winter ; and again in May, into
wry bes in Jue o the beginning o uly and. tan
i late, thi pot-herb is pro-
the end of . Even after this, the cau-
uncommon
cauliflower ground,
in the winter season, and in any convenient Kitches
part of the floor of a vi ac oleae aaeeeaaden In Garden.
the beginning of March they are taken out of the
with the ball of earth attached, and planted in the open
If be here protected against severe frosts
with bell-glass covers, they come into head in the course
of April, if the weather prove favourable.
It may be mentioned, that in some places it is not an
practice to sow a little radish seed onthe ,
a fortnight before planting out the
cauliflowers. patna reise Ymten tote
infest the ts, tender leaves
radish to owed the ao, and that the latter
Pots, sp rascolis
thus escape. Market often mix spinach seed
with the radish, but from a different motive ;
thus procure a useful crop soon after the cauliflower is
removed. More frequently, however, these gardeners
employ the cauliflower ground in producing a late crop
of cucumbers for pickling.
When seed is wi cee ait parecer |
ts are selected, and left to flower, plenty of
ing drawn up to their roots. The seed ri in
ber, but at various times, on the different ch-
lets of the same head, so that it is proper to gather it at
successive times as it appears ripe.
° Broccoli.
289. Broccoli is generally considered as merely a va- Broccoli.
iety of cauliflower. It is indeed nearly allied, aad the
part consists, as in cauliflower, of the clustered
flower-buds ; but the broccoli plant is dis-
tinguished by its cut leaves, its larger growth, and
greater degree of hardiness. There are several varie-
perpls nd the whine: No Coliomy plot i oo labs
white. No culi t is so liable
to as broccoli ; so that new kinds, slightly differ-
ent, are continually coming into notice or favour, and
as ried sinking into neglect.
f the purple, there are several sub-varieties, the
early, dwarf, ee
teacly introduced. What are called the brown and the
black broccoli are likewise slight variations of the pur-
Te A aetanaetned te aoe eee for ex-
situations ; but not
porsoarncpe edgy bong the
E
and cultivated to great
perfection near Edin By many, the sort called
sy pens ~igarenacr 8. AO or The white, -N
itan, or cauliflower-broccoli plant, is rather more ten
than the others, bat the flower is at the same time more
palatable ; it forms a close curdly head of considerable
size in the spring months, and the plants do not branch
as most of le kinds do. A hardy variety of
the whish weal dhesafore grave #i quant nejpialtiots
290. Broccoli seed is sown in il for an autumn
crop, to be planted out in the inning of June; and,
for a spring crop in the followmg year, the seed is
sown late in May, or even in June. The seedlings are
afterwards placed in nursery beds, where they remain
till the middle or end of July, when they are finally
transplanted. A light, but deep and rich soil, in an open
situation, is preferred. To those situated near the sea,
it may be interesting to know, that sea-weed forms an
manure for broccoli. In the second volume
of Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, p. 266, Mr William
x4
Kitchen
Garden,
Broccoli.
€ape broc-
coli,
250
Wood, one of the most successful eultivators of brocco«
li near Edinburgh, gives an account of his remarkable
success with this sort of manure. When drift ware
abounds on the shore, he bestows on the quarter next
intended for broccoli a very liberal supply, immediate-
ly digging it in roughly. The ground is afterwards
slightly delved over before planting. From the soil
thus treated, very large and fine heads are produced.
It may be added, that grubs will not infest the roots,
as they are very apt to do when stable manure is used.,
The broccoli plants are set in lines, two feet asunder,
and a foot and a half apart in the lines. Water is given
when thought necessary, according to the state of the
weather. They are hoed and earthed up like cauli-
flower plants. Nicol reeommends, that, in the end of
October, the most forward crops, especially of the tall
growing kinds, should be raised and laid over on their
sides pretty closely together, placing the heads just
clear of one another. If this be done in a dry soil and
free situation, the plants are seldom injured by the
frost of the severest winters. The heads of winter
broceoli generally begin to appear early in January,
and they continue till April.
In gathering broccoli, five or six inches of the stem
are retained along with the head; and in dressing, the
stalks are peeled before boiling.
291. The early purple Cape broccoli, already men-
tioned as lately introduced into this country, deserves
more particular notice. The seed, it was understood,
was first brought from the Cape of Good Hope, but the
same kind has since been received from Italy. A par-
ticular account of the mode of cultivation is given .b
Mr John Maher, in the first volume of the London
Horticultural Transactions, p. 116. Three crops are
sown: in April, between the 12th and 18th of the
month; in May, between the 18th and 24th ; and in Au-
gust, between the 19th and 25th; and by means of these,
this kind of broccoli is procured from September till the
end of May. ‘The seeds are sown very thin, on a bor-
der of light rich earth. In about a month the plants
are finally transplanted, at the distance of two feet eve-
ry way, in a sandy loam, well enriched with rotten
dung. Frequent hoeings are given, and the earth is
drawn to the stem as in the case of ordinary broccoli.
Mr) Maher never pricks the seedlings into a nur-
sery bed. He finds, that the head is by that measure
rendered less in size, and more apt to run to flower and
seed. A part of the second crop is often transplanted
into pots (sixteens), and plunged into the open ground,
where the head forms. Against December, these pots
are removed into a shed, frame, or pit; and in this
way fine broccoli is secured in the severest weather of
winter; the head often six or seven inches in diameter.
The seed for the third crop is sown in a frame; and
about the third week in October the plants are ready
for transplanting. A few plants for affording
seed are selected at this time, and planted in a remote
part of the garden, covering them with hand-glasses
during winter, in the manner of cauliflower.
292. When broccoli seeds are to be saved, plants
with the largest and finest heads are selected, observi
that no small foliage appear on the surface of the heal
Mr Wood, already mentioned, makes it a rule to take up
such plants in April, and lay them, in a slanting direc-
tion, in a rich compost, (cleanings of old ditches, tree
Jeaves, and rotten dung,) giving, at the same time, a
eel watering, if the weather be dry. The raising,
e thinks, prevents them from producing proud seed, or
from degenerating. When the heads begin to epen or
HORTICULTURE.
push, he cuts out the centre, leaving only four'or five Kitchen
of the outside flower-stalks to come to seed, The cen-
tre, it may be remarked, would probably produce the
stronger seeds ; but the object seems to be, to check
the tendency to luxuriancy and consequent sporting in
the plant. , ij
Kohl-rabbi. _
Garden,
293. The Kohil-rabli or turnip-rooted cabbage ( Bras- Kohl-rabbi.
sica oleracea, var. Napobrassica, not a variety of B. rapa,
er turnip, as supposed in Salisbury’s Botanist’s Com-
panion), has large broad leaves, and the stem protube-
rant like a turnip at the base: there are two varieties,
one swelling above ground, the other in it. Both are
sometimes used in a young state for the table ; but the
are not much cultivated in this country. Kohl-rabbi is
very hardy, and might probably be advan sly
cultivated in the ‘colder parts of the island; for it is
found to be a very profitable crop in Sweden and other
northern countries.
Leguminous Plants.
Peas.
204, The Pea ( Pisum sativum, Lin. Diadelphia De- Pes,
candria ; Papilionacee or Leguminose) is an annual
climbing plant, so well known as not to need any de-
scription. The legumes or pods are commonly pro-
duced in pairs ; the seeds contained in these are the part
of the plant used, and to which, in common discourse, *
the name peas is always given. In some varieties, call-
ed Sugar-peas, the inner tough film of the pods is want-
ing, the pods of such, when young, being boiled with
the peas within them, and eaten in the manner of
kidney-beans. Concerning the native country of the
pea, there is no certainty; it is guessed to be the
south of Europe. It has been cultivated in Britain
from an early.period ; but some of the best varieties,
such as the sugar-pea above mentioned, were introdu-
ced only about the middle of the 17th century.
There are very many varieties, differing in size, time
of coming in, colour of flower and fruit, and alsa in
taste: but the principal distinction is as to their being
early or late; supposing the sorts to be sown on the
same day, the former are ready a fortnight at least be-
fore the latter. ‘
295. The early peas are called hotspurs and hastings.
Of these there are different subvarieties, especially the
Charlton, Reading, Golden, Double dwarf, and Early
frame pea; the last being so called from its being often
forced in hot-beds, especially for the London. market.
These being comparatively of dwarfish growth, do not
require sticking ; and it is a common remark, that peas
supported on sticks yield more, but that those recum-
bent on the ground ripen soonest. Some of these kinds
are gen sown. towards the end of October, in front
of a south fruit-wall, and at right angles to it, or in-
clining a point to the east, in order to catch the morn-
ing sun. With some ne i ay of branches of
evergreens or old peas-haulm, the crop a oniee.
winter, and produces young peas by the end of May.
Many gardeners prefer sowing in longitudinal rows
near the wall, the ¢rop thus np equally.
In January and February more peas, of the early sorts,
are sown, to follow in succession those sown before
winter. Some gardeners are in the practice of raising
i.
HORTICULTURE.
and planting
sufficiently distant
sueceed very well without sticking.
added Leadman’s dwarf, which is
than any of them, while at the same time the
ific, and the pea remarkably sweet.
late kinds, the Tall marrowfat, the
Green marrowfat, the Grey rouncival, and the Sugar-
pea, have long retained their character; while the Spa-
nish moratto and Imperial are also in good
plants and copious bearers. The
is well known; but it is as fre-
that Parkinson, in his “ Paradisus,” ascribes
igin. A new white pea raised by Mr
omitted. It is sometimes called
Knight's marrow pea ; sometimes the Wrinkled pea, the
circumstance of the skin of the fruit being wrinkled or
contracted, being an obvious mark of distinction. The
plant is of luxuriant growth, iri
wiring
Sete nied diver whee bailed
pa aparece
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251
situations, or places surrounded by trees. The remedy
Kitchen
applied, is the spreading of new slaked lime _Gerden-
over the surface of the ground, very early in the morn-
ing when the slugs are abroad. A simple preventive
of the attacks of mice consists in being particularly.
careful, in sowing the peas, to leave none sed on
the surface ; if the ased bevel duly covered, these ani-
mals do not seem to be very expert at discovering the
rows.
It is generally thought advisable to change the seed:
yearly ; few pas Pract therefore ripen their own seed.
Indeed the professed seed-growers possess superior
opportunities for saving the kinds in a genuine state ;
and if they be men of judgment and fidelity, it is bet-
ter for the er to buy from them, than to trouble
himself with saving either the seeds of peas, or of any
other garden plants which are apt to degenerate by in-
termixture of pollen.
Beans.
297. The Bean (Vicia Faba, Lin.) belon
same class and order, and natural family, wi
It is the Feve de marais of the French. It is
superfluous to mention, that it is an annual t, ri-
sing from two to four feet, with a thick an stem ;
the leaves divided, and without tendrils; the flowers
white, with a black spot in the middle of the wing;
seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and inclosing the
large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant
is cultivated in gardens. It is a native of. the East,
but has been known in this country from the earliest
times.
2098. There are two principal kinds of the plant, the
garden bean and the field bean: The first only falls to be
— of here. Of this there are many varieties. The
lazagan is one of the hardiest and best flavoured of
the small and early sorts. Mazagan is a Portuguese
settlement on the coast of Africa, near the Straits of
Gibraltar ; and it is said,that seeds brought from thence,
afford plants that are more early and more fruitful than
those which spring from home-saved seed. The Lis-
bon is next in point of earliness and fruitfulness ; some
indeed consider it as merely the Mazagan ripened in
Portugal. The Dwarf-fan or cluster bean is likewise
an early variety, but it is planted chiefly for curiosity :
it rises only six or eight inches high; the branches
spread out like a fan, and the are produced in
small clusters. The Sandwich bean has been long no-
ted for its fruitfulness ; the Toker and the broad Spanish
are likewise bearers. Of all the large kinds, the
Windsor bean is preferred for the table. When gather-
ed young, the seedsare sweet and very agreeable ; when
the plants are allowed room and time, they produce
very large seeds, and in tolerable plenty, though they
are not accounted liberal bearers. There are several
sub-varieties, such as the Broad Windsor, Taylor's
Windsor, and the Kentish Windsor. The po Yr
bean rises about three feet high, and is a = ‘
the pods being long and narrow, and closely filled with
oblong middle-sized seeds. ‘This sort is now very
much cultivated, and there are several subordinate va-
rieties of it, as the Early, the Large, and the Sword
. The White-blossomed bean is so called, be-
Ce ee ee is
wanting. is en w oun,
it has little of the peculiar bean flavour, and is a thie
account much esteemed ; it is at the same time a copious
bearer, and proper for a Jate crop. It may be men-
the pea.
ps
Beans.
to the pean.
252
tioned,. that Delaunay, in Le bon Jardinier, describes
as excellent a new variety cultivated at Paris, which
he calls the green bean from China ; it is late, but very
productive; and the fruit remains green, even when
ripe and dried.
299. The early sorts, such as the Mazagan and Lisbon,
are sown in the end of October or beginning of Novem-
ber, in a sheltered situation, in front of a wall, reed-fence,
or other hedge, and in drills about two inches deep. The
plants are earthed up in November as they advance. In
severe frost, some haulm or fern is laid over them, as
in the case of early In March and April, as the
beans begin to shew flower, they are kept close back
to the fence, by means of lines of pack-thread. When
the lower blossoms are fully expanded or beginning to
fade, the tops of the stems are pinched off, this being
found to forward the, production of pods. With this
sort of care, a crop is generally procured about the end
of May or first of June. Successive autumn and win-
ter sowings are managed much in the same way ; being
sown in rows, eighteen inches apart, in sheltered bor-
ders or quarters. It is necessary to guard against the
ravages of mice, which are very apt to attack the new
sown rows. Some gardeners sow their winter beans
thickly, and cover them with a frame, transplanting,
them in February or March: in this way they prove
very productive.
$00. In February and March, full crops of the late
and large beans, such as the Windsor, Sandwich, and
Long-podded, are planted, in a free and open exposure.
The middling sized kinds are allowed two feet between
the rows; but the large growing kinds, two and a half
or even three feet. The plants in the rows, however,
are only five or six inches separate. Sometimes the
beans are planted with a blunt setting-stick, obser-
ving to close the earth down upon the seed ; but drills
drawn, two inches deep or a little more, with the
hoe, are in general erred. One of the principal
things to be attended to is the earthing up: in per-
forming this operation, it is necessary to take care that
the earth do not fall on the centre of the plant so as to
bury it; for this occasions it to rot or fail. Nicol says,
that topping is not necessary for any but the early
crops, and is practised only to make them more early.
Most other horticulturists are of opinion that topping
improves the crop both as to quantity and quality ; and
it is very commonly performed on the late crops as well
as the early. The crops of beans when in flower, it may
be remarked, are very ornamental to the kitchen-garden,
and render it a pleasant walk, the flowers having a pow-
erful fragrance, not unlike that of orange-flowers. The
latest crops in May and June are sown in strong or moist
land, as on an arid soil scarcely any return could at
this season be For these late crops, the long
pods, broad Spanish, and Toker are preferred. In a
dry season, it is found useful to soak the seed-beans for
several hours in soft river water, before planting.
An expedient sometimes resorted to in order to pro-
long the bean season, may here be mentioned: A bed
or quarter of beans is fixed on; and when the flowers
appear, the plants are entirely cut over, a few inches
from the surface of the ground. New stems spring from
the stools, and these produce a very late crop of beans.
In gathering beans for table use, such pods as are
too old should as much be avoided as such as are too
young, the seeds ing in delicacy after they at-
tain about half the size which they should possess
at maturity. When beans are to be saved for seed,
none of the pods should be gathered for the kitchen,
: HORTICULTURE.
the first pods being the most vigorous, and affording
the best seed. The whole — should be
and the seeds should be allowed to dry
these last still remaining on the stems.
Kidney-bean.
301. The Kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Lin. Com-
mon kidney-bean; and P. multiflorus, Willd. Scarlet
runner ) belongs to the same artificial and natural classes
as the pea and the bean. In this country it is often call«
ed French bean ; and it is the well known and favourite
haricot of France. It is an annual, originally from
India ; its stem is more or less twining, but in the dwar-
fish kinds it scarcely shews this propensity ; the leaves
are ternate, on long foot-stalks ; the flowers on axillary
racemes ; the corolla generally white, sometimes yellow
or purple: The pods are oblong, swelling slightly over
the seeds; these last are generally Eiiney-sheped,
smooth and shining when ripe, varying exceedingly in
colour, white, black, blue, red, and spotted. The date
of the introduction of the kidney-bean into this co
is not known: it was-in familiar use in the days of Ge-
rarde. The unripe pods chiefly are used in Britain ;
but in France, the ripe seeds or beans are also very
much employed in cookery, being dried in the autumn
and kept for winter use.
_ 802, There are many varieties, both of what are call.
ed dwarfs, and of runners. By Dwarfs are meant kinds
that do not much exceed a foot in height, and do not
need support ; 4 Runners, such as have long climbing
stems, and which require stakes, Of the , the
Early white dwarf, Early black or Negro, the Speckled
dwarf, Early yellow, and the Battersea and Canter«
bury white, may be mentioned as principally esteemed.
Of the latter, the Scarlet runner is erred, the pods
being tender, especially if gathered y , and being
produced in succession for a long time. This was fore
merly considered as merely a variety of the common kid-~
ney-bean ; but Willdenow has described it as a distinct
species, under the name of Phaseolus multi,
istinguished by its racemes equalling the leaves in
length, and by its bracteze or floral leaves lymg close
to the stalk ; while in the common kidney-bean, the
Garden,
pulled up; :
in the pods) —-Y—
Kidney-
bean.
3 itis:
former are shorter than the leaves, and the latter pro=
ject from the stalk. The scarlet runner is frequently
cultivated as an ornamental flower, particularly in form-
ing fancy hedges: when trained near a wall, and led
up with lines of pack-thread or spun-yarn, it unites
both characters, or is at once shewy and useful. The
white runner seems to differ from the scarlet, merely
in the colour of the blossoms and of the seeds. The
Dutch white runner produces long smooth pods, but
does not afford so many successive gatherings as the
other two.
303. The kidney-bean is too tender for sowing ear
lier than the middle or end of April. From that time
successive crops are sown every fortnight or three
weeks, till July ; and in this way the young and tender
pods are to be had all the summer and autumn. The
dwarfish sorts are sown in drills from two to three“feet
asunder, perhaps three inches separate in the lines, and
covered with something less than two inches of soil. As
advance, they are hoed and cleared of weeds, a
little earth being at the same time drawn to the stems.
As the young pods come to be fit for use, the more re-
ly and completely they are gathered, the greater
is the successive produce. The runners, being rather
more tender, are not sown till about the middle of May.
ey: —, # 7 .
HORTICULTURE.
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253
Spain about the middle of the 16th century, as they are
mentioned, under the name of papas, in Cicia’s Chro-
nicle, printed in 1553, and now a very rare book.
They were not introduced into this country till near
the close of the century, when they to have
been brought from Virginia by the colonists sent out
bier Walter Raleigh, and who returned in 1586;
lerriot, one of these colonists, describing the potato,
they bad visit carpal me: weke hyd
visited, preserv in De ’s Collection of
Vv It is said, that Sir Walter leigh planted
them on his own estate near Cork. They were soon
carried over into Lancashire ; but near half a century
¢ were much known at London. Ge-
sack and sugar, or baked with marrow and
even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers.
1663, the Royal Society took some measures for encou-
raging the cultivation of toes, with the view of
ing famine. Still, however, although their uti-
ity as an article of food was better known, no high
character was bestowed on them. In books of garden-
ing, published towards the end of the 17th century, a
hi years after their introduction, they are spoken
of rather slightingly. “ They are much used in Ire-
land and America as bread,” says one author, “ and
may be with advantage to poor people.”—
“ I do not hear that it hath been yet essayed,” are the
words of another; “ whether they may not be propa-
gated in uantities, for food for swine or ot
cattle.” Even the enlightened Evelyn seems to have
entertained a prejudice against them. “ Plant pota-
toes,” he says, writing in 1699, “ in your worst
Take them up in November for winter spend-
Me remain for a stock, though ever
ise, whose names have been already repeat-
edly mentioned, have not considered the to as
worthy of notice in their Complete Gardener, publish-
ed in 1719; and Bradley who, about the same time,
wrote so extensively on horticultural sibjects, speaks
be as inferior to Fam = radishes. a
e use of toes ually spread, as their ex-
cellent wor A rence better understood. It was
near the middle of the 18th century, however, before
they were generally known over the wena oH since
that time they have been most extensively cultivated.
In 1796, it was found that, in the county of Essex
alone, about 1700 acres were planted with potatoes
for the supply of the London market. This must form
no doubt the principal supply ; but many fields of po-
tatoes are to be seen in the other counties ing on
the capital, and many ship-loads are annually import-
ed from a distance.
The cultivation of potatoes in gardens in Scotland,
was very little understood till about the year 1740;
and it was not practised in fields till about twenty
after that period. It is stated in the “ General
of Scotland, (vol. ii. p. 111), a8 a well ascers
tained fact, that in year 1725-6, the few potato
lants then existing in gardens about Edinburgh, were
eft in the same spot of ground from year to year,
as recommended by Evelyn; a few tubers were per-
haps removed for use in the autumn, and the parent
plants were then well covered with litter to save them
Kitchen
Garden.
Potatoes.
.
254 HORTICULTURE.
Ri ichep from.the winter's frost. Since the middle of the 18th Ox-noble, a large round sort with deep eyes; the Ame- Kitchen
Ne, century, the cultivation of potatoes has made rapid rican cluster; the Yam potato; and the Lancashire, Garden,
progress in that country; so that they are now to be or large round rough red potato, are’ held in high esti- pou Ee
Potatoes, *
seen.in almost every cot mation. ,
ayreer
- ed as to shape, into round, oval or
Professor Martyn, in hha ellition of the ** Gardener’s
Dictionary,” has given an account of various notices
that occur concerning the introduction of the potato,
in the writings of successive horticulturists, and most
minute and accurate details respecting its tillage, de-
rived from all the best sources of information, and se-
lected with great judgment and care. To the learned
and industrious Professor's labours, and to the article
AcricuLtore in this work, we must refer the inquisi-
tive reader, contenting ourselves in this place, in ad~
dition to the short history already given, with some
account of the qualities of the plant, of a few of the
principal varieties, and of its culture in gardens.
The potato is now considered as the most useful es-
culent that is cultivated ; and who could @ priori have
expected to haye found the most useful among the na-<
tural family of the Luride, several of which are dele-
terious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect!
{t is at the same time the most universally liked; it
seems to suit every palate. So generally is it relished,
and so nutritious is it accounted, that on’ many tables
it now appears almost every day in the year. It is com-
monly eaten plainly boiled, and in this way it is ex-
cellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in
the spring months, the best parts of each tuber are se-
lected, and mashed before going to table. Potatoes
are also baked, roasted, and fried, With the flour of
potatoes, puddings are made nearly equal in flavour to
those of millet. Bread has also been formed of it,
with a moderate proportion of wheat flour ; and po-
tato starch is common. To cottagers having a num-
ber of children, the potato is of inestimable value.
Dr Johnson, in his “ Journey,” remarks, that before
the Scottish peasantry acquired cabbages, they must
have had nothing; but with much more reason might it
now be'\said, that they must have been destitute in-
deed, before they knew the potate. By many cottagers
in Scotland, and especially in Ireland, potatoes are
cultivated on what are called /azy-beds. In construct-
ing these, the manure is laid on the surface; sets of
potatoes are placed immediately on it; and a little
earth is thrown over all. In this way a very great
return is procured.
$07. In regard to general qualities, potatoes are of
two kinds, mealy and waxy; the former of a loose,
the latter of a firm contexture. They are distinguish-
idney, and clus«
tered; and as to colour, into white, and red or purple.
It would be quite an unprofitable task to enumerate
the many varieties which have been raised from seed,
and have obtained a name for a day. A few of those
at present in esteem can alone be named. Kidney po-
tatoes of various sorts have long been in repute, par-
ticularly the White and the Yorkshire. Red, and White,
and Black potatoes, have their admirers, The Early
dwarf, Champion, Early frame, Manly, Cumberland,
early, Fox’s yellow seedling, and the Goldfinders, still
retain their fame for summer use: but they are per-
haps excelled by varieties well known in Scotland by
the names of the Ash-leaved, and Mathew Cree’s early,
The large red-nosed kidney, a white potato with a
tinged eye, is a great favourite in the London market,
the kind most esteemed, and most commonly sold in
the Edinburgh market. Far the feeding of cattle, the
5
for qe culinary purposes; and the Don potato is,
The raising of potatoes being now considered as ra-
ther the business of the farm, in many gardens only a
quarter of early potatoes is to be found. For the ori«
inal production of the varieties called earlies, we are
indebted to the kitchen gardeners near Manchester.
Encouraged by the demand of that populous town, °
they vied with each other to have potatoes first in the
market: they noted those plants that flowered early,
saved them, and sowed their seeds; by again watch-
ing the earliest of these, they procured varieties which
arrive so much sooner at a state approaching maturity,
as far as the tubers are concerned, that young potatoes
may be had for table two months after planting. The
most productive of these, and least apt to degenerate,
are such as do not shew a disposition to flower.
308. The potato is chiefly propagated by cuts of
the tubers, taking care to leave one or two eyes or buds
to each cut, but eradicating all clustered eyes. The»
best shaped and cleanest potatoes are selected for this
purpose. The cuts are the better for being allowed to
dry for a day or two before planting. Any light soil, in a
free airy situation, suits the potato, Too much manure
can scarely be given, if the quantity of produce be
alone looked to; but potatoes of more delicate flavour are
procured from ground not recently enriched. About
the middle of March some of the early kinds, such as
the ash-leaved, are planted on a light warm border.
As they are to be taken up soon, sixteen inches between
the lines is accounted enough, and seven or eight inches’
between each plant. They are commonly planted in.
drills, and covered to the depth of three or four inches,
The tubers being small, are generally only cut in two
to make sets ; but not more tlian. two eyes are left on
each set. Rooted shoots accidentally er among
the stock of early potatoes, have been found to afford a
very speedy return. Instructed by this circumstance,
some gardeners lay the sets on a floor sprinkled with
sand or barley-chaff, till they have sprung four or five
inches, thus advancing the growth of the plants as
much as possible under a low temperature, so as to
avoid all unneeessary expenditure of their excitability.
Great care must be taken, however, to preserve their
germs and roots from injury in transplanting. By this
means the plants are forwarded nearly three weeks in
their etowth: The young potatoes are fit for use in June
and July, and in August the tops of the parent plants
change to a yellow colour, indicating maturity. Only
a few plants are taken up at once; for the young and
immature tubers do not keep good beyond a day or two:
it is found better, therefore, to let them remain in the
ground till wanted, and in this way they may be made
to meet the later sort. About the middle or end of
April, the general potato quarter is planted. Two feet
is the space commonly allowed between the rows, and,
from ten to fourteen inches between the plants. For,
planting, some use the potato dibble; which is an in--
strument about three feet long, with a cross handle at
top for both hands, the lower end blunt and shod with
iron, and having a cross iron shoulder, about four inches -
from the bottom, so that the holes must of necessity be.
struck of equal depth. The only attention the crop
requires is hoeing, and drawing earth to the stems:
the oftener this last operation is performed, the greater
is the produce, The potatoes are taken up and used in
the autumn months; the winter supply being drawn
HORTICULTURE. 255
ary sand till spring; or the seeds may be immediately Kitchen
separated from the pulp, and kept in paper-bags over _Garden-
winter. In April the seed is sown, in any og ight Poaliaal!
a foot
and summer; and improvement in
keepi then, A Edmeevhcig of stthntion. The Rev. Dr
Kilspindie (in the first volume of Scottish Hor-
ticultural Memoirs) has described a mode, the advan-
Sccdgeiisaia Siius pincioos Caataed Sr lang hoses
‘or
gene into small pits, holding about two bolls
each ; are formed under the shade of a tree, wall,
i
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known, that if these be placed in boxes
among or other very light vege-
table mould, and still in the cellar, will yield
a crop of small mid-winter. A small su
rally some
in April and May in succession as are formed.
$10. Many persons amuse ves with raisi
soil, in drills half an inch deep, and perhaps
asunder, keeping the kinds carefully separate, and
marking them with tallies. When the plants rise, they
are thinned out to six inches apart. They are kept
clear of weeds, and once or twice earthed up. When
the haulm decays, the tubers are taken up; they are
carefull
preserved from frost during the winter ; and
being planted next spring, the crop which results will
determine the qualities of the different kinds. The
should be boiled separately, and regard had to their
flavour, mealiness or waxiness, size, shape and colour.
When the seed of early varieties can be procured, it is,
for different reasons, to be preferred. Mr Knight sus-
= the cause of these early varieties not producing
wers, to be the preternaturally early formation of the
tubers, drawing off for their support that portion of
sap which should have gone to the production of the
blossom. He therefore Serised means for preventing
the formation of tubers ; and when this was accomplish-
ed, he found no deficiency in the production of flowers
and berries. The means were simple: having fixed
strong stakes in the ground, he raised the mould in a
heap round the bases of them; on the south side he
ited the oes. When the plants were about
inches high, they were secured to the stakes with
shreds and nails, and the mould was then washed away
with a strong current of water from the bases of their
stems, so that the fibrous roots only entered the soil,
and no runners or tubers could be juced.
311. The disease called curl has in many places
ved extremely troublesome and injurious. Jt has given
rise to much discussion, and to detail all the various
opinions would be a useless task. It may, however,
be remarked, that the experiments of Mr Thomas Dick-
son (Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, i. 55.) shew, that
it arises from the vegetative powers in the tuber plant-
ed having been exhausted by over-ripening. That ex-
cellent borti¢ulturist observed, in 1808 and 1809, that
cuts taken from the waxy, wet, or least ripened end of
long flat potato, that is, the end nearest the roots,
jeter healthy plants ; while those from the dry and
ripened end, farthest from the roots, either did
not vegetate at all, or produced curled plants. This
view is the observations of a very good
—— gardener, Mr Daniel Crichton at Minto, who,
rom many years experience, found (Jd. p. 440.) that
tubers preserved as much as possible in the wet and im-
mature state, and not exposed to the air, were not sub-
ject to curl. And Mr Knight (in Lond. Hort. Trans. for
1814) has clearly shewn the beneficial results of using,
as seed-stock, potatoes which have grown late, or been
imperfectly ripened, in the preceding year. Mr Dick-
son down some rules, attention to which, he thinks,
w prevent the many disappointments occasioned by,
the carl. He recommends, 1. The procuring of a
sound healthy seed-stock (stock of tubers for planting)
from a high of the » Where the tubers are
never pow ol onde 2. The plantin of such potatoes
as are intended to su seed.stock for the ensuing
season, at least a fortnight later than those planted for
acrop, and to take them up whenever the stems be-
come of a yellow colour, at which time the cu-
ticle of ae opera i poten rubbed ror poweare
finger an 5. preventing those planty tliat
are destined to yield seed-stock for the ensuing year,
from producing flowers or -berries, by cutting ad the
Curl.
Kitchen
Garden,
ae ~
‘Potatoes,
Jerusalem
Artichoke,
256
flower-buds ; an operation easily performed by children,
with a sickle, at a trifling expence,
Mr John Shirreff (in the same volume, p. 60.) takes
a general and philosophical view of the subject, apply-
ing to the potato the doctrine by which Mr Knight had
accounted for the disappearance of the fine cider fruits
of the 17th century. eé maximum of the duration of
the life of every individual, vegetable as well as ani-
mal, is predetermined by nature, under whatever cir.
cumstances the individual may be placed: the mini-
mum, on the other hand, is determined by these very
circumstances. Admitting, then, that a potato might
reproduce itself from tubers for a great number of years
in the shady woods of Peru, it seems destined ‘sooner
to become abortive in the cultivated champaign of Bri-
tain ; insomuch, that not a single healthy plant of any
sort of potato that yields berries, and which was in cul-
ture twenty years ago, can now be produced. Mr
Shirreff concludes, therefore, that the potato is to be
considered as a short-lived plant, and that, though its
health or vigour may be prolonged, by rearing it in
elevated or in shady situations, or by cropping the
flowers, and thus preventing the plants from exhaust-
ing themselves, the only sure way to obtain vigorous
plants, and to ensure productive crops, is to have fre-
quent recourse to new varieties raised from the seed.
The same view, it may be remarked, had occurred to
Dr Hunter, who, in his “‘ Georgical Essays,’? limits
the duration of a variety in a state of perfection to
about fourteen years. A fact ascertained by Mr Knight
deserves to be particularly noticed: it is this; that
by planting late in the season, perhaps in June or
even in July, an exhausted good variety may in a great
measure be restored ; that is, the tubers resulting from
the late planting, when again planted at the ordinary
season, produce the kind in its pristine vigour, and of
its former size.
Jerusalem Artichoke.
$12. The Jerusalem Artichoke, or tuberous-rooted
sunflower, (Helianthus tuberosus, L. ; Syngenesia Poly-
gamia frustranea; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a perennial
plant, originally from Brazil. It has the habit of the
common sunflower, but grows much taller, often rising
ten or twelve feet high. Though its roots endure our
hardest winters, the plant seldom flowers with us, and
it never ripens its seed, The roots are creeping, and
have many tubers clustered together, perhaps from thir-
ty to fifty ata plant. These.are eaten boiled, mashed
with butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent
relish. The plant was introduced into our gardens ear-
ly in the 17th century; and before ers became
common, it was much more prized at present.
The epithet Jerusalem is a mere corruption of the Ita«
lian word Girasole, or sunflower ; the name artichoke
is bestowed from the resemblance in flavour which the
tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes. As the po-
tato is the pomme de terre, this is the poire de terre of
the French, \
The plant is readily propagated by means of the
tubers. They are cut in the manner of potato sets, and
planted, in any light soil and open situation, in the
end of March. They are placed in rows, three feet
asunder, and a foot or fifteen inches apart in the rows.
In September they are fit for use; and in the course of
“November they are dug up and housed, being kept in
sand like catrots. Sometimes they are left in the ground,
and dug only as waited, being best when newly raised.
4:
HORTICULTURE.
The only disadvantage is, that in tliis way thiey cannot
be had in severe frosts. It is not very easy to clear the
ground of them where they have once grown; and on
this account, some gardeners devote a by-corner to
them, and allow them to remain from year to year,
taking up only what is wanted for the occasional use of
the family. But the tubers thus produced are not so
clean or well flavoured as those produced on newly
delved ground by yearly planting.
Turnip.
313. The Turnip
plant, growing naturally in some parts of England, and
‘hinted bo « English Botany,” t. 2176. The root-leaves
are large, of a deep green colour, very rough, jagged
and gashed. In the second season it sends up a flowers
stalk, four or five feet high, having leaves which em-
brace the stem, very different from former ; smooth,
glaucous, oblong, and pointed. The cultivated variety
with a swelling fleshy root has long been known. Of
this there are several well marked subvarieties, distin-
ished as garden or as field turnips, To the former
Golees the Early Dutch, Early Stone, and the Yellow;
to the latter, the Large White, the Globe, the Swedish,
the Red-topped, and the Tankard or oblong.
314, For the supply of the table during the early
part of summer, some of the early Dutch turnip is
commonly sown. If fe weather ee ne
watering is er. For a general crop, arge
penieackapeid Tehite turnip is Faceamansed excellent, as
being soft, juicy, and sweet. One of the kinds with
bah the bcabons market is often supplied is the stone
turnip, a hard sweet sort, seldom of a large size. The
yellow is now perhaps less cultivated than it formerly
was ; but the yellow Dutch may still be considered as
one of the best kinds for winter use, as no frost» hurts
it, and it is of excellent flavour. It is a very distinct
Kitche
Gardeny
xa
Turnip.»
GBriies Rapa, L.) isa biennial Turnip. é
variety, the flesh being yellow it; whereas, _
iu tae elite acichiee,.snay allfierenae.iok ahd 6 abby
in the rind. The red or purple-topped turnip was for-
merly much cultivated ; but the green-to’ has now
in a great measure superseded it, though less hardy.
The general crop is often sown towards the end of
June, when refreshing showers may be expected. It
not uncommonly occupies the ground from which early
have just been removed. But as turnips are most
esirable for the table in a young state, a small sowing
is commonly made once a month from April to August. —
If sown earlier than April, the plants are apt to run to
seed, To divide the seed more equally when sown
broadcast, a little fine earth is mixed with it in sowing.
It is frequently sown in drills, an inch deep, and some-
what more than a foot asunder. If rain do not occur,
frequent watering is of great advantage to the young
crops. A light sandy loam, not recently manured, is
best for turnip; in a rich garden soil, the roots are apt
to become rank and woody. When the root-leaves are
about an inch broad, the plants are hoed; and, if they
have been sown broadcast, thinned to six or eight inches
distance from each other. When young turnips are
daily drawn for the table, they may be allowed to stand
somewhat closer, the proper degree of thinning being
accomplished by pulling for use. If in drills,
they may stand at five inches from each other in the
lines. Turnips bear transplantation’ difficulty ;
et in moist and wes Beene where the seed
fase thided! mitegeitog ed up. showery wea-
ther has made the leaves spring too- , 80 as to
lg
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HORTIC
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to be saved, it is of advantage that
transplanted, it being thought, that from
so transplanted a progeny having sweet and ten-
roots red ; while from the untransplant-
ed stock-turnips, larger but coarser roots may be ex-
tft
é
tance as
i ion of the seed-stock plants is often more
completely accomp!
possibly be in private gardens.
$17. The turnip-fly, or beetle, (Haltica nemorum),
is very destructive to the crop when in the seed-leaf.
One of the easiest remedies is to sow thick, and thus
ensure a sufficiency of plants both for the fly and the
crop. Mr Archibald Gorrie, a Scottish gardener of
merit, has found, from repeated experience, that if quick-
lime ne wei dusted over the crop while yet in the
» no attack will be made. A entive is
i the young i
other herbage, and disappearing
g
is
z
t
i
i
z
growing. In some places both
small roots of stored turnips are en-
t may be mentioned, that when turnips
over winter, the top leaves form
early in the spring, which are par-
ly good for eating with salted meat.
Naver.
ei
SS
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5
8
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turnip is a varicty of the
Napus, Lin. or Rape, whi
parts of Britain. (Eng.
tf
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; six inches apart.
ULTURE. 257
coarse, and deficient in flavour. The seed is sown
April, and the plants are thinned out to about five
The navew is sold in Covent Garden
Carrot.
$19. The Carrot (Daucus carota, Lin,; Pentandria Carrot.
Digynia ; nat. ord. Umbel/ifere) is a biennial plant. In
its wild state, it is a common weed in this country,
ing by the road-sides, and known by the name of
ird’s-nest, from the appearance of the umbel when the
seeds are ripening. It is in English Botany,
t. 1174. The roct of the wild carrot is small, dry, of
a white colour, and strong flavoured. The root of the
cultivated variety is succulent, and commonly of a yellow
or an orange-colour ; it is universally known, and very
generally relished, when cooked in various ways,
Several varieties are cultivated, particularly the
Orange carrot, with a large long root, of an orange-
yellow colour; the Early horn and the Late horn car-
rot, of both which the roots are short and comparative-
ly small ; and the Red or field carrot, which acquires
a large size.
$20. Carrots are sown at two or three different sea-
sons. The first sowing is made as early perhaps as
new-year’s day, or at any rate before the first of Feb-
ruary, on a warm border or in front of a hot-house.
Some employ a gentle hot-bed for this first crop ; while
others only hoop over the border, and cover it with
mats during frost. The main of carrots is put in,
in March or April; and in June or July a small bed
is sown to afford young carrots in the autumn months.
In some places a sowing is made a month later, to
remain over winter, afford young carrots in the
following spring. These, however, often prove stringy,
but they are useful in flavouring soups. In light early
soils, it is better that the principal crop should not be
sown sooner than the end of April or beginning of
May ; for in this way the attacks of many larve are
get seal de ihe thee vocab best ;
or rincipal crops, the orange variety is preferred,
but the red is also much cultivated. dois
The seeds having many forked hairs on their bor-
ders, by which they adhere together, are rubbed be-
tween the hands with some dry sand, so as to separate
them. On account of their lightness, a calm day must
be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be trod in
before raking. They are sown either at broad-cast, or
in drills a feot apart. When the plants come up, several
successive hocings are given ; at first with a three inch,
and latterly with a six inch hoe, The plants are thin.
ned out, either by drawing young carrots for use, or
by hoeing, till they stand eight or ten inches from each
other, if sown by broad-cast, or six or seven inches in line.
The hoeing is either performed only in showery wea-
ther, or a watering is regularly given after the opera.
x
Kitchen
Garden,
Carrot,
Parsnip.
‘sons insist that the tops should be entirely cut o
the time of storing, so as effectually to
258
tion, in order to settle the earth about the roots of the
plants left. ‘ ,
Carrots thrive best in light ground, with a, mixture
of sand. It should be delved very deep, or even trench-
ed, and at the same time well broken with the spade.
If the soil be naturally shallow, the late horn carrot is
to'be preferred to the orange or red. When manure is
added to carrot ground, it should be buried deep, so
that the roots may not reach it, else they are apt to be«
come forked and diseased. In general it is best to
make carrots the second crop after manuring. From
the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, however, (vol. i.
p- 129.) we learn, that pigeons-dung, one of the hot-
test manures, far from injuring carrots, promotes their
health, by preventing the attacks of various larve.
A considerable quantity of carrot-seed for the sup-
ly of the London seedsmen, is raised near Wethers-
field in Essex; but much is imported from Holland.
Cautious gardeners generally prove this and some other
kinds of seeds, such as onions, before sowing. This is
easily done by putting a sprinkling in a pot, and pla-
cing it under a hot-bed frame, or in a forcing house,
“Other gardeners transplant a few good roots, and raise
their own seed: in this case it is better to gather it on-
ly from the principal umbel, which is likely not only \
to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigor-
ous plants.
$21. Carrots are taken up at the approach of winter,
cleaned, and stored among sand. They may be built
very firm, by laying them heads and tails alternately,
and packing with sand. In this way, if frost be ex-
cluded from the store-house, they keep perfectly well
till March or April of the following year. Some per
at
eb their
growing ; while others wish to preserve the capability
of vegetation, though certainly not to encourage the
tendency to grow. : 4
Carrots are now cultivated on an extensive scale in
the field. They are excellent for milch cows or for
‘horses ; so that the overplus of a garden may always be
turned to good account.
From old Parkinson we learn, that carrot leaves
were in his day thought so ornamental that ladies wore
them in place of feathers, It must be confessed that
the leaves are beautiful. If during winter a large root
be cut over about three or four inches from the top,
and be placed in a shallow vessel with water, over the
-chimney-piece, young and delicate leaves unfold them-
selves all around, producing a very pretty appearance,
enhanced no doubt by the general deadness of that sea-
son of the year.
Parsnip.
322. The Parsnip, (Pastinaca sativa, L. ; Pentan-
dria Digynia; nat. ord. Umbellifere), isa biennial
plant. The wild parsnip is not uncommon by the way
sides near London, and in many parts of England,
chiefly on calcareous soils: it is figured in English Bo-
tany, t. 556. ‘The garden variety has smoo leaves,
of ‘a light or yellowish green colour, in which it dif-
fers trom the wild plant, the leaves of which are hairy
and dark green ; the roots also have a milder taste:
4t does not, however, differ so much from the native
plant, as the cultivated does from the native carrot.
t has long been an inmate of the garden, and it was
formerly much more in use than it is now. It was, mm
Catholic times, a fayourite Lent root, being eaten with
HORTICULTURE.
salted fish. It is doubtless a highly nutritious eseus
lent, and the increase of its cultivation might be useful
to the labouring class in England. In the north of Scots
land, parsnips are often beat up with potatoes and a
little butter; of this excellent mess the children of the
peasantry are very fond, and they‘do not fail to ‘thrive
upon it. In the north of Ireland, a pleasant table be-
verage is prepared from the roots, brewed along’ with
hops. Parsnip wine is also made’ in some places. If
the crop prove too large for the use of the family, the
superfluous part (as has been remarked of turnips and
carrots) will be found to be very acceptable and useful
to a milch cow, :
The soil preferred for parsnips is a light loam, but
almost any soi] will do, provided it be pretty deep ;
the parsnip requires, however, a stronger soil than the
carrot. The quarter should be trenched, or at least
deeply dug, in order that the roots may have seme
to strike freely downwards. The seed is sown,
cast, in. March, either alone, or together with a pro-
portion of radishes, lettuces, or carrots, and in light
soils it is well trodden in: the salad plants being soon
removed, or the carrots drawn young, do not materi-
ally hinder the growth of the -parsnips, which spread
and swell chiefly in the latter part of the summer.
The parsnips are hoed out to about eight or ten inches
asunder, or in strong ground a little wider; and the
hoeing is repeated as often as the growth of weeds
may render it proper. When the leaves begin ‘to
decay, the roots are fit for use. ‘They are taken up
as wanted during the winter, the root not being in the
least injured by frost. About the beginning of Febru-
ary, however, the remaining part of the crop is raised
and stored among sand, as the roots become stringy 2s
soon as the new growth takes place, and the’ flower-
stalk begins to form. In some places, the whole cro
is taken up in the end of October, and either sturrelt
in sand like carrots, or placed in covered pits in the
manner of potatoes. If two or three large’ roots
be transplanted to a sheltered border, they will not
fail to ripen their seeds, and to afford a sufficient
supply: it is proper to tie the flower-stems to stakes,
as they grow high, and are apt to be broken over by
the wind. Seed that is more than a year old should
never be sown. .
In the first volume of the Scottish Horticultural Me-
moirs, (p. 405), Dr Macculloch has described two va-
rieties of parsnip, which are cultivated in the Channel
Islands, and there attain extraordinary size,—the ‘Co-
quaine and Lisbonaise. The former runs deep into the
soil, perhaps three or four feet; the latter becomes
thick, but remains short, and is: therefore suited’ to
shallow soils. The French writers describe a variety
having the root of a yellowish colour, more tender,
and of a richer taste than the common kind: they call
it the Siam parsnip. te
Red Beet.
$23. Red Beet (Beta vulgaris, L, Pentandria Digy-
nia; Atriplices, Juss.) is a biennial plant, a native of
the seacoast of the’south of Europe. It was cultivated
by Tradescant the younger in 1656. It >was :
called in, this country beel-rave (or beet-radish), from
the French name bette-rave. The leaves*of the: cultic
vated sort are large, thick, and succulent, generally red
or purple; the roots large, perhaps three or fourinches
in diameter, and a foot inl , and of a )red co-
lour, They are boiled and sliced, and eaten‘cold, either
a
Pérsnip. ¢
7
Red beet. ;
HORTICULTURE.
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use in August.
that of common
esteemed and more in use it is at the present day.
In the “ Systema Horticultwra, by J. W. gent. 1682,”
ere is decked to be the ~ sweetest, whitest ond
most pleasant of roota.” It is a perennial it; the
lower leaves pi 5 the athe daieiptiinene tot
high, and terminated by an umbel of white flowers.
The root is composed of fleshy tubers, of the size of the
Kitchen
ous
little finger, joined together in one head : these formthe .. 5.2), :
part of the plant used. They are considered wholesome
and nutritive, but, having So te 2 OB ae
relished by many persons. are y boi
and saneed ith teetind like decent Tathe north of
Scotland, the plant is cultivated under the name of
crummeck, It 1s the chervis of the French.
Any light soil is found to answer for skirret.
If the ground be naturally moist, so much the better.
In very dry soils, or during long-continued drought,
watering isproper: The seed is not sown sooner than
the beginning of April, lest the plunts should ‘ran to
flower the first season, when the tubers would become
harsh and stringy Repeated thinning and hoeing
are proper, as in the case of similar crops. When the
leaves begin to decay in autumn, the tubers are consi+
dered as fit for use; but they are generally left in the
ground, and taken up as wanted. Sometimes the plants
which remain over winter, are dug up in the spring,
and the side-shoots, each with an eye or bud, are trans-
for a new These are commonly put in
with the dibble, and covered over head with an inch
depth of soil. But the tubers yielded by plants pro-
pegated in this way are not solarge as those of seedling
plants.
Scorzonera,
327. Scorzonera, or garden viper’s grass, ( Scorzonera
Hispanica, L. ; Syagenesia Polygamia las ; Cichora-
cea, Juss.) is a native of Spain, the south of France, and:
Italy. stem rises two or three feet high, with 'a
few embracing leaves, and is branched at top; the
lower leaves are eight or nine inches long, and efid in
a sharp point; the flowers are yellow. It was culti-
vated in gardens in this country tn the end of the 16th
cen - The tap root is the part used ; it is carrot.
, about the thickness of one’s finger; tapering
ly to a fine point, and thus bearing some resem
to the body of a viper: it has a dark brown
skin, but is white within, and abounds with a mi
juice. The outer rind being scraped off, the root is
map tnd oe in order to abstract a part of its bit-
ter flavour. The plant is not, in the present day, much
gees hae
The seeds are sown in an deep soil, general!
in drills, about a foot pire: Bos tins they ots mf
main, after being thinned out to four inches apart.
The is perennial; but the roots are fit for use
only the first autumn and winter after sowing, while
as yet no flower-stem has risen ; the roots, like all
others, becoming tough when the flowers are produ-
ced. To avoid the risk of the plants running to flower
the first season, the seed is not sown till the middle
of April. If a few strong plants be left, they yield
seeds freely the following year; or the plant may be
by slips in the manner of skirrets; but the
roots thus procured are not so good or tender as those
from seed. In some gardens, the roots arte lifted in
November, and stored in the manner of carrots ; in
others, they are left in the ground, and taken up during
winter as wanted.
_ Salsify. *
$28. Salsify, or purple
porrifolius, L; Syngenesia Polygamia aqualis ; Cicho-
racea, Juss,), is a fie plant, a native of some parts
Scorzonera,
ve-beard, (Tragopagon gutsity.
Kitchen of England, but not common ;
Garden.
Sulsify.
Radish,
260
figured in English Bo-
tany, t. 638. It is the salsifis or cercifis of the French,
The root is long and tapering, of a fleshy white sub-
stance; the herb smooth, glaucous, and rising three
or four feet high; the leaves resembling those of
the leek, as intimated in the trivial name; the flow-
ers of a dull purple colour, closing soon after mid-
day ; the setd, as in other species of goat’s-beard, re-
markable for having attached to it a broad feathery
crown. » It has been cultivated for a century past in
our gardens, but Gerarde and Parkinson do not men-
tion it; while they recommend the yellow t's
beard, Tragopogon pratensis, which is now neglected.
Salsify roots boiled or stewed like carrots, have a mild
sweetish flavour. The stalks of year-old plants are
sometimes cut in the spring when about four or five
inches high, and dressed like asparagus. Salsify is at
present, however, but little attended to.
It is sown in April, and thinned, like similar crops,
to six or eight inches apart. A mellow and deep soil
affords the best plants. They may remain in the
ground all winter, and be taken up as wanted. If two
or three roots be left, or be transplanted in the au-
tumn, they will afford abundance of seed the follow-
ing year.
Radish.
529. The Radish (Raphanus sativus, L.; Tetrady-
namia Siliquosa; nat. ord. Crucifere) is an annual
plant, originally from China. It is mentioned by Ge-
rarde ; and was probably known in England long be-
fore his time. The leaves are rough, lyrate or divided
transversely into segments, of which the inferior less
ones. are more remote ; the root fleshy, fusiform in
some varieties, in others subglobular ; white within,
but black, purple, or white on the outside ; the flowers
pale hoa with large dark veins; pods long, with a
sh ;
There are two principal varieties, distinguished by
the shapes of the roots already mentioned : 1. With fu-
siform roots, the long-rooted or. spindle-rooted radish,
the rave of the French ; 2. With subglobular roots, the
turnip-rooted radish, the radis of the French. The
roots of both are used principally in the way of salad,
in winter and the early part of spring. Formerly the
leaves were often boiled and eaten ; but now the roots
only are employed ; and as they are always used raw,
the plant might, without impropriety, have been rank-
ed under the title of Salads.
$30. Of the spindle-rooted kind, the subvarieties
much in cultivation are, the small-topped or short-top-
ped purple, the leayes of which occupy little room ;
and the pink er rose-coloured, or, as it is frequently cal-
led, the salmon radish. There is also an early dwarf-
ish short topped red, and an early short-topped salmon-
radish, sown for the first crops, and used for forcing. Of
the turnip-rooted kind, there are several subvarieties,
The small turnip-rooted white or Naples radishes, when
they appear in the green market in spring, are not un-
frequently mistaken for young turnips: they should
be eaten young, when crisp and rok » being, when
full grown, rather hot and harsh. There is also a
small turnip-rooted red radish ; and, the queen radish,
both red and white. The black turnip-rooted or Spa-
nish radish (raifort of the French) has a dark coloured
skin, but is white within; though rather coarser than
the others, it is much esteemed for autumn and winter
use.
Radishes are sown for the earliest crop in the be.
1
HORTICULTURE.
ginning of November in a sheltered border, or in front
of a pinery or green-house ; and they are ready for
ita
Gardety —
eer
drawing early in March. More seed is sown in De~ pia
cember or Jan : and sowings are continued once a
fortnight till ‘Apes so as to secure a succession of young
roots as they may be wanted.
Any sort of light soil answers, but it should be of
sufficient depth to allow the long roots to penetrate
easily. A slight covering of fern (pieris) is found very
useful in the early spring months, when sharp frosts
occur: this cov may be raked off in the day-time,
and restored at night, without much injury tothe leaves
of the young radishes. When very dry weather oc-
curs in the end of march, the crops are regularly wa-
tered. They who wish to have large radishes, are
sometimes at the pains to prick a number of holes with
the finger, and to drop a seed into each hole. Only a
little earth is then tumbled into it, the greater part of
the hole being left vacant. The root is hes induced to
swell, and long and semi-transparent radishes are
cured. Some gardeners mix spinach seed with their
later sowings of radishes ; so that when the radishes are
drawn, the other soon covers the ground. \ Others sow
lettuce and onions along with radishes. If radishes are
to be drawn when small, they are allowed) to stand at
two inches only apart ; otherwise they have twice that
space or more allowed them. When crowded, they
are apt to become stringy in the root.
$31. The turnip-radish is sown in February or March,
and the plants are thinned out to about six inches with
a small hoe. The red and the white queen radish, and
the black Spanish radish, are sown from the middle of
July to the middle of September, and thinned out in
the same manner. They are fit for use in the begin«
ning of September; and before hard frost comes on, »
they are generally taken up, and stored among sand like
carrots, the tops being cut close off: in this way they
are ready for use throughout the winter. ;
The dwarf early short-topped red, and early short«
topped salmon radishes, are easily forced on a hot-bed:
if the seed be sown by the middle of November, the
radishes will be fit for drawing by the end of Decem-
ber, and will afford a supply for a month. Care must
be taken to have a sufficiently thick layer of earth to
hinder them from penetrating into the dung.
The seed of any of the sorts is easily procured by
transplanting a few of the best and most cteristic
plants of the respective kinds: the sorts should be
placed as far from each other as possible, to prevent
commixture of pollen.
It may be noticed, that the young and green seed«
pods are sometimes used for pickling ; and are perhaps
scarcely inferior to nasturtiums.
It may also be mentioned, that Delaunay, in his
Bon Jardinier, 1815, describes a new sort of turnip<
radish, introduced of late years into France from
Egypt; it is remarkable for being of a yellow colour.
It has more poignancy than any of the kinds except the
black ; and experience. has shewn that it may be pro-
duced, in the Paris gardens, at almost any season of
the year.
Alliaceous Tribe.
Onion.
$82. ‘The Onion (Allium Cepa, L. Hexandria Mo- Onion
nogynia; Asphodeli, Juss.) is a biennial plant, well
1
HORTICULTURE. 261
the growth to the bulb, the erop is Jaid over, as it is Kitchen
called. This ion is described by Nicol in his Garden.
« Kalendar.” Twe people, with a rod or rake-handle, a.
walk along the alleys, holding the rod so as to strike
the stems an inch or two above the bulb, and bend
oval very them flat down. Winter onions thus managed, may be
long. - a? onion may be asa taken up about the end of June, and are generally firm
subvariety of Strasbargh. The white Spanish and long. eae 2
onion grows to a large size, and is of a flat Al. ,_In order to firm Senate babs prepara
pickling, some seed should be sown late in the spring,
en about the middle of April, in light'and very poor
d. It should be sown pretty thick; and ‘the seed-
lings need scarcely be thinned, unless where they rise
absolutely in clusters, The bulbs thus treated are gene-
rally of a r size for pickling in August. The smalt
silyer-skinn pay & it has been already mentioned,
is well adapted for this purpose.
It may here be noticed, that such of the ing
onions as have sprouted in the loft, are sometimes plant-
ed in a bed early in the spring, re roar market«
In a short time they appear , throw-
ing out long green leaves. They are then sent to mar-
ket, tied in small bunches, and sold as a substitute for
scallions, and under that name. ;
$35. It has long been known, that y seedling
onions might be transplanted with success. Even Wor-
lidge, in his little treatise on gardening,* published in
the end of the 17th century, praises this mode. The
practice has of late years been revived, and recommend-
ed in England by Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq. and
in Scotland by Mr James Macdonald, to
the Duke of Buccleuch at Dalkeith. Mr Knight's plan
is, to sow the onion seed at the ordinary autumn
season, thick under the shade ofa tree, and to trans
plant the bulbs the following spring: be thus es
onions equal in size and other qualities to those import
ed from Spain, Mr Macdonald, again, lants the
young spring sown onions. He sows in P
sometimes on a slight hot-bed, or merely under a glass
frame ; and between the beginning of April and the
middle of the month, according to the state of the wea«
ther, he transplants the young seedlings, in drills about
1
:
:
il
i
i
ib
i
3
but en, which has
: it 1 be well delved,
ly levelled. In heavy land, it is
to sow in the end of
Hala:
ret
iar
Utes
f
:
iti
L
h
i
;
;
E
5
f
:
be dry at the time of thinning, a plentiful watering is eight inches asunder, and at the distance of four or five
necessary for paring ine to the roots of the re- inches from each other in the row. It is evident, that
plants. A the end of August the is by thus having the crop in regular rows, hoeing may
ripe, which is known by the leaves falling down. The not only su hand-weeding, but may be more ef=
onions are then drawn, and laid out on a dry of fectuall ormed. The bulbs thus enjoying the great
ground, such as a gravel walk, and occasionally turn- and well-known advantages of having the surface-earth
ed. Ina ight they are generally found sufficient- frequently stirred, swell to a much size than
: ly firm and lor keeping; and they are then stored those not transplanted ; while in firmness and flavour
in gare o (never in a cellar,) and excluded as they are certainly not inferior to foreign onions. At
3 as may be from the air. They are still very apt the same time the transplanted onions remain free from
} to grow ; and to prevent this, some are at the pains to wire-worm or rot, while those left in the original seed-
aelect the finest bulbs, and singe the radicles with a bed are frequently much injured by both. The beds
' hot iron. In many places they are strung in bunches, «lestined for these onions having probably been under a
4 and ap from the roof of the loft. winter crop, are deeply delved over in the beginning of
4 334. secondary crop of onions is sown in Au- April, and thus rendered clean at the most critical sea-
ba gust or the beginning of September, and called the Mi- son of the year for the larva that infest the soil. Be-«
' chaelmas or winter crop. They are thinned in the sides, the plants grow with superior vigour, in conse~
. usual way ; and weeds must be carefully kept down, as quence of the repeated hocings and are thus better
a they spring up\very rapidly at this season of the year. able to resist injuries. Mr M‘Donald, indeed, some-
7 In the spring months, when the keeping onions fail, times practises the dipping of the roots of seedlings
+ part of these autumn sown onions are drawn for use: in a puddle prepared with one part of soot and three
the remainder form bulbs, which are ready in the early
bape po In the course of May, however, some
bs will be observed a flower-stem: these
are cast out; and to check this tendency, and divert
rts of earth; but this may probably be dispensed
vith, as it seems likely that the cxnenption from the at-
tacks of the worm or the power of resisting them, de-
pend rather on the other circumstances mentioned. It
* Systema Horticulture, by J. W. gent.—2d edit. 1083,
Kitchen
Garden.
Onion.
Tree onion.
262
may be added, that all the varieties of onion seem to
answer equally well for transplanting,
Various means have been suggested of guarding
against the attack of the maggot alluded to. One of
the most simple and most important, consists in select-
ing a fresh soil and an airy situation, never sowing on
recently manured land, It is proper to avoid having
very tender plants at the season when the maggot is
known commonly to make its appearance: by sowing
a fortnight or three weeks later or earlier, crops might
often be saved. It is frequently remarked, that while
spring sown onions are cut off, the autumn sown crop
escapes. Mr Machray at Errol has suggested the pro-
ptiety of sowing onions only after crops known not to
be subject to the attacks of the maggot, such as straw-
berries and artichokes. This plan, he informs us,
(Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 274.) he has practised for a
number of years, and has found effectual in preser-
ving his onions ; while it is attended with no inconve-
niency, as nothing can be more easy than to keep up a
succession of strawberry and artichoke plants.
336. The procuring of fresh seed is a matter of im-
portance ; for if it be kept over a year, a great part will
not germinate. Onion seed can be ripened in our cli-
mate; but some how or other it is very apt to degenerate.
A good deal, however, is yearly saved in the neigh-
hourhood of Deptford. Imported seed is always pro-
ved by attentive gardeners, and also by seedsmen: a
small sample being sown in a flower-pot, and placed in
a hot-house, the quality, as far as capability of germi-
nation is concerned, is soon determined. When it is
intended to collect home seed, some of the firmest,
largest, and best shaped bulbs are selected, and planted
out in February or March, in good ground, near a
south wall or hedg . When the heads are formed,
they are supported by lines of small cord passed be-
tween stakes. In September, if the season be favour-
able, the seed ripens, turning to a brown colour, and
beginning to burst the baile which contain it. The
heads are then gathered ; and when dried, the seeds
are beat out, and kept in paper bags.
337. A bulbiferous variety is cultivated in some
gardens, under the name of Tree onion. Its eulture
has been recommended by Mr George Nicol of Edin-
burgh, in the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural
Society, (vol. i. p. 350.) under the title of Adium Cana-
dense, a species for which it has very generally been
mistaken. The stems from two-year old plants rise
more than two feet high. Several bulbs of different
sizes are produced at the top of the stem, and these, as
well as the root-bulbs, may be used for kitchen pur-
poses like common onions. They are of good flavour,
though rather stronger in taste than common onions.
begs oe well adapted for keeping, and especially for
pickling. Mr Nicol observes, that they are very seldom
infe by ots; and he recommends, therefore,
that a few stock-bulbs should be preserved in gardens,
to provide against the contingency of the crop of com«
mon onions failing.
. This bulb-bearing or’ tree-onion is figured in the
« Botanical Magazine,” plate 1469, and described by
Dr Sims as merely a variety of the Allium cepa. It is
certainly not the Allium Canadense of Willdenow or
Pursh, (for which, as already noticed, it has been ge-
nerally mistaken,) the Canadian plant having flat linear
leaves, and a slender uninflated stem, with top-bulbs
resembling those of garlic. But, on the other hand, it
differs from the common onion, not only in producing
bulbs at top, but in having a stronger alliaceous fla~
HORTICULTURE:
Se reset, aay ieee Seal
vour, and in
might constitu } :
$38. The Egyptian onion, or Ground onion, has been
considered as another variety of Allium cepa, but seems
to be more nearly allied to A. fistulosum. Instead of
producing bulbs at the top of the stem like the form-
er, this plant produces clusters at the surface of the
areas in the manner. of potatoes. It was brought
tom Egypt, it is ‘believed, during the occupation of
that country by the British army, and was ‘first -culti-
vated in the neighbourhood of Bainburgh in 1811, by
Lieutenant Burn of the Royal Navy. The bulbs are
planted in April, at a foot or sixteen inches asunder,
and covered with earth only about half an inch dee
In the course of the season, a number of bulbs form in
clusters around the parent bulb, as already described ;
those nearest the surface grow largest; those toward
the centre are’ soonest ripe, and may be removed ‘to
give room to the others. If intended for keeping, the
should be taken up before they attain maturity. If al.
lowed to remain long in the ground, they sometimes
become of a very large size, The bulb seems quite
hardy, having been observed to brave the severity of
frosty weather, at least equally well as the common
onion. Flower stems rise sparingly, and only from
strong bulbs. In quality the ground onion seems not
inferior to the common onion. It morespeedily reaches
maturity, being planted in April; and reaped in Au-
gust and September. Maggots have not been observed
to infest it; but it has’ not been ascertained that they
will not attack it. T'rom our own experience: we
suspect, that it will speedily degenerate in this coun-
try.
339 The scallion seems to be a third variety of the geattion.
Allium Cepa, distinguished by the circumstance of its
never forming a bulb at the root. Miller states, that
the scallion is propagated by parting the roots in au
tumn; that it grows in almost a soil or situation,
and resists our severest winters. He adds, that being
green and fit for use very early in the spring, it is wor-
thy of a place in all good kitchen gardens. It was, in«
deed, formerly much in use; but the true scallion is
now very little known, and is said to exist only in a
few gardens, where it is preserved by way of curiosity.
Some derive the name scallion or escallion from ascalo~
nicum, and without more ado identify it with the rocams
bole, (A. ascalonicum) ; others consider it as synony«
mous with the Welch onion, (A. fistulosum) ; but both
these species were well known to Miller, and accurate«
ly distinguished by him, and yet he describes the scal-«
lion as something different. In popular language, scal«
lion means sometimes a thick-necked seedling onion,
drawn for use in the green state ; and sometimes, as al-
ready mentioned, a winter kept onion which has
sprouted, and is planted for some weeks in the spring
till it acquire green leaves.
Leek.
840. The Leek ( Allium Porrum, L.; Poireau of the Leck.
French) is’ a native of Switzerland, and a biennial
plant. The stem rises three feet, and is leafy at bot- _
tom, the leaves an inch wide. The flowers a in
May, in close very large balls, on purplish peduncles.
The whole plant is used for culinary purposes ; but the
blanched stem is most esteemed. It is in season in
winter and spring, and is chiefly used in soups, and for
stewing. It is mentioned by Tusser in 1562, but was
if
—
9 ee mae _—— a
HORTICULTURE.
known in this country Jong before that date.
ee TS aol ata
to the Welch, to Dutchmen butter’s dear !”
Dodmdar eg sng ion of a plain. prose writer
i remark : “ I have oop eet
‘there. stored with leeks,” says Worlidge,
: Wales, “ and part of the remainder with
“t
L
ni
g5
be to be derived from p e
error jes: the ede
or
: the Scotch, leek, sometimes called
Hessibnae leek ; and the broad-leaved or tall
latter variety is often cultivated ;
situations, the Scotch leek is by much
i
:
ef
i
:
3
bu'
the more
z
are Tabed from seeds sown in the spring,
same Way as onions, and occasionally along
; They are at first sown closely in beds ;
and in June or July, when early cabbage or an early
crop is removed, the leeks are planted out in rows about
a foot and six inches asunder in the rows. The
tips of the leaves, and the pau of the fibrous roots,
are before planting. A good
commonly trimmed o'
: os rice hole with the dibble, and mere-
to lay in the - up to the leaves, without
ing the earth about it. In this way the stem of the
leek is encouraged to swell and len, and is at the
blanched. This plan, however, must either
ri
i
a5
.
E
Z
:
as
:
FS
Le
ft
z
E
aE
u
a
2 9
a
i
ee
if
:
B
E
‘tah
He
peice
268
use, then very greén and tender. As might be
expected of a Siberian plant, it withstands our severest
Kitchen:
Garden.
winters. The wide-swelling fistular leaves give it ra- Goyx aA
ther a curious appearance ; a few ts ma’
be suffered to stand on Tee inde of te pully
where they will in ripen their seed.
Dr Johnson (Dict. in loco) remarks, that the name
cibol is frequently used in the Scotch dialect, but that
the lis not pronounced. By the term cibo or sybie,
however, the Scots mean a young ing onion of the
common kind, gathered for use before the swelling of
the bulb: the true cibol is very little cultivated in
Scotland, and is not distinguished by the common_peo-
ple.
Chives.
$42. The Chive, or Cive, (Allium Schenoprasum, Chives.
L.) is a perennial plant, of more humble growth than
_ of its rae 8 the garden. It is a native of
Britain, but not common: it occurs, among other pla-
ces, in the south of Scotland, we: bora hills rae Haw-
ick ; it is figured in “ English Botan ;" plate 2441.
The bulbs are very small and flat, and he connected
in clusters. When gathered for use, they are
cut or shorn like. cresses, and on this account are ge-
nerally spoken of in the plural. The young leaves
are employed principally as a salad ingredient in the
spring, being accounted milder than scallions. Occa-
tonal the leaves and émall bulbs are used together,
sli to the bottom, and thus forming, as it were,
separate little cibols. Sometimes they are added as a
seasoning to omelets ; end they are useful for other cu-
Chives are readily propagated by parting the roots,
either in autumn or spring, and they will grow in any
soil or situation. They should be repeatedly cut du-
ring the summer season, the successive leaves us
ced in this way being more tender. A small or
border thus managed, will afford a sufficient supply :
it will continue productive for three or four years, when
a new plantation should be made. Chives are some-
times p as an edging; and if they be allowed to
grow up, they make a pretty enough appearance with
their pale purple flowers in June. ~
Garlic.
348. Garlic ( Allium sativum, L. ; Ail of the French) Garlic.
is a nial t, ing naturally in Sicily, and
in ae conth EF: rence. The leaves i “al long,
and narrow. It has a bulbous root, made up of a do-
zen or fifteen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. It was
cultivated in England in 1548 ; but had probably been
known long before that period. When an entire bulb
is planted, it does not fail to throw up a flower-stem in
the summer ; but this is not wished. Garlic.is there-
fore propagated by detaching the cloves, and i
them ; and in this way the tendency to flower is less.
It may be propagated also by the seed ; but this mode
is tedious, three years elapsing before a tolerable
is produced. The soil should be light and dry, well
ved, and broken fine. The sets are placed four inches
distant from each other in every direction, and between
two and three inches deep. smaller the cloves, the
more healthy and productive are the plants. They are
t in, in February or March. About the middle of
une the leaves are tied in knots, to prevent the strong-
er plants from spindling or running to flower, and
Kitchen
Garden.
Shallot.
Shallot,
Rocambole,
264
to promote the swelling of the bulbs. The crop is
taken up in August, when the leaves begin to wither.
The roots are tied in bunches, and hung in a dry room
for use. Garlic is used in seasoning various kinds of
dishes, being in general introduced only for a short
time into the dish while cooking, and withdrawn when
a sufficient degree of flavour has been communicated.
It is much more employed in French cookery than
in ours. An ordinary sized bed commonly furnishes
a sufficient supply for the use of a large family in this
country.
Shaliot.
$44, The Shallot (Allium ascalonicum, L.) is a per-
ennial plant, a native of the Holy Land, where it was
observed by Hasselquist. schalot (or Eschalotte, F.)
is the more correct denomination, the name being de-
rived from Ascalon, a town in Palestine. In some old
books it is styled barren onion, from the circumstance
of its seldom sending up a flower-stalk. In size and
general growth the plant resembles the chive; but it
produces bulbous roots composed of cloves like garlic,
These are used for culinary purposes in the manner
of garlic ; but they are milder, and do not communi-
cate to the breath the offensive flavour which garlic or
even raw onions impart.
The culture of shallots is greatly similar to that of
garlic; only the offsets or cloves are planted more
early, and the crop is somewhat sooner taken up. The
smallest and longest cloves form the best sets, being
least subject to grow mouldy. A good soil is desira-
ble for them ; but one that has been manured for a for-
mer crop is to be preferred ; for in soil newly dunged,
the plants are much more apt to be infested with mag-
gots. Mr Marshall very properly recommends plant-
ing in autumn where the soil is dry, and in spring
where it is naturally damp. The severest frosts seem
to-have no effect in injuring the roots. The crop is
taken up, in the end of summer, when the leaves be-
come discoloured ; and the bulbs are hung up in nets
in a cool airy place, for use.
Mr Machray at Errol mentions (Scottish Hort. Mem.
i. 275), that he has found soot mixed with the manure
given to shallot beds effectual in preventing the ap-
pearance of maggots ; while the shallots were impro-
ved in size. But Mr Henderson, gardener at Delvine
in Scotland, has recommended the planting of shallots
in autumn, as the sutest way of enabling them to
escape or withstand the attacks of these vermin, (Scot-
tish Hort. Mem. i. 200.) He plants his shallots about
the middle of October, the ground being previonsly
manured with old well-rotted dung mixed with house
ashes. He mentions, that he had, on one occasion, a
parcel of spring planted shallots only seven feet distant
trom those planted in autumn; and that the former
were totally destroyed by the maggot, while the latter
proved productive and good.
Rocambole.
$45. The Rocambole (Allium Scorodoprasum, L.;
Ail d’ Espagne of the French) is a perennial plant, in-
digenous to Sweden and Denmark. It has compound
bulbs like garlic, but the cloves are smaller; it sends
up a stem two feet high, which is bulbiferous. We
know that the rocambole was cultivated by Gerarde in
- 1596, but it was probably introduced long before. The
cloves are used in the manner of garlic’or shallot, and
HORTICULTURE.
nearly for the same purposes. At the top of the stem,’
along with the flower, in July and August, small bulbs
(which have-sometimes been called seeds) are produced;
these may likewise be used, and indeed they are, strict-
ly speaking, the proper rocamboles.
The plant may be propagated by means of either
sort of bulbs ; but those of the root are most speedily
productive. They are commonly planted in the spring ;
but in dry ground they are put in, in the aatumn, the
produce being in this way of a larger size. Those
plants which do not push up a flower-stem naturally
produce the strongest root-bulbs ; and if it is not wish-
ed that the plants should fruit, the smaller the offsets
planted the better. The culture is otherwise the same
rd that of garlic, A few rows of rocambole are suf-
cient, -
Spinach Plants.
Spinach.
346. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea, L.; Diwcia Pen-
tandria ; Atriplices, Juss. Epinard, F.) is an annual
plant, with the leaves large, the stems hollow, branch-
ing, and, when allowed to produce flowers, rising
two feet high. It is dicecious, or the male and the
female flowers are produced on different plants ; the
former come in long spikes; the latter appear in clus-
ters, close to the stalk, at every joint. Spinach is the
only dioecious plant cultivated for culinary use. West-
ern Asia is the country of which our garden spinach
is considered as originally a native. It has been cul-
tivated in Britain from the earliest times of which we
ssess any horticultural record, for the sake of the
ener which are used in soups, or boiled and mashed,
and served up with butter, and eggs hard done.
There are two principal varieties, the prickly-seeded,
with triangular, oblong, or ittate leaves ; and the
smooth-seeded, with round or blunt leaves. The for-
mer is the more hardy, and is employed for winter cul«
ture; the latter has more succulent leaves, and is pree
ferred for summer crops.
For the winter crop, therefore, the seed of the prick«
ly kind is sown in the beginning of ny, Sry when rains
may soon be e ed.
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paper already
overdone in covking ; it should be thoroughly
drained, and then suffered to remain a few minutes be-
fore the fire, that a farther ate mecictonn ax be
exhaled. From four to six s, according to the size,
loured down ; the midrib deeply channelled and fur-
rewed. The appearance of the fower-heads is familiar.
These, in an immature state, contain the part used,
which is the fleshy receptacle, commonly called the
bottom, freed from the bristles and seed-down, vulgarly
called the choke. In the usual way of cooking, the en-
tire heads are boiled. In eating, the portions of the
receptacle adifering to the base of the calyx-leaves or
scales are also used. The bottoms are sometimes fried
in paste, and they form a desirable ingredient in ra-
gouts. They are occasionally used for pickling ; and
sometimes they are slowly dried, and kept in paper-
bags for winter use. In France the bottoms of young
artichokes are frequently used in the raw state as a
salad ; thin slices are cut from the bottom, with a scale
or calyx-leaf attached, by which the slice is lifted, and
i in oil and vinegar before eating.
365. There are two varieties cultivated ; the French,
conical, or green artichoke ; and the Globe or red arti-
choke. The head of the former is rathér of an oval
shape ; the scales are open, and not turned in at top as
in the globe artichoke. The latter is distinguished not
only by the shape, and by the position of the scales,
but by Ne of » dusky purplecolour, The re-
ceptacle of the globe artichoke 1s more succulent than
that of the Freneh, but the latter is generally consider.
ed as possessing more flavour.
Artichokes are increased by rooted slips or suckers
of sea-cale as a delicate culinary v le, should be taken off at the time of the spring dressing, in the be-
unknown. in _an edition of his . ginning of April. They delight in a light loam, cool
lar du Jardinier, published in 1807, deseribes t dry, and which is at the same time rich and deep.
the chow marin ore 2 ragtremine Foy we but he
appears to have to make use of the full grown
In eee i for this crop, the soil should be trenched
to the depth of three feet, or at least two feet and a
leaves, instead of the blanched saree half, and manure should be liberally placed in the bot-
a Coarser mess can be imagined ; it isno tom of the trench. In dry weather, the young plants
wonder therefore that he the merits of sea- Artichokes
ren regular es for some time.
wi well in a situation somewhat shaded,
bat oad aes bo elder the drip of trees. Ina
free airy situation, however, the heads are of bet-
“ool 2 ions, that th he
icol mentions, that the strongest ever saw,
| glee ange Fong fo that had been trenched
ully a yard in depth, and had been well enriched with
dung, and limed ; and that the plants were
covered before winter with a mixture of le Vitter
Kitchen
Garden.
Artichoke,
270
luxuriance of the plants in. these is to be ascribed to
the liberal supply of ‘sea-weed dug into the ground
every autumn. It was long ago remarked by a_horti-
cultural writer, that ‘* water drawn from ashes, or im-
proved by any fixed salt, is very good for artichokes.”
Systema Agriculture, 1682.
366. The plants are often placed four feet apart
every way: sometimes they are planted three feet apart
in rows, and the rows are kept six feet asunder. In
many of the market-gardens near London, the rows are
eight or ten feet from each other ; intermediate low-
- growing crops are sown or planted, the artichokes be-
ing always allowed five feet free. Some gardeners
plant two offsets together ; and if both survive and prove
Strong, they afterwards remove one. Others plant three
offsets in a triangular patch or stock, each offset being ten
or twelve inches from the other; and these stocks are af-
terwards treated as if they were single plants. A crop
of spinach or turnip is generally taken, for the first
year, even between the closest rows. At the end of
the first season after planting, a small and late crop of
articlioke-heads is Pore generally in October. In
the second year, the leaves of the plants will almost
meet in the rows.
To encourage the production of large main heads,
some detach all the lateral heads in a young state,
These are commonly ina fit state for eating raw, having
attained about one third of their proper size ; and they
are for this purpose frequently sold in Covent Garden
market, chiefly to foreigners. Another thing practised
with the same view, is the shortening the ends of the
large leaves. When all the heads are gathered, the
whole stalks are broken down close to the ground, in
order to save the useless expenditure of sap, and to
promote the setting out of young shoots at the root.
In November the plants are earthed up, or, in other
words, a portion of earth is drawn around each plant.
It was formerly a custom to make a trench between
the rows, and to fill this trench “ with dung which
would not freeze ;” the earth thrown out, forming a
ridge around the plants. Some modern writers re-
commended the shaking of the trench, but omitted to
speak of filling it with dung; so that the roots of the
plants were thus more exposed than if the ground had
been left untouched. In this way the forming of any
trench came into disrepute; and, as already noticed,
the best practical gardeners now only draw the earth
from the surrounding surface towards the plants.. Lon
dung, peas haulm, old tanners bark, or such stuff
are then laid around, but kept at some distance from
the stems and leaves of the plants,
867. The spring dressing is equally important. The
litter and earth being removed, in March or April, ac-
cording to the kind of season, the stocks are examined ;
and two or three of the strongest or best shoots bein
selected for growing up, the rest are removed : this is of+
ten done merely By pressure with the thumb, but some-
times a knife or chisel is employed. It was formerly
mentioned that this is the proper time for procuring
young plants. It is remarked by gardeners, that the
shoots from the under part of the stock, which are soft
and crisp, are preferable to those from the crown of the
roots, which have hard and rather woody stems. If the
sufficient to ensure its growth.
‘Artichoke plants continue productive for several
years; but, teh Season, some well-rotted dung or fresh ,
sea-weed, should be delved into the ground at the win-
ter dressing, It is certain, however, that after a few-
HORTICULTURE,
years, the plants begin to degenerate, the héads'bes Kitchen
er and less succulent. It is therefore a Garden. -
coming smal
general rule not to keep an artichoke plantation bes ““Y——"
yond four or at most six years. Scarcely any kind of ein
grub or wire-worm ever touches the roots of artichokes :
they form, therefore, an excellent preparative for a.crop
of onions, shallot, or garlic. In many gardens a small
new plantation is formed every year; and in this way
the artichoke season, which begins in June, is prolong«
ed till November; those from Ao old stocks continuing
till August, when those from the new stocks come in.
If the last gathered be cut with the stems at fulb
lpi, and if these be stuck among moist sand; the
heads may be preserved a month longer.
Tf some of the large heads on the old stocks be sufs
fered to remain, the calyx-leaves expand, and the cen
tre of the head becomes covered with jagged purple
florets, producing a fine appearance, The flowers pos«
sess the quality of coagulating milk, and have some«
times been used in place>of runnet, In general the
seed is not perfected in our climate... When ripe seed
is wanted, it is found useful to bend down the heads af:
ter flowering, in such a way that the autumnal rains
may be cast off by the calyx-scales ; and the heads are
retained in this posture by being tied to stakes,
368. The chard of artichokes, or the tender central
leaf-stalk blanched, is by some thought preferable to
that of the cardoon. When the artichoke quarter is to
be shifted, and the old stocks are at any rate to be de<
stroyed, the plants may be prepared, after midsummer,
when the best crop of heads is over, for yielding chards
against winter, ‘The leaves are to be cut over within
half a foot of the ground; the stems as low as is
ble. In September or October, when the new cist
or leaves are about two feet high, they are bound close
with a wreath of hay or, straw, and earth or litter is
drawn round the stems of the plants. ‘The blanchi
is perfected in a month or six weeks. If the
are wished late in winter, the whole plants may be dug
up, before frost sets in, and. laid)in sand in their
blanched state; in this way they may be kept. for ses
veral weeks,
Cardoon.
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' 369.. The Cardoon, (Cynara Cardunculus, L.) or, a8 Geraoon,
it is sometimes written, Chardon, is known by nearly
the same name in all the European languages. Itis a
perennial plant, and.is considered as indigenous to the’
south of France and. to Spain. It so greatly resembles
the artichoke as to require no other description. It.
rises to a greater height than that plant, and becomes
sometimes really a gigantic vegetable. It was culti-
vated in 1683, by Sutherland, in the Botanic Garden
at Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh; but its use ‘as a culi-
nary plant. was known in England previous to that
period, The leaf-stalks of the inner leaves, which are
fleshy and crisp, afford the eatable part, or chard.
They are rendered white and tender by blanching, to’
the extent of two or even three feet. Cardoons are in
season in winter; they are employed in soups and
stews, and sometimes as a salad, eaten either raw or
_ boiled. In this country they are not muchin demand,
shoot be six or eight inches long it is enough; and if,
it be furnished with two or three small fibres, they are.
and the crop is to be seen only in some private gar-
dens, and in a few of the principal rmndliee pt
near London. sein
The best a for -cardoons is one that is it, and
not over rich; but it ought to be’deep. Although.
the cardoon is a perennial) plant, it is'sown for use:
every year.. Formerly the plants were. raised on. hote-
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HORTICULTURE.
So little is it cultivated here, that Nicol does not speak Kiicws
£
and ‘in May or June; bat now the
is ge ‘sown the plants are to remain.
not sooner than the middle or the end of
] should be inclined to throw up flow-
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271
of it in his “ Gardener’s Kalendar.”
The seed is sown in the end of May, in a quarter
somewhat shady. If sown earlier, or in a warm sunny
situation, the flower-stems would be apt to spring up
the first year, when, as repeatedly mentioned in similar
¢ases, the roots would become hard and unfit for use.
The seed is very minute, insomuch that, to enable the
yardener to sow it equally and thin enough, it should
mixed with sawings of timber. A thimble-full of
the seed is sufficient to sow a large bed. When the.
plants are about an inch high, they are hoed, and thin-
ned out to the distance of or four inches from each
other. They are afterwards to be kept free of weeds,
and the surface is occasionally stirred. The roots are
ay for use at the approach of winter, and continue
till the spring growth commences. If a few plants
be left, a flower-stalk rises, and the pale purple bell-
flowers appear in the end of July, followed by plenty
of seed in the autumn.
Fresh Salad and Soup Herbs ; Garnishes, &c.
Severat of the principal plants which are used raw in
salads, are likewise employed in making soups ; such
are lettuce, endive, and parsley. Others are merely sa-
lad plants ; such are cresses and radishes.
Lettuce.
371. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa, L. ; Syngenesia Poly» Lettuce,
gamia wqualis ; Chicoracea, Juss.; Laitue, F.; Gar-
tensalat, G.) is an anmual plant, the 1 country of
which is we habe Site authors indeed Soten, eae
- ned to consider it as merely an accidental variety, sprang
from some of the other species of Lactuca. It was cu
tivated in England in the middle of the 16th century,
and ly much earlier. The leaves are large, milky,
frequently wrinkled, usually pale green, but varying
much in form and colour in the different varieties. The
Ae tag Bynes for le salad is well
known ; it is also a useful i tin soups. It con-
tains, like the other species of this genus, a quantity of
perf oe of an opiate nature, from which of late years
a medicine has been Dr Duncan senior of
Edinburgh, under the title of lactucarium, and which
he finds can be administered with effect in cases where
opium is inadmissible.
$72. Many varieties are cultivated; but these are
generally considered as belonging to one or other of
two kinds, the Coss (also called Womian and ice) and
the lettuce ; the former with long upright
~~ the latter with ad leaves — Low! faced,
growing squat u e . sorts at
sent most aaovi poahe dec lettuces, the pate
tian green, and the white coss or Versailles ; of the
lettuces, the imperial, and the grand admiral, or
admirable. The large Roman and the Cilicia lettuce, ©
brown and green, are the kinds chiefly used in soups,
or for stewing.
By means of successive sowings, and by care durii
winter, fresh lettuce is now uced almost the whole
year round. The plants are used either when quite
young and open, or when at full growth and
‘A small sowing is often made in January, the seed.
lings Lage detec pes in March. A considerable crop
is sown in the end of February ; the main sowing is in
March and April; and sometimes a portion of lettuce
Kitchen
Garden.
Lettace.
Endive,
272
seed is sprinkled in along with onions or-carrots, the
lettuces being drawn before they can hurt the other
crop. Lettuce seed is sown at broad-cast, and is merely
raked into the ground. The plants bear transplanting
very well, particularly in showery weather ; and a part
of each crop should be regularly transplanted, to come
in season immediately after those left in the seed-beds,
They may be transplanted very young; when ‘they
have four or six leaves, they are fittest for this purpose.
They are placed from ten to fifteen inches apart,
according to the size they are likely to attain,
When it is wished to forward the cabbaging of cos let-
tuce, the leaves are sometimes tied together, in the
manner practised with endive. If the winter do not
prove very severe, lettuces will stand without much
Injury close by the foot of a south wall, and be fit for
use in January, February, and March. In some places
they are protected by hoops and mats; in others, by
means of glass-frames; and sometimes a few cabbage
lettuces are kept on a slight hot-bed.
When it is wished to save seed, the best plants of the
approved kinds are selected, and planted at a distance
from all others, so as to avoid any intermixture of pol-
len. If the plants have stood over winter, they pro-
duce their flowers more abundantly, the stem becom-
ing thick, and rising between two and thiree feet high ;
and such plants also ripen their seed more certainly
and early.
Endive.
873. Endive (Cichorium Endivia, L.; Syngenesia
Polygamia equalis ; Cinarocephale, Juss.) is an annu-
al, or at most a biennial plant, a native of China and
Japan. The root-leaves are numerous, large, sinuate,
toothed, smooth ; the stem rises about twe feet high, is
branched, and produces pale blue flowers. It was in-
troduced into this country about the middle of the 16th
century.
There are three varieties; Broad-leayed Batavian,
Green curled leaved, and White curled leaved. The
curled varieties having less of the bitter quality, are
now generally preferred ; and the green curled, being
the hardiest sort, is adopted for the fate or winter crops.
Endive is one of the principal ingredients in autumn
and winter salads, and is frequently used for stewing,
and for putting in soups.
The seed is not sown till after the middle of May,
eften not till near the middle of June ; because, if sown
earlier, the plants would be apt to run to flower. An-
other sowing is made in July. The seeds are scatter-
ed thinly, so that the plants may not rise in clusters,
and become weak. When they are about three or four
inches high, they are transplanted into a well prepared
bed of rich soil, in rows a foot asunder, and at the dis.
tance of ten inches from each other in the row; or in
large drills, at the same distances, the blanching being
in this way facilitated. In dry weather, watering is
necessary. ‘ )
374, The blanching is the next operation; and on this
being well done, the tenderness, crispness, and mild fla«
vour of the endive depend. It is accomplished by ty-
-ing up the heads with strands of bass-mat or small wil-
low twigs: this must be done when the plant is dry,
that is, when neither rain nor dew rests on it; and
some nicety is requisite in gathering the leaves toge-
ther in regular order, so as not to cross each other, and’
in rejecting such leaves as are unhealthy. The plants
- odour. en the flower-stem of the fool’s-parsley ap-
pears, the plant is at once distinguished by what is
vulgarly
HORTICULTURE;
are at first tied twoinches below the top; afterwards Kitchen
about the middle of the plant. In three weeks or a Garten
month they are found to be blanched ; and they conti- praiv,
nue fit for use in this state for about a fortnight. A
few plants are therefore tied up every week, when the
weather permits, in order to their being ready for use
in succession.
The plants from later sowing are placed in sheltered
borders near a wall or hedge ; and when very severe
weather comes on, the rows are protected with dry
fern or any other light covering. After October, in-
deed, the mode adopted is to make some trenches or
small oblong mounds of earth, and to sink the plants _
nearly to the head in these: here they become suffi-
cleneey blanched in four or five weeks; and if addi«
tional plants be sunk in the trenches every fortnight
when the weather happens to be so mild and dry as to
ermit it, the endive season may be continued for a~
ong time. Endive thus blanched in the earth must be
dug out with the spade, and it requires to be very tho«
roughly washed,
A few of the strongest and most early plants are se«
lected for producing seed. These are planted in the
beginning of March, in a sheltered situation, if possi«
ble near a paling, to which the flower-stems may be
tied, so as to prevent accidents from the wind, The
flowers come out in June, and are succeeded by ripe
seeds about the middle of July. The seeds are ga-
thered at different times, as they are observed tbe:
come ripe. ,
Parsley.
$75. Parsley (4 ium Petroselinum, L.; Pentandria
Digynia ; Umbellifere) is a biennial plant, considered
as a native of Sardinia, but naturalized in several
places of England and Scotland.
Three varieties are cultivated ; Common parsley, and_,
Curled parsley, for the leaves; and Large-rooted or
Hamburgh parsley, for the roots.
The common and the curled parsley are raised in
drills, generally on the edges of a border in the kit- .
chen-garden. They are sown in February or early in
March, as the seeds lie from a month to six weeks in
the ground before springing. Parsley bears transplant-
ing, sothat blanks in the edging may easily be filled
up-in rainy weather. . : i
In order to have fresh parsley leaves through the
winter, it is worth while to lay some larch or beech
branches, or long broom, over the ley border, and
above these, in hard weather, a little dry bean haulm,
braken fronds, bents or reeds, preferring the two latter
articles on account of their durability. Mr Nicol re- .
marks, that in this way fine young parsley may be had
all winter, and may be gathered even from under the
snow.
If a few strong plants be allowed to run to flower in
May or June, plenty of seed will be produced in Au-
st.
On may be right to notice, that the poisonous
plant called fool’s-parsley (thusa i a com.
mon weed in rich garden a some te aa nie
taken for common. parsley. ey are very i
tinguished: the lave of fool’s-parsley are of a aa
een, of a different shape, and, instead of the pecu-
iar parsley smell, have, when bruised, a dis: le
Parsley.
ee
ed its beard, three long pendent leaflets ef
HORTICULTURE.
Kischea the involucrum. » The timid may shun all risk of mis-
= SS
only the curled variety. This last,
makes the prettiest garnish.
Hamburgh Parsley.
Hamb 376. , although considered only
“a as a large ee a ae
chiferent in its whole appearance. The leaves
Celery;
It was introduced by Philip Miller, from Holland,
in 1727. He could not for some years le the
market-gardeners of London to cultivate it: Now, how-
ever, oo ene Soares Garden aon npn
many parts country it : un-
known. The-soats, Shich.aw thneen of inary car-
aeathep + trequently balled mean inane
: are eaten
and are excellent TS soups and stews.
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pr I yw There is a large upright vari
differs chiefly in the roots swelling out like tur-
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or as an jent in stewed di and
The letes atten G oe,
varieties, and spreasl open horizontally.
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is not often brought to market.
VOL. XI, PART L.
i
same time, are shorter than _j
273
gnewee a recension of plants & fox transplanting at va-
rious seasons. The first sowing is commonly about the
Kitchen
Garden.
inning of March, on.a gentle hot-bed ; the second, Calery.
weeks afterwards, on a shi border ;
the third, about the inni of May. Gn. A aaa
shady border. The strongest plants of the first sowing
are generally ready, from the middle to the end of
April, for pricking into nursery beds of rich earth,
in whi Mas way tal separate three or four inches
every way, in to gather strength. Water is gi-
uantity
thus be pricked out, Some gardeners, however, con-
tent, cheqnselves with. sowing very thin, and take the
ly. from thi ad to be placed in the
; but it is not a plan. If any plants be
inclined to run to flower, tr ia better they shonld shew
this tendency in the nursery-bed.
379. An improvement on the formation of the seed.
ling-bed has been ad at Mr Walker’s of ‘ord,
near Manchester. It is made entirely of very old hot-
bed dung, laid thinly on a piece of well trodden soil,
or hee: etree ty eden Sonim
to be impervious to the roots. The young celery ts,
therefore, form bushy fibrous roots, as cannot
shew no inclination to throw upa
Tomenie the end of May, the most forward plants
may be transplanted into the trenches for blanching.
ery weather, at this season, water is given free-
G) to the transplanted plants, and to those left in
seed-bed,. The usual modes of transplanting and
blanching are the following: Trenches are formed, at
the distance of three or feet from each other, a
foot and a half wide, and about a foot in depth. The
in the bottom of this trench is delved and worked
soil
fine ; and, if thought , a little rotten du
or ri comport is mixed. with it. The soil for ce.
lery should deep and rich, somewhat moist, yet
of a light nature: in earth, if moderately dry,
it snceneels remarkably Be A ieee nee Bion seer
as has been remarked, delights in growing
ides of ditches, The gd on em
is laid in ridges on each side, ready to be drawn in as
ge hy ay 5 Sanh 5 having the
tops ves cut shoots
are in the bottom
they advance i ek ae ea drawn ir
vance in is drawn in to-
ware ineie. Betbape ance tn ten Coys, taking care fo
perform 18 Operation only in weather, and not to
Gover the near? or aontre of tho p ts with soil. When
ry
haulus or other loose litter is thrown over the beds. It
is a common com that very fine looking celery is
often found to be rotten at the base of the leaf-stalks:
tha Sats , that after the blanching is completed, cel
wu not
good in the ground for more than a mont
2M
974
Kitchen at most, The necessity of successive crops is therefore
Garden.
Celery.
Cress,
American
eress,
evident. In lifting the plants for use, it is proper to
dig deep, and to loosen the roots with the spade, so
that the entire celery plant may be drawn, without
risk of breaking the leaf-stalks or injuring the main
roots, the fleshy tender part of which is relished by
many.
380. Celeriac, after being raised in a seed-bed, is
planted out on level ground, or in very shallow drills,
as it requires but one earthing up, and that a slight
one.
Attentive gardeners generally save celery seed for
their own use. All that is necessary, is to select seve-
ral strong healthy plants of the winter stock, and plant
them out in rich soil early in the spring. When the
stems run up to flower, they are apt to be broken by
high winds, and should therefore be secured by stakes.
The seed is ready in the end of August, and is dried
in the usual way. It may be mentioned, that the seed,
when bruised, communicates the celery flavour to soups,
and may be thus employed when stalks or roots cannot
be procured,
Garden-Cress.
381. The Garden-cress (Lepidium sativum, L.; Te-
tradynamia Siliculosa ; Crucifere, Juss.) is an annual
plant, the native country of which is not known. Be-
sides the common or plain sort, which is the kind prin-
cipally used for salads, there are two varieties, with
curled leaves and with broad leaves. The plant par-
takes strongly of the smell and taste which distinguish
the Crucifere, Like mustard, it is very easily raised
during winter on a slight hot-bed; and in the spring
~ months, in close patches, under hand glasses, in the
open border, or in drills near a south wall, or in front
of a hot-house. It is therefore a favourite article in
winter and early spring salads. Where it is wanted
through the summer, it must be sown once a fortnight,
as it is only fit for use when young and tender. The
plain cress is sown thick, and remains so; but the
curled and the broad-leaved require to be thinned out
to half an inch asunder. The curled variety makes a
pretty garnish ; it is rather the hardiest of the kinds,
and may therefore be sown late in the season. If arow
of cress plants of each of the different sorts be allowed
to spring up, plenty of seed will be produced in the
autumn. ring winter, cresses are often raised on
rous earthen-ware vessels, of a pyramidal shape, hav-
ing small gutters on the sides, for retaining the seeds.
These are called pyramids ; they are somewhat orna-
mental, and they afford repeated cuttings.
American Cress.
382. The American Cres, (Erysimum precox, Smith;
Tetradynamia Siliquosa ; Crucifere, Juss.), although its
name might lead us to expect a transatlantic origin, is
anative plant of this country. It was formerly con-
sidered as a variety of the common winter-cress, (E.
Rt fond it was described as such by Ray and Pe-
“tiver:
iller made it a distinet species, by the name of
E. vernum ; and Sir J. E. Smith has figured and de-
scribed it, under the name of E. pracor, Eng. Bot. t.
1129. It is only biennial ; while the common winter-
cress is perennial. It has smaller leaves, more frequent
ly sinuated ; the pods thicker, and the seeds larger. It
“is often called Black American eress, and sometimes
French cress.
§
‘HORTICULTURE.
It is either sown at broad-cast, on a small bed of Kitchen
Three or Garden, _
four sowings are usually made, at intervals of about “a :
light earth, or thinly in drills a foot asunder.
five weeks, from March to July ; and in this way young
leaves are always to be had. A late sowing is made in
August or September on some sheltered border ; the
plants stand the winter without injury, and are fit for ~
use in miners and March. The plants being cut over,
or the outside leaves gathered, new leaves are produced,
fit for use in succession. ;
: White and Black Mustard.
Mustard, (Sinapis, L.; Tetradynamia Siliquosa; Criu=
ciferw, Juss.), is of two kinds, white and black. Both
are annual plants, and both natives of this ree? f
388. White mustard, (S. alba), grows naturally in White mud
our fields, though not so common as some of its con- tard.
geners. It is figured in English pear: t. 1677. It
is cultivated only as a small salad, and is used while
in the seed-leaf, along with cresses. It may be raised
at all seasons; during winter, in boxes in a hot-house
or on a hot-bed. When it is wished to save the seeds,
a spot of ground somewhat renfote from other similar
‘plants should be chosen.
384, The Common or Black mustard, o nigra) is a Black mus-
more common native than the white. It is figured ih *
English Botany, t. 969. The French call the plant
senevé, and confine the term moutarde to prepared table
‘mustard. The tender leaves are sometimes used as
greens in the spring, and the seed-leaves occasionally as
a salad ingredient ; but the plant is chiefly cultivated
for the seed, which, when ground, affords the well
known condiment. If the seeds taken fresh from the
lant be ground, the powder has little pungency, but
1s very bitter; by mpi vinegar, however, the es-
sential oil is evolved, and the powder becomes extreme-
ly pungent. In moistening mustard powder for the
table, it may be remarked, that it ma the best ap-
pearance when rich milk is used; but this mixture does
not keep good for more than two days. The seeds in
an entire state, are often used medicinally. = *
The black and the white mustard plants may be dis-
tinguished by observing, that the black is a larger plant
than the white; that it has much darker leaves than
the white, and the divisions of the leaves blunter; the
whole upper part of the plant smooth, and the upper
narrow leaves hanging downwards ; the flowers small,
the pods generally quite smooth, and lying close to the
stem; while, in the white, the flowers are large, the
ds rough or hairy, and standing out from the stalk.
he names white and black are given in consequence
of the colour of the respective seeds. sib ae ‘*,
Black mustard is principally cultivated im fields ;
but a small bed of it in the garden is often found con-
venient. The plants require considerable space, and
repeated hoeings. ‘The seed ripens in August.
Chervil.
385. Chervil, (Scandix Cerefolium, L.; Pentandria Chervil,
Digynia; Umbellifere), is an annual plant, a native of
various parts of the continent’ of Europe, and some-
times observed naturalized near gardens in E d,
but not admitted into our Flora by Sir J. E. Smith.
The leaves are of a very delicate texture, three times
divided. The plant rises from a foot to near two feet
high, when in flower; but it is the foliage only when
in a young state that is used. It was formerly niuch
oT
_
HORTICULTURE. | 275
more cultivated in gardens than it is at present. The which, though not an oxigien) native, is pave 99,com- Kobe
H the B fish Flora by Git WE. Smith, cas
E
H
it
i
3
Stuarts, by using our ommon fennel will in any soil or situation,
Species. Eee Peararene: er by parting the roots, or by
. The seeds of chervil are sown in autumn, seeds. The should be sown in autumn soon after
after they have ripened, commonly in shallow tay, gen Tine. A few plants are sufficient for a family,
i they endure for many successive years.
up, remain san puiding weates agdeg* Sef Finochio is a dwarfish variety, characterized by a ten- Finochie.
in i par- dency in the stalk to swell to a considerable thickness,
but This thickened part is blanched by heaping earth
at i runs to flower. against it, and is then very tender. As the plant grows
oe a a gg ty ill afford plenty of rapidly, and the swoln stem is best when young and
seed in nck oh toly. _There is a very beautiful va- tender, several successive sowings are requisite, at least
iety cultivated in the with finely friazled where the article is much in request. Owing to the
leaves. peculiar natute of this variety, it is more tender than
the common fennel, and often peri in the course of
Prvelene. the winter. Misled by this circumstance, several bor-
: ticultural writers describe it as an annual species.
milan eat yee :
; , JUSS. 5 7
Jaan, anneal plant, a netive of the Re ona ane.
amooth rather procumbent stem, and diffused branches ; 388. Dill (Anethum graveolens, L.) is a. oiennial pit.
the leaves somewhat w and fleshy ; the aa native of the ose Rede ba Sais end Eortnonl
flowers was mn It has been cultivated in our gardens as an aro-
in at least as early as the middle of the 16th matic and carminative, and the leaves were formerly
century young shoots and succulent leaves are used in and sauces ; but the plant is now scarce-
aera Ramsey nA were ly employed, unless that the seeds are sometimes added
salads and pickles, and as pot-herbs, than to cucumber pi In order to ensure a crop, the
are at present. — seeds should fate ogg baa A. aah lena If
te
Sex mumiorciclapeeper to wate: de young plats a Si Esghed Wehes th aikdie Cee iTWeeoaey el
it is to water ts at iddle 17th century, and
night two or three times a week. With this care they will itis now common. The leaves’ afb aotabrichiat cotdate
be three or four inches high, and ready for cutting, in or bastate, but blunt or rounded, and entire ; glaucous,
the space of six weeks. Purslane when cut over springs smooth, soft, and fleshy ; the stems rise from a foot to
again, and it may be repeatedly cut. When thustaken a foot and a halfhigh. It is sometimes called Roman
young, it is of a cold and tender nature, and forms a sorrel; and, from the breadth and bluntness of the
pansemied. If it be wanted earlier than June, itroust leaves, often distinguish it by the name of
raised on a hot-bed, and planted out toward the end Round-leaved sorrel ; our native species being their
of April. If a few of the earliest and strongest plants -leaved sorrel. The acid is considered as more
be left, they soon run to flower; and in warm seasons grateful than that of comman sorrel, and the leaves are
they ripen this sess; but ienperted coed ia always to more succulent ; it is therefore preferred for kitchen
to in the shops, and it keeps good for several use. The plant runs at the root, and is in this wa
‘years. easily It grows best in a light sandy soil ;
: and the plants are placed about a foot The only
- Fennel. attention it is the cutting off of the flower-stems
eta ' -
and branches in July, so that new leaves ma t
fe In or four action A samdho
ia; nat. ord. Umbellifere) is a perennial plant, plants generally give indications of decay ; and new
t
i
|
|
|
” Kitchen
Garden.
—— .
Common
sorrel,
Wood-
sorrel,
Corn-salad.
276
ones must be raised from Seed, or Offsets proéured from
young and vigorous plants. Ifa few stems be allowed
to remain in the summer, plenty Of seeds may be pro-
cured in autumn. _ ’
390. Common Sorrel (R. Acétosa, L.) is'a well-known
perennial native, growing in meadows and by the sides
of rivers ; and is figured in * English Botany,” t. 1270.
The lower leaves have long foot-stalks; they are ar-
row-shaped, blunt, and saHead with two or three large
teeth at the base: the upper leaves’ are sessile, and
acute. It is easily raised from Seeds sown early in the
spring. It thrives best in a shady border. ‘The leaves
are used, like those of French sorrel, in various soups,
Sauces, and especially in salads. As formerly mention-
ed, they give an excellent flavour to herb patience,
used as a substitute for spWiach. This species, it may
be remarked, is used in France nearly as much as the
other, which we generally call French sorrel. :
There is a third species of sorrel, reckoned by the
Parisians more delicate than either of the others. It is
the Rumex arifolius of the Flore’ Francaise. Its leaves
are larger and less acid ; and it very rarely throws up
a flower-stem.
$91. Wood-sorrel is an entirely different kind of
plant, (Oxalis Acetosella, L. ; Decandria Pentagynia ;
belonging to the Gerania of Jussieu.) Having a very
grateful acid taste, the leaves form a desirable addition
to salads, particularly when young, in the months of
March and April. It is to be found in almost every
wood: but if the roots be transplanted, in tufts, into
the more shady parts of the shrubbery, they will there
establish themselves, and be at hand when wanted.
Corn-Salad.
_ 392. Corn-salad, or Lamb’s Lettuce (Valeriana olitoria,
Willd. ; V. Locusta, Lin. ; Tetrandria Monogynia; Di
sace@, Juss.) is a small annual plant, growing on the
margins of our fields, (Eng. Bot. t. 811.) and only 2 or 3
inches high. Cultivated in gardens, it rises, when in
flower, a foot or more in height. The leaves have a
pale glaucous hue ; they are long and narrow, the lower
ones rather succulent. The flowers are very small,
ale bluish, and collected into a close little corymb.
n the fields, lamb’s-lettuce may be gathered in March,
and it flowers in April. In gardens it may be had
still more early in the spring ; indeed during the great-
er part of a mild winter. The tender leaves are little
inferior to those of young lettuce, having a slight
agreeable flavour ; they form an excellent ingredient in
winter and early spring salads, It has very long been
a favourite spring salad-plant in France, under the vari-
ous denominations of mache, doucette, salade de chanoine,
and poule-grasse. Gerarde tells us, that foreigners
using it when in England led to its being cultivated in
our gardens. The seeds are sown in autumn, generally
about the end of August. They are either sown at
broad-cast or in drills, en a small bed or border. The
plants soon rise, with a low tuft of oblong narrow
leaves: they are then thinned out to two or three inch-
es asunder: and in Febvuaty they are fit for use. The
entire plat: is drawn, in the manner of lettuce. The
younger the plants are when used, the better: in warm
dry weather, the leaves soon acquire rather a strong
taste, disagreeable to many persons, Sometimes a
‘small sowing is made in February, which affords plants
-with fine tender leaves in April and May, A few
plants may be allowed to spring up to flower, and they
perfect their seeds in July and August. The culture
HORTICULTURE.
of lamb’s lettuce, as a salad plant, has for some time’ Kitchen!
past been declining, but without any good reason, Garden.
—\—
Milk- Thistle.
393. The Milk-Thistle, or Our Lady's Thistle (Car- Milk-thistle,
duus Marianus, L. ; spite Polygamia equalis ; Ci-
narocephale, Juss.) is a biennial plant, a native of Bri-
tain, (Eng. Bot. t. 976.) Itis at once distinguished
by the beautiful milky veins which form’ an irregular
network on’ the leaves. Some’ readers may be sur-
Si to find’a native thistle ranked among our escu<
ent plants; but it is certainly not more unpromising
at first aspect than the artichoke or the cardoon. When
very young, it is eaten as a salad; the tender leaves
stripped of their spines, are sometimes boiled and used
as greens ; the young stalks peeled, and soaked in wa
ter to extract a part of the bitterness, are’said to be ex.
cellent ; early in the spring of the second year, the root
is pretty good, prepared like salsify or skirret ; the re-
be er is pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke.
The young plants are ‘sometimes blanched like endive,
and used in winter salads: for this purpose the seeds
are sown in spring, and the plants are allowed to re-
main about a foot and a half distant from each other ;
in autumn, the leaves are tied together, and the earth
drawn up close to’ them, till they be whitened. ‘The
plant, however, is but rarely cultivated for any culina-
ry purpose.
It grows naturally, or has been naturalized, near all
the sit eaaslie or strongholds of Scotland, such*as the
castles of Edinburgh, Stirling and Dunbarton. From
this circumstance, and the formidable ‘spines of ‘the
calyx, many consider it as the “ true Scots thistle,” the
national badge. But the way-thistle (Carduzus lanceos
latus) is incomparably ‘more common in that moot
The Gardeners Lodge of Edinburgh, it may be remarks
‘ed, generally adopts the cotton-thistle ( Onopordum acan-
thium) as its emblem; but apparently without any
good reason, that plant existing only in one or two
parts of the country. It may be/added, that the re«
presentations of the Scots thistle, whether carved on
ancient buildings, impressed on the coins of the realm,
or emblazoned on armorial bearings, as'seen in seals or
in old engravings, bear equal ‘resemblance to all of
these, or, to speak more correctly, are equally unlike
any thistle described by Linneus, as they are dissimi-
lar to each other.
Burnet.
394, Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba, L.; Moncecia Burmet.
Polyandria; Rosacea, Juss.; petite pimprenelle of the
French,) is a jal plant, growing naturally in
some parts of England, in dry upland oy a ‘It is
figured in “ English Botany,” t. 860. he leaves are
pinnated ; they form a tuft next to the root, but are
alternate on the stem; the leaflets are partly round-
shaped, partly pointed, and much serrated on the
The stem rises fifteen inches high, and the flowers
form small greenish or purplish heads.
~ Burnet leaves are sometimes put into salads, and oc«
¢asionally into soups; and they form a favourite in-
gredient for cool tankards, When slightly bruised,
they smell like cucumber, and they have a somewhat
warm taste. They continue green through the winter,
when many other salad plants are cut off, or in a state
unfit for use. ‘The’plant is easily raised by sowing the
‘seeds in autumn; soon “after ‘they are*ripe; or it may
Ji
a
Horse-ra-
iF
HORTICULTURE. : a7
ing the roots.. A few plants are tiful contrast with the flowers of The seeds
be-inerented. by pastas in use. To promote the when green, form a favourite pickle ; _are_ often
- $95.
thick as a salad herb, to be cut while in the seed-leaf, ployed as.a temporary or screen, to hide an
im-the same way as mustard. A variety of this plant linnreable abject, sakes ing fed hich it son
the small French turnip or navew, already completely covers. Although of proper ten-
stomachic, and take them boiled. by which they attach themselves to any small bod
In the same way, radish seed (Raphanus sativus, omming, te Sie ways ad canst Oe ieee The seeds
i i i i ipen freely in September, and may then be gathered
for use. for pickling, keeping some of the largest and ripest for
396. Horse-radish (Cochlearia Armoracia, L.; Te- the warmer part of a green-house, all winter. It is
tradynamia Silit 3 Crucifera, Juss.) is a perennial both highly ornamental as a flower, and forms a still
plenty growing naturally in places. and by the more beautiful ish than the single.
sides of ditches in some parts of and figured 398. Dwarf Indian Cress, (Tropwolum minus, L.) is
eye. eae amme | a The leaves are very also a Peruvian plant, and an annual ; it is cultivated
large, and vary considerably in appearance; being some- in the same way, and for the same purposes as the
times entire, or only crenated, sometimes ly pinnati- other. It is ly sown on borders, and allowed
fid ; the flowers are white, and come in pani- to spread on d, There is likewise a double
cles. It haslong been cultivated in gardens; the root variety of thiss which forms a very pretty greenhouse
scraped into shreds, being a well known accompani- ornament.
ment of the roast beef of Old aeons
to @ zest to winter salads. should ‘wold.
Senden tacbhgandadan ahorplectndeatn aia
their roots freely. Crowns having about two or three $99. Marigold, or « marigold, (Calendula officina-
inches only of root,attached to them, make very good lis, L.; Syngenesia Polygamia necessaria; Corymbi-
plants ; buteuttings of the knotty parts of the roots, _fera, Juss.) is an annual t, a native of France and
on eer be furnished .with one or two Spain; but one of the and best known inhabi-
or eyes, are preferred, as they are to be tants of our gardens, its flowers having formerly been
planted entirely under the soil. They are generally much in repute, as ‘* comforters of the heart.” Though
planted, in F or March, in lines, leaving a foot little faith is now placed in its virtues, it still keeps its
and a half betweenveach line ; and for the first season place ; it is to be found inven ouanape. guanene. FA
therefore, a SE Ley onan ear geno in England and Scotland; and Mr ll observes,
taken between the lines. The sets are placed at the that “ the flower is a valuable ingredient in broths and
pe 2 pe least a foot; if the soil be li fifteen soups, however it may have got into disuse.” The
‘is not-too deep. ‘The roots are not for use flowers are dried in autumn, and kept in paper bags
ere er ner acme gi pares for use. rohe engi Romane), can e marigo post
wanted, ity rapidly as aromatic, the most proper for ing. re is
root dries. Tine bed Letts fee four or five years; care a pale flowered variety, called the Lemon-coloured
being taken, in digging the roots, to leave the stock marigold; and there are double-flowered varieties both
plant, or original set, untouched, removing for use only of the orange and Jemon colour. The most curious
ron ap ne straight root of twelve or fifteen inches in variety is the childing or proliferous, which sends out
, produced by planting at that depth. small flowers from margins of the calyx of the
large central Bowens; Wit i amt is very apt yer
Indian Cress. ; to give a fair chance of preserving it,
Srould be saved only from the large central flowers,
997. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium, (Tropeolum majus, The common marigold sows itself abundantly, and the
Lu; Octandria Monogynia; Gerania, Juss.) isa native seedlings way be transplanted in May ; so that, when
Pera: it was introduced into England near the Can.pigatiber enencrteyiiched Ssesl, thane ia pylons aay
: or sowing.
French. if i
Te the leaves are peltate, or have their petiole Borage.
to
I!
it
F
H
:
s
:
i
i
.
i
:
year. The flowersand are oblong and sp on the nd; the flower-
: ise near two. feet ‘hi mi 5 they and the
i i istly hairs; the bright
blue \flewers make a beautiful appearance, and are
produced for several months in succession. Borage was
SF
it
rE
v
i
if
1
T
F
Indian
cress.
Dwarf In-
dian cfess,
Marigold.
Borage.
Kitchen
Garden.
Borage.
Angelica,
Love-apple.
278
formerly high in estimation as a cordial plant, for
driving away sorrow ; but “ very light surely (says Sir
J. E. Smith) were those sorrows that could be so driven
away.” It isstillsometimes used when young as a pot-
herb, and in salads; the spikes of flowers form an in-
gredient in cool tankards, and the blossoms are occasion-
ally employed as a garnish. The juice of the plant af-
fords nitre, and the withered stalks have been observed
to burn like match-paper. Borage will sow itself, and
come every year. There is a variety with white flowers,
and another with flowers of a pale red or flesh colour ;
but neither is common. :
Angelica.
401. This is the Angelica Archangelica of Linnzus,
(Pentandria Digynia ; Umbellifere): it is a biennial
plant, with very large pinnate leaves, the extreme leaf-
Jet three lobed. The roots are long and thick; and
they, as well as the whole plant, are powerfully aroma-
tic. It is truly a northern plant, being common in Lap-
land and Iceland. It was cultivated in Britain in 1568,
and probably more early. The stalks of it were former-
ly blanched, and eaten as celery.» Now they are used
only when candied ; and the. young and tender stalks
are for this purpose collected in May. Though the
plant is only a biennial, it may be made to continue for
several years, by cutting over the flower-stem before it
ripen seed ; in which case it immediately sets out be-
low. Itis easily raised from seed, which should be
sown soon after being gathered. It grows-best in a
moist soil, and thrives exceedingly by the side of a ditch.
Love- apple.
402. Love-apple, or Tomato, (Solanum Lycopersicum, L.)
is an annual plant, a native of South America; it was
cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. The stem, if supported,
will rise to the height of six feet or more. The leaves
are pinnate, and have a rank disagreeable smell. The
flowers are yellow, ponies in bunches in July and
August, and followed by the fruit in September and
October. The fruit is smooth, compressed at both ends,
and furrowed over the sides ; it varies in size, but sel-
dom exceeds that of an‘ordinary golden-pippin. The
common colour is yellow ; but there is a red-fruited va-
riety, which is now the sort principally cultivated ; and
there is also a small variety called the cherry-shaped.
When ripe, it is put into soups and sauees, to which it
imparts an agreeable acid flavour. The green fruit is
frequently pickled; and sometimes also the ripe. A
preserve is likewise made of the fruit.
The seed is sown on a hot-bed in March; when the
seedlings are two inches high, they are transplanted in-
to a slight hot-bed till they acquire a little strength.
They arethen placed near a wall, paling, or reed hedge,
to which they can be trained, in a sheltered place, with
a full south exposure. The fruit, after all, ripens only
in favourable seasons. In dry weather the plants re-
quire regular watering. Two or three of the ripest
and best of the berries are selected for seed ; the pulp
being taken out, and the seeds separated by washing.
Love-apples have by many been considered as the
Aurea mala spoken of by Virgil: but the plant ier’ f
deserves the title of “arbor silvestris,” and would har
ly receive it from a poet who was a naturalist ; and on
this account probably, Dr Duncan, sen. has suggested,
that Virgil’s plant might really be an apple-tree, such
as the oslin or original pippin, the fruit of which is of orth. It had no covering, and was generally much
=~
HORTICULTURE.
' eaten ; here the plant is often cultivated as an ornament
a snege colour. In this view, the Doctorissup- Kitchen
orte the authority-of Sir Wiliam Temple. (Mas- ae
bell vol 3 8 oc =~
403. Allied to the love-apple is the Egg-plant; (So-
lanum melongena, L.) It is a tender annual, rising
about two feet high, with reclining. branches. The
flowers are of a pale violet colour ; they are followed by
a very large berry, generally of amoval shape arid white
colour, much resembling a hen’s egg, or in large speci-
mens a swan’s egg. There is likewise, however, a va-
riety with globular berries; and the fruit is sometimes
of a violet colour. In southern countries the fruit is
Egg-plant,
for the hot-house and the greenhouse ; but the fruit is
seldom made use of. It is sometimes transplanted to
successive hot-beds, and planted out in June in a warm
border ; where, if the autumn prove fine, the fruit
makes a beautiful appearance.
Capsicum.
404. Capsicum, or Guinea pe , (Capsicum an- Capsicum,
nuum, L. ; Pentandria Montmyrter-Soliveasiee/ Bion is
an-annual plant, rising about two feet high; a native
of both the Indies. It has been long known, being
mentioned by Gerarde. It is raised principally for the
sake of the young pods, or tos more correctly; in-
flated berries, which make a favourite pickle. They
are sometimes also used in the ripe state, when they
form a spice of the hottest quality. The seed is sown
in the spring, on a gentle hot-bed; and the seedlings
are transplanted into another bed, where they are nursed
till June, when they are planted out in a sheltered bor-
der. The berries vary much in shape, producing many
subvarieties of the plant. They are long or short,
heart-shaped or bell-shaped, and angular. They vary
likewise in colour ; being generally red, but sometimes
yellow. In Scotland,. capsicum shen are often potted
and kept under glass, the climate being seldom suffi-
cient to ripen the berries in the open border. ;
A small-fruited annual species, called Cherry-pepper,
(Capsicum cerasiforme, Hort. Kew.) is sometimes raised ;
and occasionally the true Bell-pepper (C.grossum, L.)
is cultivated. This last is a biennial species, of hum-
ble growth, but producing large berries. These are
better for pickling than the others, the skin — pulpy
and tender ; while in the others, it is thin and tough.
i oe biennial species must of course have a place in
e stove.
Caper.
405. The Caper-bush (Capparis spinosa, L.; Poly- Caper.
andria Monogynia ; Cappartdes, Juss.), though com-
mon in the south of France, and growing in the open
air even at Paris, seldom withstands our winters, even
though placed in the most sheltered situation. Trained,
however, against any spare piece of wall in a: stove, it
grows luxuriantly, and produces its flower-buds
Sometimes it effectually establishes itself in crevices:of
old hot-house walls; this sort of situation resembli
its native one. The use of the flower-buds for pickli
is familiar.. Per a hardier’ variety oe be ob-
tained by repeatedly raising it from the at firstin
Guernsey or Jersey, and thus gradually inuring the
ny to cold. It may be sansicl , that in the
eden at Campden House, Kensington, a caper-tree
ry. It had
from the
‘stood alive in the open air for near a
a south-east and was well. shel
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guid $2 52g tbsieee. Hit i af i Ht ii
til rt Paria tH TRUE
a é i gs 8 : = Th isis: es
EF {nif a RT id ie ti Hat tet aT E hae Hie 1
we Sale ; q agtpe thet 3
ebeT [fat (Me eta pat
ql LAA fl CETAEH & (Hiei
Hie 4d Ls iti a : eid a +f i He
Hes yi ih aa ah : Ait
stilt Hue yen A ll
a RCE |
~ he ieee pee
Kitchen
Garden.
Nene ey
Mints,
Spearmint.
Pepper-
mint,
Penny-
royal.
Balm,
280
Mints.
Several species of mint (Mentha; L.} Didynamia Gym-
nospermia ; nat, ord. Labiatew) are cubitada in gar-
dens ; all of them’ indigenous to Britain, and hardy
perennials, The principal kind is,
410. Spearmint, (M. viridis, L.) This is not a’com-
mon native plant ; it is figured'in English Botany,” t.
2424, The young leaves and tops are a good deal used
in spring salads in England ; they also form an ingre-
dient in soups, or, more frequently, are employed to
give flavour, being boiled for a time and withdrawn.
They are also shredded down, and mixed with sugar
and vinegar as a sauce to roasted meat, particularly
lamb. A narrow-leaved and a broad-leaved: sort’ are
cultivated in gardens; and some variegated kinds are
considered as ornamental plants, particularly a reddish
variety called’ Orange-mint
411. Peppermint, (M. piperita, L.) is likewise a rare
native, figured in Ang. Bot. t. 687. A few plants are
sufficient in a garden, it being scarcely used ‘but for
distilling.
412. Pennyroyal, (M. pu
Bot. t. 1026, is sometimes
are sufficient.
All of these mints delight in a moist soil. Spearmint
and peppermint are readily propagated, by patring the
roots in autumn, by making slips in spring, or by means
of cuttings during’summer. Pennyroyal is easily increa-
sed byits creeping and rooting stems. Stalksof spearmint
are often dried in the latter end of summer, when the
plant is coming in flower, and kept for winter use ; but
unless the drying be gradually accomplished, and in the
shade, much of the flavour escapes. Young mint leaves,
however, may be had at any time of the winter or early
spring, by settinga few roots in flower-pots in the au-
ium, L.) figured'in Eng.
tivated ; but,a few plants
tumn, and removing some of these into the corner of a |
hot-bed, or of the stove, some short time before the
leaves be ‘wanted.
Balm.
413. Balm (Melissa officinalis, L. ; Didynamia Gym-
nospermia ; Labiate, Juss.) is a hardy perennial, with
square stems, which rise two feet high or more ; leaves
large, growing by pairs at each joint ; a native of Swit-
zerland and the south of France, and very early cultiva-
ted in our gardens. It is readily propagated by part-
ing the roots, preserving two or three buds to each
piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring. The
roots or slips being placed about’a foot and a half asun-~
der, and watered, soon establish themselves; and the
balm plantation does not require to be renewed oftener
than every third or fourth year. In order to have young
leaves and tops all the summer, it is proper to cut down
some of the stalks every month, when new shoots im-
mediately spring. As the ining stalks approach
the flowering state, they are cut over at full length for
drying. They should’be cut as soon as the dew is off
in the morning ; for in the afternoon, at least in bright
sunshine, the odour of the plant is found to be much
diminished. The stalks and leaves are carefully dried
‘in the shade, and afterwards kept in small bundles,
pressed down, and covered with paper. The primum
ens meliss@, by which Paracelsus was to renovate man,
is now quite forgotten, and the pec is used only for
making a simple balm tea, which affords a grateful di-
ink in fevers, and for forming alight and agree~
ine, ;
luent
, able beverage under the name of
‘employed to give relish to soups, broths, s
HORTICULTURE.
Marjoram.’
Marjoram, (Origanum, L.;.Didynamia Gymnosper-
rene Yeilate, Juss.) Of shies. thine species are ad
va
Kitchen
Garden,
Marjoram.
414. Pot: Marjoram: (0. Onites, L,) is a perennial Pot marjo-
plant, a native of Sicily. The stem is somewhat woody ; ™™-
it rises more than a foot high, and is. covered with
spreading hairs; the leaves are small and acute, almost
sessile, and tomentose on both sides. Though it sel-
dom ripens its seeds in this country, it is sufficiently
hardy to withstand our winters. It is easily propagat-
weer cuttings or slips. It is now little’ used by the
415. Sweet Marjoram (O. Majorana, L.) is a native Sweet mar.
of Portugal. It resembles’pot marjoram, but the leaves joram.
have distinct petioles, and the flowers are collected in
small close heads; from which last cireumstanee it is
often called Knotted Marjoram. Being only a biennial,
a little of the seed should be sown every year. The
seed seldom ripens in this country, and is therefore
commonly imported from France: It flowers in July,
and is then gathered and dried for winter use,
416. Winter sweet marjoram (O. heracleoticum, L.) Winter
isa
requires a sheltered border and a dry soil. » The leaves
resemble those ‘of common sweet marjoram; but. the
flowers come in spikes. The plant is propagated by
Parting the roots in autumn.
' Both the kinds of sweet marjoram are a deal
, ce,
They are used fresh in “summer ; and; for sbiater use,
are drawn by the roots, and dried slowly in the shade,
being afterwards kept hung up in a dry place.
Savory.
Savory (Satureja, L.;| Didynamia a ;
Smbieae Jas) "two species are cultivated, wit.
ter and the summer savory.
417. Winter savory (8: montana, L.
long cultivated in gardens. It is a small shrubby ever-
green perennial plant, with two narrow stiff leaves, an
inch long, opposite at each joint, and from the base of
these afew small leaves ms clusters. It is
by slips or by cuttings of the young roots, and also by
seeds. It is hardy, and continues good for several
years, especially on: poor soils. Some plants. havin
established themselves on an old wall, have been i
served to continue for many years.
is a native of Winter sa-
the south of France and of Italy, which has been very V°ry-
vennial species, a native of Greece, and) which marjoram,
418, Summer savory (S. hortensis, L.) is an annual Summer &~
plant, a native of the south of Europe, with slender ¥Y-
erect branches about afoot high ; leaves opposite, about
an inch in length, This is propagated only ‘by seed,
which is sown in the spring time, thinly in shallow
drills, eight or nine inches apart. When it is to be
stored for winter use, it should be drawn up by-the
root, as in this way it retains its flavour better.
Basil.
Basil (Ocimum, L.; Didynamia Gymnospermia;
Labiate, Juss.) Two species are cultivated, both na-
tives of the East, and both annual plants, '
419. Sweet Basil (O. basilicum, L.) is generally sown Sweet basil.
on a hot-bed in the end of March, and planted out in
‘May, at eight or ten inches square. Ifraised from the
it
Hin
H
i
i
i
a)
HORTICULTURE.
J
é
:
Fe
:
i
Hi
i
z
|
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i}
5
Fs
4
i
>
of cloves, basil is often in demand where
i are in use: a few leaves are
Ae
Hl
F
J
i
g
3
;
:
:
ars
i
3"
a 8,
F
j
if
ir
:
:
:
Ht
The]
g81
cre or whi ecment te boson
nal
ig is
oeianes abese for remembrance,” says the
elia, in Shakespeare. parts
ind, the sprigs are still distributed to
the company at funerals, often thrown into the
ve upon the coffin of the deceased. Abercrombie,
in his Practical Gardener, alludes to this practice, but
supposes the motive to be the “ preventing of conta~
gion.” There are varieties with white-striped, and
with yellow-striped leaves ; the former rather tender.
The plant is easily propagated by slips or cuttings in
the spring.
Lavender
L.; Didynamia Gymnospermia ; Labiate, Juss.) is a na-
tive of the south of Europe, and has been cultivated
in our since the middle of the 16th century.
The t is shrubby, rising from two to four feet
edges ; the flowers forming terminating
is a narrow-leaved and a broad-leaved varie~
— is oy 5 a medicinal t than Yo
the cook. ery garden, however, a few
ae The es of flowers being ve fra~
= es rape ie make imitation scent bottles tor}
requently are put in paper bags,
linens to ume them. In physic
plant is extensively cultivated for the sake
a which lavender ae is distilled.
W cuttings, or young slips, any time
months. In inn iris easullll ee
ing, but it is too bulky. If lavender be
soll, its flowers have
a |
23
:
i
I
:
bere
ijt
garden soil, new plan-
tations should be made every four or five years.
Coriander.
425. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum, L.; Pentandria Coriander.
Digynia; Umbellifera, Juss.) is a native of the East, but
has naturalized itself in Essex, near places where it has
i cultivated for druggists and confectioners,
is therefore Sgured in lish Botany, t. 67. It
rises about a foot high, with ly pinnated leaves,
It is not often raised in private gardens. Formerly the
y leaves were aan! 5 salads, and in soups; but
they have a and scarcely agreeable scent. The
seeds are now chiefly a for medicinal purposes.
If these be wanted, the should be sown in autumn,
promaed meicty eign ee or ry peg
Caraway.
426, Caraway (Carum carui, L.; Pentandria Di- Caraway.
gynia ; rer ee
x
424. Lavender, or Spike Lavender, ( Lavandula Spica, Lavender.
Kitchen
Garden.
—
Caraway.
Tgnsy.
Costmaty,
282
some of England, and ed in English Bo-
tany, t. 1503. The»plant rises hy and a it high,
with spreading branches ; the'leaves are deco d;
the leaflets in sixes. In former times, the tapering fusi-
form reots were eaten like parsnips, to which Parkin-
son gives them the preference. In the spring time, the
under leaves are sometimes putin soups. But the plant
is now principally cultivated for the seeds; these are
used in making cakes, and are incrusted with sugar for
comfits ; they are likewise distilled with spiritous li-
quors, and for this purpose large quantities are raised
in fields in Essex. Nicol and others direct its being
sown in the spring ; but itis much better to sow in au-
tumn, soon after the seed is ripe ; the seedlings quickly
rise, and, the plant being biennial, a season is thus
gained. A moist rich soil answers best. The seed is
generally sown in rows; and in the spring, the plants
are thinned out to four or six inches apart. In the end
of summer, when the seeds appear to be nearly ripe,
the plants are pulled up, and set upright to dry, the seed
-being then more easily beat out.
Tansy.
427. Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, L; Syngenesia
Polygamia superflua ; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a well
known perennial plant, a native of most parts of Bri-
tain, generally growing on the banks of rivers ; it is fi-
gured in English Botany, t. 1229. In a cultivated
state, it rises to the height of three or four feet ; the
stem leafy, the leaves alternate, deep green, finely di-
vided; the flowers appear in terminating corymbs, and
are yellow. It has long had a place in the garden,
tly on account :of its medicinal virtues, being in
high estimation as a vermifuge, and partly for the
e of its young leaves, which are shredded down,
and employed to give.colour and flavour to puddings.
There is.a variety with curled leaves, which is rather
ornamental ; this is often called Double tansy. There
is likewise a sort with variegated leaves, which is some-
times admitted into shrubberies. Tansy is extremely
hardy, and will grow in any soil or situation. A few
plants are sufficient ; and it is very easily propagated at
any time by parting the roots. Tansy leaves may be
procured very early in the spring, by laying two or
three tufted roots of the plant upon a slight hot-bed
about mid-winter, arched with hoops and covered with
mats in severe weather. The young leaves may also
be had throughout the summer, by cutting down the
flower-stems close, so as to encourage a new growth.
Costmary.
428, Costmary, or Ale-cost, ( Balsamita vulgaris, Hort.
Kew. ; Tanacetum Balsamita, L.; Syngenesia Polyga=
mia equalis ; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a native of Spain,
Italy, and the south of France: it is however a hardy
perennial, and has been cultivated in our gardens from
the earliest times. The lower leaves are large, ovate,
of a greyish colour, and on long footstalks ; the stems
rise two or three feet high; they are furnished with
leaves of the same shape, but smaller and sessile. ‘The
flowers are of a deep yellow colour, and appeas in loose
corymbs in August and September ; in indifferent sea-
»sons or in cold situations, they scarcely expand, and
the seeds very seldom come to maturity in this country.
The whole plant has a pleasant odour. Costmary was
formerly more used in the kitchen than it is at present.
In France it is an ingredient in salads, It was also
HORTICULTURE.
put into ale, and hence'the name Ale-cost. The other Kitchen
naine, cost-Mary, intimates that it is the cosius or aro- , Garden.
matic plant of the Virgin. A few plants are enough in “~~”
a pa They do best in 2 dry soil, and will remain
good for several years. It is readily pr ted bi
parting the roots in autumn. There is a variety witl
deeply cut and very hoary leaves, but this sort is less
ant.
Hyssop.
429, Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis, L.; Didynamia Gyms
Sonera’ Totten ene) is a perizmajad: ever, oer
undershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and has
been long cultivated in-our gardens. The stems rise a
foot and a half high; the leaves are lanceolate, narrow
like those of lavender, but shorter.. There are several
varieties, blue, red, and white flowered, and hairy leav-
ed; but the first is the most commonly cultivated.
The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent. The
leaves and young shoots are sometimes used for culi-
nary purposes, in the way of a pot-herb; and the leafy
tops and ip eecna omy are cut, tied, and preserved for ;
medicinal uses. It is sometimes planted as an edging
in the kitchen garden, the plants being set only t
ten inches distant from each other: in a separate bed, 1
they should be two feet asunder. It may be propa-
gated by seeds, “3 rooted slips, or by cuttings, in the
spring months. In a poor.dry soil it is not only more
hardy, but more aromatic, than in.a rich soil. It often
grows on old walls; but the “hyssop that sprin
out of the wall” of Solomon, is supposed. by Hasselquist
to have been a small moss, whichte observed covering
the ruins of Jerusalem,
Rue.
430. Rue’(Ruta-graveolens, L.; Decandria Monogy- Rue. *
nia; Rutacee, Juss.) is a A ris es evergreen under
shrub, a native of the south of Europe. It was early
cultivated in our gardens, and was in former days called
Herb of Grace, from the fam ueeinet age bunches
of it having been used by the priests for the sprinkling
of holy ae among the pedule: There is.a tall =
ing and a small kind ; the latter is now chiefly cultiva-
ted. Formerly border edgings were Aponte made
with it; but it is now seldom employed for that pur-
pose. It-ought, however, to be occasionally pruned
down, and kept from flowering too much ; in this way
it continues in “tape bush; hag for a number of
ars. It is easily propagated by slips or cuttings in
the spring; and a ae pr are generally thought
sufficient in a garden. Like rosemary, lavender, hyssop,
and other similar aromatics, it does best in poor dry
soils. The leaves are sometimes used as a medicine,
and often given to poultry afflicted with croup.
Chamomile.
431. Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis, L.; Syngenesia Chamomile.
Polygamia superflua; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a well
known ial plant, which grows naturally in
Surrey, Cornwall,.and some other parts of Britain, and
is fi in English Botany, t. 980. Few are F
without a chamomile bed: it is certainly a highly aro-
matic plant, and.an infusion of the dried flowers makes
a safe Pitter and stomachic, much used under the name
of Chamomile-tea. The double-flowering v: is or«
namental, and is generally kept in gardens; but the
HORTICULTURE.
i
hy Se ER I P pene
Sn He HTD En nal | ee UL apa
i Hel st aH lp itl Petit ia ‘ie ;
RE eu ial i cys Saban i Bb ses
. ide tet il ititllich TRAE 4 iia
ae HeneiH eotitid AE i ET
7 i RHE atk § TILLER re Hilti BRAT
He i Aut Tied Mel (UG: —ne coynie ri
#3 8 38 &
mnie liueinete: elias i nina
ine Hn i HH Rata Re me HH
‘ feysill ih JEG ee i al ni ii iy uf
ei Pit Bert. ut HE HE iy
: ai, te Le Tt “itl te sa
ae rH i
in Ae iti a Tae an if
| {
‘ie a ee
284
Kitchen’ to take deep root in an old wall, or on an artificial rock-
Gardens work, they will have a much better chance to remain.
““Y~" The name samphire is.a corruption of sampier, and this
again is derived from the French name of the plant
Saint Pierre. It may be observed, that what is called
golden samphire in Covent Garden market, is the Inula
crithmifolia, Eng. Bot. t.68 ; and that the Marsh sam-
hire of the same market, is the Salicornia herbacea,
ng. Bot. t. 415.
Buck’s-horn 441, Buck’s-horr Plantain (-Plantago coronopus, 1.)
Plantain. was formerly cultivated as a salad herb, but is now ne-~
glected, the smell being to many rank and disagree-
able. It is still, however, regularly sown in French
gardens as a salad herb, under the name of Corne de
C
442, The young leaves of the Ox-eye Daisy (Cheys
santhemum leucanthemum, L,) are noticed by Dr Wi-
thering as fit to be eaten in salads; and John Bauhin
— that they were much used for that purpose in
ly.
443. The Cotton Thistle ( lum acanthium, Li;
English Botany, t. 977.) is.a biennial, growing natu-
rally in different places, and remarkable for its large
downy leaves sath p lofty stem. It was formerly culti«
vated and used like the artichoke and cardoon; the re-
ceptacle, and the tender blanched stalks, peeled and
boiled, being the parts used.
444. Alewanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum, L.; English
Botany, t. 230.) is a biennial plant, rising about two
feet high, and flowering in the spring ; the leaves of a
pale green colour, and the flowers yellowish. Itgrows
naturally near the sea in several places, and may often
be observed to be naturalized near old buildings. | It
was formerly much cultivated, having been used as a
pot-herb and salad. In flavour it has some resemblance
to celery ; by which it has been entirely fr cant
445. Water«Cress (Nasturtium officinale, Hort. Kew. ;
Sisymbrium Nasturtium, L..; English Botany, t. 855.)
is a well known perennial inhabitant of our ditches
and slow running streams. It forms an excellent
spring salad; and it is easily cultivated in any mar
shy spot, or by the side of a garden pond, by in-
troducing a few plants from ditches where it grows
wild. The popular remedy called spring juices consists
of its juices, with those of brooklime, scurvy-grass,
and Seville oranges: it is therefore cultivated by a few
market gardeners for the supply of Covent Garden.
In France, the. sprigs are used as a garnish to roast
fowl,
446. Brooklime (Veronica beccabunga, L.; English
Botany, t. 655.) is a perennial plant, growing in wet
places near springs, and in slow running streams or
ditches, very generally associated with the water-cress,
The leaves-are mild, or have only a slightly bitterish
taste, and form a very tolerable salad ingredient in
March and April. In Scotland the plant is called wa-
ter-purpie, and the sprigs are gathered for sale along
with wall-cresses (well or water cresses.)
447. The young tops and leaves of the Great Net
tle (Urtica dioica, L.; English Botany, t. 1750) are
gripes in early spring, about February, as a pot«
erb, and form atolerably good one. Nettle-kail isan
old Scottish-dish, now known only by name. If net«
tle-tops be wanted, they can readily be had without
cultivating the plant.
448. Sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceus, L. ; English Bo-
tany, t. 843.) is a common annual weed im our gar«
dens. There is a prickly and a smooth variety. Th
latter is in some countries boiled and eaten as greens;
Cotton.
thistle.
Alexanders,
Water-
cress.
Brooklime.
Nettle.
Sow-thistle.
HORTICULTURE.
: °
hence the Linnean trivial name oleraceus, The ten- Kitchen
der shoots boiled in the manner of spinach are very Garden,
good, superior perhaps to any greens not in common ““Y"™
use,
449. Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum, L. ; English Dandelioa.
Botany, t. 510.) isa well known perennial, generally
despised as a troublesome weed : yet the leaves, in ears
ly spring, when they are just unfolding, afford a very
ingredient in salads. The French sometimes eat
the young roots, and the etiolated leaves, with thin
slices of bread and butter. Blanched dandelion loses
its disagreeable flavour, and considerably resembles en+
dive in taste. — ‘
450. Bladder Campion, or Spatling Po Silene Bladdex
inflata, Hort. Kew. Penelish Bounty, % 14 { Cucu. campion,
balus behen, L.) is a hardy, perennial, growing natu-
rally by the sides of our corn-fields and pastures. Its
young tender shoots, when about two inches long, are
excellent when boiled, having something of the flavour
of peas. The plant sends forth a great number of
sprouts, and when these are nipped off they are sucs
ceeded by fresh ones. his
451. The Hop (Humulus Lupulus, L.; Eng. Bot. Hop-tops:
t. 427) is well known as being cultivated for he sake
of its flowers for preserving beer ; but for use as a kita
chen-herb it is little ed. The young shoots, hows
ever, which, early in the spring, rise abundantly from
old stocks, are not much inferior to asparagus. They
are sometimes, but not often, sent to market, and sold
by the name of hop-tops.
For further particulars regarding esculent plants
which have fallen into neglect, the reader may be res
ferred to the “ Flora Dietetica” of Bryant.
Fungous Plants.
Or the tribe of Fungi several esculent species occur
in this country, belonging to the genera Agaricus, Tus
ber, and Phallus. Only one is cultiva' the Com-
mon Mushroom, Agaricus campestris of Linneus, A.
edulis of Bulliard and others.
Common Mushroom.
452, This is well known. It is most readily dis« i
tinguished, when’ of middle-size, by-its fine mh ge ashram
flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant smell: in a more ad-«
vanced stage the gills become of a chocolate colour;
and it is then more apt to be confounded with other
kinds, of dubious quality; but the species which most
nearly resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and destitute
of the fine odour, having rather a disagreeable smell:
further, the noxious kind grows in woods or on the
margins of woods, while the true mushroom springs
up chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered
only in such places.
The uses of the mushroom are familiar; it is eaten
fresh, either stewed or broiled ; and preserved, either
as a pickle, or in der, The sauce commonly called
ketchup (supposed from the Japanese hil-jap) is, or
ought to.be, anece-fromiite $uicoyiavith salt vaind Aneel
Wild mushrooms from old pastures are generally con-
sidered as more delicate in flavour and more tender in
flesh, than those raised in artificial beds. var nto
or button mushrooms of the cultivated sort are firmer :
better for pickling ; and in using cultivated mushrooms,
there is evidently much less risk of deleterious kinds
being employed. - Jamain \
HORTICULTURE. 285
produce tubercles in the is inserted into each by are then ~~
situation filled up with the compost. Ten da afterwards, the “™"™
Without atall beds are covered with a coating of rich mould, mixed
generation, we may wns Bae oo eee ings, to the depth
This is beat down with the
ne -
twomonths the done with great circumspection.
will be found penetrating cea pest wae we are assured, yield abundant
rt
ce
i
If a number of shelves or draw-
He
ah
Hy
id
si
HfL
bee ie
in
aide
i
Ae
at all seasons.
into the mush-
[
|
as
Eer§
E
F
2,
:
:
{
i
f
i
:
:
it
i
f
i
pact, and are more damp: compactness
and may therefore be considered as important.
Iindeath the beretcial effects of keeping the spawn dry,
were noticed by Miller, in his Dicti q
who Pre § ‘tat spawn which had lain for four settee
near the furnace of a stove, yielled a crop in less time
and in greater profusion than any other,
In some old authors, a very sage advice is given for
i!
TH
7
i
e
1 t
8
mushrooms in beds pre- promoting the fecundity of mushroom beds constructed
droppings and fine mould, is on the ordinary plan, viz. to take a few full grown
and has been fully described in a mushrooms from pastures, and, breaking them down in
part of this work, (art. Fuwor, vol. x. p. 57.) the watering-pot, to water the beds with the infusion.
proper, however, in addition to whatisthere This is nothing else than sowing mushroom
—_ what is called Oldacre’s pn cee ye RY in the gi rome
considered as an i suspended in the water, in with it
of mushrooms. Ua se into the bed. =
an Englishman who for 454. Although the Agaricus cam is is theonlyspe-
gardener to the Em- denauidbvanhitn ia tht thin encatdaheatnef thataiintes to
1814, he visited flavour, nor perhaps the best ing of culture.
occasion, at the desire Some of the others should be tried, an there seems
3
2
Grove; no reason to doubt of ultimate success. A. aurantiacus
mushrooms. In forming possesses excellent qualities; the flesh is tender, and
qtF
'
i
fresh short dung, the flavour delicate: it is im high repute on the Conti-
mill. The dang nent, where it is in pine forests, about the
exposed to wet nor to fermen« end of summer. It is the oronge of the French, and
part of cow or sheeps is distinguished from another species, called the false
!
!
i
E
are well oronge, by having a complete volva. A. solitarius is
they may be so remarkable for its fine flavour. A. procerus is a great
s, or in drawers or boxes, favourite in France, where it is known by the name of
2
z
i
&
z
—- A. deliciosus is much used in Germany and
taly ; but though it is not uncommon in our fir plane
about three inches tations, it is scarcely ever eaten in this country. The
rT
i
li
t
i
ti
;
a
flat Cham (A. pratensis) is used in Soups, and is
layer is added, and ore occasionally brought to market; but, as res
the marked by Mr Sowerby, in “ English Fungi,” it is apt,
compact. ——_ to be confounded, by the common mushroom gatherers,
|
with A. virosus, one of those most to be avoi A. vioe
be not qui percep- laceus is sometimes sold in Covent Garden, under the
be adel, all’
#
z
till sufficient name of Bluets: it is a harmless kind, but has no other
ea tet merit. a most commonly forms the
Hi
circles and on downs near the sea-shore, call«
pg the spawn. These titans This Mr Lightfoot, in
286
Kitchen his Flora Scotica, considers as the mousseron of the
Garden,
Traffe.
Morel.
FLOWER
GARDEN.
French ; but their mousseron is A. virgineus of Per-
soon, a fleshy species, nearly of a pure white colour,
while our plant is coriaceous and buff-coloured.
Truffles and Morels.
These have already been described under the article
Funer, and are figured in Plate LX XV. of this work.
455. The Truffle, or subterraneous puff-ball, ( Zuber
cibarium,) is one of the best of the esculent fungi. It
grows naturally in different parts of Britain, but is
most common in the downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire,
and Kent, where dogs are trained to scent it out;
the plant growing and coming to perfection some
inches below the surface. The dogs point out the
spot by scraping and barking, and the truffles (for
several generally grow together) are dug up with a
spade. They are principally sent to Covent Garden
market. No attempt, it is believed, has hitherto been
made to cultivate truffles; but of the practicability of
the thing, there seems no reason to doubt. In their
habits of growth, indeed, they differ essentially from
the mushroom ; but it is certainly possible to accom-
modate the soil and other circumstances to the peculiar
nature of the fungus. It has been said, that the tu-
bercles on the surface of truffles are analogous to the
eyes or buds of potatoes, and that they have been pro-
pagated, like potatoes, by means of cuts furnished with
tubercles: it may however be suspected, that the pieces
thus planted contained ripe seeds. Truffles, we may
add, seem to delight in a mixture of clay and sand ;
and a moderate degree of bottom heat, such as is af-
forded by a spent hot-bed, might probably. forward
their vegetation.
456. The Morel (Phallus esculentus, L.; Helvella
esculenta of Sowerby, and Morchella esculenta of Per-
soon) rises, in the spring months, generally in woods,
but sometimes on commons. It frequently appears for
sale in Covent Garden market in May and June ; but
it has never been cultivated. The cultivation of mo-
rels, however, would probably be more easily accom-
plished than that of truffles. Morels are used either
fresh or dried, commonly as an ingredient to heighten
the flavour of gravies or ragouts. If intended for ae
ing, they should not be collected when wet with dew,
nor soon after rain; if gathered in a dry state, they may
be kept for many months.
Having treated at great length of the Kitchen Garden
and of culinary plants suited to our climate, we now
turn to the Flower Garden ; and here we shall study
brevity as much as possible.
FLOWER GARDEN.
457. Tue flower garden, it has been already obser-
ved, § 55. has a separate situation, generally at some
distance from the fruit and kitchen garden. It should
indeed form an ornamental appendage to the mansion,
and be easily accessible in all kinds of weather. There
is no objection to the flower garden being seen from the
windows of the house: on the contrary, this is some-
times considered as desirable. In some places, the
flower en consists of parterres of various shapes,
generally curved, separated from each other by hittle
HORTICULTURE.
ass lawns. Such insulated parterres look very
climate, being always of a lively green, and forming a
fine contrast with the dressed ground, and with the
gay hues of the flowers. But for many days in the
year these grass-girt parterres are inaccessible to the
proprietors, more especially to ladies, it being impos=
sible to pass along the turf without getting wet, at,
times when well made gravel walks are comfortably
dry. Wherever, therefore, this kind of flower garden
amidst turf is formed, there should be another, which
may be considered as the winter garden, and which
may contain one or more of the glazed houses for pre«
serving plants,
In many cases the flower garden is defended by low
walls or by close pales, covered by shrubs. If there
be little room, they may be concealed by a single row
of some evergreen, such as phillyrea, alaternus, pyra~
cantha, laurustinus, or tree-box. The wall on the north
side of the garden, however, is in some places used for
a double purpose ; the more tender kind of shrubs be«
ing trained against it on the south aspect. In situa~
tions where a wall would be unsuitable, an “ invisible
fence” of wire is employed, this proving sufficient to
exclude hares and rabbits, while it nowise offends the
eye, and scarcely interrupts the view. Evergreen
hedges, of laurel, yew or holly, make excellent fences,
especially if united with a sunk fence. ‘
458. The shape and size of the flower garden can be
regulated only by the taste and the means of the own-.
er, If the eye embrace the whole at once, the garden
should evidently be of some regular figure. But if the
size be considerable, it is advantageous that the ground
should be unequal in surface, and irregular in shape.
In general, a greenhouse, conservatory and stove, should
form prominent objects in different parts of it: it should
abound with evergreen trees and shrubs, so as to main<
tain its verdure even at midwinter ; the principal bor«
ders should be destined for mingled perennial flowers,
of the most ornamental kinds; a few may be devoted
to showy annuals; and particular beds should be ap-
propriated for the different kinds of flowering bulbs,
as well as for pas polyanthuses, and auriculas.
These borders and beds, it may be remarked, should
be so placed, that from the windows of the house, or
from the principal entrance of the garden, they may be
seen across or laterally, so that the colours of the flow-
ers may appear in mass, without being broken by the
alleys.
A rock-work is generally formed; and if the situa-
tion admit of it, or if curiosity in plants be indulged
in, a small piece of water for aquatics is proper. A
circular or oval plat is commonly devoted to a collection
of roses ; and a damp border with peat soil is set spent
as an “ American ground.” One of the walks is o!
arched over with strong wire or with slight spars, on
which climbing shrubs may be trained, so as to form a
berceau. Covered seats of various kinds are constructe
ed, under the names of heath and moss houses, are
bours, and grottoes. If, however, the garden be re«
gular in surface, bowers of light lattice-work, covers
ed with climbing plants, are to be preferred. In very
few places do fountains or statues now enter into the
composition of the flower garden ; and urns, busts, or
inscriptions, are not to be introduced without caution.
Taking it for granted that the flower garden should
have a ready communication with the principal gravel-
walks near the house, and also with those | to
the shrubberies ; and likewise that it is extremely de-
. well Flotver
om the windows of the house ; the turf, in our moist Gardens.
HORTICULTURE. , 287
Flower sirable to have the walks at all times dry, we shall first 461. If the flower garden is to consist of parterres Flower
Garden. ee aay ttatles of inch walks in separated by grass-turf, the first formation of these Garten
—Y~"’ general; ‘and shall then consider some of the principal little lawns requires particular attention. When the Ways.
~~ constituént parts of the garden more in detail. ground is delved over and levelled, a stratum of sand
> ely sewet ay = ’ or very poor sandy earth, perhaps three‘inches thick, is
inner id VE CO 2 Walks. laid on, and over this an South of gon? eantuen
eae eh j which to sow the grass a a
Garden “459. Formerly grass walks were common in gar- below is to ent the grass from getting rank. This
Walks. Se eas ae is necessary where a mixture of rye-grass
cially and liability to wear bare in the middle, and brome-grasses (particularly Bromus squarrosus and
have caused them to be in a great measure relinquish- multiflorus) is sown ; and all the grass seed, it may be
ed and they are be seen in a few ol . observed, sold in this country, consists of such a mix-
dens. Walks prin yada ro principally ok a ture. Were only fescue a sown (Festuca durius-
with gravel. If walks formed at cula and ovina), with petiaps crested —— ( Cyno.
first, much future issaved. If judged necessary, surus prim there would be much less danger of
a drain should be made to pass below them ; but at all over-luxuriant —— appearing, while their fine wiry
events a quantity of lime-rubbish or very coarse gravel leaves and aan, glaucous hue, would render the turf
should form the foundation. In the flower-garden it is highly beautiful. The selection of grasses for lawns is
Not necessary to have a fine permeable bottom of earth, too little attended to. The same kind of seed is sown
such as is under gravel-walke next to fruit-tree indiscriminately in exposed and in shady situations. If
borders. Rusesubblih prevents the lodging of carth white clover and rye-grass be sown under trees, it is
am ee to ope other gg em little wonder that the md should remain bare: if
tends to drain the
and keep them dry. Over the seeds of Poa nemoralis were scattered in such situa-
ish i some places tions, the bare spaces would soon be covered with a live-
ee ee eee ly green sward. A judicious little essay on the em-
without the addition of a little clayey matter. ployment of the gramina, and particularly of the spe-
Bate Bl Reena: it, cies last mentioned, presented to the Hi id Society
reofclay. The by the late MrG Don of Forfar, may be seen in
of Blackheath have long the third volume of the Transactions of that Society,
celebrated. If gravel be liberally laid on at first, p. 194, et seq.
of
by turning over the surface gravel, and then Soil.
six
be feet broad, it should rise 462. The soil of the flower- should of course Soil.
and a half in the centre. It is often made be various. For the general ers a loamy soil is
; but the isthereby preferable. The surface earth from old pastures, taken
annoyed Ifthe walk be of along with the turf, is accounted excellent. There
i y i may be mixed with it a quantity of old hot-bed dung,
: so that in ten feet of breadth, a rise of at wber sethin tddenn ; © third ora fourth, gietalioat
as the earth is naturally rich or poor. If the compost
seem apt to bind, a small proportion of sea-sand is the
their exceeding eight’ They shoud be W aantc bene ambicese: seria
two or same time is open, then -rotten tan
three inches lower in level than the flower-borders, showa'te mubatieeted for dung.
It may here be remarked, that various composts
ia
Li
ti
i
!
Ti
i
rt
it
i
nF
aE
immediately after rain is practised, the gravel binding OPetaall vey lin the dened ah od
ul mn ower-; en. 13
. al g
poms through woods or large shrubberies, being merely American plants ; the latter, to other American plants,
red by to alpine plants, to Cape heaths, and to many green-
the of trees in rainy weather, and are not easily house plants. The best sort of peat-turf is frequent]
‘opal, while sand walks require Goines shar to be found constituting a abs skin over a ot
surface stirred with a Dutch hoe, delta’ salted’ cand..:The turf or nod thesld. be. taken, with whet
smooth It is, however, of importance to have _peat-soil adheres to it, and should be allowed to moule
a ot Named arto broken field stones, der in the com yard, Spots where wild heath
or lime rubbish, the sand. Sand from an inland grows luxuriantly, or where it closely covers the sur-
pit, having commonly a to bind, is preferable face, are likely to afford excellent light or sandy peat.
to pure sea or river sand. In near the sea, and It may be , that at the points where mountain
where banks of shells occur on the beach, sea-shells rivulets enter the flat country, accumulations of peat
when broken will be found to form a neat walk, earth and sand may often be found, the peat being
also ding ansthy 2 a certain . The freed, by the washing of the rivulet, from the chief
utility of the binding is manifold; it gives the of the salts and other principles likely to prove
Siting on ea peas cree ae he map| by pee, Be gence oy equal
ned : se i v
oe permits of sweeping, without end peat suitable for very man
f
inds of plants. 0 eee ae Mili soci)
288 HORTICULTURE.
a mends a compost prepared of one-half earth from the or being washed into them by heavy rains, Ifthe box Flower -
_ Surface of a common, where the soil is light; and the be kept low and regularly clipped, it endures in good Garden, .
Soil. other half drift sea-sand and old lime rubbish screened, repair and beauty for several years. eet
Edgings,
in equal parts. Decayed leaves of trees have long been
considered as forming the most suitable ingredient in
composts, where it is wished to imitate a vegetable soil.
Large pits are dug in convenient parts of the woods,
and into these the heaps of leaves and small spray are
raked during winter ; a slight sprinkling of the surface
soil being wn over all, to prevent the leaves from
being blown about. After the lapse of a year, a ver
light vegetable soil is thus procured ; while the half
rotten spray forms an appropriate soil for some kin
of epidendrum, cultivated in the stove. ‘
In the first forming of composts, considerable atten-
tion should be paid to the thorough mixing together of
the ingredients. The heaps should not be round and
of great bulk, but should rather be formed into long and
narrow ridges, the sides of which may more effectually
be exposed to the influences of the atmosphere. The
compost should remain for at least a year before being
used, and should be several times turned over and mix-
ed in the course both of summer and winter.
The best kind of rich manure for the flower-garden
is found in old hot-beds which have been formed of
stable dung and litter; but even this should not be
delved into the borders without being mixed with a
portion of good loam ; for there are few flowers to which
wy rich manures do not prove detrimental.
uantity of pit sand should always be in readiness
for mixing with other soils, or for striking cuttings of
different plants. The purest and finest pit sand is pre-
ferred. However pure to appearance, it still contains
a portion of very fine vegetable matter ; sea-sand being
destitute of this, is not nearly so proper.
To enlarge further on soils for the flower-garden
seems unnecessary. In Cushing’s Exolic Gardener may
be seen a table of genera, shewing the peculiar soil
most suitable, in a general way, to each genus ; and the
same little book contains some very useful remarks on
the preparation and use of composts.
It may here be observed, that for all border plants,
as well as for tulips, ranunculuses, and other flow-
ers kept in beds, the earth or the compost should
not be screened fine. It is enough if stones which the
spade sensibly strikes against be cast out, and if clods
be broken small at the time of delving. Screened earth
is apt to bind after heavy and continued rains, and thus
to impede the progress of the roots which it was meant
to facilitate. For plants kept in pots, and particularly
for seedlings and cuttings, the matter is quite other-
wise ; the soil for most of these should be made fine by
passing it through a sieve.
Edgings.
463. In the formal style of gardening which prevail-
ed in the 17th and the early part of the 18th century,
edgings of various kinds were much more needed and
more attended to than they now are. The compart-
ments of parterres were generally divided by box, and
on the margins of the walks were frequently small
hedges of lavender, or rue. Thyme, savory and hys-
sop, were also in those days employed as ornamental
ings. ~
464, For the general gravel-walks in gardens, the
best edging is without doubt the dwarfish Dutch box
( Buaus se irens var.) A compact low hedge of
this effectually ke the walks clean, by preventing
the earth of the border from falling down into them,
clipped twice in the year, in April and July. It shoul
be kept about three inches broad at the base, and taper-
ing upwards to a sharp ridge. A linear and continuous
edging of this kind pleases every eye. Box is planted
either in the beginning of autumn, or in the spring
about the month of April. If slips having few or no
roots be used, watering is proper till the plants be fair-
ly established.
N bras box, plant — forms is best. retain-
ing edging is ps threft or sea-pin tatice arme-
a in Jane and aaunen in dower, - makes a
showy edging ; and it answers the purpose during the
rest of the year with its dense tufts bf leaves, Tt should
be replanted every year, or at farthest every second
year.
The double-flowered daisy (Bellis perennis, var. fl.
pl.) has very long been used in this way. When kept
inrepair, it forms an edging very pleasing to the eye.
The plants should be separated and tanaplehted every
season, in the beginning of September, and enly one
strong stem or bud left to each bunch of roots.
Double catchfly (Lychnis viscaria, fl. pl.) is sometimes
employed; but it seldom makes a neat edging: the
flowers are ornamental, but the stems are too tall.
Dwarf gentian (Gentiana acaulis) of all other
forms the most brilliant edging, while in flower in the
spring; but it is necessary that a continuous azure line
be kept up, and for this we hae the verge must be of
some breadth: It is applicable therefore only to large
or broad borders, and it succeeds best in a strong or
clayey soil. London-pride (Sazifraga umbrosa) forms
a loose and straggling verge, but is very pretty while
the plants are in flower: It is fittest for a shrubbery
walk. Lady's cushion, or Indian moss as it is some«
times called, (Sazifraga hypnoides) is oe plant-
ed as an edging, and makes a pretty enough appearance,
Some other similar species of Saxifraga, such as palmata
and cespitosa, may be used in the same way.
For gay parterres, the large blue-flow ney vio=
let (Viola tricolor var.) makes a beautiful slight ging.
Although strictly speaking an annual —_ if it be
parted every season, it endures for several years. It is
very commonly used for adorning the margins of ele-
gant flower-borders in the neighbourhood of Dublin.
Dwarf bell- (Campanula pumila, or C. rotundia
Jolia var.) makes a fine edging for little borders where
nicety and beauty are studied. Sometimes a few feet
of the edging are formed alternately of the blue and of
the white variety. For small borders also, a very or.
namental edging may be formed of Stone-crop (Sedum
acre), preferring the variety which has the tops of the
shoots of a yellowish colour ; this, even during winter
or very early in the spring, having the appearance of
being in flower.
It may be remarked, that patches of several of the
different edging plants which have been enumerated,
perhaps a few yards alternately of each, have an agrees
able effect, especially in a long or extensive border.
Most kinds of edgings may be planted early in the
spring. In planting them, it is more proper to usethe
spade than the dibble. The nd being slightly
beat, a drill is cut by the -line, endicular
on the side next the border ; the plants are
against og sare side, their roots ‘spread out,
and the osed upon them, — :
For edgings to Sane or oblong beds intended for
tulips, ranunculuses, or similar plants, thin hoards
It is —— Régings
es
HORTICULTURE.
sheep’s-fescue Festuca ovina), fine foliage of
ing Bouman the extensive
Newcastle, this sort of verge
F. duriuscula being mixed, however,
a places with the true sheep’s-fescue. If very
sown oF planted in a narrow. straight li it
has slender linear mrance, and docs not occupy
more space a . Fora tem
ing, another kind of neg Pe cto ns
iza maxima), is sometimes very happily employed,
loose racemes, wi! i ing spikes, having a
i iets pin ap age rare l ett maa
soon seeds ripen, ts become
stronger than those sown in the spring. Geneon
ly be less than a foot in breadth, and
a the showery weather
season,—Only a very few
hardy cay) “roe here be noticed.
’ pmo ame: ee Seen ie
several varieties, y e plain
leaved, and the gald andithe silver polaeal. Resem-
this is the a; but the genera may at once
be di i seeing the flowers, by ob-
that in the former the leaves are aliarudih
s, among the most favourite tonsile
mS Sycti an Arbor vite (Thaja orientale) and the
American (7. occidextalis) are large, and suited
289
the common laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), and the Por-
tugal laurel (P. dusitanica). 2
468. The Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis), which is a con-
siderable tree in the south of Europe, appears but as a
shrub in this country, producing its flowers only in
sheltered situations and good seasons. The common
lanrel above mentioned, we may remark, is often mis-
taken for the bay, and regarded as the plant which
furnished crowns for the Roman heroes. The error is
fortunate, our bays thus escaping mutilation
on occasions of public rejoicing. There is no doubt,
however, that it was the sweet bay which furnished the
wreath worn on the brow of the victor, and of the
riestess of Delphi. The mistake has arisen from the
y having formerly been called laurel, and the fruit of
it only named bayes. The Alexandrian Laurel ( Ruscus
racemosus ) has been mistaken for the heroic plant ;
but although destitute of this honour, it is a most ele-
gant shrub, worthy of a prominent station.
The different varieties of Laurustinus (Viburnum ti-
nus) are very ornamental, as they not only enliven the
winter scene with their green leaves, but delight us
with their flowers at that dead season. -These last, how-
of ever, are uced only in sheltered situations.
469. thes
Strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) is an ele-
t plant at all times; but when at once covered with
it and flowers, the arance is not only beautiful,
but curious. .In Ireland, about the Lakes of Killarney,
this species, which ranks as a shrub in Scotland and
the north of En , attains the size of a lofty tree.
In the Transactions of —— oe we a a
gigantic specimen is described by Mr J.'T. Mackay as
growing in Rough Island, an islet in the lower lake,
entirely composed of limestone. In 1805, this tree
measured nine feet in circumference at two feet from
the ground ; at the height of five feet it branches off into
four limbs, each of which then measured two feet and a
half in cireumference ; from the base of the trunk to
the extremity of the branches, the length was 36 feet;
and the tree has a fine spreading head. The andrachne
(A. andrachne) is a beautiful shrub or small tree, but
liable to be injured by severe frosts, and suited only to
the milder counties of E: and Ireland.
The superb Yucca, or Adam's needle, ( Yucca Petes
may here be mentioned, as-it retains its leaves at
times. When in flower it makesa ificent
ance. Young plants are at first rather tender; but
when fairly established, they prove sufficiently hardy
for the open border. A fine specimen has stood for
about a century in the pleasure-grounds of Kilochan,
belonging to Sir Andrew Cathcart in Ayrshire; and it
flowers every second or third year,
The Aucuba, or gold plant, (Aucuba Japonica) was
formerly _ in fe green-house ; but it now orna-
ments the flower-garden with its fine spotted yellow
leaves ; and in a sheltered situation it sustains no in-
jury from our ordinary winters.
470. Rhododendrons of different species are highly
ornamental, particularly R. maximum, Ponticum, hir-
sutum, and ferrugineum. These grow well in any loamy
soil, although they no doubt flourish more among sandy
peat. Ifa rivulet the flower garden, the banks of
it should be planted with them. Kalmias also be
introduced, icularly K. latifolia, angustifolia, and
glauca; tog with m palustre and L. latifolium,
or the Labrador tea plant; likewise different species of
Vaccinium, and of Andromeda, particularly pulverulenta
and cassinefolia; and Gaultheria procumbens.
20
.
Flower
Garden.
——
Evergreens-
290
Flower 471. Among low evergreens for the front of the bor-
Garden. ders, different species of Cistus or. rock-rose are excel-
Even lent; and s&veral hardy. exotic Heaths, which shew
Sreens their flowers early in the spring, particularly Erica.
mediterranea and carnea, E, arborea, the flowers of
which are fragrant, sometimes attains the sizeof a con-
siderable shrub, and is.very ornamental, but it succeeds
only in the milder parts of England, Even our four na-
tive species deserve a place. The most. common is E,
vulgaris, of which there is a white-flowered variety,
and.one. with double flowers. E. cinerea, fine-leayed
heath or bell-heather, is the next in point of abundance;
it is more showy than the former, and there is a va~
riety with white flowers. LE, tetralix,, or cross-leaved
heath, is the third species; it is an elegant plant, dis-
tinguished by the leaves srowinig in fours, and by the
flowers. coming in clusters on tops of the stalks.
E. vagans is. a native of the south of England, found
indeed scarcely any where but in Cornwall, These na«
tive heaths grow perfectly well in any poor soil ; but the
ground should not be delved close by them, as their roots
are generally extended very near the surface, Pittos-
porum tobira is a beautiful glossy-leaved Chinese ever-
green, which succeeds in a well sheltered border, but
unless it be situated in a dry soil, is apt to be cut off by
the damp at the surface of theearth. Several:species of
Daphne are very ornamental. as evergreens, and. pro-
duce their flowers in the spring months, particularly
D. cneorum, collina and pontica; and although the me-
zereon (D. mezereum) is a deciduous shrub ; yet as it
a its blossoms very early in the spring, generally
in February, it deserves a place; there are three va-~
rieties, dark red, pale red, and white. The Periwinkles
(Vinca major and minor), when regularly cut over
every year, form neat evergreen: bushes. :
472. The:Musk rose (Resa moschata) may be considers
ed as approaching to.an evergreen; and thereis. an almost
evergreen variety of the sweet-briar (R. rubiginosa).
But of all others, 2. Indica is the greatest acquisition
to our gardens, being not only always in leaf, but.
flowering both late and early, in November and in
March. The Ayrshire Rose, a species not well ascer~
tained, deserves a place, especially for covering any:
wall, pale, or winter seat; it grows very rapidly, and
always retains some of its leaves. It is said to be from
America, and to have received the hame of Ayrshire
rose, from having been first cultivated at Fairfield, near
Kilmarnock. A rampant native’ species (R. arvensis)
has likewise iain among nurserymen the name of
Ayrshire rose, and is often sold instead of the other, ta.
which it bears a considerable resemblance.
Aulumn, Winter, and Spring Gardens.
473. It now very commonly happens, that the au<
tumn and early part of winter are the only seasons in
which families, swayed by the fashionable world, reside
at their country mansions. The forming of an autumnal
and a winter garden is therefore im nt. In the
former, many late-flowering perennial plants, such
as asters, solidagos, rudbeckias, hollyhocks, and many
kinds of annual flowers, may render the borders gay
till the frost prove too severe: The carnation shed may
with propriety be situated in the autumn garden,
474. Addison, in one of his Spectators (No, 477.)
sets forth the pleasures and beauties of a winter garden.
« In the summer season,” he observes, ‘“ the whole
country blooms, and is a kind of garden, for which
reason we are not so sensible of those beauties that at
Autamn
garden.
Winter
garden.
HORTICULTURE. | py a :
this time may be evety where met with; but whenina« Mower
ture isin her desolation, and presents us with nothing, Garden.
but: bleak and barren prospects, there is something un+
speakably cheerful: in a spot of ground which is co- jon.
vered with trees that smile-amidst all the rigour of;
winter, and give us a view of the most gay season in
the midst of that whicl is’ most. dead:and: melancholy.
I have so far indulged myself in this’ thought, that I
have set apart a whole acre of ground for the executing:
of it.. The walls are covered with ivy instead of vines.
The.laurel, the hornbeam, and the holly, .with:
other trees and plants-of the same nature, grow so
in it, that you cannot imagine a more lively seene.” A
winter garden of much smaller dimensions ‘tham here:
suggested, would in general be’ found sufficient. The
idea was taken up also by Lord Kames, in his “ Ele.
ments of Criticism,” (vol. ti. p.448). ‘ In a hot:couna’
try,” he remarks; “ it isa capital object to have what:
may be termed a summer garden, that is, a»space) of
ground disposed by art and by nature to exclude the:
sun, but to give free sacentier air. In acold couns
, the capital object : ,a winter garden, "
je the cans iebstenes from the wind, dry. under. foot,
and having the appearance of summer by a variety of
tea hg ‘All the evergreens which hae sboealp
been mentioned would enter with propriety into the ~
composition of such a garden. The hornbeam, it may
be noticed, however, must have crept into the Spectas
tor’s list by inadvertency, it being a deciduous tree. Be-
sides evergreen trees and shrubs, there area good many
humble herbaceous plants which retain a greenness: in
their foliage over winter; such are common. daisies,
thrift, ce none-so-pretty, burnet, and several others,
These may also be admitted ; and plants which flower
in winter or very early in'the spring, may be:scattered
over the borders; such are Christmas rose‘and winter
aconite (Helleborus niger and hyemalis) ; dog’s-tooth
violet, white and pink, (Hrythronium dens canis). bul<
bous fumitory (Fumaria bu and solida); and others.
To the winter garden a Conservatory. may be: consi«
dered as an appropriate app
475. A part of the winter ga may be ‘appropria~ Spring
ted asa spring garden, and planted chiefly with the garden.
early agen ri Bee "eb as the prance and. the
double dw: on yedatus nana and pumila),
and the sweet almond (4. communis.) On the ried
ders, the different species of narcissus, » particularly
the poetic, the daffodil, jonquil, and polyanthus-nar~
cissus, may appear ; these, even’ wheii: rising through
the ground, produce a lively appearance: And. other
early spring flowers might be added, such as the spring
bitter-vetch (Orobus vernus) ; comfrey-ieaved hound’s
tongue ( Cynoglossum omphalodes) ; suowdrop, ( Galans
thus nivalis) ; the puccoon; (Sanguinaria: Canadensis) ;
and red, blue: and white hepaticas (Anemone hepatica. )
The heathery or heath-house might very properly form
the principal object in the spring garden, many of the
exotic erica flowering early in the year, The auricula
frame might likewise be situate here.
Border Flowers. pe
476. The principal borders are of course dedicated to: Hardy per-
mingled mnial plants, sufficiently hardy to’ endure’ ennial
our ae ie ysoiaibies A very rower Soucteare be: plants.
specified: those mentioned shall.be the most showy and
desirable of their kinds, They are:arranged in the r
borders partly according to size, and partly according
to colour. The tallest are planted in shrubbery bor-
Winter gare
Re Aw
f
i
HORTICULTURE. 291
i
B
ir
fF
Hl
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i
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uh
f
if
e
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ite
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quincunx order ; the distance between each plant vary- Flower
ing, according to the size of the border, and in some Garden.
measure according to the nature of the plant, whether [73 ¥
it be apt to or to form a compact tuft. In re- gowers,
to soil, it may be sufficient to observe, that most
of the a herbaceous plants grow very well in a soil
that is light and mellow, such as a sandy
For certain p strong loam, turf mould, or
vegetable earth, are proper ; and this circumstance is
f
should be paid by those fond of fine flowers t0 the pro-
pagating of this plant. Several stems should with this
view be cut down before the flower a : these are
tobe divided into pieces five or six i long, which
i of leaves except at the top, and sunk up to
are
colours; the leaves in the earth; they are covered fora few weeks
i
i
2
i
#
it
i
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gf
5
leaved meadow-rue.
492. Late tulips are the only kind now attended to
by florists, the double and parrot sorts being in little
esteem with them. They are divided into six fami-
lies, distinguished by barbarous titles, a mixture of
French and Dutch, 1. Primo baguettes, very tall, (the
term. baguelte inferring that they resemble a small walk-
ing-stick, or switch), cups with a white ground broken
with fine brown ; and all from the same breeder. 2.
Bagueites rigauts (or rougeaudes), with strong stems,
though not so tall, very large cups with a white ground,
likewise broken with fine brown, and all from the
same breeder. 3. Verports, (or, as they are more com-
monly called in this country, Incomparable Verports,
HORTICULTURE.
or simply Incomparables), with very perfect
ving a beautiful white ground, or bottom, well
with shining brown approaching to rose colour, and all
from the same breeder, 4. Roses, allied tothe verports, Tulips
the petals streaked with cherry and rose colours, ona
white ground. _5. Bybloemens, sometimes contracted
into el with the ground white or nearly so, from
different breeders, and broken. with variety of colours.
€. Bizarres, (probably a corruption from annie) with
a yellow. ground, from different breeders, and.
with variety of colours.
The terms breeders, whote diowers, and seedlings, axe
all applied to such flowers, raised from |, as are
plain or of one colour, have a bottom or ground
colour, (visible atthe base ofthe petal), and are well
shaped, They may thus be either bybloemens or bi-
zarres. The petals.of these, in the course of time, break
into various elegant stripes, according to the nature of
their former seli=colour. In correct » the term
breeders would mean plants, from the seed of which
‘young tulips are to be raised. !
493. The florist’s criterion of a fine flower is fre«
quently at variance with that of the world at large.
Many tulips which would excite the admiration of
thousands, are rejected by the connoisseur. The pro-
perties of a fine tulip, as set forth in the Florist’s Di-
rectory, are the following. The stem should be strong
and tall, two feet ormore. The flower should be large,
with six petals ; the petals at the base proceeding for a
little way almost horizontally, and then. sweeping up-
wards, so as to form an elegant cup, with a rounded
bottom, and somewhat wider at top than below. The
three outer petals should be rather larger, or broader
at the base, than the three inner ones ; all the petals
should have the edges perfectly entire ; the top of each
should be broad, and well rounded; the ground colour
at the bottom of the cup should be clear white or yel-
low, free from stain or tinge; and the various rich
stripes, which are the principal ornament of a fine
flower, should be regular, , and distinct on the
margin, terminating in fine broken points, elegantly
feathered or pencilled; while the centre of each petal
should contain one or more bold blotches or stri
of colour, mixed with small ions of the original or
breeder colour, broken into irregular obtuse points; this
last character, however, of central stripes or blotches,
not being indispensable, and any trace of the breede»
colour displeasing many florists.
494. The raising of tulips from the seed is a tedi-
ous process ; but in this way alone are new varieties
and vigorous bulbs to be expected. Seed is collected
only from flowers of one uniform colour, or which are
self-coloured, and are at the same time of good shape ;
for, contrary to what might naturally be expected, expe-
rience, it seems, has shewn that the seed of the most
beautiful striped tulips does not yield so fine a produce
as is got from the plain coloured. The tulips intend-
ed for seeding are planted deeper than usual, perhaps
eight or nine inches deep, in order that the stem may
be kept longer ina vigorous state ; and are pla-
ced ina border where they may enjoy the full benefit
of the sun. Towards the end of July the begin
to nsahay ene inn pauisiagon Nis wi fooaee
in them, in a dry place, till the beginning of Septems
ber, when the seed is sown. This is generally done in
shallow boxes containing fresh light earth ; a covering
of about half an inch thick, of the same light or sandy
earth, is sifted over them. These boxes are placed in a
sheltered situation for the winter. By the middle of
March the seedling tulips shew their grass-like first
» ha- Flower.
oken Garden,
7%
HORTICULTURE. | 295
eaves :’ these continue for about two months, and storms, and afterwards, when the season of flower- Flower
Garden. — decay, so that they entirely disap- ing arrives, covered by an awning of thin canvas. In Garden.
pear in June. ra year, the small bulbs are this way only can the delicate colours be fairly brought qoyc
raised, and: into a nursery bed, two. inches’ out; even half an hour's full exposure to the sun’s rays
bed be in an ex- has been known to alter them ; besides, the enjoyment
i or mats areplaced over it during of the finesight is prolonged for near a month. T
XS ity of winter: Im this bed the bulbs remain the'scent of the tulip is so slight as scarcely to be per-
for and fourth years. oe ; ceptible in single specimens, the united odour of so
kept some short time out of the earth, and transplant- many, confined im some measure by the cover, becomes
ed to another hed, -in whielt they are placed four inch- quite evident. Watering is ly ever necessary for
eS seperate Here’ remain other two years; and tulips. The seed-pods of all fine tulips are cut off as
im this interval many of them begin to chew flowers. wer so for these, as already said, are by
een wre reheat thr pamaanen ~ or tired no means from which to procure seed, and the
fallgrown bulbs exhaust themselves in forming them. The bulbs
bulbs; and after they have flowered: fortwo or three are lifted in the course of the month of June, the
their real value rey ascertain- tions bektig ascertained by observinig'whan the'Silizgle tad
: : promisin is, tall, well sha. decayed, and two or three inches at the top of the stem
ped, with bottoms, and self-coloured, they are re- begin toacquire a purple tinge. Ifthey be left longer
tained for @ longer time, im expectation of improve. in the earth, the flowers are apt to become foul the next
course retained ; but these are apt quickly to d till October. The offsets, chives, or babies, are taken
rate. Those that appear eee and’ portman te am : om a8 er ae
pointed petals are rejected wi itation. separate |, not so as the parent , an
The to break is promoted in the b about 9 month earlier ‘Wnny te tetitthd, that all
small, may be considered as likely to produce
it; et partie dent from the bu
third part old lime rabbish sifted, all well mixed sand bare and clean state. By the end of February most of
ae The beds are made two feet deep, the tulips appear above ground: the surface is at this
the drills about four inches season gently stirred with the fingers, aided perhaps by
deep, and six or seven inches from eachother in every little bit of stick ; this stirring tending greatly to pro-
direction. eh pearance 3 mote their health and growth.
all traces of its self-colour, and continuing till the pe- The finest and most extensive collections of tulips in
arn to’ this country at present, are probably those of Davy,
Whether the breaking is Ranunculus.
’ consequence not ap- f
; but it seems to be a general fact, that ex 496. ‘This well known flower (Ranunculus Asiaticus) poyuncy.
ipuaidelarddventercrsin. is # native of the Levant and ofthe Greek Islands. It jus,
emcee worms Forme management of was cultivated by Gerarde in the end of the 16th cen-
A :
practice not uncommon with gardeners must here be have been raised semi-double flowers, both in this
is the of tulip bulbs ‘with a cowntry and in Holland: some of these possess also
seat
7
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et
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ise
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bed is improved ing made to » a little ceeds 180; the proper contrast of colours is studied,
the conte to sah ide stronger should and the whole, Lvs in full flower, prodtices a ver
receive the sit
found difficult to invent names for’them. Mr
ere ivides the colours into twelve families: Dark
di
495. The bed of choice’ is, by the true florist, purple ; light and grey ; crimson ; reds ;
at Gistected by haope tad’ masts Som tae eens rosy ; orange; yellow yellow spotted ; white and
Flower
Garden.
ee eee
Ranuncu-
lus,
296
white spotted; olive; purple and coffee-coloured stri-
ped; red and yellow striped ; and red and white stri-
ped. The Turquoy, or turban-shaped ranunculus, is a
very distinct sub-variety. .
497. The qualities of a fine double ranunculus, as
described by him, consist in the flower being of a he-
mispherical form, at least two inches in diameter, the
numerous petals gradually diminishing in size to the
centre ; the petals broad, with entire, well rounded
edges ; their colours dark, clear, rich, or brilliant, either
of one colour, or variously diversified on an ash, white,
sulphur, or fire-coloured ground, or else regularly stri-
fk spotted or mottled. The stem should be strong
and straight, and from eight inches to a foot in height.
The root is composed of several thick fleshy fangs or
claws, uniting at top into a head. When the plant
becomes strong, several subordinate or lateral heads
are formed, and each of these may be taken off with
their proper claws, to form anew plant. These offsets,
it may be observed, form better flowering plants than
the central head, which is exhausted by flowering.
The soil preferred for the ranunculus bed is fresh
rich loam, inclining to clayey. It should be deep, per-
haps. little short of three feet ; for it is surprising to
what a depth the fine fibres from the tubers penetrate
downwards. Some gardeners raise the bed a few inches
above the surrounding ground. If manure be at any
time added, it should be well rotted, and must be in-
troduced at the very bottom of the bed at least two feet
and a half below the tubers. Miller mentions three
feet as the proper depth of soil for the beds, adding,
that on such beds plants will produce forty or fifty
flowers, which in a shallow soil would not afford a do-
zen. The beds are kept flat on the surface, not raised
in the middle as for tulips. Miller directs, that the
roots should be planted six inches apart each way ; but
this is too wide: Five inches between the rows, and
three or four inches between each plant in the rows, are
sufficient. In some situations, the plants grow strong-
er than in others ; and a good general rule is, to ob-
serve the size which the leaves commonly acquire, and
then, in that garden, to plant so close as that the grass
or foliage of contiguous rows may just meet ; the ground
being kept in a desirable state of moisture by this close
covering of leaves. The tubers should not be more
than an inch and a half dee
should be placed with the claws pointing downwards
or the bud upwards. It is not right to plant ranuncu~
luses year after year in the same bed, If a little fresh
soil be introduced, they may do twice ; but after this,
- the earth of the bed should be entirely changed, or a
new bed should be made in a different part of the gar-
den.
The time of planting is either the latter end of Oc-
tober, or the first mild and dry weather in February.
When put in in October, the buds sometimes appear
above ground in November ; in this case, a thin cover-
ing of half an inch of light soil, is cast over them be-
fore severe weather set in. Autumn planted ranuncu-
luses also require attention in the spring ; if hard frosts
occur when the flower-stems appear, a covering of hoops
and mats may be proper for a | Sie days.
The beds are weeded with the hand, and by careful
cultivators the earth between the rows is stirred up only
with the fingers, a hoe being very apt to cut and injure
the tubers, or break too many of the fine roots. When
the flowers begin to expand, the florist does not fail to.
guard equally againet nightly frosts and scorching suns .
5
in the earth; and they’
HORTICULTURE.
beams, by means of a canvas awning, or at least of
mats laid over large hoops. When drought occurs, li-
pace eee proves very beneficial to the ranuncu-
us bed. ;
When the flowering is over, and the leaves have be-
gun to decay, the tubers are carefully lifted ona dry
day ; being thoroughly cleared of earth, they are dried
in the shade, and then deposited in separate drawers or
boxes, or in paper bags, till wanted for replanting.
When it is wished to raise seedling ranunculuses, the
seed is collected from flowers having: nat. fewer than
fiye or six rowo of petals, of good colour. It is sown
in August, in boxes or pots, on the very surface of the
earth, and a ‘little very fine mould is sifted over it, so
as hardly to cover the seeds.
kept under a glass frame during winter; and most of
them flower the second year. :
_ Anemone.
498. The garden anemone is of two kinds, the broad~ Anemones
leaved (A. hortensis,) and the narrow-leaved (A. coros
pe The former is the more hardy, being a native
of Italy and the south of France; the latter grows na-
turally in the islands of the Archipelago, where it ap-
s of all colours.
499. A fine double ‘anemone should have a strong,
upright stem, eight or nine inches high ; the: flower
should be from two to near three inches in diameter ;
the outer petals should be firm, spreading horizontally,
except that they turn up a little at the end, and the
seanier petals within these should be so disposed as to
form an elegant whole,
distinct. The flowers are generally divided by florists
into red and pink, rosy and crimson,
spotted, dark and light blue. ;
In preparing an anemone bed, the surface soil of some
old pasture, with the turf itself, is to be mixed with .
some well rotted cow-house dung, and allowed .to lie
for a year in heap, but occasionally turned over. \ Lar,
stones are to be cast out, but the soil should not
screened, or at least should not be made too fine.
The roots are tuberous, and very irregular in shape.
They are commonly planted six inches apart in each
direction, and about two inches deep, taking care to
place the bud uppermost. The best season for plant-
ing is considered to be the month of October; but
some roote are generally kept back till December ; and:
others are not put in TiN February, in order to ren-
der them later in coming into flower, and thus to pro-«
long the anemone show. Where the flowers are prized,
the beds are sheltered during the severity of the early
spring, by mats laid over hoops; for it is. remarked
by practical men, that double flowers often become
single, by “ the thrum (collection of narrow thread-like ;
petals) that is in the middle of the flower being de-
stroyed.”? In April and May, if the weather prove
very dry, they are regularly refreshed with water.
In July, when the leaves decay, the roots are taken
but always in dry weather. They are cleared of
either with the fingers, or by washing. They are then
packed in baskets or drawers till the planting season
recur. Of choice sorts, the smallest offsets are valua-
ble ; and as these are minute, and very much of the
colour of the soil, great attention is requisite to have
them all picked up at the time of lifting. _
500. New varieties are raised from the seeds of
>
The young plants are.
The plain colours should be.
brilliant and striking ; the variegated ones, clear and.
white and white -
Flower’
Garden.
;
Ranuncu-
lus.
a
:
|
HORTICULTURE. 297
called Poppy Ane- ‘into flower in October and November, the period cor- Flower
colours. Some care is responding to their usual time in their native coun- Garden.
‘the seeds, which try. They may, however, be brought to shew their pina.
sand. The seedlings the luxuriance
is most effectually flowers more early. This is accomplished by checking
: oft herbage, by ae of leaien the
first year, par- roots in very poor soil, sometimes even in screened
the frost is apt to vel. ' Water is supplied only till the flower-bud be
Siscernible in the heart of the eaves ; after which none
a is given. . j
are selected. e roots, which are large and tuberous, like those
bright red and of peony-rose or yellow asphodel, are taken up every
im-tha garden bor- year, and kept for some weeks in sand. Some cultiva-_
being only taken tors alwxys plant them in pots, the restraint thus im-
: Feb- posed on the roots having the same effect as planting in
in
ruary, and form the gayest parterre ornament at that om The growth in the spring may, in this way,
forwarded, by placing them under a frame ; and the
very early into flower. may be sunk in the dahlia bed in June. If the
be situate close to a south-east or south wall, the
flowering of the plants is greatly promoted. The more
tender sorts, such as the scarlet variety of D. frus-
is or Flower-de-luce is extensive, tranea, may be placed next to the wall, and have its
ies, many of which make branches nailed to it, in the way practised with love-
ist and shady borders; apple. All secondary branches are pinched off while
only a few species young and tender, and even some leaves are removed,
of what arecalled the if the plant shew a disposition to be very luxuriant.
@ principal part. Pinks.
and sometimes curious varieties 505. Thé common pink and the carnation, though Pinks.
most common colour is blue, deep- considered as distinct kinds of flowers by the florists,
yellow, or white; have originated chiefly from one and the same species
shades, or violet of plant, the Dianthus rere of Linneus, or
in other Clove Pink. It grows naturally in rocky situations in
with I. variegata some parts of Germany ; and Sir J. E. Smith has even
into the bed. L eae Rn pin Engr Salind, toh) ona nabien of
ingular species both tain. pinks seem to have been en-
Salikeciecenaen tirely unknown to the ancients; for Pliny does not
is bed should be a light loam, with to thers. ‘
ees Sis Pinks were not held in much esteem by our own an-
should cestors ; indeed they seem to have risen to distinction
added. with florists only in the 18th century. They are di«
east border, the flowers make a finer appear- vided by them into several classes ; such as k
to the south. : cobs, and pheasant’s-eyes, The first are white, a
. susiana) is yearly import- flower early ; the cobs are red, and flower late. Both
i
-
[
7
F:
E
Le
i
z
his observations on hand-
is
magnificently rich of these kinds are considered as originating from D.
but seldom shews caryophyllus ; but the pheasant’s-eye, of which there are
too agrees with» numerous varieties, is regarded as having sprung from
arm eunny situa. D. plumarius.
the fin A copious watering is then given, and
lets are firmly own over the plants:
, were little known if the weather be t, these may have some
‘atives.of Mexico, they come earth thrown against while the glass is pest
Qr
Flower
Garden.
Pink,
€arnations,
298
order to produce a degree of shade, or some large leaves
may be laid on them for a few days. These: hand-
glasses are not removed till the new growth: of the
pinks be distinetly perceived, which happens generally
in the course of a month or five weeks ; water is how-
ever occasionally applied around the covers. The
plants are afterwards transferred to a larger bed, or to
a garden’ border, in time to permit them to become
well rooted before winter. Slips of pinks, four or six
inches long, drawn from the sides of main shoots, and
planted any time in the spring; seldom fail to'grow.
New varieties ate procured by raising plants from
seed: for this purpose the seed of the Best sorts only
is saved ; it is produced sparingly in such flowers as
are not perfectly double ; it is procured more plentiful-
ly from semi-double flowers, and if these be of good
colours, the offspring is frequently very promising. It
is sown in the spring, and the plants are nursed up in
beds, and afterwards planted out. From a consider-
able bed, only a few can be expected worthy of being
preserved ; and these are likely to be found among the
weakest plants.
506. Those flowers the petals of which are elegantly:
lacéd with colours, while the edges are scarcely notch
ed, or are as nearly as possible rose-leaved, are consi-
dered the finest. Being very double, and at the same
time opening fairly or without bursting, are qualities
highly prized. A clear white for the body of the
flower is always desirable. | In'the lacing, a'rich black,
shaded toward the centre with red, is much esteemed.
Scarlet lacings are most rare, arid much in request. A
gl lace'is greatly admired, as in the variety known
iy the name: of Davy’s Duchess of Devonshire, which
riiay be considered. as the model of a’ perfect pink.
Pinks are carefully tended by-the zealous florist. When
the flower-stalks rise, they are tied to a stnall stick to
keep them up ; and when the’ petals begin to appear in
the pod, those pods which seem apt to burst on one
side are restrained by a small piece of slit neat
The finest flowers when expanded are covered with
ieces of tinned’ iron® in shape of inverted funnels’ or
Fittle umbrellas, equally to save them from rain and
from the sun’s rays.
Carnalions.
. 607. Formerly these were divided: into: Carnations,
often called Bursters, having very large leaves and
flowers, and into Gill 8: (girofliers, F.), the leaves
and flowers of which are smaller. The former are now
called: Tree-carnations; the latter, Common carnations.
"Fhe florists of the present day distinguish carnations
into four classes. 1. Flakes, having one colour only,
on a white ground; ‘the stripes: large, and the ‘colour
extending through’ the substance of the petal: when
the stripe is pink, and of high colour, the flower is
called a Rose flake. 2. Bizarres, flowers with'two co-«
lours, o 2 white ground: they are called scarlet, ‘pur-
ple, or pink bizarres, ‘as these colours happen toabound;)
when deep'purple and’ rich pink occur together, the
flower is accounted»a crimson bizarre. 3. Piquetiees,
with a white; and ‘sometimes! a yellow nd; spotted:
with scarlet, ‘purple, or other colours, eedges of the
petals generally notched or serrated. 4. Painted.ladies,:
with’tlie-petals red or purple on the upper side, but
white below. Thiswas
ter is not. sprinkled.over the whole plant, but is
applied only to the root, The stems, are tied to stakes
as they siemiehe In. this: situation: the plants cons
tinue till their stems: becotne too: tall! for remaini
under the hoops. They are then placed»on the s
for flowering. Here slender stakes, four feet in ;
and sometimes painted, are employed, and: the stems
are neatly tied to them at the distance of every six
inches. As the flower-buds’ advance, they who are
nice watch any appearance of irregular bursting, and
prevent it by slight ligatures, as already mentioned in
the case of fine pinks, Only three or four pri
flower-buds are allowed: to-come forward; the»
lateral ones being cut off as they appear. When
the earliest flowers begin to expand, tinned iron or
common paper covers, such as) those above described,
§ 506; are placed: over them. When the flowering be»
comes’ general, a canvas awning is resorted to. A
tulip-bed frame answers perfectly well for covering
carnations; and: tulip bulbs: are raiced and stored, bes
fore carnations come into flower : every one therefore
who delights in tulips, should also cultivatecarnations,
that his canvas: frame may thus be occupied with veges
table beauties twice in the year. fel ba
Earwigs prove very injurious, sometimes almost de-
structive to carnations. They should be daily looked
for, hunted out, and destroyed. Numbers may be en-
trappedin dried hollow stalks of rhubarb; reeds, or similar
fistular plants. Sonie have been at the pains.to insu-
late the raised stage, by setting its:supporters in; vessels.
filled with water; forgetting perhaps that igs: oc~
casionally take wing. When’ the flowers«are:
and:apt to droop; bits) of fine: brass-wire are used as.
supports. Zealows carnation florists sometimes dress the
flowers, by removing with a pair of pincers:small or ill«
coloured petals, adh iciahging ba seevedigaldolllide
the defect. bearish
509. When the plants have passed the height of their
ae
sm
HORTICULTURE. 299
bleom, raust not lower cinalis) decks the pastures and margins of corn fields,
leaves of the layers ae pert Bagoneree Turticvlarly in the south and west of England, and the
Jeaves cropped, an incision is made below on ieee tye Gaiudiag ee Sa
third joint, and contin through the joint; the loose places a pleasing em hildren.
| oo ae eaniaeveete so that The ip (P. elatior) is much less common than the
daptreintere eris ; such fern
—mecgapreg of the frond,
.about-half a line below the second joint ft
“mity of the shoot, and shortening the foliage as for lay-
ers, are in water for some time, to plump them as
florists They are then pricked into an exhausted
hot-bed, and: covered with hand-glasses. The soil is kept
i fibres be sent out ; but it is to observe,
ascetiguntaal Jot be replaced till
that after , the glass should not
“the leaves of the pipings be dry. When in to
‘shoot upwards, air is regularly but cautiously admitted.
La or pipi when 'y rooted, are removed,
and, if choles kine encrally planted in pos, three o
-four in-each pot. ror aehin season, carnativis, a
ther , or su mother plants, are
Se cqpadaycmterrtotes used
“
ity
7 fl
i
F
a
E
i
:
ef
A
ne
i
ret
=
?
i
i
H
:
i
Hl
.
t
, ; such
are cast out; and
It may here be noticed that carnations are susceptible
of the operation of double-flow:
seat th to a ay ge
red, and -whip.geafting ts beet. Dylans
) ~ Polyanihus.
i
of the small-flowered polyanthuses.
ccowslip, and is
chiefly in woods, and by the mar-
gins of woods. It seems to be the
parent of several
The bird’s-eye
primrose (P. farinosa) is certainly one of the prettiest
natives we can boast, and it grows on the poorest moors.
Of the exotic
ricula) is a well known favourite, of which we shall
speak after treating of the polyanthus.
Garden.
—_—o
ies, the auricula or bear’s-ear (P. au- °
611. According to the florist, the properties of a good Polyanthus.
-polyanthus are following: The tube of the corol-
above the calyx should be short, well filled at the
mouth-with the anthers, and terminate fluted rather
above the eye. The eye should be circular, ofa bright
clear yellow, and distinct from the ground colour be-
low. The ground colouris most admired when shaded
with a light and dark rich crimson, resembling velvet,
with one mark or stripe in the centre of each division
of the limb or border, bold and distinct from the edg-
ing down to the eye, where it should terminate ina
fine point. The petal should be large, quite flat, and
round, excepting the minute indentations between each
division, which divide it into five (sometimes six) heart-
like segments. The edgin should resemble a bright
-gold lace ; it should be i, clear, and distinct, and
nearly of the same colour as the eye and stripes.
Endless are the varieties of polyanthuses ; and as
they are easily raised from seed, they are generally the
first kind of flower that a young florist cultivates. Seed
is kept in the shops for sale; but by sowing this, very
few varieties may be . The seeds should
be saved only from flowers with large upright stems,
prodacing many flowers upon a stalk, which are large,
finely shaped, which open flat, and are not pin-eyed ;
and all ordinary flowers near to these should be cut
over, to avoid any intermixture of pollen. The seed
is ready in June, and the should be gathered as
they successively — seed is commonly sown
in boxes in January. The seedlings are regularly watered
in dry weather, and shaded from the forenoon sun. They
are fit for pricking out in the end of May ; and they are
transplanted, in August and September, to the borders
where they are to flower, which should be somewhat
moist and shady, and exposed only to the east. A loa-
my soil answers ‘best. Most of them will flower in the
‘succeeding spring, and then those that are indifferent
‘may ‘be cast
out, or transferred'to the shrubbery. The
plants ‘being again transplanted, will b in
full —<— the Moe year; and, ifthe kinds be ve-
good, will, in collective beauty and brilliancy, be lit-
the inferior to a show of paiseabe 2
After this, they must be yearly removed, and tlie
roots must be ed, else the flowers will inevita
degenerate. The truth is, that seedling plants produce
stronger and more brilliant flowers than offsets ; and
‘they who would have polyanthuses in perfection, must
save seed from their finest plants, and sow annually.
The best way is to raise two or three of the finest
with a ball of earth attached, and to t them in ano-
ther part of the garden, where ry
intermixture of pollen, and may be regularly
attention to watering bei
the production of vi;
plants which thus yidll seed
Flower
Garden.
—\~—
Auricula,
800
Snails and slugs infest polyanthuses in the spring of
the year, and should be watched in the morning. In
summer the red spider often. forms its webs on the
rough under side of the leaves, which is indicated by
their becoming yellow and spotted. If the plants thus
attacked be not removed, the whole polyanthus bed
will be destroyed... An effectual cure is found in soak-
ing the foliage of the diseased plants for two or three
hours in.an infusion of tobacco leaves, and planting
them at a distance from the others,
Auricula.
512. The Auricula is a native of the Italian Alps ;
and there the most common colour is yellow, but it oc-
curs also purple and variegated, with a white powdery
eye. The varieties raised by florists are innumerable ;
many of them are of great beauty, and some extremely
curious. Parkinson, in 1629, names twenty varieties,
and mentions that there were then many more. Rea,
in his Flora, 1702, describes several new sorts raised by
himself and cotemporary florists. . A century after-
wards, Maddock’s catalogue enumerates nearly 500 va~
rieties,
513. The properties of a fine auricula are the follow-
ing. The stem should be strong, upright, and of such
a height that the umbel of flowers may be above the
foliage of the plant. The peduncles or foot-stalks of
the flowers should also be strong, and of a length pro-
portional to the size and number of the blossoms or
pips: these should not be fewer than seven, in order
that the umbel may be close and regular. A pip or
single flower consists of the tube, eye, and border ;
these should be well proportioned ; if the diameter of
the tube be one part, that of the eye should be three
parts, and that of the whole flower or pip six parts
nearly. The circumference of the border should be
round, or at all events not what is called starry. The
anthers ought to be large, and to fill the tube; the tube
should terminate rather above the eye; and this last
should be very white, smooth, and round, without
cracks, and distinct from the ground colour. The
ground colour should be bold and rich, equal on every
side of the eye, whether it be in one uniform circle, or
in bright patches ; it should be distinct at the eye, and
only broken at the outer part into the edging. Black,
purple, or bright coffee-colour, form excellent contrasts
with the white eye ; arich blue or a bright pink are plea-
sing; and in a deep crimson or glowing scarlet, edged
with bright green, are concentred the hopes and wish-
es of the florist, which however are seldom. realised.
On the green edge much of the fine variegated appear-
ance of the auricula depends, and it should be nearly
in equal proportion with the greund colour. The dark
grounds are generally strewed with a fine white bloom
or powder, which ares a rich appearance: the leaves
of many sorts are thickly covered with the same kind
of powder, which seems destined by nature to save
them from the scorching effects of the sun’s.rays..
Mr Maddock considers the forming of a proper com~
post for auriculas, to be of great importance, The in-
gredients and proportions recommended by him. are
these: One half well rotted cow-dung; one sixth
fresh sound earth, of an open texture; one eighth ve-
getable earth, from tree-leaves; one twelfth coarse sea
or river sand ; one twenty-fourth soft-decayed willow
wood, from the trunks of old willow-trees; the same pro-
portion of peat or bog earth; and.a like proportion of
the ashes of burnt vegetables, tobe spread on the sur
HORTICULTURE.
face of the other ingredients. This compost’ isto be © Flower
kept for at least a year, exposed to sun avert several Garden.
times turned, and passed through a coarse sieve. Mr ayricula.
Curtis properly remarks, that if the compost be rich
and light, it is not necessary to adhere rigidly to the
above Sage ag, He mentions, that two-thirds of
rotten dung from old hot-beds, and one-third contain-
ing equal parts of coarse sand and of peat-earth, form a
very suitable compost.
514. Choice auriculas are always kept in The
inner diameter of these at tap ~y-+- via tunes, at
bottom fous Licnes, and t they should be about seven in«
ches deep. A little gravel in the bottom is proper as
a drain below the roots of the plants. Auriculas are
annually repotted in May, soon after the bloom is over.
The balls of earth are to be preserved around the roots,,.
-and only a certain portion of new mould given: Mr
Maddock, indeed, advises the shaking of the earth from
the roots; but this necessarily gives a check, from
which the plant does not recover in the course of a
year. At the same time offsets are taken, and planted in
separate pots. The whole auriculas are then placed in.
an airy but rather shaded situation, not however under
the drip of trees. The place is generally laid with
coal-ashes, to d ena the earth-worm from entering:
the pots, and the pots are often set on bricks, to allow
a freer cireulation of air about them. Here they re=
main till October. They are then placed under a glass-
frame, or other repository, to shelter them for the win-
ter months, giving as much air as circumstances will
permit. In Panny they are earthed up; that is, the
superficial mould, to the depth perhaps of an inch, is. _
removed, and replaced by fresh compost, mixed with a
little loam to give it tenacity. This is found greatly to
aid the flowering. When several flower-stems appear
in one pot, a selection is made of one or two of the
strongest, and the others are pinched off. As the:
flowers advance, the plants are arranged in the co-«
vered stage, which contains four or five rows of shelves.
rising one above another. The roof is generally of glass:;.
and the front, which is placed facing the north or the
east, is. furnished with folding doors, which may be
shut when desired. Here the plants are regularly wa- :
tered two or three times a week, care being taken not
to touch the flowers or foliage with the water. A good
collection of auriculas treated in this way, forms, when.
in flower, a very captivating sight. Sometimes the
richness of the scene is.increased, by introducing mir- |
rors into each ond of the frame, and by having a bed of
hyacinths, and perhaps a row of fine pelyon
of which flower at the same period, in front of the stage,
and covered with a thin awning. The soft light pas- Y
sing through the awning, heightens the effect of the |
auriculas. It may be mentioned, that, in order to se-.
cure the filling of the stage with good flowering plants, l
which alone ought to appear there, it is necessary that,
the collector ess at least twice as many plants as the:
eee is calculated to hold.
_ The interest of the florist’s pursuits receives in this, .
as in all other cases, a great increase when he attempts |
the raising of new varieties from seed. To purchase
auricula seed in shops is a bad plan. It is much bet«
|
:
:
ter to encourage the ripening of the seeds of a few very
good ftowers, which may be done merely by ie nt
them fully to. sun and air, and saving by -
glasses from heavy rains. The seed ripens about the
end. of June ; but it should be kept in the umbels till
sown. This may be done, either in autumn or early in
spring, in boxes ; and the seed should be very slightly
As
HORTICULTURE. 801
earth, - ight le of the juice in their thick succulent leaves and
ee alee a Mg to be Faeie shel- fem evaporates, instead of eer the bulbs,
ter during the winter; but in weather the seed- This is “ ripening the roots.” en choice hya-
- aoe Ni have plenty of air ; they must not, how- cinths are cultivated in pots, as is commonly the case
lings be exposed directly tothe sun’s rays, which would in this country, the pots are laid on their sides after the
Suey Seale Shee eee rain, Wie
¥ are always of the test promise. When of
‘i ye transplanted into other boxes, and
fit for pots. If one plant in thirty
in the collection, the success
~~» the be ted out as border flowers,
shove they aameant Way resem oot for a few years.
Hyacinth.
515, The garden Hyacinth ( Hyacinthus orientalis, L.)
is one of the ere ot whi Serica bare
themselves, It is originally from
been brought to its present im-
Countries. Double hyacinths
i though formerly these
double tulips are now, the
seers Dales, Sen, equnied sm comets
regularity of the shape disposition of the
blossoms, and in the richness of the colour. Whole acres
of nursery ground are covered with this flower near
Haarlem and Utrecht in d. Here new varieties
are annually seed, which is collected
sity,—the the World ; the
sterdam ; the Princess Charlotte ; the Earl of Lauder-
dale, &c. &c.
; The seed is sown in
; tulip seed. The seedling bulbs are not raised or trans-
dark pees. SEE. ee ie, yor), eset tn. Soa ae
ers make their a: 7
and lor, or
till the leaves decay. Bulbs four or five
ly in Britain, and they then
floweri
pow a flower most
olland they endure a great
gradually fall off ; but in
Flower
Garden.
menue
number of years. It is remarked that they succeed .
best in situations near the sea. It is curious that bulbs
im from Holland flower more beautifully in this
country the first year, than they ever do afterwards.
Polyanthus- Narcissus.
517. The Polyanthus-narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) Polyanthus-
is a native of Spain and other parts of the south of N#‘sss.
Europe. The flowers are very ornamental, and come
early. The plant has long been a favourite with the
florists of Holland and F ‘eau There are la
incipal varieties: Some have yellow petals, with cu
page ka either orange or sulphur coloured, "
have white petals, with orange, yellow or sulphur co-
loured nectaries ; in a third set, both the s and the
nectaries are white ; and there are double flowers of all
the varieties. The subordinate varieties are more than
a hundred in number. A double variety called the
Cc Narcissus, is curious and beautiful ; the outer pe-
are white; those in the middle partly white and
partly orange ; and it has a very agreeable scent. A
pure white variety is called the Paper Narcissus.
The florists of this country generally depend on the
supply of bulbs imported from Holland. The seed,
however, often ripens in good seasons here, and there is
no peculiar difficulty in raising the plants in this way.
shallow vessels in the manner of
The beds containing
oung bulbs require to be defended from severe frost
means of a covering of mary eye straw, or fern.
Full grown bulbs are planted in the beginning of
September. They do not require to be raised every
year; it is better indeed not to remove them oftener
than once in three ge They flower in April and
May ; and if they choice kinds, they should be
saved from sun and rain by an awning, as practised in
the case of tulips.
Crocus.
518. The crocus, though a well known flower, has Croeus,
aye late years been accurately studied as a genus,
Miller admits only two species, the autumnal or saffron
C. officinalis), and the spring crocus, (C. vernus),
ir J. E. Smith mentions three species as natives of
Britain, C. vernus, nudiflorus, and sativus. Of the for-
mer there are several varieties, blue and purple, yellow
and white, and striped ; and besides these, the follow-
ing species are cultivated in crocus beds: C. versico-
y-colour crocus, a kind which requires a
light loam, while most of the others best in sand ;
biflorus, or yellow bottomed ; mesianus, or common
yellow ; susianus, or cloth of gold; and aureus or true
. The Scots crocus is a beautiful striped vari
The bulbs may be planted in any light soil; but
they succeed best in sand ; and some cultivators to the
westward of London haye been at the pains to carry
sea-sand fifty miles for this purpose. They should not
802
Flower ‘be:planted deep, not being covered more than an inch.
Garden. In February the flowers begin to appear; in March
they are in glory ; and by the end of April the seeds
begin to ripen. In good ‘seasons’ these are produced
plentifully, and by means of them new varieties may
be procured. The leaves of most of the species grow
chiefly after the flowering is over: these should not be
cut, as is often done, the bulbs being thereby deprived
of much of their nourishment ; they may, however,
very properly be tied up.
Annual Flowers.
Annual
flowers.
519. Many of these are very beautiful ; and in fine
flower-gardens, they not only appear in patches on the
‘borders,*but some of the elegant sorts are cultivated
in beds in a separate compartment, called the Annual
Flower-garden.
‘They are commonly divided into Hardy, Less hardy,
arid Tender. The hardy are sown in the spring, in
‘the natural ground, where they are ‘to remain ; ‘the less
hardy are raised on a slight hot-bed, and planted out
in April and ‘May ; and the tender require to be passed
‘through two nursery beds before planting in the open
border, and in thenorthern parts, of Britain they are
kept almost always under glass. In this place only a
few of the most beautiful-er curious of each of these
divisions-can be named. Pretty ample and correct tabu-
lar lists of them may be found ‘in Abercrombie’s Prac-
tical Gardener, under the head Flower-garden.
_ 520. Of the Hardy Annuals, different’ species of
Adonis are showy, none more so than the Pheasant’s.
eye, A. autumnalis: this, if not a‘native, ‘has become
‘completely naturalized in fields‘near London, and quan-
tities of ‘the flowers are-every summer sold in the city
by the name of Red Morocep. Several species of Snap-
“dragon | (Antirrhinum) ; white and purple Candytuft
(Iberis umbellata); Lobel’s ‘Catchfly, red and white
(Silene armeria); Venus’ Looking glass (Cam spe=
culum) ; with the purple and ‘the red te» Clary (‘Sal-
via horminum), are very ornamental. Varieties of the
Convolvulus major and minor, and of the Bluebottle
{ Centaurea ‘cyanus), with the Sweet Sultan (C. mos-
chata); the Fennel-flower (Nigella damascena), with
many sorts of Scabious (Scadiosa), and the well known
Stock 'Gillyflower (Mathiola incana), deserve cultiva-
tion. The Yellow Balsam (Impatiens noli tangere ) is ve=
markable for its ripe capsules exploding the seeds upon
being touched ; it thus sows itself, and should therefore
be placed in a by-corner. The yellow blossoms of the
Bladder Ketmia or Flower of an hour, ( Hibiscus trionum)
are extremely perishable if the sun be bright, but they
are produced in long succession. Many varieties of Lark-
spur (Delphinium Ajacis), single and double, branched
-or with simple ‘stems; with several kinds of Lupine
(Lupinus), and of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus) are
well known; and ‘very ornamental. The varieties of
Carnation Poppy (Papaver somniferum) are'very showy ;
‘they are generally allowed’to sow themselves, Straw-
berry ‘Blite'(Blitum ‘capitatum) is a curious plant, the
fruitresembling strawberries, only however in appear-
ance. Belvedere\(Chenopodium Scoparia) is a hand-
some plant, resembling in its close pyramidal ‘shape a
‘dwarfish cypress-tree ; from which ‘circumstance it is
often called Summer cypress, The Caterpillar (Scor-
piuruscermiculata), Hedgehog, and Snail plants (Me-
dicago intertexta and scutellata) have no beauty, but
are remarkable on account of ‘their vermiform Se
The Eternal Flower .(Xerantkemum) is excelled by
5
Hardy
annual
flowers.
HORTICULTURE.
none, and there are red, white, purple, and blue varie- “Flower
‘ties of it, Mignonette (Reseda odorata) is uni Ganien,
liked; it is generally sown in large patches, oran en- — %q
tire border is filled with it, common y in front of the irae
conservatory or green-house. :
Hardy annual plants are generally sown in circular
patches, traced with a hand-trowel, with which, at the
same time, the earth is broken small. A bit of stick is
placed as a mark in the-centre of each patch. Usually
two or three successive sowings are made, from the
middle of March to the middle «€.™*~y, te season of
flowering eng aus prolon The plants must af-
terwards be thinned, according to the nature of their
growth, the belvedere, the sunflower, and some others
Standing quite detached. After thinning, a plentiful
watering is , in order to settle the Bin. about
those that remain ; and in dry weather, frequent water-
ing will ensure the production of much finer and strong-
er plants. Most of the kinds bear transplanting in
dull and showery weather. ‘The tall-growing plants
‘should of course be placed in the back part of'the bor-
der; the low-growing in front. When the flowering
is nearly over, some of the earliest and ba ee ps yo
should be marked for affording a supply of seed, and
should, if ‘tall, be tied to stakes to t their be-
‘ing broken, or falling down. It happens that
some of the kinds spring up in the bordore trom seeds
sown naturally the former year; from these ‘the best
and ripest seed may be expected. :
521. The list of Less hardy annual plants embraces Less hardy
many fine flowers, such as different varieties of the ul
African Marigold ( Tagetes erecta), and of. the French *°¥**
Marigold (2. patula) ; the Amaranth or Love'lies bleed-
‘ing (Amaranthus caudatus), and ‘Prinee’s Feather (A.
hypochondriacus) ; the rich and elegant Balsams, many
‘varieties, (Impatiens balsamina); different kinds of
“Chrysanthemum, particularly ‘C. tricolor, and also of
Zinnia ; with the Indian corn (Zea mays’), and Tobaceo
plant (Nicofiava tabacum’), which are curious. For
«these and others a moderate hot-bed is necessary, on
which they may be sown in March or April, so as to
be ‘ready for transplanting into the borders in May or
June. It is’better, however, instead of removing the
seedlings at once to the open border, to prick them into
a nursery ‘border, covered with a canvas awning, or
hooped over and protected'by mats at night: here they
may be allowed to establish themselves and get hardy,
for‘some weeks. In dry weather, frequent watering
1s essential, especially-at the times of transplanting. —
522. The list of Lender éunucl plants is not nume- Tender an-
rous, unless the balsam and some others from the less nuatnowers.
hardy list be included, which in the northern part of
the island is always the case. Many varieties of Cock’s-
comb (Celosia cristata), with scarlet, purple, and yellow
heads, some of the plants dwarfish, others three or four P
feet high, are exceedingly ornamental. The Globe-
‘amaranth (Gomphrena globosa) of various sorts, with
the Amaranthus ‘tricolor, having each leaf composed of
‘three colours, bright red,-yéllow and green, are like.
“wise among the more showy of the tender annual
flowers. The Egg-plant:deserves the same character ;
not on account of ‘its flower, ‘but of its singular and
elegant berry, which has much of ‘the shape and ap~=
ce of a large egg, as already noticed (§'403).
The Icesplant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum), re«
markable for its stalks and leaves being covered with
crystalline globules like small icicles, and the well-
known Humble plant (Mimosa ica), may also be
mentioned. These ‘are raised, in March, in a small
i
HORTICULTURE. 303
: ; : oo aetite | state of fermentation, rastium s freely, but is apt to overrun the Flower
Sa ce ee er in Ea
oder rm In the irely to hide a rubbish wit ts,
more moderate warmth. ve ei Paes: Sees eas for the e a Plants ocicowork.
the plants, or perhaps in the green-house those already mentioned may be added, par. ae i~
Selves of which, may thus decorate, while the num; Europeum and herderefolium ;
pe eet eee ee
ill ri Saxi (Saz: a opposili, uble
aatied i i a (Ss. , fi. ph); the borage-leaved
: oe mgm A few cockscombs, globe-ama- Mullein (Verbascum Myconi) ; alpine Lychnis (Lychnis
: d egg- Uh~—-i-= make a fine appear. alpina) ; and different species of Primula, P, nivalis,
invegrifolia, helvetica and marginata. The basjl-leaved
|
{
:
i!
|
[
cf
a
{
u
Soapwort (Saponaria ides) is one of the most
Biennial Flowers. beautiful ihe plants Pe gpm the flower-garden,
and it is peculiarly well suited for rock-work. All the
smaller species of hardy Stone-crop deserve a place,
i icular Sedum album, glaucum, rupestre, aizoon,
; as well as several species of House-
leek, especially the cobweb kind, (Sempervivum arach-
noideum). In small flower gardens, the rock-work
is often constructed on the margin of a little pond for
m
i
bE
5
i
ll
:
a
F
r
mi
if
it;
;
:
:
i
|
to
|
A
=
§
-_
Aquarium.
of the pond is generally either cir- Aquarium.
ape cade eee inamenaly Se
ize neighbouring e or lawn, and by
the owner for the cultivation of aquatic
eee woes and yellow
ly ( Nymphaea a Yuphar lutea) in perfec-
must be at least three feet deep. Ifthe
ially if the subsoil be sandy or lly,
caeeeereeees tet oe y, and
aii
i
F
il
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Sedudlmnaly an this ee :
3 on are containin
various marsh plants, sock an the Masse Calle, (Cale
om each i
If such ae In some gardens, (as formerly noticed,
weather-worn stones be selected, and mossy earth be § 191.) the margin is occupied with the American cran-
i and va
will be found to thrive, Several of our native aquatic plants are very orna-
on masses mental; particularly the yellow and the white fringed
Hi
H
'
some part of the stones being al seen, the :
ance of these is to be Masses covered ter-violet or Feather-foil ( Hottonia palustris) which
wiek Lichens, pully Lichen atro-flavus, i oe in ditches near London. The Cats-tail or
cus, ventosus, perellus, and stellaris, are ore de- -mace ( Typha latifolia and angustifolia) has a sins
sirable. Pieces of plum-pudding stone and of serpen- gular appearance, ially when in flower, but it i
ise a very good effect ; some joints of i sera ore ani
ee rn ne Or eanitane var Umentone Rosary:
trees. 2
particalarly valves of the Chama gigas, are occasional} 526. The has al been d ed favou-
placed in the rock-work ; and raat sand in thane, rite ; po prt sioar it sninis exgnaueretiaainde an
sius, sre highly ornamental. Red Valerian (Valerian fewer than 315 varieties ; but the Species are not diss
rabra), a aren | of it, grow very readily tinguished. Many of the finest varieties have been beau-
be used, Erinus alpinus is tifully figured by Miss Lawrence, in her splendid col-
le plant. It forms close tufts, and lection of Drawings of Roses. Most of the species throw
: ; and out suckers, These should be annuaily removed in Oc-
its seed, and tober, and in this way abundance of plants may
al ion
may he. pees
and deltoidewm, Ce. pared by laying down beiiselied; aand:thie is the chief
Vilower
Garden.
Rosary.
304
way of propagating adopted by the dealers in roses.
Few of the kinds need any other pruning than shorten-
ing some of the strongest shoots, to cause them push
new buds and bear more flowers.
The following are the species generally preferred, but
a few only of the varieties can be enumerated.
Hundred-leaved rose, (Rosa centifolia.) Of this there
are many varieties, as the Dutch, blush, velvet, and
Burgundy, the latter an elegant little plant, sometimes
not more than a foot in height.
Red rose, or Crimson rose, (R. Gallica.) This is the
kind the unexpanded petals of which are uecd for ma-
king conserve of roses. A sort with variegated flowers
is called Rosa Mundi.
Damask rose, (R. Damascena.) Of this there are
some pretty variations, as the blush damask, the York
and Lancaster, and the red and the white monthly
roses, these last continuing to flower in succession du-
ring most of the summer.
Provence rose, or Cabbage rose, (R. provincialis,) is
one of the most beautiful of the tribe, and perhaps the
most fragrant of all the roses. Of it there are likewise
some favourite varieties, as the scarlet, the blush, and
the white Provence ; the rose de Meaux, and the pom-
pone or dwarfish rose de Meaux. It may be remarked,
that if the new wood be in a great measure cut down
every year, after the flowering is over, the plants throw
out more vigorous shoots, and yield a greater profusion
of flowers.
The Moss rose (R. muscosa) is well known in gar-
dens in a double state ; but it is curious that the single
moss rose is quite unknown to us. The double is of-
ten propagated by budding on other stocks ; but better
and more durable plants are procured by laying down
the branches.. A white moss-rose has lately appeared
in the London nurseries ; but it is still scarce and high
priced.
The common White rose (R. alba,) both single and
double, deserves a place ; as well as the varieties called,
large, small, and cluster maiden blush.
. Single yellow rose, (FR. lutea.) The Austrian rose,
with the petals orange or scarlet at the base, is consi«
dered as a variety of this. Both kinds grow better in
upland places than in the richest and warmest situa-
tion.
The Double yellow rose. (R. sulphurea) is remarka«
ble for the flowers seldom opening fairly. It should be
lanted in a cool and rather shady situation, or at least
it does not succeed against a south wall. It is quite a
distinct species from the single yellow ; the leaflets, for
example, are simply serrated, not glandular, and they
are glaucous underneath ; while in the single yellow,
they are doubly serrated, glandular, and of a shining
een,
Of the Cinnamon rose, (R. Cinnamomea,) a variety
with double flowers is usually cultivated. It is the
emallest and the earliest of the double roses, “often
coming into flower in the beginning of May.
Scots rose, or Burnet rose, (R. spinosissima.) Of
this species, which, as a native plant, is more common
in Scotland than in England, several varieties have
long been known, ears bee the red, the semi-double
white, and the semi-double red. Messrs Brown of the
Perth nurseries, have of late years raised several new
and very beautiful varieties of this rose. The Rosa
Ciphiana, celebrated in a Latin ode by Sir Robert Sib-
, the earliest illustrator of the natural: history of
Scotland, was a variety of this species. Professor Mar-
tyn says it was found on his “ Ciphian farm ;” but the
fact is, that the name of Sir Robert’s estate was the un,
. HORTICULTURE.
poetical one of Kips, from which, euphonive gratid, Ci+ aoe
phia was formed.
Sweet-briar rose, Ge rubiginosa.) Of this well rn
known species, the Eglantine of the poets, there are se.
veral varieties,—the common double flowered, mossy
double, marbled double, and red double. A single
flowered yellowish variety is kept in some gardens, but
itis very scarce.
The Musk rose (R. moschata) is. a climbing kind,
flowering late, and continuing till the end af ¢
It varies with 1--ble Quwers. ;
The deep red China rose ( R. semperflorens) if. Lng
against a south wall, or in front of a green-house,
flowers for the greater part of the year. There isa
pale China rose, by some considered as only a variety
of R. semperflorens. ‘
: The Indian rose, (R. Indica, already noticed, § 472.)
is a yery great acquisition to our gardens, being perfect~
ly hardy. Although but lately introduced, it has now
become Sey; common ; and by means of it we pos-
sess, in the open air or against a wall or paling, full
blown red roses in March and | April, and in Nov
ber and December.. The common. sort has very little
smell; buta Sageont variety has heen raised, thus uni-
ting all the-excellent properties of the rose.
a order to have a continued succession of roses, for
instance of the common muss ruse, the best plan 1s, to
cut off in May the tops of shoots produced the same
spring. In this way new shoots are elicited, which come
into flower late in autumn. ]
Beds of roses, of different shapes, are now commonly
formed in the lawn near the mansion-house, or by the
sides of the approach to the pleasure garden ; when of
an oval form, they are often called daskets of roses.
The surface of the circle or oval is made to rise in the
middle ; the shoots are layered, and kept down wy.
means of pegs till they strike roots into the ground ;
the points only, with a few buds on them, appear above
the earth. By this sort of management, in two or
three seasons, the whole surface becomes covered with
a close and beautiful mixture of flowers and leaves.
Sometimes only the moss rose is employed for this,
urpose ; but frequently several kinds are intermixed.
ven a single plant, particularly of the moss-rose,; may,
by continued attention, be made in this way to cover a
large space, and to afford at once perhaps several hun-
dred flowers. Plans for rosaries of different shapes,
circular, oval, square, and octagonal, have been pub
lished by Ice Kennedy, Se crcinted along with
their list of roses. se
—hewae
Climbing Plants.
527. In many gardens a walk is arched over with eon
trellis work, either of wood or wire, poneipelly for the
urpose of affording a proper opportuni tivating
The finer kinds of ty ing orate, se enjoyi
beauty and ce of their flowers, which render
such a berceau walk extremely delightful in the warm
weather of July and August. The finest of them, how
ever, flourish only in the milder counties of ingen
and are planted in vain to the northward of York-
shire. :
The Kidney-bean tree (Glycine jfrutescens), shews
elegant clusters of purple pay and the ¥;
silk-tree (Periploca Graca) produces bunches of flowers
of the same colour. Smilax aspera, sometimes called
Rough Bindweed, and S. ezcelsa, although their flowers
are not showy, are desirable climbing plants, as they
retain their verdure during winter. Of the honey~
scl Gia
a
HORTICULTURE.
the A. alpina ;
other, but the Austrian comes into leaf and flower two
months before the other; the American species is also
Clematis ox virgin’s-bower
ly ornamental, particularly the purple ((. vi/i-
er are double-flowered variety of it, with red
varieties of the single; the Virginian (C. vir-
giniana) with white flowers; and the evergreen (C.
i ), which produces its ish flowers about
mid-winter. _ The common Traveller’s.joy (C. vilalsa)
is too t to be trusted near to delicate climbers.
The common Passion-flower (Passiflora cerrulea) suc-
ceeds in some sheltered places, ut in general it flowers
better when trained against a wall.
_ 628. For covering walls, some other plants are well
suited. If the exposure be good, Bignonia radicans
or ash-leayed Trumpet-flower, is highly ornamental,
ing covered with or flowers in ph ey this
isa however, which requires some management
as to pruning ; all small weak shoots must every year
be removed, and when the plant has filled the s
‘allotted to it, 2 quantity of new or young wood for
flowering is procures, by annually shortening a num-
ber of strong shoots. Common Ivy (Hedra heliz),
with the silver-striped and gold-striped varieties, and
the wed or Irish, are very desirable ; as is like-
wise ‘9 © or five-leaved ivy, (Vitis
wet double Pomegranate has been
ie py magpconernlig ry moon
a wall, or of a house, especially if it have a
529. It has been more than once noticed, that the
most effectual way of acclimating the plants of warm-
er countries, is to endeavour to bring such plants to
i
ripen their seeds in the air in climate with
a little assistance as possible, and then to sow these
seeds, from which a more hardy progeny is likely to
. Some Repairs aaeeareaiotis #0 be-
come to our climate, even without being repro-
duced. by seed : or these plants were at first ac-
more delicate than they really arc. Several Japan
have of late years become common ornaments of
ur gardens, particularly the Loquat or Mespilus Japo-
4 Pyrus 2), Coes i
Jape _ This last was introduced only about 1804;
it may now be seen growing like a willow in our
en eee a ee a west wall, to
save frost, ucing a ‘usion
blossows early in the spring. tainel te
hot-house at the Botanic Garden at Edin-
i
i
5g.
:
:
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th
=;
Fr
_
:
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i
4
305
tered borders, or trained against a wall. Several na-
tives of the south of Europe now inhabit our borders ;
such are, Jupiter’s-beard, Anthyllis barba Jovis ; Coro-
nilla glauca ; and Moon trefoil, Medicago arborea. Two
species of Leptospermum or South Sea myrtle, L. ju-
nhiperimuta and baccatum, succeed in the milder parts
of England, if trained against a wall; and Metroside-
ros lanceolata, likewise from New South Wales, has al-
ready been noticed as trained on the open wall in the
College Botanic Garden at Dublin, § 28. Rhamnus
ulosus from Madeira, is an addition to our ever-
greens. Some perennial species of Convolvulus, for-
merly accounted tender, are now trained against the
border walls ; particularly C. bryoniefolius from Chi-
na, and C. altheoides from the Levant. Of the com-
mon myrtle ( Myrtus communis) there are several varie-
ties, some of which are more hardy than others: a sin-
gle-flowered sort, resembling the double-flowered, but
with narrower leaves than the Dutch broad-leaved, is
the most hardy; and a variety of the narrow-leaved,
called the bird’s-nest myrtle, seems also to be more
hardy than the Dutch broad-leaved kind.
Framed Borders.
530. They who are curious in flowers
have a border,covered with glazed frames, which can
be easily removed during the warm season of the year,
from the middle of June to September. Many plants,
particularly of the bulbous kind, grow much better
planted in a large border than when confined to
flower-pots. Bulbs in general require a deep
in
earth, Some of the bulbous plants which succeed well
in such covered borders are, several species of Ixia,
of African Gladiolus, of Hamanthus or blood-flower ;
and_ the Tigridia pavonia, or Tiger-flower, equally re-
markable for its gorgeous beauty and its transitory na~
ture. Tuberoses (Polyanihes tuberosa), alter having
been fostered on a slight hot-bed, ay be sunk in in
a framed border, in order to their flowering. Several
species of the splendid genus Amaryllis might be ad-
to the list, icularly the Belladonna lily (A. del-
ladonna), the Jacobea lily (4. formosissima), and the
Guernsey lily (A. Sarniensis), Concerning this last, it
may be observed, that a few plants only can be expect-
ed to flower every year ; for, as noticed by Miller, the
same nay does not flower in two successive years, nor
yose y till after the lapse of several years. Dr
Maceulloch (Scottish Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 60.) has
iven an account of the cultivation of this favour-
ite lily in Guernsey. Even there, the Doctor informs
us, “ scarcely five flowers are produced among a hun-
dred healthy roots.” Boxes containing of the
bulbs, generally with the flower-stems formed, are an-
nually sent from the Channel Islands to the nursery.
men of Lofidon, and by them distributed t h Bri-
tain. Miller has justly remarked, that this lily may
more properly be cultivated in a bed on a south border
than in pots ; it is therefore peculiarly well adapted to
the peep en bie the Tht recommends a
third part earth from some light pasture ground ;
about an e pert of tee-sind; mal the renatning
third to be composed equally of rotten dung and sift-
ed lime-rubbish.
The different species “ Cyclamen: or sow-bread are
Q
frequently Fewest
Flower
Garden.
Green-
house,
306
humble plants, likewise well adapted to the framed
border, where they make a Ya beautiful appearance.
Tn many gardens, where fine bulbous plants are
much attended to, as at the Botanic Garden at Liver-
pool. all the borders immediately in front of the various
ot-houses are covered with moveable frames. In these
framed borders, it may be added, many alpine plants
may likewise be preserved during winter; for such
plants being ac ed, in their native place of
growin to the protection of a thick covering of snow
uring that severe season, are impatient of intense cold.
Green-house.
531. The proper situation for the Green-house has
been already pointed out (§ 55.) as being somewhere
in the flower garden. Its aspect ought of course to be
towards the south. In fixing on the plan and eleva-
tion ofa green-house, there is great scope for fancy and
taste ; for, the indulgence of these is quite consistent
with the production of a house which shall afford shel-
ter during winter to plants which require little more
than to be saved from the effects of frost. It is scarce-
ly ever wished that the temperature should exceed 45°
Fahrenheit ; and when the weather is such that air
can be given, it is enough if the thermometer indicate
from 38° to 42°. To every part of the house, however,
light ought to be freely admitted, else some of the
plants will necessarily become drawn up and distorted :
a great part of the front of the roof should therefore
be of glass. Nicol observes, that a green-house may
have two straight sides, but should have circular ends ;
he is better pleased, however, with an octagon whose
sides are not equal, but which has two opposite longer
sides, forming as it were an“ angular oval.” In some
gardens the shag rs seme forms a complete circle ; in
others it is of an oval shape: in these cases, and indeed
in general, it is now constructed of glazed frames on
every side. The roof is not made nearly so lofty as for-
merly ; indeed, it seldom exceeds in height ten or
twelve feet from the paved walk. The furnace and
stock-hole are of course as much concealed as possible ;
and if the house be circular or octagonal, the smoke is
carried by a flue under ground to some distance, and
then discharged by a small chimney, hid by shrubbery.
The interior is fitted up with stages and shelves for
holding the plants. These are arranged according to
their sizes, the shape of the leaves, and the general tint
of colour : the smaller plants are chiefly placed in front,
and those that are likely to flower during winter have
conspicuous stations allotted to them: the taller plants
occupy principally the back shelves: in this way a
symmetrical mass of varied foliage is presented to the
eye, interrupted only by projecting clusters of various-
ly coloured blossoms. Several of the sashes, or per-
haps each alternate sash, should be made moveable for
the admission’ of air; and ventilators are also proper,
for promoting a circulation, when the state of the wea-
ther prevents the admitting of air by the roof. Very
little water is given to the plants during winter; and
they are cleared of dust rather by means of a bellows
than by the ee of the syringe.
The roots of green-house plants are generally exa-
mined twice in the year, by turning the plants gently
‘out of the pots. Many kinds only need repotting once
in the year; and this operation is commonly orm-
‘ed in August: but others require it twice in the year,
and the other period is usually March, It is not al-
HORTICULTURE.
ways necessary that the plants should be shifted into Flower
larger pots; on the contrary, it is often better to re- Garden.
trench the matted roots, and keep to pots of the same “7
size. It is always proper that some small gravel or
shivers of broken flower-pots be put in the bottom of
the pots, to drain off moisture. And here a very com-
mon error in the manufacture of that earthen-ware ar-
ticle may be pointed out: the hole in the bottom is
frequently made so as to have a small unintended rim
on the inside, which necessarily retains a portion of
water ; whereas the sides of the hole ought to havea
slope from the interior, so as to allow every particle of
water to escape.
532. In the course of this treatise, the different sizes Piower-
of flower-pots have more than once been mentioned in pots.
the tecnichal style employed by gardeners, such as
“ eights,” ‘ sixteens,” &c., or * No. 1,” * No. 3,” &c.
These terms it may be proper here to explain. The
meaning of them will be rendered obvious by a tabu-
lar view ; but it may first be observed, that potters
usually make seven sizes, also called numbers, ofp pots ;
that the pots of each particular size are sold in what
are called | casts; and that the number of pots ina cast
increases proportionally as the size of the pots de-
ereases. Of No. 1., which is the largest kind of pot in
common use, there are eight in the cast, and a pot of
this class is called either a “ No, 1,” or an “ eight.”
No. 1, first size, has 8 in the cast, called Eights.
—- 2. second size, 12........ . . Twelves.
<8 third! size,’ LO. 3/08 60e, eee Sixteens.
—- 4, fourth size, 24........-. Twenty-fours.
—- 5: fifth size, 32 .....0 0028. Thirty-two’s.
— 6, sixth size, 48.......2.6 0008. Forty-eights.
—- 7. seventh size,60.......... Sixties, —
Pots larger than eights, or of extra size, such as 4 in
the cast, are often made, for the accommodation of
large plants ; and, on the other hand, pots of a smaller
size than sixties are sometimes manufactured, particu-
larly ied Poggio yt seedling plants, or very young
“Cape heaths. ese very sm are am -
déhert called thumbs. ne one it: igi
533. Plants suited to the green-house are extremely
numerous, and constantly on the increase: the selection
of them must depend on the taste of the owner, and
‘the size of the house. To give any enumeration seems
unnecessary : it may be sufficient to refer to those excel-
lent lists, the Epitome of Hortus Kewensis, and the
‘Cambridge Catalogue ; in these the plants suited to the
‘green-house are marked G; and their duration or cha«
‘acter are indicated by the marks usually employed by
botanists and gardeners; © for annual; ¢ for biennial ;
2 for perennial; and } signifying that the plant is
shrubby or arboreous. In the first mentioned catalogue,
the plants which res a a black heath mould, or peat
soil, have an asterisk * prefixed to them. In the Bo-
tanical Magazine, edited by Sims, (formerly mentioned
§ 18,), all new and curious green-house plants are fi-
gured and described as they come into notice.
534. To keep up the show of plants actually in flower
in the L dacgaann’ especially in the early spring months,
a_usual and very proper expedient is to plant a number
of the common ornamental bulbous plants, in pots, in
the month of October; to forward these in the stove,
and to place them, as the flowers appear, upon the
shelves of the green-house. For this some of
the many varieties of hyacinth, with single and double
jonquil, white and yellow polyanthus-narcissus, Pers
1
siz
ify
HORTICUTURE.
tm]
muni
phical Transactions, for 1731. November is the usual
season for beginning this sort of chamber forcing. The
om. and, if possible, near to windows to the
forenoon sun. If they be placed in a hot- for a
they are greatly forwarded, and appear in
pomee mere: January. The numerous varieties of
yacinths raised by the incredible industry of the
Dutch florists, answer extremely well for this purpose
likewise the different sorts, white and yellow, of the po-
i ee eee
a in
tulips called Duc de Vanthol,
Pottebakker, may be treated in this
Persian iris is sometimes
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307
the red-flowered Anise-seed tree, Illicium Florida
num; the Malabar nut, (Justicia Adhatoda); the
Camphor-tree (Laurus camphora); several of the ele-
gent genus Protea, and one or two of the no less plea-
sing and curious genus Banksia, Where the house is
of an oval or oblong square shape, and is composed
of glass only cakieen sion the back is covered with a
is, to which several of the arborescent Cranes-bills,
(such as Pelargonium inguinans, different varieties, P.
tum, iad
of Convolvulus, and the Maurandia semperflorens. The
pn pe already noticed, § 405. is at once showy
in
some measure useful.
Flower
Garden.
Sy
588. In a few fine grdens, where the cultivation of Heathery.
i attended to, a
heath-
edition of
five
and
In 1775, Mr
the king, sent
Southern Africa; and the
IEEE
il
2
ef
E
y
539. The hot-houses for exotic plants have al
been mentioned under the title of Dry Stove and
Stove, (§ 199, 200). It was there observed, that in the
latter some of the more ‘delicate kinds of grape vines
are often trained along the rafters, and that pots with
kidney-beans and strawberries are sometimes placed on
the side shelves. In first rate gardens, where the stove
is entirely ig ay to ornamental plants from tro-
pical climates, house is sometimes formed of glass
Hot-houses-
808
Flower on all sides, those plants which naturally per in shad
Garden. woods in their own country being p
Diseases,
on the nort
side of the house. It may here be mentioned, that a
book, in folio, on the Construction of Hot-houses,
Green-houses, &c. has been published by Mr George
Tod, including plans and elevations of some of the fine
stoves for exotics at Kew gardens, which were executed
by Mr Tod, under the direction of the late distinguish-
ed Mr Aiton.
Many curious and beautiful plants might be mention-
ed as'deserving a place in the bark stove, but only a
very few can here be named. Among the curious may
be noticed, the Date-palm tree (Phenix dactylifera) ; the
Sago-palm (Cycas revoluia) ; the Cyperus Papyrus of
Egypt, which afforded the scrolls of bark on which the
ancients wrote with the stylum; the Coccolobo pubes-
cens, remarkable for producing the largest round-shaped
leaves in the world; Hernandia sonora, or the whist-
ling tree of the West Indies ; Musa paradisiaca, the
plantain tree, and.M. sapientum, the banana; several
of the larger species of Acacia, which yield gum arabic ;
with others which, in our Eastern or Western posses«
sions, afford well known commodities, such as the sugars
‘cane,.'the coffee-tree, the pimento and the clove-tree,
the indigo plants ; and the Ficus elasticus, from which
the substance called Indian rubber is procured.
The Papaw-tree (Carica papaya) deserves a place in
every large hot-house, on account of its possessing a
remarkable property, which has been long known to
those who have resided in the West Indies, but which
has only of late been particularly described in this
country by Dr Holder,—that of intenerating butchers-
meat or poultry. This singular property is not even
hinted at in the last edition of Miller’s Dictionary. The
juice rubbed on beef or mutton has the effect of ren-
dering the meat as tender as veal or lamb, without in-
juring. its other qualities. Indeed it is affirmed, that
if a fowl be hung against the trunk of a papaw-tree, it
becomes intenerated in a short space of time, by’mere
proximity ; and that the oldest poultry may thus be
rendered as tender as chickens. In stoves in England,
the papaw-tree has been known to attain the height of
twenty feet-in three years, and to produce its flowers
and fruit :. it is not however a durable plant.
Among the more showy stove plants, may be men-
tioned, the different species of Strelitzia, Limodorum
Tankervilli,. Plumbago rosea, Canarina campanula, and
Lantana odorata, Along the rafters may be trained
Passiflora quadrangularis, which in the West Indies af-
fords the fruit called Granadilla, but which in this coun-
try requires the utmost heat of our stoves to induce it
to shew its brilliant and fragrant flowers, P. alata is
also highly deserving of a place.
Diseases of Plants.
440. In treating of the different kinds of fruit-trees
and esculent plants, several of the maladies to which
they are subject have already been noticed, as well as
the usual means adopted either for prevention or cure.
The diseases of plants shall therefore be only very
slightly touched in this place. Any extensive discus-
sion of the subject, indeed, could not be attempted :
Our knowledge of it is yet in its infancy. Some au-
thors have no doubt given us lists of diseases of the ve-
. getable race, drawn up in the formal style of nosolo-
gical. nomenclature ; but they are in general destitute
of the requisite permanence and precision of type and
HORTICULTURE.
character. We shall therefore continue to use the pos Diseases
pulat terms, such as Canker, confessing at the same of Planw.
time that they are sometimes much too indefinite.
541. Canker is by far the most prevalent and the Canker.
most fatal disease incident to fruit-trees in this country.
It may be described as a sort of gangrene which usu4
ally begins at the extremities of the branches, and pro-
ceeds towards the trunk, killing the tree in two or three
years. It seems, in different situations, to arise from
different causes; very often from bad subsoil, trees
planted over a ferruginous and retentive soil being ob-
served to be very liable to it. Sometimes it appears
to take its origin merely from some external injury, or
from injudicious pruning, and leaving ragged wounds
and snags. In other cases, it makes its first appear=
ance after exudations of gum; and Mr Spence of Hull
has remarked, that the foundation of canker in full
grown trees is often laid by the attacks of insects, par=
ticularly the larve of Tortrix Weeberana. It frequent-
ly happens that cions for grafting have been taken from
infected trees ; and the young trees produced in this
way, are, as might be ekipectadh peculiarly obnoxious to
the disease. Among apple trees, those which come
soonest into a bearing state, such as the nonsuch and
Hawthorndean, are observed to be most subject to can-
ker. Trees trained as standards or against espalier rails
are more liable to it than wall-trees; the more tender
and finer sorts of fruits, than those’ that ‘are hardy,—
the reasons of which seem to be, that the young: wood
not being thoroughly ripened, is killed in the course of
the winter, or the buds and early shoots are incurably
injured from the same cause.
In order to guard against canker, if the subsoil be
indifferent, the trees should be planted as much on the
surface as possible. (See § 78.and 110.) If certain
varieties of fruit seem peculiarly liable to the disease
in any particular garden, other varieties should be in-
troduced by means of grafting. The greatest care ~
should be taken, in pruning, to make the cuts quite
clean, and to cover with a plaster any accidental wound.
Where the extremities of unripe shoots are nipped by
the frost, they sheuld be carefully removed with a
sharp knife. Mr Forsyth, as is well known; ‘was re«
markably successful inovercoming the ravages of canker,
in the Royal Gardens at Kensington, by means of head-
ing down the trees, and thus procuring new branches ;
an example which may in similar ‘cases be followed.
Mr Knight seems to consider canker as principally af-
fecting those varieties of fruit-trees which are in an ad-
vanced stage of existence, or which have long been-pro-
pagated by means of grafts or buds: and the observa-
tion is probably well founded, Mr Sang of Kirkcaldy
(Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 839.) very justly insists on the
importance of grafting only on healthy stocks, and mens
tions a case which occurred in his own experience,
where many stocks became diseased with canker, ape
parently from having been raised in an unpropitious
soil. For further information regarding canker, the
reader may be referred to a paper on subject by
Mr James Smith, gardener at ton House, publish-
ed in the first volume of Scottish Horticultural Memoirs,
p. 221, et seq. bua ap
542, Blight commonly means the effects of cold
winds or of sections on the pages reves ie
trees. In this country, easterly winds, accompanie
with fogs, often ain blight: the buds are nipped,
and the tender vessels burst ; innumerable minute in-
sects soon appear, feeding on the extravasated juices,
and these are often erroneously supposed to have been
8 .
HORTICULTURE. | 309
Tiveases wafted hither by the wind, or “ by the tication is by no means’ a novelty in’ gardening’; it is Diseases
hazy” east. When some fine weather has induced the recommended by several of the authors mentioned in’ of Plants
F
i"
. the introduction to this article.
Thus, Le Gendre,
(§ ——~ about 1650, says, ‘* Those trees which
have thei base, you must with a bill take away
the old bark to the quick; for the trees being thus:
cleared and discharged, do “shoot forth with new
strength, bearing fairer and better nourished fruit.”
(Translation, p. 186.) And Hitt (§ 14) who wrote iv
1754, recommends for trees that have been neglected
or ill dressed, “taking off the old rind, and cleansing
10.
‘by ing* overgrown cankered parts, thus destroying many insects, as also
with lichens and mosses ; an evil to which the trees in their concealed in these places.” (Zrcalise on
old orchards, where pe the bottom is naturally Fruit Trees; 3d edit:p: 271.) | Of late years Mr Knight
used for this pu' ; but one of hard wood answers
Lee Aa trunk and larger branches are af-
hard swept with a birchen rubber, and it is
useful, these operations, to
soap-suds or any
!
iH
Hi
li
3
i
F
|
;
i
k
i
i
‘be remarked, is proper wherever any accident has occur-
ved to fruit trees, or where large branches are lopped off.
i
;
i
e
545. When a tree becomes hide bound, or when the
Hide.
bound bark. stem swells too fast for the bark, the usual remedy is,
tion,
with a knife, to score or divide the outer bark longi-
m various
. ae ee decortication on some old fruit trees, particu-
ly red-streak apples, and found the new growth
thus produced quite surprising, so that the growth of
some trees deprived of their external bark in 1801, ex-
ceeded in the yn ea soba the ona of the five
receding years taken . (Treatise on Apple
pa Pear, ith edit. P 86.) aan pe
547. More recently, a zealous horticulturist at Edins
burgh, Mr P. Lyon, surgeon, has called the attention
of the public to the advantages of decortication.. At
first Mr Lyon recommended the removal of the bark
only in cases where it was cracked and rugged, and
— with the view of destroying the ova of insects ;
but of late he has inculcated the stripping off the outer
bark even of young trees, and of the new shoots of full
trees, even where the bark is sound and heal-
y/ The beneficial effects of the former practice we
have y witnessed ; old trees which usually bore
very little frait and produced little new wood, becom-
ing, after the removal of the outer bark, fruitful. and
smetog-anacger nr : nang ear becry mary Ea
however, though tiful, in of smal-
ler size than usual. The pater young trees and
new shoots of their bark is quite a different thing:
we know that — earnest rans ACP many ex-
cellent practical eners to keep the on, pro-
vided they can preserve it in a clean and health we
We shall only, therehore, for an explanation of this
of Mr Lyon's doctrines, refer to his book; entitled,
« A Treatise on the Physiology and Pathology of Fruit-
trees,” 8vo. Edin. 1816,— ing the reader that he
must make allowance for no small proportion of extra-
neous matter,
548. In order to clear trees, especially wall-trees, of in-
sects and their eggs and larva, and to prevent the breed-
ing of these, the trank, branches even twigs, are,
by careful horticulturists, regularly washed with some
penetrating liquid every winter. Some of the most ex-
perienced practical ga rs in Scotland have followed
this plan, tedious and laborious although it may seem,
for a number of years past, and have found the great-
est benefit result from it. They have very generally me
huge: mitted vectindiiendear ey ake Wechs aan hes
from his writings, therefore, the recipe shall be given:
“ Take of soft soap, 2)b, ; lowers of sulphur, 2Ib. ; leaf .
or roll tobacco, ab. nux vomica, 40z.; turpentine, a
ill English measure. These ingredients are to be
foiled in eight gallons woe of soft or river water,
down to six gallons.” This mixture is applied, by
means of a house-painter’s brush and a sponge, gene-
rally when in a milk-warm state. All the branches in
succession are loosened from the wall, and completely
rubbed or anointed on every side, particular attention
being paid to the ing of angles or cavities. If the
trees have been much overrun with insects, even the
wall should be anointed, or the trellis in the case of
Mildew.
The scale.
310
espalier trees. This operation-may be p eeinated any
ill the middle of
549. Sir George Mackenzie has lately communicated
to the Caledonian Horticultural Society, the resvJ¢ of
an extensive experiment of anointing the stems and
branches of trees with oil, or oily matter, for the pur-
pose of destroying the eggs and pup of insects. The
experiment has su ed beyond expectation; but
care must be taken not to touch the buds, particularly
those which are to produce blossoms. Apricot and
cherry trees are the only kinds which seemed to suffer
injury from oil, every other kind having made vigor-
ous shoots, and the bark of those which had a diseased
appearance, having sloughed, and shown the advance of
new healthy bark; and aphides, &c. seeming to have
been banished. é
The same gentleman has discovered a nocturnal ene-
my ina Curculio, supposed to be C. vastator, whose
ravages have been attributed to caterpillars. This kind
of weevil conceals itself during the day about the foot
of the stems of trees in the earth, from which, owing
to its brownish-grey colour, it is difficult to distinguish
it; and at night, it crawls up and attacks the young
shoots and blossoms. It is very destructive to young
grafts. The method which Sir George Mackenzie took
to destroy them was, to tread the earth about the foot
of the stems of the trees, at night when the weevils
were on the trees, and putting small flat stones, pieces
of slate, or the like, on the trodden space. In the
morning the enemy having retreated under these, were
destroyed. The trees and grafts should, however, oc-
casionally be examined by candle light, and the insects
eel off. They have been found sometimes to har-
ur also in the clefts of branches, and about portions
of dead or decayed and rugged bark.
550. Mildew consists in a thin whitish coating, in-
vesting the leaves especially of peach-trees and. the
finer kinds of fruits. It is observed that it common-
ly appears in the warm months, when the ground is
dry, the weather calm, and when hazy vapours or
slight fogs appear in the evenings. It is a remark of
experienced gardeners, that trees washed during win-
ter with such a liquid as that above described, are
scarcely ever known to be affected with mildew, pro-
bably owing to the leaves being perfectly healthy and
able to withstand the immediate cause of the evil, whe-
ther it be minute fungi or the slime of aphides. Wash-
ing the foliage with the garden-engine is found very
useful in removing the mildew or in stopping its pro-
551. What is called the scale seems to be the nidus
of an insect, or a collection of its minute eggs, covered
with a thin pellicle. It very much resembles a drop
from a spermaceti candle. The hatching of the eggs
and consequent bursting of the pellicle, have been ob-
served and described by Mr Thomas Thomson, an ex-
cellent Scottish gardener. It generally appears in August,
. and it continues in the state of a scale during the win-
- ter. The larve usually emerge about the time when
the trees are in blossom, and they immediately begin
to devour the tender parts of the flower. Afterwards, as
shey acquire strength, they attack the young leaves and
even the new shoots of the trees. When about to un-
dergo their transformation, they involve themselves in
leaves drawn together with fine silky threads: from
this retreat they come forth in the form of small moths,
but the species has not been ascertained. The most
effectual method of destroying these scales consists in res
‘the border is delved over, so. as to bury t
HORTICULTURE.
moving them with the nail of the finger at the time of
Another simple method of overcoming them, is tomake
a paste of fine clay of the consistence of thick paint, and
with a coarse brush completely to. anoint the branches
of the tree. . This should be done in March; and if
heavy rains do not. immediately wash away the coat-
ing of paint, the breeding of the insects at the proper
season is prevented, and their destruction thus ensu-
red.
Several of the diseases of plants, we have thus seen,
arise from the attacks of insect assailants. Some more
of these. remain to be mentioned, and also a few ene-
mies of larger size.
Enemies to Garden Productions.
Diseases
winter dressing. In rainy weather they are most dis: of Plants,
cernible, being of a lighter colour than the wet bark, “~*~
552. Aphides or green-flies, of many species, very phides.
of
much annoy wall-trees in the spring and: early part
summer, attacking the leaves while just expanding,
and preying much about the points of the young shoots.
A fumigation with tobacco is the common. cure, and it
very generally proyes effectual. In the case of wall-
trees, a large cloth, preferring one. that is waxed or
oiled, is placed over the tree, and the tobacco smoke
applied under it with bellows; the wall and the tree
are previously wetted with the garden engine, the mois«
ture having a tendency to detain the smoke. The
tree is then briskly washed with the force-pump, and
an Poem . “ stunned
aphides. In the same way goosebe or currant
uauben may be freed from yo in, bet noneds the
fumigation is easily performed, while the doors and
sashes are kept close, It is likewise very. readily, ac-
complished in melon or cucumber frames, the crops in
which are sometimes infested. In the kitchen-garden,
kidney-beans are subject to the attacks of aphides ; and
in the flower-garden, rose-bushes are peculiarly, obnoxi-
ous to them.
The Apple-aphis (A. lanigera), soreties called Apple.
proved exceeding’
American blight, which has o
destructive to young apple-trees, first appeared in the
neighbourhood. of London only about the year 1795.
It is a minute insect covered with a long. cotton-like
wool; it breeds in chinks and rugosities of the bark,
and at le almost covers the infected tree. It is said
that the application of the spirit of turpentine to the bark
proves an effectual remedy ; and. we know that it has
been wholly banished from a garden where it had
spread, by merely smearing the infested branches with
oil, as recommended by Sir George Mackenzie. (Sir
Joseph Banks extirpated it from his own apple-trees,
by the simple means of removing all the rugged old
bark, and then scrubbing the trunk and branches with
ahard brush. Mr William Salisbury, in his «* Hints to
the Proprietors of Orchards,” publi in 1816, gives
it as his opinion,that this is the same insect which has
of late infested larch-trees.. He supposes it to have been
brought to this country hy the Protestant refugees in
the reign of Louis XIV. ; but he has assigned no reason
for this extraordinary opinion, nor has he attempted to
explain why so destructive an. insect had lain dormant
for so many years, and at length suddenly extended -
its ravages in so striking a manner, . He observes, that
some of the insects descend during winter to the upper
reots, and lodge there; in cleansing the, trees, there-
fore, these should be examined, as well as the trunk
and branches. stat ais ater
HORTICULTURE. 811
‘Diseases 553. There are several distinct kinds of gooseberry- cided preference to the sweet exudation they afford, Diseases
of Plants. caterpillar. One spé of a whitish colour, becomes leaving grapes and peaches untouched. of Plants.
ish five th gocr-tnged wings scion body, 556. ige ( Forficula auricularia) attack all sorts —Y
and ; probably the Tenthredo caprew. of ripe fruit. No remedy is known but ensnaring and —_
r, of a hue, which becomes T. flava, killing them. Short cuts of reeds, or of strong wheat-
often proves destructive to the foli of the straw, er hollow stalks of any kind, are placed here
, and consequently to the fruit. A third, of a and there among the branches, and also at the roots of
‘size, and sometimes very common, is the larva the trees. Into these the earwigs take refuge in great
ea = a grossulariata, Lin. A- numbers; and from .the tubes they are blown into a
brazas of )- young of this last haunt du- bottle containing water. .
ring Winter about the crevices of the bark; and this is 557. The woodlouse, called sclater in Scotland (un. Woodlouse.
considered as the best time for destroying them. Their der which name are included the Oniscus asellus and
destruction be effected merely by hard rubbing of ee eee ae
Cenhins; ing boiling hot wa- wi earwig. It is almost equally injurious to ri
oda not in- fruit as that insect. 7‘ . 24
. ies orteu- § 558. Flies of many different species, woe eens Flies,
thredines penetrate an inch under ground in July, to various genera, may be numbered among the ene-
Sasol tamara abject tasty) senate tears 00 mies of ripe fruit. The wasp, the earwig, and the
the following spring, when they come forth in the form woodlouse commence the attack, and “ sap the blush-
donreylaig one of the most effec. ing rind ;” the flies enter the openings made by these
tual means consists in delving the ground about the more powerful insects, and extend the devastation. Se-
bushes very deep during winter, taking care to bury eral musca are very frequently to be observed, parti-
the surface-soil m the bottom. In this way the chry- cularly M. tenax, Cesar, and canicularis. Wherever
salids are beyond the genial influence of the at- the juices begin to corrupt, the | blow-fly (M. vo-
mosphere, or ifthe transformation be accomplished, the iforia) is to be found in every hollow. ;
fly is unable to gain the surface. 559. The ee — devour ipal eat of Caterpillars.
ies of Coccus, i c. i- , Savoys, broccoli, are princi e Jar-
i car ees nap coral Meats brassice, and N, nail The com-
the conservatory, parti the myr- pletely green caterpillar, which frequent! s on
the and the olive. thorns onahe sr i and broccoli plants, is the rr WE ‘apilio
wih soap and weter, rabbing the leaves with a woollen rape, Lin. ( Pontia, Fabr.) The cabbage tribe is ob-
rag or bit of sponge tied on a small stick, is the remed served to be most subject to the attack of caterpillars
the i h in the neighbourhood of towns and in long cultivated
: with pure water. Coceus vitis infests vines soils, where much crude manure has been applied.
in stover, and is often very injurious, covering The best and simplest remedy consists in turning up
as it were, with little tufts of white cotton. the soil in ridges in the autumn, and leaving it expo-
The means of freeing pine-apple plants from the coc- sed to the action of the winter's frost ; but the applica-
See ere tion of quicklime is also useful.
554. i ; nl 4 ——— is -_ war om sort of me for Wire-worm,
ly the pine-stove, vinery, and melon-frames, but often any read-like grub, which lodges in roots
proves very injurious to ornamental toe lants. Water of culinary plants, particularly such as are of'a bulb-
inge is destructive toit. Some per- ous or tuberous nature. These grabs appear to be
da aay ‘of Waiantidinee > OaieSe rk principally the larve of different species of Elater.
They sometimes attack also the roots of ornamental
plants kept in pots: The remedy, in this case, con-
sists in repotting, shaking the roots clear of the old
earth, and using fresh soil brought from some old pas-
ture ata
Various expedients are resorted to for destroy- The maggot which infests onions and shallots (§ 335
In some places, phials half filled with honey and 344), is a small larva, cha toomplorshatingis Of CAEL
or any sweet liquid, are in different have not yet been traced by naturalists.
“ For further information concerning the natural his-
tory of the insect enemies of fruits and culinary vege-
tables, we may refer to the first volume of a very enter-
early part of the season, and the taining and instructive work, entitled, “ An Introduc~
7 an hot-houses they are, in tion Alpes Di ore 3 ee and Spence,
employing temporary doors, 8vo. , 1815; to the article Enromotocy in
tee | ith the 9th ee this seme
(gauze: kinds of doors are never al- 561. The other enemies of garden uctions can
only be very slightly noticed here. E,
Slugs, meaning principally Limax cinerarius and L. Slugs
flavus, are often very mischievous to wal]-trees, which
is found very useful to have a plant of Hoya carnosa they ascend in the spring months, cutting off the fruit
: established. This is an ornamental climber (named in at the time of setting. Inverted flower-pots are some-
honour of Mr Thomas Hoy, a botanist, times placed as decoys at the bottom of the trees, the
a been head-gardener slugs being induced to take shelter within them. Ducks
3 to the Duke of N at Syon House), and are very good destroyers of slugs; and a few are often
be trained along any spare parts of the house. turned into gardens for this purpose; they must be
If freely ; and as long as the blossoms continue, kept in it for two or three days, and get no food but
¥ several weeks, the wasps give ade- what they cull for themselves.
Be] spide:.
§
i
it
i
Hl
is
;
74
Wasps
fe
i
$F
i
E
|
i
be
i
Ty
fe
ati
Fe ]
H
|
i
af
fi
EHTEL
Fe tier
eeu
asl
beet
:
rege
fu
Hil
312
Tisorses Snails (meaning ehiefly Helix aspersa of Mont
of Plants, op 77, ee oF aie sdibaetbaed tum acicity
Snake where the garden-walls are old or ru . In:well
kept gardens they are looked for in the mornings, par-
ticularly after showers, when they never fail to-ap-
pear, and are destroyed.
Moles. Moles ( Talpa Europea).are sometimes very injurious
in gardens, and must be extirpated wherever they
appear. Traps are set-for thect: bey persons who have
studied their habits: and the expertness of some of
these in taking them is wonderful.. The moles seem
to be social animals, keeping together in families
or societies. The great art in catching them de-
ends on ascertaining their recent and frequented gal-
eries or subterraneous roads, and in:placing the.traps
neatly in these.
Mice (principally the field-mouse, Mus sylvaticus)
frequently devour newly sown peas and beans, if these
have not been duly covered with soil ; and they some-
times likewise attack the beds of tulips, ranunculuses,
and crocuses. They may soon be subdued by placing
a number of fourth-figure traps (as they are called, from
resembling in shape the Arabic 4) in the garden: this
kind of simple but effectual trap is figured and descri-
bed both in Nicol’s « Calendar,” and in Abercrombie’s
«« Practical Gardener.”
Many kinds of dirds may be numbered among the
enemies -of gardens. Even the beautiful bulfinch
(Loxia pyrrhula) destroys many blossoms of fruit-trees,
scooping them clean. out ; but whether.the bird feeds
on, the blossom, or.only nips it: off for the sake of ca-
terpillars contained within it, is not known. The jay
(Corvus glandarius),. the black-bird (Turdus .merula),
and the mavis (7. musicus), make great havock among
the best kinds of cherries, where means are not.resort-
ed to for saving them. Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) oft-
en attack pear-trees, and destroy vast quantities of the
fruit ; and jack-daws (C. monedula) are sometimes also
uilty of this sort of trespass. The common sparrow
CFringilla domestica), and the chaffinch (F. celebs),
likewise commit great depredatiens. For the protec-
tion. of large.standard trees, dead birds are occasionally
hung:up, so.as to.wave with the wind ; and such scares
are of considerable service in deterring depredators.
In the case of espalier and wall-trees, nets are generally
employed, being hung over them, and fixed close to
the ground. It may be remarked, that different spe-
cies of tit-mouse (Parus caruleus and ater) with the
common creeper (Certhia familiaris), and all the Mo-
tacillze or warblers, may be considered as useful in de-
stroying insects or their larvae, which are their. princi-
pal food, and should therefore be winked at in gardens,
although they may possibly destroy a certain quantity
of the blossom,
Nice.
Birds.
Implements of Gardening.
562. The principal tools employed in horticultural
operations have already been mentioned incidentally ;
Implements
cf Garden-
- but it may be proper in this place to. enumerate them
together.
Tools. The spade may be first named, as the oldest and most
indispensable garden tool. Besides common sized
spades for delving, small spades are required for work-
ing in the flower-borders. The manufacture of spades
is carried on to a great extent at Dalston near Carlisle ;
at Gateshead, Newcastle; Bedburn, near Durham;
Burton upon Trent; and Ulverstone in Lancashire;
and of late years, some Scots forges, particularly those
et Cramond, near Edinburgh, and Dalnottar, near
HORTICULTUREs
Glasgowy have disputed, with those mentioned,» the ™
palm of excellence in this useful and important article
ofour iron manufacture. Shovels of different sorts are
made-at the same manufactories. Forks are necessary
for pointing over ground where it is improper to.use.the
spade: They are of differeat. sizes, and some have. flat
and others rcunded tines ; -asparagus-forks have been al-
realy menticned (§ 353.) Hoes :of different sizes are
indispensable, witn small weeding and thinning hoes,
and also the sort called the Dutch hoe. , Rakes of
different sizes are necessary: for large ones, ,those in
which the teeth are of iron, and the > of well-sea~
soned ash, are best; and for small ones, those in.which,
the teeth and head are formed of one solid piece of iron,
are to be preferred. . Shears for clipping hedges, and a
kind -with bent handles for dressing grass verges, are
not to be forgotten. A flat faced hammer, with large
headed nails, both of wrought iroa and of cast iron,
and a stock of lists or roonds are requisite for the nail-,
ing of wall-trees: as well as a proper wall-ladder, such
as is described, § 245. Pruning, grafting, and bud-
ding knives, with hand-bills, chisels, and small saws,
are indispensable. Some. recently invented. pruning,
instruments might here be noticed. One called the
Averuncator has a handle from,5to 8 feet in length;
by means of a cord and pulley, a lever connected with
a cutting blade is acted upon ; so that a person stand-
ing on the ground may prune the greater part of ordi-
nary sized trees. The Pruning-shears are more easily
managed, and are found very useful on many occasions,
making the cuts more clean and neat than can be done
with any kind of knife. Both instruments take off
branches an inch and a half indiameter with great ease.
The form.of the averuncator is given at Fig. 6. of Plate
CCCXIL., and of the pruning-shears at Fig. 7. of the
same Plate. Trowels of different sizes and shapes, with
plastng irons and dibbles, are all very useful implements.
hese, with scythes and paring-irons, and similar in-
struments, -are manufactured to a great extent at Shef-
field ; and from the subdivision of Jabour there esta-
blished, they are furnished at rates so cheap .as_can«
not fail in a great measure to. command the.market:
but it is not to be disputed, regarding hoes, and rakes
in particular, that the blacksmiths of some towns not
distinguished as manufacturing, places, such as Edin-
burgh, produce these instruments. of better materials,
if not of neater workmanship. A garden reel and line is
constantly needed. Sieves of iron or of brass wire of dif.
ferent de of closeness, are required wherever atten-
tion is paid to the raising of exotic seedlings. Fumiga-
ting bellows are useful for green-houses, vineries and
melon-frames. Where forcing is practised, or where
a collection of stove-plants is kept, thermometers are
necessary : those graduated to the scale of Fahrenheit
are universally in use: what is called the botanical
thermometer differs in no respect from another, except-
ing that some terms, such as ‘* Ananas,” are inscribed
Garcen-
ing.
_—~
at the proper degrees on the sides of the scale. One °
thermometer is placed in the open air ; and in the centre
of each. of the hot-houses there is another :_ by compa-
ring these, the-propriety of increasing or diminishing
the fire-heat or the quantity of fuel, is regulated, Wa-
tering-pots are made by tinsmiths, with pipes of differs
ent lengths, and with roses more or less closel per-
forated ; for watering delicate seedlings, pots with brass
nozles finely perforated are used, producing an extreme-
ly light or minutely divided shower. er ae 4
563. The garden engine has been repeatedly mention- Garden ex-
ed, and its use recommended, (§ 92, 205, &c,). Con« 6%
iments ”
| HORTICULTURE. 813
1
:
i
i
‘having been made on this in- gallons of water, wine measure. The cistern has like- Implements
: 1 few words additional concern. _ wise a'strong wooden bottom, to which are attached two of Garden.
—y— or commonly two inches and a quarter in facilitate the moving of it when taken into hot-houses or
Emer, to the btm ich, above the valve, is vineries. The is, at the same time, fitted to a
omen : into this the’ water is forced; barrow with w! for the conyeniency of wheeli
and.it is emitted from it, by the action of the com- it through the garden ; and to this the rollers form no
pressed air, through the directing pipe in a continued obstacle, as they between the s/eels of the barrow.
stream. This pipe is attached to the of the air- The pump is by a lever, and requires very little
vessel by means of a swan-neck swi A aged exertion. The water can be projected about fifty feet ;
double screws, which are water tight: in way the so that wall-trées of hefghhe ‘tnsly be washed, while
eae ook me fm a i Formerly, leathern the engine remains on the gravel walk.
and a leathern flexible director- were in
use; but from occasional exposure to the seams. The best writers on the various branches of horticul-
of the leather were very apt to allow water ture; particularly British authors, have been mentioned
to } well executed brass work, on the other hand, pr 8 Nee gerry chm Spo Ee en wt
f is of all others least liable to derangement. The pump of treating ie subject ; but it
; and air-vessel are fixed in a cistern, sixteen itr Be ere & te them here, in alphabéeti-
inches deep, and capable of ining abouttwenty-two cal order. (¥r..) ‘
. LIST OF AUTHORS AND WORKS QUOTED OR REFERRED TO.
‘ (The Figures indicate the Sections.)
Abercrombie, John, Practical Fitzherbert, Booke of Husban- Lawrence, Clergyman's Recrea-_ Plukenet, Dr, Phytographia,
Gardener, &c. § 15 drye, 3 tion, 12 Pulteney’s Sketches, 13 +
Alton, W. Hort. ~ Bdedit. F Treatiseon Fruit-trees, Leland’s I 2 * Quintinye, Complete ¥
17, 26, 107 London and Complete
W. T. Hort. Kew. Sdedit. Fualler’s Worthies, 38 Gardener, 9 Rea, John, Flora or Complete
Aft Gendre, Sieur le, 10 Lyon, P. Treatise on Fruit-
aomnstetia, de Peon Gerarde, Herball or Historie of trees, 547 Reid, John, Scots Gardener, 20
Austen, on Fruit-trees, &e. Lyson, Environs of London, a Wm. on Orchards,
Gibson, Dr, on Pruit-trees, 20 38, 127 &e.
Barrington, Hon. Daines, Mis- Googe, + - Mackenzie, Sir Gea. Report of Scotland, General Report of, 24
cellanies, 8 Gordon, Florist’s and Garden- Ross and Cromarty, 42 Sinclair, Sir John, 1
Basties, Manvel du Jardinier, _—er’s Dictionary, 20, 358 Maddock, Florist’s Directory,18. Sherrock, Dr, History of Pro-
4, 363 Hales, V Statics, 16 = Mandelsio’s Travels, 5 Cention cod lepearatont of
Beckmann, Hist. of Inventions, Hill, Dr, Kew. Ist edit. Marshall, Rev. Cha. Introduc- egetables, 10
364 26 tion to Gardening, 16 Sloane, Sir Hans, 198
Biith, Walter, Improverimpro- Hitt, Treatise om Fruit-trees, Martyn, Prof. edition of Gar- Smith, Sir J. E. 27, &c.
ad, 7 “4 dener’s Dictionary, 13 Speechly on the Vine and the
Bradley, Richard, on Husban- Home, Francis, Principles of Mascall on Fruit-trees, cuoceees Te
wpe: Ou Wr. Beonsipiion Vegetation, 14 Meager, L. Gardener,10 Switzer, Fruit and Kitchen Gar-
bes ware Hooker, Pomona Londinensis, Memoirs of Hort. Soc. dener, 1
f of , 2 22, &e. Temple, Sir William, Miscel-
Cartis, Bot. Mag. &e.18, 64 Hanter, Dr, Georgieal Essays, Memwoires du Museum, &e. 64 lancous Works, 10
Cushing, Exotic Gardener, 18, Sil Miller, Gardener's Dic-_ Tod, Plans and Elevations of
455 Hyll, Profitable Arte of Gar- tionary, 13, 27, &c. Hot-houses, 539
Darwin, ‘76 Mountain, Transactions of Hort. Soc. Lond.
ot ten neat er’s Director, 20, 318 mland. Plocintey Tomte Five Hundred Points
7 sur 5
Dene, Juban, Comets Conus Kirby and education da picher, &c. 92, of H . 340
logue, 27 sy, 560 Nicol, Walter, Vispré on the Vine, 124
Dubamel, Traite des arbres Kirwan, on Manures, 46 lendar, &e. 21 Wolridge, Systema Horticultu-
mies Dae titints, Cate. senegal PP egg Youn, Avie Aneel ie kit:
‘cor, 19, oung, .
ner’s Almanack, &e. 9 Knoop, Pomologie, 311 of Arte and Nature, 4, 43 culture, 358
a ;
aoe aes INDEX.
Index. A Apple, Chinese, 194 - B BI 542
ym Adlactation, § 70 aphis, 552 Baigone pippin, 107 Dik. proavtll diet
" Pron 529 Apricot-tree, 95 Balm, Blotches, 544
Acton Se Aquarium, 525; also 536 Barberry, 196 Bog-soil, 42
Aération of soils, 46 * Arbotus, 469 Bark-stove, Bonchretien pear, 115
Alexanders, AS-==——————SsCArrtichoke, 364 * Basil, sweet, 419 Borage,
Alliaceous plants, 332-345 Jerusalem, 312 Basil, bush, 420 Borecole, 283.
Almond-tree, 94 Asparagus, 352_ Bay laurel, 468 Borders for fruit-trees, 50
Anemone, 498 nig of, 355 Beans, 297 framed, 530
oy _ Aspect of walls, Beet, red, 323 Border flowers, 476-—_489
‘Ann peach, 99 ~ Auchan i itt Boudine | “a
Aphides, 552 \“Aateae 52 Boo pour, 118 : Bor edgiogs, 406
4 new sorts, 108 Aeawles 183 ; fat 450 Breda ot 96
ots ~ . i : Bladder-campion, rn apricot,
314 HORTICULTURE.
Index. Brick walls, 40 Gress, Indian, 397 Fruits, for supply of London Knight, preeautions adopted in Index.
Broccoli, 289 winter, 438 market, 38 ‘raising new varieties, =
Cape, 291 water, 445 ~ list of native and exotic, 16 '
Brooklime, 446 Crocus, 318 57 and 85 mode of training and pru- ~%
Brussels sprouts, 284 Crown grafting, 67 production of new, 75 . ning fruit-trees, 80
Buck’s-horn plantain, 441 Cucumber, 264 Fruit, gathering and keeping of, new peaches, 90
Budding, 74 on hot-beds, 266 245 mode of treating Iuxuri-
Bullace plum, 100; also 186 drilled, 267 room, 249 : ant shoots of peach+
Burnet, 394 Curl in potato, 311 Fungous plants, 452—456 _ trees, 91 j
Burning of clay, 43 Currants, red and white, 154 ‘ new cherries, 104
; black, 157 G new apples, 108
: Get Garden, situation of, &e. 39 new pears, 117
Cabbage tribe, 272—293 D division of, 58 mode of managing pear-
white, 273 Daisy edgings, 453 winter, 474 trees, 120
red, 279 ox-eye, 442 tools, 562 new grapes, 128
Savoy, 280 Dahlia, 504 engine, 563 on constructing peach- Z
Cambridge botanic garden, 27 + Dalkeith garden, 110 Gardens, classification of, 25 houses, 204
Canker, 541 Dalmeny Park garden, 233 Royal, 26 new marrowfat pea, 296
Cantaleupe melons, 252 Dandelion, 449 Botanic, 27 : on the potato, 310
Canvas coverings, 84 Decortication of vines, 136 Gardeners, importance of their on cultivating onions,335
Cape broccoli, 291 * of apple and pear trees, profession, 23 Kohl-rabbi, 293
Caper bush, 405 546 fame of Scottish, 24
Caprification, 146 Dill, 388 Garlic, 343 5
Capsicum, 404 Diseases of plants, 540 Good Henry, 350 Labyrinth, 26
Caraway, 426 Downton pippin, 108 Gooseberry, 158 Lamb's lettuce, 392
Cardoon, 369 Doyenné pear, 114 caterpillars, 553 Lavender, 424
Carnations, 507 Dry-stove, 199 Gourds, 270 , Leek, 340
Carrot, 319 Dublin botanic garden, 28 Grape-house, 208 Leguminous plants, 294, &c
Caterpillars, 553; also 559 Duke cherries, 103 _ Green house, 55; also 531 Lemon, 231
Catherine peach, 88 Dung store, 48 Lettuce, 371
Cauliflower, 285 Dwarf wall-trees, &1 H Lime fruit, 232
Cedars of Lebanon, 27 standards, 83 Hamburgh grape, 125 Liverpool garden, 27
Celery, 377 Hampton Court, 26 Loam, 42
Celeriac, 380 E . Hautboy, 173 Longueville pear, 113
Chamomile, 431 Farwies, 856 Hawthorndean, 107 Love-apple, 402 %
Champignon, 454 Edei Ana AGS Hay, Mr John, horticultural Lyon, Mr, barking of fruits *
Chard of artichokes, 368 SINSSs ‘ improvements by, 235; also trees, 547 7
Edinburgh botanic garden, 29 j,
of cardoons, 370 E 1 403 452 and 563 <
Chaumontel pear, 115 ge-plant, Hazel-nut, 193 M q
Ler Elder-berry, 188 ae ’
Chelsea garden, 27 Hiecas mat? 433 Heath-soil, 42 Macdonald, Mr James, mode of 7
Cherry, 102 Elruo i Heathery, 538 treating apple-trees, 3
ge nectarine, 93 ; ‘
new sorts, 104 Elton cherry 104 Hedges, 59 110 7,
house, 205 sar AL 6 Herb-patience, 351 of planting grape-houses, a
Chervil, 385 Raateasese Herbs, sweet, 407 211 We ie
Chestnut, 196 Knsiner werdens808 Hide-bound trees, 545 transplanting onions, 335 +4
Chili strawberry, 172 te Hine. AO» Hop-tops, 451 “ Mackenzie, Sir George, impro-
‘ » Zspalier-trees, 63; also 82 t x /
Chinquapine, 197 “Eve apple, 107 Horizontal training, 80 / ved hot-house, 240 ;
Chives, 342 fvdiitnesa aek Horse-radish, 396 mode of blanching sea- ’
Cibol, 341 8 v! Horticulture, history of British, : cale, 360 . t
Cions for grafting, 73 ois F 1—22 anointing of trees with Ay
Citron, 230 Horticultural Societies, 22 oily matter, 549 if
Clary, 409 Fan-training, 80 Hot-beds, 257, &c. Magdalen peach, 88 : '
Clay, scorifying of, 43 Fennel, 387 _ Hot-houses, situation of, 54, 559 Magnum bonum, 100 iM
used in grafting, 65 Fig-tree, 140 origin of, 198 Maiden trees, 77 ¢
as a soil, 42, 462, &e. mode of protecting, 145 suite of, 236 Manures, 43 ?
Cleft-grafting, 66 house, 213 improvements on, 239 Mangold-wurzel, 348 x
Climbing plants, 527 Finochio, 387 Hot walls, 41 Marigold, 399 ‘4
Clingstorne peaches, 90 Flies, 558 Hyacinth, 515 Marjoram, pot, 414 2
Cloudberry, 190 Florist’s fowers, 491—518 Hyssop, 429 sweet, 415 '
Coccus, 223; also 653 Flower-garden, situation of, 55 winter, 416 a
Codlin apple, 107 constituents of, 457, &c. I Market gardens, 37.
Coe’s golden-drop plum, 100 pots, sizes of, 532 _ Inarching, 70 Masculine apricot, 96 ‘
Colmart pear, 115 ; glasses, 535 Indian cress, 397 Mayduke cherry, 103 Dy
Colewort, 281 Flowers, perennial, 476-.-489 -Ingestrie pippin, 108 Mazagan bean, 298 }
Composts, preferable to simple annual, 519—522 Implements of gardening, 562 Medlar, 150 “
dungs, 47 biennial, 523 Iris, 503 Melon, 251 ini
preparing of, 455 Flued pits, 355 impregnating of blossom,
Conservatory, 536 walls, 41 J 260
Constantia grape, 125 Forcing stoves, 202 Jargonelle, 113 importance of the foliages
Constantinople hazel, 194 Forsyth’s composition, 544 Jenneting apple, 107 263 ies |
Coriander, 425 Framed borders, 530 Jerusalem artichoke, 312 Melon-ground, 238 — ‘
Corn-salad, 392 4 Rree-stocks, 60 Mice, 561 7
Cornelian cherry, 183 French beans, 301 ' K Mignone peach, 88 f
Costmary, 428 Frogmore gardens, 26 Kale, 282 Mildew, 550 :
Cottage-gardens, 35 Frontignac grapes, 125 Kensington gardens, 26 Milk-thistle, 393
Covent-garden market, 37 Fruit-garden, 456, &e. Kew gardens, 26 Miller grape, 125
Crab-apple, 184 Fruit-tree borders, 50 Kidney-bean, 301 Mints, 410
stocks, 60 Fruits, varieties cultivated in forcing of, 207 Moles, 561
Cranberry, 191 . 1629, 6 Kitchen garden, 271, &c. Moorpark apricot, 96
Crassane, 115 produced in a well Knight, Mr, opinionconcerning Mborels, 456 .
Cress, garden, 381 managed English the. decay ofcultivated Morello cherry, 103 :
American, 382 garden, 30 fruits, 76 Mould or vegetable soil, 45
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Hot-house, specting these, as well as concerning the use of tan- the Cape of Good Hope; nor of the early Portuguese Hottentots,
Hottentots: ners-bark and decayed tree leaves in forming hot-beds, navigators, had much communication with the nas ==
see Horticutture, § 257, 355, &c. tives; and the Hottentots were scarcely known to Fitst noti-
HOT-HOUSE. See Horticurrure, Index. Europeans till about the year 1509; when Francisco pele
HOTTENTOTS, an. extraordi people in the D’Almeyda, Viceroy of India, returning home after
southern extremity of Africa, paren | occupying the his quarrel with Albuquerque, landed at Table Bay,
territories around the Cape of Good Hope. They are and was killed, along with seventy of his people,
altogether an insulated tribe, confined toa small cor- ina scuffle with the natives. A Portuguese captain,
ner of the African Continent, and bearing no resem- having touched on the coast, about three years af-
blance either tothe Negro race along the western coast, terwards, planned the following cowardly scheme of
or to the Caffre nation to the eastward. Various con- avenging his countrymen, He landed a piece of ord-
Origin. | jectures have been proposed, but nothing very satis- nance loaded with grape shot as a pretended present to
factory has yet been established respecting their origin, the Hottentots; and while the unsuspecting natives
or affinity. Kolben, in full consistency with his multi- were crowding around the engine, the brutal Portus
tude of marvellous stories on the subject, affirms that guese fired off the piece by means of a rope which was
they have a tradition among themselves of having been attached to it, and viewed with savage delight the
thrust upon the promontory of the Cape ovt of some mangled carcases of the deluded creatures, hp had
narrow passage ; and, as a narrow passage might signi- trusted their professions of friendship. They were oc«
fy a door-way or window, he forthwith concludes, that it _casionally visited for refreshments by the English, Por-
could be nothing else than the window of Noah’s ark, tuguese, and Dutch traders in their voyages to the
out of whichthey crept. Mr Barrow considers themas East Indies, till the establishment ef a colony among
approaching nearest in colour, and in the construction them by the last mentioned nation, in the year 1650.
of the features, especially in the shape of the eye, to the They made little opposition to the new settlers; and
Chinese or Tartar race ; and’accounts for this relationby were soon induced, ie their passion for brandy and
supposing them to have proceeded from the Egyptians, . tobacco, first to sell their country and cattle, and next
who have been not improbably represented as origi- to become themselves the servants of the purchasers,
nally the same people with the Chinese. In support for the purpose of guarding those flocks and herds,
of this opinion, he adduces the strong resemblance be- which had so recently been their own property. These conaition _
tween the physical character of the re esionee or real wretched people, duped out of their possessions and under the _
Hottentots, and the descriptions given by ancient wri- their liberty, have entailed upon themselves and their Dutch co.
ters, particularly by Diodorus Siculus, of the PeyP- offspring a state of subjection, which is’ comparatively louists. 4
tians and Ethiopians, especially of the Pigmiesand Tro- worse than slavery; inasmuch as, in consequence of
a
glodytes, who are said to have dwelt in the neighbour- their not being transferable property, their immediate :
hood of the Nile. The early Portuguese writers, also, value is diminished, and their treatment less tempered u
mention a colony of Chinese in the vicinity of Soffala; by the self-interest of their oppressors. In the remoter ‘
and the natives in the interior of Madagascar are de- parts of the colony especially, they are subjected to
scribed as a small race of Tartars, resembling the Hot- cruelties, which have not been surpassed’ in the worst un
tentots.in stature, colour, and countenance. The name of the West India islands, Instant death is not unfre- {
Name, Hottentot, though frequently represented as their na- quently the coe of that brutal rage, to which \
tive appellation, is now ascertained to be of modern fa- they are exposed. ‘To fire small shot into their legs or i
brication, and has no place or meaning in their own thighs is no unusual punishment. One of the gentler :
language. They take it to themselves, under the idea chastisements, which they endure, is to be lashed or
of its being a Dutch word ; and it is conceived to have rather bruised with thongs, cut frem the hide of the |
been applied at first as a term in some degree imitative sea-cow or rhinoceros, which are nearly as hard and iT
of the remarkable clacking made by them in speaking, heavy as lead. With these horrid instruments they
which is said to sound like hot or tot. Each horde had are flogged at leisure, not by a number of blows, but
formerly its particular name, as the Attaquas, Hessa- by a period of torture ; and the savage master makes it
quas, Houtiniquas, Namaquas, and Coranas; but the one of his favourite recreations to regulate the time of
designation by which the whole nation was distinguish- their suffering, by smoking as many pipes of tobacco as
ed, and which they still bear among themselves in he deems proportionate to the offence.* These boors
every part of the country, is Quaiquz. or Dutch farmers are authorised by an old law of the
Country oce . ‘The whole of the Hottentot country, comprehend- colony to claim as their property all the children of the
cupied by ing all the different tribes of the race, extends along Hottentots in their service, to whom they may have
the Hotten- the east ‘coast to the 32° of S. Latitude, and to the given in their infancy a morsel of meat; and, though
mene 25° on the West. None of the first discoverers of the same regulation directs their emancipation at the
* Among many instances of the cruel treatment to which the helpless Hottentots are daily exposed, the following are recorded by Mr
Barrow as peculiarly striking: ** We had scarcely parted from these people, when, stopping at a house to feed our horses, we by accident ob=
served a young Hottentot woman with a child in her arms lying stretched on the ground in a most deplorable condition. She had been
cut from head to foot with one of those infernal whips, made from’ the hide of a rhinoceros or sea-cow, known by the name of Sarabocs,
in such a barbarous and unmerciful manner, that there was scarcely a spot on her whole body free from stripes; nor had the sides ofthe
little infant, in clinging to its mother, escaped the strokes of the brutal monster.” ++ The only crime alleged against her was the attempt
to follow her husband, who was among the number of those of his countrymen that had determined to throw themselves apon the pee:
tion of the English.” «* The next house we halted at upon the road presented us with a still more horrid instance of brutality. @ ob-
served a fine Hottentot boy, about eight years of age, sitting at the corner of the house, with a pair of iron rings clenched upon his legs, of
« the weight of ten or twelve pounds; and they had remained in one situation for such a length of time, that they appeared to be sunk into
the leg, the muscle being tumified both above and below the rings. The poor creature was so benumbed and oppressed with the weight,
that, being unable to walk with ease, he crawled on the ground. It appeared, upon inquiry, that they had been rivetted to his legs more
than ten months ago.” The fellow shrunk from the inquiries of the indignant general ; he had nothing to allege against him, but that
he had always been a worthless boy ; he had lost him so many sheep, he had slept when he ought to watch the cattle, and such like frivo-
‘Tous charges of a negative kind,” &c,
i
‘l
Wl
HOTTENTOTS. 87
this is a privilege which are vellers. At the same time, so many of the strange and Hottentots
Bad ridiculous stories, published on the subject, have been “~V~
discovered to have originated in ignorance, credulity,
or deliberate fiction, that little dependence can be pla«
- Soe oo eertiveahich patella
rback. Those who are apparently lightened enquiries personal observations of Barrow,
4 ruter, Somerville, &c. The Hottentots of one dis
trict, differ considerably, in the present day, from those
the service, their children are of another, in consequence of their living together in
farm house, where particular clans, and mixing with different kinds of
iH
sre
Hie
i i
Bly
Sel
aRoFE
i
tT
iF
z.
: upon this ground, people; but from observing their manners in these
are often claimed as the property of the farmer when parts of the colony, which have been most recently oc-
their parents are desirous to remove, or perhaps forci- cupied, some approach may be made to a sketch of -
bly turned away, Those who are unmarried, as well their origi native character, The personal appear- Personal
as free, are doubtless. the least wretched; but even ance of the Hottentots, though by no means prepos- appearance.
their service is easily converted into the hard- Sate See Teerenng canary sateen res
est bondage. Their wages are upon sented. Their countenance, indeed, is in éx-
every frivolous pretext ; nt} should any of the cattle tremelyugly. Prominentcheek bones,andanarrew point«
entrusted to their care be missing, they must prolong ed chin, give to the face the form nearly of a triangle.
their service without pay, till sont ot earned the va- The nose, in most of them, is remarkably flat, aikeaed
lost. Or, should no damage of this broad between the eyes. The eyes are of a deep ches-
nature be imputable to their negligence during the nut colour, long and narrow in their shape, and the
ill have nothing to receive at the end Fae mage am me next the nose, ose of
of it, in consequence of a bill for brandy or tobacco, ape an e as in Europeans, are rounded into
= to 4 i each other, exactly like those of the Chinese. Their
ges. In such circumstances, nv little induce- mouth is of the ordinary size, the lips thinner than
i iage ; when they do enter those of the N and Caffres, and the teeth beauti«
into that state, they are frequently without any off- fully white. The hair of their heads is of a singular
reas Sa eee Os ore ee Sane manee growing in small tufts at certain distances from
Their extreme poverty, scanty food, and and extremely hard and frizaled, resem-
eo ahem rapes ped bling, when short, the bristles of a shoe-brush twisted
lifie powers of nature ; and their practice of marrying into round lumps about the size of a large pea, and,
their own limited horde is considered as an when suffered to grow, hanging about the neck in
heional Windirance to their increase. Multitudes of the strong tassels like Gee. The colour of their skin is
‘more independent tribes, also, have perished by the that of a yellowish brown or faded leaf. Their figure,
hostilities of the Caffres, and the ferocity of the wild especi apace + » is not devoid of symmetry.
beasts, as they receded towards the interior of the ‘They are erect, clean-limbed, and well proportioned ;
. country." From all these causes combined, the Hot- their hands, feet, and all their joints, remarkably small ;
tentot race is rapidly diminishing, and in all probabi- and the muscular parts of their body delicately formed,
lity will soon become wholly extinct. Many of their so as to indicate rather feminine inactivity, than mas-
tribes mentioned by the earlier travellers, have entirely culine exertion. Some of the women in their youth, and
disappeared ; and, at the commencement of the pre- before child-bearing, are described as models of perfec.
sent century, nota kraal or vi was to be found tion in the human figure; every joint and limb bein
about Camtoos river, where, ly 20 years before, well shaped and turned; their breasts round, Seat aed
hundreds of the natives were met in grou In the distant; their hands and feet small and delicately form-
whole auteneive district of Greall Reynet, there net a ed; and their gait not altogether deficient in grace.
single horde of independent Hottentots ; andthe whole But, at an early period of life, and immediately after
number within the limits of the colony does not amount the birth of their child, their beauty vanishes ; their
|
'
3;
A
F
breasts begin to grow loose and flaccid, and at length
colony came last into the possession of Great Britain, become enormously distended ; their bellies protrude,
o ~ lr wae wet nae ely aenaseren pear ram Seer ah ha Pe EBON TRE of fat, so
progress of missionary settlements, to protect as to give to spine an appearance of extraordinary
rea cggreeed race of ings; but, though a curvature inwards, It is very rarely that a cripple or
remnant may thus be , the nation, itis deformed is seen among the Hottentots of either
to be feared, is almost already ray meg A mised sex; aad hepa not subject to any particular dis-
breed, called Bastaards, produced from Hottentot wo- eases. Their vy cee ep A sound ; and their life;
men and. fathers, or the slaves from other if not cut short “3 ident or violence, js usually ter«
are to supplant the original inhabi- minated by a ual decay. But they are not so long-
tants. are & numerous race in the co- lived as the natives of most other countries, which re-
leny jen en tally tout, end sative people. semble their own in point of temperature ; and it is a
¢ ancient manners and primitive character of the rare occurrence when any of them attains the age of
sixty years.
poe engi. ne ee to ang epee ed he dress of a Hottentot is very simple; and: in Dress
the 5 be a sufficient summer is so trifling, as not to deserve name of
bape de of former accounts, that they covering. It consists of a belt cut from the hide of .
not correspond the observations of recent tra- some animal, and fastened round their body. From
“« One woman mentioned to Mr Campbell that she had born ten children, who hed all been destroyed by lions, tygers, and serpents,
a
Food.
318 HOTTENTOTS.
Hottentots. this strap is suspended in front a kind of tase or bag
vy" made of the skin of a jackal with the hair outwards ;
and which is intended to receive those parts, which
modesty requires to be concealed. . From the back part
of the girdle hangs a piece of stiff dried skin, shaped -
like ‘an isosceles triangle, with the point uppermost,
and reaching nearly to the middle of the thigh. Some-
times two of these pieces are used; but these straps,
especially when the wearer is walking or running, en-
tirely fail to answer the purpose of concealment; and
are conjectured to have been originally intended rather
as a kind of artificial tail, to fan the body by its motion,
and to lash away troublesome insects. In the winter
months, they wear cloaks made of skins, generally of
sheep, which are worn, as the weather requires, either
with the wool inwards or outwards ; and which serve
as blankets and bedding through the night, as well as
for a garment through the day. The women suspend
from their belt in front a kind of apron made of skin,
but cut into threads, which hang in a bunch between
the thighs, and reach about half-way to the knee; or
they wear a smaller apron about seven or eight inches
wide, not divided into threads, but ornamented with
shells, metal buttons, and any of their most showy
trinkets. In place of the tail worn by the men, they
have a sheep’s skin, which entirely covers the posterior
part of the body from the waist to the calf of the leg,
and makes a rattling noise as they walk. Instead of
the thongs of dried skin, which formerly covered their
legs from the ankle to the knee, as a protection against
the bite of poisonous animals, they have substituted
strings of glass beads and shells. These they wear
also in great abundance around their necks and arms.
Some of them have skin caps on their heads, differently
shaped and adorned according to the fancy of the wear-
er; and they have sheep skin cloaks resembling those
of the men. When these cloaks are laid aside, which
is commonly the case in the warmer weather, both
sexes may be said to be nearly naked ; but their bodies
jare in some measure protected from the influence of
the sun or air by the unctuous matter which they rub
over the whole of their persons ; and which, however
filthy in itself, is a very natural and useful resource in
hot climates, to prevent the skin from being parched
and shrivelled by the scorching heat. It is supposed
that a similar practice in parallel latitudes would pre-
vent that disgusting and dreadful disorder, the ele-
phantiasis, which is so common in many hot countries,
but which, with most other cutaneous diseases, is
wholly unknown among the Hottentots.* This greasy
covering applied from time to time, and accumulating
perhaps for a whole year, sometimes softening in the
sun, or melting before a fire, catches up the dust and
dirt, and gradually covers the surface of the body with
a thick black coating, which entirely conceals the na-
tural colour of the skin. This native hue is perceivable
only on the face and hands, which are kept rather
cleaner than the other parts of the body, not by wash-
ing them in water, which would have no effect upon the
grease, but by rubbing them with the dung of cattle.
The Hottentots are often reduced, especially in their
native state, to live upon gums, roots, and the larvee of
insects, and at times make a kind of bread from the
pith of the palm tree ; but their universal delight is to
indulge in animal food. “They are remarkably patient Hotteritots.
ge patie es
of hunger, and are able to fast a very long time; but
are equally voracious when supplied with their favour-
ite diet, and are described as the greatest gluttons cn’
the face of the earth. Their manner of eating’ suffi-
ciently indicates the voracity of their appetite. They
cut a large steak from the carcase upon which they
feed, and, passing the knife in a spiral manner from:
one edge till they reach the middle, form it into’ a
string of flesh two or three yards in length: ‘This they’
coil round and lay upon the hot ashes ; and, when the
meat is just warmed through, they grasp it in both
hands, and, applying one end of the string to their
mouth, phoned’ without intermission, and with con-
siderable expedition, to the other extremity. ‘They do:
not think of cleaning the meat’ from the ashes of the
green wood, which serve as a substitute for salt; and
they wipe their hands, when done with eating, merely
by rubbing them on different parts of their body: They
are passionately fond of ardent spirits and tobacco ;
and, to make as much as possible of the flavour of the
latter luxury, they purposely employ a very shert pipe.
The Hottentot families, who engage in the service of Huts.
the colonists, live in smali straw huts around the farm
house. Ina more independent state, they horde toge-
ther in kraals or villages, where the houses are com-
monly ranged ina circle with the doors opening to-
wards the centre, and thus forming a kind of court,
into which their cattle are collected at night, to pre-
serve them from the beasts of prey. The huts are ge-
nerally circular in their form, resembling a bee-hive,
covering a space about twenty feet in dianieter, but
commonly so low in the roof, that, even in the centre,
it is rarely possible for a man of middle size to stand
upright. The fire place is situated in the middle of
the apartment, around which the family sit or sleep in
a circle; and the door, which is seldom higher
three feet, is the only aperture for admitting the light,
or letting out the smoke. The frame of these arched
habitations is composed of slender rods, capable of ~
being bent in the desired form, seme parallel with each
other, some crossing the rest, and others bound round
the whole in a circular direction. » Over this lattice
work, are spread large mats, made of reeds or rushes,
which are about six or ten feet long, and sewed toge~
ther with a kind of thread or rather catgut, made from
the dorsal sinews of different animals. These materials
are easily taken down; and removed on the backs of
the oxen, when there is occasion to change the place of
residence.
These free Hottentots depend for subsistence upon Weapons.
the milk and flesh of their cattle, and the produce of
their skill in the chace. They are excellent marksmen
with the musket, but still make use occasionally of
their ancient weapons, the Hassagai or javelin, and
bow with poisoned arrows. The Hassagai is an iron
spear about a foot in Iength, fastened to the end ofa
tapering shaft about four feet long, which is thrown
from the hand by grasping it in the middle, raising it
above the head, and delivering it with the fore-finger
and thumb. The bow is a plain piece of wood seldom
much more than a yard long, and sometimes tapering to
a point at each extremity. It is furnished with a
composed of hemp, or the fibres of animal-tendons
*A similar practice prevails among the inhabitants of Tombuctoo, as observed by the American sailor Adams. “* It is the uni-
versal practice of both sexes,” says his Narrative, ** to grease themselves all over with butter produced from goats milk, which
makes the skin smooth, and gives it a shining appearance, This is usually renewed every day ; and, when neglected, the skin be- -
gomes rough, greyish, and extremely ugly.”
te ee
AT s:
Bs HH
ees Hy
dpe Ht fae
R seal n ng
Pry fsa oft uaa gpa ita
HHI ine is ity pie | ut
D areata Lilla ga aha nf Nal
g3 ay Boheds tats at ie Hohe
nee iia # dis lial TH
fe satel ha alias Hitt da
eee iba a :
ee AEH weil ie
i Wa i net i viet alt Hy
S Ae nn areal 4 nf HAE Hed i mie i iF a
ct rie i i iti ii fig
a (ama iil ui Fa
"on did IT ie
Fe a li Hetty
if Ce eeatlals
a3 Hur g bigs 1 ye e
i Peel ak
tity i i In
Waites nn
i
lis
i
_
‘
pawl Bit.
_
820
Hottentots. been formed into any kind of communities, than the
“~~ remains of a tribe or nation who had once sed
Customs,
Character.
any laws or customs common to them all. The truest
specimens of the unmixed Hottentot people and prac-
tices are probably to be found among the Bosjesmans,
(see Bossesmans); but, whether that wretched race
existed in their present condition before the dispersion
of the Hottentots, or in consequence of that event, must
remain a subject of mere conjecture. A few detached
customs and practices of the Hottentots may be briefly
stated. One of the customs still generally prevalent,
is to shave the heads of young girls as soon as the first
symptoms of maturity appear, to remove all their or-
naments, and wash the whole body thoroughly ; and to
restrict them to a milk diet, and seclude them from the
company of men during the continuance of the periodi-
cal symptoms. Though they inter their dead without
any ceremony, it is a common practice to pile a heap
of stones over the grave; and it is firmly believed
among them, that some misfortune would soon befal
the individual who should pass the place without add-
ing a stone to the heap. This custom is supposed to
have originated in a wish to secure the bodies of the
deceased from being dug op and devoured by wild .
beasts., The Hottentots in drinking from a pool or
stream, throw the water into their mouths with their
right hand in a very expert and expeditious manner,
seldom bringing the hand nearer the mouth than the
distance of a foot. ‘They generally wash their poison-
ed wounds with a mixture of urine and gun-powder,
besides frequently using the actual cautery; and, for
the most part, recover easily unless wounded severely.
They kill their cattle, by thrusting a sharp-pointed in-
strument into the spinal marrow immediately behind
the horns ; and the animal being thus instantaneous
deprived of life, the throat is cut to let out the blood.
Among the Hottentots who reside at the mouth of the
Orange river, a superstitious practice prevails, similar
to what has been observed among the South Sea
islanders, of cutting off the first joint of their little
finger, as a remedy for a particular disease to which
they are subject when young.
The most prominent point in the habits and disposi-
tions of the Hottentots is their extreme indolence, which
even the urgent calls of hunger are scarcely able to
overcome. Provided they are allowed-to sleep, they
would willingly fast the whole day, rather than under-
go the trouble of digging the ground for roots, or pro-
curing food by the chace ; and Mr Barrow particularly
relates, that in the course of his journies, the Hotten-
tot servants frequently passed the day without a morsel
of food, rather than walk half a mile fora sheep. They
are habituated -from their infancy to a life of sloth;
and, having obtained what is barely sufficient to sup-
port nature, contentedly spend the day as well as night
in sleeping under a bush upon their sheep-skin. Even
in the service of the Dutch colonists, they are rather
confirmed in their laziness, than cured of it; as, in
every farm-house there is so great a multitude of ser-
vants, that little work falls to the share of each indivi-
dual. It is not uncommon. to see twenty or thirty,
where there is not employment for more than. four or
five ; so that one of the domestics, during the space of a
whole day, may have only to bring his master’s whip
from the next a ent; another to fetch his mis-
tress’s fire-box and place it under her feet ; and a third
to supply some of the family, three or four times in
the day, with lighted wood to kindle their tobacco
pipes. They are by no means, however, a stupid
HOTTENTOTS.
people. They are uncommonly expert in finding out Hottentots,
ey ——
a passage over a desert uninhabited country.
are remarkably quick-sighted, and can discover the
game in the chace at a very great distance. They will
follow with the eye the flight even of a bee to an in-
credible distance, watching its motions, and tracing
out its nest. They are able to distinguish. the prints
of the feet of whatever animal they chance to pursue, if
they be at all acquainted with it ; and would single out
among a thousand foot-marks those of their compa-
nions, They learn the Dutch’ language with great fa«
cility ; and though seldom employed as domestic ser-
vants by the colonists at the Cape, they can be taught
to do every kind of work with as much propriety as
Europeans. They ate a mild, quiet, and rather timid
people; but endure pain with extraordinary patience,
and, when led on by superiors, will encounter danger
with sufficient alacrity. They are honest and faithful,
and have little of that cunning which savages ‘al-
ly possess; but are ready to divulge the truth, when
charged with crimes of which they have been guilty.
They seldom quarrel among themselves, or make use
of provoking language; but are kind and affectionate
to one another, and ready to share the last morsel with
their companions. Though extremely phlesmatic, they
are not incapable of strong attachments, and are parti«
cularly sensible to any act of kindness. These are sen-
sations, however, which they have, unhappily, few op-
portunities of indulging. In the state of hard bondage
and cruel oppression, under which they spend their
miserable existence, the muscles of their countenance
are rarely seen to relax into a smile, but are constantly
overspread with the deepest melancholy. It has been
sufficiently proved, that under humane treatment they
are capable of being rendered active, industrious, and
useful members of society. About 500 of them had Hottentot
been embodied by the Dutch ina corps called the Cape regiment.
Regiment ; and, though unsupported, had acted with
considerable spirit in opposing the British troops at the
capture of the colony in 1795. General Sir James Craig
found it expedient to take them into the British service,
and to increase their numbers. They became excellent
soldiers, orderly, tractable, and faithful, ready on all oc-
casions to obey the commands of their officers with
cheerfulness and alacrity. <‘ Never,” says the above-
mentioned officer, “were people more contented, or
more grateful for the treatment they now receive. It
is with the wapeicaety of knowing them well, that I
venture to pronounce them an intelligent race of men,
All who bear arms exercise well, and understand im-
mediately and perfectly whatever they are taught to
portage: Many of them speak English tolerably well.
e were told, that so great was their epee to
drunkenness, we should never be able to uce them
to order or discipline ; and that the habit of roving was
so rooted in their disposition, we must expect the whole
corps would desert the moment they had received their
clothing. With to the first, I do not find they
are more given to the vice of drinking than our own peo«
ple; and, as to their i propensity to roving,
that charge is fully confuted by the circumstance of
one man having left us since I first
sure of assembling them, and he was urged
from having accidentally lost his firelock.”—« Of a
the qualities, it will little be expected I should expatiate.
upon their cleanliness ; and yet it is certain, that at this-
moment our Hottentot parade would not suffer in a
comparison with that of some of our regular regiments. $
Their clothing may pabepe have suffered more than it:
the mea-
; have been taught to keep
bright, are always in good order. ‘They are now like-
wise cleanly in their persons ; the practice of smearing
with grease being entirely left off. I have
frequently observed them washing themselves in a ri-
could have in view no other object
but cleanliness.” men shewed themselves high-
of this favourable testimony, during three
in the distant district of Graaf Reynet,
required, by an unfortunate train of
inst their own men and com-
|
fi
rf
overnment,
Fit
i
:
i
it
r
tt
ie
Mf
2
particularly «
Moravian Brethren, have not been less successful in
forming the Hottentot race to live under the influence
of religious principle, and to fulfil the duties of civili-
zed . The progress of their disciples
?
ottentots, and their
eda of or raising ¥ Those,
who first j the society, choicest situa-
tions at the upper end of the valley near the church ;
and their houses and ‘were very neat and com-
fortable ; numbers of cet mem nadey ,
and few better. Those Hottentots, who chose to
Sientaemvens cen Saertiet caaben
soon as could earn wages. Some hired themselves
out by the week, month, or year, to the neighbouring
ee nen Tae rac teeter Some
Aaa Glide ienop, tnd bareen?” 22 Ow Seaedaye, thes
* s ,
attend the Susie of diiaweoeiecy
ge
it
:
i
821 ©
HOU
was short, but replete with good sense,
» well suited to the occasion: tears flowed abundantly
' from the
of those, to whom it was particularly ad-
dressed. females sung in a style that was plain-
tive and affecting; and their voices were in general
sweet and harmonious.” This establishment is descri-
bed by Lichtenstein, little more than six years after-
wards, as containing two hundred houses and huts,
built in regular streets, and occupied by nearly 1100
Hottentots ; several of whom had become very expert
in various kinds of iron work, particularly in the ma-
nufacture of knives. “ The men are clothed in linen
jackets and leather smal) clothes, and wear hats ; and
the women have woollen petticoats, cotton jackets with
long sleeves, and caps. Other missionaries have col-
lected the wilder Hottentots in the more distant parts
of the colony; and have succeeded in instructing and
civilizing them in various degrees, proportioned to the
duration and circumstances of the different establish-
menits.
found in places beyond the limits of the colony to be a
docile and tractable people, inoffensive in their man-
ners, and ex grateful to their benefactors. The
recovery of the colony by the British has at least se-
cured to these defenceless tribes a protection from cruel
oppression, and an encouragement to every benevolent
exertion for their benefit, which they never enjoyed
under the Dutch government. See Sparrman’s Voya
to the Cape of Good Hope. Paterson's Journies into t
C the Hottentots. Barrow's Travels into the
Interior of Southern Africa. Campbell's Travels in
Africa. Lichtenstein’s Travels in Southern Africa,
(9)
HOUNDS. See Doe, Huntixe, and MamMania.
HOU-GANG, or Hoo-Quano. See Cuina, vol. vi.
p- 214.
HOURS. See Curonooey, vol. vi. p. 402.
HOUSSA, or Haoussa, the capital of a kingdom of
the same name in Africa, is supposed to be situated two
days journey south from the Niger, and about 200 miles
south east from Tombuctoo, As it ap to have
been unknown to the African geographer Leo, it is
suspected to be of modern date; and, as Park could
hear nothing of Tokrur or Tekrur, mentioned by Edrissi
and Abulfeda as the metropolis of a great central em-
pire of Africa, it is conjectured that Houssa must have
superseded that ancient capital as the seat of govern.
ment. Former accounts represented it as almost equal
to London or Cairo in population, and its inhabitants
a8 acquainted with the art of writing, and other civi-
lized attainments. The country along the banks of the
Niger, between Houssa and Tombuctoo, was also de-
scribed as fertile, and well inhabited. All the native
travellers, with whom Park conversed, assured him
that Houssa was larger and more populous than Tom-
buctoo ; and that the state of trade, —_ and govern-
ment, were nearly the same in both places. The recent
Narrative of Adams the American sailor enables us to
estimate the amount of this comparison, and to form
some idea of Houssa, when he tells us, that Tombuc-
too, to which it bears so near a resemblance, covers
about as much ground as Lisbon with houses irregu-
larly scattered ; that it contains no shops for its boasted
commerce, but that the we ways goods are cn an
in the king's. » till they are disposed of; that
this royal and warehouse is constructed of
mud, and a mean in its appearance ; and that
the principal food of the king and queen consists, like
28
Even the Bosjesman Hottentots have been.
thetic, and Hottentots
oussa,
322
Howard. that of the people, of Guinea corn, boiled like burgoo,
and eaten with goat’s milk, to which, in the case of
their majesties, is added the luxury of a little butter.
See Park’s Travels and Appendix; Adams’ Narrative ;
and Tomeucroo. (¢)
HOWARD, Jon, the celebrated philanthropist, was
born at Enfield, about the year 1727. His father was
originally an upholsterer in Long-lane, Smithfield ; but,
having acquired a handsome fortune, had retired from
business several years before his death. He was a
strict Protestant dissenter; and, wishing that his son
should be educated in the same principles, placed him
under a airway sa08 at some distance from London, who
seems to have been more distinguished by his religious
character than literary qualifications. Under the tui-
tion of this person, young Howard continued for the
space of seven years, without being thoroughly in-
structed in any one branch of knowledge ; and, though
he was afterwards removed to the academy of Mr
Eames, he never surmounted the deficiencies of his
early education.’ He was not able to write his native
language with grammatical correctness ; and, excepting
the French, his acquaintance with other languages was
very superficial. His father died when he was young,
and directed, in his will, that his son should not come
to the possession of his property till the twenty-fifth
year of his age. In conformity, also, it is supposed, to
the wishes of his parent, he was bound apprentice to a
wholesale grocer in the city ; but he found this employ-
ment extremely irksome; and, as soon as he came of
age, bought up the remainder of his time, and set out
on his.travels to France and Italy, Upon his’ return
to England, he lived in the style of other young men
of fortune ; but had acquired a taste for the arts, and
an attachment to the study of nature. The delicacy
of his bodily health required him to take lodgings in
the country, and to follow a rigorous regimen of diet,
which laid the foundation of his future extraordinary
abstemiousness. About the 25th year of his age, he
married Mrs Sarah Lardeau, as a return of gratitude
for her kind attention during his invalid state while he
lodged in her house at Stoke-Newington ; but she was
twice as old as himself, as well as of a sickly habit, and
died at the end of three years after their marriage, in
the year 1756. After the death of his wife, he set out
upon another tour, which he designed to have com-
menced with a visit to Lisbon, which had been recent-
ly overthrown by an earthquake; but the packet, in
which he sailed, was taken by a French privateer, and
he endured for some time all the hardships of a pri-
soner of war in France. The sufferings of his country-
men in the same situation made a strong impression on
his mind, and first directed his attention to the condi-
tion of those unhappy persons who are doomed to in-
habit the cells of a prison. Having remained abroad
only a few months, he fixed his residence, after his re-
turn, on his estate at Cardington, near Bedford ; and,
in 1758, was united in marriage to the eldest daugh-
ter of Edward Leeds, Esq. of Croxton in Cambridge-
shire. In jthis connexion and situation he spent the
most tranquil and happy years of his life, occupying his
leisure and his wealth in executing plans of beneficence
for the more indigent part of mankind. But his do-
mestic felicity was fatally interrupted by the death of
his wife in the year 1765, soon after the birth of her
only child; and, for many years afterwards, he che-
rished her memory with the most affectionate sorrow.
For some time he was attached to his home, by an
anxious attention to the education of his son; but the
HOWARD.
child was sent to school at an early age, and Mr Hows Howard.
ard began to assume a more public character. In 1773
he was nominated High-Sheriff of the county’ of Bed-
ford ; and entered upon his office with a resolution to
erform its duties with his accustomed punctuality,
n the inspection of the prisons within his jurisdiction;
his humanity became deeply engaged by the distresses
which he witnessed ; and, in the ess of his enqui-
ries, he was led to extend his investigation -to all the
places of confinement and houses of correction throughs
out the kingdom. He pursued his object with so mach
assiduity, that, in the beginning of 1774, he was de-
sired to communicate his information to the House of
Commons ; and, in-consequence of his representations,
two bills were brought forward for the relief and health
of prisoners. Being desirous. before he should publish
his account of English prisons, to suggest remedies, as
well as to point out defects, he resolved to examine
personally the practice of the continental kingdoms in
this branch of police. For this purpose, in 1775, he
visited France, Flanders, Holland, and Germany; re=
peated his visit in 1776, extending his tour to Swit-
zerland; and, during the intervals of these ~ travels,
made a journey to Scotland and Ireland, and most of
the counties of England. In 1777, he published the
information which he had collected with so much risk,
toil, and expence, and dedicated his work to the House
of Commons. Anxious to diffuse the knowledge of
facts so interesting to humanity; and, at the same time,
desirous to obviate any suspicion of his wishing to re-
pay his benevolent labours by the’ profits of book-
making, he not only presented copies of his work to
the principal persons in the kingslom, and his particu-
lar friends, but insisted upon fixing the price of the
volume at a lower rate than the original expence of
ublication. In the conclusion of the work, he pledged
imself, if a thorough parliamentary enquiry were in-
stituted for the improvement of prisons, to undertake a
more extensive journey into foreign countries, for the
purpose of obtaining additional information. The House
of Commons having zealously entered upon the busi-
ness of regulating places of confinement, Mr Howard,
agreeably to his promise, which he was well inclined
to fulfil, began a new tour in 1778. . In his progress,
he revisited the establishments of a penitentiary kind
in Holland ; directed his course through’ Hanover and
Berlin to Vienna; went to Italy by way of Venice ;
proceeded as far south as Naples, returning by the
western coast to Switzerland; pursued the course of
the Rhine through Germany ; and, crossing the Low
Countries, returned to England in the beginning of the
year 1779. During the spring and summer of. the
same year, he made another complete tour of England
and Wales, besides taking a journey through Scotland
and Ireland. In the year 1780, he published the re-
sults of this extensive research, as an appendix to his
former work ; and also a new edition of that publica-
tion, in which all this additional matter was incorpora-
ted. Still intent upon the farther improvement of his
plans, he resolved to explore those countries of. Europe
which he had not yet visited; and, in 1781, he set.out
on a tour to Denmark, Sweden, Russia and Poland,
from which he returned about the end of the year. In
the year following, he made another complete survey
of the prisons in England, and another journey into
Scotland and Ireland. In 1783, he examined the pri-
sons of Spain and Portugal, and returned through
Franee, Flanders, and Holland. In. the summer of
the same year, he again travelled — Scotland and Ire~
a tear eg
etre
So, se
HOWARD. 823
‘Moward. Jand, and visited of the ish prisons. In 1784, various Lazarettos in Europe, papers relative to the Howard.
age he ccmmntiniented to the pablic he fruits of the pre- Sian: with additional feomiahce ae prisons and hospi- “1”
ceding three investigations, in the form of another
Si iiccty tebalen ofthe ‘eaddes veeiic, come
prising all the additions. With the view of acquiring
information respecting the means of preventing conta-
i infection, he resolved
So eae the Sesecipal Eeseretioe ia E and to ex-
tend his researches to those countries which are most
ra of the plague. Aware of the
ene ree arenes ne Sask
perilous is journeys,’ he would not permit an
of his servants to partake of these but detes-
mined to travel without attendants. About the end of
the year 1735, he entered this tour, taking his way
through Holland and to the south of France.
His former visits, however, had so much alarmed the
PRN eee of the government
the last mentioned country, that he was apprehen-
sive of his personal safety; and travelled with the
greatest secrecy under the character of an English phy-
ici From Nice, he went to Genoa, rm, and
obtain, by personal experience, the fullest information
See ahentnaeleett ee for the purpose
was, for
of gow to Ventice in 4 vessel with a foul bill of beaith,
i epee aca 6 9 ema sn —_
course v .
Coit hee deolie Soun stake to
i i i off after a smart
skirmish, in which he rendered essential service, by
tals. After the printing of this work, he remained but
a short time at home; and pre to revisit Russia
and Turkey, and to extend his tour to Asia Minor,
Egypt, and the coast of . In this new journey,
he is understood to have had no peculiar object in
view; and to have been actuated chiefly by a convic-
tion, that, in such researches, he was pursuing the
th of his duty ; that, in those countries where he had
ormerly travelled, he might be still farther instrumen-
tal in relieving human suffering; and that, in explo-
ring new regions, he might discover farther subjects of
observation connected with his main pursuit. He had
resolved to undertake this journey also without an at-
tendarit ; and it was only in consequence of most ur+
gent intreaties, that a faithful servant obtained permis-
sion to accompany him. Arriving in Holland, in the
beginning of July 1789, he proceeded through the
north of Germany, Prussia, Courland, and Livonia, to
Petersburg ; thence to Moscow, and finally to the ex-
tremity of Eu n Russia, on the shores of the Black
Sea, w he Bal a lamented victim to one of those
infectious diseases, the rav of which he was exert-
ing every effort to restrain. While residing at Cher-
son, he was earnestly requested to visit a young lady,
about sixteen miles from that place, who had caught a
ry a fever ; and it was his own opinion, that
from he received the disease. During his illness,
which from its commencement he considered as likely
to prove fatal, he received a letter from a friend in
d, containing favourable accounts of his son.
He was tly affected by the intelligence ; and often
desired his servant, if ever his son should be restored to
reason, to tell him how much he had for his hap-
piness. Except during the fits, with which he was occa-
sionally seized in the course of the distemper, he retain-
ed his faculties till within a few hours of his death, which
took place on the 20th of January 1790. He was bu-
ried, according to his own request, at the villa of M.
on a about eight miles from Cherson ; where, in-
of a sun-dial, which he had desired to be erected
over his grave without any inscription, * a rude pyra-
mid, surrounded b and chains, was rai by
the inhabitants of the neighbourhood.
Mr Howard, though frequently requested, would
never consent to sit for his picture; and the various
rtraits, which have been given of him, are said by
intimate friends to be totally unlike. The nearest
resemblance, is said to be a head sketched by an artist
in London, and copied for Dr Aikin’s View of his
Character ; which, though considered as somewhat of
a caricature, is said to have exactly the expression of
his countenance, when in a very serious and attentive
mood. His eye was lively an etrating, and his
features strong and prominent ; his gait quick, and his
tures animated. In his youth, his constitution was
licate, and his habit supposed to be consumptive ;
bat he afterwards attained (probably in consequence
of his abstemiousness in diet and application to exer-
cise) a power of enduring, without inconvenience, the
greatest privations and fatigues. The strict
imen in point of food, which he had originally
adopted from a regard to health, he afterwards conti-
nued from choice. He made no use of animal food,
* He had a strong distike of monumental honours, and had once given directions before he set out on & journey, that in case of his
death his funeral expences should not exceed ten
ia Cardington church, with this inscription,
; that his tomb should be a plain slip of marble placed under that of his wife
** John Howard died
» aged My hope is in Christ.”
324 HOWARD.
Howard. or of fermented and spirituous drinks. _Water and the ological observations, and he seldom: travelled without Howard:
—y~"_plainest vegetables sufficed for his ordinary diet, and some instrument for that
milk, tea, butter and fruit, were his luxuries. He was
sparing in the quantity of his food, and indifferent as
to the stated times of taking his meals. . He was equal-
ly tolerant of heat, cold, aud all the vicissitudes of cli-
mate ; and could without difficulty dispense with the
ordinary seasons and proportions of sleep. When he
travelled in England or Ireland, it was generally on
horseback, and he rode regularly about forty English
miles a day. He was never at a loss for an inn; but,
in Ireland or the Highlands of Scotland, could accom-
modate himself with a little milk at any of the poor
cabins in his way. When he came to the town, where
he was to sleep, he bespoke a supper like other travel-
lers, but made his servant remove it, while he was
preparing his bread and milk. When he travelled on
the continent, he usually went post in his own chaise,
in which he slept as occasion required ; and has been
known to travel twenty days and twenty nights with-
out going to bed. He used to carry with him a small
tea-kettle, some cups, a little pot of sweet-meats, and a
few loaves. At the post-house he would get some water
boiled, send out for milk, and make his repast, while
his servant went to the inn. He was remarkably at-
tentive to the perfect cleanliness of his whole person ;
and water was always an indispensable necessary for
his ablutions. His peculiar habits of life, and his ex-
clusive attention to a few important objects, made him
appear more averse to society than he really was. He
assiduously shunned all engagements, which would
have inyolved him in the irregularities of general in-
tercourse.; but he received his select friends with the
truest hospitality, and was often extremely communi«
cative in conversation, enlivening a small circle with
the most entertaining relations of his travels and ad-
ventures. He was never negligent of the received
forms of polite life; and, however much he might be
charged with singularities, no one could refuse his title
to the character of a gentleman, He was distinguish
ed especially by his respectful attention to the female
sex ; and nothing afforded him so much pleasure as the
conversation of women of good education and cultiva-
ted manners. His own voice and demeanour were so
gentle as to be almost denominated feminine ; and fur-
nished a striking contrast to the energy of his mind
and the extent of his exertions. His language and
manners were invariably pure and delicate; and it
must have been no small triumph of duty over inclina+
tion which brought him to submit, in the prosecution
of his benevolent designs, to such frequent communi-
cations with the most abandoned of mankind. Yet
the nature of his errand appears to have inspired the
most profligate with respect; and he has himself re.
corded, that he never met with a single insult from the
prisoners, in any of the jails which he visited. He
possessed an elegant taste for neatness in his house and
furniture ; and employed much of his leisure time in
the cultivation of useful and ornamental plants. — In
the course of his various travels, he brought home many
curious vegetables ; and his garden became an object of
curiosity, both for the elegant manner in which it was
planned, and for the excellent productions which it
contained. He was elected a Fellowiof the Royal So-
ciety in 1756; and contributed a. few short papers
which have been published in its Transactions.* His
philosophical researches were chiefly directed to meteor-
: r rpose. He applied himself,
likewise, with considerable assiduity, to the prosecution
of experiments on the effects of the union of the pri«
mary colours in different proportions. In his intellec-
tual character, he discovered less of the faculty of ex«
tensive comprehension than of laborious accuracy. By
his talent of minute examination and detail, he was
peculiarly qualified for the patient: investigations in
which he engaged ; and in his modest estimates of his
own abilities, he was used to say of himself, « I am:
the plodder, who goes. about to collect: materials for
men of genius to make use of.” His liberality with re«
ees to pecuniary concerns, was early and uniformly
isplayed ; and he La Ow never to have considered
money in any other light than as an instrument of pro-
curing happiness to himself and others, . Contented
with the competence, which he inherited, he never
thought of increasing it ; and made it a rule with him-
self to lay up no part of his annual income, but to ex=
pend in some useful or benevolent scheme the surplus.
of every year. Moderate in all his desires, and un=
tainted by the lust of growing rich, he was elevated
above every thing mean and sordid. He expended
much in charities, and displayed in all-his transactions.
a spirit of the utmost honour and generosity... He im
bibed from his earliest years a devout principle of reli-
gion, which cnsomeaa steady and uniform throu
every period of his life. The body of Christians, to.
whom he particularly attached himself, were the
tists ; and the system of belief, to which he adhered,
was what has generally been called moderate Calvin=
ism. But he was always less solicitous about modes
and opinions, than the internal spirit of -piety.and sin<
cerity ; and though always.warmly attached to what«
ever interests he espoused, he possessed that true spirit.
of catholicism, which led him to honour virtue ‘res
ligion wherever he found them. It was his constant
practice to join in the service of the established church;
when he had not the opportunity of attending a dis«
senting place of worship; and he often dwells in his.
works, with great complacency, on the pure zeal and’
genuine Christian charity, which he frequently disco-
vered among the Roman Catholic clergy. But the
culiar feature of his character certainly consists in that
decisive energy, and unshaken perseverance, with
which he prosecuted the great work of benevolence, 'to
which he seemed to have devoted his life. He was
distinguished by decision and dispatch in all his pro-
ceedings ; and this was rather the predominant habit
of his mind, than the occasional result of any excited
feeling. ‘ At no time of his life,” says his friend and
biographer Dr Aikin, ‘¢ was he without some object of
warm pursuit ; and, in every thing he pursued, he was
indefatigable in aiming at perfection. Give him a hint
of any thing he had left. short, or any new acquisition
to be made ; and, while you might suppose he was de-
liberating about it, you were surprised with finding it
was done.” Nor was it a a short period of ar«
dour, that his exertions were thus awakened. He had
the still rarer quality of being able, for any length of
time, to bend all the powers and faculties of his mind
to one point, unseduced by every allurement, which
curiosity or any other affection might throw in: his
way, and. unsusceptible of that satiety. and di
which are so apt to steal u a protracted pursuit.”
— Impressed with the idea of the importance of his
* See the Phil. Trans: vols. live Ivii, 1xi.
a ca
NE te ee
PR ai ee Na oe
me
—
HOW
the uncertainty of human life, he was im-
as done as possible within the al-
designs, and
ree yet ag Tonsigied
Cate Mili the pubis monpsond kis actoe.
i phi e ic su im actua-
ted ; for, Siecne his cool and steady temper gave
no idea of the character usually distingui by that
Femope nem He followed his plans, indeed, with won-
areca constancy, but by no means with that
heat and eagerness, that inflamed and exalted imagina-
tion, which denote the enthusiast.” Neither was he
moved, as some ry oye Pp
or rigidity of or insensibility of feeling. “ I
spirit of indignation flash from them,
instances of baseness and o ion. Still
his constancy of mind, and self-collection ne-
€ was never agitated, never off
”*» His coolness and intrepidity proceeded
nature and principle; and, when marching
of duty, he was fearless of consequences.
neither originated in any idea of
SERGE 4
Hitt
F
Fy
i
f
o
the sentiments by which
presses : ts whi
FE Law intance,” he says in a letter during
ae eto
iH
i
if
Fé
ui
EEE
pRESEEE
ee iH
ee
HBL
4
Hat
reir
mi
eh
Bae
He
Hitt
Hae
825
HUD
Yi of charity.” See various lives and anecdotes of Howden
‘oward ; and particularly Dr Aikin’s View of his Lie ,, —tnie,
and Character. (q
HOWDEN, or :
east riding of Yorkshire, is situated upon an inlet of the
Ouse, named Howden Dike, which may be considered
as the harbour of the town. Howden consists princi~
pally of two considerable streets, extending in the di-
rection of north-east and south-west, intersected by three’
or four lesser ones. The town has of late years under-
gone very considerable improvements ; and, though the
ouses are ancient, yet they are neatly built and com-
modious. The principal public buildings are the
moot-hall, a large edifice in the market, where the
courts, &c. are held; a work-house, built by subscrip-
tion in 1791, which contains from 20 to $0 paupers,
who are maintained at an annual expence of £300;
and the old Gothic church. This church is a large
building in the form of a cross, and, excepting the chan-
cel, which is of more recent date, it appears to have
been built during the first period of the pointed arch
style. The tower, which is quadrangular and well pro-
ioned, is 135 feet high, and is said to have been
wilt in 1390 by Walter Skirlaw, Bishop of Durham, as
a place of refuge from the inundations of the Ouse and
the Derwent, which were formerly very frequent. The
chapter-house, which is now unfortunately in ruins, is
reckoned a most beautiful specimen of the pointed style.
The chancel, particular! the east end of it, is greatly
admired. A peal of eight bells was cast for this ch
in 1775. The ruins of the of the bishops of
Durham are situated almost close to the church-yard,
and are now converted into a farm-house. One of the
om, is held here on the
gry horse fairs in the ki
So of September, and continues till the 3d of Octo-
ber. Besides the church and its two chapels of ease,
there is an Independent and Methodist meeting-house.
The celebrated historian de Hoveden, who was
= of the abbey, and chaplain to Henry IT, was born
The township of Howden contained in 1811,
i ie 314
EE EA OR Ie er 409
Do. employed in trade and manufactures 250
Total population ... ~~... .4., 1812
See Savage's Hi of Howden Church; Hutchin-
son's Durham ; and Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvi. p. 562.
HOWITZERS. See Onpyance.
HOY. See Onxney Isxes.
HUAHEINE. See Sociery Isianps.
HUDDERSFIELD, or Huruensrieip, a town of
England in the west riding of Yorkshire, is situated on
the river Colne, and onthe Huddersfieldcanal. This town
is chiefly celebrated for its woollen manufactures, which.
consist of narrow and broad cloths, kerseymeres,
frize, &c. The buyers and sellers of these goods for.
merly met in an open square ; but in the year 1765,
Sir John Ramsden, who possesses all the land which
the town covers, and also a many of the houses,
built a commodious cloth- It is a circular build.
ing of two stories, and is divided by a diametrica)
range into two semicircular courts, into which all the
windows . It is subdivided into ranges like streets ;
and the are laid close together upon their edge
on benches or stalls. Over the entrance, is a bell pla-
* See also Darwin's Botanic Garden; Cowper's Poem on Charity ; Hayley's Ode to Howard ; and Foster's Essay on Decision of
4
field.
OVEDEN, a town of England, in the ——
Hudson's
Bay.
Wxtent and
description.
HUD
ced in a handsome cupola. The Huddersfield canal
(see INLanp Navigation) extends 8 miles to the river
Calder. Ruins, supposed to be the ancient city of
Canbodunum, are to be seen on the castle hill, about two
miles south of the town, and west of Almonsbury ; but
Mr Watson thinks they are of Saxonorigin. The Ro-
man road, however, passed near Almonsbury. There
are several medicinal springs in the neighbourhood.
In 1811, the township of Huddersfield contained,
Inhabited houses .........--- 1871
ROGUSINGM) 5). jf. eiJel «erie Eielis Ie) nile 4a ys 1881
Do. employed in trade and manufactures 1842
ALES ios 0d) Se opie) v elte Wel ails « 4824
Females MUMIA Tete the is balheh 29 4847
Total population. .........4, 9671
See the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. p.
767.
HUDSON'S Bay, lying between 55°and 650 of North
Latitude, is about 250 leagues in length, and 200 at its
greatest breadth. It is 140 fathoms deep in the mid-
dle, and is navigable during four months in summer,
but is filled, all the rest of the year, with shoals of ice.
Numerous rocks, sand-banks, and small islands, are
dispersed through it, of which may be mentioned ;
Southampton island, in 64° north latitude, stretching
about 100 leagues from north to south, but of very in-
considerable breadth ; Marble island, in 62° north lati-
tude, about 6 leagues long and two broad, composed of
white marble, variegated with green, blue, and black
patches ; Carleton isle, in the south-east corner of the
bay, covered with trees, moss, and shrubs. The en-
trance of the bay is a strait, of dangerous navigation,
more than 200 leagues in length, and in some places
of considerable breadth. It stretches from south-east
to north-west, in 623° north latitude, bounded on the
north by the isle of Good Fortune, and on the south
by Labradore. Its eastern extremity is formed by
Cape Elizabeth on the north, and — Chudley on the
south, between which is situated Resojiution island,
about 15 leagues in length, and a little westward Sa-
vage and Grass’ islands, almost uninhabited. In the
north-west extremity, between Point Anne on the north,
and cape Walsingham on the south, are several small
islands named Salisbury, Nottingham, Mill Diggs, and
Mansfield. The principal bays of this inland sea are,
James’s Bay in the south-east corner, containing many
islets ; Button’s Bay on the western coast ; Chesterfield
Inlet on the north-west coast, stretching far inland, and
terminating in a large fresh water lake; Roe’s Wel-
come, a deep inlet of the sea on the north coast; and
Repulse Bay still farther north. The most remarkable
rivers which flow into it, are Great Whale river, East
Main or Slude ; Rupert’s, which has its origin in lake
Mistassins ; Abbitibbe flowing from a lake of the same
name; Moose, and Albany, which all empty their streams
into James’s Bay ; the Severn, which is supposed to
roceed from lake Winipig; Nelson or Bourbon river,
Kom alake of the same name; and Missin-ni-pi,* or
Churchhill river, which loses itself in the bottom of
Button’s Bay. The north coast of Hudson Bay is yet
imperfectly explored. The cauntry on the east is part
of Labradore, called East Main. The tract which
stretches southwards below Button’s Bay, is called New
* South Wales, bounded on the south and east by Cana-
da. The regions to the north-west are in like manner
called New North Wales, and very little known. And,
$26
H UD
on the west, is a vast tract of country extending across
the American continent to the Pacific Ocean, separated
from the territories of Canada by a mountainous rid
in 49° north latitude, which covers the sources of the
rivers flowing north and south.
Hudson’s Bay was discovered in 1610 by Hen
Hudson, who had been sent out by the English Russia
Company in quest of a north-west passage round the
American continent; but his crew having mutinied,
Jeft him with his son and other seven persons to perish
in those seas, which now bear his name. It was after-
wards more Srougily explored by successive naviga~
tors employed by the same enterprizing Company, par-
ticularly by Button in 1612; by Lucas Fox, an Tho-
mas James, in 1631, the former equipped by govern.
ment, and the latter by a company of Bristol mer-
chants ; and by Zacharias Gillam, in 1668, who was
sent out by Charles II. at the solicitation of Prince
Rupert, and was assisted by two French merchants
of Canada named de Grosseliers, who had previously
made a voyage from Quebec to the scene of the present
expedition. Gillam passed the winter in Rupert’s ri-
ver, where he built the first stone fort erected in the
country, which he named Fort Charles, and provided
it with a sufficient garrison. Before his return, the
king had granted to Prince Rupert, and divers lords,
knights, and merchants, associated with him, a charter,
dated May 2d 1669, in which he styled them “ The
Governor and Company of Adventurers trading from
England to Hudson’s Bay ;” and, in consideration of
their having, at their own costs and charges, ‘ under-«
taken an expedition to Hudson’s Bay, in the north-west
arts of America, for the discovery of a new pas
into the South Sea, and for the finding of some cade
for furs, minerals, and other considerable commodities,
and of their having already made by such their under-
takings, such discoveries as did encourage them to pro-
ceed farther in pursuance of the said design ; by means
whereof, there might probably arise great advantages to
the king and his Airrigcdian “ebbaclntay ceded to the
said undertakers the whole trade and commerce of those
seas, &c. in whatsoever latitude they might be, which
are situated within the entrance of Hudson’s Straits,
together with all the countries upon the coasts and
confines of the said seas, straits, &c, so that they alone
should have the right of trading thither; and whoso.
ever should infringe this right, and be found selling or
buying within the said boundaries, should be arrested,
and all their merchandize be confiscated, so that one
half should belong to the king, and the other half to
the Hudson’s Bay Company.” Of this extensive grant
the Company have enjoyed uninterrupted possession
from the year 1669 to the present day, except during
the space of 17 years, from 1697 to 1714, when the set~
tlement was occupied by the French ; but the charter,
instead of promoting the progress of discoveries, is un-
derstood to have produced the opposite effect. The
Company have been charged with having rather endea-~
voured to conceal as much as possible the situation of
the coasts and seas connected with their territories ;
and even to influence those who had any knowledge of
these quarters, to withhold it from the world. The few
feeble attempts which they did make, to save appear-
ances, between 1720 and 1730, rather excited the dis-
pleasure than satisfied the expectations of the lic ;
and, by the exertions of Mr Dobbs, Capt. Middleton
was sent out by government in 1741, and Capt. Moor
* A word signifying ‘ Great waters.”
j
iq
4,
Historye
ss
ay ys i a per ey
riper om
HUDSON’S BAY.
_ Duffield for eras: Nm a pair of deer-skim shoes over ara
them ; two pair of thick English stockings, och oa y-
irs
: if
S i
mouth of a small
ames’s Bay, in 51° 28’
smaller establish-
aie
§
st
i H
eas
f 3%
.
is extremely severe, es-
rit
:
|
i
i
i
.
5
E
F
2
sf
:
a
5 §
{
il
:
Ff
L
i
:
Ԥ
Bil
if
ret
Hi
3E
SEERLs
:
E
=
4
:
&
F
i
Se
Sa
FFE
?
on Sirens day» 20d bot love
suspended in the windows
5 this will preserve the beer,
ink from freezing ; and after the fires go out,
of the walls and menareres ore foand ory
with ice two or three inches thick, which is every
cut away with a hatchet. For a winter dress,
of socks of coarse blanketing or
_ @ The reeent of the Hudson's Compacy.
tear in Lord Selkirk's parophiet, pla ‘A Shes
‘ of Monircal. London, 1816.
+ See our
827
of cloth ings over them ; breeches lined with
nel ; two or three English | aaa tp and a fur or leather
gown ; a large beaver cap, double to come over the face
and shoulders, and a cloth of blanketing under the
chin ; yarn gloves, and a large pair of beaver mittens,
hanging down from the shoulder, ready to receive the
ieodan high as the elbows. Yet, with all this cover-
ing, they are frequently pawn frost bitten, when
they stir abroad during the prevalence of the northerly
winds; and many of the natives even fall victims to
the severity of the climate. Watery vapours, ascend-
ing from the open sea-water, and condensed by the
cold, occasion thick fogs, which are carried to a con-
siderable distance along the coast, and which obscure
the sun completely for several weeks together. But,
during the intense cold of winter, the atmosphere is
commonly remarkably clear and serene ; and the stars
shine during the night with extraordinary lustre. The
aurora borealis age is seen almost every night
darting wi
during winter, inconceivable velocity over
the whole. hemis exhibiting the greatest variety
of colours, and completely eclipsing the stars and
planets by its brightness... Parhelia and paraselene, or
mock a snd moons - hays oe peas. ve
appear very uentiy durin e@ CO; months ; and,
at the AA op na different diameters and
various colours 4re seen around the sun for several days
together from his rising to his setting.+ The frost is
never out of the ; and even in summer, when
the heat is oppressive, and the thermometer frequently
at 90 degrees of Fahrenheit, the earth is thawed only
to the depth of three or four feet below the surface.
country.
On nosis coast of Hudson’s Bay, the soil is soit.
completely barren ; and about Lat. 60° vegetation en-
tirely ceases. The suriace of the country is extremely
rugged, covered with enormous masses of stone; and
in many places are seen the most frightful mountains
of an astonishing height. Its barren vallies are watered
by a chain of lakes, which are supposed to be formed
merely by rain and snow, and of which the water is so
cold, as to be productive only of a few small trout. A
little moss, or a blighted shrub, may be seen here ant
there on the mountains, and a few stunted trees in the
lower grounds. The soil about Churchhill Fort is ex-
tremely rocky and barren, and bare of vegetable pro-
ductions. There are no woods within seven miles of
the shore; and those which are found at that distance
consist only of a few stunted junipers, pines, and pop-
lars, pas aen capable of affording a sufficiency of win-
ter’s fuel to the F . Upon advancing northward
from that settlement, the earth becomes gradually more
unproductive and desolate, till at length not the least
herb is to be seen, nor any trace of human observed
in the frigid waste. e produce of a few garden
seeds, put into the ground about the middle olen,
and shooting up with surprizing rapidity, is all that
the residents are able to gather Son the adjoining soil.
At York Fort, the soil, which is of a very loose and
particularly as connected with its disputes with the North. west Company, will
Sketch of the British Pur Trade in North America, with
ions relative to the
GREENLAND, Vol. x. p. 487; and Hato, vol. x p 61%
Buy.
—
828
even though the climate were favourable. Cresses,
radishes, lettuce, and cabbage, are raised by careful
“culture, and, in some propitious seasons, peas and beans
have been produced, but they rarely’ come to perfec-
tion. The face of the country is low and marshy ; and
the trees, though superior to those at Churehhill Fort,
are still very knotty and diminutive ; but, after pro-
ceeding inland towards the south, about Moose and
Albany Forts, the climate is more temperate, and the
trees of considerable size ; potatoes, turnips, and almost
every species of kitchen garden produce, are reared
without difficulty ; and it is supposed that corn also
‘might be cultivated by proper attention. Upon ad-
~vancing ; L
‘still milder, and the soil more productive.
inland towards the west, the climate becomes
Wild rice
and Indian corn are produced in considerable quantities
in the plains; various kinds of animals abound in the
woods; the rivers and lakes are stored with the most
delicious kinds of fish ; and iron, lead, copper, and mar-
ble have been found in the mountainous parts. In
the woods of the more northern tracts, the only trees
are pines, junipers, small scraggy poplars, creepin
birch, and dwarf willows. The ground is covered wit
moss of various sorts and colours, upon which the deer
rincipally feed. Grass is not uncommon; and some
Kinds, especially rye-grass, are so rapid in growth, as
frequently ‘to rise, during the short summer at Church-
hill Fort, to the height of three feet. Another species
of grass, adapted for the support of the feathered tribes,
is very abundant on the marshes and banks of lakes
and rivers.’ Vetches, burrage,: sorrel, coltsfoot, and
dandelion, one of the earliest salads, are plentiful in
some parts around Churchhill river. A herb called
‘Wee-suc-a-pucka grows abundantly in «most parts of
the country, of which the leaves, and especially the
‘flowers, make a very agreeable kind of tea, much used
‘both by the Indians and Europeans, not only for its
pleasant flavour, but also for its salutary effects. It is
of an aromatic nature, and considered as serviceable in
rheumatism, for strengthening the stomach, and pro-
moting perspiration. It is likewise applied outwardly
in powder to contusions, excoriations, and gangrenes ;
but in this view does not appear to possess any medici-
nal quality. Another herb, named by the natives jack-
ashey-puck, resembling the creeping boxwood, is mixed
‘with tobacco, to make it milder and pleasanter in smo-
king. Several small shrubs are found in the country,
which bear fruit; of which the chief are, gooseberries
of the small red ies, which thrive best in rocky
ground, and sp’ along the ground like the vine ;
* currants, both red and black, are plentiful around
‘Churchhill river, and grow best in moist swampy soils.
‘The black berries particularly are large and excellent ;
but in some persons both kinds occasion severe pur-
ging, unless when mixed with cranberries, which com~
pletely correct that tendency. » Hips of a small size are
foutid on the coast, but large and abundant in the in-
terior of the country. Upon a bush, resembling the
creeping willow, grows a berry similar in size and co-
lour to the red currant, but of very unpleasant taste
and smell. Cranberries are very abundant every where;
and, when gathered in dry weather, and carefully
acked with moist sugar, may be preserved for years.
eath-berries are also produced in great quantities,
and their juice makes a pleasant beverage. Juniper
‘berriés are frequently seen, chiefly towards the south,
but are little esteemed either by the natives or thé Eu-
ropeans, except for infusion in brandy. Strawberries
and raspberries, of considerable size and excellent fla-
HUDSON’S BAY.
Hudson’s ‘clayey nature, is nearly equally unfit for agriculture,
vour, are found as*far north as’ Churchhill ‘river, and *
are often most plentiful in those places where ‘the un-
derwood has-been set on fire.’ ‘The eye-berry, resem-
bling a small strawberry, but far superior im flavour,
grows in small hollows among the rocks at ‘some dis-
tance from the woods. There are also the blue-berry,
which grows on small bushes, and resembles the finest
plum in flavour ; the partridge-berry, growing like the
cranberry, but of a disagreeable taste ; and the bethago-
tominick, or dewater-berry, which grows’ abundant]
in swamps on a plant like the strawberry, with a hig
stalk, each bearing only one berry, and is accounted an
excellent antiscorbutic.
The principal animals around Hudson’s Bay are the
Moose-deer, rein-deer, buffaloes, musk oxen, and bea-
vers ; polar or white bear, black bear, brown bear,
wolves, foxes of various colours, lynxes or wild cats,
wolverins, which are remarkably fierce and powerful
animals, able to withstand the bear itself ; otters, pine-
“martins, ermines, a smaller otter called ‘jackash; which
‘is very easily tamed, but, when an or frightened,
apt to emit a most disagreeable smell ; the wejack and
skunk, the last of which is remarkable for its insup-
portably feetid smell ; musk beavers, porcupines, hares,
squirrels, castor-beavers, and mice of various kinds, one
species of which, the hair-tailed mouse, is nearly ‘as
large as a common rat, and capable of being s§ ly
tamed even after they are full grown. Amphibious
animals frequenting the coasts of the Bay, are the wal-
rus or sea-horse, some of which have been killed of so
enormous a size as to exceed the weight of two tons;
seals of various sizes and colours; and sea-unicorns in
the northern parts. Of the feathered race, theré are
eagles and hawks of various kinds, white and grey
owls, ravens, cinereous crows, which are very familiar
and troublesome birds, frequenting the habitations of
the natives, and pilfering every species of’ provision ;
woodpeckers, ruffed use, pheasants, partridges, pi-
ates: thrushes, gree Beakes Npintthge pidiess i
titmice, swallows, martins, cranes, bitterns, earlows,
snipes, plovers, gullemels, divers, gulls, pelicans, go0s-
anders, swans, geese of different kinds, and ‘ducks in
great variety, particularly the mallard, long-tailed, wi-
on, and teal. There are several kinds of ‘frogs, as
‘ar north as the latitude of 61°, which in winter are
generally found in a gt ie? frozen ‘state, yet capa-
ble of reviving when thawed. Grubs, spiders, and
other insects, are found in the same icy condition, from
which they can be recovered by exposure to a gentle
heat. Several kinds of shell fish are found on the
shores of the Bay, particularly muscles, periwinkles,
and small crabs. The empty shells of cockles, wilks,
scallops, and other sorts, are frequently thrown upon
the beach; but none of these have been seen with the
fish in them. There are few fish in Hudson’s Bay.
White whales are found in considerable numbers at the
mouths of the principal rivers ; and the Company’s ser-
vants, in the settlements on the west coast of the Bay,
have been known to send home in some years’ from
eight to thirteen tons of fine oil. A small fish called
kepling, about the size of a smelt, and very excéllent
for eating, resorts in some years to the shore in great
numbers, but at other times is extremely scarce. No
other salt water fish is found in’ the country, except sal-
mon, which are also very plentiful at some seasons, and
equally rare at other times. It has been observed, in
short, that every species me, ped,
fowl, or fish, is remarkably variable at different periods ;
and it thus becomes necessary to provide in plentiful
seasons a quantity of such provisions as are most capa-
‘Hudson's
‘Bay.
Animals.
|
:
|
a) i
su eee TTI atE BT GT
Se ai ai UE He
OEE H OAT HAE SSH x; Hi
Bit HInNR: elit Huei iliehpl
PRES E SASH EE ES ELSES ESE Sg. :. 8S sy ris 23.2 epee
Al ee TRA iH
Hata ne eet
zh teu Hane aula HGTERRERY Hil i
ot se UrTEyE Hat sg7gpgipeaghaa pee
SOLUTE laa sa UL
aT Ute Pv ET eH EL
TL Dae TL eR P ee
SHA Gee a Hh it fH
g 8: 3825°5! qaae sees ac
rit alta HA) THE il ‘aly if
iF ae AIRE ite Hil! Hadi brat i
it HTH TH LE Hatt HiNiiet Hin 2
i hid it
i ih
: fal
330
Hudson's hairs by the root, though they seldom’ effect»this very
Bay.
Hunting.
completely. They have no hair under their arm. pits,
or on any other part of the body, except in those places
which nature directs them to conceal. The skins of
the women are soft, smooth, and polished; and, when
they are dressed in clean clothing, they are entirely free
from any offensive smell, All the tribes of the North-
ern Indians have three or four parallel black strokes on
each cheek, which are ne Ae introducing an awl
or needle under the skin, and. rubbing powdered char-
coal into the wound. after the instrument is drawn out.
As almost the whole of their country is little better than
a mass of rocks and stones, scarcely producing any other
vegetable food: than moss for the deer, they have few
opportunities of collecting furs ; and subsist chiefly by
hunting and fishing. A few of the more active or rest-
less ameng them, who. have acquired a taste for Euro-
pean articles, collect the furs from the rest, or from the
Dog-ribbed and Copper Indians, or from their own
hunting excursions towards the inland districts, where
the proper animals abound; and, after carrying these
to the factories with great risks and fatigues, barter, on
their return, the fruits of their traffic with their less am-
bitious countrymen for necessary food and clothing.
But the greater part, though they may have visited the
factories once in their lives, lead a happier life, and en-
joy a more comfortable subsistence in their own coun-
try. Their real wants are easily supplied ; and a hatch-
et, ice-chisel, file, and knife, are almost all that is requi~
site to enable them; with alittle industry, to procure a
plentiful supply of food and clothing. . They subsist
chiefly on venison, and generally spend the whole sum-
mer in hunting the deer on the open plains, or catching
fish in the rivers. and lakes. As they have no dogs
trained to the chace like the Southern Indians, and as
they seldom have powder and ball in sufficient abun-
dance for the purpose, they make use of their bows and
arrows in killing the deer, as they pass through the
narrow defiles, into which they drive the herds in the
following manner. Upon seeing the deer, they betake
themselves to leeward, lest they should be smelled by
the animals; and then search for a convenient place
for concealing the marksmen, They next collect a num-
ber of sticks, like large ramrods, with a small flag at
the top of each, and these they fix upright in the ground
above fifteen or twenty yards from each other, so as. to
form two sides of a very acute angle, terminating in
the defile, where the huntsmen are concealed behind
loose stones, heaps of moss, &c. _ The women and boys
then divide into. two parties, and going round on both
sides, till they form a crescent behind the herd, drive
them straight forward between the rows of sticks into
the place of concealment, where they are shot as they
run along. The same.mode is employed in the winter
season, to drive the deer into a pound or inclosed space
fenced round with brushy trees. These pounds are of
various sizes according to circumstances, and are some
times about a mile in circumference. The door or en-
trance is not wider than a common gate, and the inside
of the space inclosed is so crossed with hedges as to
form a ind of labyrinth, at every opening of which
also are placed snares made of thongs. As soon as the
deer are driven into the pound, the gateway is blocked
up with trees and brushwood, prepared for the purpose ;
and, while the women and children walk round the out-
side of the fence, to prevent the imprisoned animals
from breaking sbrongh or leaping over, the men are em-
ployed in shooting those which run loose, or in spear=
ing those which have been entangled in the snares.
4
HUDSON’S BAY.
About the end of March or beginning of April, when
the snow, slightly thawed during the day, is frozen du-
ring the “__ into a thin crust, which easily bears the
Indian on his snow slices, but sinks ander the hoof of
the deer, it is a common practice to kill the moose deer,
by literally running them down. The hunters, lightly
clothed, and armed only with a bow and arrows, a
knife, or broad bayonet, generally tire the deer-in less
than a day, though sometimes they continue the chace
for two days before they can come up with the game.
These animals, however, when incapable of running
farther, make a very desperate defence with their head
and forefeet, and. unless the Indians are provided with
a short gun, or with bows and arrows, they find it ne-
cessary to fasten their knives or bayonets to the end of.
along pole, in order to stab the deer, without coming”
within reach of their feet. The flesh of the animals:
killed in this manner is so overheated by the long ran,
that it is never well tasted. In taking fish, they make
use of nets and hooks at all seasons of the year. . Their:
fishing nets are made of thongs cut from raw-deer skins,
(much inferior to those of the Dog-ribbed Indians,
which are made, of the inner bark of the willow tree).
and are furnished with various appendages, such as.
the bills and feet of birds, toes and jaws of otters, &c.
which they superstitiously consider as essential-to their
success. These nets are always used’ separately, and
placed at a distance from each other; and on, no ac-
count would they unite them together for the purpose.
of stretching across the channel of a narrow river ; be-
cause they imagine that one net would become jealous
of its neighbour, and would not catch a single fish, » In
fishing with hooks they are equally influenced by ‘su-
perstitious notions ; and all the baits which they. use:
are compositions of charms, inclosed within a piece of
fish-skin, so as to resemble a small fish: Thesecharms.
are bits of beavers’ tails, otters’ teeth; musk-rats’ ens
trails, squirrels’ testicles, cutdled milk taken from the-
stomachs of sucking fawns and’ calves, human hair,
&c.; and almost every lake and river is supposed to:
require Agr sey combination of different articles.» A.
net or hook, that has taken many fish, is valued accord=
ingly ; and would be taken as an equivalent for anum-
ber of new ones, which had never been tried, or which
had not proved successful. In winter the hooks are let
down through round holes cut in the ice, and are kept
in constant motion, both to. allure the fish, and to. pre-
vent the freezing of the water. From want of fuel,
they are frequently obliged to eat their victuals in a
raw state; and this they occasionally do from choice,
especially in the case of: fish, which. they seldom dress
so far, (even where fire is at hand) as to warm it tho-
roughly. A few of them purchase brass kettles from
the European factories; but the greater part stillpre-
pare their food in large upright vessels made of birch
bark. As these vessels will not admit of being ex
to the fire, the water is made to boil by a succession of
hot stones being introduced; a method which effects
the purpose very expeditiously, but mixes much sand
with the victuals, in consequence of the stones. fre-
quently mouldering down in the kettle. They pe
also the ordinary methods of broiling their food, or
roasting it by a string. They make a favourite dish, by
boiling in a deer’s paunch or stomach a mixture of
minced meat, blood, and fat; but the fat is chewed by
the men and boys, to prepare it for mixing more inti-
mately with the other ingredients, and the igested
food, found in the animal’s stomach, is carefully added
to the mess, In winter, when. the deer feed upon a
Hudson's
Bay.
—_—o
Fishing:
4
oi]
‘
Food.
‘HUDSON'S BAY. 331
sledge is turned up, so as to forni a semicircle of fifteen (Mucson's ©
or twenty Stiched cimneter, to prevent the carriage from __**5-_
diving into light snow, and enable it to rise over the
prot res the surface. The trace is a double line
the or slip of leather fastened to the head of the sledge, and
; ai toa collar, which is put across the shoulders
a often drink the blood, as it flows from of the person who hauls it, so as to rest upon the breast.
i They are sometimes dragged by dogs, but too common-
q ly by the women. The snow shoes of the Northern Snow shoes.
‘Temarkably fond of the womb of Indians differ from all others in that country, in being
&c. even when they are some made so as to be worn always on the same foot, having
gone with young; and are not desirous of clean- a large sweep or curve on theoutside, but riearly straight
Tas tlie toby tase plete! before boiling it for use. inthe inside. The frames are usually made of birch
our Ronan rag. tolgadogers wood, and a netting of thongs from deer skin fastens
the toes and heels to the bottom or sole. are four
‘ feetand a half in length,and about thirteen inches broad.
which they kill, whether male or female, The canoes of the Northern Indians are smaller and Canoes.
Gk pein iin tev, putiy'es lighter than those of the Southern nations, so as to be
dish which they relish, and rtly as a superstitious carried by a single person on the longest journies ; and
fee RM eg alpen are chi yy employed for crossing the rivers and lakes,
7
i?
re
tf
4
{
j
F
Hatt
ue F y
ae
li
i
u
:
cess in the deer skins also, freed from the with which they meet in their These canoes
hair, and well boiled, are frequently used as food. Even are flat bottomed, and sharp at end, so as to bear
the worms, which infest them after the rutting season, some resemblance to a weaver’s shuttle,. They seldom
are squeezed out and eaten alive as great delicacies. exceed twelve or thirteen feet in length ; and are from
When animal food is scarce, the natives boil a kind of twenty to twenty-four inches broad at the widest part.
hard c ly moss which grows upon the larger stones, The forepart is unnecessarily long and narrow; and is
and which for 802 0 aay ag y preparation, all covered over.with birch , So as to admit of no-
sometimes used to en other of broth, and thing being laid into it. The hinder part is much wider,
ron a Roca lie ead sang baal og a All for receiving the baggage, or a second person, who
sa end Hews Ear Southern, Northern, must lie along the bottom, that the vessel may not
and yux, constantly the secretion which pest, ‘while tie rower elts oa his heels in the middle
comes the nose; devour the maggots which are space, impelling the vessel with a single paddle, A !»stru-
ee oe ee tina handful of hatchet, a knife, a file, and an awl, are all the tools ™"*
as much as a European epicure is known to relish which these Indians employ in making their canoes,
the mites in a decayed cheese. snow-shoes, bows, arrows, and other kinds of wooden
The clothing of the Northern Indians consists chief- work. These few instruments they use with the ut-
ly of deer skins, with the hair inwards; but, for sum- most dexterity, and execute every thing in the neatest
mer bh from these skins a fine soft lea- manner. In tanning their leather also, they use a v: Tanning,
ther, they make their stockings, jackets, &c. simple, yet Soeeent ee The skins are first we
pb A a > acre tld ted oped saad ta Tales ¢ of the brains, marrow, and soft
ee oe rts of eight or ten deer ;and fat of the animal ; then dried before the fire, and even
these must, Sekabke, ts escnted month of hung in the smoke for several days. They are next
‘ur is
; in the
August, or of September, when the fi is thoroughly steeped and washed in warm water, till the
thickest the sha Tet injured worms. Each grain of the skin fe perfectly open ind moletened j sfet
person Sede er ee ee which they are carefully wrung, and dried before a slow
Se ae ing ,forthongs, fire, being in the meantime repeatedly rubbed and
‘and othe purposes, what is stretched as long as any moisture remains. Last of
d for tents, &e. The coverings of the tents all, they are smooth with a knife, and are ex-
are formed of skins with the hair; and by the tremely soft and beautiful, almost equal to shamois
N ‘Indians are commonly composed (di ly leather. The women of the Northern Indians, as in Women.
from the oa tribes) of - most other tribes, are more the ‘slaves than the com-
rate five skins in Atthe panions of the men ; and are held in a’state of unmiti-
skins of the deer’s legs together in the shape stature and a delicate shape; but being inured to la-
of which they use asa kind oftempo- bour from their infancy, they are able'to sustain all
rary ‘till they reach a where wood can kinds of drudgery, and to carry very heavy loads on
be p ; _then construct proper sledges of their journies. It is nothing unusual to see them bear
thin boards of larch fir; and’make them of various si- on their backs a burden of eight or ten stone of four-
zes, according to the of the by whom teen pounds each, or haul in a sledge a much greater
pe Both general do not exceed weight. They are expected also to dress the deer skins,
eight or nine feet in length, and e or fourteen make the clothing, cook the victuals, pitch the tents,
imches in breadth ; but sometimes they are not less than home the game when killed, and perform all the
Fatty hn od. eet ane seg rec work of splitting, drying, and g it for use.
wide. The boards, of they are made, are on- Ose eS eee are not allowed to
about a of an inch thick, arid five or six inch- joke bs , even weer Steer]
or ve eaten what’ think pro-
Semmes cumtpeanat: ict Sercet nt
: se- their Jot to without a ‘single morsel. They
eure the ground lashing. The head or fore part of the sess little beauty even in yout and Become old and
pan teh Aaah reat frequently sew gated subjection. They are commonly rather of low —
832
Hudson's wrinkled before they reach the age of thirty. | But
Bay.
—\—
they are remarkably chaste, mild, and obliging crea-
tures, making the most faithful servants, affectionate
wives, and indulgent mothers. A plurality of wives
is customary among all these Indians, and every man
takes as many as he is able to maintain, or has occa-
sion to employ in his service. It is not uncommon to
see six or eight in one family; and they are changed
or increased in number, at the pleasure of the husband,
From the early age of eight or nine years, the girls are
kept under the greatest restraint, and are not permitted
to join in any amusements with the children of the
other sex ; but are obliged to be constantly beside the
old women, learning their domestic labours. They are
betrothed at an early period of life, without any choice
of their own, but entirely at the will of their relations,
who are chiefly anxious to connect them with men able
to maintain them, .No ceremonies attend their mar-
riages, or divorces ; and they are taken or dismissed as
the husband chooses. When he suspects any of them
of incontinency, or is not pleased with her accomplish.
ments, he administers a beating and turns her out of
doors, telling her to go to her lover or relations, as the
case may be. It is also a daily occurrence among them
to take by force, the wives of others, whom they may
happen to fancy ; and all that is necessary to decide the
claim, is to vanquish the former wa, wrestling.
On these occasions, the by-standers never attempt to
interfere ; nor will one brother even offer to assist an-
other, except by giving his advice aloud, which being
equally heard, may be equally followed by both the
parties engaged. In these contests, there is properly
nothing like fighting ; and it is very rarely that either
of the combatants receives any hurt, The whole affair
consists in pulling each other about by the hair of the
head, or, if they should have taken care to cut off their
hair and grease their heads before beginning the con-
test, they endeavour to seize each other around the
waist, and struggle to prove their superior strength
and title, by throwing their antagonist to the ground,
When one of them falls or yields, the other is entitled
to carry of the woman, who was the cause of conten-
tion; but as the children usually go with the mother,
it is chiefly for the younger wives, that these contests
take place. It isa common custom among them to
exchange wives for a night, as one of the strongest ties
of friendship between the two families ; and, in case of
the death of either husband, the other considers him-
self bound to support the children of the deceased.
The women among the Northern Indians are less pro-
lific than the females of more civilized nations ; and
their children are commonly: born at such intervals,
that the youngest is usually two or three years old be-
fore another is brought into the world. The wife,
when taken in labour, is removed to a. small tent erect-
ed for her separate accommodation, at such a distance
from the other tents, that her cries cannot be heard ;
and no male above the age of childhood approaches
the place. No assistance is offered by the other women
to facilitate the birth, which is generally easy, and the
recovery of the mother not Jess speedy. A woman af-
ter delivery, however, is accounted unclean for a month
or more, and continues to occupy a separate tent with
one or two female acquaintances ; nor does the father,
during all that time, even see the child, in the appre-
hension that he might dislike its appearance, before its
countenance is duly formed. At certain monthly pe-
riods, also, the women are not itted to remain in
the same tent with their husbands, and are obliged to
HUDSON’S BAY.
make a small hovel for themselves at a little distance ‘Hudson's
from the rest. When these periods arrive, they er
out of the tent at the side where they happen to be =“y™™
sitting, as on such occasions they are not permitted to
‘0 out or in by the door ; and it is said, that, upon
isagreement with their husbands, they often make a
pretence of being in that situation, as a reason for a
temporary separation. During these periods, a woman
is restricted from walking on the ice of rivers or lakes,
or where a fishing net is placed, or from crossing a path
where the head of any animal has been carried, or from
eating of any part of the head ; and all this from a su-
perstitious notion that by so doing she would impede
their success in hunting. The children are not put in
cradles as among the Southern Indians, but merely haye
asmall bundle of dry moss placed between their legs,
and are thus carried on the mother’s back next her
skin, till they are able to walk. Though managed in
this awkward manner, very few deformed persons are ”
seen among them. The children are named by the
parents or near relatives; and the names of the boys
are generally taken from that of some animal, place or
season. Those of the girls are most frequently ex-
Seeaeire of some quality or part of the martin, such as.
hite Martin, B Martin, Summer Martin, Mar-
tin’s-head, Martin’s-foot, Martin’s.tail, &c. ‘The men,
though very indifferent about their wives, express much
affection to their children, ially to the youngest ;
apparently actuated by no other principle than mere
natural instinct.
When two parties of these Indians chance to meet, salutations,
te r
their mode of salutation is tather singular, and qui
different from all Euro) practices, When about
twenty or thirty yards int from each other, they
make a full halt; and sit or lie down upon the ground _
without speaking for some minutes. At 1 the
oldest on one side breaks silence by relating to the other
y all the misfortunes which have betallen him or
is companions, since they had last seen or heard of
each other, and also all the deaths or calamities of any
of their countrymen, as far as may have come to his
knowledge. A similar communication is made in re«
ply ; and, should any of the two companies be nearly
affected by any of the bad news announced, they be«
gin to sob and cry, in which all the rest unite with the
utmost vehemence. They then advance by degrees,
and mix together, the two sexes, however, always asso~
ciating separately. The pipes are passed freely, if any
tobacco can be found among them ; conversation be~
comes general ; the good news circulate ; cheerfulness
appears on every countenance ; and small presents of
provisions, ammunition, or other articles,are made, some-
times as gifts, but more frequently as ulations to
draw forth a greater present in return.
and arrow; playing a game resembling that of quoits,
in which they won oa of short Sie ks a one
end ; or shifting a button, or small bit of wood from
hand. to hand, as in “ which hand will you take?” in
which the player, whenever he guesses rightly, receives
a counter or chip of wood from his antagonist, and he
who first gains all the sticks, is winner of the stake,
which is usually an arrow, or a single load-of powder
and shot, or something of inconsiderable value. At
times they. amuse themselves: with ing, which is
always performed during the night; but in which.they
have nothing peculiar to their own nation, and:always
imitate the s and. dances of the Southern tribes, or
more ert * the .Dog-ribbed Indians, These
Their princi- Amuse.
pal amusements are shooting at a mark with the bow ments.
.
333
HUDSON’S BAY.
Hudson's
Bay.
—_—
ir
em a
meat was
‘y-
as the original
The notions which these Indians entertain in religion
to
ey
the
like young children,
.
, mm
Patt
with fat, and now and then
drop of water. At other times, a small bi
and
de-
quite
y
their
>
that one
up-
the hoarse-
3 and when
influence to any
and finall:
; for
es fixed as if in
The absolute
Deca
so an ab-
Sy eae oe
they often
shapes of beasts,
to place in quest.of
pposed to be equally
were
of id all
ment, not even so
poor deluding
ce,
endeavo
feigned
erable time after-
mode of conve:
juring+ house,
with die to be
no
so sore that the
is so
being always
one’s life
with the worst of the vice
any on
bh a malign
imagina’
vi
t
held for them to smoke.
e first day ; after which
its or fairies, with whom
ise to wear ;
deliberately abandoned
and whom
to them under the
&e. T
any easy.
considered
iy well, except
iri
perf
eae py enya ue eye
con)
uage. A
sp
are su)
oe
ectl
with their e
Sinaia
urors profess to accomplish their
sat constantly by
oar
4
es.come to
et, has!
e ; ay
not an:
their hair, —~ y ery
calamity that
When any
oe by his
y despise
e of
iserable manner.
, OF a pi
ingle word, exce
gs
and xo in their lan
part
aged
may be
unnatural custom.
water. When these
‘oats
came out of the co
so to do for three days and four nights,
taking
people
three or “ contin
aiieede dees much asa
a little
their
as
the least rest or refresh
ger able to. walk
of want. This i
to converse,
of the famil.
of
y
Tiree nly
them,
uses of this
they were very careful not
too much at one time, particularly for
phate
join ast
y of moving from
SR yg
oe Hf a i
ulin! i bln a PATHE
1 Here nine iH line dae 543 at isp
HIDE age %
La re Mle ‘Bit
These
ae igbetd ieee
His
ert
whe er
‘his farce onl:
half at least of the
of their
—.
4
an
lay; and, ance
Mr
feat of swallowin
tse took with him other five men and
es
dance
ack, and their
and, indeed, some of them, to
pat into thei
posed to die in this mi
necessit
stinence,
without
for yes
like an
These
b
et va
possible. bl
‘and some- able to articulate a s
feet alter- mouths were so
y
forwards, deluded
naked, began ca
k man,
ay egal
the
around the sic
=
heads
quite
bu
the part
tad vocables:
such as
ty Hows it,
the
as long
unusually
; and
the
ne which,
sere
: min *
ahead
and to
&e. ;
ening oe Some
and laborious, as
aan belies aor
rene :
yi quik
fiona
—
emsely
and
e
are b
sant op nae,
and, wi
pa - . stiff, >
and as hi
drum or
alo’s a
or small
with the voice,
kind of tune, the words hee
3
i ui iit ; ue alu PH ie
cal ane tha ne ali a ani
simple,
a
Lars Be
their
es kept
b
made of
, and filled with pebbles
&c. The women are never allowed to
te Hie 3 each : 1E
fil te i
ts are
Soke
oa, be Ke
ei
i
Dircaves.
334
Hudson’s are so extremely vague and limited, that they may al-
Bay.
Religion.
Character,
most be said to have no ideas at all on that subject.
With regard to the origin of the world, they have a
tradition, that the first person on earth was a woman,
who, after being some time alone, found an animal like
a dog, which followed her to the cave where she lived,
and transforming itself’ during the night-time into the
shape of a handsome youth, rendered her the mother
of a family. Some time afterwards, a person of such
gigantic stature as to reach the clouds with his head,
came to level the land, which had been hitherto a con-
fused heap, and this he effected merely with the help
of his walking stick, marking out, at the same time,
the lakes, ponds, and rivers. He then took the dog,
and, tearing it in pieces, threw its intestines into the
waters, commanding them to become fishes ; dispersed
ts flesh over the land, with a similar charge to form
the different kinds of beasts; threw the pieces of its
skin in the air, to give origin to the feathered tribes ;
commanded the woman and her offspring to kill, eat,
and never spare, as. he had charged these creatures to
multiply for her use; and then returning to the place
whence he came, has never been heard of since. They
believe in the existence of several kinds of spirits, whom
they suppose to inhabit the different elements, and to
whose influence they attribute every change in their
lot, whether favourable or adverse. They have no
fixed creed, however, in these matters; but are conti-
nually receiving new fables from their conjurors, who
profess to receive intimations in dreams from these in-
visible beings. They have no practical religious ob-
servances whatever, except perhaps speaking with re-
verence of certain beasts and birds, in which they ima-
ine these spirits to reside. But they restrict the in-
uence of these beings upon their welfare entirely to
the present life, and have no idea whatever of a future
state.* They have indeed a multitude of superstitious
customs, some of which have already been mentioned,
respecting success,in hunting, fishing, &c. but which
seem to partake more of the nature of civil than reli-
ious institutions. One of the most remarkable of these
is that which they observed after having put to death
any of their enemies in war. All those who have shed
blood are, for many months afterwards, in a state of
uncleanness, and obliged to perform a number of strange
ceremonies. They are prohibited from cooking any
kind of victuals for themselves or others; required to
paint their faces with red earth before every meal ;
restricted to the use of their own pipe and dish ; for-
bidden to eat various parts of animals, particularly the
head, entrails, and blood ; precluded from having their
food pr in water, so that, if they could not have
it broiled on the fire or dried in the sun, they must eat
it in'a raw state ; and finally denied the privilege of sa-
luting any of their wives and children. When the ap-
pointed time is expired, they kindle a fire at some dis-
tance from the tents, into which they throw all their
ornaments, pipe-stems, and dishes; and then partake
of a feast, consisting of all those articles of food which
they had been prohibited from using.
The Northern Indians are an indolent, improvident
race; and are frequently in danger’ of starving from
mere want of exertion and foresight, especially in their
‘and often fall a sacrifice to the fu
HUDSON’S BAY.
trading excursions to Prince of Wales Fort, the only
one of the factories which they frequent. They are
seldom guilty of pa, Mia one another, but are
ready to pic P every kind of iron work which falls
in their way at the Company’ssettlements. They excel
in all the arts of defrauding and overreaching, and es<
pecially in playing the part of feigned want and dis~
tress. - They are continually pleading poverty even
among themselves; and, at the factory, they may be
said to hee begging more then traffic. They are
generally of a morose and covetous disposition, and re-
markably deficient in gratitude. They are by no
means a warlike people, and are not inclined to acts of
cruelty, except towards their enemies the Esquimaux.
Whatever losses or injuries they may sustain from one
another, their revenge rarely extends beyond a wrest-
ling match with the offender, Murder is almost un-
known among them; and the perpetrator of such a
crime would be treated by universal consent as an out«
law from their tribe. At the same time, they testify
little humanity to the sufferings of others beyond the
circle of their immediate relatives; and are known rather
to ridicule, in the most unfeeling manner, the most af-
flicting cases of distress. They are not at all addicted
to the use of sprituous liquors ; and, though some, who
have intercourse with the factory, may learn to take
them freely enough, when given gratis, they never
think of them as an article of purchase. They are
thus always sober, and are guilty of no greater rioting,
than what consists in abusive language. They are apt
to become insolent and uncomplying when treated with
indulgence ; but nevertheless are by far the mildest
tribe of Indians to be found on the borders of Hudson’s
Bay.
The og age who inhabit the northern coasts of Esquimaux.
Hudson’s Bay, * (to whom alone the following parti«
culars a py) seldom approach the Company’s fort at
Churchhill River ; but a sloop is regularly sent to trade
with them at Knapp’s Bay, Navel’s Bay, and Whale
Cove. It is only since the middle of last century, that
the Company’s servants could venture to land among
them, (partly perhaps because they were considered by
the Esquimaux as the allies of their most inveterate
enemies, the Northern Indians,) but they have of late
‘become so much civilized, and reconciled to the Euro
peans, as readily to welcome their arrival, and to treat
them with every mark of hospitality. They have lony
been persecuted by their more powerful neighbours
the Northern Indians with the most savage barbarity.
No quarter is ever granted on either side; and the
strongest party never fails to massacre every creature
of the vanquished, without sparing even the women
and children. Of late years, however, the company’s
servants have extended their protection to the oppress-
ed Esquimaux, and have succeeded in establishing a
peace between the two nations, so far at Jeast that par-
ties and individuals of both tribes can meet each other
in a friendly manner, or rather without any disposition
to plot each other’s destruction. But the more distant
Esquimaux, who reside so far to the north as to have
no intercourse with the Europeans, are still exposed
of their enemies.
They are tolerably well protected in winter by their
* The Southern Indians consider the aurora boreulis as the assembled spirits of their departed friends dancing in the clouds ;_but
the Northern Indians have no belief of this nature, and merely speak of that phenoménon by the name of Deer, in consequence, it is
said, of observing, that a hairy deer-skin, when briskly stroked with the hand in the dark, emits: electrical sparks like these lights
the atmosphere,
in
+ For an account of the other tribes of that people, see Grzextinn and Tasrapone
Hudson's
Bays
—_—
_t
{i
HUDSON’S BAY.
ty. They were, at the same time, admonished, to trade Hudson's
of their, Bay-
to study “Yo”
:
nn
F
fa
a)
i
a
I
i
f
Ff
2
2
z
F
Fy
4
t
Seite
aa
ae
|
|
i
:
uit
2
i
F
i
i
j
Bs
FH
'F
18
ip
F
iit
z
t
i
g
§
:
&
:
F:
:
iH
i
at
i
¥
i
ith
ifs
i
it
i
a
4j
i
i
a
Ee)
Bx
rear
ie
=F
j
:
|
i
i
2
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§
é
tie
;
=
i
; at the same time, with
385
with them equitably, and to take no adv;
native simplicity ; to explore the country,
to derive such benefit from its soil and produce,
might redound to the interest/of the mother-
ae as ~ mee — emolument; to beni over
viour servants, especially as to so-
briety, tem aps akan ose for. the services of
religion. The chief person in command at each settle-
ment is called the governor of the fort, and sometimes
there is one appointed to act under him termed the se-
cond... These, with the and the master of the
sloop attached to the place, constitute a council, who
deliberate together in all matters of importance, or cases
of em . . The governors are appointed for a pe-
riod of three or five years, a ate #50 ee
per annum as fixed salary, with a premium u e
trade, which consequently fluctuates csnding its
amount.* The labouring servants, who are chiefly
procured from the Orkney islands, are generally en-
gaged for three, four, or five years, and, about twenty
years received £6 per annum as wages, indepen-
dent of maintenance. . Their employments consist prin-
cipally in carrying fuel, sledging the snow out of the
avenues of the factory, and hunting. The company
export muskets, pistols, powder, shot, brass and iron
kettles, hatchets, knives, cloth, blankets, baize, flannels,
as
?
| roa om
ly su to gain about 2000 cent. It
se Fe sca however, as praportlopsbiy detri.
mental to the mother-country ; and it has been affirm-
ed, that, if laid entirely open, the numberof persons
employed, and the quantity of wares exported, might
easily be increased ten-fold. The com are charged,
the and al ; Peeler > a aon
greatest secrecy, ways i utmost
reluctance to the details. of their trade to. public
view. On the other band, during a i. toe
wiry into their proceedings in 1749, p
p sedi to prove, that ‘their profits were sufficiently
limited, as from the following summary of
their expenditure and returns, in the space of ten years,
from 1739 to 1748 inclusive:
Charges of shipping, factories, &c. in ten
JO. nhs 8% os £157,482 14 4
Exports during that period . 52468 9 0
Total : £209,896 3 4
Amount of sales 273,542 18 8
Clear profits from the trade in ten? >
Res ohn } £63,646 a5 4
Dividends in one year
shares of £100 each
For each proprietor of £100 stock
among 100) poses 13.6
£63.12 11
The following aecount of imports and sales. for one
year, from ‘Mi 1747 to Michaelmas 1748, may
* The second has about £40; an assistant, £25; and a clerk, £15 per canum..
336
HUDSON’S BAY. :
Hudson's afford a more detailed view of the articles of the trade,
Bay. and their respective values.
a a. Hudson's
Bed-feathers.. 5,8381bs. at... 1 2 perlb. me
Castor ..... 308..at...6 213 do. —_——
Pd |
In forming a standard of trade with the natives, the
beaver skin is taken as the universal measure; and a
comparative valuation made of the other
kinds of pel-
Articles. Number. Led Whale fins... 226..at...2 0.
Beaver skins. . 52,7165. at... 7 6 per skin. Minks ..... 83... at... 38 1 perskin. .
Martins .... 8485 ..atv..6 8 do. Racoons .... 26.01. abs/.'6 2/9 “dos
Otters». 6.5 .1,445 0 at... 9 74 do. Goose quills . 43,000 ..at.. 15 OM.»
Cats ..4... 1,199... at... 10 10} do. Musquash... 268 ..at...0 91 perskin,
Foxes ..... 627.. at...8 14 do. Badger .... 80..at...1 2 do.
Wolverins .. 977. at. 5 0 do, -
Beararicce. oi S71) 20. dt!) Boge do. Total value... £30,160 5 11 : .
Wolves .... 1,663 ,. at... 9 6} do. '
Woodshocks . . 32 sat 210-7 do. The Company’s establishments in the Bay, in the
Re PF eps SOE ab Gov! ‘de ear 1790, may be seen at one view in the following
Deer). sus) “TOS ats Wi) 2 -Bedo: able.
Settlements. ‘Number of |I[ndian Set-| Ships con- | Sloopsin | Trade on
Servants. | tlements. | signed to. |thecountry.| average.
S Ships. Tons,|Sloops, Tons,
een ne Gk hes we 25 1 of 250} 1 of 70}/£10,000
Bevenithodaet 2 * wacmundoanps 200 “I 1 of 250)11 of 60} 25,000 ;
Albany Fort......... 50 2 5,600
Moose Fort .......... 40 2 1 of 280} lof 70 7,000 ;
Wegst Maiti’. ce ss = ate 5's 25 lof 70 _ ; :
Total . . 240 8 3 780) 4 270|£47,600 '
No. 1 as 2 beavers.
try, &c.
A full grown moose j
Cub ditto .
Old bears... °
Cub ditto . r
Foxes, black .
gra ‘ *
Ditto, white
Ditto, red. é
Ditto, brown &
Wolf . 3 .
Wolverins .
Cats 5 é
Otter, old t
Castor .
é skin 1 as 2 beavers.
e er és ate Ge & a CE ene
iz
- 9
DW 6019 eee DE De eRe
—
a
—
=)
ee ee ee on ee Be
With these the trading goods are bartered, or rather
directed to be bartered, at the following rates: —
r . Ib.1 as 1 beaver.
Glass beads ee
China ditto ;
Kettles, brass =
Coarse cloth “
Tobacco, Brazil .
Ditto, leaf .
Ditto, English roll
Shirts, check J F las2
Ditto, white FS a stam toe
Stockings, yarn. - )pairl. 2
Seeds z “ ‘ x Pb. Ritucw
Shot m “ a 4 S 4 1
Duffels . 20 ant Mato yale d clut
Knives 4 z ‘ No.4 1 4
Guns. g ‘ ‘ No.1 14 j
Combs Pee ae a bal GF bint ti
F ‘lints . . . - > 16 1 4’
Vermilion . ¥ & lb.1 16 }
Pistols F z ‘ No.1 7
Small burning glasses . . 1 1. 7 |
Gartering . «» . yard13} 1 = |
aoee lace. F * < 13 1 i
ings, brass . . 03 1
iden! swiss. ial Ga ae :
Tobacco boxes « . . head
Awl blades if i = 8 yt g
Boxes, barrel 1. Aus at Gade Be We ;
Hawks-bells | i - pairl2 1 :
Sword blades n £ No.1 1 y
Ice chisels . Fe - ‘ 2 uly
Gun worms > Pt . 4 1
Hats, coarse x Nol 4
Trunks, small leather 3 ee '
Needles . - . . 12 1
Hatchet Bd é 3 gall - :
Brandy, i A . ion f ;
Medal moe F " g No.12 1
Thimbles ; - ‘ ‘ ey
Collars, brass : . . 4 ia@ a
Fire steels . . . * 3 1
Razors ne ‘ < Fy 2.41
Thread ‘ % r Ibidhanoboe
Out of this standard, however, which is in itself
sufficiently hard upon the Indians, the factors are al-
lowed, for their own emolument, to raise a surplus-
fin
prada allay to seek it through a long
titors under Joseph Fycbialier, the Geaigany’i trade
suffered so severely, that, in 1775, it fell short nearly
one half of what it had been in 1774 They immediate-
ly commenced it of the ii erect-
trading houses in the interior. In 1775, ae -
Gia seonhenk ok Preedinee Laks,"ta ‘north itude
longitude 102° 15’; in 1793, their
fs
u
Saniziey of the
ein north latitude 50" 42",
Since the establishment of these
the Indians have in a
rivil
sa
ey
F
t
f
|
ised their agents
the encroachments of Ca-
with i
From that date, 1762 to 1764, I yearly sent inland, and
directors of what was goi
tablish settlements inland, with which readil
and have continued to do so wheal ius Awa
turers, and far superior to the Com
: the former work for their own benefit,
not.”” “I repeatedly advised the Direct
Gubaten 5 Dee ies
VOL. XI. PARTI.
HUE
never would venture,
would be in want of food.” e company, however,
have been loudly and publicly Gerget Wak making
only the most languid exertions, with failing from an
ill-judged parsimony to animate their servants by ade-
quate salaries, and with gene ne buter ing in the
carrying part of the inland trade native Indians,
who are so much less active than the Canadian ser-
vants, and who are thus withdrawn from their more
been the gainers, by the remissness of those
from H ’s Bay ; and who must be convinced, that,
if the trade were thrown n, it would naturally be
ted rather through the more favourable stations
on Hudson’s Bay, than through the circuitous rout of
the St Lawrence. See Foster's History of Voyages and
Discoveries in the North ; Hearne’s Tr lo the North-
ern Ocean ; Mackenzie's Voyages through the Continent
of North America; Umfreville’s Stale of Hudson's
; and Long’s Travels in Canada. (q)
ver, Perek Daniet, Bishop of (ee in
France, an eminent scholar, was born of a good family
at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of F; , 1630.
His parents died while he was but an infant, ‘and left
him to the care of guardians, who neglected him ; but
his natural abilities and innate love of learning over-
came all disadvantages, and before he was thisteon
aoe.o pan Be had finished his studies in the belles
tres. a
: ing entered into the study of ag
he found pao bm guide in father Main run, a rsd
suit, who directed him to begin by learning a little
etry. Huet, however, went farther than his tutor
Tat, and contracted such a relish for the mathema-
tics as had almost induced him to abandon his other
studies.
Having finished his elementary studies, it was his
Sidet fo spely himself to the law, and to take his de-
grees in that faculty ; but from this pursuit he was di-
verted by two books which were then published. These
bod “d vega a geet: »”” and “ Bochart’s
3 To the philosophy of Descartes,
of which he was Bs iat ede, he adhered for many
years; but afterwards abandoned it, when he disco.
vered the fa of its principles. The immense eru-
dition displayed in ‘s work made a great im.
pression on him, and inspired him with a strong desire
to become conversant with Greek and Hebrew learn.
ing. To assist his ress in these studies, he con-
tracted a friendship with Bochart, who was minister of
the Protestant church at Caen.
At the age of twenty, he was emancipated, by the
custom of Normandy, from the tuition of his guardians;
and soon after made a journey to Paris, with the view
of purchasing books, and becoming acquainted with
the learned men of the times. About two years after.
wards, he accompanied Bochart to the court of Chris-
tina, queen of Sweden; and had thus an opportunity
of introducing himself to the learned in other parts of
Europe. The queen, it is said, wished to have enga-
ged him in her service; but owing to the jealousy and
© The late Andrew Grahame, Esq, Prestonpans,
2u
ing as excuse, that they Huet -
Huet.
—“v—" ception had not been very
r 0
HUE,
intrigues of Bourdel, another physician, Bochart’s re-
‘acious ; and Huet bem
aware of the fickle tem Christina, declined all of-
fers, and returned to France after an absence of three
months. The principal advantage which he derived
from this journey, besides the acquaintance he formed
with the learned men in Sweden and Holland, con-
sisted in the acquisition of a copy of a manuscript of
Origens Commentaries upon St Matthew, which he tran-
scribed at Stockholm. While engaged in translating
this work, he was led to consider the rules of transla-
tion, as well as the different manners of the most cele~
brated translators; and in 1661, he published his
thoughts upon this subject at Paris, under the title De
interpretatione libri duo ; a wérk written with great vi-
gour and elegance, in the form of a dialogue between
Casaubon, Fronto Duceus, and Thuanus. In 1664,
he published, at Utrecht, an elegant collection of Greek
and Latin poems, which was afterwards enlarged in se-
veral successive editions, At length, in 1668, he pub-
lished at Rouen his Origenis Commentarii, &c. cum La-
tina inierpretatione, nolis et observationibus, in 2 vols.
folio ; to which was sf ipcecnps an ample preliminary dis:
course, containing all that antiquity relates concerning
Origen.
In 1659, Huet was invited to Rome by Christina,
who had abdicated her crown and retired thither ; but
he again declined the invitation. About ten years af-
ter, when Bossuet was appointed preceptor to the Dau-
phin, Huet was chosen for his colleague, with the title
of sub-preceptor. He accordingly went to court in
1670, and remained there till 1680, when the dauphin
was married. It is to this appointment probably that
the learned world is indebted 4 for the editions of the
classics in usum Delphini; for although the first idea of
the commentaries for the use of the dauphin was started
by the Duke de Montausier, it was Huet who digested
the plan, and directed the execution of this useful un-
dertaking. Although necessarily much occupied with
the duties of his situation, he found leisure, at this pe-
riod, to compose his Demonstratio evangelica, which
was published at Paris in 1679, in folio, and has since
been reprinted in various forms.. He was admitted a
member of the French Academy in 1674,
At the age of forty-six, Huet entered into orders ;
and in 1678 he was presented by the king to the abbey
of Aunay in Normandy, whither he retired every sum-
mer after he had left the court. In 1685, he was no-
minated to the bishopric of Soissons, which, with the
consent of the king, he exchanged with the Abbé de
Sillery for the see of Avranches. In 1689, he pub-
lished his Censura philosophie Cartesiane ; and in 1690
his Questionis Alnetane de Concordia Rationis et Fidei,
which work is written in the form of a dialogue, after
the manner of Cicero’s Tusculan Questions.
In 1699, he resigned his bishopric of Avratiches, and
was presented to the abbey of Fontenay, near the gates
of Caen. Soon after, he removed to Paris, and lodged
among the Jesuits in the Maison Professée, to whom he
bequeathed his library, reserving to himself the use of
it while he lived. Here he resided during the last
twenty years of his life, and employed himself chiefly
in writing notes on the vulgate translation of the Bible;
for which purpose he is said to have read over the He-
brew text twenty-four times, comparing it, as he went
along, with the other Oriental texts, In 1712, he was
seized with a severe illness, from which, contrary to
the expectation of his physicians, he gradually reco-
vered, and applied himself to the writing of his life,
which was published at Amsterdam in 1718, under the
338
HU Le,
title of Pet. Dan. Huelii, Episcopi Abricensis, Commen-
larius de rebus ad eum pertinentibus. The critics have
wondered how such a master of the Latin language as
Huet should have been guilty of so great a solecism in
the very title of his book, by using the pronoun eum
instead of se. This performance, although composed
in an amusing style, is by no means equal to his other
works, his faculties being then a good deal impaired.
He died on the 26th of January 1721, in the 91st year
of his age. ‘The Abbé Olivet relates a most remarkable
singularity of Huet, viz. that for two or three hours
before his death, he recovered all the vigour of his ge-
nius and memory.
Besides the works we have mentioned in the course
of the preceding narrative, Huet published a variety
of other treatises upon literary and philosophical sub-
jt He had been, throughout the whole of his long
ife, a hard student; and he left behind him the repu-
tation of one of the most learned men of the age,
ever Historique de M. Huet, par M.U Abbé Olivet, pres
fixed to his Traité There de la foiblesse. de Fis
prit humain ; Aikin’s Life of Huet, London, 1810 3; and
Gen. Thee. Dict. . (z)
HUGUENOTS, a name of uncertain origin, given
to the Protestants of France. A full account of their
history will be found in our article France, Vol. IX.
p. 563. et seq. ?
HULL, or Kinestren-vron-HUutt, is a seaport town
of England, in the east riding of Yorkshire, situated on
the west side of the river Hull, and on the northern
side of the river Humber, about twenty miles from its
mouth, aus
The town, which lies on a level tract of ground, exe
tends nearly in a direct line along the river Hull, from
the Humber bank to very near the church of Sculcoates,
a space of about two miles. It stretches nearly as far
in another direction, from the High Street on the river
Hull towards Beverley, Anlaby, and Hessle. The dock,
or artificial harbour, divides the town into two princi«
pal divisions. The one to the north of the dock be-
ongs to the parish of Sculcoates, and is without the ori-
ginal boundaries of Hull. It consists. of several y
spacious streets, which have been built chiefly within
the last. thirty years.. The principal streets of Hull are
clean and spacious, and the whole town is paved, flag-
ged, and lighted.
The public buildings of Hull are numerous but by no
means elegant. The Trinity church, which was partly
built about the year 1312, is a magnificent and beautiful
structure, built in the Gothic style. It occupies a space of
20,056 square feet. It extends 279 feet from the west
door to the east end of the chancel. The nave is 144
feet long, the breadth of the transept 28, and the length
of the chancel 100. ‘The breadth of the nave is 72
feet, and the breadth of the chancel 70 feet. St Mary’s
church, commonly called the Low church, was built a
few years later than the preceding. Its length is 74
feet, and the height of the steeple 74 feet. St John’s
church, a neat and simple brick building, was erected at
the sole expence of the Rev. Thomas Dikes, and finish
ed in 1792. It is 86 feet long, and 59 broad. It is
wholly built upon arches, raised seven feet above the
surface, and contains more than 70 vaults for burying
the dead. The town contains several places of worship
belonging to the three denominations of dissenters, to.
the Methodists, and other sectaries. The Methodist
chapel in Waltham Street is crecionn pea:
Among the charitable institutions of Hull, that of the
Trinity-house is the most ancient. It was established
in 1369 for the reception of decayed seamen who haye
HULL. -
area. The di
which they contain, are well
oe
intendance of a master. AA pais
jecting wi and is built of
Gack ecaetl with blue slate. It contains
the pen who are allowed 3s. 6d. per week each
oh egos pelo g ss proetachs Banal antl The cha-
1, which is spacious and neat, is in the of the
bod
ih The = charities re Lister fst
reception of 12 pers; Gregg’s ital ;
Crowle’s H I, for 12 paupers ;, Watson’s Hospital,
The y Hall or Work House was established in
the reign of William IIf. The house is decent
and commodious, and bas a house of correction adjoin-
i
and modate tly
spot, can accom seventy in-
ga of wards open Cec ie can
‘or the pu of obtaining a perfect
total number of sents adnitted be:
tween 1782 and 1816 is 15,129, of whom 11,248 have
cured, and 193 greatly relieved. The total nam-
t of persons vaccinated up to January 1, 1816, is
5305
The aa vs pe Bove been esta-
d - More than 4251 patients
song wm pn i 5th April 1802, and the num-
of children born 4,314. The Hull Female Peni-
was opened in July 1311. More than 100
Micdlasites Diazeamery be jade
and a Humane Society
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on the east bank of the river. The ancient castle, call-
ed the Magazine, is a mere storehouse for arms and am~-
munition. A battery of 21 guns faces the Humber, and
the embrasures on the mounds are well furnished with
cannon. The citadel is surrounded with a ditch palisa-
doed in the middle. ,The garrison generally consists of a
few companies of invalids. The exchange was o on
the Ist of January 1794. It isa brick building on a most
substantial plan, witha spacious flagged area in front of it.
The public subscription news room is above the) ex-
change. The custom-house is a spacious and hands
some building, situated in White Friar Gate. The the
atre, erected in 1809, is a building in Humber
Street. The present gaol, which contains very healthful
accommodations, was erected in consequence of an act of
sn t passed (in 1789, The Hull subscription li«
‘was instituted Dee: 6, 1775 ; and the foundation
stone of the present building in Parliament Street, was
laid on the 21st of June 1800. The library possesses a
spacious reading-room, which is open to the subscribers
every day. The collection of modern books is excellent,
and the number of subscribers is nearly 500.
The avenue from the market-place to the Humber
was widened some time ago, by removing the guildhall,
on the site of which the most elegant and well ventila-
ted shambles were erected in 1806, The east end of
Trinity church is thus exposed to the market-place, in
the centre of which is a beautiful equestrian statue of
King William III. erected in 1734 by subscription, and
executed by Mr Sheemaker,
Hull may be considered as one of the first commer-
cial towns in the united kingdom. It carries on a great
intercourse with the Baltic, and sends an immense num~
ber of ships annually to the whale fishery. —
The wet dock, which was originally intended to re-
ceive all the ships engaged in the trade of Hull, was
begun in virtue of an act of parliament passed in 1774,
The foundation stone was laid on the 19th Oct. 1775,
and the whole was completed in four years instead of
seven, as required by the act. Government gave a grant
of the ground, and of £15,000. It otcupies the place
where the walls and ramparts once stood, and it enters
immediately from the river Hull, about 300 yards from
its mouth. It is 700 yards long, 85 wide, 22 deep, and is
capable of containing 130 vessels of $00 tons. Inclus
ding the wharfs and quays, it covers an area of 13 acres,
the area of the d bein an aaa Semen, oe
1
that of the quay 17,479. The subscribers are incorpo-
rated under the title of the “ Dock Company at Ki
stun-upon-Hull,” The number of shares was original-
ly 120; but acts were passed in 1802 and 1805, ems
powering the Com to raise them to 180. The mo-«
ney arising from this increase in the number of shares,
amounting to £82,390, was appropriated to the con-
. struction of another wet dock, called the Humber Dock.
The foundation stone of the Humber Dock was laid
on the 13th April 1807, and it was completed in 1809,
at the expence of £220,000. The area of the dock is
7 acres and 18 perches, and that of the road and wharfe
is 3 acres and 38 perches, amounting in all to 10 acres
1 rood and LL perches, It opens into the Humber
a lock, which will admit a fifty gun ship, and which is
crossed by an iron. bri extending the dock a
little farther to the , to extremity of White
Frar Gate, the old town may be completely insulated.
Hull possesses also several dry docks for repairing ves~
Hull.
HUL
sels. The following Table, shewing the amount of the
customs in different years, will exhibit a correct view of
the progress of the trade of Hull.
1701 . . £26,287 1805 . £386,070
1778 . . 78,229 1806 .. 374,907
1785... 91,366 1807 . . 340,825
1792 . . 199,988 ~ 1808 .. 198,487
1802 . . 438,459 1809 . . 276,811
1808 .. 879,675 1810 .. 311,780
1804. . 287,210 |
' The following Table exhibits the state of the Green-
land fishery, from 1806 to 1811 inclusive.
Uni- Sea
Years. sip. Whaler Seats corns.|Bears| Horses. |Tons Oil.
1806 | 37 | 239 |1804/ 10] 3 6 | 3382
1807 | 35 | 377. | 722) 24] 9 4233
1808 | 27 | 467 |.552) 13] 4 2 | 4330
1809 | 26 | 419 | 311) 9 7 4230
1810 | 34 | 449 |1238) 8} 13 4912
1811 | 42 | 552 | 993} 21.2 4782
The inland trade of Hull exceeds that of any other
English port. In the year 1792, merchandise, stores,
coals, &c. to the value of £5,156,998, were conveyed to
and from the Aire and Calder navigation alone.
The following Table contains the number of ships
that entered inwards and cleared outwards, from 1804
to 1810 inclusive.
Years. | With Cargoes. In Ballast. | Coasting Vessels.
Inw. © Outw. | Inw. Outw. | Inw. Outw.
1804] 728 ..279| 51.. 880 | 1560 . 1547
1805 | 658°... 232 | -47 . . 327 | 1626 . 1602
1806 | 513. . 226 29 . . 272 | 1576 . 1636
1807 | 525 :.. 158 9 .. 335 | 1484 . 1614
1808 | 207... 67 | 109... 135 | 1557 . 1733
1809 | 473 . . 256 55°. . 223 | 1806 . 1938
1810 | 622 ..193| 30. .427 |1786 . 2033
Various manufactures are carried on in Hull. One
of the principal is the pen gpa and refining oil from
lintseed, and preparing the residue for feeding cattle.
Many of the mills for this purpose, and for grinding
corn, are from about 80 to 100 feet high, and’ contain
excellent machinery. ‘he other manufactories are an
iron foundery, a large soap-work, two sugar-houses, se-
veral white lead manufactories, several breweries, and
several ropeworks and ship-builders yards.
The civil authority of the county of Kingston-upon-
Hull, which includes a district of more than 18 miles,
comprehending the villages of Hessle, Anlaby, Kirk
Ella, West Ella, Swanland, and North Ferriby, is
vested in the corporation, consisting of the mayor, the
recorder, the sheriff, two chamberlains, and twelve .al-
dermen. The town sends two members to parliament,
who are elected by the burgesses.
» The following is an abstract of the population returns
or the town of Hull in 1814b:
* Number of inhabited houses ........ 4611
~ Do. of uninhabited houses so a 306
Do. of families»... 0... 0 bbw maSR
Do. employed in agriculture ........ 305
Do. employed in trade and manufactures . 2608
Do. not included in any of these classes . 3628
840
HUM
Males Te Sis She alee baa, Pier 3
Females’ so"... 14,794
Total population .........+.++- 26,792
See the Guide to Hull, published by Mr Craggs, who
has favoured us with the proof sheets of it before it was
published ; ‘Tickhill’s History of Hull; and the Beau-
ties of oa and Wales, vol. xvi. p. 447—537.
' HUMBER, the Abdus of Ptolemy, is a large river or
estuary in England, which runs into the German Ocean
after separating the counties of York and Lincoln. Be-
low the confluence of the Ouse with the Trent, the for-
mer of which carries off almost all the waters-of York-
shire, the united streams receive the name of the Hum-
ber. It is gradually enlarged to the breadth of two or
three miles, and below Hull it swells into an estuary
about six or seven miles broad. The Humber has been
compared tothe trunk of a vast tree, srrending its branch-
es in every direction, and commanding the navigation
and trade of a very extensive and commercial part of
England. See Eneianp, Vol. VIII. p. 687, 688.
HUME, Davin, an eminent historian, metaphysician,
and general literary character, was the younger son of
a very respectable Scottish family, and was born at
Edinburgh on the 26th of April 1711. He lost his fae
ther whef an infant, and the care of his education de-
volved on his mother, whom he describes as a woman
of great merit, who ormed in a most exemplary,
ikea the duties of Racal parent. In his poath he
made a creditable appearance as a scholar, and acquired
a high ardour for literature. This did not, as often haps
pens, subside as soon as those more serious occupa-
tions to which, in the common calculations of mankind,
literature is reckoned preparatory and subservient, were
esented to his mind. His fortune being slender,
e was destined to the profession of the law. But
this pursuit, with all the prospects of honour and
wealth which it presents to an apne mind, had not
for him sufficient charms to eclipse the attractions of
classical literature and philosophy, Nor was Mr Hume
even content to cultivate the two pursuits in conjunc-
tion, the one as the means of his future livelihood, and
the other as having a more immediate relation te man
as a thinking being. The contrast of their intrinsic
character had the effect of disgusting him with the
study of law, which he wholly neglected in order to
devote himself to literature. He therefore renounced
entirely these professional pursuits. Not entertaining
the hope, however, of supporting himself comfortably
by literary occupations, he was prea on, at the age
of twenty-three, to make a feeble attempt to enter on a
mercantile employment in the city of Bristol. This he
soon relinquish as totally unsuited to his turn of
mind ; and at last, combining a regard for his favourite
studies with the dictates of prudence, he formed a plan
for leading the life of a literary man. He resided for
two years inFrance, first at Rheims, and afterwards at La
Fleche in Anjou, where he practised a strict economy,
and prosecuted with much industry his literary studies.
In this retreat he Lape had not access to extensive
libraries, and depended chiefly on a small collection of
' his own, with such assistance as was furnished by the
convents of the country. Here he was chiefly occupied
in the composition of that ingenious, but singular and
somewhat. paradoxical work, his Treatise on Human
Nature. He acknowledges that, in the midst of these
studies, he was not certain of the utility of his labours,
- and was in some measure puzzled by the interminable
problems which his own ingenuity had raised ; yet he
gave himself up to the bent of an inquisitive mind, ree
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work excited no interest; i
read, and, as he himself expresses it, “ fell dead born
from the press.” He continued, however, to value the
opinions which it contained ; and endeavoured, by va-
Bows penovting efforts, to conciliate to them the pub-
i admirers of his metaphysics reckon
mounted by a cheerful and sanguine ; and he
ted, with renewed industry, his li labours
ee . In 1742,he published the first part of his
Essays, which met with a j iently favour-
able to console him for his first di i In
1745, he resided as a companion to the is of An-
ets. coal bp meqpenarat pork nates
time, ired a i
accession to his fortune. About this time the
fessorship of moral philosophy in the university of
(afterwards Sir John) Pringle, Mr Hume became a
candidate for that situation ; but the sceptical princi-
ples which he had advanced in his first work were too
offensive to allow the magistrates, pa-
noe baths echoes dg amecairwenge anager yo
to receive as a public instructor
_ In 1746, he - i sep vel y say stir
secretary, in an expedition destined for Canada,
terminated in an incursion on the coast of France.
In 1747, he attended the same in his military
embassies to the courts of Vienna and Turin. From
this cause his literary ions were for
than the
success iginal freatise. A new edition of
is ay wa al pb, which met not with a
ag “ Saeed in sate dagtes, bes
discouraged, by these i continued
his efforts to rouse the attention of srerid to bis fo-
vyourite subjects. He had now returned to his brother's
in Scotland, where he composed his Political Dis-
courses, and his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Mo-
rals. His opinions gradually worked themselves in-
to notice ; am effect which the plausibility of his reason.
841
ings, the charms of his | and the importan
the subjects, could not fail to produce. Being adverse to
the prevailing philosophy, as well as ing strongly
on the religion of the age, and considered by many
as alarming in their tendency, could not,
of course, be — to extend their ra ney
out havi ir validity subjected to the most rigi
are a Mr Hume, Geher unalterably confident in
the justness of his views, or considering them as less
at ag than his fame, was principally disposed to
on the appearance of a succession of replies as flat-
tering symptoms of his rising reputation, and derived
from them encouragement to proceed in his career. In
1752, his Political Discourées were published. This
was the first of his works which gained immediate at-
tention, and general approbation. He also now pub-
lished his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals,
a work which met with little notice, though more high-
ly valued by the author than any other. It appeared
to too much with the sceptical principles of
his other writings on moral subjects, by referring all mo-
ral distinction to utility. It certainly, however, display-
ed much acuteness of research, and contributed to remove
much of the rubbish by which questionsof this nature had
been encumbered. The dangerous character which Lord
Kames, and some others of his ts, attached to
a theory which reduced all moral di to utility, as
leaving them to thearbitrary decisions and varying judg-
ments of individuals, is more or less applicable to every
theory on the subject. The agreement or di ent
of mankind on particular moral questions is mate
ter of fact than of theory. The apprehensions of an
dangerous tendency” attached to the theory. of Me
Home, imply, in ir most obvious sense, a contra
diction in terms. Utility is, in itself, real and precise,
however obscurely understood ; and in its every essence
excludes all idea of danger. We hava indeed, heard
icular acts ted as inculcated by utility,
sar teee ten, miming wanton Far peed ag
most convincing terms. ‘These arguments only prove,
that the character of utility may be rashly applied,
ee essential to it are omitted.
tility, in , is not a sim igi inciple. It
Mg see | feature applicable oo watson) of piicesiligs
na, among which human actions are to be numbered ;
and even with those who t that there are prior
inciples of our nature which serve to moral
istinctions, all such suggestions must be allowed to
become the subjects of computation ; and in all discus-
sions of the propriety of particular actions, utility is the
ultimate test to which we are referred, and is
to stamp them with the character of rectitude.
In the same year, he was made librarian to the Facul-
ty of Advocates of Edinburgh, a situation which not
only gave him command of the invaluable library be-
longing to that body, but forcibly directed his atten-
tion to the character of the works which it contained.
It was now that he to write his History of Eng-
land, that highly pleasing performance, which, however
= subgrains its - and tendencies, is read
wi ight classes of persons, and does high cre-
dit to the coantry which Lapeterapieyntrit eng The
first volume that was published, commenced with the
accession of the house of Stuart, and contained the
reigns of James I. and Charles I, on ger ale
The public, however, were not so casi y won by the
Sy which deaeaminontieeriee ts easy philoso-
hy which dictated the remarks of the historian, as to
give any quarter to his obnoxious sentiments. He of=
ce of Hume,
342 HUME.
Hume, fended the Christian world, by treating religious sys- He confesses that his mortification would have now Hume
tems too lightly, and even the advantages which this determined him to retire to a corner of France, to —\——™
characteristic might at first seem to promise to the spi-
rit of toleration were found to be coldly withheld. His
displeasure is chiefly directed against the complaints,
and even the non-conformity of the people; and he pal-
liates in the conduct of princes all deviations from pa-
triotism and law, as well as that offensive arrogance
which set at nought the object of general satisfaction.
He construes the slightest incongruity in the complaints
of the nation, which was capable of being turned to ri-
dicule, into a vindication of the most arbitrary and in-
tolerant conduct on the part of the sovereign. The
party questions relating tothe rights which king or peo-
ple respectively derived from. precedent and law, were
of much Jess moment than the spirit in which the con~
tending parties maintained their point. Appeals to the
original and universal rights of man are reckoned dan-
gerous, as being subject to the widest differences of opi-
nion, and therefore precedents in tavour of liberty. had
been chiefly appealed to’ by the Whigs. Precedents,
however, were to be found on both sides; and Mr
Hume points.out the shallowness of any pretence to
make the ultimate decision of great and general ques-
tions in politics depend on\them. It is with the de-
gree of correctness and generosity of the spirit) in
which the king and the people approached to one ano-
ther for the adjustment of their differences, that: an
unbiassed_ historian is. chiefly concerned in measu-
ring to each party his share of approbation and of cen-
sure, . This. was certainly so offensive and unconciliating
on the part of the Stuarts, as to amount to a forfeiture
of all submission, and even of all sympathy from the
party which they laboured to crush. That the dissen-
sions of the times rendered the duties of a sovereign ar-
duous must be acknowledged, and strong measures
might have beeg on some occasions necessary.. But the
measures of these princes’ had. neither the merit of
strength, nor the inoffensiveness of total inactivity.
They were.both irritating in their tendency, and desti-
tute of efficiency. The exertion of a despotic authori-
ty, if evidently directed to ends substantially good,
might have saved the country, and preserved the dy-
nasty. But the Stuarts made their right of power a
matter of ostentation: rather than an instrument of good
government, and. thus) insulted the nation instead of
ruling it. There were errors on all sides. The peo-
ple were often fanatical, and their complaints were
sometimes inconsistent. ‘All these facts should come
alike under the scrutiny of the historiau. But the plau-
sible coolness. of Hume degenerates into a cavalierly
insensibility : his sarcasms are directed only against the
great mass of the nation, while his sympathetic feeling
andindulgence are reserved for kings and their ministers,
Dr Herring and Dr Stone; the one primate of Eng-
land and the other of Ireland, were the only’ persons
from whom the author heard favourable sentiments of
his work. Both of these gentlemen wrote ‘to him not
to be discouraged, ‘The impression made on his mind
by. the unfavourable reception of his'work was however
very deep. Although on looking to the periodical pub-
lications of that day, we find the due tribute repeatedly
and even liberally given to his merits as a writer, he
seems not to have been at all prepared to. meet with
any opposition or neglect. He shewed on this occasion
the oyerweening importance which authors are dispo-
sed to attach to their own powers, and how little they
calculate on the difficulty of making any impression
in opposition to the general sentiments of the public,
change his name, and never more revisit his native
country, had not a war breaking out between the two
nations prevented the execution of any such scheme. ’
He next published his Natural History of Religion,
which was attacked with considerable acrimony by Dt
Hurd, and, though otherwise not much attended to at
the time, produced at a subsequent period no slight.
sensation in the religious world, as tending to reduce:
the general principles of religion to an uncertain and
even a frivolous origin in the human mind. ° a
A second volume of the History of England, which
brought it down to the revolution, was published in
1756. This, containing fewer obnoxious sentiments,
was better received than the first, and even served to
impart to it a degree of adventitious character. |
~ In 1759, he ‘published his om of the House o
Tudor. In this publication he displayed considerab: e
address in supporting his Tory principles. While he
details facts which Sleisionatiti’ the duplicity ‘of the
character of Elizabeth, he gives her a character far high-
er than these facts can warrant. At the samie time he
describes her conduct, as well as that of her predecessors
of\the same family, as so offensively harsh, that the max-
ims of the Stuarts, reckoned by many tyrannical, must
on the contrast appear mild and liberal. He neglects
to give the due weight to the beneficial tendency and
the magnanimous justice which marked some of her
most arbitrary acts, and the activity which she display-
ed in managing the vital interests of the state. These
characteristics were widely different from the vexatious
and idle exaction of reluctant homage which the Stu-
arts delighted to make from their subjects. Habit had
now rendered Mr Hume callous to the impressions of
public opinion, which he affected to despise; yet he owed
his equanimity in some measure to the increased for+
bearance of his opponents, and the tribute of admira~
tion which some of his qualities as a writer extorted
from all. In 1761, he published the two volumes
which contain the éarlier part of the English history.
The copy money given to him by the booksellers much’
exceeded any thivg ofthe kind formerly known in
England, ‘and his circumstances were in consequence’
rendered’ opulent. asta,
At this time a storm of ecclesiastical censure was pre=
paring by some members of the church of Scotland, di«
rected against Mr Hume, and imtended to include ‘Lord
Kames; and various other writers, who, though differs’
ing in their opinions, agreed in treating religious subs
jects with coolness, and subjecting them to metaphysi-
cal analysis. | A motion was made in the committee of
overtures of the General Assembly, in which Mr Mame’
was named as the most obnoxious aithor. It was proe
posed to call him before that court, to answer a list. of
accusations, on the tendency of the ‘principles which he
had published. This; however, was afterwards abandon=
ed, as it was supposed that the influence of such dis-
cussions was limited to a narrow circle; and that there
could be no propriety in extending them to the common
mass of readers, who might, from the sympathy natu-
rally felt for a man subjected to violent opposition, be
led ‘to an undue bias in favour of his opitiions, |”
--In 1763, he attended the Ear) of Hertford on his em=
bassy to Paris, where he was loaded with great civili«
ties. He expresses himself highly pleased with the po«
liteness and information which characterised the socie=
of that metropolis. aby ai
In 1766 he returned to England, and then to Edin
u
F
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H
HUME.
s subj and had it in contem-
le in a retired situation in
admiring his genius, and attach.
ng 2s a free-thinker, exerted
ide for his comfort. But, the ynarhie
Rousseau disappointed every scheme
‘could be adopted. He conceived him-
lected by the world, and was prone to sus-
intending to undermine his in-
ef
is
;
&
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:
He
hy
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g
m perceived the troublesome temper of his
; yet he treated him with great tenderness, mak-
ance for an excess of natural irritability, height -
a severe bodily. disorder under which he |.-
" He even found that oon af a eaggg
of extreme pov ‘wasan entirely retence, held,
out for in othe itech. others. frailties
Mr Hume dep but did not cease to do what ley
in his power to serve him. At last Rousseau sus
Mr Hume of being the author of a very improper sar-
ene, lee whi i name of the
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343
The zeal of Dr Blair him from.
cire ; and Hume found }
mate to that worthy clergyman the necessity of abstain-
ing from all pogecn which implied serious differences. of
sentiment, if they were ever to enjoy one another's so-
ciety. This is decidedly though delicately expressedin
the letter which he wrote to him, after the perusal of
the work of Dr Campbell on Miracles, which Dr Blair
had sentto him,. Dr J Black, the celebrated pro-
fessor of chemistry, and Adam Smith, were among
the most intimate of his friends. The latter, however,
Was now engaged in the composition of that work
which has associated his name in an indelible manner
with the great interests of society, his. Inquiry iato the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, and lived
in a state of retirement with his mother at, Kirkcaldy, a
town.on the opposite shore of the Frith of Forth, This
Be ion, was vexatious toHume, who often ineffectual
ly urged his friend to take up his residence in Edinburgh.
had both written on the origin of moral ideas; they
had embraced different opinions, and found it interest-
ing to make the discussions implied in them part of the
subject of their conversation, They were both ready
to enter on any subject to which the ingenuity of either
was directed, and, a delightful diversity of topics was
undoubtedly suggested by the fates, characters, and all
‘the memorabilia of many literary friends, whom on)fore
mer occasions, and in different parts of the eer
and. of Europe, they had known.. Lord Kames, Mr
Smellie, Allan. Ramsay the painter,. (son ofthe Scots
tish poet,) were alsd among the number of the literati
who, in 1. Hume, adorned ‘the circle of this
metropolis. manners of literary men were partis
cularly easy, and they had the character of great frank
ness and ready accessibility. .No cause of political en-
mity operated asa source of division; differences of
religious opinion were tempered in theigexpression by
manners; the facility of in was not ob-
structed by affectation, or a harsh incommodious eti-
quette ; literary controversies and private debates were
i oceasion of offence. If any excess
existed, it seems to have been on the side of familiarity, '
which admitted of an indulgence ina coarse species of
raillery. From this school issued the following curi-
ous sentiment, to be found in Lord Kames's Art of
Thinking: “You area are a dream, and such like,
are we 4 bear from friends. A+
convenient bias to another, and those who
without going far arb 4 > un
, in , is literary society
Sober convivial clubs of men of taste and.
which have been su with much ter steadi-
ness than the nature of such institutions
renders They are soon broken
and on the. other hand,
of liberality when
are apt to lose the stamp.
on aprinciple of fastidi
~ a a
Maat obliggtte inte
Hume.
—~—
844
selection, It is therefore chiefly by a quick succession
of them formed by the buoyant spirit of liberal sociali-
i Sayed surmounting occasional causes of separation,
that they prove le and useful.
_The philosophical opinions of Mr Hume subjected
him to many controversial attacks. ‘To these he never
published any formal’reply, but satisfied himself with
making occasional private observations, and availing
himself of public criticism for amending his works in
subsequent editions.
In the manner in which he expressed himself towards
those who wrote against him, he shewed himself ex-
tremely sensible to the pleasing influence of civility,
and the galling effects of disrespect or rudeness. He
was pleased with Dr Campbell’s Essay on Miracles,
and with an anonymous tract, entitled, A Delineation
of Morality, written by Mr Balfour, an advocate and
professor of moral philosophy. But such severities as
those of Hurd, Warburton, and Beattie, teeming with
petulance and abuse, produced in his mind the strong-
est feelings of alienation and contempt. His good hu-
mour probably too much depended on the cultivation
of that radical hauteur which sometimes forms the man
of fashion, and was too little cherished by that steady
forbearance and that system of universal allowances
which would have better suited the character of a phi-
losopher.
The progress of his bodily disorder was rapid. In
April 1776, he set out for London at the intreaty of
his friends, who hoped that a long journey might im-
prove his health. At Morpeth he met with Dr Adam
Smith, and Mr Home, the author of the tragedy of
Douglas. The latter remained with him in England,
while Dr Smith returned to the north. Mr Hume finding
himself seemingly improved when he arrived in London,
went next to Bath to drink the waters, which contributed
still farther to a temporary recovery. But his complaint
_relapsed with additional violence, and he returned to
Edinburgh under a deliberate expectation of soon finish-
ing his ihe He employed himself in correcting his
works, reading books of amusement, and conversing with
his friends. He encouraged his friends to speak to him
in the frankest manner as to adying man. This evident
that he did not entertain a belief in any future state.
Yet the constant expressions of a hope of this sort
which a man is accustomed to hear in the course of
early education, and in the common intercourse of life,
render the mind familiar with an imagery founded on
that hope to which the most sceptical occasionally recur
for amusement, even while they reject a belief which
appears to them incongruous. Some of them playfully
indulge in supposing themselves to have been imbued
with the belief of a mythology belonging to a different
age or country, and thus balance the influence of pre-
sent systems against that of others. Mr Hume had
too much respect for society to indulge in any open
scurrility directed exclusively against the religious sen-
timents of the age: but he playfully retailed the con-
versations which were likely to take place between
himself and Charon, the ferryman of the river Styx, at
the moment of his transit from the present to the un-
known world. He did not affect any great wish to
speak on the subject for the purpose of displaying his
indifference or his courage, and only touched on it oc-
casionally in reply to the enquiries of his friends. His
strength very gradually declined. When no longer
able to.converse, he continued to read in a state of com-
ure; and after four or five days passed under“this
degree of debility, he died on the 25th of August 1776.
HUME.
In stature Mr Hume was above the ordinary size. Hume. _
His countenance was open and free, a just picture of
his benevolent and cheerful temper. His features were
large, and were exempt from that trifling smartness
and habitual intensity of expression which characterise
a bustling fashionable ambition. Lord Charlemont on
this account considered them as blank and unmeaning,
and wondered that the ladies at the court of Turin valued
so much his company and conversation. His attrac-
tions seem to have consisted in the liberality of his
mind exhibited in the jolly openness of his counte-
nance. See Hardy’s Memoirs oF Lord Charlemont, and
the critique on them given in the Edinburgh Review.
The manner in which he died has sometimes been.
made the theme of injudicious comment, for the pur-
pose of elucidating the merits of particular views of
pavcesy or religion. The equanimity displayed in
is last moments has been boastfully represented as a
triumph to infidelity, and a Bie that a philosopher’
may die in tranquillity. Such were the sentiments in-"
culeated in a tract entitled, An Apology for the Life and
Writings of David Hume. But the eagerness with
which a single instance of this kind is grasped at might
be plausibly construed into a presumption of the gene.’
ral fallacy of the remark. On the other hand, it is
equally unfavourable to candour to embrace, with ex~"
clusive keenness, those anecdotes, whether well or i ~
supported, which represent persons of these sentiments
as doomed to the agonies of remorse in the hour of death.
This spirit has given rise to some misr tations of
fact, which fall under the character of pious frauds. We
are told, that though a man may lead the life of a fool, by’
advocating the cause of Deism, yet a fool he cannot die;
and then an anecdote is told of some noted infidel, which '
bears the marks of evident fabrication. That this di-
rection of zeal is wholly superfluous and inefficient in
the support of religion, we may be satisfied, when we
reflect, that such anecdotes are only circulated concern<’
ing those who are infidels by profession. It is maine
tained that many who, from motives of policy, ath
rently acquiesce in the religion of the age, do not be-
lieve it in their hearts. Such persons might be suppos
sed to labour under the double weight of infidelity and
hypocrisy ; yet we hear nothing of their death-bed ago~
nies, Allowing, therefore, facts of that kind to which”
we have alluded to be as general as they have been some= —
times represented, they must be otherwise accounted for
than by being considered as the unmingled effects of»
the power of truth on the human conscience. They will
be explained in a more satisfactory manner, if ascri-’
bed to the influence of that contrariety which an ins’
dividual ef solitary professions feels between. himself
and the rest of society, oppressing a mind bereft of”
its energy by the decay of nature. Weak man, even”
in his most vigorous moments, needs company to sup=
port him in the enjoyment of his opinions ; and the in=~
fluence of this principle enters much deeper into the”
rivate comfort of individuals than most men are will-.
Ing to allow. We should always beware of resting”
questions of so grave moment on data thus preca-’
rious.
The character of David Hume as a man has been va-*
riously estimated. About his agreeable qualities there
could be no difference of opinion; and those who”
abhorred. his principles allowed that he ssed as
much worth as was compatible with infidelity. The ’
chief difference, therefore, depends on’ the amount ‘of
that degree of praise. One tells us that he was a pate’
tern of good humour, benignity, and self-command ;
4
HUME.
The censure which we have expressed is most of all Hume.
fault with the measure of his faith, but we cannot deny
him the credit of good works. To this ae parte
th ‘9
fo sagem
. this
such words in the sense in which
by the ge lag sel md men haces geaag enter-
tain an cay ag i or senti we must ac-
rt Hume to have been distin-
gure agg, Bags canon: oy ify ge Amik
or religious. have remarked, that, by his own
confession,
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VOL, 3. PART 1.
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applicable to two tracts published after his death, one
On. the Immortality of the Soul, and the other On Sui-
cide. The former is little more than a compression of
doctrines which he had advanced, or to which he had
at least pointed in his shee but peti in
more dogmatic language. His tract On Suicide con-
i which he had not formerly touched
upon ; it must be admitted to have a most per
nicious tendency. We read without unpleasant emo-
tions the sentiments which the Romans entertained on
this subject, because they cultivated a species of manli<
ness, mistaken indeed, but plausible, and. apparently
consistent. Mr Hume, on the con » encou!
that temper which leads to suicide, not by cultivating
a heroic contempt of death, but by laying the mind
open to the most wretched discontent. He. maintains
thon dhabereinen hepeihese ii grantor ia’ at of
superstition have the most urgent motives to rid them.
selves of life, yet are cruelly prevented by the creat
which their belief of future punishment inspires. This
remark, inculcated with all the zeal of apparent sincé>
rity, tends to generate the utmost degree of moral con-
fusion ; and the motive which could have prompted'any
writer to commit such a sentiment to paper cannot we
be assi , except by referring it to the erseness
which 1s so incident to the human mind. I the super-
stitious are deceived in the dread which they entertain
of suicide, they must also be deceived in entertaining a
belief in those gigs Cen iy nee render their lives
miserable ; a philosopher wishing to emancipate
them from their errors, pany weagee ge. Be for ene
mending suicide, since he relieves them from the evils
which generated a weariness of life. The only tenden-
cy that such a sentiment can have, is, by sw i
a new doubt to their former ities, either to pro-
duce a still more wretched life, or give rise to.an act of
suicide committed in a tumult of horror,
by cowardice. Whoever the person was that publi
is posthumous piece, he could not have any motive
t is as a historian r Hume is most general]
The beauty of his diction, and the interest which
t turn of thought imparts to the course of
events TT oat Lim Whole tonsoemiplene
ing book of English re! in our language. Man
Wie tee peniibis stake faults formerly mentioned, do
not a any a for it in their ) tpn ieeepyecn
to general readers. It might perha rendered less
excepti in its tendency, pon ie ht valuable for
common use, if accompanied with corrective notes,
and references in the most faulty places to other au-
thors. It would ire much delicacy, however, to
do this without ialite the effect, by a harsh inter-
ruption of the current of the narrative, and an inter-
ference with the general spirit of the historian. Fox's
published uniform with some po-
pular edition of it, would tly contribute to render
it worthy of general ,» by correcting the distrust,
by the peculiar colouring of the author,
See Hume's Lift, written by himself, prefixed to his
History ; Smellie’s Lives; Ritchie's bi ¢ of Hume ;
and a variety of an scattered in di t bi
phical tracts, as Professor Stewart's Lives of Dr Robert-
son and Dr Smith, Lord Woodhouslee’s life of Lord
Kames, and the Memoirs of Mr Gibbon in his “Posthu«
mous Works, (H.D.)
HUMIDITY, See Hycnomeray.
2x
346)
HUNGARY.
History. Tar Huns, trom whom the kingdom of Hungary de-
——" rives its name, are the Hiong-nau of the Chinese, and
Ancient were a nation of Tartars, who had their ancient, per-
iad haps their original, scat in’ an extensive barren tract of
country, immediately on the north side of the great
wall of China, But the valour of the Huns extended
their dominions; and their chiefs, who assumed the
appellation of Tanjou, gradually became the sovereigns
of a formidable empire. Towards the east, their victo-
rious arms were stopped only by the ocean. On the
west, near the head of the river Irtish, their enemies
were numerous: in a single expedition, twenty-six na-
tions or tribes are said to have been subdued. On the
side of the north, they are said, but on dubious autho-
rity, to have extended their empire to the ocean; it
is more ‘probable that the Lake Baikal was the limit
of their conquests in this direction. Towards the south,
were most desirous of extending their empire ; and,
in the third-century before the Christian cra, a wall of
1500 miles in length was constructed, to defend the
frontiers of China against the inroads of the Huns.
Their cavalry frequently consisted of 200,000 or
300,000 men, who managed their bows and their hor-
ses with matchless dexterity ; they supported the in-
clemency of the weather with hardy patience; and
marched with incredible speed, being seldom checked
by any obstacle. The Chinese were unable to oppose
them, or to protect their empire, notwithstanding the
defence of the great wall. A regular ent of mo-
ney and silk was stipulated as the condition of a tem-
and precarious peace ; and by a more disgrace-
ful and degrading condition, a supply of women was
annually given to the Huns; and the Tanjou was
united in marriage with the imperial family of China.
Mode of 1m the'verses of a Chinese princess, who laments that
life at this ; She had been condemned by her parents to a distant
period. exile under a barbarian husband, some particulars of
the mode of life of the Huns at this period are given:
she complains that sour milk was her only deike raw
flesh her only food, and a tent her only palace.
In the long reign of Vouti, the fifth emperor of the
powerful dynasty of the Han, which continued for the
space of 54 years, from the year 141 to the year 87 be-
fore Christ, the Huns were frequently defeated by the
Chinese. About the year 87, the camp of the Tanjou
was surprised in the midst of sleep and intemperance,
and though he eut his way through the ranks of his
enemy, he left above 15,000 of his troops on the field
of battle. But the power and empire of the Huns
were not weakened so much by their defeats, as by the
policy pursued by the Chinese emperors of detaching
the tributary nations from their obedience; and these
generally became their inveterate and formidable op-
ponents. The Tanjou himself was at last obliged to
renounce the character and privileges of an independ-
ent monarch, and to perform the duty of a respectful
ieee homage to'the Emperor of China. The monarchy of
_— we mo. the Huns after this gradually declined, till, about A.
varchy, A, D. 48, it was broken by civil dissension into two hos-
D.-48. tile and separate kingdoms. One of the princes retired
to the south with eight hords, which composed between
40,000 and 50,000 families: he fixed himself on the
verge of the Chinése provinces, and attached himself
to.the service of that empire. The Huns of the north
Conquests /
before
Christ.
Wars with
the Chi-
nese.
Defeated by
the Chinese
‘before
Christ 87,
continued to languish about fifty years, till they were History.
oppressed on every side by foreign and domestic ene- —)——
mies. The Sienp?, a tribe of oriental Tartars, retalia- Their emi-
ted upon them their former injuries ; and, in the year yi Ay
A. D. 98, the. power of the Tanjous, after areign of * ~”
1300 years, was utterly destroyed. The emigrations
of the Huns now ‘began: above 100,000 persons, the
poorest of the people, were contented to remain in
their native country, to renounce their name, and mix
with their conquerors, Fifty-eight hords, about
200,000 men, retired towards the south, and claimed
and received the protection of the Chinese emperors.
But the most warlike and powerful tribes of the Huns
sought more distant countries, and moved westward in
two great divisions. The first of these colonies esta-
blished their dominion in the fruitful and extensive
plains of Sogdiana, on the eastern side of the Caspian
Sea. Here their manners were softened, and even
their features were sensibly improved ; and they ob-
tained the appellation of White Huns, from the change White
of their complexions. The only vestige of their an- Huns.
cient barbarism was the custom which obliged all, or
nearly all, the companions who had shared the liberali-
ty of a wealthy lord, to be buried alive in the same
grave. Their vicinity to the kingdom of Persia in-
volved them in frequent and bleody contests, in the
F
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4
course of which they gained a memorable victory, but,
unlike their ancestors, they were moderate and mildin
their use of it.
The second division of the Huns gradually advan- Huns of
ced towards the north-west ; and, by their intercourse the nortl-
with tribes more savage than themselves, their native °*
fierceness was exasperated. As late as the 13th cen-
tury, their transient residence on the eastern batiks of
the Volga was attested by the name of Great Hungary.
In the winter they descended with their flocks and
herds towards the mouth of that river.
It is impossible to give even an outline of the histo-
ry of the Huns from this period till they became known
to the Romans ; but there is reason to believe that the
same force which had driven them frem their native
seats, still continued to impel their march towards the’
frontiers of Europe. In their first irruption into the
Roman empire, they are mentioned by ancient histo-
rians under a variety of appellations, all comprised un-
der the general name of Ugri or Hunni. nore Different
general distinction, however, was the Nephthalite or tribes.
White Huns, who possessed a rich country on the north :
of Persia; and the Sarmatian or Scythian Huns, The
latter are exhibited to us under the character of sava-.
ges, without faith, laws, or any form of religion ; living
in the open air without houses or buts, which they de-
nominated the sepulchres of the living; quite umac- Manners
quainted with the use of fire, their only food being and appear-
roots and raw meat, and their only clothing the skins 9°
of animals. They were also distinguished by their
broad shoulders, flat noses, small black eyes deeply
buried in the head, and the. want of beards. This
race, inured to all manner of hardships and ivations,
and having no fixed settlements, were delighted with
the first accounts which they received of the rich and
fertile kingdoms of the west. Crossing, therefore, the
Volga under Balamir, one of their chiefs, they over-
whelmed the Alans and Goths, who inhabited the ex-
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HUNGARY.
; were filled by white veils of thin linen, which the wo- History.
8347
men on either side bore aloft in their hands, and which ——
formed a canopy for a chorus of f who
chanted hymns and songs in the i
The wife of his favourite ius, with a train of
male attendants, saluted Attila at the door of ber own
house, on his way to the palace ; and offered, aecording
to the custom of the country, her ul *
Yaw g him to taste thon oc phate
had for his tion. As soon as the
monarch
iously accepted her itable gift,
his domestics lifted a sreall Tew thao te Cecuecteed
height, as he sat on horseback ; and Attila, when he had
touched the goblet with his lips, again saluted the wife
Cf Onepasing, ined Conmieniel Ceviandele” sins
* The Romans both of the East and of the West, were Royat~
ee eee mere feast.
the princes and nobles of Scythia. Maximin (the Roman
ambassador) and his ae were ped on the
threshold, till they had a devout libation to the
health and ity of the king of the Huns; and
were conducted, after this ceremony, to their ive
seats in a spacious hall. The table and couch,
covered with and fine linen, was raised by se«
veral steps in the midst of the hall ; and a son, an uncle,
or a favourite king, were admitted to share
the ei and homely repast of Attila. Two lines of
small each of which contained three or four
were in order on either hand; the right was
7 or eet dee
e most distinguished
in the
same manner his loyal and ful vows, This ce-
remony was successivel ed for all, or at least
for the illustrious of the assembly ; anda con-
siderable time must have been consumed, since it was
thrice repeated as each course was set upon the table.
But the wine still remained after the meat had been
removed ; and the Huns continued to indulge their in-
tem longafter the sober and decent ambassa-
dors of the two empires had withdrawn themselves
banquet. Yet before they retired,
singular nity of observing the
i ir convivial amusements,
Two ians stood before the couch of Attila, and
recited the verses which they had composed to cele-
brate his valour and his victories. A profound silence
prevailed in the hall; and the attention of the guests
was captivated by the vocal harmony, which revived
and perpetuated the memory of their own exploits: a
roartial ardour flashed from the eyes of the warriors,
who were impatient for battle ; and the tears of the old
men expressed their generous ir, that they could
no longer partake danger and glory of the field,
This entertainment, which might be considered as a
school of military virtue, was succeeded by a farce,
that debased the dignity of human nature. A Moorish
and a Scythian buffoon successively excited the mirth
of the rude spectators, by their deformed figure, ridi-
culous dress, antic res, absurd and the
strange unintelligible confusion of the Latin, the Go-
thic, and the Hunnic wes; and the hall resound.
ed with loud and licentious peals of laughter. In the
midst of this i riot, Attila alone, without a
change of countenance, maintained his stedfast and in-
348
History, flexible gravity ; which was never relaxed, except on
the entrance of Irnac, the youngest of his sons: he
embraced the boy with a smile of paternal tenderness,
gently pinched him by the cheek, and betrayed a par-
tial affection, which was justified by the assurance of
his prophets, that Irnac would be the future support
of his family and empire. Two days afterwards the
ambassadors received a second invitation; and they
had reason to praise the politeness, as well as the hos-
pitality of Attila.”
On the death of Attila, Ellac, by the will of his fa-
ther, succeeded to an extensive empire, which, however,
was soon embroiled in civil war by the ambition of his
younger brothers. They insisted upon an equal di-
vision of their father’s dominions, and immediatel
A+ D. 453.
Weakened
by civil dis-
sensi? took up arms to support their demand. ‘This afforded
a favourable opportunity to the nations that had been’
subjected by Attila to throw off the yoke. Ardaric,
king of the Gepide, accordingly declared that he would
no longer obey the sons of Attila ; and other nations led
by his example, hastened to join his standard. Ellac,
who ssed both intrepidity and experience in war,
and are = marched against him with all his forces. The two ar-
compelled mies met on the banks of the Netad in Panonia, where
+ tora yl the Huns were utterly routed; and king Ellac fell in the
to their own field, after having performed prodigies of valour worthy
settlements, Of the representative of the great Attila. They after-
wards received repeated defeats, both from the Goths
and Romans, and were compelled to confine themselves
to their own settlements for nearly sixty years.
Again break | 1n 539, however, the Cuturgurianand Uturgurian Huns
into the | united, broke into the empire, and laid waste Thrace,
empire in Greece, Illyrium, and all the provinces from the Ionian
589, sea to the very suburbs of Constantinople. They then
retired without molestation, with immense booty, and
120,000 captives. The Uturgurian Huns proceeded
to their own country on the Euxine Sea ; but the Cu-
turgurians received lands in Thrace, and an annual
pension from the Emperor Justinian, upon condition
of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies,
Unable, however, to restrain them from committing
continual depredations in the neighbouring provinces,
Justinian had recourse to the Uturgurians; and by
means of presents, and offers of pensions, embroiled the
two nations in a bloody war, which lasted many years,
and by which they were so weakened, that they were long
prevented from offering farther molestation to theempire.
From this time, no credible historian makes parti-
cular mention of the Huns, till A. D, 776, when the
remains of this nation, reinforced by the Avars, and
other northern tribes equally barbarous with them-
selves, and with whom they are frequently confound-
ed by historians, seem to-have recovered their strength,
and we find them masters of Dacia, Upper Meesia,
ahd the two Panonias. Two of their princes sent
ambassadors to Charlemagne, desiring his friendship
and alliance. Charles received them with extraor-
dinary distinction, and readily agreed to their re-
quest ; but a misunderstanding afterwards arising be-
tween him and them, he entered their territories with
two numerous armies, ravaged the country with fire
and sword, the Huns being unable to keep the field
against so powerful an enemy. After a war of eight
years continuance, he reduced them to complete sub.
jection, and built strong fortifications along the Raab to
repress their predatory irruptions into his territories.
They remained within this boundary for more than
a century, when Arnolph, emperor of Germany, in-
vited them to his assistance against the king of Mo
A.D. 176.
Reduced to
subjection
by Charle-
Magne.
HUNGARY.
ravia. Equally ferocious with their ancestors, and) History.
glad of an ras tered to renew their devastationsy ST
they ravaged Bavaria, Suabia, and Franconia. Ger _ ow they
many afterwards became a prey to their fury; and ravage)
Louis IV. submitted to an annual “aoe to get rid ate
of them. In the reign of Conrad I. who also be-
came their tributary, they again devastated Germany,
penetrated into Lorraine and Languedoc, plundering
and massacring the inhabitants wherever they went. boob
The Huns were at this time subject to chiefs,
whose precarious authority rested on no solid foun-
dation, and were respected only because the choice
fell on the bravest. Fear’ naturally attached them to
the man whose vengeance they dreaded, or to whom
they looked for protection in the continual wars im», D. 955. ~
which they were engaged. Their last irruption into)...
Germany was severely emer the valour of Otho griven with
the Great, and the united power of the German princes, dreadful
who compelled them, after a dreadful slaughter, to retire slaughter
within the limits of Hungary, and to fortify witha ditch inte their
and rampart the most accessible passes into their country: ("" “°4"
In process of time, and by their intércourse with ””
other nations, civilization began insensibly to spread
among them ; and in 997, under their first king Ste+ Their king
phen, they assumed a place among the nations of Eu+ — cB
rope. ‘This monarch established the Catholic! reli. ‘#blishes
gion in his dominions, and received from the Pope ;jjigion in
the title of Apostolic, which the sovereigns of Hungary his domi.
to this day retain. From him also they date the origin nions. }
of many of those institutions and laws’ by which the f
state is still governed.» On his death, the respect in
which his:memory was held by his subjects, led them to
choose his son as his successor to the throne ; and, with- t,
out renouncing their right of election, to maintain the
royal dignity in his family for more than three centuries.
There were twenty-four kings of the dynasty of Ste-
hen, few of whom, however, deserve to be drawn
m_ oblivion. The most remarkable were; Ladislaus,
surnamed the Saint, on account of the purity of his
life, who added Dalmatia and Croatia to his dominions,
and flourished near the end of the eleventh century.
Geicza or Geiza II, expelled the Saxons, Austrians,
and Bavarians, from Poland and a part of Hungary,
where they had committed great ravages. Bela Ill.
after having freed his territories from the brigands
which infested it, employed himself in the internal ad-
ministration of his kin . He instituted many ju-
diciary regulations, which still remain in force, and
was the first who divided the kingdom into counties,
appointing a governor toeach. His son, Andrew 1k:
was one of the most renowned sovereigns of his age.
He joined the Crusade in the beginning of the thir-
teenth century, with a numerous army, and acquired
great glory by his bravery and skill in war; and the
nobles, as a reward for their services on this occasion,
received from him very extensive privileges. In his
reign, the regulations of his father were perfected and
formed into a national code, called the Golden Bull,
which every king at his accession was obliged to con-
firm by a solemn oath. The famous clause, however,
which granted to every noble the right of veto in the
election of their monarchs, had been so often the occa- «
sion of civil wars, that it was abolished in the reign of
Leopold I. in 1687. The reign of Bela IV, is rémark-
able for the invasion of the Scythians, who, after hay-
ing overrun Russia and Poland, penetrated as far as *
Pesth, spreading terror and rapine throughout the king- »
dom. Bela, surprised in his camp, was compelled to a
fly. The Scythians continued in possession of the ;
é 1 al
~—_
AeD.1 a
Geiza II.
Bela Ill. 7
A.D. 1196, —
Andrew If, .
lo}
:
Ae
as
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peel pay, ype it. Com
was
“ne
dissensions, Charles of Anjou was solemn-
ing in 1310. Underhis reign, Hunga-
Transylvenia, Bulgaria, Bow Moldavyi ont
chia, received the ws of Charles. His wa iage with
to his family,
im 1339, beloved by his subjects and all his neighbours.
ie
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however, were too cruel to be erased from her memory,
349
that she would forget her injuries. These injuries,
and repelling the oath which fear alone had extorted
from her, she visited them upon the fierce avenger of
presse a manner still more critel ot ie a
Sigismund was twenty years of when he ascend igismund.
the throne ; but the Tinle of hi Yoljn was cally Bost pr
cession of wars, troubles, and calamities to Hungary. ¢o nae the
Mary dying without children in 1892, new dissensions tyrone.
arose ; and the Turks taking advantage of these, seized
upon Bulgaria. Sigismund was defeated, and put to
flight at the battle of Nicopolis ; when his subjects re-
against him, seize his , and confine him in
i The i then offer the crown to La-
Loses and
recovers his
crown,
In 1410, he was elected emperor
Ce Mat ge ee
ughter igismund by .
a second marriage, inherits all his i and as- tinetek
cends the throne of Hungary in 1437. This event forms Austria.
the earliest basis of the Austrian claim to the Hunga-
ian monarchy.
The reign of Albert, however, was very short, and
his death was succeeded by civil wars, which con-
tinued to desolate this kingdom for another century.
Ladislaus, king of Poland, was invited to the throne ; Civil wars.
but soon after perished in the battle of Werna against
the Turks. famous John Hunniades was then
inted regent ; and on the decease of another La-
the posthumous son of Albert, in 1457, Ma-
thiasCorvinus, the sén of Hunniades, receives the crown
from the states assembled in the field of Rakos, near
Mathias seized Vienna and the other Austrian A. D, 1499.
states, which he retained till his death ; and is regard-
ed as the prince that ever held the Hungarian
ie was brave, prudent, and generous, the
friend of letters and arts, and a man of letters himself.
He founded the ificent library of Buda, which he
furnished with the best Greek Latin authors, and
valuabl ipts.
the descenclgnta of Albert again fill the throne ; but
both the battle and his life in the plains of Mohats in1527, A.D. 1527.
emperor im
1410, and
E
i
defeat at Tokay, was compelled to eva-
, when Ferdinand was crowned at
. Some time after, the waywode The Turks
returned with the Sultan Soliman, at the head ofa for- i™vade
midable army, who his conquests as far as Vi- 4¥6"7-
enna ; but on the death Ft ag. a, his partisans, in-
dignant at the conduct of the Turks, and preferring the
dominion of Austria to that of the barbarian, immedi-
ately joined Ferdinand, who was crowned a second Ferdinand
time. This monarch was afterwards called to the em- Avra
pire ; but he retained the crown of Hungary till 1563, °°"
when he resigned it to his son Maximilian. The Hun- qhe Hun.
garians, however, bore the Austrian yoke with much garians beat
impatience, and every new election called forth their the Austi-
aversion to their masters, who led. them as their ™ yoke
lawful inheritance. But their efforts were fruitless, and — —
those who ventured to support the rights of the nation,
350
History. were silenced by the stroke of the executioner, In
vain did Tekely raise all the provinces to revenge these_
ah AOS, outrages ; and, supported by the Turks, to w the
Hungarians in their despair had surrendered them-
selves, laid siege to Vienna, All Germany immedi-
ately armed against the common enemy the Turks, who
The crown Were driven back into their own territories, Rakotzy,
declared he- Who after Tekely endeavoured to support these efforts
reditary in of independence against tyranny, was equally unfortu-
the house pate. The Archduke Joseph, son of Leopold I. was
of Austria, acknowledged king in 1687, and the crown was decla~
A.D, 1740. red hereditary in the male descendants of the house of
STATISTICS OF HUNGARY.
HUNGARY.
Austria. This line, however, failed at the deathvof History.
Charles VI. ; but the Hungarians, exhausted by e¢onti-.
nual wars, and fatigued so many fruitless revolu- owed
tions, had lost that ardent love of liberty for which they submit on
were so conspicuous, and which led them to brave so the acces-
many dangers. They therefore submitted to the acces- sion of Ma.
sion of Maria Theresa, the daughter of Charles, in 1741. tis, There-
She had gained and deserved their love and affection, ** 174. |
Her husband, the emperor Francis, was associated with ;
her in the government, and their descendants still hold
the Hungarian a The ing sketch of Hun-
garian history is all that our limits will allow.
Statistics,
ae Honeany, properly so called, a kingdom in Eu-
= — rope, and’ under i dominion ep ace lies in g 2 i \(—m
Situation, Latitude 44° 33’ 18"—49° 26' 20” North; and in BE; [Sey 2 e 5
Longitude 13° 45’ 2”—22° 46’ East of Paris. Na- 2s £BQlest ets 4
ture herself points out unt boundaries of this kingdom. Covntive: 2 : $x BL Poh ee
.. The Carpathian or Kra mountains separate it on ‘& |S
seers ancibana east from haceaieer Silesia, Galicia, Buc- $ a |5
kovina, and Transylvania; on the south, the Danube |- IJ. The circle on t
and the Drave divide it from Servia, Sclavonia; and . |other side of the Danu!
Croatia; and on the west the Morau or Morava, with a |eontains 11 counties: site
range of mountains lying between the Drave andthe | 1 Wieselbourg, . . 139. S7lo04)
Danube, form its boundary with the Archduchy of |-2 Oedehbourg, ... 3} 38| 196) 6
Austria. According to Captain Lipsky, it contains | 3 Eisenbourg, . . -. i 43| 607| 5Y
Extent, 4051 German square mile ;* its greatest length from | 4 Raab,. . . . . 1 2} 80) 35
west to east being 136, and its greatest breadth from | Komorn,. . . 5 1 5 69
north to south 77 German miles. 6Szalad, . 2... 25} 584] 101
Division, | The kingdom of Hungary is divided by modern geo- | 7 Schumegh, . . » 2 256
graphers into four circles, comprehending forty-six | § Veszprim,.. . .: 1 g) 1 177
counties, besides the districts of Jazyg, Great Cumania, | 9 Stuh' weissenbourg, 1 19| 65) 115
Little Cumania; the sixteen cities of the Zips; the six [10 Barany, . ... 1 7) $36). '73
cities of Heidukes, which enjoy peculiar privileges; {11 Toln, . . . . 17 85
and the two frontier regiments of the Bannat, and the |
battalion of Tschaikistes. ‘The whole, according to the III. The circle on this}
following Table, contained, in 1805, 42 royal free cities, |side of the Thiesse con-|
8 episcopal cities, 590 towns, 9214 villages, 2338 pre- tains 10 counties:
dien,t and 22 cities of Zips and Heidukes. 1 Abaujwar, .. . 1
2 Berepgh, . . 2.
Table of th | 8 {B. ‘¢ Os 3." *e)) J
a 0! e = : .
asaeien CounrTIES. fe Es & |g 3 t é F: Pe mane BPE, cine
cities. FS ieg (Ss 5 a |3 ae ag
; S,| 2 |sz ae aE 6 Scharosch, 3|
I. The circle on thiss" =| $ |3=z}° | |™ | | 7 Zips, 2. 20.
side of the Danube con- ge ls Cities of the Zips, .
tains 13 counties: S Tepe, os ES aE
1 Presbourg, 5 24| 295; 41) | 9 Unghwar, ...
2Neutra, ....} Wo 2 38| 418} 46 |10 Zemplin, . . .
3 Trentschin, . . ] 19} 39) u
4 Thurotz; . 4 . 6} 96 IV. The circle on th
5 Arw, . is ope 5} 95} 1) lother side of the Thiesse
GLiptau, .... 10} 121} 2} |contains 12 counties:
7 Sehl,. (50. te'G 5 8} 147 PAPA) 2 Ls ards 1 c
8 Barsch, . . . 2 11| 201} 21) |-2 Bekesch, . 9... I 3
9 Hont, .-. 36 3 3 9} 171| 30) |-3 Bihar,. 2. 2. 1 r
10 Neograd,. . . . 10} 245} 1 ‘4 Tschanad, . . . |
11 Gren,-.. 2 3 ot 1 5| 44 8| |S Tschongrad,. . .| 1
12 Pestth. . 5 5.) 2 2 20} 165] 1 ‘6 Kraschow, ; bd
13 Baatch, . . . « 3 96]: 52| |°7 Marmarosch,. . . 4
he district of Jazyg, 8 Saboltsch, . .°. :
$Do. of Little Cumania, 3 2 Cities of Heidukes, .
* In this Article, where English miles are not marked, German miles must be understood. ae , f ;
By the laws of Hungary, the proprietors of the soil are obliged to let out to farm one halfiof their lands to their vassals; what
+
they cultivate on thelr own account is called Prediens
: HUNGARY.
Towns.
Hoeldukes,
Chies of Zips and
Episcopal Cities.
i
[i
i
i
file
A
77
i
ers
the cotnty of Rent. The
351
inferior, either in breadth or excellence, to any of the
aid rae Apart pa amare manor d
sublimest natural scenery, sees to his surprise.
greatest artificial labours pli with neatness,
ornament, and economy ; beautiful roads re-
cesses, and over steeps, that would otherwise be im-
passible ; churches crowning the most elevated sum-
mits; towns and villages; and vineyards; all de-
corating without diminishing the wild grandeur of the
Hungarian Alps.” Indeed, the whole of this district,
aa far as is ingly rich and beautiful.
Statistics.
—-—S
The most prominent feature of the Hungarian land- Mountains.
scape are the mountains, the principal of which is the
Carpathian chain, or mountains of Tatra, which run in
a semicircular direction from west to east, about 500
English miles ; and its summit, which consists of huge
sfocinut aii) fa,che county of, ine;"is-abene 1280
ight, in coun ips, is tl
Saecea level of the Black eee The moun-
| tains situated in the east and south-east, are
from the northern chain by a plain, which extends
from. Hungary into the grand duchy of Transylvania.
They take their rise in the latter province; and, follow-
ing the direction of the Marosch as far as Arad, strike
towards the south the Bannat upon the confines of
Transylvania and Walachia; the highest of these are
ee ee le mare, or, the. high mountain.
on western of the kingdom, run from
i empty tae
Stiria Austria, as far as the Leitha; and some of
them equal the Alps nearly in height. Besides these,
there are other considerable mountains in the counties
of Pesth, Gran, Veszprim, and Szalad, some of which
po pire ipa forests of oak.
ad.
counties of Zips, Goemor, Sohl, Liptau, eadeonths
western part of the counties of Arw, Thurotz, and
Trentschm. It also abounds in the northern of
Zips, where the mountains of Fleischbank, Porte de Fer,
Altendorf, and some others, are entirely composed of it.
Near Altendorf it begins to di , and is replaced
by a ish free-stone, which covers almost th
country, and forms the great mountain of
ta. This stone extends along the extromity of
the western frontiers of Tatra, Godivilk, and towards
the south the county of Arw. From the eastern ex-
tremity, it extends still more along the frontiers of
Hungary, and into the counties of Zips, Scharosch,
Zemplin, and Unghwar. There another kind of stone
itself; clay slate covered with brown free-
pear in
ce it
nd different kinds of opals. The boli ofthe arpa-
a i t the C
thians on the north-enst, congist principally of clay-elsta.
The chain which stretches along the valleys
rosch and the borders of the seven mountains, as far a8
5
Mineralogy.
352
Statistics. the Theisse, and traverses the counties of Szathmar
“—vY~" and Ugotsch, is composed chiefly of porphyry and\gre
Grottos,
Plains.
Rivers
free-stone. In the eastern mountains, and, in general,
in those of the Bannat, there is a great deal of lime-
stone; which prevails also in the interior mountains.
The other stones that are found there are clay-slate,
brown free-stone, and porphyry. The neighbouring
mountains of Stiria and Austria contain lime-stone,
free-stone and granite,
The mountains of Hungary, especially the Carpa-
thian chain, abound with grottos of various dimensions,
the principal of which are Mazarna and Dupua in the
county of Thurotz, Drachenhole in the county of Lip-
tau, Holgocz in Zips, Agtelek in Goemor, and Sziliacz in
Torn. Bones and skeletons, partly petrified, are found
in these grottos, and the most beautiful stalactites of
every size and form. Those of Drachenhole and Szi-
liacz are particularly curious, being filled during the
summer with ice, which is formed in spring, and melts
at the approach of winter. The grotto of Veteranische
Hole is famous for the defence which General Veterani,
with a few followers, maintained against the Turks, in
1694. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube, a
little above the village of Ogradina. The rock of which
it is formed is inaccessible on every side except at the
entrance of the grotto, which is about four feet high
and two broad, and secured by an iron gate. The
interior is large enough to accommodate a thousand
men; and, from the embrasures cut out in the rock, it
has the complete command of the navigation of the
Danube. Here also, in the last war of Austria against
the Turks, the brave Major Stein, with a battalion of
infantry, defied the whole power of the Turkish army,
and after enduring for three weeks the most painful pri«
vations, made an honourable capitulation, and marched
out at the head of his surviving followers with their
arms and baggage.
The interior of Hungary consists of one almost con-
tinued flat, excepting a chain of mountains which,
taking’ their rise near the Danube, run through Gran,
Pesth, and the neighbouring counties, and divide the
country into two immense plains, called the Upper
Plain and the Lower Plain. The former is the est,
and is of a circular form. It extends from the lake of
Neusiedl for about twenty German miles, to the foot
of the mountains on the north, and then stretches as
far as the Drave, upon the confines of Croatia. The
Lower Plain is of much greater extent, and compre-
hends all the eastern part of the kingdom, as far as
Transylvania ; and where it approaches the mountains,
is finely diversified with hills and vallies, ‘The level
is evidently higher in the upper than in the lower
plain, as the rivers in the former almost uniformly di«
rect their course towards the Danube; and the lowest
spot in the whole country is at its south-eastern ex~
tremity, near Orsova.
The athian chain gives rise to innumerable ri-
vers, which flow in all directions, according to the de-
clivity of the ground and the sinuosity of the vallies,
but which eventually fall into the Thiesse or the Da-
‘nube. The Thiesse has its source in the county of Mar-
marosch. — Its course from its commencement is full and
rapid while it continues among the hills ; but when it
reaches the plain its rapidity slackens, and, bending
towards the west, receives innumerable tributary
streams from the northern mountains, Taking a south-
erly direction, it is joined by the Marosch, near Szegedin,
and, after a course of about 420 miles English, falls in-
to the Danube not far from Belgrade, As the banks of
HUNGARY.
this river are low, it often overflows them, and occasions Statisties.
extensive inundations, particularly in the neighbourhood’ "YY"
of Tokay. Few rivers in Europe abound more with
fish than the Thiesse ; and it is a common saying in the
country, that it contains two parts of water, and one of
fishes, -It is navigable as high as Szegedin. . The Waag
or Woh fertilizes the counties of Thurotz, Trentschin
and Neutra. — Circumscribed in its channel, it dashes its
impetuous waters over frightful rocks, and forms du-
ring its course above a hundred whirlpools. It enters
the plain at Sillein, and discharges itself into the left
branch of the Danube, which forms the island of Schutt,
Besides these, the other principal rivers which com-
mence and finish their course within the boundaries of
the kingdom are, the Gran, the Gollnitz, the Hernad, the
Torisza, the Sajo, the Nera, the Temesch, and the Bega,
The rivers which have their sources in other coun
tries, but which water, in some part. of their course,
the kingdom of Hungary, are the Danuse, (of which
a particular description will be found in vol.vii. p. 574.);
the Drave, which rises in the Tyrol, and flows with
such rapidity that its banks are neither so high nor so
solid as to retain its waters. Itis navigable during the
whole of its course through Hungary, and falls into
the Danube above Essek ; the Samosch, the Marosch,
and the Korosch, which take their rise in Transylvania,
and fall into the Thiesse ; the Morava, which gives its
name to the province of Moravia, washes the western
boundary of the kingdom ;. the Raab, which rises in
Stiria ; and the Leitha in Austria.
_, The lakes and marshes of Hungary
rous and extensive. Inthe Upper Plain the most con-,
siderable are Lake Balaton. The Lake of Neusiedl,
which the Hungarians call Tento, lies between the coun-
ties of Oedenbourg and Wieselbourg. Its western bank
is formed by hills, which are covered with vineyards,
woods, and, cultivated fields, while the opposite shore
is low and marshy, ucing nothing but reeds. . It.is
about thistoommliies nglish in length by four in breadth,
but so full of shallows and sand banks, that its navi
tion is both difficult and dangerous. In the.Lower Plain,
the principal is the lake of Palitsch, in the county,,of
Batsch. It is about eight miles (English) long, having
a hard bottom covered with alkaline salt. Its water is
used in the neighbouring baths, and is considered y,
salubrious in nervous disorders. The most remark
of the Carpathian lakes is the Grune-See, which is form
ed by an enclosure of rocks, and is about 300 paces)in,
circumference. It takes its name from the green) co<
lour of its waters, which is produced by the reflection
of the surrounding pines. Its banks are covered with
gravel and blocks of granite, and its water is pure and
transparent, and excellent for drinking.
Marshes of various extent pervade almost every quar
ter of the kingdom, and are in general formed by the
inundations of the rivers, The most considerable are
those of Saretje, Mohatsch, and Etsed. In the plain of
Bannat, they cover more than a third of the county of
Toronthal, almost the whole of Temeschwar, and the
reatest part of the district of the frontier regiment of
aang The marsly of Hansag, which joins the lake of
Neusiedl, is five miles long by three broad, | The water
appears only in the middie, the greatest part being co-
vered with turf, and studded with trees. It ces
plenty of hay; but it is dangerous to cross it, unless
well acquainted with the particular direction of the
It would be proper to notice also the sandy plains,
which overspread many parts of this country, the most
are both angat Lakes.
Marshes,
Sandy
plains.
r
pe
Mew
eet. yt ee.
HUNGARY: 353°
«extensive of which are’ Kétschkemeten-Heide, or the four oxen, beginning at: sun-rise, and finishing, at sun-- Statistics,
heath pe ln hn between the Danube and set ; a fourth part of them must be performed during the ==
the left bank of the Thiesse; Dedreczin, inthe county winter, and, in the time of harvest, she, propeieine tats
of Bihar; and the Ager Romanorwm, near Delliblat. Be- demand two in the week : a ninth part of the crop, and
i i ties of Tolna, also of the sheep, goats, lambs, and bee-hives; and if
Stuhlweissenbourg, Baranje, and particularly in Schu- the number is under nine, 4 kreutzers for every lamb,
i $ kreutzers for every goat, and 6 kreutzers for every
hive: 2 hens, 2capons, a dozen of eggs, and half a
in pint of melted butter: 30 farms together pay a calf or
ir damp a florin, and 30 be a a poery's ga married
i prneconin as ighteen days work, and pay a florin
; this is i ap ed Fy er Wp mga la
wind from the Carpathian mountains; days work: every vassal to beat the bushes three times
therremarkable for a year in the hunting season : four gpg ag
In some of the counties on the sessing a farm, to unite in performing a job with four
P horses at the distance of two days journey, excepting
in the Bannat, on the north-east part of the the time of harvest or vintage: two florins for permis<
ee neta ceiacetetideenes The-piaprieen ferekkes be sepekerie seek he feel
are sudden. A and inflamma- ietor furni is ¥: with w or
$ sai edeatiamn the and building; and in return, they must cut acord of
a healthy is scarcely to be seen. Baron wood in the forest, and transport it to the castle. The
here, fancied himself in the realms of death, respective rights and obligations of the noble and his vas-
in fine tombs instead of men; and sals are regu by a Statute, which is called urbarium,
he was invited,all the guests had and which was provisionally confirmed by the diet in
1791. The peasant, however, holds his lands only from
ng their teeth. term to term, and must resign them when proper warn-
we except the barren heaths and the mountainous ing has been given by his lord.
acts i i otwithstandirfg these disadvantages, the soil is so pro- Produc.
any other country in Europe. It contains ductive, that the annual exportation of grain to Italy and tions
— is very considerable. Wheat is the principal
object of cultivation ; and in the mountainous parts of the
Stal caeeidadi ete
2, ,and oats are ity, and in
bat wa | SR eee sa ag peas,
turnips, melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, onions,
and garlic. Lint and hemp are cultivated in many of the
. t farther care.the harvest is laxu~ counties; also poppies, saffron, madder, and woad, Tos
But much of the grain is lost, by themanner in bacco forms a considerable branch both of agriculture
i 1 ae ca penta and apron he cepa was
field after it is cut until very scarce, the city rieste alone exported Hunga;
rian tobacco to the amount of 100,759 pounds yo
ith horsesand cattle der, and 3,263,136 pounds in leaves or carrots, The
i i i Lest tehocre, te. prednand.et Tolna, Kospalogh, and Sze,
gedin.
aeibtivopsucahdectn ies py ney a er ey en
uture are country, unless in seven of
its in the bottom and sides with the northern counties, where age ome is too
ot
i
3
q
s
[
:
or
H
ese
:
ul
HI
3 Fs5
eae
HS
ie8'
5
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nM
i
i
;
a
lH i
:
Han
iit
a 4
Hl
iu ta
FRESE:
i
fit
Hl
al
este
agiest
He
ieee
tite
nh
iF
3
Be LEEE
ee
Het
i
tH
Mi
tal
ifs
Hf
Hi
fe
a
it
:
by far i Tokay, grow on the mountain of Hegy-Allya,
and on the frontiers of Austtia and Stiria, the soil re- in the county of Zemplin ; but as this mountain pros
ose of the inhabitants to make it pro- duces a very inconsiderable proportion of what passes
a crop; and were their exertions under the name of Tokay, they sell for it the wines of
and method of culture (though still imperfect )transferred Mada, Tallya, Zumbor, Szegu, Zsadany, Toltschwa,
to the southern parts of the kingdom, Hu would Benye, &c. which few but a Hungarian palate can. dis-
become the of An obsta- ish. Next to the wines of Tokay, the most
cid Comncapdaate ee a eentien pn pay ete ee Pet Suomen
the tenure, by which the farmer holds his lands. The cultivated with great care and intelligence. The others
lands are parcelled out into farms, half farms, quarter of consequence are the wines of Erlau, Buda, Neustad-
farms, &c. A farm is measured by the seed it requires, tel, Menesch, Scohmla, Resmil, and Ratschdorf.
being 48 bushels,, and. 12 fagwerk of meadow ; if the —_ Although the climate of H be very favourable. orchards,
a at ae ey eg 0 mie ee for the cultivation of all kinds.of fruit, very little atten-
In Croatia they distinguish three kinds of , good, tion is paid to them in the Lower Plain, . The orchards.
middling, and bad. A farm of the first quality is 21,000 are confined chiefly to CEdenbourg, rg, Neutra,
square toises ; of the second 34,000; and of the third and the neighbouring counties, where chesnuts, almonds,,
— 40,000, The annual burdens attached to a farm in epoca paaneed les, and pears abound, and are of
Hungary are, fifty-two deya work with two horses, or firs} quality. Entice forests vt of plumtrees flourish
Y
:
:
F
-
r
354
Statistics. in the counties of Trentschin, Neutra, and some others ;
and their fruit, both fresh and dried, is exported in great
quantities to Austria and Prussia.
The meadows and pasture grounds of Hungary are
very much neglected. They cover 1,483,008 acres, and
yield about 17,085,985 quintals of hay. The northern
and western districts of rangery abound in immense
forests of fir, pine, and oak, interspersed with yews,
ash, hazel, and linden, which overspread nearly nine
millions of acres. In the district of the frontier regi-
ment of Walachia, the forests cover 465,862 acres, and
afford employment and profit to many of the inhabi-
tants. In 1802, there were drawn from these woods
the following articles, which will give the reader some
idea of their value and importance.
58,446 pieces for the construction of wheels.
1,414 cubic toises of ash.
108,732 staves for casks.
2,725 do. for scuttles.
2,560 do. of oak, ~
80,920 do. of beech.
$44 cubie toises of oaken joists.
702,800 staves.
2,363 planks a foot square.
900 green poles.
11,013 planks for boat building.
5,298 laths.
1,704 planks for scaffolding.
40,624 do. of linden and maple.
1,099 do. of hazel.
196 posts of do.
The forests of Hungary produce an immense quantity
of gall-nuts, which, from their exportation during ten
years, (from 1777 to 1786,) yielded 516,679 florins of
revenue, In the south, however, from Pesth to Debret-
zin on the one hand, and from the mines of Bannat in
the county of Kraschow to Peterwardein on the other, a
wood is scarcely to be seen. In this district the fuel,
on account of the scarcity of timber, consists chiefly of
reeds, and cow dung made into bricks with straw.
On the pastures of Hungary are reared a great num-
ber of cattle, which forms one of the principal sources
of national opulence. The oxen are nearly equal to
those in Kent, which are the finest in Europe. They
are generally of a whitish colour, or light grey, and are
valued for their great weight, and the fine flavour of
their flesh. About the conclusion of the last century,
there were reckoned in Hungary 797,540 fat oxen,
89,805 bulls, and 1,508,177 cows; and according to
the commercial tables, during ten years of the same pe-
riod, the exportation of oxen amounted to thirty mil-
lions of florins, when a pair of oxen sold only for 50 or
60 florins.
The horses are in general small, but are equal to any
in Europe in elegance and swiftness. They have been,
however, much neglected; and, notwithstanding the
many attempts.that have been made by the government
for their improvement, they are still far removed from
that state of perfection of which they are capable, The
royal studs at Mezoehegyes in the county of T’schanad,
and Babolua in the county of Komorn, were established
by the Emperor Joseph II. ; and from them 60 stallions
are regularly distributed every year throughout the
country, to produce a more noble breed. In 1795, the
stud of Mezoehegyes consisted of 10,000 horses, of
which 1000 were mares, and 60 stallions. It is under
the direction of a major, 12 officers, 50 sub-officers,
and 200 soldiers, besides grooms and labourers; and
is obliged to furnish annually 1000 horses for the ats
Woods,
Animals.
Horses.
HUNGARY.
. of every description
my. There are also several private studs, of which the Statistida
most considerable are those of the lordship of Holitsch, !
established by Francis I., of Prince Esterhazy. at U-
zor, and of Count Palfy at Dertrekoe. The small size
of the Hungarian horses may be attributed to their be«
ing too young when brought to the yoke, and to their
scanty nourishment. They seldom give them hay, but
drive them out at all seasons to pasture; and even when
on a journey, they are sent into the fields, to find at
oe a4 time food ree rest,
e Hungarian sheep are very beautiful, especially she
those with forked peg of which none are reared + =
any other country, except on Mount Ida, and in some
of the islands in the Archipelago, Their wool, how-
ever, which is long and hairy, is used only in fabrica-
ting coarse stuffs, which are worn by the » In
1773, the Austrian government pe Shared preae rail
the wool of the native sheep, by the introduction of
Spanish rams ; but it was long before this practice be«
came general. At present, however, many of the no-
bles possess immense flocks of the improved breed, and
draw from the sale of their wool a considerable reve«
nue. Some of these flocks produce annually about
1500 quintals of wool, worth 274,000 florins, Flocks
pass the winter in the open fields.
The shepherds, whom they call juhasz, are very little Shepher
rented from savages. ey abe under ground
with their dogs, and, ex a boy or two who assist
them and bring their food from the village, and the
merchants, who in the beginning of summer come to.
make purchases, they seldom see a human face. Yet
retired as they are from the world, they are fond of or-
naments in their dress; and though their clothes are
of the coarsest description, and besmeared with grease,
they trim their hats with ribbands of various colours,
bm have their leathern girdles thick studded with
bright metal buttons.
s bacon is a favourite dish with the Hungarians, Hoge.
they rear an immense quantity of hogs; and the head
of a family who had not a piece of fat pork on his table
at Christmas, would be regarded as a very bad econos
mist. The consumption of this animal in the
is so great, that they have none of their own to spare
for exportation ; but they carry on a very lucrative trafa
fic, by buying them in Turkey, and selling them to
their neighbours. According to the Commercial Ta-
bles, they annually purchased in Turkey to the amount
of 531,978 florins, which they sold for 895,337 florins,
Among the animals of this country may also be men-
tioned a race of shepherds’ dogs, of a white colour
and noble size, and also a breed of immense mastiffs, °
Bees and silk-worms form considerable branches of in«
dustry in this country, and it abounds also in poultry“
and game. Fish are so abundant in Bungtty) that
they form an important branch of industry and com-.
merce; and sturgeons, salmons, pikes, carps, es,
&e, are to be found in all the principal rivers. In 1803,
they were exported to Austria to the amount of 98,230
florms. ' <4
Hun, abounds in minerals of every description; \inerals,
gold, si te copper, lead, iron, mercury, cobalt, anti-
mony, salt, slate, &c, which, in their exploration and
manufacture, afford employment to a great i
of its inhabitants. Native gold is found in the of
many of the rivers; and in the Koeroes, pieces of the
size of a nut are picked up by the inhabitants of the Bans
nat, who upon an average gather to the amount of 900
ducats. In general, however, it is extracted from the
auriferous sand, which is not only taken from the chans
4
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Statistics,
Essaying
laboratory.
856
rise to the surface, and are raked off in the form of sco-
riw, which they carry, as lech, to be fused again in the
first operation. The lead thus combined with. gold
and silver, is collected into large crucibles, and carried
to the fourth fusion, or fifth operation, for the sepa-
ration of the lead.
5th, The furnace used for the separation of the lead
is called a purification furnace. The shape of it resem-
bles a hollow sphere, whereof the upper part is so con-
trived, that it may be taken off like a lid, being raised
by large chains. Here the richest ores that can be
procured are added to the compound of lead, silver, and
gold ; and the whole is fused, not with charcoal, but
by means of a flame.drawn over the superficies, unin-
terruptedly for twenty-four hours at least. During
this process, the lead becomes calcined. A portion of
it is absorbed by the bottom of the furnace, consisting
of wood-ashes and. silica; another portion escapes in a
gaseous form; but the greater part is raked off as it
rises to the surface, in the form of galena, by men em-
ployed with instruments for that purpose. During all
this operation, the gold and silver concentrate more
and more, until at the last they are found pure and
combined together in a cake of metal, at the bottom
of the purification furnace. Then follows the sixth .
and the most beautiful of all the operations,—that of
separating the gold trom the silver.
’ 6th, The cake, or combined regulus of gold and sil-
ver, obtained from the purification furnace, is separated
into thin ‘pieces in this: manner: It is melted, and, in
a state of fusion, cast into cold water. By this means
it is obtained with a very extended superficies, and ea-
sily divided into a number of thin scales. These are
put into immense glass retorts, of a spherical form,
nearly filled with nitric acid, Here the silver dissolves,
a gentle heat being communicated to the retorts to ac-
celerate the solution. It has been usual to exclude
foreigners from the great laboratory, where this takes
place ; but as we had witnessed every operation, we
were also permitted to view the interior of this cham-
ber. The sight was beautiful. It was a spacious and
lofty hall, filled with enormous globes of glass ranged
in even rows, whence the nitrous gas was escaping in
red fumes to the roof; the solution of silver being vi-
sible in all of them by the effervescence it caused ; the
gold falling at the same time, in the form of a black
powder, to the bottom of every retort. After the solu-
tion of the silver is completely effected, the acid con-
taining the silver, by augmenting the heat, is made to
pass into another retort, and the gold is left behind in
the former vessel. Afterwards increasing the heat
to-a great degree on the side of the silver, the
whole of the acid is driven off, and the silver remains
beautifully crystallized within the retort. All the glass
globes containing the crystallized silver are then cast
into a'ecommon furnace, where the glass, by its levity
remaining on the surface of the metal, is removed in
the form of scorie. This is the last operation... The
gold is smelted into ingots of 12,000 florins each.”
“In the essaying laboratory, instead of the long
process we have described for extracting the precious
metals from their ores, two simple re easy experi-
ments are suflicient.. The first is a trial of the pulver-
ized ore by cupellation. About a tea-spoonful of the
pulverized ore, first weighed, is put into a small cupel
made of calcined bones: this being exposed to the heat
of a erful furnace, the lead, semimetals, &c, ‘are
either absorbed by the cupel, or they are sublimed.
Nothing remains afterwards'in the cupel but a small
bead of combined gold and silver ; and by the propor«
HUNGARY.
tion of its weight to! the original weight of the dre,the | Statistics.
value of the latter is Fret ee : Phe gold is'then see ““V-—"
parated from the silver by the solution of the: latter in
nitric acid; and the difference of the weightofthe gold
from the whole weight of the two metals combined,
determines the quantity of silver dissolved by the atid.”
«* A hundred pounds weight of their richest ores cons
tained from four to five marks of silver; and éach mark
of the silver about 15 deniers of gold.” -
The mines are wrought y at the expence of
the crown, and partly at the expence of individuals,
who pay a duty called urbur, and are besides’ obli
to deliver the metal at a fixed price to the royal trea-
sury.
The number of miners employed by the crown at
these mines amounts to 9,500, of whom 8000 are at
Schemnitz ; and the expence to government of working
is estimated at 50,000 florins a month, and the ‘clear
profits during the same period 12,000 florins, about
£1338, calculating the pound sterling equal to nine
florins. . The workmen are paid, when the ore’ is rick,
according to the quantity and quality of the ore raised,
but when it is poor,’ recéive wi The Schem- Produce 6
nitz ores, in the space of thirty-three years, (from 1740 the mines.
to 1773) prod seventy millions of florins in: gold
and silver ; and those of Cremnitz thirty millionsduring
the same period. The greatest luce, however, was
derived from them in: 1780, when they yielded 2,429
marks of gold, and 92,267 marks of silver, making
3,043,000 florins, In common years, according to the
calculations of Born and-Feérber, these mines, including
the copper mine of Neuwsoh/, where:one quintal of cop-
produces twelve ounces of silver, yield ‘from
58,000 to 59,000 marks of silver, and from 1,200 to
1,300 marks of gold. 4 ve a
The silver mines in er Hungary at -Banya,
Felsoe-Banya, and Lapie Bangin in the tnt ae Szath-
mar; at Metzenself in the county of Bihar, with the
copper mines of Retz-Banya and Schmoelnitz, accord<
ing to Mr Ferber, give an annual produce of from
12,000 to 15,000 marks of silver, and from 300 to 400
marks of gold. The copper and lead mines in the Ban
nat at Oravitza, Saszka, ka, and Moldava,
yield annually about 11,041 marks of silver, and 203
marks of gold. y '
The copper mines of Hungary produce annually from Copper
80,000 to 40,000 quintals. The richest are situated at mines.
Schmoelnitz in the county of Zips, and im the Ban-
nat.
The lead mines in 1786 were t to the extent Lead
of from 14,000 to 15,000 quintals, but this produce is
now considerably diminished. i
The iron mines in this country are almost inexhaust~ Iron
ible. The best is drawn from a mountain called Hra-
dek, near Esetnek ; but as this metal is not subject to
any duty or tithe, the annual produce of these mines
have not been ascertained. In the county of Goemor,
including the district of Kleinhont, there are eight great
furnaces, a floating furnace, eighty-seven ‘small ones,
and forty-nine forges, which furnish annually 94,200 Q
quintals of iron, worth 1,304,240 florins. But notwith« f
standing the great quantity of iron which this country ;
produces and exports, they are obliged to be indebted t
to Austria for most of their tools and vessels made’ of
this metal. ttt Ty GUT
» Manganese is found near Felsoe-Banya; and in some Metals. —
of the iron mines ; Titaniwm, in the county of Goemor f
near Roeze ; and tellurium, which was discovered by
Dr Kietaibel in a mineral of Deutsch-Pilsen in the
county of Hont, Many valuable and beautiful mi.
3
=
=
TO sy, Mer
}
.» 9 | Gall-nuts. ... ..» . 240
Fox-tails....... $71 | Olives ....... 288
Horned cattle . . . 2,384 | Olive-oil ...... G4
MCAIVER™ 0 crete sts co 129 | Frankincense ... 48
Horses : . - 609 | Raisins. ..... . 304
EOD sc ots sits 3,150 | Buck-horns..... 19
(lone, 3 ai sti tees L830. | RUGS 5 5 sneie- seit nue Le
Hogs outs 6, SPOOL AEUNE dle cs igus ue 23,349
UB ss. 6, 6s 214,584 | Soap ...... . 1,268
Tortoises. .... . 2,239 | Reed-mats . 627
Salt meat .....6,053 | Boots........312
Beef tallow. ... . 4,419 | Cordage ..... 5,750
The imports which enter by the Danube are of the
same description as those in the preceding Table ; but
their. amount is comparatively inconsiderable. Of co-
lonial produce Hungary consumes annually about 8,000
quintals of coffee, and 10,000 quintals of sugar. U
the whole, notwithstanding its commercial difficulties
and obstructions, the exports of Hungary are to its
imports, in the proportion of more than four to three.
According to the calculations of Schwartner, durin
ten years (from 1777 to 1786) its exports were wahied
at 148,229,177 florins, and its imports at 106,721,371
florins, :
The money, weights and measures of this country
correspond nearly with those of Austria. In money,
the common reckoning is in florins and kreutzers,—60
kreutzers being equivalent to one florin. The copper
coins are ; the polturak, equal to a kreutzer and a half;
the zel, value of half'a polturak ; and the ungrisch,
of which five are equivalent to three kreutzers. The
ideal or fictitious money of Hungary, consists of
the bauer-gulden = 494 kreutzers
the kurze-gulden = 50 do.
the vonas-gulden = 51 do. and
the ort ee do.
The measure prescribed for corn throughout the
kingdom is the Presbourg bushel. In the county of
Zips this measure is called a kudel, and is divided into
two korelzs; but in other places the kubel is divided
into four koretzs or veka. The eimer is the general
measure for wine, but it varies in its contents in diffe-
rent parts of the country. At Oedenbourg it contains
84 halben or pints, and at Buda only 60. The great
eimer of Debretzin is 100 pints, and the small one 50.
In consequence. of this discrepancy of measures, the
merchants presented a remonstrance to the committee
of commerce appointed by the diet. On this subject
they remarked, that such a variety of measures were
the Theisse.
-only in 1802, It receives the waters of the Danube at
h, and discharges itself into the Theisse-
_ tals; and their
HUNGARY.
hurtful to commerce, and destroyed their credit among
to hold an eimer and a half, in general contained scarce-
ly an eimer ; and that a piece of wine, which ought to
contain 64 halben, has seldom more than 58.
The foot of Vienna is the standard square measure
for surveying. According to a regulation called uréa-
rium, the joch or acre is fixed at 1600 square toises ;
but in some of the counties where this regulation has
not been introduced, this measure varies greatly ; as at
Oedenbourg, for instance, the acre measures only 900
square toises. wes
The weights are in gerieral the same as_at Vienna,
(except the stein used in Upper Hungary, which weighs
20 pounds) viz.
1 quintal (ewt.
1 Sotind ( )
1 mark
1 loth
1 quintale
100 pounds,
2m
16 loths
4: quintales or drams,
4: deniers. «
WU
The greatest obstructions to the commerce of this
country arise from the difficulty and expence of con-
veyance. pact in the. districts on the north and
west, there are few made roads in Hungary, and these
are kept in very bad repair. The bridges in general are
wretched, and almost all built of wood, which the rising
of the rivers often carries away and destroys. Some
of the flying bridges, however, used in.this country,
are very magnificent, and are adorned with consider~
able elegance. That over the Danube "at Gran con-<
sists of a large platform constructed across two barges,
and held by other boats at anchor. It is provided with
several small houses, a large bell and cupola,. images,
&c. and is capable of conveying, at the same time, a
great number of carriages, passengers, and cattle. From
Pesth, the centre of Hungarian commerce, the road to
Vienna passes through Komorn, Raab, and Wiesel«
bovrg; to Gallicia, by Erlau, Kaschau, and Eperies ;
to Transylvania, by Debretzin, and also by Ketschke-
met, Szegedin, Temeschwar, and Lugosch; to Wala-
chia, by Temeschwar, Karansebes, and Schuppenek.;
to Semlin and Belgrade, by Theresienstadt and Neusatz ;
to Croatia, by Stuhlweissenbourg, Veszprim, and Kanis-
che ; and to Stiria and Treiste, by Veszprim, Somogy,
and Pettau. — is
: Statistics,
- foreigners ; that an antal of Tokay wine, which ought ~~~
Weights,
Roads.
Bridges,
The transportation of goods by water, though more
expeditious, suffers many interruptions, from the shal-
lows and rapids in the rivers. The Danube itselfis far
from being tree of these inconveniences ; but boats with
from 6000 to 8000 quintals of grain can pass as high as
Komorn. The formation of canals, however, whi
of late become an object of improvement, promises to fa-
cilitate greatly the internal commerce of this country.
Those that are finished are the canal of Baatsch, the
Bega canal, and the Tranzisci canal. The Bega canal
commences near Facsed in the county of Krascho, and
after forming a communication between the rivers Bega
and Temesch, traverses all the Bannat, and falls into
The Tranzisci canal was first opened
Monoflor.
at Foldwar ; and in its whole extent requires only four
sluices. In 1804, there passed through this canal 634
boats, many of which carried from 4000 to 5000 quin-
which we here present to the
reader, will enable him to form some idea of the inter-
nal commerce ef thiscountry, =
+
has Canals,
HUNGARY. $59
‘)
Salt’ 5 See.” 52,443 quintals towns and vi The Croats dwell principally on Statistics.
Wms Xess eo. eimers the banks of lake Neusiedl, and counties of —“v——"
Wheat. :..°...... 607,8742 bushels Wieselbourg and Oedenbourg ; and the Vandals on the
Meee aes ee 1640 do. mountainous parts of Eisen . The Rasciens or
anes le fate ove, 16676 = agent Ses oe eee
SOMME. SS eS ee ee 4,407 Sigism ey occupy a great part
“Oats 0. ee eee eee orice do. of the military frontiers, and also many places in the
Breit : 2°. ...- «++... 1,250 quintals interior, and have had considerable privileges granted
and Silver. ..... 2400 dao. to them by the kings of Hungary.
; irate siclels = » « SHEOD. “do. The Walachians, who are su to be the de- walachi-
Fire-wood ......+-+..-.- 850 do, scendants of the ancient Reman ies, dwell chiefly ans.
Oak-plank ......-.-+-- do. in the Bannat on the confines of Walachia, and in the
NE Gade else oo ate oe do. counties of Arad, Bihar, and Szathmar, in 1,024 towns
ty casks 6... ..--- 2,376 do. and villages. Those of the Bannat bear a very bad
eax dg sialeale mary iy: ~ ie *¥ character. are noisy and quarrelsome, fond
Bay 5 es rere ees 280) do. of gambling. and crimes,
Marble ...... et ea twye do. which have been attributed y. Beene sor err Bag as
Free-stone ..... Bie%e + 300 do. priests, who are called Popes ; it calcula-
Tobacco . 2... ee ee ee « 271 do. ted, that in twenty executions for capital offences, there
Planks ...... SFel siete ye 1,444 do. is always one pope.
Mill-stones ...-..+-+.- 402 do. The German tion is peat thane hw ys A
Wheel-barrows ........- "2 do. over all the-ki , but it predominates in 921 vi
Pie oes Ft . 115 do, * lages and towns in the counties of Zips, Eodenbourg,
Earthen-ware.......-.-6,189 do. and Wieselbourg, and in some of the royal free cities.
‘Hoops: .....+5+--+- 100 do, They are almost all Suabians, and their reception as
Lime......++-++-++ 1,450 do colonists into H is of a late date, chiefly between
: ‘ the years 1765 nd 1787 In the last of these years
Population. The of H is much less in propor- alone more than thirty villages were built for them. In
tion to its extent, than that Loner gape pe coun- oe 8 a penne pce eget
tries of Austria, Moravia, or Bohemia; and this may Geek the goveroutent ware than six milieu oF @s-
Suite ne nar eaihen of mouieet hee tins. The population of the royal free cities varies from
and the great numbers of morasses and heaths, 30,000 to 1,100 inhabitants. Pesth, and De-
f
which render a great portion of the lower entirely in, are the most populous ; but on the lake
i ne iedl, in 1794, contained only 1,105 inhabitants.
Of the towns, the principal are, Ketschkemet, contain-
every mile. These consist of a variety of na- ing, in 1803, 24,000; Nagy-Koros, 12,000; Szarwasch,
abs Sieaguriend, Glavons, Welachiane, Germans, Se. 9,000 ; Sazbereny, 12,000 ; and Bekesch, 11,000 inha-
most fruitful part of the kingdom. They inhabit al- tainous districts they seldom exceed 700,
most all the lower plair begining at Marmarosch,and _—_ Besides bared sep nations, there are also Macedo-
the western part of Hungary, form the population —nians or Modern Grecks, who have no settled habitations,
but travel over es oeaniey, oapaet entirely in com-
labours of agriculture, to every other employment. hemians or i is Vv. race are very nu-
‘ isti asaieata ; and, in spi of all the attempts YPsies
and military half-boots, with spurs fastened of the Emperor II. to and civilize them,
: by they still maintain their ancient customs and habits.
and men; and the Hussar uniform, which is pe- Those of the Bannat get their livelihood as itinerant
FEF
ee nhs its of wood.
bar an ee tee ap Pa Naat Marco form the at all ings and merry
Slowacs Croats, Vandals, and Servians or meetings; and many of the richest nobles invite them
Rasciens, The Slowecs inhabit chiefly the counties on to their castles, to amuse their guests with their music
the north and north-west, those of Pres- and national songs. Schwartner, in his Statistics of
. y H , attempts to account for this variety of popu-
towns and villages, Of all the inhabitents of lation: “ From the earliest history, Hungary has been
oer hay kets CREE Ge ne. the native abode of the Sarmatians or Slavonic tribes,
er have ed themselves among Hunga- Since the fourth century, it has been the hospitable
rians or Germans, these have ceased to provper, and region where the innumerable hordes which
360
Statistics. wealth-in Europe,—as the frontier of Christendom, the
“—"Y~"_ theatre of European valour and Turkish ferocity,—and
for a long time the cherished homes of the ies, the
El-Dorado of the Germans, especially of the laborious
Saxons, and numerous Suabians.”
The inhabitants of Hungary may be classed under
three heads, viz. the nobility, the citizens, and the pea-
sants, The nobility are very numerous, and are calcu-
lated at 325,894 individuals, making nearly one. for
every twenty-one inhabitants and a half. These consist
of the barons of the kingdom, or officers of state, and the:
order of Magnats (liberi barones). Of the latter there
were, according to the Political Almanack of 1805, 95)
families of counts, 79 of barons, and 297 of noble stran-.
gers, who had obtained letters: of naturalization’ since)
the commencement of the Austrian sovereignty. ‘There,
are only, three families whose heads:enjoy the title of
prince: Esterhazy, Bathyany, and Grassalkovies. The
first is supposed to be the richest subject in Europe.
Among the nobility, also, are included all gentlemen
who possess, landed property, as the individual doing
so is ¢pso facto ennobled. The title of citizen or burgh~)
er belongs only to the inhabitants of the royal free ci-
ties, who have particular privileges; and their num-
ber, including the inhabitants of the six free cities of
Croatia and Sclavonia, amounts to nearly 366,000.)
The peasants are the inhabitants of the country, who:
belong neither to the noblesse, the clergy, nor the mi-
litary, but, who live entirely by husbandry, the culti-
vation, of the vine, or the rearing of cattle, Of these
they reckon 509,825. With them may also be classed
788,993 other individuals, whom they call haiisler, who
have no lands to cultivate, but who live by their own
labour.
The government of Hungary is a limited monarchy,
where the king enjoys great authority and influence ;
but where the nobility also have extensive rights and
numerous privileges, The order of succession is esta-
blished in the descendants: of either sex of the House
of Hapsburg, who at’ their coronation must take an
oath in the presence of the diet, to preserve and main-
tain inviolate the liberties, privileges, rights, laws, and
usages of the kingdom at present existing, or which
may hereafter be decreed during their reign ; never to
carry the Hungarian diadem out of the kingdom, but
to entrust to two Jay guardians elected by the diet for
the purpose; to unite to the crown of Hungary all
the countries which it formerly possessed should they
be reconquered ; to restore to. the estates of the realm
the right of electing,a king after the extinction of the
line of the descendants of Charles VI., Joseph I., and
Leopold [.; and that each of their successors shall be
bound to sanction this conservative act at the diet of his
coronation within six months after his accession.
The prerogatives of the monarch consist in his exerci«
sing the executive power in its full extent; but the le-
gislative power he holds only in conjunction withthe diet,
whose decrees alone have the force of laws ; the nomina-
tion to.all bishoprics and abbeys, and ecclesiastical digni-
ties, as also to all civil and military appointments, (the
Palatine, and the two keepers of the crown exce}
who are chosen by the diet from a list of candidates
presented by the king); the
of making peace and war, and of calling out the perso-
nal levy ;,the right to the revenues of all vacant be-
nefices, as also to the properties of all deceased nobles
who have died without heirs, or who have been con-
victed of treason or rebellion ; the immediate superin-
tendance and direction of all establishments of public
Classifica-
tion of the
inhabitants,
Govern-
ment.
Preroga-
tives of the
king.
HUNGARY.
“trates. Besides the royal free cities, there are others
which possess particular privileges ; the most consider-~
wer of creating nobles, .
instruction, whether religious or temporal, whether Ca-
tholic or Protestant ; and the right of convoking the
diet, of pointing out the matters that are to be there
discussed, and of proroguing or dismissing it.
The privileges of the nobilit , by.an act of the diet in
1741, were formed into a fundamental law of the king-
dom, and consist in the-right of assisting at the deliber-
ations of the legal assemblies of the county, wherein
they dwell or possess property, whatever be the sub-
ject under consideration ; the inviolability of their per-
sons from arrest, unless.in the cases of felony, high-way
robbery, and some other crimes ; the sole right of pos-
sessing lands with the.seignorial power over their vas-
sals; and the exemption from all contributions and
imposts,
The royal free cities enjoy the.same rights as the no- Royal’ pr-
bles without exception, and are subject to the same Vileges.
laws and usages. They are considered as domains of
the crown, which can neither be alienated nor mort
gaged. .They constitute the fourth. order of the diet,
and are represented by two members each; and the ci«
tizens elect their own burgomasters, judges, and magis-
Privileges
of the no.
bility.
able of which are the sixteen cities of Zips, which
were mortgaged to Poland by, King Sigismund, but re-
stored to Hungary in 1772. Their jurisdiction, civil
and military, is independent of the county; and they
enjoy the right of appeal from their own tribunals to.
the supreme courts of the kingdom, Their population:
is 45,000. The six cities of Heidukes, in the county of ,
Saboltsch, which possess nearly the same privileges, .
and send two deputies to the diet. They contain about.
27,500 inhabitants ; and the districts of Jazyg, of Great
and Little Cumania, which form a population of
112;723 souls. They are under the immediate juris«
diction of the palatine, and form, like the royal free ci.
ties, a domain of the crown. They pay neither oa
nor tithe, and send two representatives to the diet. ,
these, however, are subject, like the other cities, to the ,
general contributions.
The peasants, since 1791, by an act of the diet, are Peasants.
no longer attached to the soil, but are at liberty to —
leave their habitations at the proper term, and seek an- .
other lord. Formerly it was not permitted for plebeians .
to plead in, law against a noble; but the free cities .
pleaded for their individual burghers, and one noble
defended the rights of his vassals against another. By ©
the diet of 1802, however, it was decreed, that, for the -
future, citizens and peasants should be permitted, in
certain cases, to prosecute for themselves. Plebeians, ©
also, as such, may fill the highest situations in the »
church ; and it is not unfrequent, that, on account of |
their learning and good conduct, they obtain letters of _
nobility. When once ennobled, the career of honours
is open to them, and they may then aspire to the first »
offices of the kingdom.
The principal officers of state are the palatine, who, Officers of
besides other duties, presides. at the assembly of the S*
diet, is viceroy in the absence of the king, and general« ©
issimo of the Hungarian troops; the grand judge of .
the kingdom; the bann of Croatia, Dalmatia, and -
Sclavonia ; and the grand treasurer. . :
The. Diet of the states is composed of four orders, Diet of the
viz. the prelates ; the lay-barons and the magnats ; the state.
representatives of the counties, each ey em
two members ; and the representatives of cities,
They are invited to the diet, in the name of the king,
by letters of convocation dispatched by the chancery ; .
*
4
py HUNGA-RY. 861
and these letters often contain a statement of the differ- whom must be present, in order to constitute its’ deci- Statistics:
t points that are to be there discussed, that the coun- sions valid. It pronounces on all disputes _
j i property, the maiming or murdering of nobles,
to their deputies. A ing to the constitu- crimes of high treason. It is also a court of appeal,
one but a noble, that is, one who and holds: four sessions during the year.
; can sit and deliberate in i diet. The inferior and special judicatories are the four tri- Special _
assembled, all the members are considered as bunals of the circles, which decide only in civil cases, judicatories.
; nei i i having no criminal jurisdiction ; the county tribunals;
which have also four sessions, and take cognizance: of
all matters civil and criminal, except in cases of high
treason ; the district tribunals; the city tribunals ; and
of the kingdom, the governors of the tribunals of individual nobles. Croatia has also a
court of appeal called tabula banalis, which sits at Ag- ~
iet ; ram, and of which the ban of Croatia and Sclavonia is
most numerous body, constitute the chamber of states, president. It has the same jurisdiction within these
where cat gran judge Passe When a motion has provinces: as the royal table at Pesth, with this differ-
pont chambers, king has the power of con- ence, that an appeal may be carried from the tabula
ing or Tejecting it, his approbation being necessary banalis to the royal table.
to give it the force of a law, The bases of Hungarian jurisprudence are the corpus Jurisptu-
internal police of the kingdom is administered juris Hungarici; decretum tripartitum Verboeczianum, dence.
su aulic chancery, the council of govern- ‘and decisiones curiales. The corpus juris Hung. is a
ment, and other subordinate courts. The first sits at collection of all the decrees passed by the diet from the
i i ices commencement of the monarchy, and was first formed
in 1584. Since that time it has received so many ad-
+ ditions, that it is increased one half; but, latterly, these
King laws have been so ill digested, and so intermixed with *
iti other matters, that the confusion which is thus occas
sioned renders the study of them both difficult and la-
borious. The decretum triparlitum Verboeczianum, is a
collection of customs introduced into the administration
of justice, which, by long usage, have received the
ne
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at Buda; and consists of the palatine, who is president, force of laws. This collection was made by Verboecz,
and 24 counsellors. It has the superintendance of all the grand jadge in the rtign of Ladislees Il. ;.and
m1 ne ear perrelgedprenien eeroyd aren vam py rg, em j as a national code by seve~
lice and public safety, and the inspection of churches, ral » yet, the course of time, it ac-
and commerce ; and decides in all matters of liti roughout the kingdom as forming a legitimate part
respecting the services of peasants towards their lords, of Hungarian Sew. The 5 these hi are the dee
se : cisions of the judges of the royal table on certain ques-
The subordinate courts are those of the counties and tiene to. whicli-1 isting Jaw could be directly ap-
free cities.. Each county has its governor and two vice- plied. They were col by order of Maria There-
governors, a r and vice-procurator-fiscal, a re- sa in 1769; and, after having revised by no
ceiver- and. assistant, a notary, &c. The go- temviral and royal tables, were published under
vernors are Pt tee epee dena joabenaperr title of planum curiale.
primate, the princes and The revenue of Hungary arises from three sources ; Revenue.
Bathyany, the counts Kobari, Illeshazy, Palfy, N ly, the reyal domains, the regal duties, and the contribu-
aborn, Csaky, Erdody, and baron Revay, who are tions or imposts. The royal domains consist of the
SeErriranac of eanntion; dinates sneglotoates kron-giiter, or such property as is attached to the crown,
— and is a ; and the kammer-giiter, that ae
governor convokes eounty w belongs to ing personally, and which he can dis-
ever he thinks it necessary, and all the nobility within pose of at his so The annual value of both
pa saga Pom y me! to a Aen oe _ police 7 vd 6,000,000 of florins. The regal dutics com-
oe 4 i pre’ tl t of the salt, which is supposed
| agriculture of the county ; the election of their de- to yield nearly £800,000 florins; the mines, which,
3 the |e ions after deducting all expences, produce 1,097,000 florins ;
r the decrees of the the duties upon exports and imports, valued at 1,300,000
diet, and of the council of government. The magis- florins; the quit-rents of the royal free cities, and of the
a bu » sixteen cities of the Zips, amounting to $4,000 florins;
a counsel, a notary, &c. to whom are en the ad- the royal exchequer, which brings 94,000 florins ; the
ministration of justice and police within the royalty. _ toleration tax paid by the Jews, producing 100,000 flo-
j rins ; the tax of 5 per cent. upon all employments, to
which is attached a retiring pension, vieidin 87,000
florins ; the ecclesiastical subsidy, which, in 1781, was
members, but it is now 71,000 florins. To these may be added the post-office,
to twenty-two, of whom the palatine is pre- the tolls upon the bridges, the tax of 10 per cent. which
It is only a court of cassation, and receives all must pay who their fortune out of the country ;
al table and inferior the lottery ; and the s, of which there are two, one
the grand judge at Presbourg, and the other at Buda. The contribu-
of tions or imposts are levied upon the counties and cities.
22%
&e.; it encourages agriculture, industry, —— such reputation, that it is actually acknowledged
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362
Statistics. ‘The total amount is fixed:by the diet, and. is divided
into porten or portions, each of which is valued at 688
florins, 50 kreutzers. Every county and. city is then
burdened with so many porten according to its —popu«
lation and resources, which they collect from the citi«
zens and peasants. The sources of this branch of the
revenue arises from the poll-tax.; tax upon cattle, &c.;
the land-tax paid by the farmer ; and a tax upon trades,
&e. The total amount of the contributions in 1802 .
was 62103 porten, making 4,277,827 florins, 124 kreut«
zers; to which may be added 113,615 florins, 582
kreutzers for Croatia. The total revenue of H
cannot be well ascertained, as the different items given
above are not for the same year, and authors are also
much divided in opinion respecting it. Schloezer makes
it 13,500,000 florins ; Busching, 18,000,000 ; De Luc.
ea, 15,000,000 ; Schwartner, 11,750,000 ; and Demian,
who is the latest author, fixes it at between 15 and 16
millions of florins. After deducting the public expen-
diture, the surplus, according to Schwartner, amounts
to 1,002,296 florins.
The management of the finances is entrusted to the
royal chamber of Buda, which is independent of all
other authority within the kingdom, and corresponds
with the royal treasury at Vienna. It administers all
the royal revenues, except the contributions, which are
lodged in the government chest, and the mines. and
mint, which are entrusted to.a particular council.
Since 1802, the Hungarian army, exclusive of the
frontier regiments, is formed of twelve regiments of
infantry and ten regiments of cavalry, making an arm-
ed force of 64,000 men. The military cordon, which
extends along the frontiers from the Adriatic tothe coun-
ty of Marmarosch, is formed of seventeen regiments of
armed peasants, each regiment having its particular dis«
trict; viz. eight in Croatia, three in Sclavonia, two
in the Bannat, and four in Transylvania. Each regi
ment has two battalions, and in time of war a batta-
lion of reserve; the whole, exclusive of the reserve,
amounting to 49,402 men. There is also a regiment
of hussars, whose complement, in time of peace, is
1364 men and 1212 horses. The Hungarian’ army
is maintained by an annual contribution, fixed by the
diet in 1715, which is levied upon the citizens and
peasants, and amounts to nearly three millions of flo-
rins. The country is also obliged, to furnish bread
and forage necessary for the troops at a fixed. price,
whatever be the price of these necessaries in the
ublie markets; and the loss which is thus sustained
be the counties, is computed at about a million of flo-
rins. The extraordinary contributions, however, which
were required during the late wars with France, were
paid almost entirely by the nobility.
In addition to the permanent army establishment,
the diet, in urgent cases, grants a levy at the request
of the king. During the middle ages, every Hunga-
rian noble, by a law.of the kingdom, was obliged to
arm himself and his vassals in defence of the country
when threatened by an enemy; and in cases of imminent
danger, the whole nation took up arms. The levy now,
however, is confined to a certain additional force, fur-
nished and paid by the counties and cities. The first
levy of this description was raised in 1741, for the war
of the succession ; and in the first .coalitions against
France, regular levies were decreed by the diet; but
they were always too late of being brought into. the
field, to be of any service to the common cause. The
levy of 1797, 40,000 strong, was scarcely assembled
before the peace. of Campo Formio was concluded ;
that of 1800 was stopped in their march by the peace
‘Finance.
Army.
Kevies.
HUNGARY.
of Luneville 3 and that-of 1805 was withdrawn onat. Statistics.
|e
count of ‘the peace of Presbourg. 4 iy
All religious ‘sects enjoy full: toleration «and security Religion.
in this kingdom, as well-as in/other parts of the-Aus-
trian dominions. c tholie
ed religion, and is under'the jurisdiction of threearch- 6. och,
bishops, Gran, Kolotcha, and Erlau ; 14: diocesan bi«
shops, and 16 titular bishops; 16:\metropolitan chap»
ters, and two others of collegiate churches; 178 bene-
ficed canons, and 79 honorary: canons; 1 -archabbot,
and 146 abbots;/19 grand provosts, and 89 provosts.
The revenues of the bishops and chapters are very con-
siderable ; and, according to Schwartner, that of the
former, in his time, amounted to 864,776 florins, and
of the latter to 530,668; but, according to Demian,
they may now be valued, when taken er, at above
two millions of florins.. The inferior clergy-are coms
posed of pastors and monks. Of the former, there are
4189, including 2298 rectors, 402 chaplains, and 1489
curates; and of the latter are $059; including 2236
priests, 214 novices, and 609 lay brethren. The Em-
peror Joseph II. increased the number of the pastors, so
that every commune, containing a certain number of
parishioners, should have one; and fixed:their allow=
ance at 800 florins for each rector, and 240 for each
chaplain or curate. According to Grellmann, the Ro-
man Catholic pastors, comprehending those of Croatia
and Sclavonia, receive 1,379,500 florins, © But, while
the Emperor Joseph augmented the number of pastors,
he at the same time De 2 134 monasteries, con
taining 1209 priests 275 lay brethren... There are
still 186 remaining, of different orders: the Piaristes,
who have two residences. and 23 colleges; the Bene«
dictines, four abbeys: and three residences’; the Pre-
montres, five abbeys ; the Citeaux, twoabbeys and three
monasteries; the fathers of Charity, ten monasteries ;
the Cordeliers, 61; the Minimes, eleven; the Capua
chins, seven; the Dominicans, four; the Carmes, one3
the Servites, three; and the mes Fevey ah one.
support of these religious beggars, since ' were pre=
cluded from ncnidiaegiiia costs the chest of religion
75,000 florins a. year.. There are also: ten convents,
containing 274 nuns and 116 lay-sisters ; six of the
order of Sta. Ursula, two of Sia. Elizabeth, one of
Notre Dame, and one for English ladies at Buda. Six
convents had been suppressed by the Emperor Joseph,
containing 152 nuns and 39 lay-sisters. 1802 there
were 500 monks and nuns of the sw . convents
still living, who received pensions from the chest of
religion ; the priests and nuns from: 300. to, 200 florins,
and the lay-brethren and sisters 150 florins. The num-
ber of Roman Catholics m the kingdom is calculated
at about 4,000,000.
The Greek Catholic church, whose members amount Greek’
to nearly 500,000, is under the direction of two bi- Catholic
shops, who are suffragans to the Roman’ Catholie arch- church.
bishop of Gran ; two chapters composed of two grand
provosts; eleven beneficed canons and six titular canons,
and 820 pastors.. The revenue of the two bishops is
28,000 florins, that of the chapters 9150, and that of
the pastors 78,000 florins. Belonging to this church, :
are eight monasteries‘of the order of St Basil, contain«
ing 68 monks, 21 novices, and 17 lay brethren)
The Greek Schismatic Church-has five + ee ana Greek
suffragans of the metropolitan archbishop of Carlowitz —
in Sclavonia, whose dioceses contain 1120. parishes.
There are ten monasteries of this religion, having a re-
venue of about 17,000 florins, and are inhabited by 82
monks, .This sect amounts to 1,877,587 souls, Lutheran
The Protestant Evangelical, or Lutheran-Church, shurch.
The Roman: Catholic is the establish. Roman Ca-
HUNS. See Hunoary.
HUNTER, Witutam, M.D. celebrated as a physi-
cian and author, and as the collector of the Hunterian
museum now in Glasgow, was born on the 23d of May
1718, at Calderwood, his father’s estate, in the
ish of ide. At the age of 15 he was sent tothe
university of Fem where he passed five winters,
eee by his father for the church. This pur-
suit, ever, did not accord with some modes of think.
ing which he had adopted ; and an acquaintance which
milton, inspired him with a taste for the medical pro-
fexsion, to which accordingly he attached himself. He
1740 and 1741 ; and in the summer of 1741 he went to
London, where he lived in the house of Dr Smellie ;
for publication. Mr Hanter, obtaining his 's Con.
sent, of this offer. ‘His father died soon after,
is and ina months, he also lost his patron Dr Dou-
gat whe died, leaving « widow and two children. Mr
unter continued to reside in the family, superintend-
ing the education of the children, and prosecuting his
Society hi
lages of the joints, in which he shewed that,
to the ideas previously entertained, they were form
a cr Ban me ag thom Seg
teeth. ing with applause is anatomical =
suits, he wished oa
some years lectured to a society of naval surgeons,
and declined Nn tans eons Mr Hunter. In
commencing hi course, he felt great solicitude ;
but he soon inet with applause which encouraged him.
He had little difficulty to encounter compared to one
who commences such an undertaking, without previ-
364 HUNTER.
Hunter, ous introduction ‘to public notice, His eminent talents He, after this, became engaged in some personal Himter,
William. were in the first instance exereised in a field in which disputes with the present Dr Monro, senior, of Edin. William.
they were sure to be-recognised. He therefore proceed-
ed, not merely with confidence, but with enthusiastic
zeal, in the pursuits in which he somuch delighted. The
profits of the first winter put him in possession of a lar-
ger sum than he had ever before possessed, 70 guineas;
but.as his generosity led. him to supply the wants of
different friends, his fund was completely exhausted
before next winter, and he was even obliged to delay
his lectures for a fortnight for want of money to. pay
for adyertising. This incident, together with the ulti-
mate inutility of some of his generous acts to those who
were the objects of them, impressed on him a lesson of
prudence, which preserved him ever after from similar
inconveniences, and laid in part the foundation of that
fortune which he expended in.a public-spirited manner.
In 1747, he became a member of the college of sur-
geons; and in the spring of the following year he made
a tour with the son of Dr Douglas through Holland to
Paris.. The beautiful anatomical preparations of Albi-
nus which he saw in Holland inspired him with admi-
ration, and an ambition to emulate their excellence. He
returned to resume his, lectures ; and in the mean time
he practised both surgery and midwifery. But he soon
gave up the former of these branches, and attached him-
self to midwifery, in which his late preceptor Dr Dou-
glas had been eminent. He was elected, in 1748,
surgeon .accoucheur to the Middlesex hospital, and the
following year to the British lying-in hospital. These
appointments, together with his agreeable person and
address, in which he furnished a favourable contrast to
Dr Smellie, who at that time enjoyed a high reputation,
promoted greatly the extension of his practice, which
was rendered still greater by the death of Sir Richard
Manningham, and the retirement of Dr Sandys.
In 1750, he obtained the degree of M. D. from the
university of Glasgow. At this time, he quitted the
family of Mrs Douglas, and took a house for himself in
Jermyn Street. In the summer of 1751, he paid a visit
to his mother and other relations in Scotland, where he
had an opportunity of exchanging congratulations with
Dr Cullen, who was now, like himself, rising into emi-
nence, and was established as a physician and professor
in Glasgow.
In 1755, he was made physician to the British lying-
in hospital on the resignation of Dr Layard, was ad-
mitted licentiate of the college of physicians, and soon
after became a member of the medical society of Lon-
don. He published, in the Observations and Inquiries
of this body, a history of an aneurism of the aorta.
Dr Hunter turned his extensive practice to very
eminent account, by adding to the pathological and
medical knowledge of the age. He had. the merit of
first explaining the nature of the disease called retrover-
sio uteri, and distinguishing it from other diseases with
which it had been confounded ; he explained the tex-
ture of the cellular membrane, and the pathology of
anasarca and emphysema; he also threw much hght
on the subjects of ovarian dropsy, diseases of the heart
and stomach, and hernia. For his papers on these and
many other subjects, we refer to his Medical Commen-
iaries.
In 1762, he was consulted during the pregnancy of
the queen, and in two years after was appointed physi-
cian-extraordinary to her Majesty. In 1767, he became
a fellow of the Royal Society, and enriched their Trans-
actions with his learned observations on the bones of
animals found on the banks of the river Ohio, and on
the rock of Gibraltar,
burgh, on their contending claims to priority in anato-
mical discoveries. This contest became keen, and was
enlivened with wit and pleasantry ; but probably more
was lost by the irritation which it created, than was
in any respect gained by either party. A man, in de«
fending his own claims, is tempted to expose every de-
fect which tends to shake the general credit due to his
adversary, and the feelings which are most profitable
and becoming for men of liberal pursuits are ‘extin«
guished. Those are happiest who feel no temptation to
enter on such controversies, or who, if accidentally
betrayed into them, soon perceive their pernicious ten<
dency, and in good time relinquish them. The sub«
jects of dispute were indebted to both of these celebra«
ted anatomists, but they both had been anticipated in
some of their boasted discoveries by Haller, in others
by Nouguez. The principal of them were the origin
and uses of the lymphatics ; the possibility of injecting
oe e a5 A fee the excretory ducts of the lacry«
mal gland. :
In 1768, Dr Hunter was elected a member of the
Society of Arts, and was appointed anatomical profes«
sor to the Royal Academy of Arts. By now applying
his anatomical knowledge to the elucidation of painting
and statuary, he displayed in a new field the versatility
and extent of his genius. In 1781, he was unanimouse
ly elected to sueceed Dr John Fothergill as president
of the London Medical Society. In the same year, the
Royal Medical Society of Paris elected him one of their
foreign associates; and, in 1782, he received a similar
mark of honour from the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Paris.
Dr Hunter’s most distinguished publication was his
Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus, which he began in 1751;
but, from his great ambition to give it in the most com~
plete state, he delayed to publish it till 1775.
In consequence of a memoir read by Mr John Hun-
ter in 1780 to the Royal Society on the functions of
the placenta, Dr Hunter was led into another keen dis-
ute with this eminent man and near relation, in which
e claimed, with considerable warmth, the share of me-
rit which belonged to himself in the discovery. He
seems to have perceived that he carried these disputes
too far. They promoted an irritability of temper;
which must have created to him much uneasiness; and
it was remarked by those who occasionally conversed
with him on professional subjects, that sometimes, when
an organ or function was barely mentioned which had
been the subject of a dispute, he broke out into a tor«
rent of abuse of the knavery of his adversary. In the
supplement to the first part of his Commentaries, he ex-
cuses his polemical appearances by representing enthu-«
siasm as necessary to promote the sciences, and observ+
ing, that no man had ever been a great anatomist whe
had not been engaged in some violent dispute.
Dr Hunter was long employed in collecting and ar+
ranging materials for a history of morbid concretions
formed in the human body. This design, however,
was left imperfect, along with others contained in difs
ferent manuscripts. : his
. The magnificent museum, which we have already
mentioned, is a monument which’ will perpetuate the
name of Dr Hunter. The systematic manner in which
he planned and conducted that undertaking was cha-
racteristic of a strict philosophic prudence. He did not
follow the occupation of a collector under the influence
of a passion the effects of which might afterwards inter-
fere with his private happiness. He first laid aside a
HUNTER. 368
tune to some plan of public utility. In 1765, he pro-
Re ted phast on» pest exe tovoding
ing, and to endow a pro-
ee ee: He ee receive —
encouragement ernment which he expected ;
and, dndakde the Fist of Sbdberte entered
sq much into the scheme as to offer 1000 guineas to en-
courage the execution of it by means of subscription,
the doctor's delicacy would not allow him to accede to
this and he chose to execute it at his own nce :
for which purpose he a house in Great Wind-
oer teammate Ewell ot he Lag gla
an amphitheatre apartments for dissection, be-
sides a magnificent room for a museum. Previously to
this time he had confined his collection to human, com-
ee eee eer te mee Sttended
is views to the formation of a general museum, inclu-
ee ee eee Oe
In an account of a
of this collection published by his friend Mr Cothbe,
m,
in ten days after his
March 1783. His fi-
[
Fb ge to the preservation
mentation of it. [t has already been enriched with
resort to it which it has so long and so deservedly at- —
tracted. (H.D.)
HUNTER, Jonn, an eminent surgeon and author,and Jared
brother to the subject of the ing article, was born
at Long Calderwood on the 14th of July 1728. He was
about ten years old when he lost his father ; and, beingthe
youngest child, was so much indulged by his mother,
that, though sent to the grammar-school in Glasgow,
he made no iency in his studies, and at last leav~
ing them, lived for some time idle in the country. Tir-
ing of this mode Of life, he wrote to his brother Dr Hun-
ter in London, ing to become his assistant in his
dissections ; or, if that would not suit him, to go into the
army. The doctor gave him a kind invitation to London,
and he went up to himn in September 1748. The doctor
found, on a very short trial, that he ised to become
an expert dissector; and, entertaining great hopes of
him, gave him every encouragement to persevere in
professional pursuits. The following summer he at-
tended Chelsea hospital, where he learned the first rudi-
ments of practical . By the succeeding winter
he had made such proficiency, that his brother left in a
measure to him the superintendence of his pub-
ic dissecting room. In the following summer he re-
newed his attendance at Chelsea hospital, and the sum-
mer after that he attended at St Bartholomew's. In 1753,
he entered as a gentleman commoner at St Mary’s Hall,
Oxford. In 1756, he was appointed house surgeon to
St George's hospital, where he had attended as a pupil
the two preceding summers. In 1755, he was admit-
ted to a partnership in his brother's lectures, His un-
common dexterity in making anatomical preparations,
and some distinguished discoveries which he made in
anatomical science, gradually raised him to great celebri-
ty. He traced the ramifications of the olfactory nerves
on the Schneiderian membrane ; he demonstrated the
mode of termination of the arteries of the uterus in the
placenta ; and he was the first who discovered the lym-
phatic vessels of birds. By directing his labours exten-
sively to comparative anatomy, he Tnid the foundation
of his id anatomical museum. These labours
were not conducted with the design of exhibiting pre-
parations of the entire bodies of different animals, but
for the more useful purpose of illustrating, in a regular
series, the varieties of organization subservient to each
function in the different classes of animals. He appli-
ed to the keeper of the Towar, and other persons who
— aa a to procure - bodies of = poo that
ied ; had generally in his possession living ani-
mals of different species, for the purpose of observing
their manners and instincts. Two anecdotes are related
his brother-in-law Sir Everard Home, that are very
stic of his enthusiasm in this amusement. Two
leopards which he kept broke loose on one occasion from
their den, and the howling of his in the same yard
alarmed the whole neighbourhood. Mr Hunter ran
into the yard, and fi one leopard scrambling over
the wall, while the other was surrounded by the dogs.
He without reflection seized both of the leopards, and
of Jed them back into their den ; but immediately after,
when he thought of the risk which he had run, as an
unlucky irritation on their part might have terminated
in his immediate destruction, he was so much agitated
that ee On another occasion
while he was ing with a young bull, a species of
amusement in which he had delighted, the animal got
— down on the ground, and would have grésieded te
utmost extremities, if a person luckily coming to the
had not reseued him. -
In 1767, he was made fellow of the Royal Society,
Hunter,
John.
366
and formed a party.of.friends, who met at a coffee-
house to discuss points of science after the meetings
of the Society, which he soon found to increase, and
to consist of some of the most, eminent men of the
age. It contained Sir Joseph Banks, Dr Solander, Sir
Charles Blagden, Sir Harry Englefield, Mr. Watt of
Birmingham, and. several others.. An accident which
he suffered, the rupture of the tendo achillis of one leg
in dancing, led him to study particularly the surgical
pathology of that part, which he illustrated by experi-
ments on animals. In 1768, Mr Hunter went to
the house which had been occupied. by his brother in
Jermyn-street, as the latter moved to his house in Wind-
mill-street, which he had just completed, and adapted
on an extensive \scale to his, learned pursuits... Mr;
Hunter was thus placed in a favourable situation for
private practice, and he now became a member of the
College of Surgeons... In May 1771, he published his
celebrated work on the natural history of the teeth. In
the following July he married Miss Home, of whom the
present Sir Everard Home was a, younger, brother.
The latter was then at Westminster school, and was
brought up by Mr Hunter to the profession. of surgery.
It is to this gentleman that we are indebted for the in-
teresting life of Mr Hunter, prefixed. to.a posthumous
edition of his book on Inflammation. Mr Hunter's pre-
gress in acquiring practice was at first slow, as he was
not possessed of those winning manners, and did not
study those superficial arts by which many rise in. this
respect to distinction. But the weight of his character
for genius and professional industry at. last brought
him into the highest repute. His income was greatly:
augmented ; but it was chiefly expended on his muse-
um, to which he also regularly devoted. his mornings:
from sun-rise to the hour of breakfast. He continually
laboured to turn his physiological discoveries and obser-
vations to account in improving the art of surgery. To
enumerate his improvements would far exceed our li-
mits, and they are only to be learned by perusing his va-
luable works. He always delighted in making acute dis-
coveries, and striking out new views. It is in explaining
the phenomena.of inflammation in its various forms,
and the principles on which the healing process under
various circumstances is conducted, that Mr Hunter’s
genius is most usefully displayed. Some of his opi-:
nions cannot be easily admitted as well-founded; such.
as his doctrine of the life of the blood, and.of the iden-:
tity of syphilis and gonorrheea, Inthe winter of 1773,
he began to give lectures on surgery, in which he deli-:
vered a full account of his practical improvements, as:
well as: his pathological views, . His first. two courses
were given gratis. He continued to improve compa-:
rative anatomy by the dissection of various animals,
some of which were rare and curious, ‘such as the tor-
pedo and the gymnotus electricus, the electrical organs:
of which he described. He repeatedly dissected the ele
phant ; he discovered those receptacles in the bodies of
birds, to which the air passes through the lungs, which
threw a new light on the function of respiration as per=.
formed by that class of animals.. He engaged an artist
to live with him, for the purpose of making drawings.
of such parts as did not admit of being. preserved, ..In
1776, he was appointed surgeon. extraordinary. to his
Majesty. In the autumn of that year however, he was
taken dangerously ill, and began to reflect seriously on
his situation and that of his family. Ashe had expended
his fortune in his museum, he was desirous of making it
appear to advantage, that it might bring its value after
his death. Accor ingly, as soon as his health permitted
he arranged it, and made. out a systematic catalogue of
HUNTER) |
its contents en ss repos wi Peal meen Rania
rosecute siological and surgical investigations; Job. -
- 4 ras papers heaven by him after this a
and numerous in,
period, appeared in the Transactions. of the Royal Socie«
ce In 1788, he had the honour of being admitted inte
the Royal Society of Medicine, and the Royal Academy
of Sur of Paris. The lease of his house in Jermyn<
street having at this time expired, he purchased one of a
large house in Leicester Square, on which he was tempt~
ed to expend above £3000, which sum was ina,
measure lost to-his family by the shortness of the 2
Here he had ample accommodation for his museum, The
eclat which this great object gave to him, however, was
very great; and the services of his friends and the public
were always readily furnished, when they could.contri«
bute to adorn it with new. articles in com ive ana
tomy... In.1786, he published his work On the Vene«
real, and his Observations on certain parts of the Ani«
mal Economy, consisting of a collection of papers which
had appeared in the Philosophical Transactions. About
this time his health began to decline, and he was obli«
ged to resign much of his laborious duty to ‘his brothers
in-law Mr Home; but we find him still active in add«
ing to the stock of professional information. ..He wrote
some physiological papers, for which he obtained the
Copleian medal. In 1792, he gave up his course of lec«
tures entirely to Mr Home. But he continued to re+
ceive splendid marks of public respect; he was ap
pointed inspector-general of hospitals, and s
general to the army; he was made a member of the
College of Surgeons of Dublin, and one of the vice-
sidents of the Nebabeas College then first establi
in London, He continued to write various papers which
appeared in the Transactions of the Society for promo«
ting medical and chirurgical knowledge.
His health during the last twenty years of his life was
greatly impaired. The symptoms of his'disease, which
was angina pectoris, are minutely described by Sir Eve«
rard. Home in the account of his life. The first attack
was brought on by mental irritation, and, though he was
liable afterwards to slight affections from causes of difs
ferent kinds, every severe attack arose from some men-
tal cause. Unfortunately his mind was easily provoked
by trifles, while matters of real importance produced no
effect. He died suddenly under an accidental irritation
at St George’s hespital, while he laudably attempted to
controul it, till he obtained information of the circum-
stances by which it was occasioned. This event took
place on the 16th of October 1793, in the 65th year
of his age.
He was aman of uncommon originality of thought,
which he displayed under considerable deficiencies-of
general-erudition. In this respect he was a contrast to:
his brother, who united genius with erudition in an emi«
nent degree. This circumstance seems, however, to have:
had the effect of concentrating his attention more come:
pletely in his favourite objects of-pursuit, and to have
given a character of more obvious originality to alk his’
writings. . Though ambitious ofa high name imhis own:
line of investigation, he was not envious of the well:
merited honours ef others. But he was liable:to strong:
indignation at the presumption of ignorant oe
or indolence.. He was prone to undervalue too much’
those professional men who were his inferiors im merit,’
and. who, while they paid no homage to: his. doctrines,
made feeble attempts to shine by their own light... He
was frank in his manners and conversation, a decided.
enemy to all deceit and intrigue, but on the whole too
apt.to speak harshly of his cotemporaries.
The museum which he left, was. purchased by the
HUN ‘3670 HUN
~ Brit ‘then? committed-to» the ‘indebted for their possession. This invaluable crea- Hunting.
pe ae na: ae a aN and-is . ture is trained not only to rouse the game in the forests, “~Y—~
now contained in asplendid hall fitted wp forthe pur- to pursue it on the plain, and after a successful chace,
pose, a professorship of comparative anatomy is instead of devouring its prey, to watch until the ap-
attached to i nn eeemenniesninaannel the of its master, or to lay it uninjured at his feet.
, week for the greater t substitute could the huntsman find for his dog?
of the year. This museum affords a brilliant of Deprived of its aid, those excursions which enable him
d ive views and persevering assiduity of to return laden with spoils, would terminate in fatigue
\the colleetor.. It presents a very extensive collection and disappointment. ,
ee Arne such ‘@ manner, as to Hunting is ‘prosecuted after a variety of fa- Modes ef
oo ev soa eve oalaia joan on vn a wild a
; im the ions of ised nature from description of the game. 1. Wi imals are hunt
ene bvieae iw don- pape sey einen, specially trained for that purpose.
als to the beautiful complication exhibited in the fa- 2. They are caught by various stratagems ; 2s by nets
\bric of the human body. It is divided into four parts, and pitfalls, or in traps formed either tage we
te ee ey
jects; and 4. The parts subservient to the propagation low, or ty s. ‘These are the principal me-
of the species. We understand that the arrangement thods employ the world in destroying
' Man is en in incessant warfare against the rest Animals
rative anatomy. In this museum, the eye surveys asin of the creation: the numbers sacrificed by naturally |
one vast landscape all that is interesting in the sublime him exceed all credibi ; for scarcely has he come in~ bent eech
: the hi interest, ee ee ee
i by moderns, it bitably ‘exists in respect to
the earliest of those vast efforts, which have been made snakes. The rhinoceros, herbivorous animal, is said
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ucation, is little known ; but it appears to hunt in
to combat the power and instinct of animals. SS eee
their this way it does not dread to attack the most feroci-
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which i
tries, and are so y veleed, reo te thy ernhiem of Africa, The wolf, the fox, and jackal, all hunt in
~ Hence have resulted various expedients troops, though each may be seen alone in quest of
Bettis tehis ktchcly heen animals. prey. But many animals are nature sdlitary in
thatman is chiefly their pursuits, and seem jealous of the presence of each
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368 7 HUNTING.
Hunting, other. The lion never hunts-in company, and is said
—— to chace its prey at full speed by the eye, from. its
sense of smelling being obtuse. It makes a spring
when within r of the object; but, if foiled by dis-
tance, skulks away, as if ashamed of the disappoint-
ment. The tiger, a cruel and terrible destroyer, is ge-
nerally single in its immediate attack ; and instead of
trusting to speed, like the lion, it lies in wait in some
thicket, whence, with an astonishing leap, it pounces
on its victim in an instant. Immediate death follows
a blow from its tremendous paw, and the prey is
then dragged off to be devoured at leisure. Nothing
ean restrain the ferocity of the tiger; not even fire,
the dread of all wild animals. It is the terror of the
forest ; it attacks man as readily as beasts, and even
ursues boats while navigating rivers, As the fatal
Clow. is always inflicted by the paw of this animal, in
like manner others evince the same uniformity in the
mode of hunting and killing their prey. The! wolf
bites it in the throat; the jackal invariably seizes a
cow by the udder; and the crocodile, fixing its teeth
in the nostrils, draws its prey into the water to be
drowned. rd
a great extent of territory, and driving numbers of Hunting:
wild animals into a narrow space, where their destrue-. ~~~“
tion is accomplished at will. Some of the sovereigns
of China have carried an army of people into Tartary,
and occupied themselves several months uninterrupt-
edly in the chace, while the monarch himself, unable to
use fire arms, dexterously shot the animals with arrows.
The modern princes of Hindostan were wont to ad-
vance with 400 or 500 elephants, besides horses, and
all the necessary equipment of several hundred dogs,
nets, and weapons, to the country where the game was
sought, Even in Scotland, we read of hunting matches
conducted on a great scale, where 12,000 men were
present, and when “ thirty score of wild beasts” were
killed. But the real hunting for profit and utility, in
which many thousands engage for subsistence, is con-
ducted by small parties, or by individuals only. It
appears that in Britain it was very common for ladies
anciently to participate in the pleasures of the chace,
The lion is a large and powerful animal, less ferocious, py yn¢
and not equally dreaded as the tiger, perhaps from an the lion,
imaginary attribute of generosity, and from the belief
that,it never wantonly kills its prey. Nevertheless, the
Animals Man, in every country, has availed himself of the lion is alsoa terrible enemy, and its roar inspires all other
employed to instincts evinced by certain animals in hunting their animals with fear. Shaw, the eastern traveller, affirms,
hunt. prey, to aid him in the chace. Dogs of many differ-
ent kinds are trained to it, and in every possible fa-
shion ; either running down the game by speed, con-
quering it by absolute strength, or dislodging it from its
haunts, or merely | ag out its position. In the East,
a species of panther, there named cheeta, but more
eommonly the hunting tiger, is taught to pursue the
antelope; but if caught young, and sles up among
mankind, so much of its activity and fierceness are lost,
that it proves unserviceable. ‘Therefore the cheeta is
always taken old in pits, and soon becomes familiar with
its keeper. The cheeta is carried hoodwinked on a
eart to the vicinity of the game; and being then un-«
hooded, steals from bush to bush, until approaching
within 70 yards of it. Rushing forwards with surpri-
sing swiftness, by a dexterous use of its paw it throws
the animal down, and seizes it firmly by the throat,
until it feels that respiration has ceased. Sometimes
the cheeta cannot be induced to run; but if it is for-
ward to the chace, it seldom continues longer. than for
300 or 400 yards, within which space the antelope is
either caught or escapes. If disappointed in its original
spring should it get near enough, or be. foiled. in the
course, it lies. down, testifying much disappointment ;
and in its resentment will sometimes, though rarely,
turn on its keeper. On the day of hunting, the cheeta
is kept without food, at other times it is allowed 4 lb. of
flesh daily. The lion is said to be taught by the Afri-
cans to hunt for them, as is also reported to have been
practised by the ancient Romans. In this country, we
teach the ferret to hunt after rabbits; and, considering
that many animals are susceptible of this education, it is
not unlikely that more would be trained to.hunt, were
not their use superseded by the universal employment
of the dog. There is hardly a situation in which the
dog is not serviceable. . There is scarcely an, animal
which it will not venture to attack, when encouraged
by the voice and, presence ofits master ; and it equally
paenstes the capture of the terrestrial and the feather
ed tribes.
The most general mode of pursuing game is by a
small and select company of huntsmen, and then, per«
haps, the greatest success attends their exertions ; but
in some countries, vast multitudes assemble, surrounding
5
that the wild boar is principally its prey ; but some-
times after so courageous a defence, that victory has in-
clined to neither, or both have been found lying dead
together, and torn in pieces, We have said that the lion
never hunts in company, and on this head M. Golberry
relates, that a lion anda lioness having discovered a wild
boar on the skirts of a forest, the latter sprung forward
to the attack. Having furiously seized the boar by the
throat, she lashed its sides with her tail, while the lion
sat a tranquil spectator of the combat, which lasted five
minutes, seemingly indifferent to the struggles of both.
At length the boar, yielding to the force of its oppc
nent, fell with horrible cries; and, only when
the lion leisurely advanced to participate in the repast
of his mate. It is supposed that. the lion will not at~
tack women, but the number of victims evince the fal=
lacy of this hypothesis. However, it is confidently afs
firmed, that no person is in danger who has courage
to look the lion stedfastly in the face. An African coa
lonist of the Cape of Good Hope having unexpectedly
inet «lion; leytlled ‘his quam, but, the ball. fall short’ as
the piece hung fire ;, and, apprehensive of the conse-
quences, ‘he immediately fled. The lion closely pursued
him, when the colonist, leaping on a small heap of
stones, resolved to defend his life with the butt end of
his gun, being precluded from loading it again, as he
had unfortunately dropped his powder flask in his
flight. At this moment the lion made a sudden stand
also ; and then lay down, at the distance of a few paces,
quite unconcerned. Meantime the colonist durst not
move; but the lion, after remaining before him com-
pletely half an hour, slowly retired. The fleetness of
this animal enables it to keep up with a horse gallop-
ping: and its strength is such that it cam drag away a
eifer with perfect facility. In general, it is said to
lie in ambush, wlience it springs upon its prey; but.
should the object be missed, no second attempt is made ;
the lion returns silently to the spot, to practise more
address on the, next occasion. Probably animals are
more usually preferred, but there are instances of asingle
‘lion attacking a whole caravan. The lion is hunted by
horsemen on the plains, and large dogs, but not of any
ticular species, are used to dislodge him from his
unts. At the first sight of the huntsmen, he always en-
| HUNTING 369
‘
_ Honting. deavours to esc yy speed; but if they and the dogs
| 1s his or
: nce ha ietly sits down to wait their
attack. The does ir rush on; and he has
time roy two or three, each with a blow of
until tear him in pieces. Twelve or six-
teen are, in hireenac trestle mateh, Huntsmen
on the i in ae
; not the number of dogs, one, when with-
e Spied sh dhe Bien , leaps off his horse, and aims at the
animal's heart ; but he must instantly remount, in order
to fly from its i ed. Should he miss, the
ays narrowing the circle until
this is a moment of danger, as
nearest to him.
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aetna beckons ths eakeal iin, cad her:
ee eee re
. , no
sometimes so as to measure 15 feet from
had set him,” as it is called, stealing long
a wore a himself of all incum-
brances, he a broad sw: te ne
the moment of the g, with y as singular
sa tiger takes possession of a
tenth of tie GatstbA dls mine daily. This ani-
is hunted in various fashions, but chiefly by a nu-
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of a tiger is«liscovered, which is generally in a jungle Hunting.
near the carcase of a mangled animal, < line de eo s-
than one; and as the tiger becomes lethargic when sa-
tiated, and does not remove far from the spot of its de-
ions, the jungle is entered with much precaution.
ere the is made with the largest and best _
trained elephants; and it is they that first disclose the
presence of the tiger by a peculiar kind of snorting and
trumpeting, and likewise an uncommon agitation. The
tiger is prone to spring on an approaching object ; but
if skulking off, the whole covert becomes impregnated
with its smell, and the elephants, uncertain of its dis-
tance, and always dreading an attack, frequently be-
come perfectly vernable, nor can some be restrained
from flight. A certain emanation from the body of
the lion and the tiger, even when unseen, has a power-
ful effect on other animals; and men themselves have
experienced a kind of shuddering sensation solely from
that cause. The huntsmen who, mounted on their ele-
phants, are not above ten yards asunder, immediately on
discovering the tiger, fire from a piece of large calibre ;
but should the shot not prove instantly fatal, the tiger
springs up with a furious roar, and endeavours tu at-
tack its enemy. Particular danger may thence ensue,
and both skil| and oe a —_ hunter
expeditious! ng his discharge for his own
servation. The elephant may then.be brought pee
to crush the fallen animal, and gore it with its tusks ;
which, although quite dead, it often testifies a repug-
nance to do. Horses shew the most decided anti-
pathy, and dogs take a tour around the carcase. Some-
times the tiger will spring upon the elephant, and put
the hunter in the most perilous situation. Notwith-
standing its intimate resemblance to the cat in every
thing, the tiger takes the water without hesitation, and
it has been known to force its way into a boat in spite
of all opposition. It does not appear that hunting this
ferocious creature solely with dogs is ever attempted :
indeed it could not be accompli without great loss
tothe huntsman. It is taken in nets, however; but
the sport is dangerous, for the game is apt to recoil on
its ——— ; and besides, the nets are not always of
su t strength, nor is the tiger so perfectly enve-
and secured, as to be deprived of the power of
doing mischief. Tigers are caught, but very rarely, in
a eee constructed like a igo
cage, and baited with a live dog or goat, which is
confined in an interior division. They are likewise
shot by a single sportsman, who, having discovered a
carcase half devoured, ptly constructs a platform
of bamboos 15 or 20 feet high, and there awaits the
return. The natives of the hills of Ben-
set poisoned arrows in their path to be di
from a bow of extraordinary strength, sometimes so
Saat oy se Weapon penetrates to the heart. It is
ifficult, however, to give it the proper direction from
the step of the tiger, which effects the discharge. Even
though the arrow does not touch a vital part, the poi-
son speedily a to operate, and never fails to de-
ma
stroy the animal within an hour. The same apparatus
is used with an arrow free of . By means of the
vi s warfare carried on ti many places
India, formerly almost uninhabitable, are completely
cleared of them. In other parts they are still common,
and the appearance of one inspires the whole neigh-
bourhood with alarm.
The panther, leopard, ounce, and lynx, all of the Loopard.
; Sa
370
Hunting, feline tribes, are closely allied in habits) anc disposition
—_—
Hyena.
Wolf-hunt-
ing.
_plished its destruction,
‘these animals.
to the lion, and tiger. But none readily attack man.
Their depredations, nevertheless, are not confined to
smaller animals, as some of them are endowed with
considerable strength. The leopard is particularly
expert in climbing trees, whence it drops or springs on
its prey... _It greedily devours dogs; but seldom prowl-
ing about by day, it chiefly commits nocturnal ravages.
Ali animals of prey, of every tribe, are for the most part
occupied in seeking their sustenance at dawn and twi-
light. . Leopards are roused by dogs, and shot with
fire-arms or arrows. The natives of the East also cap-
ture them in deep pits, which-are baited with the car-
cases of beasts.
Animals of the canine species are endowed by na-
ture with the most remarkable sagacity. Almost all,
with suitable treatment, may be rendered tractable,
while those of the feline tribes seem absolutely indocile
and void of attachment. The hyena is one of the fier-
cest of the canine kind ; its strength enables it to resist
the lion, and encourages it to attack the panther. It
overpowers the bear, and readily assails mankind. Act-
ing as a decoy, it is said to imitate the cries of other
animals, or, by a frightful howl, to scare a whole herd,
that it may then seize some one of the stragglers. It
is a solitary animal, inhabiting the clefts of rocks and
caverns in mountains, whence it issues forth on its
prey at night. Hysnas are hunted by dogs, and traps
are set for them, but few are taken. One of the most
remarkable methods of capturing these animals is prac-
tised bythe gypsies of Aleppo ; who, according to M.
Olivier, enter -with torches in the day-time into the
grottos known as the haunt of hyznas, and, on per-
ceiving one, make a great outcry, or-boldly approach,
speaking aloud, in order to intimidate the animal. The
hyena, which is terrible by night, does no injury by
day ;:and the effect of the light and clamour-are such,
that it retires farther and farther to the extremity of
the cavern, where no sooner do the gypsies sae it
than it is bound, muzzled, and led out. When taken
after other methods by the Arabs, they carefully bury
the head, lest the brain should be employed against
them in sorcery and enchantment
Hunting the wolf, an animal the type of destruction,
and the enemy of the shepherd, has been every where
and in every age an ardent pursuit. But its sa-
gacity is so great, that while others run. headlong into
danger, it carefully avoids the snare. When roused by
hunger, the ferocity of the wolf is great. It attacks
man, and runs down creatures far larger than it-
self, It boldly leaps inclosures, and steals into cotta-
ges to carry away children, which are always seized
by the throat. A wolf suddenly appeared in a dis-
trict of France, which it ravaged a whole year about
1765, proving so crafty, that an association of 68 pa-
rishes provided a band of 40,000 men for its destruc-
tion. At length 40 huntsmen and their dogs accom-
Hunting the wolf was anxi-
ously enjoined by the laws of this country, parti-
cularly in Scotland, formerly a ~wild and mountain-
ous country, whence it could not be easily extirpated.
King Edgar is said to have effected the utter destruction
of wolves in England, by commuting the tribute of
money into an annual tribute of the heads or skins of
They still subsisted in Ireland in the
reign of Elizabeth, and were not extirpated from Scot-
land until the year 1670. The means which have been
devised of destroying this redoubtable enemy are not
ifew ; but owing to.the habits and sagacity of the ani+
HUNTING.
mal, they are of very uncertain success. Its haunts are
Haring
exceedingly diversified : It sometimes seeks the recesses
of the woods, sometimes the bottom of the cavern;
it hunts by day and also by night, first assuming one
ath for its exit, and then another for its returns
n certain seasons of the year it has no fixed abode.
In Tartary, and other parts of the East, the wolf is hunted
by eagles trained specially for the purpose. In Eu-«
rope, the strongest greyhounds and other dogs are em-
ployed, and the chace is prosecuted either on foot or on
orseback. Much difficulty, however, is experienced
in running down the wolf; nay it frequently proves im-
practicable, for the full grown animal is infinitely strong-
er than any dog. An old wolf is able to run 20 miles
easily, which added to the nature of the ground to
which ‘it resorts, often renders the pursuit abortive.
The wolf besides, has recourse to many stratagems for
deceiving’ both the dogs and the huntsman,. When
one is known to infest a district, the first attempt is to
dislodge it from the covert, and to bring it to an open
ehace. But hunting the whelps is more interesting
sport, because they have fewer means of defence, nor
are they so capable of foiling the hunter as the old and
experienced animals. Independent of the constant use of
fire arms, it becomes necessary to recur to various stra-
tagems, as nets, traps, and pitfalls. If an animal of
large size, as a horse or an ox, is discovered to have be-
come the prey of a wolf, to which it will return for
the purpose of satisfying its appetite, the huntsman
drags the carcase‘above a mile from the spot, always
proceeding against the wind. Then leaving it ina place
exposed to view, as the wolf will follow, he takes his
station in concealment by moonlight, in a spot whence he
may pierce the animal with a ball. It is said that the
wolf never passes through by a door where it can leap
a wall; whence the position of traps is regulated, so as
to deceive its watchfulness. Sometimes the traps are con-
structed with springs and iron teeth ; sometimes with
a wicket, which yields to gentle pressure, but refuses
an exit to the captive. Some years ago, during a ter-
rible famine in India, where the miserable sufferers
were devoured half alive by wolves, these creatures,
emboldened by the want of resistance, continued their
ravages after its cessation. They openly attacked men
and women, and children at the breast seemed to be their
fayourite prey. An ingenious and simple apparatus was
devised for their destruction. Two bamboos eight or nine
feet high, were erected at the opposite sides of an old well,
and their tops being ae. together, a basket, contain-
ing a kid, was suspended from the junction. A pot of
water with a hole in the bottom, loosely stopped by a
rag, was hung over the animal, which was og bleat-
ing and in constant agitation by the dripping upon it.
Brushwood and thorns disguised the edge of the well,
and the wolves in stretching over or leaping up to reach
the bait, readily tumbled in. On another occasion, they
were successfully smoked out of burrows in the earth,
which they had chose for a retreat, or were killed in
attempting to escape suffocation. In digging up the
burrows, an incredible quantity of trinkets, not less
than ten pounds weight, was found belonging to chil-
dren they had carried away and devoured. The af-
fliction of the unfortunate parents at recognising the
different ornaments that had decorated their offspring,
presented a most impressive scene. At present packs
of wolves are said to infest a district of France,
where the inability of the inhabitants to resist them,
has Jed to extraordinary instances of their attacks.in
open day, and on every opportunity.
wo a
naan
a a aa
‘Wanting.
Vox-hunt-
ies
oe
HUNTING. 371
Similar address, though demonstrated in a less con-
i n the jackal and th
eplonces. comity pieemeyen by, tn ragchand
: dogs, while in full it, are
sometimes attacked with great tary by salir troop of
jackals attempting to rescue the fugitive, and beaten off
with severe injuries. The jackal itself hunts in packs
of 30 or 40 together.
As fox-hunting is so common a sport in Great Bri-
tain, and of so much consequence to other nations which
traffic in the fur of animals, we shall lay before our read-
ers a pretty full account of it. Though the total number
‘of foxes in this island may not exceed a few hundreds, yet
in the north of Europe and America, and in the north-
eastern parts of Asia, they are morenumerous. There they
are frequently to be found in vast multitudes, and of va-
rious species, called the black, blue, grey, and arctic fox-
were discovered in 1786 in the Northern Pacific Ocean ;
‘the first does not exceed 50 miles in
cond 19; yet in the course of only two years, 8000 blue
foxes were taken upon them. But to enable the hunts-
man to conduct the chace successfully, he must always
with the nature
instincts and ities of the fox are exhibited
ait et eel adnate
*
manner ;
n lous and civilized coun-
tries, it is shy and watchful; in those seldom trodden
by the foot of man, it exhibits no a ensions at his
may easily be led to ction. Inone
it will devour nothing except what has been
Killed by itself; in another, w ne bre 573
every kind of animal food is acceptable. It is
i in many places; yet in some it fat-
tens on and is noxious to vineyards. The craf-
of the fox fo proverbial. Without the strength
adventurously approaching the object it has cin-
out, and viking A fevonreble opportunity of "ie.
‘complishing its ends; but, not content with satisfying
the cravings of , it often destroys many more
vietions than it can devour; which are either left be.
hind, or carried away and stuffed into a hole, or bu-
ried in the to ide for future necessity. It
is said to sleep, in order to betray its prey into
pre pf ee ee ee *> Spent its
around purpose of attracting poultry with-
in the length of its Chain. aleh bomew biitis exch, or
inhabit the clefts and rea ond Slee dwell
thick coverts, or among furze. swallows testif
Oe caedie ea Ge tena soniary ot
» AD the clamour of crows and magpies
the retreat of the fox, when unseen by his ene-
mies ; and during pursuit, the latter will scream from
tree to tree, according to the course which the animal Hunting.
takes, By the northern nations, where the
of the fur is an object, the fox is captured in traps, by
bows set in its path, discharging arrows against it, and
it is also destroyed. by poisons, Sometimes a net is
used. The natives observe, as a remarkable circum-
stance, that the more valuable foxes are the most cun-
ning: and Krascheninikow mentions, that the Cos-
sacks of Kamtschatka tried unsuccessfully during two
ears to catch a black fox frequenting the Great River.
But it is likely that this arises from such animals be-
coming more sagacious in endeavouring to avoid dan-
ger, than those which have none to apprehend. In
ation »
Britain and some other countries, foxes are hunted al- Houndé.
most exclusively by packs of hounds trained to the
sport; and the chief source of entertainment arises
rom the nature of the scent itself. A id ae,
peculiar to its species, of which it can never ivest-
ed, constantly escapes from its body, and is distinguish-
able by the hounds from that which emanates from
other animals, whereby they are enabled to follow the
same course without once obtaining a view of the game.
The: manner in which this effluvia is conveyed, isa
point of exceedingly difficult explanation ; but, like
all odorous emanations, it is of very unequal intensity
at different times. Our ancestors were certainly ac-
quainted with the properties of hounds, as “ pad
scented dogs fit for hunting wild beasts,” are mention-
ed at a very early period of English history ; and the
aborigines of every nation are addicted to the chace.
But we are unacquainted with the particular species
which were employed. Much attention is requisite
both for the breeding and training of hounds ; and no
where has the art been more studied than in Great Bri-
tain. When the are bred and trained, then the
selection is to be made. Hounds are prized for colour,
ogee, voice, and ially for staunchness, without
which the rest of their qualities are of little avail, In re-
spect to the first, there can be no absolute rule; and the
huntsman who has had a few excellent hounds of a
certain colour, will be prejudiced in its favour; but
we must admit, that the properties depending on co-
Jour are very uncertain, particularly when we reflect
that a total change takes place in several animals ac-
cording to the alternation of the seasons, and that
it i We oso restored without having occasioned any
extraordinary effects. Naturalists have not yet deter-
mined the inseparable concomitants of colour. Hounds
of a uniform colour seem to rank highest in the estima-
tion of en; next, those spotted with red, and
white hounds with black ears and a black spot at
the root of the tail. Those spotted with dun are con-
ceived to be defective in courage, and therefore bear an
inferior value. Properties which would require the most
undoubted confirmation by ted trials, are ascribed
to some external characters. A hus it is said that the
black tanned, the uniform white, the true Talbots, are
the best for string or line ; that the grizzled, if the hair
iss , are the best runners, and that a couple of
these Id always belong toa . Those uniformly
dun are thought fit for all kinds of the chace ; their sa-
gacity is great; they are more sensible of their master’s
voice or his horn, and less liable to be influenced by the
unsteadiness of other hounds, The figure of the hound
is probably more essential than his colour, being more
decisive of pure descent. A small head, very pendu-
lous ears, a thin neck, broad back, deep chest, straight
legs, and round feet, not too large, are esteemed pro-
te oe ~
ive proportions indicate’.
—_—yO”
Fox-hunt-
ing.
Hunting.
Fox-hunt-
ing.
372
that little can be expected from exertion. Hounds of
middle size are the strongest, and most capable of pro-
tracted fatigue: and here it is nece: to parhints
the equality of the pack. There should be complete
uniformity in speed ; for, though the fleetest hound is
commonly esteemed the best, yet he may do much in-
jury among his companions in the chace. Speed and
vigour are indispensible qualities, and these are likely
to be promoted by having hounds of the same family.
Both are conspicuous in those of English breed. A
hound has been known to run seven miles in four
minutes; and a fox chace is said, on one occasion, to
have been continued for about 120 miles, calculating,
as nearly as possible, from the places where the hounds
were seen, The ardour of the hounds is so great, that
they sometimes actually die in the course of pursuit.
A prejudice formerly prevailed in France against Bri-
tish hounds, which probably arose from their having
degenerated on being transported from their native cli-
mate. Most animals degenerate under great transitions,
whereas, were they ‘carried to moderate distances, they
might easily be habituated to the change of climate and
of circumstances. The breed of all the useful animals
ought to be anxiously studied, because real quality can
be obtained in no other way than by selection from
the offspring of parents who are themselves of the
genuine stock. On both sides those alone should be
‘chosen which ‘demonstrate the properties of the fox
hound in a superior manner: age must be avoided ;
and, as both sexes reach maturity nearly about the
same period, there ought not to be a great disparity
between them. General rules nevertheless admit of
many exceptions, as the origin and properties of ani-
mals are but little known. The breeder will often
be disappointed of his expectations, and he will some-
times Rees to admire the offspring of parents from
whose union nothing was expected. In both cases,
good qualities and defects may lurk in concealment
during one generation, and be unfolded in the next.
Some persons who have paid strict attention to this
' subject, maintain, that, in the course of numerous expe-
riments, they succeeded in obtaining excellent hounds.
The whelps must be kept very clean, both before and
after leaving the mother, When they cease to obtain sub-
sistence from her, it is recommended that they should be
fed with wheat bread, to improve their strength ; but,
in France, itis said that bread made of barley-meal is
universally admitted to be better feeding, and is given
at the rate of two pounds and a half cr three quarters
daily, in two portions. The whelps should be well aired,
and have sufficient exercise, until they attain their full
strength, or arrive at an age a little beyond it, when
their active powers are to be called forth. It is suppo-
sed that dogs continue to grow during eleven months.
Something probably depends on climate; for a much
longer time frequently elapses before some of them
haye acquired all their vigour. Numerous specific rules
are given regarding the entrance or initiation of hounds
to the chace, on which head there are hunters who ad.
vance extraordinary, and apparently inconsistent, opi«
nions ; such as, that the first object of pursuit ought to
be different from that for.which the dog is ultimately
destined. But it has been judiciously remarked, that
nature will instruct hounds how to hunt; art only is
necessary to prevent them from hunting what they
ought not to hunt.” _ Instinct is incessantly operating ;
‘and if it is to be modified, we must always keep in
remembrance, that early habits have a great pre-
ponderance ; and that animals will probably be most
HUNTING.
eager in the pursuit of that game which they have Hunting.
been taught to hunt originally. One of the primary
qualities of a dog is, to addict itself exclusively to the
Specific object of pursuit, and to abstain from every
other ; whence it would appear as inconsistent to enter
poner with larks, as fox hounds with rabbits. If
ounds ‘are accustomed, at an early age, to woods,
or hills and vallies, it is likely that they may not
be equally successful when there is a complete transpo-
sition of circumstances, whence a considerable vari
of surface seems beneficial in exercising those whic
are young. These necessary preliminaries having been
attended to, hotinds are to be assorted in packs, the
extent of which is quite arbitrary. Experienced hunt-
ers affirm, that 25 couple are sufficient at any time to
be taken into the field; and this is the ordinary num-
ber. Forty couple will admit of hunting three times
a-week ; but if packs are very numerous, each hound
will have too little occupation in the chace: hence it is
essential that the qualities of hounds should be fre-
quently brought’into action, in order that they may be
preserved by practice. Although instinctive habits may
be permanent, ee artificial acquirements are soon forgot-
ten. A pack of good hounds is a valuable property, and.
has been sold in England for a thousand guineas, _ With
respect to the actual practice of fox-hunting, it is a subject
susceptible of so much detail, that we must chiefly refer
those who-are desirous of becoming masters of it, either to
certain districts of England and Ireland, where gentle«
men of fortune follow it as a kind of profession, in pres
ference to the more useful pursuits of agriculture, and
more delicate and refined amusements, or to the mo-
dern authors Beckford and Daniel, who treat copiously
of the subject. They have not only exhausted the ob-
servations of their predecessors, but have embellished
their writings with new and entertaining illustrations.
As the fox Che his burrow in guest of prey before
the day breaks, all the earths are to be stopped ata
very early hour in the morning; and the huntsmen
having met at the appointed covert, itis to be carefully
drawn for the game. A bad or windy day is always
to be avoided, as the scent is so much affected and so
precarious, that the hounds may be disappointed, which
1s injurious to their nature. It is not necessary that
the fox should ever be seen by the dogs; when once
roused, they pursue him by the scent alone, continu-
ing the chace through many miles, But this animal
neither possesses much. speed, nor apparently enter-
tains great dread of the hounds. His principal object
is gaining the earth ; and he trusts by wiles and stra-
tagems to deceive his pursuers. If he is foiled, man‘
turnings, doublings, and crossings, are resorted to: when
fatigued, he will either lie down in a field, should one
be in his way, or run amidst a flock of sheep, or a
herd of cattle. In the course of the chace, sometimes
the scent becomes quite imperceptible, especially when
confounded with the emanations of other animals, as
in the latter case, when the hounds are said to be checked
or at fault ; and the recovery of it becomes most inter-
esting to hunters. Silence is then to be observed, as
the dogs will be industrious enough themselves in a7
deayouring to regain the scent, If they are successful,
which does not invariably happen, they rapidly renew
the pursuit, and gaining distance as the strength of the
fox declines, they at length come up, and tea) him to
pieces. “Then,” say sportsmen, “they should be allow-
ed to eat him ravenously.” It frequently oecurs, that
amidst a number of earths all are not Cnrereiant the fox
having taken shelter, is dug out or : odged by ter-
Frox-hunt-
ing.
Ae rapt
oa HUNTING. . 373
riers ; sometimes the hounds him thither, and will generally tire a moose in less than a day, and very Hunting.
are themselves suffocated within. It is difficult to kill often in six or eight hours; though it sometimes hap- “VY”
the female while breeding, from her never wander- pens, that the hunters continue the pursuit two days
ing far from the burrow, and retreating into it on before they can come up with and kill the game. They
the alarm. A modern author remarks, that are very lightly on such occasions, and carry
« thes art of fox-hunting is to keep hounds well in as Se eeere a See arrows, coming |
blood ; therefore every advantage of the fox is taken. with implements for striking fire. Dogs are trai
— is but a secondary consideration with the true for this sport by the southern Indians, which renders
hunter ; his first motive is the killing of the fox, it easier and more expeditious; and they are likewise
— he makes his hounds. Present success is used in Europe and ther countries inhabited by the
a sure forerunner of future sport; and he is deer. In Britain, hunting is followed with hounds,
better with an indifferent chace, with death at and the strength swiftness of the animal renders
the close of it, than with the best chace orp ifit this description of the chace particularly emeome.
of is
terminates with the the fox.” kind of Its agility surmounts every obstacle ; the plains vani
ene i le time in under its feet; rivers are no barrier ;.and it seeks for
Great Britain. That King James I. had its commen- shelter alike in the woods and the mountains. Thence
dation in view, when treating of the education of the pursuitis generally and difficult, and thestag can
i be wearied down only by pe a ervey weed
omit here the hunting with running hounds, which is hounds. When the stag despairs of escaping, it some-
the most honourable and noblest sort thereof; for it is erceceetarhen inet She pctv Spe moa.
roe 3 - its life
to ;
bows; and greyhound hunting is not so martial a sible. The huntsman, however, is always the victor,
game.” Fox-hunting is certainly no inconsiderable and his tions most commonly secure him from
gg eed of horses running themselves a ut a more treacherous method is generally
ind, or dyi i irriders; fi in stalking or approaching in disguise to shoot
of perishing during the chace, and of men break- this fine animal, at least in those parts of the north and
ing their limbs, or di ing their necks, But whether western parts of Scotland where it still runs wild. In
it is an amusement either humane, or attended with the northermtlimates deer are shot with arrows, by
, might admit of some discussion. means of a spring bow set in their path.
utility,
Wid cattle. Wild cattle are numerous on the southern continent The antel is a ious animal, very shy, and ante}
| ee ee
of use of the cheeta, it is
hunted by numbers of men forming a circle, which,
gradually closing, brings it within reach of the sports-
man; or it is p by dogs, while hawks, trained
for the purpose, being let fly, retard its swiftness by
striking it on the , and fluttering before its eyes.
There are various species of bears, which are hunted
after different fashions both in the warmer and colder 3¢#*.
climates. The white bear, an enormous animal of the
polar regions, is never seen but on ice and snow. Win-
bn hepa pe Ae lb about terers on Nova Zembla remark, that it retreats from
tw feet long, and the hunteman, when within the their abode as the sun sinks below the horizon in No-
necessary distance, having swung one of the balls seve- vember, and returns with his appearance in January;
Hi
He
Ral
Hilf
ae
rf
ii
rF
#1
‘
i
i
i
t
TH
Alia
4
F
ie
ral times around his to give it an impetus, throws meanwhile, _— visited by the arctic fox, which
it at the animal's legs, also parting with the other where- retires as the approaches. White bears attack
by they are entangled. the buffalo, which man, and swim around ships as if to get on board.
La ene bay nd msl animal, is attend. They are hunted by the northern savages, on the ice
) heme wwe ly for it readily attacks its pur- and snow, with pi swords, bows, and arrows; but
nist trust to the ewiftness of their horsesfor the bear makes a vigorous defence, turning on its as-
escape. It entertains the wtmost antipathy to ev sailents, whose victory is sometimes dearly ‘
eee eee of However, a si man has been known to engage in-
: hn teekets 2. nit Sat ene Renee ony trepidly wheorve on fierce bear, without any
venting its rage upon it, that untsman has suf. other wea a knife, and to destroy his antagonist.
! i! advance or to retire. The black bear never attacks man unless when pro-
a
Hs Soh
A ible onimal, the deer, has been liberally disper. voked ; it then rises upright, and, clasping him in its
roe 2 Nena a at the world, in the fore paws, endeavours to crush him to death. Before
an In Siberia, vast herds shift any encounter, it is said tomake a ascend trees,
their at Certain seasons, leaving the woodstoseck This animal can be dislodged wit “difeculty from its
tnd swim neross wide rivers, always retreats by dogs; but when once roused, it is pursued,
having a leader at their head. Then they become aneasy and shot. It is likewise taken eA number of
Se ene nar ki stratagems, of which we have ly given an ac-
\ the an is count under the article Bear, Vol. II], page 865.
ay tee his game. The elk ormoose deer north of Hunting the badger, which pertains to the same ge- Badger.
H ’s Bay, is hunted in a si manner; forthere mus, is followed in another shape. It burrows in
the Indians absolutely ranitdown. Thisis the earth, and is also difficult to dislodge. When
attempted only when the earth is covered by snow, and driven out by terriers, it fights boldly, inflicting se-
‘especially when the surface is encrusted over ; then it vere lacerations on its pursuers, However, it is gene-
~~ with the weight of the animal, while the snow rally overpowered. covered with a strong
‘the hunteman bear him up. A good runner hide and long hair, which render it tenacious of life, a :
Hunting.
—_———
Hare-hunt-
ing.
Goursing,
S74
slight blow on the’ nose occasions inevitable death.
The badger is caught alive in sacks covering the mouth
of its burrow, into which it is driven by the ter-
riers.
After speaking of all these powerful, ferocious, and
crafty animals, it is painful to treat of the hunting of the
timid hare—a weak, harmless, and defenceless creature,
which the very sight of man renders breathless with
alarm. Yet, in Britain, whole troops of men, horses, and
dogs, collect to enjoy the gratification of running itdown;
a feat which is accomplished either by grey-hounds sur-
passing its utmost speed, or by slow hounds wearing
it out with fatigue. But these are not the only means
devised for its destruction, as numberless traps and
snares besides fire-arms are always ready to bereave it
of life. The hare is the ordinary prey of other animals :
yet it feeds on none; its subsistence is derived exclu«
sively from vegetable productions, and in few instan-
ces does it appear in sufficient numbers to occasion inju-
ry. Many fables ‘are interwoven with the history of this
animal, and the prejudices of mankind have determined
its presence to be ominous on certain times and occa-
sions. In general the hare shuns the haunts of men:
it is abroad chiefly at dawn and twilight, and during
the night troops of this animal meet to sport in the fields,
Its vigilance is incessant: the eyes, which are not clo-
sed .while it~ sleeps, are so constructed, that it can
see farther around in the same position than other ani-
mals: its ears are adapted for the reception of the
faintest sounds, and its foot is particularly fashioned
for protection against different substances that cover the
ground. As if aware that safety is to be found in con-
cealment, it remains closely squatted in its form, even
though its enemies be near; but when once roused, no
bounds are set to its flight. Unlike the fox, which is
regardless of distance, the hare feels confidence only
when beyond the voice of its pursuers; but it is never-
theless full of stratagems. In the first outset a cir-
cular figure is described; all the subsequent course
will approximate to the original line: but doubles
are repeated after doubles, and the point of depar-
ture will ay baa f be approached during the chace.
Hares are hunted either by harriers, a species of
slow hound, or by greyhounds, the latter sport being
technically pes Re coursing. Under a few modifica-
tions, nearly the same rules and principles are ud
cable here as before, regarding the choice, breeding,
treatment, and entrance of hounds ; but it is invariably
to be observed, that the best harriers are those that ne-
ver pursue any other game than hares. There is a very
-diminutive species called beagles, which are in much
request for this kind of sport, and some of them are so
small, that ten or eleven couple are said to have been car-
ried to the field in a pair of large panniers slung across a
horse. Twenty coupleof harriers are esteemed a sufficient
number in any pack. The hare, though swift, and en-
dowed with considerable strength, is weaker than the
fox,-and the chace is rarely of equal duration ; yet there
is an instance of a hare, after having been chaced six-
teen miles, taking to the sea, and swimming nearly a
quarter of a mile before it was caught, and also of one
running above twenty miles in about two hours. The
-chace is followed by the scent, which is lost and reco-
vered.as in fox-hunting; and this peculiar emanation
is thought to depend on the motion of the animal, be-
cause it is seldom perceptible while the hare remains
quiet in its form. When it is first started, strict silence
should be preserved by the hunters, as the hare is so
timid, it is very readily headed back; whereby the
3
HUNTING.
hounds pushing forward lose the scent. ae is Hunding.
more generally practised in different countries,
—
requiring less’ of the A of hunting, and be- Hare-huute”
cause every master is in t
Whether the shaggy or the smooth greyhound should
be preferred, is not decided; but a greater portion
of strength is usually ascribed to the former, Con-
trary to the nature of harriers, greyhounds hunt en
tirely by the view, and while the others remain in«
tent on recovering the scent, they very soon become
bewildered on losing sight of the game. They should
attain their full vigour before they are initiated into the
chace, and in the meantime they should have abun«
dance of air and exercise; but sportsmen aré coms
monly too impatient to wait for the proper period,
The qualities of the greyhound are often to: be dis-
covered almost entirely from their figure; and some
have instinctively the property of carrying the game
to the hunter’s feet. Coursing can be traced to a
very carly period: it is said, however, that the Bri-
tons anciently abstained from eating the flesh of hares.
Grants of land were obtained from several of the
earlier sovereigns, for an annual tribute in horses,
hawks, or hounds; and as greyhounds were used in stag-
hunting, it is not to be supposed that they would be
omitted. In the reign of King John, two charters
were granted. in 1203 and 1210, in consideration of
which'a certain number of greyhounds should be deli-
vered, in addition to other obligations. . Coursing is a
favourite amusement. in many countries besides Bri-
tain; and a good greyhound is so highly prized by
-some tribes in the eastern parts of Persia, that, accord-
ing to a recent traveller,. Lieut, Pottinger, the natives
sometimes pay £50 for one of acknowledged quality ;.a
very high sum considering their narrow finances. But
sportsmen go farther still among ourselves, as, under
‘the article Doc, it will be seen that, £ 152 has been
aid for a greyhound. The greyhounds of Cyprus
‘interrupt the chace by the huntsman merely throwing.a -
pie before them, which indicates singular docility.
t is said that a huntsman should acquire so much
knowledge of the stratagems of the hare, as to be able
to defeat the whole in two or three seasons; and he
will also find his greyhounds improve by experience.
The speed of the hare is great, te @ so are the s; and
strength of the greyhound. Two are reported to have
coursed a hare seven miles, though they were then so
-completely exhausted, that medical aid could scarcely
preserve them ; and there are examples of their dying
in the very act of seizing the game. Whether the hare
can see distinctly during the oe! of its flight, or
how its vision is then directed, is doubtful. It runs
against obstacles with great violence ; and we are told
of a terrier eagerly coming up to join the chace, hay-
ing been met by the hare, when the latter was killed on
the spot by the concussion, and its skull broken to pie«
ces. Whenhard pressed, the hare will run to earth li
afox ora rabbit: it often takes the water ; seeks shelter
in a house; or even leaps on the breast of a spectator.
Thus do we behold the effect of terror and the love of
self-preservation conquer its almost invincible timidity.
But the devoted victim seldom escapes its merci
pursuers. Compared with that description of the chace,
where the power, the ferocity, and the craftiness of
animals, are to be combated by the peg na il
nuity of man, it may be questioned whether hare-
hunting should be ranked among the more elevated
kinds of sport. te Asa ye,
We gia say a few words of hunting animals
is case his own huntsman: ”®
nfl a Poe Bees ER ME i nm
Li
it HUNTING.
, for the value of their furs, with-
which are ony to which they bel
to the to which ;
et gett of sep. woesel tcibo, thet
: .The fur of some of these, as
the ermi Semeeneiens Cnpe Sow qestiiys
and always bear a price. ton
soammsenrs ty Ae ce
seen sae Sie 06: She es aes -
they erect huts, and constitute a leader, to whom the
ise implicit obedience, The party subdivides
to hunt in different districts, and in this second excur-
sion small huts banked up with snow are built, while all
are occupied in constructing As the sable is a car-
nivorous animal, they are suitably baited and set; and
being so devised that the slightest touch ensures its
capture, they are seldom long empty: but should the
huntaman be unsuccessful in this manner, he is con-
ducted by the tract of the sable in the snow to its bur-
one hole to the burrow, as the sable would
than come forth. Sometimes it runs up a
ich case is then cut down, the huntsanan agai
spreading his toils in the direction in which it is to fall ;
he employs blunt arrows to shoot the sable, whereby
from injury. Hunting being clo-
begins to melt, the whole produce is col-
the skins properly prepared, and when the ri-
vers are open, carried down in the boats. Many su-
perstitious ceremonies are ised by the hunters:
while skinning the sable; nor
must any thing hang on the stakes around them. The
carcase is laid on dry sticks, which are set on fire, and
it, previous to its being bu-
ried in the earth or snow. A portion of the spoils cal-
led God's sables is always devoted as an offering to some
honour of which each leader also builds his
hut.
_ However arduous and tedieus a task it may be to
hunt the sable, the it of the sea otter, combined
with that of
a few to many , engage in it, and ten
ae eee their return home. Far
] a of sport or pleasure, it is an oceu-
joer i ity : the are spsringly sub-
they “4 clothed, and, exposed to all the
a
wiconabhe Ynes. cok gf wytsr
pa ay Sea natives of the continent,
amphibious nature. It inhabits the shores of the
Northern Pacific Ocean, and is found, thou not in
plenty, as far as Japan, or even the Yellow It is
ene ly cep iam: lor phe safety od ey : —
is persecuted, and destroy sa
fal j black fur that covers it. “The hunt-
weteel a ohio which the Russia go-
or 8 of
what will prove most acceptable to the savages of the
p- hunters, are” p
small
875
distarit islands which they mean to visit. Taking
session of some of these, they either
to depart alone in quest of game, (and in this way a
fleet of canoes, carrying 300 Aleutans, went out some,
years ago, which was never after heard of,) or they are:
themselves of the Hunting the sea otter is in
other respects attended both with danger and difficulty.,
Two very small canoes, each containing two expert
with bows and arrows, and a
, to which last is. attached a line a few:
fathoms in length. - Though the animal is hunted also
on ice, it is more commonly, captured by pursuit in
the’ water, continued during several hours. From the
necessity of iration, it can dive but for a few mi-
nutes ; the principal skill to be displayed is in the canoes
taking the same direction which it does in its course.
They te, therefore, as the sea otter goes down, in
order to inflict a mortal wound either with the arrows or
her at the moment it rises. If hunted on a larger
e, the mode adopted renders the animal so sure a
prey, that scarcely one in a hundred can escape. A
number of hunters being engaged, when one obs
serves a sea otter he endeavours to pierce it, and at all |
events rows to the spot where it plunges. Here he
stations his canoe, and raises his oar as a signal, on
which the rest of the hunters form a surrounding circle,
The moment of reappearance, he discharges his arrows,
or throws another m, and hastening to the place
where the otter dives, makes a _ by again raising
his.oar. A second circle is then formed, and the chace
protracted, until the animal is exhausted. The first
plange exceeds a quarter of an hour, the next is of
shorter duration, and thus the intervals diminish until
the animal can plunge no more, When the female sea
otter is overtaken with its young, parental affection is
manifested in the most interesting manner: it super-
seces all sense of danger. Taking the cub in her paws,
she dives to save it ; but obliged to rise for breath, she is
exposed to the hunter’s weapons. Should it be taken
first, she becomes regardless of her own safety, and,
approaching the boat, falls an easy sacrifice. But both
parents sometimes defend their young furiously, tearing
out with their teeth the arrows that have pierced them,
and even attacking the canoes. Incessant pursuit of
this animal has almost totally extirpated it from places
where it was common formerly. ;
It would require a long enumeration to specify all
the different modes of hunting, and the various strata-
gems employed for the capture of wild animals. Some
are exceedingly ingenious, and others require continual
alteration, according as the becomes more w
of the designs of its pursuers, The skill of the bent
man, which an ordinary spectator is ready to under.
value, is the result of long continued experience only :
the footstep, the track, the pasture of the animal, and
other indications, are all studied, to discover its age, its
sex, andl its haunts ; and it cannot be denied, that much
of the naturalist’s knowledge is deduced from the ine
formation of huntsmen alone. The whole geographi-
cal discoveries of the Russians in the north-east of Si-
beria originated exclusively with their hunters, to
whom also they were indebted for the discovery of the
Kurile and Aleutan islands, the ontory of Alaksa,
and the island Kadiak. Hunting, when directed to
the more important game, is an interesting, manly, and
athletic exercise. Yet, if prosecuted for no other ob-
ject than to deprive an innocent animal of life, or merely
for the pleasure of winepeag its speed, and beholding
the vigour of its defence for selt-preservation, it is a
. Hunting.
I the natives ““yY""”
Hunting,
Hunting-
don.
——_
HUN
cruel and hateful pastime. Men familiarised with the
torture of animals, whose flesh is needlessly torn from
their bones, will soon behold with indifference the pain
of their fellow creatures. See Chasse au fusil. William<
son’s Field Sports of the East. Daniel’s Rural Sports.
Beckford On Fox and Hare Hunting. Sportsman's Dic«
tionary. La Chasse Eneyclop. Method. Krascheninikow’s
History of Kamtschatka. Meare's Voyage. Lisianky’s
Voyage. Krusenstern’s Voyage. Hearne’s Journey. Cart-
wright's Journal. See Braver, Bean, and Everwant,
for an account of the method of hunting these animals. (c)
HUNTINGDON, is a town of England, and the
principal town in Huntingdonshire. It is situated on
a gently rising ground on the northern side of the river
use, It consists principally of one street, stretching
in a north-west direction from the Ouse to nearly a
mile from it, with several lanes branching off at right
angles. The houses, which are built of brick, are gen-
teel and commodious, and the streets are well paved
and lighted. The town is nearly connected, by a cause-
way and three bridges, with the village of Godman-
chester.
The principal public buildings and establishments
are St Mary’s church, All Saints church, and the town-
hall. St Mary’s, which is the corporation church, was
rebuilt between the years 1600 and 1620. It has an
elegant embattled tower at the west end, with nave,
chancel, and aisles. All Saints church stands on the
north of the market-place, and appears to have been
built in the time of Hetty VII. It is an embattled edi-
fice, with nave, chancel, and aisles, and a small tower
at the north-west angle. The town-hall, which stands
on the south side of the market-place, is a good modern
brick building, with a piazza at the front and sides, and
butchers’ shambles behind. In the lower part of the
building are the civil and criminal courts, where the as-
sizes are held. Above is a spacious assembly-room, a-
dorned with the portraits of George II. and III. and
their respective Queens, and of Lord Sandwich, who
died in April 1792. The Free Grammar School is well
endowed, and well conducted. There is also a green-
coat school, called Walden’s Charity, where 24 poor
boys are clothed and educated. The county gaol, which
stands at one end of the town, has recently been re-
paired and rendered more commodious. There are two
laces of worship here belonging to the dissenters, one
or the Quakers, and the other for the sect patronised
by the Countess of Huntingdon.
As Huntingdon is situated on the great north road,
it has several good inns. The brewing trade is carried
on here, though less extensively than formerly. It has
also’a small vinegar manufactory. Coals, wood, &c. are
brought to the town by barges, which come up the ri-
ver from Lynn in Norfolk, and return with the corn
of the surrounding country.
This borough returns two members to Parliament,
the right of election being vested in about 200 of the
freemen and inhabitants. It is governed by a mayor,
12 aldermen, and a number of burgesses. The follow-
ing is the population of the borough of Huntingdon in
811: x
Number ofhouses . . . . . 450
Number of families oe, 6g te hee
Families employed in trade and manufactures 291
Bae re Gee 1085
A oe CE ae 1312
Totalpopulation . . . . . . . . . 2397
See the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. p. 345.
376
°
HUN
HUNTINGDON. See PENNSYLVANIA.
Hanting-
HUNTINGDONSHIRE, an inland county of Eng- @onshire.
land, is almost inclosed by Cambridgeshire and Nor- 5194; am
thamptonshire ; by the former it is bounded on the poundaries
north-east, and part of the south; by the latter, on the and extent.
north and west. Bedfordshire bounds it also partly on
the south-west. Its limits are nearly artificial. The
river Nen, and the canals which join it to the Ouse,
form its limits on the north and north-east, on the Nor-
thamptonshire and Cambridgeshire borders. The Ouse,
at its entrance, separates for a short space from Bed.
fordshire, and at its exit from Cambridgeshire. The
figure of this county is so irregular as scarcely to afford
a proper measurement ; but reckoning from its furthest
projection, it does not exceed 24 miles each way, and
in general is of much less extent. In fact, it is the
smallest county in England except Rutland, and is very
nearly the size of Middlesex ; Huntingdon containing,
according to the best accounts, about 210,000 acres ;
Rutland, 110,000; and Middlesex about 200,000 acres.
The whole upland part in ancient times was a forest,
and particularly adapted to the chace, whence the name
of the county took its rise. It was disafforested by
Henry II., [11., and Edward I., the last of whom left no
more of it a forest than what covers his own ground.
It is divided into four hundreds, namely, Normans pjvisions,
cross towards the north; Toseland towards the south ;
Hurstingstone towards the east ; and Leightonstone to-~
wards the west. It contains one county-town, Hunt-
ingdon ; six market towns, of which the principal are
Kimbolton, St Neots, St Ives, and Godmanchester.
The number of parishesis 104. It is in the province
of Canterbury, and diocese of Lincoln. The ecclesias-
tical government is managed by the archdeacon of
Huntingdon, and it is divided into five deaneries. It
is in the Norfolk circuit, and returns four members to
Parliament, viz. two for the county, and two for Hunt-
ingdon. This county and Cambridgeshire are joined
together under one civil administration, there being
but one high-sheriff for both ; who is alternately cho-
sen one year out of Cambridgeshire, the second year
out of the isle of Ely, and the third year out of this
county. It is one of the seven counties, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Bucks, Berks, Hertford, Essex, and Suf-
folk, that are contiguous without a city.
The fenny part of it lies in the Bedford level on the surface,
north-east, and joining the fens of Ely. There are be-~
sides three distinct varieties of surface in this county.
The borders of the Ouse, flowing across the south-east
part, consist of a tract of most beautiful and fertile
meadows, of which Portsholme Mead, near Hunting-
don, is particularly celebrated. The middle and west-
ern parts are finely varied in their surface, fruitful in
corn, and sprinkled with woods. The upland parts
still bear the appearance of ancient forest lands.
The soils are various. In the upland parts, they are Soil s.
chiefly a strong deep clay, more or less intermingled
with loam, or a deep gravelly soil, with loam. Of what
are called the deep stapled lands, by far the greatest
rt are still in an open-field state. Indeed, there is a
feat proportion of this most unproductive land in
Huntingdonshire than perhaps in any other county of
England ; upwards of one-third of the high lands be-
ing still uninclosed. The more anciently inclosed parts
are, generally speaking, in the possession of a few pro-
prietors ; but in the new inclosures, and in the open
fields, property is divided among a much Fase num-
ber of persons. The woodlands are but of inconsider-
able extent, and the county is thin of timber. This
:
|
—
|
to the very great demand for it in the fens,
ul
ly
A
FFs
§
acres of ‘what are vincially called skirty
The fens of Huntingdonshire constitute nearly
a seventh of what is called Bedford Level. About
$000 or 14,000 sures of them are productive; but the
of ing them from inundation amounts
$s Eiaiiek ception oF the rents, in consequence of the
;
a out-fall near the sea.
between this county
Garages ie it enters the great level of the fens
It is navigable along its whole line across
Z ire, and
i
c t to cover on}
pay yj pea Tt affords excellent saili i
ing; awe ap tan Temaies seseen, much frequented
by parties Anciently, there was a navi
tion from by the river to this Mere, and
from thence to Ramsey.
Though this county has long been celebrated for its
wealthy akg beaks h the vicinity of God.
manchester, yet its agriculture very little that
is interesting or im t. In Camden's time, God-
manchester was reckoned the largest villoge in Eng-
land ; and at that period. no place em so man
plovahs i and, ing to that author, no people
so much advanced in agriculture, either by their
VOL. XI. PART
.
4
HUNTINGDONSHIRE.
877
purse or their genius. When James I. came through it Hontag:
on his j y from Scotland to take possession of the br nergy
throne of England, the, inhabitants met him with 70
new ploughs, drawn by as many teams of horses ; for
they hold their lands by this tenure, that whenever.
the sovereign took this place in their progress, the far-)
mers should make the most pompous appearance with
ploughs and horses, adorned like triumphal cars with
rustic trophies.. King James was so pleased with
the sight, that he granted them: a charter constituting
Godmanchester a borough, mt oe same a -
descending to partake of a collation prepared under
a bush, still ee by the name of the King’s Bush,
and the Beggar’s Bush. But Huntingdonshire is no
longer rema for. the excellence of its agriculture ;
nor, indeed, could improvement in this most. useful
art be excited im a county where so large a proportion
of the land.is still in the barbarous state of open field..,
Besides the common produce of wheat, barley, oats,
hemp, and.rape in the fens, turnips on the drier soils,
and a few hops, this county grows a considerable quan-
tity of mustard ; it is cultivated on various soils, chief-
ly rich loam, old land, rich clay, and the
best. fen. soils. The ground is ploughed only once for
it: it is sown any time between Candlemas and Lady
Day. There are two kinds, the black and white ; the
former is most esteemed. The weeding is performed
by yy way ys will not eat the mustard. The pro-
duce i 28 to 4% bushels per acre.
e enclosed lands is of @ sheep and”
mixed iption, nearly. ap ing to the Leices- cattle.
tershire and Li ire kinds, with which the native.
breeds have been. much crossed.. Those bred on the
fields and commons are much inferior. The cat-
are for the most the refuse of the Lancashire,
anne ire, and Rene pees oxen are pur-
grazing without any attention to.
the breed, and are never aad in eh ag From ,
the open state of the county, dairy farming is not much
followed ; and the cows are used for suckling calves in .
the southern parts, to supply the London market. The
rich and celebrated cheese, called Stilton cheese, takes __.
its name from a village in Huntingdonshire; but it is S‘#%"
made in the vicinity of Melton Mowbray in Leicester. ““"*
shire ; and it is generally supposed never to have been
made at Stilton, but always to have been sent there for
sale; of this, however, there seems some doubt. Mr
Nicholls, in. his aang yn, Antiquities of the:Coun-
ty of Leicester, says it began to be made in the
of Little Dalby, in that county, about the year
730; bat, on the other hand, there is the evidence of
a very old inhabitant of Stilton, who died there about
the year 1777, aged 80 years, that, when he was a boy,
the cream used to be collected in the neighbouring
villages for the purpose of making Stilton cheese: this
of course fixes the making of this famous cheese at
Stilton - before, according to Mr Nicholls’ evidence,
it was ¢ in Leicestershire. In the fens of Hun-
tingdonshire, mares are used for all the purposes of
agriculture ; and every farmer breeds from them as
many feals as he can, selling the colts off at two years
old, and as many of the fillies as can be spared, with
proper attention to the team. The high roads in this poads.
county, in peneral, are tolerably good; the cross roads
are but indifferent, and in the winter season many of
them are nearly impassable,
No manufactures of note are carried on in Hunting- manufac.
donshire except wool, stapling, and spinning yarn : the tures.
latter is the business of the women and child
38
Mustard.
florses.
Huating-
donshire,
Huntly.
Poor's rates.
Antiquities.
History.
Populatior.
H U N-
in the winter season ; in the summer t
fitable employment in the fields. There is a small
pon secon 6 lace at Kimbolton; and at St Neots,
there is a very lar rt mill worked b tent ma-
chinery. At Btaridgtound, there are two ron
for sacking. The markets and fairs of St Ives for live
cattle are some of the greatest in England.
In the year 1803, the r’s rates amounted to
£30,952: in the year ending the 25th of March 1815,
it amounted to £40,625.
There are few remarkable antiquities in this county.
Dornford in the north-west part of it, formerly called
Deorm-ceaster and Caer Dorm, is probably the Duro-
brive, a passage of the Nen mentioned in the Itinera-
ry of Antoninus. A little above Stilton, a Roman path-
way, leading from Dornford to Huntingdon, appears
with a very high bank, which, in an old Saxon charter, is
called Erming- street. From Ramsey, which stands on an
isle of the same name, formed by the fens, there runs a
causeway, called Kings-delf, for ten miles, to Peterbo-
rough. It appears upon record in King Edgar’s time.
At Ramsey, was formerly a very rich abbey, built in’
the midst of'a bog. There is little left of it, beside a
part of the old gate-house, and a statue of its founder
Alwyn, who was called alderman of all England, and’
cousin to King Edgar. The keys and ragged staff in
his hand, denote his offices. This is reckoned one of
the most ancient pieces of English sculpture extant.
This county, under the Saxon heptarchy, formed
part of the kingdom of Mercia, or the middie Angles.
Mr Speed mentions an observation of Sir Robert Cot~
ton, that the families of this county were so worn out
even in his time, (about the beginning of the 17th cen-
tury,) that, though it was formerly very rich in gentry,
et few surnames of any note were then remaini
that could be traced higher than. Henry VIII. Mr
Camden remarks, that-in the civil wars, there: were
more actions in this than in much'larger counties, be-
cause it was the native county of Oliver Cromwell.
According to the returns made in the year 1800, the
population of this county was 87,568. In the year
1811, the returns afford the following results. ;
Houses inhabited . 2. . . . . 2°. 7,566
Families occupying them . - °8,808
Houses buildmg . 2... se 23
dea Pypt “pik hd
Families employed im agriculture. 5,361
: in trade and manufactures 2,205”
not comprised in these Classes 1242
a ee ee | aN tS atte |, eee Oa
BUH eye a ee 21,806
Total 42,208
Square statute miles =. 2. 1. 1
Rental or at) AP 8 et SBR OTE
Amonnt of tithe . . 2.9... . £10,166
Annual value of square mile £574
Persons in a square mile . : : 114
Agricultural population... . . 61
Net product per family . .. £40
: (w. s.)
HUNTLY is a small town of Scotland, in the coun-’'
‘ty of Aberdeen. Tt is pleasantly situated on a point of
land at the confluence of the rivers Bogie’and
It consists of two principal streets, crossmg each other |
at right angles, and forming a spacious market-place at
their junction. ‘The town contains some good houses,
and has of late years increased considerably. In 1792,
it contaimed 52 flax-dressers, the annual value of whose
878
find more pro-~
HUS
manufactures was £16,224; and 209 weavers, who
duced yearly 73,150 yards of cloth. Huntly Lodge,
the seat of the Marquis of Huntly, stands near’
Huron
Iss
town, on the banks of the Deveron; and near the :
bridge
Castle.
The town and parish contained, in 1811,
Inhabited houses...» 6 ¢s-8 0) ew s0 608
Number of families . . ».s 0.05 » 720
Ditto employed in agriculture... +) vie, 190:
Ditto employed in trade and manufactures, . 510
over the same river are the remains of Huntly
Males du hahuese kotor? teaile..veniPeecere har ae
MEMSIAS, « nariciax ix> rte dee. ta eahdicane, Se
Total population. 2 epie)ie, eo wey pn: TOK,
HURON, Lace. See Canana, vol. y. p. $29, col. 2,
HURRICANES. See Metroratocy, °°
HUSBANDRY. See Acnricutrure. |
HUSS, Jonn, the celebrated reformer and founder
of the sect called Hussites, was born at Hussinez, a
village in Bohemia, about the year 1876, and received
his education at ‘the’ Seay one ® of Praga, where he
took his degrees of M. A and'B. D. and at Jength bes
came minister of a church in that city In the year
1400, he was chosen confessor to the queen Sophia:
and at this early period, he already began to distinguish
himself by his freedom and zeal in reprehending the
corrupt morals of the laity, as well as the vices of the
clergy. The monks, under the protection of some of
the nobles, contplained of him to the king Winceslaus ;
but this prince, who was no friend to the clergy, de-
clined to interfere. *
About this period, in consequence of the marriage of
Ann of Bohemia with Richard II. of England, a come
munication and intercourse were opened between these
two countries; and several young Bohemians repaired
to England, where they became acquainted with the
writings of Wickliffe. Among these was Jerome of
Prague, who had formerly been a pupil of Huss, and
after spending some time at the university of Oxford,
returned to his native country, non along with him
several of the works of the English reformer. Huss
perused these writings, and having found that many of
the opinions which they contained coincided with those
which he himself had been led to entertain, he conti-
nued to preach openly and zealously against the errors
and corruptions of the reigning church.’ His eloquence
_was powerfully directed against the sale of indalgences ;
he inveighed against this system of Papal extortion
with uncommon.warmth ; and his arguments received
countenance both from the monarch and the people.
By this conduct, however, he rendered himse
ly obnoxious to Subinco, the archbishop of Pr ague,
a violent, bigotted, and sn as ag
thenceforth became his irreconcileable enemy. Being’
aware that Huss was secretly attached to thie duétttuee?
of Wickliffe, be obtained a decree of the university, in’
which the opinions of the En reformer were con=
demned as heretical, and those who should in future at-
tenrpt to disseminate these opinions were threatened with
the punishment of burning.
that this decree was levelled at his person, rather than
the opinions of Wickliffe; but he relied upon the pro-
tection of the queen, and the acknowledged purity of
his Tife and conversation. Water *
“Meanwhile, two yeti Englishmen, and zealous dis-
ciples of Wicktiffe, having arrived at Prague, contribu-
ted to strengthen his attachment to the doctrines of
that reformer ; and Wickliffe’s treatise De realibus Uni-
eat~
ie,
Huss perceived at once
Bild
y!
versalibus
—r— = much, that he the
— bes
Po we 4S
ee
HUSS.
papal tribunal ; and the town of Prague was laid under — Huss:
an interdict. The number of his friends and adhes -“y~—”
into his hands, he relished it so
inions of the author, and
a decided: realist. The whole university was
at thie time divided into two parties, the German and
the Bohemian, or the nominelists and realists, whose
ginal constitution allowed them three votes in all elec-
tions and deliberations; while the native Bohemians
of number ; yet that,
~datennss of Kinaiian SS id rmes'eupeantly -Aoclened,
ut
fe
ur |
nit
HH
ee to Leipsic, where a new univer-
soon after founded.
ians find themselves in full
i
parce a morals amang the clergy ;
Secddenidie tapchaie tontoweth
the superfluous revenues of the church,
rstlitiE
ul
ait
i
i
e
the of the king and queen, several powerful
cade ead des dotocinl, declined seiemaina tation
it
|
et
ciri
ryett
hi
Ht
i
nh
819
rents would probably have enabled Huss to set at
this sentenee ; but, in order to remove every
pretext for tumult and disorder, he resolved to with-
draw from Prague, and accordingly retired to his births
place, Hussinez. . Here, and at Cracowitz, to which
place he soon after repaired, Huss continued to disse-
minate his doctrines by preaching, and composed seve-
ral treatises, with a view to expose the most objection-
able tenets of the Romish church. :
Matters were in this situation, when the Emperor
igismund agreed with Pope John to assemble a =
council at Constance. T'o this general council Huss
was summoned, in order to defend himself publicly
against the accusation of - His friends having
Haare oe eRe AR OC UM ror, and
ing likewise provided with attestations of his ortho-
doxy and innocence from the university and the papal
inquisitor at Prague, he set out upon his journey to
Constance, where he arrived shortly before the opening
of the council. The pope him with kindness,
assured him of his ion, and even removed the
sentence of excommunication. But shortly afterwards,
some of his most violent persecutors having arrived at
Constance, they used their utmost influence to procure
his condemnation ; and Huss himself having had the
imprudence té promulgate the doctrines of Wickliffe at
Constance, he was summoned before the pope and the
cardinals, and, notwithstanding the emperor's safe-con-
duet, thrown into prison.
Upon receiving intelligence of these proceedings, the
emperor, who had not yet arrived, sent an order to his
ambassador to insist with the and the cardinals
upon the liberation of John Huss, and to threaten, if
refused to comply, that-the prison would be open-
ed by force. The pope and the cardinals, however,
disregarded the command of the king, and caused the
prisoner to be more strictly confined. When Sigismund
arrived at Constance, he allowed himself to be persua-
pant et eer iy NS HR he was not
to keep faith with a notorious heretic; and he
issued a declaration that the council should have free
power in all matters of faith, and should be allowed to
proceed as judges against all those who were accused
of heresy. Some of the most considerable among the
Bohemian nobles, indignant at the perfidious conduct
of the emperor, repeatedly requested, in pretty bold
language, that John Huss, who had received a safe-
conduct from the monarch himself, and otherwise
would certainly not have repaired to Constance, should
be set at liberty, and publicly heard in his defence be-
fore the whole council. But Sigismund excused him-
self in evasive terms, and thereby drew upon himself
qual, poovedk hight — Bohemians,-whicli; in the ses
) igh! gerous to his power.
yan aera ys har pane than ‘six months in
ison, he was, for the first time, allowed a public
ing, i 1 ose which, however,
been drawn up by his enemies, and were all to
have been extracted from his writings. Huss acknow-
ledged such of these as contained opinions which he
HUS 386
had really held; but with regard to the ‘greater num-
ber, he utterly denied them, declaring that’ they were
either garbled and distorted, or altogether forged by
his enemies. ‘Some of the prelates, and even the em-
“HOU'T.
poralities of the clergy. These principles were natu- Husare,
rally considered as dangerous to the power and influ- Hutcheson. »
ence of the priesthood ; and his-brethren, who dreaded “~Y——”
the effects of his eloquence-and example, were glad to
peror himself, now urged him to retract and abjure the
whole of these articles; but Huss required that he
should first be convicted of error; for so long as this
was not done, it was impossible for him to retract an
of his opinions. And to this determination he prion: 4
with immoveable firmness, as often as the council en-
deavoured to induce him to retract, and even threaten-
ed to bring him’to the stake.
At length, in the 15th session, which Sigismund at-
tended in. persen, -the final sentence was pronounced,
that the writings of Huss should be publicly burnt;
-and that he himself,as a manifest heretic, who openly
taught, and refused to retract, doctrines which had
long »-been condemned as dangerous to the Catholic’
faith, should be deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity,
and delivered .over, ‘for punishment, to the temporal
arm. Hass, who was -obliged to ‘listen on his knees
" while-this sentence was «publicly read, repeatedly at-
tempted to complain, and to vindicate himself in re;
to several offences which were falsely laid to his-charge;
but he was always interrupted, and compelled to keep
silence. The unfortunate victim was now forced to
submit-to the punishment of degradation, which was
performed with several absurd ceremonies by seven
bishops commissioned for that purpose. He was then
delivered over, by the emperor, to the elector palatine,
who was commanded to execute upon him the usual
punishment of heretics.
Immediately after the termination of the. session,
Huss was conducted under a strong escort to the square
‘in front of the-episcopal palace, where he was compelled
to witness the public burning of his writings ; and from
thence to the place: of execution before the city gate.
While he was preparing ‘for the stake, several fruitless
attempts were made to extort’ from him a recantation ;
but his fortitude remained unshaken to the last. When
he was fastened to the stake, and fire was laid to the
faggots around him, he continued his devetional exer
cises until the vital spark became extinct within him.
His ashes were gathered up and thrown into .the
Rhine. ,
Such was the fate-of John Huss, who fell a victim to
the most abominable ‘persecution. | His talents and ac-
quirements, although not of the first order, were highly
respectable ; and his moral character was universally
acknowledged to be irreproachable. In his manners
he was gentle and condescending. ‘Strict in his prin-
ciples, and virtuous in his conduct, he looked more to
the practice than to the opinions of others. His piety
was calm, rational, and manly; and his zeal in the
cause of Christianity was untainted with fanaticism,
The events of his life sufficiently prove, that his forti-
tude was not'to be shaken by any human power.
It is difficult to conceive how such a: character as
that of Huss should have been exposed to such unre-
lenting animosity and furious persecution. His creed,
it is true, did not exactly square with the tenets of the
established orthodex'faith ; yet several of his perseeu-
tors had publicly maintained almost all the offensive
doctrines which he was charged with disseminating:
‘It seems most probable, according to the opinion of
some authors, that the violent animosity excited against
him is to-be ascribed chiefly to the zeal with which he
declaimed against the dissolute morals of the ecclesias-
tics, the usurpations.of the Roman court,.and the tem-
have re¢ourse to an accusation of heresy, as the best
and least unpopular means of destroying the enemy
of their corruptions, and of crushing those principles
which appeared subversive of their privileges and pre-
tensions. ' ; ‘
Jerome of Prague, the friend and pupil of Huss,
underwent the same fate with his companion. | He, in-
deed, was at first terrified into a temporary submission ;
but he afterwards resumed his fortitude ; and, at length,
on the 30th of May, 1416, sealed. by. martyrdom his
belief in the principles he professed. :
The memory of John Huss was long cherished by
his countrymen, the Bohemians; the sixth of July was
for many years held sacred, as the anniv of his
martyrdom, and medals were struck in honour of the
martyr. The Bohemian and Moravian nobles address+
ed a spirited protest to the council of Constance, in an
swer to the intimation of his sentence and execution;
and the zeal of his indignant disciples afterwards broke
out into an open war against the emperor, which, was
conducted, on both sides,’ with a savage spirit of bar«
barity, and gave rise to acts of atrocity at which hu-
manity shudders. These troubles were at length for-
tunately terminated by the interference of the council
of Basil in the year 1433. See Zitte Lebens beschrei-
bung des Mag. Johan. Huss, Prague, 1789; En. Syl«
vii Hist. Bohem. in Freheri Script. rer. Bohem.; Wil.
Seyfried De Johannis Hussi martyris vila, fatis. et
scriptis, Jena, 1743; Pelzel’s Geschichte der Bohmen,
Prague, 1782; Mosheim’s EKcclesiast. Hist. vol. iii. ;
Fie Lives, Life of John Huss ; and the Gen. Biog.
ict. (2 i ¢
. HUS Ms is a sea-port town of Denmark, situated on
the west coast of the duchy of Sleswick, about two
miles from the small river Ow, and about four from
Sleswick. It was formerly celebrated for the great
quantities of malt which it exported. At one time 40
large vessels belonged to this town, and the oyster
trade was almost confined to its inhabitants. :
HUTCHESON, Francis, an ingenious philosopher
and elegant writer, was the son of a dissenting minister
in the north of Ireland, and was born on the 8th of
August 1694. From his childhood he discovered a su-
perior capacity, and an ardent thirst after knowledge;
and having received the usual elementary instruction ata
grammar-school, he was sent to an academy to begin his
course of philosophy. In the year 1710, he was entered
a student in the university of Glasgow; where he renew-
ed his application to the study of the Latin and Greek
languages, and explored every: province of literature;
but devoted himself chiefly to divinity, which he propo-
sed to make the peculiar study and profession of his life.
After spending six years at Glasgow, he returned to
his native country ; and having entered into the minis-
try, he was just about to be settled. in a small con
gation of Dissenters in the north of Ireland, rr
some gentlemen about Dublin, Who were acquainted
with his great talents and virtues, invited him to under-
take the charge of a private academy in that city, With
this invitation he complied ; and he had resided but a
short time in Dublin, when his talents and accomplish-
“ments attracted general notice, and procured him the
acquaintance of persons of all ranks, who had any taste
for literature. rd Molesworth is said to have taken
great delight in his conversation, and to have assisted
‘Hutcheson.
nal. ag
‘
:
HUT :
him with his criticisms and observations upon his En-
quiry into the Ideas of
ee a si
vour from Dr Synge,
re ren eteents Rienctetp.
work to which we have just alluded, was
; but its great merit did not
experienced the same fa-
in, with whom he
he first edition of the
lished ano-
toremain long concealed. Lord Granville, who was
then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, sent his private secre-
tary to enquire at the booksellers’ for the author ; and
pa al me orb Aan i-rspanatered
conveyed to him, in'consequence of which he soon
came ‘with his excellency, and was ever af-
ter treated by him with distinguished marks of familia-
and esteem.
vfrom this iod, his to be still
Sent aeentieietce ater
King held him in esteem ; and the friendship of
that prelate was highly useful in screening him
two attempts which were made to te him, for
——e to'take upon himself the education of youth,
without i
ee oe
mr wi deere year! vaudient aoa
‘to iversi of a ly or an ex-
shibitioner to be bred to any of the learned professions.
In the year 1728, Mr Hutcheson published his Trea-
tise on the Passions ; and about the same time he wrote
some philosophical inserted in the collection
called Hibernicus’s Letters, in which he accounted for
f ter in a manner different from the veo Sal
HH , and more honourable to human nature.
having in the “« London Journal, 1728,"
subscribed Phi containing objections to some
Barat the doctrine contained in the Enquiry, he was
to give answers to them in those public pa-
-pers. Both the letters and answers were afterwards
i
‘moral
this situation
of G In
of his life, in-a
ret
i
‘
:
inated
ow ene i 1747, when he had on-
53.
married, soon after his settlement in Dublin,
daughter of a an in
by whom he left one son,
nok Maan - 2 phy the ori-
re is father, A System of Moral Philosophy,
lasgow, 1755, 2 vols. 4to. a ”
i man of considerable learning,
various acquirements, He was not only acquaint-
those intimately connected with
well versed in mathematics
philosophy. His works have been fre-
reprinted, and have been universally admired,
the sentiments and even by those
spies enmaedenainaaiena’ i He
an ace al
HH
TF
H ®
F
rt
of
yet
3st
ty and Virtue, before it was °
HUT
our notions of right or wrong from a moral sense or fa-
good actions ourselves, and to approve of them
when performed by others, independently of any rea-
soning with to their utility or fitness. He was
a decided antagonist of the doctrines of Hobbes; en-
tertaining high notions of the dignity of human nature,
and being aded that, even in this corrupt state, it
is capable of great improvement, by proper instruction
and assiduous cultare. See Dr Leichman's Account of
the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr Hutcheson, pre-
fixed to the System of Moral Philosophy ; and the Gen.
—_ Dict. ©
UTTON, James, M. D. well known as the author
of an ingenious T of the Earth, was the sun of a
the 3d of June 1726. He received at the high school
and the university the rudiments of a liberal education,
during which his curiosity was powerfully excited by
various facts in chemistry which came under his know-
, and he acquired a taste for chemical pursuits
which distinguished him through life. His friends,
however, placed him as an apprentice with Mr Chal-
mers, Writer to the Si ut this gentleman soon
Leen that he disliked his employment, and occu-
pied much of his time with chemical experiments, libe=
Tally released him from his engagements, and advised
him to turn his attention to more congenial pursuits.
He now entered on a course of medical studies, which
he prosecuted first in Edinburgh, from the year 174+
to 1747. He next studied ar Pas and in 1749, he
took the d of M.D. at Leyden. Having thus
completed his education, however, he perceived serious
difficulties to his views of success in obtaining
practice. He also apprehended that the labours of a
Ser en life might interfere with the gratification of
is taste for wer + | ; and in 1750, he resolved to ap-
ply himself to agriculture. For the pu of learning
that art, he went to Norfolk, where he resided two
years in the house of an intelligent farmer. During
this residence, he made estrian excursions to differ.
ent parts of England for his improvement in agricultu-
ral knowledge ; in the course of which he contracted an
attachment to mineralogy and the kindred ‘speculations
of geology.
fn 178 +, he extended his agricultural knowledge, b
making a tour in Holland and Flanders. Durin, ait
these peregrinations, he made a collection of facts which
were afterwards made to contribute to his theory of the
earth. He returned to Scotland, and reduced his agri-
cultural knowledge to practice, by improving his pa-
trimonial property in Berwickshire. In this occupa
tion he was en for 14 years. He had the honour
of being among the first who introduced good husban.
into our country, where it has since been so sucé
cessfully cultivated. In 1768 he let his farm, which
he had now brought to a high state of i ement.
He‘ had been for several years concerned in a manu-
factory of sal ammoniac, conducted in Edinburgh
under the name of Mr James Davie, who was one of
his early and constant friends ; and in 1765, a regular
partnership had been formed, ‘after which the work
was conducted in the name of both. When he gave
up his farm, he took up his residence in Edinburgh,
and devoted his attention ‘to the pursuits of science,
in which he was assisted and animated by his Jearned
friends, whose company he enjoyed in this metropolis.
In the course of his chemical pursuits, he discovered
that soda was contained in zeolite; the first time an
le merchant in Edinburgh, and was born on -
Hutton.
implanted in our constitution, which leads us to ““V¥—"
382
prosecution of his geological inquiries, which assumed
greater and greater consistency. In 1777, Dr Hutton
published a pamphlet entitled, Considerations on the Na-
ture, Qualities, and Distinctions of Coal and Culm, with
a view to throw light ona disputed point, whether the
small coal of Scotland was liable to the duty on Eng-
lish coal, or to that on English culm. On this sub-
ject he. displayed great accuracy of observation; and
is discussion led to a satisfactory decision of the ques-
tion. From the time of fixing his residence in Edin-
burgh, Dr Hutton had been a member of the Philoso-
phical Society, known by the three volumes of literary
and physical essays which it published. In that Society
he read several papers, none of which have been pub
lished, with the exception of one which appeared in the
second volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, “ On certain natural appearances of the
ground on the hill of Arthur's Seat.” The institution
of the Royal Society, which happened in 1783, called
forth from Dr Hutton the first sketch of his Theory of
the Earth, which he had matured in his own mind, but
communicated only to his friends Dr Black and Mr
Clerk of Eldin, both of whom approved of it. For an
account of this theory, see the article Mineratoey. The
distinguishing feature of it was, the universal agency
of heat in consolidating the rocky strata, after the ma-
terials of which they were formed had been collected
by the subsiding of loose earthy materials at the bottom
of the sea. This heat he conceived to be seated in the
central parts of the earth. To the expansive power of
this agent, acting on water or other bodies, he ascribed
the elevation of the strata from the bottom of the sea
to the higher situations which they have since oceupied.
He thus accounted for the present appearances. He
supposes the earth to have undergone many revolutions
at very distant intervals of time, and to be subjected to
a law which produces a general and sudden convulsion
as a stage in certain cycles of changes, which at all other
times are slowly yet incessantly advancing... This theory
has been defended by the author and his followers with
much learning and ingenuity ; and in a particular man-
ner by his zealous and enlightened admirer Professor
Playfair. It has however met with a formidable com-
itor in that of Werner ; the leading feature of which
, to account for consolidation by crystallization from a
state of aqueous solution, rejecting the hypothesis of a
central heat, whether as concerned in the fusion of the
rocks, or in the elevation of the strata. It supposes the
materials of the strata to have subsided at their present
elevation ; and its chief embarrassment consists in the
difficulty of accounting for the retiring of the waters:
The illustration of these opposite general views includes
a vast variety of discussion on the constitution of the
rocky strata. The controversy has eminently promoted
the investigation of the mineral kingdom. A great
part of the world content themselves with a smile ber-
dering on contempt, when they casually listen to these
speculations ; and a superficial observer is generally
struck with the character of extravagance which ap-
pears so prominent in the hypotheses assumed. No hy-
pothesis, however, within the limits of possibility istoo
extravagant for the subject. The disposition of the
strata is itself an extravagant fact, if we may be allowed
to apply this epithet toany thing in nature. It points
to causes so different in their general character from any
that we see in actual operation, that no hypothesis is to
be rejected for its strangeness ; and hypotheses of this
HU DON.
Hutton. alkali had been found in a stony mineral... He con-
yw" tinued to make tours to various parts of the island, in
kind are unavoidable to those who attempt to explain
the phenomena before them. A wish of this sort
cannot be reasonably condemned. There ean searces
ly be a more sublime speculation in physics, then to
attempt the resolution of problems which nature sug?
gests on so magnificent a stale, | We may indeed
sometimes wonder to see a particular theory so tena-
ciously adhered to ; and it may be reg as a cus
rious fact, that in the present age the one or the other
of the theories now mentioned should be a d by
all geologists. It might be supposed, that the sub-
ject wou
it is probably not so much a satisfaction with their
own theory as a simple preference of it to its oppo»
nent, that is indulged in by the greater part of ge-
ologists.. The tinexplained phenomena of magnetism,
particularly the fluctuating variations of the needle, and
the supposition of interchanges of materials among’ the
different planets, (countenanced in some measure by
the well authenticated instances of stones which have
fallen from the atmosphere,) will perhaps at some-fu»
ture peried lead to.a) modification of our geological
theories, or to the formation of others, . Tost sr
A paper, of Dr Hutton’ “On the Theory of Rain,”
was published in the first volume of the’ Edinburgh
Transactions. It forms the only scientific explanation
of the phenomena that we have, \ The discovery of it
evinced profound genius and. accurate information, and
it will probably always be. retained by meteorologists.
Two portions of air of different temperatures, 8a.
turated with humidity when mixed, and thus reduced
toa medium temperature, have not the power of retain-
ing the same quantity in astate of vapour. The reason
of this is, that the quantities of humidity retained in
‘this state proceed in a geometrical ratio, while those of
‘temperature increase arithmetically. A larger quantity
of water is retained by that heat which had kept the
one portion of air aboye the resuiting medium, than
when the same heat is employed in raising’ to that me-
dium the temperature of the coldest portion: The ¢on-
sequence of this is, that a part of the water is precipi-
tated. This theory was opposed by Monsieur de Luc,
who maintained, that the heat was communicated from
one part of the atmosphere to another without the ac-
tual intermixture of different portions of air. Dr Hut-
ton made several other acute improvements in meteoro~
logy, which were afterwards published in his “ Physi-
cal Dissertations,” in which his theory of rain was again
given. It was by the theory of the earth, however, that
the greatest portion of his interest was absorbed, |The
journeys which he madeto Glen Tilt, to Galloway, the
isle of Arran and St Abb’s Head, supplied him with
facts which afforded him exquisite delight, especially
those which elucidated his peculiar views of the nature
of granite, and the circumstances under which it assu-
med its present situation in relation to the other rocks..
He supposed it to have been forced up in a state of ig-
neous fusion by the expansive power of the central heat,
and injected in that state intothe rents produced in the
superincumbent strata, which had previously formed the
exterior crust of the globe. It was the continuation of
the granite upward into these rents or veins that so much.
delighted Dr Hutton. This is a fact which still fur
nishes one of the strong points of the Huttonian the-
oeThis P also turned his attention n fo another
subject suggested by his chemical pursuits, viz. ge-
neral maene of matter. His doctrines on this subject,
are given in his “ Dissertations ondiflerent subjects in.
Hutton,’
—\yew
afford several others equally plausible; but _
It was ouly now that he began to > bis
to been but jally wi in a variety of papers.
He a volumes in 1795, and a third
was left behind in manuseri
>%
of
E
the that important art.
this he suffered under a renewed and very se-
a cine Ng negli cq and. in 1796 and 1797,
his strength was greatly reduced, and his constitution
broken. Still, however, he employed himself in read.
ing and writing. Saussure's travels among the Alps,
w at this time were newly publi furnished
him with high entertainment, ial with the faveu-
was undoubtedly a man powerfully qualified
to advance science. Jt is reckowed by some
a retin an the memory of any philowpher, t
discernment. phe th i
uncertain Ts + speculations, i and thus fur.
nish SoBe Sr whan deficiencies than of
should be ackn to be as yet an enigmatic de-
+ and the varions attempts which
e been mace to solve its di beth those of
and those of recent date should be allowed their re-
ve share of plausibility, while the defects of each
be equally kept in view. It is.amisteken idea
7
383.
) to suppose, that enthusiasm in favour of one tome! Fal
—_——
HUY
in any degree necessary to keep up the spirit
lege aes of intemperance ; the ac-
tivity to which it gives birth is of a. complec-
tion, and is not of that kind which promises greatest
durability. Dr Hutton’s private character was highly
amiable. His manners were simple, but his conversa-
tion was animated. A combination of sincerity and ar-
dour gave a charm to his company in the eyes of all his
learned friends, though he was not formed on such a
model as to fit him for gay or general society, which
he did not relish or in any degree cultivate. His ex-
pressions in his views of points of science
were: clear and forcible, and would not have
led his friends to expect so much obscurity as is found
in some of his writings. For an interesting view of his
character and its, we refer to the account of him
blished im the 5th volume of the Transactions of the
Society of Edinburgh, from the pen of his friend
Professor Playfair. From that source the present short
s abstract has been chiefly taken. (H. D.)
HUYGENS, Cenisrian, a celebrated mathematician
and natural philosopher, was born at the Hague on the
14th April 1629. Heé was the son of Constantine Huy-
gens, Lord of Zelem and 2 ep who had acted as
secretary and counsellor to three successive princes of
the house of Orange. Constantine Huygens was not
only a poet.but a good mathematician, and took par-
ticular pleasure in the instruction of his son, who, at
the carly age of thirteen, exhibited an ardent passion
for raathematieal learning, and was constantly occu-
pied in examining all the machines and pieces of
mechanism that accident threw in his way. In the
sixteenth year of his age he went to the university of
Leyden, to stuily law, under Professor Vinnius; bat
he still pursued thie mathematical studies, in which he
was assisted by the learned Professor Schooten, the
commentator of Descartes. ' After remaining a year
at Leyden, he prosecuted his studies at the univer.
sity of Breda, which had been newly established,
and placed ander the direction of his father. In the
year 1649, he travelled into Holstein and Denmark, in
the suite of Henry, Count of Nassau; but, on account of
the short stay whieh that prince was to make in Denmark,
he was prevented from visiting Descartes in Sweden,
at object which he was very anxious to accomplish.
. Inthe year 1651, he began his career as an author,
by publishing a refutation of the famous work of Gre-
gory St Vincent, entitled Opus Geometricum quadratu-
ra: circuli ef sectionwm Cont. Uvygens’ reply, which
is considered os a model of distinctness and precision,
was entitled: Exetasis quadrature circuli P. Greg. a
sancto Vincentio, 4to. He “published, in’ the same
year, his Theoremata de cireuli et hyperbola Quadratu-
ra; and in 1654 a his ingenious work, entitled
De cireuli magnitudine inventa nova, accedunt problema.
tur re tlustriam consiructiones. In 1656, he
travelled into France, and took out his de of Doc.
tor of Laws at the university of An e new sub.
ject of the calculation of probabilities, which had been
successfully begun by Pascal and Fermat, and which
has reeently been so much advanced by La Place, now
occupied the attention of Huygens, 0 developed the
inciples of the science in his treatise De Ratiociniis
in Ludo Ale, which appeared itt 1657. In the same
year he printed his Brevis institutio de Usu Horologio-
rum ad wnveniendas Longitudines, in which he described
the model of a ny ees pendulum. In 1659,
Huygens published
is Systema Saturninum, sive de
5
Huttoa,
384 _ HUYGENS, —
Unygens. causis mirandorum Salurni phenotnenon, et comite: ejus
vw" Planeta novo, which contains the various it :
discoveries relative to the planet Saturn, of which we
have already given a full account. See Astrronomy,.
vol. ii. p. 598, 647, 648. » ate
In the year 1660, Huygens travelled into France;
and in the following year he came to England, where
he made known his method of grinding the lenses of te-
Jescopes. In the year 1663, he paid a second yisit to
this.country, and was one of the hundred individuals
who were declared members of the Royal Society, at a
meeting of the council held on the 20th May 1663.
At this time the Royal Society had requested its mem-
bers to apply themselves to the consideration of the
laws of motion, and Huygens resolved several of
the cases which were proposed to him. On the 15th
November 1668, Dr Wallis communicated. to the So-
ciety his principle of the collision of bodies. Doctor,
afterwards Sir Christopher, Wren made a similar com-
munication on the 17th of December; and on the 5th
January 1669, Huygens wrote a letter to Mr. Ol-
-denburgh, containing his first four rules, with their de-
monstration, concerning the motion of bodies after
impact. The method of Wallis was the most direct,
but related only to bodies absolutely hard. Wren’s
method was founded on the same principle, but related
only to elastic bodies; and the method of Huygens
was the very same as that of Wren.
Huygens had now acquired such a reputation, that,
in the year 1663, he was invited by Colbert to. set-
tle in France. He accepted of the honourable and ad-
vantageous conditions which were offered to him, and
took up his residence in Paris in 1666,.when he was
admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In 1668,
he published, in the Journal des S¢avans, and also in
the Memoirs of the Academy, a'paper entitled Ex-
amen du livre intitulé Vera Cireuli. et Hyperboles qua-
dratura a Jacobo Gregorio, which led to the dispute
of which we have already given some account in our
life of Gregory. In. the year 1673, he published
his great work, entitled Horologium oscillatorium ; sive
de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demonstrationes
geometrice, in which he published his great discove'
of applying pendulums to clocks, and rendering all their
vibrations isochronous, by causing them to vibrate be-
tween cycloidal cheeks. ‘This discovery was made
ahout the year 1656; and about the middle of 1657,
he presented to the States of Holland a clock construct-
ed on this new principle. In our article Horotoey, *
we have given a description and a drawing of this:ma-
chine. The contrivance of cycloidal cheeks, however,
though exceedingly beautiful in theory, was found in
practice to be of no advantage.
About this time our author invented the spiral
spring for regulating the balances of watches, without
knowing what had been done by Dr Hooke; and he
applied to the French government for the exclusive
privilege of employing it.. The Abbé Hautefeuille
ad, however, conceived the first idea of this invention,
and communicated to the Academy of Sciences, in 1674,
the secret of regulating the balances of watches “ by a
small straight spring made of steel.” He therefore dis-
puted Huygens’ right to the exclusive privilege, and
the affair was accommodated in consequence of Huy-
gens renouncing his claim. The observations of Mon-
tucla on this subject are certainly unjust towards the
* See HonoLoey, p, 317. and Plate CCC. Fig. 4. ‘
Abbé Hautefeuille, when he characterises his invention Huygens.
as rude and clumsy, and claims all the merit for Huy- Seo
gens, The idea of regulating the balance by a sprin
*was certainly the principal part of the invention, whic
is unquestionably due to the Abbé Hautefeuille ; while
Huygens is entitled to the credit of having perfected
the invention by giving a spiral form to the spring.
Huygens would probably have continued in France
during the remainder of his life, had it not been for
the revocation of the edict of Nantz. He resolved to
remain no longer in a country where his religion was
proscribed, and its professors persecuted ; and, antici-
pating the fatal edict, he returned to his native country
in 1681.
- After his return to Holland, he continued to proses
cute his favourite studies with his usual zeal. In 1684,
Sr cgay his Astroscopia Compendiaria tubi Optict
imine liberata, in which he gives an account of a
method of using telescopes of great focal length, with-
out the incumbrance of a tube. He published also in
1690, at Leyden, his Traité de la Lumiere, and his T'rac-
ip de peg ‘dice first of these works contains his
eory of Light, which he su s to be propagated
like sound, by the undulation OF an eladtie’ nnedonma
and the beautiful law by which he represented all the
phenomena of double refraction as exhibited in Iceland
spar. The remainder of our author's life was occupied
in composing a work on the plurality of worlds, en-
titled KocpeoSewess, sive de terris celestibus, ecorumque or~
natu conjecture. While this work was in the printer’s
hands, Huygens was seized with an illness, which
proved fatal on the 5th of June 1695.
All his papers were bequeathed by his will to the
Library of Eeyders with a request that Burcher de Vol-
der and Fullenius, two excellent mathematicians, should
print such of them as seemed of most importance.
In the year 1700, this posthumous volume was pub-
lished. The Cosmotheorios had appeared in 1698, and
was speedily translated into French, English, German,
and Dutch. In'1703, there appeared another posthu-
mous volume, entitled Curistiant Hucenu Dioptrica,
Descriptio Aulomati planetarit ; de parheliis, Opuscula
Posthuma, This work contains Huygens’ interesting dis-
sertation on corone, and mock suns, of which we have
given a short account in our article Hato, vol. x. p. 615,
and which was reprinted ‘by Dr Smith in his Complete
System of Optics. A complete edition of the works of
Huygens was published, in four volumes, by M,
S’Gravesende. The two first appeared at Leyden in
1724, in 4to, entitled Opera Varia, and the two last
at Amsterdam in 1728, entitled Opera Reliqua. He pub-
lished also several papers in the early volumes of the
Philosophical Transactions, and in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences. In the Machines Approuvées par
P Academie, tom. i. p. 71 and 72, he has published two
papers, one of which is entitled Machine Mesurer la
Jorce mouvante de Lair ; and the other, Maniere d’empc=
cher les vaisseaux de se briser lorsquw’il echouent. He also
published a letter on a new microscope, in the Collec-
tions Academiques, tom. i. p. 281; and another on the
Toricellian experiment, in the second volume of the
same work.
. Christian Huygens was unquestionably one of the
most eminent mathematicians and natural philosophers
of the age in which he lived. His application of the
pendulum to regulate the motion of clocks ; his beauti-
+ This doctrine has found an able supporter in Dr Thomas Young}; but recent discoveries respecting the polarisation of light, seera,
to give a new degree of probability to the doctrine of the emanation of material particles. © © ‘ ate,
a
HWY Moorem@eany HUY |
pee ee ne spelonlal Soke tae Jn 1682, M, Chris H se published Me Gaokeg Tempe
penduluins swing between 3 his _ M. n Huygens Ce
satellites of Saturn ; hisapplica- Harmonicus, pci EE I 4a of 31 diy Jo hay
he ici De np an ap pp The i :
was anticipated major visions. temperament
7 i of the law of collision, which calculated by Mr Farey’s 12th scholium, in the Phi-
he shares with Dr Wallis and Sir Christopher Wren ; losophical Magazine, vol. xxxvi. p. 52. are as fol-
In our articles Astronomy, Hato, Horotocy, neither i easy of application, or exact enough,
and Oprres, the reader willfind an ample we have calculated them anew, as follows, viz.
account of his various labours.
\)
re)
Sot Suc x
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CH REHRUMIMOD-
couosetS2ssrse
CEE EEREETS
nae
£
any eaarans —- nae eae ee 2 uygens. (¢)
sharp or as marked at the bottom of ZENA. See vol.
pdarachihivedienaiideasonmiepts. cnidebaameane si p+ 870. and ou
_ HYBERNATION OF ANIMALS.
- Tore changes which tke im the condition-of . Inthe Animal.Kingdom, changes remarkable H
are familiar to all of precede the ri of winter, The forsakes of
us. Itt the course of a few weeks in autumn, the fields Seeuadintndtiicthaatampehatensinels seuntinendioe Animals.
fields, and the cuckoo deserts the The sch Anaad
Scclecied hinioave senastelydm: cumplotatioleaptier
ap ee eae
ulionah of aithingasiiocbactadnedl quest,
‘This oubjece ail in mueh obscurity. I
i is, d ity. It
pV ee a a nee
Animals
which ob-
tain a sup-
ply of
Clothing.
———
886
connected with the ordinary concerns of life. Hence
we possess few well established facts, and even those
which have been ascertained, are still widely scattered
in various publications ; as naturalists in general are
more anxious to establish the nomenclature of animals;
than to investigate their habits and instincts.
Naturalists are in the practice of restricting the term
hybernation, to that condition of animals during the
winter season more familiarly expressed by the term
torpidity. We are not aware of any reason to induce
us thus to limit the original meaning of the word ;
and therefore in this article, we use it as expressing
the various conditions in which animals are found
during the winter season, and the circumstances by
which these conditions are distinguished.
The subject naturally dividesitself into four branches,
corresponding with the different states of hybernation
which animals exhibit. The first includes those ani-
mals which obtain a change of dress ;—the second, those
which provide for themselves a store of food ;—the third,
those which migrate;—and the fourth, those that become
torpid.
CHAP. I.
HyserNaTInG ANIMALS WHICH OBTAIN A SUPPLY OF
CLoruine.
« Ante omnia (says Pliny when comparing the con-
dition of man with that of the inferior animals) unum
animantium cunctorum alienis velat opibus: ceteris va-
ria tegumenta tribuit, testas, cortices, coria, spinas, vil-
los, setas, pilos, plumam, pennas, squamas, vellera,
Truncos etiam arboresque cortice, interdum gemino, a
frigoribus et calore tuata est. Hominem tantum nu-
dum, et in nuda humo, natali die abjicit ad vagitus
statim et ploratum, nullumque tot animalium aliud ad
lacrymas, et has protinus vite principio.” But this con-
dition of man is most agreeable to his nature, as he can
provide for himself a suitable covering, and accommo.
date his dress to all climates, seasons, and occupations.
As the inferior animals do not possess such powers of
contrivance, we find that nature has furnished them with
clothing suited to their situations and habits. Hence
those animals, whose appointed residence is in the warm
regions of the earth, are in possession of the thinnest co-
verings; while those which are destined to dwell in the
arctic regions, are enveloped in fur. Thus in the cli-
mate of Spain and Syria, the dog and the sheep have
fine tufty and silky hair ; while in the Siberian dog and
Iceland ram, the hair is long and rigid. In still warm-
er regions than those which we have mentioned, the fur
becomes so very thin, that the animals may be consi-
dered as naked. This is strikingly illustrated in the
dogs of Guinea, and in the African and Indian sheep.
The clothing of animals living in cold countries, is
essentially different from that of the animals of warm
regions in another respect. If we examine the fur of
the swine of warm countries, it consists entirely of
bristles or hair of the same form and consistency ; but
those which live in colder districts possess not only
common bristles or strong hair, but a fine frizzled wool
next the skin, over which the long hairs project. . This
statement may so J be verified, by a comparison of the
fur of the swine of the south of England with that which
is found on those of the Scottish Highland breed. The
same observation may be made on the sheep of warm and.
cold countries. The fleece of those of England consists
entirely of wool ; while those of Zetland, Iceland, and
HYBERNATION.
other northern regions, besides the woolcontainsanum- “Animals
ber of long hairs, which at first sight give to the fleece Which ob-
while on the back of the animal, the appearance of great “!"
Se RZ « ply
coarseness. ‘The living races of rhinoceros and elephant Clothing.
sup-
of
of southern regions, have scarcely any fur on their bo- ~—\—
dies ; while those which have formerly resided in the
middle and northern parts of Europe, now only found
in a fossil state, have been covered with long hair, and
a thick coating of short frizzled wool.
Climate in this case exercises a powerful influence
over the secretions of these animals, in the increase or
diminution of their clothing. Were such changes not
to take place, the inhabitants of cold countries would
perish by the inclemency of the weather, while those
of warmer regions would be exhausted by a profuse pers
spiration.
The effects which climate is here represented as pro~
ducing on the clothing of animals, are also observable
as the annual result of the season of the year in all the
temperate and cold 4 moe of the earth. There is al- -
ways an increase in the quantity of covering during
the winter season, and not unfrequently a change in
its colour. Let us now attend to each of these changes.
INCREASE IN THE QUANTITY OF cLoTHING.—If we
attend to the condition of the clothing of our domestic
animals previous to winter, we shall witness the chan-
ges which take place. The fur is not merely renewed,
but it is increased in quantity and length. This is very
plainly exhibited in those quadrupeds which are kept
re of doors, and exposed to the vicissitudes of the wea-
ther.
ry according to the warmth of their habitations ; and
as the temperature of these habitations depends in part
on the elevation, so we find the cattle living on farms near
the level of the sea, covered with a shorter and thinner
fur than those which inhabit districts of a higher level.
Hence if we look at the horses, for example, of the farm-
ers in a market day in winter, we might determine the
relative temperature of their respective farms, from the
relative quantity of clothing provided by nature for the
animals which live on them.
This winter covering, if continued during the sums
mer, would prove inconveniently warm. It is, there-
fore, thrown off by degrees as the summer advances ; so
that the animals which were shaggy during the cold
months become sleek in the hot season.
This process of casting the hair takes place at diffe-
rent seasons, according to the constitution of the animal
with respect to heat, The mole has, in general, finished
Increase in
the quan-
clothing.
But even with those animals kept in houses du- In quadra-
ring the winter, the length and thickness of the fur va- Peds.
this operation before the end of May. The fleece of the Sheep.
sheep, when suffered to fall, is seldom cast before the
end of June. In the northern islands of Scotland, where
the shears are never used, the inhabitants watch the
time when the fleece is ready to fall, and pullit off with
their fingers, The long hairs, which likewise form a
part of the covering, remain for several weeks, as they
are not ripe for casting at the same time with the fine
wool. This operation of pulling off the wool, provin«
cially called rooing, is repcasented! by some writers, more,
humane than well-informed, as a painful process to the
animal. That it is not even disagreeable, is evident from
the quiet manner in which the sheep lie during the pull«
ing, and from the ease with which the fleece separates
from the skin. ea
We are in general inattentive with respect to the an«
nual changes in the clothing of our domestic animals ;
but when in search of those beasts which yield us our
most valuable furs, we are compelled to watch these
HYBERNATION. 887
- s. During the summer months the summer dress remaini + Inapaing Moving ED Smitele
ob. ’ is thin and short, and is scarcely ever an object. becomes in mottled; oses much of 1
j tain a sup- of uiaenbiding the winter, it in beauty. Even the birds in their first dress re- ont
+ er letectia When the begin- semble their parents in their mottled plumage, and like ““,,:j,
on of winter is for its mildness;the far is them become white at the of winter. Clothing
;
f
‘
,
— ‘in ripening, as the animal stands in-no need of
¢ i for a covering ; but as soon as
a nee one = ag
increases in the quantity and length ir. is in-
‘crease is sometimes very rapid in the hare and the rab-
bit, whose skins are seldom ripe in the fur until there
fall of snow, or a few days of frosty weather ; the
hair in such instances-being dependant
the Alpine See erases
the high sore emo ernst
try, on mountains Grampiar’range. Its
summer dress is of a grey colour; but, about the
Z valuable fur called ermine. in spring, the white
’ becomes freckled with brown, and in the month of May
; it resumes its summer
feathered tribes such instances of change
of colour in the winter are numerous,
Among the aquatic birds similar in the co* a=
lour of the plumage have been observed. The black Guillemots.
guillemot (Uria grylie), so common on our coasts, is of
a sooty black colour during the summer, with a white
on the wings. During winter, however, the
colour disappears, and its plumage is then cloud-
ed with ash-coloured on a white ground. In the
winter dress it has been described by some as a distinct
under the name of the spotted guillemot.
the more northern regions, as Play at a for exam-
, this bird, in winter, becomes of a pure white co-
This is a decided caps pars mag og
ture in ucing this change of colour. re is
fine ad this bird in ite white winter dress in
the collection of the Dublin Society, where we saw it a
few months ago. It was brought from Greenland by
that intelligent and enterprising naturalist Sir Charles
Giesecké. ‘
These changes of colour, which we have already Little auk.
mentioned, extend throughout the whole plumage of
the bird ; but in other instances, the change extends to *
only a smal) part of the plumage. Thus the little auk
(die alle) faring summer has its cheeks and throat of
@ black colour, but in winter these parts become dirty
white. In this its winter garb, it is often shot on our
coasts, Its summer dress induced Pennant to consider
it as a variety, and as such to figure it. The black Black-head-
headed gull (Larus ridibundus), has a black head ¢ gull.
during summer, as its trivial English name intimates.
During the winter, however, the black colour on the
head diss ; and when in this dress, it has been
regarded many as a distinct species, under the name
of the red-legeed gull.
In many other birds there is a remarkable difference
in point of colour between the summer and the winter
plumage, although not so striking as those which we
ve noticed. The colours of the summer feathers are
rich and vivid ; those of the winter obscure and dull,
This is well illustrated in the Dunlin (Tringa alpina), Dvntin.
whose summer plumage has much black and rufous co-
lour, but whose winter plumage is dull and cinereous.
In its winter dress it has been described as a distinct
species, under the trivial name of 7’. cinclus, or Purre.
Similar instances might be produced in the case of the
Wagtails, Linnets, and Plovers, and a great many other
From the preceding statements we are naturally led Mode of the
to inquire, in what manner these changes in the colour ‘h=ge of
of the dress are produced? It has been supposed by °!™™-
some, that those quadrupeds which, like the alpine
hare and ermine, become white in winter, cast their
hair twice in the course of the year; at harvest when‘
they part with their summer dress, and in spring when
they throw off their winter fur. This opinion dees not
to be supported by any direct observations, nor
is it countenanced by any ical reasoni If we
attend to the mode in which the hair on the human head
becomes grey as we advance in years, it will not be
difficult to perceive, that the change is not produced by
the growth of new hair of a white colour, but by a
change in the colour of the old hair. Hence there will
be found some hairs pale towards the middle, and white
towards the extremity, while the base is of a dark colour.
Now, in ordinary cases, the hair of the human head,
888
Animals unlike that of the inferior animals, is always dark at the
Ri . base, and still continues so duriig the change to grey;
cosines op Hence we are disposed to conclude from’ analogy, that
their the change of colour, in those animals which become:
Clothing, White in winter, is effected, not by a renewal of the hair,
—_~ but by achange'in the colour of thé secretions of the
rete mucosum, by which ‘the hair is noarished, or per~
haps by that secretion of the colouring matter being di«
minished, or totally suspended.
As analogy is a dangerous instrument of investiga-
tion in those departments of knowledge which ultimate-
ly rest on experinient or observation, so we are not dis-
posed to lay much stress on the preceding argument
which it has furnished. ‘The’ appearances hibited by
a specimen of the ermine-now before us are more satis-
factory and convincing. It was shot on the 9th May
(1814), in a garb intermediate between its winter and
summer dress. In the belly, and all the under parts,
the white colour had nearly disappeared, in exchange
for the primrose ‘yellow, the ordinary tinge of these
parts in summer. The upper parts had not fully ac-
quired their ordinary summer colour, which is a-deep
. yellowish brown. There were still several white spots;
and not a few with a tinge of yellow. Upon examining
those white and yellow spots, not atrace of interspersed
new short brown hair could’ be discerned. ‘This would
certainly not have been the case if the change of eolour
is effected by a change of fur. Besides, while some
parts of the fur on the back had acquired their proper
colour, even in those parts numerous hairs could be ob-
served of a wax yellow, and in all the intermediate
stages from yellowish brown, through yellow, to white.
These observations leave little room to doubt, that
the change of colour takes place in the old hair, and
that the change from white to brown passes through
yellow. If this conclusion is not admitted, then we
must suppose that this animal easts its hair at ‘least
seven times in the year. In spring, it must produce
nie yellow hair ; then hair of a wax yellow ; and,
astly, of a yellowish brown. The same process must
be gone through in autumn, only reversed, and with
the addition of a suit of white. ‘The absurdity of this
supposition is too apparent to be farther exposed.
With respect to the opinion which we have advanced,
it seems to be attended with few difficulties. We urge
not in support of it, the accounts which have been
published of the human hair changing its colour in the
eourse of a single night; but we think the particular
observations on the ermine warrant us in believing that
the change of colour in the alpine hair is effected by a
similar process. But how is the change accomplished
in birds? A
The young ptarmigans are mottled in their first
plumage similar to their parents. They become white
mm winter, and again mottled in spring. These young
birds, provided the change of colour is effected by
moulting, must produce three different coverings of
feathers in the course of ten months. This is a waste
of vital energy, which we do not suppose any bird in
its wild state capable of sustaining; as moulting is the
most debilitating process which ‘they undergo. In
other birds of full age, two moultings must ‘be neces-
sary. In these changes, the range of colour is from
blackish grey through grey to white, an arrangement
so nearly resembling that which prevails in the ermine,
that we are disposed to consider’the change of colour
— a in — old feathers, and not by the growth
of new plu ; this change of colour bein indepen«
dent of Megdtieary antaull meubiangs of the birds.
HYBERNATION.
Independent of the-stipport from analogy which the. Animals
ermine furnishes, wemay observe that the coleursef which
ather parts of a bird vary according to the season, changethe
This is frequently observable in the’ feet, legs, and bill. spire
Now, since a change takes place in the colouring secres Clothing.
tions of these organs, what prevents us from supposing ———_~
that similar changes take place inthe feathers? But
even in the case of birds, we have before us an exs
ample as convineing asthe ermine. al mentioned,
It is a specimen of the little auk, (Alea alle,) which was
shot in Zetland in the end of FE 1810... The
chin is still in its winter dress of white, but the feathers
on the lower part of the throat have assumed.a dusky
hue. Both the shafts and webs have become of a
blackish grey colour at the base and in the centre,
while the extremities of both:still continuewhite: The
change from black to white is here effected by passing
through grey. If we suppose that in tliis bird the
changes of the colour of the plumage are accomplished
by moulting, ora change of feathers, wemust admit °
the existence of three such moultings in the counse
of the year—one by which the white winter dress.is
produced, another for the dusky ‘spring dress, anda
third for the black garb of summer. It is:sunely am-
necessary ‘to point out any other ex i
of our ara sages this subject. We ve. followed
nature, and our conelusions appear to be justified by
the appearances which we have described. : ‘
Having endeavoured to ascertain the mannerinwhich Causes of
this change of colour takes place, we are now reatly:to the change:
investigate the causes by which it is produced. Ais this °f colour.
change of colour inwinter is peculiar to theanimals which
inhabitcold countries, we may sately conclude, thattems
perature exercises over it a powerful.influence. This
supposition ‘is countenanced by the slowness of the pro=
cess of change of colour in:a mild autumn, and its ims
perfect accomplishment during a mild winter. Besides,
in some animals, such asithe’/black guillemot, the change
is never complete in the more rate regions, but
becomes more perfect as we proceed northwards, until
at Greenland the bird is of a pure white. If this. change
of colour proceeds from a renewal of feathers, here at
least the colour of the feathers:must be considered in-
fluenced by the temperature, and consequently a.cor-
responding influence must be exercised on the seereting
ans,
oneThe distribution of colour inthe animal kingdom in
general seems'to follow the same Jaw; the deep and
bright colours prevailing in the warm regions, while
the tints of the colder regions are pale and dull. Are
we to conclude, that:cold diminishes the action of the
vessels which furnish the colouring matter, and, when
intense, entirely suspends their functions? or are we
to consider light as in part concerned in producing
the effect? In general, the fur of , and
the feathers of birds, are darkest where exposed to
the light, and ‘are’ pale ‘coloured towards the: base; but
inthe instances before us, this difference disappears,
and a complete uniformity in all the parts of the cavers
ing prevails. Besides, the change does not take place
on all parts of the body at the same time, but app
in spots, or on single hairs or feathers. Light therefore
has little nooawe ‘ scatsisithe commana
There is.another agent kes - con
eerned in’the change in,the colour of the feathers of
birds. In all birds the feathers become more yivid in —
spring, and certain spots which are not obser-
vable at other seasons. ‘This brightness. of plumage
and these spots continue only during the:season of love ;
ture; it has generally been iy these periodi-
alpine hare
agg ee
st ussumed their snowy winter plumage,
‘the surface of the ground was not consonant
colour, few would escape the piercing eye of
the falcon or the in the Jofty-and-empesed -citus-
tions’ are found to inhabit.” To suppose that in
inter the ptarmigan is rendered white, to cause it to re-
undergoes similar changes for the same pur-
pose, would be to yield our assent to public opinion. But
all our conclusions concerning final causes ought to bethe
while
with
mine, an animal well qualified to
at all times, by its determined |
Hy@irsatine ANIMALS weich Lay up a Stock oF
— TONS.
anima!s, they obtain an adilition to their clothing, while
as to furnish a supply of food when the fruits and
HYBERNATION.
889
. iety be termed storing animals, as they all. s
aomaeey 20 heautifalig' expressed by Virgil. baxr:
Ventureque kiewis memores estate laborem
Experiuntur, et in medium quesita reponunt.
This class of hybernating animals contains but few
species. These are all phytivorous, and, without ex-
maaan cine tribe of Glires or Gnawers.
All the ani of this tribe do not possess this storing
——— although it is certainly observable in many
Of all these animals, whose industry in.
-and wisdom in ing a winter store, have at.
branches of an old tree. After making choice of
place where the timber is beginning to decay, and where
a hollow may be easily formed, it scoops out with its
teeth a suitable magazine. Into this store-house, acorns,
nuts, and other fruits are industriously conveyed, and
neig'
holes they had scratched, and in which they had
fully covered up the acorn. These the hogs would,
day after day, hunt out by their smell.”
birds, and fishes, no,examples are
known of this kind of hybernation. The bee, among
insects, is an interesting example, but requiring no ex-
i No instances occur among the animals
which com the inferior classes.
Since all these storing animals are destined to live
on the productions of the vegetable ki i
such :
fortably maintained, under circumstances which would
prove fatal without it. The seeds of many plants are
translated by them from the of their growth,
and more extensively disseminated. But how are we
to aceount for the conduct of those animals, in thus
viding for a futurity, who have never suffered from
neevion ience, as must be the case with young ani-
cottored se poctansly;thapahesld schjocs homesies
scattered so 7 subject Ives.
to much labour, in ing up a treasure for supply-
ing the deficiences of a winter, of whose ere
ing privations they are i Part of this industry:
pe byron ee: 7 mn RP Tes
_ Aniovals
which lay
up Provi-
sions.
——
Beaver.
Mice.
Animals
which
Migrate.
Migrating
quadrupeds,
Migrating
birds.
890
sult of education ; but in other instances, we must con-
fess our inability to offer any explanation.
Such baffled searches mock man’s prying pride,
The God of Nature is your secret guide,
CHAP. III.
Hypernatine ANIMALS WHicn MIGRATE.
Tats subject has long occupied the attention of na-
turalists ; and several important observations have been
‘published by different authors. It is ehiefly, however,
as it regards birds, that the subject is deserving of parti-
cular consideration. We are acquainted with but few
-circumstances connected with the migration of quadru-
~peds.
Limited in their powers of locomotion, their
range of travelling is confined, so that other means are
-provided for their safety and sustenance during winter.
The cheiroptera are well fitted for migrating; and ac-
cordingly we find that some species are known to do
so. In Italy, the common: bat (Vespertilio murinus)
abounds ; but it migrates southwards at the approach of
winter, and is not found in any of the caves in a torpid
state. The V. noctula, however, arrives annually to
winter, although it retires to:spend the summer in more
northern regions. Dr Barton informs us that some
species of dined migrate from the northern to the
southern ‘parts of America during winter. Many of
the ruminating animals shift their habitations accord~-
ing ‘to the changes of the year. Thus, the stag and
the rocbuck leave the alpine regions at the approach
of winter, and seek protection in the more sheltered
plains. More extensive migrations are performed by
the palmated quadrupeds, particularly the seals. These:
shift their stations to reach safe breeding places, in
whatever country they live in. But the common seal
{Phoca viiulina) often performs regular migrations in
quest of food. In the Statistical Account of the parish
of North Knapdale, we are told that the lake called
‘Lochow, about twenty miles in length, and three miles
in breadth, “ abounds with plenty of the finest salmon;
and, what is uncommon, the seal comes up from the
ocean, through a very rapid river, in quest of this fish,
and retires to the sea at the approach of winter.” An-
other species, the P. Groenlandica, seems to seek more
temperate regions ean 3 the winter. Seals of this
kind, says Horrebow in his History of Iceland, “ ar-
‘ive annually in the month. of December, especially
about the northern parts of the country, and generally
stay till May, at which time, those that escape the
Icelanders depart.” A few curious facts regarding the
migrations of the Cetacea may be found under the article
GREENLAND. Several kinds of small whales visit the
coasts of Scotland, chiefly during the autumnal months;
but we are ignorant of the places from whence they
come, and unacquainted with the laws of their migration.
Migration of Birds.
The migrations of the feathered race, as connected
with their hybernation, have been the subject of popu-
lar observation since the days of the prophet Jeremiah,
‘* Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed
times; and the turtle, and the crane, and the swallow,
observe the time of their coming.” (ch. viii. v..7.) Many
important facts have been ascertained, and a few ge-~
neral conclusions have been established. But the sub-
ject is still far from being exhausted; nay, without
fear of contradiction, we may venture to assert, that it
HYBERNATION.
is but very imperfectly understood by naturalists in
general. Popular errors have gained admittance as
scientific documents, and the well authenticated facts
have been suffered to remain, in their original detach-
ed form, destitute of connection and arrangement.
It is not our intention to enter into any minuteness
of detail regarding the eB te of the different spe-
cies of birds. ‘This has already been done under the
article Birps, where the reader will. find a statement
of several facts connected with the migration of our na~-
tive species. And he may also consult at his leisure,
the ornithological productions of Pennant, White, and
Montagu.
general nature, and will have for their object to ascer-
tain the laws of migration, and the circumstances un-
der which it takes place. y4
Migrating birds may be divided into two classes,
from the different seasons of the year in which they ar-
rive or depart. To the first class will belong those
birds which arrive in this country in the spring, and
depart in autumn, and are termed Summer Birds of
Passage. The second will include those which arrive
in autumn, and depart in spring, and are called Winter
Birds of Passage.
- Aninials
which
Migrate,
SS. ow
Our observations in this place, will be of a ;
Tue Summer Binns or passace are not.confined to summer
any particular order or tribe; nor are they distinguish- birds of
ed by similarity of habits. Some of them belong to passage.
the division of Water Fowls, as the terns and. gulls;
while others are Land Birds, as the swallow gg z
Animals
which
become
. Torpid.
—_—\——
896
pid animals of this country usually retire in October, and
reappear in April. It appears probable, however, that
the different species do not all retire at the same time,
but, like the migrating birds, perform their movements
at separate periods. It is also probable that the time of
retirement ofeach species varies according to the mild-
ness or severity of the season, In general, however,
they retire from active life when.their food has become
difficult to obtain, when the insects have fled to their
hiding places, and the cold has frozen in the ground
the roots and the seeds on which they subsist, At the
riod of their reviviscence, the insects are again sport-
ing in the air, and the powers of vegetable life are ex-
erted in the various processes of germination and vege-
tation. In short, during the dead season of vegetable
life, these animals pass their time in this lethargic state.
We see the coincidence, but we cannot well account
for the connection.
Previous to their,entrance into this state of lethargy,
these animals select a, proper place, in general assume
a particular position, and even in some cases provide a
small stock of food,
All these torpid animals retire toa place of safety,
where, at a distance from their enemies, and protect-
ed as much as possible from the vicissitudes of tempe-
rature, they may sleep out, undisturbed, the destined
period of their.slumbers. The bat retires to the roof
of gloomy caves, or to the old chimnies of uninhabited
eastles. The hedge-hog wraps itself up in those leaves
of which it composes its nest, and remains at the bot-
tom of the hedge, or under the covert of the furze,
which screened it, during summer, from the scorching
sun or the passing storm. The marmot and the ham-
ster retire to their subterranean retreats, and when
they feel the first approach of the torpid state, shut
the passages to their habitations in such a manner, that
it is more easy to dig up the earth any where else,
than in such parts which they. haye’ thus fortified,
The jumping mouse of Canada seems to prepare itself
for its winter torpidity in a very curious manner, as we
are informed by Major-General Davies, in the Linnean
Transactions, vol. iv. p.. 156, on the authority of a la-
bourer. A specimen which was found in digging the
foundation for a summer-house in a gentleman’s garden
about two miles from Quebec, in the latter end of May
1787, was “ enclosed in a ball of clay, about the size of a
cricket ball, nearly an inch in. thickness, perfectly
smooth within, and about. twenty inches under ground.
The man who first discovered it, not knowing what it
was, struck the ball with his spade, by which means it
was broken to pieces, or the ball also would have been
presented to me,”
Much stress has been laid upon the position which
these animals assume, previous to their becoming tor-
pid, on the supposition that it contributes materially to
roduce the lethargy. In describing this position, Dr
Peed (in his Essay on the Torpidity of Animals) ob-
serves, “ that this tribe of quadrupeds. have the habit of
rolling themselves into the form of a ball during ordi-
nary sleep ; and they invariably assume the same at-~
titude when in the torpid state, so as to expose the
least possible surface to the action of cold: the limbs
are all folded into the hollow made by the bending of
the body; the clavicles and the sternum, are pressed
inst the fore part of the neck, so as to interrupt the
flow of blood which supplies the head, and to compress
the trachea: the abdominal viscera and the hinder
limbs are pushed against the diaphragm, so as to inter~
rupt its motions, and to impede the flow of blood,
. HYBERNATION.
through the large vessels which penetrate it, and the
longitudinal extension of the cavity of the thorax is en-
irely obstructed, Thus a confined circulation is cars
ried on through the heart, probably ada; to the last
weak actions of life, and to its gradual recommences
ment.” Professor Mangili of Pavia, (Annales du Mu-
seum, tom. ix.) with greater simplicity of language,
says, that the marmot rolls itself up like a ball, havin
the nose applied contrary to the anus, with the teeth
and eyes closed. He also informs us, that the hedge-
hog, when in a torpid state, in general reposes on the
Fant side. The bat, however, during the period. of its
slumbers, prefers a very different posture. , It suspends
itself from the ceiling of the cave to which it retires,
by means of its claws, and in this attitude outlives the
winter.. This is the natural. position of the bat when
at rest, or in its ordinary sleep. In short, little more
can be said of the positions of all these torpid animals,
than the correspondence with those which they assume
during the periods of their ordinary repose.
It is also observable, that these animals which are of
solitary habits during the summer season, as the hedge-
hog and dormouse, are also solitary during the period
of their winter torpidity; while the congregating so-
cial animals, as the marmot, the hamster, and the bat,
spend the period of their torpidity, as well as the ordi-
nary terms of repose, collected together in families or
roups,
- ee of those animals, particularly such as belong
to the great natural family of gnawers, make provision
in their retreats, during the harvest months. The mars
mot, it is true, lays up no stock of food; but the ham-
sters fill their storehouse with all kinds of grain, on
Animals
which
Torpid. .
——
which they are supposed to feed, until the cold be-.
comes sufliciently intense to induce torpidity. The
Cricelus glis, or migratory hamster of Pallas, also lays
up a stock of provision. And it is able that this
animal partakes of its stock of provisions, not only pre-
vious to torpidity, but also during the short intervals
of reviviscence, which it enjoys during the season of le«
thargy. The same remark is equally applicable to the
dormouse.
Having thus made choice of situations where they
are
and assumed a position similar to that of their ordinary
jects which we are now to examine more minutely.
In this torpid state they suffer a diminution of tempe~
rature; their respiration and circulation. become lan<
protected from sudden alternations of temperature, while eel
pid animals
repose, they fall into that state of insensibility to external undergo.
fy
guid ; their irritability decreases in energy ; and they .
suffer a loss of weight.. Let us now attend to.each of
these changes separately.
1. Diminished temperature. When we take in our Diminished
hand any of these hybernating
the same time that they are stiff, so that we mp
conclude, without farther examination, that they are
Thisreduction of temperature is notthe same inalltorpid
quadrupeds. It varies according to the species. Hunter,
in his “ Observations on certain parts of the Animal Eco«
nomy,”.informs us, on the authority of Jenner, that the
temperature of a hedgehog at the cap -engene 97° of
Fahrenheit, in summer, when the t in the
shade stood at 78°. Professor Mangili states the ordi-
nary heat of the hedgehog a little lower, at 27° of Reu-
mur, or about 93° of Fahrenheit. In winter, accordi
to Jenner, the temperature of the air being 44°, an
the animal torpid, the heat in the pelvis was 45°, and
at the diaphragm 484°. When the temperature of the
torpid animals, which tempera-
we are now considering, they feel cold tothe touch, at
Animals
which
become
Torpid,
—_—o
Diminished
respiration.
5 an 4 vied Leer es ERE s sages —
He elite Us 1H git
We vip Mace HE iff i ay at Eee ceeet : Bll Hi
eiai 72-4] ; . HUE u- H sree FELL jeeagesceas ae 3
iF g HE Sie hze ie nes : iY cbs EEE ek gh a PY le Fires
HE HI aaell aie plate llth ll TEM AE ira eet
a (lah ai if sh ped ae Hay i ;
Aen He i
CHL amiaetihaela |" Ha
ae Titith Fit 2 Pius : .
Bilal i HHH sg BRS aH THY
ital tb aL aie ENTE He Lids PIE iH, stat in ie
eae ane itt ha
: os dit or iat ale Hee beibiia 3 daca cel 5 Fi de
Er “lh rie ily i iy fall his 1 te ts] iil Hn a : i iH
isi eee i Hil a Binet
iy 3 3 Raa Hf ide Heb ivy
Animals
which
become
Torpid.
Diminished
airculation.
395
it awoke and ate a little, and thén became torpid again.
On the 10th of February the intervals of repose were
eighteen or twenty minutes, and then thirteen to fifteen
respirations. On the 21st February, the thermometer
being 48°, the intervals of repose were from twenty-
eight to thirty, and the consecutive respirations from
five to seven.
From the observations already made on this impor-
tant subject, it appears, that respiration is not only di-
minished, but even in some cases totally suspended.
During the severe winter of 1795, Spallanzani exposed
dormice to a temperature below the freezing point, and
enclosed them in vessels filled with carbonic acid and
azotic gas over mercury three hours and a half without
being hurt, and the sides of the vessels were not marked
by any vapour. Hence we may conclude, that they
did not breathe, nor give out any carbonic acid.
Mangili placed a marmot under a bell glass, im-
mersed in lime water, at nine o‘clock in the evening.
At nine next morning the water had only risen in the
glass three lines. Part of the oxygen was abstracted,
and a portion of carbonic acid was formed, as a thin
pellicle appeared on the surface of the lime water, which
effervesced with nitric acid. Spallanzani placed torpid
marmots in vessels filled with carbonic acid and hydro-
gen, and confined them there for four hours, without
doing them the least injury, the temperature of the at-
mosphere being several degrees below the freezing
oint. But he found, that if these animals were awa-
ete by any means, or if the temperature was not low
enough to produce complete torpor, they very soon
perished in the same noxious gases, A, bird and rat,
introduced into a reservoir containing carbonic acid
gas, did not live a minute; whereas a torpid marmot
remained in it an hour, without betraying the least de-
sire to move, and recovered perfectly on being placed
in a warmer medium,
In the exhausted receiver of an air
bat lived seven minutes, in which another bat died at
the end of three minutes. Torpid bats, when confined
in a vessel containing atmospheric air, consumed six
hundredths of the oxygen, and produced five hundred
parts of carbonic acid. Viewing this in connection
with his other experiments, this philosopher concluded,
that the consumption of the oxygen, and the evolution
of the carbonic acid, proceeded from the skin.
The respiration of torpid quadrupeds is thus greatly
diminished, and even in some cases suspended ; and
im_ general, instead of being performed with regu-
larity as in ordinary sleep, the respirations take place
at intervals more or less remote, according te the condi-
tion of the lethargy.
8. Diminished Circulation. From the experiments al-
ready detailed with regard to the reduction of the tem-
perature and the respiration of torpid quadrupeds, we
are prepared to expect a corresponding diminution of
action in the heart and arteries.
In the hamster, ( Cricetus vulgaris,) the circulation ef
the blood during its torpid state is so slow, accerdin
to Buffon, that the pulsations ef the heart do not excee
fifteen in a minute. In its active and healthy state they
amount to one hundred and fifty in the same space.
We are informed by Barrington in his Miscellanies,
that Mr Cornish applied a thermometer to the body of
a torpid bat, and found that it indicated 36°. At this
temperature the heart gave sixty pulsations in a minute.
When awakened so much as to be able to fly a little,
he again applied the thermometer, which now indica-
ted 38°, and the heart beat one hundred times in a mix
ump, a torpid
HYBERNATION.
nute. As the torpor becomes profound, the action of Animals
the heart is so feeble, that only fourteen beats have been
» distinctly counted, and those at unequal intervals.
Dormice, when awake and jumping about, breathe so
rapidly, that it is almost impossible to count their pulse ;
but as soon as they begin to grow torpid, eighty-eight
pulsations may be counted in a minute, thirty-one when
they are half torpid, and only twenty, nineteen, and
even sixteen, when their torpor is net so great as to
render the action of the heart imperceptible.
Spallanzani and others are of opinion, that the circu-
lation of the blood is entirely stopped in the remote
branches of the arteries and veins, and only proceeds
in the trunks of the larger vessels, and near the heart.
But it is probable, that however languid the circulation
may be, it is still carried on, as the blood continues fluid.
He found, that if the blood of marmots be subjected,
out of the body, to a temperature even higher than that
to which it is exposed in the lungs of these animals, it
is instantly frozen; but it is never congealed in their
dormant state. ,
which
become
Torpid. |
mpl
4, Diminished is The irritability of torpid Diminished
ty
animals, or their susceptib
tion, is extremely feeble, and in many cases is nearly
suspended. Destined to remain for a stated period in
this lethargic state, a continuance of their power of ir-
ritability would be accompanied with the most perni-
cious consequences ; as thereby they would be often
raised prematurely into action under a temperature
which they could not support, and at a time when a
seasonable ‘supply of food could not be obtained. In
their torpid state, therefore, they are not readily acted
upon by those stimuli, which easily excite them to ac-
tion during the period of their activity, Parts of their
limbs may be cut off without the animal shewing any
signs of feeling. Little action is excited even when
their vital parts are laid open. When the hamster is
dissected in this torpid state, the intestines discover
not the smallest sign of irritability upon the application
of alcohol or sulphuric acid. During the operation, the
animal sometimes opens its mouth, as if it wanted to
respire, but the lethargy is too powerful to admit of its
reviviscence. ;
Marmots are not roused from their torpid state by
the electric spark, strong enough to give a smart sensa«
tion to the hand, and a shock from a den phial only
excited them for a short time. They are insensible to
pricking their feet and nose, and remain motionless
and apparently dead. Bats are also equally insensible
to the application of stimuli.
The most curious experiments on this subject are
those of Mangili. Having killed a marmot in a torpid
state, he found the stomach empty and collapsed, the
intestines likewise empty, but there was a little matter
in the cecum and rectum. The blood flowed quickly
from the heart, and in two hours yielded a great quan<
tity of serum. The veins in the brain were very full
of blood. The heart continued to beat during three
hours after. The head and neck having been separated
from the trank, and placed in spirits of wine, gave
signs of motion even after half an hour had elapsed.
Some portions of the voluntary muscles gave symptoms
of irritability with galvanism four hours after death,
In a marmot killed in full health, the heart had ceased
to beat at the end of fifty minutes, The flesh lost all
signs of irritability in two hours; the intercostal and
abdominal muscles retaining it longer than those of any
other | 8 of the body.
5. Diminished Action of the Digestive Organs. The
of being excited to ac« iitability.
HYBERNATION.
digestive faculty in torpid animals is exceedingly
pire?!
Vide? &
=
e
:
4
E
F
tf
Hl
Rs
rs
4}
3a
i
g
899
clusion, that all torpid animals sustain a loss of weight Anmals
during the continuance of their lethargy. a
From the experiments which we have already quoted, Torpid.
it must appear obvious, that iration is in ——
carried on, although sometimes in a very feeble man-
ner. Carbon, ly, must be evolved. Ac-
cordingly we eco achacltn iad predeced me Geneeiae
sels in which these id animals have been confined ;
and hence must ude, that a loss of weight has
taken B
Such being the and accompanying phe-
nomena of this id state, let us now endeavour to
discover the cause of these singular appearances.
Ina subject of this kind, so intimately connected Causes of
with the pursuits of the naturalist and the physiologist, torpidity.
it was to that numerous brypotheves would
be |, to explain such ~ me
Unfortunately, indeed, many hypotheses have
proposed, while few, from a connected view of the sub-
ject, have ventured to theorise. Perhaps we are not
prepared to draw a sufficient number of general conclu-
sions, from the scanty facts which we possess, in order
to build any theory. But the following observations
may be considered as embracing the principal opinions
which have been formed on the subject, and announ-
ing the more obvious causes in operation.
n an investi eineuhaay- ob habe tr eaeplt tae
tempt to trace this si ity of habit in torpid > ani-
ra some peculiar Peo in the brs sit of
organs. oe ly we many anatomists as-
signing a peculiarity atiaatl as a reason why
these animals become or at least pointing out a
structure in torpid animals different from that which
is observable in animals that are not subject to this
brumal lethargy.
Pallas observed the thymus gland unusually in
— quadrupeds, and also perceived two glandular
jee under the throat and u of the thorax,
— appear particularly florid and vascular during
ir .
M i is of opinion, that the veins are larger in size,
in proportion to the arteries in those animals which be-
come torpid, than in others. He supposes, that, in
uence of this t, there is only as much
blood transmitted to the brain during summer as is ne-
cessary to excite that to action. In winter, when
the circulation is slow, the small quantity of blood
transmitted to the brain is inadequate to produce the
effect. This circumstance, acting along with a reduced
temperature and an empty stomach, he considers as the
cause of torpidity. By analogy he infers, that the same
i euliacin torpidity with all the other
other classes.
superior cava divides into two
left passing over the left auricle of the
heart into the inferior part of the right auricle near to
the entrance of the vena cava inferior. The veins usu-~
ally called azygos accumulate into two trunks, which
open into the of the vena cava superior, on its,
own sile of the thorax. The intercostal arteries and.
veins in these animals are unusually large.” Phil;
Trans. 1805+
Effects of
cold,
400
We cannot refrain from observ ings that these general
views do not appear to be the, result of a patient inves-
tigation of a number of different kinds of torpid ani-
mals, but a premature attempt. to theorise from a few
insulated particulars. Passing, therefore, from these
attempts.of the anatomist to illustrate the phenomena
in question, let us attend to those other causes which
are concerned in the production of torpidity.
From the consideration, that this state of torpidity
commences with the cold of winter, and terminates
with the heat of spring, naturalists in general have
been. disposed to consider a reduced temperature as one
of the principal causes of this lethargy. . Nor are cir-
cumstances wanting to give ample support to the con-
clusion.
When the temperature of the atmosphere is reduced,
as we have already seen, below 50°, and towards the
freezing point, these animals occupy their torpid posi-
tion, and by degrees, relapse into their winter slumbers.
When in this situation, an increase of temperature, the
action of the sun, or a fire, rouse them to their former
activity. This experiment may be repeated several
times, and with the same result, and demonstrates the
great share which a diminished temperature has in the
production of torpidity. If marmots are frequently
disturbed in this manner during their lethargy, they
die violently agitated, and a hemorrhage takes place
from the mouth and nostrils,
The cireumstance of torpid animals being chiefly
pe chee the colder regions, is another proof that a di-
minis! temperature promotes idity. And, in
confirmation of this, Dr Barton rf ane - that, in the
United States of America, many species of animals
which become torpid in Pennsylvania, and other more
northern parts of the country, do not become torpid in
the Carolinas, and other southern parts of the conti-
nent.
But while a certain degree of cold is productive of
this lethargy, a greater reduction of temperature pro-
duces reviviscence as speedily as an increase of heat.
Mangili placed a torpid marmot which had been kept
in a temperature. of 45°, in ajar surrounded with ice
and muriate of lime, so that the thermometer sunk to
16°. In about half an hour a quickened respiration in-
dicated returning animation. In sixteen hours. it was
completely revived. It was trembling with cold, and
made many efforts to escape. He also placed a torpid
bat under a bell glass, where the temperature was 29°,
and where it had free air. Respiration soon became
‘painful, and it attempted to escape. It then folded its
wings, and its head shook with convulsive tremblings.
In an hour no other motions were perceptible than those
of respiration, which increased in strength and fre-
quency until the fifth hour, From this period, the
signs of respiration became less distinct; and, by the
sixth hour, the animal was found dead. He also ex-
posed a torpid dormouse (from a temperature of 41°)
to a cold of 27° produced by a freezing mixture. Re-
spiration increased from ten to thirty-two times in a
minute, and without any intervals of repose. There
were no symptoms: of uneasiness, and the respirations
seemed: like those in natural sleep. As the ’ :
ture rose, respiration became slower. He then placed
it in the sun, when it awoke. Two hours afterwards,
having exposed it to the wind, iration became fre-
quent and painful; it turned its back to the current
without, however, becoming torpid.
That cold is calculated to produce effects similar to
torpidity on man himself, is generally known, When
HYBERNATION.
persons in health are immersed in salt water at the tem«
perature of 40°, the thermometer under the
sinks from seven to nine degrees below the stan
heat. In a little, however, it recovers its ordinary ele-
vation, and becomes stationary. Exposure to cold has
also the effect of diminishing the force of the pulse
very much—of producing great exhaustion, and an ac~
cumulation of blood in the extreme vessels.
But the effects of a reduced temperature on the hu-
man system are still better illustrated in the tend
to sleep, produced by a cold atmosphere in eertain si-
tuations. Those who have ascended to the summits of
high mountains, have, by the exposure to cold, felt an
almost irresistible propensity to lie down and sleep.
Dr Solander, while exploring Terra del Fuego, though
perfectly aware of the inevitable destruction attending
the giving way to this inclination ; nay, though he had
even cautioned his companions 5 indulging it,
could not himself overcome the desire. When this
feeling is gratified, sleep succeeds, the becomes
benumbed, and death speedily arrives. ow long
this sleep might continue without ending in death,
were the body defended from the increasing cold and
the action of the air, will probably never be determi-
ned by satisfactory experiments. Partial has
often been experienced in the hands and feet, which is
easily removed by a gradual increase of temperature.
We may add, that in the case of persons exposed to
great cold in elevated situations on mountains or in bal«
loons, there are other causes in operation which may
have a tend to produce sleep, The previous exer
tions have reduced the body to a very exhausted state
—the pressure of the atmosphere on the body is great«
ly diminished, and the air inhaled by the lungs is ra-
refied.
When these torpid animals, kept in a confined state,
are regularly supplied with food, and in a uni-
form temperature, it has been observed that they do
not fall into their wonted lethargy, but continue lively
and active during the winter season. This experiment
has often been repeated with the marmot and other ani«
mals. But when in this state they are peculiarly sen-
sible to cold. Dr Reeves, in some experiments which
he performed, says, “ When I was in Switzerland I
procured two young marmots in September 1805, and
kept them with the view of determining the question
whether their torpidity could be prevented by an abun-«
dant supply of food and moderate heat. I carried them
with me to Vienna, and kept them the whole of the
winter 1805-6. The months of October and Novem-
ber were very mild. My marmots ate every day tur-
nips, cabbages, and brown bread, and were very active
and lively: they were kept in a box filled with hay in
a cellar, and afterwards in a room without a fire, and
did not shew any symptoms. of growing torpid. De-
cember the 18th, the weather. was cold, and the wind
very sharp ; Fahrenheit’s thermometer stood at 18° and
20°. Two hedgehogs died which were kept in the
same room with the a 3; anda ra died also
in a room where a fire was constantly , though
these animals had’ plenty of hay and food. The mar-
mots became more torpid than I ever saw them before ;
yet they continued to come out of their nest, and en<
deavoured to eseape: the food given them in the even-
ing was always consumed by the next morning. In
January the weather was. unusually mild and warm ;
my marmots ate voraciously, and were jumping about
in the morning ; but at four o’clock in the afternoon
I examined them several times, and found them not
: .
become
Torpid.
5
“ye
which — n They roe. tea
HYBERNATION.
id, and quite cold to the
in this state of semi
touch during the da: ceiceninel
b } '” ly tore
Pid, that it awoke: at might and. ate @ little, and fell
asleep:again in the morning. He shews also that dor-
anice kept in a situation more resembling their wild
state became torpid in the month of November, and
ined tili the middle of March without eating the
ane sag A
o
'y necessary production
sataeuniaenl Somnde beocnetes
is ani not become tor-
pid though to a.cold sufficient to freeze water,
unless from the action of theair. Even when
shut up in a cage filled with earth and straw, and expo-
sed to cold, he still continues awake ; but when the cage
is sunk four or five feet under and free access to
the external air in eight or ten days he be-
torpid as if he had been in his own burrow. If
utility of the precaution
setisinig'te: plaseswhere thin oie
is still, and where they may enjoy a confined atmo-
Taflaence of * ‘appears also in some cases to on
wonstitu- a the constitution. Thus, in the same cham-
Mon. bers, one marmot shal! continue awake and active while
the others are in a
effects of ~ Smangitt touk ee the
_ =a a , on
rpleced ie ine of 8 of Reau-
tur. * It first rolled itself up ; a lifted its bead
and tried to escape. ‘Its respiration became frequent
: ful: At the end of the first hour, had be-
ome feeble ; at the end of 'an hour anda oreo
P and twenty minutes after, it was frozen to
Rip Ne: erat th hy
was found white, the veins of the neck were much
_ gwollen, and @ small of extravasated blood
was observed in the brain andthe lungs, It appears
oo Faagens Siegunateny sloop, ‘
which bere hares recruited, and it toe
comes better able to the effects of those ordinary
agents with which it has to contend.’
‘There are some circutmstarices in of these
torpid animals which ‘seem to indicatey that they pos-
VOL, Zt. PART fs) * . .
401
sess the power of becoming-torpid at pleasure, even in
yoo of those di ag rehad- oe which we
have enumerated. S i has seen bats in a tor-
pid-state even during summer, and su , that as
these animals appear to possess some voluntary power
over respiration, this topic may be nay instinc-
\tive propensity to preserve life. Mangili, in spring,
when the Cricetus is was awake, and when ia tea.
of the air was between 66° and 68°, placed. it
in a vase with nuts and other food. ani-
mal to and refused to eat, It then be-
came torpid. In this state the number of its respirations
diminished. Instead of rolling itself up as usual before
becomi wi it lay all the while upon its back, and
remained in state until the 37th of July.
By some. it has been supposed, that the fat accumu. Influence of
Jaton ina hempid enieaala strict Ne er
those causes which produce this lethargy. The cir.
cumstance is certainly very common, but no direct ex»
periments have hitherto been performed to warrant the
conclusion, Spallanzani hasi asserted, that among
the dormice which he caught for his experiments, some
were very fat, while others were lean, and yet they were
apps of torpidity from the action of cold.
All this may be the case; but there is certainly reason
to believe, that these animals stand in need. of some
epee aera ce pr a ere tema.
that gradual waste which takes place during the period
of their slumbers.
Before concluding our account of torpid quadru
peds, Revivis-
it may ety a ee ranma tees on their re- cence of
viviscence. Whenthe hamster passes from his torpid state, torpid ani-
he exhibits several curious
omnes Cae Re eS His legs begin to move ;
His passage from a torpid to an active state is more or
less quick according to the temperature. It is proba-
bis thee thin cheng’ de im ibly when
the animal remains in his hole, and he feels none
of those inconveniences which attend a foreed and sud.
den reviviscence.
It perenne: See ee wnowaa
animals occupy, must experience, in the course
of their lethargy, senstdenble changes of temperature.
It would form a very parry, ta habe to as«
er and inferior pee torpid
state with respect to temperature, e Cricetus. glis
has been observed dormant from 34° to 48°; the ee
It is certainly very difficult to account for the: torpi-
dity of those animals, which, like the marmot and
hamster, congregate and burrow in the earth. Previous
to their becoming torpid, a considerable degree of heat
must be ted, from their mumbers, in their hole ;
and besi are | so'deep in the-earth, as to
be beyond the reach of of the temperature
of the jeciiigeash bats wpisiacking 0
season, must preserve a vof he: aching to
the mean annual temperature of the climate. If this is
Se
ces. He first loses the ™#+
Animals
which
become
Torpid.
Torpidity
of birds.
402
the case, how is reviviscence produced in the spring ?
It cannot be owing to any change of temperativre,
for their situation prevents them , experiencin
such vicissitudes. Is’ it not owing to a change which
takes place in their constitution? and, is not awa-
kening from torpidity, similar to awakening from sleep ?
A similar remark may be made with’ regard to bats
in their winter quarters. ‘The caves to which they re-
sort, approach at all times the mean annual temperature.
-A few individuals, not sufficiently: cautious in choosing
proper retreats, are sometimes prematurely called: into
action, ata season when there is no food, .so that they
fall a prey to owls, and the cold of the evening. But
what indications of returning spring have those who
are attached to the roofs of the deeper caves? . Surely
no increase of temperature? | Perhaps’ an: internal
change is’the cause which again excites to action. ;
There is another very curious circumstance attending
the reviviscence of quadrupeds from their torpid’ state,
which deserves to be mentioned. As soon as they have
recovered from their slumbers, they prepare for the
great business of propagation, This is a proof;. that
torpidity, instead of exhausting the energies of nature,
increases their vigour. It also indicates a peculiarity of
constitution, to the preservation and health of which, a
brumal lethargy is indispensibly requisite.
It appears to be the general practice of modern natu-
ralists, to treat with ridicule those accounts which have
been left us of Birps having been found in a: torpid
state during winter. These accounts, it is true, have
in many instances been accompanied with the most ab-
surd stories, and have compelled us to pity the credu-
lity of our ancestors, and withhold our assent to the
truth of many of their statements. But are there no
authenticated instances of torpidity among birds?
In treating of the torpidity of quadrupeds, we were
unable to detect the cause of torpidity, as existing:in any
circumstances connected with structure or with circula-
tion, respiration, or animaltemperature; nor in the places
which they frequent, nor the food by which they are sup-
orted. Hence we cannot expectmuchhelpfromaknow-
ledge of the anatomy, physiology, or even habits of
birds, in the resolution of the present question.. It.has
indeed been said, that as birds can readily transport
themselves from one country to’ another, and in. this
manner shun the extremes of temperature,:and reach a
supply of food, the power of becoming torpid would be
useless if bestowed on them, although hig ly beneficial
to quadrupeds, that are impatient of cold, and cannot
migrate to places where there is a supply of food. This
mode of reasoning, however, is faulty, since we employ
our pretended knowledge of final causes, to ascertain
the limits of the operations of nature, and cannot be to-
lerated in a science depending entirely on fact and ob-
servations. Besides, there are many animals, as we
have seen in the class Mammalia, which become torpid,
and a similar state obtains among the reptiles. As birds,
in the scale of being, hold a middle ioe between these,
' two classes, being superior to the reptiles, and inferior
to the mammalia, we have some reason to expect in-
stances of torpidity to occur among the feathered. tribes,
These remarks have for their object, to prepare the
mind for discussing the merits of the question, by the
removal of presumptions and prejudices, as we fear pre-
conceived opinions have stents exercised too much in-
fluence.
‘In treating of the migrations of the swallow, we en-
deavoured to point out their winter residence, and even,
traced them into Africa. We are not however prepared
to assert, that in every season all these birds leave this
HYBERNATION.
If they remain, in what condition are they —-
country.
found? .
Many naturalists, such as Klein, Linneus, and others,
have: believed: in the submersion of swallows: during
re
Torpid. _
‘winter in lakes and rivers. \ They have supposed, that submersion _
they descend to. the bottom, and continue there ‘until of Swal-
the following spring. Many of the — produced in lows.
support of this opinion may be found by consulting the
‘article Binns, vol. iii. p. 514. On this subject we ,wil-
lingly quote the judicious note in the. introduction to
Bewick’s Land Birds. ‘There are various instances
on record, which bear the strongest marks of veracity,
of swallows having been taken out of water, and of
their having been so far recovered by warmth as to ex~
hibit evident signs of life, so. as.even to fly about for a
‘short space of time. But, whilst we admit the fact, we
are not inclined to allow the.conclusion generally drawn
from it, viz. that swallows, at the time of their disappears
ance, frequently immerse themselves in seas, lakes, and
rivers, and, at the proper season, emerge and reassume
the ordinary functions of life and animation ; for it
should be observed, that in those instances which have
been the best authenticated, it appears, that the swal-°
lows so taken up were generally found oo
amongst reeds and rushes, by the sides, or in the shal<
lowest parts of the lakes or rivers where they happened
to be discovered, and that having been brought th life so
far as to fly about, they all of them died in a few hours
after. From the facts thus stated we would infer, that
at the time of the disappearance of swallows, the reedy
grounds by the sides of rivers and_standing waters are
generally dry, and that these birds, especially the later
hatchings, which frequent such places for the sake of
food, retire to them at the proper season, and lodge
themselves among the roots, or in the thickest parts of
the rank grass which grows there; that during their
state of torpidity they are liable to be covered with was.
ter from the rains which follow, and are sometimes.
washed into the deeper parts of the lake or river, where:
they have accidentally been taken up ; and that proba«
bly the transient signs of life which they have discover:
ed on such occasions, have given rise,to a. variety of
vague and improbable accounts of their immersion,””—
We may add, that- whoever denies that swallows have
been found in such situations, let-his reasonings be what
they may, tramples under his feet the laws of evidence,
and cherishes a scepticism as unphilosophical as the
most unthinking credulity. far-9 ;
- But, independent of these instances of submersion, as
it is termed, which we regard as ‘purely. accidental,
there have been many instances of actual torpidity oy
served. Swallows, if we may credit the testimony
many who have been eye-witnesses of the fact, are ofs
ten found during the winter season in a torpid state in
theit old nests, and in the crevices of old buildings.
The belief of this kind of torpidity is very common m
many parts of Scotland, and can scarcely. be rp
to lave originated from any other cause than the
currence, of the fact.
But besides the occurrence of the torpidity of the
swallow, Bewick relates an instance of the same condi-
tion being observed in the cuckoo. “A few years
a young cuckoo was found in the thickest part of a
close whin-bush. _ When taken up, it presently disco«
vered signs of life, but was quite destitute of feathers.
Being kept warm, and carefully fed, it grew and reco~
vered its coat of feathers. In the spring following it
made its escape, and in flying across the river Tyne it
gave its usual call.” —Brit. Birds, 1. Introd, xvii.
There is a still more decided example of torpidity in
; eretat °°
HYBERNATION.
weather gives about thirty beats in the same period. anol:
birds recorded by Mr Neill, in his Tour t
Shetland, been observed in
land-rail, or
«| made,” says he, *« frequent in quiry, *
crakes had ‘been seen to migrate from Orkney, but
:
ah
i
i
i
ray
1
ge
i
h
8
F
8
i
§
[
-
4
i
aE
ze
Be
i
been considering i
blooded animals observe a si mode of hyberna-
H
4038
Dr Reeves made some
interesting ments on
. the circulation of the sad and frog. “ Tebserved,” he
says, “ that the number of pulsations in toads and frogs
was thirty in a minute, whilst they were left to them-
selves in the ai here of which the temperature was
53°; when placed in a medium cooled to 40°, the num-
ber of pulsations was reduced to twelve, within the
same period of time ; and when exposed to a freezing
mixture; at 26°, the action of the heart ceased alto-
The of digestion are equally feeble durin
torpidity as these of respiration dati ion. Mr Jae
Hunter conveyed pieces of worms and meat down the
throats of lizards when'they were going to their winter
quarters, and, keeping them afterwards in a cool per,
on opening them at different periods, he always found
the substances, he had introduced, entire, and without
any alteration ; bear wees were in the stomach,
at other times they had passed into the intestines, and
some of the li that were allowed to live, voided
them toward the spring entire, and with very little al-
teration in their aa ‘ ye seas
The immediate cause o idity in reptiles n
ascertained with more ra than in the animals
belonging to the higher classes with warm blood.
This eonilition with therm, does not d d on the state
of the heart, the Jungs, or the brain; for these different
organs have been removed by Spallanzani, and still the
animals became torpid, and recovered according to cit-
cumstances. Even after the blood had been withdrawn
from frogs and salamanders, a ae the same
if the body had been entire,
of action.
Cold, with these animals, is evidently the chief cause
of their torpidity, acting on a frame extremely sensible
to its impressions. During the continuance of a high
temperature, these animals remain active and lively ;
but when the temperature is reduced towards 40°, they
become torpid, and in this condition, if placed in a si-
tuation when the tem ure cae low, will re-
main torpid for an unknown peri time. Spallan-
zani kept ‘ aster tind snakes, in eae
state in an i , where they remained three’ years
and a half, and readily revived when again ex tothe
influence ofa warm atmosphere, These experiments give
countenance to those reports in daily circulation of toads
being found enclosed in stones. These animals may have
entered a deep crevice of the rock, and during their
torpidity, been covered with sand, which has after-
wards concreted around them. Thus removed from
the influence of the heat of spring or summer, and in a
place where the re continued below the point
at which they revive, it is impossible to fix limits to the
period during which they may remain in this dormant
state.
Since reptiles are easily acted upon by a cold at-
mosphere, we find but few of those animals distribu«
ted in the cold countries of the globe; while in those
countries whose temperature is always high, these ani-«
mals are found of vast size, and of many different
kinds, and in numbers.
great
The torpidity of the Mollusca has not been studied Mollusca.
with care. Those which are naked and reside on the
land, retire to holes in the earth, under the roots of
404
Kiedis crevices” of ‘rocks ‘and other ‘hiding places, but they
‘which
become
Mollusca.
Insecta,
form an mor lid for the mouth of :the shell,
‘by which they adhere to the rock, and at the same time
closeup ever all. access to the air. If they be brought into
a warm temperature, and a little moisture be added, they
edily revive, In’ the case of the Helix nemoralis,
the operculum falls off when the animal revives, and a
new'one is formed when it returns:again to its slum-
bers. The first formed opercula contain a considerable
portion of carbonat of lime, which \is' found. in «smaller
quantity in the later formed ones, If the animal has
‘revived frequently during the winter, the last formed
‘opercula consist entirely of animal matter, and are very
thin. The winter lid of the Helix pomatia resembles a
jiece of card.
All the land testacea appear to haye the power of be-
coming torpid at pleasure, and independent of any al-
terations of temperature. Thus, even in midsummer,
if we'place in a box, specimens‘of the Helix hortensis,
nemoralis ox arbustorum, without food, in a day or two
they form for themselves a thin operculum, attach them-
‘selves tothe side of the, box, and remain in this dors
mant state. They may be kept in this state for several
years. No ordinary change of temperature’ produces ‘ -
any effect upon them, ‘but they speedily revive if'plun-
in water. | Even in their natural haunts, they are
often found inthis state during’ the ‘summer season,
when there: is'a: continued drought, With the’ first
shower, however, they recover, and move about, and at
this time the conchologist ought to be on the alert.
The Spipers pass the winter season in.'a dormant
state, enclosed in their own webs, and placed in some
concealed ‘corner. Like’ the* torpid: mammalia, ‘they
speedily revive when exposed to intense cold, and
strive to obtain a more sheltered spot. :
~ Many Insects which are destined to survive the
winter months, become regularly torpid by a cold ex-
‘ceeding 40°." The common honey’ bee, inva small hive,
when reduced to this temperature, loses all power of
motion, but may. be easily: revived by an ‘increase of
temperature. When the-hive is large, there is always
as much heat generated, as to protect them against this
lethargic disposition. |The house fly. may always be
fount! in the winter season torpid, in some retired cor=
mer; but exposure for a few.minutes to the influence of
‘a five recalls it to: activity. Even:some of the lepi-
idopterous insects; which have been hatched) too late in
the season to:enable them to perform the business ‘of
‘procreation; ess the faculty of becoming torpid
during the winter, and thus -have’their life »prolong-
ed beyond the ordinary period. These ‘insects ‘can
all be preserved from: becoming torpid by being pla-
‘ced in an agreeable rature, as the followin
‘experiments’ of Mr Gough’s ‘( Nicholson’s Tomah
vol, xix.) abundantly: testify. | In speaking of the
Hearth Cricket, (Gryllus domesticus,) he says, “ Those
who have:attended'to the manners of this familiar in-
séct will know that it passes the hottest se the
summer in sunny situations, concealed inthe ‘crevices
of walls and heaps ‘of rubbish. It quits: its “summer
abode about the end of August, and fixes'its residence
by the fireside of the kitchen'or cottage; where it
/ multiplies its species, and: is as ye Christmas as
other insects ‘are in the dog-days, us do the ‘coms
forts of. a warm hearth afford the cricket a’ safe refuge,
not from death; but from temporary torpidity;> which’
it‘can support for a'leng time, when deprived: acci~
dent of artificial warmth. «I came to the knowledge of
this fact,” he says," by: planting Mee titan ton
HYBERNATION.
sects in a kitchen, wherea constant fire is:k
the'summer, but which is discontinued from:
to June, with the exception of a day, once in six or eight
weeks, The crickets were brought from a distance, and
let go in this room in the beginning of September 1806:
here they increased considerably in the-course ‘of two
months, but were: not'.heard or seen after the fire
was removed. Their di ance led:me to conclude
that the cold had killed them: but inthis: I»was mis-
taken ; for, a brisk fire'being kept up for: a whole day
in the winter, the warmth of it invited my-colony from
their hiding place, ‘but not before ‘the evening; .after
which they continued to skip about ‘and chirp the
greater part of the following day, when they again dis-
appeared ; being compelled: by ‘the ‘returning cold to
take refuge in their.former retreats. They left:the
chimney corner on the'28th of May 1807; after a fit of
very hot weather, and revisited: their winter residence
on the 3ist°of August. |. Here they. t: the summer
merely, and lie torpid at present (Jan: 1808). in: the
erevices of the chimney, with the exception ‘of those
days on which they are’ recalled to a temporary ‘exist:
ence by the comforts of a fire.” * :
Nothing is known ‘with’
of the Inrnstina, Those which inhabit: the bodies of
torpid ‘quadrupeds, in all probability, like them; expe+
rience a winter lethargy. Ifthey remain active, they
must possess the faculty of resisting great/alterations of
temperature.’ Among the é#fusory animals, numerous
instances ‘of suspended animation have ‘been. observed,
continued not for a few months, but during the period
of twenty-seven years, © But’such instances of.
donot belong to our: present subject. ° Besides, ‘they
have been fully discussed under the article ANIMALGULA,
in Vol. II. Part I. of this work.
through
There is another kind of -hybernation,
notice of in this place, and which merits the appella~
tion of Quiescence. |The animals which observe this
condition; remain during the winter'months in an inac-
tive: state, requiring but little food, without however
‘experiencing the change to torpidity. H0A-ol
»' Of these quiescent animals, the common bear (Ursus
arctos) isthe most remarkable example. « Loaded with
fat, he retires in the: month of November tovhis den,
which: he ‘has: rendered’ comfortable by a lining ‘of soft
mossy and seldom 8 wtitil the month of March
following.” During: this“ period’ he ‘sleeps: muchy and
when awake almost constantly’ licks: with his tongue
the soles’of his feet, AOR MET ROTI Ie 38
which are without hair, and full of smallglands. From
this source it is supposed that he draws hisnourish«
ment during the period of his retirement.
This quiescence appears to. differin) its kind from
torpidity, ‘This animal is always: in-season ‘before he
retires to his winter quarters, and’ the female brings
forth her young, before the active period of the spring
returns, and before she comes forth from her hiding
lace. bel
‘ The cofamon badger is supposed to pass’ the: winter
in the’ same manner as the bear,. with which; ‘in-struc<
ture’and habit, he isso nearly related. * It is alsoypro-
*bable, that-many species of the genus*Arvicola become
quiescent, particularly the amphidia or common water
rat, which always leaves its ordinary haunts during ‘the
winter. alae bell Dele :
» It is in this state of hybernation’ that many of our
river’ fishes subsist at the season of the year when.asup~-
+ %
ry
——— —
animals
mmbioh
become
Torpid, —
—\~_
‘to the hybernation Intestina..
in-some Te- Quiescefiée |
spects resembling torpidity, which deserves to be taken of animals.
st
Hybene-
et
_—y—
HYDERABAD
Boundariet, 1 is situated between the 16th and 19th
latitude, and
HYD
the fresh water usca,
a
accurate observations: on this branch of the subject are
still wanting.
_ In concluding
uF,
DES. . See Meoicre.
sis a province of the Decean, in India.
state asadi sovereignty,
ee Tee rivers Godavery
and and of which the capital. was Waran-
gol. It was reduced
medan invasion, and
405
H ¥ D
da; the. first sovereign of which, Kooli Kuttub Shah, Hyderabad.
established the Kuttub Shahy dynasty in 1512. One of
his successors, Abdullah Kuttub Shah, who ascended
the throne in 1586, became tributary to the Mogul
Emperor Shah Jehan ; and, in this state, the kingdoni
remained till 1687, when the reigning sovereign, Abou
Houssein, was deprived of his capital Golconda by the
Emperor Aurungzebe, and imprisoned for life in the
fortress ef chee gr It was not till ogg? a —
ed siege, and only, at length, through the treachery
one.of the king’s sirdars, that the Mogul Emperor ob-
tained of the place; and it is related that,
when some of the assailants had fought their way into
the t, ee Abou —— was seated at
supper, he requested them, with much composure, to sit
down led os with him, and that they quietly ‘ac-
the invitation. On the destruction of the Mo-
gl empire, after the death of Aurungzebe, Nizam ul
oolk obtained possession of the Mahommedan con-
quests in the Deccan, about the year 1717. Under his
successors, the limits of the state experienced much
fluctuation ; but its power was wally declining, and
would have been totally annihilated by the Mahrattas,
had not the British government interposed for its sup-
port. In 1800, a treaty of ual alliance was con-
cluded with Nizam Ali by Major Kirkpatrick on the
sear enra ; and by this arrangement a British
of 8000 yegular infantry, and 1000 regular caval-
m with their proper complement of artillery and war-
hike stores, is stationed pak ~ seighiboe territories, for
their protection against e neighbours or turbulent
subjects. For the ment of these troops, the
Nizam ceded to the India Company all the territo-
vies which he had acquired by the treaty of Seringapa-
tam in 1792, and by that of Mysore in 1799, »In the
event of a war taking place, the Nizam engaged to join
the British with 6000 infantry, and.9000 cavalry of his
own army, with the train of artil and
stores, By thie treaty it was also ‘that all
the external political relations of the parties should be
exclusively by the British, who undertook to
protect his highness’s dominions from every. annoy-
ance, and particularly to procure a total exenrption
from all claims of Choute on the part of the Mahrattas.
In 1802, a commercial treaty was negociated, by which
the free use of the port of Masulipatam was granted to
the Nizam, with a promise of protection to his flag
on the high seas; and an ity of duties on the
mutual im and exports was stipulated, the amount
of which Id not exceed 5 per cent. Im 1804, a
considerable part of the territories of Dowlet Row Sin-
dia was transferred to the Nizam; by which the Hy-
derabal sovereignty acquired a great increase of terri-
tory, and for the first time a well-defined
boundary. At present, the Nizam’s dominions,. be-
sides the whole of Hyderabad, comprehend Nandere
and Beeder, the greater part of Berar, and a portion of
Aurungabad and Begapoor, being divided from the
Nagpoor territories by the Warda river, and from’ the
British by the Krishna and Toombuddra, Hydera-
bad, which gives the 1! name to the sovereign-
ty, is about 180 miles in Je’ and 150 at its average
breadth, The surface of the province is hilly, but not
mountainous ; and it is an elevated table land, much
colder in its tem re than the of latitade
would indicate. In the city of Hyderabad, and the
country to the north of it, the , during
three months of the year, is frequently so low as 45°,
40°, and 35° of Fahrenheit. The soil is fertile and to-
—\~o
Treaty with
East India
Govern-
ment.
Extent.
Climate.
406
Hyderabad. Jerably well watered, but indifferently cultivated and
“~~ thinly inhabited. The cultivators are wretchedly poor,
and much oppressed by their: Mahommedan superiors,
who are subject'to little restraint from their nominal
sovereign. From the same cause, they are almost desti-
tute of the benefits of commerce; and the average im-
port of European goods into the whole of the Nizam'’s
dominions, prior to 1809, never exceeded £25,000 per
annum. « The principal towns in the province ‘are
Hyderabad, Golconda, Warangol, Meduck, and Nie-
cundah ; and the whole population of the district is
-estimated not to exceed two millions and a half.
The reigning prince, Mirza Secunda Jah, ascended
the throne in 1803, and has never been more than a
few miles from the city of Hyderabad since the com-
mencement of his reign. | His government is absolute-
ly despotic in theory ; but, in point of fact; his power
is much limited by circumstances. He takes little di-
rect interest in the minutie of the executive, which is
managed almost entirely by one or other of his minis-
ters, according as their factions prevail, or as they may
be able to carry along with them the support of the
Company’s resident. The influence of the: East India
Company’s government is paramount in the councils of
that of their ally, and all great political points are car
ried with considerable facility ; yet, on some late trifling
occasions, a lively jealousy has been manifested. While
the officer, who had been appointed to conduct the
and trigonometrical survey, was approaching Hyde-
rabad, he had fixed small flags on some points for di-
recting his observations.. This gave rise to repeated
complaints ; as if; in taking a few triangles, he had
been taking possession of the country: The political
intercourse is carried on by means of a resident, who
has a superb mansion on the north-east side of the ca-
pital across the river. His suite consists of first and
second assistants, a surgeon, and the officers of an es-
cort of two companies of Bengal native infantry. The
present Nizam was entertained at the residency on the
occasion of paying him his army’s share of the Serin-
gapatam prize money, which had been laid out in
splendid specimens of English and Chinese manufac-
tures. His Highness was a little alarmed on this oc-
casion, by the accidental firing of a few thousand rock-
ets which happened to lie pointing towards the spec-
tators, but by which fortunately no person near him-
self was wounded. The entertainment was concluded
by laying before him a superbly mounted sabre, which
had been sent by Louis XVI. to Tippoo Sultan. ’
It is difficult to say what is, and what is not, to be
reckoned revenue under so irregular a government.
Although a very large proportion :of the whole produce
of the soil be claimed as its share ; yet so much of this
is stopped for the expences of collection and payment
of sebundee, or local troops, and so much is diverted
into bye channels, that the sum which finally reaches
the treasury isin many cases very small.. The’ pro-
duce of the estates.granted for military service should
be reckoned as part of the revenue, were-it not that
the service. is seldom performed. When lands are not
granted toJaghiredars fer specific purposes, the common
mode of collection is by Tahood, a farm, in which case
any person may make an offer for a lease of a district ;
and that person is generally preferred who proposes
the largest advance of ready money to the minister.
Little inquiry is made into the methods which he may
use to reimburse himself; and he may do nearly as he
Commerce.
Court and
govern.
ment,
Revenue,
Mode of
collecting,
HYDERABAD. :
pleases, provided he. keeps a good understanding at
court. Sometimes, however, complaints are listened
to if there exist a hope of squeezing a further sum
from the fears of the contractor ; or, if there be a wish
to get rid of him to make way for some other who may,
'
sas
Hyderabad.
have offered a sum of ready money, or a larger por’
tion of his expected profits. The other mode is by
Amaunee, and is seldom resorted to unless when a dis-
trict is in such a rebellious state that. no person can be
found to farm it. Some military chief is then turned,
into it to collect what he can, and to account to go-,
vernment for the amount. This, however, is a last:re-
source, as all Indians, whether mussulmans or Hin-
doos, are adepts at making up accounts'so as to suit their
own interests. f
The army of the Nizam; in consequence of the pro-
tection afforded by the British troops against the inva«.
sions of the Mahrattas, is now on a very inefficient foot-
ing. A list of its great officers and their troops, would
be merely an enumeration of persons. holding estates
and emoluments under a riominal agreement to perform.
services, which they are scarcely expected to fulfil.
This is quite true as far as regards the great military.
jaheridars and risaldars, er cavalry officers; who hold
valuable districts in their immediate possession ; but:
there are many corps of mutinous and ill-paid imfantry,
who have hard service in the collection of the revenue,
which the oppressive nature of the government, and the.
‘consequent bad faith and turbulence of the zemindars.
render extremely difficult.. These troops are distributed
to the different collectorships as occasion may require,
With the exception of a few corps patronised by the
Company’s resident, none of them are either regularly
paid, or decently equipped ; and many battalions have
not one-tenth of their arms in a serviceable state. _
By a supplementary article inthe treaty between the
Nizam and the Company’s government, it was agreed,
that all the forts in the Hyderabad dominions should,
in time of a joint war, be opentothe British. Of these
fortresses, the most important are that of Dowlatabad *
Military
force.
and of Golconda.. The former, particularly, the most peviae
singular perhaps in the world, is situated on a high’ cos
nical hill,, which has its sidés pared away perpendicu-
larly in such a manner, »that ‘it would: now. be repre
sented by a whipping-top set upon its head... There is
a fortified tower on the plain, through which a, passage
lies to a tunnel in'the bowels of the mountain, afford~
ing an ascent to the conical surface above, and opening
to the day near the edge of the precipitous side.. This
“upper opening is covered by an iron gratitig, on which
a fire is kept burning when any danger is apprehended.
Even after overcoming this obstacle, an enemy would
still be required to advance in a path’ exposed to the
‘whole fire of the fort on the summit. | In this’ fort are
lodgments cut in the solid rock for the garrison and
their provisions. The fort of Golconda, about five
miles west from Hyderabad, though very strong in
some places, is, by a strange arrangement, ‘most assail-
able on the side which at the same time commands all
the others. In a piece of broken ground, on the north-
west side of. the fort, are situated, in an irregular man«
ner, the tombs of the Kootub Shahy kings, which are
of such solid masonry, that they would afford bomb-
proof lodgment for several battalions, though some of
them are within battering-distance of the walls. In
the lifetime of the late Nizam ul Moolk, the garrison
used to make a great show of watchfulness and jealousy
* Doulut-abad, ** wealth’s abode.”
?
>
}
;
Forts, j
A
Pe
}
7
a |
Golconda, —
HYD
yJerabad. of any armed party their walls; and, on
—\y— one occasion, actually on some ladies and _gentle-
men, who were amusing themselves in looking at the
tombs. Some ago, a detachment of Com-
pany’s ea, of provisions having halted
nearthem, the Killidar, orcommandant, sent out amessage
tothe officer in charge, desiring him to'remove his en-
campment to a greater distance, and threatening that
the guns on the works would be used to enforce com-
pliance. The officer replied verbally, that he would
not decamp until the next comer f and, pointing to
a irit carts, added, that, if a
fired at him from the fort, he was
iene ss and battering guns, and inimediately
: yced a more conciliatory tone, with quiet posses-
gé “o>
‘407
H YD
ing, with bales of woollens, cases of glass, 9g Hyderabad,
china-ware, clocks, watches, and other articles of Eu- Hydroce-
ropean manufacture, - which always continue locked up & perl?
in the magazines. The houses and gardens of the Y
Company’s civil and military officers, and of a few other
European gentlemen resident in_the gulece, form the
principal ornament of the environs. Hyderabad, hav-
mg long been the principal Mahommedan station in
the Deccan, contains a considerable number of mosques,
and exhibits more of ‘the old forms end ceremonies of
the Mogul government than any other metropolis in
Hindostan. The noblemen of the place have been bred
either as ‘soldiers or courtiér$; and, as hoarded _trea-
sures would expose them to the avaricious machinations
of their superiors, generally spend their fortunes Manners of
freely, in keeping up large retinues, or in’ the fashion the inbabi-
able profligacy of their court. When any property is “"‘
laid up, it is commonly in the form of ornaments: for
their females and children, which are always more re-
markable for their weight than workmanship. A ‘few
of the wealthier Mahommedans, yng | the Nizam’s
ministers, are fond of furnishing. their houses richly
with articles of European and Chinese manufacture,
such as porcelain, crystal, lustres, chintz sofia covers,
and some articles of plate. A favourite piece of lux-
ury among them is to have an Acena Khana, a room of
which the roof and sides are entirely covered with
mirror- plates.
His Highness’s ministers frequently entertain the re«
sident his suite at their palaces. The amusements
at these parties are troops of dancing girls (Kunchi-
nees,) wrestlers (puhlwauns,) mimics (bhans,) and mu-
sicians of various kinds, who afford some diversion toa
of fxshionable luxury; newly-arrived European, but soon become tiresome,
_as the troops of the. and often d ing. - A dinner, partly in the English
are dressed in British red cloth. style, and a i display of fireworks, commonly
close the day's entertainments. Some of the Mahom-
medan chiefs sit at table, and e of the same fare
with the Europeans, from which pork in every shape,
it may be supposed, is carefully excluded. The inh
bitants of the city, both Mahommedans and Hindoos, '
though’ very polished in their manners, are both igno-
rant and igate. Crimés are here committed ev
day with impunity, and even without-notice, wh
would strike with wonder and h the inhabitants of
any countryin Europe, A father, who'liad murdered his
wife for not quiet! uiescing in his preference of his
ter, observed, that “ no orte’ hada better right to
the fruit than the planter of the tree.” The government we
derives a current revenue from licences to carry on the
most horrid practices. Amongst such a people, and
with such a government, truth and morality, as it may
be su , are very rare qualities. The present num-
inhabitants, including those of the suburbs, is es-
timated at 120,000. The of the city from Cal-
cutta is 900 miles; from Madras, 391 ; from’ Bombay,
480 ; from Seri tam, 406; from Delhi, 923. See
Orme’s History of Military Transactions in India;
Asiatic Annual isters; Sir John Malcolm’s Political
History of India; Ferishta’s History of the Deccan,
trans by J. Scott, Esq. ; Rennel’s Memoir ofa Map
of Hindostan ; and Hamilton's East India Gazetteer:
HYDRAULICS. See Hypropynamics: @
HYDROCELE, See Sungery.
HYDROCEPHALUS. See Menicine.
oe indebted for much important information to John Robison, Esq. F.R.S.E.
De
5
408 pe
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Hydrody- Hynnopvwamtcs, from the Greek ‘rdwe, water, and
namics. Av*apels, power or force, is that branch of natural philo-
——— sophy which embraces the phenomena exhibited by
water and other fluids, whether ‘they are at rest or in
motion. It treats of the pressure, the equilibrium; the
eohesion, the motion, and the resistance of fluids; and
of the construction of the machines by which water is
raised, and in which it is the first mover, or the pri-
mary agent. This science.is generally divided into
Hydrostaties and Hydraulics, the former of which con-~
siders the pressure, equilibrium, and cohesion of flu-
ids ; and the latter, their motion, the resistance which
they op to moving bodies, and the various machines
in which they are the principal agent,
HISTORY.
} Artuovucnu Hydrodynamics is but a modern science,
History: and was studied by the ancients only in its most ge-
The general neral principles, yet many of the leading doctrines and
principles of phenomena upon which it is founded are familiar to
Hydrody- the rudest nations, and must have been well-known in
namics 4
known in the very earliest ages of society. - Even at that remote
the earliest period when man first trusted himself to the waves,
ages, the pressure of fluids, and the phenomena of floating
bodies, were undoubtedly known to him; and in the
more advanced ‘stage of navigation, when the Pheni-
cians were able to colonise the most distant regions of
the globe, the directing power/of the helm, the force
and management of the oars, the action of the wind
upon the sail, and the resistance opposed to the motion
of the vessel, were well known facts, which implied
ractical acquaintance with some of the most important
No irioel of Hydrodynamics.
__ The motion of fluids, as affected by the size of the aper~
ture from which they issued, and by the height of the
superincumbent column, formed the fundamental prin-
ciple of the Clepsydre (from xAgxza, to steal, and. due,
water) or water clocks, which were employed’in tlie ear«
liest ages, before the invention of sun dials, to measure
time. The simplest, and probably the earliest. form in
which the Clepsydre appeared, is that of two inverted
cones, as represented in Plate CCCXIII. Fig: 1. This
species of Clepsydra consisted of a hollow cone A, perfo-
rated at its vertex, and of a solid cone B, which was made
to fill A with the greatest exactness. The aperture of A
wwas so adjusted to the size of the cone, that,’ when filled
with water, it emptied itself in the course of the short
est day in winter, The length ‘of the cone was divided
into 12 equal parts, which indicated’ the hours) by
the descent’of the fluid, or the same result was obtained
by divisions upon the vessel into which the water
flowed: When the days lengthened, and the hours be-
» came longer, the solid cone B was introduced into the
hollow cone A, and; according to the depth of its pene-
tration, the water flowed from the aperture with less
facility. A graduated index BC enabled the observer
to accommodate the position’ of ‘the “solid cone to the
varying length of the day. a
Another Clepsydra, of a more’ ingenious) construc-
tion, is represented in Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 2. The
water is first received into the reservoir A, which is al-
Invention
of Clepsy-
dre.
PLATE
CCCXIIE.
Fig. 1.
PLATE
CCCXIIL
Fig. 2.
_vented in the Alexandrian school, which flourished un-
ways kept full, and des¢ends by the pipe Bintoahole 4; a
in the great drum MN.- This hole corresponds to:one ae
of the sperangs in the groove round the circumference’ Clepsydra.
of the small drum LO, which is drawn out in the fi-
gure for the purpose of showing it; but when the machine J
is in use; it 1s fitted into the drum: MN. The apertures wv
of the groove in LO.are of different sizes, so.as to admit 4
-different quantities of water, according to the length of
the day, and the proper aperture for the given day is
found by placing the index L opposite the sun's placein
the zodiac shewn at N, the index O being-used:for the
night hours. ene binant which descends through ‘the
openings in the drum is conveyed by the pipe F,
and falls through the aperture at G toenenopat,
As the water rises in the reservoir, the inverted vessel _
I, suspended by a chain which passes over ‘the «axis R,
and balanced by a counterweight P, ascends, and»conse-
quently the hour land, X; fixed upon the-extremity-of
the axis, is made to revolve, and indicate the hours
upon the dial plate. a” Sor
. Notwithstanding’ the ingenuity of ‘these inventions;' >;
and the hydrodynamical: knowledge’ which; they indi- o¢ 4
cated,.the doctrine of fluids may still’ be considered as'medes, _
deriving its-origin: from the discoveries of Archimedes, A.C.
The history of these discoveries has beén rendered ri«
diculous by vulgar’ fables,-which have ‘long been: dis~’
credited ; but it appears unquestionable, that they ori-
ginated in the detection of a fraud) committed by the
jeweller of Hiero, king of Syracuse.) Archimedes was:
applied ‘to by the king to ascertain, without injurir
its workmanship, whether or nota néw crown, whi
had been made for him, consisted’ of pure: gold: The
method of solving the’ problem is‘said to have occurs
red to him when in-the ‘bath, -— he applied it suc~
cessfully in detecting the -fraud..+ The ‘hydrostati-
cal doctrines to which Archimedes was thus conduct«
ed, were illustrated in a work: consisting of two-books,
and entitled; wigs oxeysvwv, de instdentibus im Fluido. He
maintained, that every particle of a fluid mass in equi
librio is pressed equally in every direction: He exa-
mined the conditions in:consequence:of ‘which a float-
ing. body assumes and preserves its position of equili<
brium, and he applied it to ‘bodies that have a triangu-
lar,’a conical, and a paraboloidal form. He'shewed that
every body plunged in a fluid loses as much of its own
weight as the weightiof the quantity: of water which it
displaces ; and upon this beautiful ‘principle is founded
the process which he employed ‘for ascertaining ‘the
impurity of Hiero’s.crown.” When theresult was' coms
raunicated to the king, he) exclaimed, Nihil non‘dicénté
Archimede; credam! « The-screw of Archimedes, which
is still used in modern times for raising water, is said
to have been invented by! hiny when in Baye tose wedi
purpose of enabling the inhabitants to free themselves
of the! stagnant water which was left in the low grounds
after the inundations of the Nile; and Athéneus ins
forms ‘us, that navigators held «the memory of Archi-
medes; in the highest: honour, for having furnished
them..with the means of carrying: off the water in°the
holds of :thein vessels. : j teat epee
Hydraulic machinery appears to have been first in-
HYDRODYNAMICS. 409
History. der the patronage of the Ptolemies. Hi who
——— was the first that constructed tables of the sun’s
Seep con aaa
of to a hi ion ; it was
probably in bis time that the Anaphorical Clepsydre
used them for many purposes at a mucli earlier
ree of perfection by Ctesibign, who flourished lo-
ius, Ww a.
age ring the reign of Ptolemy Physcus, near the begin-
ning of the second century before the era.
When he was one day amusing himself in the shop of
Sc Tay: Win wrin u bestoor ba Aandi ae obenr ee)
por oe papa 2 lparberwra: , which was coun-
by a weight contained in a cylindrical
frame, a musical sound was emitted from the narrow
space between the roller and its frame. Hence he was
en led to conceive the idea of a hydraulic organ, which
toothed should operate by means of air and water. Havi
i
+H
Mi
;
f
i
E
;
H
s Hi
ve
Hi
5
all
f
Z
i
“F
yepeiste
ml
prena
aE f
peiller
Hel
ib
FES:
aeé
A!
i
Ht
fey
ERs
af
FF
GF
i
ir
74
bet
oH
i
ed
H
fs
i
i
i
i
with 61 tooth, which, by ts axis OL, turns the pillar
w ts
Daationd ie 906 aes. en
tains an account of the Forcing Pump, and of the Foun-
ly called Hero's Fountain,
* See Heronis Spirit
4 The works
p- 1630-178. A new
VOL. XI, PART U.
in which water was raised above its level by the elas- History
ticity of the air, which had been condensed by the wa-
ter. The idea of the forcing pump ie ager 4p
by the Noria, or Egyptian w which con-
sisted of a number of earthen pots carried round upon
the circumference of a wheel. |
. Although it has been believed, on the authority of Wer
were invented in the reign of Augustus, yet there is
reason to think that to a much earlier pe-
riod; for Vitruvius, who flourished under Augustus,
and who has given a description of these mills, does
not speak of as a recent invention. The Clepsy~
dra of Ctesibius indeed, which we have already descri-
bed, contains all the machinery of an overshot water mill.
The wheel K is put in motion by the water, which is de
livered into its Sabine and the force of the wheel is
employed through the intervention of wheels and pi-
nions, to give a rotatory motion to the vertical pillar.
The first experiments on the motion of fluids seem Julius
viri Consularis de Aqueductibus Urbis Roma Commen-
tarius. It contains a full account of the different wa-
ters which flowed into Rome, of the nature and form
of the aqueducts by which they were conveyed, of the
times when they were erected, of the quarters of the
city which they supplied, the number of public and
private fountains from which were distributed,
pei Lamenaing ry wqahrt yn ase mie
the management of ic fountains. i
ype tempers Kiss oy eam pg yy pg
ining the quantity of water which flowed from diffe-
rent adjutages, he shews, that the water which flows
in a given time from a given orifice does not depend
sxtidly igen tha Songaieedo-an au ies of the orifice
itself, but also upon the t of the fluid in the con-
taining vessel ; and that a
portion of the water of an h
to cireumstances! have a position more or less oblique
to the direction of the current. A h Frontinus
Wes SnerEene SES Se Oa een Lrvipe fed
runni waters, as depending upon the height
siadedos outiabe tom consider the foundation of the
peerage cy yer le our. Ppa bn
experiments. As the civil engineer wil) naturally stu-
dy with a deep interest the first account which has
been given of one of the most im it branches of
his profession, we would recommend, as an accompa-
niment to the work of Frontinus, the three learned
dissertations of Raphael Fabrettus De Aquis et Aque-
ductibus veteris Roma, which were por ee in 1679,
and are illustrated by copious engravings. t
Although the rt the of Hydrod ics is so inti-
mately connected with the wants comforts of man,
even In a state of considerable barbarity ; yet, during
the dark , it seems to have been treated with the
same indi ce as the more abstract sciences; and
when physics revived under the Ser few ore
the 17th century, the doctrine of fluids was in the same
state in which it had been left by Julius Frontinus.
The attention of Galileo was in no respects particu-
italia coos Piel, Commmenliod 1375, tte. ond 1647 cure N. Alioth in
rontinus aphael Pabrettus will be found in G Thesaurus A. if anorum, tom. iv.
cdidea of Voectinns was polled by the Marques Polaivinesion es .
gr
History.
Si ae
Galileo.
Born 1564.
Died 1641.
Toricelli.
Born 1608.
Died 1647.
410
larly directed to the doctrine of fluids ; but/his disco-
very of the uniform: accelerationoof gravity paved the
way for the rapid’ progress of this branch of science:
In the Systema Cosmicum of this great astronomer, we
find some: oceasional observations on the oscillation of
fluids, which are marked with his. usual sagacity; and
in the first dialogue of his Mechanics, Sagredo enters in-
to a very interesting inquiry respecting the ascent of
water in pumps. Galileo had studied ‘the operation of
a’sucking pamp, which had been erected to raise wa~
ter out of a cistern. He describes the pump as having
its‘ piston raised high above the surface of the fluid, an
he remarks, that in this case the water ascends by the
attraction of the piston, whereas in pumps where the
piston is in the lower part of the tube, the water rises
by the impulse of the piston. He was surprised, how-
ever, to find, that, when the water descended to a cer~
tain point, the pump ceased to act, and continued to
lose its power, by any further subsidence of the fluid.
Being quite satisfied that the pump was broken, he im-
mediately sent for the pump-maker, who, after exa-
mining ‘the machine, assured him, “ that the water
would not suffer itself to rise to a greater height than
18 cubits, whatever were the dimensions of the pump.”
After reflecting upon this singular fact, Galileo satisfies
himself with the following explanation. When a rod
of any solid substance whatever is suspended by one
end, it may be made of such a length as to break by
its own weight; and, in like manner, if arod or column
of water is raised ina pump to the height of 18 cu-
bits, its weight overpowers the attraction of the piston
and the mutual cohesion of the fluid particles. *
This extraordinary a of the ascent of water
in pumps attracted, no doubt, the attention of his pupil
Evangelista Toricelli, by whom the fact was afterwards
completely explained; and having learned from’ his
master that the air possessed weight like all other bo-
dies, + he entered upon the study of this branch of Hy-
drodynamics' with very singular advantages. In the
year 1643, the year after the death of his master, Tori-
celli being desirous of making an experiment on a small
scale in the vacuum left between the piston of a pump,
and the column of water which it raised, it occurred
to him, that, if he substituted in place of the wa-
ter a denser fluid, such as mercury, the same cause
which supported the water would support a’ column
of mercury of the same height. He communicated
this idea to his friend Viviani, who performed the expe-
riment with success, and ‘Toricelli afterwards repeated
it with considerable modifications. He accordingly
vided a’ glass tube about three feet Jong, and her-
metieally sealed at one end, and having filled it with
*- Asa very different account of this interesting anecdote is given in all the Histories of Hydrostatics and Pneumatics, we have subjoined
the account of it given by Galileo himself in his Discursus et Demonstrati
HYDRODYNAMICS.
mercury; heclosed it at the open end «with; his fin-
ger, and inverted it in: a basin of mercury. Upon
withdrawing his finger, the column of mercury de-
scended, and settled at the height of about 29 inches in
the tube. Toricelli was not immediately aware of the
cause of this singular result; but a little reflection con-
vinced him that it was owing to the pressure of the ex-
ternal air, and that the weight of the atmospherical co-
lumn was balanced by:the 29 inches of mercury in ‘the
tube, and by the 33 feet of water in the bore of the
sucking pump, When this explanation was fully im-
pressed upon his mind, Toricelli is said to have regret-
ted, with a feeling of generosity of which there is no
other example, that it had not fallen to the lot of his
master to complete a discovery of which he had the me-
rit of laying the foundation.
The itor of Toricelli were not confined to Hydro-
statics. Having observed, that when a jet d’eau was
formed by the ascent of water through a small adju-
tage, it rose nearly to the same height as the reservoir
from which it came, he sagaciously conjectured, that it
ought to move with the velocity which it would have
acquired by falling through the same height. Hence
he deduced the fundamental proposition, that, abstract
ing all resistances, the velocities of fluids in motion are
in the subduplicate ratio of the pressures. This result
was published in 1643 at the end of his treatise De
Motu Gravium naturaliter accelerato, and though true
only in small orifices, it was confirmed by the experi-
ments of Raphael Magiotti, and paved the way for the
discovery of the more complex law, which regulates
the motion of fluids, when the area of the orifice has a
considerable magnitude compared with the horizon-
tal section of the vessel.
The subject of running water had been previously
studied by Benedict Castelli, the disciple of Galileo,
and the first’ master of Toricelli. Pope Urban VIII.
had requested him to devote his attention to this inte-
resting subject, when he was employed in teaching ma- —
thematics at Rome ; and in order to disch the duty
which was thus im upon him, he made numerous
experiments, of which he published a full account in a
small treatise Della Mesura dell’ acque correnti, which
appeared in 1628. In this work he explains several
enomena relative to the motion of fluids in rivers
and‘ canals of any shape, and he shews, that when
the water has come toa state of permanent motion,
the velocities at different sections of the river or canal
are inversely as their areas. He applies these general
propositions to the course of some rivers, and he ex»
plaims several phenomena in a manner tolerably satis-
factory. The conclusions which he draws are gene«
Mathemati Dial. vol. i. p. 15.
“SaGr. tego hujus discursus ope causam invenio cujusdam effectus, qui diutissime mentem meam admiratione plenam, intellectu vero,
yacuam reliquit. Observavi Cisternam, in qua.ad extrahendam aquam constructa erat Antlia cujus ope minori cum labore eandem aut ma-~
jorem aqua quantitatem, quam urnis communibus, forsan (sed frustra) attolli posse credebam: Habetque hee Antlia suum Epistomium
et lingulam in alto positam, ita ut per attractionem non vero per inrpulsum adscendat aqua, sicut iste Antlie faciunt, que a parte inferior
sum opus exercent. Hee autem magna copia aquam attrahit, donec ea’ in cisterna ad determinatam quandam constiterit altitudinem ;
ultra quam si subsederit inutilis est Antlia. Ego, cum prima vice accidens istud observarem, instrumentum fractum,esse credens, Fabrum
accersivi, ut illud repararet ; qui nnlli rei istum, detectum adscribendum. esse. mihi respondebat, preterquam ipsi aque, que nimis depres
ad tantam altitudinem attolli se non patiebatur ; subjungens nec Antlia nec quavis allia machina, que aquam per attractionem elevat, eam
nequidem pili latitudine altius attolli quam octodecim cubitos ; et sive largior sive angustior sit Antlia, hanc maxime detinitam ejus esse
altitudinem. “Et ego, licet jam pernoscam, chordam, massam ligneam et vitgam ferream eousque prolongari posse, ut in’ altumerecta pro-
prio diffringatur pondere, ejus imprudentie hucusque reum me feci, ut idem in chorda aut virga aque multo facilius evenire non
meminerim : et quid illud quod per Antliam attrahitur, est aliud, quam Cylindrus aqueus qui superne affixus cum magis magisque pro-
longetur, ad eum tandem attingit terminum ultra quem elevata, a pondere suo excessivo ad instar chordw disrumpitur.”
Bt Sa eg oe is demonstrated by Galileo from two experiments, which he describes in his Discursus et Demonst, Matkemat.
ial. vol. i. p. 715 72 saat :
History.
Toricellis
ohne
Saw:
re oo
Castelli.
Born 1 |
Died 1644,
HYDRODYNAMICS. 411
‘vileteeys rally cuirteck; Tut he bialesibinaithed'a thistake in maki
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rem its ingenious author to the differen
of the equilibrium and of fluids, which
These fine results w
published the life of Pascal, but were found
after his death in a MS. entitled Sur f Eqwilibre de Li-
ef
Labours of Although’ Descartes is not entitled to be considered
Descartes. a8 the discoverer of the of the atmosphere, yet
Born 1596. it is obvious from one of his letters, which is dated in
Died 1650. 1631, Ee tie mercury
the Nuova Rececolta, tom. iv
air rarefied by heat adheres to the Jof the -hand History.
by a palm
when it is quickly inverted upon it. In another of
escartes’ letters, of a date only a little posterior to the
publication of Galileo's Mechanics, he criticises this
pater retertetn Ag dom etme Peer
vacuum as entertained by Galileo, he ascribes the ad-
hesion of two polished surfaces to the pressure of the
and attributes to the same cause the ele«
vation of water in the sucking pump ; and in another
letter he maintains, that, in reservoirs — —s of wa-
ter by the superior aperture being shut, id is not
suspended bythe read of acne, Duty the weight
the air.t
M. Mariotte, who was the first person that introduced )fariotte.
experimental ee Died 1684,
ly to the progress
practical Hydrodynamics, Pos-
sessing the rare talent of contriving and performing
experiments, he embraced the opportunity which cir-
cumstances to him of executing a great num-
ber of ents on fluids at the splendid water-works
of Versailles and Chantilly. An account of the results
which he obtained was published in 1684 after his
death in his Traité du mowvement des Eaux. In this
work por ceyaen et tate hamte e of Toricelli; and
treated some important points very superfi-
cially, and committed considerable errors in the dis-
cussion of others, yet it contains many valuable mate-
pon rials, He was unacquainted with the diminution of
sapebigerts erparhusnins toravuhae @itee pba —=
jutage is a perforation in a thin plate ; but he
me a Se gh at een a i
ween eory ——_ t to the effect of
friction. Having observed water suffered consi-
derable retardation even when moving in the smvoth-
est glass tubes, he supposed the retardation” to arise
from the friction of the particles upon the sides of the
tube, in the same way as the velocity of solid bodies is
The motion of rivers, or of water in open pipes and p :
canals, is perhaps one of the most interesting subjects in hydranlics
which science can lend her aid to relieve the wants and in Italy.
necessities of man. In Italy, where the fertility of the
soil is not more owing to tee genial climate than to
the numerous canals and rivers with which it is tra-
versed, the attention of her philosophers was impe-
riously called to the study of moving water. To pro-
tect Ives from the inundations with which
were often threatened, it became necessary to divert
their rivers into new channels; and the ravages which
were thus accidentally made on the territories of their
neighbours gave rise to those fierce contentions: whieh
never fail to spring from contending interests. The de-
mentee ene properties, and the necessity
of adjusti opposing interests of neighbouring
states, the cultivation of Hydrodynamics a
but relating principally to Castelli's opinions, have been published in
“4 Dae en Fate tah, Demonte See sacks % p. 908 5 tom Ui, late 91. L'can me demeure pas dans les vaisseaux par la
dw wuide, mais @ cause de la pesanteur de Cair, tom. ii,
+
History.
———
Gugliel-
mini.
Born 1655. ;
Died 1710.
/ ‘Newton.
412
matter of indispensable necessity among the different
states of Italy, and hence a t number of valuable
works were produced by the Italian engineers.
The most eminent of thesé engineers was Dominic
Guglielmini, who was inspector of the rivers and canals
in the Milanese, and who obtained such eminence in
his profession, that a new chair on Hydrometry was
erected for him in the university of Bologna. In his
eerie = work, entitled La Misura dell’ acque Correnti;
e adopts the theorem of Toricelli, and founds upon
it a system of Hydraulics sufficiently beautiful in theory,
but utterly repugnant to experiment. | He regards eve-
ry point in a mass of fluid as an orifice in the side of a
vessel, and as tending to move with the same velocit
with which it would issue from the orifice. Hence it:
follows, that, since the velocities are as the square roots
of the depths of the orifices, the velocity iat be greatest
at the bottom of a stream, and least at its surface; and
that the velocity of a river must continually increase as it
moves. These results were so hostile to established facts,
that Guglielmini himself attempted to reconcile them.
He had applied his theory to cases which occurred in
the Milanese, and to the motion of the Danube, and he
had seen, that the regular progress of the current was
often opposed: by transverse motions, and by a sort of
boiling or tumbling motion which arises from ascending
masses of fluid. Hence he supposed that these causes
were sufficient to account for the errors of the parabo-
lic theory.. Guglielmini had now become acquainted
with the labours of Mariotte, and in his work entitled
Della natura dell’ Fiumi, the first part of which appeared
in 1697,* and acquired great celebrity to its author, he
takes into account the retardation produced by friction
and other causes, This work consists of 14 chapters, the
three firstof which contain definitionsand general notions
respecting the equilibrium of fluids, and the origin of
springs and fountains. In the 4th chapter he treats of the
motion of water falling vertically, or descending along
an inclined plane ; wah he examines the various causes,
such as friction, the resistance of the air; &c. which
extinguish a part of its velocity, and render the theory
inconsistent with experiment. The 5th chapter treats
of the beds of rivers, their depth, their width, and their
declivity. The 6th chapter is an application of the
a laid down in the 5th to the directions which
are n by the beds of rivers, In the 7th chapter
he examines the various motions which are observed
under different circumstances in the waters of rivers,
and he thus follows the current from its source to its
embouchure. In chapter 8. he treats of the embou-
chure of rivers, either when they fall into one another,
or into the sea. In chapter 9. he considers the union
of several rivers, and the effects which result from it.
Chapter 10. treats of the increase or diminution of ri-
vers. ,Chapter 11. relates to the formation of tempo-
rary currents in times of rain. Chapter 12. treats of
regular canals, and the methods of deriving them from
rivers or reservoirs of water. Chapter 13. treats of the
drainage of wet land; and chapter 14. of the precau-
tions which are necessary in changing the bed of a river.
In order to demonstrate the inconsistency of the Car-
Born 1642, tesian system of vortices with the laws of Hydraulics,
Died 1727.
Sir Isaac Newton directed his particular attention to
the investigation of the manner in which the fluid vor-
tices coujd he produced and preserved, and he has given
the results of his inquiries in the 9th section of the se-
it would acquire by falling through
HYDRODYNAMICS.
cond book of the Principia, entitled, De Mote Circulari History:
Fluidorum.
that the resistance which arises from the want of per-
fect lubricity in fluids is ceteris paribus proportional to
the velocity with which the parts of the fluid are sepa- ©
rated from each other ; and he demonstrates, that if a
solid cylinder of infinite length revolves, with an uni-
form motion, round a fixed axis in an uniform and in-
finite fluid, the periodical times of the parts of the fluid,
thus put into an uniform motion, will be proportional
to their distances from the axis of the cylinder ; where-
as, if a solid sphere is made to revolve in a similar man-
ner, the iodical times of the fluid particles will be pro-
portional to the squares of their distances from the cen-
tre of the sphere.’ Hence it follows, from the equality
of action and reaction; that the velocity of any stratum
of the circulating fluid is a mean between the velocities
of the strata by which it is bounded. In considering,
therefore, the velocity of water in a pipe, as affected by
viscidity and friction, it is obvious that the filaments im-
mediately adjoining to the pipe will be greatly re-
tarded. The contiguous filaments will be kept back
by their adhesion to the others, and the velocity will
thus increase towards the centre of the pipe, according
to a law which is easily deducible from the principle, .
that the velocity of any filament is a mean between the
velocities of the filaments which surround it. M. Pitot
was the first person who took advantage of this impor+
tant principle, and, in the Memoirs of the Academy for
1728, he shewed, that the total diminution of velocity
in pipes of different kinds is inyersely as the diameters
of the pipes,
In the second book of the Principia, (See Prop. 36.) Newton's
Newton has investigated the motion of fluids when is- Cateract.
suing from an orifice made in the bottom of a vessel,
without limiting himself to the hypothesis of an infi-
nitely small orifice. Supposing the water ‘to be al-
ways kept at the same height in the vessel, he consi-
ders the cylindrical mass of ftuid as divided into two
parts, one of which is in the centre of the vessel, and
moveable ; while the other, which is immoveable, is
formed by the part of the fluid in contact with the
sides of the vessel. The central portion, which New-
ton calls the Cataract, is supposed to have the form of a
hyperboloid, formed by the revolution of ah aof
the 4th degree round the axis of the cylinder. The ho-
rizontal strata of the cataract are always in a state of
dual descent ; while all the rest of the fluid is absolutely
at rest, as if it had been converted into ice. From this
manner of considering-the wullject it followed, that the
water ought to issue with a velocity equal to that which
e height of the
fluid ; but when Newton came to investigate the sub-
ject experimentally, he concluded, that the velocity of
efflux was only that which was due to half the height’
of the fluid. This result, however, was in direct oppo-?
sition to the knewn fact, that jets of water rise tonear-
ly the same height as their reservoirs, and the error
arose from his not having attended to the contrac.
tion of. the fluid vein, (or vena eontracta) which he af=
terwards found to take place in such a manner, that,
at the distance of nearly a diameter of the orifice from
the orifice itself, the section of the vein of issuing fluid
is reduced or contracted in the ratio of 1 to the square
root of 2, or of 1 to 1.4142. He accordingly corrected
* The second part of this work did nct appear till after his death in 1712, The whole was published with notes by Manfredi in the»
Nuova raceolta di autori che trattano del moto dell’ acque, tom. iis
a |
sie
mu
Ya e &
In these elegant propositions, which are “~~~
the 51st, 52d, and 53d, he lays down the hypothesis, Labours of
HYDRODYNAMICS.) 413
is error in the edition of the Principia which appear- certain number of oscillations, the fluid will return to. History.
oli a denen of the sooo a state of rest. In order to determine the time in which “~Y—”
as the vena contracta as the true area of the orifice from these oscillations are performed, Newton considered
~ “which the water should be conceived to flow, he made the water as in the same state with a pendulum vibra-
the velocity. to that of the height of the fluid, and ting in a cycloid, and he shews, by a very simple de-,
obtained. more agreeable to experience. Not- monstration, that a pendulum, whose length is eq)
ithstanding this additional to which Newton. to half the length of the column of water in the s
had brought hi heory, it was still Hable te the very 2eri- will perform its oscillations in the same time with the
ous objections, which have been urged against it by suc- fluid. Hence it follows, that all the oscillations of the
ceeding authors, Giannini has written a dissertation fluid will be isochronous, whatever be the intensity of.
spon, it in his Opuseula, and John Bernoulli, in the the motions of the fluid ; and that the velocity of waves
volume of his works, has demonstrated, that, if such will vary as the sgoemnseatent thee breadth,
2 calaract existed, the part of the fluid without the ca- | The motion of fluids was treated, both experimentally Labours of
taract would be stagnant, and consequently would ex- and theoretically, by Michelotti, a celebrated Italian Michelotti,
ert a pressure, in virtue of its gravity, against the cata- physician, in his work entitled, De Separatione Fluido- 4- D, 1720
ract itself in which the fluid rye to experience no rum in Corpore Animali, published in 1719 or 1720.
pressure. But, i of thi of argu- He rejects Newton's idea of a cataract, and considers
ment, it may be shewn, as Bossut has by direct the water in a vessel as all frozen, excepting a small
experiment, that when a vessel of water empties itself part of it immediately above the orifice. This thin
by an orifice in the bottom, every fluid particle descends plate of water is pressed by the superincumbent solid,
vertically, whether it is situated near the axis or the side which is su to melt ga ly_as the water is
of the vessel ; and that this vertical motion is not chan- discharged. In this work Michelotti criticises, with
ged into a lateral one till the particles are very near the rather too much severity, a paper “ On the Motion of
ifice itself. pla as Water,” published by Dr Jurin in the Philo-
The subject of the resistance of fluids, one of the sophical Transactions for 1718. Jurin replied to this
most important and difficult in Hydrodynamics, was criticism in the Phil. Trans. for 1722, successfully
ise investi defended Sir Isaac Newton against the charge of in-
considers the fluid as a rare medium, composed of equal consistency which was rashly brought against his doc-
parts, situated at equa! distances from each other, and trine of effluent water by the Italian phi her. ;
in
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alk
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z.
absolutely in- /es (uyauz de conduite. The which he has found-
elasticity, he shews, that ed upon his experiments, and that which M. Be-
. is to the force by which its lidor has substituted in its place, are not deserving of
uced or destroyed in the time notice. ‘ :
ibe two-thirds of its diameter by _ Italy produced about this time several authors on: Guido
5
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in in dif ,
as water, mercury, oil, Sc. he advances another theory ricelli. He invented also a method of measu the
< in whi does not velocity ofa river at different depths by a tin
i the fluid, piped, which had an aperture that could be opened
ing particles a and shut by a moveable plate. The box was sonk to
. h the rest. From the required and the orifice opened. After a
pan ay ey Son. Be pecetney of n.gieba | certain time had elapsed, the orifice was again shut,
is
water in the box. Grandi was also au
veral dissertations on the river Aira, and on other small
Italian rivers, All these works are pu i
Nuovo Raccolia, already referred to. Eustachio Man- P
fredi, another Italian author, contributed to the prow Ma*reti
gress of Hydrodynamics. He added valuable notes
to Guglielmini’s work on rivers. He published a dis-,
sertation in conjunction with Zendrini, on the means
of preventing inundations of the Ronco and the
first person who ed, by decisive experiments made
on several of the aot bikings of Ravenna in 1731,
that the bottom of the Adriatic Sea was continually ri-
sing. The names of Zendrini, and Frisi, deserve to
be mentioned the Italian writers on Hydrody-
namics. Bernard Zendrini, a Venetian mathematician, Zendrivi.
414
History. wrote a very ample work, both theoretical and practi-
cal, entitled De Motu Aquarum, which eontains many
excellent practical observations, Frisi composed a work
on the method of regulating rivers and torrents, in
which he has endeavoured to prove that gravel and
sand are original productions, and not the detritus of
pre-existing materials, A selection of practical ob-
servations from the work of Zendrini will be found in
the 5th volume of the Nuova Raccolia, and the whole
of Frisi’s work in the 7th volume of the same collec-
tion,
One of the most celebrated writers on Hydraulics
that Italy produced, was the Marquis Poleni, professor
In the year 1695 he pub-
lished a treatise in 4to, entitled, De Motu Aqua mizto,
which, though it contains nothing that possesses much
novelty, yet the reader will find in it many observa-
tions botli of local and general utility. He supposes,
that the bed of a river is a rectangular canal, and re-
garding any perpendicular section of it as an orifice, he
gives the name of dead water to that which is compre-
hended between the surface, and a point in relation to
which all the fluid molecules would have equal momen-
ta, and would therefore be in equilibrium, according to
the laws which are observed in the equilibrium of solid
bodies: The rest of the water which is comprehended
between this centre of equilibrium and the of
the canal or orifice, he calls the living water. He then
considers the motion of the water that flows through
the orifice as partly produced by the action which the
a water derives naturally from its fall, and partly
by the pressure which the dead water exerts upon the
living water. Hence arises the title of Poleni’s work,
De motu mixto Aque. After detailing a number of ex-
periments, and comparing the results with the theory,
he applies the same principles to the motion of rivers,
and to the Jakes of Venice. His principal work, how-
ever, appeared at Padua in 1718, under the title of
De Castellis per que derivantur fluviorum aque. This
work contains many important observations and expe-
riments. From an extensive series of experiments on
the quantity of water Spain HY by an orifice in the
bottom of a vessel, he concluded, that, instead of being
proportional to 2AH, A being the area of the orifice,
and H the height of the reservoir in the vessel, it was
0.571
1.000°
more than one-half of what is discharged, upon the su
position that the water issues with a velocity due to the
altitude H. Poleni was the first person who observed,
that a greater quantity of water issued from a small
cylindrical, tube; fitted into the orifice in the bottom
or sides of a vessel, than from a simple orifice of the
same diameter. This remarkable fact may be explain-
ed by supposing that the fluid vein, instead of suffering
a contraction, flows out in a column of the same dia-
meter as the orifice, from the viscidity of the water,
and its capillary adhesion to the sides of the tube. We
are indebted also to Poleni for a new edition of the
works of Julius Frontinus, which he enriched with ama
ple notes. Poleni is likewise the author of a dissertation
on dikes, and of another on the measure of running wa-
ders, both of which, along with his first work, are repub-
lished in the 3d volume of the Nuova Raccolta.
Hitherto the science of Hydrodynamics was founded
upon. vague and uncertain principles ; but it was now
destined 'to receive a more scientific form from the la-
bours of Daniel Bernoulli. So early as the year 1726,
he communicated to the Academy of St Petersburgh a
Frisi.
Experi-
ments of a
the Marquis of mathematics at Padua.
Poleni.
Born 1685.
Died 1761,
proportional to 2AH x which is only a. little
Daniel
Bernoulli.
/
HYDRODYNAMICS.
memoir entitled, Theoria Nova de Motu Aquarum per History.
Canales quoscunque fuentes. In this memoir he ins =~ F
forms us, that his father having shewn, that the prin- pen ae
ciple of the vires vine was of great use in the resolution’ theory of —
of problems incapable of being solved by more direct’ the motion
methods, it had occurred to him to employ this prin of fluids.
ciple in discovering a true theory of the motion of run- Born 1700,
ning waters, and that he had found it to answer his ut. Died 176%
most expectations. After the publication of this me-
moir, Which contains merely the germ of his theory, he
made a great number of experiments at St Petersburgh
in order to illustrate his theoretical views, and was thus
enabled to produce his great work, entitled, Hydrodyna=
mica seu de viribus et motibus fluidorum Ci it,
which was published at Strasburg in 1738. In consi *
dering the efflux of water from an orifice in the’ bottom
of a vessel, he conceives the fluid to be divided into an
infinite number of horizontal strata, which are s
sed to move in such a manner, that the upper auintace
of the fluid always preserves its horizontality ; that the
fluid forms a continuous mass; that the velocities vary
by insensible gradations, like those of heavy bodies ; and
that every point of the same stratum descends vertically
with the same velocity, which is inversely tional
to the area of the base of the’ stratum. By the aid of 4
these assumptions, which are conformable to ience, 4
Bernoulli obtains an equation from the principle that
there is always an cegunlity between the actual descent
of the fluid in the vessel, and its vertical’ ascension,
which is the principle of the conservation of living
forces. In those cases, where sudden irregularities in
the shape of the vessel, or other causes, produce rapid
changes in the velocity of the fluid strata, he then con-
siders that there is a loss of living force, and therefore
the equations founded on the entire conservation of
this force require to be modified. In the whole of this
investigation, Bernoulli displays the greatest sagacity
and originality of thought, though he has taken it for
granted, without sufficient evidence, that the law of
the conservation of living forces is really applicable to
the motion of fluids (a point which it was reserved for
D’Alembert to demonstrate) ; yet his work will be lon
regarded as one of the finest specimens of raithewiideal
enius,
. The important subject of the resistance of fluids was Daniel
likewise indebted to the genius of Daniel Bernoulli. In noulli on
the Commentaria Petropolitana ‘for 1727, he modestly the a ;
proposed a new method of ee ee Ra resistance fluids, i
of fluids, founded upon principles different from those z
of Sir Isaac Newton ; but having found that it gave
results quite hostile to experiment, he afterwards called
his determination in question in his treatise on Hydro-
dynamics, and in the year 1741, in the eighth volume
of the Commentaries of St soe he proposed a
very ingenious and elegant method of determining the
impulse of a column of fluid falling ndicularly up
on a plain surface infinitely extended. He considers
the curve described by every filament of fluid as a ca<
nal in which a body moves, which experiences at each
point the action of a centrifugal force, and which he
su -also to be subjected to the action of a a am
tial force, varying according toa given law. He tl
calculates all these forces, and fin i, ig impulsion 7
inst the horizontal plane is to the weight of a
‘cleans of fluid whose base ‘a cep to the s of
the fluid vein, and whose altitude is twice the height
- the fall due to the velocity of the rae eae h
there are cases in which this proposition may be safely
‘and advantageously used in "practice, yet it ieee not
easily apply either to oblique impulses, or to impulses
x
=
>
eee
HYDRODYNAMICS.
“History. against curved surfaces, and it is of no service whatever
—— in determining the resistance of mn apenrt
04 pr peace the:test of expecience, Daniel Bernoulli,
and his pupil Professor Krafit, instituted a series of ex-
periments on the impulse of a stream of water against
pb anne om Tchly-waluable, de published int the
are are in
Sth and hasievslomenat the Commentaries of St Pe-
tersburgh. The stream of water was received on a
plain surface fixed on the arm of a balance, which had
scale suspended at the extremity. The
Scietnnterhonabiotenn samt ax! talesaprabe sexist:
40s M63 1486 lfol LoS 1021
Bom 1667. early as the year 1726, he was in possession of the chief
Die 1TH pre of his theory of running water. The work which
upon this subject remained in MS. till
when it im 1742 im the fourth vo-
published in the Memebe-of
Petersburgh for 1737 and 1738.
Bernoulli is founded upon an as-
the Newtonian cataract ;
THE
d
z
u
i
i
i
i
i
ef
|
i
ra hiee
i
I
i
i
rey wae
science of hydraulics was now destined to re-
the most accessions from the genius of
‘stdsmah bohiaiberts Whee te on coniagst
HE
oS, Wale ; each other. He considers the
velocity with which each body tends to move, as com-
1701 1720 1631 1602 1520 1072 they
415
of two other velocities, one of which is destroy-
ed, nha Rega Siar a the ie x e
jacent bodies. In i is principle to hydrau-
ri he first Se nideaseked. ooat to be the motion of
the particles of a fluid, in order that they may not ob-
struct one another’s movements. He shews, both from
—7 and experiment, that when a fluid issues from a
its w surface always es its horizon-
tality, from which he concludes the velocity of all
the points. of any horizontal stratum, when estimated
in a vertical direction, is the same, and that this velo-
city, which is that of the stratum, ought to be in the
inverse ratio of the area of the base of the stratum it-
, in order that it may not obstruct the motions of
other strata. By combining this principle with the
general one, D’Alembert has reduced all the problems
relative to the motion of fluids to the ordinary laws of
hydrostatics. The problems which relate to the pres-
sure of fluids against the sides of vessels in which they
run, and to the motion of a fluid which escapes from
a vessel moveable and carried by a weight, though
had formerly been solved =p | hy indirect me-
thod, flow “s ray oa o— ap pour general
inciples. is theo so the t advan
E duailiags us ey ce Now hy dint the dactzine of the
conservation of living forces applies to the motion of
fluids as well as to that of solids ; ees od
the theory are applicable to elastic as well as inelastic
fluids, and to the determination of the motion of fluids
in flexible pi a case which applies to the me-
chanism of the human frame. These fine views were
Dynamics in
History.
bes yor cate nds | 1744.
After ee a ae laws of the equilibrium D*alembert
and motion of fluids, D’Alembert next directed his at- 0» the re-
tention to the resistance which they oppose to the mo. **'a"< of
progress of disco in this branch
of hydrodynamics to those unphilosophical investiga-
tions, in which a greater fondness was shewn for the
calculus than for the physical principles on which it is
founded ; and he does not scruple to say, that the
choice of these principles was made, more from
etches quloaios; Siem fms se
us, than their having a real founda-
in atenitliphed toe to ilies error, D’'Alem-
investi principles u which he
was to proceed before he tof the analyaia which
| ee eS Wea rey ilo-
mode of enquiry, he bas established a
no arbi itions. He merel
€
nly is changed, he considers this mo-
that which the body will have in
he reduces to the laws of equilibrium between the fluid
and the solid body. He supposes at first, that a body
is by some externa) means at rest in the middle of
a fluid which is about to strike it. When the filaments
of the fluid strike the solid, they bend themselves round
it im different directions, and that part of the fluid
HYDRODYNAMICS.
In the year 1765, a very complete work on the the- History.
ory and practice of hydrodynamics was published at ot
416
History. which covers the anterior part of the body is, to a cer-
—_~ tain extent, ‘stagnant. The pressure experienced by
Labours of
Born 1707.
Died 1783,
the solid, or the resistance which it opposes to the mo-
tion of the fluid particles, is occasioned by the loss of
velocity which each of these particles sustains. The
problem is then reduced to this, to find the velocity of
the fluid which slides immediately over the surface of
the body, which D’Alembert has ee by two different
methods, and he then obtains a formula exhibiting the
pressure exerted upon the solid. By a little modifica-
tion of the general method, D’Alembert determines the
‘action of a vein of fluid which strikes a plain surface, and
he finds it to be a little less than the weight of a cylin-
‘der of fluid, the area of whose base is equal to that of
the section of the vein, and whose altitude is double
of that which is due to the velocity of the fluid; a re-
‘sult which agrees most wonderfully with the experi-
ments of \Bossut, who found that it was always a Tittle
‘less than that which was due to twice the height which
produces the velocity.* The results of this enquiry
‘were published in 1752, in D’Alembert’s Essai d’une
nouvelle theorie sur la resistance des Fluides, and the
theory was afterwards extended in his Opuscules Ma-
themaliques.
The celebrated Euler, to whom every branch of sci-
ence owes such deep obligations, did not fail to exhi«
bit the wonderful resources of his genius on a subject
of such difficult investigation as the theory of running
water. In the Memoirs of the Academy of St Peters-
burgh, for 1768, 1769, 1770, and 1771, he has published
anew and complete theory of the motion of fluids, which
is founded on the laws of mechanics and hydrosta-
tics, and occupies no less than 513 a pages. The
first of these memoirs is entitled Statu Equilibrit
Fluidorum, and is divided into four sections: 1. De Na-
tura et varietate Fluidorum. 2. De Equilibrio Fluido-
rum, remota gravitate aliisque similibus viribus. 3. De
Equilibrio Fluidorum a viribus quibuscunque ‘sollicita-
torum; and, 4. De Equilibrio Fluidorum a sola gravitate
sollicitatorum, in which he applies his reasonings both to
compressible and incompressible fluids. The second
memoir is entitled, De Principiis Motus Fluidorum; the
third, De Motu fluidorum lineart a aque, and
the fourth, De Motu aeris'in Tubis. In the third me-
moir, he deduces, from: his general theory, explained
in the preceding memoir, the solution of a great num-
-ber of oansitulgeobieins upon a particular species of
the motion of fluids, which he calls dinear.. The
same general theory is applied in his memoir De Mo-
tu Aeris, to the linear motion of air. In these me-
-moirs, he reduces the whole theory of the motion of
fluids to two differential equations of the second or-
der, and he applies the general principles to the. dis-
of water from orifices in vessels, to its motion
in conduit pipes, whether their diameters be constant
or variable. In extending his investigation to elastic
fluids, and particularly to air, he obtains very simple
formule respecting the pageene of sound, and its
formation in flutes and in the pipes of an organ. It
is much to be lamented, that in all these researches,
Euler has proceeded on the hypothesis of a mathemati-
cal fluidity, which has no existence in nature. Had
he only treated the subject in reference to those resist-
ances, such as cohesion and friction, which modify the
action of gravity, the solutions which he has given
* might have been advantageously applied to the motion
of water in pipes and canals,
* See Bossut’s Hydrodynamigue, Chap. xiv, Exp. 5, 6, 7, 8
Milan; by P. Lecchi, a celebrated Milanese engineer.
It was entitled, Idrostatica esaminata ne’ suoi principi,
e stabilita nelle sue regole della mesura delle acque cor-
renti, and contains a complete examination of all the
different theories which have been pro} to explain
the phenomena of effluent water, the doctrine of
the resistance of fluids. The author treats of the ve-
locity and the quantity of water, whether absolute or
relative, which issues from orifices in vessels or reser-
‘Voirs, according to their different altitudes, and he after-
-wards enquires if this law is applicable to large masses
-of water, which flow in canals and in rivers, and he de-
monstrates the rules which have been found most use~
ful in practice for tne division and the mensuration of
running water. This work contains several pieces by
the celebrated Italian geometer Father Boscovich, by
whom the work was. revised and corrected. . The ex-
tensive and successful ice of Lecchi as an engineer,
has stamped a high value upon his work.
A very extensive series of experiments on the mo-
tion of water in pipesiand canals, was made at Turin
by Professor Michelotti, and at the expence of the
‘King of Sardinia, These experiments were perforined
upon a splendid scale, and with every attention to ac-
curacy. The water issued from orifices and tubes of
various shapes and sizes, from a tower of the finest ma-
sonry twenty feet high and three feet square, supplied
by a canal two feet wide, and under pressures, which
varied from five to twenty-two feet. A huge reservoir,
whose area was 289 feet square, built of masonry, and
Jined with stucco, received the effluent waters, which
were conveyed in canals of brickwork, lined with stucco,
and having various forms and declivities.. Michelotti’s
experiments op the motion of water im pipes, are the
most numerous and exact that have yet been 4
The trials which he made in open canals are still
more numerous, but they are complicated, with man,
unnecessary circumstances, and seem to have been pre |
more with the view of examining some ie ia points
in hydraulics, than of furnishing us with rules for cases
which are likely to occur in practice. A full account
of these experiments was published at Turin in 1774,
in Michelotti’s Sperienze Idrauliche. Michelotti pie
lished also a memoir on the impulse of a vein of fluid,
in which he describes some experiments which do not
agree with the common theory. It ed in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Turin for 1778.
One of the most zealous and enlightened cultivators
of hydrodynamics, was the late Abbé Bossut, who has
published a full account of his theoretical and experi
mental investigations, in his Trailé Theorique et
rimental d' Hydrodynamique, in 2 vols. 8vo. The first
edition was published in 1771; the second edition
appeared in 1786, considerably enlarged ; and a third
edition, with very considerable alterations, was pub-
lished in 1796. The experiments of Bossut, though
made on a much less scale than those of Michelotti,
have, in as far as they coincide, afforded similar results ;
and while they have the merit of equal accuracy, they
are much more applicable than those of the Italian _
philosopher to cases which are likely to occur in prac-
tice. In order to determine the motion of ee ae
ticles of a fluid which was in the act of being di -
ged from an orifice, Bossut employed a glass cylinder
about eight inches high, and six inches diameter, to
a
7
£
a
\— the effiux of
HYDRODYNAMICS.
the bottom of which he fitted different adjutages for
water. Whether this vessel was a
constantly full, or emptied itself without any supply,
nrg
zee
quantity of water di
VOL XI, PART i,
417
have been expected from theory. M. Bossut has shewn,
that when the height of the reservoir is increased, the
diminution in the discharge of the water is less sensi-
ble. He points out the law, according to which the
i diminishes as the pipe becomes longer, or
as the number ofits bendings is‘increased. In con-
sidering the motion of water in open canals, he first
examines the law, according to which the friction di-
minishes the velocity of the*stream in rectangular ca-
nals ;;and- he shews, that in an open canal, with the
same height of reservoir, the same quantity of water is
always , whatever be its declivity and. its
length ; whereas in’ pipes there is a very remarkable
variation, ‘by.a variation in its declivity and its length:
He found, that the velocities in a canal are not as the
square roots of the declivities ; and that at an equal-de-
elivity and an equal depth of the canal, the velotities
are not as the quantities of water discharged. The sub-
oe rivers next occupies the attention of our author.
e considers the variations which take place in the ve-
the mouths of rivers,or at the junction of two rivers ;
he points out the means which may be successfully
employed, either in«removing wholly or in part-these
banks ; and he concludes this’ part of ‘his
of
width of its bed, as happens from the construction
i?
if
Le
=
j
i
F
ry
or
History.
——
of executing a new set of A-D. 1775.
experiments on the SGceinee ,ohiel fluids oppose to
the motion of bodies of various forms. These-experi-
ments were ‘made almost solely by Bossut, within the
of the Ecole Militaire at Paris, in a bason of
water 100-feet long, 53 feet wide, and 64 feet deep;
and the results which they obtained were published
in 1777, ina ae work, entitled Experiences sur le
resistance des. Fluides. According to theory, the impulse
upon a plane surface is equal to the area of the surface
multi by the square of the velocity of the fluid,
and the square of the sine of the angle of incidence.
mae found onesneee of the aes was sen-
sibly, correct, w uid impinged perpendicular]
cuomthasurdied'y.tkes the deviation from ‘the chins
increased with the angle of incidence; but that the
theory might still be employed when this angle-was
not less than 50°. » As the funds intrusted to the com.
mission had been with the-utmost economy,
Bossut ed the surplus in determining the re-
sistance ienced by all kinds of. prows, whether
plane, angular, or curvilineal. . These e iments were
performed in 1778, and were published in the Memoirs
of the Academy for that year. He next made a num-
ber of experiments on the effects of undershot and
overshot water wheels.. The former he found to give
4 maximnumyeffect when the velocity of the stream was
to that of the wheel as five to two, while the effect of
Se
418 HYDRODYNAMICS.
History. the latter increased with the’slowness of their motion. History.
The valuable labours of Bossut were recompensed by have the same velocity ; whereas Newton made their ves “—"Y~"
J
Labours of
La Place.
Born 1749.
M. Turgot, who established for him in the Louvre a
professorship of Hydrodynamics, to which he was ap-
pointed in 1775.
We have already seen, that Newton was the first
philosopher who investigated the laws of the motion of
waves. His theory was, however, only an approxima-
tion to the truth, and, as he himself was aware, was
suited only to the hypothesis, that the particles of the
fluid ascended and descended vertically in the course of
their vibrations. When the ascent and descent is made
in curve lines, the velocity of the waves cannot: be ac-
curately determined by Newton’s method. It is only
by means of the general laws of the motion of fluids
that this subject can be properly treated. M. De La
Place was the first who applied this mode of investiga-
tion to rectilineal undulations, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences for 1776. This investigation is
contained in a separate section, Sur les ondes, publish-
ed in his paper entitled Suite des Recherches sur plu-
sieurs points du Systeme du Monde. He supposes the
water to be shut up in a canal infinitely narrow, and
of an indefinite length, but of .a constant depth and
breadth. He imagines that the wave is produced by.
immersing a curve in ‘the fluid to a very small depth.
The curve being kept in its place till the water has re-
covered its equilibrium, it is then drawn out, and
waves are formed by the water while it recovers its
equilibrium. When the curve is plunged more or less
deep into the fluid, the time of the propagation of the
waves to a given distance will be at the same, as
the oscillations of a pendulum are constant, whatever
be the length of the arcs which they describe, provided
they are very small. If the depth of the canal is very
great, in proportion to the radius of curvature of the
curve at its lowest point, the times of the propagation
of waves generated by different curves, or by the same
curves in, different situations, are reciprocally as the
square roots of the radii of curvature ; and the veloci-
the conclusion, that all waves, whether great: or sive
locity proportional to the square roots of their breadth.
In order to examine this result, our author made the
following experiment on a branch of the Rhone, shut
up at one end to make the water stagnant, Having
measured a distance or base of thirty feet, he threw
into the water small stones at the end of this base, and
he found that the waves which they produced, whe-«
ther they were great or small, occupi — twen«
ty-one seconds in moving over the space of thirty
feet.
In the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for 1781 La Grange.
and 1786, and also in his Mecanique Analytique, M. Dé Bom 1756, —
La Grange, one of the most distinguished mathemati-+ Died 1813.
cians of the last century, has endeavoured to determine
the oscillation of waves in a canal. He found that it is
the same as that which a heavy body would acquire by
falling through a height equal to half the depth of the
water in the canal. Hence, if the depth of the canal is
1 foot, the velocity of the wave will be 5.495 feet, and,
at greater or less depths, the velocity will .be as the
square roots of the depth, provided it is not very great,
If it is admitted, that when waves are formed, the wa<«
ter is affected only to a small depth, the theory of La
Grange will give tolerably correct results whatever be
the depth of the water in the canal, and the figure of
its bottom; but although this supposition is countes
nanced by experience, and derives probability from the
viscidity of water, yet La —— theory:does not har-
monize with experiment. Dr Wollaston observed, that
in a place where the depth of the water was said to be
50 fathoms, a bore, or large wave, moved at the rate of
one mile in a minute; whereas La Grange’s theory
gives only 40 fathoms as the depth which. nds-
with the velocity. Dr Thomas Young has also obser~
ved, that the waves,or oscillations of water in a-cistern,
always move with a velocity smaller than that of a
body falling through half the depth, but nearly in the
same proportion.
The first engineer who examined experimentally the’ Experi * |
motion of water in canals, in reference to the resist- ments and
ances arising from the cohesion of water, and to that formule of |
kind of friction of which fluids are capable, was M./Ch¢27-
ties of the waves are directly as the same roots. Hence
La Place concludes, that the velocity of waves is not
like that of sound, independent of the primitive agita-
tion of the air.
The subject of the oscillation of waves was now ex-~ op? Taig
Flaugergues |
on Waves.
amined experimentally by M. Flaugergues, who endea~
A.D. 1789. voured to overturn the opinions of Sir Issac Newton.
Ina memoir on the motion and figure of waves, of which
an abstract is given in the Journal des Sgavans for Octo-
ber 1789, Flaugergues gives an account of a series of ex-
eriments which he made upon this subject. He com-
bats the opinion of Newton, that waves arise from a mo~
tion of the particles of the fluid, in virtue of which they
ascend and descend alternately in a serpentine line,
while they move from their common centre; and he
attempts to prove, that they are a kind of intumescence
raised round the common centre, by the depression
which the impulse has occasioned; and that this intu-
mescence is afterwards propagated circularly from the
centre of impulse. A portion of the intumescence, or
elevated water, flows, as he conceives, from all sides
into the cavity formed at the centre of impulse; and
this water being, as it were, heaped up, produces an-
other paiencehes, wait occasions a new wave, that
is propagated circularly. as before. M. Flaugergues
proceeds to determine the figure of a wave, andigiaas
the equation of it, and also the equation of the curve
which the centre of gravity of ‘a vessel describes from
the motion of waves. From this theory he deduces
4
Chezy, the predecessor of M. Prony, in the direction
the School of Roads and Bridges. Towards the year
1775, when he was working with Perronet on the sub-
ject of the canal of Yvette, he was anxious to deter-
mine from observation and calculation, the relation
which subsisted between the deelivity and. length of a
canal, the width and figure of its transverse section,
and the velocity of the water which it conveyed. In
the course of this investigation, he obtained a very. sim-
ple expression of the velocity, involving these dif-
ferent variable quantities, and ca ble, by means of a
single experiment, of being applied to all currents what-
ever. He assimilates the resistance of the sides and
bottom of the canal to known resistances, which follow
the law of the square of the velocity, and he obtains the
following very simple formula, 4
Ves ,/ gd where g is =16.087 feet, the velocity acqui«
As
red by a heavy body after falling one second; d, the
iehealis eo depth, which is equal to the area of the
section divided by the perimeter of the part of the
canal in contact with the water ; s, the slope or declivi-
ty of the pipe; and 4, an abstract number to be deter.
mined: by experiment. sam ,
> HYDRODYNAMICS.
The attention of the Chevalier Buat, Lieutenant Co- the following general formula, which’ represents, in a History.
i was called to most surprising manner, the great variety of facts which ““—"
he has collected ; namely,
Wang (“Wd—0.1)
419
plane. But asthe velocity of a river is not
uniformity, and i afterwards.
cause, it
some
from pressing upon the water new
2 ey must therefore be the’ viscidity of
‘water, which gives rise to two kinds of resistance,
v= —0.3(“d—0.1) in which
Ws —Log. 5416
V is the mean velocity in inches per second. _
d the hydraulic mean depth, or the quotient which
arises from dividing the area of the section of the ca-
nal in square inches by the perimeter of the part in con-
tact with the water in linear inches,
s the slope or declivity of the pipe, or of the surface
of the water. , . '
= 16.087, the velocity in inches per second which
a heavy body acquires by falling in one second.
one, ly; which from the intestine mos — n An abstract némber which was found by experi-
tion of an imperfect fluid, and the other fromthe natu- ment to be = 248.7.
ral adhesion of its to the channel in which it flows. In 1783, when M. Buat’s iments were finished,
Our author, , found: it to be a general princi- they were submitted to the A y of Sciences throu
the minister of war, and were afterwards published in
1786, under the title x Principes haere bashes
un grand nombre d’experiences faites par ordre
yar oat A third volume of this work was
me ished in 1816, under the title of item a ntete
raulique et Pyrod. amique. . Tt relates chiefly to
phenomena ot heat ana elastic fluids. .
In the ding M. L’Espi-
published two nasse,
ple, “ that when water runs uniformly in any channel,
the ing force which obliges it to run, is equal
to the sum of: all the resistances which it
i epersfhantiee iscidé
poo em En
iple,: rn :
Pe ne ces rts rmmethet to M. Buat, that the
motion of water in a conduit pipe
had # great analogy 1784, M. L’Espinasse,
to the uniform motion of a river, and upon this idea
member of the Academy of Thoulouse,
memoirs in the Transactions of that society, which con- 4. D. 1784.
tain very interesting observations on motion of
water through large orifices, and on the junction and
ion of rivers. The experiments which are con«
tamed in thése two memoirs were made in ‘the Fres-
os and Aude, two rivers in the department of the
Garonne, and on of the Canal du Midi,
w is below the lock of Fresquel, towards the point
where it meets with the bed of that river.
Don George Juan D’Ulloa, an eminent mathematician, Don George
and inspector of the naval academies of Spain, Juan D’Ul-
sed a new physico-mathematical theory of collision, in !°%
fiir . A Born 1713.
his Examen Maritimo, a work which was published Died 1773.
HIE
Hil
F3
hl
i
Z
at Madrid in 1771, in 2 vols, 4to. This theory in«
cludes all the circurmstances of motion, both during the
continuance of the shock and after the shock, em-
Some aitor Deer oe of hard aree nd soft
o ies ly or imperfectly ‘elastic,
whether they are reper virtue of anes Velocities
and accelerating forces, or by both of these causes com-
bined. This theory is however not applicable, as oe
at first sight have been ex , to the impulse of fluicts ;
but the same author has favoured us with a new theory
of the resistance of fluids, which has been adopted by
Prony and several other French writers. This theory
has, in Prony’s oe been confirmed by very good
experiments, and also by its conformity with the
Frcay hs temerked, Ch advantage of -prosenahig’ i
» t van
diecuaias of the question with different ohecieal
circumstances which it involves, an advantage which is
not possessed by the ordi . Inorder to con-
firm his theory, Don George Juan made the following —
iments: He a plane surface of the form
of # parallelogram a foot wide, to the action of a current
of water which moved with the velocity of two feet
per second. When it was immersed just one foot un-
der the water, it su a weight of 154 pounds
(English measure), When the same plane was sunk
two feet in a current of water moving with the velo-
Histony.
eer
Researches
of Venturi.
A.D. 1798.
420
city of one foot four inches in a’second, it supported a
weight of 26} pounds. The following Table shews
the theoretical and practical results,
Velocity of Depthof Observed Calculated
Water. Submersion. Resistance. Resistance.
Exp. 1. 2—0 feet. -1 foot. 153 pounds, - 204 pounds.
Exp. 2. 1—4 2 204 ia
The ratio of the observed resistance is as 154: 264,
while that of the calculated results is as 15 to28. Don
George Juan has printed two appendices at the end of
his first volume, in one of which he applies his theory
to the resistance of elastic fluids; and in the other he
examines the experiments of our countryman Smeaton
on the maximum effect of water mills. He shews,
from this theory, that the velocity of the floatboards
ought to be a little less than one half the velocity
of the water, in order to produce a maximum effect ;
a result which is almost exactly the same which Smea-
ton found from experiment. It is a singular cir-
cumstance, that the experiments of. Don George Juan
give resistances much greater than those of Bossut;
D’Alembert, and Condorcet, which were made under
great pressures; so that his theory will differ very wide«
ly from the best experiments which have been made on
the resistance of fluids. Dr Robison has remarked,
{see his System of Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii. art.
Resistance of Fluids, which contains an examination of
this new theory), that Don George Juan’s equation ex-
hibits no resistance in the case of a fluid without weight.
A new edition of the Examen Maritimo, with copious
notes and additions, was published at Paris in 1783, by
M. L’Eveque, entitled, Examen Maritime, Theorique et
Pratique, ou Traité de Mecaniqué, applique a la Construc-
tion et a la Maneeuvre des vaisseaux et autres batimens.
In the year 1798, M. J. B. Venturi, Professor of Na-
tural Philosophy at Modena, published his experiments
and observations on fluids, in a work entitled Sur la
communication laterale du Mouvement dans les Fluides,
which was some time afterwards translated into Eng-
lish by Mr Nicholson. This work contains many new
and valuable results, of which the following are the most
important, He found, that in any fluid, the parts which
are in motion carry along with them the lateral parts
which are at rest. This proposition he established by
introducing a current of water, with a certain velocity,
into a vessel filled with stagnant water. The current,
after passing through a portion of the fluid, was recei-
ved in a curvilineal channel, the bottom of which gra-
dually rose till it passed over the rim of the vessel ;
and in a short time there remained in the vessel only that
portion of the fluid which was originally below the
aperture at which the current was introduced. By the
aid of this principle, which he calls the lateral commu-
nication of motion in fluids, and which he thinks is not
sufficiently accounted for by the cohesion of the fluid
particles, he explains many facts in hydraulics. In ex-
amining the effect of additional tubes, Venturi found,
that if the part of an additional tube, near.the orifice,
has the form of the vena contracta, the quantity of wa-
ter discharged will be the same as if there was no
contraction ; that atmospherical pressure increases the
‘expenditure through a simple cylindrical tube, compa-
red with that which is seen through an orifice in a thin
plate ; that in descending cylindrical tubes, whose up=
per ends have the form of the vera contracta, the ex-
HYDRODYNAMICS.
penditure cortesponds with ‘the height of the fluid -History. 7
o
above the lower end of the tube; that, with additional
conical tubes, the expenditure is increased by the press
ja
ae
s]
sure of the atmosphere, in the ratio of the exterior sec-
‘tion of the tube to the section of the contracted vein ;..
that cylindrical pipes discharge less water than conical
pipes which have the same exterior diameter, and di-~
verge from the place of the contracted vein ; that, by
suitable adjutages applied ‘to a horizontal cylindrical
tube, the expenditure may be increased in the ratio of ~
24 to 10, the head of water remaining invariable ; that
the expenditure by a’ straight tube, a quadrantal are,
and a rectangular tube, each of which is placed hori«
zontally, is nearly as the numbers 70, 50, and 45 ; and
that the expenditure is diminished by the internal
roughness of a 2 effect which he conceives is
not produced by the friction of the water against the .
asperities themselves.
. Although, as M. Prony has remarked, ‘ the Fesalts Experi-
. : : 5 Sar soln
obtained by the Chevalier Du Buat, and his sagacious Conlon :
on the re
mode of classifying the different kinds of resistances
which appear in the motion of fluids, might have con- ,; Of
ducted him to express the sum of these g rsreerte by fiuids, A.Dy
a rational function. of the velocity com
three terms only, yet the slay of this discovery was
reserved for M. Coulomb.” This eminent philosopher,
who had applied the doctrine of torsion with such dis-
tinguished success in investigating the phenomena of
electricity and magnetism, entertained the idea of exa-
mining in a similar manner the resistance of fluids ;
and in the year 1800 he laid before the National In-
stitute of France his memoir upon this subject, entitled
Des Experiences destinées a determiner la coherence des.
Fluides, et les lois de leurs resistances, dans mouvemens tres
lenis, which was published in the third volume of the
Memoires de l'Institut. In determining the resistance
of the air to the oscillations of a globe, Sir Isaac New-
ton employed a formula of three terms, one of which
varied as the square of the velocity ; the second, as
the 3 power of the velocity ; and the third, as the sim~
ple velocity: and in another part of the Principia he
reduces his formula to two terms, one of which is
constant, while the other is as the square of the velo-
city. Daniel Bernoulli* has employed a formula si-
milar to this of Newton’s; and M. S’Gravesende+ makes.
the pressure of a fluid in motion against a body at rest,
mas proportional to the simple velocity, and partly
to the square of the velocity ; while, when the body
moves in a fluid, he makes the resistance in proportion
to a constant quantity, and to the second power of the
velocity.- M. Coulomb, however, has proved, by many
fine experiments, that there is no constant quantity of
sufficient magnitude to be detected, and that the pres«
sure sustained by. the moving body is represented by-
two terms, one of which varies with the simple velo-
city, and the other with its square. The apparatus by
which these results were obtained, consisted of discs.
of various sizes, which were fixed to the lower extre=
mity of a brass wire, and. were made to oscillate under
a fluid by the force of torsion of the wire. By obser=
ving the successive diminution: of the oscillations, the’
law of the resistance was easily. found. The oscillations’
which Coulomb found to be best suited for this kind of
experiments, continued for twenty or thirty seconds ;
and the amplitude of the oscillations that gave the most
regular results, was between 480, the entire division
* Comment. Petropol, tom, iii, and v.
+ Physices Elementa Mathematica, tom: i: § 1911. —
posed of two or 13800.
hy
History.
of the dise, and 8 or 10-divisions, reckoned from the
sults which Coulomb has : eee
the resistance in clarified oil, at the temper-
of 66° of Fahrenheit, is to that in water as
17.5 to 1 ; which expresses the ratio of the mutual
: cohesion of the particles of oil to the mutual cohe-
sion of the particles of water.
M. Coulomb concludes his experiments, by ascer+
more very slowly and perpendicular to their axes ; but
for an account of the results which he obtained, we
must refer the reader to the memoir itself, or to the
article.
uantity, from twelve ex
‘Buat, obtains a formula
much more simple than that of Du Buat, but represent-
aya a oa Concideri
that i the wetted sides of the
58
<
ae
a
=
experiments ;
fluid section in contact with
same with, of the fluid par-
it
the resistance due to
HYDRODYNAMICS.
421
the two adhesions were equal, the asperities would have
no more tendency to unite to the wetted sides than to
the mass of fluid in motion. Ae
Such was the state of hydrodynamics, when M.
Prony published, in 1804, his Recherclies Physico-Ma-
thematiques sur la Theorie des Eaux Cotrantes.' In or~
der to establish the theory of running waters on a pro-
foundation, this eminent mathematician collected the
experiments that had been published on the mo-
tion of water in conduit pipes, and in natural and ar-
tificial channels. Out of this collection he seletted
82 of the best, viz. 51 on conduit pipes, and $1 on
carials ; and he endeavoured to combine these
data with the principles of physics and mechanics, so
as to deduce from thenr general formule, from which
the velocity might in every case be obtained by calcu+
lation. By these, means he has been able to express
the velocity of water, whether it flows in pipes or open
canals, by a simple formula, free of logarithms, and re-
bates fhe the extraction of a square root, The
formula, w
in
is applicable both to pipes and canals,
V=—0,0469734 4 0,0022065 + 5041,47 x G,
which gives the velocity in metres ; or, when reduced
to English feet,
V = —O.1541131 4 0,023751 + 32806,6 x G.
When this forntula is applied to pipes, we must take .
@ = {DK, which is deduced from the equation.
When it is applied to canals, we must take G= RI,
which is deduced from the equation I= +, R being
equal ‘Suen ee otal or the hydraulic
mean as i
» M. Prony has drawn up extensive tables, in which
he has com the observed velocities with those
which are calculated from the preceding formule, and
from those of Du Buat and Girard; and it is sur-
prising to observe’ their t with the obser-
ved results, and their d superiority to those of
Du Buat and Girard. The of hydrodynamics
has likewise been greatly indebted to the Nouvelle Ar-
chiteclure Hydraulique of M. Prony, which ared in
the year 1790, This able work is divided into two
; the first of which is a treatise on mechanics, in
which the author has. explained the general principles
of equilibrium and motion, which are necessary for en-
ineers. The second part is divided into four sections :
he first section treats of statics, the second of dynamics,
the third of hydrodynamics, and the fourth of machines
and first movers, considered under the different physi-
cal circumstances, which have an influence u their
equilibrium and motion. In the chapter on hydrody-
namics, he resolves the —— problem of the efflux
of water through an orifice in one of the sides of:a
vessel, upon the supposition that the fluid strata pre~
serve their parallelism, and that their particles descend
with the same velocity ; and from this he deduces; as «
corollary, al) the ordinary theory of the motion of fluids.
He next gives an account of the experiments of Bossut
on the efflux of water, and deduces formule by which
the results may be expressed with all the accuracy that
practice requires.. In. treating of the impulse and re-
sistance of fluids, he adopts and explains the theory of
Don George Juan, and afterwards gives an account of
History.
Labours of
M. Prony.
A. D. 1804.
422
‘History. the ordinary theory of resistance, with the experiments
sy" by which it has been corrected and rendered applica-
ble to practice. M. Prony then proceeds to give an ac-
count of the general and rigorous theory of the motion
of fluids, and he applies the equations to the motion of
fluids in narrow pi In the 5th section, which con-
tains much valuable practical information, the author
has treated at great length the subjects of friction and
of the strength of men, and has given a detailed ac-
count of the history and construction of the steam en-
ine, from the rude form in which it came from the
ands of the Marquis of Worcester to the almost per-
fect state to which it has been brought by our celebra-
ted countryman Mr Watt.
Experi- In the year 1795, Mr Vince of Cambridge publish-
ments of | ed in the Philosophical Transactions his Obsernations
Mr Vince, on the Theory of the motion and resistance of Fluids,
A.D. 1795 qith a Description of the Construction of Experi-
and 1798. - ments in order to,oblain some fundamental principle; and
in the year 1798, he published, in the Transactions of
that year, another paper, entitled, Experiments on the
Resistance of Bodies moving in Fluids. The experi-
ments contained in the first of these papers, were made
chiefly with the view of ascertaining how far the theory
of the motion of fluids-could be applied to the discharge
of water from vessels. Mr Vince has concluded, frorn
the results of this inquiry, that the great difference
between the experimental and theoretical results, in
most of thé cases which respect the times in which
vessels empty themselves through pipes, leads us to
suspect the truth of the theory of the action of fluids
under all other circumstances. In the second memoir,
he gives an account of a variety of experiments on the
resistance of fluids, when the resisted body is immersed
at some depth in the fluid made with a particular ap-
paratus which he contrived for this purpose. _ The re-
sults which he obtained differ widely from those ob-«
tained by Bossut with bodies floating on the fluid,
which Mr Vince explains, by supposing, that at the
surface, the fluid from the end of the! body may esca
more easily than when the body is immersed below the
surface.
The late Dr Matthew Young, Bishop of Clonfert,
\
i asent
ee of made a number of experiments on the efflux of fluids
S$: Mat- from orifices of different kinds, of which he has pub-
cp lished an account in the 7th volume ofthe Transactions
Young.
of the Royal Irish Academy. In order to explain the
increase in the discharge by inserting an additional
tube inan orifice in the bottom of a vessel, he filled a
cylindrical vessel with mercury to the height: of 6 in-
ches, and inserted in its bottom a tube 7.8 inches long.
Having closed the orifice of the pipe, he placed the ap-
paratus under the receiver of an air pump, when the
barometer was at 30 inches, and the gauge at 284,
the time of the efflux was in this case 26 seconds ;
but when the experiment was repeated in the open air,
without any variation, the time of the efflux was only 19
seconds. Unless the gauge stood higher than 223 inches,
no difference was observed in the times of the efflux in
the open air and in the receiver. When the efflux was
made in vacuo, the pipe was not filled during the efflux,
as it was when the discharge was made in the open air.
Hence Dr Young concludes, that the plate of fluid at
the orifice, where the additional tube is inserted, has
its perpendicular par og increased. by the weight of
_ the column of fluid in the additional pipe, without any
increase of’ its lateral pressure ; and, consequently, the
quantity of water discharged by a pipe of this: kind
HYDRODYNAMICS.
must exceed that which is dis by a’simple oris History.
fice. The results of experiments, therefore, made with f
additional tubes, will be more consonant to theory e
than when they are made with a simple orifice, unless 5
when the tube has such a length that a sensible effect a
is produced by the friction of the fluid against the sides
of the tube, or when the additional tube is so short as
not to be capable of giving a vertical direction to the
particles of water. r M, Young found, that this
view of the subject agreed remarkably well with the
SaRceiment of Mr. Vince. 4
n the year 1801, M. Eytelwein, of Berlin, who pesearches
was known to the public as the translator of Du of M. Ey-
Buat’s works into German, and who was honoured telwein.
with several employments and titles relative to the
public architecture of the Prussian dominions, publish-
ed a work entitled, Handbuch der Mechanik und der .
Hydraulik; which contains not merely an exposition of the
labours of preceding writers, but an account of many new
and valuable experiments made by the author himself, \
The second part of this work, which treats of hydrau-
lics, is divided into 24 chapters. Chap. 1. Treats of
the efflux of water from reservoirs, and of the contrac-
tion of the fluid vein. Chap. 2. Of the discharge of wa-
ter from horizontal and lateral orifices in a vessel con»
stantly full. Chap. 3. Of the discharge of rectangular
orifices in the ‘side of a reservoir extending to. the surs
face. Chap. 4, Of the discharge: from reservoirs with
lateral orifices of considerable magnitude, the head of
water béing constant.| Chap. 5. Treats of the efflux
from reservoirs which receive no supply of water.
Chap. 6. Of the discharge from compound or divided
reservoirs. Chap.’7.° Of the motion of water in rivers.
In this chapter, M. Eytelwein has shewn that the mean
velocity of water in a second in a canal, or river, flow«
ing in an equable channel, is }¢ths of a mean propor
tional between the fall in two English miles, and the
hydraulic mean depth ; and that the superficial veloci« '
ty of a river is nearly a mean proportional between r
the hydraulic mean depth and the fall in two English
miles. Chap. 8. Treats of the discharge and the swellin ‘
the case of falls, weres, and contractions in rivers and
Cy BOR. OE
tse
canals. In Chap. 9. On the motion of water in pipes,
our author expresses the velocity in English feet by the
following simple formula: »=50 where J is
14-50d’
the length of the pipe, d the hydraulic mean depth,
and h the height of the reservoir. If the pipe is
bent into angles or sinuosities, the value of v must be
corrected by taking the product of its square mul«
tiplied by the sum of the sines of the several angles
of inflection, and then by 0.0038. This will give the
degree of pressure employed in overcoming the re~
sistance occasioned by the angles, and by subtract~
ing this height from that which is due to the velo~
city, we may thence find the corrected velocity. Chap.
10. Treats of jets of water. Chap. 11. Of the impulse
or hydraulic pressure of water. Chap. 12. Of overshot
water-wheels. Chap. 13. Of undershot water-wheels.
Chap. 14. Of the properties of air, in so far as they are’
connected with hydraulic machines. ters 15. Of sy= X
phons. Chap. 16. Of sucking pumps. Chap. 17.
forcing pumps. Chap. 18. Of mixed pumps, or the
combination of sucking or forcing pumps. Chap. 19+
Of acting columns of water. Chap. 20. Of the spiral.
pump. Chap. 21. Of the screw of Archimedes. ap.
92, Of bucket wheels or throwing wheels, Chap. 23:
Of cellular pumps and Paternoster works: Chap. 24.
Nitya
a
nee
|
]
During the year 1814, a extensive series of ex-
M. Gi on the motion of
tubes. We have already seen, that
given a common co-efficient to the
ie
nt
Fe
Hi
i
LG
Hut
ie
aE
Ecol
cia
HE
Shee
fH
M. Prony deduced the value of these co-
from a great number of experiments; but as
formula gives only the mean
therto made, have a value ly inferior to what they
of the fluid contiguous to
velocity of the central filament in conduit pipes
Se tara dele one
diameter of the tube is dimmished ; and that the theory
of the linear motion of fluids, which was first given by
Euler in FEA Aes: Boas cemy to the case where
the water flows in very tubes. Hence the expe-
results obtained with tubes of a small diame-
ter, ought to accord best with the formula deduced from
. In order to make a correct series of experiments
kind, M. Girard constructed two sets of tubes
made of , and of uniform calibre, and drawn
Upeia deems Of steel. The first series was compo-
sed of tubes 2.96 millimetres in diameter, and 2 decime-
tres long. ‘These tubes were made to screw on to one
another, and form as many tubes of different lengths,
from 20 to 222 centimetres. The second series was com-
contrivances ; and the water discharged by the tabe sub-
to trial, was received into a
» and whose i been accurately
The filling of the vessel was indicated by
instant when the water which it contained had wet-
a plate of glass which covered almost the
whole of its surface, the time employed to fill this
vessel was measured with accuracy. The tem-
water was also carefully noted. The
temperature
HYDRODYNAMICS.
gers for 1815, which is not
fiuid of an indefinite
423
amounts to 85°, When the length of the capillary tube — History:
is below the above mentioned limit, a variation of tem- “~~”
perature exercises but a slight influence upon the velo-
city of the issuing fluid. Ifthe length of theadjutage, for
, is 55 millimetres, and if the velocity is repre-
sented by 10 at 5° of the centigrade thermometer, it will
ted only by 12 at a temperature of 87°. In
uces almost no
the veloci arefl. oe Fed sabes -
uanti water ie capi tubes, vari
wot uly idk the Gaiden i Pavers f but with the
nature of the solid substance of which the tubes were
composed. A full account of these valuable experi-
ments will be found in the Memoires des Scavans Eira-
yet published.
In the year 1815, the National Institute of France fnvestiga-
P as the subject of one of its annual prizes for tions of M.
1816, the theory of waves at the surface of a heavy Possou.
depth. The prize-was gained by !*!%
M. Augustin Louis Cauchy, a young mathematician of
pew promise. The differential — which he
iven apply rigorously only to case, where the
of the fluid is infinite ; and he has treated only
of that species of waves which are propagated with ve-
locities uniformly accelerated. The same subject had
occupied the attention of M. Poisson, who, before he
had seen the Metooir of M. Cauchy, had laid before the
Institute formule similar to his for the case of infinite
M. Poisson has himself studied the subject un-
der a more extended and has laid before the In-
stitute other memoirs, which we have no doubt, will
throw much light upon this difficult branch of hydrau-
lies, He supposes that the water has not received any
percussion at the commencement of its motion, and that
the waves have been produced in the following manner.
A piston of an poe ab a pare teta os. eg in the
water to a small depth, is left there till the equili-
brium of the fluid is restored. The piston is then sud-
denly withdrawn, and waves are formed round the place
which it occupied. In determining the propagations of
these waves, whether at the surface, or in the interior
of the fluid mass, M. Poisson considers only the case
where the agitations of the water are so 1, that the
second and the higher powers of the velocities, and of the
i ents of the molecules, may be neglected ; for,
plicated, that no cletion of ff could bs expected. Hl
i , that no solution of it cou ex . He
supposes the of the water constant throughout
its whole extent, so that the bottom is a fixed horizon-
tal plane, situated at a given distance below. its natural
level. He then treats successively in his memoir, the
case of a fluid contained in a vertical canal of an invari-
able width, and of an indefinite length: and that of a
fluid, whose surface is indefinitely extended in every di-
rection. This valuable memoir will, we trust, be pub-
lished in the Memoirs of the Institute for 1815.
Having thus given a 1 view of the hi and
progress of hydrodynamics, we shall conclude this part of
the article, by a list of the best works and most import-
ant memoirs which have been written on the su
Archimedes De Ivisidentibus in Fluido. Wd. De iis works
in humido vehuntur, Heronis Spiritalia. Edit, on hydro-
Commandini, 1575; Sexti Julii Frontini, De Aque- dysanics,
ductibus Urbis Roma Commentarius (Poleni’s edit.) ;
Stevini Hydrostatica ; Schotti Mechanica Hydraulico-
* This abridged account of M. Eytelwein’s work, is taken from an eacellent abstract of it, érawn up by Dr Thomas Young, and
published in the Journals of the Royal J
‘History.
Works
on hydro-
dynamics.
424
Pneumatica, 1657 ; Baliani De Motu: Gravium, Geneva,
1646; Toricelli De Motu Gravium naturaliter accele-
rato, 1643; Castelli Della Mesura dell’ acque correnti,
1628; Pascal Sur L’ Equilibre des Liqueurs ; Descartes
Recueil des Lettres de M. Descartes, tom. iii,; Mariotte
Traité.du mouvement des eaux, Par. 1686, and Mem.
Acad. Par. 1, 69..11.; Guglielmini La, Mesura dell’ ac:
que correnti; Guglielmini Della.nalura dell’ Fiumi, Bo-
logn, 1697; Polenus De Motu aque mixto Patav. 1697,
1718, 1723; Parent Mem. Acad. Par.1700 ; Varignon
Mem, Acad. Par, Il. p. 162; Jd. 703, p..288 ; Picard
De aquis effluentibus, Mem. Acad. Par.,V11. $23; News
toni, Principia, lib. ii. ; Raccolta Di Autori che trallano
dell moto dell acque, 3 vols. 4to. Flor. 1723. This collec-
{ion contains the works of Archimedes, Albici, Galileo,
Castelli, Michelini, Borelli, Montanari, Viviani, Cassini,
Guglielmini, Grandi, Manfredi, Picard, and Narducci.
Polenus De Castellis per que derivantur fluviorum aque,
Patav. 1718; Michelotts De separalione filuidorum in
corpore animali, 1719 ; Jurin, Phil. Trans. 1718, 1722;
Couplet, Mem. Acad. Par. 1732, p..113; Daniell Ber-
noulli Hydrodynamica seu de viribus et motibus fluido-
rum commentarii, Strasb. 1738 ; Id. Comment. Petrop.
1727, 1741; Pitot, Mem, Acad. 1727, p. 49; 1730, p.
506 ; 1732, 1738; John Bernoulli, Opera, tom. iv. ;
and Comment. Petrop. 1737, 1738; .Cotes. Hydrostatical
and Pneumatical Lectures, 1747; S. Grayesende Physices
Elementa Mathematica, Leid. 1719, 1742 ;.Maclaurin’s
Fluxions, vol. ii. book ii. chap. xii.. § 5837-550, Edin,
1742; D’Alembert T'raite de L’ Equilibre et du mouve-
ment des Fluides, Par. 1744; D’Alembert. Essai d'une
Nouvelle Theorie sur la resistance des. Fluides, and also
his Opuscules Mathematiques, tom, vi; Switzer’s Hydro-
statics; Euler, Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1752, p..111; 1755,
p. 217; Id. Nov. Comment. Petrop- 1768, 1769, 1770,
1771; Id. Theorie complette de la construction et Ma-
naeuvre des vaisseau ; Bouguer, Mem. Acad. Par. 1755,
p- 481 ; Lecchi Idrostatica esaminata ne suoi principi
e stabilita nelle sue regole della mesura delle acque corren-
ti, 1765: Borda, Mem. Acad. Par. 1763, p. 358 ; 1766,
p: 579; 176%, p. 595; Kaestner Anfangsgrunde der
Hydrodynamik, Gotting. 1769, and Nov. di ay Got-
ting. 1769, I. 45.; Nuova Raccolla di aulort che trat-
tano del moto dell’ acgue, 7 vols. Parma, 1766. . The.1st
vol. of this excéllent collection contains, 1. Castelli’s
treatise Della Mesura, &c. 2. Several letters of Castel.
li and other authors. 3. A paper by Montanari on the
Adriatic Sea and its currents. 3. A discourse by Vivia-
nion the method of preventing the filling up and.the
corrosion of rivers applied to the river Arno. 5. Several
papers by, J. D. Cassini, on the regulation of the cour.
ses of rivers; and, 6. Guglielmini’s, treatise, entitled,
La Mesura, &c, ,The 2d yolume contains Guglielmi-,
ni on rivers, illustrated with the notes of E. Manfredi.
The 3d volume contains, 1. Guido Grandi’s geometri-.
cal treatise on the motion of water; 2. Several disser-
tations, by the same author, on the River Era and the
streams in Italy; 3. The Marquis Poleni’s treatise de
motu aque.mixto; 4. A treatise, by the same author,.
on dikes, &c,;_5. A letter, by Poleni; on the measure
ofrunning waters; 6.A paper, by J. Buteon, on the
same subject. .Tom. IV. contains, 1. Several hydrau-
lic dissertations by -Castelli; 2. Several letters from
Galileo to Castelli; 3. A paper, by E.-Manfredi, on the
construction of a dike upon the River Era; 4. A res.
ply, by Manfredi, to a criticism by Ceva and Moscatelli ;
5. A reply, by the inhabitants of Bologna, to those of
Ferrara on the course of the Reno; 6. An examination
of a book entitled, The Injurious Effects of the Reno,
5
HYDRODYNAMICS: ’
7. A refutation of another work, published at Modena,on HU
the same subject. Tom. V. contains, 1. A rt, b
'y
Cardinals Adda and Barberini, on the state of the wa- peer. .
ters in the countries of Romagna, Ferrara, and Bologna; dynamics. _
2. A report, by Riviera, on the state of the Reno, the
Panaro, and the Po; 3. A selection of practical. in-
formation from the work of Zendrini on running wa-
ters; and, 4. A memoir on preventing the inundations
of the Ronco and the Montone, by Zendrini and Man-
fredi. Tom. VI. contains, 1. A translation of Picard’s
book on levelling ; 2. A translation of Gennete’s expe-
riments on the course of rivers ; 3. Experiments of Bo-
nati in opposition to those of Gennete; 4. Gennete’s
reply ; 5. Remarks, by Manfredi, on the constant ele-
vation of the bottom of the sea; 6. A discourse, by Za~
notti, on the beds_of rivers near their embouchure ; 7.
A memoir, by Bolognini, on the ancient and present state
of the Pontine Marshes, and on the means of draining
them; 8. A comparison of canals, by Narducci; 9,
A r, by Perelli, on a torrent called the Maroggia.
Vol. VIL. contains, 1. A discourse on the ancient and
present state of the Valdichiana ; 2. A memoir, by
Lecchi, on the Tradate, the Gardaluso, and the Boz-
zenti; 3. A paper on the inundations of the Adige, by
Lorgna; and, 5. A paper, by Frisi, on the manage-
ment of rivers and torrents. Bossut et Viallet, Recher-
ches sur la Construction des digues, 1764. - Silbers
Theorie des Fleuves, avec Vart de batir dans leur eaua:
et de prevenir leur ravages, 1769; translated from the
German, Michelotti, Sperienze Hydrauliche, Turin,
1774; and Mem. Taurinens, 1788. Bossut, Traité Thea
orique et Experimental d’Hydrodynamique, 2 vols. 8yo.
1771, 1786, and 1796. Fontana, Dissertazione Idrodi=
namica, Mant. 1775. Chevalier Buat’s Traité d Hys
draulique et Pyrodynamique, 2 vols, 8vo. 1786, and
yol. iii, 1816. La Grange, Mecanique Analylique ; and
Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1781, p. 151, and 1786, p. 192.
Ximenes, Nuove Sperienze Idrauliche fatie ne canali_e né
Jiumi_per verificare le princpale leggi e fenomeni delle
acque correnti, Siena, 1780. d. Act. Sten. iii. 16, iv. 31,
vii. 1, Lorgna, Memorie intorno all’ acque correnti,
Veron. 1777... Lorgna, Ricerche intorno alla distributio« -
ne delle velocita nella sectione de Fiumi. 1d. Soc. Italian,
iv. p. 369, v. 313, vi. 218. - Lambert, Sur les Fluides
considerées relativement a ? Hydrodynamique, Mem. Acad.
Berlin, 1784, 99. _Langsdorf, Theorie der Hydro-~
dynamischen grundlehren, Frankf. 1787. Langsdorf, Hy=
draulik, Altenb. 1794. Cousin Mem. Acad. Par. 1783,.
p. 665. Parkinson’s Hydrostatics, 1789. Dr Mathew’
Young, Jrish Transactions, 1788, vol, ii. p. 81, and vol.
vii. p. 53. Bernhard, Nouveau Principes d'Hydraulique,.
1787. ‘This work contains a historical and critical dis«
course upon the different works which have been ara
edon this subject. Prony, Nouvelle Architeclure Hydrau=
lique, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790. Prony, Recherches Phy«
sico- Mathematiques sur la Theorie des Eaux Courantes,
4to, Paris, 1804. Burja, Grundlehren der Hydrostatik,.
1790. Vince, Phil. Trans, 1795, p. 24, 1798, p. 1. Ate,
wood, Phil. Trans.1796, p.46, On the Stability of Vessels,
1798, p. 301. Don George Juan, Examen Maritimo,
Madrid 1771. This work was translated into French by
M.l'Evesque in 1783. La Place, Mem. Acad. Par. 1776.
and Mecanique Celeste, liv. i. chap. iv. viii, liv. iii. chap.
iii. iv. Flaugergues, Journal des Sgavans, Oct. 1789.
Venturi, Recherches experimentales syr la communication,
lateral du mouvement dans les Fluides, Paris, 1797. This.
work was translated by Nicholson, and published sepa-
rately in 1798. It appeared also in his Philosophicat
Journal, 4to, vol, ii. p. 172 Fabre, Sur les Torrens eb.
' HYDRODYNAMICS. 425
History. Rivieres, Paris, 1797. Mazzuchelli, Idrodinamico, 25. and 79. Gregory’s Mechanics, vol.i. Lond. 1806, History.
. = 7. , pag g Dr arqors oske'e aa genes —_ Peacatt sana
terminer la coherence des Fluides et i resistance sophy, 2 v . 1807. Mollet’s Hydrauli
dans wtp cot tee tres ee in the Me- sigue, Lyons, 1810. Girard, Memoires des Syavase -
moires de U Institut, tom. iii. p. Eytelwein's Hand- trangers for 1815, and Journal des Mines. Poisson,
buch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik. Berlin, 1801. Mem. de l'Institut, 1815. Robison’s System of Mechani«
An excellent abstract of this’ work, Dr. Thomas. Pryce set , vol. ii. and iii, Art. Resistance of Fluids,-
¥ will be found in the Journals of the Royal In-. Rivers, Weter-works.
ditaiin, No. 1. and in: Nicholson's lournal, vol, iii,
PartI. HYDROSTATICS.
ydrostae ‘Dnostati¢s, from the Greek i3ue, water, and ierme:, second class possess this property in such a small de- Hydrosts--
Pom pyaar laerlger pay nig me atm , that the diminution of their bulk by mechanical __ tics.
mics which treats of the properties of fluids at rest. It poe is scarcely susceptible ef accurate mensuration. ““\—"
oe the pressure and equilibriam of non-elas- The science of Pyeumatics considers the mechanical
tic finids, the doctrine of specific gravities, the pheno- properties of the first class, and that of HypropyNa-
mena of cohesion and capillary attraction, and the wucs those of the second class.
equilibrium of floating bodies. Till within the last-fifty years, it was considered as Water for-
an established fact, that the. class of incompressible merly
"Definitions and Preliminary Observations. fluids could not be reduced in bulk by the application thought in-
of the most powerful forces. This mencinsion, os 7 a —"
Definition _ A fluid is a collection. of minute material parti« duced from an experiment by Lord Bacon, who
afafuid. cles, ( of a pare Pir form,) which cohere so a leaden globe with water, and attempted to compress 1r! Bs
Tghasl to exch another, that they yield to the euallan it by a great external force. The fluid, however, made 0 PS"
force, and are easily moved among one another in eve- its way through‘the pores of the metal, and stood like
direction. » dew upon the surfuce of the globe. The Florentine piorentine
The phenomena exhibited by fluids, whether they academicians the same experiment with a sil- experiment.
are at rest or in’ motion, afford us no reason to believe, ver globe, and, by violent ay oda succeeded
that the particles of which they are composed in altering its form, and expelling water
any polarity, or any tendency to arrange vesin the of the silver. These trials seem to have esta-
one particular manner more than another. When a bli the doctrine of the incom ibility of fluids
mass of water isin a state of perfect equilibrium, acer- in its most strict acceptation ; but Bacon deduced
tain point of one particle is in ph, ical contact witha from them the very opposite conclusion, for, after giv-
certain point of another particle ; but if the equilibrium ing an account of the experiment which we have men-
is destroyed by violent agitation, there is no tioned, he tells us, that he afterwards computed into
even Seo centectorng, feat fe sane peinte.ot par- how much space the water was driven by this violent
icles i equilibrium is +
recent discoveries, however, which have.
re.
Although the experiment of the Florentine Academy Experi-
of Del Cimento was considered as decisive of this point, mts of ©
yet it occurred to Mr Canton, about the year 1761, that ©*°'"-
it was not hostile to the idea of a small degree of com-
pressibility ; for the academicians were unable to de-
termine whether or not the water forced into the pores,
and through the gold, was exactly equal tothe dimi-
i nution of the internal space by pressure. He accord-
vessel, od gppenss uniformly ect a certain arrange- ingly set about a series of experiments on this subject.
ment, whi Pee nena 4 indicated by their action Having procured a small glass tube abuut two feet long,
Bb peaks oat See Optics and Potantsarion. and 14 inch in diameter, and with a ball at one end of
pile wt ncomprenite tide" The camo clanc ry, rowpht the whole tthe temperate of
i i i i ; t w to temperature of 50° of:
i atmospherical air, Fahrenbeit, and observed that Gi inercery stood at a
and the various gaseous or aériform bodies with which. point exactly inches above the ball. The mercury
chemists have made us acquainted ; while the class of was then by heat to the top of the tube, and the
inelastic or incompressible fluids coroprehends water, tube was hermetically sealed. The mercury was then -
mercury, alcohol, and the various oils and liquid acids. brought to the same degree of heat as before, and it
The first class, in virtue of their elasticity, are capable’ now stood in the tube ,'3, of an inch higher than it did.
of éxpanding themselves when they are unconfined, so before. By ing the same experiment with wa-
as to fill any eee ae Polk gres- ter exha' of air, instead of mercury, he found that-
ly diminished by mechanical compression ;* while the the water stood in the tube ,4, of an inch above the.
* Air is said to have been reduced to _ 1-5 of its bulk in Hales's experiments.
+ See Bacon's Works, by Shaw, vol. ti. p. 521, or the Nowwm Organum, Part II. Sect. ii. Aphorism 45, § 222. Bacon seems to
have considered all bodies as in some measure elastic; for, after having explained what he calls the mdtion of liberty, and applied”
it to the phenomens of tension, he says, “* that this motion was unscientifically called by the schools the motion of the elementary forms :
for it does not only apply to air, water, and Game, but to all the diversities of consistent bodies, as wood, iron, lead, cloth, skins, Ac.
each body its own measure of extent or dimension, from whence it is with difficulty stretched to any considerable distance.” ~
Bacon's Works, vol. ii. p 527. Aph. 48. § 245..
VOL. XI. PART U. Su
426
Hydrosta- mark, Hence it is obvidus,'thatithe weight of: the at-
tics.
Canton's
mosphere, or 73 pounds» avoixdupois,
sfessing’ on the
outside of the ball, and'not on'theliniside) id
had squeezed
experiments it into less compass, and'tHat, by this “compression of
on the com- the ball; the mercury andthe water would °
pressibility raised.in'the tube)’ But the ‘water'tose
of water.
weer
re of ‘an. im
more than the mercury, and consequently:the water
must have expanded so much morethaty ‘the "mereury.
by removing the weight of the atmosphere. In order
to determine how much compression was produced, ei-
ther by the weight of the atmosphere, or by a greater
weight, he took a glass ball about 1.6 inchin'diameter,
joined to a cylindrical tube 4.2 inches long, and x35 of
an inch in diameter, and, by weighing the quantity of
mercury that exactly filled the ‘ball, and ‘also the quan-
tity that exactly filled the whole length of the tube, he
found that the mercury in 333, of an inch of the tube
‘was the 100,000th part of that’ contained in the ball,
and he divided the tube accordingly with the edge of
a file. When the ball and part of the tube was filled’
with water exhausted of air, he placed it in the receiver
of an air pump, and also in the receiver of a condensing’
engine, and he observed the degree of expansion of the
water that corresponded with any degree of rarefac-
tion, and the degree of compression that corresponded.
with any degree of condensation. In'this way he found,
from repeated trials, that, when the mercury was at a
mean height, and the temperature of the air 50° of
Fahrenheit, the water rose four ‘divisions and 6-10ths,
or one part in 21740, by removing the weight’ of the
atmosphere ; conséquently the’ compression of water,
under twice'the weight’ of the’ atmosphere; is one part
in 10870 of its own bulk.
In combining thése experiments, Mr Canton found,
that water was more’ compressible’ in’ winter than’ in
summer, while, on the'contrary, alcohol'and oil of olives
were more compressible when expanded’ by heat, and
less so when contractéd by cold. The results were, as’
expressed in the following’ Tablé, ‘suited to the mean
weight of the atmosphere.
Temperature in Compression in millionth
Fahrenheit’s scale. parts of their own bulk.
Water. Alcohol.
34° 49 60
64° 44 71
The following Table contains all the results which
Mr Canton obtained. It is suited to a temperature of
50° of Fahrenheit, and to’ 293 inches of the barome-«
ter.
Compression in millionth Specific
Names of parts of their own bulk gravities at
fluids, by the weight of 294 the same tem-
inches of mercury perature,
Alcohol 0.846
Oil of olives 48 0.918
Rain water 46 1.000
Sea water 40 1.028
Mercury _3 13.595
From these results it appears, that the compressions:
ure not, as might have been imagined, in the” inverse
ratios of the specific gravities.
sion in water is the same as that in air, it would fol«
low, that, at a depth of 100 miles, the density of the
water would be doubled, and at the depth of 200 qua-
drupled. ‘
In the year 1774, the Ex-Jesuit Herbert published
If the law of compres-)
HYDRODYNAMICS!
at Vienna’a treatise entitled De Aquae Elasticitate, ia Hydroste
which he confirmed the general result’ of Canton’s' ex+
nents; andin'1779 M. Zimmerman published an ac~
count of similar ex ents at Leipsic, under the title
of Traité de U Elasticité deVeau et dautres fluidess He
found, that sea water, when inclosed ‘im the cavity of a
strong’ iron cylinder, and ‘pressed’ by'a force equal to a
column of sea water 1000 ‘feet high ‘was compressed
sisth part of its-own bulk,'a result:much greater than
we should have expected from the experiments of Can
ton. A number Of 1 results similar to these were ob-«
tained by ‘the Albé Mongez, who has printed an ac«
count of them in the 9th volume of Rozier’s Journal.
As the doctrine of the compressibility of water has
long’ been considered as a fact rigorously established,
we were surprised to find its incompressibility stated
by the Abbé Hauy, without the slightest reference to
any of the preceding experiments. ‘“ One of the expe«)
riments,” he observes, “ which has served to shew the’
incompressibility of water, consists in charging that li«
quid with a column of mercury, by employing a bent
tube in the form of a syphon, the shortest branch of
which is closed at its superior patt; and ins: water,
at the same time that the longest branch is occupied by
the mercury, which presses the ‘surface of the water.
The column formed by this latter fluid was not shorts)
ened by the smallest perceptible quantity, even when
that of the mercury was 227 centimétres, orabout seven
feet high, in whic case it exerted upon the water an
effect triple of that of a column of water $3 feet high.”*
In this experiment, which’ must have been’ carelessly
made, the compression ought to have been thrice as great’
as in the experiments of Canton.
‘ Fluids have also been divided into perfect and imper= portoct and
fect; but this division is quite arbitrary, as there is no imperfect _
body which possesses the character of perfect fluidity. fluids. i
Boiling water approaches nearer to a state of perfect flu»
idity than water in any other state, As its temperature"
diminishes, its viscidity increases, andits fluidity becomes »
less perfect. In many of the oils, varnishes, and’ in
melted glass, the pero is extremely imperfect ; where="
as it may be considered as nearly perfect in water, ‘al~
cohol, mercury, &c,
CHAP. I.
On THE Pressure AND Equiurprium or Fiuips.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE.
When a mass of fluid, in a state of equilibrium, is
subjected to the action of any forces, every particle 9 ‘the
Suid mass is pressed equally in. every direction, and vice
versa if every particle of the fluid mass is pressed equally
in eve. y direction, the whole mass will be in equilibrio.
Tuis principle, which has been adopted as the foun«
dation: of hydrostatics by Euler, D’Alembert, Bossut,
and Prony, is a necessary consequence of the definition
which we have already given of fluidity ; for, since the
parts. of a fluid yield to the smallest pressure, any pars
ticle which is more pressed in one direction than ano-.
ther, would move to the side where the pressure was:
least, and consequently the equilibrium would be de-
stroyed. If the particles are ae pressed in every
direction, it is equally evident, that the mass of which
they are composed must be in equilibrium.
* Hauy’s Elementury Treatise on Natural Philosophy, translated by DrO, Gregory, vol. ie § 174
8 :
ve ~
f,
Fig. 2
Fig, 3.
ADY DRODYNAMICS.
PEATE aires
of perfect fluids, yet in the case of water, alcohol,
Sere heen esaanes ure E,
and the sum of anaes pegs by -
tional to the area of the aperture | consequently ther
ig pres-
sures, when E: F=area of E: area of F. same is
‘true of any number of apertures."
Secr. I. On the Pressure and Equilibrium of Fluids
Daiform Denely. od 4
Paopr. I.
When any fluid, influenced by the force of gravity,
is in equilibrio in any vessel, its surface is horizontal,
or at right angles to the direction of gravity.
Let the surface of the fluid have the curvilineal form
Ap'B, Fig. 2, and let the force of gravity with which
particle pis inuenced be represented by the ver-
3
427
axis, or if they are put into a glass globe, and turned
when the axis of
..rotation is vertical.
ScHo.rum.
The depression of the surface of a fluid or D beneath
2 horizontal straight line for any given length L, may
be found from the following simple formula: D=*"*,
Prop. II.
If a isi “inflaenced by the force, of gravity is in-
closed in a syphon, or in any number of communica-
vessels, the surface of the fluid in each branch
“Will be in the same horizontal plane.
Pressure
by the whirling table, their separating surfaces always #4 Equili-
assume the form of parabolic conoids, :
brium of
Fluids.
—\—
Let ABCD, Fig. 4, be asyphon with three branches,
Katte. Dik emanniention with sock other st.B.. If coon.
water is.
aaa Chard g(t gaya armory mapas
branches, so that ADC is a horizontal line perpendicu-
dap to. sha gapection of gravity, {ah Sie aTpbor be.20-
moved, and let the water which it contained form part
ore joa “Up, pay pblpapoareg holy aca
zontal surface aA At is to su ta por-
tion of the water, of the aaat hon aay Giicinens os
the syphon, may be converted into ice, without
_ing its,place or its volume. The equilibrium of the wa-
ter.is obviously not affected by such a change ; and,
-therefore, the water will stand at the same height ADC
ina of ice ; and, consequently, the same will
happen whatever be the substance of which the syphon
is composed. The same conclusion would have H
obtained, iy eppering 2 he wees Som, excepting
that portion which was at first included in the syphon.
Scnouium.
The arts of levelling and of conducting water
are founded upon the preceding proposition. As wa-
ter will always rise to the same level as the spring
from which it flows, it may be conveyed in pipes
through the deepest vallies, and over the highest emi-
nences, provided the pipe never rises to a greater
testcase hi cts pine Sy gt
wi simple princi might
hevnanneld the sanstanetion of e > ive aqueducts
i i a
ciple con-
ith’s mo level
article Leveutine. ‘
Paop. IIT.
If a mass of fluid contained in a vessel is in equi-
librio, any one particle of the fluid is in every di-
rection, with a force to a weight of the column
equal to that particle, and
icle below the
into this vessel till it rises to A in one Fig. 4
Let p, Fig. 5, be the particle of fluid whose depth in Fig. 5.
the vessel of fluid ABCD is ep. We may suppose, as for-
of this article, our readers will perceive that we have been under great
which we must refer those who wish to obtain a more profound and eaten-
428
‘Pressure merly, that a portion of the water is ‘frozen, so as'to form
send Equili- a tube of ice ep, whose diameter is equal to that of the
fluids, Particle p, without any change taking placein the pres-
—~— sure sustained by p. In this case, the particle p is ob-
PLate viously pressed downwards with the weight of the
CCCXIT. column ep; and, consequently, the measure of this
Vig. 5. pressure is the absolute weight of the column ep.. But
as the particle is in equilibrio, it must be pressed with
this force in every direction.
- The proposition is also true of a particle situated at
m, for drawing the horizontal line mg; and supposing a
syphon of ice /ghm to be formed, it is obvious that the
column of fluid in the branch mh is in equilibrio
with, or balanced by, the column in gh; consequently
the particle of water at m is pressed with the same
force as the particle at g, that is, with a column of wa-
ter whose height is fg.
Cor.. Hence it follows, that every particle of a ves«
sel containing fluid is pressed with a force equal to a
column of fluid, whose tea is the particle, and whose
height is the depth of the particle below the surface ;
for, since the particle of fluid adjacent to this particle
of the vessel is pressed in every direction with this
force, it must exert the same force against that particle
of the vessel.
Prop. IV.
The pressure exerted by a fluid upon any given por-
tion of the vessel which contains it, is equal to a co-
.lumn of the fluid whose base is the area of the given
portion, and whose altitude is the depth of the centre
of gravity of the portion below the fluid surface.
Let mn be the given portion. of the vessel ABCD
filled with fluid, and let us conceive this portion to be
occupied by any number of particles m, 0, p, n, &c. then
the pressure sustained by each, of these particles, by
Prop. ITE. will. be -m xm U+OoXOr-+ pX py-+-n X nz,
&¢.; but, by the property of the centre of gravity or
inertia, (See Mecuanics,) the sum of these products is
equal to the distance EF of the centre of gravity E,
from the surface at F, multiplied into the number of
particles. m, n, 0, p; that is, mx mu+oxXoxr-+px py
+nxXnz=EF Xm,n,0,p; consequently, since m,n,0,p
represents the area or the number of particles in the
given portion mn, the pressure upon mm=EF x mn.
Cor. 1, It follows from this proposition, that the
pressure sustained by the bottom of the vessel is not
the same as the weight of the fluid contained in the
vessel. In the cylindrical vessel shewn in Fig. 7, or
in any vessel, whatever be its shape, in which the sides
are perpendicular to its bottom, the pressure upon the
bottom is accurately measured by the weight of the water
which it contains ; but in vessels of all other shapes, such
as Fig. 8, 9, the pressure on the bottom is measured by
mn Xm x, which jn Fig. 8 ismuch less than the weight
of water in the vessel, and in Fig. 9 much greater.
Cor. 2. The truth of what is called the Hydrostatic
Paradox, is easily deduced from the preceding proposi-
tion, Let ABCDEFGH, Fig. 10, be a vessel filled with
water, then, by the proposition, the pressure upon GF =
GF x G1, however narrow be the column ABCD, thatis,
the pressure exerted upon the bottoms of vessels filled with
JSluid does not depend upon the quantity of the fluid which
they contain, but solely upon its altitude. In like man-
ner, it is obvious from Prop. II. that the water will
stand at the same level ab AB, Fig. 11, in the two com-
municating vessels abed, ABCD, consequently, any pors
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8, 9.
Hydrostatic
_ paradox.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
uid abcd, however small, will balance any pors Pressure’
of fluid in the vessel. .
tion 0
tion of fluid ABCD, however. great. t
Cor. 8. The pressure exerted upon the ‘sides of a
vessel, perpendicular to its base, is equal to the weight
and E
brium of
Fluids.
-of a rectangular prism of the fluid, whose height is
-equal to that of the fluid, and whose base_is a parallel.
-ogram, one side of which is equal to the height of the
fluid, and the other to half the perimeter of the vessel.
Cor.4. The pressure against one side of a cubical vessel
is equal to half the pressure against the bottom; andthe
“pressure against the sides and bottom together, is equal
‘to three times the pressure against the. bottom alone.
Hence, by Cor. 1. the pressure against both the sides
and bottom together, is equal to three times the weight
Cor..5. The pressure exerted upon the surface of a
hemisphere full of fluid, is equal to the product of that
surface multiplied by its radius, . = - 2
Cor. 6. The pressure sustained by different parts of
the sides of a vessel, are as the squares of their depths
below the surface. Hence, these pressures will be re-
presented by the ordinates of a parabola, when the
depths are represented by its abscissee.
‘DEFINITION.
The centre of pressure is that point of a surface ex- Centre of
posed to the action of a fluid, to which, if a forceequal pressure.
to the whole pressure upon the surface were applied,
the effect angst be the same as it is when the pressure
is distributed over the whole surface.
Prop. V.
To find the centre of pressure.
Let it be required to find the centre of pressure P, Fig. Prats
11, on the side of a’ cubical vessel ABCD. Let G be CCCXILE,
the centre of gravity of the surface, then the pressure Fig: !1.
exerted against this surface will be BC x BC xGB, or
a since in the case of a cube or rectangle, GB=> >
and since the pressure must be equal to the sum of all
the eke oo upon the elementary portions —
F f, we have == x PB=/BCxF f x FB x FB, or
ica fe FX FB* But the sum of the elementary
pressures F.fx FD? compose a pyramid whose base is
=BC:2, and whose altitude is BC, consequently, by the
property of the centre of inertia (See Mecuanics)
3 Pi
Tax a a and pB=* 2°, that is the centre
of pressure, is two-thirds of the depth of fluid in the
vessel. :
Cor. The centre of pressure coincides with the cen-
tre of percussion, as the centre of percussion is also
two-thirds of the height of the body. city
Secr. II, On the Pressure and Equilibrium of Fluids
of Variable Density. :
DEFINITION. jars Leia :
Tne absolute weights of different bodies that have
the same bulk are called their specific gravities or den-
silies, and any body that, under the same bulk, is hea-
- vier than another, is said to be specifically heavier,
i
}
“HYDRODYNAMICS. (499
‘Prop. I. of the strata are perpendicular to the direction of gra- See
vity. ——
PLATE
If the lower stratum of k/c D (Fig. 13.) were placed ec¢cxii1.
alone in the veseel, its surface Kl would be horizontal. Fig. 15,
; int of the surface kl
o
fat
pA
Ai
:
1
cue
:
t
i
i
:
i
F
7
z
5
Ti
anit
i
F
i
;
4
:
~-
:
:
zg
Ff
:
t
ry
f
i
|
i
ii
i
:
3
F
:
:
g
7
iE
|
Ff
3
as
ce
wate
it
iy
ELE
3 BEE
i
itt
ip
i
cee
E
4
z
e
!
4
83
:
x
s%
F
i
;
“the columns ABpo, CD vf of different densities, as ‘SuStains the weight of all the columns q p,
i Gu tckinrey, ¥6 In this case, ~s< We may therefore /f #*= /-S=* = Jat and since, in the case of a
column Ss _ 5
substitute a ane tatine fertovier pressure upon the bottom, z= a, we have ES
Sa
SB + SH) De x (Sx H45'x H+ ey ee ite a's eee es ee”
llth! ae which is the truth announced va chorea Saual to tho Wuahi of Up Welt Gipicet.
Puop. Let EF 14.) bea floating in the vessel Fig. 14.
2 ABCD. thes Prop. IIL I, any point or par-
If a fluid contained in a vessel consists of an infinite ticle n is
number of strata whose densities vary toany lumn i
law, the fluid will be in equilibrio, when the surfaces true of every part of the surface En
Specific
Gravities.
PLATE
CccxXIIL,
Fig. 15,
Fig. 14
» ‘it which is immersed ; then since-B xs is the al
~wards' with a columw: of fluid whose hei
430
-part of the solidimmersed is made up of these elementa-
ry columns, it follows that the sum of all the pressures
exerted upon EnF is equal toa quantity of fluid of
the same size as'the;/immersed part, which is the same
as the quantity of fluid displaced.
When the body EF is wholly immersed,vas' in Fig.
15, it is. obvious, that any part o is: down-
is mo, oe
any-part 7 is) upwards with acolumn of flui
whose height is mn; consequently the point m is pressed
upwards with a column xo=mn—mo. But the sum
all the elementary columns no, make up a quantity
of fluid:equal to that which is displaced by the body.
Cor. When a‘solid floats on a fluid, the quantity of
fluid which it displaces is equal to the weight of the bo-
dy. Since the whole weight of the solid pressing wpon
the surface of water E ~ F is in equilibrio with the fluid
mass, it must be equal in weight to the quantity of fluid
ExF, which is also in piney acre with the same fluid
mass, but this quantity of fluid is the quantity which
is displaced. -
Prop. II.
When»a body floats upon a fluid, the centre. of gravi-
ty of the, body and.of the fluid displaced are in the same
vertical line.
For since.the upward pressure which supports the
floating body is'the same‘as if it were applied.to the
centre of gravity of the part immersed, or of the quan-
tity. of fluid displaced, then since the whole floating bo-
dy is in equilibrio, its centre of gravity must be sup-
ported by’ this upward pressure ;: that is, the centres of
gravity of the: fluid displaced and of the floating body
must be in the same vertical line.
Prop. iI.
The specific gravity of any floating body is to that of
the fluid, as the volume of the mit, be ahi is to the
whole volume of the body.
Calling S the specific gravity of the) fluid; and s that
of the solid;:we have-by Cor. Prop. I. Sx EnF =
sxEpFn, and therefores: S=EnF:EpF 2; that
is, ba the part immersed ‘is to the whole volume of the
body. Si
Prop. IV.
If a solid is weighed in-a fluid, it will lose as’ much
of its weight as is equal to the quantity of fluid dis-
placed.
It appears from Prop. I. that the body is pressed up-
wards with a force equal to the weight of the fluid dis-
placed ; and as this force acts in opposition to the na-
tural gravity oreabsolute weight of the body, its abso-
lute weight must be diminished by a quantity equal to
the weight of the fluid'displaced. The weight which
the body in this case loses is not destroyed, but is sus-
tained by:an equal and opposite force.
If we calls the apecific gravity of the solid, S that of
the fluid, B the bulk of the solid, and mB the part of
lute
weight of the solid, and m B x S the absolute weight of
the quantity of fluid displaced, in order that an equili-
brium, may take place, we must have Bx S=mBxS,
and S: Sm B.: B. . Hence if s=S, we have mB=B ;
that is, if the specific gravity of the solid is equal to that
in whi
HY DRODYNAMICS. |
of the fluid, the part immersed is equal to the whole body; ott
or, in other words, the solid will be completely immersed,
‘and will remain wherever it is placed. If s>>~S, then
mB=>B ; that is, when the specify gravily of the solid
is greater than that of the fluid, the body will sink to the
bottom : and if the uid mB.=.B ; that is, a the
specific gravity of the fluid is greater than that: of the
id then the part immersed is less‘than that of the whole
‘solid, or the body will float.
Prop. V.
If a body is held beneath the-surface of a fluid, the
force with which it will ascend, if it is lighter than the
“fluid, or with which it will descend if it is heavier, is
“equal to the difference between its own weight and the
weight of an equal quantity of the fluid.
‘ The body held beneath the water obviously descends
with its own weight =B xs, while it is pressed up-
wards with the weight of the quantity of fluid displaced
=B xS; consequently the force with which it ascends
must be Bx S—B xs, and the force with which it de-
scends =B x s—-B-x S, which are the differences between
-the. weight of the body and the weight of the fluid dis-
placed.
Scuorium.
On the truth contained in this proposition is found-
ed the construction of the Camel for raising sunk ves-
sels, or for lifting ships over high.sand banks. (See
our article Came.) A similar effect is exhibited in
some of the American rivers, where the ice is formed
upon the stones at their bottom. Ice is specifically
lighter than water, and therefore, when it accumulates
to a certain degree round the stones, the pea pres«
sure upon the stones exceeds their pressure downwards,
and they are brought to the surface, having some-~
times torn up with great force. Huge masses of stones
ap in many cases to have been floated by the ice
adhering to them, and carried to a great distance from
the place of their formation.
Prop. VI.
The specificigravity of a solid isto: that of the fluid
chit is weighed, as the-absolute: weight of the
solid is to the loss of weight which it sustains.
In the equation Bx s=m B x S, we have B=mB when
-the body is weighed in a fluid, and of course wholly
immersed ; consequently if W be the weight of the bo-
dy in the fluid, or the weight necessary’ to: keep it in
equilibrio with the fluid, then | Bxs=BxS+W,
(and transposing and multiplying by s,) we have
sxBxs—W=s x BS, and (Euclid, Book VI. 16.
s:S=Bxs:Bxs—W; consequently since B x s—
is the loss of weight which it sustains, the specific gra-
vity of the solid is to that of the fluid, as the weight of
the solid is to its loss of weight. !
This Proposition may also be demonstrated, by. consi-
dering that.the weight lost; or Bx s—W, is the weight
of a bulk of fluid equal to the grtes the al whose
weight is B.x's 5 atid therefore as the specific'gravities
. one another, by the definitiony as the weight of
equal bulks, we have s: S=Bxs:Bxs—W.
Prop. VII.
If the same solid body is weighed in two fluids, the
specific gravities of the fluids are to one another as the
tS ote oy —T
OO ee Ma
F
»
I,
Making B the bulk of the body as before, S, S’ the
P oo the two fnids, and W,
fluid, then
‘will be
in
‘have an
real the body.
: BxS4W=B Xs and Bx S’4+0w=B xs.
Hence we have the two equations,
BxS=B x s—W and Bx S=B xX s—w;
SxB:S’xB=B xs—W:Bx
ly, (Eucl. B. V. 16.) S:V=BxKs—
is, the specific gravities, or as the losses
sustained by the soli
equal to the difference
the weights W, w in the fluid.
Cor. Hence, if two solid bodies
their weights in the same fluid, they have equal vo~-
the heavier fluid is to the difference of the specific
vities of the solid and the lighter fluid. a2
and fluid, whose spe-
cific gravity is poche in the heavier fluid,
howe spetie gravity 4 ppg Sa specific
of
rF
is very small when to S’, as in
air and water, then we may, for ordinary purposes, take
the —t:8.
Pror. IX. Paos.
To detect the adulteration of the precious metals.
Let us as in the case of Hiero’s crown, that
a mass of is adulterated by the admixture of
silver. If we a quantity of pure of the same
t as the adulterated mass, it will have less
as its specific gravity is greater than that of the
NAMICS..
rated'mass. Hence it follows, that we have-only to Specific
mass, and 4 mass of pure gold of Gravities
) fore’ less bulk than the mass ;
the
, 2438 =BxS4H x8, and by
we
481
we the suspected
io teee weight ; and if'there is any difference in their
ight, we must conclude that the mass is adulterated.
‘| bo a es pa i Dh a ay
mass, it rs) Mee jost ‘weight, an “there.
, the adul-"
ing mixture has a’ less specific’ gravity than gold.
If, on contrary, the ‘loses’ more weight ‘than
the mass, it will have'a mrt oe and therefore the
higher speci gravity
between the
the sum of the
a
Fa
FF
Hiflited
Paor. XI. Pros.
To determine accurately the specific gravity of
seous or aeriform bodies. aed ae
As the of bodies are mea-
sured in ion to that of air; we must first determine
the weight of a given volume of this gas. In order to
or w—wW’,
vessel when empty as formerly, and al-
required to measure the speci vity of another
Wei eat =
sa. mbes fi tema oo. 2." greet calaediadarl
will be its i i ‘with that of the
air, which is taken at 1,000. £ san boa
that which with the state of ‘atmo.
sphere at the time when the experiment was made,
Specific
432 HYDROD
It is obvious, however, that all these measures are
Gravitiess affected by a variation in the density, the temperature,
and the humidity, of the external atm ere. The
weight, too, of the gases, when they are introduced |
into the receiver, is affected by the temperature and
pressure of the air. The contraction and dilatation of
the glass vessel requires also to be computed ; and the
weight of the gas itself is affected by the tempera-
ture and the degree of drying which it has experienced.
These various sources of error likewise affect the results,
in so, far as they affect the external atmospherical air in
which both the ‘air itself and the gas must be weighed.
Some allowance must also be ah for the imperfect
exhaustion of the glass vessel, which is always visible
by its effect upon the barometer. i
. It will readily be seen, that it must require no small
degree of trouble to. calculate the combined influence
YNAMICS.
of these different causes, though, in order to obtain accu Specific
rate results, such a calculation becomes absolutely ne- Gravities,
cessary. As it would be impracticable in the present
article to'enter into any lengthened examination of the
subject, we must refer such of our readers as wish to.
study it profoundly, to the 19th, 20th, and 21st chap-
ters of M. Biot’s valuable work entitled, Trarté de Phy=.
sigue, which not only contain the method of deducing.
the necessary formule, but also many excellent remarks
and suggestions which could only have been given by
one who had investigated the subject both theoretically
and practically. The following are his principal formule,
which are suited to a temperature of 32° of Fahren-.
heit, or that of melting ice, and to.a state of the at«
mosphere when the barometer stands at 0,76 metres, or
29.94 English inches. ;
In these formule,
X = the absolute weight of atmospheric air contained in the glass vessel at a tempe-
rature of 32°, and under a pressure of 29.94 inches of mercury, as calculated
from the formule. °
Y = the absolute weight of any. gas under the same circumstances.
At, the time when the h = the atmospheri
glass vessel is weigh-
ed empty,
ay. : pump.
At the time oftheintro-(p =
}! = temperature of the gas.
p’ = its hygrometric state.
duction of the gas into
the glass vessel.
glass is weighed full
of gas.
When the glass vessel is
weighed empty’a se-
cond time, after it
has-been weighed full
of gas.
p"” = atmospherieal pressure..
?’” = temperature;
V_ = the interior volume of the glass vessel at the same temperature. ;
K = the cubical dilatation’ of glass for met. § degree of, the-centigrade thermometer.
P = the absolute weight of the glass vessel,
which never changes.
pressure;
£ = the temperature of the air.
p = the state of the hygrometer.
@° = the-tension inthe interior of ‘the glass vessel, after a yacuum is made by the air
external pressure exerted upon the gas.
« ” = the weight of the glass vessel filled with gas.
Ap the eter, Pee te Di = the atmospherical: pressure.
t’’ = the temperature of the external air.
“h" = the state ofthe hygrometer.
P” = the weight of the glass vessel empty observed in ait
1. Formula suited to the case where the Gases are perfectly dry.
~- P”—P0".76
— C+Ka)p 4 (14 KV )p + Ke")p" (No. 1)
1+-#.0,00875.' 1+4-2'.0,003875 14 2".0,00375
@P=P=P) @X(14Ki")p”_ XG4Ki)p _ X14Ke")p"”
eY= aac mals dle hale 142”.0,00375. —_ 14t.0,00875 —_1++#’”.0,00875 (No. 2.)
(14K?1)p
1+4-1'.0,00375 :
In the ordinary state of the atmosphere, the barome-
ter and thermometer indicate only very small and pro-
gressive changes, so that in the short time which can
elapse between the different weighings of the gas,
we may safely suppose the stihoxpbdrieat ressure p’’,
and.the temperature ¢’, ontempabeiiie to the interme-
diate weighing of the- glass vessel, as arithmetical’
(P im et) (14
means between the extreme pressures p, p’’’, and the
extreme temperatures #, ¢’”. In proportion, therefore,
as the variations in these elements have been inconsi-
derable, we may consider them as compensating them-.
selves in the terms of X: These terms will consequent]
disappear, and the formula will be reduced. to. the fol-
lowing simple. form ;
#’ .0,00875) .0"",76"
ae
(1+ Ki’) p’
(No. 3.)
This formula will be found sufficiently exact when has«a-very considerable influence upon the weight at
the gases and the atmospherical air are perfect] ;
but as this is never the case, and as the Prcsiet hs
a temperature above 50° of Fahrenheit, it is necessary’
to.compute its effect.
Ae
i
HYDRODYNAMICS. 433
‘Specific 1 Ta een ; ; 4
ore, ©, Formulae suited to the case where the Gases are perfectly saturated with Water.
In the following formule, X is the of a volume of dry atmospherical air contained in the vessel,
at the temperature of 32°, and the etric: pressure of 0.76 metres br 29.906 English mcbes, eet
T =the real tension of aqueous vapour at the weighing of the vessel empty.
T’ = the tension at the introduction of the gas. ox
T” = the tension at the weighing of the glass vessel full of gas.
x= PP 0m76 .
e i+ r—s thE —+t
SX(14K¢)T) | X(14Ke") (p'—3T" X(14K4) (p—3T) ,
Yy (Pr—P)=0.76— 274 *0,0037. of 1 +?" .0,00875 ers re (No. 5.)
. ~ EEA =I)
1+? .0,00375
in which the air the gas are weighed, are not sa- nots, Memaair, by weighing 4 time
turated with moisture. In this case, T’ and T” will. the vessel empty, i it has been
express the tension of the aqueous vapour really sus- full of the Then, if {” is the tempera-
, pended in this air. ture at which this is 2” the stmoepherical
The preceding results may be rendered independent sure, T’” the tension of aqueous vapour, s
; of the quantity of aqueous vapour contained in the at- the weight observed, the resulting formula will be
+3 —eero 5X(1+Kr)T’
i Y (P" 2 16 — ST 4 £.0,0087
= (No. 6.)
. Try
1 + f .0,00875
This formula becomes exactly the same as No. 8, when T’ = .0; that is, when the gases are perfectly dry.
3. Formule suited to the Case when the Gases are perfectly dry, but the exhaustion not complete. ,
The above formule will be sufficiently correct, if the exhaustion of the glass vessel is made with a very fine
air ; but as this is not be mi ae nea: 2 t whe
Siashs Gis ipa i dames aye oct hy brn oregano
(P’— Pr) on76 4. XO ze) (P47) —X(1 + ae (pt)
You , (i+ Kr) Gay (No. 7.)
1+? .0,003875
which, by the means formerly described, may be reduced to
(Pr —FEP'Y) (1 4 1.000975) 00:76
: + Kk?) @—*)
M. Biot has the use of theformula No.5. The saturated “age
wy iepistusanahans ts dete oo Gah oo ay vate meter Med a state of the Lt appealing
of Rensentaing toe gravity of to extreme
tis al te flowing ace" Weigh ofthe atmosphere
At the of the Fn ORIN g mined pear
vintet cee oats
=
At the introduction of the 21° 4 centigrade. Cubical dilatation paced 5
4 gas into the glass vessel = 0.7630 metres, se date of the centigrade K 0.0000262716
=
_ Mecreeingg mele Sane
VOR. XI. PART 1. pond 7 gy Ue K = 5104865
Gravities.
434 HYDRODYNAMICS,
Specific Elastic forces of the aqueous Fahrenheit, by subtracting from each of them the cor-
Graviticess — yapour at the temperatures | T =,0.0185 metres. responding dilatation of mercury. _ Hence we shall
t, v', U’, calculated from a for- > T’ = 0.0190
mula given by Biot, vol..i..|°T’ = 0.0182. Conse«
e C7; °
pe $T =0.0069. 3T’ =0.0068. Hence
pom} T= 07547 metres ;
p’ —iT’ =0.7440;
pl —iT"=0.7554,
But as the pressures p, p’, p’’, or the altitude of the
mercury in the barometer, were obsérved at different
have
; © | 0.7547, 20°.9 ah
| Taam 7 ta 0,0029 metres,
0.7440 . 2194.
p _ Tin gagmon ae = 0.0029.
» _. 0-7554 . 20°.6
PF nape
5412
= 0.0029; so that the
temperatures, they must be reduced to that of 32° of barometrical columns thus reduced will be
: p—iT =0.7518; p’—3T = 0.7411; p” —3T” = 0.7525.
We havealso . . . « 14K#t = 1.000549; 1 +4 -0,00375 = 1.078375
14+K# = 1.000562; 1 -|- #’ .0,00375 = 1.080250
14+Ki’= 1.000541; 1 +4 2”.0,00375 = 1.077250.
With these elements, and with X, which has been found, we have
X(L + Kz") (p"—4T)
1 + ¢7 .0,00875
(+ Kt) (p—3T)
= 5.088985 grammes.
_ 1 +-40.003875
Difference .
Hence we have the difference of these two terms, or
X(14+ Ke’) (p”—$T") XG4 Kd (p—#T)
= 5.078947
. . 0.009988 i
1 + ?” 0.00875
By adding to this (P’”’ —P) .0.76 metres.
MAGAVO.e,--\5,°e 20.) oe MIN ine pea ee ile
. ° .
I + K#.0,00375
= 0.009988 grammes.
= 0.43016
0.440145
which is the stim of all the positive’ terms of the numerator.
By subtracting the negative term, or
Tid tiitetente 1a. ee ee ne ee
which is the value of the numerator of the formula.
5X(14K?r)T
8 (1-47.0.00375) °°
(14Kv) (p'—T)
2 = 0.0797783
0.360370 |
The denominator, of
1 + #.0.00375
0:36037
we have Y= 0.6891163
. “« ='0.6891163
. a « == 0.522945 grammes, .
which is the weight of the volume of hydrogen gas contained in the glass vessel at 32° of Fahrenheit, and-0.76
metres, or 29.994 inches of the barometer. Hence we have the specific’ gravity of hydrogen gas, or
Y _ 0.522945
X ~ 7.25323
Pror. XII. Pros.
"fo determine accurately the specific gravity of lie
quids, .
The accurate determination of the specific gravity of
liquids is like that of gaseous bodies, attended with con
siderable difficulty.. As the specific gravities of the gases
are referred to that of atmospheric air, so in liquid and
solid bodies the specific gravities are referred to that
of water, when at the temperature of + 3°.42 of the
centigrade scale, or 38°.15 of Fahrenheit, which cor«
responds to the maximum density of that fluid.
In measuring the specific gravities of liquids, a glass
vessel with a narrow neck, after having been accurately
weighed when empty, is successively weighed when
filled with distilled water, and with the liquid whose
kL
= 0.720982.
specific gravity is required, and the temperature and
daciecbanineh simarenisen carefully. marked. The
volume. of water and of. fluid may then. be —_ 2
the following formule which have been given by M,
Biot. . In these formule, aa
V = the interior capacity or volume of the glass vessel
in cubic centimetres, at the temperature of 32°
. of Fahrenheit, or that of melting ice.
L = the ri rt weight of the liquid when it is
est 3 aia
“ Ww fo ‘
a = dilasationat the liquid at 32° of Fahrenheit, taking
its volume at this temperature for unity.
3 = the dilatation of water from its maximum density
to the temperature 7’. ;
F =the apparent weight of the water at the tempera-
ture i’.
Gravities.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
© “Fahrent
« ee nee Ot eon eighoe arn eee oer,
at the temperature
T pir tere Sd alates
= =the it of a centimetre of the liquid at
the temperature of 32° of i
Then we have
VaRqbe'¢ SOC Eee Ee) ree KE) Nas,
ot Bn $KO 37) oes
(L+4+a)(1+4a
oe
Hence «’K ¢ = 0.0000006369, «/ 4
No, 5.
435
The use of these formule will be est ¢ seen by ap-
plying them, as M. Biot has done, to the
ne
iments on mereury and water by him and M. Avago, ae
A ‘Temperature | H: of the
weight of air in degrees of pasos in
Liquids. in centigrade,ithe barometer,
ar ins of Elon alone or values of p.
Metres,
7 Mercury 1342,989 1s 0.7439
2.°Mercury} 1 20... 0.7580
3. Water 98,721 20.1 0.7600
4. Water 98,716 20.9 0.7589
arson ata from the formula No.
3, we have
and a 1137902,
: ey ey eset pry oe oe
7 = meh at apy since?” =20°.1—3°.42— 16°.68
3 =0.0018654 ’=20 .9—S .42=17 .48
Be Selene erence) colens =f being re-
duced to the temperature of 8 of Fahrenheit, we
atte —ogaga aia Ee
= — 0: 4
Witt! these . % v’ observed
pig ee celine by thi beans
” «’ = 0.001206079
: a = 0.001192953
Now K ¢ = 0.0005281 Exp. 3.
K # = 0.0005491 Exp, 4.
2K r—K ¢=10,00067861 Exp. 3.
« Kf =0,0000006551, «' 4+ « Kt’ —K¢ = 0.00064451 Exp. 4,
By substituting these values in the formula No.3. we have, in cubic centimetres,
V = 98.721 +. 0.1679985 4 0.0671518 = 98.9561453 Exp &.
V = 98.716 4 0.1841649 + 0.0687819 = 98.9689268 Exp. 4.
arithmetical mean between these results is
to calculate the value of a, we have
The In_ order
del sti teapeneee teat Poon pI ope ana Mp. pent Aa
The absolute of
weighed in the same gla ene,
- i tndemg be popes hom the Gemaiette: 8. 5.
in applying the formula to
Eaprinet and 2, on mercury.
tompee of $2° of Fahrenheit, and 0*.76 or 29.994 inches of at-
we shall have by the formula No. 4.
a=0,12004 Exp. 1. and a=0.11872. Exp. 2. Hence
L=1342,989 grammes, — L=180,93 grammes
ae sietd a= 0,12004 } sana. 4 a= 0,11872
L4a 1343,1090% L+a 1341,01172
weights contain a number of grammes, it is to calculate the corrections with regard
tok 1ma8. toereameag had eaia would otherwise have been necessary. We have —
L+a _ (L+a) Ke
14Ke— ait 14+K¢é
The second of these terms, which is.always very small, is the correction sought. Now
T= IS T0901—0,440919=1542,66818 Exp. 1.
iF
HHA <215961,01172—0,725363:=1940,286857 Exp. 2
436 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Pa By adding to each of these results its product by the dilatation =e in mercury, we have
—_——
C40 Ct?) —1542,66812-45,10115=1345,7692 Exp. 1. fans
CO it = 1910,28656 + 5,10160=1945,5860 Exp. 2.
The arithmetical mean between these resylts is P . : : }
1345,5786 grammes, which, being divided by V, al- —q» 49 %# has really displaced the quantity of water a.,
ready found to be 98,960036, we have But, in order to know the specific gravity of the solid
__1844,6786 _ —13,597190 ae of the body which do not it water, such as-
7=~98,960036 he real fibrous part of sponges, then we must con-
which is the weight of a cubic centimetre of mercury sider, that the quantity of ert displaced is not merely
in grammes, at the temperature of melting ice. a, but a—P’, and therefore-—— i :
it we wish to compare this weight with that of wa- “ chee MONT AH, bn “ee mah ageeitie gree
ter, we have only to calculate the last for the tempe- vity, neglecting the necessary reductions.
rature of melting ice, or for —3°.42 of the centigrade In order to explain the formule given by M. Biot for
thermometer. But if dis the dilatation of water from solid bodies, let us. take
its maximum density to its freezing pei or for be Senapeestare at which the solid is weighed.
“ 5 1) - d = the volume of the solid body in cubic centimetres
39.42, the weight of water required will be Thy an poh shige: ”
the relation between the weights of mercury and water (s) = the absolute weight of a cubic centimetre of its.
at the temperature of melting ice willbe x (1+). substance at the temperature of melting ice.
But, by substituting —3°42 in the formula of dilata- K = the cubical dilatation of ,the solid for one degree
tion, No. 1. we shall have 3=0,0000748. Hence act the centigeadle thermometer.
e)= the weight of a cubical centimetre of water at
= (1-4+3)=13,6971904-0,001017=18,598207,. the tens erature OFmelting ice,
which is the exact ratio between the weights of equal 2? = the dilatation of water from 32° to ¢. ‘
volumes of mercury and water at the temperature of ~ == the ratio of the weight of air to that of water in
wielting ice. the circumstances under which the experiment
7 made. ,
a = the dilatation of any other liquid y in-
Prop. XIII. Pros. Sautine stots ee ee
‘ f = ee ae = the weight of a cubical centimetre of another li<
_ To determine accurately the specific gravities of so- (=) _ quid a the temperature of melting ice. 1
lid bodies. S = the weight of the solid in air.
In determining the specific gravities of solid bodies, oy Se iy fs 5 _ lit tee
we may adopt two methods. 1. Wemay weighthem _ Case 1, When the body is weighed successively jn
successively in air and in some other fluid, which is ait and water,
the ordinary method ;.and then, if P is the apparent . Sir) S’(e)a\.
weight of the solid in air,and p the weight of the volume (s)=+K?) hes we) A
5% < »
of water which it displaces, we have As for the specific BR mcs tah s ead . s mri ?
gravity of the body, neglecting the necessary. reduc- and in air at the same temperature, then (2)=(c) al
tions ; or, 2. After having weighed the solid in air, we 4) consequently ® en
may place the solid in a glass vessel, and weigh them “~~ ” ;
»conjointly, and then weigh the same glass vessel when “ae )G+K 4) (S—S'«) No. 2
filled only with water. If then D is the weight of the (i+d) (S—S’) Sion
solid in air, p the weight of the vessel containing the Case 2. When there are three weighings, Ist of the
water and the solid, and p’ the weight of the vessel cof- solid body, 2d of the glass in.a vessel filled with a liquid,
taining “water alone; "Wien pp’ ie the welgntat the and 3d of the same vessel. containing the solid and the
quantity of water displaced, and ;———— will be the liquid ; . m
at fap te S(e)_ (P—L) (©)
specific gravity required. ; Then (s)=(1+4K n( — 5 )
When the —_If the substance is soluble in water, like many of the 14a 1+ No. 3,
body is so- salts, it is necessary to use alcohol, or some other fluid, S—P+L
luble in
: such as the essential or fat oils, which are not capable
water.
of dissolving it. The specific gravity of the oil being
known, that of the salt will be immediately found,
When the _‘_If the solid imbibes water, without either dissolving
body im- or decomposing it, it is necessary first to weigh the
bibes wa- body when perfectly dry, which weight we may call P,
“og and then weigh it when it has imbibed as much water
as possible. Let this weight be P’. We must next
find how much water the body displaces, which we may
call a, then the apparent specific gravity of the body is
If the body has been weighed successively in water
and in air, then (+)=(e) and a=3, and the formula is
reduced to _
(s)= Ol 14+K1)[S—(P—L)z#]
(1-+3)(S— P-L)
Case 3. When there are only two weighings, Ist of
the solid in air, and 2d of ‘the solid in liquid in the
same vessel : In this case let M be the weight of the so-
lid and liquid,
~K
No. 4.
| — so. , Sees
! HYDRODYNAMICS. 437
Wye Kp)ts—(P—M4+S - The results obtained with this hydrometer, may be Hydrome
ters. (= Ti+ —P+M— No.5. pace to bow h ae of ~s oF Fahrenheit, and ee
<. foetiula differs from : p allowance -for the effects of heat, both u li-
dues hc Pages age fA ot a iil ind the bydrometer ite The following firmp. TEAzE
ia So . la, given by M. Biot, includes these effects. Fig. 1.
—- S CHAP. Il. (wal pF DfE 2)
Ow Tne Turory axp Construction or AREOMETERS, — fy this formula, aacaiaks aaae in grammes of a
on Hypnometers, ror measunine Sreciric Grav cubic centimetre of the liquid subjected to experiment;
TIES. a is the dilatation of this liquid from $32 to the tempe-
Sect. IV. On the Construction i of different Hydrometers. wien ‘eae a seraleny OF it weight in aire hminiched
Zia sams evr, ec, eric, me Be eine ow ah
hich are hen very = adem’ to tet > part immersed in the liquid ; (P) is the absolute
required i specific gravities = weight of the immersed at 32° of Fahrenheit ;
Telees gems, and otlee elds aes —— saci’ che-eubis dilatation of the sabsténce of the eres:
:
‘
:
i
F
!
d
i
ments, we shall first explain the general principles of 2. Clarkes Hyd i ‘
R Ce , ( The hydrometer invented by Mr Clarke, and dea Clarke's
1. Fahrenheit’s Hydrometer. scribed in the Philosophical Transactions by Dr Desa- bydrometer
i
F i represented ‘4 acy seneud
constructed either of ball was made hollow and of copper, and the
Z ihcmadeaal eaflieteiah sams B, in ean wire of about jth of an inch thick, was soldered into
Eboxry, nected with two hollow ballsC, D. A small quantity of it. Upon the stem a mark is made, to which the in~
upon its stem. Fahrenheit the first of these liquors that differ more than y,th from proof, so as to
3 methods. He made a mark w upon the stem AB, and give the specific gravities of all the mixtures of ap.
- - how
surface of the light fluid stood at the mark w. The
mre Ac gmercaar pe ccm La waer separ | 3. Desagulitrs’ Hydrometer.
ment w in a nice pair of scales. ape Fa pe s. :
obviously be the weight of the quantity of flaid which = The lao a Anat Nias to stcertalti the Dosage.
it displaces. When the instrument was placed in a ‘specific gravities of different kinds of water ; and jn liers’ hy-
denser fluid, such as water, he placed weights inthe order to give it a high of sensibility, Dr De~ erometer.
small box at A, till the hydrometer sunk to the same Saguliers made the hollow glass ball less than three
mark w. By weighing the hydrometer with the inches in diameter, while the stem to which it was at-
naditional weights, he the weight of a quanti. tached was a long slender wire, w was
ty of the denser fluid which was displaced ; but as the Seen geen Peas of at Inala and whens length was 10
part immersed was the same in both cases, the two Under the great ball is placed a small ball,
w which he had obtained were the absolute *bout one inch in diameter, to contain shot for floatin
of equal quantities of two fluids, and were, the instrument in a vertical position. Suviver or sok
Spears, Ss betes of thels specibo gravitien Thus if water, the hydrometer sinks to a fixed point in
W be the weight of the instrament in distilled middle of its stem. If a si grain weight is
7 i te Rawite the
t, in order to make the instrument sink to the same Weigh 4000—50=3950 50 grains correspondi
Poul Wl leetias baat, tak Bs votnoee: toe ree to half the length of the stem. But Guiantity of watee
immersed, then S, s, ing the specific gravities, displaced must w 4000 grains, equal to the whole
we have W=S xB, and =-w=:xB. Hence weight of the hydrometer ; consequently the instru.
Ww pW" ona Y=” w ment will serve to-compare her the different bulks
B= and 4 = gr and by re- of 4000 grains of water; and sinée one tenth of an
Sx Wty ' . inch in the scale corresponds to one tenth of « grain, it
duction s=-——;——j or since S=1.00 in water; will obviously distinguish the strength of a grain in
ads : Sar ee be oe ts dpe denies ge
1" In the ts wat . By altering the quan im the ballast
Ww thermometer of Fahrenheit which this h vometer: isay be fitted for Comparing any
we have described, the stem AB is made very short, and other two that have nearly the same ific
Sgaly. one-third of the length of tube-which he ity. See Dr y Ee
a between the balls C and D, Fi places any, Widtieee of Experimental
“a
asf
Hydrome-
ters.
——
Depar-
cieux’s hy-
drometer.
PLATE
CUCXIV.
Fig. 2.
Jones's hy-
clrometer,
Fig. 3.
438 HY DRODYNAMICS. ‘
4. Deparcieux’s Hydrometer,
This instrument, which was intended by its author
for measuring the specific gravities of different kinds of
water, is represented in Plate CCCXIV. Fig. 2. where
AB is a glass phial about seven or eight inches long,
and two inches in diameter. It is loaded with shot at
the bottom to prevent it from overturning, and its lower
part is rounded to prevent the air from lodging below.
A brass wire AC, about 30 inches long, and +, of an
inch in diameter, is fixed in the cork of the phial, which
is well varnished to prevent the penetration of the wa-
ter. The length of the wire ought to be such, that,
when the phial is loaded and immersed in spring: wa-
ter at a medium temperature, the whole phial, and about
an inch of ‘the wire, should be below the scale, while;
when it is plunged in very light river water, the ‘wire
should be immersed about 20 inches. To the sum-
mit of the wire is fixed a cup C, which contains the
small weights with which it may be found necessary
to load the instrument in order to make it sink to a
fixed point in different kinds of water. A tube of white
iron DEFG, about 3 feet long, and 3 inches in diame-
ter, is used to hold the water whose specific gravity is
to be determined, and there is attached to it’ a scale
EH, divided into inches and parts of an inch, for the
purpose of measuring the different depths to which the
instrument-sinks. This instrument is so sensible, that,
if a smal] quantity of spirits of wine, or a pinch of su-
gar or salt, are added to the water in the tin tube, the
phial will ascend or descend a very sensible quantity,
M. Deparcieux made use of ahydrometer which weighed
23 ounces, 2 gros, and 26 grains (French). A weight
of 38 grains made it descend: through a height of 19
inches, 6 lines, which was equal to 6,3; lines for every
grain, or the y3,,th part of the volume of’ water dis-
placed. The results given» in our general- Table. of
specific gravities, p. 455, for different waters in France,
were obtained by means of this:instrument. See Prony’s
Architecture Hydraulique, tom. i. § 614—627.
5. Jones's Hydrometer.
This hydrometer, which was invented by Mr’ Wil-
liam Jones of Holborn, is constructed so.as to apply the
correction which is necessary from a change: of tempes
rature. ‘This correction had hitherto been applied only.
in a rough manner ; but upon considering that 32 gal<
lons of spirits in winter will expand to nearly 33 gal-
lons in summer, Mr Jones fixed a thermometer to his
instrument, and by adjusting the divisions experimen-
tally, he has obtained it pretty correctly, “Mr Jones has
also taken into account the diminution: of bulk» which
takes place in mixing alcohol and water, which is so
great as to produce’a loss of four gallons in the 100.
Thus, if to 100 gallonsof spirit of wine, which are 66
gallons in the 100 over proof, 66 gallons of water are
added to reduce it to proof spirit; the compound of
water and alcohol will consist only. of 162 gallons in«
stead of 166, four gallons having beew lost by the mu-
tual penetration of the two fluids,
MrJones’ hydrometer is represented in PlateCCCXIV.
Fig. 3.._ It consists of a stem AC of the-form of a pa«
rallelopiped, on the five sides of which the different
strength of spirits are marked, One of these sides is
shewn in Fig, 3. and the other three’ separately. » This’
stem is fixed to the oval ball CD, which is made of hard
brass, and has. its conjugate diameter about one’ and,
a half inches. A thermometer DE is attached to the
stem DB. below the ball, and the whole length AB of Hydrome
the instrament is about 94 inches. Three weights _ ‘™®
W, W’, W” are suited to the three sides of the stem :
shewn separately. Let us now suppose that the in, Jones's hy.
strument is plunged in a spirituous linucr ; then, if it drometer. —
floats, so that the surface of the liquor is somewhere be- py.are
tween A and C, the division on the side of the stem CCCXIV. .
marked 0 (viz. the side of the stem attached.to the in; Fiz: 5
strument) will indicate the strength of the liquor if it
is between 74 gallons in the 100, and 47 in the 100
above proof. But if the surface of the fluid stands be-
low. the extremity C of the scale, it must be loaded with
any of the weights W, W’, W”, till the surface of the
liquor rises above C ; then, if the weight W, or No. 1.
is required to produce this effect, the side of the stem
marked No. 1. will shew the.strength of the spirituous
liquor from 46 gallons in the 100 to 13 in the 100 above
poet. If the weight No. 2. is required to raise the sur~
‘ace of the spirits above C, the divisions on the side
marked. No. 2. will shew the’ strength from 13 gallons
in the 100 above proof to 29 gallons in the 100 under ~
proof; and if the weight No. 3. is required, the divi+
sion on the side marked No. 3. will shew the strength
of the spirits from 29 under proof down to water, which
is marked W at the bottom of the'scale No.3. The
thermometer DE has four scales engraven upon it,
marked. No. 1, 2, 3, corresponding with the: similarly
numbered scales on the stem. Two of these scales only
are seen in the figure:' The zero or 0 of each scale is
at the middle of each column, ‘and. corresponds with a
temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit ; then whatever num-
ber of divisions the mercury in the thermometer stands
above the zero, so many in the 100 must the
liquor be reckoned weaker the hydrometer indi-
cates; and whatever number of divisions the mercury
in the thermometer stands below the zero, so many
gallons in the 100 must the spirits be reckoned strenger -
than the hydrometer indicates; © © .
The diminution of bulk occasioned by the mutual
etration of the two fluids, is marked by the small
res on the different scales of the stem. ‘Thus the
figures 24 at 48, $3 at 61, and 4 at 66, indicate, that if
the spirit be 48 gallons in the 100 over proof, the bulk
of the compound will be 23 gallons less than the sums
of the two ingredients, that is, instead. of being 148 it
will be 1453. This instrument is adjusted, like other
hydrometers, to the temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit,
and requires only three different weights to determine
the strength of spirituous liquors from alcohol to water.
6. Dicas’s Hydrometer.
The hydrometer constructed by Mr Dicas of Liver nicas’s hy-
1, possesses all the advantages of Jones’ hydrometer, drometer.
Bat exhibits, with more accuracy, the correction which
itis necessary to apply fora change of temperature. It
is constructed of metal, with a stem and ball of the or
dinary form. It has 36 different weights, which are
valued from 0 te 370, including the divisions on the
stem; but the chief improvement which distinguishes
this hydrometer is its ivory sliding scale, which adjusts
it to different temperatures, and indicates the diminu-
tion of bulk arising from the mutual penetration of the
combined fluids. ;
7. Quin’s Universal Hydrometer. .
The object of this hydrometer is to ascertain with Quin’s uni«|
the greatest expedition the strength of any — from: versal hy-
aloctol to water, the diminution of bulk, and the spe- drometer.
cific gravity of each different ‘strength, and) also: the
HYDRODYNAMICS. 489
Hydmme- specific i worts. In appearance, low, for ing it i ical position. The total Hydrome.
0 ppaoen iced peat a er, shewn in Saynats tetas the tiliptical tlb is 1 inches in | *t :
-—~— ~ B.. The stem has four sides, one of which indi- diameter and 2 inches long, and the square stem is jth
: a
; UHHH
rele au FF
4 He
Lietatldy
Serre
aE
vk
4553
|
g
Fe
ae
5
:
3
Ss,
8. Nicholson's Hydrometer.
The hydrometer invented by the late Mr Nicholson,
bo ra caret Bred instruments, both ip its ge-
construction
stem.
In order to find the specific of a fluid, im.
merse the instrument St ed tink weighs th the
dish AB till it sinks to the point m; then, since the
ity of fluid di is the same, we shall
have W+4-1000: Wot w=S:s; W being the weight
instrument, w to make it
Atking’ hy- _ This instrument, which is of brass, consists of an el-
trometer, Jiptical bulb and stem, with a small loaded bulb be-
of an inch wide. One of the faces of the scale is used
ters, thus—0, A, B, C, D, &c. Z, 0.
respectively 20, 40, 61, and 84
aré placed on the instrument, below the elliptical bulb,
as occasion requires. These weights are adjusted in
such a manner, that when with one of them, such as
No. 2, the instrument emerges to the lower division 0,
it will, upon changing the weight for the next heavier
one, No. 3, sink exactly to the other division 0, at the
of the stem. Hence the stem is virtually extend.
to five times its real length, and the number of di-
whose
division 0-in iquor whose specific gravity is .843, the
intermediate specifi vities being Ceased by inter-
mediate divisioris on She i
No. 1, we obtain all the specific gravities .843 to
-880 ; No. 2. gives them from .880 to .918 ; No. 3. from
918 to 958; and No. 4. from .950 to 1.000. When the
last weight is used in water, the instrument sinks to
the lower 0 at 65° of Fahrenheit. Each of
the divisions on the stem will be found to nd
to considerably less than an unit in the third place of
the ee eorey and to indicate a difference of
per cent. or two quarts in a hundred
. The correction for temperature is obtained
a sli rule, by ar ingenious ication of two
scales of parts to each other ; and the diminution
of bulk, or penetration as it is called, is obtained by
the same rule. The specific gravities, corresponding to
the divisions on the stem, are likewise pointed out by
the sliding rule.
Mr Atkins afterwards made considerable chan,
ware, trian eens oe ae, Oe revent
= mistake being committed ; ul de eee upon
the sliding rule, t opposite to
every letter in the series to which it He has
also made the form of the t bulb cylindrical, and
rounded off at the upper lower sides ; and instead
of the i scale, he has engraven the real 7
cific gravities on the stem of the instrument, ‘A fall
account of this instrument will be found in Mr Atkins”
pam on the elation between the Specific Gravities
and the Strength of Spirituous Liquors, dl. 1808 ;
and in Nich 's Journal, 8vo, vol. ii. p. 276, and
vol. iii. p. 50.
10. Guyton’s Gravimeler.
This instrument, which was invented by the late ce- Guyton’s.
lebrated chemist M. Guyton Morveau, is made of glass, gravimeter.
and carries two basins like the hydrometer of Nichol-
son. The bulb is cylindrical, and is connected with the
upper basin by a er stem, in the middle of which
is the fixed point of immersion. The lower basin,
which terminates in a point, contains the ballast, and is
Hydrome-
ters.
er
Guyton’s
gravimeter.
Speer’s hy-
drometer.
‘440
attached to the cylinder by two branches. The cylinder
is 6.85 inches long, and 0.71 in diameter. The upper
basin carries an additional constant weight of 115 grains.
To this apparatus, M. Guyton has added another piece,
which he calls the Plongeur, or plunger, which is a ball
of glass loaded with mercury, till its total weight may
be equal to the additional weight of 115:grains, added
to the weight of the volume of water displaced by the
b
plunger.. The plunger is .always placed: in the lovee
basin when, it is used ; and it will readily be seen, that
the gravimeter will sink-to the same! mark on the. stem
whether it is loaded with the constant weight of 115
grains in the upper basin,: or with the plunger in the
lower basin.
The object of this instrument is to ascertain, Ist,
The specific gravities of solids, whose absolute weight
is less than 115 grains ; 2d, Of liquids inferior to wa
ter in specific gravity ; 3d, Of liquids of greater speci-
fic gravity than water ; 4th, The absolute weight of bo-
dies below 115 grains; and, 5th, The degree of rare-
faction and condensation of water in proportion to its
bulk, the purity ofthe water being previously known.
In-order to find the specific gravity of any solid by
this instrament, place the solid in the upper basin, and
add weights till the instrument sink to the fixed point
of immersion, Subtract these weights from the con-
stant weight of 115 grains, and the remainder is the
_absolute weight of the-solid. Multiply this by the spe-
cific gravity of the fluid, and reserve the product, place
the solid.in the lower basin, and add weights in the up-
er basin till the instrument sinks to a fixed peint of
immersion.; and subtracting these additional weights
from the additional weights when the body was in the
upper basin, the remainder will be the loss of weight
by immersion. Divide the reserved product by this loss
of weight, and the quotient will be the specific gravity
of the solid with regard to distilled water at the stan-
dard temperature and pressure.
In order to find the specific gravity of a fluid, immerse
the gravimeter in the fluid, and having-observed the
weight which is necessary to sink it to the fixed point of
immersion, add this weight to. that of ‘the gravimeter.
To the weight required to.sink it in distilled water, add
also the weight of the gravimeter. Divide the first sum
by the second, and the quotient will be the specific gra-
vity of the fluid. See the Annales de Chimie, vol. xxi.
p. 3; and Nicholson’s Journal, ato, vol. i, p. 110,
11. Speer’s Hydrometer.
‘This instrument consists of a ball and stem, with a
counterpoise underneath. The stem is cut into an oc-
tagonal form ; and upon each of the eight faces of the
octagon is engraved a scale of per centages, by the in-
spection of which the strength of the spirit may. be
found. The scale upon each of the faces is suited to
the temperatures of 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, 60°, 65°, and
70°. . When the temperature of the spirits is found by
the thermometer, their strength must be sought om that
face of the ottagon which corresponds with the temper
ature. As the temperature is indicated only to eve
five degrees, there is .an index which performs the of
fice of a weight, for pointing out the effect for inter-
mediate temperatures. The precision of a single de-
gree of the thermometer may also be obtained by four:
small pins, which are inserted in holes in the counter-
poise below, where they operate as weights of adjust-
ment, and produce the same effect as a variation of tem-
perature. For a full account of this hydrometer, see
6
HYDRODYNAMICS.
‘pertory of Arts, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 81.
Speer’s Enquiry into the Causes ofthe Errors and Trree Hyar.
gularities which take place in ascertaining the Strength
of Spirituous Liquors by the Hydrometer. Lond. 1802 ;
Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 151; and the Re«
12. Mr Adie’s Statical Hydrometer.
This hydrometer, which is one of the neatest and most Adie’s sta.
correct instruments that we have seen, was first con- tical hyd
structed about the year 1799 by Mr Adie, optical in- @°™
strument maker in Edinburgh. — It is made entirely of o¢oxqy,
brass, and consists of a lever AB 103 inches long, restii a
upon'a fulcrum C, ‘so that the shorter arm AC is 2
inches, and the longer one CB 8 imches long. At the
extremity A of the shorter arm is suspended a brass
ball, whose solid content is +2, 0f a gallon. This ball
is immersed in the fluid which is held in the cylindri-
cal brass jar FG. T'wo moveable weights m, n, slide
along each arm of the balance. When the temperature
of the spirits is found by the thermometer, the weight
m is'set to the corresponding degree upon the thermo-
metric scale AC. The weight n is then moved along the
other arm CB, till the ball E is in equilibrium in the
fluid, which is indicated by the coincidence of the arm
CB with the horizontal index 9, fixed to the bar 6. The
whole of this instrument is nicely packed into a maho-«
gany box 11 inches long and 24 square, which serves
asa stand for the balance.
13. Mr Adie’s Sliding Hydrometer. as
The sliding hydrometer, invented by Mr Adie, dif+ Adie’s sli.
fers from all other hydrometers, in requiring no weights ding hy’
whatever for its adjustment. It is a floating hydrome- ™¢ter-
ter, of the usual form; but instead of being adjusted
by weights, the volume of the instrument is increased
by drawing out a tube, while its weight is: invariable,
Ifthe instrument sinks to the fixed point of immersion
in distilled water, before the tube is drawn out, it is
obvious that in spirituous liquors, it may be made to
sink to the same point, merely by drawing out a tube
below the principal bulb; for the same effect is thus
produced by increasing the volume of the instrument,
as if its weight were diminished.
14. Charles's Thermometrical Hydrometer.
. This instrument, which, we believe, has been descri« Charles’s
bed for the first time by M. Biot in his Tratté de Phy- th
sigue, tom. i. p. 414, ras oaamed by M. srg to pepe
whom experimental philosophy is under t obli
tions. eis called a thermometrical ee ne rea
its being employed to measure the densities of water at
different temperatures, In order to give a very high
degree of sensibility to the instrument, M. Charles
Sane the ball very large, and the stem very small;
the augmentation of the ball rendering the absolute ef-.
fects of the dilatation more considerable, and the small-
ness of the stem enabling us to measure these dilata-
tiens upon a‘ greater scale. The whole instrument,
with the basin for holding the weights, weighed in air.
90.303 grammes, or.90.4209 when reduced toa vacuum.
An account of the results obtained with this instrument
will be found in M. Biot’s work. ee ’
15. Charles’s Balance Areometer.
Charles’s
This hydrometer, which is intended to measure the pbalance ar
ometer.
. es
1 SEs. 8 doa ié a, ig *
§ g8.6 {= #8 ; : “ Eze Ele rn ges es
Ay TUL Pee a ily i eal 7
¥ 25s 233 acPattti22§ c=“ S12 E 4° ee es a5 poapede Rik
HEE Sita ie Pet an i eee neal ‘er
aL Bl HE 43.8 di sleiiiat aGix8 ak =I
re at eee Bas. iy ie i s fenaesd 3 8
ie units i id it 7.3 syaie 49% pa ° 3 He z|
halide ie GLE ai at ths, GePtti «fe
aie plete lun bad, Hi it, baa yut ede He tem
Pale bs ari it a —~ alli 2 ans) HEE ae
2 gene HIN H ie ahhe THe
eae at aati taliale, Lanett ae i
Hip tT ati sil Fe al) aes as
tie Lif ia ie ue nel stn Hil
| aie 7 SS ties e S35
Te a ea
i i a ii ail ae ii sheild |
3% 23 a
ane ay jo a if
Hydrome-
ters,
Dr Brews-
ter’s capil-
lary hydro-
“meter.
PLATE
CCCXIV.
Fig. 6.
442
In this manner Mr Hutton has calculated a series of
tables for giving the quantity of spirits by inspection.
At the top, in the centre, is the specific gravity of the
spirits, commencing at 906, and ending with 934, and
embracing the different specific gravities at which spi-
rits are usually met with in commerce. On the right
of the number denoting the specific gravity, and on the
same line with it, is the approximate weight of one gal-
lon of spirits of that specific gravity, expressed’ in
pounds and ounces. The tables consist of two sets of
columns ; one contains the number of gallons, and the
other their weight: they begin with 30 gallons, being the
smallest quantity it is considered necessary to weigh,
and increasing by single gallons, they extend to 185
gallons, being the contents of the largest cask used in
le.
18. Dr Brewster's Capillary Hydrometer.
This instrument is founded upon a principle which
was never before employed in hydrometrical measure-
ments. It is well known that alcohol is a much more
erfect fluid than water, possessing much. less viscidity,
in consequence of the small ferce of cohesion which ex-
ists between its particles. Hence it follows, that if a
vessel containing alcohol is emptied through a capillary
tube, so as to discharge the fluid, only. by drops, the
drops will be much smaller, and consequently much
more numerous, than when the same vessel is filled
with water and emptied through the same tube. The
capillary hydrometer, which is founded on this princi-
ple, is represented in Fig. 6. where ABC is a glass ves-
sel three, or four, or five inches long, having a hollow
bulb B about half an inch or an inch in diameter, This
instrument is filled by suction at the lower end C, and
the water is discharged at C till it stands nearly at the
point m, the zero of the scale. By removing the finger
from the lower end C, the water is discharged by drops,
and the number of drops which fall till the fluid de-
scends to another fixed point m are accurately counted.
This experiment is carefully repeated at different tem~
peratures, so that the number of drops of distilled wa-
ter contained in the vessel between the points m and n
is known for various temperatures. Hence, if N is
the number of drops of water whose specific gravity is
S, and n the number of drops of alcohol whose specific
gravity is s, and d the number of drops given by any
other mixture of alcohol and water, then n—N : S—s=
pee ft sual Sana] aad Ay aT 2d geod, seed,
n—N n—N
will be the specific gravity of the mixture required.
The same experiment is made with the purest alcohol,
and the number of drops carefully marked. With an
instrument of this kind, the number of drops necessary
to empty it when filled with water was 724, whereas
when it was filled with’ordinary proof spirits, the num-
ber of drops amounted to 2117. This experiment, which
was performed rudely, for the purpose of obtaining a
general idea of the magnitude of the scale, was made
nearly at a temperature of 60°. Now as the specific
gravity of the spirit was about .920, and that of water
1.000, we have in the present case no less than a scale
of 1393 drops for measuring specific gravities between
-920 and 1,000; that is, a variation in the fifth figure,
or in the fourth place of decimals of the specific gravity,
nearly corresponds with a variation of two drops.
With another instrument made on a very small scale,
the number of drops amounted to 47 with water and
‘and is then allowed to rise and settle at
HYDRODYNAMICS:
122 with spirit, whose specific gravity was 928. As
this instrument was too large, I was obliged to incline
it, in order to prevent the fluid from: issuing in a con-
tinued stream. In the first experiment, N=724, n=
2117, S=1.000, s=920. Hence if d=1500, we have
(d—N) (S—s) _ 1.000— 776 x 0.080,
a= a = .9555.
The bulk of a drop of water will be about 2.93 times
as large as the bulk of a drop of the spirit used in the
first experiment. In the 2d experiment, the drop of wa-
ter was 2.6 times greater than the drop of the spirit.
See Chapter V. p. 473 of this article.
s
19. Sikes’ Hydrometer. -
As this hydrometer is now universally used in the sikes’ hy-
doms, we shal] drometer.
collection of the revenue in both ki
lay before our readers a drawing and description of it,
although it does not differ much in principle from the
ordinary hydrometers.
CCCXIV. Fig. 7. :
long, which is divided on both: sides into 11 equal
parts, each of which is subdivided into 2, the scale being
numbered from 0 to 11. This stem is soldered into a
brass ball 1.6 inch in diameter, into which is fixed a
small conical stem CD, 1.18 inch long, at the end of
which is a pear-shaped loaded bulb DE, half an inch in
diameter. The whole instrument, which is made of
brass, is 6.7 inches long. The instrument is accompa-
nied with 8 circular weights, numbered 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, 60, 70, 80, and another weight of the form of a pa-
rallelopiped. Each of the circular.weights are cut in
to their centre, so that they can be d on the coni«
cal stem C, and slide down to D; but in co uence
of the enlargement of the cone they cannot sli at D,
but must be brought up to C for this purpose. The square
weight, of the form of a parallelopiped, has a square notch
in one of its sides, by which it can be placed upon the
Hydrom
It is represented in Plate Prate
where AB is a flat stem’ 3.4 inches CCCXIV.
Fig. 7.
summit A of the stem. In using this instrument, it is ~_
immersed in the spirit, and pressed down by the hand
to 0, till the whole divided part of the stem be wet.
The force of the hand required to sink it will be a guide
in selecting the proper weight. Having taken one of
the circular weights which is necessary for this purpose,
it is slipped on the conical stem at C. The instrument
isagain immersed and pressed down as before to 0,
any point of the
scale, The eye is then brought to the level of the sur
face of the spirit, and the part of the stem cut by the
surface; as seen from below, is marked. The number
‘thus indicated by the stem is added to the number of
the weight employed, and with this sum at the side,
‘and the temperature of the spirits at the top, the
“strength P cent. is found in a ‘Table of six quarto
s. ‘ The strength is expressed in numbers den
the excess or deficiency per cent. of f spirit in any
sample ; and the number itself (having its Pian’ <2
removed two places to the left) becomes a factor where-
by the gauged content of a cask or vessel of such spiri
being multiplied, and the product being added to the
uged content if overproof, or deducted from it if un-
oer proof, the result will be the actual: quantity of
proof spirit contained in such cask or vessel.”
The instrument is also accompanied with three slid-
ing rules made of boxwood, which may be used instead
of the Table. « The officers of excise are directed to
estimate the temperature by the nearest degree above
-* =i
be a
HYDRODYNAMICS.
H the surface of the mercury, when it stands between any
Prate
Fig» 5, 9.
of the thermometer, and the indication (or
the nearest division below the
its level cuts ‘the stem of
the hydrometer between one division and another, thus
i i of the trader in both
cases. The square weight or cap shews the difference
Sees See of poet ae ane eee ee ever, 2
described in the first clause of the hydrometer act, and
being one-twelfth part weight of the hy-
drometer and weight 60. If this wei eel
on the top of the stem at A, and if the hy is
loaded with weight No. ¥ S it will Pry a nes
ter at the temperature of 51° to the point P, at
that temperature, as marked on the narrow edge of the
stem.”
two
20. On the Hydrostatic Balance.
Although the hydrostatic balance can scarcely be
called a hydrometer, yet as it is employed for measu-
ring gravities when great accuracy is required,
we shall give a description of it in this place. The
hy ic balance, of which we have given a front and
a side view in Figs. 8. and 9, of Plate CCCXIV, is no-
. thing more. than a good balance, with some additional
far enabling it to measure specific gravities
into a stand or base CD. By
string P pe, Fig. 9, attached toa screw S,
- rr on mee
cyiyt
ld
:
i
|
r
rie
fet
HE
ul
t
z
f
tf
g>
:
M
i
:
-
443
in the water in the vessel X, it will become half'a
grain lighter, and for every inch that it rises out of the
water it will become half a grain heavier ; consequently
sinks
-if it sinks 2 inches below its middle point 2, or rises two
inches above it, the wire will become one grain lighter or
heavier. Let the middle point 2, therefore, be brought
to the surface of the water, and the index NO set to the
middle of the scale K f, and let the distances OK, OF
be each divided into 100 parts, then if it is required to
weigh bodies to the accuracy of the 100th part of a
grain, it may be done in the following manner. Let
the body to be weighed be placed in the scale c, and
let its weight be between 52 and 53 grains as determi-
ned by the weights in the opposite scale, then if we
move the balance gently up and down by the screw S,
till the tongue of the balance ¢/ indicates a perfect
equilibriam, the distance of the index NO from &, as
measured upon the scale, will indicate the number of
hundredth parts of a grain which the real weight of
the bady is above 52, or below 53, according as either
of these weights is placed in the sealed. If 52 be the
weight in the scale d, then since the weight of the body
in scale c exceeds 52, the oulen ai te,
and the balance being let down until the equilibrium is
restored by the loss of weight sustained by the immer-
sed wite £/, the index NO will rise as it were from the
middle of Kk Hence if it points to 12 divisions
above the middle of K &, the weight of the tiody will be
52.12% grains. Had the weight 53 been placed in the
scale, it would have been necessary to raise the balance,
so that the scale c might acquire an equilibrium with
58 grains, by an addition to the weight of the wire k/
in ence of its ascent from the water. In this
case, the index NO would have pointed to division 88
below the middle point of the scale, and the weight of
Hae body would have been 53.00-=0.88 = 52.12 ‘as
‘ore. - d
The weight of the body in air being’ thus obtained
sili Soha tieneet eccuracy, # to vext to bo tn ed to
the hook g by means of the horse hair, weighed
when immersed in the water in the jar Y, The differ.
ence between these two weights, when have been
corrected by cag methods roger? described,* will lead
to an accurate determination of the specific ity of
the . The wire £/ should always be oiled, and the
oil wiped off, so that a thin film may adhere to it, in or-
der to prevent the adhesion of the water.
Sect. IL. On the Table of Specific Gravilies.
The determination of the specific gravities of bodies
On the lower of the wire moves another tube W, is of the use, not only in many of the sciences,
carrying an NO, which can be moved either ho- but also in most of the practical arts of life, Hence it
tally by turning round the tube, or vertically by has been the object of philosophers to determine, with
pushing it up or down ; so that the index MN can be all the accuracy in their power, the specific gravities of
made to to. any division on the seale K‘, A the various solid and fluid substances which occur in
weight £ is suspended to the wire K 4, to which is fixed nature. The following Table, which we have collected
the wire £4, (of such a size that one inch of it will with great labour from the tables of Brisson and other
En ee en 1 about sources, contains the most im t specific gravities
Emons ' pata. are c-ey ape isin that have been determined. All the measures are related
reer met emer it to the wire dg. to that of water, whose speciffc gravity is 1.000, except-
peers oe wires is such, thatthe ball /, and ting the gases or aériform bodies, whose specific gravi-
the Ay about the middle of the cylindrical ties are determined in relation to that of atmospheric
vessels X, Y, in eee mn be- air, which is taken at yf dep: parm afranged
_Since brass is nearly eight times heavier in an alphabetical order for the sake of more easy refe-
water, it is evident, that for every inch that the wire4/ rence. . ‘ 7”
® See Prop. Xil..and XIIL p. 484, 435,
Hydrome-
ters.
—_—o
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table of Specific Gravities.
444,
A
c Specific peer inspissated juice of, . .
ravities. Acid, nitri 4 ‘ °
itric
nitric, highly concentrated, eve
muriatic, . : 3
red acetous, a : 2 F
white acetous, . . “ .
distilled acetous,
acetic, . > - . é
sulphuric, 2 su :
highly concentrated, .
fluoric, 5 a
phosphoric, liquid, .
solid, dents
citric, - 3
arsenic, : . :
of oranges, fe whiz .
of gooseberries, : ‘
of grapes, . ° .
prince, . °
boracic, in écales, é 3
do. melted, . E °
molybdic, : ° .
benzoic, ° ° . .
formic, 4 < ‘ :
Actinolite, glassy, . .
Adularia, See Felspar.
Agalmatolite, ° : .
A gate, oriental, ‘ g 3
onyx, ‘ ‘ é
speckled, ° 3 F
udy,
stained,
of Havre, * F ;
29.85
Thermom. 54°.5
Alabaster of Valencia, ; 3
veined, s ;
of Piedmont, — F 3
of Malta, : if
yellow, . :
Spanish saline, ‘ t
oriental white, 3
ditto, semi-transparent, .
stained brown, .
oO a, pink, . 7
of Dake . ; ‘
Alcohol, absolute, M .
highly rectified, .
commercial, 3
15 parts, Water i part .
14 ‘
1.5153
1.2715
1.583
0.00122
Apophyllite, See Fish Eye Stone.
Specifie
Alcohol 13 parts, Water 3 parts 3 0.8815
12 Ae bn's ‘ 0.8947. Gravities,
11 5 ; , 0.9075. —Y—"_
10 iG . ° 0.9199
9 7 i : 0.9317
8 8: ’ ° 0.9427.
7 9 - é 0.9519
6 10 ° ‘ 0.9594
5 lL x 0.9674
4: 12 2 0.9783
8 13 ‘ ‘ 0.9791
2 Te -. © 0.9852
1 15 . ‘ 0.9919
Alder-wood, ‘ + Muschenbroek. 0.8000
Allanite, A ° « Bournon. sae
Thomson. 3.533
Jardine. 3.665
Aloes, hepatic, 4 a y j ; 1.3586
socotrine, sey é 5 4 1.3795
Alouchi, an odoriferous gum, 1.0604
Aieniies sulphate of, - . _Muschenbroek. 1.7140
saturated solution of,
temp. 42°, Watson. 1.033
Amber, yellow transparent, 9... 1.0780
opaque, . : 1.0855.
red, > . . 5 ‘ 1.083%
green, : . . . 1.0829
Ambergris, 2 ; . a soean
Amethyst, common. See Rock ade 0k B50
Amianthus, long, + 0.9088
penetrated with water, 1.5662
short, Z i 2.8134
penetrated with water, =» 3.8803
4 Asnianthinite from. Raschau, 2 f «2.584
Bayreuth, ‘ +. 2.916
Ammonia, liquid, - 00) yen aE reno BORO
muriate of, . Muschenbroek. 1.4530
saturated solution of, temp.
42°, Watson. 1.072
Amphibole. See Hornblende basaltic
Amphigene. See Leucite.
Analcime, < " . “ - os
Andalusite, or hardspar § « Haiiy. 3.165
Anhydrite, or Muriacite, ¢ ; 2.95
Anime, oriental, F : ‘ 1.0284
occidental, 3 P 1.0426
Anthophyllite, ° . . . 3.20...
Antimony, glass of, — . : : - 4.9464
in a metallic state, fused, —
native, ‘ . Klaproth. 6.720
grey, . . . . 4.3
sulphur of, + 4.0648
ore, grey and foliated, | Kirwan. 4.368
radiated, Kirwan, 4.440
red, . La Metherie. 3.750
Klaproth.. 4.090
Apatite. See Phosphorite.
Aplome ‘ 3.45
HYDRODYNAMICS. 445
Apple-tree, wood of the, Muschentrock. 0.7930 Basaltes, from the Giant's Causeway, 2.864 CRNA
pe rade ge ae 1.0857 DP Eeaeaee ne eu a's anos
‘Areca, inspissated juice of, . |... 1.4573 Baras, & juice of the pine, 1.0441
Arctizite, or Wernerite, Dandrada. 3.606 i Muschenbroek. ae
. 0.5956 Beer, red, 3.0038
Haiiy, 2.946 Hy . 1 0231
Thenard and Biot. 2.9267 , 1.0924
Malus. 2.94686 Beryl, oriental, 5.5491
Arsenic bloom, Pharmacolite, 2.640 . stp
fused, e e 8.310
native, ° 3 eee 5.670 or aquamarine, Werner { 759
La Metherie. 5.600 schorlous, or shorlite. See Pycnite.
oR Brisson. oe Bezoar oriental, . - © + wos bye
arsenic shops), - 2 ' occidental, * . »
Ss or Mispickel, a «65 Bismuth, native, Kirwan. 9.570
ery sulphuretted, Kirwan. 6.131
Kirman, $3200 ochre, Brisson, 4.371
“° ane. in a metallic state, fused, . {9.799
Asbestos, mountain cork, Bergman. 0.9933 Seakag 3 _ Brisson. 9.070
penetrated with § 1.2492 Bitumen of Judea, * « ~ 1104
water, 1.3492 pitch coal, =. Wiedemann. —
ripe, teh : 2.008 slate coal, English, . Kirwan. ‘10
"penetrated with water, 3.0808 Bidichowits, Rite 1,382
unripe, a t, é — cannel coal, La Metherie. 1.270
penetrated water, . 0343 4.044
ney . Muschenbrock. 0.8450 Blende, yellow, Gellert, (se
* ; . Turia. 0.800 . 3.770
4 brown, foliated, . Gellert.
1.450 : 4.048
Asphaltum, cohesive, , 2.060 black, ©. Gellert. ~ 3.930
Sdiepaat, 1.070 Brisson. 4.166
a f 1.165 auriferous from Nagyag,
e 1.8275 Van Muller; 5.898
Aventurine, semitransparent, . - 2.6667 Blood, human, . é Jurin, 1.054
opaque, . 2.6426 crassamentum of, . Jurin. 1.126
Augite, or Pyroxene, : Hiuy. 3.226 serum of . Jurin. 1,030
Werner. yi Blood Stone. See Heliotrope. safe
Automalite, Gahnite, or Fahlunite, . #200 Boles, . Kirwan. {i000
y . ‘ Bone of an ox, P 1.656
Girard. “3.250 ” saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Wal 1010
- . i A 42°, Watson. 1.010
Azure stone, or lapis lazuli, . Brisson. 2.7675 Bournonite, . > % 2 or” BITE
2: Kirwan. 2.896 Boxwood, French, F Muschenbroek. 0.9120
oriental, «6 , - 774 Duteh, ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.3280
of Siberia, . 2.9454 dry, ‘ Jurin, 1.030
B ryray hore meg Her
Barolite, or Witherite. See Baryles, Carbonate of. cast, not hammered, ? Brisson. 8.895
Batyies, or Barcsclenite, _—_ Brazil wood, red, Muschenbrock. 1.0310
° . 4.865 Bronzite, 3.20
white, » . . . 44300 Brick, 2.000
7 . . . 4.4909 Butter, . . 0.9423
Fromboidal, é - 44434 Cc
rape 2 - « 4712 Cacao butter, : ° ‘ 0.8916
in Sah ee 42984 Cachibou, gum, : P —
sulphate of, native, Kirwan. 41 465 ” La Metherie, 4.100
Malus. 448141 Calcareous spar. See Spar.
carbonate 4.300 1.700
GC meG, {ise Calculi urinary, , pie y {240
‘ e Py ° Kirwan. 2.979 1.454
Bergman. 3.000 Campeachy wood, or logwood, Muschenbroek, 0.9130
Specific
Gravities.
—
446 HYDRODYNAMICS"
Camphor,* : } 0.9887 Cacoawood, . + « Muschénbroek, 10403
Cobtichéac, elastic gum, or India rubber 0.9335 Coceolite, ; . ; ‘ Dandrada. 3.316
Caragna, resin of the Mexican tree panes 1.1244 Columbium, ‘ Haichet.. 5.918
Carbon of compact earth, . ‘ 1.3292 Copal,opaque,. . .. 4 = Z 1.1398
Carnelian, stalactite, ; 2 2.5977 transparent, : : 4 1.0452
speckled : 2.6137 Mipdniraccat,.) wie ie, eee 1.0600
veined, 4 b 3 2.6234 Chinese, . . ies
onyx - a 4 2.6227 ‘ i
ls s phe . . 2.6301 Copper. native, oi ge - Kirwan. pect
pointed, . ‘ F 2.6120 © from Siberia, 3 Hauy, 8.5084
arborized, "3 2. a Hungary, oe 7.728
ore, compact vitreous, irwan, 4.129
Cat’s eye, - M M Klaproth. i. 2.635 pan ‘ : Kineoust SAS8
grey, ; . 2.5675 purple, from Bannat, Kirwan. 4.956
yellow, 2 3 r 2.6573 from Lorraine, La Metherie. 4.300
blackish, ; pr 3.2593 Kirwan. 4.983
Catchew, juice of an Indian tree, 1.3980 Wiedemann, 5.467
Caustic ammoniac, solution of, or fluid volatile glance, : J 3 : | 5.6
alkali, 3 r 0.897 © pyrites, : : Kirwan. 4.080
Cedar tree, American, | "Muschenbroek. 0.5608 ; Brisson. 4,844
wild, 3 ‘ ‘ Raseheniroe 0. pve ore, white, ° La Metherie. 4.500
Palestine, 5 Z Muschenbroek. 0. 4.865
Indian, ; 4 ~ Muschenbroek.. ‘1.3150 grey, : : Hauy. hs
Celestine. See tec ae sulphate of. yellow, : ‘. $ 4.3
Cerite, . : < . 4.500 | 3.2
ss * 3.765 blue, r 34
Ceylanite, or Pleonaste, =. MY 13.793 foliated, florid, red, Wiedemann. 3.950
Chabasie, 7 S 2.718 azure, radiated, Wiedemann. 3.231
Chaleedony, bluish, : 2.5867 Brisson. 3.608
onyx, + < . 2.6151 emerald, .. La Metherie. 2.850
vemed, . : - _«» 26059 Hauy. 3.300
transparent, E ¢ 2.6640 muriate of, s A ~ 44
reddish, 4 5 ; : pti * berate . 2.549
; 2. arseniate of, ~ octahedr; « 2.88 >
common, ° fs Kirwan. 2.655 ian “ 4.2
Chalk, : ¥ ‘ Muschenbroek. 2.252 prismatic, ed
nt. Watson. 2.657 partial arseniate, : 34
Chiastolite. See Macle. sulphate of, saturated solution of tags
Cherry-tree, A . Muschenbroek. 0.7150 _. temp. 42°, 3 Watson. 1.150
Chrysaberyl. See Cymophane. : drawn into wire, = - . 8.878
Chrysolite of the jewellers, .. . Brisson. 2.782 5 : 2 1188
of Brasil, t 3 a of oo Hatchet. 8.895
340 Copper sand, muriate : etherie, 3.750
Werner. 9 3.410 = ai Herrgen, 4.431
. e 2.489 ! ° ots * Muschenbroek. 0.2400
Chrysoprase,'a variety of Chalcedony, - 359 CorundumofIndia, . . Klaproth. 3.710
Chrystal. See Rock Crystal. es Bournon. 3.875
Chirystalline Jens, f : “é 1.100 ‘of China, + . + 8981
Cimolite, .. 2.0 Cross stone. See Harmotome.
Cinnabar, dark red, Sodiin. Deux-Ponts, Kirwan. 7.786 Cryolite, a 2 Karsten. 2.957
, from Almaden, Brisson. 6.902 Cube iron ore, é * Bournon. 3.000
crystallized, Brisson. 10.218 spar, : Hauy. 2.964
hepatic, ~ ates mena 7 | Cubizite. See Analcime.
Cinnamon, volatile oil of, . . 4 1.044 Cyanite, Sappare, or Disthene, Saussure, jun. 3.517
Cinnamon-stone, rs ‘ § 2.6 Hermann. 3.622
Citron-tree, ry Muschenbroek. 0:7263 Cyder, ok - tie 1.0181
Clinkstone, . ‘ ° Klaproth. oni Cymophane, or Kirke - Werner, on
Cloves, volatile oil of, ‘ ¢ * 1.036 ‘ : - Hauy. 3.796
Cobalt, in a metallic state, fused, : Ue Cypress wood, Spanish, ‘ Muschenbrock. 0.6440
one, gréy, . -« Hauy. pn . Deaaibe, i Ts mere -* ‘2
* 4 Dipyre, - . ar" . . .
Kirwan. 5.309 ORS, ais i 2.84
. 2019 — . mare te.
_earthy, black, indurated, Gellert. 13428 Diamond, oriental, i ial . 8.5212
vitreous oxide of, : é - 24405 rose-coloured,. . - $.5310
®'M. en fiz Wat When smngon van deprinidcsnadis whicy anand to it, oy flatag i walle thi YosttOP of sa alt-peanp,
wes heavier than water deprived of its air by the same air-pump. See Memoires presentée a U’Institut.'tom. . p. 125, Paris, 1805,
HYDRODYNAMICS. 447
orange-coloured, . . 3.5500 Gahnite. See Automalite.
é - 3.5238 Galbanum, e . - - 1.2120
. « $5254 Galena. See Lead glance. ;
. «+ «4 9% $4444 Galipot, a juice of the pine, . 1.0819
: . ? $.5185 . : . 1.2220
Hawy. 3565 Garnet, precious, of Bohemia, Klaproth pee
Werner. 4.230
S 2.800 | Kastner. 4.352
emt 1.2045 volcanic, ° ~" - 2.468
from § 0.716 24 faces.
: 0.745 of Syria, : 4.000
. 0.9088 in dodecahedral crystals, + 4.0637
- 0.7296 common, . Werner, 3.576
- 0.8664 rial Kastner. $.688
Muschenbroek. 1.2090 Gas, * or common air, : 1.000
Muschenbroek: 1.3310 : ee nen Patient 3.3888
Muschenbroek. 0.6950 nitrous acid gas, calculated, Gey Lussac. 8.176
1.0182 Sir H. Davy. 2427
Muschenbroek. 0.6710 — * vapour of sulphuret of carbon,
2.683 Mee teagehaarete Gay Lussac. 2.5860
Werner, 2.600 calculated, Gay Lussac. 8.6195
Hauy. 2.723 hydriodic ether, Gay Lussac. 5.4749
3.1555 oil of turpentine, Gay Lussae. 5.0130
Gahn and Berzelius. 2.701 ee jay Lussac. 4.4430
uosilicic acid , Davy: 3.5737
3.0625 chlorine, - Lussac and Thenard. 2.470
1.1244 euchlorine, - - Sir H. Davy. 2.409
A y Lussac. 2.3144
fluoboracic gas, — ° J. Davy: 2.3709
. 0.9252 perpen ont ether. Thenard. 2.219
° 0.9342 cyanic vapour, Lussae, 2.111
E - 0.9235 sulphurous acid, . Sir 2.193
‘ 0.9368 e Gay Lussac and Thenard. 2.120+
Hany. 2438 vapour of alcohol, : 21
.” Bireve. ro absolute alcohol, Gay Lussac. Lats
» . . 806
B. 2.607 nitrous oxide, or prolixite of azote,
2.704 a 1.614
2.518 at 1.5204
“ee * eae carbonicacid, .. .. Saussure, 1,518
Borkowski. 2563 — Allan and Pepys, 1.524
. om 2.614 : ; Biot and Arago. 1.51961
. 0.6000 eee
Muschenbrock. 0.5500 Sir H. Davy. 1.278
. . _Muschenbroek. 0.4980 Biot and Arago, 1.2474
Ichthyophthalmite, or Apopby!~ sulphuretted hydrogen, Gay Lussac
F 2.5782 and Thenard. 1.1912
Hei. 2.467 Sir H. Davy. 1.777
2.594 oxygen, mean, : - 1.10
‘ . 2.6057 Saussure. 1.114
. 2.5867 Kirwan and Lavoisier, 1.103
5 - 2.664% Biot and Arago. 1.0359
« + 2.6588 Allan and Pepys, 1.127
. 2.6087 nitrous gas, or deutoxide of azote,
. 2.2431 Berard. 1,0388
. 2.6122 Sir H. Davy. 1.09%
, 2.5648 olefiant gas, Theodore, Saussure, 0.97804
: 2.582 Biot and Arago. 0.96913
carbonic oxide; . Cruickshank. 0.9569
; anic , Lussac. 0.9476
2.94 Dhoepiaretted Sir . 0.870
00 mre 8 oy =
4.20 Gay Lussac. 0.62349
are taken from Biot's Trraité de tom. i. p. 383; from Luseac's Table
85 and from Thomson's danals of voli 118 weston Gay
Specific
Gravities.
—_——_
448 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Gas, ammoniacal Sir H. Davy. 0.590 Granite, radiated, of Dauj ? ip 2.6678
Biot and Arago. —_ 0.59669 red of Semur, bhiny j 2.6384
carburetted hydrogen, Thomson. 0.555 grey of Bretagne, ‘ $ 2.7378
. Sir H. Davy. 0.491 yellowish, 4 9! 7 2.6186
Cruickshant, 0.678 of Carinthia, blue, ‘i Kirwan. 2.9564
Dalton. 0.600 Granitelle, x $463 3.0626
arsenical hydrogen, T: rommsdorf, 0.529 of Dauphiny, . r 2.8465
Dalton. Graphic ore. , Muller. 5.723
phosphuretted hydrogen, Haiiy. 0.852 Graphite. See Plumbogo.
ir H. Davy. 0.435 Grenatite. See Stauratide. .
hydrogen, : Thomson. 0.073 Gum Arabic, é . 1.4523
: Sir H. Davy. 0.074 tragacanth, . ¢ . 1.3161
y Dict and drago. 0.072098 : seraphic, : ; A a: 1.201
Gehlenite, Z ¥ Fuchs. 2.78 cherry tree. béye Mens his 1.4817
Girasol, 4 Brisson, 4.000 Bassora, .. ™~ >. wees 1.4346
Glarice-coal, slaty, r . Metherie, 1.300 Acajou, . i pal gitar is 1! 1.4456
Klaproth. 1.530 Monbain, ‘ <5 ereitd 1.4206
Glass, crown of St Louis, Couslion: Biot. 2.487 Gutte, mt. FA S © pepe deb
flint of M. Dartigues § Cauchoix, Biot. 3.20 ‘ammoniac, . ; e ‘ 1.2071
; _ ¢3.192 Gayae, . taker
~ flint used by Mr Tully for his achromatic } 3.334 liquid, from Botany Bay Thomson, _ 1.196
telescopes, . Z - )3.854 lac, - - ' 7.4390
3.437 anime, Eastern : ; y 1.0284
white flint, b 3.00 Western > : - 1.0426
crown, P . 2.520. Gunpowder in a loose heap, om : 0.836
common plate, . > ° 2.760 shaken, . . 0.932
yellow plate, : . : 2.520 solid, J . : 1.745
white or French crystal, , + 2.8922 Gypsum, opaque, , 2.1679
St Gobins, . . SM 2.4882 compact, specimen in the Leskean col-
gall m5) : ° 2.8548 lection, F 4 2.939
ttle, . ‘J ° . 2.73825 1.872
Leith crystal, 2 4 ; 3.189 eater seas YS ee ae 2.288
green, ‘ 3 s . 2.6423 impure, . 2.473
borax, 4 ° . 2.6070 . foliated, mixed with, ‘granular lime-
fluid, : « z 5 : 3.329 stone, = _ -% + _ Kirwan, 2.725
of Bohemia, js - - . - 2.3959 semitransparent, .. .. “ 2.3062
ef Cherbourg, oly sulosdse\. 2.5596 fine ditto. ‘ : oa, 2QT4
of St Cloud, ; é ‘ i « 8.2549 opaque, ~ .° “ 2 2.2642
animal, ’ é © 10,0 . 2.5647 rhomboidal, - é oh le 2.3114
mineral, % 2.2694 ditto, 10 faces, . % 2.3117
tears, or Rupert's drops ‘of flint glass cuniform, crystallised, »_» 23060
Glauberite, . a 59272700 striated of ses ‘ 7B - 2.8057
17.00 ‘of China, é * ° 2.3088
Gold, native, . : ? 19.00 flowered, ; ; ; 2.3059
pure, of 24 carats, pom sei but not sparry opaque 2 . F 2.2746
hammered, § 3 Haiiy. 19.2587 semitransparent, 3.3108
the same hammered, : 19.342. Gypsum, qraninny foliated, in the Leskean
English standard, 22 carats, fine, fue collection, Kirnan. 2.900
sed, but not hammered, : 18,888 mixed with marl, of a slaty form, 2.473
guinea of George II... ° 17.150 H
inea of George III. m 17.629 Harmotome, or Cross Stone, | . 3
Parisian standard 22 carats, not ham. Hazel, : : Muschenbrock, 06
mered, ° : 17.486 | Hauyne, or Latialite, . 3.20
oe same hammered, ‘ : 17.589 | Heavyspar. See Barytes, sulphate of,
SSR d — ee : Me Vote Heliotrope, or Blood Stone, Kirwan. god
trinket standard, 20 carats, not ham- 'Blumenbach, 2.633
mered, >. i 15.709 Hematites. See Ironstone. ~
the same hammered, : 5 15.775 Hollow spar, Chiastolite, “Sear » ~ 2.944
Portuguese coin, 17.9664 Hone, razor, white, _ ‘ «+ 2.8763
Serecscncet? 212 carats fused, 17.4022 penetrated with water, 2.8839
, coined, 17.6474 razor, white ~ back, is : 8.1271
i Ereneby in the reign ‘of Louis XII. eos Honey, ° ; ‘ i ¢ oa
ranite, re tian, : A . 2.6541 aiiy. $1.5
grey 5 Fxyptan, a * 2.7819 iaeeemone, oF Melt, Abich. 1665
utiful r : ‘ ¢ a7 . 3.
of f Girard, P i : 2.7163 Hornblende, common, _. % Kiresat, 13.830
violet of Gyrom , 2 2.6852 cay ieee OOO
red of A ath E e 2.6431 resplendent, Labrador, Kirwan. 3.434
green, —— . . 2.6836 Schiller spar, Kirwan, 2.882
BI RPOTR eS 449
a . , 2.909 © Spa fsrmeate of, feos the Ucalian eemtaine, Specific
“basaltic ss | Reus. F3'90 ipa of . nines v.87
| Sek Tick dk Macioareds. os hea
, 2.530 not i
Hornstone, or petrosilex, 2.653 5 7.600
tow : 2 r {ess forged into bars, . 7.788
os aa : ; < QTST pyrites, Hatchet. 4.830
grey, . 2.654 from ba tet Gellert. 4,682 |
Fisckish rm, Ape erie . 2.744 Cornw: Kirwan. 4,789 |
: - par
een tl sae 2688 radiated, Hatchet. > g775
greenish white, with reddish: spots, magnetic, : Hauy, 4,518
Ieebet, bapeeks ni eaeietie sand, magnetic sand, from Vi 4.600
ish, grey inside 2.813 - r ease. 7.800
Hyalite, tae Kirwan. 2.110 moguaties iA 4.200
"4 Klaproth. — ore > Kirwan. 5.139
See Wavellite. B 4.939
Ht See Hornblende, Labrador. - ore specular, | 3 no
’ . - 1.5263 > 4.7
'ypocist, micaceous, ° Kirwan. 5.070
be I Ironstone, red, ochry, igi cay po
Jade, ephrite, white, 2.9592 s . irwan, 3,
oa x . . . pp Siberia, Kérwan, 3.760
ca . . 9829 . 3.573
from the East Indies, Kirwan. —_ Lancashire, eno 3.863
10 compact, brow Bayreuth,
Jasmin, |. Muschenbroek*\ 0.7700 cubic, Brians. {ear7
Jasper, . y é Ps red hematites, ‘ Kirwan. . 5.005
RRR art Res
yellow, ao 2.7101 Gellert. 3.789
ma . 2.7640 Moessicreat yy 74
* . * * 2,
: Senly, aaa 2.7354 sperrycat calegaeoes, | Kirwsn. {3810
ae ° . e ae Brisson. 3.672
deep sen, Er eo 2.6258 decomposed, ae 8.600
< green, *. . . black, com pact, iedemann.. 4.07
te ae eee 2.6719 clay reddle, . Brisson. 3.139
S Sieve “Aan T N60 clay, lenticular Kirwen. 2.673
onyx, - ots é ¥ x ‘ 2.673
Rewered, 20] ed whibnwn Lo 6898 clay, common, from Cathina at Ras«
red and Aer. 2.7500 7 Kirwan, 2.936
- \ green and yellow, . Fe from Rescommon in
; ' pert + Le =— : eet oe ieee SATL
win ©. *. 2.5690 5 ue “Sealand, § Baer Asser
Lan eA Tee .- . . . 2.6608 . , reniform iron ore, iedemann. 2.
Idocrase. Vesuvian, cla rm «Al “S207
Jenite, « . a 3.80 - Bree gs (Cenc mas} 6,723
bituminous substance, . . pn leerine, o aahaentedoe: from the [ser in
Vy) . . . . . . 7690. : Bohemia, . . . . “* 400
“penetrated with water, 1.0095 Juniper eek i Muschenbroek, 0.5560
i “4 by Teen brows the hedera terrestris, . ;
. « . 1
Iridium, ore of, discovered by Mr Tennant, Kouites K wre
Wollaston. 19.500 Keffekil, or Meerschaum, 1.6000
meteoric, . - » 6.48 Kinkina, . 0.7840
450 | ileal 0 ana
ifi L Linden, wood, . ‘ Muschenbroek, 0.604. Speci
Ceettien Labdanum, resin, | . a. Nast 1.1862 Lithomarge, 250 S&S
in lorlis,.% 6+ | hat pg Logos, or Campeachy 1 wood, Muschenbroek. 0.9130
hriti : ;
TA enostiion 7 ee aaa ste M
judaicus, as = 4 2.500 Mazcle, : ee ext? € 2.9444
manatis, - : aero Madder root, : Musehenbroek. hes
ticus, : fos 2.666 Mah Ls
Bet Bee Azure stone. ' Magienin’’ Salphaie of, ‘saturated solation,
Legere A 2.20 temp. 42°, ‘ Watson. 1.282
Lard; . 0.9478 native, hydrate of, : f 2.330
Latialite. See Hauyne. Magnesite, or carbonate of magnesia, +. 2,200
Lazulite, See Azure stone. a new species, from Baumgarten
Lead glance, or galena, common, Gellert. re ime See Fron Haussmann. 2.95
from Derbyshire, Watson. 4 7796 Mibenige “! © >) Brisson. 9.572
; 6.886 com ¢ Brisson. 3.641
ae es Gellert. 9 7 444 olizs "Muschenbrock. 5.994
. ; 4.319 Manganese, ==. - . - man, 6.850 _
Kirwan > 5'o59 ge ielm. '7.000
cli "La Methoris "6.500 “grey ore of, striated, Brisson. } {758
ra | igs 8 r 14.
from the Hartz, Kirwan. 7.448 : Rinmann. 4.181
Kautenbach Vauquelin. 6.140 ey, foliated, P Hagen. 3.742
’ q gr Py ‘
Kirschwalder, fre ae red.from Kapnick, - Kirwan. « bio :
ore, cormeous, ~. °. nevix. ‘ey, § 20000
isa reniform, . . Bindheim. 3.920 black, : : Dolomieu 3.0000
of black lead, ‘ 3 6.745 Brisson. 3.7076 -
blue, : sie) 4 Gellert. 5,461 penetrated with water, 8.9039
brown, a " + fmt peti he rm ; . EYE > 4 =
from Huguelgoet, = Se sulphuret o: ¥ ‘ f
atiy. 6.909 white : . . . 2.8
. black, Gellert. 5.770 phosphate of Geass te 2.6
white, from Leadhills, Cheneviz. 7.236 Maple wood, §. Muschenbroek. 0.7550
Haiiy. 6.559 Marble Carrara, ~ Brisson. 2.716
sg phosphorated, from Mid ams ? ee bie «hat 2 : a .
§ iproth. a iscayan, . anaes ce me
Zschoppau, Klaproth. 6.270 Brocatelle, . . eet ren
Brisgaw, i Haiiy. 6.941 Castilian,. . .- pt 3 :
red, or red lead spar, a aie Valencian, ; hte, : : “ i
visson. 6. ‘Grena' white, - ee ; .
ao molybdenated, > 5.092 Siennian, ; ota sat ‘ » np
Lead, 4 Fischer, Wollaston. 11.352 Roman vio! on ¢ a “755
Gellert. 11.445 African, fi eng af yen
3 ' 5,00 Italian, violet, $ = ¥ ‘ J
arseniate of, 6.40 Norwe “ 2 : t 2.728
6.00 Sei pemeye : 4 2.728
‘carbonatepf *<. : : 7.20 French, -. . . 2.649
muriate of, : 6.00 Switzerland, P . = 2.714
sulphate of, Fs 6.3 Siler of lower 3 ‘. - 2.668
chromate of, rad 6.00 ow of Florence, 1 93 2.516
-acetate.of, 3 ' Muschenbroek. 2.3953 Mastic, = ; e 1.0742
vitriol, from Anglesea, Klaproth. 6.300 tree, »/ emaltay ‘Muschenbroek. 0.8490
Lemon tree, 3 : Muschenbroek. 0.7033 Medlar‘tree, ¢ Muschenbroek. 0.9440
Lenticular ore (arseniate of copper) Bournon. 2.882 Meerschaum. See Kessel
Lepidolite, lilalite, * : Klaproth. Pie esc bell Hy ets sh rise
ay. 2. elanite, or garn ‘ en. 3.
Leucolite. See Dipyre. . ; dine) wont Gas Werner. - 3.800 é
Leucite, or Amphigene, Klaproth. 49°49 Menachanite, oat '. Lampadius. 4.270
Lignum vite, : . Muschenbroek, 1.3330. Gregor. sane
Limestone, compact, ate iss oe Mercurial hepatic ore, compact, © Kirwan. 7.352
° ek: 2.710 | ‘ ‘Gellert. 7.937
a ie 4 7 12.837 | Moana at 320 of heat, « » Sigil era
ta 2.700 at60° yuo, Je se 1eueO"
granular, * 28007 97 i at:2120)\\0''\, ‘ 13.375
( BRED les 3.182 | at 3°42, centigrade, "Fischers '18.58597
"""*_" arenaceous 4 * m 2,742 ina solid state, 40" below 0 Fuhr. muy
white fluor, See Calcareous spar, ' Biddle, 15.612
|
|
}
;
ew
>
452
HYDRODYNAMICS.
“Specific ‘Petrosilex. See Hornstone. Potassium \at+15° centigrade,. Lussae,ii Specific
-Gravities. _Pharmacolite, or arseniate of lime, —_. 2.6 : Gays Thenard, Neer Gre
—Y—" Phosphorite, or Spargel stone, whitish, from: P, 2.80
Spain, before absorbing water, . . 2.8249 Sotstone, 8 . " ; 3.00
after ih a bor . ‘! tg Prasium, : ‘ . yf
nish, from . 4 3. Prehnite of the Ca , » .) Haiiys 2.
ae beers y 3.218 Pe ; Bisson 2.9423
‘Phosphorus, - F ; p 1.714 of F Haiiy, 2.610
Pierre de vols ey ; ; 2.320 Proof spirit, according to the English excise
Pinite, Kirwan. 2.980 . ws, - 0.916-
. Pitch ore, or sulphuretted. uranitey: ae , 6.378 nate stone, Ae 0.9145
» 6.530 > Pyenite, or shorlous beryl, : Haity 8.5145
Klaproth. 7.500 jena See’ Ni and Iron.
Pitch-stone, black, 5 * Brisson. 2.0499 ; f SP ee 3.7185
yellow, . « Brisson. 2.0860 . Werners: 3.941
red, ° - Brisson. 2.6695 . - Pyrophysalite, A , 3.450
brick red, from: Misnia, Kirwan. 2.720 ene. See Augite. : :
leek green, inclining:to olive,
Kirwan. 2.298 Q
arl » «+ Kirwan, 1.970 Quartz crystallized, brown, red, +. se, 2.6468
fackihe sd ‘ Brisson. 2.3191 - ; brea, a - 2.6404
olive, . > Brisson. 2.3145 crystallized, . 3 ; 2.6546
. dark green, - Brisson. 2.3149 milky, ei Beets : +!) 2652
Pitchy, i iron ore, - 3 3.956 elastic, ‘3 é Gerhards. 3.750.
Plasma, us P 3 2.04 Kirwan. © 2:6240
‘Platina, . : : Klaproth. 20.722 Quicksilvers See Mercury..
drawn into wire, . : 21.0417 Quince tree; oa, F Muschenbroek. 0.7050
aw of, sent by» Admiral Gravina
to ugar sa 2 5 5 20.663 } Rime” Ji poitt
a bar of, sent by the king:of»Spain to URealgar,:or-redorpiment. we Bergmany: 3.225'
the king of Poland, Z "1 20.722 i Brisson: 31388:
in grains gona by: a nitrous (17.500 Resin, or Guiacum,d1 . : oo 1.2289
acid, % rey of jalap, “ “ 12185
7 Rock crystal, from M: scar, P A 2.6530
mative, rah a ‘ * 117.200 aa brown, aden Karsten. 2.605
fused, , . 14.626 snow white from Marmerosch, Karsten., 2.888,
purified and forg ys SVN at 20.836 ©» © erystal, European, pure; gelatinous, “2.6548
milled and purified, as Zao 120.98)» ong. 2.63717
compressed or a flatting mill; » 2 22.069 of Brasil, sted: » 2,6526
Pleonaste. See Ronee iridescent, a 2.6497
Plum tree, : Mauschenbroek..-.0.7850 barging seo 5 26701
ia 1.987 ellow Bohemian, 2 2.6542
Plumbago, or graphite, . Hrevean. 2.267 blue, 5 F 2.5818
Pomegranate tree, ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.3540 violet, or amethyst, ; 2.6535
Poplar wood, |. . Muschenbroek. 0.3830 violet purple, or’ Carthaginian”
; joleitio Spanishy:. ene 0.5294 ' amethyst, 2.6570
Porcelain from China, . 2.3847 eae pale: violet;.white:amethst; oy) 26518
. Seves, hard, A vr 2.1457 _ brown, ; J 4 2.6534
; tender, . 2664 _oiexecblack, fs: fs 3 2.6536
Saxony; modern;: \ . ~ 24982 Roucou, Pi : i é 0.5956
Pamoges, “1. Ww. + Qa penetrated with watery: 1.1450
of, Vierina; - ont 9295191 — = ea ‘ F 42833
ay called Petite Janne, toca BPSD 4 yazilian, or occidental,. 8.5811
Fn < aed 3 A ae, ele ‘ a = 3 Vy - 3:7600
; yry, green, : ‘ AMAT ‘26 ‘ oth. 3.5700
ae red, bI ‘27661 25» dallas ‘ ne 3.6458
red of Dauphiny, ¢ - 2.7983 Rutile. .See-Zitanite, Haiiy. 4.102
red ire big ; 2.7542 » La Metherie. 4:246- -
om ditto, =... tt B78%B copie eet $.1
harnblende, or orphites;) » . | 2.9722 Rutiite yr Sphene, ; 8.5
pitch-stone, < IP ren il ma . . :
. 2. 5 va
IG Sono! Gable 6. es ay
sand-stone, 7 2.564 Sal gem, , “
Potash, carbonate of, ; z * 1.4594 Salt-of vitriol,
muriate of, uschenbroek: 1/8866 ~ sedative of 12
_ tartrite of, ‘sides, Muschenbrock. 1.9000 .~ polychrest, ~ .
antimonial, 2:2460 de Prunelle, - .
sulphate of, ‘ o2 2:2980 ~~ volatile of hartshorn,
HYDRODYNAMECS. 453
wy pe oe) 90920 © Silver, sooty, - \ a4 & in. ~ 5,592
\ Muschenbroek 1.0410 native, common, ~ dae. 10.000
Muschenbroek: 0.8090 ° , Selb. 10.333
Muschenbroek. 1.1280 antimonial, | _ 9.4406
1.2008 10.000
‘ ’ auriferous, Kirwan. 10.600
‘ 4 3.991 ~~ oreydark'red; .Gelllert. 5.684
: » onan’ sors . ; Brisson, » seen
oriental, é r ve. 1S arseniated, ferruginous, |
| Brazilian, or occidental, ‘ 3.1307 penetrated wa-
| Haig. 4.283 ore, corneous, or horn ore,
Hatchet.” § 4.000 Brisson. 4.7488
- Greville, ] 4.088 Gellert. — 4.804
. 3 1.2684 12 deniers, fine, not
- Brisson: 2.6025 . 10.474
Brisson. 2.6060 12 deniers, , 10.510
Brisson. 2.6215 Paris standard, 11 de-
Brisson. 2.5951 niers, 10 grains,
Brisson. 2.5949 fused, > - (10,175
Brisson. 2.5988 : ‘hammered, . 10.876
Muschenbroek. aan shilling of George Tt tpg
3.260 eT ; : 10.586
1.2354 French money, 10 deniers, ‘21 grains, .
tL 1.2743 fused, in ania 10.048
3.6800 French money, deniers, 21 grains,
“ Dandrada.. 3.7000 ; coined, * 4 = " r os
black; hexahedral, 3636 ron ray 671
. 3. common, . . 2.6718
. > os = or schistus, common, ‘iinitiieed : 2.6718
3.3852 water, + 2.6905
ancient basaltes, — whet, or novaculite; . Kirwan hn
é $.2956 Isabella, yellow, ©. Kirwan. 2.955
3.4529 stone, «y. 3 2.1861
. Brisson. , 8.092 fresh polished, . 2.7664
Gerhard. 3,150 adhesive, J Klaproth, 2.080
Telian, * 1 . 2.4295 siliceous, — * s . Kirwan, l
penvinsed wih wine; 59799 gp te aati meats Eos
black and olive, . glass of cobalt, . < : 2440
grained, ‘Eons se a0.
- * 9997 Soda, sulphate »Muschenbrock. 2.2
kted lack and. whitey 2.8767 etn iere wa
black and grey, 2.2645 ture 42°, "WWkteon, 1.198
red and 2.6885 tartrite of, saturated'solution of, Watson. 1.114
from 2.6849 ; — Sf. 2.1430
esaut eaten: 2.7097 saturated solution of, tempe-
f , 2.9339 rature’42°, Watson. 2.054
Dauphiny, . oa 2.9883 Sodalite, ; . . Thomson 2.378
aloe? sn, te eee
. ae 2.6424 ‘Sommite. See Nepheline ti
7 . ya Spar, brown. See Sidero-Calcite.
. . i 9!
2.837 red ditto, cere
glance, Brisson. 6.910 a 2.7045
La 7.200 ditto, P 2.6925
Gellert. 7.208 green and white ditto, ‘ 3.1051
. » &8 transparent ditto, 2.5644
Brisson. 5.56% adamantine. See Corundum. - 3.873
Brisson. 5.5886 schiller. See Horn-blende Labrador
Specific
Gravilies.
———/
ASS
Spar, fluor, red, or false rub $ 8.1911
oa it Ss BS ar RISE woe BT
yellow, or false topaz, ; 3.0967
green, or false emerald, ; 3.1817
octahedral, ; - 8.1838
blue, or false sapphire, : 8.1688
greenish blue, or false aquamarine, 3.1820
J rinet, or false amethyst, 8.1757
violet le, y . . 3.1857
Engin - 5 3.1796
‘ of Auvergne, — * : 3.0943
in stalactites, 3.1668
pearl, or bitter, (carb. of lime and mee
nesia,) 2.8378
calcareous rhomboidal, ‘ 2.7151
in tubes, e 2.71409 |
of France, - 9.7146
prismatic, 2.7182
and pyramidal, 2.7115
pyramidal, 2.7141
‘(puant gris, ) ° - 2.7121
peat noir, ) a * + 2.6207
or flos ferri, . a 2.6747
Spargel stone. See Phot
Spermaceti, 2 *s -- 0.9483
Spinelle. See Ruby.
Sphene. See Rutilite.
Spirit of wine. See Alcohol.
Spodumene, or triphane, fn - Hauy. - 3.1923
Dandra 3.218
Stalactite transparent, : . « 2.3239
apagu, . + 2.4783
penetrated with water, - 2.5462 .
Stanrotid! staurolite, or grenatite, Hay, 3.286
Steatites of Bareight, ‘ 2.6149
poe with water, 2.6657
indurated, 2.5834 .
penetrated with ebtets., _, 2.6322
Steel; ° , ~ Muschenbrock. 7.767
soft, 2 - Ae 7.8331.
‘hammered, s < ‘ - 7.8404
hardened in water, 7.8163
hammered, and then hardened i in water, 1h
Stilbite, : 2.50
St John’s wort, inspissated j juice of, y « 1.5263
Strontian, sulphate of, . |. Hauy. {ei
carbonate a a Hauy. wee
am sand, paving, - . : + 2.4158
grinding, . ° 2.1429
cutlers, 2.1113
Fountainbleau, glittering, - 2.5616
crystallized, 2.6111
scythe of Auvergne, mean grained, 2.5638
fine grained, ‘2.6090
coarse © grained, 2.5686
Lorraine, é 2.5298
Liege, - . ? 2.6356
mill, ‘ " > » 24835
Bristol, + mE a ; / - « 2510
Burford; “ : r 2.049
Portland, - £ : : 2.496
rag, : é é : ‘ 2.470
rotten, : - . q 1.981
St Cloud, 5 * ‘ : ‘ 2.201
St Maur, . . . ‘ 2 2.084
Notre Dame, : * 4 2,378
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Stone, Clicard from Brachet, : oo 6 8887
Pi of Chatillon, os erage Spr
é 6.343
Sylvan, native, ° Jacquin, oe 4.107
Mu 5.723
Klaproth. 6.115
ore, yellow, +... Muller. 10.678
gra Jacquin, jun. 6.157
Muller. 8.919
Syringa, 5 Muschenbroek. 1.0989
‘ . T
Tacamahaca, resin, , 3 F 2 o.° 1.0468
. 2.8534
io cy = fe 8729
Talc, black crayon, cont She ies > 2.080
ditto German, a en 2.246
yellow, ne ‘ 2.655
white, . 2.704
of mi * rs 5 = 2.7917
black, . . . 2.9004:
earthy, “ 2.6325.
slaty, . Gahn and Berzelius. ves 18
; 700
common Venetian, . é 2.800
indurated, F " 2.90
Tallow, 'o is . 0.9419
Tantalite, . ; Eleberg. 7.953,
Tantalium metal, 2 Berzelius. 5.61
in large masses, Gahn and Berzelius. 6.291
in small pieces, *t ey, 6.208
Tartar, P. Muschenbroek. 1.8490
Telesie, See Sapphire. ;
Terra Japonica, ° apa at bk mee 1.8980
Tellurium, native, 3 i 4 ed
‘aphie, fe ‘ Ps tt
Solow ‘ é 10.6
black, P ‘ « 8.9
Thumerstone. See Azinite. toott
Tin, pure, from Cornwall, fused, Watson. 5 a
/ fused and hammered, 7.291
of Malacea, fused ‘ 7.296
fused and. hammered, > 7.306
of Gallicia, ‘ 3 Gellert. 7.063
- of Ehrenfriedensdorf in Sener Soren i
ites, ° * ol
‘ Shi La Maheris. 4.
stone, . : . . Gellert. aes
; Res 6.750
black, Brisson. 6.901
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Tin stone, red, Suge « _» Brisson. 6.9848
= 5.845
ee ey Rupr {6.70
fibrous, . * . erner. 7.000
~ edt woe Brunich. 5.800
* - Blumenbach. 6.450
new, fused, + . . 7.3013
fused and hammered, é 7.3115
fe; fused, . wi nye - | 74789
. fused and hammered, wi fg 7.5194
called Claire-etoffe, ; $4869
ore, Commish, « * Brunich.. 5.800
from Fahlun, Gahn and Berselius, 6.55
Ww. .* * . * 6.008
Titanite, Rutilite,orSphene, . Haiiy. 4.102
Zz oriental, 4.0106
‘opaz, ori ¢ b “ 1
oriental pistachio,’ 9 4.0615
2 blue, ° Hauy. 3.5489
> . Hany. 9.5311
Tourmaline, ~ Brisson. 3.086 ©
— y = Hauy, 3.362
‘ Werner. 3.155
Tungsten, * ‘ e Leysser. 4.355
pa
st an
" 5 8.235
Tope, pt of ; F wae
—_ by the blue eabx of
ro fie
‘ Desormes and Clement. 2.360
ie ienionilin tate * Klaproth. aseo
a °
See Pitch ore.
Uranitic indurated, La Metherie. 3.150
om wel Hi
Uranium, Pass ; ; 5 mr
i ar 2 - / 1.026
=o Henry. + o40
Vermailie; skkind of oriental ruby, .
y walt et memes pyths
’ 420
Saki’ RTI liked, aso
Vinegar, red, t ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.0251
a white, $ y ‘< Fy
Vitriol, Dantaic, =. . L715
455
Walnut-tree of France, Muschenbroek.. 0.6710
Water distilled at 32° of Fahr. Fac ear 1.0000
sea, . 4 “ 1.0263
of Dead sea, d 1.2403
wells, 3 : 1.0017 ©
of ot 1.000387 .
-of the Seine filtered, 1.00015
of: Spa, sais >> « ' 1.0009
of Armeil, 2 4 5 1.00046
Avray, . , ‘ 1.00043
< Seltzery . - : Reuse :
avellite, hydrargillite, Davy. .7000 -
Wax, heed argh ee 5 : ~~» 0.9648 .
white, “ $ ’ 0.9686 .
Whey. } 1.019.
, cows, : . i
Willow, : Muschenbrock. 0.5850
Witherite. See Barolite. t
Wine of Torrins, red, 3 ‘ 0.9930
white, } pes
Pakaret, 0.9997
Malmsey Madeira, 1.0382
Burgundy, 0.9915
Jurancon, ° 0.9982
eae "4.0891
Constance, , : 1.0819.
Con Persie +
3 lL,
Port; eo) ee 0997
Wolfram, rs - ‘Gmelin... 5.705
Leonherdi. 7,000-
Hatchet. 6.955
Hany. 7.333
Wolf's eye (name of a mineral) mr wie:
Woodstone, ~ a 2.675
Yenite. See Jenite.
Yew tree, Dutch, Muschenbroek. . 0.7880
Spanish, é Muschenbrock. 0.8070
Yttrotantalite, Ekeberg. 5.130,»
Yttrocerite, Gahan and Berzelius. 3447
Zeolite from Edelfors, red, scintillant, 2.4868
white scintillant, . 2.0739
Perv gy 2.1344.
See Chabasie.
rege 2.515
Zine, compressed, : 7.1908
tn its usual state, oe 6.862
formed by sublimation and full of cavi-
ties, - Kirwan. 5.918 -
sulphate of, a ere 1.9000
, Watson, 1
“See solution of, temp. 386
Zircon, or Jargon, Klaproth. 4.615
Karsten. 4.666
Wiedemann. 4.700
4.3858
; Bow, dane
3.
7 - Klaproth. 131
Pyuidlidtis
umand
456
CHAP. IV.
HY DRODYNAMICS:. |
mogeneous ‘sphere, or in a homogeneous cylinderyfloat-: Eqi
phrgathot , me ing with its,axis horizontal.» :
Stan * On THE Equinisrium om ke Seager”, or Froatine 5 Ph solid floats permanently on a fluid surface, and §
Bodies. i if it is moved from its. position of equilibrium by
We have already seen, (Chap. II. Prop. I. p.429;) that
when a'body is in equilibrium in a fluid, its weight is
always equal to that of the fluid displaced; and that
the centre of gravity of the floating: body» when ho-
any external*force, the resistance which the solid op-
poses to’this inclination is called the stability of floating ;
and the horizontal line round which it moves, iis eall<
ed the azis of motion.
my eous, must be.situated in the same vertical line ‘It would be impossible in a work like this, to:enter
with ‘the centre of gravity of the part submersed, or at great length into a subject so difficult and profound
of the fluid displaced, Prop. II. p..430... From the pdllisipicccert . We shall, therefore, content ourselves
equality between the weight of the. body and that of
the displaced flaid, the upward. pressure of the fluid is
exactly capable of balancing .the downward tendency
ofthe body ; but unless these two forces are directly
opposed to each other by passing through: the same
polats the solid body wil have a Ber gacagraroc in-
stead of'a position of perfect equilibrium. In order,
therefore, to determine the positions»in which a: body
will float permanently on the surface of afluid, weshave '
only, after the specific gravity of the body has been as-
certained, to discover in what’ positions the:solid can be
placed, in order that the centre of gravity of the solid
and of the part immersed may be in the same vertical
line. The solid, however, will not ‘float: permanently
in every case, when these centres of gravity are situated
with stating the general principles relative’to the stabi«
lity of floating’ bodies, and with investigating the differ-
‘ ent positions ofistability and instability which they as«
sume; and in doing this shall freely: avail:ourselves of
the labours of Mr Atwood, whose papers:on the:stability
of floating bodies are remarkable fortheir.perspicuity..
Tn arranging, abridging, and sometimes simplifying his
demonstrations, we trust we shall .do an important: ser=.
vice to the reader. . ;
*dPaor, Ei
To determine the stability of bodies floating on a
fluid at.any angle of inclination from a given position
of equilibrium.
in the same vertical line; for there. are examples, in
which the body cannot remain in this position of equi-
librium, ~but will actually, assume another, in which
Let-EDHF be a vertical section through the centre prars
of gravity-G, ofa homogeneous solid, -whose figure is CCCXY.
symmetrical with regard to the axis of motion, and let it Fig. 1.
Definition.
it will’ continue to float permanently. Mr Atwood
has illustrated this by the case of a cylinder, whose
specific gravity is to that of the fluid on’ which it floats
as 3 to/4, and whose axis is to the diameter of its base
as 2 to 1.. When the .cylinder which we suppose to
be 2 feet long, and its base 1 foot in diameter, is held
in the fluid, with its axis in a vertical line, it will
sink toia depth of 13 feet ; but as soon as it ceases to
be supported, .it instantly oversets, and remains float-
ing with its axis horizontal. -If the cylinder, instead of
being 2 feet long is only 6 inches, or one-half the dia-,
meter of its base, it will sink to the depth of 3ths of its
diameter, or 43 inches, and will float permanently in
that position. In this last case, if the axis of the cylin-
der is not exactly inva vertical line, but:a)little,inclined
to it, the cylinder will still settle permanently with its
axis in.a vertical line.
Hence it is obvious, that there are different kinds of
equilibrium.
lst, The
hibited ‘in the short cylinder 6 inches long; which floats
rmanently in a given position.
2d, The equilibrium of instability, orthat which is ex-
hibited'in the cylinder 2 feet long, which-oversets, al-
though the centre of gravity. of the ‘solid, sand ‘that’ of
the part immersed, are in the same-vertical line. In
this case, the:equilibrium «is:as: perfect ‘as: im:the first
case ;|.for while the centres of gravity are inthe same
vertical line,»the solid must continue. erect:;“but the
slightest deviation. of:the:centresiof ity from: that
line creates a rotatory motion, from which the*solid ne-
cessarily oversets. .
8d, Thevequilibrium of indifference, or the insensible
equilibrium ‘in'which the solid floats indifferent to mo-
tion, and without any tendency to recover its position
when inclined from it, or to incline itself farther. The
equilibrium of. indifference takes place, when,the:pro-
to 1, This kind of equilibrium is exhibited in a ho-
equilibrium of stability, or that which is ex-.
float on the surface HABL of the fluid, O being the
centre of gravity of the part»immersed. The line
GOC will-therefore be perpendicular to AB. -If-by an-
external force the solid is inclined through an angle
KGS, the solid will take the position IRLMN, and the
part immersed will now be WRMNP. Hence, as the
patt XW1I is raised out of the water, and the corre-
sponding and) equal | on XNP immersed, the centre of
gravity which would otherwise have béemat:E: (taken
so\that GO = GE) will now be ‘transferred: to:some.
other point Q. Having drawn QS parallel to GO, and
EY and ZGz icular to SQ, it'is obviox
upward pressure of the fluid will be exerted in:theli
Qs, swith a force equal to the weight of the body, or
that of the fluid displaced, and this force will have the
same tendency to turn:the body round its axis of mo-=:
tion, as if it were applied at the:point Z, “Incdetermin~:
ing, therefore, the position whichsbodies;assume.on.a:
fluid surface, and the stability--with which; they float,
it is necessary-only to find the perpendicular distances.
GZ between the two vertical lines which pass through
the centre of gravity of the solid and the part icuiguinhs J
Since ‘the weight of the body continues the same,
the portion IXW, elevated from the fluid in consequence
of'the inclination, must always be equal to the portion
PXNwhich is immersed. Hence, supposing a to be the
centre of gravity of IXW, and f that of NXP, then the
centre of gravity Q will be at a creceen from E, corres
sponding to the change produced, by:removing the fluid
1WX.to thesposition NXP. In order to determine,
by -a geometrical ‘construction, the line GZ, let fall
the: ndiculars,ab, fc, and in the line EY drawn
parle to AB, take ET, ‘so that ET:dc = volume
WX volume WRMP. Through T draw FTS paral-
lel to.GO, then:the-centre of gravity required will/be
somewhere in’ FS, and because ER: EG =
. svad..the line GO= EG being supposed given, the
portion between the axis of the cylinder and the dia~
meter. of its base is greater than I to 2, and less than 2°
line ER will be determined, and bei taken from ET
already found, will leave RT or GZ the: perpendicular
distance required. :
ard its place, the
AY DRODYNAMLICS.
when one badly of a
tothe motion of the
is |] d thi a
sndilain bin poved.an bom imadenen toXP, whose
ity is f, we shall have volume WRMP or
of one body, the moti ey spebbl se ar
one . motion centre the
Calling, therefore, alla
the part of the floating body im-
ag
& = sine of the angle of inclination KGS,
AEM ache iyrtvingthgicdbnnes
Then, by the proposition b: ET=V:A, and ET =
A But ER: EG or GO = s: 1, we have ER =
hay consequently, RT=ET —ER, or GZ = oe ay
4
hs.
If the floating solid should be of an irregular form,
the same demonstration will hold good ; but we must,
4
:
fa
ie
IF
z
E
FF
i
sured
‘general,
VOL. XI. PART I.
the whole volume immersed
457
external force to revolve round its axis of motion, and Equilibrie
through different positions of equilibrium, the
Fiona of arnt instability out alternate, Le
no position of either species can follow a position of the
In determin ii
In ining, therefore, the position which a solid
will assume-after it has been overset from any situa-
tion of instable ibrium, we must ascertain the
of inclination which the solid must re-
volve, so that the. distance GZ may become evanes-
cent, and we must also determine whether any position
of equilibrium originally given is stable or instable.
This iy bpd be done from the value of GZ already
given;
if we take an int ¢ in the line ER, and
Shrough t draw qf parallel to GO, then it is obvious,
1. That while 5* = ET is greater than he =
vity ER, the part Z and the line
of cm will be
between the axis and the parts of id immersed
in consequence of the inclination, which gives a stable
2. That while Sp = ET is les. than his = ER;
the and the line of su z will be on the
paste il of the ai, and wll give am inable eu
ium. Hence we can always determine, from the va-
lue of GZ, what is the kind of equilibrium
Body will float when the angle of in-
clination, and consequently its sine, are assumed to be
evanescent.
Paor., III.
To find an cmmreusion Ser the stability or instability of
when ee eee
gure and dimensions with respect to its axis of motion.
us su in Fig.
dara pols
these planes; now, since the sine s of
, and since WXP=IXW,
angle [XW, the t X will
AB, and the points P, B, N will be co-
incident. Hence, the evanescent area NXP= aE xe
2
AB'XS, and if we represent by = a line drawn
the middle of the solid, on a level with the
axis, the
pendicular distance of the centre of gravity of this
evanescent solid from the point X is 22. In order to
find the distance from X of the centre of gravity of
by the inclination, or the
common centre of gravity of the elementary solids
——— corresponding to the length =, we must
multiply each elementary solid the distance of
its centre of gravity fear tor tented Wns
X, and divide the sum of these products by
the sum of the solids. Hence, in the pres
sent case, since the distance from X of the centre of
gravity of the elementary solid is “°, the product
Su
um. and
Stability of
Floating .
Bodies.
1. that another section of the PLate
to ADHB, and very. near cccxv.
of the solid will be comprehend. Vig. 1.
458
— arising from multiplying the distance by the solid it-
um @
By : ABS xsd
SPloutiag self will be ee » and the sum of the products
Bodies. corresponding to the whole line 2 will be fluent of
—y— AB xsdz
vm in
part immersed by inclination, and also of the part ele-
vated by inclination, the distance of the centre of gra-
vity, of the immersed part or c X, also of the part ele-
AB® x sd
vated, orb X, will be fluent of —z,"—*, and the dis
tance between the twe centres of gravity in the line
5
bc will be twice this quantity, or fluent of AE aes,
Substituting this value for 4 in the general equation,
; AB® x sdz hy
we have GZ = fluent of ae hs, which is
and since A represents the volume of the
the general expression required.
Application | Now it follows, 1. That if the first member of this e-
of the for- : a AB3 xsdz .
mula to the quation, viz. fluent of ——-_-—, is greater than the
case of uni- * : 12V
formity of ‘second hs, the line of support QZ will be between
figure. the axis of motion and the part immersed by inclination,
and the solid will float permanently ; and, 2. That if
the first member is less than the second, the line of sup-
port qz will be on the contrary side of the axis, and the
body will overset. Hence it is obvious, that be-
tween these limits, we must have the equilibrium of in-
AB3 xsdz
difference which takes place when fluent of aw
tA.
If the solid has anuniform figure and dimensions, then
putting D for the area of any of the sections immer-
sed under the fluid, the solid contents cf the volume
immersed will be Dz, hence V=Dz; and since AB is
now a constant quantity, we have fluent of AD * POM ds
E 12Dz
_ ABs xsz_ AB xs AB3 xs
~J2Dz-— 12D’ 12D
—hs.
consequently GZ =
Prov. IV. Pros.
To determine the limits of stability and instability
in a parallelopiped depending on the dimensions and
specific gravity of the solid.
Case of a
floating pa-
In applying the preceding expressions to a parallelo-
rallelopiped piped, let EF DC be its vertical section, with its flat
with one of Surface EF upwards, and IK the surface of the fluid.
its flat sur- Through its centre of gravity G draw SGL parallel to
faces ups CE, and let us take
awards, * BCH
PLate = @=CD .
ek n= specific gravity of the solid, or n:1 = SN:SL.
Then if O be the centre of gravity of the part immer-
sed, and since 2: 1 = SN: SL, or CL, we have SN=
ac; GO= $ —_ =~, and ABCD=aecn. Substituting
these values in the general expression already found,
we have GZ = pa ea
l2acn
quilibrium ‘is one of indifference, when the first mem-
ber of the expression is equal to the second, or when
as sXe—ne
iWacn— 2
; and since the e-«
» we have, by the resolution of
HYDRODYNAMICS.
s P quilibri
this quadratic equation, n?—n=— ce and
a% Pepi.
: ioe Got" Bodics.
Cor. 1. From this proposition, we may infer, that
° 2
whenever ia is less than 1, or when the height c of
the solid has a greater proportion to the base than that
of ./ 2 to ./3, two values may be assigned to the
specific gravity of the solid, which will cause it to float
in the equilibrium of indifference. If, for example, c=a,
we have n=}--/i_—1, which gives
n= 4 + 0.28868 = 0.78868
n = 4} — 0.28868 = 0.21132.
Cor. 2. If the specific gravity of the solid is very
3
small compared with that of the fluid, the term sce
‘ n
naj
pe nonnady and the solid arith float
permanently with the line EF parallel to the horizon.
Cor. 3. If the specific gravity of the solid is ineréa-
sed beyond .21132, then, since this is the limit at which
it ceases to float with stability, if it is placed ‘with its
flat surface upward, its equilibrium will be instable,
‘and it will therefore assume a position of permanent
equilibrium. By increasing the specific gravity from
21132 to .78868, the instability increases at first, and
must be greater than
. . 1 2 slat bin
reaches its maximum when z= 6? it then diminish-
es and vanishes at the second limit when mn = .78868.
When n is between .78868 and 1. the body will float
permanently with its flat surface EF horizontal. The
maximum of instability is found by putting the least
3
increment of the quantity i aa —— x > =0,
‘considering n as variable, and making a=c.
Cor. 4. If the height SL of the parallelopiped is in a
less proportion to its base CD than that of /2 to 4/3,
there is no value of x at which the stability will vanish ;
for in this case the quantity Vi- 45 become im-
possible. The solid will therefore always float perma
nently with its surface EF horizontal.
Pror. V.
To determine the limits of stability and instability of
a square parallelopiped when one of its diagonals is in
a vertical position. :
Let EDCF be a vertical section of the parallelopi- .
ped floating on the surface AB of the fluid, and let G, oe
as formerly, be the centre of gravity of the solid O, Fig. 3, _
that of the part immersed, and 7 the specific gravity of ‘
the solid. Then if DC=a, we shall have GC =>
er Me
But since HB=HC, we have ABC=HB?; and since
ABC: DEFC = :1, we have ABC = a*n, HB*=
Lan
¢
an, HO =axi/y 3 AB=2a/n3 oC=—_—
a 2a/ nH -aX3—V/8n- Tr
VQ) 8. Pigeons
and GO=
HYDRODYNAMICS. 459
If we now apply the general expression GZ = By, inserting these. values in: the general formula Fqiiliv
. ~- ae -
of = ree to the present case, we shall obtain GZ= iD —A s, we have ABS=8 a3 X Imai ; D = Stability of
: D Woarmea M1 —_———_—_— ow n Floating
ax 3—V5n Bodies.
7 _ nese fools ot 5 :
AB=8a)n¥; Data; ha and conse- a*n, and since GO=d we obtain GZ=55 XI — Sy
= ie - ~ >
U ee Saints axS—W8n @X3—3n—V 15 x l—at 4-2 KX 1—nd oh
— -- . In order, —"*. This value of
WE tae Sexe -™ Siaxe Aatrans
therefore; to obtnin the limit between the tabilty nd GZ. being put =0 to obtain the lit, and the whol
instability of Coating, we must make \™%* — hy, as being multiplied by >"* 2 we:shall have
J. Ae Rake *? |
in Prop. 1V: we tasking 8a° nt _@x $—V8n we 2M 2 XVI—aaES-SV EF XVI GEV TX Vin
4 — an lS v¥2x3 o Vimar and 1—n= 9 andn=25, the limit
shall have ¢ Vn Fac 8 ee, the repeien. ' >
x ‘or. Hence from this, and the preceding proposi-
specific gravity at which the equilibrium of indifference ,: ae a
acs: Share nae . ae tions, we have the four limiting values of the specific
w the slid wit Moat with stabiy and instability, St2¥ities, via. L—o/]—3 5 yes $4 and 4444/3, o
pernnst; for the first tera of the value of
necessarily be less than the secon i. er than .
Cor. 2. Uf m = 1 = 9 = 92 the solid will float with the bas one 1
equilibrium of in tifferense; and therofore if n:1inaless ‘8 less than .281, it
lowly TO the ‘solid will overset ; but Ta ee Sort Pemenentls wi siete
7
that limit, then the zolid will float perma- UPWard; but if the specific gravity .718, it will
Side Sin wees Kee ¥ _ Overset when placed in the uid with an angle upward,
:
:
af
F
i
A
;
y F
b
c
F
i
=.
F
i
:
:
‘|
!
e
me
3
I
:
i
I
i
Es
ef
if ¥ he the centre of gravity of the area AEB,
the of the centre of
GH x area = area ABDC FA xO ap ;
: 7
AEB x HP, or a x V2—/i—n =a x OH —
5
ef
a
fi
ul
d
4
¥<
: ; oe Be
n taking
and Xf=} Xn, fil
triangles PXZ, and QX
AR Oe peice 4 5, ie Mbon, Ho Nae AR, Jn
ae ¢ applying the general equation GZ=\" —/- te the
Hot XS VIB x VTS +o x V 2x mat case, we have QXR=A ; ZHVR or ACDB=V ;
TTT Vie c=b; OG=/f; sine of UGO=s. Makes the
Subtracting from this expression the value of HG = oe cau ange UGO. Then fom the aaa
4x V8 Visa = eV io x Vis ig Slax, and VU oe KGa" ten ita an
: ‘ — id at fa? oe 3 ——
> Pe | Vis x m Qna Fi Xa) at ee yipe, Now, since
er
GO 2X 3— ie V18 ¢ ep ee Toat BNO: Xnsssin, m XR; Rn, we have":
x“
ix
*
Eb
2,
¥
W138 XR Vv4+4 = sin. » XR: sin. XR x, consequently
iy
460 HYDRODYNAMICS.
1 Sin. n RX x ¢ peed ts fi _ The preceding proposition is applicable only tothe case Equi
sin. RXR = Wea” and subétituting in place of where ie fate of the water intersects the parallel sides
+ i YH, WV. In order to obtain the angle of inclination from *
sin. n RX its value ——-—, we obtain sin. n XR= 2 position of equilibrium, with the flat surface horizon- ‘3
Vite tal, and the specific gravity of the solid, when the fluid ———
t ET cok a Sh 24-4? surface passes through one non porad vs <— base, let PLaTE
aX Vi ae OF Saas, === AECD, Fig. 6, be a vertical section of the square pa- ©.
Vibe KV St 7440 x VIC Jallelopiped, and let the water line TK pass through D. Fig, 6.
2 Th tting CD=a, and ‘=tangent o e an
and since X an2 3" axV/4+t >. we have Xc= sa = ing me Bn at
ewe aad 3 wl gle required, we have KC=a #, and area KcD=~,- ;
axVatOxX2tl 2%) =F" But Xb=Xe
Sn 4EXV 142 3 - Vi+e " but area KCD : area AECD=n:1, we have n= Sub-
by similar triangles, and therefore bc = 2Xe=
2aKX2+0
8xVI+LE
2acn=V, and the volume QXR =o =A. Substitu-
ting, therefore, these values in. the equation GZ ott
= }.. Now the immersed part ACDB=
2
2 2;
a SNE NE OE cy Petes am heads FO
SxVi pe teen
2 2 ot, 224
2 Exeter —hs;but sinceh =" aH, =f ine ek,
ConxX Ie 2 Gon/1 42
— By substituting for ¢* its equal
s? a@sX2—s*
a ° the formula becomes GZ = Geax
c—cnxXs
As it may be more convenient to make a
express the whole breadth AB or PQ, instead of the
‘half breadth, the equation will, by this change, become
_ &sX2—8 c—cnXs
Cocaine in cm
2a" — 12 cH412c7n*
“12 ci n?— 12 c7n + a” es
12 cn — 12 c? n? — 2a*
12 cm— 12c*n*— a?”
In the case of a square parallelopiped, we have a=c,
Se a Sn cadens there
12n — 120? —1 oak
fore, to ascertain from this equation the angle through
which the solid revolves, let us take n=.24, which being
between .211 and .789, will place the solid with a flat
surface upward and horizontal, and in an instable equi-
-1888 alee -1888
1.1888? °°" Tigse—
By making this
value =0, we obtain s?
es
and therefore s? =
librium, consequently s? =
the sine of 23° 29’, the angle of revolution, after which —
‘the solid will settle in a position of stable equilibrium.
The preceding equation determines also the specific
gravity x, which will make the solid float at the angle
3; for, by resolving that equation, we obtain 2 =
, ig 1—2s2 =) lap ‘
3 Se and applying‘this to the particular angle
of 28° 29’, we have n=0.5 =& 0.26 = 0.76 and 0.24,
the two specific gravities, which will cause it to float
in stable equilibrium at the angle of 23° 29’.
Prop. VIII.
“To ascertain the position of equilibrium, &c. as in
Prop. VII. when the surface of the fluid passes through
one of the extremities of the base of the floating solid.
stituting this valueof n in the formula, or value of s? inthe
. See : 6i'—32—2
preceding proposition, we obtain °= ay ae but
i? 2 6—3r—2
2 = a
§ =P consequently T4P 3 or 6
3—2—6t — 3/2? — 24-613 — 3/4 — 20, or 4° = 6t — 2,
which gives ‘(=$=+1, that is¢=4,and‘=1. The first
of these values corresponds to an angle of 26° 33’ 51”,
and the second to an-angle of 45°, as shewn in Fig. 7.
In the first of these cases, KCD : ABCD, = 1: 4, and
therefore n=4+, and the equilibrium is that of stability ;
in the second case = 3, and the position of equilibri-
um is also one of stability. .
Prop. IX.
To find the position of equilibrium as in Prop. VIII.
when the fluid surface intersects one of the extremities
of the upper side, as shewn in Fig. 8.
; , ok
Putting ABK =i, we have areas ABK=", and
KcDB="*—™, consequently = ; which, being
substituted for # in the equation of Prop. VIIT. gives
Fyn 'S t—3 V-—2
1407 6t—30—1’
A 2—t
since i=$=+1, we have n= =3,
the same as formerly. Hence
orn}.
Prop: X.
To determine the position in which the parallelopi-
ped will float permanently with a plane angle obliquely
upward, when the specific gravity is between 4, and
x5 or between 34 and F4. :
It follows from Prop. VI. that when 7 is between
fr and 4%,, or between 33 and 34, the solid will float
rmanently with the diagonal inclined to a vertical
ine. In order to find the angle, let TVCF represent
the square parallelopiped floating with its angle I placed
obliquely, and let its inclination to a vertical line be
OGT. Let DE be the surface of the fluid, and taking
CB a mean poe between EC and CD, draw B.
parallel to FV, and-cutting IC in, H, CH will be the
depth to which the solid sinks when IV is vertical, and
- therefore area BKE = area XDA, Make CO = 3.CH,
and,-O. will‘be the centre ‘of gravity ‘of the volume
ABC. Bisect EBinK and AD in R, and draw KX, RX,
and take XM = 2 XR and XL = 3. XK, and M, L will
respectively be the-centres of gravity of the triangles
XAD, BXE. Let fall the perpendiculare MP, QL upon
cccXvV.
Fig. 7.
ve
S vid; t= JS, co=ycu= /2,
«eva 1? 9
MCeEESy-
eT :
‘area CDE or ABC: area BKE = PQ; OT or “: w=
2b
hy Fae and OG = jaz5- Adding CO to CG,
; a*
we obtain CG = 24" 4 0/4", and since GC: CV=
1:3, we have CV = GC x “2 and CV =
/f8x bu ttt V2 x bat 4s Oa
ta*s + 9 a Stats .
But since 1 ; n = area CAHB: IFCV, or as CH*:CV®*,
wehaven = Cy and Vn= /!* x
30 ats
= 0
SOPs ebupover o's
:
:
.
aT)
te
He
uy
is
cE
?
@
|
F
it
FF
H
Ee
i
$
i
et
pe
anFt
745
24
—g
3
4
8
g
uf?
HYDRODYNAMICS.
_ a = * :
eee Kes and BC=e, we have Siac fee
Putting area BXE = w, wehave -
461
ing to .718 to 18° 20’ ing to .75, three Equiltbri-
the solid being i - um and
6. If nis between .718 or 34 and .789 (as in Figs.19, Stspility of
20, 21), the solid will float with a flat surface upward pogies,
itions of stable
have, by Euclid, B. 111, Prop. 35. WH=/7A—Z,
KH=2x /7—=, and KH%ds=8 x P— 2"! x dz, the
fluent of which quantity, when < increases from 0 to r, is
fluent of KH? x d
Se r4; and since PQ=/», and the
soe dibaaeele : .
rt, wehave Voart/in, But
462 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Equilibri- l tare & l—in — tacentre S, the solid will always float with stability, Equi
“im end GP==->, and OP=, consequently GO=-—" = asthe measure of that stability W x SG>a tends a
Ce ef ways to turn the body in a direction contrary to that 5
fluent KH3 x dz_ 3x r4
h3,vandl seinee 12V = 1aertln’
fluent KH® x dz
by making
=h, we shall obtain the limits be-
12V
tween the stable and instable equilibriums. Thus
3x1? é—in te 3
SS *—n==—s.. But since 2r
Westby tear to al
= b, or the diameter of the base, we have n?—2=
pt ease) ae
BE’ and naga Utena
Hence, if the diameter of the base bears a greater
proportion to the length of the axis than that of / 2
to 1, there is no value of the specific gravity x, which
will cause the solid to float.in the equilibrium of indif-
ference : It follows, therefore, from the preceding inyes-
tigations, that in this case it will always float perma-
nently with its axis in a vertical line.
If the diameter of the base bears a less proportion to
the length of the axis than 7 2 to 1, then there are al-
ways two values of n, which will be the limits of sta<
bility and instability. In order to determine the ratio
between the length and diameter of the cylinder which
limits the case of stability and instability. when the spe-
cific gravity is given, we obtain from the equation n—n?
2 a
= oR the equation T= W8n—812, from which it
follows, that since is given, the diameter of the base
should be to the length of the axis of the cylinder in a
greater proportion than that of 8 —8 x? to 1, in
order that the solid may float permanently with its axis
upwards ; but if the diameter of the base should be
to the length of the axis in a less proportion to that,
the solid will overset.. For example, if n= 43, then
/8n— 8 n? = Wi = 1.2247 ; that is, the diameter of
the base should be in a greater proportion to the length
of the axis than 1.2247 to 1, in order that it may float
permanently. If the proportion is less than this, it
will overset.
We shall now conclude this Section by following Mr
Atwood in his application of the preceding principles
to the stability of ships. We have already seen that
the force of stability of a ship or any other body is
represented by Wx GZ, W being the weight of the
vessel and its lading. When the angle of inclination
is so small as to be considered evanescent, we have
5
seen that GZ = Preeti ed ht SAME but since
12V
the first member of this equation is equal to ET, and
: ‘eal fluent AB3 dz
since L=>OG=EG, it follows that ~~ 1aV ES,
nd fluent AB> dz
* 12V
quantity, whatever be the inclination of the floating
body, provided it is very small ; that is, the point S is
immoveable with respect to G. This point S is called
the Metacenire or centre of equilibrium ; for if the cen-
tre of gravity G coincides with the point S, the stabili-
ty, or GZ x W=W xSG xs, will be =0, or the solid
will float in all positions alike, without any effort to
restore itself if it is inclined, or to incline itself farther.
If the centre of gravity G is situated beneath the me«
—h=GS, which is an invariable
in which it is inclined. If the centre of gravity is pla-
ced above the metacentre, the force WxSGxs ha- x .
ving passed through 0, tends to turn the vessel in. the
same direction as that in which if is inclined, and it
will therefore float with an instable equilibrium.
When the angles of inclination, however, are large,
the stability of the vessel will, as has already been
shewn, be measured by WX cz= 44 —dsXW: In
the application of this formula to practice, b A is the
only quantity which requires to’ be determined ; for all
the other values can be easily_ascertained from the na-
ture of the case. In ‘order to find d A, the following
observations must be attended te. Ifa line parallel to
the horizon passes from the head tothe stern of the
vessel when the ship floats upriglitly, this line is called
the longer axis, to distin ich it from the shorler axis,
which passes through the same centre, but in a direc-
tion perpendicular, to the former. If we conceive a —
vertical plane to pass through the longer axis when the
ship floats mpciebtne it will divide the vessel into two
parts perfectly similar and equal. A ship in equili-
brium, may also be conceived to be divided into two
parts by the horizontal plane which passes through the
surface of the water, aiid this section is called the prin-
cipal section of the water, represented in section by AB,
Fig. 1, which will be transferred to IN when.the vessel
is made to hecl or revolve through the angle SGK.
The real section of the water will now be AB, which
may be called the secondary section of the water. .These
two planes inclined at the angle of heeling SGK, inter-.
sect each other in X, and this line of intersection will
obviously be parallel to the longer axis. :
The position of the point X clearly depends on the
shape of the sides of the vessel. In a _parallelopiped,.
with two plane angles immersed, as in Fig. 5, the point.
X bisects the lines ZR, PQ, corresponding to AB, IN
in Fig. 1; but, when the same solid floats with only
one plane angle immersed, as in Fig. 10, the point X.
no longer bisects these lines, but is removed towards
the parts immersed by the inclination. As the breadth
of vessels, therefore, has no regular Rrapectian from,
the head to the stern, the position of X, which is ne-
cessary to the determination of 6 A, must obviously C¢
be determined practically by approximation. We must “
therefore conceive the equal volumes NXP, LXW,
Fig. 1 and 25, one of which is immersed, and the other
raised by the heeling ef the ship, to be divided into
segments by vertical lines, perpendicular to the longer» |
axis, and at distances of two or three feet. These seg-
ments will therefore have the form of wedges, as shewn
in Fig. 25, NXP being the inclination of the planes on
the faces of the wedges.
The solid contents of the immersed wedges NXD
must now be found by approximation ; aud making XI
= AB—NX, and XW = AB—PX, the solid contents of
all the wedges, IX W raised by heeling, must also be ob-
tained. If the size of the immersed wedges is not equal
to the size of the elevated wedges, the position of the
point X must be altered, till this equality is obtained.
‘o find 4 A, therefore, let the area PX NT P, and its cen-
tre of gravity f, be determined by approximation. Draw
dc perpendicular to PX, and X c will be the distance of
the centre of gravity from the point X, estimated in the
horizontal direction PX ; and ex being found in 2 si-
HYDRODYNAMICS. 463
could not have been composed more than a few years On Capillary
before his death in 1662; and he mentions it as if it —”
were a fact well known, that the ascent of water in nar- ¢, brencnenn -
row tubes was first discovered by M. Rohault, acele- pyuids.
brated Cartesian philosopher, who taught mathematics
and natural philosophy at Paris. In 1671, Rohault pub- Experi- -
lished in'4to his Traité de Physique, which was trans- earn
lated into Latin by Dr Clark. ‘This work contains an 2°") 38)
account of the ordinary experiments on capillary attrac- pied 1675.
ty of the solid segment XPNxpn
Aer, tatimated in the horizontal direction
measure of the vessel's stability W x 5% as for an
angle whose sine is s, is obtained.
Sach of our readers as wish to te this subject
farther, are referred to the following works: Archime-
des De iis vehuntur in ido. P. Paul Hoste
Theorie de la Construction des Vaisseaux, Lyon. 1696.
Parent; Mem. Acad. Par. 1700. Pitot, Theorie de la
Maneeuore des Vaisseaux, Mem. Acad. Par. 1731. D.
Bernoulli Comment. Petropol. 1739, vol. x. p. 147 ; xi.
p- 100. D'Alembert’s Essai sur la resistance des Fluicles,
and his Mathematiques, tom. 1. Bouguer's
Traite de la Mancenvre des Vaisseaur. 1d. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1754, p. 342; 1755, p.481; 1757, Hist. p. 165.
Clairant, Mem. Acad. Par. 1760, p. 171. Juan Ex-
CHAP. V.
On Capituany AtTractiow, anv Tie Coagston oF
' Fiorps.
Tx our articles on Apueston and Caritnany Arrrac-
ject,
of discovery in this interesting branch of phy-
sies, to lay before our readers an nica of Pi
ji which have either been made since
tracts of Pascal informs us, that capillary attraction
was not known in France when Pascal wrote his post-
humous treatise Sur fEquilibre des Liqueurs, which
* This is stated on the authority of Fabri.
- + See Rohaultih Physica, edit. 1TL0, § 69, 70, T1, $0, 81, &e.
tion, which Rohault ascribes to the unequal pressure of
the air within and without the tube. He states distinct-
ly, that water rises between all bodies which are capa-
ble of being wetted with it, whereas it is depressed be-
tween substances that are not ares of beg wetted.
He observed the ascent of water between two plates of
glass, and the spherical concavity of the = surface
In ca\ spaces ; but he nowhere gives the least hint,
that he was the discoverer of these phenomena. t
In the year 1660, our celebrated countryman, Robert Fsper-
iments Phy- vr
Boyle, published at Oxford his New
sico-Mechanical touching the Spring of the Air, &c. »
in which he has treated
pillary tubes. He ascribes the discovery to some men
of science in France, on the authority of a celebra-
= a from pt seatines eae it; and
repea experiment with a tube small
bore, drawn out by ‘cause of the tahoe, this
tube, the waters said to have sprung instantaneously
to the height of five inches, to the great surprise of se-
veral icians that were present. When the
tube was inclined, the water occupied a greater part of
it, and it always rose higher in the tube when the
inside of it was wetted before hand. These expe-
riments succeeded equally well, when the tubes were
placed in an exhausted receiver. Mr le observed
also the —_ — u surface ~ t fmm the
convex surface of mercury, and its depression
in capillar tubes. See the above work, p. 262.
Dr Hooke seems to have been one of
said to have i
a tract published in 1660, and entitled, «An Attempt
for the explication of the Phenomena observable in an
experiment published by the Right Hon. Rebert Boyle,
in the 35th experiment of his Epistolical Discourse
touching the Air, in confirmation of a former conjec-
ih Sei
water in capi tubes, eu sure of the
= on the —— of aid within and without
e tu € supposes t is a greater incongrui
between air and glass than between water and glass, ya
that, on this account, the air is admitted with more diffi-
culty into the tube than the water, the difficulty al-
ways increasing as the diameter of the tube diminish-
es. This hypothesis Dr Hooke endeavours to sup-
port, a act which he has determined experimen-
tally, that a much greater force is necessary to force a
bubble of water into a narrow tube than into a wide
one; and he has illustrated it at great length, in
Zin 1662, Seaeriees into Latin, and published at Amsterdam, by M. Bohem, entitled, Conatus ad explicanda Phe-
> Kpsnag og ars ab Honorabili Viro Roberto Bayle.
§ ** In the year " says De Hooke in bis Microgrophia, “ 1 printed a little tract, entitled Am Attempt, &c. and being unwilling
thee to publish this theory, as supposing imight be prejudicial to my design of watches, which I was then procuring a patent for, I
hinted the principle which I supposed to be the cate of these phenomena of
in the Slst page thereof in the English
and in 38th of the Latin edition, Amst. 1662; but referred the further explication thereof till some other opportunity." —
Hovke on Springs, to, 1678.
5
oy
of the ascent of water in ca~¢j0.
who was Hooke's
present at the exhibition of this experiment ; and he is °*P*"-
the phenomenon by affinity. In Tyco, 162.
'
464
OnCapillary the VIth Observation of his..Micrographia, which
Attractioty appeared in 1667. This observation is. entitled, On
comment Small Glass Canes; and contains his most: mature opi-
~ Kiuiés. Dions.on the subject. He states that the water, when
it enters small capillary tubes, rises rapidly to the
Hooke’s —_ height of 6 or 7 inches ; that when the tube is extreme-
ps key ly fine; it ascends slowly to a much greater height;
67, and that he had never patience to wait till it rose high-
er than 21 inches, which must have been in a pipe,
whose internal diameter was about the y7;,th part of
aninch. He defines the term Congruity, which may be
considered the same as affinity, as that “ property of a
fluid body, whereby any part of it is readily united
with any other part, either of itself, or of any other simi-
lar fluid or solid body ; and Incongruity, to be that pro-
perty of a fluid, by which it is hindered from uniting
with any dissimilar fluid or solid body.” Dr Robison,
and some other authors, are therefore mistaken in claim-
ing for Dr Hooke the merit of explaining the pheno-
mena of capillary attraction by affinity, by which they
meant the affinity of water to glass. Dr Hooke indeed,
employs a term the same as) this in his explanation of
these phenomena ; but it is employed for a quite dif-
ferent purpose ; for he supposes that the water rises in
the tube, not because it is attracted by the glass, but be-
cause there is.a greater affinity between water and glass
than between air and glass, in consequence of which, the
column of air within the tube is not capable of balan-
cing the corresponding atmospherical column without.
« For since the pressure,” says he, “ of the air every way
is found to be equal, that is, as much as is able to press
up and sustain a cylinder of quicksilver of 24 feet high
or thereabouts ; and since of the pressure so many more
degrees are required, to force the air into a smaller than
into a greater hole that is full of a more congruous
fluid; and, lastly, since these degrees that are requisite
to press it in, are thereby taken off from the air within,
and the air within left with so many degrees of pres-
sure less than the air without; it will follow, that the air
in the less tube or pipe will have less pressure against the
superficies of the water therein, than the air in the big-
er. The conclusion, therefore, will necessarily follow,
viz. that this unequal pressure of the air, caused by its in-
gress into unequal holes, is a cause sufficient to produce
the effect, without the effect of any other concurrent ;
and therefore is probably the principal (if not the on-
ly) cause of these phenomena. This, therefore, being
thus explained, there will be divers phenomena expli-
eable thereby : as, the rising of liquors in a filtre ; the
rising of spirit of wine, oil, melted tallow, &c. in the
_ wick of a lamp, though made of small wire, threads of
asbestos, strings of glass, or the like; and the rising of
liquors in asponge, pieces of bread, sand, &c. ; perhaps
also the ascending of the sap in trees. and plants, through
theirsmall and some of them imperceptible pores, at least
the passing of it out of the earth into their roots.”* This
hypothesis of Dr Hooke’s, which was received at the
time with great applause, was afterwards shewn to be
unsatisfactory and inconsistent with experiments by
Roger Cotes.+
Investiga In the year 1666, the learned Isaac Vossius publish-
tions of | ed at the Hague his work entitled, De Nili et Aliorum
Vossius.
Fluminum Origine, in the second chapter of which he
1666. “describes the phenomena of capillary attraction, and
endeavours to account for them by a theory which ap-
proachesmorenearly thanany other which had been given
to the true theory of the action of capillary tubes, Since
* Hooke’s Micrographia, p. 21.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
+ See Cotes’ Hydrostatieal Lectures, Lect, XL, Lond. 1738,
water, say he, is by its very nature viscid, it adheres to On Capi
every thing which it touches, so that itadheres to glass, Attract
and is sustained by the glass. But since the water is sus- ¢ on the
tained by the action of the glass, it does not press upon “ jrjuide,
the water below it, as the same weight cannot press in wee
twoplaces, and as no bocly can be heavier than itself. The —
portion of water therefore which enters the tube, loads
the glass tube, to the sides of which it adheres, and is 5
destitute of weight in respect of the subjacent water. b
Hence it follows, that if capillary tubes are immersed \
in water, and then taken out of it, the water which i
has entered them will not all flow out of the tube, but :
as much will remain.as the surface of the tube can sus- |
tain. From this hypothesis Vossius concludes, that
water will rise higher in narrow than in wide tubes,
because the narrow tubes, in proportion to their capaci-
ty, present more points of contact of adherence to the
water, and that mercury being destitute of viscidity,
will not adhere to glass, and will therefore sink below
its natural level in capillary tubes. 7
The first person in France who repeated these experi. Experi-
ments, and attempted to investigate their cause, was ments of
M. Honoré Fabri, a learned Jesuit, who was born as
at Bellay near Lyons, in the year 1607. In the p)'\¢
year 1669, he published| a work entitled, Dialogi
Physici, the fourth chapter of which is entitled,
humoris elevatione Canaliculum, In this chapter,
he observes that water, whether hot or cold, ascends
above the level of the water in the vessel; that it ri-
ses to a greater height in narrow than in wide capillary
tubes ; and that the water ascends highest in tubes of
the same diameter when the tubes extend farthest
above the surface of the water; that the, water raised
by capillary attraction will never flow out of the top
of the tubes, however short ; that the water will rise
higher in a wet tube than in adry one; that the wa-
ter will not rise in a tube if the finger is placed upon
the upper end of its bore previous.to immersion ;
and that in two concentric tubes, the water will rise ~
sometimes higher and sometimes lower in the widest
of the two tubes, according as the difference oftheir
diameters is less or greater than the diameter of the in-
ner tube. In explaining these. phenomena, he main-
tains, that the external air, aeting as a compressed
body, has free access to press upon the surface of the
water exterior to the tube, whereas it does not act so
freely upon the surface of the water in the tube, and
therefore the fluid will rise with a force proportional to
the difference of these pressures. The cause of this
unequal pressure of the air Fabri supposes to be, that -
only an inverted cone of air touching the fluid in the
tube with its vertex, and having the upper orifice of the
tube for its base, can press upon the surface contiguous
to its vertex. ka % +5. 10.508 0.3835 0.819467
0.026 M., Hallstrom.* The results of experiments 1 and 2, when reduced to
- 0.033 Dr Brewster, with a tube 0.0561 of an inch English inches, give 01798 and .01840 for the value of
in diameter. the constant quantity. The constant quantity for Al-
M. Hallstrom found that water rose 11.7 Swedish lines in a tube 0.7 of a line in diameter. + This is « mean of 5 experiments.
472
OnCapillary cohol found by Dr Brewster is almost the same as this,
Avemeion namely .0178. Benjamin Martin makes the constant
Cohesion of (antity 18, and Muschenbroek 10. i
Fluids. M. Gay Lussac obtained ‘the following result for oil
—\~—"’ of turpentine.
‘Om or Turpentine.
‘Diameter of Tube in
‘Millimetres, Altitude, Density.
1.29441 9.95159 0.869458
a a ; «The following are the) experiments which were
arag Hauy Made at the desire of La:Place, by Messrs Hauy and
and Treme- Lremery :
re Diameter of Height of the Wa- Constant Quantity
Tube in ter in Millimetres. or Height fora
Millimetres. ’ Tube 1 millimetre
R in Diameter,
Wira Waren.
2.0800 . <7 13.500
1.3833 10.00 13.833
0.7500 18.50 31.875
‘Mean 13.5693
Wir Ow or Oranegs.
2.0000 3.400 6.8
1.3383 5.000 6.6667
0.7500 9.00 6.75
‘Experi. ‘The following experiments were made by Dr Robi-
Ds Reto, 2 with-a tube of'a very slender bore.
Oil ofturpentine . . .. «'. . « 1.35 inches.
Spitite-of- wine: ays oi.) el ohne He ew sp 1S
Wiaténit Sit te. sexys ‘be, cade an motion “ay, ro
‘Caustic volatile alkali . 25... 6.25
Solution of sahammoniac ... . . 8.07
2. On the Ascent of Fluids between Trio Plates of Glas.
Parallel ‘It appears from the experiments mentioned by New-
Plates. ton in his Optics, (p. 366. edit. 3d, 1721,) that water
ewton rose one inch between two plates of glass, whose dis-
tance was zi, of an inch, and that water rose to the
same height in.a‘capillary tube, the semi-diameter of
whose bore was equal to the distance of the plates,
which gives .010 as the constant quantity for the glass
‘plates, and .020.as.the constant quantity for capiltaey
tubes.
Experi- The following experiments were made by M. Monge,
‘ments of -on the rise of water between two plates of glass. The
Monge, with caustic alkali,
vplates of glass were first clean
-and catchally washed, and, when separated to different
distances, by the interposition of silver wires of diffe~
rent thicknesses, they were plunged in the water of the
Seine, which had been previously filtered. The diame-
ters of the silver wires, from which the distance of the
plates was inferred, were obtained by rolling the wire
round)a tube of glass, and finding the number of thick.
nesses which occupied an exact number of lines. By
dividing the number of lines by the number of revolu«
tions, he obtained the exact diameter of the wire, and
consequently the distance of the plates. The follow~
‘ing are the results which he obtained.
Distance between the ‘Height of the wa- i {
splates of glass in. parts tar ahove it level, Cost quan
‘of a line, in lines. sae
fy or 0.1212 inch 15.5 lines. 18.786
0.0802 33.5 26.80
sty 0.08571 74 26.427.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
-mn or st, and their distance ato isoporgr. But ms
Messrs Hauy and Tremery likewise obsérved ‘thé On¢
‘height to which water ascended between-two parallel.
I mil-
— glass placed vertically, at the distance
imetre, ‘and obtained the following result :
Distance between the ‘Height,of aseent Consterit quantity Experi-
Plates, Millimetre. in Millimetres, in Millimetres. ments of
1 6.5 $68 iq
M. Gay Lussac meastired with great care the rise of Experie
water between two plates of glass ground perfectly flat, ments of
and placed ‘exactly parallel to each other. In order to Gay L
do this with accuracy, he kept the plates s te on the
by four ‘very fine ‘iron ‘wires ‘cut’ consecutively
the'same piece, ‘so as to have their diameters as -
as possible ; and in order to find ‘the thickness of the piates,
wire, he placed a great number of them together, and
measured the ‘sum oftheir diameters. ‘The following
was the result of his observations. °
‘Distance of the Plates “Height of the Water © Temperature
“of Glass in Millime- to the lowest point in the Cen-
tres. of the Concavity in - tigrade
' _Millimetres. Scale,
1.069 ‘13.574 16°
The constant’ quantity is here 14.51, or 0.02251, when
reduced to English inches, for a distance of +2,th of an
inch.
It is obvious‘from these experiments, that water as-
cends to twice the height in_capillary tubes that it does
between two plates whose distance is equal to the dia-
meter of the tube. ,
We have already seen, under Capitrary ATrTrRac-
TION, that if the two plates of glass are inclined to each
other at a‘small angle, the water will rise between them
in such a manner that its surface is a hyperbola. Thus,
in Plate CCCXVI. Fig. 4. let ABEF, CDEF be the two
lates of glass, and DE the surface of the water, then
np D, EmoB will be we wer meee rk which
Mr Hawksbee found to be’ bolic, by ‘measuring
the ordinates of abscisse sinks eves, R
The hyperbolic form of the surface may be deduced
from the observed fact, that the altitudes of the fluid-in
capillary tubes, or between parallel glass plates, are in-
versely as the diameters ofthe tubes, or the distance of
the plates. ‘The distance of the plates at m is obviously
Inclined
plates.
PLaTE
cccx
Fig. 4.
and oq, being the-altitudes of the fluid at m and o, we
havems:0q=o0p:mn, but Ft: Fr=stormn:qr,
or op. Hence Fi:F r=mn:op. But in the Apollo-
nian hyperbola, the ordinates are inversely proportion-
ed to their respective. abscisse, and therefore E mo B is
the Apollonian hyperbola. Mr Hawksbee’s experiments
have already been given in p. 467. :
3. On ‘the Depression of Mercury and Melted Lead in
Capillary Tubes, '
If a capillary tube of: is immersed in mercury, Depression
or an Pe mis -metals ane fluid state, the mekalfte of mercury. 4
fluid, instead of being elevated like water, stands consi- Lord |
derably lower in the tube than in its natural surface. Charles Ca |
The most correct experiments on the d ion of mer- base s
cury were made by Lord Charles Cavendish. The fol- &P\
lowing are the results which he obtained :
——————— ee
THES
aur i ik HA
ie; ba ‘ nese ee ee ey ia 13 ? A
suid} ua if eee at (i le neat
ein if Hei udwetiie anit ji
ee BH ane siete fe ne
Al ul HEE ESE 32 thie f aii: nib z 8 pts
Late at: Hi nh i Hin aI Hi
ya Bn ali ini ae He
Saige se ay ea
svn 2A Ha test | i
aa ggusa ff aia iE ir ii esas ee |
5 iH 32823833 33 ai 4 i : nits :
. ae ifs | } at ini - : i (ae rate
ears ry) ihe Ly tS a Wins A he i
3 test Ee uy i ay at mH 3.
me i a Hap 8 i seas HH LE
a ime iat He re He
+ tee UES ty 2 ,
peti Pa? Bip He
474
equation of the surface of a drop of water:
aaat -aayy = xyy x, when z = 0, or
yr atatz 42ate yx + (at — xt?) y —2yry= 0.
In order to shew that two drops of water do not
attract each other when at a distance, M. Monge put
some spirit of wine into a cup, and having taken a ca-
pillary tube containing some of the same fluid, he allow-
ed it to fall from a height of a few lines, drop by drop,
into the cup; the drops did not immediately mix with
the rest of the fluid, but preserved their form, which was
nearly spherical; rolled over the surface with great
freedom, like balls over a billiard table, impinged against
each other; changed their form by the force of im-
pact; and, after being reflected from each other, con-
tinued to move upon the surface till they were again
mixed with the general mass. This experiment does
not succeed so well when the spirit of wine is warm.
M. Monge explains this phenomenon by supposing that
a thin film of air adheres to the drop; and, by dimin-
ishing its specific gravity, causes it to float upon the
fluid surface ; and hence he concludes that the experi-
ment will succeed best with those liquids which are most
evaporable, or which have the greatest affinity for the
surrounding air. A similar phenomenon, as M. Monge
observes, is seen in the drops of water which fall from:
the oars during the rowing of a boat, and in the drops
produced by the condensation of the steam of any warm
fluid, such as coffee, &c. These drops are real spheres
of fluid, and not spherical vesicles like those formed
on the surface of water with heavy rains. These re-
sults are hostile to the idea of M. Saussure, who, in his
Essays on Hygrometry, has stated that drops of the
same liquid cannot be pushed against one another, nor
remain simply in contact without instantly uniting ;
and that only hollow vesicular globules are capable of
floating upon the surface of the same fluid with them-
selves.
In repeating the experiments of Monge, Dr Brewster
found that the apneeennens were most beautiful when the
capillary tube discharged the drops upon the inclined
plane of fluid, which is elevated by the attraction of the
edge ofthe cup. They ran down the inclined plane with
great velocity, and sometimes even ascended the similar
plane on the opposite side of the vessel, When thedrop
was discharged at the distance of one or two-tenths of an
inch from the surface of the water, they had always the
same magnitude when the tube was held in the same
position ; but when the peat of the tube was brought
within a tenth of an inch of the surface of the spirit of
wine, this surface, instead of attracting the drop to it
instantly, as Saussure would have predicted, actually
resisted the gravity or weight of drop, and allowed it to
attain a diameter nearly twice as great as it would have
had, if it had been discharged in the ordinary manner.
This swoln globule floated upon the surface in the same
‘ manner asthe smaller drops, surrounded with a depres.
sion of the fluid surface similar to what is produced by a
glass globule floating on mercury, or by the feet of parti-
cular insects, that have the power of running upon the
surface of water. (See Fig. 5.) The floating globules are
often produced even when they are discharged from
a height of three or four inches; and by letting them
fall upon the inclined plane of fluid formerly mentioned,
they will often rebound from the surface, and fall over
the sides of the oe
When a drop of mercury is laid upon glass, it assumes
‘
HYDRODYNAMICS.
@nCapillary weights Dr Young: has given the following as the
_ nomenon, which is the very reverse of the formation openingin
a flat spheroidal form, in consequence of its weight. On
The section of its surface, as M. La Place observed, by Attracti r
a vertical plane drawn through its centre, is very mu andthe
curved at its summit. The curvature increases on re- eae 7"
ceding from that point, till the tangent to the'curve is 2...
vertical. At this point, the curvature and the width of Form ef
the section will be a maximum. Below that point it drop of
will approach its axis, and will at last coincide with the ™ertcury.
plane of the glass, and form with it an acute angle. M.
Gay Lussac observed-at the temperature of 12°.8 of the
centigrade thermometer, the thickness of a large drop
of mercury, circular, and a-decimeter in diameter, rest-
ing spon a plane surface of white glass perfectly hori-
zontal. By a very accurate micrometer, he found its
thickness to be 3.378 millimetres. -M.Segner had long
before obtained nearly the same result, viz. 3.40674
millimetres.
The cohesion of fluids is beautifully shewn in a phe- pony of
of a drop, and which was first observed by Dr Brewster. film of flui
If we take a phial, with a wide mouth, half filled with
Canada balsam, and allow the balsam to flow to the
mouth of the phial and fill it up, then when the phial is’
placed on its bottom, a fine transparent film of balsam’
will be seen extending over the mouth of the phial. If
we now take a piece of slender wire, and touch the film:
near the middle, so as to tear away a little part of it,
the remaining part of the film which has been ele-
vated by this force will descend to its level position,
and the ragged aperture from which the balsam has
been torn will be seen to assume a form perfectly cir-
cular, having its edge in a slight degree thickened, like
a circle with a raised margin turned out of a piece of
wood, . This fine circular aperture grows wider and
wider, and continues to preserve its circular form till
the mouth of the phial is again epened.
The following curious experiment, which was perform- .,
ed by Dr Brewster, is intimately connected with the sub- s,m a2 a
ject of capillary attraction. Above a vessel MNOP, Fig. pi te
6. nearly filled with water, a convex lens LL was placed traction.
at the distance of the 10th of an inch, andrays R,R,R, ppaye
were incident upon its upper surface. The focus of these ccCX VI.
rays was at F, a little beyond the bottom of the vessel, Fig. 6.
so that a circular image of the luminous object was.
seen on the bottom of the vessel, having AB for its di-
ameter. If the lens is now made to descend gradually
towards the surface of the water, and the eye kept stea~
dily upon the luminous image AB, a dark spot will be
seen at @ in the centre of AB, a little while before the
lens attracts and elevates the water MN. Sometimes
this spot may be seen playing back and forwards by the
slight motion of the hand, so that the lens‘can even be
withdrawn from the fluid surface without having actual-
ly touched it. In general, however, the sudden rise of
water to the lens follows the appearance of the black
spot, When the water is in contact with the glass, the
focus of the rays R, R is now transferred to f, and the
circular image on the bottom is now a 4, and the inten-
sity of the light in this circle is to that in the circle
AB, as AB?: a 5%. Now it is obvious, that the darkish
spot at'@ is just the commencement of the transference
of the focus from F to f/; or when the dark spot is pro«
duced, the progress of the ae is the same as if the fo«
cus were transferred tof This remarkable effect may
arise from two causes. 1. The approach of the lens to
the surface MN, may occasion a ion mo n in the
surface of the fluid of the same curvatureas L/L, which
would have the effect of transferring the focus from F
tof. This depression may be produced by a film of air
CCCXVL. taking place ata greater distance from the lens than the tion if it is solid, we may, without disturbing the equi- od
distance at which the attraction commences. librium, conceive the fluid in AB frozen. 2. The *)<';,
ean s attse conte ditmemcos ures fluid in the lower part of AB is attracted by the inte- vised.
the rays of light as if they were one surface, then it is rior fluid of the tube BE, but as the latter is attracted Piatre
Sees Sint a Seah suet ovat pes: s6-¢. if this ee eee ae eer see eer
distance is than that at which capillary attraction neglected as balanci other. Phe fluid in —
begins. - ihe lower part of BE, is attracted by the fluid which
pore tn freak gpm tome cong he hone
Account Place’s Theory zs attraction is a vertical force acting downwards, whi
6 wating = sails oS Capillary we may call —Q’, the contrary sign being applied, as
the force is re peers So On ooo orce Q. As
published E it is hi probab t the attractive forces exercised
La Pee, hie ncdlod ef « ideri phenomena bby the glass and the water vary accordin to the same
Cicelcamiriind men. function of the distance, so as to differ only in their in-
enon Ae ogra and on the conditions of equilibrium tensities, we ma, employ the constant co-efficients ¢, ¢/
of this in an infinitely narrow canal, resting by as measures of t :
of its extremities upon this surface, and by the —Q’ will be proportional to ¢, ¢’ ; for the interior surface
on the horizontal surfaces of an indefinite fluid, of the fluid which surrounds tube BE, is the same
in which the capillary tube was immersed. In his se- as the interior surface of the tube AB. C ently,
has examined the subject in a the two masses, viz. the glass in AB, and the fluid
Sony evan been & Yew, by idering dis round BE, differ only in their thickness; but as the
rectly the forces which elevate and depress the fluid in attraction of both these masses is inzensible at sensible
this space. this means, he is conducted easily to distances, the difference of their thicknesses, provided
resul ich it would have been dif. their thicknesses are sensible, will uce no differs
method we shall endeavour to give as clear a view as is also acted upon by mother force, namely, by the
josed. we
possible. sides of the tabe AB in which it is incl
~ Let AB, Pig. 7. be a vertical tabe whose sides are conceive the column FB divided into an infinite number
ee ne ne eS eet a id of elementary vertical columns, and if at the upper ex-
rises in the interior of the tube above its natu- tremity of one of these columns we draw a horizontal
in
ral level. A thin film of fluid is first raised by the ac- plane, the ion of the tube comprehended be-
tion of the sides of the tube; this film raises a second the plane the level surface BC of the fluid, will not
i i i i seonies any vertical force wpen the column ; conse
of the volume of fluid raised exactly balances all the quently, the only native vertical foree is that which is
it is actuated. Hence it is obvious, uced by the ring of the tube immediately above the
i i plane. Now, the vertical attraction of this
attraction part of the tube upon BE, will be equal to that of the
i the inner entire tube upon the column BE, which is equal in
eee eee a ane olor diameter, and similarly . ‘This new force will
bending itself horizontally im the direction ED, that it therefore be represented Lt Q. In combining these
i ; us suppose different forces, it is manifest that the fluid column BF
of this tube to be so extremely thin, or to’ is attracted upwards by the two forces + Q, + Q, and
id of a film of ice, so as tohave no action on the downwards by the force — Q’; consequently the force
whieh it contains, and not to prevent the recipro- with which it is raised upwards will be 2Q—Q’. If
eerie ran of we represent by V the volume of the column BE, D
Now, its density, and g the force of gravity, then g DV will
tubes AE, CD lowe semen represent the weight of the elevated column; but as
fluid in this weight is in equilibrio with the forces by which
the vertical attraction of the tube _ it is elevated, we have the following equation :
i in AB. In DV =2Q—Q
Place en* :
which take place under the tube AB. If the force 2 Q is less than Q’, then V will be negae
, . by itself; 2. by tive, and the fluid will sink in the tube; but as long as
the fluid surrounding the tube BE. But these two at. 2Q is ter than Q’, V will be positive, and the
tractions yee pe A similar attractions expe- fluict will rixé above its natural level ; as was long be-
det they a contained in ns i fore shewn by M. ees ite
may be entirely neglected. id in Since the attractive forces, both and the
is also attracted seats ee fluid in AB; bat this fluid, are insensible at sensible distances, surface of
, ich i . the tube AB will act sensibly only on the column of
io the copes divestion apes to Guid in so fluid immediately in contact with it. We may there-
attractions may likewise benegleet- fore neglect the consideration of the curvature, and
ope consider the inner surface as developed upon a plane.
upwards by the tube AB, with a force which we shall The force Q will therefore be gropertionsl (> the
4
HYDRODYNAMMTCS:
476
po cal. widthwof this plane, or what is the same thing, to the
tion and 22terior circumference of the tube. Calling c, there-
the Cohe. fore, the circumference of the tube, we shall have
sion of Q=ec; ¢ being a constant quantity, representing the
Fluids. intensity of the attraction of the tube AB upon the
; fluid, in the case where the attractions of different. bo-
dies are expressed by the same function of the «listance.
In every case, however, ¢ expresses a quantity de-
pendent on the attraction of the matter of the tube,
and independent of its figure and magnitude. — In like
manner we shall have Q’= ¢’ c; ¢' expressing the same
thing with regard to the attraction of the: fluid for it-
self, that ¢ expressed with regard to the attraction of
the tube for the fluid. By substituting these values
of Q, Q’, in the preceding equation, we have
gDV=c(2e—¢’).
If we now substitute, in this general formula, the
value of c in terms of the radius if it is a capillary
tube; or in terms of the sides if the section is a rect-
angle, and the value of V in terms of the radius and al-
titude of the fluid column, we shall obtain an equation
by which the heights of ascent may be calculated for
tubes of all diameters, after the height, belonging to any
given diameter, has been ascertained by direct experi-
ment.
In the case of a cylindrical tube, let » represent the
ratio of the circumference to the diameter, 4 the height
of the doid @élumn reckoned from the lower point of
the meniscus, g the mean height to which the fluid
rises, or the height at which the fluid would stand if
the meniscus were to fall down and assume a level sur-
face, then we have x7 for the solid contents of a cy-
linder of the same height and radius as the meniscus,
and as the meniscus, added to the solid contents of the
hemisphere of the same radius, must be equal to x 77, we
3 3
= > or a for-therSolid contents of the
Application
of the for-
mula to cy-
lindrical
tubes.
have #73 —
A re rt ¢
meniscus. But since >= ar? X = it follows that
a ; :
the meniscus = is equal to a cylinder whose base
r
z Hence, we have.
is wr?, and altitude:
a
qah+ >;
er what is the same thing, the mean altitude ¢ in a cy«
linder is always equal to the altitude A of the lower
oint of the concavity of the meniscus increased by one
third of the radius, or one sixth of the diameter. of the
capillary tube. Now, since the contour c of the tube-
= 2-e, and since the volume V of water raised is.
equal to ¢ X x7r*, we have, by substituting these values,
in the general formula,
gDqzrr=2ar(2e—e’),
and dividing by wr and g D,. we have, .
; 2e—e’
eure 4
“gD x re (No. 2)
(No. 1.)
: rg=2
Application
of the for-
mula to
Gay Lus-
sac’s expe-
riments
on water,
“In applying this formula to Gay Lussac’s experi-
raents, we have the constant quantity aa trt a
rq = 647205 x 23,1034 + 0,215735 = 15,1311 for
Gay Lussac’s 1st experiment. In order to find the
‘\ requisite.
_ between two glass plates, the side a is very great com-
itis obvious, that water will rise to the same t.
. or half the diameter of the tube.
height of the fluid in his 2d tabe’by miealis of this con- On Capi
; 1.90381. lary
stant quantity, we have r= 9 = 0.951905, and &
2e—-e' bow = 15,1311
3 1= 9.951905
if we subtract one sixth of the diameter, or 03173;
we have 15.5783 for the altitude’ h’ of the lower point
of the concavity of the meniscus, which differs only *
0.0078 from 15.861 the observed altitude. .
If we apply the same formula to Gay Lussac’s ex- App
periments on alcohol, we shall find the constant quan. of the for-
mula toG 4
= 6.0825 as deduced from the Ist ex- pow .
= 15.8956, from which,
U
tity 2 ited
D x , perim
periment, and k = 6.0725, which differs only 0/0100 on alcoho
from 6.08397, the altitude observed.
From these comparisons, it is obvious, that the mean
altitudes, or the values of g, are very nearly reciprocal
ly proportional to the diameters of the tubes; for, in
the experiments on water, the value of g deduced from
this ratio is 15.895, which differs little from 15.9034,
the value found from experiment ; and that in accurate
experiments, the correction made by the addition of the
sixth part of the diameter of the tube is indispensibly
f the section of the pipe in which the fluid ascends
is a rectangle, whose greater side is.a, and its lesser side of the fox
d, then the base of the elevated column will be = ad, mulato —
and its perimeter c= 2a 42d. Hence, the value of rectangu
the meniscuswill be“ — fee = Aes i =), spaces z
that ia. g =A +4 1 —=). Hence, if in the ge-
neral equation No. 1. we substitute for c its equal
2a+2d, and for V its equal ad q, we have
EDqad=2¢—¢' K 2a+2d,
and dividing by a and by gD, we have
a pas Seat bss ie
ag he
Xt
d.
In applying this formula to the elevation of water
2e—e!
q=2 3)
pared with d, and therefore the quantity f: being al-
most insensible, may be safely neglected. Hence the fors.
mula becomes ,
2e t i
g=2. D x 7
By comparing this formula with the formula No. 2..
between plates’ of glass as in a. tube, provided the dis:
tance d between the two. plates of glass is equal to r,.
; This result was ob=
tained by Newton, and has been. confirmed by the ex,”
periments of sueceeding writers. :
: : er ae ot se ison
‘As the constant quantity 2 22€ ig the same as al- Comparison |
ssa < ye, ula with
ready found for capillary:tubes, we may: take its value, G.
viz. 15,1311, and substitute it, in the preceding equa- sac’s expetie
tion, we then have Sate se ments, |
a
%
3
q =" poo tei and since
It will be seen from the formula No. 2. that of all
that have a prismatic form, the hollow. cylinder
is the one in which tlie volume of fluid raised is the
least possible, as it has the smallest
lines of the sim:
whose sections are polygons inscri in the same
cle, the fluid will rise to the same mean height. If one
.. of the two bases is, for example, a square, and the other
an i the altitudes will be as 2:33;
=
eFFES!
F
Hy
FEr
|
H Pe ovya AMICS. .
» plane. Beyond this the fluid being subj
tuated in the interior of the. canal, and ee ae
to its sides, at any sensible distance from
this base being taken for unity. He then shews that '
this action is smaller when the surface is concave than
when it is plane, and greater when the surface is con-
vex. The analytical expression of this action is compo-
sed of two terms: the first of these terms, which is
much than the second; expresses the action of
the mass terminated by a plane surface,* and the se-
cond term expresses the part of the action due to the
sphericity of the surface, or, in other words, the action
of the meniscus comprehended between this surface and
the plane which touches it. This action is either ad-
ditive to the preceding, or subtractive from it, accor-
ding as the surface is convex or concave. It is reci-
| soe proportional to the radius of the spherical sur-
» fer the smaller that this radius is, the meniscus is
the nearer to the point of contact.
From these results relative to bodies terminated by
sensible ents of a ical surface, La Place de-
the action of a body terminated
poy ercpsen fe er ean
this surface in any point, is equal to half sum of
the actions upon the same canal of two which
have for their radii the greatest and the, of the
at this
mass of fluid tt to take when acted upon by gra~
manpages. upg on ber aparaes . The
nature of the surface is expressed by an equation of
by any known method. If the figure of the
faceis one of revolution, the equation isreduced to one
of ordinary differences, and is capable-of being integra-
ted by approximation, when the surface is very small.
La Place next shews, that a very narrow tube a
proaches the more to that of a ical ent asthe
diameter of the tube becomes smaller. If these seg-
ments are similar in different tubes of the same sub-
stance, the radii of their surfaces will be inversely as
the diameter of the tubes. This similarity of the sphe-
rical segments will evident, if we consider that
the distance at which the action of the tube ceases to be
sensible, is imperceptible ; so that if, by means of a very
powerful microscope, this distance should be found
equal to a millimetre, it is probable that the same mag-
nifying power would give to the diameter of the tube
an apparent diameter of several metres. The surface
of the tube may therefore be considered as very nearly
, in a radius to that of the sphere of sensi-
activity ; the fluid in this interval will therefore de-
scend, or rise from this surface, very nearly as if-it —
only to
the action of gravity, and the mutual action of its we
particles, the surface will be very nant Sapa
rical segment, of which the extreme planes being.
of the fluid surface, at the limits of the sphere of the
sensible activity of the tube, will be very nearly in
different tubes equally inclined to their sides. Hence
it follows that all the segments will be similar.
Fluids.
—Y~
478
OnCapillary The approximation of these results gives the true
Attraction eayse of the ascent or descent of fluids in capillary
gd the ; tubes in the inverse ratio of their diameter. If in the
Fluids. xis of a glass tube we conceive a canal infinitely nar-
= row, which bends round like the tube ABEDC in Fig.
PLaTEe 7. the action of the water in the tube in this narrow
CCCXVI. anal, will be less on account of the concavity of its
Fig. 7. surface, than the action of the water in the vessel on
the same canal. The fluid will therefore rise in the
tube to compensate for this difference of action; and as
the concavity is inversely proportional to the diameter
of the tube, the height of the fluid will be also inversely
portional to that diameter. If the surface of the
interior fluid is convex, which is the case with mercury
in a glass tube, the action of this fluid on the canal
will greater than that of the fluid in the vessel,
and therefore the fluid will descend in the tube in the
ratio of their difference, and consequently in the in-
verse ratio of the diameter of the tube.
In this manner of viewing the‘subject, the attraction
of capillary tubes has no influence upon the ascent or
depression of the fluids which they contain, but in de-
termining the inclination of the first planes of the sur«
face of the interior fluid extremely near the sides of the
tube, and upon this inclination ds the concavity
or convexity of the surface, and the length of its radius.
The friction of the fluid against the sides of the tube
may au r diminish a little the curvature of its
surface, of which we see frequent examples in the ba-
rometer. In this case the capillary effects will increase
or diminish in the same ratio.
The differential equation of the surfaces of fluids in«
elosed in capillary spaces of revolution, conducts La
Place to the following general result ; that if into a cy-
lindrical tube we introduce a cylinder which has
same axis as that of the tube, and which is such that the
space comprehended between its surface and the inte-
rior surface of the tube has very little width, the fluid
will rise in this space to the same height as in a tube
whose radius is equal to this width. If we su
. the radii of the tube and of the cylinder infinite, we
have the case of a tube included between two par-
allel and vertical planes, very near each other. This
result has been confirmed, as we have already seen, by:
the experiments of Newton, Hauy, and Gay Lussac. La
Place then applies his theory. to the phenomena pre«
sented by a drop of fluid, either in motion or suspend-
ed in equilibrium, either in a conical capillary tube, or
between two plates, and inclined to each: other, as dis«
eovered by Mr Hawksbee ;—to the mutual approxima-
tion of two parallel and vertical discs immersed in a
fluid’ ;—to the phenomena which take place when two
plates of glass are inclined to each other at a smalt
angle ;—and to the determination of the figure of a large
drop of mercury laid upon a horizontal plate of glass.
In the application of his theory to the experimental
results obtained by Hawksbee respecting the-angles re-
quired for sus’ ing a drop of oil of oranges at diffe-
rent stations between two inclined planes of glass. *
_ Place obtained the results écabatane in the following
‘able.
Column Ist contains the number of the first column
of Hawksbee’s table, subtracted’ from 20:inches; and co-
lumn2d contains Hawksbee’s 2d column, diminished by
5’ 22",
These results are given in p. 467, top of col, l. ,
HYDRODYNAMICS,
Distance in inch-
es from the mid-|Angles of Ele- | Angles of Eleva- Differences in|
dle of the drop to} vation obser- |tion calculate@ by} aliquot parts
|the intersection ved, La Place’s for- | of the calcu-
the plane. mula. lated angles.
18 O° 9'38" | 0°17'44” tx
16 0 19 38 0 22 27 > Aa
14 0 29 38 0 29 20 ds
12 0 29 38 0 39 55 xo
10 O 54 38 0 57 29 ay
8 1 39 38 1 29 53 ie
6 239 38 | 2 39 45 wer
5 3 54 38 & 50 6 pe
4 5 54 38 5 59 58 as
3 9 54 88 | 10 42 31 ater
2 21 54 38 | 24 42 49 nin
Seer. II. On the Approximation and Recession of Boa
dies floating near euch other in a Fluid.
Ir was long ago observed Ye that when On the
bodies pening A the surface of’ a fluid approached ei- proximati
ther one another or the sides of the vessel, they mo- 2nd reces:
ved rapidly into contact, as if they had been two float- $0 of
ing magnets, This phenomenon, which was in
ral ascribed to the mutual attraction of the floating bo- each ot}
dies, was tolerably well explained by M. Marriotte in in a fluid,
his Zraité du Mouvement des Eaux. It was reserved,
however, for M. Monge to describe and explain these
henomena with accuracy, which he has done in his
ire sur quelques @attraction ou de repulsion
apparent et te Mo. Ped de Matiere.
e following are the princi riments uw
this subject : 3 eee ate
1. If two light bodies, capable of being wetted with
water, are placed one inch distant on the surface of
water perfectly at rest, they will float at rest, and exe
perience no motion but what is derived from the agitas
tion of the air; but if the distance at which they are
placed is only a few lines, they will approach each
other with an accelerated motion, If the vessel which
contains the water is capable of being wetted by it,
such as glass, and if the floating body is placed within
a few lines of the edge of’ the vessel, it will move to«
wards the edge with an accelerated motion.
2. If the two floating bodies are not susceptible of
being wetted with fluid, such as two balls of iron in a
vessel of quicksilver, and if they are placed at the diss
tance of a few lines, they will move towards each other
with an accelerated motion ; and if the vessel is made
of glass, in which the surface of the mercury is always
eonvex, the bodies will move towards the sides whi
they are placed within a few lines of it. :
3. If one of the bodies is susceptible of being wetted. ©
with water, and the other not, such as two globules of
cork, one of which has been carbonised by the flame of
a taper, then if we attempt, by means of a wire or.
any other substance, to make the bodies approach,
they will fly from each other as if they were ee
repelled. If the vessel is of glass, and if’ the mn
ised pire of cork is placed in it, it will be found im«
i bdiges Ayebncels contact with the sides.of
vessel. ‘
In these experiments, it is obvious that the approxi«
HYDRODYNAMICS: 479
mation and the recession of the floating bodies are not joerg garttndiepebagrseer SrA ged mere ley oh OuCapillary
produced by any attraction or repulsion between the _pulsive. Place also concludes, that when the planes a.
two; for if the bodies, instead of floating on the fluid, are very near each other, the elevation of the fluid be- Cohesion of
are by long and slender threads, it will be’ tween them is in the inverse ratio of their mutual dis- ~ pyuids,
found they have not the slightest tendency either tance, and is equal to half the sum of the elevation ~-~—
to approach or recede when they are brought extremely’ which would have taken place, if we suppose the first J
near each other. From these experiments the following plane of the same matter as the second, and the second
laws are deducible: of the same matter as the first.
1. If two bodies, ing on the surface of a fluid, and. _—It follows from these theorems, that the repulsive
en y the fluid, are placed near force of floating planes is much more feeble than the
other, they will approach as if they were mutu-. attractive force w is de when the planes are
ally attracted. : very near each other, and which occasions them to ap-
2. If the two bodies are not susceptible of being proach each other with an accelerated motion. - In this
wetted by the fluid, they will still approach each other case, the elevation of the fluid between the planes is
when brought nearly into contact, as if they were mu- very great, relative to its elevation on the outside of
tually attracted. the same plane. In neglecting, therefore, the P er
2 cage lind ier rag en J of this last elevation in relation to the square of the
first, the fluid prism, Meets on gr hm toned wn
other as if they.were mutually repelled. tual tendency of the planes, in virtue of the first of the
enn oe ‘st lam.—If two plates of glass. two preceding theorems, will be equal to the product
D, Fig. 8. are Ae en ae of the elevation of the interior fluid, by
» where the two curves of elevated flui "half the horizontal distance of the planes. This eleva-
meet, is on a level with the rest of the water, they will tion being, by the second theorem, reci y pro-
remain in equilibrium. Iftheyare brought near- portional to the mutual distance of the planes, the
er each , however, as in Fig. 9. the water will rise poe yt be proportional to their horizontal distance
between them to the height G. The mass of water divided by the square of that distance. The tendency of
which is thus raised attracts the sides of the glass the twop' to each other will consequently be in the
lange apne them to approximate in a horizontal inverse ratio of the square of their distance ; and there-
i mass of water having always the same fore, like the ferces of electricity and magnetism, it
effect as a curved chain bu tothe tans paanie, The will follow the law of universal attraction.
same tie ah:tne testing ‘bellay rohan dap When the two planes are of such a nature that the
come such a distance that the fluid is elevated ome is capable of being wetted with the fluid, while the
i 1
e
. 10, where other is not capable of being wetted, then, in conse-
ev Catiesieenal theeuhutencee of shiche che dcoting of - Selopiped of . wae ott totes as
er a i ivory, so one of its faces was
planes are made, the tendency of each of them to one ano- 1 me he of tale. The ivory was made to
oe eee aciagtion of Said oheceinighy advance pained i ph pe
is the elevation of the between the planes, measured and was stopped at short intervals, in to shew
" , } moving 7
of these elevations, and whose width is the horizontal very nearly to the talc, the latter moved om
between the planes. The elevation must be denly into contact with the ivory. iii Sipianatinng the
a two bodies, the ivory was wetted to a certain height
mercury. If the product of the three preceding dimen- aivove thie ordi; ‘thd ta repeating the experiment
£80
‘OnCapilary fore wiping the ivory, ‘the attraction commenced soon-
ae er, and sometimes exhibited itself at the very first, with-
on ee out being preceded by any sensible repulsion. This
-Cohesion . “
of Rluids, @Xperiment was ‘repeated several times with the same
——— result,
Another series of phenomena, which indicate apparent
attraction and repulsion, are seen in the motion of small
lighted wicks when swimming in a bason of oil, and
in the motion of camphor upon the surface of water.
Although these phenomena are’ not preduced by ca-
pillary attraction, yet we shall give a short account
of them at present, on account of their general-simila~
rity.
Dr Wilson’s The phenomena of lighted wicks were carefully ob-
experiments served, and minutely described, by Professor Wilson
on the mo- of Glasgow in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
a8 a Edinburgh. His Hydrostatical Lamp, as he calls it,
ignte consists ofa small circular disc of common writing pa-
icks swim- : z ° ’
ing His per, about 3 of an inch in diameter, having about a
bason of oil quarter of an inch of soft cotton thread rising up;
through a puncture in.the middle of the dise to answer
the purpose ef a wick, If this wick is lighted, and the
disc placed in.a shallow glass vessel filled with pure
salad oil, it will immediately sail briskly forward in
one direction till it meets the side of the vessel, and
will afterwards take a circular course, always bearing
up to the sides, and will thus perform many revolu-
tions. The circulation is sometimes from right to left,
and sometimes from left.to right. When the wick is pla-
ced out of the centre of the disc, it will sail to that part of
the dise which is farthest from the wick, and if the dise
is made of an oval form, and the wick placed in one of its
foci, the disc will sail in the direction of the nearest ex«
tremity of the transverse axis. Dr Wilson observed avery
active repulsion between the stem of the disc and the
oil of the surface contiguous to it. When fine.charcoal
dust was scattered around the dise, it left behind it a
diverging wake clear of all dust. Other fluids, such
as oil of turpentine, ether, alcohol, or any of the in-
flammable fluids possessing much tenuity, also double
rum, melted tallow, bees wax, and rosin, exhibit the
same effects when the discs float upon their surface.
Dr Wilson accounts for these phenomena in the fol-
lowing manner: When the oil has an.uniform tempera-
ture, all its parts are in equilibrio; but -when the lam
is lighted, the oil below the disc. being, most ‘heated,
will expand itself, and will be raised above the general
level, from the diminution of its specific gravity, and
the unbalanced upward pressure of the fluid. The
weight of the disc will therefore press down the oil,
or even the weight of the oil itself will cause it to rise
as it were from below the wick in a thin superfi-
cial stream. Hence Dr Wilson conceives, that this
constant stream will flow most readily and copiously
towards that side of the base of the lamp where the re-
sistance is least, or where it has the shortest way to press
forwards, that is from under the wick or flame, or the
edge of the disc, which is the nearest. The reaction of
the stream of -rarefied oil rising most rapidly and most
Sapiously from.one side of the disc, will therefore-im-
the lamp in the .contrary direction. When the
iscs are soaked with oil, or when they are made of.a
thin plate of talc, they always sink to the bottom as
soon as the flame is extinguished. If a wafer much
heated is thrown upon any of the fluids, above: men-
* See the Hdinburgh Transactions, vol. iv. p. 144, &e.. : é
HYDRODYNAMICS.
tioned, it will immediately glide away, and continue in OnCapi
motion till it cools, * ' a
_ The-singular motions of pieces of camphor floating
upon the surface of ‘water, have been long observed ; ride.
but they were never completely described and explain- ~
ved till M. Venturi published inthe Memoirs presented to Venturi’s
the Institute of France his -ingenious:‘memoir, entitled &xPerimen
Precis de quelques experiences sur la section que des stn ad
cylindres de camphre eprowvent a la surface de Penn et snotion 4
reflexions sur les: mouvemens qui accompagment celle sec- camphor
lion, ’ floating
Having cut some pieces of camphor into the shape’ W®™
of small cylinders, a line in diameter, and an inch high,
he fixed-each of them to a base of lead, and placed’
them vertically in plates. He then poured water into
the plates, till it reached about half way up each cy~
linder. After two or three hours the cylinders began
todiminish at the place where they were cut by the
surface of the water, and after about twenty-four hours
they were entirely cut through into two parts, none of
hich had suffered any sensible diminution. -
He next took three pieces of camphor, each of which
weighed twenty-four grains, and he placed one of them
in dry air, another in water, and the third on the
surface of water. After four days‘the piece on the sur-
face of the water was entirely dissipated, while each of
the other two had lost only four or five grains.
M. Venturi next placed some of his camphor cylin-
ders on the surface of water, in vesséls of different
sizes, and he always found that the cylinder was cut
through soonest in those vessels that presented the
greatest surface. This singular fact arises from the’
camphor being dissolved by the water, and extending
itself over all the fluid surface, when it is the more
readily evaporated by its coming into contact with a
greater quantity of air. The dissolution of the cam-
hor may be seen detaching itself from the cylinder
in the form ofa very transparent liquid oil, and spread. .
ing itself over the whole surface'of the water. When
in the contour of the cylinder, there is some place which
furnishes this oil more abundantly ; if’ small light subs
stances are thrown upon the surface, they are repelled °
from this place with great briskness, and then turning
round, they come back to the same place, and again
enter the current, where they continue to circulate in
this manner. Ifa small piece of camphor previously
wetted at its extremity approaches the ‘margin of the
vessel, and then touches the vessel itself, it deposits a
fluid visible to the eye. This fluid is -oily ; and on at-
taching itself to the vessel, it destroys its capillary at-
traction for the water, and the water retires from it and
becomes convex at this place.» When the piece of cam-
phor is taken away, the water does not return to its
lace till the oily liquor is evaporated. When the cy-
inders of camphor are half immersed in water, the
oily liquor which issues from it destroys the cohesion
between. the water and the cylinder, and a small de«
pression takes place round ‘the cylinder. The dissolu-
tion stops fora moment till the oily liquor expanded
over the water has evaporated. The water then re«
turns to its elevated state round the cylinder ; the cam-
phor is dissolved and diffused; and the same opera-
tions are repeated. ' q:
The motions of small pieces of camphor observed
by M. Romieu are produced by the mechanical reac-
tion of’ the jet of dissolution against the camphor ; and
HYDRODYNAMICS. 481
if the centre of percussion of all the jets do not coincide and sometimes advance to free themselves from the On Capil-
with the centre of gravity, a San ay and progressive pencil when they are interlaced. These appearances pr calves
ane As the jets are generated only are explained by Venturi on the supposition that the cohesion of
i of the section of the piece of cam- water which it absorbs is decomposed by the assistance Fluids.
it ought to revolve round an axis perpendicular to of light, and that the ee out the oxygen inadi- —-\—
horizon; and the smallest pieces will obviously rection always opposite to the light. Hence it will fol-
turn round with more velocity than ones. low that the plant must always move towards the quar-
_ MM. Lichtenberg and Volta this rotation to ter from which the light is admitted.
an emanation from the camphor, and also from the ben- ;
and succinic acids, which have the same property. __In addition to the works quoted under the article
li di that the bark of aromatic plants Capmtary Arrraction, vol. v. p. 412, the reader is
when thrown upon water, moved round like camphor; referred to the following: Pascal, Traifez de L’ Equi-
and Venturi remarked a similar motion in the saw-dust libre de Liqueurs et de la pesanteur de la Masse de L’ Air,
of different woods, that had imbibed either a fixed or a Avertissement, 2d edit. Paris, 1664. Rohault, Traité
volatile ei]. Romieu ascribed these motions to electri- de Physique, or Dr Clarke’s translation of it, under the
that the camphor sometimes refused to title of Rohaulti Physica, Lond. 1710, Part I. chap.
turn, and at other times its movements were suddenly xxii. § 69, 70, 71, 80, 81. Boyle’s New Experiments
stopped, by touching the water with particular bodies. Physico-Mechanical, touching the spring of the air, and
The cause of these irregularities, whi sy oo reer its Effects, made for the most part in a New Pneumati-
was discovered by Venturi. He found, cal Engine, exp. 35. p. 262. Oxford, 1660. Boyle,
Phil. Trans. 1676, vol. xi. p. 775. Hooke’s Attempt
which was fat or oily, or which diffused a small portion for the explicdtion a} the phenomena observable in an
or a great portion of volatile oilover the sur- experi ished by the Right Hon. Robert Boyle,
face, the dissolution and the motion ofthe camphor were in the 35th experiment of his Epistolical Discourse,
i touching the air, in confirmation of a former conjecture
eee, 2 Raavios and se. made by R. H. Lond. 1660. Hooke On Springs, 4to.
i i 1678. Vossius De Nili et aliorum fluminum origine,
Hag. 1666. Fabri, Dialogi Physici, Lyons, 1669.
: Borelli, De motionibus a Gravitate naturalé lenté,
or matter, and the motions of the camphor Lyons, 1670. Sinclair's Ars nova et magna Gravitatis
never in the slightest affected. Whenthe ef Levilatis. Rotterdam, 1669. Joh, Christophorus
was efterw greased with a smal] Sturmius, Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, pars
oil of olives, and again brought into contact i. tentamen viii. p. 44. et auctorium tentam. viii. p. 77.
Norimberge, 1676. The second part of this work was
the small bits of published at Norimberg in 1685. James Bernoulli,
, stroke, deprived them of Dissertatio de Gravitate Etheris, 1683. De La Hire,
vitality. Venturi repeated this experi- Mem. Acad. Par. tom. ix. p. 157. Carré, Experiences
diameter, The sur les tuyaux Capillaires in the Mem. Acad. Par. 1705,
i p- 241, Daniel Bernoulli in the Comment. Petropol,
i 1727, p. 246. Mariotte Traité du Mouvement des Eaux,
the motions of the camphor were speedily stop. vol. ii. p. 105. Par. 1700. Cotes, Hydrostatical Lec«
tures, sect. xi. Lond, 1738. Cigna, Journal de P,
sique, tom, iii. p. 109. Lord Charles Cavendish in
wor Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 382. Monge, Mem. Acad, Par.
i i the 1787, p. 506. Beste, Journal de Physique, vol. xxviii.
prt sed retarded or on ley tahoe un- p. 171 ; xxix. p. 287, 399; xxx. p. 125. Wilson, Edine
liquor forms itself into a thin film upon the Transactions, vol. iv. p.144. Venturi, Memoires
surface of the water. In like manner, the particles of a a L’ Institut, tom. i, 125. Paris, 1805,
ri M. Hauy and Tremery in La Place’s Suppl. au Diz.
ee a but their motions do not con- Liv. de la Mecanique Celeste. La Place,
, because the film of oil which they spread over a la Theorie de Caction Capillaire, Par. 1807. Gay Lus-
the water is not dissipated. sac, Id, Biot’s Traité de Physique, tom. is chap. xxii.
er yee and is exposed to a heat Paris, 1816.
80
the motions of the camphor are not prevented. On CHAP. VI.
:
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F
tion of this heat. Description oF InstruMENTS, AND Experiments vor
M. Venturi apices the oes principles tothe rLusTRATING THE DocTRINES oF Hypaostatics.
uatic plant rises to the 1."Description of the Mechanic or Hydrostatic Parados.
pin a box — I appears from Cor. 2. of Prop. iv. p. 428, that the :
cil of light is ad- pressure exerted upon the bottoms of vessels filled with ey
one of its sides, the tre- fluid, does not depend upon the quantity of fluid which
few hours, and advances they contain, but solely upon its altitude. This propo-
sition has been called the mechanic or hydrostatic pa-
rodox, and the instrument for illustrating it has received Poors
ich they oye the same name. « hem ; CCCXVIL
bg sometimes oscillate one side to another, This instrument is shewn in Fig. 1.where AB isa box, Fig. 1.
Sr
i
I
|
:
A
ai
i
i
re
i
if
it
|
i
Ul
482
liydrostati- which contains abouta pound of water, and. abcde aglass
cal Insta tube, fixed to the end C of the beam of a balance, and the
"Experi. Other end to a moveable bottom, by which the water in
ments. the box is supported, the bottom and wire being equal in
“=~ ~weight to an empty scale suspended at the other extre-
PiaTe mity of the balance. If a pound weight is put into the
en empty scale, it will cause the bottom to rise a little, and
mon the water will appear at the lower end of the tube a;
The water will therefore press with a force of one pound
upon the bottom. If another pound is put into the
scale, the water will ascend to 6, twice as high as the
point a, above the bottom of the vessel. Ifa third, a
fourth, and a fifth pound be put successively into the
scale, the water will rise at each time to c, d, and e, the
distances a b, bc, cd, de, being equal to one another,
This result will be obtained, however small be the bore
of the glass tube ; and since when the water is at b, c,
d, e, the pressures upon the bottom are successively
twice, thrice, four times and five times as great as when
the water. was contained within the box, it follows that
the pressure upon the bottom of the vessel depends
wholly on the height of the water in the glass tube,
and not upon the quantity which it contains. Ifa
long narrow tube, therefore, be fixed in the top of a
eask, and if both the cask and the tube be filled with
water; then though the tube be so small as not to hold
a pound of the fluid, the pressure of the water in the
tube will be in danger of bursting the cask in pieces, for
the pressure is the same as if the cask was continued u
in its full size to the height of the tube, and filled wit
water : (See Chap.I. Sect.1. Prop. IV. Cor.2.) It follows
therefore, from this principle, that any quantity of water,
however small, may be made to exert a force of any as-
~ signable magnitude, by increasing the height of the co-
lumn, and diminishing the base on which it presses.
This, however, has its limits ; for when the tube becomes
capillary, the attraction of the glass will support a great
quantity of the included water, and will therefore dimi-
nish the pressure upon its base. The preceding machine
should be so constructed, that the moveable bottom may
have no friction against the inside of the box, and that
no water may get between it and the box. The method
of effecting this will be manifest from Fig. 2. where
ABCD is a section of the box, and abcd its lid, which
is made very tight. The moveable bottom E, with a
groeve round its edges, is put into a bladder fg, which
is tied close round it in the grooye by a strong waxed
thread. The upper part of the bladder is put over the
top of the box, at a and d, all around, and is kept firm
by the lida 4ed, so that if water be poured into the
box through the aperture // in its lid, it will be con-
tained in the space fE gh, and the bottom may be
raised by pulling the wire ¢ fixed to it at the point E of
the moveable bottom. See Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii.
p- 100. Edit, Edin. 1806.
Fig. 2,
2. Description of the Hydrostatic Press.
Bescription
ef the hy-
drostatic
press.
This ingenious and powerful machine, which has
been recently brought into notice by the late Mr Bra-
mah, is founded on the doctrine contained in the corol-
lary to the fundamental principle of the equilibrium of
fluids, (see p. 427,)namely, that if any number of pistons
are applied to apertures of different sizes in the sides of a
vessel full of water, the forces with which the pistons are
spelies will be in equilibrio, if they are proportional to.
the apertures to which they are applied. Thus ifa piston
G (Fig. 1.) is applied to an aperture at G, having an
area of two square inches, it will be’ in equilibrio with
another piston applied to the whole aperture AB of
2000 square inches, if the force with which the piston
PLATE
SccXitt,
Fig. 1.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
G is applied, is to the foree with which AB is applied Hydrostati-
as 2 to 2000, er as 1 to 1000. Hence it follows, that a “! !
force of one pound applied at G will raise 1000 pounds “pase
placed upon the piston AB. The same result will be ments.
obtained if the vessel has the form shewn in Fig. 11.
y one piston being applied at a6, and the other at Prate
2 CccXIIL,
Fhe hydrostatic press founded on this principle was Ue
first proposed as a new machine by Faaaky in his Trai=
tex de L’ Equilibre des Liqueurs, et de la Pesanteur, de la
Masse de L’air, Chap. Il. Edit. 2d. Paris, 1664. He de-
seribes it as a new sort of machine for multiplying for-
ees, (Nouvelle sorte de machine pour multiplier les for-
ces,) and he considers it as a new mechanical Basile
ugh
equal in value to the lever or the screw. . Al
Pascal speaks so highly of his new machine, it is not a
little singular, that no attempt appears to have been
made for more than a century aad 5) half to apply it to
the useful purposes of life. Mr Bramah had the very
great merit, not only of re-inventing the machine, (for
we believe he was not aware of its having been propo-
sed by any other person,) but of pointing out its appli-
cation to a great variety of useful purposes, such as
working cranes, pulling up the roots of trees, packing
goods of all kinds, &c. In‘our article Crane, (see
Vol. VII. pp. 315, 316, &c.) we have given a full de-
scription of the hydrostatic press, as applied to a crane;
and by studying that of the article, our readers
will have no difficulty in understanding the construc-
tion of the instrument.
The hydrostatic press is represented by the parts Prate
GHEFFL of Fig. 1. Plate CCXV. In the Figure, FF CCXV-
pes ne the wooden frame which supports the iron Fig: |
eylinder L. This cylinder communicates with a small
copper pi h, terminating in a common forcing-
pum at h, which stands in an iron cistern H_ contain«
ing the water. The power is applied to the handle G
of the pump, and the piston, pressing on the surface of
the water in the pipe at h, communicates its force,
through the intervention of the water, to the piston of
the cylinder L, to the top of which the work to be per-
formed is applied. See also our article Jack in thi
volume, page 599.
8. Hydrostatic Bellows improved by Ferguson.
The common hydrostatic bellows consisted of a tube common
of glass or any other substance, about three feet high, hya ;
communicating with a cylindrical vessel, whose sides bellows.
were made of leather like a pair of bellows, while its }
upper and lower surfaces were formed of circular or
oval s about 15 inches in diameter. When water
is poured into the tube, it flows into the bellows, and
separates the boards a little. Heavy weights to the
amount of 300 pounds, are then placed a the upper
board, and by pouring water into the tube till it reach-
es the top, the moveable board with all. its load will be
raised and kept in equilibrio by the column of fluid, al-
though the fluid itself does not weigh more than a quar-
ter of a pound. In order to shew the experiment with
more effect, a man may place himself upon the up)
board instead of the weights, and raise himself merely
by pouring water into the small pipe. sia
The following very ingenious machine has been pro- Improved
= by Mr Ferguson as a substitute for the common by Fergu-
ydrostatical bellows: ABCD, Fig. 3.is an oblong square a
box, into one of whose sides is fixed the ‘glass’ cox vind
tube aI, which is bent into a right angle at the lower Fi, 3, 4, /
end, at i, Fig. 4. To this bent extremity is tied the 5. i
neck of a large bladder K, which lies -in'the bottom of
the box ABCD. Over this bladder is placed the moveable
guson’s Lectures, vol. ii.
for illustrating the ¢ re
If we take a commion wine glass AB, and,
in a vertical , bring its mouth in
the surface of water in the vessel M, it will
pe Ee cnt Serer fs
4. Experi
im
:
i!
rant
al | A
"
z.
|
Hee
pigtaeies
i
HYDRODYNAMICS.
weeia tre
483
will force up the mercury, and the height to Hydrostati-
which it rises will shew the magnitude of the pressure “t! Mnstru-
- d
at different depths. “experi.
the
PLATE
of a man made CCCXVIL.
of glass or enamel, is so constructed that it has the same F's: 7
specific gravity as water, and is therefore suspended in
a mass of fluid. A bubble of air, (similar to the air in
the glass of Exp. 1.) communicating with the water, is
of the fi , Sometimes in a small
again rises, so that it may be made to oscillate or dance
in the vessel without any visible cause. Fishes made
of glass are sometimes substituted in place of the human
figure, and when a common jar is used for the experi-
pe aed ae dehy oe fitemede oovthe tet
at A. The construction of the apparatus shewn in Fig. 6.
is obviously the best, as the spectator does not ob-
means*which are employed to alter the speci-
nn Bese figure. ree .
5. pressure of fluids at great depths
is finely illustrated by an epariment Shieh has often
been made at sea, of making an empty bottle well cork-
to a great . The pressure of the wa-
in the cork, and the bottle when brought up
is always filled with water. Mr , the respec.
Travels in the South of Africa, tried this
t on his voyage home from the Cape of Good
He drove very tight into an empty bottle a
, Which was so large half of it remained above
A cord was then tied round the cork, and
of the bottle, and a poy of
was put over the whole. When it was let down
to 50 fathoms, the captain felt, by
the additional weight, that it had instantaneously filled ;
and, upon drawing it up, the cork was fi in the
bottle, which was of course filled with
in a similar manner ;
re the cork, a sail needle was --
=
it had filled with water; but, upon
same tion, no part itch a to be
S, although the bottle was completely filled with
water. The water had in this case obviously insinuated
cork, and
pores of
through
away the — im ity of this explanation. —
See Campbell’s Tresds, pr OOF Make Lond, 1815. Experi-
ments for
& iment Tor i the q the . illustrating
waa", ret ig yea equality of PPES- he eauality
of the pres-
If a soft or frangible substance is exposed to an
—
force in one directior more than anotlier, it. will on”
1
ill direction.
484
Hydrostati- either lose its, shape, or be broken to pieces; but. if
cal aap the force with which the body is pressed is applied
“tape, tovevery part of the body, it will preserve its form if
ments. it: is- soft, and will not be broken if it is frangible,
=~» Hence it follows, that if any body is exposed to a
pressure sufficiently powerful to change its shape or
crush it to, pieces, and if it preserve its form and its
integrity under this pressure, we are entitled to infer
that the pressure is equal in every direction.
Let a piece of very soft wax, of an irregular shape,and
an egg, be placed in a bladder filled with water. Let the
bladder be then laid in a brass box, and a cover of
brass put upon the bladder, so as to be entirely sup<
ported by it. Ifa hundred or a hundred and fifty
pounds weight be laid upon this cover, so as to press
upon the bladder, this enormous force, though propagat-
ed through the fluid, and acting upon the soft wax and
egg, will produce no effect. The egg will not be bro-~
ken, nor will the wax change its figure.
6. Apparatus for Illustrating the Doctrine of Specific
Gravities. :
Apparatus Tn order ta shew that when a solid body is immersed in
for flustra-
ting the 2 fluid, the loss of weight which it sustains is equal to.
doctrine of the weight of the water which it displaces, or of a
specific gra- Quantity of water of the same bulk with the body,
vities. the following very simple apparatus has been em-
ployed.
PLATE A cylindrical or cubieal body of any kind, either en-
CUCXVILE tirely solid, or made hollow and loaded within, so as:
Fig. 8. to sink in the fluid, is exactly fitted to a hollow cylinder
or cubical vessel, so that the solid contents of the bollow
cylinder or cubical vessel is exactly equal to the solid con-
tents of the cylindrical or cubical solid. The cylindrical
or cubical vessel is then suspended to the hook of a hy-.
drostatic balance, or any other balance, and the solid cy~
linder or cube is suspended to a hook in the bottom of
the cylindrical or cubical vessel. Weights are now put
into the opposite scale of the balance till an equilibri-«
um is produced in air. Every thing remaining in this
situation, the solid cylinder or cube is completely im-
mersed under water, and consequently the equilibrium
is destroyed ; that is, the scale of the balance to which
the apparatus is suspended will require to have added
to it a weight equal to the loss of weight ig ay
the solid, in order to restore this equilibrium. By fill-
ing with water; therefore, the cylindrical or cubical
vessel, it will be found that the equilibrium is exactly
restored. Hence it is obvious to the eye, that the loss,
of weight sustained by the solid is exactly equal to the
weight of water displaced.
=
7. Lo make a Body lighter than Water lie at the bottom
of a Vessel filled with Water.
We have seen in Prop. IV. p. 430, that when a body
has a less specific gravity than a fluid, it will float upon
To make a
body light-
er than wa-
ter lie atthe *he surface of the fluid, as it is pressed upwards. with
bottom of a a force greater than its own weight. If by any means,
vessel filled however, we can prevent the upward pressure from
with water. acting upon the i body, it is manifest that it must
remain at the bottom of the vessel in the. same manner
as it would rest upon any other body in the open air,
for the body is not only pressed down by its own weight
but by the ne of the superincumbent fluid.
In order to shew how to prevent the upward pres-
sure from acting upon the solid, let us take two pieces
ef wood planed perfectly flat and smooth, so that no wa-
HYDRODYNAMICS.
ter can get in between them when their smooth surfaces, Hy
are put together. If one of the pieces of wood is ce-
mented to the bottom of a glass vessel, so as to have its
smooth side uppermost, and if the other piece is pla-.
ced above it, and held in that situation till the vessel is
filled with water, it will be found to lie as quietly and.
firmly as if it were a plate of lead or stone. If the:
edge of the upper plate, however, is raised in the. *
slightest degree, so as to allow the water to insinuate.
itself between the plates, the wood will instantly spring
to the surface. __ ;
This experiment is sometimes made in a different
manner. A flat and smooth brass plate is fixed at.
the bottom of the vessel, and a large mass of cork has
a thin smooth brass plate fixed to its bottom, so that.
the specific gravity of the cork and its brass base may be:
much less than that of water. The brass plate on which.
the cork rests is then placed on the fixed brass e
and when water is poured into the vessel, the cork will
remain at the bottom. The.two brass plates should be
oiled a little on their touching surfaces, and should be
ground upon one another, but not very accurately, for
in this case the force of cohesion would prevent their
separation, independent of the weight of the superincum-
bent pressure of the fluid ; as it is well known that one
brass plate can lift another in the open air, even when -
it is two or three pounds weight, The experiment as *
made with the brass plates is therefore not so satisfac. .
tory as the one with pieces.of wood, forthe reason which -
we have now assigned ; and though we are satisfied that.
the cork and the brass. plate are together lighter than.
water, yet the result appears less Sakon as we are al«
ways in the habit of seeing brass sink to the bottom. _
A similar result may also be obtained by pa ie
glass plate at the bottom of a glass vessel, using a p
of ivory instead of wood, and pouring mercury into the.
vessel in place of water.
ments a .
Experi- ©
ments,
8, Experiment for illustrating the parabolic form of @
sit Sea
id surface influenced by. a centrifugal force.
In order to shew that a horizontal surface of water Experiment
assumes a parabolic form when it is acted upon by a for illust
centrifugal force, along with the force of gravity, we ting the pa-/
have only to take a bucket containing water, whose ope a
surface c d is of course horizontal when the bucket is slot
at rest. If by means of a rope R, however, fastened to quenced by
the handle AB, we give the bucket a rotatory motion a centrifugal
round a epee line, the surface will dont its etary angel |
form, and the water becoming concave in the centre, |
rise round the sides. of the vessel, and have its. surface re
of the form of a parabolic conoid, whose section m no
isa parabola. See Chap. I. Prop, 1. cor. p. 427. .
9. Description of Dr Hooke’s Semicylindrical Counters.
The principal object of this ingenious contrivance Hooke’s se-
was to keep a vessel always full of water, or any other micylindri. |
fluid, but as it is not only of use in hydrostatical experi. ©! counter)
ments, but also illustrative of the principles of the equi- '
librium of fluids, we have thought it necessary to give @.ccex vit.
drawing and description of it in this place. In Fig. 9. Rig. 9,
ABG is a vessel of any form. Upon a horizontal axis
C, a semicylinder or a hemisphere, whose section is.
DEF, is made to revolve, and the weight of the semi-
cylinder is so adjusted that it is exactly equal to the
weight of a portion of the fluid of half its magnitude.
When the yessel is filled with water, the semicylinder
HYDRODYNAMICS 485
Mytresait- is half immersed, andsince it has half the specific grs- and therefore it will rise to a greater height than the Hydrostati-
al fnstru- the semicylinder is in the same cir- reservoir from which it flows. ne —-.
cumstance as if it were floating, and therefore exerts no _In the hydreole by pressure, the air is driven by force apes
pressure on the horizontal axis C. As: the vessel is a number of small holes, so as to mix itself ments.
either by evaporation, or by discharge from an with the water in a number of minute bubbles. In or- —-—”
pers sehr: A of the semicylinder immersed will derto form a proper idea of this machine, let us sup- Hydreole
en be diminished, and the equilibriam of consequence pose that ABCD, Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 11. isa reservoir by pressure.
red; and it will therefore move round the axis filled with water, and that the bent tube a bcd is join- Seer,
C till half of it is again immersed, and the equilibrium ed to it at D. The water will obviously rise to the same fyi. 11,
restored. In this way the semicylinder will always de- level ab, AB in both vessels. Let us suppose, that a
scend as the water runs out, and consequently the fluid pair of bellows M is applied to an opening N in the
must necessarily stand at the same height AB in the tube, closed with a plate of iron, perforated with a great
vessel. number of eatell holes; the air discharged from the bel-
lows will enter the water in the oe ee minute
10. Experiments illustrative of the Pressure of the Supe- ubbles, which will be kept separate from each other by
r 7 Taferi rata. the mutual adhesion of the icles of water. The wa-
rior Strata of Fluids upon the Inferior ter above N will thus be rendered specifically lighter, and
a Exp. 1. If we pour coloured water into a glass ves- will therefore rise in the tube abcd. Instead of using
"* sel, and put a tube of glass, with a bore exceeding ,3, a pair of bellows, M. Mannoury Dectot obtains a current
of an inch, ai edbdindl einid Galan Mn thatele at air in the following manner. Between the opening N
the supe- the same height as it does in the vessel. Let oil of and the reservoir ABCD, he places a close vessel, com-
of turpentine be now poured above the water, and its municating by one pipe with the reservoir, and by ano-
pressure upon the surface of the water will cause the ther with the opening at N. A column of water from
coloured fluid to ascend in the tube, but always to a the reservoir runs into the close chamber, compresses
height less than that of the surface of the oil of turpen- the included air, and thiscompressed air rushing through
tine ; the column of the coloured fluid raised, beingtothe the other tube, enters through the holes in the aperture
pow gether tee —aeeoting ewer henner nt amar gt eg em asthe \
specific gravities. same experiment may be made e have not able to obtain any account of the
ver in place of the coloured preceding machine, but the very enesal one contained
; winds pene seine te omens __ in the report of MM. Prony, Perier, and Carnot, which
nyt Ifa contains any fluid, a heavier fluid was of by the Institute of France, on the 28th
may be introduced below the hter one, without any December 1812. An account of M. Mannoury Dectot’s
ety lace, and their separating surface will new hydraulic machines, will be found in Part ILI. of
be horizontal. a vessel for example contains water, this article on Hypraviic Macuinery.
let a quantity of milk be drawn up into a glass tube by .
Se ne Serene a nants 12. Description of the Common Syphon.
vessel, The syphon is a tube of glass or metal, bent in such Description
eae ne: rn pans gine og ay
: invent the other, It is represented in Fig. 10. by ABCD.
31.) Description of the Hiytrecles iauented ty Mi, Mam. vy. ctor log AB ie immersed in the Gaid im the ves. FuA7%,,,
sel MNOP, and by applying the mouth to the orifice Fig, 10,
In I. of Chap. I. Sect. II, it has been demon. D, and sucking out the air in the syphon, the water as-
strated, when two fluids are placed in the ite cends, and will continue to be discharged at D till the
branches of a bent tube or syphon, the altitudes vessel is completely emptied.
i ion will be in the inverse ratio § Let us suppose that the had legs of equal
fight in one of the branches 1 pe ee ene
to a greater height in one branches up by suction till it extremity C ; it
5g Poe teal hoon has employed this principle eee ena tae needs ‘-
is princi water is to the pressure of the air at the extre«
very ingeniously in a ae above its natural mityC, and as the columns AB, BC of the fluid are equal,
level, by mixing air with water, so as to diminish there is no force which could enable the water to dis-
its specific gravity, and thus cause it to rise to a econ- Sea ees Or hes Soe Cy bentipensiarendee
i . , So as to be equal to BD, then the water is dis-
intimate mixture of water and air, charged at D by the pressure of the additional column
minute ba CD, and the ity with which it is discharged will
birsy Aon Snes Ce A prem alaal ne s be in proportion to the difference between the legs of
being kept separate each other, they are retained by the syphon.
each other and 13, Description of an Improved Syphow
improved
PE he genes at the extremity of its longer branch ° 4° im-
SERS Sil ti Ry deeeln by enttion, AB. A small bent tebe ED lying’ sheng outside Proved #y-
of same branch, communicates with the cavity Fig. ib
water passes through a mass of air, of the branch AB, above the stop-cock. When the
part of it, and becomes in some measure gaseous, aperture C is in the fluid to be drawn off, the
Hydrosta-
tical In-
struments
and Expe-
riments.
———
Description
of a syphon
acting by ca- of water, and wi!
pillary at-
traction.
486
mouth of the stdp-cock D is closed, and the air is drawn
out of the longer branch by suction at E. Instead of a
k at B, the finger may be applied till the air is
sucked out at E.
14. Description of a Syphon acting by Capillary At-
traction.
If a bunch of cotton or worsted threads, or any ab-
sorbing fibres, is placed with one extremity in a vessel
th the other hanging over the edge of
it, the: fluid will rise among the threads by the force ef
capillary attraction, and the water will be discharged
from the longer branch in suiccessive drops: _ Mr Leslie
has _ ingeniously employed this syphon for keeping
moist the bulb of his hygrometer.
15. Explanation of intermitling or reciprocating Springs
upon the principle of the Syphon.
Explana- A reciprocating spring, is a spring which alternately
tion of ine flows and ceases to flow. .The name is also given to those
termitting springs which havea periodical swell, or which discharge
— a great quantity of water at one time, and a'smali quan-
springs up- tity at another, after regular intervals. The first of
on the prin- these kinds of springs is easily accounted ‘for, by sup-
ciple of the posing that the channel which carries off the water from
syphon. —_a cavern has the form of a syphon. In this case, the wa-
ter will only flow when it rises in the cavern to a height
equal to that of the syphon, and the flow will stop till the
cavern is again filled tothe same height. The following
explanation of the second kind of intermitting springs
was suggested about a century ago to Dr Atwell of Ox-
ford, by the phenomena of LaywellSpringat Brixam, near
Prater Torbay, in Devonshire. Let AA bea large cavern near
CCCRVIL the top of a hill, which derives its supply of water from
Pig. 12. rains or melted snow percolating through the-chinks of
the mountain, and let CC be the small channel which
convey the waters of the cavern to the dpening G inthe
hill, where they are discharged in the form of a small
spring. From the cavern AA let there bé a'small channel
D, which carries water into another B, and let the water
of the second cavern be carried off by a bent channel EeF
wider than D, and joining the first channel CC at f, be-
fore it issues from the mountain, the point of junction
JS being below the level of the bottom of both the ca-
verns. »As the cavern B fills with water, the fluid will
ascend to the same height in the channel EeF, but it
will not be discharged. by this channel till the surface
in B is on a level with e, the highest part of the chan-
nel. -The water will then be carried off by the natural
EeFG, till the whole is discharged, and conse-
uently there will be a great swell in the spring at G,
This swell will now cease, as the channel D does not
convey the water into B_ so fast as the syphon EeF
carries it off ; and it will again commence as soon as the
water in B rises to a level with the summite. Mr Fer
guson has illustrated this. operation by a simple machine,
a description of which will be found in his Lectures,
vol. ii. p- 106, 107. :
To con- : ; :
prepretstn 16. To construct a Vessel, from which the Water will
which the “escape when it reaches a certain height.
water will ‘This vessel, which is called Tantalus’s cup, consists
when it Of a metallic vessel, ABCD, divided into two com-
reaches a partments by the partition EF. A glass tube HA, open
certain —_—_at_ both ends, is inserted in the opening H, in the parti«
height. —_ tion EF, the lower end being allowed to reach a little bes
Fig. 13.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
low EF. The tube Hh must then be covered by a Hydrost
small glass receiver a bc, or a wide tube hermetically tical In-
sealed above, a small aperture being left at the bottem = el
of this tube to admit the water. This mechanism is ‘yiments,
= covered by the figure of a man representing 7
antalus, as shewn in the drawing. If water is now Prats q
poured into the vessel, it will admittance into the CCCXVIT,
receiver or wide tube, and will always stand at the Fig- 1
same height in this tube that it does in the vessel,
The water will therefore be retained in tlie vessel as
long as it does not enter the tube Hh, but as soon as
the water rises in the vessel to the same level as the
int h, it will flow down the tube Hh; which acting
ike a syphon, will discharge the whole flyid in the ves-
sel. » If water is poured slowly in with the intention of
making it rise to the lips of Tantalus, it will never
reach them provided the syphon carries off the water
faster than it is poured in. In. the lower compartment
of the vessel, there ought to be a small air-hole near
the top, to allow the air to eseape when the water takes
its place.
17. To construct a vessel which retains water when it is
upright, but discharges it when it is inclined.
Let ABCD be the vessel divided as formerly irito two To con-
compartments by the partition EF. Into this partition struct a
insert the longer branch be of a syphon abc, whose vessel
shorter branch 6 a@ reaches nearly to the bottom of the Which re-
vessel. If water is now poured into the vessel till it 405 "a
stands a little below the lower side of the bent part of the nis,
phon, it is obvious that no water will descend thr. aoc
e syphon, as it has not risen high enough through the it when
shorter branch to enable it to pass through the bent por- is inclir
tion. Ifthe vessel, however, is inclined to one side, as
it is in the act of drinking, the water will rise higher __
in the short branch ab, pass over the bent part of Fis: 1
the syphon, descend in the longer branch, and carry off
all the water into the lower compartment of the vessel.
In order that this experiment may succeed, the sides of
the vessel ought not to be symmetrical round the point
a at the summit of the syphon ; for. in this case no in-
clination of the vessel, however great, will cause the
water to flow over the point @, The syphon should
therefore be placed towards one side of the vessel, and
the vessel inclined to the same side. aan
A similar effect may be produced much more eles
gantly by using the double cup shewn in Fig. 15. where Fig. 15.
abe represents the on, The person who tries to
drink, must apply his lips to the side 4 of the syphon,
otherwise the experiment will not succeed.
a —a— es
18. To construct a machine in which all the water pros
Speen a basin from a jet @eau appears to be drank
a bi ar
This ingenious and elegant machine is shewn in Fig. To con:
16..where ABCD is.a vessel divided into three yart= structa
ments by the partitions EF and GH. In the partition mach 2 in
EF insert two tubes, one of which LM, forms a com- Which all —
munication between the bottom of the compartment te wee
BG and the bottom of EC; while the other tube IK forms Pr"
a communication between the upper part of EC and the froma
upper of HF. A third tube NO is fixed in the jet ea
cover B emnonding from near the bottom of HF, and t
rising with a tapering bore to the point O, through
middle of the vessel SR, inte to receive the wa-
ter which falls from the pipe NO. The figure of a
bird with its bill immersed in the water in the basin SR,
z 3
a en HE RITE
isiciai pece a Pee: < eee itis Te 1
J Hsyuseientti iti ) ily acl He
“Hea te nupeetley ree Hi
Priel Perec ae is aH AEE ae athe
Seu Hat iby Pandit pile Hy sie
Caw 48 3 ede. S23 Peet y fe
eRe : aie - :} da el eth Halt il ERE
Haauilnhi | iain i HP
= at Nth & rai RM Ha fu hy
cima 3.f Ht i] ih iu A Hla 7 Ht
Sadia Heel | Cue ite
= att eet US ae : jag &@ ve ibs Fi TAF PH
Hea fai teal iil
mat z ees
Hl ze GH He i eu LE aul ii
a ae lea ai :
| AFL allied 42 i
488 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Discharge with which the lamine descend must be infinitely small. Disch
E fiuics Definitions. Now it is obvious that the lowest film of fluidmnis
Seiten : rl wa? pressed out by the weight of the column mnupo.
wH—- _,1. A vertical orifice is an orifice placed in a vertical (See Chap. I. Sect. I. Prop. IV.) Let M be the mass
Definitions. direction, so to allow the water to issue in a horizontal
P
cc
TE
coxVE the water always stands at AB, and let m n be the very
1,
stream,
2. A horizontal orifice is an orifice placed in a hori-
zontal direction, so as to allow the fluid to escape in a
vertical direction.
S. An ajutage is a name given to any orifice, or cy
linder, or cone from which water issues.
4, An additional tube is a tube of any form, insert-
ed in a simple orifice made in the sides or bottom of a
vessel,
5. A head of water is aterm used to denote the height
of the fluid above the orifice, or in general the height.
of a spring or source of water above the lowest point
where it can be employed to exert a mechanical force,
either by its impulse or by its weight.
6. If water issues with a velocity V, equal to that
which a heavy body would acquire by falling through
a height H, the velocity is ‘said to be the welecinr due
to the height H, and the height is said to be due io the
velocity V.
Pror. I.
If a fluid moves in an open canal, or through a
tube, kept constantly full, whose diameter gradually
varies, and if the fluid has the. same velocity in every
point of the same section, the velocities in different sec-
tions will be in the inverse ratio of the areas of the
sections,
Since the canal and tube are always full, the same
uantity of fluid must pass through every section in
the same time. But as the quantity of fluid which
passes through any section, whose area is A, is proper:
tional to that area, and also to the velocity V with
which it flows, it must be preportional to A and V
jointly, or A x V. In like manner the quantity of
fluid which runs through the area a of any other sec
tion in which v is the velocity, will be proportional to
axv.. HenceViv=a:A, .
ScHorium.
The case stated in the proposition is one which
is purely theoretical, and can never occur in practice.
In every canal the velocity of the surface is always.
greatest, and in every tube the particles in its axis al-
ways. move most rapidly.
Prop. II.
_ Ifa fluid is discharged from a vertical or horizontal
orifice infinitely small, in a vessel where the fluid is kept
constantly at the same height, the velocity with which
the fluid issues, is equal to that which a heavy body
would acquire by falling through a height to the
height of the fluid above the orifice.
_ Let ABDC, Fig. 1. be a vessel in which the surface of
small orifice through which, the fluid is discharged. . Let
us suppose the fluid divided by horizontal planes into an
infinite number of laminz, then since the area of the ori-
fice mn is infinitely small compared with the area of the
lamine, it will follow, from Prop, I. that the velocity
of the column of fluid mnhg, which is discharged
at every instant by the pressure of mn po, or by the
force mn X m 0, and let m be the mass of a lesser co«
lumn of fluid me fn, which would have been dis«
charged in the same time, solely by its own gravity,
which may be represented by the line Em. Then if
V be the velocity of the column m g hn, and w the ve-~
locity of the column m e fn, the quantity of motion of
the column m g hn will be V x M, and the quantity of
motion of the column mefnwill be u x m. But the
moving forces are mn X mo, and mn X Em; and as
they must be proportional to the quantities of motion
which they produce, (see Dynamics, p. 286,) we have
mnxXmoz:mnX Em=VXM:uxX mor
VxM:uxm=mo:Em
But the masses M, m discharged in the same time are as
the area of the orifice multiplied by the velocity ; that
is, M:m=mn xX Vimn X u, or M: m= V? 4, and
as magnitudes have the same ratio as their equimulti«
les have, (Euclid, V. 15,) we have
V:Mu= V*:u?*; butit has already been shewn that
MV:Mu=mo:Em, hence
V?_:U* =mo:Em.
Now if » is the velocity which a heavy body would
acquire by falling through the height mo, we have, by
Dynamics, p. 292, Case 4,
2: w=mo: mE, consequently
; V?: woo? : vu,
and Y=? and V = », that is, the velocity V, with
which the fluid issues from the orifice mm, under the
pressure of the column m2 po, is equal to the velocity v,
which a heavy body would acquire by falling through
the height mn. :
It is obvious, that the preceding reasoning is appli-
cable to a vertical orifice, or to an orifice in any posi-~
tion, provided its depth is pe to mn, for the pressure’
of the fluid is the same in all directions. i
Cor. 1. If the vessel ABDC, instead of being kept
constantly full, is allowed to empty itself by the orifice
mn, the velocity will always diminish ; and when the
surface has assumed a lower level GH, the velocity will
be that which is due to hm.
Cor. 2. As the velocities of heavy bodies, descend
ing by the force of gravity are as the square roots of the
spaces or heights torongh which they fall, (see Dyna-
Mics, p. 292, Case 4,) the velocity of the issuing fluid
will be as the square roots of the altitude of the surface
of the fluid above the orifice. That is, if the water
stands successively at the heights om, hm, the veloci~
ties will be as “mo: 7 mh.
Cor. 3. As the quantities of fluid discharged are pro-«
portional to the velocities when the orifices remain
the same, they will also be proportional by Cor. 2. to
the square roots of the height of the fluid in the vessel. »
Cor. 4, If the orifice is horizontal, but opening up-
wards, so as to discharge the fluid in a vertical direc«
tion, the water will rise in a jet to the same height as.
the surface of the fluid in the reservoir. As all heavy
bodies acquire in falling a velocity which would a
them upward to the same height from which they fe
the same must be true of fluids. In practice, however,
the resistance of the air, and the friction of the fluid
upon the sides of the orifice, prevent this from being
true,
3
- ee.
aay th
$ ig BHLSHET) 3
Pala!
44 aii; foie 3 FR j
+ HE rte Te x Sai
aid HEU GBE LL! oe ei yre =
gs ated ee ae
Te ST | q
° hit BA % at fy i Ay te
ute eee
Pare met eee
elie ‘ad ej] unaHpE baal
“ap Which « HEE eae dae
JPR ie He terete
aa tn iil Het ih
eet ae Gh
H Hh na? la i 7g
tom
PLATE
CCCXVIL.
so5 io §2
Gaal:
iy Re ae
Ae ase
vi Hie at
i He 238 Fle
Hi eine i
4 :
He Hh Ah
ULE 12
Seo8ee 32 3
He
VOL. XI. PART It,
Discharge
of Fluids
from
Orifices.
Sy,
PLATE
€CCXVIII.
Fig. 3.
490
may be supposed to be divided, and therefore the sum
of all these elementary terms, which may be obtained
either by fluxions or by a geometrical construction, will
be the time required in the ition. —
In order to find the time geometrically, draw EF
equal and parallel to BC, and construct upon EF as an
axis a parabola FTG, with a given eter p. Prolong
the lines AB, MN, « », and RS ib they meet the pres
bola in G, c,d, and T, ‘Construct a second curve XZY,
so that each of the ordinates Ha, K 6, LZ, may be equal
to the corresponding sections MN, « », RS, divided b:
their corresponding ordinates in the parabola Hc, K d,
LT. Now, since H a = He? Md MN = Ha x He,
and since by the property of the parabola, (See Co-
nic Sections, Prop. XIII. p. 157.). He? = HF x p,
and /HF = fP m= as we have, by substituting,
in the above value of #, the preceding values of MN.
Hax Hex HK x 4/p ‘
and /P m, t= QAxVexHe ” and dividing
by 4/p and H¢ ’
_ WP
t= oAV x HK x Ha,
which consists of the constant factor vp multi-
! 2 AeA
plied into the variable curvilineal areaHabK. But
as the same may be shewn for every other element of the
time, it follows that the time of descent from AB to
. ‘to VP
RS will be equal to 2A Je x ELZX.
Cor. It follows from this proposition, that the times
in which the surface AB will descend through the
heights o P, os, will be proportional to the correspond~
ing areas EH a X, ELZX, and that the time of descent
through any of these heights is to the time in which the
vessel is completely emptied, as the corresponding area
EHa X or ELZX, is to the whole area EF YX.
Prop. VII.
To determine the time in which the surface of water
in a prismatic or cylindrical vessel will descend through
2 given height, viz. from AB to RS in Fig. 3.
This problem, as Bossut has remarked, may be ve
easily resolved by the method of fluxions ; but we sha
follow this excellent mathematician in the elementary
demonstration which he has given of it. Let us.su
pose that a body, not heavy, ascends through the height
mo, Fig. 3. and describes that space in the very same
way as a heavy body would descend through the height
om. ‘Then it is obvious that the different velocities of
the ascending and descending body may be expressed
by the ordinates of a parabola GTF. When the ascend-
ing body has arrived in z, it will describe the small
a P or KH, with a velocity represented by the ordinate
Hc; butthe time‘of describing m o is oft: and if the
final velocity of the ascending body were continued uni-
form, the body would describe a space=2 m o in the time
HYDRODYNAMICS.
> ™0_ But in uniform motions, the spaces divided by
the velocities are as the times of description. Hence
“Fa: t= ee: Time HK, (or the time of de-
scribing GV.) Consequently
: HK x EG
Time HK = Py eon ny
and substituting for 4/mo its value a p being the
parameter of the parabola, we have
; PRT a Spa 2M
Time HK = g* 2H?
but by Prop. VI. the time in which the water descends
through the same space P z, or HK, is
VP _ Vp. MN
gAgg e Xx MR aT 7” He
M
If we now substitute in place of H a its equal are and
multiply the first of these expressions by MN, and the
second by A, the products will be equal, or
MN./p.HK_ MN.Av+/p. HK
2/eHe ~ 2Arv/g.He *
Hence, by Euclid, (VI. 16.) the time of the body’s as-
cending through m 0, is to the time in which the sur-
face descends through P =, as the area A of the orifice
is to the area MN of the base of the cylindrical or pris-
matic vessel ; and as the same is true of all the other
elementary times which the ascending body and the de-
scending surface employ in describing small equal
spaces, it follows that the whole time in which the as-
cending body will describe the height mo, is to the
time in which the vessel will be completely emptied, as
the area A of the orifice is to the area of the base of
the vessel. The time, therefore, in which the vessel
will empty itself will be /™2 x 3 B being the! area
of the base.
If RDSC is the vessel, then the time in which it will
be entirely emptied will be rad
B
X > consequent»
ly the differences of these times, or the time in which
the surface AB will descend into the position RS, will
be -
pivmo—vms)
~_ AWs
Prop. VIII.
To construct a clepsydra, or water clock, of a cylins
drical form.
The equation in the preceding
to do this in a very simple manner.
Time ms =
sition enables us
“lag 6 us suppose that
it is required to measure 12 hours, and that the height
AD ip ducted into 144 equal parts; then the height of
the surface of the water at the commencement of the
time will be 144 parts. At the end of one hour the
height will be 121; at the end of the second hour it will
be 100, as in the following Table:
Hours torun........, og ne Ae AR WD De 48: 12. Ge aden Dey Ape
Hours from commencement . Mi raed Oot as 4 6 6 YY. 8 9, 16) cee
Height of the surface from the bottom 144 12] 100 81 64 49 36 25 16 9,41 0
Length ofeach hour in parts..... 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 8 1
of Fluids f
from ©
Orifices.
PLATE ~ :
CCCXVIIE
Fig. 5.
yr Hig Bub ih Ae 53 Hae nt incite Hy Mi
ij ue Bu ity aati Hit, trae iH ThHeec g hi
a uy Hi: : SEG ee igh
ul tH HABA ates ;! n age x xe
é FL it a } Pe a S ale is S38 mi exe ie
Banat i i Pe
Bia Tk i ala it tel i a nag
snacks ani : Hi eet ee ee il i ea
oe ie git aueg a
igite ae 4 tual; E ill Ee
ti in Bish i ii af ut 33 na Be i
13) 4 pi V3 i : ip gals iu fg ied rs
sis | Oe as rs ae Hee na
unalne bi it iF HE: ( inn bs i
ghsss lila; ie. 28s He ee) i ee
Hae ie i ainsi
fh: é,
4b t/g(HYH—he/h)
3
g is always =16.087.
ie
Q=
the fui
Sect. V,
in Chap Tike
Discharge
of Fluids
from
Orifices.
492
Prop. XII.
—\~ Fo determine the horizontal distance to which water
PLATE
CCCXVIII.
Fig. 5,
will be projected from orifices in the side of a vessel,
and the nature of the curve which it will describe.
Let ABCD, Fig. 5. be a vessel of water, which is
discharged at O through the bent tube GEO, in the
direction OP. If the water were influenced by no other
force but that with which it is projected, it would move
uniformly in the direction mo P, with a velocity equal
to that which a heavy body would acquire in falling
through the height QO. But as it is acted: upon by
gravity, as soon as it escapes from the orifice O it will ob-
viously describe some curve line O np. Make the ele-
mentary space O m=mo, and OP=20Q. Draw PM
parallel to ON, and join QM. Let fall from the points
m, 0, P, the vertical lines mn, op, PV, which will be
parallel to OM, and complete the parallelograms OmnR,
OopS, OPVT. Let us now suppose, that in the time
in which the water would have described the space’
Om, the force of gravity would have caused it to: fall
through the height OR; and that in the time in
which it would have described the space Oo, it would
have descended through OS by the force of gravity
alone. Now, since the fluid at O is solicited by two
forces, one of which, viz. the force of projection,
would. carry it through the space Om in a certain
time, while the other, viz. the force of gravity, would
carry it through the space OR in the same time, the
fluid will at the end of the given time be found at n. In
like manner it may be shewn, that at the end of the
time in which the water would have described O o uni-
formly, it will be found in the point p. But since Om,
O o represent the times in which the water reaches the
points m, p of its path, and since in these times the force
of gravity has caused the water to fall through the spaces.
mn; op, then. as the apace are proportional to. the
squares of the times, we have m n, 0 p=O m*: O o’, that
is on account of OmnR, Oo pS, being parallelograms
OR: OS=R n?: S p?, whichis the relation between the
abscisse and the tr divians of the Apollonian hyperbola,
(See Conic Sections; Sect. IV. Prop, XII. Cor.)
It would be unneces to proceed’ any farther in.
explaining and demonstrating the geometrical construc-
tion whieh is usually given for finding the amplitude
either of oblique or horizontal jets, as the construc-
tion and the demonstration of it are exactly the same as
that which we have given in our article Gunnery, Vol..
X. p. 572, &e. for the parabolic path of projectiles.
The two classes of phenomena, and the mathema-
tical laws by which they are regulated, are exactly the
HYDRODYNAMICS.
height 4, the velocity
Prop. XIII.
To determine the pressure exerted on the interior of
conduit pipes by the water which they convey.
‘Let the fluid column, Plate CCCXVIII. Fig. 5. No.2) prare
be divided into an infinite number of equal and verti- cccxvimt,
cal lamine GF gf Then if we abstract friction, it is Fig. 5.
obvious that all the points of the same lamina have the: No. 2
same velocity, and that this velocity is the same in all
the lamine. Ifqr represent the section of the con«
tracted vein at the orifice pm, the velocity of the la«
mine is to the velocity in qr, as the area of the orifice:
qr is to the area of the section GF ; for at every instant
there passes out of g7 a small prism of water equal to
GF g f, and therefore these prisms have velocities reci<-
procally proportional to their bases. . (See Prop. I. p,
488.) It we therefore call 4 the constant height of wa-
ter in the reservoir, D the diameter of the tube, d that
of the orifice qr, and if we consider that the velocity in
qr is that due to the height h, and may be expressed by
Wh, then D? > d? =/h: ro the velocity of the wae.
ter in the pipe. But as the velocity 4/h is due to the
x vill toe die to the altitade
Db
4 “
< . But since each particle of fluid that reaches the
extremity PN of the pipe tends to move with the velo«
da? Sh
every point of P por Nx upon which it rests must be
pressed with a force equal to the difference of the pres-
bine is, every:
sure due to the velocities 4/h, and if ;
part of the pipe will be pressed with a force equal to
dh . 3 quia
h
city 4/h, while it moves only with the velocity
DF. pi ee Oe
Cor. 1. If an aperture very small in relation to each
of the orifices PN, pn is made in’ the side of the' pipe,
the water will issue with a velocity due to the ‘heiglit’
4
nfs) This height. will. vanish when d= D, or
when the whole aperture: PN is opened. © 9 9)”
See Bossut’s. Traité D’ Hydrodynamique, Tom. I.
chap. xi. p. 197, &c. from which the preceding proposi-
tion is taken. Z
; _ . Scuorrum. ‘i
In page 513, 514, of the present article, will be found,
a.set.of valuable experiments. by Bossut, in which he:
has measured the quantity of water discharged by aper-
tures in the side of the pipe... The‘agreement, between;
the formula and. the observed results, is very, striking.
* Inia seriés of very recent and interesting experiments on the discharge of liquids through small orifices, made by M. Hachette,
of which some account will’be found in the following Chapter, he has discovered that the quantity of fluid discharged by orifices va-
ries by placing an obstacle at some distance from the orifice.
Daniel Bernoullimade an experiment on this subject, and concluded _
from it, that an obstacle does not alter the quantity of fluid discharged. In his experiment, however, the time of the flow was ,
short for obtaining correct results.
M. Hachette employed a circular orifice, 20 millimetres in diameter, which discharged water from a large vessel into a vessel pla-
ced at a great distance from the orifice. _ The surface of the water in the vessel sank about six decimetres in 10’ 21", ~The plane
face of an obstacle was presented at different distances from the orifice, and the jet fell perpendicularly on'this planee The follow-
ing were the results :
128
Correspon
Pia) Cael rae
' Distance of the Obstacle in Millimetres.
80 , 60 24
ii we
4
‘Times in Which the Susface of the Water sunk Six Decimetres.
10’ 26” ;
Hence it follows, that at the distance of 128 millirnetres (5.039 inches), the obstacle produces no effect; but that; at
‘our millimetres 0,157 of an inch, the time is increased rather more than.one-half.. AEDES
11/13" 15! 64 .
aren of
mop ¢
one,
from
Orifices.
Som?
HYDRODYNAMICS. 493
tyre ie ete mities of which have the form of the contracted vein, Lateral
CHAP. IL the ity of the effluent water is that which corre. Communi-
a. + ahaha ee? : sponds with the height of the fluid above the inferior hope ob
“y ~os ; extremity of the tube. an
Fluids Ow rue Larerat Communication or MoTION IN 2 Fluids.
4 Seren Let ne rt pr mcm: ae coer the Prate
; 4 inci virtual ascension, i wi e pres- CCCXVIIT.
BY fea y pat gee Lasse er fare of the atmosphere, in the following manner Let Fig: 6.
ipa ode A werhihod on natural philo- BLKO, Plate CCCXVIIL. Fig. 6, be a conical tube,
Laer cy in 1798. Sir Isaac Newton was
acquainted wi the fact that such a lateral communi-
ox | be Marin from it the
gation of rotatory motion interior to ex-
terior strata of a whirlpool; but M. Venturi has the
sole merit of explaining the different ena which
it produces, and of i explanation of
at egak
open at the top Si Sa tovinc’ Ge tached ‘baths
z
fn
a
fj
:
i
‘38
wa
wo -
;
R
ee
having the form of the vena contracta, and let —
to LM, it tends to detach it-
self from the stratum which lies immediately above it ;
or, which is the same thing, it tends to produce a va-
MN, and the same effect is
} mi vara A
pen ure at A increases the velocity of the fluid
whi es at CQ, —— the atmospherical
eq
same time T, and during this time it will lose all the ac-
eeleration which bon. ag in its descent from L to C.
The of the column ED, continued during the
i , is therefore the force necessary to the
successive acceleration from L toC, and to it the
Scuoiium.
The theory of Venturi has been recently controvert-
, that the principal
cause of the increased expenditure by tubes is the ad~
hesion of the fluid to the sides of the tubes arising from
capillary attraction. ayn acit eeerent Ha-
chette’s experiments, taken . Poisson's Report,
will enable the reader to determine which of the two
theories is the most plausible. We conceive, that new
experiments are to decide the question.
_Exp. L The fluid in motion was mercury, and the
was made of iron. When the mereury was per-
y pure, it had no affinity for the iron, and flowed
out as it would have done from a small orifice equal to
the diameter of the But when the mercury was.
© Paor.. re can, wane phan Sage ons oo and.
wed other metals, this cov the inside of the pipe,
In. descending cylindrical tubes, the upper extres and the mercury then flowed with a full stream. eas
Lateral
Communi-
cation of
Motion in
Fluids.
494
Exp. II. The fluid next used was water, and the
pipe was coated within with wax. The water flowed
as if through.a small orifice, without filling the tube.
But whenever the water was made to moisten the wax,
—\~— the pipe was instantly filled, owing to the wax being
PLATE
CCCXVIIL
replaced by the first coat of water which covers it.
Hence the reason why a disc of glass at last adheres to
water with the same. force whether it is covered or not
with a coating of wax ; for as soon as the wax is wetted,
it is merely the action of water.on water which deter-
mines the phenomena, as M. Laplace has explained in
his. Theory of Capillary Action.
Another important fact determined by M. Hachette
is, that in a vacuum, or in air rarefied to a certain de-
ree, the phenomena of pipes ceases to take place.
Thus, if water is made to run in a full stream through
a tube under the receiver of an air pump, then, upon
rarifying the air in the receiver, the fluid vein was ob-
served to detach itself from the sides of the pipe, when
the internal pressure was reduced from 0.76 of a metre
to 23 centimetres of mercury. By thus diminishing
the internal pressure, the effect of the external. pressure
is increased, which is transmitted to the pipe by means
of the fluid contained in the vessel, and to which is
added the pressure of the fluid. But there is a point
at which these two pressures are sufficiently powerful
to detach the fluid vein from the sides of the pipe, in
the same manner as a disc of glass or metal may be de
tached from the surface of a fluid to.which it adheres
by the application of a sufficient force. The phenome-
na, therefore, exhibited in a vacuum, or in rarified air;
agrees perfectly with the a egy of M. Hachette,
and does not prove, as might be supposed, that the
phenomena of es are produced by the pressure of
the air in which the fluid is discharged; an’ opinion
which is inconsistent with the two preceding experi-
ments, for in these experiments the action of the air
was the same, and yet the phenomena were different,
according to the nature of the fluid, and the matter of
which the pipe was composed.
When the fluid vein has been detached by rarefying
the air, M. Hachette observed, that the water does not
again begin to flow in a full stream when the air is re«
admitted. This contraction of the vein, which ‘took
place in the rarefied air, continues to subsist though the
pressure of the atmosphere is restored. Hence he con-
cludes, that the-adhesion of the water to the sides of
the pipe takes place only at the commencement of the
motion, before the fluid has acquired a sensible velocity
in a direction which separates it from the sides. In or-
der to verify this conjecture, M. Hachette made the fol-
lowing experiment :—The water flowed ina full stream
through a pipe without the receiver of an nag ap? A
small hole was made in this pipe very near the orifice,
The external air then’entered into the pipe, as ought to
have happened according to the theory of D. Bernoulli.
It interposed itself between the water and the sides of
the pipe. The contraction of the vein takes place in
the inside of the tube, and the water ceases to flow in a
full stream. This being the case, the small hole was
exactly shut. The adhesion of the water to the pipe
was not again produced, and the flowing of the water
continued as if the pipe had not existed, so that it might
have been removed or replaced without any change in
the flow of the water. This experiment succeeded
equally well whatever was the direction of the jet; but
care must be taken not to agitate the apparatus, for a
very small lateral motion of the fluid causes it to ad-
here again to the moist sides of the pipe. It was pro-
HYDRODYNAMICS.
bably from having neglected this precaution, that M.
Venturi obtained a result apparently different from the
preceding. See Thornson’s Annals of Philosophy, July
1817, vol. x. p. 34,
Prop. III.
If water is discharged from a short tube of a coni-
cal form, the pressure of the ai here will increase
the expenditure in the ratio of the exterior section of
the tube to the section of the contracted vein, what-
ever be the position of the tube, provided that its in-
ternal figure be adapted throughout to the lateral com-
munication of motion.
Having already shewn that the atmospherical pres-
sure increases the expenditure through additional tubes
whatever be their position, Venturi next proceeds to
examnine the mode of action by which the ohere
produces this augmentation, and he begins with the
case best adapted to favour the action of the atmosphere,
which is that of conical diverging tubes.
Let AB, Plate CCCXVIII. Fig. 14, the extremity prarc
of the tube ABEPF, be applied to an orifice in a thin cccxvirr!
plate, and let the part ABCD have the form nearly of the Fig. 14.
contracted vein, which is found by experiment to make
no perceptible alteration upon the expenditure by the
simple orifice AB. The water which issues through
CD is disposed to continue its course in a cylindrical
form CGHD; but if the lateral parts CFGDFH con-
tinue, the cylindrical stream CGHD will communicate
its motion to the lateral parts successively from part to
part, as shewn in Prop. I. Hence, if the divergence of
the sides CE, DF be such as is best adapted to the
speedy and complete lateral communication of motion,
the water contained in the truncated conical tube
CDEF will at last acquire the same velocity as that of
the stream which continues to issue through CD. Upon
this supposition, while the fluid stratum CDQR, pre-
serving its velocity and thickness, would into
RQTS, a vacuum would be. formed in the solid zone
RmrSQuoT. Or if it should be supposed that the
stratum CDQR, proms ying its progressive velocity,
should enlarge in RQTS ; this cannot happen without
its becoming thinner and detaching i from the
stratum which succeeds it, and by that means leavi
a vacuum equal to the zone R mr SQnoT. A similar
effect would obviously take place throughout the whole
of the tube CE, and if the quantity C m is supposed in«
variable, the sum of all these empty spaces will be
equal to the solid zone VEx Gz YFH, ‘
From this reasoning it follows, that the lateral com-«
munication of motion produces the same effect in a co«
nical tube, whether horizontal or vertical, as is produ
ced by the action of gravity ina descending cylindrical
tube, as described in Prop. II. In this case, also, a
part of the pressure of the ere is active on the
reservoir, and at the outer extremity EF... If the ac«
tion of the atmosphere upon the surface of water in
the reservoir increases the velocity at the section CD,
this velocity will likewise communicate itself to the
whole fluid CDFE, and the tendency to a vacuum will .
take as before; but since the a erical action
is as powerful at EF, it will take away at EF all the
velocity which it added at CD ; so that being deduct-'
ed from the same mass, and in the same time at EF, the
fluid will not cease to be continuous in the pipe. It is
found by computation, that this will when the
velocity of CD is increased in the ratio of CD to EF’.
~ Deehey—
q
cation |
Motion in|
HYDRODYNAMICS.
3
s
. rf sae
if au +
Be
Fr
[
Ht
i
*
zg
=
&
Hy
&
Es
ite
Ht
sections ;
for this direction can depend ou the impulse re-
ceived within the reservoir, eee aos
cases. In Fig. 12. the fluid. particles, after having
i y
through the curve L xz, they arrive at the place
of contraction, which they assume at DF, Fig. 11. and
which they
in a thin plate.
likewise assume when the orifice is made Pirate
If we suppose a tube of glass yK, cccxvitr.
Fig. 12. to have one of its extremities applied at K, Fig: !.
the other opening into the reservoir, it will be seen
that the pressure of the here which is exerted
uponthe coloured fluid T, (see p. 503. Table XII. exp. 7.)
must act likewise upon the surface of the reservoir,
and aid the ere tees tage a Nagao
ing the water into the tube y K, as it presses co-
pa liquor into TS. In like manner, the
of the moust increase the im oe
fluid particles which arrive at KL, consequently
must increase the iture. Asa of the active
force of the fluid must always be destroyed by the ed-
dies in an additional cylindric tube, it follows that the
effluent column can never have the velocity which is
due to the real head, and which is observed nearly en-
tire in orifices in a thin plate ; and the diminution of
velocity corresponds with the increase of the time be-
yond that indicated: by the theory.
Scnrorium.
The theory of the lateral communication of motion
in fluids must apply in a similar manner to ascending
and ing tubes, whenever the form admits of
this lateral communication. In descending tubes, the
- of ; - ;
of , and which has been estimated in Prop. II.
apd ing tubes, we must subtract this effect
'y from that which is produced by gravity.
Prop. V.
By means of proper adjutages applied to a given cy-
lindrical tube, it is patsiale Ay ianvense the enegniinere
of water that tube in the proportion of 2% to
10, the head or the altitude of water in the reservoir
remaining the same.
The truth contained in this proposition is deduced
from the experiments which we have given in Table
XIL. p. 503 and 504 of this article, and the form of
the adjutages ix ined in p. 50%, and represented
in Plate CCCXVIIL. Fig. 16."
Scnouium.
says Venturi, “ the inhabitants pur-
i - = public
w prohibits them
than
Pig. 16.
Lateral
Communi- if
cation of
Motion in
Fluids.
Fig. 16.
PLATE
CCCXVIII.
Pig. 5.
No. 4.
Fig. 5.
No. 5.
696
large in the apartments; but that it will be sufficient
ey be enlarged at their upper terminations, accord-
ing to the form CD, Fig. 16. This divergency of the
upper part will carry off the: smoke very well, even
when it is not practicable to afford chimnies of suffi-
cient length to the upper apartments. The same cb-
ew is applicable to chemical furnaces for strong
re.” :
Pror. VI.
The eddies of the water in currents and rivers are
produced by motion, communicated from the more ra-
pid parts of the stream to the lateral parts, which are
more at rest.
‘The water which moves in the channel MNH, Fig. 5.
No. 4. meets the obstacle BA, which impedes its course,
and causes it to rise and discharge itself in the direction
AC, with an increased velocity. Suppose the water in
BDCA to be dormant, the current AC.communicates its
motion to the lateral particles E, (Prop. 1.) and conveys
them forward; the surface of the dormant water be-
comes depressed at E, and the most remote particles
towards D are urged, according to the laws of the equi-
librium of fluids, to fill the depression. The current
AC continues to carry them off, and the space BDCA
continues to be exhausted. The water of the current
AC, by virtue of the same laws, is acted upon by a
constant foree which urges it towards the cavity’ E,
while its natural course or projection carries it towards
AC... Under the agency of these two forces, the water
AC acquires a curve-lined motion in CD, and descends
as it were through an inclined plane, becoming retro-
grade in DE, whence it would proceed to strike the ob-
stacle BA, and the current AC, after which it would
undergo several oscillations previous to acquiring a state
of equilibrium and repose. tut the current AC con-
tinues its lateral action ; a second time it draws away
the water through CD into E, and forces it to renew
its motion through the curve CDE ; in which manner
the eddy continues without ceasing.
If the river should pass through a contraction of its
bed at N, it will produce eddies at both sides, at P and
at Q, similar to those we have considered at DC.
Suppose the stream of water, after having struck the
bank GH, to be reflected into a new direction HS, the
lateral communication ef motion will excite eddies in
the angle of reflection R.
When two currents of unequal velocity meet ob-
liquely in the middle of. the river, the most rapid cur-
rent will produce eddies in that which is the least ra-
id.
F Suppose a stream of water to flow over a bed of un-
equal depth. If the longitudinal section of the inequa-
lities of the bottom exhibit a gentle slope, as at ABC;
Fig. 5. No. 5. the superior water will impress its mo-
tion by lateral communication upon the inferior water
which is near the bottom, beneath the line AC, and a
current will take place through the whole. depth of the
section MB. The current, which is formed near the
bottom at B, is turned out of its course by the slope
BC, and proceeds to rise above the surface at Q, some-:
times in the form of a curling wave, or vertical whirl-:
pool. If the extremities of the hollow place form an
abrupt angle, as DEFG, eddies will be produced. even
at the bottom, in the vertical direction at D, and some-
times also at G. ‘These phenomena may be observed
in an artificial channel with glass sides.
Every eddy destroys a part of the moving force of the
HYDRODYNAMICS.
_ of its bed unequal, the water continues more elevated than
‘tards the expenditure wvonen the tube with enlarged
_ velocity increases the depth, and enlarges the width of
current of the river. For the water which descends by
a retrograde motion in the inclined plane CDE, Fig: 5. ©o™™
No, 4, cannot be restored in the direction of the current ,j 7
of the river but by a new impulse. It is ‘as it were a 4
ball, which is forced to rise on an inclined plane,
whence it continually falls back again to receive new PLATE —
ted : CCCXVE
Hence we deduce, as a primary consequence, that in Fis: 5.
a river, of which the course is permanent, and the sections Nes i,
at would have done, if the whole river had been equally
contracted to the dimensions of its smallest section. The
cause of this phenomenon is the same as that which re=
parts. (Prop. 7. No. 4.) The water which descends
from the elevation above the contracted part N into the
bason PQ, Fig. 5. No, 4. loses nearly the whole of the
velocity it acquired by descending from it ; because the
narrow part has a curved slope towards the lower part of
the river, which directs the velocity of the stream in an
horizontal direction. Guglielmini has well remarked,
that a fall does not influence*the velocity of the lower
stream, because the eddies of the water in the bason
PQ destroy the velocity produced by the fall. * This
the channel at PQ. Eddies are formed on each side, at
the bottom, and at the surface, both in the horizontal
and vertical directions. It would be to no purpose to
attempt to prevent this hollowing out and enlargement
of the channel by such a fall by adopting the means of
close walls, for the bason would then obtain its enlarge«
ment where these constructions might end.
If the channel have a number of successive contracé
tions and dilatations MN, without cascade or dam, there
will still be formed, at each dilatation, eddies which
will diminish the velocity more than if the channel had
an uniform section equal to that in M or N. It will
therefore follow, that the surface of the water, after each
dilatation, must rise, in order to recover the velocity it
lost by the eddies. If we call the height to which the
water must rise, above the elevation necessary to have
overcome the retardations of a bed of uniform section,
= a, and the number of equal and ‘successive alter-
nate dilatations and contractions be =m, the height
of the rise in the stream thus alternately dilated d
that of the same river uniformly contracted, will be
=am. We here su the bottom of the river to be’
uniform. If this bottom be of such a nature to be at«
tacked by the current, the contracted parts will be hol~
lowed out, and the matter will be deposited in the en«
larged parts. -
The second consequence which we draw from the
principle here established, respecting the loss'of force
caused by the eddies, is of considerable importance in
the theory of rivers, and appears to have been neglect-
ed by those who have treated on this subject. The
friction of the water along the wet banks, and over the
bottom of rivers, is very far from being the only cause
of the retardation of their course, which consequently
requires a continued descent to maintain its velocity.
One of the principal and most frequent causes of re-
tardation in a river, is also produced by the eddies,
which are incessantly formed in the dilatations of the
bed, the cavities of the bottom, the inequalities of the
banks, the flexures or windings of its cuurse, the cur-’
rents which cross each other, and the streams which
strike each other with different velocities, A consider-
able part of the force of the current is thus employed
to restore an equilibrium of motion, which that current
itself does continually derange.”
. — Account or Exprnments on Tae Discuance or
——_~ Water prom Vessels THROUGH smMPLE OniFices
Z _ AND aDpITioNaL Tupes.
~~" Sscr. I. On the Vena Contracta,
the I the first Chapter of Hydraulics we have explained
con- the cause of the contraction of the ftaid vein, or vena
vA a.
Sir Isaac Newton, : é . 141 100
we: i By F ‘ . 140 100
ighest found ° - 250 100
Mean of six i by Boseut, 150.6 100
“ese eee
7
:
i
Fur verte sae for seraming the quant of
wa-
ter which it contained when it was fu ~ Bossut
Lentunadaiincenanen aie ce ae
barrel containing exactly a cubic or eight times
shes eenssinok® Uiniedsiaih eeetllrtiaibdhe weer wes
a barrel containing eight cubic feet. Each of these bar-
tels had two tubes rising from their upper end,
through one of which the water was poured, and upon
VOL. Xi. PART I.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
497
which was the mark to shew when it contained exact- Discharge
ly the number of cubic feet. The second tube allowed a.
included air to escape as the water was poured in. “
fices.
x y IL th of Wi
ABLE T. Shewing Fic ater discharged in
one Minute by Orifices differing in form and position.
Constant No. of
Height of the} In.
Fluid above | Form and position of the ec
the centre of Orifice. the Orifice. | ged in a
the Orifice. Minute.
Ft. In. Lin, Lines. ;
11° 8 10 |Circularand Horizontal, 6 2311
ircular and Horizontal,| 12 9281
ircular and Horizontal,| 24 372038
Rectangular and Hori-
. + + » | 12by3| 2933
lorizontal and Square, | 12 side | 11817
Horizontal and sm 24 side | 47361
9 O 0 |Vertical and s 6 2018
an, éftical and Circular, | 12 8135
4 0 0 [Vertical and Circular, 6 1358
eftical and Circular, | 12 5436
5 0 7 |Vertieal and Circular, | 12 628
From these results we may conclude,
_ 1. That the quantities of water di in equal results.
of
If we call Q, q the ities of water di
in the same time from the two orifices A,A’ under the
pa mpeg te pi eg
uantities of water di uri same time
same A, under the di heidle of wee.
ter h, A’, we have by the first of the above results,
Q:q=A:A’; and by the second, g:Q’ = /h: s/h’ ;
from which we obtain g =“ * & 8, ana g=2 4
then since *_* = 7, we have by Euclid, B, V.
OTe gums” of wer dacharged de
3. The quantities of water di during the
of water in the
ratio of the areas of the apertures, and of the
square roots of the heights in the reservoirs.
ease dalameny paaginen; ta, trent! toabeant &
correct inary purposes ; but, in to obtain a
great of , Bossut recommends an at+
2 phere lee
noe he en a
fices, the smallest discharges water i
thanthodowhieh ‘ere gretiay, unrlar Sebisunisiahisces
of water in the reservoir. S :
2. Of several orifices of equal surface, that which has
the smallest perimeter ought, on account of the friction,
pat tee tint ore b-aen oreripemeenal
le
3. That, in i augmentation
which the ee of the oo = undergoes, in
proportion as height of fluid in the reservoir in-
creases, the expence ought tobe a little diminished. .
Sr
498
Discharge
of Water
from Ori-
fices.
Comparison
of the theo-
retic with
the real dis-
charges.
In the following Table, given by» the Abbé Bos-
sut, he has compared the theoretical with the real dis-
charges from an orifice one inch in diameter, and the
different altitudes of the fluid in the reservoir. The real
discharges in column 3d were not determined by direct
experiment, but were ascertained with, the precaution
indicated in the three preceding rules, and may be
considered to be as accurate as if they had been ob-
tained from direct experiment. The fourth column was
computed by M. Prony.*
Taste I. Comparison of the Theoretic with the Real
discharges from an Orifice one inch in diameter.
hese |
eight of the’ Theoretical
Waterinthe discharges Real dis-
Reservoir | through a cir-| charges in the| Ratio of the theoretical
above the | cular Orifice | same time | to the real discharges.
centre of the) one inch in | through the
Orifice. diameter. | same: Orifice.
Paris Feet. | Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches.
I 4381 2722 1 to 0.62133
2 6196 3846 1 to 0.62073
3 7589 4710 1 to 0.62064
A 8763 5436 1 to 0.62034
5 9797 6075 1 to 0.62010
6 10732 665% 1 to 0.62000
7 11592 7183 1 to 0:61965
8 12392 7672 1 to 0.61911
9 13144 8135 1 to 0.61892"
0 13855 8574 1 to 0.61883
1 14530 8990 1 to 0.61873
2 15180 9384 1 to 0.61819
13 15797 9764 1 to 0.61810
14 16393 10130 1 to 0.61795
15 16968 10472 1 to 0.61716
1 2 3 4
It appears from this Table, that the real as well as
the theoretical arm are nearly proportional to
the square roots of the heights of the fluid in the reser.
voir. Thus for the heights 1 and 4, whose square roots
are as 1 to 2 feet, the real: discharges are 2722 and
5436, which are to one another as 1 to 1.997, very
nearly as 1 to 2. : ;
By means of the formula in the preceding page, we
may easily apply the above Table to the determina-
tion of the quantities discharged under different alti-
tudes. of water in the reservoir, and from orifices of
different sizes. Let it be required, for instance, to
determine the quantity of water discharged from an
orifice of 3 inches in. diameter, under an altitude of 30
feet. Then, since the real. quantities discharged are
in the compound ratio of the orifices, and the square
roots.of the altitudes of the water, and since the theore-
tical discharge by an orifice 1 inch in diameter, under
an altitude of 15 feet is 16968 cubical inches in a mi-
nute, we have 1,4/15:94/ 30 = 16968: 215961, the
theoretical discharge. But since the theoretical is to the
veal discharge as 1 to .62; the above value being dimi-
nished in that ratio, gives 133309 cubie inches for the
real quantity of water discharged by the orifice.
The following formul have been given by.M. Prony,
* See his Architecture Hydraulique, tom. i. p. 369. : shat
‘+ The measures.are in French feet, which are to English feet as.1066 is to 1000.
HYDRODYNAMITICS.
‘accuracy, We must ‘not use thé meah co-efficient 0.6194,
as deduced from the preceding experiments of Bossut, +
Q=0.61988 AT 4/2 g H,
A being the area of the orifice in square feet, H the ale
titude of the fluid in feet, T the time, g the force of gra~
vity at the end of a second, and Q the quantity of water
in cubic feet. As 4/2 g is a constant quantity, and is
equal to 7.77125, we have “
Q=4.818 AT4/H for orifices of any form.
If the orifices are circular, and if d represents their dia~
meter, then
Q = 3.7842 d? T,/H.
From. the second of these equations we obtain.
— Q “
A= 7ei8T/H
T=— Q
™ 4.818 A/H
to parieita
N= sisaTy /
These formule will be found to give vefy accurate re«
sults ; but if we wish to‘obtain a still higher degree of
&
of
but the one in the Table which comes nearest to the
cireumstances of the case. Thus if the head of water
happens to be small, such as 1 foot, then we must take
the co-efficient 0.62133, and if it happens to be great, we
must use the least co-efficient 0.61716. .
In order to determine the velocity with which the To deter-
fluid is discharged, we must first obtain the theoretical mine the ©
velocity, whichis V = 4/32.174,/H=8.016 4/H in Eng. }, city of
lish inches. That is, the velocity acquired by falling guia,
through any height H, is found by multiplying the
square root of the height by 8.016. But as the real ve-
locity of the issuing fluid is to its theoretical velocity as
0.6194. to 10, we have 4.965 H as the measure of the
real velocity, or in round numbers 5H; that is the ve-.
locity in a second of time in English feet is five times
the square root of the height of the fluid in the reser«
voir ; or, if we prefer expressing these values in inches,
then since 32.2 feet = 772 inches, and 4/772 = 27.78,
we have V = 27.78 4/H for the theoretical velocity, .
and V = 17.206 4/H for the velocity at asimple orifice.
. In order, however; to obtain the velocity more accu-
rately, we should deduce the co-efficient of 4/H, not
from the medium, co-efficient in the preceding Table,
but from the co-efficient in the Table which approaches
nearest to the circumstances of the experiment...
The following Table contains a series of experiments Michelo
by M. Michelotti, which were made on a most i. ti’s exper
ficent scale, and with the utmost accuracy. As meaty a
extend to- apertures of three inches both square and
circular, and to altitudes twice as great as those em«
loyed by Bossut, they form an excellent supplement to
es experiments. We consider them.indeed as much
more valuable than those of Bossut, as-the quantities of
water discharged in each experiment were prodigiously
greater than his. The reservoir employed was 20 feet
high, and three feet square within, and had openings at
different distances from the top. The water flowed into
a cistern whose area was 289 square feet, and whose
was uniform, and the quantity of it was ascertain«
ed.in French feet, by measuring its height in the cistern.
ub Liaiis
+h i § aageans iis Spaetin iy 2 8
; i fo hen 2 liu quite is then i é Re dae
Ee Seid bP ie = 4
i i SRLRARARE i LAR ze i ai att iy ie
| sh a4 3 PEL tr % g23ais pete:
a les de li eb 1 ah une Taal
ze u ey iii HLA lia ‘ tid i hast micill
gE te SH a sleeps
oii Wess one [ros [seh [ree iid ay Phy oa
Sg. | 2i[deezess ees lees gee wen jone| oo Feet Win g Seeyes
apt i | oars ™ eae preg ire by i i bite } et
+ —| 8 bi it fier Hy lt,
HEF ee
5 z $3.
ii! % — 5 7 8 $
Pe aia ga Et at
syd : tice: bees exe [ooo |coe loco a J i i Sap i H rs :
\e deanont ons |~0~|e-+|oee fexa Hi Le ag iL f at
: : §| Ss 3
pt PR Rach Pai He Eile|---ofl SR THT
(Bigs ecco eit ME 0 AB
Discharge
of Water
from large
Openings,
——
Table cal-
culated for
weirs, by
Dr Robison,
Experi-
ments of
Michelotti,
500
It appeared indeed that AF depended on: the form of
the wasteboard, as might have been expected. When
_the board was very thin and had a considerable depth,
AF was much greater than when the board was thick
or narrow, and placed on the top of a broad damhead,
as in Fig. 8.
Du Buat’s general formula, viz.
D=Fl/2G (1 a @) Ht may be accommo-
dated to any ratio between AF and AL, in: place of
the ratio of 4 adopted in the formula. Thus, if AF =
m xX AL, m being a fractional co-efficient less-than 1,
the formula becomes. mt ;
3
D = 314/2G (1—m*)H*
Dr Robison has calculated the following Table from
Du Buat’s formula, which is suited to English inches.
Tasre VI. vane the quantity of Water dischara
ged over a Weir.
Depth of the up-j .Cubic feet of water |- Cubic.feet of water dis-
per edge of: the | discharged in a minute} charged in a minute by.
wasteboard below| by every inch of the || every inch of the waste-
the surface in | wasteboard, according |board, according to expe-
English inches, | to Du Buat’s formula, |riments made in Scotland.
1 0,403 0,428
2 1,140 1,211
3 2,095 2,226
4 3,225 3,427
5 4,507 4,789
6 5,925 6,295
vi 7,466 7,933
8 9,122 9,692
9 10,884 11,564 ©
10 12,748 13,535
il 14,707 15,632
12 16,758 17,805
13 18,895 20,076
14 21,117 225437
15 23,419 24,883
16 25,800 27,413
17 28,258 30,024:
18 30,786 $2,710
We have added to this Table a third column contain-
ing the quantities of water discharged, as inferred from
experiments made in this country, and examined by Dr
Robison, who found that they in general gave a dis-
charge ¥', greater than that which 1s deduced from Du
Buat’s formula. We would recommend it therefore to
the engineer to employ the third column in his prac«
tice. E
The preceding Tables and formula suppose that the
water from which the discharge is made is perfectly
s t; but if it should happen to reach the opening
with any velocity, we have only to multiply the area
of the section by the velocity of the stream.
When the quantity of water discharged over a weir is
known, the depth of the edge of the wasteboard, or H,
may be found from the following formula,
D 2
= (nba)
11.4172 /
The experiments of Michelotti give 0.2703,/H for
the number of cubical inches discharged in a second
HYDRODYNAMICS.
’ experiments of Du Buat alread
\ ing Table of co-efficients given by that engineer, the
over a weir when the height H is one inch, and the Dischar
real discharge to the theoretical discharge as 9536 to of
1000. These numbers, however, suppose the length 9°
of the weir to be infinite, or to be so great that the con- _!
traction at its two ends produces no perceptible effect
in diminishing the discharge. The formula, therefore,
of Michelotti includes only the contractions produced by
the upper edge of the wasteboard.
In- order to calculate the discharge of rectangular Experi- _
orifices reaching to the surface, M. Eytelwein repre- mentsof My
sents the velocity, which varies as the square root of “)‘*¥%
the height, by the ordinates of a parabola and the quan-
tity of water discharged by the area of a parabola } of
that of the circumscribing rectangle: Hence the quan-
tity of water discharged may be found by taking 3 of
the velocity due to the mean height, and allowing for
the contraction of the vein. This mode of calculation
M. Eytelwein has found to agree wonderfully with the
given, as well as with
several accurate experiments of his own. ,
M. Eytelwein takes the case of a lake, in which a
rectangular opening,is made without any lateral walls,
three feet wide, and reaching two feet below the surface
of the water. -In this case, as appears from the follow-
co-efficient for finding the velocity as . corre for
contraction, is 5.1. ence H being the. height, we
have 3,/H x 5.1; and since H = 2 feet in the present
instance, we have the corrected mean yelocity = 4.8
feet; and as the area is 3 x 2=6, the qens y of
water discharged in a second is 28.8 cubic feet, Put-
ting C for the co-efficient corrected for contraction, W
the width of the eperture and H_ its depth below the
surface, we have the general formula, ‘
Q=3VHxXCxHxXW
for the quantity of water in cubic feet according to
Eytelwein.
As the same co-efficient answers for a, weir of con-
siderable extent, we may. deduce from the preceding
formula the depth or breadth necessary for the dis«—
charge of a ae quantity of water. Thus let it be
required in a lake with a weir three feet broad, and in
which the water stands five feet above the weir, to know
how much the weir must be widened in order that the
water may stand a foot lower, we have: the velocity
= 34/5 x 5.1, and the quantity of water =}/5 X
5.1-%-3 % 5; but as it is required that the height
H shall be reduced one foot, or from 5 to 4, we have
the velocity suited to this = } 4/4 x 5.1, and conse-
quently the section will be +
275 X5IKXSXS V5K3BXS
7/tx5l = WF
and the height is 4, the breadth must be “*4/5=
4,19 feet. :
If the surface of water always stands at the same On the dis.
height AB in the vessel ABCD, Fig. 9. and if the la- charge from
teral orifice, of considerable magnitude, ism nop, then abo me | |
we have only to determine by the preceding methods giderable
the quantities of water discharged by the open orifices magnity |
rpos,rmns, and the difference between these quan- with acon- |
tities will give the discharge for the orifice mnop. The ot wala
same result may be obtained with nearly the same ac- ; |
curacy, by taking the velar due to the centre of gra- PLaTe
vity of the orifice below AD, and correcting it by its Pata q
proper co-efficient. ; ‘ ®
= 7.5 / 5,
additional
‘Tubes.
——
501
Fytelwein's
efficients.
ing | Table of co-
the veloci-
Co-efficients|
for find!
em '
heights 8.04, and the diminished velocity arising from Discharge
contraction is shewn in the last column. - of Water
belong
’
HYDRODYNAMICS.
* $e
Tanre VII. Containing Eytelwein’s Co-efficients for Orifices of different kinds.
Table contains Eytelwein's
i.
following
‘for different eases connected with those which
The
to the present section, The whole velocity due to the
> jties in Eng.
Ratio between
ine’ -
and rea! dis
charges,
Nature of the Oritices empleyed.
due to the height
hottom is on a level with that of the
"js on a level with that of the reservoir
peste - . . . . .
of bridges =
‘with wall Ma's line with the orifice
openi
scdddugcesd
Lan | ll pa
‘ee Ss iF 2. } = }t2 Ey
TE REEL he Hy j nef)
Latta Gl upped
pater aL Pa. i
Aah aa
idee at CLatet
H ie eee tn Sle
i Hila Hie: aE deta
rs Pe aa Hig ij f ae
is ‘i ata ia i Ha
zt Hep oe bee Hh] sia ilentehl
Pe Usenet eedit tite bei siti!
es ney “ah Reino
sé .
7
;
. aa
et ad cursum aqua si oppositus
et supinus, nec ad haustum pronus; segniter exiguumque
xta fin.
» § 49.
im rectum et ad libram collocatus est; modum servat;
aque conversus
» fib. i,
ct du mouvement des
momentum, si
Jatus autem
Discharge
of Water
through
additional
Tubes.
—\—_
General
results,
502
of the altitudes of the fluid above the interior orifice of
the vertical tube.
It follows also from the above measurement, that
when the height of the reservoir and the orifice are the
same, the theoretical discharge, the or by an ad-
ditional tube, andthe discharge by a simple orifice, are
nearly as the numbers 16, 13,10. Hence Bossut con-
cludes that the effect of contraction is not wholly de-
stroyed by the tube, as the difference between the
theoretical and the real discharges is too great to be
ascribed to friction. :
The following Table contains the effects produced by
tubes of different diameters, and under different alti- -
tudes-of fluid in the reservoir.
Tasre IX. Containing the Quantities of Water dis-
charged by Cylindrical Tubes two inches long, with dif-
JSerent Diameters and under different heads of Water.
No. of cubic
Constant altitude ‘ ‘ : inches dis-
oft the water he Diameter of the ‘tube. charged in a
the orifice. minute.
Feet. Inches. |Lines.
6) 1689
10 4703
B, 10 ube, 1293
10 { The tube not filled 3598"
‘6 { with the issuing fluid.} 1222
2 0 110 / 8402
: 6 935
10) 2603
‘From these results we may conclude,
1, That the discharges by different additional tubes
under the same head of water, are nearly preportional
to the areas of the orifices, or to the squares of the dia«
meters of the orifices.
2. That the discharges by additional tubes of the
same diameter under different heads of water are nearly
roportional to the square roots of the heads of water.
. It follows, from the two preceding corollaries, in genc«
ral, that the discharges during the same lime, by diffe
rent additional tubes, and under different heads of water
in the reservoir, are to one another nearly in the coms
pound ratio of the squares of the diameters of the tubes,
and the square roots of the heads of water.
M. Bossut has deduced from the above experiments
the following Table, which contains a comparative
view of the theoretical discharges from a tube one inch
in diameter, with the real discharges by an additional
tube of the same diameter, under different heads of wa-
ter. The last column, containing the ratio between
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Tasie X. Comparison of the Theoretical with the Real Discharg
Discharges from an additional Tube of a a sets
Jorm, one Inch in Diameter and two Inches
‘ge
Constant alti-| Theoretical | Real Discharges
tude of the | Discharges |inthe same time Ratio of the
Water in the |through a cir-| by a cylindrical | theoretical to
Reservoir | cular Orifice [Tube one Inch in} the real Dis-
above the | one Inch in | {Diameter and charges.
Centre of the} Diameter. | two Inches long.
Orifice. ,
Paris Feet. | Cubic Inches,| Cubic Inches, :
oe | 4381 8539 1 to 0.81781
2 6196 5002 1 to 0.80729 |
3 7589 6126 1 to 0.80724
4 8763 7070 1 to 0.80681
5 9797 7900 1 to 0.80638
6 10732 8654 1 to 0.80638
af 11592 9340 1 to 0.80573
8 12392 9975 1 to 0.80496
9 13144 10579 1 to 0.80485
10 13855 11151 1 to 0.80483
1l 14530 11693 1 to 0.80477
12 15180 12205 1 to 0.80403
13 15797 12699 1 to 0.80390 ©
14 16393 13177 1 to 0.80382
15 16968 13620 1 to 0.80270
1 whahy 8 4
Hence it follows, that the velocity in English inches
will be V = 22.47 4/H for additional tubes. See p. 498.
col. 2.
M. Prony has given the following formule, as dedu«
ced from the preceding Table. The letters have the
same values as in p. 498.
Q=0.81 AT / 2 ¢H; but since 2g is constant, and
is = 7.77125, we have .
Q = 4.9438 d?T 4/ H,
From which we obtain "
d= tous TV
Diniesaeten ded
= 7.9458 d?4/
‘xray
H= Goss @ 1 .
When the interior surface of the additional tube is on the dis
of a conical form, the quantities of water discharged charge
undergo considerable variations. M. Bossut made no water by
experiments whatever with tubes of this kind, but the conical
defect is fortunately supplied by those of the Marquis
Poleni, which are published in his work De Castellis
these two discharges, was computed by M. Prony. per que derivantur Fluvium Aque.
TasLe XI. Containing the Experiments of the Marquis Poleni, on the Quantities of Water discharged by Conical
Lubes of different Diameters. bs ls
“Diameter | Quantity discharged | Time in which
Length of Nature of the Orifices | Diameter | ofthe | ina Minute in Cubic| 73035 Cubic
Head of Water. the Tube. employed. of theInner] Outer | Feet, as calculated by| Inches were _
Orifice. | Orifice. Bossut. discharged.
Constant height|Length of Orifice in a thin plate, | 26 lines 15877 4! 36"
jof the water injeach tube Cylindrical tube, 26 23434 37
the reservoir, 256) 92 lines, ‘1st Conical tube, 33 26 lines | 24758 2 57
lines, or 1 foot Qlor 7 inches2d Conical tube, 42 26 24619 . 2 58
inches and 4 lines.) 8 lines. (3d Conical tube, 60 26 24345 Opa 8D
French. { French. ‘4th Conical tube, 118 26 23687 53
-HYDRODYNAMICS. 503
i of fluid, and thus to make the circumstances of the Discharge
ease the same as in simple orifices, in which the dis. of Water
ears to arise from his having used a measure are the least possible. —
ic inch of water, which errs in excess. From the conical tube is placed with its smallest ori- Tubes,
Hi
e
i
i
i
fi
i
3 il
i
7
:
:
2 885.
Teas
Fr
The best i on additional tubes, have been 3%
iid Oy WE Cama, Wea folly fesctibed ta bis vain. | =7°C",
degree the dia- able on the lateral communication of motion in M. Venturi
also augmented; but that, HO ed Ta cat ties a ed he ——
of water expended is ; into the following ve compu’ num. Various
SE anneaberaie Wipasbed toe $65 Gigis « ton: bers in the last column. pea
nk
i
se
i
Hf
: :
1!
r
j
|
Tavue XII. Containing the Experiments of Venturi on additional Tubes of various forms.
Time in which|Number of cu-
9 Nature snd Dimensions of the Tubes and Orifices._ Biever ae] tage ©
charged. minute.
Inches. ¢| 1. Circular orifice, 18 lines in diameter, d . : ‘ ‘ . +i" 10115
2, tube, 18 lines in diameter, and 54 lines long, . ‘ > |. $l 18378
3. fale PG 2). ee Be ee DF = ol
14.5; AB=T1; = 10; GM = $7; AM = 58; the conical por- t
tion having the form of the Sider’ 31 13378
4. Conical tube AC DF, Fig. 11. with the rest . re |
5. A pipe, 18 lines in diameter, and 54 lines long, having 12
made in its circumference, at the distance of 9 lines from its
, } orifice, . * . . * . . * . 41 10115
$2.5 < oars the holes, and the stream did not fill
tube. same Py my syraw ante stare ng
as when any namber of them is shut, one
Tied eoann pipe th all the halos cian with Set chin’. The ceretes nov
seid he * * * * * * . . $1 15878
7. Cylindrical Fig. 12. 18 lines in diameter, and 57 lines long.
glass tube QRS was joi to the additional tube, and immersed
pineal hated coloured liquid rose to S, 24 inches
. T, and the in which 4 cubic feet was was 3 13878
.| 8. The compound tube of No. 3, or Fig. 11. in the same circumstances as No. 7 $1 13378
ns { POS eee eee Serves epee water .
? upwards, liquor rose 20 inches, . . . * : 34 121
10. Simple orifice, 18 lines in diameter, « eee Fieri, ey Pate 45 on16
;|11. Simple orifice, 18 lines in diameter, 38 10915
. oe eae thee ieee ae Oe ne gt Ge
SE UANE Kepetta: pied tein ic} Gono
ay * . . . . . 48 8640
40.0 Simple orifice, 11.2 lines in diameter, é 4232
5 ube of No, poe horizontally, had AC of the form of the contract-;
t P ed vein, and the diameter A, 11.2 lines in diameter, . A ‘ 130 8190
Au Varicl tabe BORG dina iy” aed © ; 129 $213
RE ertical tube diameter 18, length BC, 3 inches, 3 a4 10115
r Ditto, b= 4 : . ; 33 10915
Ditto, , . 35 11828
| 20. Horizontal tube BOCQ, 18, 3 7 42.5 9758
on Ps Sees 45 9216
. * 48 , 8640
Compound tube, Fig. 14. where AB = EF = 18 lines; AC=11; CO
AB&F ES a re reas 27.5 | 15080
) 92.5 A tube, of a cylindrical tube 3 inches long and 15.5 lines
diameter, interposed between the two conical tubes of the preceding
sat @ . “ . . . ° ° : ° 28.5 14551
The tube of Fig. ABCD had the same form as before, but CDEF
; a tetiinn aie e. Three oo were
, as in immersed in mercury. mercury rose
lines in DX, 20.5in NP,and.7inOZ 2 wg 25 16560
. (26. The same tube with the portion PNFE cut off E 31 19878
504 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Discharge F ‘Time in which} Number of | Discharge
or Wats | Hague | etn i Din te ‘Tbe Ob, rope sdee ale
additional minute.
ore | ene
Pog tr Inches. (27, The tube, Fig. 15. 148 lines long, and 27 in diameter at EF ; the rest
CEtaEEEL, es In the Jast experimerit jw 2)%0 *\/.e “Gilgie sabe «pe. o-inee fale 21" 19748
Fig. 15. 28. When the last tube is prolonged to any length beyond 148 lines . =| 21 19748
29. Same tube 204 lines long, by fixing a prominence within the tube at O,
so as to make the fluid fill the tube ; 19 21830
39.5 2 |80- Horizontal tube, Fig. 15. being made more divergent, 117 lines and
oe 86 in diameter, the rest remaining as before. The stream di not
fill the whole section . - + Joe, Soe san ey er Eve 28 14811
31. By cutting off successive portions of the pipe until CE was only. 20 Sai
long, and the external diameter 18 lines, the time always was. 28 14811
32. When CE was 20 lines, and EF 20, the stream was detached from th
L sides of the tube, and the time was . i ‘ cs ileal 42 9874
Height
above lower
extremity.
41.5 |33. The tube, Fig, 15. was applied in place of BCQO of Fig.C . . 22 18850
23.0 |34, The same tube, Fig. 15. applied to form an ascending jet . .- 30 13824
Time in which
Above up- one cubical
per extre- a ; ; foot of water
mity. 2 i Mie nshe Reky 5° rom ute wasdischarged
317 35. Simple orifice, 4.5 lines in diameter from vertical jet . . . 161 644
_°*" 1136. Ditto with an additional cylindrical tube of the same diameter, and ten
lines long . 5 ° : : . : = eons . : 121 856
56. |87. The orifice of No. 35. with a vertical jet ‘ Sue! hue ee . 123 843
38. Ditto with an additional eylindrical.tube of § 36. . =. - 91 1139
Conclusions . Lhe: preceding.Table contains.a general abstract of . produce its effect when the angle of the sides of the
from Ven- the numerous experiments of' Venturi, which were made | tube exceeds 16°. Experiment 23d nearly determines _
turi’s expe» publicly in the Theatre of Natural Philosophy at Mo- the maximum effect when the same angle 1s about 30°.
riments, dena. The following are the conclusions which he has 5. The quantity of water discharged is less through
deduced from them. f : cylindrical tubes than through conical tubes which die
1. If the part of the additional tube nearest the re-. verge from the commencement of the contracted vein,
servoir has the form of the contracted vein, the ex- and have the same exterior diameter.
penditure will be the same as if the tube were not con~ This is established by experiments 35, 36, 37, 38.
tracted at all. 6. By applying proper adjutages toa given cylindric
This proposition is deduced from experiments 1,2, tube, the expenditure of water through that tube may
5 : be increased in the ratio of 25 to 10, the head of water
2. The pressure of the atmosphere increases the remaining the same.
expence of water through a simple cylindrical tube In order to produce this singular effect, the inner ex- Pol
when compared with that which flows through a sim- . tremity of the tube AD must be filled with a conical (7cy.
ple orifice, whatever be the direction of the tube. _ piece of the form of the contracted vein, which will ins 75, 44
This proposition is deduced from experiments 5,6, crease the expenditure from the ratio of 12.1 to10.° ~~
7,:8, 9, 10. ; : At the other extremity of the pipe BC apply a trunca-
‘ 8. In descending cylindrical tubes, the upper ends . ted conical tube CD, of whichthe length must be nears
of which have the form of the contracted vein,.the quan- . ly nine times the diameter at C, and its external dias
tity of water discharged is that which corresponds with meter D must be 1.8 C. This additional tube will in-
‘the height of the fluid above the inferior extremity of crease the expenditure in the ratio of 24 to 12.1, by
‘the tube. experiment 27. Hence the expenditure will be ins«
This propesitast which ae been established theo- creased by the two pieces in the ratio of 24 to 20.
retically in the preceding Chapter, is likewise deducible : ;
from experiments 11, 12, 13,14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Experiments on the Expenditure of Bent Tubes.
21, 22. ‘ In order to ascertain the effects of bent tubes, M. vent |
4, In additional conical tubes, the pressure of the Venturi employed two tubes ABC, DEF, 15 inches experiment)
,atmosphere increases the expenditure in the proportion long, and 14.5 lines in diameter. The portions A, D on
of the area of the external section of the tube to the have the form of: the vena contracta, and. were applied
area of the section of the contracted vein,.whatever be to the orifice of a reservoir, which was 18 lines in dia- Fig. 7
the position of the tube, provided that its internal fi- meter, and in which the water was $2.5 inches high.
gure is adapted throughout to the lateral ecommunica- » The elbows or flexures BC, EF were made in the plane
tion of motion. . .,. of the horizon. The tubes were made of copper sol-
_ This proposition is established by experiments 23— dered with silver, and the curvature BC was produced
33. These experiments also shew,. that, by varying. by filling the tube with melted lead, in order that the
the divergence of the sides of the tube, the lateral com- ‘tube might preserve its diameter during the act of bend-
munication of motion has a maximum and a.minimum | ing. The elbow DEF was rectangular. A rectilineal
_ effect. The minimum is seen in experiment 32. The tube of similar dimensions was also tried, and the fol
lateral communication of motion appears to cease to lowing were the results,
1
es [ili
HIE ais HY ay Ws rae z
ne eae te ‘aa : i i
ty eal ella) ae im i 2 4 8 88 nue
Hatha Heth it Pie ts oe site
Burpee ne ih HES BEAR: i ab ie qs i
So S25h8". aa! ef, 2 eS ie
wi ee He Heud tine | in ils ee
e ihn eile 7
: ir anh sli FH i Z aa i ih Coe i i ‘ Bes
“eye ibid |isseazas® a uesa ll ui er, ure
tlhe tHe austsatts ie get ge
one i vaie 14122 5 U2 a eet Hap a,
bit a a Bry Hit fie: i
ae oosscoss | : . ‘ °
iile Meer ae A
i in i pull 4 al? ari he
506
Exhaustion Michelotti made many experiments for determining
of Vessels. the real form of the vena contracta. He constructed a
; ,, great variety of ajutages resembling it, till he found
peo one which gave the greatest discharge, This ajutage
nuaiae was formed by the revolution of a trochoid round the
axis of the jet. The diameter of the outer orifice was
386, that of the inner orifice 46, and the length of the
axis was 96. This ajutage gave .9831 to 1000 as the
ratio of the real to the theoretical discharge. The fol-
lowing are Michelotti’s results :
Theoretical discharge . + + « 1.0000
Trochoidal ajutage sh) Sy hes whe > 98AL
Tube 2 diameterslong . . eb 8125
For a tube projecting into the reser-
voir, and flowing full . . . . 6814
For do, when the vein was contracted 5134
Secr. V. Experiments on the Exhaustion of Vessels.
Onthe exe We have already seen, in stating the general princi«
haustion of ples of hydraulics, that a funnel-shaped cavity is form-
vessels, ed in the surface of a fluid, when, in the course of its
descent, it has nearly reached the orifice from which
the fluid is discharged. This circumstance renders it
impossible to determine the exact time in which a ves-
* comply emptied. The superincumbent pres-
of the head of water being removed by the for-
mation of the funnel-shaped cavity above the orifice, the
water is at last discharged in successive drops. M. Bos-
sut therefore abandoned the idea of a ing to mea-
sure the time of emptying vessels, and confined his ex-
periments to the determination of the time in which
the upper surface of the fluid descends through a cer-
tain vertical height in prismatic vessels, in which the
area of the horizontal section is constant. The follow-
ing Table contains the results of his experiments.
Taste XII. Shewing the times in which Prismatic Ves«
sels are partly exhausted.
Altitude of the water in the reservoir 11.6666 Paris
feet.
Constant area of a horizontal section of the vessel in
square feet.
s
5 er 'Time in which}
Diame- } of the up- |the depression} Time of the |Difference be-
ter of the] per surface|takes place, ac-| depression tween the
circular | of the Sein cr ot eet
orifice. | fluid. periment. {by the formula.| experiments.
Inches.} Feet. | Min. Sec. | Min. Sec. Seconds.
1 4 7 253 7 22.36 3.14
2 4 1 »52 1 50.59) (1.41
1 9 20 243 | 20 16 8.50
2 9 5.6 5 4 2.00
The first column of the Table contains the diameter
of the circular orifice ; the second the depression of the
pe surface of the fluid in feet ; the third the time in
which the surfaces descend through this height, ac-
cording to experiment ; the fourth contains the time as
calculated from the formula in Chapter I. corrected
4 substituting 0.62 A instead of A, in order to make
jowance for the effect of contraction. The numbers
in column fourth always err in defect, probably from
0.62 base taken too great. If the orifices are vertical,
the altitude of the fluid must. be measured from. their
centre of gravity,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
A few experiments on the partial exhaustion of ves. Exh:
sels were made by M. Venturi. An orifice, 4.5 lines in
diameter, was made near, the bottom .of a cylindrical
vessel 4.5 inches in diameter. The altitude of the wa~ experi.
ter in the vessel was 8.3 inches above the centre of the ments. ~
orifice. . The Surface of the water was then depressed ~~
7 inches in 274 seconds. A.cylindrical tube, of the
same diameter as the orifice, and 11 lines in length,
‘was applied to the same orifice. . The vessel was filled
to the same height as formerly, and its surface descend.
ed 7 inches in 21 seconds.of time. These experiments
were afterwards repeated under the receiver of an air
ay , in which the mercurial gauge stocd only at the
ight of 10 lines, and the surface of the fluid .was de«
pressed 7 inches, whether the water flowed through
the simple orifice, or the cylindrical tube.»
Seer. VI. Experiments of Bossut onthe discharge of Waa
ter into a submerged Vessel.
Tn order to examine the discharge of water into sub- Op the
merged vessels, M. Bossut exnloyed a vessel ABCD, charge of
Fig. 1. two feet in diameter, in which a white-iron cy- water
linder VMNT,.1 foot high, and 20 lines in diameter, woul
was immersed. This cylinder is supported on a tripod, py are
so that it can be set in a vertical line, and is furnished c¢cc
with graduated scales for measuring the water which it Fig. 1.
receives, The orifice in the cylinder VMNT being
shut, water is poured into the vessel till it reaches a cer-
tain height, and when the orifice is opened, the water
rushes in and fills the cylinder. The following are the
results of Bossut’s experiments.
) Depth of } Diameter | Time in which the water
immersion | of the | rises to'H on a level with | Calculated
or HM. orifice. the water in the vessel. time.
li inches} 1 line 119 seconds. 155.97
ll = 15 17.33.
The fourth column contains the time, as calculated
from theory, which differs very considerably in the first
experiment from the observed time. M. Bossut ac-
counts for this, by saying, that at the first entrance of
the water, a jet is formed which penetrates the plate
of water in the cylinder VMNT, till it stands at.a cer«
tain height, when the surface of the water becomes le«
vel. Now as this jet will continue longer with small
than with large orifices, a greater quantity of water, in
proportion, ought to be discharged. Bossut also made
the lege ge Nie ne cae .
Exp. 1. When the water entered the cylinder by an
orifice one inch in diameter, it was to im-
merse the cylinder 8 inches and 11 lines in the water
of the vessel, in order that the water might raise itself
to the upper margin VT of the vessel.
Exp. 2. The bottom MN — wholly removed, the
cylinder required to be immersed 7 inches and 7 lines,
in order that the water might rise to the upper margin
VT.
Exp. 3. When a large plate of white-iron was
round MN, it was necessary to sink the cylinder 6
inches 114 lines, in order that the water might rise to
the upper margin VT.
Seer. VII. Bossut’s Experiments on the Motion of Wa- Motion of
ier in a Vessel crossed with Diaphragms. ber!
The experiments of Bossut on this subject were made diaphragms
tls, es : Faq f
ei fEnyn anette eemennas ee — 14
‘hall dani | eo F : it i il i
Fait ag] a | ae :
aan eaiat €| | | Habits hats
3 et RHEE Tee yaa 3 1, ij i a JF i
HEE randy || | | eal
Ba iui ates TRH id High liee’ ee if
ay HH MMMnERiar pW iss Lit |e
Padi arate Mi RMT pes ee
oH THE aT TRB ttl rity 1B
eet ite Mie g ueeeest 22 a
Se ra URE aay
ebigei=¢ a “s 3 si | di | see peipkhs i
ai ohe Ai iH es a aay
it Fie Hai aa irl it |i HUN 4
AN aii, Hgts
BATE GER Rely do Gli... 2 so
iis:
Experi-
ments on
Jets d’eau,
—
“the ajutage.
508
large ones having a greater momentum, are more able
to overcome the obstacles which are to them.
This, however, is true only of high jets. For when
they do not exceed two or three feet, in monet and
when the ajutages are not below one line in diameter,
small jets rise-to the: same;height as large-ones. This
conclusion-must also be limited to the .case-where the
conduit pipe-OE affords a sufficient supply of water ;
for it aj from.the three last experiments, when the
conduit tube OE is very narrow, that the small jets rise
to a greater height than large ones. Hence there is ob-
viously a eertain ratio which must exist between ‘the
diameter of the horizontal tube and that-of the ajutage,
to produce a maximum height in the jet.
In order to find this ratio, Bossut. has given the fol-
lowing method. Let D be the diameter of the tube,
d that of the orifice, -v the velocity.of the water in the
tube, and / the altitude of the fluid in the reservoir.
Now /h may be taken as the constant velocity at
But by Hyprautics, Chap. I. Prop. 1.
/h:v= D2: d?, and v = * Wh, In like manner, in
any other tube, in which D’ @’,:h’ and v’ represent the
if
2 ;
same quantities as before, we have v’ = a Vi. But,
upon the hypothesis, which is conformable to experi-
‘ment, that two jets will each rise to'the greatest possi-
‘ble height when the velocities of the water in the two
«conduit tubes are equal, we have vy =v’ and = Vh=
d?
De
is, the squares of the diameters of the horizontal tubes ought
ta be to each other in the compound ratio of the squares of
the diameters of the ajutages, and the square roots of the
heights of water in the reservoir.
Hewes if we know from one direct experiment the
diameter which a tube ought to have to supply a given
ajutage under a ohana height of fluid in the reservoir,
‘we may find the diameter of every other tube which is
Wh’; consequently, D*: D!? = d*,/h: d/h’; that
necessary to supply any other ajutage under a given |
height of fluid in the reservoir.
. With this view, M. Bossut made the following expe-
riments. He applied a tin tube one inch in diameter
to areservoir. ‘The point of the, tube, bent upwards
in order to project the water vertically, was made of
lead, and was a little more than an inch long, ‘and to
the extremity of it seven different orifices were succes-
sively applied. The following were the results.
Taste XIV. Containing the Experiments of Bossut on
the Height of Jets with different Orifices,
Diameter of the Ajutage. Height of the Jet.
Lines. Feet. inches. lines.
eo ak Nera Me Ae Me. BD
2. Pear Me i. 1 8
BA PRUs Ste sresGatt2 oO
4. aa ee a RL Ht
S*; rary sta BS 1 5
ert Chel ele spare ae? ey
1. i CRITE SE ss | cae
From these results it follows, that for a height.of wa-
ter in the reservoir of 3 feet 2 inches and 11 lines, and
a conduit tube which has a diameter of 1 inch, the dia-
meter of the orifice should be about 32 lines. Now
Mariotte found from experiment, that for a head .of
water of 52 feet, and an ajutage 6 lines in diameter,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
the diameter of the conduit tube should be 36 lines; | &
whereas the preceding rule will give 38, agreeing v:
nearly with bre pana Dean tey ean ipo be
_ It appears, from a comparison of the experiments of
Bossut and Mariotte, that the differences between the
height of vertical jets and the height of the reservoir
are nearly as the square of the heights of the jets them-
selves. Hence, if we know this difference in once case,
the difference in any other will be found by simple
proportion. If the height of the reservoir of the second
jet is given, and if it is required to determine the height
of the jet, we must resolve a quadratic equation.
Thus, let a be the height of the reservoir of the ex-
perimental jet, b the height of the same jet, c the height
of the reservoir of the proposed jet, 2 the height of the
proposed jet; then by the rulea—6:c—a= 0: 22,
we obtain 4
_ +B 4b V(4ac—4be40%)
2(a— b)
In order to facilitate the application of the preceding
principles to practice, Bossut has computed the follow«
ing Table:
Taste XV. Containing the Allitudes of Reservoirs, the
Diameters of
different heights. :
i Quantity of wa- |Diameters of the |)
ter discharged in | horizontal tubes
Altitude of. | Altitude of |a minute from anjsuited to the two
the jet. . |the reservoir. | ajutage 6 lines | preceding co-
in diameter, lumns.
Paris Feet. Feet. Inch.| Paris Pints. Lines.
5 5 1 32 21
10 10 4 | 45 26
15 15 9 56 28
20 21 4 65 31
25 hee: 78 33
30 33° 6 81 34
35 39 1 88 36
40 45 4 95 37
45 51.9 101 38
- 50 58 4 108 89
55 65 1 114 40
60 72 O .120 41
65 79 1 *125 42
70 86 4 131 43
75 93 9 136 44
80 | 101 4 142 45.
85 109 1 147 46
90 117 O 152 47
95 125 1 158 48
100 133 4 163 49
_ » The two first columns, containing the heights of
the jets and the corresponding altitudles of the resere
voirs, are taken from Mariotte. The heights of the
jets and of the reservoirs not included in the Table,
may be found from the preceding formula. The third
column contains, in Paris pints, of which 36 form a cus
bic foot, the water discharged in a minute by an ajutage
six lines in diameter ; and the fourth column contains
the diameter which ought to be given to the conduit
tubes for an ajutage of six lines relatively to the alti«
tudes in column 2. This column is computed on the
hypothesis, that for an ajutage six lines in diameter,
diameter,
the Horizontal. Tubes, Se+ for Jets of
and an altitude of-16 feet of water in the ge i aa
" 2 upon ’
conduit tube must be 283 lines in
a: 4 be - 52 $2 ; “aes : 22933 £§ : baa? Py 5535 g¢242 35
SiH] ffi a Haddd § a abe
ase ipa ar 3532 4:32 a. er a3 all F : He
vies Hite eg lel fT lag
ges HEE aia HAG | a gh
Me ade Ste ane OF ae ite i
gH GE ae i Bate caitan
ae giigetsgs Eisiice tik T ai; hk
Siti. Heflin Welle SATE dai 2 HE uh Hi!
~ Pied 9 28 $% § rt
sit i ise naa ra
Q fas. 33 gis E a = 28 : 5 aa : at
aul ee Ht cual (ti na tt thi i ul
Heyl al ie a itt Tei ibid
it Beilin = Pe ce lek ial nie Hie
| a Huh ee vals - sae aE ahailt at gil; ek HE
510
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of town, the engineer has next to consider what diameter Sect. I. Account of the Experiments o Bossut and Cou- Motion,
Waterin of pipe is necessary to convey the quantity of water re- t on the Motion of Water in Conduit Pipes and Wate
eS Lens quired. The quantity of water (dleticiged will ob- aes Canals. v =) Pipes am
—_——
viously depend upon the diameter of the conduit pipe,
and on the velocity with which the water issues from
it. Hence, if we can find the velocity of the water,
the diameter will be easily ascertained. -
The experiments of which we have already giyen a
full account, enable us to determine, with very great
accuracy, the velocity with which water will issue from
an orifice of any form, or from short cylindrical or co-
nical tubes, either simple or compound ; and hence we
can easily ascertain the velocity with which the water
will enter the pipe, or its initial velocity ; but these ex-
periments afford us no assistance in ascertaining the va-
rious obstructions which the water suffers in its pas«
sage. so as to determine the velocity with which it issues
from a pipe of a giveA length and diameter.
In order to obtain practical rules relative to this in-
teresting subject, many veluable and laborious experi«
ments have been made. The most celebrated indivi-
duals who have devoted their attention to this branch
of hydrodynamics, are Bossut, Du Buat, M. Prony, and
M. Girard, by whose labours the art of conducting wa-
ter has been brought to a very high degree of perfec-
tion. It shall therefore be cur principal object in the
present Chapter to give an account of the experiments
of these eminent individuals,
Tue experiments of Bossut were made upon an emi- Experi.
nence near the springs by which the town of Mezieres ments of
is supplied with water.
ted, one of which furnishes water to the second, in
which it stood at a constant height. The first of these
reservoirs contained from 25 to 30 cubic toises of wa-
ter, and the second was considerably less in magnitude,
so as to contain only about six cubic toises of water when
it stood at its greatest height, which was about 44 feet.
A horizontal tube of white iron, about eight or nine
inches in diameter, communicated with the bottom of
the small reservoir, and terminated in a cubical box of
white iron, about one foot broad, and shut up on all
sides. To one of the vertical ig of fg ti! fit-
ted ndicularly two straight pi white iron,
one Of which had ee ame fence diameter, and
the other twenty-four lines. Various lengths of these
Pipes were employed, between 30 and 180 feet. At
ifferent distances, small holes were perforated, in or-
der to facilitate the exit of the included air. These
apertures were afterwards stopped up by a little wax.
n this way, M, Bossut obtained the results contained
in the following Table.
Taste I. Containing ihe Quantities of Water discharged by Conduit Pipes of different lengths and diameters, come
pared with the Quantities discharged from additional tubes inserled in the same Reservoir.
Two reservoirs were excava- Bosstt
Constant Quantity of | Quantity of Quantity of | Quantity of
altitude of water di water dis- Ratio between | water dis- water dis- | Ratio between
the water charged ina | charged by | the quantities of } charged by | charged by | the quantities of
in. the reser-| of | minute by an| the conduit | water furnished | an additional | the conduit | water furnished
voir above |the conduit] additional | pipe in a mi- | by the tube and | tube in a mi- | pipe in a mi-} by the tube and
the axis of | Pipes. tube. nute. the pipe of 16 nute, nute. © the pipe of 24
the tube. lines diameter. lines di 5
Tube and Pipe 16 lines diam. Tube and Pipe 24 lines diam.
Feet. Feet. | Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches.
1 30 6330 778 100 to 43.89 14243 7680 100 to 53.92
1 60 6330 1957 100 to 30.91 14243 5564 100 to 39.06
1 ~ 90 6330 1587 100 to 25.07 |. 14243 4534 100 to 31.83
7 1 120 6330 1351 100 to 21.34 | 14243 3944 100 to 27.69
1 150 6330 1178 100 to 18.61 14243 8486 100 to 24.48
1 180 6330 1052 100 to 16.62 14243 3119 100 to 21.90
2 30 8939 4066 100 to 45.48 | 20112 11219 100 to 55.78 4
2 60 8939 2888 100 to 32,31 20112 8190 100 to 40.72
2 90 8939 2352 100 to 26.31 20112 6812 100 to 33.87 y
2 120 8959 2011 100 to 24.50 | 20112 5885 100 to 29.26 4
2 150 8939 1762 100 to 19.71 20112 5232 100 to 26.01
2 180 8939 1583 100 to 17.70 | 20112 4710 100 to 23.41
1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8
Even at the short length of 30 feet, the velocity with. -
Explanation This Table contains two sets of experiments, one set
which the water issues from the pipe is nearly one half —
of theTable. on the relative quantities of water discharged by an ad-
3
ditional tube 16 lines in diameter, and a pipe of various
lengths of the same diameter ; and Beat set on the
relatiye quantities discharged by an additional-tube 24
lines in diameter, and a pipe of various length and of
the-same diameter. The fifth and eighth columns con-
tain the ratios of these discharges, which are also the
ratios of the velocities with which the water issues from
the additional tube and the extremities of the pipes.
of that with which it issues from the tube, and when
the pipe is 180 feet long, and its diameter 16 lines, the
ratio of.the velocities is only 100 to 16.6, so that the
water has lost 5-6ths of its initial velocity by its fric«
tion on the sides of the pipe.
It is obvious from a comparison of columns 5 and 8;
that the diminution of the velocity is
pipes; a result which arises from the
®
Motion of mnch
HYDRODYNAMICS.
ter effect on the flaid in the axis of the small
~ Weerie tube, then oa the fluid in the axis of the great one.
H
H
,
?
: By comparing the six first experiments with the six
Sea hast cx ents, it will be seen that as the height of
~ ¥ the fuid in the reservoir is increased, the diminution
of di and tly of velocity, is also in-
the friction of solid bodies, which in increases
with the velocity. P. however, it may yet be
HE
ie iH
tH
i
#
tL
E
i
z
i
u
i
i
F
J
i
ts
zt
24
Pa
if
F
i
e
1
i
4
;
Hi
with a 63 yey . right
' a , of a ri
elon the altitude
was 16
ees
Tante Il. On the ity of Water dischar, i
a aes eager
yell Diaanster of of the wy hae
in inches. pipe. —-— ‘| in» minute.
10 16 lines. 59 feet. $808
10 16 118 5801
10. |16 177 5795
‘end of each
5il
pea cubic inches in a pyres which is less ag that
which is discharged by the preceding pipes. By dimi-
nishing, however, the inchinetion of Fe pipes,
they would be brought to give the same di as
the additional tube. This equality of discharge will
take place when the inclination of the pipe is 6° $1’, or
vhen the depression of the lower extremity of the pipe
is one-eighth or one-ninth of its length. “In this case
the velocity, arising from the relative gravity of the wa-
ter, is exactly counterbalanced by the resistance which
the water experiences in the pipe.
On the Motion of Water in Bent Pipes.
In order to determine the effects of flexures or
bendings in conduit pipes, M. Bossut made the fol-
lowing experiments. pipes were perforated with
small holes to facilitate the ascent of the air. At the
was a tube M; about two
inches in diameter, which communicated with the
smallest of thé reservoirs already mentioned. ‘This ad-
ditional tube is furnished with a stopcock R, perforated
with an aperture of more than 18 lines in diameter.
Taste IIT. Shewing the quantities of Water discharged
by rectilineal and curvilineal leaden Pipes, 50 feet long,
inch in diameter, and 1 line thick.
Now, an additional tube of the same diameter, and
with the same head of water, would have discharged
Quantities
of Water
The rectilineal tube MN, p
horizontally, Fig. 6. . .
The same tube similarly placed,
The same tube, bent into the cur-|
vilineal form ABC, Fig. 7. eac
flexure lying flat on a horizon-
tal plane, ABC being a horizor-
rhe same tube similarly placed
same similar! F
The same tabe pleced as in Fig.
8. where ABCD is a vertical
section, the parts A, B, C, D,
ising above a horizontal plane,
and parts a, b, c, lying up-
1030
—
*o
on it, . . 3 ‘ 520
‘The same tube similarly placed, | 1028
Wy.
It from this Table, that a curvilineal pipe,
which the fexures lie horizontally, Glicharget teas
ili ipe of the same } h, and
the
in
water than a rectilineal
Motion of
Water in
and
Canals.
A 9" — |
PLaTEe
CCCXIX.
Figs. 6, 7,
8.
512
Motion of w
Wsater in
Pipes and
Canals. = Tapre IV. Containing the results of the Experiments of Couplet
HYDRODYNAMICS.
and Bossut on Conduit Pipes differing in form,
length, diameter, and in the materials of which they are composed,—under different Altitudes of mater in the Rea
servoir.
Ratio between the}
quantities which
rae
Diame- - pata emia
Altitude of the | <8) ter of he anak topes beter
yates rt ip re-| onduit ar enh Nature, Position, and Form of the Conduit Pipes, quantities actually
4 pipes. | ischarged ;—or t
pipes. st between the |.
initial and the finalf
velocities of the
fluid.
Feet, inch. lines.| Feet. | Lines .
0 40 50 | 12 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipes made of lead . . . 100 to 3.55
1.4.0. 0 50 | 12 | The same pipe similarly p - ee ts oie aL ORY tee
0 40 50 | 12 | The same pipe with several horizontal flexures 7 100 to 3.78
rv. 0 50] 12 |Samepipe . . E ° . . A 100 to 3.43
0 4 0 50 |. 12 | The-same pipe with several vertical flexures . 100 to 3.93
1 00 50 | 12 | Same pipe . "ety, ° . F ° 100 to 3.44
1 0 O | 180} 16 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron 100 to 6.01.
2 00 180 | 16 | Same pipe . . od aaa Sacer aitas 100 to 5.69 f
1-—-0--0 180 | 24 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron . 100 to 4.57
2.0 0 180| 24 |Samepipe . .. < Re apr tity wenetar Geary be 100 to 4.27
20 11 O 177 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined so that its
length is to the depression as 2124isto241. . . 100 to 5.
13 4 8 118 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last | 100 to 4, k
6 8 4 159 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last | 100 to 2.82 |
0 9 O | 1782] 48 | Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical ° . F $ 5 . 100 to 2.85
1 9 O | 1782} 48 | Same pipe rele Cah aed NY GPR phe Si oe 100 to 26.53 |
2 7 O | 1782| 48 | Same pipe . . ‘ . : : . ° : 100 to 25.79
0 8 0 |1710] 72 | Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical < . ; “ 4 fs “ eaten 100 to 10.11 |.
20 $3 O. |14040| 144 | Conduit pipe made of iron, with several flexures both horizon- j
tal and vertical ote alleen pol: ape aii o> 100 to 17.37
The application: of the preceding Table.is very sim-
ple. Let it be required, for example, to find the dia-
meter of: a pipe capable of discharging 40,000 cubic
inches of water in a minute, at a point four feet. be-
low the. level. of: the spring, and by a pipe 2400 feet
long. Now, a short cylindrical tube, one inch in dia-
meter, will furnish 7070 cubic inches in a minute,
when the head of water is four feet. Hence, to. find
the.diameter which will discharge 40,000 cubic inches,
we have the analogy 4/70720: 4/40,000 = 12: lines:
28.54 lines, the diameter required. But it appears from
the preceding Table, that when the length of the pipe
is about 2400 feet, it will discharge only about one«
eighth of the water, or 5000 cubic inches. Hence, in
order that it may discharge the whole 40,000 cubic
inches, its diameter must be increased. . This new diae
meter will be found thus, 4/5000 : 4/40,000 = 28.54
lines to 80.72, or 6 inches 8,4 lines, the diameter of
the pipe which will, discharge 40,000 cubic inches of
water in a minute. nyo ob
The following Table contains the remaining experi«
ments made by M, Bossut, .
HYDRODYNAMICS. 513
Taste V. ining Bossut’s i on the Quantities of Water discha aa
Sifu Pines af cornet Lengthagad aihdiferes Ajtege, “Canal
Ratio of the Heigh
WR | SR come PB ose” ad
Feet. In. | Feet. Lines. Lines.
24 7 161 12 7 0.045 0.002 242
23 9 192 12 0.075 0.006 230
19 3 193 12 0.068 0.005 222
19 9 188 12 0.061 0.004 237
19 10 146 12 7 by 7 0.089 0.008 168
29 1 187 16 74 by 54 0.105 0.011 588
Two ajuta-
8 0} 1069 18 | bmg i 0.435 0.189 1686
2% 7 | 278 15 3} 0.396 0.157 458
se 7] s4| 15 alee i 0.227 0.052 1282
. } Lac 5 lines
30 5] 46 | 18 2 by 6} 0.087 0.001 636
26 3 506 18 4 0.447 0.200 696
27. 0| 668 | 18 54 0.301 0.091 900
30.0 812 18 il 0.048 0.002 600
10 5 194 12 5 0.377 * 0.139 576
1011}. 462 | 12 54 0.382 0.109 576
;' 10 0 420 15 7 0.163 0.028 483
The preceding experiments were made at Mezieres,on to bear. But if the water is through a small]
the 8th and 9th October 1779, the water dischar- the of the water in the pipe is dimi-
ged from the public and private of that city. and hence results a pressure against the
sides. In order to measure this pressure,
Bossut's on the Pressure exerted upon Pipes forated the at different lengths or distances
by the Water which they convey.
Tate VI. Containing the Quantities discharged
~ Oke Sider of Pipe, aceording to Theory God Eapertment
Altitude of thel 7 cach of the| Quantities of Water dis-| Quantities of Water dis-
‘Water in the int in1
cies | es BS
yew Peet. Feet. Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches.
1 30 171 176
. 1 60 186 186
’ I go 190 190
1 120 191 191
1 150 193 192
I 180 19% 193
2 80 240 244
2 60 256 259
2 90 261 264
2. | 120 204 267
2. 180 / 266 >
~——.
VOL. XI. PART Ul. 8r
by a Lateral Orifice, or the Pressures on
Motion of
Water in
Pipes and
Canals.
—_———
‘ stituting « in place of
514
The fourth column in the preceding Table is calcula-
W (Dt—d*) _....
ted from the formula g = Q xX » which is
D:
thus obtained. We have already seen in Chap. I. of
Part II. that the pressure of the fluid on the pipe is
4
ah Then, if Q is the quantity of
DT
water which would have been discharged’ in a given
time under the head or pressure h, the quantity of wa-
ter q discharged in the same time under the head
4
measured by k—
or pressure har will be thus found Q:g= 4:
J-$})
ja0 x VOmad
2 Db? 3
The agreement of the formula with the experiments
is very striking. From this method of considering the
subject, M. Bossut deduces a very simple method of
determining the discharge from a long tube subject to
friction from the expenditure of an orifice perforated in
its sides. Let « denote the ratio of the expenditure of
the proposed pipe having regard to friction, to the
expenditure upon the supposition that there is no fric-°
tion; or, which is the same thing, let «= pa
in the preceding formula,
By sub«
Db?
we have q=Q4/(1—2"), and«= wie), Let
us now suppose that the tube has 2 inches diameter,
that the Q head of water is 3 feet, that the lateral
orifice is 6 lines, and that it discharges at the orifice
1000 cubic inches in a minute. This orifice, as appears
from former experiments, would give 1178 cubic inches
in a minute, if the extremity of the pipe were stopped,
that is, Q= 1178 cubic inches, whilst g is only 1000
cubic inches. By putting these values in the equa-
tion «= vO, we have a= 0.5289. But by
Table II. p. 498, this additional tube would give 24504
cubic inches in a minute, abstracting the effects of fric-
tion ; hence the effects of friction being included, it will
discharge 0.5289 x 24504= 12952 cubic inches in a mi-«
nute. The ing observations are also applicable
to inclined tubes, whether straight or curved.
In the formation of pipes, it is necessary to give them
a much greater thickness than that which is necessary
to resist the pressure indicated by the preceding Table,
for the pipes are exposed to several forces hick are not
Taste VII. Containing the Velocity of Water in different parts
HYDRODYNAMICS.
taken into consideration, The following Table con-
tains the thickness of leaden and iron pipes, which were
used in France in the time of Bossut.
Leaden Pipes. Tron Pipes.
Diameter in| ‘Thickness {Diameter in] Thickness
inches. in lines. inches. in lines.
1 24 1 1
14 8 2 3
2 4 4 4
3 5 6 5
4} 6 8 6
6 7 10 7
7 8 12°: &
The thickness of pipes ought to increase with the
head of water, and the strain should always be calcula«
ted from the whole height of the reservoir, and upon
the supposition that the pipe is stopped at one end.
Bossut’s Experiments on the Motion of Water in Canals.
The experiments of Bossut on this subject were made poscut’s
upon an open canal, the bottom of which was on a level periments
with the bottom of the reservoir from which the water on the
flowed. The orifice by which the water issued into the os :
nals,
canal from the reservoir had constantly a horizontal
‘width of 5 inches, but the height of the orifice was made
to vary by raising or bad ae a-slider, so as to obtain
a rectangular opening of various heights. In order to
measure the velocity of the water in the canal, Bossut
tried various ways ; but he ultimately preferred the me«
thod of finding it by by le, | the time which ela;
between the opening of the orifice, and the arrival of the
water at different parts of the canal. The velocity thus
found is obviously less than the velocity of the water when
the current is perfectly established. But there is a con«
stant ratio between these two velocities, in consequence
of which the one may be safely inferred from the other.
The canal was 105 feet long, and was divided into five
equal parts, and also into three equal parts; so that
each of the fifth parts was 21 feet, and each of the third
parts 35 feet long. In order to ascertain the arrival of
the water at these ewer Eki of the canal, small
wheels like those used by children were placed at each
point of division; and the commencement of their mo-«
tion, which indicated the arrival of the water at that
point, was instantly pre by the person who count
ed the oscillations of the pendulum. When the canal
was horizontal, the following were the results,
of a Rectangular Horizontal Canal 105 feet long,
under different Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir.
jAltitude of the water in { Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. || Space run through
the reservoir. 11 8 7 8 3 8 {11 8 7 8 3 8 by the water.
onal as oe i 4an inch an inch43 an inch.| 1 inch. | 1 inch. | 1 inch. Feet.
Time in which the num- a" Yam) gla Ya a4] Se 21
ber of feet in column b— 7 9 4 5 6+ >
7th are run through by 10— 13— 17+ 7 9 114
the water. 16— | 20— | 274 | 11 14 184 84
234 | 284 | 38+ 16} 20 26 105
Pipes ani
HYDRODYNAMICS. 5I5
of egheadencrss onder + and — indicate the times for the last line of the Table, or for the whole Motion of
, i that the number of seconds is a little too small length of 105 feet. These times are, =
: ; Cana.
—
- It | re OO Table, that the time suc. Calculat- aw
employed by the water in running through ed bythe } 6".350,7".834, 11”.830,6".350, 7”.184, 11.380
spaces of 21 fee formula,
28 38 16} 20 9%
Taste VIII. Containing the Ws Wier do =, Retgiion naboed_< 105 Feet long, and under dif-
THE RESERVOIR. .« lL 8 7 8 $ 8 Ik 8
Fi. In. | Fe. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Fi ey Feet.
Autitupe or warentn § Ft. Jn. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In, | Ft. In. | Ft. In, run through ;
8 | &8 = ppnow
%. In
Inclination of the canal 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 Oo 6
. 4’ 6" 3 4 6 35
Height of the orifice } 114 Ss 164° 1} 4° 18— 70
= ae 0 22 26 S44 | 21 254 | 314 105
Fi. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In.
o6 106 | 3 0 10/10
3” os — — — — 35
pte tewner Pibdes ? 1s 9a . r. 4
ey tay 15 19— 23— 1t 16 3 | 105
Fi. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In.
Inclination of the canal 2 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 40 4 0 j
. . 2" + “— 4’ 2” 4 3’ + 44 35
— of the orifice a 7 9— 104 6} 8 94 70
ma” fas 13 — 15— 17 12 13 154 105
Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In, | Ft. In.
Inclination of the canal 6 0 60 60 9 0 9 0 9 0
+ s” a" 2" + 34. "— $5
Height of the et H I Sere ES en 5
inch. es 10 12 1b— 9 10 12-- 105
Feet. Feet. Feet, Feet. Feet. Feet.
Inclination of the canal il 11 11 i 11 1
Half sec. way ogg Half sec.' Half sec.| Half sec.| Half sec.
In. the three first co- + + ef 2 + 5 oe 21
Jamns the of} 7 84+ | 10 5 7 8 42
the orifice was So 12 134 16 9 il 13 63
inch, and in the 17 184 | 22 13 15 18— 84
last 1 inch, 214 234 28 17 19 22. 105
' Feet. | Feet Feet
i Inclination of the canal 11 ll il
“ a=. Half sec.\ Halfse c.
5 6 7 ' a
Height of the orifice 14 rs 1w— | 114 63
OR 12 134 | 15 } 8t
16+ 17 20 105
Motion of
Water in
Pipes and
Canals.
—\—
Account of
Du Buat’s
zesearches,
516
In the preceding experiments, Bossut only observed
the velocity of the first portion of the water that issued
from the reservoir. In order to compare this velocity
with that of the current after it is completely establish-
ed, he made the experiments in the following Table ;
the time in which the first portion of the water moved
through the spaces in col..6, was measured by means
of the small wheels already mentioned; and the time in
Tasie IX, prea y
a
HYDRODYNAMICS.
which the established current moved through the same |
spaces, was ascertained by placing gently upon the Water
water four pieces of cork, which followed exactly the
current. _ The first portion of the canal was always run
through in less time than any of the other divisions,
and velocity did not become sensibly uniform till
the declivity was about the 10th part of the length of
the canal.
a Comparison between the Velocity of the First Por:
tion of Water, and that of the Established Current,
Vertical breadth of the Orifice Vertical breadth of the Onited
1 inch. 2 inches, ;
Altitude of the/Time in which|Time in pi in which|Time in which| Space run
water in the | the space in | the space in | the space in | the space in |through by thei
reservoir. col. 6. was runjcol. 6, was 6. was col. 6. was water.
through by the} h by the|through by thejthrough by
Ist portion of | established | Ist portion of | established
water. current. water. current.
‘Feet. Inch. Seconds. Seconds. Seconds. Seconds. Feet.
f} 10 8 8 7 100
20+ 17 17 142 200
4 0 4 3l— 26 26 22 300
42— 85 35— 294 400
524 4354 434 37— 500
q 624 52 52— 444 600
é 11 10 9 8— 100
23 20 19 16 200
2 0 - 35 30 29 24 300
46+ 49 39 32 400
58 49 49 40 500
q 69 58 58 48 600
124 12 15 13 100
1 0 253 23 4- 31 oa 200
39 33 AT 39 300
1l— 9 133 113 100
0 6 22 18— 262 23 200
324 27 393 334 300
Tt will be seen from these results, that the velocity
of the first portion of water is always less than that of the
-established current, and that the one has to the other a
ratio which is nearly constant. The difference between
these two velocities is obviously owing to friction, and
to the viscidity of the fluid. The velocity of the water
in contact with the bottom of the canal is not only re-
tarded by friction, but the weight of the superincum-
bent fluid; and the fluid must obviously have the
greatest velocity at the surface at a point equidistant
from the sides.
Sect. II. Account of the Researches and Experiments
of the Chevalier Du Buat.
_ Iw the preceding investigations of Bossut, no attempt
is made to deduce any very general principle or formula
from which the quantity of water discharged by pipes
and canals could be obtained in cases, which are not
comprehended in the limits of his tables, His experi-
ments, indeed, were neither sufficiently numerous nor
varied to lay the foundation of any very general rule;
and it is perhaps too much to expect that the same
person should have the honour both of laying the foun-
dation, and of bringing to perfection one of the most
difficult branches of physico-mathematical science.
In the historical part of this article, we have given a
full account of the origin of the labours of the Chevalier
Du Buat, and have stated the general formula which
he obtained for expressing in all cases the velocity of
water, whether it is conveyed in a pipe or canal, or
rolls in the beds of rivers. We shall now proceed to
give as succinct and perspicuous a view as possible of
the principal steps by which this formula was obtained,
and shall then point out the method of applying the
formula in practice, by means of copious Tables, which
have never before been published. I
Considering an inch as the unity of length, and a yyoge of
second as the unity of time, we may express the decli- expressing
vity of a canal by = on the supposition that upon
the length of the pipe or canal s there is a fall of
linch. But, in order to find the slope of a conduit
pipe when the height of the reservoir and the place of
discharge are known, we must subtract from the height
the slope
a pipe or
HYDRODYNAMICS. 517
“1 ofp Jie an at ae creaits increase to the quantity m must be proportion. -
V=22.47 / H. Hene H= Sy = Bos" The alto d; and consequently +/mg must be proportional
o j a whe: .
considered as a declivity to be distributed over the to ¥/d for different channels; and a should in
In ‘7 pg
. : reir In by | if this was actuall
sistances will experience by an increase of velocity, it o Da Be Kind set ug ws “tl sel
S for while the impulses on all the little aspe- portional te 4/d, nor to any power of d, but that it
4
8,
|
4
‘
:
4
ag
%
F
|
r
i =.
eg
“ttl
4.
aE
ae
:
2,
et
i
z
>
resistances equal to ——, m being a constant quantity
Sas salocnty aogned tra heap Wamyrah Gietn
2
Se *
i e
te
TY .
Af
SSE
“£
a
fe
:
i
f
is always a constant quantity, which Du
n
that is in the i the of the — 0.152 = 282 (6/g-—-0.1)— 70.1)"
is hay peer ee eae Fe epee (Ve 01 = Se Vd. oyaes.7 (Veo)
is a constant 3 and the leading formula for all (or making n= 243.7) =» (~d—0.1)*. But the re-
the uniform velocities is V = “7S. sistances were expressed by ~, consequently they will
otc atctall mee Dba heer ao e. by ve .
equation experimentally, in order to ascertain s now be expressed by ——~-—_—..
is actually a constant quantity. cea agen, &. 8 a(7d— 0.1)?
ee n We have also 4/mg = Wng (Wd—0.1), and since
the values of V4/s, taken in the same pipe /ng( d—0.1)
or canal, are not but that they increasea VX =4/mg, we obtain v= =
little in proportion as the velocities increase ; and hence 10:1 x
he that the resistances are in a less ratio than oq7 (/d— | which is an expression.of the weloci-
ty V for any channel, which, X being a variable quan-
"Vira do'met think, thet saadtern wil ba ch i
pv 6 hyperbolic e our much in«
ao 1h Seiseat this Traction "once wo atta structed in our author in his experimental de-
Re Soe o/- mk en pune pine of coal termination of X. Upon the supposition that the va-
obvious that they fe esi howe pipes aca series of ae — sent pe rae’ mo pak
must velocity is i ; a
) des wat M. Du Buat found, that these conditions would
Contact water ; that is, the resistance je fulfilled i aletitad! VEE.
‘permet o the bc, thd ivesly ratio of os = aT (doth Hyp. Log. Vs + 1.6
e reservoir, the height or head of water H due to tion of the channel, This line, which may be called Motion of
phate in additional tubes, is H= 4, has been named the Mean radius by Du Buat, and Water in
vz
Motion of
Water in
Pipes and
——
518
as we did upon the real velocity, its value will be
om 6 (Ve OL) Saameihy aI ninak sway te
/S—Log.a/ 8” q ty must always
subtracted from the velocity already determined. Hence
the value of V will be Vez "8 (W201) __
/ s— Log. v5 4+ 1.6
Ving .
/s—Log. Vs-41.6
PES fife 0 (
VS — Log. 4/8
te Feat Ant _ vag
/S — Log. 4/5 /S—Log./S
is composed of constant quantities, it may be expressed
in a single number, The value of it was determined
by many experiments to be 0.3 inches, By substitu«
ting, therefore, this value, we obtain
). But since the term
d—0.1
v= ~~ es Ti ; 2—0.8(y/s—0.1 ), or in numbers,
297 (,/d—0.1) -
v= = —0.3(4/d—0.1) in Fr. measur:
/s—Log. V5 4-1.6 ( aires »
ya _307 (4/d—0.1)
~ /s—Log. Vs41.6
In these expressions the following are the values of
the letters employed.
VY represents the mean velocity in inches per second
of any current moving in a channel of indefinite
length, of which the sections of the declivity are
constant,
dis the mean radius or hydraulic mean depth, or a
quantity which, when multiplied by the perimeter of
the section of the channel, gives an area equal to
the area of the section. In circular pipes d is
equal to half the radius.
2 is an abstract and constant number, which is found
by experiment to be equal to 243.7
g is the velocity in inches, acquired by a falling body
at the end of a second of time, being always equal
to 32.174.
s is the denominator of a fraction which expresses the
slope of the channel, the numerator being supposed
unity.
Log. denotes the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity
to which it is prefixed, and may be obtained by
multiplying the common logarithm by 2.302581.
0.3(/d—0.1)inEng. measure.
_In order to shew the agreement of the preceding
formula with experiment, M. Du Buat drew up the }
following Table, which contains the observed velocities
as deduced from the experiments of Bossut, and from
many new experiments made by Du Buat himself, and
also the velocities calculated from the formula.
In the first set of experiments on pipes, col. 1. con-
tains the number of the experiment; col. 2. the length
of the pipe; col. 3. the height of the reservoir; col.
4, the values of s as deduced from col. 2. and 3;
col. 5. the observed velocities; and col. 6. the compu«
ted velocities.
In the second set of experiments on canals and ri-
vers; col, 2. shows the area of the section of the chan-
nel; col. 3. the perimeter of the channel in contact -
with the water; col. 4. the square roots of d, or the
mean radius or hydraulic mean depth; col. 5. the de-
nominator s of the slope; col. 6. the mean velocities
ebserved ; and col, 7. the mean velocities calculated,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Tasie X. Containing
calculated by Du Buat’s Formula, with the oa
ties observed in the Experiments of Couplet, Bos-
sut, and Du Buat, on Pipes, Canals, and Rivers..
Set I. Experiments on Pires.
Experiments by the Chevalier Du Buar.
Pipe 3 of a Line in Diameter, placed Vertically, and
Vv d= 0.417851,
Length! Height of Observed | Calculated
satel 3 Pipe. kata warteebey RS Velocities.
‘ Inches.}; Inches. ‘Inches. Inches. Inches.
1] 12 | 16.166 | 0.75636{ 11.704 | 12.006
2 12 13.125 | 0.9307 9.753 10.576
Pipe.13 Line Diameter, placed Vertically, and
W d=0.176776 Inch.
46.210
a Comparison of the Velocities "Canals
10 | Do.
3 |34.166| 42.166 |0.9062 | 45.468
4 | Do. 38.383 |0.9951 | 43.156 | 43.721 |
5 | Do. 36.666 |1.0396 | 42.885 | 42.612 |
6 | Do. 85.333 |1.07805| 41.614 | 41.714 }
‘The same Pipe Horizontal.
7 |34.166| 14.583 | 2.5838 | 26.202 | 25.523
8 | Do. | 9.292 | 4.0367 | 21.064 | 19.882 |
9 | Do. 5.292 | 7.03597] 14.642 | 14.447
2.083 |17.6378 7.320 2.351
Pipe 2 Lines Diameter, placed Vertically, a
V d= 0.204124 .
11 |36.25 | 51.250 |0854509| 67.373 | 64.945 }
12 | Do. 45.250 |0.963382| 59.605 | 60.428
13 | Do. 41.916 }1.038080| 57.220 | 57.838
14 Do. 38.750 | 4.120473] 54.186 | 55.321
Pipe with nits
Same Pipe a slope of 30a"
15 | 96.25 | 98.500 | 1.291741| 51.151 | 50.988 |
Same Pipe Horizontal.
16 | 36.25 | 15.292 | 2.79005 | 33.378 | 83.167
17 | Do. 8.875 | 4.76076 | 25.430 | 24.553
18 | Do. 5.292 | 7.89587 | 19.940 | 18.313
19 | Do. 2.042 |20.016366| 10.620 | 10.492 |
HYDRODYNAMICS, 519
E Pipe 2), Lines Diameter, a. Experiments of the Abbé Bossurt.
Vd =0.2457 Horizontal Pipe 1 Inch Diameter Vd = 0.5.
: of Observed | Calculated Length | Height of |; Observ Calculated
No. | Tr ipe. Henceoie, (Values of a] Vomeinies. [Veioctics. | | %™ lor Pioe-| eosin. | Values of «| Oerernee | Gacuieiee
Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
20 | 36.25 | 53.250 | 0.952348) 85.769 | 85.201 57 | 600 12 54.5966 | 22.282 | 21.975
21 | Do. | 50.250 |1.006424/ 82471 | 82.461 58 | 600 4 161.3120 | 12.223 | 11.756
22} Do. 48.333 | 1.044400/ SI 80.698
+Erpe 47.916 1052982 Ran 80.31 Va
24 : : 318 Horizontal Pipe 1} Inch Diameter = 0.57735.
25 | Do. | 44.750 | 1.124052! 76.079 | 77.318 *
26 | Do. | 41.250 |1.215688| 73.811 | 73.904 59) 800] 28 190781 | 48534 ) 49.515
60} 720| 24 33.6166 | $4.473 | 35.130
61} 360] 12 87.0828 | 33.160 | 33.106
62 | 1080| 24 48.35416| 28.075 | 28.211
63 | 1440| 24 64.1806 | 24.004 | 24.023
64} 720] 12 66.3020 | 23.360 | 23.345
651 1800| 24 78.05318| 21.082 | 21.182
66 | 2160| 24 92.9474 | 18.896 | 19.096
67 | 1080} 12 95.87567| 18.943 | 18.749
68} 1440] I2 125.6007 | 16.128 | 15.991
69| 1800} 12 155.4015 | 14.066 | 14.119
70} 2160! 12 185.2487 | 12.560 | 19.750
Horizontal Pipe 2.01 Inch Diameter Wd =0.7089458.
a 71 360 | 2%
72| 720| 2
73| 360] 12
74 | 1080| 2%
75|1440| 24
S2eusia
é
i
117 | 36.000
jens|.ongeo
117 -| 18,000 Courret’s Experiments at Versailles.
an a Pipe 5 Inches Diameter / d = 1.118084.
Do. | 14.600 .
Do. | 13.700 88 25 $378.26 | 5.923 | 5.287
Do. | 12.920 84 | Do. 24 3518.98 | 5.213 5.168
Do. | 8.96 85 | Do. | 21,083 | 4005.66 | 4.806 | 4887
Do. nse 86| Do. | 16.750| 5061.61 | 4127 | 4225
Do. | 7. 101.0809 |15.112° | 15.232 87 | Do. | 11.383 | 7450.42] 3.154 | 3.388
- Reso 132.1617 try 13.005 88 | Do. 5.583 |15119.96 | 2.0107 | 2.254
0.671
9 to} 186.0087 I19. 441 ¢ | 10.656
138.5} 0: 257.8663 | 8.689" | 8.894 Pipe 18 Inches Diameter Wd = 2.12132,
737 | 0.500 [1540.76 | 3.623 | 3.218
787 | 0.150 [113.42 | 1.589 | 1.647 | [sq 149.900] 146.089 [9049784] 99.159 | 40.510
esc ne xperimenta marked with an seterisk, the pipe discharged itself inte water, In all the other experiments it discharged
520 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of Midas hain rege! ie precoder Tate will on
; show the reader how much the science o! rodyna- Wate:
Pipesand Set. II. Experiments witn A Woopen CanaL. roice IsYindlsbted? Go the “lebone of Mi; Bask: The, c0- Pipe an
Canals. ere Fs ae
- incidence of the calculated with the observed velocities
pains ae Trapextum Canal. is extremely striking.
Area | Perimeter Wa. | Mean Mean opantiae fie
of the Jof Canal in| Values of -e | Weloci- New Tables for Facilitating the Application of
No- | Section Fen with} 4/d. ape pn closity ty cal- . - Du Buat’s Formula, —
of Canal.| the Water. ° culated.
Inches.| Inches. Inches. |Inch.| Inches. | Inches. ® In order ad ar the eyenenr A the urls
90| 18.84| 13.06 | 1.20107 | 219) 97.51 | 27.19 | Practice, Ur Kobison in Issertation on Water.
91| 50.60| 29.50 | 1.3096 | 2191 28.92 | 29.88 works, published in his System of Mechanical Philoso-
92| 83.43| 96. | 1.7913~ | 4121 27.14 | 28.55 phy, has pn AG two tables, one of which contains
93} 27.20] 15.31 | 1.83290 | 427] 18.28 | 20.39 | & culated v. oes Ot rae ehe aia a fractional
94| 39.36| 18.13 | 1.47342 | 427|20.30 | 92.71 | formula, Dy PBS wa ah ob alee oe
95| 50.44| 20.97 | 1.57359 | 427| 22.97 | 24.97 | antity 0.5 (/ d—-0.1) corresponding to the di¥jeren
061 56.48| 21.50. 1°3.62007'| 4271 93.54 |-25.14 | Zaes_% C trom 0.1 10 ty; ee
97| 98.74] 28.25 | 1.86955 | 439] 98.29 | 29.06 the value of the denominator of the formula for diffe-
98 |100.74| 28.53 | 1.87910 | 492/ 98.52 | 29.03 | "nt velees 4 Aas 1.0 te FAO ‘a
99|119.58| $1.06 | 1.96219 | 432] 30.16 | 30.60 s these Tables were neither sufficiently correct, nor
101 |126.20| 31.91 1.98868 | 432] 31.58 | 31.03 extensive, we have inserted the following tables, which
100|130.71| 32.47 | 1.00637 | 4321 31.89 | 3292 | Were calculated with Sree re pe moele Pa ae
102 1135.32} 33.03 | 1.02407 | 432] 32.32 | 31.61 sbli h fn fa the i v 2 Ps
103| 20.83] 13.62 | 1.23667 |1728] 8.94] 8.58 Pi The — _ nal wad h dded i
104} 34.37] 17. 1.42188 |1728] 9.71 | 9.98 The column of natural numbers has been a be
105| 36.77} 17.56 | 1.44708 |1728111.45 | 10.17 | this Table, which will enable the engineer to calculate
106| 42.01! 18.69 | 1.49924 |1728|12.34 | 10.53 | the velocity V_ without having recourse to logarithms.
The logarithmic differences are likewise added.
Rectangular Canal, Explanation of the Tables.
; ry 1.27418 | 458]20.24 | 18.66 Table I. contains values of the denominator of the Ex,
ibs teas Sias T7908 458| 28.29 | 26.69 | fractional formula. Col. 1. contains the values of s or of the t
109| 34.50| 21.25 | 1.27418 | 929|13.56 | 11.53 | the length of the pipe; and col. 2, $ 4, the natural bles
110] 35.22| 21.33 | 1.28499 |1412| 9.20 | 10,01 | numbers, the hyperbolic logarithm, and the logarithmic
111] 51.75| 23.25 | 1.49191 |1419|12.10 | 11.76 | difference from the denominator 307 (W~d—0.1), all
112| 76.19] 26.08 | 1.70921 |1412/14.17 | 13.59 | of which are computed from 1.0 to 2400.
113|105.78| 29.17 1.90427 |1412115.55 | 15.24
114} 69. 25.25 | 1.65308 {9288} 4.59 |. 4.56 Table II. which has not been calculated in any
115|155.25| 35.25 | 2.09868 19288] 5.70 | 5.86 | shape by Dr Robison, has been computed by Mr Lou«
rie, and contains the values of the numerator 307
Ser III, Experiments on THe Cana or Jarp, (Yd—0.1), and the age baad 0.8 (Wd—0.1)
suited to conduit pipes of eters, from } of an
zi : inch to 18 inches in diameter.
Area Ee Values of Va- etocty 9 ocity |» eg
No.| Cotion leontact with) 7d, | 18° [ge Sue-|etls-| Table TIT. contains the values of the numerator of the
lof Canal.| the Water. face. fractional formula, and also the values of the negative
uantity 0.3 (4/d—0.1.) The first column contains
116|16252 | 402 6.3583 | 8919) 17.42 | 18.77 the values of d, the mean radius or the hydraulic mean
117|11905 | 366 5.7032 |11520| 12.17 | 14.52 | depth; col. 2 and 3. contain the natural numbers, and
118 {10475 | 360 5.3942 |15360) 15.74 | 11.61 | also the hyperbolic logarithms, and the logarithmic
119| 7858 | 340 | | 4.8074 21827| 9.61 8.38 | difference for the numerator 307 (“d—0.1); and
200} 7376 | 337 4.6784 27648) 7.79 | 7.07 | col. 5. contains the values of the negative quantity 0.3
211] 6125 | 324 _ 4.8475 27648) 7.27 | 6.55 (/d—0.1), all of which are computed from 0.1 to
100.
Experiments on the River Hayne.
Area | Perimeter j
‘Stas of the | of River in} Values of lvalues (mean)
' Section |contact with] 4/d. Of & | free, | caleula-
' _. jofRiver.| the Water. ¥ ted.
Velocity
Velocity
at Sur-
122}31498| 569 7.43974 | 6048} 35.11 | 27.62
123} 38838} 601 8.03879 | 6413) 31.77. | 28.76 | .. iinepace amet
124) 30905] 568 7.37632 |32951| 13.61 | 10.08 te teh co) ah si
125} 39639| 604 8.10108 |35728| 15.96 | 10.53
HYDRODYNAMICS. 521
ey a %
x TABLE I.
807(4/d—0.1)
Coming Vibe g al bigs Lag 55 18, the Denemenalan af the Brae a Tog spit
Sor every Value of the Slope s.
Ree eesaaa Pt Eee Pd Ea ee es
or *
& Numbers. [Logarithms Numbers, [Logarithms s. | Numbers.
1.0 | 0.52224 | 9.71787 6.0 | 143542} 0.15698 | 422 | 20 | 2.93519 | 0.46772 | 1345
1.1 | 0.55218 | 9.74208 | 2491 | 6.1 | 1.44921 | 0.16113 | 415] 21 0.48052 | 1280
1.2 | 0.58063 | 9.76890 | 2182 | 62 | 1.462992 | 0.16522 | 409} 22 | 3.10979 | 0.49273 | 1221
1.3 | 0.60782 | 9.78878 | 1988 | 6.3 | 1.47655 | 0.16925 | 403 | 23 | 3.19446 | 0.50440 | 1167
1.4 | 0.63391 | 9.80203 | 1825 | 64 | 1.49008 | 0.17321 | 396} 24- | 3.27768 | 0.51557 | 1117
1.5 | 0.65904 | 9.81891 | 1688 |} 6.5 | 1.50358 | 0.17713 | 392 | 25 | 3.85954 | 0.52628 | 1071
‘16 | 0.68334 | 9.88463 | 1572 | 6.6 | 1.51698 | 0.18098 | 385 | 26 | 3.44011 | 0.53657 | 1029
1.7 | 0.70688 | 9.94985 | 1472 | 6.7 | 1.53031 | 0.18478 | 380 | 27 | 3.51945 | 0.54647 | 990
1.8 | 0.72975 | 9.86318 | 1383 | 6.8 | 1.54356 | 0.18852 | $74] 28 62 | 0.55601 | 954
19 | 0.75202 | 9.87623 | 1305 | 69 | 1.55675 | 0.19222) 370) 29 | 3.67466 | 0.56522 921
20 | 077875 ‘| 1287 | 7.0 | 1.56987 | 0.19586 | 3644 30 | 3.75064 | 0.57411 | 889
2.1 | 0: M 1175 | 7.1 | 1.58292 | 0.19946 | 360] $1 | 3.82561 | 0.58270 | 859
é 22 | 081 155 | 1120] 7.2 | 1.59591 | 0.20802 | $56 32 | 3.89959 | 0.59102 | 832
‘2.3 | 0.83609 | 9.92225 | 1070 3 | 1.60883 | 0.90651 | 349} 33 | 3.97263 | 0.59908 | 806
: ‘2.4 | 0.85605 | 9.99250 | 1025 |] 74 | 1.62168 | 020997 | 346] 34 | 4.04478 | 0.60689 | 781
= ‘25 | 0.87565 | 9.94233 | 983} 7.5 | 1.68448 $41 | 35 | 411606 | 0.61448 | 759
: 26 bes 9.95178 | 945) 7.6 | 1.64721 | 0.21675 | 397 | 36 | 4.18650 | 0.62185 | 737
4 = 0.9 freed 910} 7.7 | 1.65988 | 0.22008 | $33 | 37 | 4.25614 | 0.62902 | 717
> 0.98252 | 9,96 878 | 7.8 | 1.67250 | 0.22336 | 328 | 38 | 4.32500 | 0.63599
2 9.97813 | 847] 7.9 | 1.68505 | 0.22661 | 325 39 | 4.39311 | 0.64277) 678
9.98683 | 820 1.69755 | 0.22082 | 321 | 40 | 4.46050 | 0.64938 | 661
Ss. ‘pgeeT ad 8.1 | 1.70999 | 0. 317 | 41 | 4.52720 | 0.65583 | 645
$2 | 1. peel ' 8.2 | 1.72237 | 0.23613 | 314] 42 | 4.59921 | 0.66212 | 629
3.3 | 1.021 | 7471 83 | 1.73470 | 023923 310) 43 | 465857 | 0.66825 | 613
$4 \1 9 | 0.01669 | 725) 84 | 1.74699 | O.242299| 906 || 44 | 4.72330 | 0.67424] 599
$5 \1 0.02975 | 706} 8.5 | 1.75921 | 6.24582 |. 203 | 45 | 4.78740 | 0.68010 | 586
36 | 1.07804} 0.03061 | 686) 86 | 1.77139 | 0.24831 | 299} 46 | 4.85091 | 0.68582 | 572
3.7 | 1.08968 | 0.08780 | 669} 8.7 | 1.78953 | 025128 | 297} 47 | 4.91384 | 0.69142 | 560
38 | 1.10616 | 0.04962 | 652] 8.8 | 1.79558 | 0.25120 | 292} 48 | 4.97621 548
39 | 1.12247 | 0.05017 | 655} 8&9 | 1.80760 | 0.25710| 290] 49 | 5.09802 | 0.70226 | 536
“#0 | 1.18862 | 0.05638 | 621 | 9.0 | 1.81957 | 0. 287 | 50 | 5.09931 | 0.70751 | 525
#1 | 1.15461 | 0.06244 GOG | 9.1 | 1.83150 | 026281 | 284] 51 | 5.16007 | 0.71266) 515
42 | 1.17046 | 0.06836 | 592) 92 | 1.84598 | 0.296561 | 280] 52 | 5.22033 | 0.71770| 504
43 | 118617 | 0.07415 | 579) 9.3 | 1.85521 278 | 53 | 5.28009 | 0. 494
44 | 1.20174) 0.07981 | 566) 94 | 1.86699 | 0.27114| 275] 56 | 5.33938 | 0.72749 | 485
45 | 1.21718 | 0.08585 | 554) 9.5 | 1.87873 | 0.27987 | 273 | 55 | 5.99820 | 0.73225 | 467
46 | 123249 | 0.09078 | 543) 9.6 | 1.89045 | 027656 | 260) 56 | 5.45655 | 0.73692 | 467
4.7 | 1.24767 | 0.09610 | 592) 9.7 | 1.90208 | 0.27923 | 267] 57 | 5.51145 | 0.74150| 458
48 \1 #| 0.10131 | 521 | 9.8 | 1.91369 | 0.28187 | 264) 58 | 5.57194 | 0.74601 | 451
= 1 0.10648 | 512 1.92525 262 | 59 | 5.62900 | 0.75043 | 442
1.29255 | 0.11144 | 501 | 10.0 | 1.93677 | 0.28708 | 259] 60 | 5.68564 | 0.75478 | 435
5.1 | 1.30726 | 0.11696 | 492} 11.0 | 2.04078 | 0.91171 | 2463 | Gl | 5.74187 | 0.75905 | 427
62 }1 0.12120 | 484] 12.0 | 2.15907 | 0.99427 | 2256 | 62 | 5.79970 | 0.76326 | 421
5.3 | 1.33641 | 0.12504) 474 | 18.0 | 2.26504 | 0.35508 | 2081 | 63 | 5.85315 | 0: 413
5.4 | 1.35084 | 0.19060 | 466 | 14.0 | 2.36802 | 0.37489 | 1931 } 64 | 5.90821 | 0.771 407
5.5 | 1.96516) 0.18518 | 458 | 15.0 | 2.46828 | 0.99239 | 1800) 65 aoe 0.77546 | 400
56 )1 0.1 451 | 16.0 | 2.56605 | 0.40927 | 1688 | 66 pi 0.77940 | 394
5.7 | 1 O.1 448 | 17.0 | 266152 | 0.42513 | 1586 | 67 120 | 0.78327 | 387
5.8 | 140758 | 0, | 435 | 18.0 | 2.75488 | 0.44010 | 1497] 68 | 6.12483 | 0.78709 | 382
59 | 1.42154) 01 429 | 19.0 | 2.84625 | 0.45427 | 1417 || 69 | 6.17811 | 0.79086 | 377
522 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Tables for
the ealeula TABLE I. continued.—Values as /s—Hyp. Log. 4/s + 1.6, the Denominator of the Fraction 801/03) == eu
/s—Hyp. Log.W/ 84 16 tn Da
tion from
= pa 2 for every Value of the Slope s.
—— *
Slope —— Slope --— Slope
MY orthe |(We—Hyp Logs +16 yop || or the |\We—HypLoe/eF1O) 10. | ofthe WV s—Hyp.Log./ef 1.6 fe
Pipe, o| Differ, || Pipe, or Differ. || Pipe, or iffer.
8. Numbers. |Logarithms & Numbers. |Logarithms. 5. Numbers. Peicenstehcoa.
70 | 6:23105|.0.79456 | 370 || 410 |17.23843) 1.23650 | 599 || 1200 | $1.09531]} 1.49269 | 2046
71 | 628367] 0.79821 | 365 || 420 |17.47187 | 1.24234 | 584 || 1300 | 32.46984 | 1.51148 | 1879
_ 72 | 6.33595] 0.80181 | 360 || 430 |17.70269} 1.24804 | 570 || 1400 | 3S.79388 | 1.52884| 1736
73 | 6.88791| 0.805386 | 355 |) 440 |17.93097| 1.25360 | 556 || 1500 | 35.07269| 1.54497 | 1613.
74° | 6.43963] 0.80886 | 350'|| 450 |18.15680} 1.25904 | 544° || 1600 | 36.31062| 1.56003 | 1506,
75 | 6.49096|'0.81231 | 345 || 460 |18.38026| 1.26435 | 531. || 1700 |37.51139] 1.57416 | 1413
76 | 665420] 0.81571 | 340 |) 470 |18.60142] 1.26955 | 520 |} 1800 | 38.67820] 1.58747 | 1331
77 | 6.59270] 0.81907.] 336 || 480 |18.82034) 1.27463 | 508 || 1900 | 39.81376} 1.60004 | 1257
| 78 | 6.64325] 0.82238 | 3381 || 490 |19.03711]| 1.27960 | 497 || 2000 |40.92165] 1.61195 | 1191
79 | 6.69345) 0.82565 | 327 || 500 |19.25178| 1.28447 | 487 |] 2100 |42.00052] 1.62325 | 1130 }
80 | 6.74336] 0.82888 | 323 || 510 |19.46441| 1.28924 | 477 || 2200 |43.05569] 1.63403 | 1078
81 | 6.79294] 0.83206.| 318 || 520 | 19.67506| 1.29392 | 468 |) 2300 | 4408763} 1.64432 | 1029
82 | 6.84327] 0.83521 | 315 || 530 |19.88378] 1.29850 | 458 || 2400 | 45.09784| 1.65416 | 984
83, | 6.89147] 0.83831 | 310 || 540 |20.09064| 1.30299 | 449 || 2500 |46,08761] 1.66358 | 942 |
84 | 6.94031] 0.84188 | 307 || 550 |20.29567| 1.30740 | 441 || 2600 | 47:05826] 1.67264] 906
85 | 6.98889] 0.84441 | 303 |! 560 |20.498921»1.31173 | 433 || 2700 |48.01072| 1.68134] 870
86 | 7.03723] 0.84740 | 299 || 570 |20.70045] 1.31598 | 425 | 2800 |48.94605] 1.68972\} 8388
87 | 7.08531] 0.85036 | 296 || 580 |20.90030] 1.82015 | 417 || 2900 | 49.86514| 1.69780} 808
88 | 7.13315] 0.85328 | 292 || 590 |21.09858| 1.32425 | 410 |} 3000 | 50.76880| 4.70560 | 780
89. | 7.18075] 0.85617 | 289 || 600 |21.29510| 1.32828 | 403 }) 3100. |51.65781| 1.71313 | 753
90. | 7.22812] 0.85903 | 286 || 610 |21.49014] 1.33224 | 396. || 3200 | 52.53284| 1.72043)| 730
91 | 7.27525) 0.86185 | 282 || 620 |21.68365) 1.33613 | 389 |) 3300 | 53.39454| 1.72750} 707
92 | 7.32215] 0.86464 | 279 || 630 |21.87567| 1.33996] 383. || $400 | 54.24352] 1.78435 | 685
93. | 7.36882] 0.86740 | 276 || 640 |22.06634| 1.34373 | 377 || 3500 |55.08031} 1.74100.| 665
94 | 7.41527] 0.87013 | 273 || 650 |22.25528] 1.34743 | 370 || 8600 | 55.90543| 1.74745 | 645
95 | 7.46150} 0.87283 | 270 || 660 |22.44313| 1.35108 | 365 || 3700 | 56.71937) 1,75373.| 628
96 | 7.50752] 0.87550.| 267 || 670 |22.62953| 1.35467 | 359 || $800 | 57.52267) 1.75984 | 611
97 | 7.55332| 0.87814 | 9264 || 680 |22.81459] 1.35821 | 354 || $900 |58.31540| 1.76578 | 594
98 | 7.59891] 0.88075,! 261 || 690 | 22.99835] 1.36170 | 349 || 4000 } 59.09832| 1.77157.| 579
99 | 7.64480] 0.88334] 259 || 700 |23.18083| 1.86513 | 343 || 4100 | 59.87168) 1.77722 | 565
100 | 7.68948|'0.88590 | 256 || 710 |23.36207) 1.36851 | 338 || 4200 | 60.63580| 1.78273 | 551
110 | 8.18063] 0.91012 | 2422 || 720 |23.54208| 1.87184 | 333 || 4300 |61.89103| 1.78810 | 537
120 | 8.55408] 0.93217 | 2205 || 730 |23,72089| 1.87513.| $29 || 4400 | 62.138754| 1.79835 | 525
130 | 8.96187} 0.95240. | 2023 || 740 |23.89854| 1.87837 | 324 || 4500 | 62.87595} 1.79848 | 513
140 | 9.35566| 0.97107,| 1867 || 750. |24.07502] 1.38157 | 320 || 4600 | 63.60622| 1.80350 | 502
150 | 9.73683! 0.98842 | 1735 || 760 |24.25038| 1.88472 | 315 || 4700 |64.32872] 1.80840 | 490
160 |10.10655| 1.00460 | 1618 |} 770 |24.42464| 1.38783 | 311 || 4800 | 65.04368| 1.81320 | 480
170. | 10.46582| 1.01977 | 1517 || 780 |24,59781] 1.89090-| 307 || 4900 | 65.75134| 1.81790 | 470
180 }10.81550} 1.08405 | 1428 || 790 |24.76991) 1.39392-| 302 || 5000 |66.45192| 1.82251 | 461
190 |[11.15634} 1.04752 | 1347 || 800 |24.94097] 1.39691 | 299 || 5100 |67.14563] 1.82702 | 451
200 |11.48899}| 1.06028 | 1276 || 810 |25.11099| 1.89986 | 295 || 5200 | 67.83267| 1.83144 | 442
210 |11.81403| 1.07240 | 1212 || 820 |25.28001] 1.40278.| 292 | 5300 | 68,51323} 1.83577 | 433
220 |12.13196} 1.08393.| 1153 || 830 |25.44804| 1.40565 | 287, || 5400 |69,.18747| 1.84003 | 426
230 | 12.44324| 1.09493. | 1100 || 840 |25.61510| 1.40849.| 284 || 5500 | 69.85560} 1.84420 | 417
240 | 12.74829| 1.10545 | 1052 || 850 |25.78120| 1.41130 | 281. || 5600 | '70.51773| 1.84830 | 410
250 |13.04747| 1.11553 | 1008 || 860 | 25.94636| 1.41408 | 278 || 5700 |'71.17412}] 1.85232°| 402
260 |13.34111} 1.12519 | 966 || 870 |26.11060| 1.41682 | 274 || 5800 |'71.82479]| 1.85627 | 395
270 |18.62951| 1.13448 | 929 || 880 | 26.27392] 1.41952 | 270 || 5900 | 72.46996| 1.86016 | 389
280 |13.91296| 1.14342 | 894 || $90 | 26.43636| 1.42220 | 268 || 6000 |'73.10978} 1.86398 | 382
290 |14.19169| 1.15203 | 861 || 900 |26.59791| 1.42485 | 265 || 6100 |'73.74484] 1.86773 | 375 |
300 |14.46596] 1.16085 | 832 || 910 | 26.75859] 1.42746 | 261 |} 6200 | 74.3738] 1.87142 | 369
310 |1473596| 1.16838 | 803 |] 920. | 26.91845] 1.43005.| 259 || 6300 | '74.99826| 1.87505 | 363
320 |15.00189| 1.17615 | 777 || 930 :|27.07745| 1.43261 | 256 || 6400 | 75.61785| 1.87862 | 357
$30 | 1526394] 1.18367 | 752 || 940 |27.23563| 1.43514.| 253 || 6500 | 76.23267| 1.88214 | 352 |
$40 |15.52227| 1.19096 | 729 || 950 |27.39301| 1.43764} 250 || 6600 | 76.84286] 1.83560 | 346
350° |15.77704! 1.19803 | 707 |] 960 |27.54957| 144011 | 247 || 6700 | 77.44847,| 1.88901 | 341
360 |16.02840| 1.20489 | 686 || 970 |27.70535| 1.44256 | 245 || 6800 | 78.04966| 1.89237 | 336
370 |16.27647| 1.21156 | 667 || 980 |27.86036)}\1.44499 | 243 || 6900 |'78.64650; 1.89568 | 331
380 |16.52146| 1.21805 | 649 || 990 | 28.01460] 1.44738 | 236 || 7000 | 79.23905| 1.89894 | 326
390 |16.76330| 1.22436 |- 631 || 1000 | 28.16180| 1.44976 | 238 || 7100 | 79.82746} 1.90215 | 321
400 |17.00227| 1.23051 | 615 ||/1100 | 29.66399)| 1.47223 |2247 || 7200 | 80.41179| 1.90532 | 317
HYDRODYNAMICS. 523
es é 5 La aa for
; ——— atin,
ala- TABLE I. continued.—Values of /s—Hyp.Log.4/s + 1.6 the Denominator of the Fraction < ETE the vl
; - s — tion from
¥ for every Value of the Slope s. “ie Du Bute
by ad of s—Hyp.Log. o/s tae = J Hyp. Loge F18) Tie. enpe cis id Lat ——
hed Numbers. |Logarithms, ‘ - Numbers. |Logarithms. = :
7300 3} 1.90844 | 312} 8700 | 88.73817| 1.94811 | 261
7400 |81.56887} 1.91152 | 308 | 8800 | 89.26698)| 1.95069 | 253
7500 |82.14112| 1.91456 | 304 || 8900 | 89.79281| 1.95924 | 255
7600 | 82.70992| 1.91756 | 300 || 9000 | 90.31576| 1.95576 | 252
7700 | 83:27505 | 1.92051 | 295 | 9100 | 90.83582| 1.95826 | 250
'} 7800 83.83658| 1.92343 | 292 || 9200 | 91.35306| 1.96072 | 246
7900 |84.39455| 1.92631 | 288 || 9800 | 91.86753| 1.96316 | 244
8000 | 4.94902] 1.92916 | 285 || 9400 | 92.37930| 1.96557 | 241
8100 | 85.50009| 1.93197 | 281 || 9500 | 92.88831]| 1.96796 | 239
8200 | 86.04784| 1.93474 | 277 || 9600 | 93.39476] 1.97082 | 286
8300 | 86.59226| 1.93748 | 274 || 9700 | 93.89858] 1.97266 | 234
$400 | 87.13343| 1.94018 | 270 || 9800 | 94.89982) 1.97497 | 231
8500 | 87.67144| 1.94286 | 268 | 9900 | 94.8 1.97726 | 229 46.
8600 | 88.20645| 1.94550 | 264 [10000 | 95.39475) 1.97952 | 226 149,.87637| 2.17573
TABLE Il.
Values pasha. 807(,/d—0.1) for every Value of the Hydraulic Mean Depth d, calculated for Pipes,
_ from 4 of an inch to 18 Inches Diameter ; also the Value of the Factor 0.3(4/d—0.1).
40.1 , :
BOTS ) - Myra B74 /d—O.1) as
mie Members. |Logachbans ole. VEa1 br 2! ee Nambers. i L Viol
0.0625 | 46.050 | 1.66323 0.045 2.3125 | 436.152 | 2.68964 637 | o,
0.125 | 77.841 | 1.89121 22798 | 0.076 2.3875 | 442419 | 2.64583 619 esas
0.1875 | 102.235 | 2.00960 |11839 | 0.100 24875 | 448.604 | 2.65186 0.438
025 | 122800 | 2.08920 | 7960| 0.120} 10 | 25 454.710 | 2.65773 | 587 | 0.444
0.3125 | 140.918 | 2.14897 | 5977 | 0.188 || 10} | 2.5625 | 460.740 | 2.66346 | 573 | 0.450
0.375 | 157.298 | 2.19672 | 4775 | 0.154 | 1 2.625 | 466.697 | 2.66903 | 557 | 0.456
04375 | 172.961 | 2.29644 | 3972 | 0.168 |) 1 2.6875 | 472.583 | 2.67448 | 545 | 0.462
0.5 186.882 | 2.27040 | $396 | 0.182 | 11 | 2.75 | 478.402 | 2.67979 | 531 | 0.467
0.5625 | 199.550 | 2.30005 | 2965 | 0.195 || 1 2.8125 | 484.155 | 2.68498 | 519 | 0473
0.625 | 212.005 | 2.92635 | 2630 | 0.207 || 11 2875 | 489.844 | 2.69006 | 508 | 0.479
0.6875 | 223.851 | 2.34996 | 2361 | 0.219 | 11} | 2.9375 | 495.471 | 2.69502 | 496 | 0.484
0.75 | 235.170 | 2.37138 | 2142] 0.230 || 12 | 3. 501.040 | 2.69987 | 485 | 0.490
0.8125 | 246.026 1960 | 0.240 || 124 | 3.0625 | 506.550 | 2.70462 | 475 | 0.495
0.875 PY 2.40904 | 1806 | 0.251 || 1 8.125 | 512.004 | 2.70927 | 465 | 0.500
0.9375 | 26 242578 | 1674 | 0.260 |) 1 3.1875 | 517.405 | 2.71383 | 456 | 0.506
1. 276,300 | 244138 | 1560 | 0.270 | 13 $.25 522.752 | 2.71830 | 447 | 0.511
285.748 | 245598 | 1460 | 0.979 [1 3.3125 | 528.049 | 2.72267 | 437 | 0.516
294,923.) 2.46971 | 1373 | 0.288 | 1 3.375 | 533.295 | 2.72697 | 430 | 0.521
1.1875 | 303,846 1294 | 0.297 | 1 8.4375 | 538.493 | 2.73118 | 421 | 0.596
1.25 312.536 | 2.49490 | 1225 | 0.305 | 14 8.5 543.644 | 2.73581 | 413 | 0.531
PLLPPORIPW SLPS LSPS SLL SLY MEET“ SLs HY
| REPEETY |
524 HYDRODYNAMICS,
Tables for
facilitating
the calcula-
ion fi
Du Buat's TABLE. Ill.
Formula; -
Values of the Numerator $07 (4/d—0.1) for, every value of the Hydraulic Mean. Depth =
also the values of the Factor 0.3(4/d—0.1).
ifean Ra-} ~ mae a Ra- cant
Rn 307 (4/ d—0.1) 0.3 Hydraulic 307 (4/d—0.1) 0.3
mean ke x
depth or : . Log. x oF pA
¥i oe Numbers. | Logarithms. Difter, |/a—0.1 vale Numbers. | Logarithms. ee Wi d—0.1
0.1 66.382 | 1.82205 0.065 || 5.5 | 689.279 | 2.83839 | 416 | 0.674
0.2 | 106.595 | 2.02774 |20569 | 0.104 || 5.6 | 695.795 | 2.84248 | 409 | 0.680
0.3 | 187.451 | 2.13815 |11041 | 0.134 || 5.7 | 702.253 | 2.84649} 401 | 0.686
0.4 | 163.464] 2.21342 | 7527 | 0.160 || 6.8 | 708.654! 2.85043 | 394 | 0.692
0.5 | 186.382] 2.27040 | 5698 | 0.182 || 5.9 | 715.000} 2.85431 | 388 | 0,699
0.6 | 207.101 | 2.31618 | 4578 | 0.202 ||. 6.0 | 721.293 | 2.85811 | 380 | 0.705
0.7 | 226.155 | 2.35441 | 3823 | 0.221 || 6.1 | 727.584 | 2.86185 | 374] 0.711
0.8 | 243.889 | 2,38719 | 3278 | 0.288 || 6.2 | 733.724 | 286553 | 368 | 0.717
0.9 | 260.458 | 2.41588 | 2869 | 0.255 || 6.3 | 739.864 | 2.86915 | 362 | 0,723
1.0 | 276.300] 2.44138 | 2550} 0.270 || 6.4 | 745.955 | 2.87271 | 356 | 0.729
1.1 | 291.285 | 2.46432 | 2294 | 0,285 ||. 6.5 | 752.000 | 2.87622 | $51 | 0.735
1.2 | 305.602 | 2.48516 | 2084 | 0.299 |} 6.6 | 757.997 | 2.87967 | 345 | 0.741
1.3 | 319.334] 2.50425 | 1909 | 0.312 || 6.7 | 763.950 | 2.88306 | 339 | 0,747
1.4 | 332.548 | 2.52185 | 1760 | 0.325 || 6.8 | 769.858 | 2.88641 | 335 | 0,752
1.5 | 345.297 | 2.53819} 1634 | 0.337 ||. 6.9 | 775.723 | 2.88971 | 330 | 0.758
1.6 | 357.628 | 2.55343 ) 1524 | 0.349 || 7.0 | 781.545 | 2.89295 | 324 | 0.764
1.7 | 369.579 | 2.56771 | 1428 | 0.361 || 71 | 787.327 | 2.89615 | 320 | 0,769.
1.8 | 381.184 | 2.58113 | 1842 | 0.372 || 7.2 | 793.068 | 2.89931 | 316 } 0.775
1.9 | 392.470] 2.59381 | 1268 | 0.384 || 7.3 | 798.768 | 2.90242-) 311 | 0.781
2.0 | 403.464} 2.60580 | 1199 | 0.394 || 7.4 | 804.430 | 290549 | 307 | 0.786
2.r } 414.185 | 2.61719 | 1139 | 0.405 || 7.5 | 810.054 | 2.90851 | 302 | 0,792
2.2 | 424.655 | 2.62804 | 1085 | 0.415 7.6 | 815,641 | 2.91150 | 299 | 0.797
2.3 | 484.888 | 2.63838 | 1034 | 9.425 || 7.7 | 821.190] 2.91444 | 294 | 0.802
2.4 | 444.902 | 2.64826 | 988 | 0.435 || 7.8 | 826.704 | 2.91735 | 291 | 0.808
2.5 | 454.710 | 2.65773 | 947 | 0.444 || 7.9 | 832.183 | 2.92022 | 287 | 0.813
2.6 | 464,323 | 2.66681 | 908 | 0.454 || 8.0 | 837.627 '| 2.92305 | 283 | 0.819
2.7 | 473.753 | 2.67555 | 874 | 0.463 || 8.1 | 843.037 | 2.92585 | 280 | 0.824 |
2.8 | 483.003 | 2.68395 | 840 | 0.472 || 8.2 | 848.414 | 2.92861 | 276 | 0,829
2.9 | 492.102 | 2.69205 | 810] 0.481 || 83 | 853.758 | 2.93133 | 272 | 0.834
3.0 | 501.040 | 2.69987 | 782 | 0.490 || 8.4 | 859.070 | 2.93403 | 270 | 0.839
3.1 | 509.829 | 2.70743 | 756 | 0.498 || 8.5 | 864.351 | 2.93669 | 266 | 0.845
$.2 | 518.478 | 2.71473 | 730 | 0.507 || 8.6 | 869.601 | 2.93932 | 263 | 0.850
3.8 | 526.993 | 2.72180 | 707} 0.515 || 8.7 | 874.820 | 2.94192 | 260 | 0.855
3.4 | 535.380 | 2.72866 | 686 | 0.523 || 8.8 | 880,009] 2.94449 | 257 | 0.860
3.5 | 543.644 | 2.73531 | 665 | 0.531 || 8.9 | 885.169} 2.94703 | 254 | 0.865
3.6 | 551,792 | 2.74177 | 646 | 0.539 || 9:0 | 890.300 | 2.94954 | 251 | 0.870
3.7 | 559.826 | 2.74805 | 628 | 0.547 || 9.1 | 895.403 | 2.95202 | 248 | 0.875
3.8 | 567.753 | 2.75416 | 611] 0.555 |} 9.2 | 900.477 | 2.95447 | 245 | 0.880
8.9 | 575.576 | 2.76010 | 594 | 0,562'|| 9.3 | 905.424 | 2.95690 | 243 | 0.885.
4.0 | 583.300 | 2.76589 | 579 | 0.570|| 9.4 | 910.544 | 2.95930 | 240°} 0.890
_ 4,1 | 590.928 | 2.77153 |, 564 | 0.577 9.5 | 915.537 | 2.96168 | 238 | 0.895 |
4.2 | 598.463] 2.77704 | 551 | 0.585 9.6 | 920.505 | 2.96408 | 235 ) 0.900
4.3 | 605.909 | 2.78241 | 537 | 0.592 9.7 | 925.446 | 2.96635 | 232'| 0.904
4.4 | 613.269°| 2.78765 | 524 | 0.599 9.8 | 930.362 | 2.96865 | 280 | 0.909
4.5 | 620.545 | 2.79277 || 512 |-0.606 || 9.9 | 935.253 | 2.97098 | 228 | 0.914
' 4.6 | 627.742] 2.79778 || 501 | 0.613 || 10.0 } 940.119 | 2.97318 | 225 | 0.919
1 4.7 | 634,860} 2.80268 | 490 | 0.620 i
' 4.8 | 641.903 | 2.80747 | 479-| 0627 |] 11 987.504 | 2.99454 | 2136 | 0.965
' 4.9 | 648.873 | 2.81216 | 469 | 0.634 12 |'1039:779 | 3.01401 | 1947 | 1.009
' 5.0 | 655.773 | 2.81675 | 459 | 0.641 || 13 |1076.204 | 3.03189 | 1788 | 1.051
5.1 | 662.604 | 2.82125 | 450 | 0.647 || 14 |1117.989 | 3.04844 | 1655 | 1.092
| 6.2 | 669.368 | 2.82566 | 441 | 0,654 || 15 |1158.306 | 3.06382 | 1538 | 1.131
' §.8 | 676.067 | 2.89999 | 433 | 0,661 16 |1197.300 | 3.07820 | 1438 | 1.170
5:4 | 682.704! 2:839493'| 494 “0.667 | 17 | 1235.093' | 3.09170 | 1350 | 1.207
=
HY DRODYNAMICS.
Soin TABLE III. Continued.
~~ f the Numerator 307 (./d—0.1) Value of the Hydraulic Mi hd
aaare. iawn ee
or 80T4/ d—0.1) 03 ||,¢uscr 307(4/d—0.1). os
x mean x
ts Numbers. | Logarithins. Ditte, [20.1 who Numbers. casa ae n/d—0.1
18 | 1271.791 | 3.10442 | 1272 | 1.243 || 60 |2347.312 | 3.87057 | 870 | 2.904
19 | 1807482 | 3.11644 | 1202 | 1.278 || 61 8.87421 | 364 | 2.913
20 | 1342.246 | 3.12783 | 1139 | 1.312 || 6g | 2386.621 | 3.37778 | 357 | 2332
21 |1376.150 | 3.13866 | 1083 | 1.345 || 63 |2406.037 | 3.38190 | 352 | 2.351
22 | 1409.258 | 3.14899 | 1083 | 1.377 || 64 |2425.300 | 3.88477 | 387 | 2.370
23 |1441.620 | 3.15885 | 986 | 1409 || 65 |2444.413 | 3.38817 | 340 | 2
24 |1478.286 | 3.16829 | 944| 1.440 || 66 |2#63.380 | 3.39153 | 336 | 2.
26 |1504.300 | 3.17733 | 904| 1.470 || 67 |2#82203 | 3.39484 | 331 | 2426 |
26 |1534.699 | 3.18602 | 869} 1.500|| 6g |2500.887 3.89809 | $25 | 244+
27 | 1564.519 | 3.19438 | 836 | 1.529 || 69 |2519.454 | 340180 | 821 | 2.462
28 |1593.791 | 3.20243 | 805 | 1.557 || 70 846 | 3.40446 | 316 | 2.480
a9 |1622.546 | 3.21020} 777 | 1.586 || 71 128 | 3. $12 | 2.408
30 |1650,808 | 3$21770| 750| 1.613 || 72 |2674.282 | 3: 308 | 2.516
31 | 1678.60¢ | 3.22496 | 726 | 1.640 || 73 |2592.310 | 3.41969 | 3903 } 2.533 |
82 | 1705.954 | 2.23197 | 701 | 1.667 || 74 |2610.224 /°3.41668 | 299 | 2.551
$3 | 1732.881 | 323877 | 680/| 1.693 || 75 | 2627.998 | 341962 | 294 ' 2.568
$4 |1759.402 | 3.24536 | 659 | 1.719 || 76 | 2645.664 | 3.42253 | 291 | 2.585
35 |1785.536 | 3.25177 | 641 | 1.745 || 77 |2663.214| 3.42541 | 298 ' 2.602
36 |1811.300 | 3.25799 | 622 | 1.770 || 73 | 2680651 | 342824 | 283 | 2619
87 |1836.708 | 3.26408 | 605 | 1.795.|| 79 |2697.976 | 3.43108 | 280 | 2.636
33 |} 1861775 | 326993 | 589 | 1.819 || 80 |2715.191 | 3.48980 | 276 | 2.653
$9 | 1886.514 | 3.27566 | 573 | 1.843 || 81 |2792.900 | 349653 | 273 | 2.670
40 {1910-938 | 3.28125 | 559 | 1.867 || s2 |2749.906| 9.439922 | 269 | 2.687 —
41 |1935.059 | 3.28669 | 544| 1.891 |} 83 | 2766208) 3.44188 | 266 | 2.703
42 |1958.887 | 3.29201 | 532/ 1.914 || se |2783.002 | 3.44451 | 263 | 2.720
43 |1982.494 | 3.29720] 519 | 1.937 {| 85 | 2799.700 | 3.44711 | 260 | 2.736
44 |2005.708 | 3.30227 507 | 1.960 || 86 | 2816.301 | | 257 | 2.752
45 | 2028.719 | 3.90722} 495 | 1.982 |} 987 |2832.906 | 9.45223 | 255 | 2.768
46 |2051.475 | 3.31207 | 485 2.005 |} ss | 2849.215 | 3.46473 | 250 | 2.784
47 |2073.986 | 3.31681 | 474 | 2.027 || 89 | 2865.582 | 3.45721 | 248
$8 |2096.258 | 3.92144 463 | 2.048 || 90 | 2881.758 | 3.49966 | 245 | 2.816
9 2118.300 | 3.82599 | 455 | 2.070 || 91 | 2897.893 | 3.46208 | 242 | 2.832
2140.118 | 3.330% | 445 | 2. 92 |2913.980 | 3.46448 | 240 | 2.847
51 |2161.718 | 3.33480 | 436 | 2112 || 93 3.46085 | 237 | 2.863
62 |2183.109 | 3.89908 | 428 | 2.133 || 94 [2945.776 | 3.46020 | 235 | 2.879
53 |2904.20%| 3.94828 | 420/ 2154 || 95 [2061.565 ay Hh 232 | 2.808 | ©
54 5.34798 | 4190/2175 || 96 | 2077.274 | 3.4 230 | 9.909
55 |2246.073 | 3.35142 | 404/| 2195 || g7 | 2992900 | 3.47609 | 227 | 2.925
56 935539 | 397 | 2215 || 98 |3008.445 | 3.47834 | 225 | 2.940
a7 -100 | 9.85928 | 389 | 2.235 || 99 | 9029.912 | 3.48057 | 223 | 2.955
58 |2307.343 | 3.36311 | 383 | 2.255 || 100 | 3039.900 220 | 2.970
59 |\2327411 | 3.96687} 376 | 2274
Motion of
Water in
Pipes and
Canals.
—
Method of
using the
preceding
Tables.
526
Method of Using the preceding Tables.
Exampue I. Water is brought into Edinburgh by
several pipes, one of which is 5 inches in diameter.
This pipe is 14,367 * feet long, and the reservoir at
Comiston is 44 feet higher than the. reservoir on the
Castle-hill into which the water is delivered. It is re«
uired to know how many Scots pints the pipe should
deliver in a minute.
1. In this case we have d= <= 1.25 inches.
2. We have s = = = = 326.36.
Now, by entering Table III. with 1.25 as the value of
d, and Table I. with 326 as the value of s, we obtain
2.49490 as the logarithm for the numerator, and
1.18065 as the logarithm corresponding to 826.36.
__——_ the difference of which logarithms is
1.31425 the logarithm of 20,618, or the value of
307(/d — 01)
fs — Hyp. Log. 4/5 4+ 1.6
‘In order to find the value of the negative quantity 0.3
(/ d—0.1) enter Table II. col. 1. swith 1.25, and in col.
5. will befound, by taking proportional parts, 0.305 ;
hence we have the velocity V=20.618—0.305=20.313,
the velocity, of the water in inches per second.
The whole.of the preceding operation ma
be saved
by Table II.; for, by entering col. 1. of this
‘able with
5 inches as the diameter of the.pipe, we obtain at once ”
and 0.305 as the values of the numerator and
In order to ebtain the number
each of which contains 103.4
ly the velocity by 60”, and
then by 0.7854, the area
2.49490,
the negative quantity.
of Scotch pints per, minute,
cubic inches, we must multi
this product by 5* or 25, ani
ofa circle whose diameter is 1, and then divide by 103.4,
“Thus,
Log. of 20.313 1.807774
Log.of 60" 1.7781513
Log. of 5? or 25 1.3979400
Log. of 0.7854 9.8950909
From 4,3789563
-Subtract Log..of 103.4 2.0145205
Remains Log. of 231.44 _ 2.3644358
Scots pints, which should be delivered by the ipe.
Now, the pipe, when in its best order, yie ded 250
pints in a minute, a= we have learned from a MS. note
of Dr Robison.
Since the logarithm of 60, of .7854, and of 103.4 is
constant, we may take 1.7781513 +4 9.8950909 —
rs 45205 == 9.6587217, and the operation will stand
thus: ‘
Log. of 20.313 *1.3077741
Log. of 5? 1.3979400
Log. for reducing to Scotch pints 9.6587217
Log. of 231.44 as before. 2.3644358
Hence we have the following Rule: Add together
the logarithm of the velocity in inches per second, as
found by the formula, the logarithm of the square of
the diameter of the pipe, and the constant logarithm
HYDRODYNAMICS.
9.6687213, and the sum is the logarithm of the Seotch Mo
ig ay tg ta a a
e facts in the preceding example respecting the
supply of Edinburgh ~ - :
Robison’s article on Waterworks already quoted. We
are informed, however, by James Jardine, Esq. civil
engineer, that the facts are wholly erroneous, and” we
have been indebted to the kindness of this gentleman
for the following state of the Edi water pipes, to
which we shall apply the formula of Du 'Buat,
Exampre II. An excellent cast leaden pipe was laid
from the fountain head at Comiston to the reservoir on
the Castlehill of Edinburgh in the year 1720. The in-
terior diameter of the pipe was 44 inches, the foun-
tainhead was 51 feet above the point of delivery, and
the length of the pipe was 14,930 feet. Its maximum
discharge during the years 1738, 1739, 1740, 1741, and,
1742, was 11} cubic feet, or 189.4 Scotch pints per
minute.
Jn this example we have d = - == 15126
14930
61
. of numerator pain barman tee te ©
Log. of denominator . + + + +
s=
== 292.745
2.46971
1.15431
of A) a) Su 20078
Log. 1.81540
Subtract negative quantity .288
Remains
Hence
Log. of 20.885 + + + + + + + +
Log. of 437 or 20.25 + + se es
Log. for reducing to Scotch pints. .
Log. of 188.13 Scotch pints . . + + 2.2744574
‘A result which agrees in a very wonderful manner
with 189.4, the quantity actually delivered by the
20,385 the velocity per second,
1.3093107
1.3064250
9.6587217
pipe.
x FE AMPLE III. A flanch cast iron pipe is laid from
Swanston cistern to the reservoir on the Castlehill, E=
dinburgh. Its diameter is seven inches ; the cistern at
Swanston is 222 feet higher than the point of delivery,
the length of the pipe is 21,350 feet, and in its best
state it delivers 34 cubic feet, or 593.3 Scotch pints
in a minute,
In-this case we have d= _ 1.75
21350
Pr 239 = 96.17.
Log. of numerator SRey Dah Mess | OTEDS
Log. of denominator - - + + 0.87595
Log. of Se ie hee'A he 49.964 1.69857 :
Subtractnegative quantity .367
Remains 49.597 the velocity per second.
Log. of . - + + 49.597 .« 1.695447
Log.of . +--+ 7Tor4g .. 1.690196
Log. for reducing to Scotch pints . - 9.658721
3.044364
Log. of 1107.5 wis: [Oe teen
* Dr Robison, who applied his tables to this example, makes the Jength of the pipe 14,637 by mistake, and has corrected it to 14,367
in his MS, notes.
with water were taken from Dr Qo.
to 4 feet deep, and "*—7 — 54 of projection, is 6.8
feet, we have for the perimeter of the section in con-
tact with the water, 6.8 + 7 4+ 6.8— 20.6. The area
feet. Hence d= 77 = 2.4272, or 29.196. The
to this in Table ITl. is $ 20117,
in col. 5. is 1.589.
And there remsins 1.12837 = Log. of 13.439 inches
Subtract the negative quantity 1.589
11.850 inches,
which
most correct in small canals where it is most needed, such
as in mill courses and other deri working ma-
tion, he proposes to substitute in place of the expression
V4.6 the expression 2} Com. Log.
Instead of the part of the Hyp. Log,
part numerator Hyp.
vs + 18, Aner Ln apeebs herve cic :,
by Which is nearly the same a ae iz:
. proposes also V = 907 (/4—1).(F, + 7; —.001)
and since s°-*"* may be substituted without much inac.
curacy in place of 5 °-**, the term —2-°, will become
- Pca
en which may be determined without logarithars.
Hence the whole formula will become
ie ho ys
V=153( vd—02)./ (53) + 1.6(F5q)"—001
# being the length of the pipe, A the height of the whole
head o€ water, and d the diameter of the pipe. In this
Bo
HYDRODYNAMICS.
“mee
OF more simply,
4+4-1.6, which he considers both as more simple and -
527
Motion of
Water in
_ bq 45d
formula s = +. The formula may be applied to pond
rivers, by taking + as the sine of their inclination. = —y—
M. has to substitute 482 in place
of the number 478- used by Du Buat in his formula‘
V*=4/478h in French inches, which gives V=4/509h
ish inch
the ef-
ing into one
is bent in one or more
fect of the may be found by
sum ¢ the squares of the sines thus,
by
gsdorf.
509dh ;
VEV\Ty al + 010de)
which is Langsdorf's formula reduced to English mea-
sure.
M. Eytelwein conceives the head of water to be di- Formule
vided mto two parts, one of which is ed in
Fano war t wombat en 0 EA
coming the-resistances to which itis exposed. He cons:
siders the height employed in overcoming the resist-
pe Ae re einen socio = Caden 2
circumference of the section, or as the di of the
pipe, and inversely as the area of the section, or as the
square of the diameter ; thatis, on the whole, inversely
as the diameter.. This height too, must, like the resist-
ance arising from friction, vary as the of the ve-
locity. Hence if f denote the hei to the fric-
tion, 3 the diameter of the pipe, and @ a constant quan-
tity, we shall have
fave, and veal?
and V=
Or, what is considered more accurate,
528 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of = 14930, hence we shall obtain 1.7196 for the velocit, =
Waterin jn feet per second, or 20.5692 for the velocity in inchee, Vato. de
ies and’ which, by the rule already explained, gives 189.77 In applying this formula to Example II. in p. 526, te+”
Scotch pints per minute. lative to the velocity ina canal as measured by Mr Watt,
Quantity of water delivered] 189.4 Scotch pints per We haye d =29:126 and f=8 inches. or
bythe pipe, » + + > minute. —_—_—.. }
Ditto poh wie ire yi sp0.77 Hence V=0.91V 8X 29.120=0.91 X 15.264 =13.890,
wein’s formula, . + + ‘ a result which agrees nearly with th
Ditto by Du Buat’s formula, 188.15 leit as ascertained by Mr Watt. 4 errata we
From which it appears, that in this case Eytelwein’s The preceding formula is a plicable only to a canal, ©
formula is the most correct of the two, the error being or toa straight river flowing through an equable chan«
only 0.37, while in Du Buat’s it is 1.27 Scotch pints. nel, M, Eytelwein has shewn that the velocity is in
_, The accuracy of both the formule is very remarkable. general a little greater, when the bottom is horizontal
gp ss s In order to obtain a rule for determining, the veloci- than-when it is parallel to the surface, and that the
3 mle fe o ty of water in canals and rivers, M. Eytelwein con- velocity in curved channels is always greater on the
vie siders the friction as nearly proportional to the square convex than on the concave side. It is not easy to
of the velocity, not because a number of particles pro- give a rule for the decrease of the velocity from the
portional to the velocity is torn asunder in a time pro- surface to the bottom ‘of a stream of water, as it is
portionally short, but because, when a body is moving sometimes found to be a maximum below the surface.
in lines of a given curvature, the deflecting forces are ;
as the squares of the velocities ; for it is obvious, that. _ The following are the velocities. in the Arno and
the particles of water which touch the sides and bottom the Rhine:
of the canal must be deflected, in consequence of the ele-
vations and depressions on the surface upon which they ARNO. Rurve.
slide nearly into the same curvilineal path, whatever Depth in ‘Velocity in inches | Depth in Velocity in inches
be the velocity with which they move. We may there- feet. sper second, feet. per second.
fore consider the friction as nearly proportional to the Zireeees 394 5 Pere 58
square of the velocity, and as nearly the same at. all Ae ew. B85 5s, checeuoiahan ae
depths. It will, however, vary according to. the surface 8B wee ST 10, ale + oyna be
ofthe fluid which isin contact with the solid, in propor- 16.2... 833 Livin 0's annie, 48
tion to the whole quantity of fluid ; that is, the friction 1; (atmyets ra Sh
for a given quantity of water will be directly as the sur-
face of the bottom and sides of a canal, oras the perime- M. Eytelwein considers that an approximate value
ter of the'section in contact with the water; or supposing of the mean velocity may be obtained by deducting
the whole quantity of water to be spread upenahorizon- +30 for every foot-of the whole depth.
tal plane equal to the bottom and sides, the friction. will
be inversely as the height at which the water would
poe which is dienes in Te sean depth. Secr. III. Account of the Investigations of M. Prony, re
ut in a river flowing uniformly, and neither acce- tine the velocity © a + Pi
lerated nor retarded by gravity, the whole weight of the poy Canale. ae roe > Conduit Pipes, ant
water must be employed in overcoming this friction ;
and if the inclination of the plane varies, the relative In our history of Hydrod namics, we have alread. ‘Tn
weight, or the force that urges the particles along the given a general view of the lubonck of Chezy, Girard, tions
inclined plane, will vary as the height of the plane and Prony, in the composition of formula. for deter- a
when its length is given, or as the fall in any givendis« mining the velocity of water in conduit pipes and open ral
tance. Hence it follows, that: the friction, which is canals. As the formule obtained by these eminent en- 7
equal to the relative weight, must-vary as the fall; and gineers have all the same character, both from their ex
the velocity, whieh is as the square root of the friction, treme simplicity, and from their containing only alge-
must be as the square root of the fall; and. supposing braical quantities, we have thought it proper to give an
the hydraulic mean depth. to increase or diminish while account of them in the same ‘Section. In doing this,
the inclination remains the same, the friction would be we shall adopt the notation of M. Prony, and retain the
diminished or increased in the same ratio; and therefore, coefficients_as he has given them in French metres.
in order to preserve its equality with the relative weight,
it must be proportionally increased or diminished, by The following are the symbols which he employs :
increasing the square of the velocity, in theratioofthe = the length of the pipe or )
hydraulic mean depth, or the velocity in the ratio of its 2 = the difference of level between the two extremi-
square root. We may expect, therefore, that the velo-« ties of the pipe.
cities will be conjointly as the ane root of the hy- «=the area of the section of the pipe or canal. . yi
draulic mean depth, and of the fi l in a given distance, x, = the perimeter of the section in contact with the ¥;
or as amean proportional between thesetwo lines. If we water.
take two English miles for a-given length, we must find = the accelerating force of gravity, or 32.174.
a mean proportional between the hydraulic mean depth, D =the diameter of the tube. a
and the fall in two English miles ; and having ascertain- # th di the. hudeedla
ed the rélation-whieh this bears to the velocity in a par~ R=“= the mean radius, or the hydraule meat
ticular case, we may easily determine it in all other cases. ¥ depth.
According to M. Eytelwein’s formula, this mean prow T= the sine of the inclination of the pipe or ca-
jonal is 43 of the velocity, or 0,91 times the velocity nal. bi :
in a second. Making @ the hydraulic mean depth in =U =the mean velocit in the section #.
inches, f the fall in two English miles in inches, /fd §V=the velocity of rt surface ] In eat ec
being the mean proportional, we have W =the velocity at the bottom 7" . oe
Pome. =
f HYDRODYNAMICS. 529
. notation, the formula of Du Buat, _ In order to obtain a formula for the mean velocity of Motion of
Mein cehcemien © Sei » . fluids, M. Prony found, that an expression of the mean Poet
iiss and Ra velocity, deduced from the theory of fluids, and com- Pipes
—— fT /=—) of terms relative to gravity, to the dimensions or _
x Seige! /a figure af the ipe or canal, ought to be equal to a cer-
ndiost” © . Oe; (/2—01) function of this mean velocity ; and in detertaining
: Sf Hyp. Log.,/ > +16 % this function, he observed, that in all the h re-
$ ing the unknown function of the velocity to which
; Or when reduced to French metres, is . nal that snakes iiation
‘ A uniform, it ways be loped in a series, arran-
i U= — —>= 0.049359) ged according to the whole powers of the mean veloci-
“(immer /2418 ty, or the variable quantity. That is,
te oe 2 .UEsU $y US, &e.
(. / = 1016888) Ax Shee
bh * hick * fi ti * t of “ w . 4
Me per Ne haps st Ley Ch sd ~—— along with the co-efficients ie Be must be deter-
* ie of the volatile meat simple than the aes apres,
as more . - .
preceding. He assimilates the resistance of the sides ae term c of this series, is related on the one
of the pipe or canal to known resistances, which follow have, may
the law of the square of the velocity; and he supposes mence ; and on the other hand, to the form and dimen-
. the of water in canals,
In the execution of this task, M. Prony has availed
himself of the fine methods for the correction of ano-
eS Re nD ON ique
Celeste, determining re
as accurately as the more Tivos ben ghee ne 2 c than three of. thee metho
cohesion b U . RP’ het which Prony considers as
pone ert scat Bat ded the adh. If we have obtained, for example, a series of experi-
that the adhesion to the paroi mouiliée, or film ™ental values of any variable wantity, these values
ee aie of Ce ripe, of tho cape may be connected together by a law, by applying small
which are there disseminated, is the same as that "rections to each of the « results, The
which retains the fluid molecales to one another, he 1¥4tion which expresses this law, may be put under the
makes the resistance due to these asperities equal to frm
BR’ Us, so that the sum of the two resistances is Z=«+6X,
=
pring Tas expen dheerienihoeda da hes Walang to
or making ~ => =I, and — = R, the formula be- the article ; but in some part of our work, pro-
a x y under the article Putysics, we shall lay them be-
comes U = —0.5 + 4/ (0.25 4 8052.54 RI). for our readers.
* See Mecanique Celeste, Part I. Lib, iii. Sect, $9, and 40,
VOL. XI. PART IIL Sx
Motion of
Water in
Pipes and
Canals.
———
9*| Canal of Jard.
530
If we divide by U both sides of the equation,
ge C rs . . ge & os
oe ==« U+<64 U2, we obtain Ue a-+¢ U, and pute
ting £5 = y; we have an’ equation of the first order
y=«+ 8 U,in which all the quantities are linear ex~
cept 4, which is an abstract number.
By calculating as many values of y corresponding to
the determined values of U, as we have experiments on
the velocity observed in canals, where Z, a, #, and x,
have been measured, and by finding « and by the
methods already mentioned, we obtain an expression of
the velocity.
M. Prony has applied these methods to the twelve
experiments, from which Girard deduced the value of
fhe co-efficient R in his formula, chiefly with the view
of comparing the results obtained’ by Du’ Buat’s for-
mula, Girard’s formula, and his own formula, Two of
HYDRODYNAMICS.
these twelve experiments were made by M. Chezy u
the Rigole of Courpalet, and upon the Seine. The
other ten are taken from Du Buat’s work, andarethose Pipes! nd
which Girard employed. From these experiments,
Prony finds «= 0.00093, and 6=0.00266. Hence we
obtain M
e28 = 0.00093 U 4.0.00266 U2,
which, when reduced, gives
i 0,174812 4 4/(0.0905592 4 RL e)
%
The particulars of the twelve experiments are given in
the following Table, in columns 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6. Co-
lumn 7 is calculated from Du Buat’s formula already
given, column 8 from Girard’s, and column 9 from. the
preceding formula of Prony’s, The four experiments
marked with an asterisk are rejected as anomalous.
TABLE IL.
Containing the mean Velocities of Currents of Water deduced from eight Experiments, compared with the
Velocities as calculated by the Formule of Du Buat, Girard, and Prony.
Canal of Jard.
0,260143 | 0,189760| 467,769
0329414 | 0,248518) 467,769
Ea
DIAG S oo
River Hayne.
Canal of Jard.
River Hayne.
0,426081
0,432036 | 0,3837349] 359,272
1 2 3 “4 5 6 7 8
y ae aie) | : | fared
g Velocities observed, Total Total Area of | Perimeter Mean Velocities calculated,
feo} directly deduced’from } length of | declivity |the Section} of the or values of U.
Names of the Ob ervation. the on the of the Section, |” By the By the By the
5 Currents. Current or] length 2, | Current, or Formula | Formula | Formula
3 Superficial| Mean values of jor values ofjor values of] values of of * of of
is Velocity. | Velocity. | A @ x Du Buat. | Girard. Prony.
fer Rigoleof Courpalet. (0,142659 | 0,094051| 31379,5 | 1,11438 |0,674492 | 2,83863 |0,130759 |0,076449 ),086587
2 ‘.¢10,196799 | 0,137345| 467,769 | 0,016355)4,4883 8,77066 |0,177309 |0,131695 10,135891
0,0214.30/5,7582
0,040605|8,72377
0,368423 | 0,282091| 359,272 | 0,010896/22,6466 °
0,332219| 467,769 | 0,03045417,675:
0,010061/29,0468
0,461532 | 0,372087| 467,769 | 0,052448|11,9092
isan 0,148857]| 467,769 | 0,016919)5,4050
'10% River Seine. 0,785029 | 0,652790| 2592,22 | 0,2977701284,9 | 103,299 |0,824497 |1,17367 |0,92010
LU") River FH 0,860012 | 0,720968) 359,272 | 0,056012)28,4598 | 16,269 |0,778532|1,0541 0,843152
12 iver *ayNE- 4 10,950426 | 0803563] 359,272 | 0,059396)23,0812 | 15,4082 |0,747672 10,9941 62 \0,796834
9,12257 |0,191385 |0,071647 |0,156218
9,20378 |0,226847 |0,1934 —|0,194314
9,9076 |0,893055 |0,429232 |0,384124
15,3757 |0,272865 |0,280515 |0,267086
9,74518 |0,314282 |0,428938 0,293862
16,3503 |0,285046 |0,317697 |0,287803
10,8821 |0,508103 |0,661230 |0,520199
In the preceding Table, the mean velocities in co-
lumn 2 were not directly observed, but were deduced
from the superficial velocities by a formula of Du Buat,
viz.
U=(./V— 0.08227 )* 4.0.0067675.
In this formula, which is reduced to metres, U is the
mean velocity, and V the superficial velocity. Girard
also calculated his mean velocities by an equivalent for-
mula.
The relative accuracies of the three formule will be
seen from the following Table of differences.
Absolute differences between
the calculated and observed
mean velocity.
. Positive Negative
difference, difference,
Formula of Du Buat ..... 0.0338 0.0391
Formula of Girard ..... 0.0288 0.0970
Formula of Prony ..... 0.0198 0.0060
In Du Buat’s formula, the errors are between xin
and +9; of the observed results; in Girard’s they are
between +. and 44; and in Prony’s between yZ5
and 74,5. The great superiority of Prony’s formula is
therefore manifest.
As the preceding formula of Prony was drawn on
ly from a few observations, for the purpose of compa-
ring it with the other formula, he has deduced more
correct values of «and ¢ from 31 experiments, including
the eight experiments of Du Buat in Table I. The 23
new experiments were performed with very great accu-
racy upon artificial canals, and have the advantage of
giving the mean velocity from direct observation.
These experiments, which are contained in Table II.
give the following values of «and 8, viz.
- a= 0.000436, 6=0:003034, from which we obtain
U=+0.0718528-+ ¥/(0,005162754 Paes es 2),
Or more simply, ;
U=—0.074 v (0.0054 =S"*), which will be suf-
ficiently exact. With the first of these formule, the
numbers in column 8 of Table II. were calculated.
‘ ;
i
7
‘
’
j
«= 0.00017, 2 = 0,008416,
; HYDRODYNAMICS. o3h
, Motion o7,
1 : ey Water in
; TABLE I. bs cob
‘Containing the Velocities of Water in Canals, as observed in thirty-one Experiments, compared with
wae are es the Welocities calculated by Prony's Formula.
1 ar wae 3 + 3 6 7 8
Perimeters Areas Inclination Values © Mean Velocities, or values of Velocities,
Number} of the the Sections, eager Bo
of Sections, ‘or ‘] Of values ‘unctions - : : values o!
Experi-| or values of | values of z gel hd hacthontinn u
— % e ra azxU Experiment. | Velocity. calculated.
. Metres... Metres. Metres. "Metres. Metres. Metres. Metres.
1 | 2,33863. | 0,674492 ‘| 0,00003551 | 0,0008623 0,116509 |} 0,125798
2 | 0,683516} 0,050562 | 0,0001077 0,0006287 |, 0,124251 0,103964
3 | 0,954216} 0,0113764} Id. 0,0008160° | 0,154299 0,144)61
4 | 8,77066 | 4,4883 0,00008496 | 0,0010922 0,160679 O,17916L ,
5 | 9,12257 | 5.4050 0,00003617 | 0,0012213 ‘ 0,172109 0,200992
6 | 9,20878 | 5,7582. _| 0,00004581 | 0,0013239 0;212861 0,240924
7 | 0,368693| 0,0152639} 0,0005787. | 0,00097107|: 0,242005 0,215583
8 | 0,577402] 0,0258071| 0,0007082 | 0,0012481 0,248773 0,256018
9 | 0,460189] 0,0251857| 0,0005787 | 0,0011819 | 0,262849 0,256107
10 | 15,8757 Re 0,00003033 | 0,0014567 0,800783 0,314806
11 | 0,629377| 0,0379215} 0,0007082 | 0,0012779 | 0,327546 0,306459
12 0,0005787 | 0,0010339 | 033,4043 0,273113
13 | 9,74518 | 7,6759 0,00006510 | 0,0014458 “4 0;347893 0.341608
14 | 16,3503 0,00002800 | 0,0013832 0,352792 0,33558
15 | 0.575287} 0,025281 | 0,0010764 | 0,0012641 | 0,367069 0,325775
16 | 0,705984| 0,0007082 | 0,0014321 | 0,38358! ~ 0,359686
17 | 0,789630) 0,0753154| = Ia. 0,0015741 | 0,420938 0,400958
18 | 0,414442] 0,0199817| 0,0023419 | 0, 0,494839 0,535840
19 | 0,575237| 0,025281 | 0,0021834 | 0,0017179 | 0,547896 0,489747
20 | 0,490778) 00288423) 0,0023419 | 0,0024567 | 0,549520 0,599057
21 | 0,551415| 0,0369616 Id. 0,0025427 | 0,605555 0,644159 .
22 | 0,582004| 0,0413509 Td. 0,0025612 | 0,637227 0,665101
23 | 0,703819} 0,061136 | 0,002 0,0028149 | 0,734678 0,756869
24 | 0,353534) 0,0138056| 0.0047170 | 0,0024262 | 0,744694 0,703180
25 | 0,737656| 0,0632025| 0,0021834 | 0,0023961 | 0,765809 0,709152
26 | 0,772306| 0,0738205| 0,0023148 | 0,0028111 | 0,772035 0,776964
27 | 15,4028 23,0812 0,00016532 | 0,0031313 0,776043 0,825972
28 798563 | 0,0370788 | 0,004717 0,0027442 | 0,782863 |~ 0,772683
29 | 0,840793| 0,0876261| 0,0023148 | 0,0028084 | 0,816430 0,814208
30 0,878961 | 0,095782 Id, 0,0028662 0,863261 0,834059
31 | 0,894121} 0,0991601 Id. 0,0028604 | 0,880815 0,841999
In the calculated with the observed re-
SS ae
k are ne- — j2
diferences 0.0260, which shews thatthe anoma Brn AONE D rf 0.008819 0",
caleulated results hold 's just medium Between thang Which, after reduction, gives
U = —0,0248829 + 4/(0.000619159 4. TAs
By means of this formula, the numbers in column. §
OO nee eT naenee calneies welenng ee
pak Pte a ; i resul z r
sath ie ae remarkable, as the im were
made by different observers, and with t
tus, Oe EE ns Be toe 114 feet
to 7020, and their diameters 1 inch to 18 i
She Cowenees prem ana eoeeenn a0) Observed
results amount only to 54 or ..
The i (ted ok. EE
present state the velocities are very small; but
when the ose oy oo pele we may in ordi-«
nary eases use the following very, any le formula,
v= 2679/2.
532
Motion of From which it ap
Water in
Pipes and
Canals,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
3 that the velocity is directly in
the compound ratio of the square roots of the diameter
of the pipe and the head of water, and inversely as the
=~ ‘Square roots of the length of the pipe
agrees with that which the Abbé ut obtained from
his experiments ; that is, for any given head of water
3 a result which
is inversely as the
See page 511, col. 1.
ipe, Motion o
square root of the length of the pipe. coal
In Table IV. we have given the observed measures
in French inches, for the sake of those who may wish
to compare them with the other experiments of Du Bu-
and diameter of pipe, the velocity in a horizontal pipe at or Bossut.
TABLE IIf.
Comparison of Prony’s Formula, with the Results of Fifty-one Experiments by different Observers.
No. of Waniee oF Head of water Values of Velocities, or values of U.
Experi- Pieces: above the lower | Diameter of the | Length of the gDZ,
ments. end of the Pipe. Pipe. Pipe. 4x0 Observed velo- | Calculated velo-
cities. Cities,
Metres. Metres. Metres, Metres. Metres. Metres.
J Du Buat. 0,0040605 | 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00031409 | 0,0430142 | 0,04275
2 Couplet. 0,151132 0,135350 2280,37 0,00040412 | 0,0544296 | 0,059132
3 Couplet. 0,306784 Id. Id. 0,00052299. | 0,0853786 | 0,092124
4 Du Buat. 0,013535 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00045929 | 0,0980744 | 0,092602
5 Couplet. 0453422 0,135350. 2280,37 0,00059072 | 0,111718 0,126321
6 Id. 0,570716 Id. \ Id. 0,00063849, | 0,130098 0,133029
7 Id. 0,649678 Id. Id. + 0,00167009 | 0,141116 0,143345
S Id. 0,676749. Id. Id. 0,00168358 | 0,144093 0,146739
9 | Du Buat, 0,0189489 | 0,0270699 | 3,74919 | 0,00142651 | 0,235211 0,289495
10 Id. 0,113694 Id. Id. | 0,00133843 | 0,282637 0,308824
11 Ia. Td. Id. Id. 0,00130958 | 0,288863 Id.
12 | Bossut. 0,1082800 Id. 16,2419. | 0,00133748 | 0,380876 0,335905
13 Id. 0,324839 0,0360983 58,47108 | 0,00144598 | 0,340053 0,355330
14 | Du Buat. 0,160525 *| 0,0270699. | 19,9506 | 0,00148184 | 0,360437 0,371316
15 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0360933 |. “48,7258 |. 0,00154965 | 0,380766 0,391471
16 | Du Buat. 0,210604 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00171296 | 0,409081 0,428717
17 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0360933 38,98072 |. 0,00168746 | 0,436584 0,440183
18 Du Buat. 0,242547 0,0270699 19,9506 ‘|. 0,0018308 0,440807 0,461806
19. | Bossut. 0,324839. 0,0544106 | 58,47108 | 0,00167204 | 0,443325 0,441608
20 | Du Buat. 0,242547 | 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,0017932 0,450038 0,461806
21 Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 | 48,7258 Q,00179521 | 0,495488 0,486011
22 Td. 0,649678 0,0360983 58,47108 | 0,00192257 | 0,511514 0,512245
23 Id. 0,324839 Id. 29,2355 | 0,00191780 | 0,512786 Ia.
2 | Du Buat. | 0,333502 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00205052 | 0,541155 0,545006
25 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 38,98072 | 0,001981315| 0,560537 0,545851
26 Du Buat. 0,370858. 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00217375 | 0,567657 0,576653
27 | Bossut. 0,649678 | 0,0360933 48,7258 0,00207278 | 0,569335 0,563405
28 Du Buat. 0,395221 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00222265 | 0,591641 0,596064
29 | Bossut. 0,324839 Td. 16,2419 | 0,00220106 | 0,603173 0,599029
30 Id. Taj 0,0360933 19,49036. | 0,00233276 | 0,6382354 0,632726
31 Id. Td. 0,0544106 | 29,2355 | 0,002300502| 0,644427 0,634365
82 Id. 0,64.9678 0,0360933 38,98072 | 0,00226756 | 0,649787 0,632347
33 Id. Id. 0,0544106 | 58,47108 | 0,00221446. | 0,669467 0,634366
34 Id. Fa. Td. 48,7258 0,00239239 | 0,743612 0,697201
35 Id. ol 0,0360933 29,2355. | 0,00258798. | 0,759989 |, 0,734322
36 Du Buat. 0,641558 0,0270699 19,9506 0,0027506 0,776068 | 0,766011
37 | Bossut. _ 0,824839 0,0544106 19,49036 | 0,0028119 0,790849 0,7823836
38 Du Buat. 0,162419 0,0270699 3,74919 0,0036206 0,794259 0,892970
89 | Bossut. 0,649678 0,0544106 | 38,98072 | 0,0026558 0,836353 0,781872
40 Td. 0,324339 0,0360933 | 9,74518 | 0,0032867 0,897639 0,904784
. 41 Ta. 0,649678 Ta. 19,49036 | 0,0031615 0,933183 Id.
\ 42 Ta. Td. 0,0544106 | 29,2355 | 0,0030625 0,968157 0,907108
43 Couplet. 3,92739 0,487259 1169,42 0,0037855 1,06003 1,059247
44 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 | 9,74518 | 0,0040737 1,09151 1,116427
45 Fd. 0,649678 Td. 19,49034 | 0,0038209 1,16401 Id.
46 Id. Id. 0,0360933 | 9,74518 | 0,0044911 1,31381 1,289627
47 | Du Buat. 0,487259 0,0270699 | 3,16718 0,0064.699 1,57845 1,704337
48 Id. 0,567116 Td. 3,74919 | 0,0063075 1,59193 1,689767
49 Bossut. 0,649678 0,0544106 9,74518 0,0055786 1,5945 1,588977
50 | Du Buat. 0,721864 0,0270699 | 3,16718 | 0,0078386 | 1,93011 2,079787
51 Id, 0,974518 Ta. Ta. 0,0088825 2,29946 2,420487
a
a ae
HYDRODYNAMICS.
TABLE IV.
Containing the observed Measures in Taste III. in
French Inches.
Pee Head of Diame-
= Mhuthors, [abore the [oF el pin ee pe seg
or
ment end} PIP | of U.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SSS SESPSTSSSSSSSSSESSSSSRNSLLSE
Ta ta
5
le
RES
z
j
.
[odealpemsTil
=
. which is deduced from the equation
: Es
EH
gre
serve
feel
= —0.0469754 +. 4/ (0,0022065 4 9041.47G).
both for
533
When this formula is applied to canals, we must take Bain of
G=RI; 1=4; and R=. Pips wd |
WAMEIEIs 6 be applied to pipes, we must take ——
G=sDJ, D=diameter of pipe, and J=+8—F
....
es itself in air ; as in this case,
Bisse
t of
Du Buat for ing the mean Relation
ity was, when reduced to the. between the
superficial
* U = (/V — 0.08227)" 4. 0.067675, Lary
on
C=WV—Vtwy+iw,
velocity = 0.0270699 = 1 inch
measure, and 4/ W = 0.16453.
« = 4.036; A = 1.280, from which we have
@ = 237187; b = 3.15812, and
Ua V(V + 2.97187)
~ W48.15812 ”
a formula which is not only more commodious, and
more easily calculated, but more conformable with
experiments than that of Du Buat. This formula nfhy
be put under the form
2.46338
OSV ONOIRS + es ssie”
from which we obtain,
V=4(U 2.871874. (U0 —2,37187)*4 3.15312)
534 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion ‘of The numbers in. column 5. of the following Table which gives a precision of between x and 3;, and is
Water in have been computed from the formula ; a simplification of the preceding formula,
Pipes and U = 0,816458 V,
Canals.
———
TABLE V.
Containing the observed mean Velocities of Water, compared with those deduced Jrom the superficial
Velocities by the Formule of Du Buat and Prony.
1 2 3 4. 5 6 7
Velocities.
Number Observed. Calculated er of irre Wr es
of Experi- i vow Prony’s best
mene: bya: “smay of the | Wrean velocities, | By Du Buat’s By Prony’s Formula.
bye aes iv. or values of U. Formula. ‘ormula.
1 0,1638 051242 0,11124 _ 0,13374 4,1363 0,12522
2 0,2954 0,2421 0,21951 0,24118 |. 55422) | 0.22848
3 0,3118 032487 0,23346 0,25457 49414 0,24151
4 0,4331 0,3275. 0,33837 0,35361 © 4,1014 -. 0,83876
5 0,4640 0,3836 0,32526 0,37884 5,7711 0,86379
6 0,5197 0,4210 0,41462 0,42431 5,265% 0,40916
7 0,6186 0,4949 ' 0,50273 § | 0,50506 5,0008 | 0,49047
“8 0,6719 0,5479 0,55057 0,54857 5,4185 0,53467
9 0,7797 0,7447 0,64795 0,63660 , 22,2770 0,61060 |
> 5 10 ~ 0,8121 0,6055 0,67737 0,66305 3,9308 0,65210
11 0,8473 0,6372 0,70939 0,69179 4,0328 0,68184
12 0,9280 0,7720 0,78304 0,75767 5,9488 0,75036
13 0,9745 0,7658 0,82562 0,79564 4,6694 0,79006
14 1,0257 0,8633 0,87246 0,83744 6,3158 0,83395
15 1,1461 1,0893 0,99346 0,93574 20,1780 0,93784
16 1,2994 1,0555 1,12538 1,0609 5,3264 1,0714
17 1,2994 1,1099 1,12538 1,0609 6,8569 1,0714
The agreement of the numbers in column 7, with 46Q -gjD’_.., 1. 6a 6428 Formul
those in pam 3, is very striking ; and it is rertiarke “+= 16Q aenaer ne =2',and =F hal for fi
able that the numbers in column 5, calculated from the qu
Prony’s simple formula, big ah Koc V, aremore gives
ccordant with experiment than those in column 4, com- 4 i! P C
pnted from Du Buat’s formula. This formula may jD> —«'QD?—@’ Q’ = 0, or since
be reduced to a’ = 0.000088268 and 4’ 0.002258305, we have
‘U= 0.82 V, or evenU = 0.8 V, Jj D° —0.000088268 Q D* — 0.00225830 Q* = 0,
ar ws .. which expresses the relation between the diameter of a
fem ith alos nt he men tte Br ein eee mae
Formula In order to introduce into the equation which ex- pera » Ae. i length, a prelvity, and t “Toaae 5 of
for finding presses the velocity, the value of the volume of water Water above I Upper ANclgwer Grapes are. kno Wwis
the quanti- . = = " sic H Yess EI?
F which flows through any section in a given time, ‘ . . H+¢€—H
Gudea. Prony calls Q the volume of water, and 3.1416 =, In this equation j = ix S
4Q 348 : oaf ited i
——~, and these be troduced into Im order to facilitate the application of this formula,
ape Pee eee ee Prony has computed the following Table, which gives 4
the equation 1 gj D= «U +'@U* wherea= 0.00017, the relations between D, Q andj, as deduced from the <
and 6 = 0,003416, gives above equation.
and hence U=
HYDRODYNAMICS. 535
TABLE VI. Containing the Declivity of the Pipe and its Diameter for different Quantities of Water
. Sotherpte in a Second. fret e
: Pine Pipe ‘Quantities of Water discharged in a Second in ten thousand parts of a Cubic Metre.
‘|in hundred :
partsofa | Q = 0,0001 Q = 0,002 Q =0,0008 Q=0,0004 Q =0,0005
Values of j. Values of j. Values of Values of j. Values of j.
0,01 0,2346568 0,9209736 2,0. 3.6485872 5,6898840
0,02 0,0081604 0,0304354 0,0668247 0,117328% 0,1819463
0,03 0,0012563 | 0,0043712 0,0093445 0,0161763 0,0248665
0,0% 0,0003585 0,0011580 0,0023986 0,0040803 0,0062031
0,05 0,0001429 0,0008622 0,0014387 0,0021597
0,06 0,0000699 0,0001979 0,0003840 1 0,0009304
—— Quantities of Water discharged in a Second in thousand parts of a Cubic Metre.
of a Q =0,001 Q = 0,002 Q = 0,003 Q=0,004 Q = 0,005
0,10 0,0081410 0,0107986 0, 0,0396636 0,0608709
0,11 0,0146096 0,025088+ 0,0383716
0,12 0,0014184 0, 19 0,0165642 0,0252431
0,13 0,0010100 0,0066793 0,0118387 0,0172145
0,14 0,0007416 0,0047441 0,0080051 0,0121058
0,0005589 0,0017126 0,0034611, 0,0058044 0,0087424
0,16 0,0004309 0,0012925 0,0025848 0,0043079
0,17 0,0003387 0,0019705 0,00326386 0,0048748
0,1 . 8.4 36
2 | 19092°| — 2.12 “~ 1s Jack Gange
1 92.58 ae 5.14 ioe
3 Inch Gauge. 2 | 130.92 a 14.10 rn
eI 11,63
}) 2 |) — 0.16 - s | 16092 | — | 2578 -—
7.2 .08 24.8 13.71
| 5846 7 0.24 - 4 | 185.16 — | 3944
12.0 -20 21.8 15.32
k 19.8 1
| }.| 75.60 _ 0.67 -- 6 | 226.80 — | 71.40 pin
4.6 13 18,1 17.90
3 | 80.16 se 0.80 _ 7 | 264.94 — | 89.30 —
: 124 A3 16.9 18.76
1 92.58 — 1.23 os 8 261.84 _ 108.06
’ 20.8 1.00 15.9 19.24
1} | 113.40 = 2.23 -- 9 | 277.73 127.30 — _
17.5 1.4 15.0 19.07
2 190.2 — 3.87 _ 10 292.74 - 146.37 -~
15.6 1.20 14.3 20.43
23 146.40 — 4.57 — Il 807.05 166.80 _ .
13.9 1.27 13.7 20.30
2 3 160.82 —- 5.84 _ 12 320.70 — 187.10 _
542 HYDROD
Resistance
of Fluids.
Some Oa 18 Inch Gauge.
Thickness} Mean Velo-
of | city per Mi- | Difference. Exxpence Per | Tyifference.
Water. nute,
Inches. Feet. Cubic Feet.
1 92.58 _ 7.71 ane
38.3 13,43
2 130.92 — | 9114 =<
29.4 17.69
3 160,32 _ 38.83 _
24.8 20.60
4 185.16 _ 59.43 —_
21.8 23.23
5 207.00 _ 82.66 Sas,
19.8 26.01
6 226.80 — 108.67 oa
18.1 27.41
” 244.94 — | 136.08 ——
16.9 28.78
8 261.84 — || 16486 —ae
15.9 31.86
9 277.73 —.|196.72 ) —
15.0 31.98
10 ‘292.74 — 228.70 wr
. 14.3 32.66
11 307.05 — 261.36 -
13.6 36.44
12 320.70 _ 297.80 -_
25.7 65.93
14 346.41 —_ 363.78 _
23.9 75.17
16 370,32 _ 438,90 —_
22.5 76.64
18 392.79 _ 515.54 —_
Compari- It will be seen from a comparison of this Table with
son of the Du Buat’s formula in p. 500, that there is a consider
sina Le able agreement between them. For great depths of the
formula, Wasteboard, Du Buat’s formula gives a much greater
discharge than ‘Smeaton’s Table. At small depths of
the wasteboard, Du Buat’s formula gives results less
than -those of Smeaton’s Table, while for intermedi-
ate depths the results approach. very near each other.
The 18 inch gauge, for example, with a depth of .18
inches, discharges, according to Smeaton, 515.54 cubic
feet in aminute; whereas, according to Buat, it should
discharge 554.15 cubic feet. The same gauge, at a
depth of only one foot, discharges 7.71 cubic.feet ; where=
as, according to Du Buat, it should discharge only 7.254
cubic feet. The same notch, with a depth of § inches,
discharges 164.86 cubic feet; and, according toDu Buat,
it should discharge 164.20 cubic feet, saich ds very
nearly the same result,
CHAP. V.
{On THE Percussion AND RESISTANCE OF FLurps.
On the ren. As the laws of the resistance of fluids can be deters
sistance of mined-only from experiment, we shall not occupy our
fluids, pages with theoretical discussions, which are of no prac-
tical utility. It will be necessary, however, to make
the reader acquainted with the ordinary theory of the
resistance of fluids, which may be comprehended in a
few propositions,
. moved by the force of water. ‘
YNAMICS.
Secr. I. Onthe Theory of the Resistance of Fluids. of
Ir a body is moved through afluid medium, it expe-
riences an obstruction in its motion, which is ied
the resistance of the fluid; butif the fluid is in motion,
and strikes the: body at rest; the force sustained by
the body is called the pecorses of the fluid. The
force exerted upon the body is ones the same in
‘both these cases ; and the percussion and the resistance
of fluids follow the same laws. The ordinary theory
which we are about to explain, may be used without
much risk of error in all cases where the angles of im~
pulse is not below 60°, which is’ the case in whee
Prop. I.
If a fluid, whose particles have all the same veloci
strikes a plane surface, the resistance will be as the
roduct of the squares of the velocity of the fluid, the
vonsity. of the fluid, and the area of the plane,
The resistance must obviously be equal to the force
with which each particle strikes the plane, multiplied
by the number of particles which strike it in a given
time. But the force of each one is as its velocity,
and the number of particles which strike the plane in
any given time, must also be as the velocity. Hence the
resistance will be as the square of the velocity. It is
obvious also that the resistance will be proportional to
the density of the ‘fluid, as the number of particles
which ‘strike the plane in the same time must be pro-
portional to the -density; the number of particles
which strike the plane must likewise increase with the
area of the plane ;‘and therefore the whole resistance
must be proportional to the square of the velocity of
the fluid, the density of the fluid, and-the area of the
-surface .of the plane.
‘Prop. II.
Ifa fluid in motion strikes a plane surface at rest, |
inclined to the direction in which the fluid moves, the
resistance perpendicular to the plane is proportional to
the square of the sine of the angle of iriditnacion,
Let AB be the plane surface, inclined at an angle Prare
ABC to the direction DE, or CB of the motion of the'CCCXI
fluid. Draw AC perpendicular to DE. Then it is Fis-%
obvious that the number of particles which strike
against the surface AB is proportional to AC, for none
of these which are beyond A and C can have any ef-=
fect upon the plane. Likewise, if we take EF to re«
esent the velocity of the fluid, and resolve this ve«
locity into the two velocities FG, perpendicular to the
surface-of the plane, and GE pasalbel to the same sur-
face, it is manifest that the part GE has no effect in
acting against the plane. Hence the part of the “force,
which acts perpendicular to the plane is FG, or the
-sine of the angle: GEF = ABC, the inclination of the
plane. That is the force which acts perpendicular to,
‘the plane is proportional to sin. ABC; and'the num’
of particles which strike the plane is also_p ional,
to sin. ABC, ey the resistarice must be pro
portional to sin. ABC x sin. ABC = sin.2 ABC, or
the square of the sine of the angle of inclination. ”
Cor. The:resistance which the plane e: iences in
the direction of its motion, is pr jonal to the cube
coat
. of the sine of the angle of inclination. For as the res °
: 3
| li 4
33 | li
any 3] a Ht i
+ SEE FE 3 ai at
il Hh tr Ee i ifn
ie Hl nit idiat! fl
te HE alt au ul a HE
Ban cee | a on
zien “li di ie La past
“Hitige ae Hi : vi lf fata gaye itr
bil um ia ae sain if rate
‘ : 32 ag iy b “te 28- Hae < ESD be
HG ie sant al ie
aH sl fue ell ue ae
sali anes htathale bs inet He iB
at x ie i : sali 233 cha baaFe ue aay. os di
Z S233 a at ee iat 3 ai » siti § HG
a fis iH Hain oe ie daar i
Bey ae Bet ne an
Ha eae Se
Bag 2 iis see an!
ah as i: 25 232 B23
uu , HE be is
FE G 2 H 28
an
Resistance
of Fluids.
Resistances
im a narrow
canal.
‘Gn the re-
sistances of
PaaTe
©CCcxix,
Pig. 10.
544 HYDRODYNAMICS.
a greater resistance when the waters of the canal were
low ; but no precise measure of this increase of resist~
ance, nor any explanation of its cause, were given till
Bossut published his experiments. The following were
the general results which he obtained.
1. That in narrow canals the resistances are propor-
tional to the squares of the: velocities, following the
same law as in a fluid of indefinite extent.
2. That the resistances in narrow canals, and canals
which have little depth, is greater than in fluids of
indefinite extent.
The cause of this is obvious. When the velocity of
the body is considerable, the fluid which that body
pushes before it has not liberty to expand itself on every
side, but forms a current more or less rapid as the ve-
locity of the body is more or less great. If the body
entirely filled the canal, it would push all the water
before it like the piston of a pump; but as, in narrow
canals, there is always some room for the water to run
both below the boat and at its sides, a part of the fluid
escapes in this way, while another part is driven back ;
and in this way a variety of contrary currents are form-
ed, by which the resistance is increased. This aug-
mentation of resistance is produced, not only by the
heaping up of the fluid on its anterior part, but also by
the want of hydrostatical support behind.
The preceding results furnish an excellent lesson to
the engineer, in so far as they point out the advantage
of making all canals of navigation as wide and deep as
is consistent with a proper economy.
In 1778, M. Bossut undertook,’ in conjunction with
Condorcet, a series of experiments, the object of which
was to determine the law according to which the resist-
ance varied in an indefinite fluid like the sea, by vary-
ing the angle of the prow of a vessel from a straight
line, or 180°, to an angle of 12°. These experiments
were made in the great reservoir, now destroyed, which
formerly existed on the north side of the Boulevards of
Paris. This reservoir was 200 long, 100 wide, and
83 deep. The form of the apparatus employed is
shewn in Plate CCCXIX. Fig. 10.. where MQNOP
is the small vessel. -The prow, MQN, had various
angles, from 180° to 12°, The vessel was drawn along
by a cord C attached to its centre of gravity, which
passing below a pulley on the same level with c, rises
nearly in a vertical line, and passing again over a pul-
ley descends and is attached to the weights, by the
descent of which the motion of the vessel is produ-
ced. A rope QR stretching across the whole length
of the reservoir, serves to regulate the motion of the
vessel. The vessel was then brought, by another
rope fixed at 0, to one end of the reservoir, and the
time in which it described 96 feet uniformly by dif-
ferent weights suspended to the end of the rope, was
carefully measuted by an excellent seconds watch.
Each experiment was repeated five times, and the mean
of these times was adopted as the true measure. The
general results of these experiments are given in the
following Table, and compared with those given by the
ordinary theory. The Table contains the resistances
for fifteen different kinds. of prows. The base MN
Fig. 10. remains always the same, while the angle
MQN of the prow, formed into an isosceles triangle,
is made variable.
Comparative Table of the Resistances experienced by 15
Angular Prows, as deduced by Bossut from his Ex-
periments.
Calculated Re- be-|
Angles of the |sistances according’ tween the ob-
Prow, or va- | to the common |Observed Resist- jserved and cal-
lues of theory, or values ances. culated Re-
MQN = 2. of Cos.® x, , . sistances.
180° 10000 . 10000 0
168 9893 9890 $
156 9578 9568 10
144 9084 9045 39 |
132 8446 8346 100
120 7710 7500 210 .
108 6925 6545 380
96 6148 5523 625
84 5433. . 4478 955 |
72 4800 3455 1345
60 4404 2500 1904
48 4240 1654 2586 1
36 4142 955 3187
24 4062 432 3631
12 3999 109 8890
ry theory, are calculated by the formula 1000 Cos. ? a,
x being the angle of the prow. In order to obtain a
formula which will express the law of the experimen
tal resistances, Bossut observes, that when the angle x
undergoes a variation of 12°, each of the angles at the
base of the isosceles prow will vary 6°. Calling this va«
riation g, Bossut finds that the experimental resistance
may be expressed by the formula
a“ 5-25,
10000 % Cos.2x 4 3158 (4)
This formula, however, though it answers well for
prows with large angles, yet when the angle is small,
it errs considerably in excess. In a prow of 12°, for
>
a \ 5-25 ‘
example, the term 3.153 (5) becomes 4766 ins
t
‘The results in column third, as given by the ordina« |
!
stead of 3631.
2. Account of Du Buat’s Experimenis. ‘
The attention of Du Buat was first directed to the de- 1), pus
termination of the resistance experienced by an immove- ex
able surface, when struck by an insulated vein of fluid, on t
whose area is either greater than, or equal to, the area pulse
of the surface. In order to measure this resistance, he Y°™
balanced it by a column of fluid, the height of which
measured the height due to the impulse. A tube of
glass, about 14 lines of interior diameter, was bent into
aright angle at its lower extremity. Into this bent
part were fitted different surfaces for receiving the im-
pulse of the fluid vein, which was to be balanced by
the weight of column which ascended in the tube.
The result of these experiments was, that the height
due to the impulse is the same as the height due to the
velocity of the vein ; whereas Bossut e it equal to
the height due to twice the velocity. Du Buat accounts
for this difference with great success. The vertical
vein of fluid in Bossut’s experiments, . ed itself in
striking the surface upon the balance ; and the fluid fila«
ments took a horizontal direction, after they had given
the shock to the surface. The resistance, therefore,
measured by Bossut was not merely the impulse of a
vein whose diameter was that of the orifice, but also the
additional pressure of a ring of fluid of a certain extent,
6
al
HYDRODYNAMICS.
around the circular base of the vein in contact with Seiad Dahave Lowe ‘nagetiend
the resisted surface. the resistance experienced
M. Du Buat next proceeds to ascertain the amount fiuid in motion, was exactly equal to the resistance of Or ine wes
i when an immoveable surface is placed the same surface when it moved in stagnant water, with cistance to
i a tak Raion -enpeuts The instrument a velocity equal to that of the current. M. Du Buat bodies mo-
545
all authors, that Resistance
y a surface at rest from a of Fluids.
which be used for this purpose was a box of white iron,
a a surface of one square foot. It had a
thickness of nearly four lines, and was shut on all sides
a opening in its ior surface, into
which was soldered the hori branch of a rectangu-
Jar tin tube 16 lines in diameter, which received a float
edge, and the third in the same horizontal line, but only
10 lines distant from the +; the fourth was quite
the in the lower angle of
. the box was fixed, and the current
of water was allowed to enter one or more of these holes,
the tin tube to a height
u
ve very -
sf tana ds
to the e
I
efit
pressure was not
the centre of the
pon tee mht athe tn Poon conan
negative at margin
oer height in the abov
ight tin tube e
This hei i
hole
é
:
edge or inar-
:
if
apegeery
:
i
t
‘
i
i!
u
¢
i
ie
he
HEE
F
:
Fs
r
the body to its centre; and, , That the diminution
of pressure is to area of the surface
that is sn “
VOL, XJ. PART 11.
. &
inches
“oscillating in water
resolved to ooo this
from a variety of experimen
Hayne, between Mons and Condé, he concluded, 1st,
That the a are by no means the same when
the body is at rest as when it isin motion. 2d, That
in the latter case, the pressure does not diminish so
sensibly from the centre to the circumference, and in-
stead of a negative pressure towards the sides, that the
ressure is then so great, as to be measured by the
third of the height due to the velocity, which shews
that the water runs along the anterior surface with less
velocity, or with more uniformity. 3d, That the pres-
sures diminish in a less ratio the square of the
velocity, when the velocities are less than or fovr
feet persecond, 4th, That the mean res are mea-
sured by the exact height due to the velocity, instead
of 1,186 times the height, as before: And, 5tily, That
the diminution of pressure diminishes little from the
centre to the circumference in the same order as the
The next object of M. Du Buat is to determine the
—— of fluid which globes and plane surfaces drag
ong with them, when oscillating in a fluid. The
lobes were of wood, lead and glass. They oscillated
in a vessel 51 inches long, 17 inches wide, and 14 inch-
deep: They were entirely immersed about three
below the surface, the wire which suspend-
te we as ao as their weight Nh permit.
general result of these experiments is, that a globe
along with it, both before and
behind, a portion of fluid whose volume exceeds a little
its own volume, or nearly 7000
Similar iments were made with yarious planc
surfaces of white iron, cylinders oscillating in the plane
of their axes, q I prisms ing in the
plane of their axes, triangular prisms oscillating in the
plane of their axes, cubes oscillating directly, cubes
oscillating by the common section of two of their
bounding ps es, cubes oscillating by 8 i
quadrangu risms oscillating by common sec-
tion of two oblique faces, cylinders oscillating in the
direction of thet diameters, and cones, pyramids and
mixed bodies oscillating in the plane of their axes ; but
our limits will not permit us to give any account of
these experiments, which will be found in Part III.
sect. 1. viii. of Du Buat’s Principes D' Hydrau-
lique, tom. ii.
The attention of Du Buat is next directed to the im-
585 ;
—— of its own volume,
int experimentally, and ving in
coals made on the river #35"
water.
Resistance
to globes
oscillating
in fluids.
Resistance
portant subject of the resistance opposed to vessels in of vessels in
narrow canals. From a comparison of several experi. ®4rrow ¢a-
ments, he has deduced the allowing formula : nals,
K 8.46
R=> =
Cc ¢
+2 ete
in whieh C is the area of the section of the canal, 4 the
area of the section of the vessel, and R the resistance ;
the resistance in a fluid of indefinite extent being = 1.
In order to compare this formula with experiments,
Du Buat employed five kinds of prismatic boats, se-
veral feet in Tenath, and terminated both before and
behind by a plane surface. The boat
Sz
546
Resistance No. }, had the immersed part = a rectangle of 1 foot
phos of base upon 1 foot of height. y
Resistance No. 2, had 2 feet of base upon 1 foot of height im-
of vessels mersed.
innarrow No. 4, and 5, had 19 inches 8 lines u
canals, 54 lines immersed, and diffe:
lengths.
No. 6, had its section like the great section of a vessel,
andthe area of the part immersed was 190
square inches.
The following Table shews the results of the experi-
ment: ; LS tee
m 12 inches
only in their
Tasie Shewing the Resistance of Boats in Narrow
Canals.
Canal 283 Inches Wide, and 15 Inches 2 Lines Deep.
Ratio of the
IN Sections or Va- |Observed Resist- | Resistances cal-
umbers of] Jues of ances, or Values| culated by the
the Boats. of R. . Formula.
bo
1 3.00 1.66 1.69
2 1.50 2.50 2.41
4&5 1.76 2.25 2.25
6 2.275 1.94 1.97
Canal 40 Inches Wide, and 15 Inches 2 Lines Deep.
1 4.212 1.33 1.86
2 2.106 211 2:05
4&5 2.476 1.90 ° 1.89
6 3.192 1.62 1.62
From these experiments Du Buat has concluded,
that a canal eannot be considered as of indefinite width,
unless its width is 4.46, or 44 times that of the vessel;
or what is the same thing, that when this is the ratio
between the width of the vessel and the canal, the ves-
sel experiences the same’ resistance as if it moved in
the open sea. ‘In order to confirm this result, the fol-
lowing experiments were made, in which 5 and R in
the last column are calculated by reducing the canal to
44 times that of the vessel,
Canal'75 Inches Wide, and 154 Deep.
"Ratio of the
Sections or Va- |Observed Resist-| Resistances cal-
\Numbers of| lues of ances, or Values| culated by the-
the Boats. Cc of R, Formula.
6
1 5.81 1.053 1.08
2 4.036 °. 1.384 , 1.40
Canal of Indefinite Width, and 15.Inches 4 Lines
Deep.
2 5.75 1.125 1,09
5 5.53 1,143 1,12
Canal-of Indefinite Width, and‘27 Inches 3. Lines
Sugpuelaphaigt 8°75 1 Seale
2 |. . 4.46 | 1.1 | 1.00
HYDRODYNAMICS.
The law of oblique resistances dees not tesist
the same in a narrow canal as in a fluid of indefinite of Flui
extent, and an angular prow added to a prismatic ves- , 77/7
sel produces a less diminution of the resistance as the of
canal becomes more narrow. M. Du Buat expresses narrow
the resistance of an angular prow in a narrow canal by ‘nals.
the following formula: A ys *
=r—(r—=)($—1), inwnich
r=R—( salt i 5 Ap» in whi
«5 AG . Se
R is the resistance of a plane prow in a narrow canal.
r the resistance of an angular prow of the same base.
q the ratio between the resistances of these two prows
in an indefinite fluid; and
= the ratio of the section as formerly.
When the boat No. 2. had an Angular prow. of 45°,
and moved in a canal 283 inches wide, and 154 deep,
the resistance was 4.42; whereas, the formula gives
7 = 4.444. : ‘ ;
When the same boat had an angular prow of 14° 3’,
the resistance was = 3.2; whereas, the formula gives
rez. 3.25.
When these experiments
.
‘ vba » '
were repeated in a canal :
shut at both ends, the resistance .o » 1. «was
sensibly the same as when it was open; but when No, 2, |
was used, the resistance was considerably augmented. ,
The effects in this case become very complicated, par- 4
’
:
:
ticularly for a canal which is short... When the sluices
in canals are three or four miles distant, the of
the canal may be considered as of indefinite length, and
if approaching one of its extremities, the boats ought
to experience more resistance from this cause, yet the
heaping up and the driving back of the water obliges
the boats to rise, and thus allows the fluid to escape
more easily behind.
3. Account of the Experiments of Vince on the Resist=
ss wie of Fluids. i
The experiments of Mr Vince on the resistance of Account oi
fluids, were published in 1798, in the Transactions 0 Vince’s e
the Royal Society of London. They were made wi periment
bodies moving at a considerable depth below the sur- j
face of water, and the resistance was mi both R
when the body moved in the fluid, and when the
body was struck by the fluid in motion. The results
of his experiments on the resistance of a plane surface
moving in a fluid, are given in the following Table: -
Tasin shewing the Resistance of a Plane Surface mov- Resistance
ing in a Fluid with a Velocity of 0.66 of a Foot ina when the
Second, and inclined at different Angles to the Line of a a
its Motion. : = :
Inclination of dos, Oy Power of the Sine
the Plane to | posta ‘Resistances cal- jof-the Inclination
the Line of ; fe a! to which the re-
its Motion. Observed: eory. peers ist epi
Degrees. {Ounces Troy. | Ounces: Troy. i
10., vit 0.0112 0.0012 1.73 .
20. 0.0364 0.0098 > LTS a
80. 0.0769 0.0290 “HSL 6 fF
40. 0.1174 0.0616: 1.54 —
50. 0.1552 0.1043 : KOE
60 0.1902 0.1476: bP. 1.88:
shes Pan! Os 0.2125 0.1926 fp. » 142
80 0.2237 0.2217, 2.41
90 0.2321 0.2921... sfoi we:
1 ' 2 3 4 : |
HYDRODYNAMICS. 54
ments of Bossut and Du Buat, yet none of these au- Resistance
thers succeeded in determining the true law of the of #luids.
resistance of fluids. This honour .was reserved for oot op
the late.M. Coulomb, who first, entertained the happy Coulomb's
idea of ascertaining the laws of the resistance of fluids experiments
t in slow motions, by the oscillation of horizental discs on the re-
in consequence of the torsion, or the twisting and un- sistance of
of twisting of the wire by which they, were suspended.
which: the resistance is . Inthe t Section we shall endeavour to: lay before
This column was computed in the fallowing man- pp on as Prenat ara yore age of the in~
ner: Calling s the sine of the inclination, rthe vestigations of thi i ’
es thchoneaie ikes a fluid at rest, it ex-
ing resistance; then, if r is proportional
to the mth pewer of s, or to.s™, we have sin. 90°, or 1™
s* — 0.2321 rand” = oo: and, consequently,
? Ul. Cor.
from the Table, that it varies in
the plane bei
ance, w
but * to be really a part of the force which
acts upon the
w
i two kinds of resistance. One of these arises
Freon thaicehssion ‘oft the fluid particles, which are se-~
parated from each other by the moving body; and as
the number of molecules thus is.p ional
to the velocity of the body, this of the resistance
Fy. yi ya or likewise be propor
tienal to the simple velocity.
The other of the resistance arises from the in-
ertia of the fluid particles, which being struck by
the body, acquire pag ge ional to
the velocity of the ly; but as the number of these
parts is proportional to the velocity, there t to
mien pnepenenes SROpeePRSS 30 Sin epee ot ve-
locity. Hence the theory seems to inform us, that
the resistance of fluids should be led by the sum
two quantities, one of which is proportional to the sim-
pe wy, and the other to the square of the velocily.
his theoretical result was completely verified by
Coulomb’s experiments, to
In order to submit these views to the test of experi-
ence, the ordinary methods of measuring the resist-
ance of fluids are of no ayail.. When the moving bod
0 eeneT eight or nine a wigs pstasenn
resistance is always proportional. to the square
the velocity ; but a at velocity does not exceed
four-tenths of an inch per second, the r~
tional to the simple velocity becomes sensible ; but as
the velocity is extremely small, the resistance is also
very small, and therefore the ordinary means cannot be
used either in i [eR GE ON BER,
So se. dente. ifferent terms of the formula.
When the surface was struck by the fluidin mo-
tion, Mr Vince obtained the results contained in the
following Table.
Taste shewing the Resi t of a Plane Surface struck
by a Fluid in Motion, and inclined at different Angles
’ to its Motion.
Bel
F
{
Resistances observed.
;
;
A
seseszset
CCOOFr RR eee
-
—
>
COO See He:
-
i)
of the resistance
so small
it be safely
sas; exiaibe Wiie-$e mene. tbe ms oft
proportional square veloci
moped
objects were completel ined, b
the Syemeualia CCC X. Fig.11. “na “eg
where ABC is a stand, having a horizontal arm BC, to P7 °°"
ele a Ean nel erento pemeee aie Pare
centre for the of admitting cylindrical pin CCCXIx.
6a. Into a slit in the extremity of this pin is Fig, Lt
;
i
i
al
ing Apparatus
|
E
i
B
=
fg
ag
tened, by means of a screw, the brass wire.a g, whose
force of torsion is to be compared with the resistance of
the fluid ; and its lower extremity is fixed in the same
way into a cylinder of d, whose diameter is
about four-tenths of Slee Cie aplindan sy 2 2 poo.
pendicular to the disc DS, whose circumference is di-
vided into 480 parts. When this horizontal disc
is at rest, whi when the torsion of the
brass wire is nothing, the index RS is placed upon
Resistance
of Fluids.
—_——
Account of
Coulomb's
experiments tal disc.
on the re-
sistance of
fluids,
General re-
sults.
548
the point 0, the zero of the circular seale. The srnall
rule Rm may be elevated or depressed at pleasure
round its axis m; and the stand GH which su it
may be brought into any position round the horizon-
The lower extremity of the cylinder g d is
immersed about two inches in the vessel of water
MNOP, and to the extremity d is attached the dises, or
the bodies, whose resistance is to be determined when
they oscillate in the fluid by the torsion of the brass
wire, ’
In order to -produce these oscillations, the disc DS,
supported by both hands, must be turned gently round
to a certain distance from the index, without deranging
the vertical position of the suspended wire. The disc
being then left to itself, the force of torsion causes it
to oscillate, and the successive diminution of these
oscillations is carefully observed. A simple formula
gives in weights the force of torsion that produces the
oscillations ; and another formula well known to geo-
meters, determines (by an approximation ‘sufficiently
accurate in practice) by means of the successive dimi-
nution ef the oscillations, compared with their ampli-
tude, what is the law of the resistance, relative to the
velocity which produces these diminutions.
The method employed by Coulomb in reducing his
experiments, is nearly the same as that by which Newton
and others determined the resistance of fluids from
the successive diminution of the oscillations of a pen-
dulum vibrating in‘a fluid; but Coulomb’s apparatus is
not liable to any of the objections which attach to the
use of the pendulum. It would be impossible, with-
out a previous explanation of the principles of torsion,
and a discussion too long and minute for the limits of
our. work, to make our readers acquainted with the
various steps of Coulomb’s investigation. All that we
can pretend to do, is to give an account of the different
physical results which he obtained.
Having attached to the lower extremity of the cy-
linder gid a circular white iron plate, about’ 6.677
inches in diameter, he found that when its oscilla.
tions. were so slow, that the part of the resistance
proportional to the square of the velocity was great!
inferior ‘to the other part, the resistance which rif
minished the ‘oscillations of the horizontal ‘plate ‘was
uniformly proportional to the simple vélocity, and that
the other part) produced no sensible effect upon ‘the
motion of the disc, He likewise found, in conformity
with theory, that the momenta of resistance in different
circular oscillating in a fluid, are as the ‘fourth
power of the diameters of these circles, when the re-
sistance is proportional to the siniple velocity ; and
that when a. circle, 6.677 ‘inches in diameter, éscil-
lated with ‘the veloéity of 5.512 inches per ‘second ‘in
its circumference, the momentum of resistance Which
the fluid opposed ‘to its circular motion, was équal to
vo of a gramme, eran by a lever 143 millimetres
long, or 1.544 English Troy grains, at the end of a
lime 5.63 English inches long.
the resistance of the two circular surfaces of the disc, is
equal to a weight of 0.587 grammes. :
— Ifthe plane or dise had only a velocity of ten milli-
metres, or one centimetre, the resistance would 'be' only
0.042 grammes. In like manner ‘it follows, ‘that the
resistance experienced by.a surface of one square metre,”
moving with a velocity of one centimetre per ‘second,
is 0.703 grammies.
In order to determine comparatively with water the
cohesion of different fluids, he filled a large ‘vessel with
HYDRODYNAMIES.
Hence'it ‘follows,’ that’
clarified oil, such’as is used in commerce for the’
called Quinguet ; and he found its temperature to
16° of Reaumur’s scale, which he marked, because the ‘acco
cohesion of oil varies with the temperature, though this’ coulomb’s
variation is not sensible in water by small changes of experimen
temperature. By causing discs of different diameters to on the re- —
oscillate in the oil, he found that the momenta of ‘ree’ sistance of
sistance for two circles, moving round their centre in “““*
the plane of their superficies, varies as the fourth
er of the diameter, a result which is also conforma- f
with theory. The agreement of these results, Cou-
lomb considers as leaving no doubt respecting the
certainty of the term ‘proportional to the velocity in
the resistance of fluids, !
From these experiments, Coulomb likewise conclu Ratio of the
ded that the difficulty which the same disc moving with cohesion of
the’same degree of velocity ienced in Ce
the particles of oil, was to the difficulty which it expe.
rienced in separating the particles of water as 17.5 to
1, which will therefore express the ratio between the
mutual cohesion of the particles of oil, and the mutual.
cohesion of the particles of water.
The next object of our author was to determine two On .the ef-
important points, Ist, If the resistance of a body was fect produ-
influenced by the nature of its surface; and, 2d, if it ced by the
was influenced by the pressure of the superincumbent jh. swctuce,_
fluid. In order to settle the first of these points, he, .
covered the surface of a circle of white iron with a film ;
of tallow, and wiped it slightly away, that the thick.
ness of the plate might not be sensibly increased. He
then caused this circle to oscillate as before; and he ob«
served that the successive diminution of the oscilla~.
tions was exactly the same as before the application of,
the tallow. Upon the coat of tallow he next scattered,
by means of a sieve, a quantity of sand, which adhered
to the surface; and he found that the resistance to the
oscillations of the plate was not sensibly increased,
Hence he concludes, that the part of the resistance pre-.
portional to the simple velocity arises from the mutual’
cohesion of the fluid particles, and not from. the adhe-
sion of these particles to the surface of the body, =What- j
ever, indeed, was the nature‘of the surface, there was t
an infinite number of inequalities where the fluid par~
ticles were permanently lodged.
In order to determine the second point, M. Coulomb On the ef- —
caused the bodies to oscillate at two ‘different ‘depths ; fect produ-
one at a depth of .787 inches, and another at a depth °d byp
of 19.6855 inches, and he found no diffetence in the re. °™*
sistances; but as the surface of the water supported
the whole weight of the atmosphere, it was scarcely to
be expected that a pressure of 19 inches of fluid would ;
produce a very sensible increase of resistance. In ors. i
der to decide the question, therefore; M. Coulomb em« f
ployed another method. . - :
Having placed a vessel full of water under the recei-
ver of an. air-pump, the receiver. being furnished with
a rod and collar of leather at its top, he fixed to the
hook atthe-end of the rod’a harpsichord wire number
ed ¥ in commerce, and suspended to it .a cylinder of
copper like gd, Fig. 11. which plunged in the water of.
the vessel, and under this cylinder-he fixed. a circular,
plane, whose diameter was 103 millimetres (3.975 Eng--
lish inches). When the escillations were finished, and,
consequently the force of torsion nothing, the zero of
torsion was marked by the aid of an index fixed to the .
cylinder. The ‘rod was ‘then made to ‘tur quickly.
round through a complete circle, which gave to the
wire a complete circle of torsion, and the successive
HYDRODYNAMICS.
diminution of the oscillations were carefully observed.
Fluids ~The diminution for a
circle of torsion was
a and 10 millimetres broad (0.3937 English inch-
es mee Ss wor 03 ~ ternal omar
foonished a similar result. e may therefore conclude,
spect be compared with the friction of solid bodies,
which is always proportional to the -
’ These were twice in the cabi-
net of the Institute, in the presence of M. Charles and
M. Lassuze.
The attention of M. Coulomb was next directed to
of the determination of the resistance experienced by cy-
linders that moved slowly, and perpendicular to
their axes. Whies k cilthier, hovevel weal be 1eaitie’
to trial, ha
cylinders were fixed by their middle under the cy
g d, so that they formed two horizontal radii, the length
of exch ofwhich wes ont +9015 tindhes. The dlaees:
ters ofthe cylinders were determined frown their weight. theory
im
After making the necessary iments with cyli
wine eens ene 0.87 adtendares, 11-2 iaillime
tres, and 21.1 millimetres, he found, ‘from a compari-
poorer ed be joka Red —— : j
i to i velocity, which we shall r,
Pry different cylinders in the same ratio as the cir-
eumference of these cylinders, the ratio of thcit circum-
ferences being as 24 to 1, while the values of + were a8
$to1. In order to éxplain this result, Coulomb su
eeen deen which immediately touch the
linder, take the same velocity as the cylinder ; that
the particles a little farther distant take a smaller velo-
city ; and that at the distance of about one-tenth of an
inch, the a entirely. Hence it is at this
last point that the cohesion ceases to have an influence
on the resistance. Upon these suppositions, which
Coulomb thinks require confirmation, he proposes to
augment, by a constant quantity, the circumferences of
all the eyli before g them with their re.
sistance. This constant quantity to be added to the
circumferences, he found to be 9.68 millimetres, or
an addition of three millimetres to their diameter ;
which shews that the portion of the fluid molecules de-
tached from one another by the moving cylinder extends
aver Adda pi of 1.5 millimetres from their cir-
anion
In i tL mem Rie te eager
to the square of the , which we R, with
quantities in small cylinders are much greater than
SgieWrte Sa relainns w'teaie dintennet ten
549°
The ang-' Resistance
ji 1.77 vf Bluids.
millimetres, which is scarcely one-fifth of the former ~~ Yor
augmentation. Coulomb explains this difference from ¢oulomb's
the theory in the following manner. All the fluid par- experiments
ticles, when they are detached from one another, op-~ on the re-
pose the same resistance, whatever be the velocity og
which they take ; so that as the quantity r nds only #
on the cohesion, the resistance due to their cohesion on ge re-
j i sistance of
will extend — to the point ee of the ilsters.
of the quantities R, all the particles are mo nore to
i it as it
E
take this velocity, it follows that the aug-
mentation of the diameter in determining the value of
; e roe is ae that
of the cylinder, to the point where the ion ren-
ders the velocity nothing, ought to follow laws which
new observations may soon determine, and which may
throw great light upon this interesting branch of phy-
sics.
In determining by experiment the part of the mo-
of resistance proportional to the velocity in
two cylinders of the same diameter but of different
1 , Coulomb found that the momentum of resist-
ance was rtional to the cubes of their diameters.
The same result is obtained from theory ; for supposing
each cylinder to be divided into same a of
the | of each will be proportional to
sider tenet, The ‘velocity of the corresponding
parts will be as the same , and also as the dis-
tance of these parts from the centre of rotation. The
likewise indicates that the part of the momen-
tum of resistance depending on the square of the velo-
city, in two cylinders of the same diameter, but of dif-
ferent lengths, is proportional to the fourth power of
the length of the 7
‘Coulomb now to detetmine'the real ‘resist~ Real resist-
ance due to the simple velocity which a cylinder expe- ance of a
riences while oscillating ] to itself, and oo eylin-
dicular to its axis. When the cylinder 9.803 inches long, ““*
and 0.04409 inches in circum , was made to os-
cillate with a velocity of 5.512 inches per second, the
part of the resistance r was equal to $8 milligrammes,
or .8952'troy grains ; and when the velocity was 0.3937
inches per second, the resistance was 0.00414 grammes,
or 0.637 troy grains. Hence we may conclude, that
the resistance of a cyli of the same diameter, but
. metre in , or 39.37 inches, will be about 17
milli ’
The ing iments were repeated in the
same oil which was formerly used, and at the same
temperature ; and he found as formerly that the cohe-
pote oil was to that of — 17 to 1. -
oil as preferable to water for determining 7; for
in the case of small velocities, the part R disappears al-
most entirely.
iments Coulomb observed an effect
hie rhe ood have anticipated. Although th
which he not. have i the
cohesion of the vil is 17 times greater than that of wa-
ter, yet the augmentation of the diameters of the cylin-
ders, which it was necessary to apply. was only $ mil-
limetres, the same as for water. He observed also ano-
ther curious fact, which is more easily understood, viz.
550
Resistance that the part of the tesistance R is almost the samie in
of Fluids. i] as in water; for since this part arises merely from
Experi-
ments of
the Society
of Naval
Architec-
ture,
Oscillation
of fluids,
the inertia of the particles, it ought in’ different fluids
to be proportional to their density.
Coulomb intended, in a second memoir, to determine
numerically the value of the part of the resistance pros
portional to the square of the velocity ; and to ascertain
the resistance of globes, of pallets, of convex and con<
cave surfaces; and also the difference between the re«
sistance of a floating body and one entirely submerged;
in consequence. of his having found, that in slow mo-
tions the submerged body suffered a much less degree
of resistance. We have to regret, however, that Cou-
lomb did not live to complete these valuable researches.
He died on the 3d August 1806, in the 70th year of
his age; and left behind him the reputation of being
one of the most able and original natural philosophers
of the age in which he lived.
5. Account of the Experiments of the Society for the
Advancement-of Naval Architecture.
WE regret that our limits will only permit us to lay
before our readers some of the results of these excellent
experiments. ; |
The following experiments were made with a sur-
face of 40 square feet, moving in its own direction with
different velocities.
Velocities in Nautical
Miles per hour,
Friction in
Pounds.
0.563
1.992
6.642
12.839 |
19.856
CORD Re
HYDRODYNAMICS.
When the same body had prows differently ‘inclined, Resist
the following results were obtained. of Flu
Inclination of the f '
Prows. Friction, :
9? 44" 10" 30.67 a
14 28 40 85.34 ‘
19 28°15 41.71
30,0 0 51.44
90 0 0O 148.25 ;
The Society likewise found, that the diréct resistance
varied in a ratio a little greater than that of the square
of the velocity, bein rtional:'to V2106, A
which has the form of a fish, appeared to move with
the least resistance; and soaked lace suffered a greater
resistance than those which were not soaked.
6. Comparison of the Results of different Formule and
Experiments,
_Dr Thomas Young has drawn, up the following va- Com
luable Table, containing a comparison of different for- of the
mule with the experiments of E telwein, Bossut, and pair?
those of the Society for the Aivaiinanientt of Naval mule
Architecture. In these formule, a is the angle of experi-
inclination, and R the resistance. _ ments,
Formula A deduced by Dr Young, is R= cos,? a 4-
yo tang. a,
Formula B deduced by Dr Young from theory is
R= +ré, tang. a +288 cos.2a :360--a°.
_ Formula C deduced by Dr Young from iments,
is R=cos.?a + .0000004217 a*!8 in which the
last term is a little less than the millionth of the
cube of the angle of incidence expressed in des
ees,
Eytelwein’s formula is cos.?a@ + +, versed sin. a.
TABLE containing Dr Thomas Young’s Comparison of different Formule and Experiments. — :
Experiments
Angles of In- ; Eytelwein’s Bossut’s | of the Society
clination or | Cos.? a. Tang. a. | Formula A. | Formula B. | Formula C. | Formula. | Experiments.| for Naval
values of a. . i Architecture.
0 1.0000 -000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
6 -9890 105 -9995 -9824 -9891 -9950 -9893
12 .9568 912 -9780 9492 -9580 9656 -9578
18 9045 825 +9370 -9022 -9086 -9241 .9084
24 +8346 . 445 8791 -8438 -8449 -8690 8446 :
30 -7500 -577 .8077 -7769 -7710 -8036 -7710
36 6544 -726 -7270 -7049 «6919 7308 6925
42 5523 +900 6423 6317 6135 6551 6148
48 4478 1.111 5589 5606 5414 -5802 25433
54 +3455 1.376. 4831 4985 4816 -5103 .4800
60 +2500 1.732 4232 4407 4403 -4500 4404 B47
66 1654 2.346 -4000 +3924 4231 4026 4240
72 0955 3.078 4033 -3869 A344 .38719 4142 -269
78 0432 4.705 5137 4166 4816 -3600 4063 -222
84 0109 9.514 (.9623) 5875,- 5658 -8693 3999
We have purposely omitted giving any account of the
experiments of Hutton, Schober, and Colonel Beaufoy,
on the resistance of air, as they do not belong to the
present article.
CHAP. Vi. .
On THE OsciLLaTion or Fiurps, anp THE UNDULA=
TION oF WaAvEs,
Prop. I.
Tue oscillations ofa fluid in a syphon are isochroe
nous, and are performed in the same time as those of a
pendulum, whose length is equal to half the length of
the oscillating columns,
Let MNOP, Plate CCCXIX. Fig}? be a syphon, On the
consisting of two vertical branches MN, OP, connected cillation,
together by a horizontal branch NO, and having the a
same internal diameter throughout its whole If cocxn
water is poured into the syphon till it stands at AB in fig. 42,
one leg, it will stand at CD in the other, ABCD being a
horizontal line, Let a piston be now introduced at P,
|
.
HYDRODYNAMICS. 551
cause the water to descend the space ¢ Undulation
Fluids. Cg, it wil of comapition in the other branch to the 2 iy P'- : of Waves.
A rmang Oo Ae=Cg. Upon withdrawing the — The undulations of waves are ed in the same “Y—"
piston, the elevated fluid in MN will descend in order timeas the vibrations of a ulum, whose length
Hydraulic
:
*n
— iteaeimiind
RS
e
i
HA
H
‘
F
:
f
EF
i
:
:
|
Epi Tce
| lf
re
. Let
It is obvious
ABCDE represent the section of two waves.
dhatithe emi
twice, it follows that the waves
oscillations in the same time as a ulum, whose
length is equal té AC or BD, the breadth of a wave.
Hence a wave 334 feet broad, will have a velocity of
35% feet in a second; and a wave 18 inches broad will
have a velocity of 26.538 inches per second.
ee
i
&
j
s
i M. La Place, in the
of Sciences’ for 1776, has ap~
particularly to rectilineal waves,
ws of the motion of fluids, and obtained
poe ei nay et ee eee
8 ee ae ob ms em L
subject
Memoirs for 1786, and
y have more recently written upor
ne le reader will find a general account of their
in the rem ae Hypnopynamics, p. 418, 423.
The same subject nas likewise been treated by Dr
Thomas Young, with his usual ability, in his Lectures:
on Natural Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 63..
=
z
a
ro
z
Hl
, Part Ill. ON HYDRAULIC MACHINERY..
Tas tom HirsaatucMacinwsay, is, in strict propri-
to those machines which
Machinery , US neeiatte
by ase -- teen wheter ie decree
80 as to include machines, by which water is
force. animals. as iy power machinery, 4
will be fuliy discussed under wantes, and the im-
Fngi er he seperste aril of Susan ogne
As
~“
Pump..
CHAP: F.
On Water Wueeus.
Tue usual method of
ing power of machinery, is to #
suena ohediantin axis or ns ‘eheannemnd
and fire i are pneumatical machines, Hydrauli
Pill be under the articles Pwgusatics Machinery.
water ea: the mov> wate
y it to the circumfe« Wheels:
552
Overshot’ power is conveyed to the other parts of the machine.
Wheels. «When the water is introduced into buckets placed round
"the circumference of a wheel moving in a vertical-plane,
so as to put the wheel in motion merely by its weight
‘in the buckets, the wheel is called an overshot wheel,
from the water being introduced over or near the sum-
mit of the wheel. When the water, after having ac-
quired a considerable velocity by its descent along an
inclined plarie, is made to strike plane surfaces, or float-
boards, arranged round the wheel’s circumference, so as
to put the wheel in motion merely by its impulsive force,
it is called an wndershot wheel, from the water being in-
troduced at or near the under part of its circumference.
“When the water is introduced neither at the upper nor
the lower point of the wheel, but at a point between
them, so as to fall upon float boards fixed in the wheel’s
circumference, and to act both by its weight and by its
impulse, it is called a breast wheel. When the water is
‘made to issue from an aperture in the circumference of
a wheel in the direction of the tangent, the wheel is
said to be driven by the re-action or counter-pressure
of the water. We shall now proceed to consider, in se-
yparate Sections, the best mode of constructing water
«wheels of these four different forms.
‘Sect. I. On the Construction of Overshot Wheels.
An overshot wheel of the common kind, is represent-
edin Plate CCCXIX. Fig. 15, where ABCD is the
Pirate ‘Yim of the wheel, having a number of buckets a,b,c, d,
CCCXIX. arranged round its circumference. When the wheel is
Fig. 15. in a state of rest upon its axis O, and water is introdu-
ced into the bucket ¢ from the horizontal mill course
-or canal EF, the weight of the water in the bucket,
-acting at the end of a lever equal to m O, puts the wheel
in motion in the direction ed. When the su ent
bucket 6 comes into the position c, it is also filled with
water, and so on with all the rest. When the bucket
c reaches the situation of d, its mechanical effect to
turn the wheel is increased, being now equal to the
weight of water acting at the end of a lever n O,
equal to the distance of its centre of gravity d from a
vertical line passing through the axis O, so that the
-mechanieal effect of the water in the bucket increases
all the way to B, and of course diminishes while the
buckets are moving from B to C.
The buckets, however, between B and C, have not
“the same power upon the wheel as those between A and
B; for the water begins to fall out of the buckets be-
fore they approach to B, and are almost completes
ly empty when they reach the point H. The con-
struction of the buckets, therefore, as shewn in the Fi-
gure, is very improper, as it not only allows the water
to escape before it has reached the point B, where its me-
chanical effect is.a maximum ; but also to escape com-
pletely, long before they have reached the lowest point
C of the wheel. The power, therefore, of an overshot
‘wheel must depend principally upon the ferm which is
given to the buckets, which should always be fullest
when they are at the point B, and should retain the
-water as long as possible. If the buckets were to con-
sist of a single partition in the direction of the radii of
the wheel, all the water would escape from the buckets
‘before they passed the point B on a level. with the
axis O.
The form of a bucket, which has been r ed as the
best, is represented in Fig. 16, by the line DCBAGIKL,
where it is represented as composed of three partitions,
viz. AB and @
Overshot
wheels,
Fig. 16,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
I, called the start or shoulder, which lies ~
5
in the direction of the radius; BC and: EK, called. the
arm, and inclined at an obtuse angle to the radius; and
CD, KL, called the wrest, and inclined at an less Plane
than 180° tothe arm BC or IK, The depth AG of each coewix
bucket is about 1} of GH; AB is 4 of AM; and the Fig.
angle ABC is such, that BC and GI prolonged would
perce: the same point H. It ends, however, in
3; sothat FC is of GH; and CD is so, that
HD is nearly }th of HM. Hence it follows, that the
arc FABC is nearly equal to DABC ; so that the quans
tity of water FABC will still continue in the bucket
when AD is a horizontal line, which happens when AB
forms an angle of about 35° with a vertical line. The
preceding construction of the buckets is obviously too
complicated, and very little additional power is gained
by the angle BCD. Hence the general ice is to
continue BC to H, and AB is generally only 4d of GH.
Such is the general view of the construction of buc- New form
kets, which is given by Dr Robison; but we cannot of the bue/
agree with him in thinking that this form is the best. kets
It must be obvious, upon the sli t consideration, that
the power of the wheel would be a maximum, if the
whole of its semi-circumference were loaded with war
ter. This effect would be produced, if the buckets had
the shape shewn in Fig. 17, where ABC is the form of Fig, 1
the bucket, AB being in the direction of the radius, and
BC part of the circumference of the wheel, and nearly
equal to AD. This construction is, however, im -
cable, as the aperture EC is not large enough either for
the admission or the escape of the water, and when
the last portion of the water flows out along BC, it
would strike against the bottom DE of the bucket im-
mediately above it. We must therefore consider what
modification this form should receive, in order to give a
free passage to the water at EC. This may be effect-
ed, by making BC (Fig. 18.) a little larger than BE,
and diminishing AB, so as to make the angle ABC a
little greater than 90°. In this way an aperture dE
will be obtained, of sufficient itude both for the
introduction and the discharge of the fluid; and the last
yo of water will nolo strike against the bottom
d of the upper bucket. en the water is proper!,
introduced by the methods afterwards to be descri
this construction will be found to give t additional
power to the wheel. Hence we see reason why
the inclination of DC, in Fig. 16, is adv , as
it is an approximation to the preceding construction.
The late Mr Robert Burns of Cartside in Renfrewshire,
a most ingenious millwright and mechanic, proposed
what appeared to be a very oo improvement u
form of the buckets in overshot wheels.
using a double bucket, as shewn in Fig. 19, where LM isa
partition almost concentric with the rim, and placed so
as to make the inner and outer portions of the bucket
hold equal quantities of water. When these buckets
are filled 4d, they retain the whole water at 18° from
the bottom of the arch, and they retain 3 of the water
at 11°. Another great advantage of this construction eet
is, that when there is little water to drive the wheel, it ay
may be directed, by a slight adjustment of the iia
into the outer bucket, so as to make up, by the addi-
tional of lever, for the small quantity of wa-
ter which is in use. These advantages, however, are
found in practice to be counterbalanced by disadvan-
tages which cannot be got the better of. The water
is found never to fill the inner buckets, and on this ac-
¢punt we believe Mr Burns did not put the construc-
tion in practice. 21. in (ey
It has in general been assumed by writers on water
Fig, 18, |
Fig.
that the diameter of overshot wheels should al- _
leas than the height of the pllel mesa by
which can be obtained from no other, namely, that by
raising the wheel B, and taking out two or three of
the buckets, it may be made to work when there is
such a quantity of back-water as would otherwise pre-
vent it moving.
Dr Robison, in tis Dissertation on Water Works,
published in the second volume of his of Me-«
chanical Philosophy, has described a machine of this
kind, in which p or horizontal floatboards, are
fixed to a chain. So. se: & Siew gia bre
through a tube, a little greater in diameter that of
the floats, and the water acting by its pressure upon
these floats, as it does in the case of a breast wheel,
gives motion to the wheels A and B,
The double overshot wheel is the best and the most .
economical which can be adopted for a small supply of
water falling from a height ; but it is liable to
out of order, unless the chain which carries the bucket
is made with care and nicety.
For farther information on overshot wheels, the read- Reference
er is referred to Belidor’s' Architecture Hydraulique, vol. —
ii, p. 254. Desagulier’s Course of Experimental Philo- ° ovr"
iy, edit. 3d, vol. ii, p. 455. , Mem. Acad.
Par. 1754, p. 608, 671. Smeaton On Mills, p. 33.
Albert Euler, Comment. Soc. Gotting. 1754. Kestner,
Toeweoes Lambert, Mem. Acad. Berl. 1755.
Borda, Mem. Acad. Par. 1767, p. 286. Bossut, Traité
556 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Overshot d’ Hydrodynamique, edit. 1796, tom. i. . xvii. p. course, That no water may’escape between the bots Undershe
Wheels. 588; and tom. ii. chap. xviii. p.425. Fenwick’s Four tom of the course KH and the extremities of ‘the float- _ Wheels.
Essays on Practical Mechanics. Robison, System of boards, KL should be about three inches, and the ex- Consttial
Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii; and Ferguson’s Lec- tremity o of the floatboard no should be beneath the Sion Pr
ures on Mechanics, &c. vol. ii, Appendix. line HKX, sufficient room being left between o and M mill
for the play of the wheel, or KLM may be formed into Piatx
the ofa circle KM concentric with the wheel, ©CC*%.
Scr. If. On Undershot Water Wheels.
He: LR Up te Oe The line LMV, called by M. Fabre, the course of im: F'S *
Undershot
wheels.
PLATE
CCCXX,
Fig. 7.
Construe-
tion of the
mill-course,
Fig. 8.
\
wheel from an inclined canal.
‘H. For this purpose make
An undershot water wheel is a wheel with a number
of floatboards, or plane surfaces arranged round its cir-
‘cumference for the purpose of receiving the impulse of
the water, which is conveyed to the under part of the
A wheel of this kind
of the ordinary construction, is shewn in Plate CCCXX.
Fig. 7. where AB is the wheel with 24 floatboards, cd
a floatboard receiving the impulse of the water, which
moves with great velocity in consequence of having
fallen. from a considerable height down the inclined
mill course MN. The principal points to be attended to
in the construction of undershot wheels, are the con-
struction of the mill course, the number, form, and po-
sition of the floatboards, and the velocity of the wheel
in relation to. that of the water when the effect is a
maximum. | The following rales for the construction
of mill courses are given im the Appendix to Ferguson’s
Lectures, vol. ii. /
* As it is of the highest importance to have the
height of the fall as t as possible, the bottom of
the canal, or dam, which conducts the water from the
river, should have a very small declivity} for the
height of the water-fall will diminish in proportion as
the declivity of the canal is increased. On this ac-
count, it will be sufficient to make AB slope about one
inch in 200 yards, taking care to make the declivity
about half an inch for the first 48 yards, in order that
the water may have a velocity sufficient to prevent
it from flowing back into the river. The inclination
of the fall, represented by the angle GCR, should be
25° 50’; or CR, the radius, should be to GR, the tan-
gent of this angle, as 100 to 48, or as 25to 12; and
since the surface of the water Sé is bent from a@é into
ac, before it is precipitated down the fall, it will be
necessary to incurvate the upper part BCD of the
course into BD, that the water at the bottom may move
parallel to the water at the top of the stream. For
this purpose, take the points B, D, about 12 inches
distant from C, and raise the perpendiculars BE, DE:
the point of intersection E will be the centre from which
the arch BD is to be described; the radius being about
10% inches, Now, in order that the water may act
more advantageously upon the floatboards of the wheel
WW, it must assume a horizontal direction HK, with
the same velocity which it would have acquired when
it came to the point G: But, in falling from C to G,
the water will dash upon the horizontal part HG, and
thus lose a great part of its velocity ; it will be proper, tained, that the greatest ible number of floatboards
therefore, to make it move along FH an arch of acircle, should be’ used, provided the wheel is not too much
to which DF and KH are tangents in the points F and loaded by them. el
F and GH each equal to
pulsion (le coursier d’impulsion) should be prolonged,
8o as to support the water as long as it can act upon
the floatboards, and’ should be about 9 inches distant
from OP, a horizontal line passing thr O, the
lowest point of the fall ; for if OL were much less than
9 inches, the water havi t the ter of its
foree in impelling the floatboards, wena mms
below the wheel and retard its motion. For the same
reason, another course, which is called by M. Fabre,
the course of mero (le coursier de decharge) should
be connected with LMV_ by the curve VN, to preserve
remaining velocit, ens water, which would
otherwise be destroyed by falling perpendicularly from
Vto N. The course of rot is r peek by
VZ, sloping from the point O. It should be about 16
yards long, having an inch of declivity in every two
ryards. The canal which reconducts the water from
the course of discharge to the river, should slope about
4 inches in the first 200 yards, 3 inches in the second
200 yards, decreasing ly till-it terminates in
the river. But if the river to which the water is con-
veyed, should, when swollen by the rains, force the
water back upon the wheel, the canal must have a
greater declivity, in order to prevent this from taking
rr Hence it will be evident, that very accurate
evelling is necessary for the proper formation of the
mill course,’’
The general ideas contained in the Larne ean
“by
‘structions appear to have been first
Buat, and afterwards fully:explained by M. Fabre: in
his Traité sur les Machines oi meee
‘The diameters of ‘undershot wheels must in general
be accommodated to the ro of the machinery which
they are to put in motion. If a great velocity is necessary,
the wheel thould for this puipeul be made of a less
diameter than would otherwise be advisable; but if a
great velocity is not required, the diameter of the wheel
rap oo to be considerable. ‘
. Pitot, one of the earliest writers who attended to Number
this subject, recommended that the number of float- floatbo
boards should be equal to 360° divided by the arch of
the circle plunged in the canal, and that their depth
should be equal to the versed sine of that arch. The
slightest consideration, however, is sufficient to con<
vince us that the number of floatboards obtained by this
rule is greatly too small. M. Du Petit Vandin, and
afterwards M. Fabre, have, on the other hand, main
2B
three feet, and raise the perpendiculars HI, Fl, which
will intersect one another in the point I distant about
4 feet 9 inches and 4ths from the points F, and H,
and the centre of the arch FH will be determined,
The distance HK, through which the water runs be-
fore it acts upon the wheel, should not be less than two
or three feet, in order that the different portions of the
fluid may haye obtained a horizontal! direction: and if
HK be much larger, the velocity of the stream would
be diminished by its friction on the bottom of the
ng adapted thereto of such a length
that one float entered the curve-before the preceding
as
ex. ments of Bossut with the
no more than 254 turns
velocity of the water in the canal,
04 feet in 50, was 300 feet in
have a different number of
the number, M. Bossut used a different wheel, in which
the floatboards were so that he could set them
at any inclination to the radius, and employ any number
pleasure. The exterior diameter was 3 feet,
of the floatboards 5 inches, and their height
This wheel was made to move im a current
2 to 13 feet wide, and in a depth of water of
i The floatboards were plunged four
in the water, so that the circumstances were the
in an i When 2% floatboards were
load of 40 pounds was raised with a velocity of
i ; whereas when 12 floatboards
ity with which the same load was
was only 13}{ turns in the same time. When
48 floatboards were put on, 24 pounds were raised, with
a velocity of 2714 turns in a minute ; and 24 floatboards
raised the weight with a velocity of 27,7, the difference
ef one ram” Hence 24 floatboards at least
be in cases of this kind. A smaller num-
arch of the wheel
&
;
at
8s i
them, and act by its weight as
This opinion has been amply confirmed by the experi-
tinaation of the radius, a weight of 34 pounds was rais-
ed with a velocity of 204 turns in 40 seconds. When
their inclination was 8°, same load was raised with
a velocity of 1934 in 40 seconds. When the inclination
was 12°, the ity was 1942 in 40” ; and when the
inclination was 16”, the velocity was 2034 turns in 40 se-
conds, nearly the same, but still a little less than when
the floatboards were a continuation of the radius. Hence
it follows, that a wheel placed upon canals which have
ee ety
‘escape easily impulse, floatboards ought
to be a continuation of the radius. ¢
5
HYDRODYNAMICS.
557
. The same wheel being placed in the current already
mentioned, viz. from 12 to 1S feet wide, and from 7 to
8 inches deep, floatboards which were a continuation
of the radius, raised 40 pounds with a velocity of 1843
turns in 40 seconds. With those inclined 1 5°, the num-
ber of turns in the same time was 143; with those in-
clined 30°, the number was 1433; and with those in-
clined 87°, the number was 1433. Hence it follows,
that the most advantageous obliquity is, in this case,
about 15 or 30 degrees. The difference of effect, how-
ever, to be very trifling, particularly beyond
15°. M. Fabre is of opinion, that when the velocity of
the stream is 11 feet per second or greater, the inclination
should never be less than $0° ; that, as the velocity di-
minishes, the number of floatboards should diminish in
pote oe of and that when the velocity is 4 feet or un-
ler, the floatboards shouldbe a continuation of the radius.
The experiment of inclining the floatboards a little in
the opposite direction, has not been tried by any of the
authors whom we have quoted, but we think it worth
trying, as it might increase the effect, by allowing the
water to escape more readily from below the float-
Undershot
heels.
—_——
In order to determine the ratio between the velocity On the pro-
of the wheel and that of the water which drives it, Pa- per velocity
rent and Pitot considered only the action of the fluid up- of under-
on one floatboard, and consequently they made the force
of impulsion proporti to the square of the relative
velocity, or to the of the difference between the
velocity of the stream and that ofthe floatboard. Desa-
liers, Maclaurin, Lambert, Atwood, Du Buat, and
Robison, have gone u the same principle, and
have therefore fallen into the same error, of soaking the
velocity of the wheel } of the velocity of the current
when the effect is a maximum. The Chevalier de
Borda, whose valuable Memoirs haye been too much
overlooked by later writers, has however, correct-
ed this errror. He has shewn, that the supposi-
tion is perfectly correct when the water impels a
single floatboard; for as the number of particles
which strike the floatboard in a given time, and also
the momentum of these, are each as the relative ve-
locity of the floatboards, the momentum must be as the
square of the relative velocity, that is, M = R*, M
being the momentum, and R the relative velocity. But
as the water acts on more than one floatboard at once,
the number acted upon in a given time. will.be.as the
velocity of the wheel, or inversely as the relative velo-
city ; for if we increase the relative velocity, the velo-
city of the water remaining the same, we nuist dimi-
nish the velocity of the wheel. Consequently, we shall
have M = for M =R;; that is, the momentum of the
= acting upon the wheel, varies as the relative ve-
oeity.
Now, let V be the velocity of the stream, F the
force with which it would strike the floatboard at rest,
aux » the velocity of the wheel. Then the relative ve-
locity will be V — v ; and since the velocity of the wa-
ter will be to its momentum, or the force with which
it would strike the floatboard at rest, as the relative ve-
locity isto the real foree which the water exerts against
the moving floatboards, we shall have V: V—v—
F:Fx he oxV—». But the effect of the wheel
is measured by the product of the momentum of the
water and the ity of the wheel, consequently the
effect of the undershot wheel will be
shot wheels.
558
Undershot \ Te
Wheels. vx vx V—v= 7 xV—e%,
Now this effect is to be a maximum, and therefore its
differential must be equal to 0, that is, v being the va-
riable quantity, Vdvu —2udvu=0, or2udv =Vdv.
Dividing by dv, we have 2v=V, and y= nfs that
is, the velocity of the wheel will be one-half the velo-
city of the fluid when the effect is a maximum.
This has been amply confirmed by the experiments
of Mr Smeaton. “The velocity of the stream (says
he, p. 77,) varies at the maximum between one-third
and one-half that of the water; but in all the cases in
which most work is performed in proportion to the wa-
ter expended, and which approa e nearest to the
circumstances of great works, when properly execut-
ed, the maximum lies much nearer to one-half than
one-third, one half seeming to be the true maximum, if
nothing were lost by the resistance of the air, the scatter-
ing of the water carried up by the wheel, &c. all
which tend to diminish the effect more at what would
be the maximum if these did not take place than they
do when the motion is a little slower.” Smeaton con-
siders 5 to 2 as the best general proportion.
A result, nearly similar to this, was deduced from
e experiments of Bossut. He employed a wheel
whose diameter was three feet. The number of float-
boards was at one time 48, and at another 24, their width
being five inches, and their depth six. The ri-
ments with the wheel, when it had 48 floatboards,
were made in the inclined canal, in which the velocit
was 300 feet in 27 seconds. The experiments with
the wheel, when it had 24 floatboards, were made in a
canal, contained between two vertical walls, 12 or 13
feet distant. The depth of the water was about seven or
eight inches, and its mean velocity about 2740 inches
in 40 seconds. The floatboards of the wheel were im-
mersed about four inches in the stream.
Smeaton’s
experi-
ments.
Bossut’s ex-
periments. 4},
INumber of
Time in Number of
which | Weight |turns made} Weight /turns made
theweight| raised. by the raised. by the
is raised. wheel. wheel.
Seconds. 48 Floatboards, 24 Floatboards.
Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
40 303 :F 30 1733
40 $1 22.4 35 162
40 313 2133 40 154
40 32 2132 45 1435
40 823 2132 50 1334
40 33 : 213 55 1232
40 | 333 | 208% | 56 | 1938
40 34 2032 57 1232
40 344 2054 58 1234
40 35 1944 59 1275
40 354 | 1935 60 114¢
40 36 1 B3t 61 1139
40 62 1132
63 lL,
64 | 108s
65 1035
66 | 108
As the effect of the machine is measured by the pro«
duct of the load raised, and the time employed, it will
HYDRODYNAMICS.
appear, by multiplying the second and third columns, Under:
the effect was a maximum when the load was Wheels,
pounds, the wheel performing 20}; revolutions in 40 :
seconds, By comparing the velocity of the centre of . ~
impression computed from the diameter of the wheel,
the number of turns which it makes in 40 seconds,
with the velocity of the current, it will be found that
the velocity of the wheel, when its effect is the great«
est possible, is nearly two-fifths that of the stream;
the very same ratio which Smeaton has given. From
the two last columns of the Table, where the effect isa
maximum when the load is 60 pounds, the same con-
clusion may be deduced.
The following are the other results which Mr Smeae gyeaton’g.
ton deduced from his experiments. He found, that in results,
undershot wheels, the power employed to turn the
wheel is to the effect produced as 3 to 1; and that the
load which the wheel will carry at its maximum, is to
the load which will totally stop it as 3 to 4. The same
experiments inform us, that the impulse of the water
on the wheel, in the case of a maximum, is more than
double of what is assigned by theory, that is, instead of
four-sevenths of the column, it is nearly equal to the
whole column. In order to account for this, Mr Smea-
ton observes, that the wheel was not, in this case, plae
ced in an open river, where the natural current, after
it had communicated its impulse to the float, has room
on all sides to escape, as the theory supposes; but in a
conduit or race, to which the float being adapted, the
water could not otherwise escape than by moving along
with the wheel. He likewise remarks, that when a
wheel works in this manner, the water, as soon as it
meets the float, receives a sudden check, and rises up
against it like a wave against a fixed object ; insomuch,
that when the sheet of water is not a quarter of an inch
thick before it meets the float, yet this sheet will act
upon the whole surface of a float, whose height is three
inches. Were the float, therefore, no higher than the
thickness of the sheet of water, as the theory supposes,
a great part of the force would be lost by the water
dashing over it. Mr Smeaton likewise deduced, from
his experiments, the following maxims.
1. That the virtual or effective head being the same, gmeaton’s
the effect will be nearly as the quantity of water eX- maxims
ended. '
. 2. That the expense of water being the same, the
effect wil] be nearly as the height of virtual or ef«
the
fective head.
3. That the quantity of water expended being
same, the effect is nearly as the square of the velocity.
4, That the aperture being the same, the effect will }
be nearly as the cube of the velocity of the water. .
Undershot Wheel moving at Right Angles to the Stream. i
Undershot wheels have sometimes been constructed yng
like windmills, having large inclined floatboards, and wheel at
being driven in a plane dicular to the direction right
of the current. Albert Euler, who has examined theos t° the
retically this species of water wheel, concludes that
the effect will be twice as tas in common under«
shot wheels, and that in order to produce this effect, the j
velocity of the wheel, computed from the centre of im-« }
pression, should be to the velocity of the water as ra« : |
dius is to thrice the sine of the inclination of the float~
boards to the plane of the wheel. When the inclina«
tion is 60°, the ratio will be as 5 to 13 nearly, and
when it is 30°, it will be nearly as 2 to 3. In this kind
of wheel, a considerable advan may also be gained
by inclining the floatboards to the radius, In this case,
ought to be much greater
section of the current, and before one float-
leaves the current, the other ought to have fairl
entered it. This construction may be employed wi
advantage in deep rivers that have but a small velocity.
_ Besant's Undershot Wheel.
ee er area
constructed in the form a hollow drum, to resist the
admission of water ; but its principal peculiarity con-
a floatboards in pairs on
the periphery of the wheel. Each floatboard is set
obliquely to the plane of the wheel's motion, and the
ing floatboard is inclined at the same angle,
but in an opposite direction, the plane of the wheel bi-
secting tig hee sry the two floatboards. The
acute angle w teeth -@ correla
responding one is open at the vertex ; but one of the
floatboards extends beyond the other. By this construc-
tion, the resistance the tail water is diminished ;
but so far as we know, the machine has never come
|
the
nature of the work to be performed, without lessenin
the maximum effect, which cannot be duit ia, vation
wheels where a determinate velocity is n
produce the possible effect. See Ferguson’s
Lectures, vol. fh A i
In the of France, the float-
southern departments
boards are made of a curvilineal form, so as to present
a concave surface to the stream. This construction is
shewn in 10, 11, where AB is the wheel, CD the
vertical and m, mn the concave floatboards. The
Chevalier Borda remarks, that in theory a double effect
a omy floatboards Leyes this gall om
advan’ not so great ice, e
tee nt lente
difficulty of making the fluid enter nde the og
ina manner. They , however, to be de-
i i to those fa which the Soathoards are
plane, as the water acts by its weight as well as by its
HYDRODYNAMICS.
559
impulsive force. The ratio of the effects in the two Horizontal
cases, with five or six feet of fall, is nearly as 3 to 2. An
EF, are made to open and shut, as shewn by the dotted
lines. When the tide moves in the direction OE, the
part GO shuts into the position GH, and admits the
water the wheel ; but when the tide returns, GH
assumes the position GO, and EF shuts into the dotted
position E f, and admits the water to the wheel. The
axis EF, Fig. 12, stands vertically, and has the vanes
m, n fitted upon it like those of 2 smoke jack. The wa-
ter enters at O, and at F f when the tide returns, de-
scends in the direction of the arrows, acts by its im-
a ore PRS we SBR Ther a9 lp
ter turning the wheel about its.vertical axis EF, escapes
at the aperture P, or P’ when the tide returns.
Wheels with Spiral Floatboards.
In some of the southern provinces of France a coni- Wheels
cal horizontal wheel with spiral floatboards is frequent- With spiral
ly used. It has the form of an inverted cone, arth a Homtbourds
number of spiral floatboards windi
so as to be nearer one another at
round its surface,
smaller or lower
the water has acted upon these by its im-
pulse, it descends the spirals, and continues to
drive the machine by its weight. A of this ma-
boards, which was moved by a screw. “ It was,” he
says, * a long cylindrical frame, having a plate stand-
ing out from it about a foot broad, and surrounding it
with a ys ears m9 like a cork screw. This was
plunged }th of its diameter (which was about
12 feet), having its axis in the direction of the stream.
By the work which it was performing, it seemed more
powerful than a common wheel, which occupied the
same breadth of the river.”
For farther information on the subject of undershot
Deane _ Pitot, Mem. wr Par. 1729, 8vo. p. 359 ;
ier’s Experimental Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 424;
Du Petit Vandin, Mem. des Scavans Ei ers, at i. ;
Deparcieux, Mem. Acad. 1754, p. 614; Fabre Sur les
Machines meee p- 55; t's Traile D' Hy-
drodynamique, vol. 1. chap. xiv. xv. p. 482 ; vol. ii. chap.
xviii. edit. 1796 ; Maclaurin’s Flurions, § 907, p. 728 ;
Lambert, Nouv. Mem. de ? Acad. Berlin, 1775, p. 68 ;
Smeaton’s 7 on Mills; Borda, Mem. Acad,
Par. ; Leopold's Theatrum Machin. General, ; Reperto-
ry of Arts, vol. i. p. 385 ; Ferguson's Lectures, vol. ii.
pp.; and Dr Robison’s System of Mech. Philosophy.
Secr. LL. On Breast Wheels.
A breast water wheel is a wheel in which the water
is delivered at a point intermediate between the upper
and under point of a wheel with floatboards, It is ge-
nerally delivered at a point below the level of the
axis, as in Fig. 1, but sometimes at a point higher
than the level of the axis, as in Fig. 2, On breast
Breas!
wheels,
Reference
to works oa
undershot
wheels,
560
Breast wheels, buckets are never employed, but the floatboards
Wheels. are fitted accurately, with as little play as possible, to
whose the mill course, so that the water, after acting upon
cccxxt, the floatboards by its impulse, is retained between the
Figs. 1, 2. floatboards and the mill-course, and acts by its weight
till it reaches the lowest part of the wheel.
A breast wheel, as constructed by Mr Smeaton, is
—— in Fig. 1, where AB is a portion of the
wheel, MN the canal which conveys the water to the
wheel, MOP the curvilineal mill course accurately
fitted to the extremities of the floatboards, and cd the
shuttle moved by a pinion a, for the purpose of regu-
lating the admission of water upon the wheel.
An improved breast wheel is shewn in Fig. 2. The
water is alivered on the wheel through an iron gra-
ting a6, and its admission is regulated by two shuttles
e, d, the lowermost of which, d, is adjusted till a suffi-
cient quantity of water passes over it; while the other,
ce, which is generally moved by machinery, is.made to
descend upon d, so as to stop the wheel.
According to Mr Smeaton, “ the effect of a breast
wheel is to the effect of an undershot wheel, whose head
of water is equal to the difference of level between the
surface of water in the reservoir, and the part where it
strikes the wheel, added to that of an overshot whose
height is equal to the difference of level between the
part where it strikes the wheel, and the ‘level of the
tail water.
M. Lambert observes, that when the fall of water is
between 4 and 10 feet, a breast water wheel should be
erected, provided there is enough of water ; that an un-
dershot wheel should be used when the fall is below 4
feet, and an overshot wheel when the fall exceeds 10
feet. He recommends also that when the fall exceeds
10 feet, it should be divided into two, and two breast
wheels erected upon it. These rules are not of great
value. The other results of Lambert’s investigation,
will be found either in his Memoir, or in Ferguson’s
Leciures, Appendix, vol. ii.
Comparative effects of Water Wheels.
M. Belidor very strangely maintained that overshot
wheels were inferior to undershot ones. It appears,
however, from Smeaton’s experiments, that in overshot
wheels the ratio. of the power to the effect is nearly as 3
to 2, or as 5 to 4, whereas in undershot wheels the ratio
is only as 3 to 1; from which it follows, that the effect
of overshot wheels is nearly double of the effect of un-
dershot wheels. The.Chevalier.de Borda has concluded
that overshot wheels will raise through the height of the
fall a quantity of water equal to that by which they are
driven ; that undershot wheels moving vertically will
produce iths of this effect ; that horizontal wheels will
produce alittle less than £ of it when the floatboards are
plain, and a little more than 3 when they are curvilineal.
Smeaton’s
breast-
wheel,
Tmproved
breast-
wheel.
Effect of
breast-
wheels.
Comparison
of water
wheels.
‘Sect. LV. On Wheels Driven by the Reaction or Coun-
terpressure of Water.
Dr Barker’s
4 ‘The first mills which were driven by the reaction of
muL
water were called Barker’s mill, and sometimes Parent’s
mill. We are not acquainted with the nature of M.
Parent’s claim to the invention ; nor can we determine
whether the priority is due te him or to Dr Barker.
Dr Desaguliers, who seems to have been the first per-
-son who published an account of the machine, describes
it as having been invented by Dr Barker. “ Sir George
Savile says, he had a mill in Lincolnshire to grind corn,
which took up so much water to work it, that it sunk
HYDRODYNAMICS.
his ponds visibly, for which reason he could not have Ww
constant work ; but now, by Dr Barker’s improvement, Wheels.
the waste water only from Sir George’s ponds keeps it “"Y¥
constantly to work.” Bt
Dr Barker’s mill is shewn in Fig. 3. where CD is a Pirate —
vertical axis, moving on a pivot at D, and carrying the CCC
upper millstone m, after passing through an opening Fi-3
in the fixed millstone C. Upon this axis is fixed a
vertical tube TT communicating with a horizontal tube
AB, at the extremities of which A, B are two apertures
in opposite directions. When water from the mill-
course MN is introduced into the tube TT, it flows
out of the apertures A, B, and by the reaction or coun;
terpressure of the issuing water the arm AB, and conse-
quently the whole machine, is put in motion. The bridge-
tree a 4 is elevated or depressed by turning the nut ¢ at
the end of the lever c 4. In order to understand how this
motion is produced, let us suppose both the res
shut, and the tube TT filled with water up to T. The
apertures A, B which are shut up, will be pressed out-
wards by a force equal to the weight of a column of wa-
ter whose height is IT, and whose area is the area of the
apertures. Every part of the tube AB sustains a similar
pressure ; but as these pressures are balanced by equal
and opposite pressures, the arm AB is at rest. By
opening the aperture at A, however, the pressure at
that place is removed, and consequently the arm is 7
carried round by a pressure equal to that of acolumn.~
TT, acting upon an area equal to that of the aperture
A. The same thing happens on the arm TB; and
these two pressures drive the arm AB round in the
same direction. This machine may evidently be applied
to drive any kind of machinery, by fixing a wheel upon
the vertical axis CD. ,
In the preceding form of Barker’s mill, the length Improve
of the axis CD must always exceed the height of the ™*nto
fall ND, and therefore when the fall is very high, the iT"
difficulty of erecting such a machine would be great. athon de
In order to remove this difficulty, M. Mathon de la Cour 1a Cour.
proposes to introduce the water from the millcourse,
into the horizontal arms A, B, which are fixed to an
upright spindle CT, but without any tube TT. The
water will obviously issue from the apertures A,B,in
the same manner as if it had been introduced at the to _
of a tube TT as high as the fall. Hence the spin {
CD may be made as short as we please. The practi-
cal difficulty which attends this form of the machine,
is to give the arms A, B a motion round the mouth of
the feeding pipe, which enters the arm at D, without
an at friction, or any considerable loss of water.
This form of the mill is shewn in Plate CCCXXI. Fig.
4. where F is the reservoir, K the millstones, KD Fig. 4 —
the vertical axis, FEC the feeding pipe, the mouth
of which enters the horizontal arm at C. In a ma-
chine of this kind which M. Mathon de la Cour saw
at Bourg Argental, AB was 92 inches, and its diameter
three inches ; the diameter of each orifice was 1% inch,
FG was 21 feet; the internal diameter of D was two
inches, and it was fitted into C by grinding. This ma-
chine made 115 turns in a minute when it was unload-.
ed, and emitted water by one hole only. The machine,
when empty, weighed 80 pounds, and it was half sup-
ported by the upward pressure ofthe water. This im- .
tee which was published in Rozier’s Journal de : f
hysique for January and August 1775, appeared about
20 years afterwards as a new invention Miata
in the Transactions of the American Philosophical So- ‘
ciety of Philadelphia, who was ; not aware of
the Ja ars of M. Mathon de Ia ; ;
a
HYDRODYNAMICS. 561
Water In the year 1747, Professor of Gottingen Jan. and Aug. 1775; Krafft, Nov. Comment. Petropol. _Sluict
_- Wheels published, in his Ezercitationes Hi iew, an account 1792, vol. x. p. 137 ; Robison’s System of Mechanical Governor.
of a machine which differs only in form from Dr Bar- Philosophy, Bossut’s Hydrodynamique, tom. i. chap. xviii;
ker’s mill. It consisted of a number of tubes arranged Ferguson's Lectures, vol. il. p. 97, and Appendix, p,
machine as it were in the circumference of a truncated cone; 205; Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 106.
by Profes- the water was introduced into the upper ends of these
sor Segner- tubes, and flowing out at the lower ends, produced, in
virtue of its reaction, a motion round the axis of the cone.
Secr. V. On Machines for Raising Water, and various
Hydraulic purposes.
Pome poaines Gaete aftiinneenine Sees ed by
ym to Albert Euler. He proposes to introduce water 1. Description of a Sluice Governor regulating the
machine by from the mill course into an annular cavity ina fixed — Jntroduction of Wi Wat eas kends
ag vessel of the nearly of a pe eg The bot- x pod wl hat ihe r
“tom of this vessel has several inclined apertures for Ass thereis.a particular velocity at which water wheels Sluice ge.
the of making the water flow out with a pro- uce a maximum effect, as the work to be per- Vernet.
obliquity into the inferior and moveable vessel. formed is often injured by an irregularity in the velocity
of a cone, moves about an axis passing up
the centre of the fixed vessel, and has a variety
of tubes arranged round its cirumference. These tubes
do not reach to the very top of the vessel, and are bent
into right angles at their lowerends. The water from
of the machinery, it is o' tt importance to late
thdiedealhoieivel dheweatesenen to ae panies
of velocity when there is too much water in the mill-
course. In corn mills, the meal becomes heated and
injured by too great a velocity, and in cotton mills, the
threads are broken from the same cause.
The machine for this , which is minutely re- Plate
in Plate CCCXXI. Figures 5, 6,7, and 8, CCCXXL
was actually constructed by the late Mr Burns for: Cart- = 5, 6,
side cotton mill, who considered it of such advantage as "’ “*
the os in aren vessel being delivered into the
tubes of the lower vessel, descends in the tubes, and is-
ing from their horizontal extremities, gives motion to
the conical drum by its reaction.
The excellence of this method of ing the re-
action of water, was first slightly poi out by Dr
Desaguliers, and no further notice seems to have been
taken of the invention till the appearance of 'sma-
chine in 1747. The attention of Leonhard Euler, John
Bernoulli, and Albert Euler, was then directed to the
ing water as a moving power.
sablched ie theney of thie Setchtns in the Memoirs of
in Academy, vol. vi. p. 311; and the application
of the machine to all cere ep aN era
a subsequent paper in seventh volume same
work, for 1752, p. 271. John Bernoulli's investiga.
tions will be found at the end of his Hydraulics.
Albert Euler concluded, that when i
the form given to it b , the effect was equal to
pnp gem yar gm ome arene chen the
FEE
5
&
FF
:
&
3
4
EF
|
3
H
i
c
FF
‘itl
i
:
i
&
e
i Desagu
, Vol. ii, p. 453; 4
» ing. 1747; L. Euler,
Mem. Acad. Berl 1751, vol. vi.
i.
VOL, XI. PART 11.
to produce a saving of more than £100 annum.
The motion gf the water wheel is communicated: by a
belt or rope going round the pulley I to the axis EF,
which carries the balls G, H, Fig. 5. This motion is
conveyed to the upright shaft T by the wheels and pi-
nions Q, R, S, T’, and the wheel N at the bottom of
shaft drives the wheels O, P, Fig. 6 and 7, in i
directions. When the velocity of the wheel is such as
is required, the wheels O, P move loosely about the axis,
and : agnor eA career eo a the velo-
ity o! w is too t, the balls G, H, separated
was increase of centrifugal force, raise the box au
shaft EF. An iron cross 4c, see Fig. 8, is fitted into
the box’a. This cross works in the four prongs of the
fork ¢ b c, Fig. 6, at the end of the lever U ¢ f'¢; which
moves horizontally round f as its centre of motion.
When the box a is stationary, which is when the wheel
has its velocity, the iron cross works within
two of the prongs so as not to affect the lever df ¢, but
to allow the clutch q q, fixed at the end of the lever, to
be di from the wheels. When the cross 4 crises,
it strikes in turning round the ig 3, see Fig. 8. which
drives aside the lever ¢ fd, and throws the clutch q into
the arms of the wheel P, Figs. 6,7. This causes it to drive
round the shaft DC in one direction. When the iron cross
4c, on the contrary, is depressed by any diminution in
the velocity of the wheel, it strikes, in turning round,
the prong 4, which pushes aside the lever e fd, and
throws clutch ¢ into the wheel O. This causes
the wheel O to drive the shaft in an opposite direction
to that in which it was driven by P. Now the shaft
DC, which is thus put in motion, drives, by means
of the pinion C and wheel B, the inclined shaft BW,
which, by an endless screw X working in the tooth-
ed quadrant Z, elevates or depresses the sluice KL,
and admits a greater or a less quantity of water,
according as the motion is given to the shaft by the
wheel P or O. This change in the ure is pro-
duced very gradually, as the train of wheelwork is
made so as to reduce the motion at the sluice. - The
centre in which the sluice turns should be } of its
height from the bottom, in order that the pressure of
the water on the part above the centre may balance the
pressure on the part ee the centre.
8
Archime-
des’s Screw.
Archime-
des’s screw.
PLATE
CCCXXIL
Fig. 1,
Weter
screw.
562
2. Description of Archimedes’s Screw.
The screw engine for raising water invented by Ar-
chimedes, was formerly constructed so as to consist of
a cylinder with a flexible pipe, wrapped round its cir-
cumference like a screw ; but it is now more frequently
constructed in the manner shewn in Plate CCCXXII.
Fig. 1. where AB is a cylindrical axis, having a flat
plate of wood or thin iron, coiled as it were round it
like the threads of a screw. The plane of this plate is
pendicular to the surface of the cylindrical axis AB,
But inclined to this axis at an angle, which must always
exceed the inclination of the cylindrical axis AB to the
horizon. This last angle is commonly between 45° and
60°. This wooden screw, with a very deep thread, is fix-
ed in a cylindrical box CDEF, so that we have a spiral
hollow groove as it were running up the tube from B to
A, which will have the same effect as if a pipe of lead
or leather had been coiled round the cylindrical axis.
The lower end B of the screw is plunged in the wa-
ter of the vessel E, which is to be raised to the upper
vessel F, and when the screw is turned round its axis,
either by a handle or winch placed at A, or by any other
power acting upon the pinion at A, the water at E
will fall into the hollow spiral groove, and as the screw
turns round, the water will necessarily remain in the
lower part of the spiral, and will at last reach the top
of the spiral pipe, where it is discharged as seen at F.
In this engine, therefore, the water rises by a constant
descent in the spiral tube. The operation of this en-
gine, which appears at first sight to be paradoxical, will
be best understood by wrapping a cord spirally round
a bottle containing a little water, and inclining the bot-
tle at a less angle to the horizon than the inclination of
the cord to the axis. It will then be seen, that if wa-
ter falls into the lowest part of the spiral when it is at
rest, the motion of the bottle about its axis will remove
as it were the spiral out from below the water, which
must therefore occupy the part of the spiral immediate-
ly above it, and so on till the water reaches the top of
it. When the outer case CDEF is fixed, and the screw
revolves within it, the engine is called a waler screw,
which should be inclined only about 30° to the horizon.
As we conceive this engine to be entitled to more
notice than it has generally received from practical me-
chanics, we have given a drawing of a very excellent
screw engine, which was erected in 1816 at the Hurlet
Alum works, upon the Water of Levern, near Paisley ;
for which we have been indebted to the kindness
of John Wilson, Esq. one of the proprietors. The wa-
ter-wheel A, constructed of iron, with wooden buckets,
(see Plate CCCXXII. Fig. 2.) is 12 feet diameter, and
conveys its motion to the screw by the bevel wheels C,
C, and the shafts B, B, 126 feet long, and 54 inches
diameter. At the end of the shaft B is fixed another
bevel wheel D, which works in a similar wheel D’, fixed
on the circumference of the screw which rests upon an
inclined plane of solid masonry, and is inclined 37° 30’
to the horizon. The axis KK of the screw, which is
Yepresented without its covering in Fig. 2. No. 2. is oc-
tagonal, and 8 inches in diameter. The diameter of the
spiral is 22 inches, and the thickness of the covering
2 inches, so that the whole diameter is 26 inches.
The distance of the threads is 9 inches, and their num-
ber 168. The thickness of the spiral is 2 inches, so
that the spiral tube in which the uid is to be raised is
7 inches wide, and 7 inches deep. The screw is sup-
ported on five sets of friction rollers, constructed as
shewn at L in No. 3; two rollers having been found
3.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
preferable to a greater number, which were at first em- Archime-
ployed. The well or stone cistern in which the foot ¢es’s Screw.
of the screw is immersed, and from which the alum
liquors are raised, is shewn at O; and at M there is an
ingenious contrivance for supplying the pivot regularly
with oil. The foot of the screw N is sup rted by a
step of bell metal, inserted into a piece of wood, the
t for which is of cast iron wedged in the foot of
the screw, and well lapped in woollen cloth dipped in
rosin and tallow, to prevent the liquor from acting upon
it. The fall of water which drives the wheel is 9 feet,
and the water strikes the wheel 3 feet above the hori-
zontal axle ; the width of the mill course is 44 feet, the
depth of water 14 inches, and the aperture of the
sluice 24 inches. The water wheel revolves 12 times
in a minute, and the screw performs two revolutions
for one of the wheel, and consequently 24 revolutions
ina minute. The quantity of liquor discharged is 70
wine gallons; but as the specific gravity of the fluid
raised is 1.065, the weight of the quantity discharged
in an hour is 17 tons. The pump is wholly built of tim-
ber, as the alum liquor acts upon the iron. — Its total
length is 127 feet, and the height to which the liquor
is raised is = sin. 37° 30’ x 127 feet = 76 feet 9 inches.
The water wheel, besides driving the screw, moves two
pumps for lifting liquor to the height of 30 feet. The
pumps make each 24 strokes for one turn of the wheel,
and the bore is 54 inches in diameter.
A very ingenious double screw engine has recently Pattu’s
been invented by M. Pattu, engineer of roads and brid- double
ges in the PTA of Calvados.
in section in Fig. 3, and consists of two o:
concentric screws, one of which, AB, is lon
row, and serves for the nucleus of the other, €
is much wider and shorter. These two screws turn
round the axis in opposite directions, so that when one
of them appears to be moving upwards, the other ap-
pears to be moving downwards, The screw is inclined
35° to the horizon. The water from the stream MN is
introduced into the larger screw, and puts the whole in
motion, and the water, after its fall into OP, enters the
smaller screw, in which it is raised to the cistern at B.
When it is used for draining, and when the movin
power of the water can be applied at A, the sm
screw serves to drive the larger one, which raises the
water to a height sufficient to carry it off, as shewn in
Fig. 4. Figures 5 and 6, shew other modes of applying
and nar-
this screw. Fig. 5 is the form used for raising water §
to irrigate high grounds, to fill the reservoirs of baths,
gardens, and manufactories. The large screw is here
the moving power. Fig. 6 is the form used for keep-
ing dry those places where foundations are building.
The large screw is here the mover.
M., Eytelwein has shewn that the screw should al-
ways be placed so that only one half of a convolution
may be filled at each turn. When the height of the
water is so variable that this precaution is impractica-
ble, he prefers the water serew, although nearly one
third of the water in this case generally runs back, and
though it is easily clogged by accidental impurities in
the water. :
Fig. 7. shews the form of Archimedes’s serew, as
recommended by D. Bernoulli.
. These machines are particularly useful when the wa-
ter to be raised is not pure, but is mixed with gravel,
weeds, or sand, which could not be elevated by ordina«
ry pumps. For farther information on this subject,
See Vitruvius. Pitot, Mem, Acad. Par. 1736, p. 173.
Bernoulli, Hydrodynamica. Hennert Dissertation sux
It is represented *Te¥ &-
ad gine.
PLATE
« OCCXRIL
D, which Riz. 3.
Fig. 7.
Spiral
to =
chine.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Spiral Ia vis d’ Archimede, Berl. 1767. Euler, Nov. Comment.
Pump. p, tom. vy. p. 259. Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii.
—— p. ll Pattu, Journal des Mines, Nov. 1815, vol.
Xxxviii. p. 321. Eytelwein’s Handbuch der Mechanik,
‘Berl. 1805, chap. xxi. Gregory's Mechunics, vol. ii.
p. 348.
3. On the Spiral Pump, or Zurich Machine.
This machine, ted in Plate CCCXXIII. Fig.
1, was invented about 1746 by Andrew Wirtz, a
in Zurich, who erected it for a dye-house
on the river Limmat. It consists of a spiral pipe
ABCDEF, either coiled round in one plane, as shewn in
* the Figure,or arranged round the circumference of a cone
ora cylinder. The interior end of the spiral G, or the re-
mote end of it, is connected by a watertight joint to an as-
cending pipe GH, in which the water 1s to be raised.
When this spiral, immersed in the water MN, which is
to be raised, is put in motion in the direction ABCD, the
scoop BA, which begins to widen from C, takes in a
portion of water. As the scoop emerges, this water
passes the spiral, driving the air before it into
the pipe GH, where it escapes. Air is again admitted
into the scoop after it emerges, and when the scoop has
performed one revolution, it again takes up another
ion of water, which is driven along the spiral as
» snd a = the first ion by a co-
lumn of air of near length. continuing to
turn the spiral, a pati pa en oh winerand
of air will be introduced, and so on. Now, the water,
iral, will have both its ends ho-
air will have its natural den
sity. But as the diameter of the spirals diminish to-
wards the centre, the column of water, which occupied
a semicircle in the outer spiral, will occupy more and
more of the inner spirals as they approach to the centre
G,, till there will be a certain spiral, of which it will oc-
cupy a complete turn. Hence it will occupy more than
the entire spiral within this spiral, and consequently
be ed
based side
against each other by hydrostatic pres-
sure, and the intervening column of air. They must
the air between them, and the water and air
columns will now be unequal, This will have a ge-
neral tendency to the whole water back, and cause
it to be higher on the left or rising side of each spire,
than eo brig Cae. gags ¥. €. Pd excess of
just such as produces ges
eRe hareen ot al the rec umn of
water. This will go on increasing as the water mounts
in the rising pipe ; for the air next to the rising pi
is at its inner end with the weight ot the
whole column in the main. It must be as much com-
pressed at its outer end. This must be done by the
water column without it; and this column exerts this
re, partly by reason that its outer end is higher
than its inner
column beyond or within it, which transmits this pres-
sure to the air beyond it, adding to it the pressure ari-
sing from its own want of level at the ends. There-
fore, the greatest compression, viz. that of the air next
the main, is produced by the sum of all the i
res, and these are the sum of all the differences
ore the elevation of the inner ends of the water
columns abeve their outer ends; and the height to
which the water will rise in the main will be just equal
to this sum.”
The spiral pumps seem to have remained long un-
563
Spiral
Pump.
PLate
CCCXXLE.
Fig. L.
History of
noticed. They were erected, however, at Florence in the spirx
1778, with the improvement suggested by Bernoulli, of P&™P-
having the spiral coiled on the circumference of a cy-
linder, as represented in Fig. 2, In 1784, a spiral pump
was erected at Archangelsky, near Moscow, which raised
a hogshead of water in a minute to the height of 74 feet,
and through a = 760 feet long. It has not yet been
ascertained whether the plane, the cylindrical, or the co-
nical spiral is best. The only practical difficulty consists
in ing the joint perfectly water-tight. The ma-
chine erected at Florence had its spiral cylindrical. Its
diameter was 10 feet, and that of the pipe 6 inches.
The enlarged part occupied 3 of the circumference, and
was 7,%, inches wide at the outer end. The enlar;
part contained 6844 English cubic inches. The spiral
revolved six times in a minute, and raised 22 cubic feet
of water 10 feet high in a minute. Eytelwein considers
this as a very a machine, and well deserving
the attention of the engineer. The length of the pi
becomes extremely cumbersome when the water is to os
raised through a great height. Dr Young found that
100 feet of pipe 2 of an inch in diameter was necessary
for a height of 140 feet; and he considers that the
machine would succeed better if the pipes were entirely
of wood, or of tinned copper, or even of earthen-ware.
See Sulzer’s Sammlungen Vermischlen Schriflen, 1754 ;
Daniel Bernoulli, Nov. Comment. Petrop. 1772, tom.
xvii. p. 249; Bailey’s Machines approved of by the So-
ciety of Arts, vol. i. p.151 ; Dr Robison’s System of Me-
chanical Philosophy ; Fytelwein Handbuch der Mecha-
nik, &c; and Dr Thomas Young’s Natural Philoso-
py, vol. i. p. 330, &e.
4. Description of Pilot's Bent Tube for measuring the
Velocity of Water.
One of the most ingenious instruments for measuring
the velocity of water, is the tube recourbé, or bent
tube, invented by M. Pitot, and described in the Me-
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1732. It is re-
ted in Plate CCCXXIIL. Fig 3, and consists of a
ism of wood ABCDEF, one of the angles of which
is presented to the current. On the hinder face BCFE
are fixed two tubes of glass parallel to each other, and
having a uated between them ; one of them,
viz. MNO, being bent into a right angle at O, so that
the part MN may pass through the prism horizontally.
When this instrument is plu in a running stream,
the general level of the current is shewn by the rise of
the water in the straight tube PQ, while the height of
the water in the bent tube MNO becomes a measure of
the force of the stream. The difference between these
heights will therefore be the height due to the veloci-
ty. In the practical use of this instrument, it is how-
ever difficult to fix it sufficiently steady, to prevent the
water from oscillating in the tubes.
Fig. 2.
Pitot's beut
tube,
Fig. 3.
M. Du Buat having examined the instrument experi- Improved
mentally, found that it could be trusted no farther than to by Du
give the ratio of different velocities. He therefore sup-
pressed the tube PQ altogether, and substituted, in place
Bua,
564 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Hydraulic of the bent tube of glass MNO, a simple tube of white ties counterwéeights W, W. ‘As the waterin'thevessel Floatiig
Quadrant, jyon, sufficiently large to admit a float for pointing out MNOP sinks by being discharged at D, the syphon Syphon. ~
&c. the height of the water in the tube. The lower end of descends and the counterweights rise, and an uniform
the white iron tube is bent back as.at MN, and is ter- stream is obtained till the end A reaches the bottom of
minated by a plane surface, perforated at its centre the vessel. ;
with a small orifice, which will greatly diminish the Another very ingenious contrivance for the same pur: Floating
oscillations of the elevated column. If we then take se is shewn in Fig. 7. A cone AB. attached to a cone.
two thirds of the height of the water in the tube above lenticular float C, and fixed upon the axis ¢ f, rises and P!ATE
the level of the stream, we shall have very exactly the falls in the aperture mn, by which the water of the CCCX*IU-
height due to the velocity of the current forthe depth vessel MNOP is to be discharged. It iskeptinanup- “'* ,
Hydraulic
Quadrant.
PLATE
CCCXXIII,
Fig. 4;
Floating *
tube.
Fig. 5.
to which ‘the orifice is immersed. See Pitot, Mem.
Acad, Par. 1730, 1772, p. 868; Du Buat’s Principes
d’ Hydraulique, tom. ii. p. 332, edit. 1786; Bossut’s
Trauté d’ Hydrodynamique, tom. ii. p. 267, 268, edit.
1796.
5. Description of the Hydraulic Quadrant for measuring
the Velooity of Water;
The hydraulic quadrant which has beenrecommend-
ed by several authors for measuring the velocity of wa-
ter, is shewn in Plate CCCXXIII. Fig. 4. It:consists of
a quadrant ABC, with a divided arch AB, and ‘havin
two threads ‘moving round its centre. ‘One of these C
is short, and carries a weight P, which always hangs
in air, while the other CH or CM is longer, and carries
a weight whose specific gravity is greater than that
of water, and which plunges more or less deep in the
current as the thread is lengthened. The instrument is
then held as in the figure, ‘so that the plummet CP
passes through 0° ; and the angle ACD, or the angular
distance of the other thread from a vertical line, will be
a measure of the force, and consequently of the velocity
of the current. Bossut has shewn that the force is as
the tangent of the angle ACD, and that if u be the ve-
locity when the thread has the position CH, and V the
velocity when it has the position CM, we shall have
sin. XCR sin. XCS
uv= J (Gene) '6/ (Gexse ). Te we there.
fore know u, we alsoknow V. We have therefore only
to determine u, when H is at the surface, for any
given angle ACD, and V will be had for any other
velocity, either at the surface or at any depth below it.
See Bossut’s T'raité a’ Hydrodynamique, tom. ii. p. 265,
266. Eytelwein’s experiments with the hydraulic qua-
drant will be found in the Samml. zur Bauk. 1799.
6. Machines for discharging a uniform Quantity of Water.
Tn Plate CCCXXIII. Figs. 5, 6,7, we have represent-
ed three ingenious contrivances for discharging ‘equal
quantities of water from a vessel which is constant-
ly emptying itself, or where there is a variable head of
water. The contrivance in Fig. 5. where MNOP is a
vessel nearly full of water, consists of a'tube BA mo-
ving round a joint at B, and having its upper end B
connected with a hollow floating ball C. The velocity
with which the water enters the extremity B is that
which is due to the height BC, or the depth of B be-
right (position by the horizontal axes op, 7s.
the vessel is full of water, and the head therefore great,
the velocity at m willalso be ~ ste ; but as the float C
rises with the surface MN, the aperture m2 will be
partly. filled by a thicker part.of the cone AB; wheres
as, when the surface MN has descended, the float AB
will also descend, and the aperture at mn will be widen«
ed, in consequence of a smaller part of the cone being
included in it. In this way, the varying diameter of
the cone always adjusts the a mn to the varias
ble chead of water, so that the quantity discharged
through the tube m no p is nearly always the same.
7. Water-blowing Machine, or Shower-Bellows.
The water-blowing machine, ‘called trombe by the
French, seems to have been first introduced in Italy
blast of air by the descent of water. It is repre-
sented in Figs. 8 and 9, where MN is a reservoir
of water, in the bottom of which is inserted a long
tube AB, consisting of a conical part a6, seen upon
an enlarged scale in Fig. 9, .communicating with a
cylindrical tube dB, which enters the vessel CDEF,.
A number of openings c,d, &c. are made at the top of -
the tube dB, so that when the water is discharged at
the conical aperture 4, it drags along with it the adja-
cent air. This mixture of air and water falls upon a
stone oan G, so as to separate the air from the wa~
ter. The water descends to the bottom of the vessel,
while the air escapes through thepipe CIK to supply
the furnace. Another form of the machine is shewn in
Fig. 9. where «8 is the conical pipe, and the water Fig. 9°
is supplied with air from the pipes xB, dp.
In the water-blowing machines used in Dauphiny,
in the neighbourhood of the town of Alvar, the diame-
ter of ab is 12 inches at a and 5 at 6; the diameter of
dB is 10 inches. Only four holes are used at c, d, and
the end B enters 14 feet into the vessel CDEF, which
is 4 feet high and 4 feet broad. The water is dischar-
ged at an aperture above F, a foot in diameter; and
sometimes the admission of the water and its discharge
are regulated by sluices m and, A strong, equal, and
continued blast is obtained by this machine ; but it is.
thought to be too moist and too cold. We have seen
in Switzerland one of these machines working with
eat effect at the lead works of M. Lenay, in the yal-
ey of Servoz near Chamouni.
ow, when ~
about the year 1672, for the purpose of ——_ a ie 6
low the surface. As the surface MN descends the
float C also descends, so that whatever be the height
of the water in the vessel, it will always enter B with
the same velocity. The discharge at the other end A
will not be quite uniform, as the water will acquire
greater velocity in descending the tube BA when it is
much inclined than when it is nearly horizontal.
_ A floating syphon, which produces the same effect
in a more correct manner, is shewn in Fig. 6, where
ABD isasyphon with a hollow floating ball at its
shorter end. This syphon is suspended by the chains ‘
EP, EP, which pass over two palleys P, P upon a ho-~
rizontal axle PP, and suspend at ‘their other extremis
4
Kircher appears to have been the first who explained Venturi’s
the production of wind by a fall of water. es theory of
long afterwards gave another theory, and Dietrich and ("er
Fabri tested the wind “to ‘the decomposition of the piochines,
water. In 1791, the Academy of Thoulouse invited
philosophers to investigate this phenomenon, and it f
was probably in consequence of this that Venturi di-
rected his attention to the subject. This ingenious phi-
“losopher has proved, that the air is dre down upon
bi ha iple of the lateral communication of motion in ’
fluids; and he has pointed out the best mode of construct-
‘ing the machine, so-as to produce the aye reid
‘of air, “The diameter of the tube dB should be at least
— Water-
‘Machine.
——
* Buckinghamshire. The
HYDRODYNAMICS.
double of the aperture atb. To'a height about 14 feet
above CD, the tube shouldbe completely air-tight, as
well as the vessel CDEF, butabove’ ‘the tube dB
may be in’ part'with holes. “M. Ven-
turi has calculated, that the quantity of air which passes
in one second into the tube is =6.1 a* 4/(a4-5—1.4) —
0.4.a*,/(a X 0.1), where u is the diameter of the aperture
at 5, and 5 the diameter of the tube d B. From this quan-
tity about one-fourth should be deducted in’practice,
on account of the dashing of the scattered water against
the lower part ofthe tubes. If the pipe CIK does not
i all the air which is , the surface of
the water in the vessel will d, and part of the
air will issue out of the lower of the tube dB.
Phenomena similar to those aced by the water-
blowing machine have been in nature. At
the foot of the cascades which fall from the glacier of
Roche Melon, on the naked rock of La Novalese to-
wards Mount mo lyon found om ~ oe of the
wind arising from air dragged wn water,
could scarcely be withstood. The ventaroli or natural
blasts, which are most ——— found to issue from
volcanic mountains, arise the air carried down
the falls of water ; and what are called
the rain winds have the same origin. See Kircher’s
Mundus Subterraneus, lib. xiv. cap. 5. edit. 1663, Bar-
thes, Mem. des Szavans Etrangers, tom. iii. p. $78.
Dietrich, Gites de Minerai des Pyreneés, p- 48, 49.
Fabri, Physic. Tract. lib. ii- 243. Belidor, Arch.
Hydraul. tom ii. 1. Mariotte, Traité des Mouv.
des Eaux, Part i. Disc. 3. Arts et Metiers, Art. des
F p. 88. Venturi in Nicholson's Journal, tom. ii.
p 47 Nicholson's Journal, vol. i. ‘4to, p. 2229, and
vol. xii, Svo, p. 48, Wolfius, Opera Mathematica, tom. i.
830. Lewlés Comtiaves of arth Journal des Mines,
o. 91.
8. Description of the Gaining and Losing Buckets.
This very ingenious machine seems to have been
first by Schottus, but was afterwards greatly
improved and actually constructed by George Gerves,
for Sir John Chester, Bart. at his seat at Chichley in
i object of this machine is to
raise water from a well or spring A, Fig. 10, to a re-
servoir R. In order to effect this, a wheel WW, 6 feet
in diameter, is fixed above R, and on the same axis
another wheel ww, 2 feet in diameter, To the circum-
ference of W is fixed a chain W
e pipe ABR full
» the water will lift the valve D, and escape with a ve-
locity dae to the height of the reservoir. In a short
time, the water having acquired am additional velocity,
raises the valve G, which shuts the passage, and pre-
vents the of the water. The consequence of
this is, that all the included water exerts suddenly a
.
2
hydrostatical pressure on every part of the pipe, com- p
ing at the same time the air in the annu
ee — ee
shock. This hydrostatical pressure opens ves
at E, and a porti Sat Gee water Setiatince the'ehe tense’
P, and the air which it contains. The valves
at E now close, preventing the return of the water into
the pipe, and the water recoils a little in the tube with
a t motion from B to A, in consequence of the reac-
pry prea Ane air in ii, and also
of the metal of the pipe, which must have yielded a
little to the force exerted it in ev irection.
The recoil of the water towards A produces a slight as-
piration within the head R of the ram, which causes the
valve D to descend by its own weight, and prevent the
water X which covers it from descending into the tube.
The air, however, passes through the pipe /%, opens
the valve #, and a small quantity is sucked into the
annular space ii; but the quantity is small, as the
valve & closes as soon as the current of air becomes ra-
pid. During the recoil towards A, the valve C, being
unsw , falls by its own weight ; and when the
force of recoil is expended by acting on the water in
the reservoir PQ, the water begins again to flow along
ABR, and the v ennat opentia hick we have de-
scribed is without end, a portion of water be-
om, Fata otha 2 th ascent of the
ec. ar aokaaraan pny ort at eres
, will exert a ue to its u
eaeeerihe water in the vessel F, nd’ wil Yoree it
the pipe M to a height which is sufficient to
balance the elasticity of the included air.
The small quantity of air which is drawn into the
annular space i# through the air tube /£ at each aspi-
; i of recoil takes place, a small
quantity of air passes from ii, and proceeds along the
pipe till it arrives beneath the valves at E, and lodging
m the small space beneath the valves, it is forced into
the air vessel at the next stroke, and thus affords a con-
stant supply of air to the vessel. The valves make in
I trom 50 to 70 pulsations in a minute.
When the fall of water, or PQ, is five feet, and the
pipe AB six inches in diameter and 14 feet long, a ma-
chine with its parts proportioned as in the figure will
567
raise about 2+ cubic feet per minute to the height of
100 feet. Mr Millington observes, that one of these
machines is said to have raised 100 hogsheads of water
in 24 hours to the height of 134 feet by a fall of 43 feet.
The form of the ram represented in Fig. 10. is suit- Form of the
ed to the case where a current of foul ‘eae AB, is em- ™™ for
to raise clean water from the well WW. This
effect is produced by a bent pipe OPQ, containing a yith foul
column of air from O to Q, and by another pipe T, water:
with a suction valve ¢: The mode of action is pre- Fig. 10.
cisely the same as in Fig. 8.. When the valve C shuts,
the sudden hydrostatical pressure forces the water up
the bent tube at O, laekataen the bpie of ~ of.
which again , by its elasticity, on the surface o
water a Q, Kant Kecth the attr Hep up through
the valves into the air-vessel FF. The recoil of the
water from B to A will produce a rarefaction in the co-
lumn of air QO, in consequence of which, the atmo-
herical upon the water in the well will raise
e valve ¢, till as much water is admitted as was driven
into the air-vessel. Montgolfier proposes to substitute
a straight pipe in place of OQ, and to oe a piston,
moving freely in the pipe, which will transmit the
ressure from the foul water to the clean water, with-
out allowing them to mix. We conceive that the same
effect might be obtained more simply and with much
less friction, by a very loose diaphragm fixed in the tube.
When the ram is employed to
mass of water rushing into the air-chamber W, by the
shutting of the valve C. The water in W is prevented
from following the air by a hollow ball of copper n,
which floats on the water, and shits up the lower end
of the pipe, when the water dashes into W. When
things are in the state shewn in ‘the figure, and all the
air expelled from the chamber W, the air compressed
in the annular space p p, (which serves the same pur-
waa Fig. 8.) produces a recoil of the water,
e valve 'D shuts, C opens, the water quits the cham.
ber W, and the valve w shuts, and prevents the admis.
sion of air. At the same time the valve r , and
admits a fresh supply of air into the chamber; but when
the water has descended below the float e, this float de-
scends, and by its rod ed shuts the air-valve d. When
the force of recoil is spent, the water flows again from
A to B, and the operation which we have described is
in repeated, so that there is a constant current of
air in the pipe wm, which may be equalized by a water
lator, or any other contrivance. See the ory
Arts, Dee. 1816; Fer, "s Lectures, vol. ii. App. ;
and Brande’s Journal, vol. i. p. 211, Lond. 1816.
16. Description of the Chemnitz Fountain, or Hungarian
Machine.
The Chemnitz fountain is represented in Plate Chemnitz
CCCXXIV. Fig. 12. where C is a collection of water, fountain.
required to raise "i8- 2.
either in a mine or in a well, which it is
to the reservoir B by means of a smal! head of water at A.
In order to effect this, a pipe AFT, 4 inches in diame-
ter, having a cock at M, enters the top of the copper
vessel TD, 84 feet high, 5 feet in diameter, and 2 inch-
es thick, containing about 170 cubic feet, and extends
to D within 4 inches of the bottom. The vessel TD
has a cock at N, and bate one at P, and from
its top proceeds a pipe TOG, 2 inches in diameter,
with a cock at O, entering the top of the vessel KE,
which is 64 feet high, 4 feet in diameter, 2 inches
produce a current of Form of the
air, it has'the form shewn in Fig. 11. The air is’ ex- machine
pelled through the air-pipe w m, in consequence of the f" predu-
_ Pig. 11.
568
Hydraulie thick, and containing about 83 cubic feet. Another
Ram.
Maanoury
Dectot’s da- pl ate,
naide.
ipe EKHB, 4inches in diameter, rises from E, with-
in 4 inches of the bottom of the vessel KE, is soldered
into its top at K, and rises into the reservoir B. Thecy-
linder KE communicates by a tube with a cock at R,
with the water C to be raised, and has a cock Q at-its
top. Let us now suppose that the cock M is.shut, and
all the other cocks open. . The cylinder TD will contain
air, and KE will contain water standing as high as the
level-of the water in the cistern C. Shut the cocks‘N, P,
Q, and, R, and open the cock M. The water from A
will descend into the vessel TD, and after it rises above
the mouth D of the pipe, it will compress the air in
the vessel TD, in the pipe TOG, and in the, upper
part of the vessel KE. The action, of this air upon
the water in KE will force it, up the pipe KH, till it is
discharged into the reservoir B, This. discharge. into
B goes on till the upper vessel TD is filled with water.
As soon as this happens, the water is prevented. from
running into the pipe TO by a cork ball, or, double
cone, which hangs in the pipe TO by a brass wire,
which is. guided by holes into two cross pieces in the
pipe. The ascent of the water into the mouth of the
pipe at T pushes in this plug, and closes the pipe.
influx. of water now stops; but the water still
flows into. B till the. elasticity of the air inthe lower
vessel KE is no lenger able to balance a column, which
reaches to H in the pipe KH. This. cessation of, the
efflux into B generally ceases when KE is half full of
water, ‘When this takes, place, the workman, shuts
the cock M, and opens the cock P, from which the
water rushes with great velocity. -Whenever 3ths of
the water in the vessel TD is discharged at P, which
is:measured in the vessel. which receives it, the work-
man opens the cock. R with a long rod, so as to fill the
vessel KE with water. This drives the air out of KE
through the pipe GO into the vessel TD,.and conse-
uently drives out, all the remaining water. Eve
thing is now in the, state in which it was at first, whic
is known to be the case when no. more water flows out
at P. The workman, therefore, shuts the cocks P and
Q, and opens M, and the same operation is repeated.
If the cock N be opened when the efflux has ceased at
B, the water and air rush out together with prodigious
violence, accompanied, with hail and pieces of ice pro-
duced by the cold which attends the sudden expansion
of air. It is usual to shew this sight to strangers,
whose hats, when held opposite N, are sometimes pier-
ced with the pieces of ice which are projected from. it.
A considerable improvement upon this engine has
been made by Mr John Whitley Boswell, who has
added to it an apparatus which enables it to operate with~’
out any attending workmen. An account.of this ims
provement will be found in Nicholson’s Journal, 4to,
vol. i. and 8vo, No. 5.
17. Description of the Danaide invented by M. Mannoury
* Dectot.
This machine consists of a cylindrical trough of tins
nearly as high as it is broad, and having a hole in
the centre of its bottom, _ It is fixed to a vertical axis
of iron, which passes through the middle of the. hole in
the bottom, a vacant space being left all round to pers
mit the water to escape, The axis turns with the trough
upon a pivot, and is fixed above to a collar.
A drum of tin-plate, close above and below, is fixed
upon the axis of the trough, and placed within. the
trough, so as to be concentric with it, and to leave, only.
between the outer circumference of the drum and the
inner circumference of the trough, an annular space
HYDRODYNAMICS.
not exceeding 1} inches.. This annularspace communi- Mannou
cates with a space less than 14 inches, left between the
bottom of the drum and the bottom of the trough, and
divided into compartments by diaphragms fixed upon the
bottom of the trough, and proceeding from the circums
ference to the central hole in the bottom of the trough.
The water comes from a reservoir above by one or
two pipes, and, makes its way into this aries space
between the trough anddrum. The bottom of
pipes, corresponds with the level of the water in the
trough, and they are directed horizontally, and as tan=
gents to the mean circumference between that of the
trough and of the drum. The velocity which the wa
ter has acquired by its fall along these pipes, makes the
machine move ‘round. its axis, and this motion accele«
rates by degrees, till the velocity of the water. in the
space between the trough and drum equals that of the
water from the reservoir ; so that no sensible shock is
perceived of the affluent water upon that which is con<
tained in the machine, .
This circular motion communicates to, the,water bee
tween the trough and drum a centrifugal force, in con«
sequence of which it. presses against the’ sides of the
trough, This centrifugal. force .acts equally. upon the
water contained in the compartments at the, bottom of
the trough, but it acts less and less. as.this water ap=
proaches the centre,
The. whole water then is animated by two ite
forces, viz. gravity, and the centrifugal force. The first
tends to make the water run out at the hole at the bot-
tom of the trough; the second, to. drive the water from
that hole,
To these two forces are joined a third, viz. friction,
which acts here an important and. singular part, as it
promotes the efficacy of the machine, while in other
machines it always diminishes.that efficacy. Here, on
the contrary, the effect would be. nothing were-it not
for the friction, which acts as a tangent |to the sides of
the trough and drum.
By the combination of these three forces, there ought
to result a more or less rapid flow from the hole at the
bottom of the trough: and the less force the water has
as it issues out, the more it will have employed in mo-«
ving the machine, and of course in producing the uses
ful effect for which it is destined.
The moving power is the weight of the water run
ning in, multiplied by the height of thesreservoir from
which it flows. above the bottom of the h; and
the useful effect is the same product, diminished by half
the force which the water retains when it issues out of
the orifice below.
gals ones. fo, aacesselt, GBs Snrchi £ i t,. the
magnitude of this effect, MM. Prony and Carnot fixed
a cord to the axis of the machine, which, passing over
a pulley, raised a weight by the motion of the machine,
By this means, the effect was found tobe +; of the
power, and often approached +75, without. reckonin
the friction of the ies, which has nothing to do wi
the machine. This effect exceeds that. of the best
overshot wheels. See the Report of the Institute, 23d
August 1813; or Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy,
vol. ii. p. 412.
For r information on Hydrodynamics, see ADs
Heston, Bartey Mill, Carittany ATTRACTION, PNEU«
matics, Pumps, Rivers, and WaTeRWORKS.
. HYDROMETER. See Hypropynamics, p.437.
HYDROPHOBIA. See Municine. ©
. HYDROPHTHALMIA. . See Surcery.
HYDROSTATICS. See HypropyNamics, p. 425,
HYDRUS, See Ornioioey. /
Hygrome-
try.
Object of
hygrometry.
And hygro-
meters.
Imperfee-
tions of the
first hygro-
meters.
as 569
HYGROMETRY.
1. Unoer the article Evaroration, we explained the
marmer in which water is supposed to be elevated, and
in the : we Now propose to take
a wot tee ter oe tar ie been em-
for detect presence jueous vapour
in that fluid, and ascertaining, not ap the relative:
but the absolute ity of moisture, which exists at
different times in given ions of air.
2. The foundation almost all the contrivances
which have hitherto been for that purpose,
is the affinity for moisture possessed by a variety of sub-
stances. is affinity is exerted more or less by a con-
siderable number of bodies ; but it is displayed, in the
most eminent d , by sulphuric acid; the fixed al-
kalies, several of ; bop ten wate deli-
quescent, more. especially the muriate and nitrate of
lime ; as well as by man ——— of animal or ye-
getable origin, icu ir, membrane, horn, ivory,
whalebone, feather the’ bears of corn, wood, peor
age, paper, &c. All these substances the pro-
renty of abstracting moisture from B preedicret oi :
bot the union which they form with it isso very slight,
that they readily yield it up again to the air when that
fluid bas’ by any means become drier, either by an in-
crease of , or the deposition of the water
which existed in it in a vaporous state. Hence
the condition of these bodies with respect to humidity,
be‘employed as an indication of the quantity of
cSebotere contained in a iven volume of the air by
which they are su The epithet Hygroscopic
has been applied to substances used for this purpose ;
anil the various instruments which have been formed
of them, are called , OF measurers of mois-
ture.
"8. The alternations of dryness and humidity to which
all hygroscopic bodies are subject, are accompanied with
corresponding changes in their weight and dimensions ;
and, therefore, all are constructed so as to
ir indications, either to
though foe ng wer The latter of these
ugh uently less appreciable in its ex-
howe. = 7 ob weig t, is however more readily,
estimated ; and hence the
consist of some animal
* 9% . icate
changes of hamidity in the medium to which they
are exposed, by changes of weight, arising from the
or extrication of moisture ; and one of these
instruments, invented by Mr Leslie, perhaps the most
acturate’of them all, is formed upon a principle which
Se ee ee WEE Oct Y=
4. It is only of late that hygrometers have been con-
structed with any degree of accuracy. The earlier in-
struments which bear that name, were extremely im-
perfect: the mechanical part was executed in a very
rude matmer, and ‘no attention was paid to the gradu-
ation of the scale which marked enlargement or
poreaiepate tb tig toni further than
to make it point out mere differences in the state of the
VOL. XI. PART It.
air with respect to moisture. No attempt was made to Hygrome-
determine two fixed points, as in the case of the ther-
mometer, by which the various scales might be reduced
to a common standard ; and still less to ascertain the
absolute quantity of moisture in a given volume of air,
ries yar to the different points of the scale em-
ployed. - In short, nothing higher was aimed at in the
construction of a hy, eter, than to obtain some sub-
stance which suffered considerable variations of bulk,
by the absorption of moisture, without the smallest re-
gard to the regularity of its dilatations. Almost all of
them were very unwieldy ; and none of them could be
applied to nice researches into the hygrometric state of
small portions of air. To describe the construction of
them, with much minateness, would therefore be as
useless as inconsistent with the limits of this article.
try.
5. Both animal and vegetable substances of a fibrous Conier's
structure, possess the property of being dilated by mois- hygrometer.
ture, in a direction transverse to the fibres; and, ac-
cordingly, the lateral expansion of these bodies fur-
nishes the principle upon which a considerable number
of hygrometers are constructed. One of the earliest
hygrometers of this kind was p by Mr Coniers
in 1676. ‘The whole contrivance is of the rudest kind ;
and though it is scarcely worthy of notice, we shall
give a ee description of it, in a a some idea
may be formed of the imperfect state of hygrom at
that period. AAAA oun aeaesuPoend ro
play freely at top and bottom.
placed so as to have their fibres in a vertical position,
are fastened to the frame at each side, and a sufficient
interval is left between them, to allow full for
the wood to dilate itself in a lateral direction. The axis
of the index, which is at C, by receding from F, or
a ching nearer to it, gives a circular motion to the
index itself, by means of a slender metallic chain, which
round the axis, and is fastened to one of the
pannels at F. W is a weight or counterpoise connect-
ed with the axis by means of a string passing over the
pulley D, and attached to the arm CG, and which
causes the index to descend, as the pannels ex by
moisture. Several other contrivances of a similar kind
are described in the Philosophical Transactions for that
period, but they are all equally rade and imperfect.
6, te most aad hy
principle of a ex
substance he employs
whalebone cut transversely into thin slips. Such isthe
tenacity of this substance, that, ing to De Luc,
these slips may be a foot long, and a line in breadth,
without weighing above one-fourth of a grain, and yet
be capable of supporting a weight of about 160 grains.
The instrument is fi up in various forms by diffe-
rent artists; but the general principles of its construc-
tion are nearly the same in all. Mr Adie, Edinburgh,
ved Prater
in the inside for admitting two pannels of deal B, B to CCCXXI,
pannels, which are "is- }-
, constracted on the Whalebone
ion, is that of De Luc. The hygrometer
in preference to all others, is & De Luc.
constructs it in the following manner. ABCD repre- Fig. 2.
sents the frame-work of the instrament, to the upper
part of which is attached the graduated circle EF, ca-
pable of being elevated or lowered at gots to suit
the length of the of whalebone ab. The whale-
bone, which is about 10 inches in length, is fas-
tened at a between two slips of brass by means of a
4c
570
Hygrome- screw, and in a similar manner at 4, where it is con-
try nected with a slender silk band which moves over the
axis, to the extremity of which the index is fixed ; and
it is kept in a state of uniform distension, by a silk
thread passing round the axis, (to which it is fixed,) in
a direction contrary to that of the silk band, and fasten-
ed at the lower extremity to a spiral gilt silver wire de.
This spiral spring forms, by its reaction, an excellent
counterpoise to the whalebone, as it acts with the small-
est energy when the latter is most weakened by dilata-
tion.
7. The extreme points of the scale, by which the in-
termediate divisions are graduated, are determined in
the following manner: To obtain the point of extreme
humidity, or complete saturation with moisture, De Luc
is not satisfied with exposing the instrument to a por-
tion of air perfectly saturated with the vapour of water,
but he actually immerses it in that fluid, and allows it
to remain in it, till it ceases to suffer any farther dilata-
tion. The point on the circular scale, to which the in-
dex reaches, is then marked as extreme moisture. ‘The
opposite point, namely that of eatreme dryness, is ob-
tained by inclosing the instrument under a receiver
with a quantity of a quicklime, and allowing it to re-
main exposed to its action, till the whalebone attains its
greatest degree of contraction, which is generally in
about three weeks. ‘The quicklime, by its attraction
for moisture, gradually absorbs the watery vapour con-
tained in the air, which, in its turn, abstracts moisture
from the whalebone, till an equilibrium is established
between the attraction of the two substances for vapour.
As the whalebone becomes drier, its fibres continuall
approach towards each other; and at last, when it
ceases to yield any moisture, it also ceases to suffer
contraction, and the index points to extreme dryness.
The length of the slip of whalebone is so proportioned
to the diameter of the axis, or arbor to which the index
is fixed, that the interval between the points of extreme
moisture and dryness embraces a range which is some-
what less than a complete revolution ; and this interval
is then divided into 100 equal parts. The zero of the
scale is usually marked at extreme dryness, and the di-
visions are in that case numbered upwards to extreme
moisture, which is marked 100. Some artists, however,
reverse this order, and place the zero at extreme mois-
ture,—a practice, which cannot fail to lead to mistakes
in recording the indications of the instrument.
Objections 7. Saussure, to whom we are indebted for many.use-
to the use of fy] and ‘interesting observations on hygrometry, has
ae stated several objections against this instrument, appli-
poses of hy. cable both to the substance of which it is formed, and
grometry, the manner of determining the extreme points of the
scale. He affirms, that whalebone, being a substance of
a muscular or gelatinous nature, would admit of an in-
definite relaxation by moisture, were it not for certain
PLATE
cccexxlL
Fig. 2.
Method of
obtaining
the extreme
points of the
scale,
filaments, which connect the fibres with each other, but ,
do not prevent them from separating beyond the limits,
to ahi their hygroscopical affinity for moisture in the
vaporous state would dilate them. He maintains, there-
fore, and we think with justice, that to immerse sucha |
substance in water, in order to obtain the greatest relax-
ation of which it is susceptible, is to reduce it to a condi-
tion which it can never afterwards arrive at by the influ-
ence of vapour ; and consequently, that all the divisions _
of the scale, which are included between the perfect hu-
midity of the whalebone, and the point corresponding
to the complete saturation of air with moisture, are en-
tirely useless, He adds, that if whalebone is to be used
at all in the construction of hygrometers, the point of
HYGROMETRY.
extreme moisture should bé marked probably where 80° Hygtome-
stands in De Luc’s scale. ty. ae
8. With respect to the use of dry quicklime as a de- neato
siceative, Saussure seems to suspect that this substance je substan. _
produces a degree of dryness less perfect, than the fixed ces employ-
alkalies in a caustic state ; and that at any rate, the slow-/ed to obtain
ness with which it attracts moisture, renders it -less fit.the point of t
for the purpose. Strongly concentrated sulphuric acid, *"°@*
or paper soaked in muriate. of lime, and then well. “7m
dried, absorb moisture more rapidly than either : the
former, in particular, when inclosed under a receiver
with a given volume of air, causes the. index of a hy-'
‘grometer to advance as many degrees towards extreme
'yness, in a few hours, as dry quicklime would doin
as many days. As the attraction of sulphuric acid for
moisture varies, however, with its degree of concentra«
tion, it is proper to employ it always of the same spe-
cific gravity, otherwise the point of extreme dryness.
will not be the same in all hygrometers.. An unifor-
mity of scale would thus be obtained, whether the
point of extreme dryness were absolute, or merely re« -
lative.
9. For examining the hygroscopic state of small De Luc's
quantities of air, De Luc gives the instrument a form, hygtometer
which renders it more commodious for being intro- en
duced under a receiver. Fig. 3. represents a front caatione of
view of the instrument constructed for that purpose, of air.
its actual size. aaaa is a frame of brass, which is p, oe
connected with a similar frame behind. The dotted ¢¢cxx,
line.cb 4 6d represents the slip of whale bone fixed at Fig, s.
c to an adjusting screw, passing over the pullies bd 6 4,
and joined at d to a slender metallic plate of annealed .
silver. This metallic plate def moves over a pulley e,
and is joined at ¢ to the moveable part g of the vernier
hhhh. From the top of the moveable vernier 7 pro-.
ceeds another slender metallic plate of the same pliant +
material, the opposite extremity of which is fixed ‘to
the pulley &. This pulley is supported on the same
axis with a smaller pulley /, which is connected, by
means of a slender metallic plate, with the upper ex- .
tremity of the bent. lever m, n, the shorter ries a9
n is pressed by a spring. It is easy to see from the,
figure of the instrument, that when the whale-bone is
dilated by absorbing moisture, the vernier will ascend
by the action of the spring upon the lever; and vice,
versa, ;
10. The instrument may be fitted up in the form of -Pocket hy.
a watch, by fixing the whale-bone to the circumference .grometers.
of a wheel, and distending it gently by a weak spring.
The contraction and enlargement of the whale-bone, {
might then be indicated by a hand fixed to the arbor of ,
another wheel, and moving along the circular gradua-
tion of a dial-plate. Other contrivances of a similar.
kind will readily suggest themselves to the ingenious ,
stances, which seem to suffer a dilatation in all direc. ivory bygre-
tions, by moisture. On this principle, De Luc con- ™*
structed some time ago a hygrometer of ivory, by gi-.
ving a portion of that substance intended to be affec!
by moisture, the form of a thin slender tube, and then
inserting into it, at one extremity, a capillary tube of
glass, about 14 inches long, and ;% inch in, diameter. -.
The ivory is recommended to be taken from an ele-,
phant’s tooth of considerable size, a few inches from ’
the top, and as near the surface as possible, in order - :
that it may be of an uniform grain in different instru-
ments. This hygrometer is represented in Fig. 4. Pig. 4
Plate CCCXXI. where 6g 6 represents the ivory tube
artist. : !
11. Hygrometers have also been constructed of sub- De Lue’s '
?
ne mE Gr
HYGROMETRY. :
open at shut at g. This tube, which is 2
inches 8 lines in length, and 2} lines in diameter, in-
ternally, is bored in the direction of its fibres, and re-
turning it on a lath, till its thickness is about
ay a line, except at the two extremities, where it
is left somewhat thicker, to give it er strength.
The piece aad d, which is made of brass, connects the
wy tube bebe, is protected from the moisture of the
air by a brass verrel, which prevents it from splitting.
Before being fitted up, the ivory tube is usually moist-
ened om the outside, which may be done very conve-
niently, and to a proper degree, by surrounding it with
wet cambric, and allowing it to remain till the mois-
to pass completely through
ink beyond its lower extremity, into the ivory tube.
ke is then wrapt
rou
tle agitation, and by means of the horse
i ee ctalantcen nits ontidawuveante
ee ee a
w proper quanti mercury. is
ing done, sunge of sho-eenls Sn ailjenen tn
ae
i
LIE
Hi
Fy
:
if
LE
2
ingly. For this pu De Luc employed a
tube | had cere aeprem vatarted om os
the divisions of which he knew, and the bulb of which
so
trical scale to the tube and the ivory bulb.
a rary oe aap met ye inal
thermometer, D the i
m the weight of the mercary in the ivory tube, and d
py i pn mame naan oar ba
dently,
M:m::D:d.
tube was arr 8 9 di-
- : of
temperature, and thus, by means of an attached ther-
mometer, the effect due to dryness or moisture may be
separated from the rising and sinking of the
571
mereury ‘in the glass tube, by means of heat and cold. Hygrome-
The excess of the hy trical degrees above the de-
grees indicated in similar circumstances by an ordinary
thermometer, is to be considered as the sole efféct of
dryness in contracting the ivory; while a difference of
a con kind is to be ascribed to an opposite cause.
try:
—\—
13. Mr Leslie, who has devoted some attention to Mr Leslie's
this instrument, has p
as he himself remarks,
scope thus formed to as high a state of improvement
as such an imperfect instrument admits. The shell of
ivory is turned, in his construction, into an elongated
spheroid, about an inch and a quarter in length, and
reduced so thin as to weigh only eight or ten grains.
At its greatest expansion it contains about 300 grains
of mercury. The upper end, which is adapted to the
body by means of a delicate screw, has a slender glass
tube inserted into it, six or eight inches long, and a
bore nearly ¥;th of an inch in diameter. The
point of extreme humidity is determined, as in the case
of De Lue’s instrument, by immersing the bulb in wa-
ter, or surrounding it with a wet bit of cambric. The
divisions of the scale, however, are determined some-
what differently: Mr Leslie distinguishes the tube into
spaces, which d to the thousandth part of the
entire cavity, and each of which contains about ths
of a grain of mercury. The ordinary range of the
scale includes gbout 70 of these divisions. The upper
extremity of the tube is covered with a small ivory cap,
which admits the air, but prevents the escape of the
mereury, thus tere tee! instrument ble. Mr
Leslie remarks, that contraction the mercury
corresponding to equal increase in the dryness of the
air, is six times greater at the beginning of the scale
than at the 70th division ; and that ae Kop to be in
general inversely as the number of hygrometric de-
grees, reckoning from 20° below. He therefore places
another scale, on the opposite side of the tube,
pen et ae te ing divided into 100°,
and corresponding to un
number 20 to 129 in a logarithmic line, (see ‘Plate
CCCXXL. Fig. 5. By extending the |
visions farther, in conformity with the base of the
scale, $20 of its degrees
the equable divisions, or a contraction of 108
a thousand, with respect to the et ad of the bulb.
At the dryness, however, of 300 of his own hygrome-
ter, Mr Leslie never forind the contraction of the ivory
to exceed 105. It would have been more satisfactory,
if the temperature at which the observations were made
had been given, as we shall afterwards shew, that 300
on Mr Leslie's hy, eter may correspond to very dif-
ferent portions of moisture in the medium to which it
is ex :
s in
portions, from the ©
a modification of which, ivory hy-
s perhaps carried the hygro- grometer.
ithmic di. Pate
CccXXI.
would correspond to 108 of Fig. 5.
14. The instrument we have described, though very Coses in
unfit for delicate observations, may nevertheless
in certain cases with advan
indications, when its scale once been eom
used which ivory
The slowness of its bygrometers
red ™ay be used
with that of a more accurate instrament, is well fitted vee sine.
to = out general results, corresponding to consider- “®*
able in
tervals of time between the observations. Mr
Leslie has su: ed that, on this account, it may be
usefully employed to ascertain the degree of humidity
which prevails in the higher regions of the atmosphere,
and to determine the hy, state of certain kinds
of goods, such as grain, wool, cotton, &c. For the lat-
ee ee
ment among the substances, w condition, with re-
spect to moisture, we wish to determine, and to observe
Hygrome-
try.
_—
Quill hy-
grometer of
Chiminella.
Reason why.
birds can
foresee ap-
proaching
572
the degree which it indicates after it has been allowed
to remain a suitable le of time.
15. Under hygroscopic instruments constructed on
the pencple of a general dilatation by moisture, we
may briefly notice the hygrometer of Chiminello, to
whom the prize athear in 1783 by the Academy of
Sciences at Manheim for the best comparable hygro-
meter was adjudged. The substance he employed was
the barrel of a quill, fitted up in the same manner as
the ivory hygrometers, already described. The gra-
duation of the scale was determined by means of two
fixed points. The point of extreme moisture was ob-
tained by immersion in water; that of extreme dry-
ness, by exposing the instrument, for the space of four
hours, before a moderate fire, at a temperature equal to
25° of Reaumur, or 884° of Fahrenheit. The quill, by
exposure to heat, becomes somewhat contracted ; and
though the contraction is not so great as would be pro-
duced by extreme dryness, Chiminello considered it
sufficiently uniform in different quills to serve as a fixed
point in his scale. It is obvious, however, that an in-
strument graduated in so vague a manner is totally un-
fit for any philosophical purpose,
. 16, Having alluded to this instrument, it may be
worthy of remark, that it is probably owing to the hy-
groscopic property of their feathers that birds are ena-
rain, or fair bled to judge of approaching rain or fair weather. For
Weather.
Rat's blad-
der hygro-
meter of Mr
Wilson.
it is easy to conceive, that an animal having a thousand
hygrometers intimately connected with its body, must
be liable to be powerfully affected, with regard to the
tone of its organs, by very slight changes in the dry-
ness or humidity of the air; particularly when it is
considered, that many of the feathers contain a large
quantity of blood which must thus be alternately pro-
lled into the system, or withdrawn from it, accord-
ing to their contraction or dilatation by dryness or
moisture. This view of the subject seems to afford a
satisfactory explanation of the extreme sensibility which
birds in general shew to coming changes in the wea-
ther. ;
Haud equidem credo, quia sit divinitus illis
Ingenium, aut rerum fato prudentia major ;
Verum, ubi tempestas, et cceli mobilis humor
Mutavere vias; et Jupiter humidis Austris
Densat, erant que rara modo, et que densa, relaxat;
Vertuntur species animorum, et pectora motus
Nunc alios, alios, dum nubila ventus agebat,
Concipiunt.
Vinert, Geor. lib, i. 415,
17. An hygrometer constructed upon similar princi-
ples, but much more delicate in its indications, has
lately been proposed by Mr Wilson of Dublin. The
substance he employs is rat’s bladder; which, besides
having an extensive range of dilatation, -is affected by
very slight changes in the hygroscopic state of the air.
The scale is graduated by exposing the instrument to
air saturated with moisture for the point of extreme
humidity ; and by afterwards inclosing it in a receiver,
over mercury, with a quantity of concentrated sulphuric
acid, for the point of extreme dryness. The interval
between the range of these two points is then divided
into 100 equal parts. These points, however, must ob-
viously vary with the temperature of the mercury ;
and though this objection, which is applicable to all
these mercirial hygrometers, may be obviated to a cer-
tain extent by enlarging the diameter of the tube, it
cannot be entirely removed without diminishing the
delicacy of the instrument, unless the precautions, a-
dopted by De Luc, be observed in the construction of
HYGROMETRY.
the scale. The rat’s bladder hygronieter is liable to Hygrome.
another objection, which, on account of the difficulty
attending the construction of the instrument, is of con-
siderable force: the elevation of the mercury in the
tube, by the contraction of the membranous :substance,
must occasion a pressure in the bladder, which, in some
cases, may amount to nine or ten pounds on the square
inch, according to the range of the scale. The disten-
sion occasioned by such a pressure cannot fail to affect
the accuracy of the instrument, and even to expose it
to destruction. According to the observations of Lord
Gray, this instrument co ds pretty nearly in its
=e, with the whale-bone hygrometer of De
uc.
general expansion by moisture,
same manner as the hygrometer of De Luc just alluded
to, has been strongly recommended. by Jean Baptiste,
a Capuchin friar of St Martin at Vicenza. The hygro-
scopic substance used in the construction of this instru-
ment, is a narrow slip of the allantois of a calf, the thin
membrane which envelopes the foetus of animals before
birth. The point of extreme moisture was fixed by
exposing the instrument to air saturated with aqueous
vapour. Another point was. determined by heating to
the temperature of 50° of Reaumur, or 1443° of Fahren-~
heit, a small stove, which was kept open, and preserved
for some time as nearly as possible at the same tempe-
rature, and then introducing the instrument into it,
where it was allowed to remain so long as:the allantois:
suffered contraction. According to Jean Baptiste, the
degree of dryness obtained by this process is fixed and
invariable. The intermediate space: on the: scale, be-
tween the extreme points thus determined, was divided
as usual into 100 equal parts. In a subsequent part of
this article we shall demonstrate, that no. fixed point.
can be obtained for the graduation of an hygrometer,
by a mere exposure of the instrument to an. elevated
temperature ; and, consequently, the scale of this hy-
grometer can no more be relied upon than that of Chi-
minello. The substance itself, however, we have reason
to think, from the experiments we have made with it, |
is exceedingly fit for hygrometric purposes.
19, Bat of all the hygroscopic instruments which we
have hitherto described, and which are constructed on §
the principle of a general, or at least of a longitudinal
expansion, the hygrometer of Saussure is by far the
most delicate, as well as the most accurate and uni-
form, in its indications. The substance which he se-
lected, in preference to every other, was a human hair,
the elongations and contractions of which by moisture
and dryness, though less extensive than some of the
substances already mentioned, may be rendered suffi-
ciently sensible by mechanical contrivances. As the
value of this instrument has been greatly enhanced by
the late researches of Gay Lussac, a particular deserip-
tion of it is the more-necessary: we shall therefore give
an account of the different parts of it in detail.
18, An hygrometer depending on the principle of a Allantois
me and fitted up in athe bygrometer
Baptiste.
try.
aussure,
20. The general appearance of the instrument is Prats
nearly the same as that of the whalebone hygrometer C{CXXL
of De Luc, which seems indeed to have been borrowed "i 6,
from it, the priority of invention being due to Saussure.
The upright pillars aaaa, which support the dial-
plate, are fixed to the rectangular frame 446 6, at each
corner of which is a screw for fixing the instrument to
the bottom of its case, when it is exposed to the exter-
nal air. The dial-plate is made to slide along the pil-
lars a a, and is thus capable of being raised to any par-
ticular altitude, in order to snit:the lengthiof -the hair,
ets oe ee?
the extreme
sper
Advantages
of Saus-
wure’s hy-
Grometer.
HYGROMETRY.
m, 8, only one of which is visible in the re-
of the instrument, are intended to fix the
zEqF
|
g,
.
pinions c
thin slip of silver,
ed to it.
$23 225
Hee
w same
The hair is kept
by means of a small
=
li -
a9
ef
;
$
:
if
re “
place, the weight g¢ is prevented vibra-
ing it in crayon ?, which is intended to
in which it is securely fixed by means
k. The crayon i is moveable along
hh, and may be fixed in any position by the
screw /. The index 00 is fized $0 the sxtremi of the
Chere AE band meets bs tat ications
on the graduated arch of the dial plate, the hygrome-
tric state of the hair.
a quantity
to remain till the hair ceased to suffer
The point of extreme d
of dress hi is perfectly fixed and unifi
is ly and uniform.
The point of extreme moisture is obtained, by placing
the instrament over water in the inside of a receiver,
the sides of which are kept constantly bedewed with
moisture, The included air being thus surrounded on
all sides with water, becomes completely saturated with
moisture; the hair in its turn is wally reduced to
the same state, and soon attains its pomaets Seanes of
scale is ob-
si
z
i
elongation, so that another fixed point in the
tained. If the space described by the index between
these two points is greater than a com revolution,
the hair may be shortened till its length is ly ace
comimodated to the range of the scale. The tempera-
ture of the air at the time the two extreme points are
determined is of no importance : it may i affect
the hair thermometrically, in the same manner as it af-
fects other substances, but it produces no change in the
indications. The reason of this will appear
when we come to take a ical view of
the eee Wréay = raed be — to re-
mark, in this respect, grometer ussure
has a decided advantage over the whalebone hygrome-
ter of De Luc, which, according to the temperature,
ranges from 80° to 100* in air saturated with moisture,
where of course it should remain stationary. Saussure
divides his scale sometimes into 960°, and sometimes
into 100°, the divisions being reckoned, in both cases,
from extreme dryness, which is assumed for the zero
ptr ova towards extreme ae which is mark-
ed , or 100°, according to the division adopted.
22. The principal advantages of Saussure’s hygro-
meter are derived, 1st. From the unchangeable nature
of the material of which it is formed, by means of which
it retains its hy ¢ power longer than any other
organic aastnce ; 2 Prom the extreme tenity ofthe
substance itself, which enables it to assume very quick-
ly the state of the surrounding medium ; and, 3d, From
573
the little effect which, in consequence of this tenuity, it
produces on the hygroscopic state of the medium to
which it is exposed. De Luc has endeavoured, more
it would appear from a desire to recommend his own
instrument than to ote the cause of science, to
“shew that hair is totally unfit for hygrometric purpo-
ses; and having very uitously assumed the con-
tractions and Walken whalebone as a standard of
reference for other hygroscopic substances, he has taken
it for granted, that the indications of Saussure’s hygro-
meter must be incorrect, because in certain circumstances
they do not coincide with those of his own. He main-
tains also, that hair, after it attains its greatest degree
of elongation, begins to suffer a contraction, particular-
ly if it be allowed to remain beyond a certain time in
air saturated with moisture; but this objection, which
is enly applicable to hairs of a peculiar structure, may
be obvieted by attending to the directions of Saussure,
who was aware of the fact, and particularly enjoined,
that such hairs as ed more — “ should be
rejected as unfit for the construction of hygrometers.
On the whole, we have no hesitation in saying, that of
all the hygroscopic instruments which have hitherto
been formed of organic substances, the hygrometer of
Saussure seems the most regular in its elongations and
contractions ; the least liable to be affected by exposure
to the weather; and the best for ascertaining
the hygrometric state of small portions of air. The ex-
iments of Gay Lussac, poss te general results he
deduced from them, have given additional value to
this mstrument, by dem that its expansions
are subject to a regular law which admits of analytical
ee We give an account of these af-
. In the meantime, we shall conclude our re-
marks on the instrument with a general statement of its
indications, with those of the whalebone hy-
grometer of De Luc.
Saussure. De Luc. Saussure. De Lue.
15.6 correspond to 5 88.8 correspond to 55
94.56.05 . 10 se ns . . 60
a09 Ft o'er 15 98.8 Cs ene . 65
ORS Se Se - 20 Wavavews ac .t0
59.2. oe. 25 97.2. oe - 75
688. ; re OB. sue - 80
See St 85 100. . ore te ol Oe
i’ RE ss aor e 40 so Soe -.+. 90
yee et 45 GS... ss". ¢s OO
Wakes eertsns « 50 Se ss via 6 . 100
This comparative Table of the indications of the two
instruments was drawn up by De Luc himself: its va-
lue, however, is greatly diminished by the temperature
being omitted, at which the observations were made.
The same remark is applicable to the following obser-
vations of Béckman, which differ somewhat from those
of De Luc.
Saussure. De Luc,
33 correspond to 10
54. wae eos 20
G5... -- 30
OO. scspeen w
86. 11a es we 45
Hygrome-
try-
——
grometers of
De Luc and
Saussure.
22. Some a! tancgae are constructed of organic Mat-beard
substances of a fibrous structure,
cially or spontaneously during their
the earliest hygrometers of this description was propo-
twisted either artifi- hygrometer
wth, One of of Hooke.
574
Hygrome- sed by the celebrated Hooke, and formed of the beard
uy- of the wild oat, which twists and untwists itself accord-
"vr" ing to the state of the air with respect to moisture. The
beard is fixed at one extremity, and an index being ap-
plied at the other in a transverse position, its motions
along the graduated circumference of a circle point out
the ie escopic state of the air.
Cat-gut hy-. 23. Upon‘a similar principle, Mr Benes propo-
grometer of sed, in 1685, to construct an hygrometer of whip cord or
Molyneux ¢at-gut, by suspending it from a hook, with a small
and Coven- weight at the lower extremity to give it a proper degree
aha of tension, and carry at the same time an index over a
PuaTE graduated circle described on a fixed board below. We
Fig oo shall give a description of the instrument in a modified
form, recommended by Mr Coventry of Southwark,
AB represents the cat-gut, which may be of any conve-
nient length. It is suspended from the bracket AD,
and stretched by the weight F at its lower extremity.
At Bisa circular card of pasteboard attached to a round
bit of cork, through which the cord is made to pass.
The circumference of the card is graduated into 100
equal parts. Another card, connected with the cat-gut
in a similar manner, and intended to record the revolu-
tions of the other, is placed at C, at one-tenth of the
ength of AB from the fixed point A, and divided into
10 equal parts. DE is a vertical line along the frame,
which supports the cat-gut, and serves to point out the
indications of the circular cards. In adjusting the in-
strument to extreme moisture, the cord is completely
moistened with water, and when it ceases to untwist
itself, both the circular cards are turned round till the
zero upon each points to the vertical line DE. It is
more difficult to obtain another fixed point ; and indeed
this is not very necessary, as the instrument, though it
possesses great sensibility, can searcely be used for any
purpose but to point out general differences with respect
to moisture,
Balance hy. 24 The increase of weight, which all hygroscopic
grometers, Substances acquire by the absorption of moisture, fur-
nishes another general principle for the construction of
hygrometers. But as the accuracy of these instruments
is liable to be gradually affected by changes in the hy-
grometric property of the substances themselves, as well
as by the deposition of dust and other light bodies on
their'surfaces, few hygrometers have been constructed
en this principle. The substances usually employed
for the purpose are sulphurie acid, the deliquescent
salts, and paper. The first of these substances was re-
Sulphuric Commended by Mr Gould so early as 1684, who obser-
acid recom- ved that sulphuric acid, after absorbing a certain por-
mended by tion of water from the atmosphere, continued to retain
Gould. it till the air became drier, when it again yielded up a
portion of the moisture it had previously acquired ;
and these alternations of the absorption and extrication
of moisture always corresponded to the hygroscopic
state of the air. He therefore placed a quantity of the
acid in a cup in one scale of a balance, and a counter-
poise in the other ; and ascertained the relative state of
the air with respect to moisture or dryness, according
as either arm of the balance preponderated. A contri-
vance of this kind answers well enough for pointing
out general results, but it is totally unfit for discover-
ing the hygroscopic state of the air at any particular in-
Paper soak-Stant of time. We have found, however, that paper,
ed in muri- soaked in a weak solution of the muriate of lime, and
ate of lime. then dried, is very rapid in its indications, and capable
of being affected by very minute changes ; and indeed
we have reason to think, from the observations we have
made with a small slip of paper prepared in that man«
HYGROMETRY.
we might be obtained, possessing the utmost sensi-
bili
ner, and suspended from one of the arms of a delicate
balance, that an hygrometer constructed upon this prin-
ity. Other hygrometers of a similar construction
have been employed, but they are totally unworthy of
notice. . Pra he
25. Mr Leslie has proposed an hygrometer, totally et lie!
different in principle from any of those we have consi. "/8*°™
dered, but perhaps superior to all of them, both in
point of accuracy and delicacy. Hygrometers formed
of organic substances are liable to be affected by the
partial decompositions, which, by exposure to air and
moisture, such bodies continually undergo; and though
some of them are composed of materials which resist
the action of the weather better than others, none of
them can be said to be indestructible, and all of them,
in the course of time, lose in a great degree their hy-~
groscopic properties. Their scales, therefore, however
accurately constructed at first, are subject to.a gradual
derangement, and require occasional adjustments to
render their indications at all correct, ~ This is certain- ,
ly a great objection to the use of these instruments ;
but it is an objection from which the hygrometer of
Mr Leslie is entirely free, and as we have derived a
formula by which the absolute quantity of moisture
contained in a given volume of air may be accurately
determined, in terms of the degrees of its scale, we
must now consider it as by far the most accurate hy- oun
grometer that has yet been proposed. The instrument pyare
consists of two spheres of glass A, B, connected with cccxX
each other by a bent tube CDEF, which is fixed to the Fig. 8.
stand GH, and contains inclosed a small portion of sul-
phuric acid, tinged with carmine to render it more dis.
tinctly-visible. When the spheres, hoth of which are
filled with air, are at the same temperature, the liquor
in the recurved tube remains stationary ; but if one of
the balls, as A, be colder than the other B, the air in
the latter, by its greater elasticity, immediately de-
presses the liquor in the limb FE, and raises it in an
equal degree in the limb CD. One of the balls is ac~
cordingly covered with a coating of cambric, or tissue
paper, and kept continually moist with pure water, con-
veyed to it by filaments of floss silk from an adjoini
vessel. The evaporation of the water quickly coo!
the surface of the ball, in a degree proportioned to the
rapidity with which the process is carried on, which
will depend partly upon the temperature, and parey
upon the dryness of the ambient medium; and hence
the depression of the liquor in the limb FE becomes an
indication of the relative dryness of the surroundi
air. The caloric abstracted from the moistened ball by
evaporation, is incessantly supplied by the air and the
contiguous bodies, and in the course of two minutes the
maximum of effect is produced. Were it not for this
continual influx of temperature, no limits could be as-
signed to the degree of cold that might be induced. ?
The scale is formed by dividing the interval between Graduation
the boiling and freezing points into 1000 equal parts, ofthe scale,
so that 10° correspond to 1° of the centigrade thermo-~
imeter, and 50° to 9° of Fahrenheit. This hy, eter
acts equally well when the moisture on the balls isin a
frozen state ; but the heat required for the melting of
ice being about a seventh part of what is necessary for ~
the conversion of water into vapour, the temperature of
the coated ball will, in like circumstances of the air
with respect to moisture, sink a seventh part more than ~
before ; and therefore the degrees indicated by the in-
strument must, in that case, be reduced 1° in 7°, to
adapt the scale to the actual state of things.
“26. When the instrument is intended to be portable,
Mr Leslie the form delineated in Fig. 9. .The
two balls, being in the same perpendicular line, are
protected from by a case of wood or ivory ; and
itis the ieiramess may thes be Vanspatied Sam -onc
to another with perfect safety. We shall conclude our
/pemtable. iption of this simple but ingenious instrument, by
ga aS trans pr ape wom: epee
covered with paper, gives the same in-
dications, if its temperature be subtracted from the tem-
perature of the air determined by a naked thermome-
ter, placed in similar circumstances with the other.
Relation between the Indications of Hygrometers, and
the absolute Quantities of Moisture in Vapour.
different temperatures ;
and, secondly, of the quantity of it which can exist, in
The experiments of Mr
sults of his admirable experiments on the force of steam
for degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, from zero
to , from which Biot has deduced the following
Table, adapted to the centigrade scale.
Tempore | Pores YS | term tothe
ture. one which
of Mercury. i
0. -200
6.25 297 1485
12.50 A435 1.465
18.75 .630 1.450
25. 910 1.440
$1.25 1.290 1.430
$7.6 1.820 1410
43.75 2.540 1.400
50. 3.500 1.38
56.25 4.760 1.36
62.5 6.450 1.35
68.75 8.550 1.33
75. 11.250 1.32
81.25 14,600 1.30
87.5 18.800 1.29
93.75 | 24. 1.27
100. 30. 1.25
perature, in degrees scale, at the in-
wren in Boalt Geeta esd Lael Bay
a mn 3 4
in which each term of the elastic force stands to the one
i above it. It is obvious, that if the same
relation between the terms, in successive or-
=” numbers in the third column would form a
| progression, the first
HYGROMETRY.
_ Hence, Log..F ,= Log. 30 + n Log. 4.
The supposition, on which this expression is founded,
though not rigidly true, will lead to results sufficiently
Serene tae Ermey bees us in adopting it.
The ity n, k, be exhibited by a succes-
sieal 8 cores othe hem ethrereny td &e. and
the expression then becomes,
Log. F,,= Log. 304+ an+5n'+cn'+ &e.
the co-efficients a, 5, c being constant, and determina-
jeder = Seon 9 i aries. eae St oe
nm. It 1s unnecessary to take more three
terms of the as the co-efficients of the of
n will be found to dimi much faster than powers
themselves increase. To determine the co-efficients a,
6, and ¢, Biot s the elastic force of vapour for
the temperatures 25, 50 and 75, reckoned downwards
from the boiling point ; thus, we have,
a=25 F,2211.25,...
a= F,o= 3.45,
a= 75 F,,= 91.
And, Log. F, 90-2504 6256+ 156256,
Lae = Loe 30.4 504 4 25008 +. 1250000
Log. F , ,= Log. 30 + 75a + 56256 4 421875 c.
Substituting the values of Log. F, and Log. 30, and
transposing,
25a+4+ 62564 15625c=— .4259637,
50 a + 25006 4-125000e=— .9330519,
75 a + 5625 6 4 421875 e= —1.5180799.
The solution of these equations gives,
a= —.013741955,
6 = — .000067 427,
c= + .0000000338.
$0. The values of a, b, and c, thus determined, being
substituted for these quantities, in the uation,
we obtain the following formula for the elastic of
steam at the temperature 100 —n. .
Log. F,,= Log. 30 — 019741955 n — .000067427 n* +.
.0000000338
$1. If nbe in degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale, Formula
the elastic force of vapour for the temperature 212 — n for the
becomes, force of
pour adapt-
Log. F , = Log. 30—.00854122 n—00002081 n*?4 ed to the
.0000000058 n3. : of
stats An this formala, we have calculated the follow-
ing T.
va-
of the elastic force of steam, from zero to
100° of Fahrenheit, whieh includes the ordinary range
of natural tem We have also annexed a co-
lumn, exhibiting the elastic force of , for the
same range of Genpetsietin, on determined by Mr Dal-
576
Hygrome-. ton. The difference between. the » ding num
try. bers in the two columns.seldom exceeds bin 1000th
of an inch, except between 75° and 90°, where Mr Dal-
ton’s table seems to be a little faulty.
Force of Vapour, in Inches. of Mercury, from 0° to 100°
Fahrenheit.
Force of va- ~
pour in ¢ Force of Vapour in 3 Force of Vapour in
inches of 3 Inches of Mercury. 5 Inches of Mercury.
mercury. # 3
& According Accordin & According ‘Aceotdin
& , ba A to Dakine 5 Rode os to Dalton
0} .06121 -064 51 | .38640 .388
1 | .06359 .066 §2 |..39977 401
21 06605 .068 53-| .41856 A415
3} .06861 071 54-|..42779 -429
4] .07126 O74 55.| 44249 443
5 | .07401 076 56| A5764 A458
6 | .07685 .079 57 | .47328 AT4
7 | .07980 082 58 | 48940]. .490-
8 | .08286 085 59 | .50604 .507
9 | .08603 -087 60.| .52320 |. .524-
10} .08931 -090 61.) .54089 542
11} .09270 .093 62 | .55913 .560
12 | .09622 .096 63°) .57795-| . .578
13} .09987 -100 64.| .59735 «597
14] .10364 -104 65 | 61734 616
15 | .10755 -108 66.} 63795 .635
16 | .11160 112 67 | .65919 655
17 | .11579 -116 68 68108 .676
18 | .12013 .120° |} 69 70364 698
19 | .12462 124 70 72683 -¥21
20. | .12997 129° ||-71:|> .75083.) 7450
21 |: .18408 134 72) 77551 -770
22 | .13906 -139 73| .80092. -796
23) .14421 144 74) .82710 823
24 | 14954 -150 75 | 85407 -851
25} .15506 156 76 | .88184 .880
26 | .16076 | ~ .162 || 77 | .91042 910
27 | .16667 168 78 | .93987 -940
28 | .17277 +174 79 | .97017 -971
29 | .17908 .180 80. | 1.00137 | 1.00
30 } .18561 .186 81 | 1.08350 | 1.04
31 | .19237 .193 82°} 1.06656 | 1.07
382 | .19934 -200 83 |1.10058 | 1.10
33 | .20658 -207 84} 1.13559 | 1.14
34 | .21404 214 85°] 1.17161}. 1.17
35.| .22175 221 86 | 1.20867.| 1.21.
386 | .22972 229. 87 | 1.24680] 1,24
37 | .23796 237. 88 | 1.28602 | 1,28
38 | .24647 +245 89 | 1.32636 | 1.32-
39 |. .25527 | .254 || 90°] 1.36785 | 1.36°
40 | .26436 | .263 |} 91 [1.41059 | 1.40
41 | .27376 273 92 | 1.45438.| 1.44
42 | .28346 -283 93 | 1.49948 | 1.48
43 | .29348 294 94 |1.54585 | 1.53
441 .80384 805 95 | 1.59352] 1.58
A5 |} .81453 .316 96 | 1.64251 | 1.63
46 | .82557 328 97 | 1.69286 | 1.68
47 | .33684 | .839. || 98 11.74461 | 1.74
48.) .34875 351 99 | 1.79778} 1.80
49 | .36090 -363 ||100 | 1.85241 | 1.86
50 | 37345 | .375
HYGROMETRY-.
$2. Having thus:deduced a general expression “for Hyg
the'elasticity “ tension of vapour at different tem) try,
tures; we shall now to investigate its density or |"
absolute weight. ‘I'he riments of Gay Lussac; sion of:
which were conducted je hae — par weight of
accuracy, have established, beyond the possibility of
doubt, that vapours, when they are subjected to pres- diferent
sure, suffer. within certain limits, that is, so long as t™Pet™-
they retain the elastic form, the same reduction of bulk “"*
as'permanently elastic fluids. Hence if P be the weight
of the liquid redaced to vapour in grammes; N the
number of divisions’ of the receiver, which it: occupies
in the vaporous,state at the temperature of 100° centi-
grade; v the capacity of one of these divisions in litres
at the freezing point: then since Nv would be the vo-
lume of the vapour; if the receiver itself'suffered no ex-
pansion by the increase of temperature, its real volume
will be N v(1+41004), the quantity / being the cubical
dilatation of glass for each degree of the centigrade
scale: Also if) p be the pressure of the a here-at
the time of the experiment, and / the height of the mers
cury in the receiver above its external level, both bei
expressed in metres, then the volume of vapour in lis”
tres, produced: by the quantity of liquid whose weight
is P, will be Biegs +1001"), and that of a sin-
gle gramme
N o(1 4 100%)(p—2)
-76P op ed
33. Now in one of his experiments, Gay Lussac Import
found, that 4%, grammes of water being introduced **Per™
under a receiver, and the temperature raised to 100°,
gave a volume of vapour which occupied 220 divisions,
each of which was equal in capacity to .00499316 li«
tres ; the column of mercury in the inside of the recei-
ver was .052 metres above the external level, and the
barometer at the time of the experiment stood at .7555
metres. As mercury is expanded ;49°, of its bulk
from the freezing tothe boiling point; or -2rx for each
degree of the centigrade scale, and the temperature of
the mercury in the barometer at the time of the expe«
riment was 15°, the height of the column of mercury in
the receiver reduced to what it would be at the freez-
ing point, ises x 052, or .051056 metres , and
rz
the height of the mercury in the barometer, corrected
in like manner, is i -7-X-+7555, or .75341 metres.
1+ 41
Hence P = .6; N=220; »=.00499316;. p=.75341 ;
h=.051056 ; and since the cubical dilatation of glass is
.0000262716 for each degree ofthe centigrade scale rec-
koned from the freezing point, 1 + 100 4==1.00262716.
And N v(1 + 100%) p —A) —
76 P is
220 x .00499316 x 1.00262716 x .75541 — 051056 al,
76 X.6 i
1.69641 litres. Therefore a volume of vapour equal to
1.69641 litres, would contain at the boiling point, un-
der a pressure of .76 metres of mercury, a uantity of
moisture equal in weight toa gramme; or a litre va-
pour in the same circumstances would weigh .589481
at 29.92196 inches, weighs’ 149176 A ‘
consequently a cubic foot of vapour in the same circum-
yi!
HYGROMETRY. | STT
stances weighs 257.776 grains.* But, according to to .0037528, must, to make it applicable to the degrees Hygrome-
the accurate € of Biot and Arago, a : Wi MPF OO, ; try.
litre of dry air at the boili int, and under a pres. f Fahrenheit, be multiplied by ==>", which makes “\—
sure of .76 metres, 6’ grammes, and jt ,002086.
therefore the of vapour at the temperature 100° "7, By these corrections, our formula becomes
CSS EE rae SH Oe
or as 5 to 8 nearly. Now as “Lussac has proved § =30(1 4.002086, i—32°)
experiment, that vapours, so long as they remain in G being the weight in grains of a cubic inch of vapour
increase , aad @ hiesiatd axpreuend la the
aeriform state, expand, by permanently el at the hoiling point,
i the same manner elastic same denomination of volum a
P's :
-76(1 .003751) tiled by 5 a5 to correct it for pressure, and then
P=—_—_ ; PO | - §
35. If we substitute for P its value, viz. 589481 aru Thee. 4g ay
Ls 528 GF, 1.37528 x .1495204F
u
Ow ey STS 5 = 30( 1 +.002086 /—82) ~ 30(1 4.002086, —32) —
gireicireine ies 2,
ttt ee er nme
The
96. The valoe- of Pr in English grains, d =a = ara:
corresponding to a cab ich of at the To illustrate tis formula, let it be require to find
tof i i See Newel venen ee of Fahren-
f 7 heit, a pressure of 30 inches of mercury.
; hide §ee Fabrenheit’s scale, or taken from the pn SOE, _ 82800 Fa
the co-efficients 1.375, and .00375, must be WMiA+E M74 +66
not only to the graduation of that And if we introduce the value of Fee which Will be
cater cote d are at which the found i of to be
bem — Saaee oe ee eee vapour
raise the point 1° 30 stances, would contain 7.055 grains of moisture. t
Taisen’ betnge eqiaal to 99 metres, the point . 39, The following Table, calculated from the fore
or
: .0068544 F
7 r . the of
centigrade above the int of the centi- ge an exhibits the quantity
; moisture contained in a cubic inch of vapour, from ze-
after being reduced in like manner ro to 100° of Fahrenheit, under a pressure of 30°.
of
Hygrome.
578
try. } ; cS
—~" Table of the Quantity of Moisture, in Grains, contained
an a Cubic Inch of Vapour, from 0° to 100° of Fah-
renheit,
£ Weight . g Weight in
grains of the ains of the
5 heed water in a 5 Fotee of ooaer ina
2 Yapour. | cubic inch of g | ‘Pour | cubic inch of
| vapotir. x vapour.
O |.06121 |.00044957 || 51 -88640 | .00254.757
1 |.06359 |.00046601 | 52 | .89977|.00263044
2 |.06605 |.00048296 | 53 | .41356].00271574
3 |.06861 |.00050056 | 54 -42779 | .00280358
4 |.07126|.00051874 | 55 | .44249}.00289415
5 |:07401 |.00053757 | 56 | .45764!.00298729
6 1.07685 |.00055697 | 57 | .47328|.00308325
7 |.07980|00057708 | 58 | .48940].00318197
} 8 |.08286|.00059789 || 59 | .50604}.00328366
9 |.08603 |.00061921 || 60 -52320 | .00338832
10 |.06931 |.00064161 |} 61 -54089 | .00349599
11 |.09270|.00066451 || 62 -55913 | .00360679
12 |.09622 |.00068825 || 63 -57795 | .00372089
13 |.09987 |.00071280 || 64 | .59735|.00383826
14 |.10364|.00073810 || 65 | .61734|.00895897
15 |.10755 :00076429 66 :63795 |.00408317
16 |.11160}-00079136 || 67 -65919 | .00421091
17 |.11579|.00081931 || 68 -68108 00434230
18 |.12013}.00084819 || 69 | .70364|.00447745
19 |.124.62|.00087801 || 70 | .72688].00461639
20 |.12927|.00090882 || 71 | .75083|.00475930
21 |.13408 |.00094051 || 72 | .77551|.00490628
22 |.13906|.00097337 | 73 | .80092|.00505729
| 23 |.14421|.00100732 || 744) .82710}.00521259
24 |.14954|.00104235 | 75 | .85407).00537226
25 |.15506|.00107851 || 76 | .88184|.00553634
26 |.16076|-00111588 || 77 | .91042|.00570487
27 |.16667}-00115446 ||.78 | .93987]|.00587810
28 |.17277}-00119420 || 79 -97017 |.00605617
29 |.17908|.00123522 || 80 | 1.00137 }|.00623919
30 |.18561]-00127758 || 81 | 1.03350|.00642708
81 |.19237|.00132134 || 82 | 1.06656 |.00662015
| 82 |.19934 00136636 || 83 | 1.10058) .00681843
33 |.20658|.001413038 || 84 | 1.13559!.00702209
34 |.21404)|.00146102 | 85 | 1.17161|.00723121
35 |.22175|.00151051 || 86 | 1.20867) .00744597
86 |.22972|.00156156 || 87 | 1.24680]|.00766648
37 |.23796|.00161424 |} 88 | 1.28602] .00789288
38 |.24647 |.00166852 || 89 | 1.32636] :00812529
39 |.25527 |.00172454 || 90 | 1.36785] .00836386
40 |.26436|.00178229 || 91 | 1.41059|.00860918
41 |.27376|.00184188 || 92 | 1.45438 |.00885999
42 |.28346'.00190325 || 93 | 1.49948 |.00911783 °
43 |,29348|.00196651 || 94.] 1.54585 | .00938243
44 |.30384|.00203178. || 95 | 1.59352 | .00965392
45 |.31458|.00209899_ || 96 | 1.64251 | .00998240
46 |.32557|.00216827 || 97 | 1.60286 |.01021807
47. |.33684 |.00223878 || 98-| 1.74461 |.01051113
48 |.34875 |.00281326 || 99 | 1.79778! .01081165
49 |.36090 |.00238903 }100 | 1.85241 ).01111983
50 |.37345 |.00246714
40, The formula, by which the above Table was cal-
culated, being adapted to a pressure of 30 inches of culation the volume which both ought to
mercury, if the pressure of the atmosphere be different,
4 corresponding correction must be applied: if the
_ mercury allowed to make its esca
.
HYGROMETRY.
elehe of the barometer in inches:be represented by @,
en ‘ 4
0068544 F;
( + .002086, ¢— aw):
_ .109588F, 109538 F;
~ 479.4 4t—32~ 447.4%
If the value of g be taken from the Table, it must be
multiplied by
41, The formule which we have deduced, for the
elastic force of steam, and the weight of the water con-
tained in a given volume of y
rature and pressure are
of ascertaining, under similar circumstances, the force
and smn) of vapour which exist, in combination or
mixture with atmospheric air. The experiments of Gay
Lussac have decidedly proved, that vapours, so long as"
they exist in the aériform state, not only undergo the
same change of mechanical condition by change of tem-
perature and pressure, but that the same thing holds
true, when they are mixed with vapours of a different
kind, or even with permanently elastic fluids. The
apparatus which Gay Lussac employed for demonstra-<
ting this important fact, is delineated in Fig. 1. Plate
CCCXXVI.
rately graduated ; R and R’ are two stop-cocks of iron ;
TT’ is a bent tube of glass, communicating with AB
at T. The whole fe having been well dried,
the tube AB was filled with dry mercury, recently
boiled ; a balloon, furnished with a stop-cock r, and
filled with dry air, was then firmly connected with the
tube AB, after which the stop-cocks r and R’ were
opened, thus making a communication between them.’
The stop-cock R was next opened, and a quantity of
by the recurved
tubeab. The gas was thus allowed to dilate itself, till
it was reduced to some purticular state of rarefaction.
The stop-cocks R and R’ were then shut. The inclo«
sed gas in the cylinder -AB being rarefied, by its in-
crease of volume, the level of the mercury in it is
found to stand higher than that of the mercury in the
bent tube TT’; but the gas is easily reduced to the
pressure of the atmosphere, at the time of the experi-
ment, by pouring mercury into the tube TT’, till H-
and / have'the same level. The liquid to be reduced
into vapour is introduced into AB, by removing the
balloon, and applying another stop-cock Rv, the tube
connected with which is surmounted by a small fun«
nel V. The, stop-cock R” has a small cavity on one
side of it, capable of containing a single drop of the
liquid to be subjected to experiment, and by means of,
wtih any given portion of it may be introduced into
AB. The liquid being thus brought in contact with
the dry gas, is gradually conv into vapour; and
when the addition of it ceases to increase the volume
of the gas, a sufficient quantity is introduced, to exist
in the vaporous state, at the ee and pressure
at which the experiment is made. The elasticity of,
the gas being augmented by the vapour, the mercury
is elevated in the tube TT’ above its former level, and
the gas, together with the vapour with which it is
mixed, thus sustains a greater pressure than that.of
the atmosphere. It would be easy to make an allow~
ance for the difference of level, and determine by cal-
occupy under
that pressure ; but the apparatus itself Setntees the
means of obtaining the proper correction, by allowing
exe
&= 30
or, g
ur, when the tempe- Gay Lus-
ven, furnish also the means *@¢ 0n va-
AB represents a cylindrical tube, accu- oc
-
Hygromes
<=
Experi-
ments of
pour in
mixture
with air.
PLATE
:
Fig. 1,
;
:
|
| HYGROMETRY.
Deremeny tn Oees eee, otk > telin AB ond tiplied, in order to reduce it to its real volume, if it Hygrome-
TT’ i
“579
‘is the same. If N be the number of divisions oc- ived entirely of water. Its value in pneuma- __*Y-
cupied originally by the gas, N’ the number of divi- tic researches will be duly estimated by the philosophi- “~Y~~
sions occupied by the mixture, and p the pressure of cal chemist.
same during the experiment ; the elastic force of the :
gas, in consequence of its increase of volume, will now | Increased : Increased |
N . volume, ; volume, ,
| p, and if f be the elastic force of the vapour, & | the original (Multipliers. the original Multipliers.
be (x7)? f ie bulk being |B | bulk being
the joint elasticity of both will bef +P. But this | © |_“' 8 ere
. ; $2 | 1.0064 | .99336 || 67 | 1.0225 . .97803
iaioa Serene ayer Settee pressure, we —_ | '33 | 1.0068 |-.99311 |} 68 | 1.0282. | .97730
$4 | 1.0071 | .99986 || G9 | 1.0240 | .97654
oh p 35 | 1.0074 | .99261 |} 70 | 1.0248 | .97577 }
pal tyr 36 | 1.0077 | .99234 || 71 | 1.0257 | 97497
N N—N ra ‘99 | a.oe7s sie
bs heres soon} 38 | 1.0083 178 | 73 | 1.
Hence f= p—~xy or p ( N’ ) 39 | 1.0086 | 99149 || 74 | 1.0283 | 97243
- 40 | 1.0089 | .99119 | 75 | 1.0293 | .97153
42. It the of Lussac,
Moke aN Nand p ore Gay me 41 | 1.0092 | .99087 || 76 | 1.0803 | .97060
age E ragtime 42 | 1.0095 | .99055 || 77 | 1.0313 | .96998
gy a page - Paes ay Peep 43 | 1.0099 | .99022 || 78 | 1.0323 | .96867
he Ly yn obtained ah 44 | 1.0102 | .98987 || 79 | 1.0334 | .96766
no Sree vaponr aan Fa. 45 | 1.0106 | .98952 || 80 | 1.0345 | .96662
we eee formula ant the in 46 | 1.0109 | .98915 || 81 | 1.0357 | .96555
ao sangha £2. pe emegqentr io postin, ooo 47 | 1.0113 | .98877 | 82} 1.0369 | .96445
union — =< saaienestt phqueant 48 | 1.0117 | .98837 | 83 | 1.0381 | .96331
secant. ‘Thia resale faynishes by far the strongest 49 | 1.0122 | 98897 | 84 | 1.0393 | 96215
present. etary tanya FL Te, 50 | 1.0126 | .98755 || 85 | 1.0406 | .96094
fea err po Ne grave of 51 | 1.0130 | .98712 || 86 | 1.0420 | .95971
a pes wey ee memornae Fort wr de 52 | 1.0135 | .98667 | 87 | 1.0434 | .95844 }
ee Leaneten wivtenine 58 | 1.0140 | .98621 | 88 | 1.0448 | .95713
to determine the precise volume which amixture of va- | 54 | 1.0145 | .98574 |) 89 | 1.0403 | .95579 |
and dry air would at a given temperature, 55 | 10160 | 90685. | 90 }.1.0878. | 95440 |
pee Senn: Aik Chek Jn aneoenday in bo 56 | 1.0154 | 98478 || 91 | 1.0493, | .95298
ey ea ak aaa sien ~ tin ete - yy Sante i
to substitute it for that quantity in the expression 60 1.0178 98206 95 | 1.0561. | .94688
No 01 98197 || 96} 1.0579 | .94525
S=pP we} We should thus obtain 62 | 1.0190 | .98136 || 97 | 1.0598 | .94357
N 63 | 1.0196 | .98074 || 98 | 1.0617 | .94185 },
ny 64 | 1.0203 | .98009 || 99 | 1.0637 | .94007
p—s 65 | 1.0210 | .97942 [100 | 1.0658 | 93835
To illustrate this formula by example, let it be 66 | 1.0817 _| 9787S
To illustrate the use of the above Tablet by example, :
i determine ty pn tae
is 70°, barometrical 29.25 inches, and the
level of the water inthe inside of the receiver 9.5 inches.
nd rede en the ‘0°
i for the temperature 70° being
1.0248, the enlarged bulk of the
|
air, onder a
to the result: in first place, a column of water of
the height of 9.5 inches is toa column of
mercury of the height of .098 , the heights being,
* Saussure found by bis that dry air at the tem of 13°. .
Scheiny whieh ly wiblurtiny Gadd CEM Sedboring the satteer toetcn ft wr ee oe eee wee nee
+ As the Table can only be applied with perfect accuracy, when the level of the water, in the outside and inside of the receiver,
be considered merely as near approximations,
580 »
‘Hygrowe- inversely as their specific gravities ; and, therefore, the
try: actual pressure sustained by the’ airand the vapour, in
the supposed circumstances, is equal to 29.25 — .098,
or 29.152 inches of mercury ; and, lastly, the expand~
ed volume 1770.85 must be multiplied by Srive to
obtain its augmentation by the diminished pressure,
which reduces it to 1822.86 cubic inches.
To propose an example of an opposite description,
Jet it be required to find the actual volume of air con-
‘tained in a receiver standing over water at the tempe-
rature of 60°, when the barometrical pressure is 30.45
inches, and the level of the water in the inside of the
receiver eight inches above its level on the outside ;
sj at also the apparent quantity of air to be 850
cubie inches.
The multiplier in the table for’ the temperature 60°
being .98256 the reduced yoltime, under a pressure of
30 inches, is 850 x .98256 or 835.176 cubic inches ;
and this result corrected for the pressure becomes
835.176 x a or 846.061 cubic inches.
44, By means of the apparatus formerly described,
orisay Lus, C2Y, Lussac examined the tension of vapour when a
ae ae smaller quantity of moisture was introduced into the
elasticity of cylinder AB, than was sufficient to saturate complete-
vapour ly the space previously occupied by the air which it
mixed with contained; and in all cases he found, that the elastic
fons férce of the vapour, in its attenuated state, was affected
i, by variations of pressure, re, in the same man-
ner as permanently elastic fluids, the reduction of bulk
which it sustained being always inversely proportional
to the pressure, Thus, if N represent the bulk of the
air, on introducing a single drop of water, the volume
N was gradually enlarged to N’ 3_and allowing a part
of the mercury to flow out, until its surface in AB,
and the bent tube TT’ was the same, the included air
in mixture with the vapour was brought to the same
pressure as at the beginning of the experiment.’ If an
additional portion of mercury be now allowed to
“escape; the surface of the mercury in the bent tube de-
scends below the surface of the mercury in the cylin-
der AB; so} that if the difference ‘of level be repre-
sented by h, the elastic force of the mixture of air and
vapour will be p—h, the quantity p denoting, as be-
fore, the barometrical pressure at the'time of the expe-
riment. If the change of volume resulting from the
change of pressure be now examined, it is found, in all
cases, to be the same, as would be obtained with dry
air; so that if N” be the space occupied by the mix-~
- ture in its new state of dilatation, we have, invari-
ably,
N’ p—h
Nr = Lidice &
45) To determine what)change this result:implies in
Tet J be the force which
the mixture exerted when it occupied the space N’, and
J' the force which it exerts under the volume N’’; then
since p is the pressure of the atmosphere, the°elastic
force of the air in the receiver, when; together: with
the vapour it eceupied the space N’, must have been
p—J; is now, on account of the enlargement of vo-
Additional
-experiments
The elastic c
force of va- the elastic force of the:vapour,
pour in-
versely pro-
portional to
~ the reduc-
tion of vo-
lume by
mechanical
pressure. N f ‘
lume, reduced to (p —/) Wr If to this elastic force
of the air we add the elastic force of the vapour, we
: ,
obtain for the elasticity of the. mixture,’ 4.(p—)
HYGROMETRY.
ye
and, corisequently, fe
S' + (2S) Ki Ph
But it is found by experiment, that
N’. p—h N’
<= 4 or p—h=p (<3)
Therefore,
N’ N’
J’ + (PS) Ri = PR
And, f’ =f (we): |
This result, which has been deduced by Biot from the
experiments of Gay Lussac, demonstrates what had been
formerly stated by Dalton, that the elastic force of vae
pour, however attenuated the latter may be, changes in
all cases with the volume, precisely in the same manner
as that‘of the gases. Hence it may be concluded, that,
so long as vapour retains the aériform state, the quan-
tity of it which can exist in mixture with air, is exactly
the same as in. a vacuum’ of equal extent, when the
pressure and temperature are the same; and, therefore,
the Table ($39.) which expresses the weight in grains
of a cubic inch of vapour, from zero to 100° of Fahren«
heit, may be applied with perfect accuracy to deters
mine the weight of the moisture contained in a cubic
inch of air, when the tensions or elasticities of both are
thesame, Theonly circumstance necessary for. this ap+
lication of the Table, so important to the purposes’ of
by metry, is some means of ascertaining the elasticity
of the vapour in admixture with the’ air. Mr Dalton
has suggested one method of doing this, which is ex-
tremely simple, as well as susceptible of the gréatest
accuracy.
46. The method to which we have alluded, is foiind- Method of
ed on the principle, that if vapour, in an attentiated determining
state, (that is, in a state such that the epace which it oc- the ery
cupies is capable nee anadditional portionof mois- 17,9,"
ture in the vaporous_condition,) be: cooled down till it mixture
just begin to deposit itself in the form of dew, the vo- with air.
lume to which it is then reduced’ must be completely
saturated with moisture ; and consequently the vapour
in this reduced state must possess the same elasticity as
unmixed vapour at the same temperature. In the case
of the atmosphere, we can determine the temperature
at which this deposition takes*place, by presenting to
it a body cooled down continuously from the tempera=
ture of the air, until its surface begins to be bedewed
with moisture; and for this purpose, no contrivance
seems more convenient than that proposed by Mr Dal-
ton, which we shall now briefly describe.
47. Having taken a cylindrical glass vessel, Mr Da
ton poured cold water into it, the temperature of whica
was gradually reduced by cooling mixtures when ne-
cessary. - He then-carefully watched, till he observed
an incipient deposition of moisture on the surface of
the jar.; after which he, examined: the temperature
the water, and assumed it as the temperature at which
the moisture in the atmosphere would just be retained
in.a state of vapour, . If a deposition of dew took place
immediately, he allowed the jar to stand for some mi-
nutes to receive an. increase of temperature, wiping it
from, time to time on the outside with a dry Jinen
towel, till it entirely ceased to exhibit the appearance
of moisture on its surface, and then examined the tem-
perature of the water as before. If due precautions be
employed, the temperature, at which the dew is formed
on the surface of the jar, may be»determined ‘to the
Let the tempera-
s, and let 9, be
mam of 3 also let /’ be the elastic force of the
, in the state of attenuation in which it actually
in the ae Danes
since nothing more is necessary but to vapour
from the 7 to the t, in order
to reduce it from the force ¢ to the S's
1 -002086 t — ™ 447441 on
f= 0, poses) = * Cart) =
t—r
(1 +% jas)
since the number of grains contained ina
vapour at the temperature +, and under a
Pe
Fo
and
-
or E=5(fi-f")
, Hence f’=f-— 5
These formule may be applied to the solution of
-HYGROMETRY.
it amounts to a ;
581
2 ay mean seutgratiinn, ead annual evaporation __ "Y-.
of a place are known, the formula f’= fi—z will
enable us to determine the mean state of the air of that Mean point
i to moisture. Let us take for ex- of i
ion of Great Britain, #” for _
is reckoned about 24 inches ; this in a minute ST B#-
w be 00004563 inches, and applied to a cylindrical
vessel 6 inches in diameter, correspond to -32587
temperature 50°,
stitute for f; the corresponding elastic force of 4
Gden Sed-toe tate i$ 91) ve Obi
inches.
$.2859 f" _ 3.2859 x *308276
= = 00203652
~ 447.440 4474450 —
:
-
$
z
i
if
F
is
it
E
i
f= f= fans M1 14979—173798-=-968992
By proceeding :
foa
,
cubic inch of vapour,
int of deposition i 52.6 | ea oc
t 1s 5°.
t seems probable,
below the mean temperature.
t of deposition, fi Sisce, fs about 6° bel th
int ition, for , t 6° below the
snean emipentune we admit, observations are
* Dr Dobson found by observation, that the mean temperature of deposition, at Liverpool, was T° below the temperature of that
place.
—
582
Hygrome- still wanting to warrant so general a conclusion. Mr
try. Dalton affirms,
=\¥ from 1° to 10°
Mean an-
that the point of deposition is generally
below the mean~heat of the 24 hours ;
we have usually found it to be from 6° to 7°. *
51. The following formula, which we have deduced
nual evapo- on the supposition that the mean point of deposition is
ration in
different la-
titades,
6° below the mean temperature, seems to agree pretty
well with observation. Let ¢ be the mean temperature ;
Ji the entire force of vapour corresponding to ¢; and
?, the entire force of vapour corresponding to the tem-
perature +, or é—6; then if A be the mean annual
evaporation in inches, ’
t—v+r
The mean daily evaporation, for any place, according
to this formula, is fj — 9, (i +
S; i «2
Let it be required to find, by it, the mean annual
evaporation, at a place in Lat, 45°, the mean tempera-
ture of which is 57°.
A=365 (fi —9 (I+
pects Ak ) or nearl.
M744<)" y
t—+ Bt)
447.4 4 -)) a
a FE 57—51 .\ |
= 865 (,-%, (1 tame =
inches.
= 365 (.47328 — 3864 x 1.012) = 30.02.
For the purposes of calculation, the expression may
~ be reduced to the’ approximated, but more commodi-
ous form, A= 365 (4 _ a5 %-8 ).
By means of this formula, we have deduced the fol-
lowing Table, which expresses the mean annual and
daily evaporation, from-the equator to either pole, for
the different parallels of latitude, at the interval of 5°.
The mean annual temperature: corresponding to each
latitude, was derived from Meyer's forniula.
Mean Evaporation if i
Latitude. A nrg in inches. oe eS ham
P ; 50 diffs lat.
Daily. Yearly.
0 85 -18938 69.10
5 84.6 -18717 68.32 78
10 83.4 -18085 66.01 2.31
15 81.4 -17073 62.32 3.69
20 78.7 15786 57.62 4.70
25, 75.4 -14133 52.32 5.30
30 71.8 -12769 46.61 5.71
35 67.2: -41222 40.96 5.65
40 62.7 -09785 35.72 5.24
AS 58. 08463 30.89 4.83
50 53.3 -07312 26.71 4,18
55 48.8 06327 23.09. 3.62
60 44.5 | .05517 20.14 2.95
65 40.6 -04860 17.74 2.40
70 37.3 -04362 15.92 1.82
75 34.6 -03990 14.56 1.36
80 32.6 -03732 |* 13.62 -94
85 31.4 -03584 13.09 53
90 31. 08537 12.91 18
The last column contains the differences of the mean
4 The mean point of deposition might also, be ascertained, it
the diminution of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere.
HYGROMETRY.
| given day. ©
na general way, by the mean height ef the clouds, and the rate of
annual evaporation corresponding to every 5° of differs Hygro
ence of latitude. These appear to increase, according “Y-
to some regular law, from the pole to the parallel of
30° ; after which they begin to diminish, and continue
to decrease to the equator. The greatest differences
take place near the limits of the trade winds. Hence
it might be inferred, that the most copious depositions
of moisture should occur a few degrees on either side
of the tropics.
52. As the temperature of every place, for the whole ‘The point
ear, ranges between two extreme points correspond. of deposi-
ing to the alternations of summer and winter ; so it ex- tion coin- —
hibits every 24 hours, a corresponding difference with a th th
respect to the vicissitudes of day and night. In the 7:00)
case of the daily change of temperature there is some tempera.
interval between the maximum and the minimum, which ture for |
may be regarded as the temperature belonging to the season.
season of the year ; and, though this point will not al-
ways be a mean between these extremes, it will in
neral approach very near it. If this mean temperature
were to rise and sink regularly, as the season advanced
and declined, without being subject to daily fluctuation,
the quantity of moisture which could exist in the at-
mosphere, at any given time, might be determined with
the utmost precision ; since nothing more would be ne-
cessary for that purpose, than to calculate the maximum
quantity of vapour for the temperature, by the formula
in § 39. A variety of causes, however, which are too
complicated in their nature to admit of being reduced
under any general law, (but of which the vicissitude
of day and night is the principal,) continually‘ conspire
to raise and depress, by turns, the temperature of every
place above or below its mean level for the season ; and '
hence the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere will
generally be less than the quantity corresponding to the
mean temperature, but at all times nearly equal to that
belonging to the miiimum temperature. If it be less
than the Jatter quantity, the process of evaporation will
gradually supply the deficiency ; if it be greater, the
excess will quickly be precipitated in the form of dew,
rain, or snow, according to the temperature, and the
extent of its depression, below the minimum temper=
ature, ‘
In short, the mean point of deposition, which we for=
merly represented by +, and for which 9, is the corre-
sponding elastic force of vapour, must be nearly the
same as the minimum temperature of any place on any
It appears by the following observations, extract.
ed from the meteorological journal for 1815 kept by
the Rev. Mr Gordon of Kinfauns, that the minimum
temperature of Perth, and consequently the mean point
of deposition for that place, is about 6° below the mean
temperature, thus coinciding very nearly with the re=
sult formerly deduced from theory, as the mean point
ni deposition for Great Britain and the globe in gene«
ral. !
In the following Table, the depression of the minimum
temperature below the mean temperature for each month,
has evidently some relation to the indications of Les«
lie’s hygrometer. This relation will be better under-
stood, after we have explained more particularly the
manner in which that instrument is affected by the
elasticity of the vapour existing in the atmosphere ; at
present we shall only remark, that as observations made
with any hygrometer are of very little value, unless the
i
ae ed
Srecc ss fe
Temperature.
45.730 | 5.797
53. From what we have stated i
J
i
i
t
tare of the air; and /’ the force of the vapour actual-
ly ph ran leg we evidently have
an equation of the form, D=m(f,—/”), in which m is
a constant co-efficient to be determined by experi
ee elena en an ee? pac
evaporating surface. _—
means of a di . Let AC, therefore, resent
the vd of Che air, e
583
try.
—_——_
E
ture is a to it; let the line AT represent the time manner in
proportional quantity of heat which flows into the co- in a ther-
eed ball in th
mol
the bulb of the thermc meter would cool uniformly, and puib.
to’an indefinite
flux of caloric, which being always the same propor-
tional part of the excess of the temperature of the air
above that of the covered ball, gradually increases until
BH (which is the same of BG that D d is of DE,)
becomes equal to DE. The diminution of temperature
by eva ion being now exactly counterbalanced by
the influx of heat from the contiguous air, the cooling
process attains its utmost limits; and GH represents
the difference between the temperature of the air and
that of the covered thermometer, which henceforth con«
tinues stati °
56. It must be evident, however, from the view we
have taken of the cooling process, that a thermometer
with a moistened bulb ought to be reduced through the
same number of in equal times, and thus reach
the maximum of effect in a sudden and abrupt manner,
—a supposition which is neither consistent with the
law of continuity, nor conformable to observation: for,
though the diminution of ay “ese is at first nearly
uniform, the effect ually diminishes as the
advances, and the differences, ing every instant
smaller and smaller, are at last al er evanescent.
The cause of this deviation from the state of thi
at first supposed, is to be ascribed to the diminished.
onsen arising from the cooling of the moistened
; so that the reduction of temperature in the
first interval of time, instead of bei ted by
ed, the lilrence beteaes VE tat ly
¢, the minute quantity Ee being so
pete gop aped Es the diminished Bee ncepalonedl
the reduction of tem ire already induced. In
like manner, the total instead of being accurate-
ly represented by HG, will be ted by H g; and
the curve Ag wit thus, exhibit march of the ther-
mometer from the beginning to the end of the process.
The intervals Ad,’ dd’, &c. will still represent equal
of time ; and the perpendiculars de, de’, &c.
the reduction of temperature at the end of those times,
A to the curve at g will be parallel to AH,—
a ion which is necessary to prevent a violation of
the law of continuity.
57. It may be inferred from this graphical delinea«
tion, that since the extent of the e tion, together
with the reduction of temperature which it occasions,
is diminished by the cooling of the evaporating surface,
the expression D = m (f,—,f’) will require some cor-
rection; and as this correction must have a direct re-
Jation to D, the simplest way of applying it, is to give
the equation the form,
D—Pam(fi—S),
Hence ("=") D =f,—-S-
, were it not for the incessant in- PLaTE
cCCXXVI.
Fig. 2.
we
58k
Hygrome- The co-efficients m.and n being two, constant quantities
try: _ to be determined by experiment, the equation will re-
sume the simplicity of its original form, by supposing
m™" — p; we thus have, D =p (f,—/’). This equa
n—1
tion, however, will only express the value of D by a
near approximation. To render the expression con-
sistent with ‘the properties of the curve, whose ordi-
nates represent the progressive reductions of tempera-
ture by evaporation from the moistened bulbs, it seems
necessary to give it the form,
D
D= (p—=) A—f).
58. The co-efficients p and r, particularly the former,
being important elements in any equation which should
formula for €Xpress the quantity of moisture contained in the at-
Leslie’shy- mosphere, in terms of f,, f’ and D, we instituted a
grometer. series of the most laborious experiments to, determine
their values with accuracy. For this purpose we had
recourse to Mr Dalton’s method of finding the point of
deposition, whose elastic force we formerly denoted by
e; ; and, from the precautions we observed, we have
yeason to think, that our experiments were calculated
to determine that point within the fifth part of a degree
of Fahrenheit. We generally employed two jars of a
cylindrical shape, one of glass, and the other of tin-
plate. Each of them was about eight inches deep, and
six inches in diameter ; it being convenient to have them
of a considerable size, that their temperature, when
they are filled with cold water, may not be raised too
quickly by the superior temperature of the surrounding
bodies. We also used occasionally, for the same pur-
pose, a vessel of silver, which, on account of its resplen-
dent surface, is admirably fitted to shew the slightest
deposition of moisture on it. These vessels were filled
with water, cooled down several degrees below the
point of deposition, and placed near one another on a
table, at a sufficient distance from the thermometers
employed to indicate the temperature of the air ¢, and
the point of depression of the moistened bulb produced
by oreporine: The experiments were generally pers
formed in a large octagonal apartment, about 50 feet in
diameter, and 30 feet high; and in order that the
smallest deposition of moisture might be perceptible,
the jars were observed at the distance of 15 feet with a
owerful telescope. By this means, when no sensible
pase appeared to the naked eye however closel
the jars were examined, the drops of moisture, whic
formed on their surfaces, were so much magnified, as
to be seen increasing gradually in size. The jars were
wiped from time to time with a clean dry towel ; but
unless this operation was performed with the utmost
care, the telescope discovered large tracts of moisture,
which could not be discerned without its assistance.
The state of the thermometers was accurately observed
at the same time, and a rotatory motion frequently
given tothe water. When the deposition of moisture
on the surface of the jars was no longer perceptible,
the temperature of the different thermometers was care«
fully noted. Sometimes the temperature of the water
in the jars was again reduced, by stirring bits of ice in
it till it was lowered a degree or two below the point of
deposition, to remove all chance of error, and ascertain
the limits within which it might range. The difference
in the result seldom exceeded the fourth part of a de-
Investiga-
tion of a
HYGROMETRY.
gree. It is proper also to remark, that the point of de- Hygrom
position, as etermined by the different jars, was always
the same.
59. The temperature of the air at the time of these
experiments was observed with two excellent mercurial
thermometers, one of which was made by Jones, and the
other by Adie; and the temperature of the water in .
the jars was determined by a good thermometer of
Crichton. The reduction of temperature produced by
evaporation was ascertained by two mercurial thermo
meters ; two thermometers filled with spirit of wine,
and covered with moistened tissue paper ; and two hy-«
grometers of Mr Leslie. One of the mercurial thermo
meters possessed the utmost delicacy, and had a range
of scale, which easily gave the 10th part of a degree.
The largest of the spirit of wine thermometers had a
bulb 25 inches in diameter ; and its tube, which was
two feet long, included a range of scale from 32° to 60°.
This instrument, on account of its size, and the great
capacity of alcohol for caloric, was more. slowly reduced
in its temperature than the other thermometers with
covered bulbs ; but, after a certain lapse of time, all of
them became stationary nearly at the same point, the
difference never pai a small fraction ofa degree.
It is easy to perceive, indeed, that whether the thermo«
metrical ball be large or small, the inclosed fluid, what«
ever it may be, must ultimately reach the same tempe-
rature; for since the quantity f; —/’, which regulates
the evaporation, is constant, the evaporation must al-«
ways cool down the moistened surface to the same
pitch, and thus gradually abstract heat from the thers
mometrical fluid, precisely in the same manner as if the
bulb consisted entirely of water, (due allowance being
made for the difference of capacity for caloric,) until the
reduction of temperature is counterbalanced by the in«
flux of heat from the air. If the specific heat of the
inclosed fluid be great, the process will be longer in
producing its maximum of effect; but the diminution
of temperature by evaporation, and the influx of heat by
communication, being in all cases to each other in the
same constant ratio, the reduction of temperature. must
be always the same. Hence the diminution of tempe«
rature indicated by Leslie’s hygrometer invariably cor«
responds to that of the most sluggish thermometer, with
a moistened bulb. ’
60. To determine what influence the atmospherical Jpguence
pressure might have on these results, Leslie’s hygrome- of atmo.
ter, having its bulb duly moistened, was placed with a spherical
quantity of sulphuric acid in a cup, under a large re~ Pressure on
ceiver, on. the plate of an air-pump, and allowed to re. ’*Portte
main till it became stationary. In a few minutes it
sunk down to 26°; the temperature at the time being
483°, and the atmospherical pressure 29.6. The air
was then exhausted till the gauge stood successively at
6, 12, 18, and 24 inches, when the following results
were obtained :
Height of the” Degrees of
gauge ininchesof} Pressure. Leslie’s P|
“mercury. hygrometer. ¥
0 29.6 27 4
6 93.6 34 -
12 17.6 44 4
18 11.6 62 2
24 5.6 91 «
From these experiments it may be safely inferred, +
3
HYGROMETRY.
Hence we have by substitution, as before,
69= (r—*2) (.46421 — 26895)
585
_Hygrome-
try.
—_——
’ 6.9
61. In one of the ig agg sage Oye made to
ascertain data, w! barometer
stood at 29.75, Leslies
== = = = we we = OSL
- - - - - * * fod § 31.
=2eg + ~~ + + § 47.
_D = 672 — 52 = 15.2 by the covered thermometers,
orD = 85 x 2 = 15.5 by Leslie's hygrometer § 25.
D= 224159 _ 159.95, using the mean.
The values of f; , f’, and D being substituted in the
general equation D=(e—— (i—S'), we ob-
tain
15.25 = sors (P?— =) (.66357 —.22728)
+
s'=0(Ga ts
D = 56.42—49.51=6.91, by the covered thermometers.
D=383 x a 689, by Leslie's hygrometer.
6.91 + 6.89 __
Using the mean D = ——+
6.9.
VOL, XI, PART it.
a dg ree aepereres, Ooms 2
equation, p is the more i t
cients, and thet the value of D'can be but slight! ly af-
fected by any in the value of r, We cannot err
greatly, therefore, if we take 36 for the value of p, and
10 for that of r. The formula D=°(p—2) (i 1’)
will thus become PS é
D=>F(%8—Z)ii-s’)
£p
36—D
tea sD
Orf’ =fi —-p
This formula will enable us to find, by means of the
moisture con-
And f’ =f; —
rahe gpa PB
= 61734 — .38116 = .23618
« And by § 50,
61734 : 23618 i: 00395897 : 0015146
mall comer $2, math pit of depen, The
deposition ation was 35°45 ;
and De Luc’s hygrometer stood, at *
the time, at 27°.
63. If we substitute the value of f’ for F, in the for-
-10953 2 F,
mir f= "Ta
obtain
(as laid down in § 40.) we
586
This expression will accordingly give the weight in
grains, of the moisture in a cubic inch of air; when Sis
the entire force of vapour for the temperature of the air
t; D, the difference of the temperature between a na-
ked thermometer, and one with a moistened bulb co-
vered with tissue paper; and 8, the height of the baro-
meter, are known. The value of f, is obtained by the
Table in § 31; and that of D and @ by observation.
64. The manner in which the formula is ex ressed,
of the for- ‘renders it capable of being easily reduced to the diffe-
mulato rent graduations of the thermometrical scale. Thus if
Leslie’shy- DP) be expressed in degrees of Leslie’s hygrometer, since
grometets the interval between the freezing and boiling points in
that instrument is divided into 1000 equal parts, if L
denote the number of degrees which it indicates,
Tiygrome-
try.
Application
z
z4L
Laeeite (i— 1000 —4 r)é
447.46
And in the centigrade scale,
r B D
and the 1.066495 (i ny)
centigrade Pp — oeT00 = 4D ‘
scale; I + .00375¢
P’ being the weight in grammes of the moisture in a
litre of air, and ¢ the height of the barometer in metres.
Methods 65. As the conclusions which Mr Leslie has deduced
employed from his experiments, lead to results differing in some
by Mr Les- respects from those we have obtained, it may be proper
lie to find to give a brief account of the mode of investigation he
the quanti- adopted. This is the more necessary, as he expressly
: a mentions that two different methods led to the same re-
air. i, © sults. * One of these methods,” to use his own words,
terms of “ Was in a large close room, to bring an hygrometer,
the degrees conjoined with a thermometer, successively nearer to a
of his hy- stove intensely heated, and to note the simultaneous
grometer’ indications of both instruments; or to employ two nice
thermometers placed beside each other, and having
their bulbs covered respectively with dry and with wet
cambric, By taking he mean of numerous observa-
tions, and interpolating the intermediate quantities, the
law of aqueous solution in air was laboriously traced.
But the other method of investigation appeared better
adapted for the higher temperatures. A thin hollow
ball of tin, four inches in diameter, and having a very
small neck, was neatly covered with linen, and being
filled with water nearly boiling, and a thermometer in-
serted, it was ‘hung likewise in a spacious close room,
and the rate of its cooling carefully marked. The ex-
periment was next repeated, by suspending it to the end
of a fine beam, and wetting with a hair pencil the sur-
‘face of linen, till brought in exact equipoise to some
given weight in the opposite scale. ‘l'en.grains being
now taken out, the humid ball was allowed to rest
against the point of a tapered glass tube, and the inter-
val of time, with the corresponding diminution of tem-
perature, observed when it rose again'to the position of
equilibrium, The same operation was successively re-
newed ; but as the rapidity of the evaporation declined,
five, and afterwards two grains only, were, at each trial,
withdrawn from the scale. From such a series of facts,
it was easy to estimate the quantities of moisture which
the same air would dissolve at different temperatures,
* Mr Leslie does not describe how this number is obtained; but it is obviously, atcording to his views, the tenth term ofa geometrical
series, of which the first term is 200, the last term 400, and number of terms 28. 2 ea aS
/
HYGROMETRY.
and also the corresponding measures of heat expended Hygrome-
in the process of solution. By connecting the range of __*Y-
observations,” continues Mr Leslie, “ it would appear,
that air has its dryness doubled at each rise of temper-
ature, answering to 15 centesimal degrees. Thus at
the freezing point, air is capable of holding a portion of
moisture represented by 100 degrees of the hygrome-
ter; atthe temperature of 15 centigrade, it could con
tain 200 such parts; at that of 30°, it might dissolve
400; and at 45° in the same scale 800. Or, if we rec«
kon by Fahrenheit’s divisions, air absolutely humid,
holds at the limit of congelation the hundred and six-
tieth t of its weight of moisture ; at the tempera<
ture of 59° the eightieth part; at that of 86° the for-
tieth part ; at that of 113° the twentieth part ; and at
that of 140° the tenth part. While the temperature,
therefore, advances uniformly in arithmetical progres
sion, the dissolving power which this communicates to
the air mounts with the accelerating rapidity of a geo-
metrical series.” .
66. Before we examine the results of these experi- Discrepan
ments, which we have no doubt were conducted with ¢y between
every attention to accuracy, we may state, that, the pares:
conclusion which has been drawn from them respect- and the
ing the law of aqueous solution, is totally irreconcile- of aqueous
sac. This will appear, by comparing the weight
cubic irtch of vapour for the various temperatures, in sgelas
Table § 31, deduced from their experiments; and ac- 8"
cording to which, the solving power follows a different
law from that stated by Leslie, though chiefly, we be-
lieve, on account of its simplicity, it is the one generally
admitted. It will be seen by the following Table, that
if the temperatures be taken: in an arithmetical progres-
sion, the quantities of moisture held in solution, form
a succession of quantities, the terms of which increase
in a faster ratio than the terms constituting a geome-
trical series.
Quantity of [Successive Temperatures at which a |
Moisture in ‘ solving Power is doubled.
Solution. |According to Leslie. By our Table.
100 32 $2,
200 59 . 53.2
400 . 86 75.6
800 113 99.4
According to the experiments of Leslie, the solving pate at
power ‘is doubled every 27 degrees; whereas, aceord- which the
ing to our Table, this takes place at different inter- solving
ny which increase slowly with the temperature, the Power in-
‘mean being 23.4 from the freezing point to 100° of Tease
ag 6 be
67. We shall now com e result’ s y OUr Com
formula, with that derived by Mr Leslie from his mode tive pers
of determining the point of deposition ; and we shall as ded
take the example from his Treatise on the Relations of by Mr
Air to Heat and Moisture. ‘‘ Suppose,” says he, “ the on dpe
hygrometer to mark 52°, while its wet ball has a tem- jyuyjs,
erature of 20 centesimal degrees, or 68° by Fahren-
heit; the dissolving power of air at this tem ure
being 252," its distance from absolute humidity will
therefore be 200, which is the measure of solution-an-
swering to 15 centesimal degrees, or 59° by Fahren-
ie
ee
a
|
L
i
55
1
;
P
|
Pate e 2%
HYGROMETRY.
5% 52
10983 (Fs seo — Te, x30
s Wasa
4)
:
:
oft)
}
3
7
:
aliit
lil
i
he
pleted!
i
B °
it
587
corresponding share of moisture. Wherefore, he con- Hygrome-
cludes, at the temperature of the wet ball, atmospheric __"Y:
air would take up moisture amounting to the 16,000th ot
part of its weight, for each degree marked by the hy-
69. This view of paced acme, between the Onion
evaporating e reduction of temperature t¢ Mr Les-
which it induces, is somewhat different from the one a
we haye taken in § 54. According to the explana- 4,0 nature
tion we have there given of that relation, the heat ne- of the eva-
; for converting the moisture applied to the bulb, porating
state of vapour, is derived immediately from Process.
the water itself, at the moment the vapour is disenga-
ged from its surface. The water having thus lost a
ion of its heat, instantly abstracts caloric from the
and the bulb, in its turn, from the inclosed ther-
mometrical fluid, until an equilibrium is established by
oe influx of + from the air, ppmntar elancing the
ispersion of it by ev: tion. of the air is
therefore imparted to the ball, merely by absorption ;
and sets limits to the of refrigeration, by
the increasing rate at which it flows into the cooling
surface, as the tem of that surface recedes from
site ty 2 the air. This ast ius is
a to vaporization, whether the process
be pone iam the air, or under an cahenaanh
receiver; and it is finely illustrated by the result of an
iment which we have described under the article
Evaporation, p. 220, and which demonstrates that the
caloric necessary for the formation of vapout is derived
almost entirely from the water itself, and scarcely at
all from the conti bodies. In short, we cannot
perceive how Mr sh esis can afford an ex-
planation of the great reduction of temperature which
is produced by ev ion under an exhausted recei-
ver, where, aay | his opinion, there is no solyent
present to convert water into vapour. He speaks,
indeed, of air having its scale of watery solution ex-
tended by rarefaction ; but this is merely a gratuitous
accommodation of fact to theory, and does not at all
explain why the solution takes place, when
the supposed solvent is most deficient in quantity, or
entirely excluded, At the same time, it must be ad-
mitted, that the results which he has deduced from the
theoretical view he has taken of his hy, eter, accord
remarkably well with the quantity of moisture in the
air, as determined by
70. Ina — part
deavoured to shew the point of deposition for any tion of the
place must, in general, coincide nearly with the mini- coincidence
mum temperature for the season. The truth of this rs uted tes
nion is amply confirmed by applying our formula, for position and
Leslie's hygrometer, to the very accurate observations the mini-
cuncle with that instrument by Mr Gordon, to which we mum tem-
formerly adverted. The point of deposition assi by perature.
the formula, will be found in the followi able to
prin coy wep as apeont 4 with the mean minimum tem-
The indi-
cations of
hygrome-
Gunde,
not abso-
lute. Ne-
cessity of
attending to
tempera-
ture and
pressure.
Applica-
tion of hy-
grometry
to small
portions of
gaseous
fluids,
Researches
ef Saussure.
588 HYGROMETRY.
Degrees of bn Siam
Leslie’s ‘emper. al Mean Height] Mean Point of | Grains of
1815. Hygrom. time of | of Barom. by | Minimum ||Deposition | moisture in a} Rain,
by 3 daily | observa- | two daily temp. |jby formula-| cubic inch of | in inches.
observ. tions. observ. air.
January 4.9 33 29.808 28.5 29.1 -001238 0.945
February 8.1 42 29.552 35.7 36.8 .001612 2.007
March 14.7 43 29.407 34.9 33.8 001451 1.990
oao. 23.1 47 29.834 86.9 33.9 -001458 0.999
ay 23.0 54 29.741 45.5 44.3 -002050 2.334
June 29.7 59 29.794 48.9 47.9 -002304 0.871
July $2.0 61 29.977 50.3 49.7 -0024.44 1.743
August 27.7 60 29.707 50.9 49.9 -002463 1.324
September] 20.3 55 29.793 46.9 46.7 .002214 2.193
October 12.2 49 29.701 42.6 42.9 .001967 8.362
November 7.8 38 29.788 31.4 32.6 .001396 1.643
December 6.5 33 29.599 27.8 27.9 .001177 1.343
Rota tl 075 of bof 40 39.6 | .0018i4 | 20.754
Results 29.725 9. . 20.75
The difference between the point of deposition de-
termined by the formula, and the mean minimum tem-
perature for each month, of the particular year in which
these observations were made, scarcely ever exceeds
half a degree, except in April. The great difference in
that month seems to be owing, pi to the copious
discharge of moisture from the atmosphere, during the
two preceding months, the rain for February and
March amounting, by Mr Gordon’s meteorological
journal, to 3.997 or nearly 4 inches; and partly to the
unusual depression of temperature, for the season, dur
ing the last of these months.
71. It may be proper to remark, in reference to the
above results, that the indications of an hygrometer, of
whatever kind, even when they are numerically the
same, may imply very different portions of moisture in
the air. Thus the hygrometer in April and May stood
at 23, though the absolute quantities of moisture in the
atmosphere, during these two months, were extremely
different ;—a proof that the reports of hygrometrical ob«
servations only tend to mislead, when the temperature
and pressure of the air at the time they were made, are
omitted. Hence also we can perceive the reason why
no hygrometer can have its scale accurately graduated
by exposing it to a particular temperature, in order to
obtain the point of extreme dryness.
72. If the researches of hygrometry were confined to
the atmosphere, the methods which we have already de-
scribed for detecting the quantity of moisture contain-
ed in a given portion of it, would be sufficient for all
the purposes of meteorology ; but these methods are
scarcely applicable to small quantities of aerial fluids,
the hygroscopic state of which it is often necessary to
determine, in order to conduct with accuracy their che-
mical analysis. This branch of the subject is of consi«
derable importance to the chemist ; and indeed, with-
out some knowledge of it, he cannot investigate with
success the properties of aerial fluids, which demand
much delicacy of research. :
73. Saussure was perhaps the first person who en-
deavoured to ascertain, in a systematic and philosophi-
manner, the relation between the degrees of the hy«
grometer, and the fuaptity of moisture in determinate
perrne of air, at different temperatures; but though -
e prosecuted his inquiries with much ingenuity and
care, the methods he employed to obtain a solution of
the problem did not admit of the same degree of accu<
racy as those which were afterwards employed by Gay
Lussac. The instrument, however, which he invented
for these researches, was admirably adapted for the pur
pose, as the extreme tenuity of the substance used in
the construction of it, rendered it peculiarly fit for being
introduced into small portions of air, without affecting,
in any sensible degree, the hygroscopic state of the sur«
roundi ng medium, by the moisture it absorbed.
74. Having inclosed his hygrometer in a vessel con«
taining air previously dried by caustic alkali, Saussure
introduced under the receiver, at successive intervals,
small quantities of water, by means of bits of moisten«
ed linen ; and after allowing these to remain a sufficient
length of time, he again withdrew them, and determi
ned the loss they had sustained by Ais ea obser
ving at the same time the progress of the hygrometer,
for each additional portion of moisture. He performed
this experiment at various temperatures, and found that
at the same temperature the index uniformly stood at
the same point, when the quantity of moisture evapo-~
rated was the same. Among other results, he found
that a French cubic foot of air at 15°.16 Reaumur took
up, in the form of vapour, 11.069 grains French of
moisture, expanding at the same time ;4, of its original
volume ; ga that Sekine quantity of air, at the tem-
perature 6°.18 Reaumur, was able to hold in the vapo-<
rous state 5.65 grains French. If we reduce these re«
sults to English measures, the former would be .0043391,
and the latter .0022123 grains in a cubic inch, for the
respective temperatures 66°.11 and 45°.91 Fahrenheit ;
differing little from the results given by our formula in
§ 39, as is easily ascertained by comparing them with
the quantities of moisture for the corresponding tempe«
ratures in the Table. In both cases, the hygrometer
stood at 98°. The quantity of moisture answering to
other divisions on the scale of the instrument were pro«
portional to the numbers in the following Table, in
which complete saturation for each temperature is ex«
pressed by unity. :
HYGROMETRY.
as
SSSSssssss
Fils
THE
saturated with moisture, whatever be its tempe-
pes fe tng ey arrives at a fixed
a
og
in the vapour
pet aay hae 3m the medium in which the hygro-
meter is placed is
pow yng eed ogee ler
ture to the actual i moisture in
the medium. The poi ie Which an aoe ise is esta-
blished between these forces, d upon
the law by which the of the hair for moisture is
modified by temperature, and the quantity of water al-
589
Teady absorbed. Saussure attempted to discover this law
by iment ; but, though his researches were con-
UE SEIN very great cast :ttsbneentte he das gbven
can scarcely be regarded sufficiently accurate to autho-
rise our ication of them to circumstances y
different those in which they were i he
problem, however, has been solved by Gay Lussac in a
manner so general and satisfactory, as to raise this
branch of hygrometry from an empirical collection of
facts to a subject of the most precise and rigid ana-
lysis.*
77. Having anh
of which he could sufficiently rely,
it in a receiver with a t
ee na thane ping | oewtheeat ed
degree mar instrument, corresponding to
Sie Cetentien ab the opate Wi ie ariel ss
, on the accu
cured as many terms of the Lee raat
deemed necessary. He obtained in this manner, at the
temperature of 10° ra ore (50° Fahrenheit), the re-
sults laid down in the following Table,in which the
tensions are expressed in decimal of the tension
of water, the latter being denoted by unity :
apc
“ee ewe
Se
and the latter by
of abscissae, x = 0,
(AB) #=100, and
of the instrument
the tension denoted by 100.
BC) y=
(BC) y Spe
parts, the
te
’ . By laying down a scale of equal
shekod it antintian ba i te, the salermartie
results, Gay Lussac found that the line connecting the
extremities of the ordinates was an hyperbola, concave
towards the line of the abscissa, and having its axis
BV inclined to the same line at an angle of 45°. The
axis cuts the line of the abscisse at the point where - is
* The account in the text of the method of investigation employed by Gay Lussac, is extracted from the admirable work of M. Biot,
lately published, entitled, ee
Hygrome.
try.
——
Researches
racy
Gay Lussac inclosed of Gay Lus-
of water, or.a solution ** te deter-
mine a for-
mula for
Saussure’s
hygrome-
590 HYGROMETRY.
Hygrome- equal to 100; and as y is equal to 100 at the same ,
try. east, the curve is syemnbiaicellp disposed, with regard Primitive Co-ondinates./ New Co-orilinates.
—Y~" to these two values of x and y. re Fe .
79. To render the calculation more single, ae MBs y
ordinates x andy are transformed into 2’ y’, whie' .
are also at fight angles to each other, but immediately pee re Ba heed pert 4
related to the axis of the hyperbola, and having their saul “Sigh Ae 7 Sis
origin in some ‘assumed point of it. Hence the new ‘ : :000000 |—.007 7
line of abscisse will form an angle of — 45° with AB ;
and if X.and Y be taken to represent the primitive co-
ordinates of that line, corresponding to the point of new
~ origin, we shall have
c= X4 a (a 4-9’) or X 4 Cos. 45° (24s y') :
y=¥ +a (y'—#’) oF ¥ + Cos. 45° (y—2")
Before reducing these equations, it will be convenient,
for the sake of operating with small numbers, to.repre-
sent by unity, the abscissze x corresponding to, the ten=
sion 100; then, from the inclination of the axis of the
hyperbola, the equation for the axis, in terms of # and
y, willbe y= 1— 2; and since the primitive co-ordi-
nates X and Y must be similarly related, Y = 1— X.
The general expressions for ~ and: y, thus restricted;
become
1
w=X+ ve +4)
J=1-X4+ Ze —).
By adding together both sides of these equations, the
quantity X is exterminated, and the following values of
y andy! are obtained, ~
y=1—a2+y7V/2
fey!
=e iat:
80. If the values of x and y be substituted for these
quantities, as determined by experiment, (taking for
example the muriate of lime, whose specific. gravity is
1397 ;) then « = 876; y= 613;
376 + .613—1
72 = — .00777818.
The value of 7’ thus determined is so small, that the
point in the curve to which its extremity refers, nearly
coincides with the axis, and might be taken, without
any t error, for the vertex of the hyperbola ; but to
avoid the introduction of any unnecessary inaccuracy,
it will be better to assume the origin of the abscisse
of w’, at that point of the axis where the latter is in-
tersected by y’, and then X will be determined by ad-
ding to .876 the projection of y’ on the axis, along
which the abscisse of x are reckoned, that is, Cos,
45° x .0077718 or .0055. We thus obtain X = .3815,
and 2/= (a—.3815) 4/2—y’. When «and y are given,
we obtain the value of 7’ by the equation y’= rae a =
and that value being substituted for y’, in the equation
a= (w—.3815) /2—y’, the value of 2’ is also deter-
mined. In this manner were found the following va-
lues of 2’ and y/, from the corresponding values of and
¥, a8 ascertained by observation,
And y'=
81, These data are sufficient to determine completely
the nature of the hyperbola; for since its axis. coin-
cides with the line of the abscisse 2’, it must necessa-
rily have an equation of the form,
y2aa+2b2" 4 c2’
in which a, b, and c.are three constant coefficients, the
values of which may be determined by the several va-
lues of w’ and y’, given above. The solution of the re-
sulting equations gives the following values :
a= _ .0000605
b = 1.149338
c = 4.08683
82. Ifthe value of (2.3815) 4/2 be represented
by pare — Pay, mdy ene is value
of y' being substituted for that quantity in the general
egpation of the hyperbola, we Haden ratnaty
(s—2’)*=a42b2' 4c2"
The solution of this quadratic gives, ‘
eo OED AV C=C N+ CED?
c—l1
ote3, Fes ie ?
kun shown Vv (s aXe 1) + (s+ bf
83. The value of y' being determined by the last for
mula, and substituted for it in the equation,
y=l—a+yV2
will give the value of y in terms of'z. By means of
this formula, Biot calculated the following Table, which
he found to accord almost exactly with actual observa~
tion:
. Degrees |Tension of Vapour,|| Degrees |Tension of Vapour,
of the tension of of the tension of
Saussure’s |complete saturation| Saussure’s |complete saturation|
Hygrom. being unity. Hygrom. being unity.
0 -0000 — 19° 0895
lig .0045 20 0945
2 .0090 21 0997
«4 0135 22 .1049
4 .0180 23 1101
5 0225 24 1153
6 .0271 25 1205
v .0318 26 .1259
8 0364 27 -1314
9 -0410 28 .1869°
10 -0457 29 .1423
11 .0505 30. 1478
12 0552 31 1536 |
13 .0600 $2 1594
14 0648 33 1652 |
15 .0696 34 1710
16 0746 35 -1768
17 -0795 86 -1830 a
18 .0845 87 +1892
591
HYGROMETRY.
ae
sjsd gbgsgasepentagaarareaageiardt) a220ipsiss
1 te atte ERIE i We oo
eins ear ias| : i i Srignerd, iild|BERE292
q ELE Uses ate hale iis al ; i i] eaEE
[at nbn nna |
bi HP U Hegre need laa
quilts EHD He HEF : it I: nud
Heit HUF HELL in a fil) seazens
WeiernGHHAilaL Hidnehlaalh il
i, sata] ain (iil leeauase
c|i egusguuganeaagegeeneeenenageied [2b» 8 684
ay ey ae eae. 662 136
i and timber
* . . . . . 753,588 9,501,734
. . . . *. . 208,225 17,621,756
shine . 246,760 12,395,732
the lumber and isions for- _rituous liquors themselves, seldom take more thax
ito, Jamaica from the United Stats, 5000 puncheons. woe
return w
ee ae The following Table exhibits the importation and ex-
former, they used to take annually ipepttien afsferres for Sony peel. penne fo ie, Hee
puncheons ; but since they began to distil spi- _lition of the slave trade.
‘Veers. = ‘Tonnege | Crow. hipateds Gigante Seni.
tals alas ath adie 32 10069 | 1004 8933 2712
ea ee N= Sa 21 6799 476 6391 2092
till sth July .. 8 2258 245 2034 1665
wo womec Oates Hh ay Lan soe
Of which, 160 were ‘to the Danish colonies, Britain, and the exports to the island, were, in
270 to the Spanish and 85 to Honduras; in Imports. Exports.
all 515. 1809 £4,068,897 . . . £3,033,234
Commerce, The official value of the imports from Jamaicainto 1810 . . . 4,303,887 .. . -2,803,179
’
ee eee te ee aneee ae oteey eos See pete me Satie Be
>
: ' Hhds. Tierces, Barrels.| Puncheons, Hbds. | Casks. Casks. Bags. Hhds.
1793 | 77,575 6,722 G12| $4,755 879] 62 8.005 420 9,108 | 18,029 | 3,983,576
179% | 80,592 11,158 1,22%| 39,843. 1,570| 121 10,3905 | 554 22.153 | 16,842 | 4,911,549
1795 | 88,851 9,587 1,225 | 37,684 1,475 | 426 14,861 | 957 20,451 | 17,766 | 6,318,812
1796 $9,219 10,700 858) 40,810 1,364 | 690 20,275 136 9,820 7,203,539
1797 | 78,373 9,963 753| 28,014 1,463 | 259 29,098| 828 2,935| —— | 7,931,621
1798 | 87,896 11,725 1,163| 40,82% 2,254] 119 18,454 1,181 8,961 | 2,859
x 101,457 13,588 1,321 | $7,022 1,981 | 221 10,358 | 1,766 28,273 | 30,693 | 11,745,425
96,347 18,549 1,631| 37,166 1,350) 444 3,580| 610 12,759| —— | 11,116,474
1801 | 129,251 18,704 2,692 | 48,879 1,514| 12 239] 648 14,084| —— | 13,401,468
1802 | 129,544 15,405 2,403 2,073 | 23 2,079] 591 7,793| —— | 17,961,923
The principal articles of export were, in
Coffee. "ay
Years) Cort, ji «a Ibs. | diane hres ee anes ro be
4,415,1,104,61 19,367|1,886,7 1813, 8,768,281. Sugar in the year ending
181 ,611 428, ,708,1 5th January 1813, 1, ewt.
Jamaica.
I x pmsenay
ex!
tation
slaves,
608 JAMAICA.
Jamaica : this parish, the increase of slaves in 1809 was, males Jam
—— Ships belonging to Jamaica. 18t, females 174—total 355 ; and the decrease, males
Shipping 226, females 195—total 421 ; making the actual dimi-
Years. Ports. Ships. Tonnage nution of males 45, and of females 21—total 66. In
* the year 1810, the actual diminution was, males 28,
1792 Antonio. 4 431 females 16—total 44.
1805 | Ditto. 2 58 In the parish of St Thomas, the number of white
1792 Kingston, 125 6109 males was 369, females 49, children 16; of slaves
1805 | Ditto, 44 3952 26,341, The births of slaves in the December quarter
1792 | Montego Bay. 48 3602 of 1807 was 176, the deaths 543. The number of free
1805 | Ditto. 44 1343 persons in 1812 was, males 207, females 142, children
1792 St Lucca. 3 808 114; the number of acres 143,475.
1805 | Ditto. 4 131 In the parish of St George, the number of slaves was
1792 | Savannah le Mar. 7 221 13,238 ; their increase by births above deaths from 1800
1805 | Ditto. 3 78 to 1807, both years inclusive, was 196. Of free per-
sons of colour, there were, in 1812, adult males 63, fe-
. In the year 1807, the number of vessels that cleared male 97; male children 103, female 80; in all 343.
out from the island, was— ~~ Free blacks, males 4, females 28. The number of acres
in this parish is 92,9272. . The number of n re-
Véasate.| 7. " turned in the parish of St Anne, was 23,261. In Port-
esse’ Oanase |_Seamen: | Jand parish there were 7651, of — 3949 were males,
ae and 3702 females, The white population amounted to
ad Get & FPA ie oo8 nee et BINS 415, of which there were males 917, females 96; boys
Pes British Amesida 2 66| 6133 449 | 53,and girls 49. Thé free persons of colour amount to
For th U ited States Z.* 133 13.041 493 | 180, of which there were, males 73, females 58; boys
For fhe Forel n West) : 23, and girls 26. The extent of this parish is nearly 20
In dics 8 } 22| 1,903 155 | ‘miles. In 1810, the births of slaves were 94, the deaths
TAPER ee | 89; increase 5. -
ahamster AR Nn ck ogee: 8 | “in the parish of. St. David's, the white population
Total «. 474 | 85,888 | 9,344 -amounted to 131, of which there were, males 116, fe-
timer Reisages |° 3 z males 10, and children 5, The free persons amounted
to 29, of which there were, males 5, females 11, and
; ; : children 18. The number of slaves’ was 7203. The
Progressive Population of Jamaica. births of slaves in the December quarter of 1806 were
58, the deaths 56; increase 2. The number of acres
Population. ‘ Free People J in this parish is 46,619.
Yeors, Whites. | of Gelour| Slaves. The following Table exhibits the number of slaves, Slaves,
stock, and cultivated acres in all the parishes of Jamai- stock, and
1658 « . 4,500 = 1,400 | ca, in the year 1812, according to the return laid be-'cultivated —
1670... 7,500 _ §,000 | fore parliament. The reader will observe that there if i912 2
1784... 7,644 _ 86,146 || some difference, with respect to acres, between this Ta ~
1746. . «+f 10,000 — . |. 112,428 | ble and the previous statements, though both are taken
FBR a eas taxon 17,947 a 176,914 | from the same parliamentary papers.
keg .| 18,500 | 3,700 | 190,914 ;
1 787 eee ee oe 30,000 10,000 250,000 Parishes. Slaves. Stock. Acres.
1805... — _ 280,000
St Andrew’s .... 16,570 5,181 83,427
: . ‘3 . 230,224
Official re. _ In the papers relative to the West Indies, ordered b St Amne). +0.» sod net bad :
posne for the Hane tt Commons to be printed, 12th July 1813, = ig aires rT bts onk eee viedo
1812. there is much important information respecting the S ‘Da id eT ede r "203 oo aco
. statistics of several of the ee of Jamaica, in the a Doroth 7 ee ee re ite 2.958 36. 43
year 1812, the substance of which we shall give, as we St Elisabech TLS) eeiase 23.937 | 2 Base
shall thus exhibit the latest .official statement on this ve G. var: ge "Lee 13. 400 3.710 ae
subi t. ‘ _ 6.09 6.4 6 2 > >
fe Regie parish, the number of slaves assessed eu k Oa: jibe edt Maoh eves
was 6840; but it was pupponed there were considerably St Tohn Th hei 6.690 | 1.133 65,71
more: the free blacks of colour amounted to 8000: the Ki ote spre een rasa hrs Goa | a 4
extent of the city and parish from east to west is six St} poe tah 4 8 25,781 | 16,010 138s
miles ; from north to south one and a.half. Me mm Aandi ea | 7 440 1.640 ae
In Vere parish, the number of whites was 359; of Pucca ce Bret 7,980 998 29,1
pt we athe Seer en ee St Thomas in the East| 26291 | 5,374 | 14847
number of acres 597. ee rf ; 4
In Westmoreland parish, the number of white men Dice es Vale... seuo ei gt ive
was 432, Mn a 129, eae girls omy all 688 : Year” vy eth 14,359 4.691 109,
persons of colour, men 158, women 266, boys 175, aaa re 2 761. Bho
gm ot all 9 free blacks, men 47, went 65, het cpr seatbelt cso ic ons «0 Pv dd
1, girls in all 119, be ,
ys 1, girls 6— 9. The number of slaves was 319,912 | 143,419 |2;254,987
21,019; of stock 20,575 ; and of acres 185,118%. In
E
JAM
Jamaica. . As the whole island is calculated to contain upwards
"rr" of 4,000,000 acres, it appears
from this Table that there
little more than half of it cultivated. Of the acres in
pore my aR RR marl lands, and
nearl same quantity In pasture.
: The governor of Jamaica is appointed by the king
and can be recalled at pleasure ; there is besides a coun-
and a house of assembly. The former is generally
by the crown from amongst the most respect-
inhabitants ; the members are twelve; they are
officio justices of the and form a privy coun-
governor. The house of assembly consists of
-three members, who are chosen by the freehold-
every parish sends two members, except Spanish
i
28
er
:
.
E
4
E
S
=
8
:
i of the island niente
num im any part e » ora estate
£3000. Te supreme court of judiature, alld the
grand court, combining the jurisdiction of the
courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and exchequer
ea |e NLA ete gay A ap
day of February, May, and November. Assize courts
are held every three months in Kingston for the county
ae in Savannah la Mar for the county of
The revenues of the island are and annual.
taxes consist of a duty on negroes im 3 an excise
cssdeneaigameitesendtb ad tondsl onhrone
on rents and wheel carri The revenue generally
amounts to about £300,000 Jamaica currency.
There are nineteen beneficed
from the age of fifteen to sixty, are
obliged by law Siete themselves with their own
accoutrements, to enlist either in the cavalry or in-
fantry of the militia.
Besides the Spanish and Portuguese coins, which are
current in the i there is a small silver coin called
a bit, of the value of 74d. currency. One hundred
pounds sterling amounts to one hundred and forty
Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494; in
1509, it received a Spanish colony from >
except
uered by
7 cs oe = ary Fee were
ago ega. This year it was
the lish under Penn and Venables. Tha first Bri-
tish | ists were 3000 soldiers, disbanded from the
army. These were soon followed by
1500 royalists. Till the Restoration, the government
the island
was entirely military. On the surrender
ssths Maglichy.thes slaves of the Spaniards fled to
the mountains ; their — , called Maroons, com-
mitted great depredations till 1738, when a treaty was
conchided with them, by-which their Reotemcwesett
cured, and 1500 acres of land tothem. They
remained till the year 1795, when a new Ma-
Foon war out; at first were rather success-
ful, but at last, by a more vigorous system of hostili-
FOL. XI, PART 11,
609
DAN *
ties, and the introduction of bloodhounds from Cuba,
with which they were threatened, though not actually
attacked, they were driven to the mountains, and ulti- J Seilan-
mately obliged to submit on condition that their lives
were Soon afterwards, 600 of them were con-
veyed to Nova Scotia, where lands were granted to
See Beckford’s Descriplive Account of Jamaica; Ed-
wards’ History of the West Indies, 2d edit. vol. i. ; Dal-
las’ History. of the Maroon War ; Renny’s History of
Jamaica ; Tuckey’s Maritime Geography, vol. iv.; and
Parliamentary ris and Papers on the West Indies,
1807. and 1815. (3: s.)
AMBIC Verse. See Prosopy.
JAMES I. IL IIL IV. V. VI. See the History of
ScoTLanp. y
JANIZARIES. | See Turkey.
JAN Sean, or Junx Ceyton, isan island of Asia in
the Bay of Bengal, situated on the west side of the Ma-
lay peninsula. _ It is separated from the continent by a
narrow sandy isthmus, about a mile long and half a
mile in breadth, which is covered at higt water, and
whereon spring tides rise 9 or 10 feet. This island is
between 40 and 50 miles in length, about 15 in breadth,
with good anchorage around its whole circuit, and it
has an excellent harbour on the north called Popra, be-
sides others. Its name, Jan Seilan, is of uncertain ety-
mology, and it is frequently called Junk Ceylon by Eu-
The climate here is particularly
heat is moderate. Rains begin to fall gently in July,
and continue until November, with frequent intermis-
sions of fine weather, attended with cool north-east
winds at night. There is no considerable river in the
island, both from its size, and the hills being low ; but
several streams run through flat marshes of mangroves
into the sea,
A quantity of tin is obtained in this island, of
which about 500 tons are exported yearly. The pro-
duce was greater formerly ; but it seems to have been
reduced by restrictions on the miner, who was obliged
to carry all his ore to a Chinese smelter farming this pri-
vilege from the government. Besides s paying 12 per cent.
for smelting, the miner could only i
having delivered.a certain quantity of ore, though the
extract exceeded what he received, and after all a duty
of 25 per cent. was payable previous to exportation.
The interior of the island contains large plains of
rice well cultivated, and hither the inhabitants can come
up the creeks in their small vessels; but the skirts are
kept in a state of nature, for the purpose, it is supposed,
of obstructing the access of an enemy. Rice is the
staple product; and of other vegetables there are oranges,
limes, and most of the tropical fruits and roots. The
wild animals are deer and hogs: the domesticated ones
are elephants, and a few goats ; but the islanders have
neither horses, sheep, dogs, nor cats, and their common
poultry is not numerous.
The population of the whole island has been calcu-
lated at 12,000. This number, however, must be de-
pou on a state of peace or warfare, and during the
ter it is probably lower. The features of the people
resemble those of the Malays, intermixed with a good
deal of the Chinese aspect. They are well.made, but
rather slender: they. speak the Siamese. lan , and
in general understand the Malay to : and, like Eu-«
Unrestrained
i they write from left to right. L
polygamy is practised, as every man marries as many,
4n°
ble, for the:
n the metal on |
Jan Seilan.
—_—\yo
=
* JAN
women as he can afford to maintain; but it is the privi-
lege of the first wife to rule the household. No wo-
man is permitted to leave the country.
The habitants are distributed in towns and villages,
of which 1 Gare named, but all of them are inconsiderable.
Terowa, the chief town, situated on a creek, where a
strong current runs, consists only of about 80 houses.
A wooden pagoda, covered with palm leaves, stands
here, which is served by about 20 talapoins or monks,
who live ina state of celibacy, and dwell in small apart-
ments adjoining to it. Their heads are shaved and un-
covered : they wear a yellow garment, and carry a white
rod in their hands, but it appears that they can resign
their monastic vocation at pleasure. The governor of
Jan Seilan has also a dwelling at Terowa, and another
eight miles inland.
Tin is the principal export of the island, which for-
merly carried on considerable commerce’ with several
Asiatie ports ; but this has greatly decreased since the
establishment-of a British colony on Penang. Its ex-
ports, besides that metal, are elephants ‘teeth, biche
demer, and sayhan. The imports are principally opium,
a contraband article, for which there was a great de-
mand about the middle of the preceding century ; and
after being carried in British vessels Fess Bengal, it
was sold to the Malays and Buggess prows for the tin
of the island. Hindostan piece goods, brass utensils of
Java, European cloth and cutlery, were likewise among
the imports. Commerce is injured, from a practice not
unusual in the East, of the government or its’ officers
being the principal dealers. Hence the king’s mer-
chant sometimes purchases a whole cargo on the arrival of
a vessel, and immediately upon its being landed, retails
it at a great profit. This impolitic talerfekénce restrains
the competition and consequent advantages of unfet-
tered commerce. The currency of the island consists
-of conic frustums of tin, of two or three pounds weight,
with correspondent halves and quarters, which cannot
be exported without payment of duty. Spanish dollars
_are the most acceptable money, but all kinds of Indian
coinage pass current.
When the French had much interest at the court’ of
Siam, one of the most powerful and brilliant of the East
. towards the latter part of the seventeenth century, they
Japane
Japanese
islands, si-
tuation of,
Empire of
Japan, ex-
tent of,
\proposed to make a settlement in Jan Seilan. It is pro~
JAPAN.
Tur Japanese islands lie near the coast of Corea on
the eastern side of Asia, in the North Pacific Ocean,
between 31° and 41° of N. Lat. and 129° and 1429 E.
Long.
The Empire of Japan is composed.of an extensive
cluster of islands, by much the largest and most im-
portant of which is called Niphon or Jepuen. This
island is of a triangular form, and is upwards of '700
iniles long, but does not exceed 80 miles in breadth,
Adjoining to the south-west point of Niphon are Kiu-
siu or Saikoff, 140 miles long by 90 broad, and Sikoff,
95 miles long by 45 in breadth. The island of Jesso
or Matzumay, on the north of Niphon, from which it
is separated by the straits of Sangar, about nine miles
in breadth, was conquered from its original inhabitants
the Ainos, and is now also included in the Japanese
610
bable, that the benefit which would result from the Jan
JAN
sence of a commercial nation could be appreciated by a
native of the Ionian islands, then prime minister of
Siam, who was well acquainted with the trade and ma
nufactures of wees But the history of this settles
ment, which we believe commenced in 1688, is not pre-
served ; and it most probably terminated soon after the
fall of that minister in 1689.
As this island is too small to maintain: its indepen«
dence, it must necessarily be controlled by:the con+
tinental powers. It was long in the possession of the
kingdom of Siam, and when visited by Captain Fors
rest in 1784, it was governed by a viceroy from that
country, who had three associates or counsellors. Each
of these officers had about sixty military retainers arm~
ed with a musquet and bayonet, sword and dagger,
who, receiving little pay, lived in some respect on the
community. The i itants being then dissatisfied
to shake: off eee of Siam; but it is oo
that , any active proceedings. ' the
following aa 1785, dhe Birmans, who had for some
time been extending their dominions, had gained so
much territory on the continent, that, with the pos
session of Jan Seilan, they could have prevented the
Siamese from any other channel of communication
with India than the gulf of Siam. In order, there-
fore, to effect its conquest, they fitted out eleven'ships
of war‘at Rangoon for the conveyance. of a
warlike stores, while an army of 8000 men to
Mergui, a port on the peninsula, for the of con
operation. Having a movement against the island
in March, they attacked and carried the fort, which is
situated. on the east side, and found in it much valu.
able booty. But the governor, who had retired to the
interior, rallied his forces, and compelled the enemy
to retreat, after sustaining great loss, The Birmans,
nevertheless, did not abandon their object, and after a
long interval returned in 1810, when they effected the
total conquest of Jan Seilan, and i the whole
inhabitants to slavery in Pegu: At a still later period it
continued to be the subject of contest between them
and the Siamese. East Long. 94°18’. North. Lat.
from 7° 46’ to 8° 9’. (c)
dominions ; but though larger than the two last, its di-
mensions are not mentioned by peony: These
are environed by other islands of inconsiderable size
and note. .
The discovery of this extensive insular power, abound. p;
ing in natural and artificial resources, and of an overs of,
flowing population, does not reach farther back than the
middle of the 16th century. It appears that we are in~
debted to the travellers Rubruquis and Marco Polo for
the first mention of the existence of this country.
Fernando Mendez Pinto, sailing ina Chinese junk from
Macao to the Likeo islands, was wrecked on the Ja-
coast in 1542, and he accordingly has the merit of
being the first European discoverer of Japan. Three
other Portuguese dispute with Pinto china, pre-
tending that they touched on the coast of Satzuma the
2 e
i
iu
3
s
:
:
was sent wil remiss en or aad
to Acapulco. An embassy, with rich ts
Spaniards to the emperor, followed in 1611.
hristians: bei P Sdeulidninione,
Spaniards and Portuguese were excluded ; nor has
Beres
Ae
vite
it
ik
ie
ih
He
Hu
ehrt
t
}
i
iu
bs
:
i
Hs
i
I
F
have contrived to retain favour of the J 3
ee inthan te
imi t0-the-diapstch ‘of two small
i ee Nearly about
i
if
|
“too strong a li Notwithstanding this ibition
of intelli ive have boon fornished wi full and
pretty accurate details concerning the state of the Ja-
Accounts ~Panese islands. In addition to the corrected accoun
of Japan, transmitted us by Kempfer and Thunberg, Captain
Although it appears that Ja has been visited for
Harbour of ~ - 2
‘angusaky. Upwards of two centuries t European nations,
7 “and the harbour of N ~ , one of the best in the
world, has been anni frequented, yet no plan of it
has been taken, nor have even the latitude and longi-
tude been correctly ascertained, until it was explored
Description by Krusenstern in 1804. The entrance of the harbour
of. of Nangasaky is in 32° 43’ 45” N. Lat. and 230° 15’
me, Leng, inde midenet, eo. he af, Kissin, which
is by Cape Nomo to the south, and Cape Seu-
rote to the north. entrance bears 51 miles E. by Japan.
JAPAN. Wow
N. from Cape Gotto in 32° 34’ 50”. It is necessary to
ascertain correctly the true entrance ; for, by steering
on Cape Nomo, there is danger of being becalmed, or
driven by the tides on the rocks, and of mistaking ano-«
ther entrance in Lat. 32° 40’, which has not been ex-
plored. The safest course is to keep midway between
the Gotto islands and Kiusiu, steering N. E. until the
el of the entrance, and then, due east. The har-
r contains three roads, all perfectly secure. The
outermost is to the west of the island of Papenberg,
the second in the middle to the eastward of the same,
and the inner road at the bottom of the harbour in front
of the city. The outer road is well defended from
every wind but the N. W. and W. N. W. which, how-
ever, never blow very strong. The anchorage is ex-
cellent, over a bottom of fine grey sand, in depths va-
rying from 33 to 18 fathoms. The middle road is sur-
rounded on all ~nase, the land, and has better an-
choring ground inner, but not so good as the
outer road. From the middle to the inner road the
course lies N. E. 40°, and the distance is about two
miles and one-third, the depth of water decreasing gra-
dually from 18 to 5 fathoms. About half way, where
the el ——— to 400 fathoms, are p' the im-
perial batteries or peror’s guard, as they are styled,
a number of buildings without a single aauins rom
the narrowness of the approach, the city of Nangasaky,
if well fortified, could defy any assault ; in its present
state it would fall before a single ship of force. The
anchorage here is not equal to either of the other roads,
the bottom being a thin clay, and the S. W. channel
open to the sea, Krusenstern was the only person, ex-
cept La Perouse, who navigated the western coast be-
tween Niphon and the Corea; and although the state
of the weather was unfavourable to his asking obser-
vations, yet he appears to have reached the northern
point of Jesso, the extreme limit of the Japanese em-
pire, without much difficulty. Of the Japanese coasts Japanese
it may be observed generally, that they are in most } 8
rocky and re vote presenting a chain of
ld promontories, deep bays, and eaet peninsulas, bac
abounding with shoals and islets, the whole invested
with a turbulent sea; whence the navigation is intri-
cate and
The climate of Japan. is variable throughout the year. Climate.
The heat of summer would be insupportable, were it
not moderated by the sea breezes. ‘The rainy months
begin at midsummer, when abundance of rain falls,
and to which is to be ascribed the fertility of the coun-
try. In winter, the wind blowing from the Arctic
Ocean, makes the cold severe. Snow falls in quanti-
ties, and is followed by intense frost. Hurricanes and
earthquakes are not uncommon, and thunder storms
also frequently occur. At Nangasaky, the thermometer State of
was never in August higher than 98°, nor in Janu- mene
ary lower tha n 35°.
As the geography of Japan has not been ns rag Rivers.
trated, we can give but an imperfect account ri-
vers, lakes, and mountains of this country. The lar-
gest river is said to be the Jodo or Yodo, which rises
rom the great central lake of Oitz, and pursues a south-
west course. The Ujin, Aska, and Oomi, figure in Ja-
panese history. This last is said to have burst from the
ground in one night. Over the Nogofa and Jedogawa
are projected cedar bridges from 300 to 360 feet long.
There are various other rivers, of which we know lit-
tle except the name. The above mentioned lake of
al
Japan. Qitz sends forth two rivers, and G8 said to be 50 —
—\—" nese leagues'in length, but of inconsiderable breadth.
‘Mountains, Among the mountains are volcanoes, and in the pro-
, ees, vince of Figo one constantly emits flame. The princi-
ae” pal mountain is Fusi, which is covered with snow the
test part of the year. _ But the courses of the dif-
: ferent ranges have not been traced. Near the lake of
Oitz is the sacred mountain of Jesan, said to be deco-
rated with 3000 temples!
Division The Japanese islands are divided into provinces and
into pro- — districts, like other civilized countries. The face of
vinees, &. the country of Japan is agreeably diversified by mouns
Aspect of tains, hills, and vallies, and is well watered with
the country. rivers and lakes, the general aspect presenting a soil
cultivated with industry and freedom. Even’ moun
tains and hills form né obstacle to cultivation. - Agri-
Agriculture, Culture being in high estimation in Japan, it meets
with the greatest encouragement from the govern-
ment.*~ The chief produce is rice, barley and wheat
Crops. being little used. A kind of potatoe is common, and
several sorts of beans and peas, turnips and cabbage,
abound. The rice is sown in April, and gathered in No-
Mode of | vember. The sides of the hills present a singular spectacle
cultivating to the stranger, from the mode of cultivation which is
the hills adopted. Stone walls support level platforms sown with
rice or roots ; and thousands of these are scattered over
the mountains, affording a favourable picture of the in-
genuity and industry of the inhabitants. Though the
space should not exceed two square feet, a stone wall
is raised at the bottom, the inclosure filled with earth,
and carefully sown with rice, or planted with esculent
roots. As may be easily supposed from this state of
general cultivation, few forests are suffered to grow:
these are confined to the sides of such mountains, pro-
bably, as can be subdued by neither agricultural labour
nor skill.
There are no fences used in dividing the cultivated
grounds in this country ; and the fields often resemble
kitchen gardens divided into narrow beds, which aresepa= °
rated from each other by a deep trench, nearly as broad
as the divisions which are under crop. After a certain
interval the trenches are filled up with earth, so as to be
converted in their turn into beds, and give the soil a rest
from constant bearing. In these beds the corn is sown
sometimes lengthwise, but more. commonly across ;
and after the crop is cut down, another ind. of grain
is sown in the same season, between the stubble of the
old crop, so as to make the same field produce twice in
one year. The greatest care is bestowed upon manur-
ing and cleaning the ground. Every kind of substance
‘which can be converted into manure is carefully col«
lected; and, together with urine and foul water from
the kitchen, is mixed up in a liquid state. It is then
carried in large pails to the fields, and, by means of a
jadle, itis poured upon the plant after it is about six inches
in height. Irrigation also is much practised, wherever
“water can be procured in the vicinity of the fields, The
weeds are so completely cleared away, that ‘ the most
quick-sighted botanist,” says Thunberg, ‘* would scarce-
ly be able to discover a single plant of another species
among the corn.” The grain is frequently separated
from the straw merely by beating the sheaves against
a post or barrel; but is commonly threshed on straw
mats in the open air by means of flails with three swin-’
gles. There are no pasture grounds among the cultiva-
* The farmer pays a considerable part of the produce as rent to his feudal chief, and is restricted only to one condition, viz. tohave
all his land in cultivation. Should he leave any part of his fields untilled, he forfeits the possession of that portion, which is occu-
pied by another busbandman.
JAPAN.
. the two countries, they are mutually indebted: to each
ted tracts ; and thf eat used in the country are all
fed in the farm-yards. Thunberg affirms, that the soil
fr ai Japan is naturally barren, and has been ren-
remarkably productive only by the labour and
skill of the husbandman. :
«. Japan abounds in rare and beautiful plants ; andias Vegetable
there is a great similarity in the vegetable productions of productio
China and this kingdom, no doubt from the vicinity of
other for an interchange of useful vegetables. :The
ginger, soy bean, black pepper, sugar, the cotton and
indigo plant, though not indigenous, are cultivated with °
success, and in abundance, in Japan. Two sorts of
mulberry grow ; one which feeds the silk worm, and
the other is manufactured into paper. It is said that
the beautifui black varnish is produced from a gum which
exudes from the bark of the rhus —o he citrus
japonica, a species of iar to this country,
1 found in wild state. But as the botany of cw
has been treated at length by Kempfer and Thunberg,
our botanical readers are referred to them for particulars
on this subject.
Gold, silver, and especially copper, are found in Mines.
abundance in Japan, large quantities of which have
been exported at various times " the Portuguese and
Dutch. No mine can be opened without the permis-
sion of the emperor, who claims two thirds of the pro«
duce, leaving only one third to the proprietor for his _
expences. Iron is scarcer than other metals, and the
Japanese will not allow it to be exported. Ligina
Sulphur is found in sufficient abundance,, particular«
ly in a certain island near Satsuma ; and pit-coal is not
uncommon in the northern provinces. Red agate, as«
bestos, porcelain clay, flesh-coloured steatite, pumice
stone and white marble are also found in Japan ; and
there are several warm mineral waters, cially at
Obamma and the mountain of Omfen, which are used
by the natives in the cure of various diseases.
It is singular that neither sheep nor goats are pre
gated in the Japanese dominions. The latter, and
swine, are deemed destructive of cultivation. Horses
are rare, and cattle still more so, these last being re~
served solely for agricultural purposes. Buffaloes with
a bunch on their backs are sometimes seen employed in
drawing carts. The cows are very small in size, and
are used rather for draught than for their milk or their
flesh. Dogs are common in the domestic state, and
are said to be kept from superstitious motives. Cats of
various colours are to be seen in every house, and are
said to be the general favourites of the ladies. The
wolf is found in the northern parts, and foxes in dif-
ferent districts, but are regarded with peculiar detes« _
tation, as demons incarnate, Hares of a grey colour, ©
and rats as in other countries, have been seen by tra<
vellers in Japan; and, in the least inhabited tracts,
bears, monkeys, deer, &c. are reported to be found.
The common kinds of poultry are reared in considerable
abundance ; and great numbers of wild geese frequent
the waters between the islands, and other places at a
distance from the towns or villages. Herons are seen
following the ploughman in the fields ; and the Chinese
teal, the quail, the crow, pigeon, and. bulfinch, were —
all observed by Thunberg. Serpents are said by the
natives to be occasionally seen ; but few of the amphi«
bia are met with in the country. Fish, which are an
Animale.
Natives.
el
it
i
:
i
a
5
it
A
ya ee
f
;
H
+h
H
u
=
5
2°
3
shape, are collected by the Japanese, fixed
carded cotton, and sold to the
origi ion of J has been little il-
abs pmupiepedoceeas to be a kindred
with the Chinese, having at the same time, accord-
a language radically distinct. Per-
the earlier stages of society, as is observ-
Japanese may have emigrated
their compl insular separation may
to a language peculiar by
istinct civilization. The people
active, free and easy in their motions, and
stout limbed, though yielding in strength to the north-
ern inhabitants of Europe.. The men are middle sized,
and in general not corpulent, all over of a yellowish
colour ; in some brown, in others white predominates.
The lower classes, from éxposure to the sun, are brown,
but ladies of distinction, who seldom go abroad unco-
vered, are ly white. The discriminating mark of
the Japanese, as of the Chinese, is the eye. This or-
gan wants its characteristic rotundity, being oblong,
and peo-
iv
at
A:
=f
:
AE he |
®.O%
a
aes
e 4
+
4
5
i
:
j
S$
e
small, wm deep in the head, ue ape aa
have the appearance of bei ink-eyed. co-
of their eyes, however, is HF brown, or rather
friendly and courteous, frank and good ly
and honest, brave and unyielding, capable
ing and controuling their feelings in an ex-
pear te 25 ; but distrustful, proud, unforgiving,
rev:
The usual dress of the J; is a short wu
arment with wide sleeves, ppt lete sown am
. concern fastened round the neck, quite
down to the feet; the dress much resembling that
of females, except in being more confin-
ed from the hips downwards, which produces
embarrassment nee. But this exercise is seldom
resorted to a ese, from compulsion.
ee aS
is black, the un-
is of mixed colours. Ev vane Sea hie te.
about the size of a dollar, wrought
in different places, a practice
com
Thus persons of a aaa family
easily recognized. A young lady wears her fa-
vernor can confer, is to present a cloak with his arms
upon it; and the person who is thus honoured puts his
own arms upon some under part of his dress. In win-
ter they wear five or six dresses over each other; but
though the weather ie bad in January and February,
they have soles merely of straw, fastened
Seen eee tee by oihap, aa ae ae ep a whee
peti?
if.
tr
iH
:
i
i
4
E
:
f
“eis
5 a room. Although they have their heads Japan,
shorn, they are regardless of a burning sun, or
pemag cold, They do not use parasols in sunshine,
nor umbrellas in rainy weather; but in travelling, co-
nical caps, fans, umbrellas, and cloaks of oiled paper,
arevery commonly used. The toilets of theJa
occupy a considerable share of attention, as they are v
particular in anointing and dressing their hair, which is
collected in a tufton the crown of thehead. Small pincers
are employed to pluck out the hairs.on their chin, and
these, with a small metal looking mirror, are found in
emust Toilet.
*
the possession of every Japanese. They cannot be denied, Remarkable
Krusenstern observes, to study great cleanliness of per-
cleanliness
son, although they make no use of linen ; and this ap- of person.
pears a governing propensity of the Japanese.of every
rank. ence, in almost every house, a bath forms an
essential part of domestic arrangement and comfort.
Bat in one respect their customs are extremely offen-
sive. The privies, which are also indispensible in every
house, are all built towards the street or road, and open
outwards, exhibiting large jars sunk in the earth, to
receive every kind of ordure and refuse. . Hence the
stench is insupportable, and the putrid exhalations, as
Thunberg sfiee, injurious to the eyes of the na-~
tives.
In Japan the houses are of wood, never exceeding two Houses,
stories, the upper one consisting chiefly of garrets and construction
lumber rooms. Though the house is commodious, it %*
consists in general of one room, capable, by moveable
partitions, and screens, of being divided into apart-
ments. Neither tables nor chairs are used, the people
eitting i <4 on straw mats,.in which position they eat
The diet of the J.
riety of articles than that of any other people in the
world. Net contented with the numerous kinds of
wholesome and nutritive food supplied by the produce
of their lands and waters, they contrive, by their modes
Senin their victuals, to render the less valuable
even the poisoneus my of animal and vegetable
substances useful, or at least harmless articles of sub«
sistence. Their meats are cut into small pieces, tho-
roughly stewed or boiled, and always highly seasoned
with strong spices and sauces. At their meals, the
company are seated on the floor-mats, with a small
square table before each person, whose portion is served
in neat vessels of porcelain, or of japanned wood,
which are tolerably large basons, always furnished with
lids. The guests salute each other with a low bow be-
fore begin to eat; and, like the Chinese, take 4
the food by means of two small pieces of wood, hel
between the fingers of the right hand, and used with
great dexterity, so as to pick up the smallest grain of
rice. Between each dish they drink warm sacki, or rice
beer, out of shallow saucers, and at the same time oc-
casionally take a bit of a hard boiled egg. Some of the
most common dishes are fish boiled with onions and a
kind of small beans, or dressed with oil ; fowls, stewed
and prepared in numerous modes ; and boiled rice, which
supplies the place of bread for all their provisions, Oils,
mushrooms, carrots, and various bulbous roots are used
in making up their dishes. Tea and rice beer are the
only liquors used by the Japanese ; and it is with diffi-
culty that they can be persuaded to taste wines or spi-
rits. The sacki, or rice beer, heats and inebriates when
taken to any extent, but the intoxication which it pro-
duces passes off speedily. Tea, which is always ready,
is the usual beverage for quenching thirst. It is cuse
tomary to eat three times a day ; at eight o'clock in the
apanese is composed of a greater va- Diet.
Polygamy
permitted.
Funeral
obsequies.
. ‘the earth which covers it.
614
morning, two in the afternoon, and eight in the evening.
The women eat by themselves, apart from the men. The
ractice of smoking tobacco, which is supposed to have
Some introduced into Japan by the Portuguese, is very
common with both sexes. Their pipes are very short,
seldom more than six inches in length, and scarcely
contain half a thimble full of tobacco. The stem 1s
made of lackered bamboo, and the mouth-piece and
bowl of copper. They are smoked out by a very few
whiffs, and require to be repeatedly filled. The appa-
ratus used by persons of distinction consists of an ob-
long box, about eighteen inches in length and a foot in
breadth, of a brown or black colour, which contains, be-
sides pipes and tobacco, three cups; one, which is lined
with brass, for holding a live coal to light the pipe,
another to receive the ashes of the tobacco, and a third
to serve as a spit-box. At visits, this apparatus is the
first thing that is placed before the guests, and is some-
times carried by a servant te places where tobacco is
not expected to be presented. The poorer classes have
their tobacco pouch and pipe slung to their girdle by a
silken cord.
Polygamy is allowed in Japan, as in other. Asiatic
countries ; though, in general, all but one female, who
is acknowledged a wife, are merely regarded as concu-
bines. This, of course, applies ‘to the higher classes ;
the poor can only maintain one woman. The husband
here, as in all eastern countries, exerts a complete des-
potism, but the wives are not so closely shut up as in
China. Married women distinguish themselves in some
places by’ painting their teeth black, and in others by
pulling out the hair of their eye-brows. They are
known also by wearing the knot of their girdle before,
while others have it behind. Marriages are solemnized
in the open air, in the presence of the priests and rela-
tions of the parties, without much pomp or solemnity.
The bridegroom and bride advance together to an altar,
erected for the purpose, with a torch in their hands,
and, while the priest reads a form of prayer, the latter,
having lighted her torch at a burning lamp, holds it
out to the bridegroom, who lights his torch from hers,
The guests then congratulate the new married couple,
and the ceremony is concluded. The suitor makes a
present to the father-in-law before obtaining his daugh-
ter; so that the more daughters a man has, ,and the
handsomer their persons, so much the richer is he es-
teemed. The women often paint their lips with a violet
colour ; and are described by Thunberg as not remark.
able for modesty. ' Nor are they the less esteemed for
having served in the public brothels, establishments
which are found in every town and village.
The bodies of persons of distinction are burned,
while others are interred. The funeral pile is erected
in a small house of stone fitted for the purpose, and
provided with a chimney. The body is brought thither
accompanied .by men and women, and attended by a
numerous train of priests, who are continually occupied
in singing. Upon reaching the place for burning, one
of the priests sings the eulogy of the deceased, and
having thrice waved a lighted torch over the body,
throws it away. Its then picked up by one of the
childven, or other relatives of the deceased, and applied
to the funeral pile. . The ashes are carried away in a
costly vessel, and preserved for some time in the house,
but afterwards are buried in the earth. Those who:are
not burned, are inclosed in’ a wooden: chest, and let
down into a grave in the customary manner. Fragrant
spices are cast into the grave, and flewers planted on
The surviving relatives vi-
5
JA PAN.
sit the tombs of friends for many years after their Japan.
death, and some during the whole of their lives, “~Y—~
besides observing, as in China, the feast of lanthorns in
honilie of the dead.
In every superstitious country, we find the celebra- Festivals.
tion of festivals attended by a relaxation of public mo-
rals, but in Japan a salutary check is imposed upon an
abandonment to licentiousness by a wise regulation,
prenutee the celebration of national feasts for days
successively. In conformity with this law, the feast
called Kermes is held on the 11th, 13th, and 15th days
of October. Krusenstern mentions a feast celebrated
on the ist of April called Mussume Matzury, on which
occasion parents present dolls to their children. _Trif+
ling as the object of this festival appears, the Japanese
seem to regard it otherwise, as. they gravely requested
the suspension of the work of the ship ters ashore
during its celebration, which consists in ces, drama~-
tic representations, and magnificent processions. The
usual holidays in Japan are the first day of every month,
when they rise early, dress in their, best clothes, and
visit their superiors or friends to wish them joy of the
new moon ; the fifteenth day, when the moon is at the
full; and the twenty-eighth day, or the day before the
new month. Besides these monthly festivals, they ce«
lebrate five others which happen only once in the year,
namely, the first day of the new year; the third day
of the third month; the fifth day of the fifth month ;
the seventh day of the seventh month ; and the ninth
day of the ninth month, These, which are all uneven
numbers, are regarded by the Japanese as unlucky days;
and, therefore, laying aside all business, they are des
dicated to mirth and mutual congratulations. On some
of these days, in preference to ordinary days, they
choose to celebrate their nuptials, and to give their en-
tertainments. Their amusements on these occasions
consist chiefly in dramatic representations and dances,
In their theatres, the spectators sit on benches fronti
the stage, which is a little elevated, but so. small
narrow as seldom to allow room for more than one or
two actors at a time. They generally represent some
great exploit or love story of their divinities and heroes,
which are frequently composed in verse, and sometimes
accompanied with music. No machinery or decorations
are brought forward ; but the chief part of the amuse-
ment seems to consist in the frightful,dresses and un-
couth contortions of the actors... The dances at private
entertainments. are performed. by young women -and
boys hired for-the purpose, who exhibit. a variety of
pantomimical gestures and evolutions, expressive of
some heroic action or love, intrigue, regulating their
steps at the same time by the music.
The most prevalent religious sects in Japan, are those Religion
.of Sinto and Budsdo. That of Sinto, which is the most and mode
ancient, though its adherents are now least numerous, of wersh
is conceived to have originated.from Babylonian emi-
grants, and to have been originally very simple and
pure in its tenets. Its followers acknowledge.a Supreme
Being, who inhabits the highest heavens, and who.is
far too great to require their worship ; but they admit
a multitude of inferior divinities, who exercise domi-~
nion over the earth, water, air, &c. and have great
power in promoting the happiness or misery of the hu-
aman race, They have some conception of the soul's
immortality, and believe, that a happy abode imme-
diately under heaven is assigned to the spirits of the
virtuous, while those of the wicked shall be doomed to
wander to and fro under the firmament. Their practi-
cal precepts are directed to inculcate a virtuous life, and
yAP a. . “es
obedience to the laws of the soveign. They abstain in ce, or remission of sins for a whole year, Japan.
i tant to shed blood, or There are also in Japan orders of monks or nuns; one “~——
even to touch a dead body. Their churches contain no of which consists of blind persons, a kind of beggars Religion,
visible nor any representation of the e oes over the empire, and another called monks and modes
Being, but sometimes a small image is kept in a box, of the mountain, are a species of fortune tellers and ° Worship.
to t some inferior age f de whom the temple quack-doctors, who are bound to live on roots and '
is on’ is frequent-. herbs, to practise constant ablutions, and to traverse de-
a large mirror, made of w i cast serts and mountains once in the year. There are like-
metal, which is designed to remind the worshippers, wise several philosophical sects in the country who dis-
as their personal blemishes are claim all external worship ; one of the most celebrated
ed, so are their secret evil thoughts ex- of which adopts the tenets of the Chinese Confucius,
Soomtine onal the immortal gods, and resembles in its general principles the ancient
temples with great de- school of Epicurus, Its followers acknowledge a kind
WhacienlowicLemummenpe ddvotey yoomedaecotmanioas Gagne pudienct me,
tion to cleanliness of person vanci present life ; inculcate practice of vir-
oo:the Sauer. then bar tnadetines. 0. the tue, but allow and even ns the commission of
their prayers, present their offerings, suicide, Almost immediately after the discovery of Ja-
and then repair to their amusements. The Kubo pro- pan by the Portuguese, the Christian religion was in-
fesses himself to belong to this sect, and is bound to troduced into the country by the Jesuit missionaries in
make a visit annually in person, or by an ambassador, the year 1549; and made such rapid progress that se-
to one of their temples, to perform his devotion, and veral princes of the empire were soon ranked among
present gi its converts, and about the year 1582, a public embas-
B ‘s doctrine pen rent ised iy from the sy was sent from the Japanese court with letters and
coast of Malabar, and is i the same with that valuable presents to the Roman pontiff. But the Por-
of Budha-in Hindostan. Passing from China into Ja- tuguese who had settled in numbers in Japan, in-
re es blended with that of Sinto, and gave toxicated the extent their commerce, and the
irth to a monstrous mixture of superstitions. Its pe- success of their religion, became so obnoxious to the
culiar tenets are, that the souls of men and of beasts natives by thejr avaricious and domineering conduct,
are equally immortal, and that the souls of the wicked that the representations of the heathen priests became
are condemned to wodnee pevahaint and puri at length sufficiently powerful to procure a prohibition
tion, by passing after into the bodies of the lower from the emperor against the new religion, which
animals, There are many other sects, very opposite in threatened to overturn all the ancient institutions of the
their tenets and observances; but they are said to live country. A violent persecution was commenced against
together in great harmony, or rather to share in all the Christians, of whom 20,000 are said to have been
i iri, or ecclesiasti- put to death in the year 1590, Still did the number
head of all of proselytes continue to increase, and in 159] and
incipal priests 1592, twelve thousand were converted and baptized.
sect has its respective One of the emperors, named Kubo Fide Jori, with his
" peculiar i re- whole court and army, embraced the Christian name;
markable for their uncouth and hideous form, un- and had the P ese settlers in the country acted
i i ich mea- with ordi pru and gentleness, their cause
sures ten yards across the shoulders, and affords room must have triumphed; but the insolence of some of
for six men to sit upon its wrist. The inferior divini- their prelates to some prince of the blood, became so
i ery trade has its tu- insupportable, that a new persecution arose in the year
than 33,333 are 1596, which was carried on without intermission for
said to be around the supreme deity. Thetemples the space of 40 years, and ended in the year 1638 with
i town, onthe _ the total extermination of the Christians, and the banish-
most and suitable spots, to which are frequent- ment of the Portuguese from the country. The Ja-
ly attached beautiful avenues of trees, with panese government, considering the unwarrantable
handsome gates, The idols are ly exhibited conduct of these settlers to be inseparable from their
an altar surrounded with flowers, incense, and principles as Christians, haye persevered in the enforce-
They with er or secular ment of the most efficacious measures to prevent their
who attend to keep them clean, to light the re-introduction inte the country ; and in order to de-
Lp and fires, to present the flowers and i and
to ven
E
Y tect any concealed adherent of these proscribed senti-
i ornate ah Soe $6 ments, all S$ are uired to prove their freedom
strangers are allowed to enter, and sometimes to from such NDF. culdiely. trenolive, at the festi-
in the temples. To some of the more noted churches val of the new year, upon the images of the Catholic
images, : saints. !
temple of Tsie, the most ancient in the empire, and al- _ The form of government at present in Japan is pure Sanat
most completely decayed with age, notwithstanding despotism, to the exclusion of pgntifical interference in govern.
the utmost care to preserve its ruins. Its sole orna- the executive But as the Dairis, or BY gr esa mo- ment.
ments are a mirror, i Sanating that nothing can be hid narchs, rei through a long period of hereditary
from the supreme being, slips of white paper hung succession, we can only account for the ascendancy of
round the walls, to ify that os ee Ns C5 SONNE OPGDR SREOENS The Hoe Ree, ror
pure should approach his presence. To this place igning themselyes to more congenial and plea-
emperor must send an ambassador on the first day of poo Se at walights bathdiie, sells. of qoremnet
every month, and every individual must make a visit, with a feeble hand. This change was effected not
at least once in the course of his life. Such a pilgri- without bloodshed and commotion. The veneration
mage, besides its general merit, is rewarded with an with which the Dairi are still regarded resembles the
Japan.
Form of
govern-
ment.
Lawe.
Arts and
seiences,
616
honours paid 'to the gods themselves. His person is
considered as ‘too sacred to be’exposed to the air and
sun, and still less to the view of any human creature.
He never passes beyond the precincts of his court ; and
if he is at any time under an absolute necessity of going
out of his palace, he is pooenily borne on men’s shoulders
that he may not touch the earth. His hair, nails, and
beard are never suffered to be cut or cleaned, unless by
stealth, and while he is asleep. He never eats twice
from the same plate, and all the vessels once used in
his meals, which are purposely of an inferior kind of
porcelain, are usually broken to pieces, that they may
not be profaned by unhallowed hands. His attendants
are with for exceptions selected from his own kindred ;
and beyond the precincts of his court few persons know
even his name till long after his death. Since the re-
trenchment of his power he derives his revenues from
the town and district of Miaco, from an allowance out
of the Kubo’s treasury, and from the large sums which
he acquires by conferring titles ofhonour. This eccle-
siastical court is likewise the principal seat of litera-
ture, and may be considered as the only university in
the empire. The students are maintained and instruct-
ed at his expence in the history of the country, mathe
matics, poetry, music, &c. The Kubos, or secular em-
perors, now reign in hereditary succession, Each pro-
vince of the empire is governed by a prince, who is
responsible to the emperor for his administration. He
enjoys the revenues of his government, keeps his court,
and defrays ‘all the civil expences. Such an order of
things appears to us only safe against turbulence and
faction by powerful checks. Perhaps it is secured in
Japan, by mutual jealousy, and the impressions of un-
limited submission to the emperor, a feature of cha-
racter peculiarly Asiatic.
Thunberg informs us, that the laws of Japan are few,
but rigidly enforced, without regard to persons. We have
little acquaintance, however, with the Japanese code.
We are told that most crimes are punished with death,
and that none may incur this from ignorance, a brief
code in large characters is posted up in every town
and village, and regularly read in the temples. This,
however, respects rather the crimes pees than
the penalties annexed, which are said to be in some
eases purposely kept unknown, and this uncertainty
they affirm to have a salutary effect in deterring of-
fenders.
The Japanese have been celebrated for their profi-
ciency in the arts and sciences.- Perhaps the safest
standard of comparison, in this respect, will be their
neighbours the Chinese. They excel in manufactures
of silk and cotton. Their swords are of curious work-
manship. ‘Their varnish is well known as inimitable,
but for this they are chiefly indebted to the vegetable,
from which it is made. The Japanese cultivate mu-
sic, painting, drawing, geography, astronomy, and his«
tory. They are totally unacquainted with anatomy ;
and have no farther knowledge of natural philossahy
and chemistry than a few notions gathered from Euro~
pean physicians. Their surgery consists almost en«
tirely in burning pellets of moxa (or the leaves of mug-
wort rubbed soft like cotton) upon the place which is
supposed to be the seat of disease; and thus forming an
issue, which is kept open for-some time.. They also
neture: with a-silver needle where pains are felt.
April was
for his je ience. The a and
consisting ve persons, a serjeant to
standard of Russia, were conveyed in a
without his sword or
his suite,
ussul Trapp. On an occasion, for which such
and expectation raised, mere-
ef compliments took place, and a few
questions were put. The second audience
nature, and here ended the matter.
was yc to the oe prohibiting
i again visiting Japan. The
sents, and even the letters from the mspecer of Resa,
with flags and curtains, and landed at a place
619
were refused. It was enjoined that any Japanese cast Japan.
upon the coast of Russia, should be delivered over to
the Dutch, who would send them by way of Batavia Account of
to Nangasaky. Finally, the Russians were prohibited Russian
from offering presents and making purchases, and from ®™*¥-
visiting or receiving the visits of the Dutch factor.
The repair of the ship, and the supply of provisions,
were declared to be taken into the imperial account.
And it was notified, that the A yc of Japan had
sent 2000 sacks of salt, and 100 of rice, besides 2000
pieces of cassock or silk wadding, the former as a pre«
sent for the crew, and the latter for the officers. The
reason assigned for refusing the presents was, that the
Emperor of Japan would be obliged to make a suitable
return to the Em of Russia, and to send an am-
bassador to St Petersburgh : and that it was contrary to
the laws of the empire for any Japanese to quit his
country. Such was the result of an embassy, of which
such sanguine hopes had been formed in Russia. Not
only were no new advan ined, but the writ-
ten ission granted to the Hessian s to visit Nan-
y was revoked. All communication is now sus-
pended between Russia and Japan, nor is it expected
that it will be again opened until some great change
takes place in the Japanese government. Nor, per-
haps, is such a change very remote. At the very mo-
ment of our writing this article, we find it mention-
ed, among conjinental intelligence, that the Dairi of
Japan has been intriguing in secular affairs, and endea-
vouring, by means of his priests and adherents, to gain
the people to his cause. Whence the supremacy of the
Kubo is threatened, and a popular insurrection appre=
Latest ace
coul
ints from
Japan.
We shall conclude this article, by offering to our The Ainos
readers a description, from Krusenstern, of the Ainos, “described by
arace of people but little known in Europe.
author’s account has simplicity of narrative, and the
appearance of truth to recommend it, we shall make
no .apology to our readers for presenting it in his own
words. We shall only premise, that the island of Jes-
so was wrested from the Ainos, its original inhabitants,
by the Japanese; the former are now confined to a
small space, which alone retains the name of Jesso,
the rest of the island being called Matzumary, from the
principal Japanese settlement here. ‘The Japanese dis-
cipline exists in full force in the most northerly part
the island, the farthest limit of their empire.
“ The Ainos,” Krusenstern observes, “ are rather
below the middle stature, being at the most five feet two
or four inches high, of a dark, nearly black, complex-
ion, with a thick bushy beard, black rough hair hang-
ing straight down, and excepting in the beard, they
have the appearance of the Kamtchadales, only that
their countenance is much more regular. The women
are sufficiently ugly: their colour, which is equally
dark, their coal b! hair combed over their faces, blue
painted lips, and tattooed hands, added to no remark.
able cleanliness in their clothing, do not give them any
great ions to loveliness ; this at least was the
case with those we had an opportunity of seeing on
the north side of Jesso. We perceived, indeed, in Ani-
wa bay, some who were younger, whose eyes had not
lost their brightness, and who on this account were not
uite so ugly: but I confess that the i ion even
, made upon me was equally enfevoursble. They are
modest however in the highest degree, and in this point
form the completest contrast with the women of Nuka~
hiwa and of ite. Their even amounted to
bashfulness, occasioned perhaps by the jealousy of their
As this Krusen-
stern.
Isla
nd of
$0.
Jesso.
JAPAN.
ready said, probably newly built, and served only for
their summer residence. In Romanzoff bay they ap-
peared to be their constant abode both in winter and.
summer. The two we visited, and near to which were.
620
Japan. husbands, and the watchfulness of their parents: they
“—y~" never quitted for a moment, while we were on shore,
Account of the huts in which they had assembled, and were ex-
the Ainos. tremely distressed when Dr Telesius made drawings of
Japan,
thern.
The characteristic quality of an Aino is goodness of
heart, which is expressed in the strongest manner in
his countenance; and so far as we were enabled to
observe their actions, they fully answered this. expres-
sion. These, as wellas their looks, evinced eociathdngp
simple, but noble. Avarice, or rather rapacity, the
common fault of all the wild inhabitants of the south-
ern islands in the eastern ocean, they are entirely
stran, to: in Romanzoff bay they brought fish on
board, which they immediately left to us, without de-
manding the least thing in return; and much as they
were delighted with the presents made to them, they
would not admit them as their property, until they
had been frequently assured by signs of their being in-
tended for them.
** The dress of the Ainos consists chiefly of the skins
of tame dogs and seals ; but I have seen some in a very
different: attire, which resembled the parkis of the
Kamtschadales, and is; properly speaking, a white-shirt
worn over their other clothes. In Aniwa bay they were
all clad in furs; their boots were made of seal skins,
and in. these likewise the: women were invariably:
clothed. In Romanzoff bay, on the contrary, we saw:
only two fur dresses, one of which was a bear’s skin,.
the other made of dogs’ skins ; and the rest of the peo-
ple were dressed in a coarse yellow stuff, made of the
bark of a tree, (as we ascertained in their houses,).
which a few wore, bordered with blue cloth. .Under
this dress they had another of a fine ‘cotten stuff, that
they probably purchase of the Japanese. Here we saw:
no boots such as were worn by every one in Aniwa bay ;
but, instead of them, they used Japanese straw slippers..
A few of them covered their legs with a kind of half
stockings stitched together, of the same coarse stuff as
their upper garments. This difference in the dress of
the Ainos of Jesso and Sachalin seems to prove a much
greater degree of wealth in the latter island, and the
men here appeared to-wear a more cheerful aspect ; but
whether this is owing to their superior wealth in fish
and furs, which find a:certain market with the Japanese,
or to their little dependence on these latter, I cannot pre«
tend to decide, though I am inclined to. believe the for-
mer. The greatest part of them went with their heads un-
eovered ; others wore a straw hat, pointed in the middie,
I fancy it is not the custom of the country to shave the
hair, though I saw several of them with their heads half
shorn, probably only in imitation of the Japanese. The
women, even the youngest, use no ornaments on their
heads ; but, as I have already mentioned, they invaria-
bly paint their lips blue,—a practice which, to an Eu-
vopean accustomed to the rose colour, appears extreme-
ly ugly. On the contrary, many of the male sex wore
ear-rings, which were commonly merely a brass ring.
I purchased a pair off a young man, made of silver, wit
large false pearls suspended from them. The possessor
seemed to set great value on these ornaments, being
very unwilling to part with them ; and twice he repent-
ed of his bargain, took them back again, and demanded
a higher price. An old coat, two cotton cloths, and a
piece of flat white metal, were the treasures for which
he at last exchanged them. Buttons and old clothes
were the articles the Ainos most sought after, and for
which they gave their pipes and other trifles,
« The huts we saw in Aniwa bay were, as I have al~
balagans for drying fish, consisted of a single large
vies which, with chiar division at one a yn
the whole interior of the house. Their construction,
did not seem to me to be very solid, and, unless the,
houses are entirely covered with snow, asin Kamtschat-
ka, I cannot conceive how they are able to bear the
cold, which must be intense here in the winter; since,
even in the month of May, the thermometer only shew-:
ed three degrees of warmth. In the middle of the room
was a large hearth, around which the whole family,,
consisting of eight or ten persons, was seated. The.
furniture consisted of a large bed, over which a Ja
ese mat was spread, and several boxes and barrels. All,
their utensils were of Japanese manufacture, and most-.
ly lacquered. It appeared, from the interior of the
house, that the inhabitants possessed a degree of afflu-
ence such as is not found among the Kamtschadales,)
still less among the Aleuti, and the unfortunate inha-
bitants of Kodiack. The great provision of dried fish:
bore indeed rather'a disgusting appearance ; but no ob-,
jection can be taken to this when we reflect, that their
existence depends upon them, fish being prabably their
only nourishment, and their kouses on this account be-
ing chiefly scattered along the shore. We perceived
no symptoms of cultivation, not even any plantations
of vegetables ; nor did we see any tame fowls or do-=
mestic animals except dogs, which they had in great
abundance; and: Lieutenant Golowatscheff found in
Mordwinoff bay, on the west coast of Patience bay,
above fifty in one place. In all probability they use
them for their journeys in the winter; for we saw. im
Aniwa bay a sledge which. bore a. perfect resemblance
to a Kamtschadale narte. Dog skins, also, are here.an
important article of dress.. We were struck on perceiy«
ing, that snow-water was the common beverage of the
people on the northside of Jesso, although that of the
river, which flowed into the bay, was extremely good.
Perhaps the fear of cold in the winter, as they would
have to fetch their water from the river, which is not
very near to their houses, has so accustomed them to
snow-water, that they prefer it to that of the river so
long as they are able to procure it. It seemed also the
custom here, (at least, it was so in all the houses which
either I or any of my officers visited,) to bring up,a
young bear in the house, to which a. place was assigned
in one of the corners of the room; and which was deci+
dedly the most restless of any of its inhabitants. One
of our officers was desirous of purchasing one of these
bears, and offered his great-coat in exchange for it;
but he could not persuade the proprietor, although
cloth is of great value in the eyes of the Ainos, as the
Japanese are unable to supply them with it, to part:
with his young eléve. : a
« It would be presuming too much to enter into any.
detail upon the form of government and the religion of
the Ainos, as our stay here was much too circumscribed
for us to have instituted any inquiries into these sub-
jects; but, with their limited population, it is not easy
to imagine any other than a patriarchal constitution.
During our visit to one of their houses in Romanzoff
bay, we observed in the family, which consisted of ten
persons, the paneest state of harmony, or rather a per=
fect equality. e continued there some hours, and
were scarcely able to distinguish the head of the fami-
ly, so little assuming were even the oldest towards its
GA 1 JAPAN.
! 621
= - ae “ee “aed : . ae
__ Jepas. youngest members. Accordingly, in dividing a few that, except their bushy beard and the hair on their Japam
_— ts among them, I preserved a most perfect equa- faces, there was not the least thing to give probability —“v—”
Account of lity, which they all pleased with, no one, not to such a'story. In Aniwa I got several of them to un- Account of
‘the Amos. even the oldest, ing, that I had given him too cover their breasts, arms, and legs, and we Were’ here the Ainos.
, little in proportion to the others; onthe contrary, they convinced to a certainty that the greater part of the
called my attention to a little girl, about eight years
old, whom I had overlooked, and who- now obtained
her share. This yeni Th vee ee
reigns among them, aw: most favourable feelings
towards them. Here was no loud talking, no immode-
rate langhter, and still less any disputing. The satis-
faction appeared in all their countenances as they
spread the mats round the hearth for us; their readi-
ness, when we were going away, to launch their canoes
and carry us across the shallows toour boat, when they
ene ipping themselves
they differ very much from the inhabitants of the west
of Sachalin, whose diffidence La Perouse could not
speak of with praise; all these uncommon Pree for
Ainos have no more hair upon their bodies than is to
be found upon those of many Europeans. Lieut. Go-
lo found indeed in Mordwinoff Bay a child of
eight years old, whose body was entirely covered with
hair; but he immediately examined its parents and se-
veral other grown up s, and found them all iz
that like Eu ns. I will not flatly contra<
dict the report of older and modern navigators, whose
credibility I do not argue against; but I believe that
they have exaggerated this story ing the Ainos,
or, what is the same thing, the natives of the southern
is purpose: but still more than is, their mo- Kuriles> at least it is not equally true with regard to
§ desty never to demand any thing, and even to all.» Perhaps the impression which the Dutch received
with hesitation whatever was to them, wherein from their bushy beard, hairy face, and lank locks, add-
ed to the uncleanliness of their persons, left an idea
that their bodies must be as much covered as their fa~
ces; and as they did’ not wait to examime whether this
which they are not indebted to any pol education, were really the case, this gave rise to'a story whiclr
but which are merely the marks of their natural cha- has been ever since as a fact.” A,
racter, make me consider the Ainos as the best of all = The following notices respecting Japan, communica-
the le that I have hitherto been acquainted with.
“1 have already mentioned their inconsiderable num-
—_ ing-
mit ten as the num of each tamil , this makes that
ted in a discourse to the Literary and Scientific Society
at Java by the Honourable Governor Raffles, and drawn
from the information of Dr Ainslie, who had resided
four months in Nangasaki, may be considered as the
most recent intelli on the subject of this article.
of the inhabitants of this district eighty. Farther | Every information obtained by that gentleman tends Recent ac-
inland they probably have no ishments; for as to pb the accuracy, ability, and impartiality of cout of the
their whole nouri consists of fish, they only set- Kempfer, whose account of Japan is represented as one J*Pne*
tle on the sea shores. In Salmon Bay, and T. of the most complete works of the kind that was ever vinslic.
Aniwa, the Ainos probably amount to three Siecleall? produced in the same circumstances. The Japanese
but we were there at the time of the fishery, and it is acknowledge that from this book know their own
chiefly from hence that the Japanese procure this arti- country; and their first enquiry to the English com-
cle, for which they are obliged to have recourse to the missioners was for a copy of Kempfer. In expressing
imhabitants of the neighbouring bays, who settle here the estimation in which his writings were held among
at such times, in order to so large a quantity.
ae papa tere the
vicinity apanese factory is a proof of this, but
also the number of houses provided with furniture but
destitute of inhabitants in Mordwinof Bay, where Lieut.
Golowatscheff, who visited that part, found but a few
berg in 1739, confirmed this description. Al
Many concurring accounts seem to. testify the fact of
the natives of Jesso being overgrown with hair, never-
I am disposed, from our experience, to de-
clare this report to be fabulous. The Jesuit Hierony-
de Angelis, the first Eu who, in 1620, vi-
Jesto, mierely mentions their bushy besrds, but
not a word of their hairy bodies; and.as he resi-
for some time ee mee te certainly had a
opportunity of examini ir personal qualities
could be found in the chet visite of the Dutch,
Russians, or the Chinese. and he would not have
to make known ¢o striking a circumstance. On
north of .Jesso we examined some people, but found
ePEreiae
them, they literally observed, that “ he had drawn out
their heart from , and laid it palpitating before
us, with all the movements of their government, and
the actions of their men!” The natives are represented’
by Dr Ainslie as a nervous, vigorous people, whose bo+
dily and mental powers iacioallate much nearer to those
of Europe, than what are usually attributed to Asia- —
tics ; as possessed of masculine features y Euro-
pean, except the small lengthened Tartar eye, which
almost universally prevails ; as perfectly fair and everr
blooming in their complexion ; and actually exhibiting
among females of the higher class more of the hue of
health than is usually found in Europe. He describes
their proficiency in the sciences, ially in metaphy~
sics and judicial astrology, as sufficient to evince a vi-
gorous intellect ; and their skill in the arts as by no
means resembling the stati ‘mediocrity of the Chi+
nese, but as the effect of an ardent and progressive
principle of improvement. Nothing, he tells us, is
so offensive to the feelings of a Japanese, as to be
compared, in any one respect, with the Chimese; and
the only occasion on which he ever saw the habitual
politeness of a wative surprised into a burst of pas-
sion, was when, upon a similarity between the two
nations being unguardedly poem the latter laid‘ his
hand upon his sword. They have at least none of
that uniformity of character which the artificial systenr
of government has produced in China; and their wo-
men particularly, associate among themselves like the
ladies of Europe. Dr Ainslie was present at frequent
JAP
entertainments among the natives ; and on one of these
occasions particularly, a Jady from the court of Jeddo
performed the honours of the table with an ease, ele-
gance, and address, that would have graced a Parisian.
The usual dress of the Japanese women, even. of the
middle rank, is remarkably costly ; and its value might
supply the wardrobe of an European lady of the same
rank for twenty years. The Japanese, with an appa-
rent coldness, derived from that system of espionage
and principle of disunion dictated by the government,
are eager for novelty, and warm in their attachments,
strongly inclined to foreign intercourse, notwithstand-
ing the prohibitory political institutions of their country,
and apparently ready to throw themselves into the
hands of any nation of superior intelligence ; but at the
same time full of contempt for every thing below their
own standard of morals and habits. The failure of the
embassy from Russia in 1814, which might seem to
contradict this remark, Dr Ainslie considers as attri-
butable to particular circumstances, which however are
not sufficiently detailed, but are intimated as originating
in the influence of the interested competitor at the head
of the Dutch establishment. The warehouse in which
the Russian mission had been lodged was pointed out
to Dr Ainslie, who observes, .that, “ as the rats were
let out, the count and his suite were let in, where they
remained for six long months with scarce room to turn ;
the mark of obloquy to the Japanese, and the laughing
stock of the European factory.” So lively was the im-
pression of the occurrence, that the chief Japanese offi-
cer asked the English commissioner, “ if he too would
-condescend:to play the part of the Russian count?”—
the officer answering to his own question, “ No, I trust
not.” Even the illiberality of the Japanese on the sub-
ject of religion, is affirmed by no means to correspond
with the representations hitherto made of their charac-
ter ; and the annual test of trampling on crucifixes and
other Catholic images, is said to be denied and derided
as a foolish story by the native priests. Upon visiting
the great temple on the hills of Nangasaky, the English
commissioner was received with marked respect, and
sumptuously entertained by the patriarch of the north-
-ern provinces, a man eighty years of age; and when
one of the English officers present heedlessly exclaimed
in surprise, Jasus Christus! the patriarch, turning half
round with a placid smile, bowed significantly, expres-
sive of a hint to avoid that subject in that place, and
took leave with a hearty shake of the hand. It is men-
tioned as an extraordinary fact, that, for seven years
past, since the visit of Captain Pellew, notwithstanding
the determination of the court not te enter into foreign
commerce, the English language has, in obedience to
an edict of the Emperor, been cultivated with consi-
derable success by the younger members of the college
of interpreters, who were found very eager in their in-
quiries after English books. While the commissioner
was at Nangasaky, there arrived a large detachment
of officers of rank, who had been employed nearly four
yeats in making an actual survey of every foot of the
empire and the dependent isles, one fourth part of
which they had not yet completed. The survey ap-
peared to be conducted on a scientific principle, to be
most minute and accurate in its execution, and to have
for its object the completion of a regular geographical
and statistical description of the country. The Ja-
panese, in short, are wonderfully inquisitive in all points
of science, and are anxious to receive information,
without inquiring from what quarter it comes ; and, in
the opinion of Dr Ainslie, are a people with whom the
622
JAP
European’world might hold intercourse without com-
promise of character. The result of all that the com- Japanning.
missioners observed, is said to be an impression on the
minds of those who are most competent both to judge
and act in the matter, that a commercial intercourse
between Great Britain and Japan might easily be
opened. See Kempfer’s History of Japan ; Thunberg’s
Travels, vols. iii. and iv; Krusenstern’s Voyage round
the World; and the Transactions of the Literary and
‘Scientific Society at Java.
JAPANNING, is a mode of ornamenting various
-articles with a hard varnish, which bears a good polish,
and can be made of brilliant colours and ornaments.
‘The natives of Japan and China oreo this art in
great perfection. They have a decided advantage over
the European japanner in their materials. They use a
kind of resin called lac, which is the sap or juice of a
tree. The Japanese make incisions in the lower part of the
trunk, and receive the lac, which flows in pots set beneath
the incisions; this lac is at first of the colour and consist-
ence of cream, but it becomes black on the surface when
it is exposed to the air. The whole mass is required to
become black before it is used, and for this it is
put into very shallow bowls, and continually stirred
with an iron rod during twenty-four hours, so as to ex-
pose every part to the action of the air; this makes it
thicker than before, and of a fine black colour, which
they heighten by adding powdered charcoal.
When this lac is taid on the work, and dried, it is
polished with a stone and water, and the polished sur-
face is ornamented by gilding or painting, which is
secured by an external coat of varnish, made of oil and
turpentine, boiled to a proper consistence.
The japanning among Europeans is differently per-
formed, but the work bears a near resemblance to that of
the Japanese when finished ; it is sa yn to wood, pa-
pier-maché, leather and iron, or tinned iron, When the
articles are of that nature, that they will not bear heat-
ing in a stove to dry and harden the japan, they must
be done with lac similar to the real japan; but as the
lac is only brought to Europe in a solid form, it must
first be reduced to a fluid state, by dissolving it in al-
cohol, or some essential oil; and this varnish being
spread on the work, the alcohol or oil will evaporate,
and leave a hard superficial coat of lac. The varnish
may be mixed with the requisite colours, or the colours
may be painted upon the surface of the varnish, be-
tween the successive coats which are applied; and in
the latter case admit of painting according to a design.
For such goods as will admit of sufficient heat in a
stove, a more economical method is pursued, the prin-
cipal coats of japan being made of boiled lin oil,
with proper colouring matters. These are dried and
hardened in the stove, and the painting or gilding is
laid on; a thin lac varnish is lastly applied, to give
the external surface ; but it assimilates so well with the
first coats of japan, that the whole wears as well as if
it was done with solid lac in the Japanese method,
Japanning with lac. This is principally used for or- J#panning —
‘acmaadions nak leather, and paper, but the latter can Wit? ae
be japanned by heat like the metals.
he following receipts are given in the Handmaid
to the Arts, for the varnishes which are to form the
ds or surfaces on which the painting or gilding
are to be laid. Dissolve two ounces of coarse seed lac,
and two ounces of resin, in one pint of rectified spirits
of wine. This varnish must be laid on in a warm -
place ; and the work will be better done if the substance
to be japanned can be warmed also, but all moisture
; JAPANNING.
628
and dampness must be carefully avoided. Two or three
beth mineral and Prussian blue; and ‘a common kind Japanning.
be made of verdigris, mixed with either of the =“
= coats of this coarse varnish must be applied, p
: ¢ colour,
to laying the which contain th
and which ay as follows.
For a while ground, prepare flake white, or white
lead, by = with water, and then by grinding
it pir ixth of its be of starch; when this
is dried, temper it properly for spreading, with mas-
tic varnish, which i re by dissolving mastic in
spirits of turpentine, by a gentle heat in a water bath ;
or the colour may be compounded with gum anime,
reduced to , and ground first with turpentine,
and then ground with the colours, adding as much of
the mastic varnish as is n to make it work
with the pencil. When this white japan is laid on,
the external varnish which is applied upon it after the
painting or ber oe teen | must be of the
most transparent nature, it may not injure the
whiteness of the colour. For this por select the
clearest and whitest grains from a large parcel of seed
lac, reserving the coarser grains for other varnishes ;
take two ounces of this chosen lac, and three ounces
of gum anime, reduce them to a gross powder, and dis-
solve them in a quart of spirits of wine; five or six
coats of this varnish must be laid on over the white
colour. The seed-lac will give a slight tinge to the
colour, bat the hardest varnish cannot be made with-
out it; when hardness is not so essential, a less pro-
pecan may be used, and to take away the
i of the gum anime, a small ity of crude
pm = eed = endgame Another varnish, either for
ss the white colours, or for covering them
when lai Mm Bet nen anime, mney ved in old
nut or poppy oil, i , and puttin:
into it as much or ike ee ill take up. This
i ted with cil of turpentine Sor use :
polishing, and must therefore be applied
very carefully to lay it smooth.
meme a te oy use a bright Prussian blue,
or smalt, or verditer, glazed over Prussian blue ;
brought to a polish mixed Sinners Gaeniionn
t to a polishing state by five or six coats of
lac varnish. If the blue ground is bright, and the
shell lac varnish is laid on, it will give a green hue,
~ hoger ee An he inne oho
or japan vermilion may be used to
a scarlet round, but it has a glaring effect
alone. ‘I’his will be in some measure correct-
| alasing it over _ carmine, or fine lake, or
rose-pink. For a bright crimson, in-
i ‘with ‘cies’, Leadlen lake should be
may be dissolved in the spirit of which
posed, and a coat of this being laid
lac varnish may be used to produce the
v= on eed: will very well transmit the tinge
e.
grounds, for bright yellow, king’s
mineral should by annloyeds citer
or mixed with fine Dutch pink. The effect may
heightened by yori | powdered turmeric root in
, which ‘or making the external var-
alcohol should be stramed off from the
the turmeric, before the seed lac is put in to
if
2
z
8%
e
E
2.
®
fr
HE
ne
IZ
Fa
L
i
i
E
2
above yellows, or with Dutch pink. For a very bright
green, the crystals of verdigris, called the distilled ver-
digris, should be emporen: and to heighten the ef*
fect, the colour-should be laid on eigronsiet of leaf-gold,
which renders it’very brilliant.
For orange japan grounds, mix’vermilion or red lead For orange
witli king's’ y aio, or Dutch pink, or orange lake used J#p4"
alone is a
best annotto four ounces, and of pearl ashes one pound ;
put them hy aay into a gallon of water; and boil them
for half an ; then strain the solution through pa--
per. Make also another solution of a d and a half
of alum, in a gallon of water, and mix this gradually
with the solution of pearl ashes-and annotto; a preci-
one of the colouring matter will be formed, which
ing dried in cakes or lozenges, is the orange lake.
For purple
sian blue may be
for a Seah : le: .
For a mn nd.
black are the aa ther
e colour. To prepare this, take of the grounds.
japan grounds, a mixture of lake and Prus- For parple *
used, or vermilion and Prussian: blue ~ a
rounds.
Ivory black and lamp For a black~
materials for this purpose. They japan
should be laid on with shell lac varnish, and the exter. ground.
nal varnish may be of seed lac; as-the tinge of it can
do no injury. ,
For a ground of gold. Gold leaf may be laid on For
over the whole surface. See Japanners Gitpine.
Or ground of
the imitative gold or silver tee may be used with gold.
en
the size there described. the desired ground is
obtained, the ornamental painting is next performed.
The colours for painting are mixed up with varnish of
shell or seed lac, dissolved in spirits of wine, or other-
wise by varnish of mastic, dissolved in oil of t
tine; to which gum anime may be added, as before di-
rected, for mixing up the colours of the white ground,
and which applies to all the other grounds. ere is,
in fact, no di ce between the manner of preparing
the colours for laying the grounds, or for painting upon
the ground. The pencils must be moistened either with
the spirits of wine or oil of turpentine, so as to make
the colours work, In some very nice works, the colours
may be tempered in oil, for the more free use of the
pencil, and to obtain greater dispatch, ‘The oil should
previously have one-fourth part of its weight of gum
anime dissolved in it, or gum sandarac or mastic.
When this oil is used, it should be diluted with spirit of
turpentine, that the colours may lie more even and thin,
When the painting is to be on a ground of gold, wa-
ter colours may be used for the ornamental painting.
They are prepared with isinglass size, corrected with
honey or su dy. The ornamental gilding Tor jas
panners wel isenphidia in the article Gitpcno.
External varnish. The hardest varnish is made of
seed lac, as before mentioned, but has a yellow tinge.
To make this, wash the seed lac in water to clean it
from impurities; dry it, and eee it coarsely ; then
put three ounces of it into a bottle with a pint of rec-
tified spirits o@@ wine. The bottle should not be above
two-thirds filled, and must be gently heated, aud sha-
ken frequently, until as much of the lac is dissolved as
can be, and the varnish is Se eee
bottle, and kept stopped very close. The more high!
rectified the spirit is, the snore lac it will dissolve. This
varnish must be laid on in a dry warm place, and the
work previously made perfectly dry: no part should
be crossed or passed twice over in laying the same coat,
For green japan grounds, king’s yellow and bright if it can be avoided.
Pression bins may be mixed to stake a gree, or tare When the outer varnish has been as often repeated
External
Varnizh.
624
Japanning- as is necessary, the work is polished with a rag dipped
“>” in fine powdered pumice stone, or rotten stone; and
avhen a good surface is thus obtained, it is finished by
subbing it with the hand-alone, or with butter or
oil.
About the middle of the last century, almost all ele-
gant furniture was japanned by these means ; but it is
now disused, except, for coaches, and for some small ar-
ticles. The japanning of such articles as will bear the
heat of a stove, to harden the varnish, is now brought
to a very high perfection, and is very cheap compared
with, the lac japan.
Japanning _ Japanning of tin.and paper wares by the stove. This
of tinand js distinguished into two kinds; clear work, in which
paper wares the japan is required to be transparent; and black ja-
bythestove. Dan, which is opake. The varnish for clear work is
Clear japan composed of raw linseed il, umber, and a little am-
varnish. ber, with a small portion of white rosin, These ma-
terials are boiled for several hours in a cast-iron pot,
which is set in brickwork over a furnace, and _ the
mouth of the pot surrounded by a funnel or chimney
ef brickwork, with only one opening to obtain access
to it; and this opening is provided with an iron door
to shut close in case the materials should take fire. The
boiling evaporates the most fluid parts of the oil, and
the varnish becomes thick. It is known to be suffi-
ciently. boiled by letting fall a drop on a piece of tin-
plate; and,if it does not spread upon the surface, but
keeps in a circumscribed spot, the varnish is esteemed
sufficiently boiled, and may be taken out of the boiler.
This varnish is to be mixed up to a proper consistence
for working with spirit of turpentine, the varnish being
a little warm.
Black japan. The black japan varnish is made by the same pro-
varnish. —_ cess, but asphaltum is used instead of amber; and it
is thinned for use with tar spirit instead of spirit of
turpentine ; also lamp black is added to the varnish.
. Hither of these varnishes are to be laid upon the work
by a soft hog’s hair brush, such as is known by the
name of a painter’s tool, and it must be prepared by
drawing out all the hairs which are thicker than the
others, or all those which have the flesh end downwards.
The work must be carefully cleaned from dirt, resin,
&c. and with this brush it is thinly coated over with
the varnish. It is left for a few minutes to set, and
it is then put into the drying stove, the heat of which
at first makes the varnish more fluid, and it flows with
great evenness over all the surface; but when the spi-
rits evaporate, the varnish becomes.solid, and in thirty
or forty minutes may be taken out, and suffered to cool
previous to varnishing again. The proper time for the
‘second application, is known by applying the finger
on the varnished surface with a moderate pressure;
if the adhesion of the varnish is such that the finger
will not slide over the surface, at the same time that
there is no actual.sticking to the, finger, it is then in
the right state to receive another coat of varnish.
The work should not be suffered to dry beyond this
state, otherwise the.successive coats will, not adhere
so firmly. A second varnish being applied, the article
is dried again; then a third coat is applied, and the
work is left in the stove five or six hours, or all night,
to harden and dry off the varnish, If it is the clear
varnish which is thus treated, this time will be suffi-
cient ; but it will eer darker in proportion as it is
longer exposed to the heat, or as the heat is increased.
For black work the heat is raised as high as possible,
without melting the soldering, or charring the varnish ;
and this is continued three or four days, This process
‘ JAPANNING.
makes the hardest and most durable of all varnishes, Japenning
and of a most brilliant jet black colour. |
To obtain a smooth surface, it is rubbed with wool«
len rag with pumice stone powder and water, and it is
polished by rottenstone powder, and finished by the i
friction of the bare hand with a little butter. j
Mottled japan in imitation of tortoise shell. This Mottled ja.
is done by covering the tin with one coat of varnish as pan, in imi-
above, mixed with Venetian red, and then it is coated tion of
with black varnish. The fingers are drawn over the a
varnished surface. in a waving direction, to distribute
the varnish unequally, and thus cause the red colour to
be shewn through in spots or clouds, imitating tortoise
shell, Otherwise the tin is painted in spots with ver~
milion mixed in shell lac varnish; and this is coated
with the clear varnish, which is afterwards stoved till
it becomes deeply coloured, and is rather opake, sothat .
it shews the vermilion spots and the surface of the tin
beneath in an imperfect manner, and much resembles
the clouds of tortoise shell.
Some simple articles in wood may be treated in this
way, provided they are not put together in pieces with
glue, and are not liable to be split by the heat; for in-
stance, walking canes are most beautifully ornamented
at Birmingham. These processes of japanning by heat
are to be found in some receipts b unkel, but do
not appear to have been practised till the Birmingham
manufacture was begun.
When ornamental painting or gilding is required, it
is done upon a clear japan ground when the same is
set. A layer of gold size being spread over the sur-
face, (see GitpiNnG,) the leaf gold or gold powder is
applied, and also the required painting, the colours be«
ing mixed as before directed for lac japanning. Sten-
cils are sometimes used to lay the gold powder in pars
ticular patterns: they are pieces of paper with openings
cut out in particular forms; and being applied upon
the surface of the work, if the powder is applied by a ,
piece of rag it will be laid according to the pattern cnt
out. A variety of different coloured metallic bronze hh
powders are used in the Birmingham ware ; and for the
smaller parts they lay them on with stump brushes.
Transparent or Pont-y-pool Japan.—The articles ja« Transpa
anned in this way are prep i hn, good ground of rent or
Black varnish made very smooth; a layer of gold size is Pont-y-
then laid on, and the whole surface is covered with silver J#P8"- ‘
powder ; upon this is laid a coat of thin varnish mixed
with the desired colour, such as Prussian blue, or lake t
mixed with spirit of turpentine, to make it spread. When $
this is dry, it is sized over, and painted or ornamented rf
with gilding in silver leaf or powder. The whole is
coated with an external varnish of a gold colour, which
changes the colour of the silver leaf to that of gold.
The use of the first coat of silver powder is to give a
resplendency to the colour, which is very beautiful.
The French have a mode of producing flowered stains
of colour of the most brilliant hues, which are waved /
very much like the flowers which are found in a frosty (
morning upon the windows of an aparHDethy We are
informed that it is done by means of an acid applied to
the surface of the tin before it is japanned.
The stoves for j ing are built of brick or stone, ,
generally three stories high, with three stoves upon each
floor. The fire is at the bottom, and is covered over
with a strong iron plate. The flues are carried up at :
the sides and ends of the stoves, and are made to af=
ford three different degrees of heat, for drying off the :
clear varnish, or for darkening it, or for darkening the
black rarpish, (4, F.) td n ;
nf * 7
—— Sen ah ea tre roe
-Sinaation 105° and 115° of east longitude from Greenwi t ex-
: tends, nearly in the direction of east and west, about
650 miles, fh ne, tty aby On the
north lies the island of ; on the north-east, Ce-
lebes ; on the east, the islands of Bali and Madura ; on
the south and west, the Indian ocean ; and on the north-
west, the island of Sumatra, from which it is separated
by the Straits of Sunda, which, at the narrowest point,
are about 20 miles broad. On ing these straits a
to the view. The low coast of Su-
covered with trees, behind which its ma-
jestic mountains rise in gradual ascent; while the op-
ite coast of Java, not inferior in beauty, indicates
the fertility of its soil, by its numerous rice fields, and
es of cocoa-nut and palm trees. -
Bescription.
this side are several bays, where there is
during the good or south-east monsoon ;
monsoon, when the north-west wind
$s to anchor near the coast.
nown than the northern, and
almost inaccessible. A chain of
commencing at the eastern extremity,
ince of Balambouang, running to the west-
, and gradually decreasing in height, divides the
island longitudinally into two parts, of which the north.
ern section is the largest and best.
In several mountains of this great chain are observa-
ble the craters of volcanoes, which were formerly vio-
lent in their eruptions, and many of which still emit
various virtues and temperatures, are found in their vi-
inity. An account of a very curious natural e-
non in the plains of , about 50 miles N. E. of
cture of salt.
ing, they went to the bludugs, as the Javanese
them, and found them to be on an elevated plain of
mud, about two miles in circumference, in the centre of
Mud vole which immense bodies of salt mud were thrown up to
_— ight of from ten to fifteen feet, in the form of
which, bursting, emitted volumes of dense
bes or bubbles, of which
wing up and bursting
oo in a minute by the watch. At
two or three tons of mud. The
smoke, and found it to
ty noise, occasioned by the falling of the mud
upon that which surrounded it, and of which the plain
riosity.
VOL. XI, PART It.
an. _Jawss* the soothernmost of the Sunda islands, is situa« i
smoke after heavy rains. Numerous mineral springs of tid
posed. It was difficult and dangerous to approach
the or Mo rem. as the nites wae all a
quagmire, ex where the surface of the mud had be«
come Savaacied by the sun. Upon this they approach.
ed cautiously to within fifty yards of the largest bubble,
or mud pudding, as it might very properly be called ;
for it was of the consistency of a custard pudding, and
of very considerable diameter. They also got close to
a small globe or bubble, (the plain was full of them of
different sizes,) and observed it closely for some time.
It commerce,
sides its own productions, it used to be the general de-
pot of all the spices of the Moluccas. It “8 ogee
speaking, however, merely an exchange trade, as all
exportation of cash or bullion is expressly prohibited ;
and even the dollars which a merchantman may bring
to the ports, are not allowed to be taken away again,
but must all be expended on goods. All traders were
generally farther restricted by the Dutch Company as to
the nature of the cargo which they wish to export, and
were required to take one-third or fourth of it in spices. -
, in consequence of a tradition Buffaloes.’
The great boa Boa
The coasts of the island abound with excel« fish,
Java.
Commerce.
Money.
630.
The trade in certain articles, Such ce opium, camphor,
benzoin; calin:(a sort-of Indian metal, ) pewter, iron, salt-
petre, gunpowder, &c. was, vinder the Dutch, reserved
exclusively for the company, and the: (segue of
gain by private trade have been gradually decreasing
since the middle of last century. . The principal exports
from Java have been already noticed under the head of
its productions ;, but the greater portion of the articles
imported from other eastern countries, may be con-
-sidered as intended more’ for future exportation, than
for the use of the island. From Bengal are brought
atnas, blue cloths, «and other stuffs, drugs and opium}
from different in Sumatra, camphor of the best
quality, benzoin, calin, elephants teeth, and birds-
nests ;* from Borneo,, gold-dust, diamonds, and birds-
nests; from Europe, kersymeres, cloths, hats, gold-
wire, silver, galloon, stationery, wine, beer, dollars ;
from Muscat, dollars and gum-arabic ; from the Isle of
France, olive-oil, wine, vinegar, hams, cheese, soap,
trinkets, ebony, mercery; from the Cape of Good
Hope, garden-seeds, butter, Madeira, and Constantia
wines ; from China, immense quantities of porcelain;
and silks of every kind; from Japan, camphor, fans,
articles of furniture, sabres‘of an excellent temper, and
ingots of fine copper’ for common coinage to pay the
troops.
Money, especially of gold, is very scarce at Java;
and the current coins are a mixture of Dutch and In-
dian pieces, of which the following Table gives the
value in sterling money, at the par exchange of eleven
frances per pound,
. Francs. = ng 3 A
The old Japan gold coupan 24 0 : Pay
The new ditto EY 4 , “ . - 4 8 16 ai
The milled Dutch ducat . of SGISS 1 02250
The silver-milled ducatoon . “ano OF 3}
The unmilled ditto oo S28 O° Trg
The Spanish dollar or piastre from 3 3 0 5 8?
to3 6 0 6 0
The rix dollar . : = ; 2.6 0 4 “
The Batavia rupee . : » 110 0 2 82
Other rupees about . . «. 1 7 0 2 Bi
There are likewise half-rupees, quarter rupees, and
fanams, equal to one-twelfth of a rupee. There are
copper coins issued by the Company, particularly the
stiver, of which eighty-eight are equal to a rupee; two«
' penny pieces, equal to two stivers; and doits or far«
Weights
and mea-
seures,
things. The rix-dollar, equal to 48 stivers, is the mo-
ney chiefly used in ao trade; and the milled silver
ducatoon, equal to’ 66 stivers, was the current coin of
the Company through their Indian possessions. A pa«
er currency, ianneal by General Daendels during the
ate war, and termed Porbolingo paper, was common
in the island at the time of its capture by the British,
but was by them tended to be gradually called in and
abolished.
Most merchants goods are calculated by the picol of
one hundred and twenty-five pounds Amsterdam weight,
which is subdivided into a hundred cattis, each weigh-
ing one pound and a quarter. “Sugar is taken in canas-
sers.of three picols, or 375 pounds each ; coffee, in bags
of 252 pounds; and cinnamon, in bales of eighty. Rice
and other grain is measured by coyangs, which must
weigh, when oop purchased by the Company, 3500
pounds; but which, by deductions for dust, drying,
perquisites to the warehouse keepers, and other hands
-men of Lord Macartney’s
JAVA,
through which they pass, are finally reduced,when the Java,
article reaches the consumer, to 3000 pounds: ‘There
is also a small rice measure of 13} Ibs. called/ganting.
The general ol fee of Java has been variously I
estimated ; by Valentyn at 3,300,000; by the gentle.
embassy in 1792, at 2,300,000;
by a census, said to have been taken by General Daens
-dels, in 1808, the returns, exclusive of the south coast,
exceeded 3,000,000; and by the latest’ surveys of the
‘British, there are supposed to be 5,000,000 of persons
on the island. The inhabitants, especially around Ba«
tavia, are composed of various tribes; but principally
of'native Javanese, Malays, Chinese, and slaves. °
The Javanese live in a state of absolute slavery tothe Javan
native princes, except that they are not transferred by
sale from one master to another. “The form of govern-
ment among them is perfectly despotic, and the powe
of the prince in every sense uncontrouled, His will is
literally the law, and is restricted by no insti-
tutions, either civil or religious. There are no heredi«
tary distinctions or ranks among the people; but, by
the mere authority of the monarch, the humblest may
be raised to the chief dignities, and the highest degrad«
ed to the state of the meanest subject. ey have no
security in their’ property, or power to dispose of it,
farther than the sovereign may permit. © The land, par-
ticularly, is his exclusive property ; and, in place of sa«
laries to the officers of government, portions of ground
are allotted and reeked at pleasure. Neither grant nor
occupation can convey to a subject the remotest claim
to permanent possession ; but large tracts of territory
are frequently given one day, and resumed the next;
and scarcely an instance. occurs of lands being held by
the heirs of those who occupied them 80 years ago.
The poorest peasant is not even at liberty to dispose of
the fruits of his own industry at his own pleasure ; but
is bound to carry the whole, or a part, either to the
company or the prince, at a regulated, and frequently
most inadequate price. Though the unbounded prero-
gatives of the sovereign, and this fluctuating state of pro-
perty, cannot admit a hereditary nobility, there arenever~
. theless a privileged class, who receive titles and exten-
sive powers at-the pleasure of their despot; and who are
proportionally revered by the superstitions le as re-
presentatives of royalty. Thedistinction between the
~ and these privileged orders is extremely marked and
umiliating, and extends even to the language, of which
the men of rank speak one dialect, and the plebeians ano-
ther. The language is even adapted to the different
gradations of rank ; and the sovereign particularly often
makes use of one dialect, which no subject dare use, and
is spoken ‘to in another, which can be addressed only to
himself. When a Javanese, in short, approaches the
presence of his prince, his great object is to express the
immeasurable inequality between his condition and that -
of the sovereign. He assumes, therefore, the most ab«
ject position of body, rather crawling than walking ;
shews his respect not by decency of attire, but anxious-
ly displays his relative meanness by studied raggedness -
“or partigl nakedness; and instead of recommending
himself by the elegance of his language, selects the dia-
lect of the most ignorant slave, or mimics the barbarous
idiom of a despised ‘stranger. Fe is the rear €X=
press respect, not by standing, but by orp in the pre=
sence of a superior y and pr the slaves who a as
menials, squat at the feet of their master or mistress, in-
stead of placing themselves behind their back. The
* See Cutna, Vol. VE. p. 300—Note +.
Jave _—natives of Java
J. AV. A.
generally about the middle size of
scupieenbasighoaeasrelh media; steed and upright
in their gait, i ox cage, Pane xearepoays .
bitants. Their eyes.are and prominent, the fore-
head heehee oer-weem ya rma curving
at the point, the upper lip rather projecting
She joints of thei’ hantla and feet remark-
small, and especially in the female. sex remark-
iant, so as easily to
of their skin is a deep brown, their hair black,
constantly smooth and shining with cocoa-nut
is also the favourite colour of the teeth,
hich are all stained of the deepest hue,
in the front, which are covered with gold leaf.
dren of both sexes go entirely naked till their eighth or
ninth year; or, at most, the young females wear ia belt
sna iiciaiiieeniicataentoniel
sa
PEEEEEE
Hi
=
upon the head. Persons of a higher class
Ma oT coat of flowered cotton or other
stuff, and ly turbans instead of era-
dicate from of the body except the
head ; the face, and other not covered by
women nearly resembles that of the men. It consists
of a piece of cotton or chintz called saron,
constructed of bamboo, plastered with mud, and
thatched with leaves of the cocoa-nut tree. There is sel-
ede
ing the rice, and a few cocoa-nut shells
as are sufficiently temperate in
point of in consequence of their extreme poverty,
yet altogether even voracious, as to
or or salt, and the fruit of the cocoa-nut ; but
pat onc i ice i i
inary, or
mew:
a paste, and rolled w
in a green leat of betel pepper, which communicates to
i red colour, afterwards turn-
and
asmall portion will intoxicate those who are
to it. They are fond of opium, and
in intoxicating liquors at their religious
631
ceremonies ; but the greater of the people stupify
themselves with the ae crueaiee articles, of tobacco
and bangue. Though subject to few diseases, they are
not long lived; ma a exceeding the. of 50, and
very few attaining threescore years. Their physicians;
who are frequently females, though ignorant of anato-
my, are said to produce surprising cures by their know~
of medicinal herbs, and by the use of friction
with oil. The. Javanese are polygamists, and marry
as many wives as they can maintain ; besides keeping
a retinue of female slaves as concubines, but the lower
classes have seldom more. than one wife. They are said
to be extremely indifferent with regard to the chastity
of their.females, and to be in this respect the most de«
praved people in the world, Their women are: more
pm than the men, but become extremely ugly as
e
and.
vanese person of rank spends most of his private hours
in the society of his women, smoking his hooka in pla-
cid apathy, while they are dancing before him, or lis-
tening to their narrations of traditionary stories, or the
adventures recorded in the sacred books. The princi-
pal amusement’ of a more active nature, isa kind of
tennis-play, at which they are remarkably dexterous,
striking the ball (which is about the size of a man’s?
head) with their feet, knees, or elbows, and keeping it:
Java.
Medicine,
Marriages,
wold. They are much attached to Europeans, z
atally jealous of losing their affections. A Ja- “osoemg
in continual motion like a shuttle-cock. They are also °
extremely fond of cock-fighting, for which they keep a:
particular breed of a prodigious size, nearly as large as’
the Norfolk bustard. Instead of spurs, they fix to the’
bottom of the foot a piece of iron shaped like
a , and about the size of the blade of a large
knife; with a single stroke of which, the bird will
sometimes completely lay open the body of his an
nist. The principal weapon
they always — with them, is a kind of dagger called °
a creese, resembling a small hunting knife, with a
blade of hardened steel, of a tine shape, and ca--
pable, from its form, of inflicting a | and wide
wound: Its point also is frequently stained with a
mortal poison
touching the forehead with the right hand, accompa-
or
scribed as proud and cowardly, extremely arrogant in
which light th of who are their inferiors, in
which light regard all foreigners ; but not less
cringing siwarde' their superiors, ow those from whom
they have any favours to expect. They are remarkably
indolent in their habits, and are with great difficulty
excited to labour ; a disposition, which, considering the
industry of the Chinese who reside among them, may
be ascribed not so much to the influence of their cli-
mate, as to the ive nature of their government,
which renders them so uncertain of being suffered to
possess the property which they may acquire, and thus
takes away every motive to active exertion.
of the Javanese, which Weapons.
. Their mode of salutation consists in salutations.
a slight inclination of the body. They are de- character.
The Chinese inhabitants of the island are very nu- Chinese.
merous, jally around Batavia, where the poll tax
paid only by the men yields 40,000 rix-dollars, where
they are calculated to amount to 100,000 souls. Their
appearance, dress, and character is every where the
same, as in the empire of China; but in Java their ex-
traordinary ind forms a striking contrast with the
laziness of the inhabitants. Though severely
taxed by the Dutch, = generally found means to ac-
cumulate wealth. In all the towns they are the great
holders of capital, and carry on a considerable trade
wth their native country, and the several islands in.
Java,
——\~— Java. They are
Malays.
Slaves.
632
the Eastern Archipelago, as well as around the coast of
e principal shop-keepers, the most
skilful gardeners, the most ingenious artificers, on the
island.. They are free masters of whatever they can
earn by trade or agriculture, beyond the assessments
levied by the Company’s government ; and in the ra«
tional hope of obtaining the reward of their exertions,
they readily undertake the most toilsome occupations,
which the oppressed and plundered Javanese would
regard and would probably experience to be lost la~
bour. But, with all these industrious habits, they are
extremely addicted to gaming; and the houses licensed
for the purpose in their quarter of Batavia, are so nu-
merous as to yield an annual tax of £8000. Though
sufficiently pusillanimous and effeminate, they are ex-
tremely €arbulent, and apt to break out into open in-
_surrections, for which they were otten punished by the
Dutch in the most sanguinary and summary manner,
_(See Batavia) ; but, of late years, it has been the more
humane policy of the Company’s government to divert
their attention by perpetual amusements, and to keep
them in subordination by officers of their own nation.
The Malays are also a numerous class of the inhabi-
tants of Java, but are a most worthless and ferocious
race of people. They are sufficiently active, bold, and
enterprising in the pursuit of plunder, and passionately
addicted to every kind of gaming. They will fre-
quently stake upon the issue of a cock-fight their last
morsel of bread, their whole bodily clothing, and even
their wives and children. They are treacherous in
their dealings, remorseless in their enmities, and ca-
pricious in there friendships. Their rage is of the most
ungovernable description, resembling a kind of mental
frenzy ; and their revenge is inflexible in its aim, how-
ever fatal its consequences to themselves. A blow,
especially, is an indignity which they neyer forgive,
and which makes them lose all consideration. for their
own existence. Under the influence of revenge or dis-
appointment, a Malay sometimes adopts the desperate
resolution of running a muck (as it is vulgarly called,
from the word amock. to kill) ; and, arming himself
with a dagger, he sallies forth after swallowing a large
dose of opium, attempting to kill every person who comes
in his way. He is of consequence soon knocked on
the head like a mad dog, or sometimes secured alive
by means of a long pole armed with iroy hooks; and,
in this, case, was. usually put to death by torture, to
deter others from imitating the example. But, since
the abolition of the gambling houses by order of Lord
Minto, not a single instance of these frantic bursts of
despair has occurred at Batavia.
The last class of inhabitants are the slaves, who are
imported chiefly from Malabar, Celebes, Timor, Mada-
gevens and Mosambique. They are distinguished in
e towns by having their legs and feet uncovered ;
and are employed thes in domestic services, or trained
to.useful trades, by which they generally earn for the
use of their masters a higher interest for the money ex-
pended in their purchase and subsistence, than could
be procured by employing it in any other way. The
most numerous and useful are Malays, from the. diffe-
rent islands of the Eastern Archipelago, who. are ex-
tremely prompt at imitation, and expert in all. handi-
craft trades, Those from Malabar are mild and pas-
sive, willing to be instructed, but slow of apprehen-
sion, ill adapted for hard labour, and generally used as
ersonal attendants on their proprietors. Those from,
Madagascar and Mosambique are also a harmless and.
pliant race, tall, and athletic, but remarkable for their
1
JAVA.
simplicity, and devoid of all ingenuity. The poses
part of a female slaves are bactaght fs Pulo Nias, a
small island on the western side of Sumatra, and are
greatly esteemed for their smooth skins, elegant shape,
and lively dispositions, sometimes selling at the rate of
a thousand dollars. The slaves of both sexes are well
fed and lightly worked ; but frequently treated with
great severity. In consequence of the excess in the
proportion of females, and the little care taken of their
offspring, who are seldom the fruit of a connubial tie,
there is required a large annual importation to keep up
their number ; and it is estimated, that more than a
thousand are imported every year for the citizens of
Batavia alone. Phere is little occasion, indeed, for this
class of beings in a place where thousands of free Chi+
nese, the best and most handy servants in the world,
are ready to serve in every department, on the most
moderate terms. Their treatment at least will now be
greatly ameliorated, by the abolition of all farther trade
in slaves in the British settlements, of which the g
effects have already extended to the island of Java.
The Jawa or Javanese language, though now sup-
planted by that of the Malays, on the coast, is admitted
to be the most ancient, and seems to have at onetime
been current throughout the whole extent of the island.
In the interior, not one native among ten thousand can
speak the Malay language; and the two people are not
in the least intelligible to each other in their speech,”
The Jawa is sufficiently copious, and overflows with
words of pure Sanscrit. The Hindoo names for the
days of the week, though now obsolete, are universally
known to the learned Javanese. The alphabet of Ja«
va is nevertheless peculiar ; and has no resemblance, in~
the order of the characters, to the Deva Nagari. . The
simple letters are twenty in number, besides compound
characters. Each letter has an inherent vowel, as in
the Bengalee, which is always pronounced like @ in the
English word ample, and is always sounded in read
ing, unless when a mark indicates its suppression.
The other vowels are always joined to the consonants,
and have generally one determinate sound. . The com«
pound characters are commonly placed beneath the
simple letters; and then the inherent vowel of the
upper letter is suppressed, while that of the compound
one is sounded. ‘The plural is formed, as in the Ma-
lay, by merely repeating the word; and there is no
variation on account of number or person in the verbs.
The orthography is extremely simple, and the con-
struction not unlike that of the Malay.
_ There is satisfactory evidence, that the Javanese once Religi
. professed the Hindoo religion in some form ; but as
there is no appearance of the grand Brahminical dis-
tinction of casts having ever prevailed among them, it
is conjectured that the most prevailing system was
that of Buddha. The traditions, however,. of -their
ancient belief, the superstitious observances still extant,
and the temples and idols peculiar to the Hindoo wor-
ship, with inscriptions in the sacred language of that
faith, found in various parts of the island, furnish suffi«
cient evidence, that the tenets of Brahma had also ob-
tained a footing. Many of the penances inculcated in
the Hindoo ritual are occasionally practised by the Ja-
vanese; and all who are descended of the royal
blood, scrupulously abstain from using the. flesh: of
the cow. Many idols of Brahma, Vishnu, Mahadeva,
and Bhavani, both of stone and metal, have been found
in the island ; and that of Ganesa with his e t
head, was frequently recognised by the British officers, _
during their late campaigns in Java. More than 100
JAVA.
Jays —_ stones were discovered in the interior, covered with in-
Yr seri
i which Mr Marsden ascertained to be writ-
Square Pali, a sacred character of the Bir-
most extensive remains of these Hindoo
found at
districts rth ke ers
ing island ¥ igi
it angen Set aaa Saieribe Sead ba
eastern mountains of Java; but the prevailing re-
ion at present is that of Mahommed, adulterated by
iti i ient systems. The
faith was introduced in 1406, by Sheikh
ibn Molana, or Ben Israel, an Arabian, who soon be-
eame a powerful sovereign, as well as a venerated
mits to
terms. | : ell ai heal
Thus, after a short but brilliant campaign, the island '
of Java was wrested from the dominion of France, and ©
annexed to the number of: British colonies. Lord Min- ~
to, the governor-general of India, who. had accompa-
nied the expedition, having witnessed the triumph ‘of
through an intricate country, Colonel Gillespie,-on ap-
roaching the works, learnt that the rear of his co-
umn had not arrived, Relying on the prompt and
able assistance ef Colonel. Gibbs, as soon as the fire
of the main attack should point out its direction,
Colonel Gillespie resolved to advance. Twice he
was challenged by the enemy’s sentries, and answer-
ing “ patrole,” passed on. An officer’s .piquet next
challenging,, the .word “ forward” was given, and
so rapidly was the command obeyed, that the -piquet
was demolished in an instant. The redoubt was
next assaulted and carried with the bayonet, with
such celerity, that not a man escaped. Passing for-
award to secure the passage over the bridge, the at-
Java.
=
ZAVA.
the British arms, and having given publicity to the me-
nel dhalemndadinnae of government, returned
to Calcutta, @ monument, at his own ex-
pence, to the officers who fell in the service of their
. Sir Samuel Achmuty, having left a force
poe pr a a jon of the new con-
een Sesame Rime ne Soy em
Dutch colo- We shall now call the attention of our readers from
Account of
EE
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ares,
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t
Fae
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ei
ir
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re
2
prows, ,
the river, at the mouth of which they
dered. They were pytto death under the most hor.
rible cruelties,. and. the, 8s which contained them
were afterwards set on and consumed. The un-
fortunate victims, it is said, amounted
and 63 native soldiers. But the instigator of
E
|
Lite
ie
§*
:
:
F
.
2
4
F
635
voured me amuse the British commander ‘with declara-
tions of respect, and messages requesting to be in-
formed of the object of deca chame. ‘Appivpriots an-
swers were returned, with the assurance that the views
of the British government’ would only be confided by
the commander of the forces to the royal ear.. But the
insidious policy of the sultan began fully to develope
itself. A e arrived,. importin that the sul-
tan would be happy to see his friend British com+
mander at-Palimbang, with a few attendants only,’ as
the presence-of so large a force might occasion serious
alarm to his ——— Formidable batteries in appear=
ance, though badly constructed, were placed at Borang,
40 miles from the sea, to- guard the approach to the
capital... Unmolested passage up the river being de«
manded of the messenger by Colonel Gillespie, this
Java,
was granted, and also the occupation of the batteries, Batteries at
which was promised asa pledge of sincerity, a person Borang
styled their commandant being left
British tothe spot. The next day, the British ad-
vance, with its guns, err a ce within
the: batteries which the sultan had or=
his troops to» defend were abandoned by the
enemy. Their cannon, amounting to 102 pieces, ready
loaded and primed, were taken ion of. A scene
of desultory and savage hostility soon spread. around.
Fires in all directions were kindled, and burning rafts
were prepared,for the destruction of the shipping ;
happily the incendiary Malays were dispersed by shot
froma the boats of the Cornelia, before a con ion en«
to conduct the seized.
sued... On the morning.of the 23d of April, informas coprusion
tion was received-that the sultan had from Palims at
Palim-
bang on scemnlng that the batteries of were bang.
utmost’ confusion prevailed in the
capital, many parts.of which were a prey to rapine and
assassination. Toyput a stop to this horrible state of
things, and to prevent the massacre of the wealthy
Chinese, which it was ee ae the sultan’s ory bened
meant to perpetrate on ensuing night, and w
a Gilleop! to become the prize of the assassins, Co-
i jie meant to interpose a prompt relief. For
this object, a resolute een
isting of 17 grenadiers
by Captain Bowen and Lieutenant Monday of
the navy, Major Butler, Major Thorn, and Lieutenant
Forrest, At their head was Colonel Gillespie.’ The
rest of the troops was ordered to follow with all expe-
dition. It was night before they reached old ‘Palim-
bang. ‘The canoe which contained its leader outstript
in sailing the other two boats, and the report of a signal
gun, fired by the enemy, increased the anxiety for thei
coming up, as the apprehension of some treacherous
ee Horrid yells and shrieks in
all directions broke around, while'a conflagration illu-
minated a tract of country, stretching for upwards of
miles on both sides of the river. the exertions
crews, the other two boats were brought up to
the support of their friends: A scene of horror now
3
own words, “ Romance never described any thing half
80 hideous, nor has the invention of the imagination ever
giver representations ly ling with what here
struck us in reality.” Undaunted by Baste of armed men,
Colonel Gillespie boldly ped on shore, at the head
of his dev band, and marched with a firm step,
through a multitude of Arabs and ferocious Malays,
guard was selected, con- A small
the 59th regiment, accom- band select-
for its re-
f,
Java.
ya
Critieal si-
tuation of
the party.
€on flagta-
tion.
Fort and
batteries
secured,
Deposition
of the sul-
tan.
636
whose weapons steeped in poison, gleamed by the light
ot the torches. Huge battlements with massy gates,
leading from one area to another, received the 5
presenting the frightful spectacle of human blood still
flowing and reeking on the pavement. The gates
closed on its rear, and the blood-stained court-yards
through which it was conducted, appeared as the pas-
sage to a slaughter-house. A Malay who approached
the colonel through the crowd, while walking by his
side, had a large double-edged knife secretly conveyed
to him by one of his countrymen. At the-moment, a
flash of lightning darting through ‘the tempest’of the |
night, disclosed the weapon, while the assassin’ was
endeavouring to conceal .it in-his sleeve. ‘The colonel’s
eye caught:the object, and regardless of the crowd, he
ordered the Malay to be:seized, and thus frustrated by
his firmness of mind the murderous design. The wea-
pon was found, but the Malay escaped. “On arriving at
the palace, a more dreadful picture of devastation and
outrage was displayed. Here ‘rapine and murder had
gone hand in hand. Vivid flashes of lightning and peals
of thunder conspired with the glaresof the conflagra-
tion to give.a peculiar character of awe to the seenes
which caught the sight. ‘The flames, which. devoured
every thing around, in spite of the rain which fell in
torrents, threatened the spot» where the band had
sought a temporary shelter. The crackling of bam-
boos, the falling in of burning: roofs with tremendous
crashes, and the near approach-of the flames amidst a
hostile multitude and’ desperate: assassins, gave to the
situation of the party a most appalling prospect.. An
arduous task yet remained, to secure possession of the
fort; and to perform this, the party was prepared to
sell their lives as dear as possible, should an attack be
made before the arrival:ot a reinforcement. ': The inte
rior of the palace being carefully examined ‘by torch
light, all the entrances but one-were barricaded. «At
this the grenadiers were stationed; and the strictest
watch maintained, Soon after midnight, the party had
the satisfaction of hailing the: arrival of Major Trench
with 60 men of the 89th regiment; and the remain-
der of the force under Colonel Macleod joined the little
garrison early the next morning» Thus, ‘by an act of
unparalleled intrepidity, 17 British grenadiers, and the
crews of two boats, with the officers above mentioned;
were put in possession of a fort and batteries, mounting
242 pieces of cannon, without: the loss of aman: A
—- which, by any sother:species of attack, must
ve risked ‘the safety of the armamenti' The celerity
of the mevement, and the sudden) arrival of the few
British, whose numbers the ic of the enemy had
magnified, caused the dis .of ‘the: sultan’s: adhe-
rents, the ene of their.murderous project, and
the relief of the town from. the horrors’of pillage. An
American, in charge/of' a Chinese junk at ‘Palimbang;
gave a dismal-recital of the storm» about: to burst that
night, and which the. interpositiom of ‘the British had
averted. This junk was marked as:the first victim» of
its fury. The solemn deposition ‘ofthe guilty sultan;
by Colonel Gillespie, took place,to'the great joy of the
people, and his brother was prislsdaiade in hes stead:
JA VA.
while the erystals which were soupe within the
st
The object of the expedition being thus happily termi-
nated, the force, with the exception’ of a son lett “—y—
behind, repaired ‘to Samarang, where a fresh field for
British» valour was open in the heart of Java\ ©’
The'sultan of Mataram or Djoejoecarta, who had’been
intriguing the downfal of his last masters, still continu-
-ed disposed ‘to dispute the oe of Java with the
British. The new Lieut.-Governor Raffles, and Colo-
nel Gillespie, now commander ‘of the forees in Java, re-
— to: Djoejoecarta, the sultan’s preci after’ Sultan of |
‘trying in vain'to settle matters amicably, ‘prepared for Djoejoccar-
hostilities The residence of the sultan, or Crattan, tin anns.’
‘as it is called; is about three miles in circumference, sur-
rounded by a broad wet ditch, with draw bridges, a
strong highs rampart with ‘bastions, and defended by 100
pieces of cannon. © In the interior are numerous squatés
and courts all strong ‘and) defensible’; 17,000 regula‘
troops manned the works, and’an’ armed ‘pi 1 of
100,000 men occupied the country for many miles
round, The Dutch fort, within 800 yards of the Crat-
tan, was’ calculated’ for little’ else than’ a military de-
pot, and the fire from it ‘was’ only intended to amuse
the enemy while the ‘force was concentrating: ‘At
length the troops having arrived, formidable from their
intrepidity, not from their numbers, they were ‘order-
ed into the fort, preparatory to the attack of the enes
= strong-hold. It was determined to carry ‘the fors
ifications by assault, as the most prompt way ‘of redi-
cing the place, andof giving security to the colonies,
threatened by the irruption of armed thousands at Bans
tam, Cheribon; “Sourabaya, and other places, on the
first signal. ‘The different attacks being arranged by Co-
lonel Gillespie, the works were escaladed; and carried
with irresistible’ impetuosity. The troops were anima-
ted to heroic exertion by the ery of «death ors
resounding’ through''the ranks. ° In’ many places“
enemy were dispersed by their'own guns turned upon
them. nee was i938 a ‘to surrender himself page a
a prisoner, the:cav. horse artillery being ed y
eines ioral fugitives,’ "Howtilities having ““
now ceased, the island of Java was restored'to tranqui
lity and order, and has, we believe, been recently given
over to the king of the Netherlands, See
Sketches of Java; Sir George Stavmton’s Account of the
Embassy to China; Barrow’s Vi e to Cochin 3
Thunberg’s Z'ravels ; Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer :
Baptist. Missionary’ Periodical Accounts; No. xxvi. ;
Thorn’s Account ofthe Capture of Java; and Brande’s
Journal of the Arts and Seiences. ine
‘ICEvis a transparent crystallised ‘substance formed by
the:congelation of water when reduced toa
ture below 32° of Fahrenheit.” As ice is generally Crystale
duced bya very rapid congelation; it commonly Ciikeie ice.
in an aggregated mass of , the axes of Ki
which are turned in different directions. Under fas
vourable circumstances, however, where the process of
congelation has ‘been slow, ‘and the water exposed tono
agitation, perfect crystals of ice are sometimes formed:
M. Hassentratz, Mi Hericaut de Thury,* and Mr Seores-
by, have observed crystals of ice that had the form of
regular hexahedral prisms’; and Romé de Lisle, M. -
+of which the
w stalactitical
ated on the terminal faces, and
. NT ee
ICE. 637
toa. DAntie, and Mr Scoresby, have sometimes found them dered smooth. The continued sheet now formed is Ice.
“—Y~" in the state of octohedrons, composed of two four-sided soon broken into fragments of about three°inches in “—“\—
pyramids. ia Er ae i Se ee et form a continued
. Imwexamining the optical properties of ice, Dr Brew- texture of a stronger kind, which, in its turn, is bro-
erie ete ieal, that even large masses two or three inch- ken into masses of much size. These are round-
E es thick, formed upon the surface of standing water, ed at the edges by mu attrition, and receive the
was as perfectly crystallized as rock crystal or caleare- name of pancake ice.
ous spar, all the axes of the elementary crystals, corre. _‘In sheltered situations and im still weather the conge-
ing with the axes of the hexahedral prisms, being lation goes on more regularly, and to appearance more
exactly parallel to each other, and quvtaticlar tothe rapidly. The thin sheet formed in the first instance,
horizontal surface. receives accessions to its thickness from beneath. In
This a result was obtained by transmitting twenty-four hours of keen frost it often acquires a
poe ee through the plate in a direction perpen- thickness of two or three inches ; and in less than two
i tovits surface. A series of beautiful concentric days is strong enough to ‘bear the weight of a man.
coloured rings with a dark rectangular cross passing This is termed day ice, from being formed in sheltered
through their centre, were thus exhibited. These bays. That which is of older formation is distinguish-
of the same nature as those seen along ed into two kinds, according to its thickness, being call«
Zircon; for when they were combined ed light ice when from a foot to a yard thick, and when
with the rings produced by this substance, a system above a yard heavy ice.
pre oy ee aw ar that which was pro- Some fields of ice are so smooth in their surface, so
by either singly; w had they been of the transparent in their texture, and so exactly similar to
opposite character, the rings produced by the combij- the ice formed on fresh lakes, that it has been believed
nation would have been greater than one of the sys- scarcely possible that they should be produced by the
tems produced separately. Hence, ice belongs to the freezing of the ocean, and they have been considered
The —— force of ice as owing their origin, at least in part, to the freezing of
i ing +}-- Its refractive rain or melted snow, which had settled on a flat surface
power is 1.307 less than that of water, and its specific of young ice, encircled by a ledge of older ice, which
gravity is also less than that of water. For an account retained the water like a cup. ,
of the chemical laws on which the congelation of water Loosened pieces, which are smaller than fields, but
— see Cuemisrry. still of vi dimensions, are’ called floes. Pieves Floes.
nder the article Coin, and alsounder Greentanp, much smaller, detached from the angles of larger ones,
polar some of the phenomena which accompany the forma- and floating in a congregated state, are called brash Brash ice.
ice.
history, however, is sufficiently im t to require a Ice of any form or size, soaing in a state sufficiently Drift ice.
minute description, on account of the great scale on loose to allow a vessel to sail freely among it, is called
which congelation is effected, the variety of the ap. louse, open, or drift ice.
pearances presented, the striking grandeur of some,and § A number of large pieces in ‘close contact, forming Packs and
i i a ies which cannot be seen over from a mast Patches.
which some known circumstances concerning it afford head, are called a pack. A similar congeries, which
for the prosecution of interesting objects. can be seen over, is called 'a patch. ‘When a congeries
The appearances ‘which the ice presents in its out- of either kind is of an oblong shape, it is called a stream
line, ially when existing in a detached state, are of ice.
di ; and, being of great interest to mariners A protuberance, considerably elevated above the Hummocks,
i ey are designated by common surface of flat ice, is called a lummock. Hum
distinct terms with as much familiarity as the varieties mocks often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards.
of form which occur on land. They aré sometimes ft by fields of ice crushing each
Fields of A continued sheet of ice, so extensive that its ulterior other, so that large pieces, separated from the margin,
boundary cannot be seen from the mast-head of a ship, are raised on edge, or a numerous wreck is accumula~
i ted on the top of a field. Hummocks are ey
ice which is in the first in- poten but sometimes they extend to the
i to a process of middle of a ld, showing that their origin is some-
on surface of the ocean, to which the times different from that now described. They coms
of land is not, as some have supposed, neces- municate to the ice a variety of fanciful shapes, and
i a rough and in fender the whole ap of it highly picturesque,
oe is When porte vate ore rere of pieces of moderaté
sufficiently low. It requires a temperature corisidera- size is to accumulate such masses above a comparative-
bly inferior to the freezing point of fresh water, as the ly thin floe, that the surface of the Jatter is depressed
force must be sufficient to surmount the attraction of beneath that of the water, this 98 called a calf. vatves.
i it in solution, for Some of these calves are sufficiently deep ‘to allow a’
more or less separation always takes place: the ice vessel to sail over them. But it is dangerous to ap~
toqaapaiaks circumstances, a affords water pep Sere. beg avs v being ome te and ait ¥
. i jon as iginal water of and when rub freely against th incumbent
pro ame Aen coma Tal ieces, Shy thos become so far detached that their
Progres of On a rough surface, this process begins with the for- Peoyancy raises them to the surface, and their momen-
songelsion. mation of detached crystals, called by the sailors siudge, tum during a change of situation is sufficient to stave
which y meaaeens tae, in water without un- ScunAEnk Urea quis Gari ubsie LC as Dork
i 3 by the union of the crystals, etimes even a le i is sort,
actin as tagardis ditace i seat by raising ome end of a vessel, immerses the other end,
=
Bs
23
Ice.
Effects of a
ground
swell,
633
to the imminent danger of precipitating it in that di-
rection to the bottom.
Concave sinuosities in the border of a large mass of
flat ice are called bights. They often afford a conve-
nient refuge to ships, but sometimes they. give occasion
to detentions. of the most inconvenient and dangerous
kind. :
We have now to notice some changes of a grander
and more terrific description, to which the ice is sub-
jected. That powerful tendency to undulation of the
surface, communicated by the agitation of the adjoining
liquid surface of the ocean during a continued storm,
which is denominated a ground swell, sometimes pro-
duces a sudden disruption of extensive fields, The
ice, when thin, accommodates itself to the surface by
bending ; but, when several yards in thickness, it re-
fuses to yield beyond a certain extent, and is broken
Le £..
not without great difficulty.. Scarcely had. reacli-
ed it, when that part of the ice from which they had
just escaped burst asunder, and the water rushing up
from beneath instantly precipitated it- into the ocean.
In a moment, as if by a signal, the whole mass of ice
for several miles along the coast, and extending as far
as the eye could reach, began to break, and to be over-
whelmed with the waves, The spectacle was awfully
grand. The immense fields. of ice rising out of the
ocean, clashing against one another, and a ea
into the deep with a violence which no > can
describe, and a noise like the discharge of a thousand
cannon, was a sight which must have struck the most
unreflecting mind with solemn awe. The Brethren
were overwhelmed with amazement at their miraculous
escape, and even the pagan. Esquimaux expressed. gra-
titude to God for their deliverance.” ‘
Ice in that elevated form which is.called the iceberg, Icebergs
demands particular attention... This term. is applied to described.
such elevations as exist in the vallies of the frigid zones; -
into pieces with dreadful explosions, The best account
that we know of the appearances presented on such oc-
casions is. given by a party.of Moravian missionaries,
who were eee in a coasting expedition on the ice
along the northern shore of Labradore, with sledges
drawn by dogs. They narrowly escaped destruction from
one of these occurrences, and were near enough to wit-
ness all its grandeur. We extract it from the recent
interesting compilation of the Rev. Dr Brown, on the
History of the Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 51,
“‘ The missionaries met a sledge with Esquimaux turn-
ing in fromthe sea, who. threw outsome hints thatitmight
be as well for them.to return., After some time, their
own Esquimauxhinted that there was a ground swell un-
der the ice... It was then scarcely, perceptible, except on
lying down and applying the ear close to the ice, when
a hollow disagreeable grating noise. was heard: ascend-
ing from the abyss. ike the motion of the sea under
the ice had grown more perceptible, they became
alarmed, and began to think. it prudent to keep. close to
the shore. The ice also had fissures in many places,
some of which formed chasms of one or two feet; but,
as these are not.uncommon,even in its best state, and
the dogs easily leap over them, they are frightful onl
to strangers. As the wind rose to a storm, the swell
had now increased, so much that its. effects on the ice
were extraordinary and really alarming. The sledges,
instead of gliding. smoothly along as on an.even surface,
sometimes ran with violence after the dogs, and some-
times seemed with difficulty to ascend arising hill.
Noises, too, were now, distinctly heard in many direc.
tions like the report of cannon, from, the, bursting of
the ice at a distance. Alarmed by these frightful phe-
nomena, our travellers.drove with all haste towards the
shore; and, as.they approached it, the prospect, before
them was tremendous. .The ice having burst. loose
from the rocks, was tessed.to.and fro, and broken in a
thousand. pieces against. the precipices with a dreadful
noise ; which, added to the raging of the sea, the roar-
ing of. the wind, and. the driving of the snow, so com-
pletely overpowered them, as almost to deprive them.of
the use both of their eyes and ears... To. make the land
‘was now the only resource that remained, but it: was,
with the utmost difficulty that, the frightened dogs could
be driven forward; sf as. the whole body. of the ice
frequently sunk below. the summits of the rocks, and.
then rose above them, the only. time for landing was
the moment it gained the level of, the coast,—a circum-.
stance-which rendered the attempt extremely nice and,
hazardous. » Both sledges, however, succeeded in gain-
ing the shore, and were drawn up, on the beach, though
3
to those which are found on the surface of fixed ice.;
and also, to. ice: of enormous thickness and st 1
height in a floating state. The vallies of West Green-~
land are filled with icebergs to an extent never yet .ex~
plored. The seven icebergs in the vallies on the west
coast of Spitzbergen, were supposed by Mr Scoresby,
when seen by him, to, present a perpendicular front
$00 feet high. Their green hue, and. glistening splen-
dour, exhibited a pleasing variety, and added a richness
to the prospect by the contrast which they presented
with, the magnificence of the neighbouring snow-co-
yered mountains. . From ,these,icebergs enormous
overhanging masses are sometimes detached . by their
own weight, as from the glaciers.of the Alps... This
separation is aided by a softness of cohesion which they
acquire in the thawing season; and. it is also. believed
that quantities of water pent.up within them exert, in
the act of freezing, an expansive force, which produces
disruption. Masses of this kind, in a floating state, are
most plentiful.in Baffin’s Bay, where they are sometimes
two miles long,.and two-thirds ofa mile. broad, bristled
with. varied spires, rising more than 100 feet above the
surface, while the base extends 150 yards beneath it,
Icebergs.of an even surface, elevated. 30. yards above
the sea, and five or six.square miles in, area, are very
common. Those of East Greenland are of inferior size,
The largest that Mr. Scoresby ever saw was 1000 yards
in circumference, flat on the summit, and nearly 20
feet above the level of the sea. This difference proba=
bly arises from the more sheltered. situation of the large
bays of West.Greenland, :
We have reason to believe that many, icebergs. are
formed at a distance from any land. This appears from
the account which Muller gives of an sxpetaebaieies
in the year 1714, by. Markoff a Cossack, after-he had
been foiled by drift ice in. an. attempt to explore the
ocean,to the north of Russia... This adventurous person
set off with a.party from. the coast of Siberia at. the
mouth of the. river Yani, in, North. Lat..71°, in the
month of March,, to. travel. on the-surface of the ice to.
the north pole in sledges drawn.by dogs. ,.He pro=.
ceeded for seven days till he reached the 78th degree,.
when his progress was impeded by ice elevated into:
prodigious mountains, from the summits'of which he |
could discern nothing but mountainous ice to the north-
ward. He therefore returned, and, after.some herdabion
and losses, reached the coast of Siberia on the 3d of /
pril, having in 19 days travelled 800 miles. To what,
Tee.”
_——
ekxtent these masses may be detached during summer in
regions nearer the pole than any that have hitherto
been - _ we cannot deterinine ; but it is not
i that ‘from this source many of the loose
i are derived which are found to the west
of the islands of Spitzbergen. It is p e that many
are also formed on the eastern coasts of these islands,
which are more favourable to such a process. But
the numbers of these enormous masses that come by
Davis's Straits are by far the greatest, and the coast of
‘Newfoundland is often crowded with them. They
“gradually dissolve as they move to the southward ; but
some have been found in Lat. 40°, 2100 miles from
their source.
These lofty masses are formed by the accu-
'y
mulation of drifted snow first “softened by
the summer heat, acquiring an augmented soli-
dity ion. It is
a subsequent process of congelati
be hat their high oy
the falling moisture, which is more readily con-
than that which lies lower, the temperature be-
at the highest elevations. We mentioned
the article Corp an i ious conjecture of Pro-
Leslie, ’ they their great height by
i hygrometric water from the air as-
peace = Nepal aby went
ising peaks of ice which are formed in
the congelations in the ingenious process for
its own tion, of which that
inventor. ut we may be allowed
i i ce in this opinion
our entire
to
evaporate taneously in a glass.
the same kind are Bae
as the latter
moves more quickly, requiring a shorter duration of
the wind in one direction to attain its utmost velocity.
The ships are sometimes moored to the icebergs for se-
; but this situation is not without its dangers,
nicely balanced as to be
|
B&
F
sometimes lost by the vast
they occasion, which over-
within a considerable dis-
the rolling mountain. | often prove
supplying the ships with water, which
tes wells on the surface, and is
a cylindrical piece of can-
outline of the fixed — ice, and the
ich it is subjected in the course of years,
A
i
if
i
=
‘i
ih
E
E
i
s
1C-E.
689
are highly interesting. -Before the 15th century, the _ Ice.
eastern coast of West Greenland was free from ice in ~~"
summer, and could be freely approached: by ships,
After a considerable trade had for 400 years been car-
ried on between Iceland and that country, which was
inhabited by a large and flourishing colony, ‘the polar
ice suddenly exceeded its former limits, launched down
in a direction nearly parallel to the coast as far as the
southern Cape, and barricadoed the whole coast in such
a manner as to render it ever since inaccessible. The
fate of the colony is unknown. If the increased seve-
of the climate was insufficient to destroy it, this
effect was inevitable from the destruction of all the re-
sources on which it ded. The mass of ice ly-
ing between Old or West Greenland and the northern
part of Russia on the east, though varying in different
Seasons, presents a striking uniformity in its general
outline. After doubling the southern promontory of
Greenland, it advances in a north-eastern direction,
half enveloping Iceland in close seasons, till it reaches
the small mand called John Mayne’s Island, which it
frequently encloses. It then trends a little more to the
eastward, and intersects the meridian of London in
the 71st or 72d degree of latitude. ‘Having reached
the longitude of 6, 8, or 10 degrees east in the 73d or
T4th degree of latitude, it suddenly stretches to the north;
sometimes ing on one meridian to the latitude of
80°, at others forming a deep sinuosity,-extending only
two or three northward, then south-easterly to
Cherry Island ; it then assumes a straight course a little
south of east, till it forms a junction with the coast of
Nova Zembla. :
On the whole, the tendency to a fixed state of the
ice is greatest on the eastern sides of land. These are
rendered peculiarly cold, from the westerly winds ha-
ving had their temperature reduced by blowing over
the eternal snow and ice of the continents. ‘These winds
are in their origin warmer than the-east, as they gene-
rally originate in southerly situations ; whereas the east
winds, originating in the north, are Jess lial/le to a re-
duction of vag mel in passing over a frozen conti-
nent. Thus the eastern shores are ex to all the
original coldness of the east winds. when they blow,
and to an additional coldness acquired by the west
winds; while the western shores are wafted by the
be winds in their mild — in Rh na keep pup
a'liqu , a qu w ose
crete tae lace It is well known, tf south-west
and n winds are more common in the northern
hemisphere than the north-west or the south-east,
Winds that blow directly from the west tend to pro-
duce a extension of the ice; but the south-
west winds give that form to its boundary which we
find it to possess, i. e, a line stretching to the
north-east. But why, at one period, the coast should
for centuries be free from ice, and at another period be
perenially lined with it, is one of those phenomena in
the changes of climate, for which, like many others in
meteorology, we cannot account. For an illustration
of the circumstances now stated, we referto the mete-
orological Essays of Mr Dalton. See also our article
Mergorotoay. The form of the outline of the ice va-
ries however according to the direction and force of
storms and currents. .
The deep bay formed by the boundary - ead AP ageing
8 ig seas Oo}
the west of Spitzbergen, is the onl track for proveed- :
ing to the faking ‘latitudes in the pbs In close sea- 5Pitzber-
sons, the ice at the extremity of this bay is so close, that
Tee.
640
the vessels cannot advance beyond the 75th or 76th de-
gree; but in open seasons, they have an uninterrupted
navigation along the western coast of Spitzbergen to
Hackluyt’s Headland, the north-western angle. An open
channel] extends in such seasons from 20 to 50 leagues
in breadth, to the latitude of 79° or 80°, gradually ap-
proaching the coast, till it effects a junction with its
northern extremity by a curvilinear head, Itis only in
this opeh part, that they can proceed sufficiently far
to the north to find the whales. These animals, of
stupendous size, but timid in disposition, prefer these
places, as affording the most secure retreats, enabling
them to dive beneath the ice out of the reach of danger,
and to return to the open part to respire. It is in the
78th and 79th degrees of latitude that they occur in
greatest number. At the southern part of Spitzbergen,
there is, at the bottom of the bay called the whale jfish-
er’s bight, a barrier of compact drift ice, mixed with
bay ice, stretching from the fixed ice on the west to
that on the east, and from 20 to 40 leagues in breadth.
This always exists in the early part even of open sea-
sons, and to find their way across this barrier, is with ma-
riners one principal object of anxiety and exertion. For
this purpose, every advantage is taken of those openings
in the ice, which are expressively called veins of water.
When the. wind is fair, they set all possible sail in order
to accomplish it speedily, and yet find it necessary to be
on their guard against the dangers which surround them
from pieces of floating ice, dangers which of course are
augmented in proportion to the velocity of a ship’s mo-
tion, These difficulties occur in the month of April ; but
by the end of June the ice is dispersed, and a safe return
afforded, which could scarcely be obtained if it conti-
nued equally prevalent, as the fogs, which obstruct the ;
view at the end of the season, would prevent them from
seeing their way through similar obstructions. In
sailing to the north, it is of importance to anticipate the
separation of the ice, in order to catch the best season
for the fishery.
Great and unexpected changes often take place in
the manner in which the drift ice is collected. It
frequently happens, that a ship is completely beset,
and unable to. move in one direction or another, ,
and next day, without apparent cause, the ice is com-.,
pletely dispersed, and an open sea presented on every
side. A tendency to separation always takes place
in the drift ice during a calm. The changes to which
the local situation of a ship is on such occasions sub«
jected, are not less surprising. Two ships surround-
ed with close ice a few furlongs apart, have sometimes
been in a few days separated to a distance; of \several
leagues, though no apparent change, took place in the
continuity of the pack. Bay ice sometimes, proves be-
neficial to the whaler, by 5 Bs the ship, and avert-
ing that danger which arises fromthe unequal. shock
produced by the brunt of the heavy ice. But it is in
other respects extremely troublesome, as it is often the
means of besetment, and thus the primary cause of the
greatest calamities. A sheet of it a few inches in thick-
ness, is. sufficient.to render a ship immoveable. If, un-
der these circumstances, it, is_ too strong to be broken
by a boat, recourse is, had to the laborious operation of
sawing it. ¢
The general tendency of the loose ice in the neigh-
bourhood of Spitzbergen, is to drift to the south-west,
towards Iceland and Cape Farewell in West Greenland.
When we consider the obstacles encountered in the na-
vigation of the northern seas, which are not more exs
5
IC E.
empt than others {rom stormy weather, and find that.
these fishing voyages are attended with so much ayer-
age security, we have a striking exemplification of the
adventurous spirit of man, and of the power of art in sur-
mounting difficulties of the most threatening kind... A
combination of thick weather, a stormy gale of wind, and
a tempestuous sea, crowded with detached pieces of ice,
each of which is enveloped in a thick spray raised by
the dashing of the waves, presents one of the most ter-
rific navigations that can be conceived.
“
Tee.
The phenomenon called the ice-blink is worthy of The ice
our attention. It is a lengthened stripe of lucid white. blink.
ness in the sky, bordering the visible horizon, which
often affords a beautiful and perfect map of the ice,
20. or 30 miles beyond 'the limit of direct vision. This
even serves to'shew tothe experienced observer the ex.
act kind of ice, whether field or packed, which occurs
in that direction.
:
.
Mr Scoresby has projected a plan for surmiounting Plan for
the obstacles opposed by the ice in a visit to the north travelling
pole, by travelling over the surface of it in the manner 0V¢" the po=
already mentioned as haying been put in practice by
Markoff. This is detailed in an intelligent and inge-
nious paper, read before the Wernerian Society, which
contains much information relative to'the polar ice, and
to which on this subject we have been principally in-
debted. Access to it previously to publication has been
most obligingly furnished to us by Professor Jameson, .
the president of that Society. Of that plan it would be
out of place to give any particular account. It will,
be inferred from the circumstances already mentioned
as having occurred. to Markoff, that, though not im-
practicable, it must be extremely precarious, and that.
those who engage in it, must be prepared for. total:
disappointment after the most Herculean exertions.
Yet it is worthy of remark that, if no obstruction arose.
from the form of the surface of the ice, an ‘expedition .
undertaken from the northern coast of Spitzbergen to .
_ the north pole and back, would exceed that actually.
performed by Markoff only, by 250 miles. Some ims.
portant information, in reply to a series of queries dis
rected to the elucidation of this subject, is given by.
Colonel Beaufey, in Dr Thomson’s Annals of Philoso-.
phy for May 1817. It was obtained from Russian
fishermen who had wintered at Spitzbergen. The ten-
dency of the accounts given by them, is to impress us.
with the difficulty of such an undertaking, as ari-«
sing from the great inequality of the surface of the ice,
in so far as could be infe from observations made .
in that part of the world, and from the storms of wind .
and snow, which are represented as extremely frequent.
An answer to.an additional query, however, is still.
wanted:, Is there any period of the.winter at which a
few weeks of fair and calm. weather may in general be
depended on? Or.are there any meteorological appear-
ances from which such.a track, of weather may be occa- .
sionally predicted? One interesting practical inquiry is
suggested by the degree of success obtained by Markoff,
Might not an attempt be made to- explore. by, similar
_ means the site of the ancient colony of West Greenland ?-
Of the ice of the southern hemisphere we have less
particular accounts, But we know that ice extends toa Antarctic
much greater distance from the south pole than from '*
the north. The 80° of north latitude is almost annual-
ly accessible at one part to navigators, and has occa=
sionally been exceeded. The 73° or 74° may be at-
tained in the closest summers.’ But the ne plus wlira of
the antarctic hemisphere is the 72°, 2. ¢. 600 miles short:
1c.
—
ee
po Fle | tcl a
as
2 my
ICE.
mm
to those found in the northern.
We shall now take notice of one circumstance in the
history of ice which is seldom i described, viz.
- that it is found forming at the bottom of water, even on
ar peter ter ona rat ey rapa
contrary to w i expected e order
i So davenctaldvoteiaanan of tonpe:
» as occurring
that is formed at the beginning of a severe frost, and
immediatel oe to the surface in small grains, similar
to hail. other, from paar er situation longer,
is more commonly observed and better known. This
a _ * iv e.
grown.” Men of science, not having attended to these
phenomena, have considered them, when accidentally
met with, as extraordinary. It has gore when
were in quest of something else, that they have
found at the bottom of a river a sandy ance ang 9
great surprise
on finding el, earth, or mud, mixed with ice on the
surface. Kae such are familiar to the fish-
|
!
i
able by the ice
et and then brings
up with it not only earth and el, but stones of
size. We are told, on authority, that in
the Elbe the stones to which buoys had been fixed
as marks of the shallows, have been brought
grund.eis, and removed to a diffe-
rent part of the river. On the ins of lakes nume-
rous new
they
the same time delivers his opinion of their physical
= layen Wfensueeh she wodcaaune-obine tee bomen of
the water in the river Teme, which passes near my re~
YOU. XI. PART it,
_ large-stones near the shore, of whi
641
sidence in Herefordshire, in the last winter. In a
Tce,
morning which succeeded an intensely cold night, the ““Y¥——™”
stones in the rocky bed of the river appeared to be co-
vered over with frozen matter, which reflected a kind of
silvery whiteness, and which, upon examination, I found
to consist of numerous frozen spicula crossing each other
in every direction as in snow; but not having any
where, except very near the shore, assumed the state
of firm compact ice. The river was not at. this time
frozen over in any part; but the temperature of the
water was obviously at the freezing point, for small
pieces of ice had every where formed upon it on its
moré stagnant parts near the shore; and upon a mill-
just above the shallow streams, in the bottom of
which I had observed the ice, I noticed millions of
little frozen spicula floating. At the end of this mill-
pond numerous eddies gyrations were occasioned,
which ap tly drew the spicula under water, and
I found the frozen matter to accumulate more abun-
dantly on such parts of the stones as were opposed to
the current where that was not very rapid. On some
parts were out of
the water, the ice beneath the water had acquired a
firmer texture, but appeared from its whiteness to have
been first formed of congregated spicula, and to have
subsequently frozen into a firm mass, owing to the
lower temperature of the stone or rock.”
The theory Kere given by Mr Knight falls short in ac- Theories on
counting for the facts which he himself observed ; for, the subject.
by supposing the spicula to have been formed at the sur-
face, and afterwards preciptited by the tumbling mo-
cnplunacheit dat ongultion hich saat go om at te
tion of that ion which must go on at the
bottom itself before thes sadn obi ndinandiex tho stalin.
On other occasions it is formed in places where the mo-
tion is far from being sufficient to send the floatin
crystals to the bottom. It is also to be remem
that, instead of such spicula as Mr Knight describes,
smooth and compact ice is found in these situations,
We would therefore observe, that water, when reduced
to 32°, and then deprived of an additional portion of
caloric, though it has a tendency to freeze, yet experi«
ences in this different degrees of facility accord.
ing to certain circumstances. One of these is the pre-
sence of certain solid points or rough surfaces. Hence
water reduced to OM without freezing, immediately
freezes when a crystal is dropt into it, and the ice forms
first upon the crystal itself. Agitation also seems to in-
fluence it. Water, when left quite stagnant, may re-
main liquid, and be immediately frozen by a gentle
shaking. But a great degree ot agitation while it is
cooling seems to retard congelation, and always prevents
Some it from proceeding with regularity. Now it appears to
us, that in whirls and eddies, the water at the surface |
ses a certain portion of caloric, and receives.a tendency
to ation, which however is resisted by the motion
to w it is subjected, and may be promoted in ano«
ther place by a slight additional aid from an external
cause. The motion, indeed, while it prevents the freez-
a ee ee
hing the reduction of the whole body of wa~
ter to the freezing temperature. It is << known that
the temperatare of greatest contraction and specific gra-
vity of water is somewhere above the freezing point,
about the 40° of Fahrenheit. While higher than 40°, a
reduction of the temperature at the surface,by in
the specific gravity, produces a sinking of the -
cial portion, and an intermixture with that which is be-
au
‘tee,
bat eel
Fceland.
History.
642
neath. But, after it has reached the 40th degree, a far-
ther reduction of temperature, instead of contraction,
produces an expansion; andthe water retains its situa-
tion, unless operated on by some other force. While it
is perfectly still, therefore, it remains at 40° at the bot-
tom, while at the surface it is at 32°, and in that part the
process of congelation goes on, the mere conducting
power of water requiring a long time te effect an equali-
zation of temperature. The difference of specific gravi-
ty, however, between water at 40° and at the freezing
point is not great, and a very slight motion is adequate to
produce a thorough intermixture, and consequent ex-
tension of the freezing temperature through the whole.
When this is effected, and at the same time the congela-
tion resisted by the motions of the surface, it is promo-
ted by the nature ofthe substances at the bottom. The
varieties in the qualities of different substances in this
respect, as ascertained by experiment, are curious. Hair,
especially boiled horse hair, wool, chaff, moss, and
the bark of trees covered with lichens, are found to
promote the formation of ice in a higher degree than any
ymetals. Of the latter, copper, brass, steel, and above
all.tin, have ice formed on them sooner and more abun-
IC E.
dantly than iron. Polished stone and earthen-ware at.
tract very little. On wax,’ resins, pitch, silk, leas
ther, and wood deprived of its bark, it is seldom or ne«
ver found. On the bottoms of boats, however, incrus-
tations have been found, which have been evidently
formed of the sic/il-cis. .
This process requires a powerful frost. Hence it
appears comparatively seldom in the more temperate
countries, . Yet it is described by M. Desmarest as ha-
ving occurred in the Rhone and the Seine. The laws
by which it is regulated are worthy of a more minute
experimental investigation than they have hitherto res
ceived. ;
See Romé de Lisle’s Crystallographie, tom. i. p. 4
Hassenfratz Journal de Physique, Jan. 1785. D’Antic,
dd. 1788, vol. xxiii. p, 57. Hericaut de Thury, Jour-
nal des Mines, 1813, vol. xxxiii, p. 157.. The Memoir
of Mr Scoresby in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural
History Society of Edinburgh, vol.ii. part 2. Col. Beau-
foy in Thomson’s Annals, May 1817. Desmarest, Journal
de Physique, Jan.1783; and,M, Jules- Henri Pott, Jd. July
1788. See also the articlesCotp, GLaciers, GREENLAND,
Hupson’s Bay, Orzics, and Pouarisation, (H. D.)
ICELAND.
Tcezann, is a large island situate on the verge of the
Arctic'Ocean, between the 63° and 67° of north lati-
tude, and the 12° and 25° of longitude west from Green-
wich.
.. This island was discovered about the year 860 by a
Norwegian pirate, named Naddodr, who was acciden-
tally driven upon the coast while on a voyage to the
Faroe islands. A few years afterwards a Swede, Gar-
dar, succeeded in circumnavigating the island, and
gave it the name of Gardarsholm. Its present name
was given to it by Floke,'a famous pirate of those
times, who remained two years, during which he-ex-
plored most of the southern and western coasts. The
country was colonized in the year 874, from Norway;
the subjugation of which, by Harotp the fair-haired,
had produced much discontent among the petty states
which he reduced. The leader.of the emigration from
Norway was named Ingolf, who, with his kinsman
Hiorletf, went to Iceland in the year 870, and made
arrangements for the settlement. It is asserted by
zome of the Icelandic historians, that there were actual
settlements in the island before this period ; but this
seems improbable. The first of the Norwegian visitors
found, on some parts of the coast, wooden crosses, and
implements, from which it is inferred that those who
had preceded them were Christians. In the Landrama
Bok, which is among the earliest of the Icelandic his-
torical records, it is stated, that, among other things,
writings in the Irish language were found. The state«
ments on this subject are so various, that it is impos-
sible to form any probable conjecture on the point in
question. wt
. The colony first settled in the south-western of
the island; and the spot,where the town of Reikiavik now
stands was chosen, on account of the result of a super-
stitious observance, which guided many of the settlers
in the choice of their future places of abode. When
Ingolf approached the shores of Iceland, he threw into
the sea the door of his former habitation in Norway,
; 4
and having found it cast on the beach at Reikiavik, he
there fixed his station. In the course of half a century,
the coasts of this remote country were well tera $
and in the Landnama Bok, already mentioned, which
contains minute details of the spreading of the colonies,
we find several names of Scotch and Irish families who
came over and settled. iP
At first, every body of emigrants remained under the
influence of a leader, who parcelled out the land to his
followers. But this feudal arrangement was soon found
inconvenient, from the contests which arose for pos-
sessions claimed by the various petty chieftains. By
common consent, a new system of government, which
included the whole country, was settled in the year
928. The island was divided into four provinces, su-
perintended by an hereditary governor. The southern
and western provinces were subdivided into three
fectures, the northern one into four, and the eastern
into two. The authorities over these were also heredi-
tary. There were still more subdivisions, called Hrep=
par, in each of which five officers were appointed,
men of property and respectability, whose care it
was to keep peace and good order, and to manage
the concerns of the poor in their respective districts.
The proceedings of the superintendants. of districts
were under the cognizance of the prefect and his de~
puties, who met oncea year; from whom there was an
appeal to the provincial court ; and finally, to the su-
preme assembly of Iceland. :
This t assembly was held annually on the shores
of the ST oun Thingvalla, from the name of the as-
sembly althing, which is derived from al, all, and thing,
a court of justice, A president was chosen, with the
title Laugman, or administrator of the laws, and was
invested with all the symbols of dignity and power.
It was his province to interpert the laws, .
nounce sentence ; and his authority, though | lent
on the will of the states, was often continued for life.
Such is an outline of a constitution settled without
ee
—<
Hbtory.
ICELAND.
any contention, to which may be referred the arrange-
ments in the _ mayan eMEN SE
in Europe. 4 ve same jurisdiction
mB Lat ma
with our eeees of
sheriffs. provincial assemblies resemble our quarter
sessions, and the su assembly our parliament. For
a minute account of the Icelandic commonwealth, the
of this
Cer crackle enmmed the Benin ibed to this
pay aps must refer to the w enumerated at
vith respect to the criminal laws, corporal
i t was inflicted ; the atonement for al~
most every offence being a fine, extended ing to
circumstances, even to the confiscation of the whole
cases.
« The constitution thus adopted by the Icelanders,
eps De Relea iciae Introduction to Sir George
w su z
it allowed to apply the term to a desolate island on the
confines of the Arctic circle, this might be called the
Golden Age of Iceland. ical ci
stances from
; refinements of poe-
» flourished among them : like the aurora bo-
tieal
realis of their native sky, the poets and historians of Ice-
land not only illumined their own country, but flashed
the lights of their genius through the night which then
over the rest of E Cormmerce was pursued
reap: Sp rete Sisk mole and success ; and they
partook in the maritime adventures of discovery and
colonization which gave so much merited celebrity
the N ians of this period. Many of their chiefs
and men visited the courts of other countries,
formed connections with the most eminent
to
there among the Icelanders of this peri
ee en wk ainonann
‘f
if
colonization of Iceland having been undertaken
y men of rank and education, literature was carefully
them ; and their , the Go-
its utmost purity. e@ ancient
Scandinavia ‘afforded ample scope for
and ornament ; and the desolate region of
of which was only interru
most awful and tremen °
Ff
i
re
He
Hl
by the inhabi t
ity ; and to this day it is no
small part of the
643
amusement of the people, during the darkness of win-
Teeland!
ter, to recite the legends of former times. Nor wasthe —~—”"
fame of the Icelandic Skalds* confined to their own
country. Foreign potentates cherished them in their
courts, and munificently rewarded them for singing
their praises.
. The character of the Scandinavian poetry of this age
was stamped by metaphorical obscurity. Resemblance
could not be too distant, nor too fanciful, for a northern
poet ; and the habitual use of metaphor occasioned the
adoption of phrases as familiar, which, to those unac-
customed to the style, appear extravagant and unnatu-
ral. This obscurity does not however extend through
the whole of Icelandic composition, which, particularly
in the relation of common events, is often exceedingly
simple. Rhyme was rarely employed; and the har-
mony of the versification seems to have depended on
alliteration, and the ent of icular sounds
adapted to the nature of the e. Thus there
was opened a broad field for the exercise of skill, as
well as imagination ; and the frequent contests in ver-
sification brought the Scandinavian poetry to be an art.
of the most refined nature. Having more leisure, the
Icelandic excelled ; and, from catalogues still pre«
served, we find, that of the Skalds who flourished in
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the majority of the
whole number were Icelanders.
The most celebrated and valuable remnant of north-
ern poetry is the Edda, a work designed as a common
means of education in the favourite pursuit of this ex-
traordinary le. The Edda appears to have been
com at different times, and by different writers,
about whom there has been much controversy. There
are two different works which bear this title, the Edda
of Semund, and that which bears the name of Snorro
Sturlesen, to whom it is ascribed. The first or ancient
Edda consists of a number of odes, of which the Vo-
luspa, or prophetess of Vola, and the Haévamal, are the
most aon. The former is a short and obscure
digest of the Scandinavian mythology ; and the latter
consists of moral precepts, su to have been deli-
yered by the god Odin. They are attributed to Sc-
mund Sigfuson, an Icelander, who was born in the year
1056; and so eminent, as to have acquired the deno-
mination Frode, or learned. The other Edda is more
‘ect, and better to the object of instruction
in the art of poetry. The first part contains a view of
mythology in the form of a dialogue, in which the at-
tributes and wo of the deities, ~~ other —
are explained. second part is a collection of sy
nonymes, epithets, and ical rules, in which he
errors of style, and the varieties of metre, are carefully.
pointed out. _
The historical writings
perhaps, to Iceland, than the cultivation of 4
these, the Sagas, which are of a mixed character, blend«
ing, to a certain extent, fiction with authentic narrative,
are exceedingly valuable. They possess great variety,
some detailing particular events relating to politics or
religion, some the history of a i family, and
others the biography of eminent individuals. As might
be expected, many of these narratives are tedious ; but
in many are to be found examples of simplicity, which
carry the reader back to the times in which the actors
lived, and insensibly.lead him.to consider himself not
an indifferent spectator,
The Sagas have elucidated the history and antiqui--
ties of the north in an eminent degree ; but the regu«.
* The word skaldr, or skalds, signifying bards, is probably derived from skiael, wisdom ; whence the English word skill.
History.
of this age do more honour, Sagas.
of
644
lar historical writings which have come to us from the
Icelanders are yet more valuable. The Annales Od-
denses of Seemund Frode; the Landnama Bok; the
Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, by Snorro Sturle-
son; and numerous other works, testify the abilities
and correctness of the writers. Besides. poetry and
history, mathematics and mechanics were cultivated ;
and jurisprudence formed an important study. Tra
vellers penetrated into Asia and Africa ; and the mari-
time adventures of the Icelanders prove that attention
was paid to astronomy and geography. Philology was
not neglected, and the most celebrated Roman authors
were familiar to all the learned men. The Greek lan-
guage was not much cultivated.
Before the establishment of Christianity, which took
place in the year 1000, the Runic was the only charac~
ter in use ; but more‘seems to have been trusted to mes
mory than to writing. With Christianity, the Roman
characters were introduced, and a new incitement was
thus given to education, and every literary pursuit.
The first school was established by Isleif, the first bishop
of Skalholt, about the middle of the 11th century ; and
soon after three others were formed in different parts of
the island. In these the youth were taught to read,
write, and compose in their own language, and initia-
ted in the classics and in theology, to which last par-
ticular attention was given.
Christianity » The establishment: of Christianity ‘was not the least
established. remarkable event in the early history ‘of Iceland, since
it was effected in a manner which displayed, in a stri«
king manner, the genius and government of the peo
ple. Frederic, a bishop from Saxony, began to preach
the Christian doctrines in the year 081 ; and the num-
ber of converts gradually increased. The propagation
of the new faith met with every species of opposition ;
but at length the contests became so frequent, while
those who adopted Christianity greatly increased in
number, that the national assembly, which met in the
year 1000, took the matter into consideration. While
the question for the establishment of the new religion
was debated, a messenger hurried’ into the assembly,
and announced that’ fire had burst from the earth in the
southern part of the country, and was carrying destruc-
tion before it. The heathen party instantly exclaimed,
that this was the vengeance of the gods against their
presumption. But Snorro, who was a zealous advo-
cate for the Christian cause, called out to them, “ For
what reason did your gods display their wrath, when
the rock on which we stand was burning?” The place
of assembly is in the midst of frightful proofs of the
power of voleanic fire ; and this exclamation of Snorro
turned the scale in favour of the Christian faith: The
decision of the assembly was solemnly pronounced by
‘Thorgeir, the Laugman ; and all religious disputes were
immediately suspended. \A church establishment was
soon afterwards arranged, and the first bishop of Skal-
holt, Isleif, was ordained in the year 1057. From this
period, during nearly two centuries, a pure religion
was exercised by the’ Icelanders, undisturbed by the
errors and superstitions of the Romish church.
Iceland.
History.
Greenland The. discovery of Greenland, about the i
" ( year 972, is
and Ameri~ snother feature of’ this early age; and one still more
ed by Icee Yemarkable was the discovery of the north-east coast of
landers. © America in the year 1001 by Biorn Heriolfson, who
was driven to‘the south while on a voyage to Green-
_ land. A colony was established” in Greenland, which
subsisted till the beginning of the 15th century, when
all traces of it he About the same time, a ma-
terial change for the worse appears to have occurred
in the climate of Iceland, where; it is’ said, corn fore
ICELAND.
merly grew. The loss of Greenland was o¢casioned by _ Iceland.
an unusual accumulation of ice, which has bound up Hi
the coasts ever since, and frustrated every attempt to meee
a the place where the once flourishing colony ex.
isted,
The part of America first seen was probably some
part of the coast of Labrador. Leif, the son of Eric,
the discoverer of Greenland, on hearing the report of
this discovery, set out to pursue it ; and passing by the
coast first observed by Biorn, he came to a strait sepa-
rating a large island from the mainland, probably
of Newfoundland. Thorvald, brother: to Leif, went
over to this new country, which, from finding wild
vines growing in it, was called Vinland ; after remains
ing two years, he was killed in a skirmish with the na-
tives, who had not been seen till this time. A
colony appears to have been afterwards established in
Vinland. But after the early part of the 12th century,
scarcely a vestige of this colony can be found, and the
situation of Vinland is destined to perpetual obscurity.
The moral character of the Icelanders, during this Moral cha-
period of their history, seems’ to have kept pace with racter at
their intellectual endowments, and to have stood high. this pet
Previous, however, to the introduction of the Christian
religion, some unnaturalcustoms and superstitious usages
obtained. The exposure of children, though not pro-
hibited, was soon relinquished, after ‘the morality: in-
culcated by the New Testament came to be fully un-
derstood ; and ceased more than a hundred years be-
fore the practice was abolished in Norway. The most
singular superstition was the Beserkine. From the
Kristni Saga, and the Ecclesiastical History of Ice«
land, we learn that the Beserkin were professed war-
riors, who, by means of magic, had rendered their bo-
dies invulnerable. Rousing themselves by incantations
into frenzy, these men committed every kind of vio-
lence, and rushed naked into battle. There is every
probability that some of these were miserable and in-
fatuated wretches, while others adopted the profession
with the view of imposture. a
The independent and happy state of Iceland was not
destined to be uninterrupted. ‘The love of power pro-
duced intestine evils, which the ambition of Norway
carefully fomented. The civil contests were not al«
ways trifling ; for instances are recorded, in which fleets
of twenty sail, and bodies of 1200 men, fought on one
side. The desire of peace, and the promises of the Nor
wegians, now become jealous of the prosperity of Ice-
land, at length produced a formal proposal in the na-
tional council, that the country should be governed by
a single potentate; and in the year 1261, the whole,
except elie eastern province, submitted to Haco, king
of Norway. A few years afterwards, the submission
of Iceland was completed, but under’ conditions which
still maintained their rights and their commerce. In
1280, Magnus, the successor of Haco, gave to the island
the code of laws well known by the title Jonsbok, which
was no more than a revised copy of the ancient’ laws.
The last political change which occurs in the his- Transfer-
tory of Iceland, was its transference with Norway to oe 2 k.
the crown of Denmark in the year 1380, A period of “°°™™*
tranquillity, during which rank and property became
more equalized, and trade was almost wholly trans-
ferred to other nations, succeeded; and a feeling of
dependence checked enterprise, while vigour and acti-
vity were gradually lost. In the year 1482, a pesti- Calamities
lence carried off nearly two-thirds of the ae ogre 3 at this pee
and another broke out towards the’ close of the cen. tid.
tury. In addition to these calamities, the Icelanders
were at this period exposed to the incursions of pirates,
1
:
|
|
Submision
to Norway
ICELAND.
ee , xs me
pe andvewrying of tie inhabitants = Thexe
events,” says Dr Holland, « which concurred with the
destroying the strength and ity of
the country, are recorded in he eamabe a lestond “ithe
sre mae to exe ef mr oe i te.
yield to the recital
ceased ; that ius
and literature diseppeared ; and that the eroded ran
brity and dour of his country ; but he no far-
ther; and all ond is left to the feelings and imagts
nation of the reader.”
But the decline of literature, and of the national cha-
racter of the Icelanders, may be traced to more remote
causes. E began to emerge from darkness and
barbarity, and the continental nations ‘gradually rose
into equality in learning. The poets and historians of.
Iceland were therefore segeene with ree me z
perstitions, tyranny of the church of
broke in upon the and peaceful worship of
I about the end of the 12th century. The levy-
ing of P , and raisi ind
ing of Peter's raising mo oe pe mo
The errors, su iti
were not off by the poverty
were oppressed even by the native bishops.
13th to the 16th century, the annals of Iceland present:
nothing of interest; being filled with records only of
the depression of all mental exertion, and of
calamities.
The reformation of religion, and the introduction of.
printing, by the establishment of a press at Hoolum
about mA ear 1530, seemed to be the dawn of renewed
life to Iceland.
The reformation was not effected without violence.
John Areson, bi of Hoolum, was the most strenu-
ous and violent opposer of the intreduction of the Lu-
theran doctrines. He assembled a body of armed men,
and marching southward, attacked and seized Einarson,
of Skalholt. He was arrested himself, however,
the following year, by the order of Christian I11.in whose
ed. Areson, and his two natural sons, were be-
headed at Skatholt; and in 1551 the new doctrines
were legally established and universally received. The
schools were re-established ; but so great had been the
depression of learning, that it was found difficult at
first to procure men of sufficient knowledge to superin-
tend them.
Now that science began to illuminate the rest of Eu-
rope, We cannot expect to find the former condition of
Iceland restored, nor even the progress of knowledge
keeping pace with that of other countrics. The phy-
sical evils to which Iceland is exposed operated with
greater effect than before ; and nw mks can enume-
rate several eminent individuals’ writings are
creditable and useful, — their literary fame has sel-
dom stepped beyond their native island.
To the zeal of i of Hoolam, who
ushered many useful works into world from the
i superi himself, the le
Icelandic perintended
Cet Wehabeed far he Oth ion of the Bible into
physical
645
their own la . It first appeared in 1584. The
friend of Thorlakson, Arngrim Jonas, published twen-
ix different works in divinity, history, jurispru-
ence, and philology, all of which exhibited very ex-
tensive acquirements. Another eminent historical wri-
ter was Biorn de Skardsaa, who published Annals of
— from the year 1400 to 1645, and several other:
wor :
The 17th century is destitute of any important events.
' At its commencement piratical incursions of the French,
English, and Algerines; were not unfrequent. Of the
latter, a large body landed on various parts of the south-
ern coast, and on the Westman islands; and besides
plundering their effects, murdered nearly fifty of the
inhabitants, and carried 400 of both sexes into capti-
vity. ‘This happened in the year 1627 ; and nine years
afterwards, when the king of Denmark had paid a ran-
som, only thirty-seven survivors were found. This
century also disgraces Iceland by the superstitious enor-
' mities which were practised. A belief in necromancy
was so prevalent, and held in such horror, that, within
the period of sixty years, twenty persons perished in
the flames.
The commencement of the 18th century was marked
by the destruction of 16,000 persons by the small-pox.
From 1753 to 1759, the seasons were so inclement, that
famine carried off 10,000 people, besides vast numbers
of cattle. In 1783, the most terrible volcanic eruption
on record broke out from the neighbourhood of the
mountain of Ska and for more than a year shower-
ed ashes on the island, and enveloped it in a thick cloud
of smoke. Cattle, , and horses were destroyed,
and a famine ensued. e small pox again appeared ;
» and in a few years above 11,000 people perished.
Notwithstanding the calamities incident to their si-
tuation, the Icelanders have still -preserved literature
from decline. In later times we have the names of
Torfeus, Arnas Magneus, and Finnur Jonson, who
have greatly adorned the modern literature of their
country. Arnas M us was the son of an obscure
priest, and by his talents he raised himself in 1694,
when only -one years of age, to the situation of
professor of philosophy in the university of Copenha-
gen; and soon afterwards he was appointed professor
of northern antiquities. He made a splendid collection
of books and manuscripts in the Icelandic language,
which was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1728.
His pupil and friend Finnur Jonson has eminently con-
tributed to preserve the li character of his coun-
try. He was made bishop of Skalholt in 1754, and
devoted a long life to the improvement and happiness
of his countrymen. His Ecclesiastical History of Ice-
land is an admirable work, though somewhat minute
in its details ; and presents a d of patient and ac-
curate research which has seldom been equalled. The
well known exertions of Professor Thorkelin, in behalf
of Iceland, are happily yet continued ; but the state of
war in which Barope has so long been immersed, has
brought Iceland into a state of suffering from which
she cannot soon be relieved.
In the present times, individuals are not wanting,
who exhibit, though less successfully, all the zeal of
their ancestors in the pursuit of learning. Their ac-
quirements are such as would grace any society ; and
when the remoteness of their situation and the multi-
tude of ‘their privations are considered, the picture
which Iceland at the ee es of oe
19th century, is truly worthy of admiration. e
school So ut sow a Solider 4a‘ used to be; but
education is systematically carried on amongst all ranks;
Iceland.
History.
Attacks of
foreigners.
Ravages of
the small-
pox.
Modern au-
thors.
Tceland.
History.
Schools.
Poetry.
Societies.
646
and the degree of information poe by the lower
orders is far from being inconsiderable.
Two schools were founded in the 16th century, one
at Hoolum, in the northern quarter ef the island, and
the other at Skalholt. These were united and trans«
ferred to Reikiavik, towards the end of last century ;
and a few years ago, it was moved to Bessestadt, the
former seat of the governors of Iceland. The arrange-
ments for conducting this school have met with a severe
interruption in the war between England and Den-
mark, and every thing has the appearance of disrepair
and approaching ruin. The establishment consists of
three masters and twenty-four scholars; the funds not
admitting a greater number. The head master, who
has the title of Lector Theologie, has a salary of 600
xixdollars. He superintends all the concerns of the
school ; the study of theology being his particular de~
partment. One of the most accomplished men in Ice-
land, Steingrim Jonson, was lately removed from this
situation to one of the most valuable livings in the
country, that of Oddé. This, it was understood, was
preparatory to his becoming Bishop of Iceland, on the
demise of the present bishop. His successor in the
school is of the same name, and is reputed .a man of
great learning and talent. The second master teaches
Latin, history, geography, and arithmetic; and the
third, the Greek, Danish, and Icelandic languages. The
bishop examines the scholars once a-year, according to
a prescribed form of proceeding. After studying at
this school, some of the young men go to finish their
studies at Copenhagen; but by far the greatest num~
ber return to their homes, where, secluded from the
society even of their own countrymen, and while the
darkness of a long winter gives them leisure, they of-
ten pursue their studies, and acquire no inconsiderable
extent of knowledge.
Poetry is still cultivated with. surprising eagerness ;
and the number of manuscripts of unpublished works
is very great. History is not so much cultivated ; and
science, strictly so called, scarcely at all. In the year
1779, a society was instituted at Copenhagen for aiding
the literature of Iceland, and bettering the condition of
its inhabitants. This society, which comprehended
among its members, not only eminent Icelanders and
Danes, but many foreigners of note, published fourteen
volumes of transactions, containing essays on history,
poetry, agriculture, the fisheries, and the natural histo-
ry of Iceland. In 1790, a project was made for trans
ferring the society to Iceland, which occasioned such
dissensions as suspended all the proceedings, and the
name only of the society now exists.
A second Icelandic society was established in the
island in the year 1794, by the present chief justice:
Stephenson, whose exertions in behalf of the literature.
and general improvement of his country have been in-
defatigable. The number of members in this society
was originally 1200, and each contributed a dollar an-
nually, The printing establishments at Hoolum and
Hrapsey. haying fallen into decline, were purchased by
the new society, and an establishment erected at Lei-
ra. From thence have issued a considerable number
of works printed for the use of the society. Various
occurrences, among which the war between Denmark
and Great Britain fad the chief influence, have ecca-
sioned the almost total extinction of this society. It is
to be wished that, as war has ceased to.disturb the na-
tions of Europe, the Icelanders will be enabled again
to enjoy, the only recreation which their situation ad-
mits ; and that their history, political and literary, of
which we have given an outline, will not cease to be
ICELAND.
interesting. A new society was established in 1816, Iceland.
by the exertions of a very able young man, Mr Raske,
under librarian in the reyal library at Copenhagen; and. History.
there can be no doubt of Icelandic literature reviving
under his care in disseminating, with the assistance of
this Seciety, the means by which the Icelanders may
overtake learning in the rapid progress she has made.
The circumstances of Iceland have required little or Govern-
no alteration either in the laws, or in the form of go- Mint laws
vernment which was established 600 years ago. The ctsplich.
ouprane authority is entrusted to an officer, with the ments.
title of Stiftamtmand, who has a general superintend.«
ence of every department. Under the Stiftamtmand,
each of the four provinces into which the island is di-
vided, is governed by an Amtmand, or Bailiff, whose
duties are the same as those of their superior within
their respective jurisdictions. Each province is divided
into syssels or shires, over which the sysselmen preside.
These officers collect the taxes, and are paid by a rate
out of the amount collected. They hold courts of law ;.
and on the whole their duty is in almost every respect
the same as that of sheriffs in Scotland.
In each parish there is an officer called Hreppstiore,
whose chief business is to attend to the concerns of the-
poor, and to assist the sysselman in the preservation of:
the public peace. For the decision of petty disputes
among the people, there are a certain number of per-
sons in each parish, denominated Forlikunarmen, who.
may be called official arbiters.
All cases, whether civil or criminal, are first brought
before the sysselman, who holds a court once a-year, or.
oftener if necessary. In criminal cases, and in public
suits, the amptmand orders the trial; after previous ex-
aminations, on behalf of the crown. From the infes
rior court there is an appeal’to the high court of juse
tice, which sits six times in the year at Reikiavik. This.
court was established in the year 1800; at which time
the assemblies at Thiugvalla were ,abolished. The.
Stiftamtmand presides, but has no-yoice in the proceed
ings. There are three judges, the first is called Justi-
tiarius, and the other two Assessors. Evidence and
pleadings being heard, the causes are determined by a
majority of the three judges. From this court there is
an spa to the superior courts at Copenhagen.
The punishment of petty offences is fine and whips pyyj.,.
ping. Sheep-stealing, which is the: most. common of- ments.
fence, is puni by imprisonment and labour, for a
term of three or five years, according to circumstances.
A repetition of crimes: brings ma offender trans«
yortation to Denmark, where he is confined at hard la«
ad in the work-house, for the remainder of his life.
The infliction of such severe punishment is, however,
very seldom required. Murder is exceedingly rare ;.
and except in cases which subject:the criminal to capi-
tal punishment, he is not confined before the time of
tria ‘
With regard to property, no entail of land is allowed. Property,
When-a proprietor dies, his lands are valued and divid-
ed into mbit of which the eldest son has the choice.
The daughters receive an equivalent to half the portion
of a son. A wife surviving her husband, possesses
half of his estate. The rights of tenants are such as
would essentially contribute to the improvement of the
soil, were sufficient. inducements held out to encourage
it. A tenant cannot be removed, unless the. proprie<
tor can bring proof that the farm has been neg Oy 4
that the farmer has not behaved well. Leases are not
common ; but letting land from year to. year is.a fre~
quent practice, six months notice to quit being neces
sary. Although a tenant cannot be removed while he
ICELAND.
uation.
es are so inconsiderable, that they are
sufficient to defray the expences of the civil esta-
lander is said to possess a hundred w:
horses, a cow, ‘—_ gy Saga a boat and
fishing materials, in ie.
; sides Gnas ive banahds he ps 8, over
and above the stated tax, twelve dried fish. This
ees 90 ee en eee we
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dollars. The glebes add considerabiy, however, to
their allowances ; and as every farmer is obliged
to furnish the age with a day’s work, and to keep a
lamb for him, his farm costs him but little labour. He
also receives occasional small offerings, and perquisites
for officiating at marri re ee and burials. The
churches are in general neat but plain buildings, con-
structed of wood and turf. Some of them indeed are
little better than hovels, while others are large and
comfortable. At Reikiavik, there is a large church
built of lava, and roofed with tiles. A more elegant
one of this kind is to be seen at Bessestad. The church
in the Westmann islands is reckoned the most elegant.
Young men destined for the church, after they have
left the school, and been admitted as probationers, earn
their livelihood by fishing and other labour, and after a
certain term are examined, and received into orders, after
which they await a settlement, the prospect of which is
. often very distant, and when obtained does not yield ease
and pens by
The habitations of the priests are seldom
better than those of the farmers, and are not better fur-
nished ; a bed, a table, and a few chairs, and those very
indifferent, being the whole stock, in addition to a few
boxes and chests, in which the clothes and chattels of
the family are Here, however, learning and
nius are to be found; and an attention to the duties of
their station is displayed by the Icelandic priests, which
may well excité feelings of shame among those of other
dhe prope pecrmamuve ct et daty. The following
ce ir duty. The followin
description of a Sabbath betine tur Tabled iis dhe where
elegant and ing than it is correct. It is from the
of Dr Holland, and we quote it from Sir George
ackenzie's Travels. ‘ The Sabbath scene at an Ice-
landic church is indeed one of the most singular and
ieomenting kind. The little edifice, constructed of
wood turf, is situated, perhaps, amid the rugged
ruins of a stream of lava, or beneath mountains which
are covered with never-melting snows ; in a spot where
the mind almost sinks under the silence and desolation
of surrounding nature. Here the Icelanders assemble
oo the duties of their religion. A group of
and female peasants may be. seen gathered about
the church, waiting the arrival of their pastor ; and all
habited in their best attire, after the manner of the
country; their children with them; and the horses
which them from their respective homes gra-
zing quietly around the little assembly. The arrival of
a new comer is welcomed by every one with a kiss of
salutation ; and the pleasures of social intercourse, so
rarely enjoyed by the Icelanders, are happily connect-
ed with the occasion which summons them to the dis-
charge of their religious duties. The priest makes his
appearance them as a friend ; he salutes indivi-
dually each member of his flock, and stoops down to
give his almost parental kiss to the little ones, who are
i These offices of
to grow up under h a charge.
kindness performed, ey all go together into the house
of prayer.
Teeland.
History.
Sabbath
scene.
trade of Iceland has never been managed in Commerce.
such a way as to be of im t benefit to the natives,
of whom a small es = en in co The
following Tables, taken tephenson’s History of
Teeland during the 18th Century, will serve 10 give a
correct idea of the state of commerce.
* Whence, perhaps, is derived our Scottish term Teinds.
fo 6 | °°* | 068s] *** | O SL} 0 166 | 0 Ols | #966 | ts0e| 81a} si gs °° o L6|% or] sis} -::] 29 ) °° ner
“Sa
eee oe SS ore ee eee LEI 0 ez POST ee eee OL 02 eee eee eee oI eee L9 eee LI
I 6 owe GIPPS) ee oo. 6 » ee 19 O 184 ¥Ss ee ea ¢ see “ee ve. ee 8§ fe O1& “* * e601 uy
ST 9 | ShIL | ILS] S 6L| % Le| far os 61€ | F 006 | slg | og LSC | O 86% & $8) SI 8h] 8196} GE | fog sg FOL | eso,
0 6 {8 |oe9s| €¢ 0}8¢0]08 OIL | #1 18 | sos | 1 v SI th] SIT G52 PDS 4° g {6 | psoyrsy
1 0 4°°*| 206 | gt Tt |} Ort LL& SI SL& | 6r9 | 2 s9 6 tb] OLS | st9 | 4-6 SI | iE LI & | paoyedy
S56 GS E*) £8 2} Seek 6 Ie |b & | $e | I 9% | $ 6] 9 © | 0 OL] OLF i Coe eS I [proyoysy
8 % | SIL | 41IL| 9 LE] O L6| fe 98} GSE | st OL1 | 348 | OF 69 | 6196] HI ¢t| LL] SESt|] or | 4 S G pyrAvryley
AT PAHS] seoarg | $2 papa ys|"a1T ‘pd ys] «wg sys] | “spoueg arpa 3g ‘speared | SUITE | ‘Sway far T*pd-yslqu't pd ys) qr’ T pd ysl at" T pays] ‘spoxeg. | “spoaeg | ‘suse | “spyy
“peppeyun| ‘peppey
vourmy, | “31980 Srank i Wet ‘109 wy, ‘woxy | ares | “duo | aodeg | -eoowqoy, | vapeary, | swing | “sagopa | aera | -x00g | -peopy |ueSouralstoraasig
shape
: : pue ofy
IL De GPa RR O9LL : a sob | 986 5 mh salisitn nile ieee te ken ee LOS. | -S8I 86 -| SSIL | GLb | SQ90IIBLLI
too eee For Daf ool one $89 6EzI eee eee ne © eee ee SSI oS eee owe o2re 8808 SELL
ter x oere . ce 2 arel.a 69S ae 86 oS fe ee >! & eee > s © 68 LI oe 7 “re 10S OS9L uy
mag) * ‘spueg | “sjueg
fos | tle | tei} foes | 69¢ | ot og} or ols} 2 188 lr i} 2 os} too| tr | Feze | fss0r| ezos | ss | oe 9099 | OFI9 | TOL
a | ¢ os | fe Ost Ste |¢ 6 |9 69 et o1|stos| ra fog fI9l | 9st 6 |96 | 10L | LtoL | proyesy
f9 | fer | tz ra] SOL S10 | AT 6L | FEE l¢ solo tl te | Fe 08 o6t | 9gs 9 |&68 | $968] 916 | paoyrtg
8 ¥ 9 86 6g 2 be RS. TSI AG |} ee ow ees - te 601 SFL OIg 7 ** "1 Gig | 9g [paoyeysy
09 86 | 6FI SF S$6 b Lb| ’ 92% | ST 06 jo. 99] oO $s 8 L 831 tsg | LLL 6L | Le | 99% | cogs pARHyeY
SPUR [SPA | spareg|) spueg | spuvg far pdys/aT pd ys/at"t PA shqrpdsry| qrpdsry| -sjauvg| -spueg | ‘spueg | spueg | “spueg | -spoueg| -spuvg ‘spaxiug | -sjateg
vadeig | "youerg “ysrueqy
. “prog “peaig, | *Inoyy7 ‘story | *y *syeoisy *hayang P at
“our Tony aed Sw pf qinosig oF Etre *201NT a oa ieod PF “svag ‘sw | fopeg | hy pre. SLOTULSIG
648
Iceland,
"9081 wag ayz un pumjaoy ozur sroduy fo 90,7,
049°
ICELAND.
5.
09 Jo Aqranqioddo uw pry 300 sav aM ING {FELT 0} FOLT Wosy puLjs0] Jo syodx7y oy Jo sazquy, suTeyUOD suMMOA oY pur £ oT Fite dpe
aus 3 swam sty, “punjooy fo worm heoy pun 2po4y ayn pies save we nteang 2 dm fq pew Aas ad 38 ‘LeLt 200 cae ite oa
‘proyapoy sv Luq sures oy) UO ayeNyS sr proyaysy 4
"mayy Surkd
6 ¢|o09]°*::| 86 | gor sel‘os|13¢ | seo'ost| #98 [esses + * LEE
; 9l8 Los'Orr| tists ree SPLt z
Zt0F #00'SI see* Temes eeeee oOsgt =
. 1seZll SSs'sI eee em eee Pool aeak ay uy
, 1a
sor | te | etgs|forg | ott | go | get| soct|sos‘es! zoe | 11 | oto‘eec| eseg |----- mo,
49° - I al FL g eee a cs SSSt 9 029 cee SEsltr li ee erereoe eee eene paoyesy
$91 eee eeee 61 0 Stl ee cae ee 1606 $ale see S6L‘L¢ O6Le ee paogedg
: 610 eee *#e os one 9Is‘sa at9 8 LeL‘9 ons ee Paoyays yy
¥ Sl PL it easy eg $9 $83 | 061 Shee s $o0a‘ll ry ee dha Re eo YAvryiey
“‘syoregy | ArT 4S | "GI" T “AAS 2g} “itd
surg | “SUryS
*sus0 Hy ss0WT *UMOTT “says | SUMS “say4S “your “sper
wwog uyog] pavjooe | PE) sopra reas woo] oo xog | Mans | poms | omer | peas | MP | 20 exposg ‘saoreaenql
—— = 1 em
0 $3 for g 609 "Ff "ef "ee. + “9060 1 0 &I > 6s ob 6 wa 6LLI
0 989% $ 9 Slt ** ee ee lf “ete 899 | 0 0 366 eee ee eee SPLI
“ar “QUAS| ”
: S fest eee see **. oer eee StI 0 0 106 “ee eeeee osol
fg Ls¢ eee eae se os6 eee fete rt) Lt 0 Fs “ese eee eee S91 awed ayy uy
glo‘tst| 8 63/1 sst}s 69| f93. | 616] at | #8 | Peoot] Pos} 1 on| oct | st ces go woom--::- mo, |
820'99 ats {¢ 26] **?+ le 6 wt | 816) Go| ets | os |orsee|s sop} scrr ttt t tte: paoyesy | 2
006'6L I % ¢ ur Lt 991 9 LB “a. 1o¢ Lt ee 9g *e*ee 8I Os “eer ee eee seer paoyway a
198 g FF. + o¢ al 86 0" 8 or ST bry ne f6L 98 2% No “eee m=eeeptitseeeeeeeeeee » Paoyeysy |
‘61 | 6 O | tse | et Leg] Fes. | ct ovr) ot | ot | om} foor| 8 & | 99 |B Gostls gogtl sss sss ttt ttt sawed
ONO GT AUNS | GED GINS | AUT AIS) Mee | -qrry “AAs | Sete | “HessHR) “HOE | -spouaH | QI] “OES | eesaeg) qe"T “ait | qi" “GEIS :
“pox oOnUM eS |S | “POD | =Paeg
ssFuyyoorg ees “aouyeg | . “sayy 71nq UY wa
uayl00 4 700M pouss | “MU | ong 10 pen pens esis ™ iene
‘9081 unag oyp ut pumpoy worl sjrodxgy fo aiev J,
Farm
houses,
650
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN THE ISLAND.
Liquid Measure.
1 pipe come -».+,» Same... or. 120 gallons,
1 oxho
ved (hogshead)........... 60
lame .... - 4ankers . or. 40
1tonde . .....-.. Sankers'. or. 30
lanker ....:....65kutting.or. 10
1 kutting ........4kander.or. . 2
1 kande.........-2potter .or. - 04
-4pele ..or. 2 pints.
« pele evens eet ei O's OL ping
oerne
lpot..
I pele... >
Corn Measure.
1 tonde (barrel) = 8 skepper, or 4 English bushels.
1 skepper (4 bushel) contains 18 potter or quarts.
Cloth Measure.
1 alen or yard = 25 English inches, or two-thirds of a
yard, and is divided into quarters.
| Weights.
1 skippund = 20 lisepund, or 3 cwt..22 lb, English.
1 lisepund = 16 pund, or 17 Ib.
1 pund = 16 onzer, or IIb.
The Danish pound is 12 per cent. heavier than the
English.
We have already mentioned the laws respecting pro-
perty, and the conditions in which a tenant holds a
farm. A farm house in Iceland has the appearance of
a small village ; the dwelling house, all the out-houses,
and the hay yard, being within a general inclosure of
turf, four or five feet high, and seldom less than five or
six feet thick. The doors to the different aeons
are generally arranged on the south side, and each has
a sort of pediment above it, surmounted by a vane.
The access to the dwelling house is by a long narrow
passage, into which the different rooms open. Each
room is separated from the next by a thick partition of
ICELAND.
turf, and has also a separate roof, through which the _ Iceland.
light is admitted by bits of glass or skin. The princi-
pal rooms of the better sort of people have small ‘000 *
zed windows in front. Ventilation is not attended to,
warmth being the chief object in the construction of
the houses ; and the consequence is, that the smell is to
a stranger almost insupportable. The houses are ge«
nerally built on a rising ground, and in the middle, or
as near as possible to the land devoted to the hay crop.
On this land, which is in general much broken into
little knolls or hillocks, the manure is spread in the
month of May ; and about the end of July the grass is
cut, when it is scarcely more than six inches long. In
this operation a very short scythe is used, and the Ice-
landers cut with it very neatly and expeditiously. The
hay is kept chiefly for the cows, though in very severe
weather the sheep and horses get a small share. As
soon as the crop near the house is secured, the farmer
gives a feast ; and when the whole is safe in the hay
yard, a fat sheep is killed, and another feast takes place.
The cows are very like the. Scotch Highland sort, Cows.
known in England by the name of Kyloes. No at~
tention is paid to breeding stock ; and in general we
find the best stock on farms where the winter food is
in greatest plenty. During the summer there is great
abundance of pasturage.
The sheep appear to be a mixed breed, carrying long gheey,
and coarse wool.’ The wool is removed by pulling it
when it appears loose. A great quantity of mutton is:
salted for exportation in the northern districts.
Very little cheese is made, butter being the chief ob= Gheoce ang
ject in the dairy. It is barrelled without salt, and is putter.
thus kept several years. The older it is the more it is,
prized. In this state it reaches a certain e of ran-
cidity, beyond which it does not pass; and it is won~
derful how long it keeps.
The horses are of a small breed, but stout, and very: porses,
hardy. Those used for riding are trained to what is
called pacing ; and, where the ground is tolerably
smooth, they go very swiftly, the motion being very
easy and pleasant to the rider. The statistical infor~
mation contained in the following Tables, was partly
furnished to the writer of this article by Bishop Vida-
lin, and is partly taken from Stephenson’s Iceland in
the \8th Century.
ICELAND. | 651
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«oa
35. Zeus. extremitate ee bi bythe ip ot
36. Cheetodon. 4, Capite et cauda rostratus 26. Amphisilien.
ree i . 37. Gasterosteus. c. Notabiliter plani et oculata. vat
a. Branchiis gsseis destitutis. « §27. Solea.
38. Balistes. 1. In dextro latere oculati 28. Passer.
iosteo] J 09: Ostracion. 2. In sinistro latere oculatus 29. Rhombus.
Branchiostegi + 45, Cyclopterus. 30. Rhombotides.
41. Lophius, 8. Utrinque oculati $1, Tetragonopterus.
B. Pinnarum radiis cartilagineis vix a membrana dis« $2. Platiglossus.
tinctis, - ¥ a 33. Cataphractus.
42, Petromyzon. d. Smet notabiliter ar- 3 A octets
- .. } 43, Acipenser, 35. Centriscus.
Chondropterigil 44 Squalus. e. Vel sterno vel capite notati -
45. Raja. instar ricini omnibus cor- } 36. Ocontion.
PiscEs CAUDA HORIZONTALI, including the whales, . cea Bibi aRe CN Ae Sh TEE :
Klein. Klein made an attempt to classify fishes in his His« ~Corporeteretiusculo anguil-
toria Piscium Naturalis. It was published in five parts, vf lz adspectum habentes ba aes gt
the first coreg in the year 1740, and the last in aes
1749. As this naturalist appeared as the rival of Lin- B, Series II. Corpore spisso vel lati, vel carinati et eas-
neus, he has too often been condemned by the admi- tigati.
‘i rers of the professor of Upsal without sufficient exami- gq, Tripterus . . .. 39. Callarias,
nation. It is true that in the construction of his gene- 4, Pseudotripterus 40, Pelamys.
ric and specific characters, he falls short of the excel- _¢, Dipterus. He
lence of Artedi or Linneeus, but in the formation of the 1, Pinna secunda cutacea { 41. Trutta.
higher divisions of his system, he exhibits an intimate vel adiposa Ser
acquaintance with the external characters of ‘fishes. - (42. Mullus.
The following synoptical view will convey an idea of 43. Cestreus.
the principles of his system. We have omitted his _ | 44, Labrax.
first division, which contains the cetaceous animals, 2. Pinnis ambabus radiatis 4 45. Sphyrena.
System of II. Piscss Brancuus occuntis. on Kepéralos; ui he
— A. Ad latera, | 48. Trichidion.
a. Pinnata, - d. Pseudodipterus. pane
5. Cynocephalus. 1, Pro prima pinna i { My
1. Spiraculis quinque. 2 & Galeus. aculeis discretes’ hae eanHA
eP i 7. Cestracion, 2. Preeter pinnam longam, {|
8. Rhina. processibusin capite qua- 2 50. Blennus.
9. Batrachus. si cristatus
10. Crayracion.
11. Capriscus, .
12. Conger. .
2. Spiraculo unico,
b. Apennia.
1. Spiraculo unico.
2. Spiraculis septem.
B. In Thorace. ~ *
13. Murena.
14. Petrontyzon.
15. Narcacion.
16. Rhinobatus,
17. Legobatus,
1. Spiraculis constanter quinque.
; 18, Dasybatus.
e. Monopterus.
1. Pinna longa unica,
* Interrupta’ so. .
** Sinuosa .o.
*** Cozquata.
2. Dentibus acutis
o
8. Dentibus latis et
obtusis
51. Peroa.
52. Percis.
53. Maenas.
54, Cicla,
55. Synagris. °
56, Hippurus,
{ 27. Sargus.
ICHTHYOLOGY.. z 661 -
y-Edentuli, . . {ia Pree Caput antice truncatum $4. Teutthis. History.
Corpus ca um =... »'s_—) -85: Loricaria, © 9) SO”
2, Pinna brevi. Pinta doris potce edifon 36. Salmo, ; fytemof
* Ad medium dorsi. Rostrum cylindricum operculo clau- 6 heathens
«. Corpore lato spisso 60. Brama. sile - «+ «+ .« 8% Fistularias
. £. Corpore castigato. Mandibula inferior longior, punc-
y i , exteriore mi- aif
Th imbirbes 63. Harengus. nore . eT De 89% Elops.
** Caude proxima . 64. Lucius. Anus caude vicinus - + 40. Argentina.
J Pseumonopterus . . . 65, Pseudopterus. Fascia lateralis longitudinalis ar-
gentea! 9.5). . . 41.°Atherina.
. We come now to consider the system of the celebra- Man¢ibula inferior jntus carinata 42. Mugil.
ted Linnwus. At first this eminent naturalist adopted is absque ‘nt
: the views and arrangements of his friend Artedi. By _ operculis ee + #43 Mormyrus.
h degrees, however, he unfolded the principles of a new Pinne pectorales longitudine corpo- ;
j pcre Ae cr me a Keay ES Fimsin! ci J - + 44, Exoceetus.
. 12th edition of the Systema Nature, 1766, as follows. . Digiti distincti juxta pinnas
L i 7 ‘ 45, Polynemus.
Pinne ventrales nulla. - ’ ; Membrana branchiostega triradiata 47, Cyprinus.
. Apertura branchiarum ad latera tho. prise {1 ;
3 wecig= 5 2) a eo) oe Mirena. “ane cee canons which beens
{ Dorsum apterygium ° : a. i , is remo cétacei and cartilagi-
> Cauda aptera 9. 6 8) oe se 3. Teichiurus _ nei of Ray from the class of fishes. The former he tes
Dentes rotundati . «. ~. +» 4 Anarhichas, Se eee ee laced
; Caput corpore angustius . . 5. Ammodytes. latter phibia, under the order Nantes.
Corpus ensiforme . . .+ 6, Ophidium. He was to assign to these last such a position
Corpus ovatum +. 77, Stromateus. in his system, in of trusting to the inac-
Rostrum ensiferum . . . §&. Xiphias. - . curate observations of Dr Garden of South Carolina,
; J . who, from a dissection of the fish called diodon, conclu-
DOYRAAES, _ ded that it possessed both lungs and branchiw. Subse-
i Apertura branchiarum ad nucham —9. Callionymus, quent writers have in general restored them
y Os sharma eS 99 FF G0 ons 10. Uranoscopus. to their true place among fishes.
j Anus prope pectus . 11. Trachinus. The i ists who preceded Linneus, invaria-
: Pinne inacumen 12. Gadus, bly endeavoured to employ those characters in the for-
Pinne ventrales didactyle matice 13. Blennius. mation —_— primary divisions, which oe some
wate igation, i heed
IIT. Tuonactct. sae Th dther qroeds, attempted to discover
Os simum, corpus 14. Cepola. a natural method in ichthy 3
planum transversim as the foundation of his system, the relation of the ven-
sulcatum + - 15. Echeneis, . tral to the pectoral fins, without ing to point
Caput antice truncato-obtusum 16. Coryphena, . out the influence exercised on the animal economy, by
Pinna ventrales coadunate a change of position in these Hence his Orders
ovatam Sow Pe a ae ee are all arbitrary and artificial. the construction of
an eee ° 18, Cottus. his Genera, he was singularly happy in the choice
eres adspersum . 19. Scorpewna. which he made of characters. T which are essen-
superius membrana tial have been given in the Table ; the na(ural character
versa . 20. Zeus. was employed in the system itself. He introduced the
es ae Ge 2: Plomronectes. use of trivial names, and corrected the specific charac-
Dentes setacei confertissimi, 22. Chetodon. ters. His terms were classical and expressive, and the
Dentes validi incisores s. molares’ 23. Sparus. whalé wyieainayee tien Of & Wighty genie His
Pinna dorsalis ramento post spinas genera, it is true, have been divided, in to
notata ag Splhee JechleKigings: new ones ; but how few have equalled this naturalist
Pinna dorsalis in fussula recondenda 25. Sciewna, in the luminous brevity of his characters.
Opercula branchiarum serrata 26. Perca. ar pig tag att Anas friend of Linnzus, Gronovius.
Cauda lateribus carinata; spine lished his Museum ichthyologicum, in 2 vols. folio,
dorsales distinctse : 27. Gasterosteus.. in the year 1754-6. In this work he attempted the
Squami, Lr capitis, axe rm bea cata I. Caupa Horizontati. System of
Digit distinctd juste planes pecto- Whales. es
al Al ae a II. Caupa Pervenpicutant.
A. Radiis
Cape sl cae dau Cob Cees Ct, Apres
ee eee $2. Amia. a. Pinnis ventralibus pre. _) 6. Callorynchus.
1. pinnee dorsalis pectora- sentibus 7. Squalus,
liumque dentatus - « $3, Silurus, —
662
ICHTHYOLOGY.
4. Pinnis ventralibus nullis 9. Petromyzon.
1. Branchiarum aperturis, foramine exiguo tantum
*** Pinnis dorsalibus
veris seu radiatis
( 67, Callichthys.
68. Plecostomus.
69. Centriscus,
} 70. Mugil.
History.
yates of B. Radiis pinnarum osseis.
Sronovius, ;
apertis.
BRANCHIOSTEGT.
10. Mureeha.
‘a. Pinnis ventralibus nul- J 11. Gymnotus.
lis
4, Pinnis ventralibus spu-
12. Syngnathus.
13, Ostracion,
14. Balistes.
15. Cyclopterus.
Ji Cyclogaster.
17. Gonorynchus,
c. Pinnis ventralibus veris } 18. Cobitis.
preesentibus 19. Uranoscopus
20. Lophius.
2. Branchiarum aperturis subter atque in lateribus
laxe apertis.
BRrancuia.s.
@ Pinnis ventralibus in pectore sub*pectorali-
bus.
(21. Scieena.
| 22. Cynéedus.
| 23. Sparus.
| 24, Holocentrus:
25. Coracinus.
26. Scarus.
27. Cheetodon,
_® Pinna dorsi-solitaria ¢ 28. Labrus.
=* Pinna dorsi una j
pluribus
29, Callyodon.
| 30. Pleuronectes,
4 31. Echeneis.
| 32. ean
1 33. Erichelyopus.
| 34. Pholis. his
35. Cottus.
37. Trachinus.
38. Gobius.
39. Eleotris.
40. Trig
41. Mullus.
42. Perca.
43, Scomber.
44. Zeus.
45, Gadus.
@ Pinnis ventralibus inter pinnas es et
7 ral Pp pectorales-e
sitis,
r 46. Clarius,
47. Silurus,
48. Aspredo.
49. Albula.
50. Cyprinus,
51. Clupea. -
52. Argentina.
58. Synodus.
* Pinna dorsi solitaria 4 54. Hepatus.
** Pinnis dorsalibus
duobus, posteriore
spuria seu adiposa
3
55. Erythrinus,
56. Umbra.
57. Cataphractus.
"158. Exoceetus.
59, Anableps.
60. Esox.
61. Solenostomus.
63. Salmo.
64, Anostomes.
65. Charax.
66. Mystus.
71. Polynemus.
72. Atherina.
78. Anarhichas.
74, Ophidion,.
75. Mastacembalus.
; 76. Ammodytes.
‘¢ Pinnis ventralibus ve- }77. Gasterostetis.
ris nullis, +78. Channa.
81. Leptocephalus,
| 82. Gynogaster.
In this system Gronovius has brought the cetas
ceous and cartilaginous divisions of Ray. His primary
characters are‘similar to those employed by that illus«
trious zoologist. Those of a subordinate rank are in
part derived from the same souree, and from Artedi
and Linmeus. As a system, it is inferior to that of
‘Linneeus, since the subordinate characters are liable to
exceptions, Like that naturalist, he employs the nums
ber of the fins, as a character subordinate to those fur
nished by their position. , ,
Brunich attempted another system-of fishes, which
he published in his Zoologia Fundamenta, (Hatnie,
1771). It is an attempt to.unite the natural method
of Ray-and his numerous followers, with the artificial
system of Linnzus. It appeared at the time when the
professor of Upsal was in the meridian of his glory,
and was treated with neglect by the admirers of that
great man. To us, whose opinions on, the merits of
these systems are not likely to be influenced by party
feelings, the method of Brunich appears equally simple
as that of Linnzus, and, in the first tribes, is certainly
superior. We.add it here, that the reader may judge
for himself. :
Triszvs I.
79; Gasteropelecus.
Brunich.
Branchiis incompletis. Spiraculis thoracis laterali- System of
bus. Aurium foraminibus pone oculos. Pinnis carti« Brunich,
lagineis, —CHONDROPTERIGH.
1. Petromyzon.
{ 2. Raja.
3. Squalus.
| 4. Chimera.
5. Acipenser,
Trisus. II.
Branchiis incompletis. Apertura thoracis linearis.
Pinnis ‘membranaceis radiatis. Corpore sepius cata-
phracto vel muricato. BRraNncuiosTEct.
6. Syngnathus.
7. Ostracion,
8. Balistes. ;
9. Tetrodon.
10. Diodon.
1}. Lophius.
12. Cyel
13. Centriscus.
14, Pegasus.
A. Pinnis ventralibus nullis.
B. Pinnis ventralibus presentibus.
Trisus III. . me
Branchiis completis. Apertura thoracis hianite, Pin-
nis membranaceis radiatis ; ventralibus mullis ; conpore
sepius alepedoto,—Apepgs.
ICHTHYOLOGY,
15. Xi ias,
16. as
Trisvs IV.
Branchiis completis. A thoracis hiante ;, pin-
nis membranaceis radiatis ; ventralibus sub jugulo ; cor-
pore squamis minutis tecto vel nudo. Juaurares.
eee:
B. Acanthopterigii. 4
ir
GaNeeeessenss
B. Acanthopterigii-
S88
a
_
:
668
The four last tribes of this are obviously those
of Linneeus, with the introduction of a subordinate cha-
racter from Ray. We must, however, observe, <9
— fishes whose ~ a soft articulated
species have been pitted
wate were e entitled toa place among
those wh spinous bg termed Acan ious.
many species e genus Pleuronectes (but not
all of then) fave a spine in front of the anal fin ;
and in the genus inus, both the carpio and barbus
have one serrated EW Wan ortined ume The
heir proee situation, without destroying the na-
links of the species. Such inconsistencies will be
found in all systems, where characters are employed
which exercise but a feeble influence on the animal
Professor Gouan of Montpellier, made another attempt
Teisemmataliy the mager in his Histoire des Poissons.
the patie of tas stmt 2 ew
soocbee
yen:
systems, were never
work of Bloch on
in German and French.
that of O-ldaheon with addi-
= th
searches of the author. ‘The pier -aiat: Feann ares,
of the Barrer soe Bowe ete
istory of the is given in de-
Walbaum with propriety styles this work, Opus
t of the Encyclopedie
Bonnaterre, and pub-
lished i the year 1788. This author, in the systema-
tic part of the subject, followed the method of Linnzus.
His i tage ay pe ohare eerie
the systematic e collected with care, the
incips ferme erent ane
hes Pend has a defined the characters
History.
_—_——_
Gouan.
Bloch.
Bonnaterre,
Seured of flies’ chiefy has added a number of good
figures of fishes, chiefly from other works.
In the year 1800, the “ on Comparative A-~ Cuvier,
natomy,” by Cuvier made their ce. Indepen-
dent of the i
contributions to the physiology
of fishes, this author has attempted a classification of
those animals, which merits the consideration of natu-
ralists, The fo outline, in which the genera
pet cs sna Bevo room, may be acceptable to the
systematic enquirer.
History.
—
System of
Cuvier,
De la Ce-
pede,
System of
De la Ce-
pede,
664 ICHTHYOLOGY. ‘ .
tr " 3 ts Round mouth at the end of the nose or snout. History.
Fined, ears, Pare ee: Transverse mouth under the snout. ’ rea
Transverse mouth under the snout ; teeth. Cuvier, =?
CARTILAGINOUS . no teeth. \
FisHes ... Free Branchie, Branchiostegi . . « Mouth at the end of the nose ; pei
teeth.
| The bones of the jaws answering instead of teeth.
é Mouth very wide ; a number of small teeth. j
Ver Mouth at the end of the nose.
P sos ee se ess ss '* UMouth under the nose.
4 ¢ Head unarmed.
Jugulares 2... ieee eer eee Feel daeioll:
f Dorsal fins partly spinous; head armed.
Dorsal fins partly spinous ; head § Two dorsal fins.
unarmed .......-.04.% One dorsal fin.
Thoracici . 2... 6.4... 4¢ Bones of the jaws naked, and answering instead of teeth.
Osszous Fisnes < Two eyes on the same side.
The body very long.
| A furrowed discus on the head.
( No operculum to the branchiz.
a 2) teeth.
* Ss teeth ; no cirri.
Abdominales......-. 2-225 ¢ Fens depuiaeid; rar
Spines free on the back.
4 | Mouth at the end of the nose.
Several natural families are formed by this author, and we hope he will add to the number in the second edi-«
tion of his work. . ‘
In the year 1803, De la Cepede completed his Histoire formed from the spoils of the collections of those coun«
Naturelle des Poissons, in five volumes. The opportu- tries which France had subjugated. Before giving our
nities of investigating the ste of ichthyology enjoy- opinion of the execution of the systematic part of the
ed by this author were valuable, and he has availed him- author’s plan, we shall lay a sketch of it before our
self of these with very great diligence and success. He readers.
had access to the best furnished museum in Europe,
Le sang rouge, des vertébres, des branchies au lieu de poumons. grap
; ee
Souvs-CassEs. Divisions. Onrpres. pede.
r Z 1, | 1. Apodes.
1. | 1. Point d’opercule, ne de mem- J) 2. | 2. Jugulaires. 0
brane branchiale ..... 8. | 3. Thoracins. 0
4. | 4, Abdominaux.
x j 5. i Apodes,. 0
Porssons CARTILAGINEAUX. Ps 2. Roint tones: PR IRE & - Tioracine
1. L’épine dorsale composée de vertébres J . ng Fire ig
cartilagineuses .
Porssons OssEvux. 6.
2. L’épine dorsale composée de vertébres
osseuses . . .
8. | 3 Un opercule, point de mem-
brane branchiale .... .-
branchiale ... .
5. |. 1, Un opercule, et une membrane
13.
4. | 4, Un opercule, et une carers
branchiale setecanee
2. Un opercule, point de mem-
brane branchiale ....-
7. | 3. Point d’opercule, une mem-
brane branchiale .....
brane branchiale .... -
> 29.
8. | 4. Point d’opercule, ni de mem- ‘3
PPO PWD ROPE Rt eo tem
. Apod
. Jugulaires. 0
. Thoracins. 0
. Abdominaux. 0
. Jugulaires. 0
Thoracins, 0
. Abdominaux.
Apodes.
Jugulaires, 0
Thoracins.
Abdominaux,
Apodes.
Jugulaires,
Thoracins.
Abdominaux.
Apodes.
Jugulaires. 0
Thoracins. 0
Abdominaux, 0
es.
Apodes.
2, Jugulaires. 0
3.
4.
Thoracins. 0
Abdominavux. 0
et
mpalcenie immed hc
System of
La Cepede.
¢ ICHTHYOLOGY.
canthus, Callionymus and Calliomorus, Acanthurus and History.
The reader will perceive, that the pri characters
are Ray. The secondary poe depend~
ing on the structure of the appendages of the gills, may
be considered as in a measure his own; while
those of a third rank be! Deciubeacderte bein It
perhaps surprise an i r to be informed,
of the thirty orders which are here constituted,
ly seventeen can be employed at present, the remain-
having no examples in nature. To these
st orders, I have added a cypher in the synoptical
view.
Every ichthyologist will allow that many fishes must
exist in nature which have never come under the ins
!
tion of the naturalist ; many links in the chain are still
wanting ; so that our systems, for the present, must be
imperfect. But ee in thus
constructing orders which have no ascertained exist-
ence, than a desire to anticipate discovery, and to ex-
hibit a confident reliance on the perfection of the sys-
The which he uses in the construction of
his genera, are derived from various sources. Thus,
his genus Prionotus, is separated from that of Trigla,
by the serrated spines between the dorsal fins of the
former. Serrasalmus, is separated from Salmo, in con-
sequence of a serrated abdomen. The number of the
dorsal fins Lutanus from us. The
size of the fins forms the distinction between
Bodianus and Tenianotus. It is rather singular that
seen aed ansutle deuntion whdle'ths' pf in the
asa generic character, whi presence of
that organ furnishes him with one of his primary cha-
erred cage yer cob mea ee nate tees ex.
ceptionable, appear to have constructed in
violation of the acknowledged rules of the science
zoology. The following maxim of Artedi, Nomina
ica, ex tno nomine generico fracto et allero integro
a sen g is overlooked in the — ing ex+
am ybrid names, many which might be
Oe : Gobiesox, Sesuibention, he Murenoblen-
roprie
omina
habent.” has the following genera :
Mugil Mugiloides, Gobius Gobioides, Cory-
i Scomber Scomberoides, Murena Mure.
noides. There isa third rule given by Artedi, and
entitled to the attention of the ic i
which La Cepede likewise overlooks.‘ Nomina gene-
rica, quae non sunt originis Latine vel Grace proscri-
— Thus we have the following barbarous names,
tsgurnus , formed from Misgurne, the Bavarian
vincial name of Cobitis fossils of Linneus, ak the
only known species of the genus Makaira, the name
of a fish known at Rochelle. There is likewise a ge-
nas , & name attached to a dried fish in the
Dutch collection, and provincial. The similarity in
the sound, between many of the genera of this author,
will i lead to confusion. Thus we have Ho-
locentrus Holocanthus, Pomacentrus and Poma-
VOL. ZI. PART I. :
665
Acanthopodus, and a host of other genera with names
so nearly alike, that we might be led to suppose the
author formed them purposely to perplex. We cannot
close our observations on the genera of this author,
without adding, that all generic names taken from ob-
jects in the other classes of nature, ought to have been
rejected ; such, for example, as Eques, Gallus, Hy-
drargirus.
In the construction of his species, there is perhaps
too strong a desire to increase their number, in the ab-
sence ofall prominent characters. This, we fear, has
been the case in the genus Salmo, Labrus, and some
others, where the limits of the species are ill defined.
He has been too liberal in employing the names of in-
dividuals, as trivial names to his species, Thus we
have three different species in the system named in
honour of his wife, who does not appear to have been
rromn attached to any branch of natural history.
ye can have no objections to an author dedicating his
work to his wife, as La Cepede has done; but we ob-
ject to the naming of species, ascertained by the la-
urs of others, in honour of any female friend. In
France, an author may gain credit for his sensibility
and love, by so doing, but to our colder temperament,
it seems to be affectation. In many instances, our au-
thor changes the received trivial names, bestowing upon
them new ones of his own, without even assigning any
reason for doing so. This takes place in almost every
extensive genus of the system, and merits the se-
verest censure. The French naturalists, it is trne,
have not scrupled to violate established maxims in sci-
ence, in order to form a French system. This seems to
have been the reason why LaCepede abandoned the prin-
ciples of Artedi in the construction of his genera, and dis-
regarded the as of the Linnean school. But the
French systems, like all others, must submit to the test
of sound principles ; and when tried by these, whoever.
shall attempt to restore to its Linnean purity this de-
partment of zoology, must cancel multitudes of the
names of La Cepede. We may add, that the descriptions
are often swelled by vague analogies, and are in too
many instances destitute of precision.
These remarks have extended perhaps too far; but
as the system is at present the most popular in Europe,
we have judged it expedient to state our undisguised
sentiments as to its merits. It abounds in faults, but it
is not destitute of excellence. A vast mass of facts is
collected, many species are for the first time described,
many new characters are unfolded, and the work upon
the whole is the most complete view of ichthyology ex-
tant. Figures of the new or rarer species are given.
These, however, are inferior in every respect to those
of Bloch.
The ichthyological part of the General Zoology by shaw.
Dr Shaw, appeared in two volumes, in the years
1803-4. We sincerely regret that it is not in our
er to bestow any praise on this work. The text
is a very meagre compilation, chiefly from the writings
of Bloch and La Cepede; and the figures which accom-
pany the work, are principally copied from the same
“in the preceding historical f ichthyological
In the ing historical review of i ologica
writers, in whieh ~ have endeavoured to sal they 0-
gress of the science, the reader must have perceived the
ep difference of opinion, with respect to the value of
e characters hoy in classification: The organs of
motion are regarded by some as holding the first rank,
while those of respiration are preferred by others.
4P
History.
_——
Writers on
British ich-
thyology.
666
These circumstances indicate the infant state of the
science, and point out the propriety of an anatomical
investigation of the whole tribe.
We are still in want of accurate representations
ef many species of fishes. The figures which we
meet with, often bear but a remote resemblance to
the objects themselves, _When a painter, ignorant of
natural history, is employed to delineate a fish, (or
any other animal), he is apt to overlook the most
important characters, unless these are very obvious.
He rests satisfied if he produces a general resem-
blance. Hence the peculiar shape of the fins is often
sacrificed to the desire of avoiding sharp angles, and
spots, punctures, or streaks, are omitted as useless, or
as spoiling the beauty of the drawing.. These figures,
in passing afterwards through the hands of the engra-
ver, are still farther-altered to suit professional taste,
so that the figures in works on natural. history are of-
ten imperfect representations, Hence naturalists should
study the art of drawing, and carefully inspect the
strokes of the engraver, if fidelity in representation-be
the object in view.
Before closing these: short notices of the: principal
writers on fishes, we propose to add a few observations
on the labours of those who have contributed to the
advancement of British ichthyology. This branch of
natural history has never been very popular in Britain,
and at present is in a great measure neglected. Mer-
ret, in his Pinax rerum Naturalium. Britannicarum,
London, 1667, is the first who arranged systematically
our native fishes. He distributed them into the fol-
lowing classes: I. Pisces. pelagii squamosi.» IJ. Pela-
giileves. ILI. Marini saxatiles. IV. Squamosi in ma-
rietin fluminibus. V. Fluviatiles squamosi. VI. Flu-
viatiles leaves. He has enumerated about 76 species.
He acknowledges the assistance which he derived from
Turner in his letter to.Gesner, His references are
chiefly to.the works of Gesner and Aldrovandus; and
he has added a number of provincial names. Taking
all circumstances into consideration, this little work de-
serves great praise.
The labours of Willoughby and Ray, which we have
already mentioned with respect, contributed to advance
the science of ichthyology in this country, by the in-
troduction of a more determinate nomenclature, and a
more accurate definition of species.
From the days of Ray until the appearance of Pen-
nant, no systematic British ichthyologist had appeared.
In the year 1776, that naturalist published his British
Zoology. The third volume of this work treats of our
native fishes, amounting to one hundred and. fifty-two
species, exclusive of the-cetacea, The-system which
he follows is the Linnzan, with the addition of the car-
tilaginei of Ray. He does not confine himself to mere
descriptions ; he notices the habits and. uses of the par-
ticular species. The figures are upon the whole re-
spectable. This work contributed to diffuse a taste for
the study of zoology in this country, and still conti-
nues to maintain that reputation which its general ac-
curacy, and pleasing style, deservedly procured. A
second edition made its appearance two years ago, edit-
ed by a son of the author’s. It contains a few addi-
tions, compiled from authentic sources.
The Sanopes of the Natural History of Great Bri-
tain and. Ireland, by Berkenhout, merits a place in this
catalogue, The first edition appeared in the year
1769, and the second in the year 1795. In the first
volume the British fishes are enumerated, amounting to.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
157 species, and arranged according to’ the Linnean — History:
method. The specific characters are short, but judici+
ously selected.
Inthe year 1802, Mr Stewart of Edinburgh pub+
lished his Elements. of Natural History, in which he’
enumerates the British species of fishes: This worl:
has lately been revised by the author, and several new
species have been added to his list.
Mr Donovan completed, in 1808, five volumes of
his Natural History of British Fishes. This work con-
tains coloured representations of 119 species. The
figures are faithful representations, and the descrip-
tions abound in sound criticisms and important illus«
trations.. He is perhaps deficient in his account of the
external characters of the species. This production is
a valuable book of reference, and ought to be frequent-
ly consulted by the student, We may add that he has
swelled the list of British fishes by. the discovery of
many new and curious species,
The British Fauna, by Turton, was published in
1807, previous to the completion of the preceding
work. In this small volume 168 species are described.
It is a very useful compilation, chiefly on account of
its convenient size for the pocket.
Besides these systematic writers. on British ichthyo-«
logy, several naturalists, by describing the fishes of par-
ticular districts, have rendered important service to
the science.
Inthe work of T. Caius De Canibus Britannicis,
(Lond. 1570,) contains notices respecting a few s
cies of British fishes, such as the xiphias, the trachu«
rus, the acus, and.a few others.
In 1684, Sir Robert Sibbald published his Prodro«
mus Historie Naturalis, sive Scotia Illustrata. In this
work the fishes of Scotland: are described and enume-
rated; and, considering the state-of the science at the
time, the catalogue is an extensive one. The same au~«
thor enlarges on the fishes of the Frith of Forth in his
‘History of Fife and Kinross.
The topographical labours of Plott merit ful
mention ; and in his Histories of Oxfordshire and Staf=
Jordshire, he has not overlooked the fishes of these dis«
tricts. The history of the former county appeared in
1676, and that of the latter in 1686.
In 1698, Martin published his Description of the
Western Islands of Scotland, in which he notices the
ichthyological productions of those seas, but in a very
cursory manner.
Wallace, in 1700, published his Account of the Ork-«
ney Islands, in which he noticed a. few of. the more
common fishes of that country.
The British student of zoology must be familiar
with the name of Borlase. His Natural: History of
Cornwall, published. in 1758, is generally quoted as a
book of reference, and contributed to~ Aveies our
knowledge of British fishes, Several new species were
ublished for the first time frem the drawings of the
Rev. Mr Iago, minister of Loo,
Several remarks, illustrative of Irish ichthyology,
appear in Rutty’s Natural History of the County of
Dublin, 1772. Smith, in his county histories of Ker«
ry, Waterford, Cork, and Down, had communicated
previously a few. imperfect notices regarding the fishes
of those districts.
In the year 1811, the first volume of the Memoirs
of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh
appeared before the public, containing two i coal il-
lustrative of British ichthyology. The first is: E.
duction of the late eminent zoologist Montagu, in which
ICHTHYOLOGY.
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
been observed by the author. The species amount
The last author whom we shall mention as having
‘contributed to extend our knowledge of the distribution
-of British fishes, is the late Rev. George Low, minister
of Birsa and Hara. The Fauna Orcadensis, which he
left behind him in MS. was published in the year 1813,
and contains an extensive list of the fishes which the
author observed in the seas around the islands of Ork-
§
CHAP. II.
Srructure anv Functions oF Fisues.
the ‘fanstitene ‘which: thely- pestorme, By the
= in this manner, papa. tea hak coe
Saanay af thio tunportent. class of sniseted. balnge.
Sect. I. Organs of Support.
sabe aosiueg tants qed, The
— enn ay oS Rane sisal
j little attended to naturalists. voiding i
saeohtdetalia, ten to the skeleton, as
consisting of a cranium, spine, and ribs.
As the cranium of fishes is covered with skin only, its
form is easily ascertained, and it exhibits
ies it is large in proportion to the size of the body.
Thncnaiont Tesunes tubes consists of a great num-
end. It consists of concentric rings,
are by some to increase in number with
of the animal. The vertebra: are destitute of
all the vertebr are consolidated
667
one so that the
spinous can only be distinguished.
The oars be divided inite the cervical, dor-
sal, and caudal. [n osseous fishes, the cervical vertebra
are in general wanting, although in some cases they ex~
ist, as in the herring, to the number of four. In the
cartilaginous kinds, they are ossified into one piece.
The dorsal vertebre are easily recognised, by wanting
processes on the inferior part. These have generally
on the sides transverse processes, to which the ribs are
attached, The caudal vertebre are possessed of spinous
rocesses, both on the superior and inferior surfaces.
n those fish which are flat these are very long, as in
the flounders. The first caudal vertebra is in general
of a peculiar shape. The cavity of the trunk is termi-
ete its inferior process. In the flounders it is
large, round in the fore part, and terminated below by
a sort of spine. The last caudal vertebra is however
more remarkable than the first. It is almost always of
a triangular ferm, flat, and placed vertically. Upon its
posterior extremity it bears articular impressions, which
ne to'the small and delicate bones ef the fin of
the
_ The number of the bones of the vertebral column in
t spesies being exceedingly various, suggested
to Artedi the use of this character in the separation of
nearly allied species. Among the species of the
us
Cyprinus, for example, a difference in the bert eer
‘vertebra: has been observed to the amount of fourteen.
In ascertaining this character, Artedi recommends the
greatest ci i The fish should be boiled, the
yaaa ee separated, and the vertebra detached from
one , and these counted two or three times in
succession to prevent mistakes. This character is of
great use, as it is not liable to variation, individuals of
the same ies exhibiting the same number of verte-
bre in all the stages of their growth.
The number and size of the ribs are likewise extreme-
ly various. - The cartilaginous fishes may be considered
as destitute of true ribs. Where they exist, as in the
osseous fishes, they are articulated to the body of the
vertebra, or to the spinous processes.. They are forked
in some fishes, and in others double ; that is, two ribs
from each side of every vertebra. In the genus
'yprinus they are of a compressed s 3; in'the cod
— round ; and in the herring like bristles.
number of the ribs likewise furnishes a charac-
ter in the discrimination of species, which may be safe-
ly relied on in the absence of more obvious characters.
Besides these bones which we have enumerated, there
are many more osseous spicula, which serve to sup
the fins, and to en the muscles. Indeed the ex-
istence of numerous bones, unconnected with the skele-
ton, is a distinguishing character of the osteology of
fishes, and these we s. afterwards consider in our
account of the different purposes to which they are sub-
servient,
The composition of the bones of fishes has never been
investi with sufficient care. It is = known, that
never acquire so a degree of hardness and
slg tates the mammalia or birds: hence
we may safely conclude from the facts connected with
the ossification in other animals, that the bones
abound in i and cartilaginous matter,
while the portion of earthy or saline matter is small.
The earthy salts. are phosphate and carbonate of lime,
and the phosphate of magnesia, the former predomina-
Structure
and
Functions ©
of Kis! es.
—_—~_
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
—\—
Organs of
protection.
668
ting in quantity. In one division of fishes, termed the
cartilaginous, the proportion of earthy matter is so small,
that the bones never become indurated, but continue
in all the periods of the life of the fish soft and flexible.
These animals are therefore supposed to grow during
the whole course of their existence.
When the bones of some fishes are boiled in water,
they undergo a change of colour. This circumstance
is well illustrated in the case of the gar-fish, or sea pike,
(Esox belone,) whose bones by boiling become of'a grass
green colour; and in the bones of the viviparous blenny,
which experience a similar change. This alteration of
colour has fostered some of the prejudices of the vulgar,
but has failed to arrest the attention of the chemist.
The bones of fishes when reduced to powder, are
mixed up with farinaceous substances, and used instead
of bread by some of the northern nations. In.Norway,
and even in some of the remote districts of our own
country, fish bones are given as food for cows, and are
greedily devoured by them.
Sect. II.
Unner this head, it is our intention to consider the
skin, the scales, and the spines of fishes. The shin of
fishes consists, as in the. other vertebral animals, of a
true skin, a rete mucosum, and a cuticle. The cutis,
or true skin of fishes, is remarkably thick in those spe-
cies which have small scales; while in those which
have large scales, it frequently assumes the appearance
of a thin membrane. It is much more closely attached
to the muscles in this tribe than in any of the other ver-
tebral animals. This organ in the gadi, for example,
consists almost entirely of gelatine, and hence is much
esteemed as an article of food, and is used also in fining,
as a substitute for isinglass. Eel skins are likewise
used in the manufacture of size, in consequence of the
gelatine which they contain.
In the higher classes of vertebral animals, there is an
organ termed the corpus papillare, or the villous sur-
face of the skin, in which the sense of touch is supposed
more particularly to reside. Fishes, however, are des-
titute of this organ; and hence anatomists have con-
cluded, that these animals are possessed of this sense
in a very imperfect degree.
Intermediate between the true skin and the cuticle,
is situated the refe mucosum. It consists of a mucous
layer, in which the colouring matter of the skin resides.
In the animals which we are now considering, this layer
is remarkable for the brilliant tints which it exhibits,
communicating to the scales all their metallic lustre.
The’ cuficle, or external layer of the skin, appears in
fishes in a soft state, and, in many instances, is a simple
mucous substance enveloping the body. It is detached
at certain seasons of the year in large pieces.
The scales are implanted in the cuticle, and in their
position and use resemble the hairs on the bodies of
quadrupeds. They cover the body of fishes like tiles
on the roof of a house, pointing backwards. The pos-
terior edge, which in general is free, is usually crescent-
shaped, fringed in some species, and smooth in others.
By means of a lens, longitudinal ribs may be perceived
finely decussated by transverse striee. These ribs some-
times radiate from the centre, and the crossing striz are
concentric. _When macerated in weak acids, they are
found to consist of alternate layers of membrane and
phosphate of lime, and hence are supposed to increase in
every direction by the addition of new layers.
Instead of imbricated scales, some fishes are protects
Organs of Protection.
~
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ed by osseous plates, covered, like the scales, by the cu-
ticle, and presenting an even surface. Among some of
the sharks, as the Squalus acanthias, instead of scales
there are flat bent bristly Jaminz; and in the remora
there are hard rough tubercles. These osseous plates
in the sturgeon, resemble in shape the shell of a limpet.
These scales may be considered as the ordinary ar-
mature of fishes. They guard their bodies from ex~
ternal injury, and, when rubbed off by accident, they
are reproduced, ,
The naturalist employs the appearances exhibited by
the scales, as a character in the discrimination of nearly
allied species. The form, the surface, and the size of
the scales, are chiefly used for this purpose, although
the disposition of the longitudinal and the transverse
rays, together with the condition of the margin, would
furnish more permanent marks. The scales in the de-
scription of a fish, are likewise considered in regard to
their adhesion to the skin. Thus some scales, which
adhere but slightly, are said to be deciduous ; while
others, which cannot be rubbed off but with difficulty,
are termed tenacious or adhesive. SEES
Besides the scales, many fishes are furnished with
spinous processes. These sometimes accompany. the
fins ; while in other instances they appear as the arma
ture of the head and cheeks. They appear to be of the
same consistence and composition as horn, Those found
on the head are in general fixed ; but those connected
with the fins are moved by peculiar muscles. These
organs may be considered as defensive weapons, and
act, in some instances, not merely by their form and
consistence, but by some venomous secretion by which
they are covered. Thus the common weever ( Trachi-<
nus draco) inflicts a wound with the spines of the first
dorsal fin, often followed by violent burning pains, in-
flammation, and swellings; so that the ermen are
in the practice of cutting off the offensive organ before
they bring the fish to market. The spines of the Squalus
acanihias, or piked dog-fish, is likewise considered by
fishermen as capable of inflicting a dangerous wound.
The fishes furnished with spinous rays in the fins,
were, at a very early period, separated from those with
soft rays. They were termed Acanthoplerygit by Arte-
di. The fishes furnished with spines on the head or
cheeks, have been subdivided by La Cepede into several
genera, from the characters furnished by these organs.
Secr. III. Organs of Sensation.
In attending to the organs of sensation in fishes, the
condition of the brain demands our first consideration.
We have already stated, that the head is large in pro-
portion to the size of the body ; but with regard to the
brain, the reverse of this appears to be the case. It
does not completely fill the cavity of the cranium des-
tined for its reception, the surrounding space being oc-
cupied by a salt fluid. It bears a much smaller pro-
rtion to the size of the body, than we. find in the
igher classes of animals, The following Table of these
proportions in a few fishes'is given by Cuvier.
White shark (Squalus carcharias) 25>
Great dog-fish (Squalus canicula) zy
Pike . mi iecrs #5] eens oneness ——
Silurus glanis . . «.. - +» 9 xgyT
The brain of fishes is of'a less compact texture than
that of the superior animals, and in some species is al-
Structure
and
Functions ©
of. Fishes,
Organs of
sensation.
»
ee
_?s
Structure most fluid. Ini structure, however, it is nearly the same,
id although characterised by a few constant marks. The
Wfane. Subdivisions of the brain and cerebellum, or their tu-
= bercles and lobes, are more numerous than in the mam-
~ malia and birds, In one [merece the Gadus,
Dr Monroe (Structure and i of Fishes, Edin.
1785, p. 44.) found spheroidal bodies between the dura
and pia mater, and covering the greater part of their
through the space formed by the processes of
vertebra. the other nerves of fishes, the size
of the spinal marrow is in ion to the size of the
aT
EF
:
Fe
att
FL
rif
ui
i
HE
ue
lar fibres,
tractile motion. This motion, however, in living fishes,
can seldom be perceived.
Proceeding to the examination of the inside of the
nostril, we may observe, that in the sharks and skates
the nasal lamine are placed lel to each other on
both sides of a lamina, which extends from one
end of the fossa to the other, and consist of folds of the
4
ICHTHYOLOGY. 669
nerve is surrounded by a fine membrane only, which
appears to be the same as that which contains the fat or
oily humour that covers the brain. In the haddock,
and some other fishes, the olfactory nerve, in its course
from the brain to the nose, passes through a cineritious
ball, which resembles the cineritious. matter connected
in our body to the olfactory nerve within the cranium. .
When the olfactory nerve arrives behind the folded
membrane which we have described, it is dilated to be
applied to the whole of its internal and convex surface.
In some fishes no previous enlargement takes place,
while in others the nerve swells into a real ganglion.
When expanded, it has been compared to the retina, but
the -filaments of which it is composed are more dis-
tinct.
The sense of smell in fishes is supposed by many to
furnish them with the most delicate tests, for searching
after and distinguishing their food. Dr Shaw (Genera/
Zoology, vol. iii. p. 9.) states, that “ if you throw a fresh
worm into the water, a fish shall distinguish it at a con-
siderable distance; and that this is not done by the eye
is plain from observing, that after the same worm has
been a considerable time in the water, and lost its smell,
no fishes will come near it; but if you take out the
bait, and make: several little incisions into it, so as to
let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, it shall have
the same effect as formerly. Now it is certain, that had
the animals distovered this bait with their eyes, they
would have come equally to it in both cases.. In con-
sequence of their smell being the principal means they -
have of discovering their food, we may frequently ob-
serve them allowing themselves to be carried rt
with the stream, that they may ascend again leisurely
against the current of the water; thus the odoriferous
particles swimming in that medium, being applied
more forcibly to their organs of smell, produce a strong-
er sensation.” We do not presume to dispute the ac-
of these observations, but we may observe,
that the well known voraciousness of fishes, the ea-
gerness with which they will seize a metal button,
or any glittering object, the whole art of artificial
bait and fly-fishing, all seem to point out the or-
of sight as the principal instrument by which they
ver their food. Besides, the organs of smelling are
by no means favourably situated for receiving quickly
the impressions new objects are calculated to produce,
In the chondropterygit the nares communicate by a
with the angles of the: mouth, but in general
organs of smell have no communication with those
of mastication or respiration ; and as the external open-
ings are narrow, and but ill supplied with muscles, we
are at a loss toconceive in what manner the water im-
with odoriferous particles is thus rapidly
ied to the extremities of the olfactory nerve. Al-
ternate —— and ejection of the water have never
been observed. The same water we know must pass
through the mouth, and be spread over the extended
surface of the gills ; so that we may presume, until far-
ther light be thrown on the subject, that these latter or-
gans may likewise contribute to warn the fish of the
presence or absence of salutary or noxious impregna-
tions.
The or, of smell furnish the ichthyologist with
some Gsipertant characters in the description of the
species. These have hitherto been too much neglected,
Structure
d
an
Fanctions
of Fishes.
——
as have the a of sige. ent.
2. Organs of sight. eyes shes, like all ad Seeing.
red-blooded animals, are two in number. They
greatly in position, both being, in some species, on the
ICHTHYOLOGY.
The outer layer of the choroid coat is either white, sil- St
670
Structure game side of the head, as in flounders, while in others
and
Functions
of Fishes.
—_——
they are nearly vertical. In general, however, they
are placed one‘on each side of the head, The eyes of
fishes are larger in proportion ‘to the size of their
‘bodies than in quadrupeds, as we find the -eye of the
cod-fish equal in size to that of an-ox.
Fishes in general are destitute of eye-lids, and are sel-
dom even furnished with projections in place of eye-
brows. In the moon-fish, (Tetraodon mola) however,
the eye may be entirely covered with an eye-lid, per-
forated circularly. In the greater number of fishes,
the skin passes directly over the eye without forming
any fold, and in some cases it does not adhere very
-closely to the eye. Thus the common eel may be
skinned without producing any hole in the situation of
‘the eye, ‘the skin only exhibits at ‘that -place a round
transparent spot. In the trunk-fish, (Ostracion,) the
conjunctiva, or external covering of the eye, is so si-
milar to the rest of the skin, that we observelines upon
it, which form the same compartments as‘on the body
of the fish. Some fishes may be considered as blind,
as the Gastrobranchus ceecus, in consequence of the uni-
form opacity of the skin in passing over the eye.
The form of the eye in this tribe of animals is nearly
that of a hemisphere, the plane part of which is directed
forward, and ‘the convex backward.
superior part is also flattened, so that the vertical dia-
meter is to the transverse as 1to 2. This flatness of the
anterior part of ‘the eye is compensated by the spheri-
cal form of the crystalline lens. This body is more
dense in fishes than in land animals. Monro found the
crystalline lens of an ox to be 1104, while that of a cod
was 1165, water being reckoned at 1000. The crys-
talline lens projects through the pupil, and leaves scarce
any space for the aqueous humour. The vitreous hu-
mour is proportionally small. _The portion of the axis
occupied by each of the three humours of the eye, in
the herring, for instance, may be expressed in fractions
as follows: aqueous humour 3, crystalline lens 3, and
the vitreous humour. The spherical form of the
crystalline lens has been already stated ; but the follow-
ing Table, from the observations of Petit and Cuvier,
will exhibit more clearly the proportion between the
axis and the diameter in a few species.
The axis is to the diameter in the
In the Ray, the>
very, or ae, and is very thin and ‘little vas-
cular. The inrier coat, to which the term membrana
Ruyschiana has been applied, is in general black, and
covered everywhere by mucous substance. In the
ray, however, it is yaar esar Between these two
membranes of the choroid coat there is a body of a
brilliant red colour. Its form is usually that of a thin
cylinder, formed like a ring round the optic nerve ; the
ring, however, is not-complete,.a segment of a certain
length being always wanting. Sometimes, as in the
Perca labraz,.it.consists of two pieces, one on each side -
the optic nerve. It is considered by some as mus~
cular, and enabling the eye to accommodate its figure
to the distance of the objects; while others regard it as
glandular, and destined to secrete some of the humours
of the eye. This gland, we-may add, does not exist in
the Chondropterygit, as the rays and sharks.
The iris is in general distinguished by its golden and
silvery brilliancy. This arises from its transparency,
allowing the natural colour of the choroid coat to be
discerned. The pupil is different in form in the differ«
ent species, but in general it approaches to circular or
oval ; in some genera, as the salmon, it projects into an
acute angle at the anterior part. In the Gobitis anae
bleps of Linneus, the cornea is divided into two
tions, and there is a double pupil with a single lens. In
the ray, the superior edge of its pupil is a se into
several narrow stripes disposed in radii, gilded exter-
nally, and black internally. In their ordinary state
they are folded between the superior edge of the pupil
and the vitreous humours: but when we press the su-«
perior part of the eye with the finger, they unfold them.
selves, and cover the pupil like a window-blind. In
the torpedo, the pupil can be completely closed by
means of this veil. No other fishes possess any thing
similar to this conformation, although in most osseous
fishes, there is at each corner of the orbit a vertical veil
which covers a small part of the-eye.. ;
In general, the eyes of fishes are placed in a conical
cup, and repose on a mass of gelatinous matter contain-
ed in a loose cellular substance. This trembling elastic
mass affords the eye a point of support in all its mo-
tions. In the Chondropterygii, however, as the rays
and sharks, the eye is joined to the extremity of a
cartilaginous stalk, which is itself articulated in the
Salmon: aeeers tier sgu” ens! hie ora ode eel auto 10 bottom of the orbit. In this manner the muscles act on
Sword-fish ....... o's gull 25 : 26 a long lever, and have therefore great power in moving
Shad . cisne% Ws atest aaeh Sua APR ve « 40) 2-11 the eye, :
Pike, os ete 060 bie vies oat ee's 14:15 The optic nerves arise under the cerebrum, and are
Barbel . S psehahehe - 11:12 very large. They are composed either of distinct fila«
Carp cay a) siesta She) iasamas tale » 14:15 ments, or of a single flat band, which is sometimes fold«
Mackrel . Oe soa Seg, 6 ~ jes Ae AS ed longitudinally on itself, and contracted into the fi-«
Whiting . ee fe Peddie Bip 14:15 gure ofa cord. They cross each other without being
SHRP cars: a0 tetris She shy Diaigts nPulse confounded, and we plainly see that the nerve of the
Raye ese e veer eeees 21: 22 left side proceeds te the right eye, and that of the right
Herring eerie Uebel tain’ ae SPage 10: 11 side to the left eye. This crossing is less apparent in
Tene soe 0 igus Aihe> Sa rier we hades 7: 8 the cartilaginous fishes, although in the ray the right
Boel ans, 25' eh dpa: fomeahan sy cpa ananatee 4 isk nerve passes through an opening in the left. These
CON BED + sje sips ear bi eye0s0 ata Loy ao
The sclerotic ccat of the eye of fishes is more firm
and dense than in the higher animals. It is here car-
tilaginous, semitransparent, and elastic, and sufficientl:
solid to preserve its form of itself. In the salmon it is
of the thickness of a line posteriorly, and of an almost
bony hardness before. This is frequently the case in
other fishes, especially near its junction with the cor-
wnea, where it sometimes appears like an osseous ring.
nerves pass directly through the membranes of the eye
by a round hole. Internally they form a cahenee
which is papillated in the ray, sharks, and carps. The
radiating fibres which arise from the edges of these tu-
bercles to form the retina, are very obvious. In, other
genera the retina is formed from the edges of two long
white caudez, in the same manner as it arises in birds
from the single white line.
The eye is one of the most important organs which
fishes are known to possess, It enables them to per~
a
|
and
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ive the approach of their foes, and it is the principal
it by which they obtain their food. The ama-
in artificial fly-fishing often tempts the fish with
i ut in vain ; and upon substituting ano-
its of a different form or colour, he suc-
in the capture. These motions of the fish are all
by the eye; hence some fish will bite as rea-
it of red cloth as at a piece of flesh.
organ exercises a vi werful influence on
its of fishes, it should be carefully attended to
systematic ichthyologist. The characters which
furnished by its form and position are not liable to
variations, and they kre sufficiently obvious. Those
furnished by the alanes of the different parts hold a se-
condary rank. They are not very liable to vary, but
Spemeneprcicnen grat: Dongen after death, and should
be with very great caution.
3. Organs of hearing. It was long known to na-
turalists, that fishes possessed some means of distinguish-
ing the vibrations of sonorous bodies. Trouts and carp
have been taught to come to a particular place of the
pond for food upon a bell being rung ; a drum has
sometimes been employed to drive fishes into a net. In
general, however, it was supposed that the vibrations
communicated to the water, became sensible to-the fish,
the medium of the organs of touch.
The Abbé Nollet (in the Hist. def Acad. R. des Scien-
ces, 1743, p. 26.) ascertained by conclusive experi-
ments, that the human ear was susceptible to the im-
ions of sound, even when immersed in water. This
Hu
¥e
ata
e
ce
asf
e
i 7; Naapaabe ay a of anatomists to the
structure of the organs ing, and Camper, Geof-
froi, and Vicq d’Azyr, at in aeledens out the
nature of the different parts. Our illustrious country-
man Dr Monro, in his work on the structure and phy-
siology of fishes, contributed to enlarge our knowledge
of the organs of hearing by numerous accurate dissec.
tions.
In the osseous fishes, no external ear has hitherto
been deteeted, and the same remark is applicable to
those cartilagi fishes which have free branchie. But
in the ns i fishes with fixed branchi, small
apertures have been disco cna to audi or-
gans. These were first observed by aaiatie die
cod Sara ek i Saas occur in
part occiput, near joining of the
head with the spine. 7, a A ag Hm
per rote ory to mapa pray Sad ang
are found at the distance of an inch from each other.
In fishes that have free branchi, the internal
of leasing a0 situated. in.tho tides of the envity,of the
cranium, and fixed there by a cellular tissue, consisting
of vessels, and osseous or ilaginous frena, In the
fishes with fixed branchia, those are inclosed in
a parti cavity formed in the tance of the cra~
nium. This cavity is situated on the side and posterior
of that which contains the brain, with which it
not communicate, Wi poten muons 2g
passages for the nerves. The sac exhibits many differ-
ences as to size and form in the different species. Be-
sides the ordinary viscid fluid, there are some small cre«
taceous bodies suspended by a beautiful plexus of
nerves. These, in the osseous fishes, are three in num-
in general fewer in number, and of a softer consistence,
seldom harder than moistened starch. It is su:
that these bodies ashlee in comnnamlanting to the
nerves the vibrations produced in the water by sound,
67T
With the sac are connected three semicireular canals,
filled with a viscid fluid similar to that in the large sac.
The audilory nerves arise so near to the origin of
the fifth pair, that they have been considered as the
same. In the genus Raja these pass into the cavity of
the ear by a particular foramen ; in the osseous fishes,
they are distributed directly into that organ.
As the ear of fishes is much less complicated in its
structure than in the higher orders of animals, we may
conclude that the sense of hearing is weak in propor-
tion. Indeed the difficulty of detecting any natural
movements of fishes, occasioned by sound, led the an-
cients to conclude that they did not enjoy this sense.
We have, however, demonstrated its existence, but we
are unable to ascertain the advantages which these ani-
mals derive from it, or the influence which it exerts
on their habits and economy. In systematic ichthyo-
logy, the characters of the organs of hearing are too
minute and difficult of detection, ever to be employed.
They vary in different species, it is true, and may be
resorted to in cases of difficulty; but for their investiga-
tion they require a dexterous hand and an experienced.
eye, ;
organ in which the sense of taste resides in the higher
o of animals) is but imperfectly developed, natu-
ralists are in general disposed to conclude, that the
sense of taste cari scarcely be said to belong to this class
of beings. It presents no visible distinct papille, and
its skin is analogous to the common integuments of the
mouth. The nerves which supply it, are branches of
the same nerves which enone to the branchie, In
the present state of our knowledge it is impossible for
us to assign the ise influence which the sense of
taste exercises on the economy of fishes.. If noxious in-
gredients exist in the water, it appears probable, that
some warning will be given the animal of their pre-
sence, either by the nerves of: the mouth during the
passage of the water-to the gills, or by the latter or-
. It does not appear that this sense is ever. used
in the discrimination of food, and does not furnish any
characters, as such, to the systematic ichthyologist.
5. Organs of Touch. We have already observed
that the skin of fishes is destitute of the corpus papil-
lare, and hence anatomists- have concluded, that they
the sense of touch in a very limited degree.
Besides, few nerves have hitherto been traced to the
skin ; and as its surface is in general coated with scales,
it appears but ill adapted for receiving very delicate
impressions. In some ies, such as the common
trout, (Salmo fario,) the sense of touch is well dis-
played, if, under a stone or bank, the hand be mo-
Vv tly towards it, and its sides titillated. It will
exhibit pleasure it derives by leaning on the hand,
and if the operation be performed with care, every
es of the body may be gently stroked, and the fears
fish in part raised above the water.
From these observations on the organs of sensation;
the reader will readil ive that fishes hold a much
lower place in the of being than quadrupeds or
birds. The of smell sight,. appear: to be
more completely developed than those of hearing, taste,
or touch, and therefore claim the attentive considera-
tion of the student in his enquiries after a natural me-
thod.in ichthyology.
Fishes possess no voice by which they can commu
' nicate their sensations to others. Some species utter
sounds when raised above the water, by expelling the air
through the gill opening when the flap is nearly closed, -
Suucture
and
Functions
of Fishes.
4. Organs of Taste. As the tongue of fishes (the Tasting:
q
672 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Structure While others, even under water, as the salmon, utter made up of a single bony piece, enveloped like the for= ~‘Strnctur
and certain sounds while in the act of depositing their mer by acommon membrane. Some fishes have one _ 2n4
phe ma spawn; but for what purpose these sounds are uttered, or more fins consisting entirely of these bony rays. ‘¢ pish
vcs or by what organs they are produced, ‘we are still ig- Fishes with such rays are termed acanthopterygti. “In
: norant. a few genera the posterior dorsal fin is destitute of rays,
. and has obtained the name of pinna adiposa or flesh«
; Iv ; fin.
eae wa As these rays serve to support’ the fins, and are :
Organs of Tr we attend to the vast variety of forms, exhibited wer of approaching or separating like the sticks.of
motion. by different kinds of fish, we shall be disposed to con- a fan, we may conclude that they move upon some
clude that shape exercises but little influence on their more solid body as a fulerum. Accordingly we find in
movements, While some are cylindrical and lengthen- the sharks, for example, that the rays of the pectoral
ed, others are nearly globular: some are depressed, fins are connected by a cartilage to the spine. In the
while others are compressed. The general form, how- osseous fishes the pectoral fins are attached to an osseous 7
ever, approaches to ovate, the body being thickest at girdle which surrounds the body behind the branchie,
the thorax, and tapering a little towards the head and and which supports the posterior edge of their aperture.
tail. This osseous girdle is formed of one bone from each
The fins of fishes, correspond with the wings of birds, side,’ articulated at the posterior superior angle of the
the former being calculated to give the motion to the cranium, and descending under the neck, where it unites
body in the water, the latter in the air. These organs with the corresponding bone. Between the rays of the
vary in number, size, situation, and structure, in dif- fin and this bone, which resembles the scapula, there is
ferent species. . a range of small flat bones separated by cartilaginous
The number of fins varies according to the genera, intervals, which may be compared to the bones of the
and even according to the species. It is difficult to fix carpus. The rays of the ventral fins are articulated to
on those fins which exercise the greatest influence on bones which correspond to the pelvis in the higher
the habits of the animal, as there is not any one fin classes of animals. The pelvis is never articulated with
common to all fishes, although all fishes have at least the spine, nor does it ever form an osseous girdle round
one of these organs. The size of the fins is equally va- the abdomen. In the jugular and thoracic fishes it is
rious in the different species, as it bears no constant articulated to the base of the osseous girdle which su
proportion to the figure or magnitude of the fish, nor to ports the pectoral fins. In the abdominal fishes, the
its habits or instincts. bones of the pelvis are never articulated to the osseous
The situation of the fins furnishes the ichthyologist girdle, and are seldom connected with each other.
with some of the most obvious and useful characters. They are preserved in their situation by: means of ‘cer-
Those fins which are situated on the ‘back are termed tain ligaments. The rays of the caudal fin are articu-
dorsal, and vary greatly in number and shape. The lated with the Jast of the caudal vertebra, which is in
fin which surrounds the extremity of the tail, istermed general of a triangular form and flat. The rays of the
the caudal fin, and is always placed perpendicularly. dorsal fin are supported by little bones, which have the
It is forked in some, even, or rounded in others. Be- same direction as the spinous processes, and to which
tween the caudal fin and the anus are situated the anal they are attached by ligaments.
fins, which vary in number and shape according to the As connected with the fins, we may here take notice
species. Between the anus and throat are placed the of those organs which are termed cirri or tentacula, ac-
ventral fins. When they do exist, they never exceed cording as they are placed about the-mouth, or on the
two in number, and are parallel to each other. The upper part of the head. They are in general soft, but
pectoral fins are usually two in number, and are placed often contain one jointed ray. They do not differ in
on each side, a short way behind the gill opening. By structure from the fins, and are so closely connected
Linneus and others, the ventral fins are considered as with them, that it is difficult to point out their use. It
¥ analogous to the feet of quadrupeds, and the characters is not probable that they are organs of touch, but ra-
furnished by their position are employed as the basis ther peculiar modifications of fins.
of his classification. Those fishes which are destitute The muscles which move the fins, and all the other
of ventral fins, are termed, in his system, apodal;;those organs of the body, are of a paler colour than in the ani-
which have the ventral fins placed nearer to the ante- mals of'a higher order. They are also more uniform in
rior extremity than the pectoral fins, are termed jugu- their substance, being in general destitute of tendinous
lar ; those having the ventral fins beneath the pectoral, fibres. In the greater number of fishes there are no
he calls thoracic, and when the ventral fins ‘are placed muscles peculiar to the head. The sides are furhish-
behind the pectoral fins they are termed abdominal. ed with the most powerful ones, to execute the lateral
These distinctions are of great importance in an artifi- movements of the animal, These muscles are dispe
-cial system, and may be employed with success in the in layers or arches, with the convexity towards the
inferior divisions of a natural one. head. The different muscles are strengthened by small
‘The structure of the fins of fishes has long occupied detached spines, imbedded among the fibres of the
the attention of naturalists. In general these organs muscle, and giving them additional strength. Between
consist of numerous jointed rays, which are subdivided the layers there is in general a quantity of viscid albu-
_at their extremities. These are covered on each side minous matter interposed. After death this fluid speed-
by the common integuments, which form in some in- ily undergoes a change, and can seldom be observed in
stances soft fibres projecting beyond the rays. These fishes which have been kept a few days. But in re-
‘fins, with articulated rays, were considered by the older cent fish, when boiled, the albumen appears coagulated
ichthyologists as furnishing characters for arrangement in the form of white curd between the layers of the
of great importance. Fishes possessing these were lateral muscles. ak.
termed malacopterygii. Besides these articulated rays, | The motions of a fish are performed by means of its
:there-exist in the fins of some fishes, one or more rays fins. The caudal fin is the principal organ of progres«
5
ee pee I
ICHTHYOLOGY.
sive motion. By means of its various flexures and ex~
tensions, it strikes the water in different directions, but
all having a tendency to push the fish forward ; the ac-
i ing, in its manner and effects, the well
known ion of the sailor termed skulling. The
ventral and pectoral fins assist the fish in correcting
the errors of its progressive motions, and in maintain-
ing the body steady in its position. Borelli cut off
with a pair of scissars both the and ventral
fins of and found, in ence, that all its
motions were unsteady, that it reeled from right to
up and down, in a very i lar manner.
and anal fins serve to maintain the body in
its vertical position. But from the circumstance of
fins being wanting, and others evidently
to produce the desired effects, those fins
which do exist appear to be capable of executing all
the movements for which the others, when present, are
igned.
prevent us from
;
The medium in which fishes reside
making remeron eat tems. a
heir motion. Mackrel, and some other marine .
will seize a bait moving at the rate of six or eight miles
an hour; and some of the voracious sharks will keep
with a vessel in her voyage across the Atlantic.
FF
=
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if
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[
4
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4
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Se:
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i
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fi
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sere
673
of this fish has not been ascertained, nor has even a
conjecture been offered on the subject.
organs of motion, we have already hinted, are
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
extensively employed by the systematic ichthyologist in ——
the formation of his divisions. ‘It does not appear, how-
ever, that naturalists have determined the exact value
of the characters which they furnish, either for generic
or specific distinctions. La Cepede, in some instances,
has formed
the dorsal fins ; while into the genus Gadus, species with
one, two, and even three fins, are admitted. As the
number of the fins is invariably the same in the same
ies, and as these organs may be supposed to exer~
cise considerable influence on the habits of fishes, the
character thus exhibited may be safely employed in
generic distinctions. The characters furnished by the
structure of the fins have not been overlooked, especial-
ly the rays. The circumstance of being bony or joint«
ed, is noticed in specific distinctions, although
well entitled to divisions of a higher kind, as
the character furnished is permanent. Those charac«
ters furnished by the fins, which are employed exclu-
sively in the construction of species, are derived from
their form, and the number of their rays. But as these
characters are liable to vary in different individuals of
the same 5 anyon they should be employed with great
caution. In many fishes there are numerous rays on
each side the different fins so concealed under the skin,
that it is. inmpossible to count them, while others do not
reach the extremity of the organ. Hence the number
of rays must vary with the mode of. enumerating, and
perhaps with the age of the animal. The extent of va«
riation occasioned by. the last cause has not been sa<
tisfactorily determined.
Sect. V. Organ of Adhesion.
Tue organ here referred to, generally termed sucker,
is only found on a few fishes.
situated on the upper part of the head, while in others
it is placed on the thorax. In the celebrated fish call-
ed the Remora, it is of an. oval form, and consists of
transverse rows of cartilaginous plates, connected by
one pe So secsene of, She bene, and in the other
by y i A. longitudinal
tition divides the Sabotneke middle of the head. st
the spaces between the plates, and on each side of the
partition, a row of fleshy tubercles may be observed. In
the cyclopteri this organ is of a circular form, and con-
sists of numerous. soft papilla, It is situated on the
thorax. Instead of a separate organ of adhesion, the
ventral fins in the goby are united, and are capable of
adhering to rocks and stones, while in the lampry the:
mouth contracts and acts as a sucker,
The existence of a sucker is equally common to some’
eeengeaen men anenee Pen. Its use to the fish is.
difficult to ascertain. When, by means of this organ,
the fish attaches itself to the sides of other fishes, or to-
the bottom of ships, it is carried forward without any
exertion of its own ; and, during storms, adhesion to:
rocks by means of it, may save a weak fish from being.
tossed about by the fury of the waves; but there may
perhaps be other purposes to which it is subservient,.
which still remain to.be discovered. Bis!
The sucker furnishes to the ichthyologist characters:
for the discrimination of the ies which are obvious-
and permanent; but these have seldom been described:
with accutacy or minuteness,
44.
from a difference in the number of ~
of”
n some of these it is adhesion.
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
Organs of
respiration.
Gill-lid.
Gill-flap.
-Gill-open-
ing.
674
Sect. VI. Organs of Respiration.
As the organs of ‘respiration appear in fishes under
a new form, very different from the lungs of the higher
order of animals, they demand our attentive considera-
tion. Many quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, reside in
water, but are obliged to come to the surface frequent-
ly in order to respire. But as fishes live immersed in
the water, they are furnished with certain organs called
Gills, instead of lungs, to enable them to exercise the
functions of respiration in the fluid in which they re-
side. In many of the inferior animals, respiration is
performed by the same apparatus ; but as it appears in
its most perfect form in fishes, its examination will be
the more interesting. “
These organs of respiration in fishes consist of four
parts, a gill-lid, a gill-flap, the gill-opening, and the
gills themselves. The two last are always present, but
one, and sometimes both, of the two first are wanting.
We propose to examine these parts in succession, be-
ginning with those which are exterior.
1. Gill-lid. The gill-lid, or as it is also termed, oper
culum, is situated behind the eye on each side. It is
scaly, membranaceous, or bony, and is articulated to the
bones of the head.’ It consists sometimes of one piece,
or of two or more, and is therefore termed monophyl-
lous, diphyllous, or triphyllous. The surface in some
is smooth, in others rough, or tuberculated, or striated,
or spinous. Its use is to give support to the gill-flap,
‘and act as a cover to the opening of the gills. It is ab«
sent in fishes which have fixed branchie, and in a few
with free branchie. “When it does exist, the characters
which it exhibits in its structure are subject to little
variation, and have been employed by La Cepede in the
construction) of his orders.
2. Gill-fap. This is the membrana branchiostega of
Linneus, and ‘was considered by him as a true fin. It
consists of a’ definite number of curved bones or carti-
lages, with a membrane. ‘Its posterior edge is general-
ly free, and its anterior edge-or base is united with the
It is capable of extension and contraction, and -
gill-lid.
when. at rest it is generally folded up under the gill-lid.
“It is wanting in the chondropterygii, and likewise in
a few genera of osseous fishes. When present, it ap-
pears to assist the mouth in promoting the current of
‘water through the gills, or perhaps forms a current
‘over the gills when the mouth is oceupied in seizing prey.
The gill-flap furnishes to the systematic ichthy ologist
some of his most useful characters. He seldom pays
attention to its form, but its rays are eagerly counted,
as he finds that they are not subject to vary. Spe-
cies of the same genus have, in general, the same num-
ber of rays, and many of the Linnean genera depend
on this circumstance for their character. Artedi, on
this subject, draws the following conclusion : “* Quod
numerus ossiculorum in membrana branchiostega pri-
‘mum et precipuum characterem in distinguendis ‘ge-
neribus piscium ‘catheturorum et osteopterygiorum sup-
peditet.” “But in counting their number,- care must be
taken to ‘examine the structure of’ the gill-lid at the
same time, as the student sometimes enumerates among
‘the rays of the gill-flap the’ posterior divisions of that
organ, when present, and hence finds his‘observations
at variance with the descriptions of authors.
8. Gill-opening. This division of ‘the organs of ‘re-
“spiration presents many remarkable differences. In the
osseous fishes, and among the branchiostegi, this open-
5
-four on each.
»side of
-so perfect.
fishes, ‘There is an equal number of internal
L
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ing is a simple ser behind the gills oneach. It is
sometimes round, or semi-lunar, and in relative posi-
tion it differs according to the species or genera. In
the cartilaginous fishes, the opening on each side is
subdivided into as many apertures as there are gills,
the gills in this tribe being fixed to’ the membranes
which act as partitions in the opening. In such fishes,
these openings are on the summit, at sides, or under-
neath, according to the genera, ,
Structure
and
‘Functions
of Fishes,
—_——
4, Gills, in the fishes with gills or branchie, these Gills.
— are in general eight in number, four on each
ide. Each gill consists of three parts, a cartilaginous
or bony support, and its convex and concave sides.
The support of each gill consists of 2 crooked bone or
cartilage, in general furnished with a joint. At its
base, it is united with the bones of the tongue, and
above with those of the head. At both extremities it
is moveable, and throughout is flexible like a rib. Its
position is nearly vertical. From its exterior or con-
vex side, issue a multitude of fleshy leaves, or fringed
vascular fibrils, resembling plumes, and closely con-
nected at the base. These are of a red colour in al-
most all fishes in a healthy state. The internal or con-
vex side of the support next the mouth exhibits many
singular differences. It is always more or less furnish-
ed with tubercles. These in the genus Cyprinus are
smooth—in the Cottus rough. They are lengthened
‘into slender spines in the herring smelt, but in the
former these are serrated, while in the latter they are
smooth. This concave part of the gill is of a white
colour, and forms a striking contrast with the colour
of the convex side. ;
In some osseous fishes, the number of gills exceeds
In the herring, for example, there is'a
small imperfect gill on each side attached to the inner
e gill-lid, on which all its motions depend.
It has no bony arch nor concave side. At the entrance
-to the gullet, there is a cartilage on each side, studded —
in appearance the concave
with tubercles, resemblin
side of the last gill. In the plaise, a similar gill may
be observed on the inside of the gill-lid, but no distinct
pearance of a sixth gill at the entrance to’ the ceso«
agus, ;
In the chondropterygii, the gills are far from being
They are fixed to partitions which serve
the purposes of the bony arches in’ the osseous fishes.
These partitions extend from the ‘mouth ‘to the gill-
opening, and vary in number according to the genera.
They are destitute of the inner or concave white side,
but the fleshy leaflets are of the same structure with
those on ‘the convex part of the gills in’ osseous fishes.
We are indebted to that acute anatomist, Sir Everard
Home,’ for some important observations on the respi-
ratory organs of the lamprey and myxine, ‘the api
press Spe cr fishes, and the ‘least perfect inthe
system. ‘In the lamprey, (he says), the organs of
respiration have seven external openings on each ‘side
a
P
-of the animal ; these lead into the same number of se-
— oval bags, placed horizontally, the inner mem.
rane of which is constructed like that of the gills in
1 openings
leading into a tube, the lower‘end of which adodk,
and the upper terminates by a fringed edge in the eso.
phagus. These bags are contained in cavities,
»and-enclosed in a thorax resembling that of land ani-
‘mals, only composed of cartilages instead of ribs, and
“the
“its lower extremity like a diaphragm.” ‘In the myxine,
pericardium, which is also cartilaginous, is fitted to
ICHTHYOLOGY.
675
) the external openings are two in number, but there are from thence either passes into the other bags, or out at Structure
six lateral bags on each side, placed ndicularly,
which there are six tubes from each Uf the openings
and close to the left external opening, there is one which
foo the esophagus, (Phil. Trans, 1815,
Pp. 256.
. The characters furnished oa by Fnmensee of the first
importance in arranging species, ey are easil
examined, and the dietiogtigns mp pe But =
some strange conceit, ichthyologists seldom look into
the gills, or point out to us the peculiarities which
they exhi the characters furnished by the
of respiration should be. led as occupying
highest rank. Without the aid of any other cha-
fishes might be classified with ease, and even
species might be determined with certainty.
Seer. VII. Organs of Circulation,
_ Tue organs of circulation are not so obvious as those
sirculauon. which we have been considering, and are seldom at-
tended to by the mere ichthyologist. Without entering
into the minute details of comparative anatomy, we
trust the following observations may not prove uninte-
resting to the eral reader, The heart of fishes is
situated in the forepart of the body, ina cavity between
the gills and a little behind. The pericardium or mem-
brane which lines this cavity, is similar to the covering
the cavity of the abdomen, and like ity is often
ry _ In the skate, paienrennd fen s
pericardium lengthened into the s of a
Sotion. Sate ETP psn Ties se
part esophagus, and
cavity of the abdomen. Into this cavity
secreted a liquor, afterwards to be taken notice
heart i is small in proportion to the body
animal, and varies greatly in figure in the diffe-
rent species.. It is quadrilateral in some, and semi-
circular in others. It consists, as we have already men-
tioned, of a single auricle and a single ventricle, cor-
responding to the right side of the heart of warm-
blooded animals, The auricle is in general larger than
the ventricle, and of a thinner texture in its coats. It
receives the blood from the body, and transmits it to
the ventricle. This last division of the heart has walls
of considerable thickness. It sends forth aaa
which, at its separation from the heart, forms.a bulb
in shape according to the species. This ar-
directly to the gills, over
whose leaves it is spread in the most minute ramifica-
lioms.
. The blood, in. through the gills of fishes, un-
se h their | 65 9 y all
. It is likewise now wi
Peeblished, thet the pte air contained in the
water furnishes to the blood those materials which are
g
4
g
Ff
ry
i
E
:
é
e
BS
“n
necessary for its purification, and a continuance of the
life of the ani
The water for this purpose is taken in at the mouth,
and sent to the where, after being in a great mea-
sure deprived of the oxygen of its atmospheric air, the
water is ejected through the gill opening.
“ In the if. to Home, “ the water.
is received by tera] ings of the animal into
the which perform the office of gills, and passes
out by the same opening ; the form of the cavities be-
the upper end into the esophagus. There is a com-
mon opinion that the water is thrown out of the nos-
. tril: this, however, is unfounded, as the nostril has
no communication with the mouth.”— In the myxine,
and
Functions
of Fishes,
_——
the elasticity of the two tubes, and the bags into which’
they. open, admits of the water being received ; and the
pressure produced by the action of the external mus-
cles forces it into the cesophagus, from whence it is
x pe out by the opening at the lower end of that
tu ”
If the ejection of the water from the gills of a fish
be prevented, by the gill cover being tied down with a
string, it soon expires in convulsions, Similar fatal con-
sequences follow, when fish are placed in water previ-
ously deprived of its atmospheric air by boiling or
freezing : and when fish are kept in a small pond, whose
surface is frozen over, and where the water in that case
cannot obtain a fresh supply of air, they speedily pe-
rish. Ifa small i made in the ice, before it
be too late, the will come near it for a fresh sup-
ply. In this manner, fishes are frequently taken du-
ring winter in and
he extent of surface presented by the gills of a fish,
to enable the blood to come in contact with the air in
the water, is much greater than one would, without
attentive consideration, be led to suppose.
calculated, that the whole gills of a large skate present-
. eda surface equal to 2250 square inches, or equal to
the whole external surface of the human body. -
The process of respiration for the supply of the gills
is carried on even during sleep. The number of respira-
tions in a minute is seldom above thirty, or below twenty.
In the same individual it is liable to considerable varia-
tion, de: ing on the will of the animal.
The blood, after being renovated in the gills, is re-
absorbed by a multitude of minute vessels, which unite
together ; but, instead of returning the blood to the
heart again, to be afterwards distributed through the
body, this aorta exercises that function, and descends
along the inferior side of the spine, in a canal fitted
for its reception, giving off arteries, during its course,
to the adjacent parts. The blood. is absorbed again by
Dr Monro -
veins, which have extremely thin coats.. These are -
much in their course than in their termination ;
and besides form, in different parts of their course, con-
siderable receptacles for blood.
. Any injury received by the gills of fishes is attended
with oe pain, and a considerable effusion of blood.
Some fishermen seem to be well aware of this last circum-
stance, and cut the gills with a knife as soon as the fish
is taken. A copious bleeding takes place; and they
find that a fish so killed will keep much longer in a
fresh state, than one on whom this operation of bleed-
ing has not been performed.
Secr. VIII. Organs of Nourishment.
In attending to the organs of nutrition, it will be ne-
cessary to consider the structure of the mouth, and af-
terwards the gullet, stomach, and intestines.
The mouth of ay pop many remarkable. dif-
ferences, according to the species, in regard to position,
figure, and ne general, it is situated at the ex-
tremity of the head, and is then said to be terminal.
In some species, and.even genera, it is placed beneath
a snout, or on the under side of the head, _ Wherever
situated, it is.always transverse with to the ho-
Organs of
nourish-
ment,
Mouth.
dy, unless in the genus Pleuronectes, in which it oc-'
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
———
Lips.
Jaws.
Teeth,
Gullet.
676
cupies an oblique position. When the mouth is open-
ed, it is in general of an oblong or oval shape. In some
fishes, its capacity is less than the size of the head;
but, in general, it is capable of opening to a great width,
sometimes superior to the thickness of the body.
The lips of fishes are seldom regularly formed. In
a few species, however, these surround the mouth, and
are of a firm, fleshy consistence. In other instances,
the lips are of an osseous texture, divided into plates
which fold over one another. Such kind of lips give
to the mouth increased dimensions, as they are capable
of being exserted or folded up at the pleasure of the
animal.
The jaws are moveable, and both are attached to the
bones of the palate. They are seldom equal, the one
exceeding the other in length. They furnish, by their
position and mode of union, many important characters
in the classification of fishes. These characters have
been lately investigated by Cuvier with his usual suc-
cess; and he is of opinion, that the maxillary and in-
termaxillary bones will furnish characters not for gene-
ra merely, but likewise for orders.
The teeth of fishes exhibit remarkable differences,
with regard to number, situation, and structure. In
the higher orders of animals, the number of teeth in
the mouth is almost always constant in the same gene-
ra and species. But among fish, the teeth are often so
numerous that it is difficult to count them, especially
as they occupy so many different positions. The jaws
are not exclusively employed to support these organs,
as in quadrupeds ; the tongue, the palate, the throat,
being often furnished with them. In the saw-fish, the
teeth are inserted on each side of its flattened and pro-
jecting snout. In the genus Sparus, the front teeth re-
semble those of the human species. They are provided
with fangs, which are contained in alveoli. In many
fishes, the teeth are formed of processes of the jaw
bones covered with enamel, Those of the shark tribe
adhere merely to the gums, or at least to a firm cartila-
inous substance which covers the jaw. They are not
Fated: as in the mammalia, by the addition of new
layers, one within the other, but apparently in a man-
ner resembling the formation of bone. They are at
first soft and cartilaginous, and pass, by successive gra-
dations, into a state of hardness and density not inferior
to that of ivory. In the skate, the teeth consist of an
assemblage of tubes, covered externally by enamel, and
caoneeed to the jaw by a softer substance, which pro-
bably sends processes or vessels into those bony tubes.
The teeth of fishes are in general bent inwards, to
enable them to retain their prey. As few fishes masti-
cate, they have seldom any teeth which resemble grind-
ers, although those which live on the harder shell-fish
have teeth fitted for triturating these.
In the classification of fishes, the teeth furnish seve«
ral important characters, which are little liable to vari«
ation. In the genus Squalus, in particular, the teeth
exhibit many remarkable differences in form, sufficient,
in the absence of other characters, for the discrimina-
tion of the species.
The gullet or esophagus, on account of the absence
of a neck, is in fishes remarkably short. In some, in-
deed, the stomach seems to open directly into the
mouth. Where it exists, it exhibits few peculiarities
of structure. In some of the branchiostegi it is beset
with tufts of hair resembling a fine net-work. It is in
general capable of great dilation, and when the sto-
mach is unable to hold the whole of the prey which
ICHTHYOLOGY.
has been seized, a part remains in the
inferior portion gives way.
The stomach of fishes is in general thin and membra-
naceous, differing little in its structure and appearance
gullet until the
Structure.
and ©
from the gullet. It frequently contains the remains of Stomach,
crustaceous animals, still retaining their form, but great«
ly altered in consistency. Hence naturalists have con«
cluded, that the food is reduced by solution, and not b
trituration. But in some fishes, particularly those whi
subsist principally on shell-fish, the stomach has thick
muscular coats. Its shape is considerably different in
the different species, but the characters furnished by this
organ are seldom regarded.
The intestines exhibit many remarkable peculiarities.
Sometimes they proceed directly from the stomach to
the anus in nearly a straight line. In ether instances,
they form in their course one or more flexures. In some
instances, the gut is widest towards the stomach, and
gradually becomes smaller as it approaches the anus,
while in others the reverse of this is the case. It is
furnished internally in some species with spiral valves,
in others with lozen-shaped hollows, while in a few it
has numerous fringed lamin. Between the great and
small intestines, in the chondropterygii, there is a kind
of coecum or appendix vermiformis; but in osseous
fishes, there is no appearance of any such organ. In
the last division, however, there are bodies which have
been termed Appendices, or Intestinula-coeca. These
are situated at the origin of the gut, in a double or sin«
gle row. They vary in number, shape, or size, accord
ing to the species ; but continue the same in all the in«
dividuals of the same species. In place of these in the
chondropterygii, there is a glandular body, which has
been compared to the pancreas of warm-blooded ani«
mals. The character for the discrimination of the spe
cies furnished by the appendages is of importance, as
being easily investigated and t.
These intestines, and the rest of the viscera situated
in the cavity of the abdomen, are contained in a mem<
branaceous sac or peritoneum. This is silvery in some
fishes, black or spotted in others.
by Willoughby, that this sac opens externally near the
anus by means of two small holes. These openings
were afterwards examined by Monro, who found in
each of these passages a semilunar membrane or valve,
so placed as to allow liquors to get out from the abdo=
men readily, but to resist somewhat their entry into it.
The anus in fishes, occupies many different positions
according to the species. This circumstance was seiz<
ed upon by Scopoli, in the system which we have no«
ticed above, and was raised to the dignity of a primary
character in his system. This orifice is not merely the
opening whence issue the feces, but in gen
spawn also.
Sect. IX. Organs of Absorption.
Tur vessels of the absorbent system of fishes are ana- Organs of
logous to those of quadrupeds. They are, however, des- absorptions
titute of valves, unless at their termination in the red
veins, and do not appear to possess conglobate glands,
Dr Monro, to whom we are indebted for the first illus:
tration of this class of vessels,
of their arrangement in the c
ives the following view
and the salmon. ‘ The
chief branches,” he says, ‘“ of the lacteal vessels of the
great and small intestines, and which are smaller in.
proportion to the blood vessels than in the nantes pine
nati of Linnzus, run upwards in the mesentery, almost
We are informed’
the
4
‘ ICHTHYOLOGY.
Soret to each other, and near the mesenteric arteries.
their whole course, they communicate by a vast num-
ber of small transverse canals. At the of the abdo-
pte + apmertchege ae the stomach,
and the spleen, liver, and intestinula cceca
are added, ‘The chyle mixed with the lymph of the
viscera, passes upw and to~
ees eee contiguous
to the gall Jove neem gett lnm Arai gman
rom
The chyle, mien with the shdeaaell Iynaph, having
above the bones, which resemble our clavicles,
i situated chiefly
:
These may called the
PE ecco se yew le and lymph. The right
aceseiicnmgetosoagite tee tadh ep ace
which pass chiefly behind the heart and ceso-
rom each of these receptacles in the salmon, a canal
runs downwards and inwards, and opens into the up-
per end of its corresponding vena cava inferior, conti-
to, and on the fore outer side of the internal
quors in into them, are
~ ead iefly situated on the u of the bod
orifices are placed at intervals. As
Monro did not observe any appearance of extravasation
in the cellular substance, he considered that these orifi-
ces were the natural beginnings of the lymphatic veins.
air, and mucous ducts. .
1. Liver. This organ in fishes, is remarkable on ac-
count of its size in ion to the rest of the body.
It commonly lies fmt wholly on the left side. Its
colour exhibits various shades of brown frequently mix-
677
ed with yellow. It is entire in some fishes, as the lam-
prey, flounder, and salmon; or divided into two or
more lobes, as in the perch and carp. These varieties
of form are constant in all the individuals of the same
species, but frequently differ somewhat in the species
of the same genus.
The gall bladder is present in the greater number of
fishes; but in sa a as the lamprey, its presence
has not been d . The dile varies tly in co-
lour according to the species. In the thornback and
salmon it'is yellowish white, and, when evaporated,
leaves a matter which has a very sweet and slightly
acrid taste, containing no resin. The bile of the
and eel is very green and very bitter, contains little or
no albumen, but yields soda, resin, and a sweet acrid
matter similar to that which may be obtained from sal-
mon bile. The biliary ducts open separately into the
intestine.
The liver to be the only organ of the body
of fishes which contains oil in abundance, or is sought
after.on that account. This oil is lodged in cells, and
cannot be completely obtained by the boiling of the li-
ver. To accomplish the extraction of the whole oil,
fishermen in general allow the livers to putrefy a little,
and in this manner the cells are ruptured, and a greater
quantity of oil obtained. But tinous matter and
bile are likewise among the ucts, and as these af=
terwards pu they communicate a fcetid smell to
the oil. This i ble smell is common to all kinds
of fish oi] thus prepared ; but it may be removed b
various processes. Perhaps the best are those whi
were communicated to the Society for the encourage-
ment of arts, manufactures, and commerce in the year
1761, and published in the twentieth volume of their
Transactions, to which we refer the reader. The liver
of the cod, cut into small pieces, boiled in the stomach
of the same animal, and eaten with vinegar and pepper,
is a favourite dish in the northern islands of Scotland.
2. Pancreas.
creas resembling that in the higher classes of animals,
of an irregular form, and placed at the origin of the.
intestines. The substance appears compact, but gela- -
tinous when cut. In the osseous fishes. the intestinula
coca already described, ap to serve instead of a
pancreas, They send two canals into the intes«
tines ; and when these are wanting, as is the case in
the carp, the walls of the intestines discharge abun-
dance of humour from glands placed upon their inner
surface. In the sturgeon, an organ is found, in its in«
ternal structure similar to these intestinula ; but in its
outward form resembling the pancreas of the skate. It
is inclosed in a muscle, evidently intended to pas,
its contents. It into the intestine by three large
orifices, and has internally a singular reticular appear-
ance, as exhibited by Monro in the work on fishes so
often referred to, 84. tab. ix.
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
—_——
In the chondropterygii, there is a pan- Pancreas,
8. Spleen. This organ varies greatly in its form and Spleen,
position in the animals of this class. In some it is
nearly triangular, while in others it approaches to a sphe~
rical . It is in general entire ; in some instances,
however, it is divided into lobes, which adhere by very
slender filaments. In the sturgeon, these lobes are se«
ven in number. It is placed in some species on the
stomach, or to the first part of the intestines ; in others
between the stomach and liver; and in a great number
it is under the air bag, and above the other bowels.
It is always of a darker colour than the liver.
4. Kidneys. It was the
others, that fishes were destitute of kidneys and the
inion of Rondeletius and Kidneys.
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
—\
,
Air-hag,
678
bladder of urine; but the observations of Willoughby
and others have demonstrated their existence. The
kidneys of fishes are uniform in their substance, and
of a reddish brown colour. They are in general long
and narrow, and apparently, united into ene mass,
The peritoneum covers their under surface, and they
are placed longitudinally under the spine, The ure-
ters begin by numerous roots, and run along the under
surface of the kidney. They terminate either in a ve-
sica urinaria, or a cloaca; or unite together to forma
dilation, which supplies the place ofa bladder of urine.
In the chondropterygii, the ureters terminate in the
cloaca, but,in the other cartilaginous fishes the bladder
of urine is present, although very small and thin in its
coats. The urethra in most fishes is short; and com-
monly opens behind the anus by an orifice which also
gives issue to the sexual evacuations. Renal glands
are wanting in this class.
5. Air-bag. This organ is called by some the swim-
ming bladder, by others the air bladder. It is the ves
sica natatoria of Willoughby, and the vesica aerea of
Artedi. In this country it is called the sound. When
present, it is situated in the anterior part»of the abdo«
minal eavity, and adheres to the spine. It is wanting
in the chondropterygii, and even in some of the osseous
fishes, as the flounder and mackrel.
- It is very different in shape according to the species.
In the herring and some other fishes it is oblong and
pointed at both ends. In the salmon it is obtuse at
both ends. In the burbot it is obtuse.in the lower end,
and bifid at its superior extremity. In the carp: it. is
divided transversely, and in the silurus longitudinally,
into two lobes.
In general there is a duct (ductus pneumaticus), by
means of which this air bag communicates with the
esophagus, or the stomach. In the sturgeon there is a
round hole, nearly one inch in diameter, in the upper
and back part of the stomach, communicating with the
air bag. The hole is surrounded. by thin muscular fi-
bres placed between the membranes of the stomach and
air bag, which decussate at opposite sides of the hole.
These are considered by Monro as having the effect of
a sphincter muscle. In the salmon, the last quoted aus
thor found a hole so large as to admit readily the largest
sized goose quill, leading directly through the coats of
the cesophagus into the air bag. The cesophagus in
this fish has a thick muscular: coat, but the fibres of
that coat do not seem to form a distinct sphincter
around the hole. In other fishes the duct: of commus
nication is of considerable length. In the common her-
ring the under part of the stomach has the shape of a
funnel ; and from the bottom of the funnel.a small duct
is produced, which runs between the two milts, or the
two roes, to its termination in the middle of the air bag.
In some fishes, as the cod and. haddock, Monro: could
not perceive any ductus pneumaticus, or opening into
any of the abdominal viscera. The air bag was. not
enlarged by blowing into the alimentary canal, nur
could he empty the air bag: without bursting it.
In the air bag of the cod and haddock, the same
acute observer examined the red coloured organ noticed
by Willoughby, and considered by him as a muscle, the
ssurface-of which is very extensive, as it is composed of
avast number of leaves or membranes doubled. In
those fishes, however, in which the air bag communi-
cates with the alimentary canal, this red body is either
very small and simple in its structure, as in the conger
eel, or entirely wanting, as in the sturgeon, salmon,
herring, and carp. :
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Naturalists, in general, are disposed to regard the s
air bag as accessory to the organs of motion. Having
observed that flat fish, which reside always at the bot-
tom, are in general destitute of this organ, they have
assi, to it the office of accommodating the specific
gravity of fishes to the density of the surrounding ele-
ment, and thus enabling them to suspend. themselves
at any depth. A very simple experiment has likewise
countenanced the opinion, When the air bag of a fish
is punctured, the animal immediately falls to the bot-
tom, nor is it able, by any exertion of its fins, to elevate
itself again. When in a sound state, the external skin
of the air bag (regarded as possessing strong muscular
power) is sup capable of contraction, so as to
condense the air, and enable the animal to sink, or of
extension, so as to allow the air to expand, and aid the
animal in rising in the water.
The air bag of none tows omnes its muscular
wer, In consequence air being expanded by
po action of he sun, when the fish oe remained. on
long at the surface, In this situation the fish continues
at. the surface. When some fish are suddenly brought
up from deep water, the diminished pressure occasions
the expansion of the air contained.in the bag. The or-
gan sometimes bursts in such cases, and the contents,
rushing into the abdomen, push the gullet sometimes
out of the mouth of the fish, We have witnessed this
effect produced in the cod fish,
The above theory fails in explaining all the pheno-
mena. The eel, which resides always at the bottom,
is yet possessed of an air bag; while the sharks, which .
ream about in all depths, and the mackrel, which pur-
sues its prey at the surface, are destitute of this re«
puted organ of equilibrium,
Various opinions haye been advanced with regard to
the manner in which this air bag is filled. By some it
has, been supposed, that. a portion. of the air, which
fishes are capable of abstracting from the water, is
transmitted through the gullet and stomach. into the air
bag when necessary, and expelled and renewed at the
pleasure of the animal. Needham long ago considered
that the air, or, as he termed it, a vaporous exhalation
contained in the air bag, was ated in the blood,
secreted into this organ, to be wards thrown into
the stomach or intestines, to:promote the, digestion, ef
the food. ’
The nature of hase aren the air-bag, was
never investigated until pneumatic chemistry had opens
ed up new fields‘of discovery. In 1774, Dr:Priestley
turned his attention for a short time to the subject;
and in the air-bag of the roach he found azote in one
instance unmixed, and in another in company with oxy-
gen. Fourcroy afterwards examined the gaseous con-
tents of the air-bag of the carp, and found them to
consist of almost: pure azote.
The most accurate and extended experiments on this
subject are those of M. Biot, published in the Mem.
d’ Arcueil, i. 252..and ii..8.. He found the proportion
between the oxygen and the azote (for. he was unable
to detect the presence of hydrogen, or any sensible
quantity of carbanic aad) to vary according to the spe-
cies, as may be seen in the following table.
Proportion of Oxygen.
. . » quantity insensible.
Names of the Fish.
Mugil cephalus.......
DE eee Sen +. « ditto.
Murenophis helena ........ very little.
Sparus annularis, female .... . 0.09 .
Ditto, male... .. + . 0.08-
-
ang
of Fishe
=
:
ICHTHYOLOGY.
679
—"w Names of the Pish. Ae ‘Proportion of Oxygen. on cooling. a is much used in various manu- >
a Sparus sar et tate 0.09 factures, and might be obtained in considerable quan- , *"4
we Ditto, aa A 0.20 tity at all the fishing stations in this country daha a
jo Holocentrus marinus ........ 0.12 the materials abound, but which are at present left as ——
Labrus turdus ............ 0.16 a nuisance on the adjoining beach. r ‘
melanurus .......... 0.20 6. Mucous Ducts. surface of the skin of yfucoys
Labrus turdus var. Sr. TOs fishes is almost always covered with a slimy fluid, to ducts,
Sciena nigra, female ..... « . 0.27 them from the penetrating influence of the
males." 3% + 2 O25 surrounding element. This mucus is poured out from
Labras turdus, female ... 2... 0.24 small pores, situated under the scales in every part of
male ,.. . 0.28 - the body of some fishes, while in others these excretory
~
“pio ie
> Se
he 9 a Age
et on -%
»rials are boiled in water,
Sparus dentex, female ....... 0.40
Sphyrana spet(Esox sphyrena, Lin.) 0.44
argenteus ..... ast OB
“eee we wee
Trigla | aie ee tS eel? OB
The depth at which the fishes had been caught in-
creases from the beginning to the end of the table, and
the ion of oxygen observes the samerule. This
last eo induced — and hisfriend De Laroche
to endeavour to ascertain the proportion of oxygen con-
tained in sea water at different depths. oy aie un-
able to perceive any difference. M.Configliachi has
more lately repeated these experiments, and found that
ion of oxygen in sea water bore no relation
from which the water had been obtained.
These experiments lead to the conclusion, that the
air contained in this sac is a secretion of the organ ;
that in fishes which live near the surface azote is se-
creted ; but in fishes which live at great depths, the
to
explained in a sati manner. The red or-
gan which we have already taken notice of as existing
in some fishes, is now generally considered as the part
‘which separates this air from the blood. But as this
organ is not always tt when there is an air-bag,
sho — left in meg tae dai su ~ vl
° systematic i ist, characters
nished by the air-bag ade of Conaideable i ce,
seldom sufficiently attended to. are
“easily traced, and they are not subject to variation.
To the economist, the air-bag or sound is considered
as an article of value. ‘This organ in the cod or ling,
when salted, forms a nourishing and i
Mp sae et i pa oy er pt mt dna islands
? t it is chiefly inthe manufacture
of the Gada called ee ne the a a of
fishes are ee soun va-
tious kinds of sturgeon are chiefly made use of for this
The external membrane is removed, and the
is cut lengthwise, and formed into rolls,
and then in the open air. The sounds of cod
and ting are frequently employed as a substitute for
those of the sturgeon. They require some dexterity
to them the back-bone. But when the
are well scraped on both sides, fora
few minutes in lime water to absorb the oil, and then
washed in clean water and dried, they form an isinglass
nA nee 2 re .
i consists entirely of gelatine, and is
Be ys rendre eet rent i rare liquors,
500 grains of it yielded to Hatchet by incineration 1.5
grains of of soda, mixed with a little eee
of lime. An inferior kind is manufactured from the
bones, fins, and useless of fishes. ‘These mate-
fluid skimmed and filtered,
and afterwards concentrated, until it readily gelatinizes
uantity of oxygen is ionally increased. The
an es
remaining
~backw
ducts are arranged in a determinate order. These
ducts were first observed and described by Steno, in
his works, “ De Musculis et Glandulis, p. 42. and
Elementorum Myologie Specimen, 1669, 8vo. p. 72.
The subject was afterwards investigated by Perrault,
Lorenzini, and Revinus, and more recently by Monro.
To this last author we are indebted for many excellent
observations and sketches, ‘In the skate,”’ (he says,
Struct. and Phys. p.21.) “ numerous orifices, placed
pretty regularly over the surface, have been observed by
Steno to discharge this slimy matter. With respect to
these last, I have remarked some memorable circumstan~
ces. First, I have discovered one very elegant serpen-
tine canal between the skin and muscles, at the sides
of the five apertures into the gills. Farther forwards it
surrounds the nostrils; then,yit passes from the under
to the Dw so of the upper jaw, ‘where it runs
sas far as the eyes. From the princi
of this duct, in the under side or belly of the fish, there
are not above six or eight outlets; but from the upper
part near the eyes there are upwards of thirty small
ducts sent off, which open upon the surface of the
skin. The liquor dischar, from these has nearly
the same d of viscidity as the synovia in man.
But besides she very picturesque duct I have been de-
scribing, I have remarked on each side of the fish, a
little farther forwards than the five breathing holes, a
central part from which a prodigious number of ducts
issues, to terminate on almost the whole surface of the
skin, excepting only the snout or upper jaw. At.
these centres all the ducts are shut; and in their,
course they have no communication with each other.
In these two central parts, or on the beginning of the
mucous ducts, a pair of nerves nearly as large as the
optic, terminate ; and, which is a curious circumstance
with respect to them, they are white and opake in their
course, between the brain and their ducts; but when
they divide, they become suddenly so pellucid, that it
is impossible to trace them farther, or to distinguish
them from the coats of the ducts.”
In the osseous fishes, the openin
ducts are chiefly observable in the fore part of the
head, and in the /aeral line. This line extends from
the head to the tail, along each side of the fish, and
exhibits several striking peculiarities. It is not ob-«
servable in the lampry; in general it is single, but in
the sandeel it has the appearance of being double. It
is usually of a different colour from that of the sides,
‘and varies according to the species in position and di- —
rection. After death it sometimes. disappears, and
hence some difficulties have arisen’with regard to the
discriminating marks which it furnishes.
The mucus which is poured out upon the skin by
these ducts, in some cases 2 to be the liquid
known by chemists under that name, while in other
instances it a) to be of the nature of albumen.
‘Chemists, however, have not turned their attention to
the subject.
of the mucous Lateral line.
680 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Stracture Besides this liquid, secreted on the external surface Fourcroy and Vauquelin. In all these examples, how-
P snd of the body, many physiologists have detected liquors ever, the seminal fluid was mixed with the substance of
smctons in the cavity of the brain, the pericardium, and the ab- the testes,
of Fishes,
‘=~’ domen, which we may take notice of in this place. Dr
Organs of |
reproduc-
tion,
Sexes dis-
Monro found the liquor surrounding the brain of a
skate to be of a saltish taste; and his friend Dr Ru-
therford found that it contained one sixty-fifth part of
its weight of sea salt dissolved in it. The liquor in the
cavity of the abdomen contained only oné seventy~
eighth part.
Sect. XT. Organs of Reproduction.
Tue reproduction of fishes is a subject involved in
great obscurity. The element in which they reside
conceals from us the actions which they perform, and
hence we are unable to point out with certainty. the
uses of the different organs, or the functions which they
exercise. Even in the days of Aristotle the difference
in the mode of reproduction between the cartilaginous
and the osseous fishes had been observed ; and although
many accurate observations have been made by modern
zootomists, much still remains to be done both in the
field of observation and dissection.
In the general view which we propose to give of this
subject, fishes may be divided into two classes, distin-
guished by their reproductive ergans. Thus, some
have the sexes distinct, while in others they are united.
Those with the sexes distinct may be subdivided into
the oviparous and. the false viviparous, or ovovivipa-
rous.
1. Oviparous fishes, with the sexes distinct. The fishes
tinct, Ovi- included under this division are by far the most nume-
parous.
rous, They have all free branchie. Some of them
possess a cartilaginous skeleton, while others belong to
the division termed osseous. In all, the egg is impreg-
nated externally, and arrives at maturity without the
aid of the mother,
In the males of this division, the testes, known by
the name of milts, are two in number, of a white colour,
and lengthened form. The surface is usually irregular-
ly tuberculated. They are situated on each side of the
‘abdomen, and consist of glandulous sacs destined for
the préparation of the impregnating fluid. Through
the middle of each milt-there passes a duetus deferens,
uniting with each-other at the posterior part of the ab-
domen, and forming a kind.of vesieula seminalis, The
external opening for the issue of the semen is in some
in the cloaca, while in others there is a small orifice si-
tuated behind the anus, which gives vent to the sexual
evacuations, :
In ‘some of the oviparous abdominal fishes, there are
two cartilaginous fins situated between the ventral fins,
and supposed by La Cepede to be:the external openings
of the sexual organs, They are termed by him Appen-
dices genitals.
In the females of this division, the ovary, usually
termed the roe, is double in the greater number of fishes,
but in a few it appears to be single. It occupies near«
ly the same position as the milt in the males. It con«
sists of a thin delicate membrane inclosing the ova.
These are generally disposed in transverse layers, con-
nected by means of blood vessels. There is no distinct
oviduct. The external openings are similar to those in
the male.
Previous to the deposition or ejection of the roe or
eggs by the female, a union has been formed with a
male. But this connection is merely temporary, and is.
dissolved immediately after the impregnation of the
egg has taken place. In the Cyclopterus lumpus, how-
ever, it is stated that this connection is of longer dura«
tion, that they continue to watch over the eggs with ten-«
der solicitude, and defend them from the rapacity of
other fishes. The pleasure derived from the belief in
this singular example of parental care, is in a
measure destroyed by the hint which has been thrown
out, that they defend the eggs from the attack of other
fishes, that they may appropriate them as. a feast to:
themselves.
The ova are first deposited by the female, and then
the male pours upon them the impregnating semen. In
many instances, they form a hole in the sand, by their
mutual assistance,. and place therein the roe; in other
instances, the roe is deposited in the crevices of rocks, or
on sea weeds or aquatic plants. But it would-be endless
to detail the various ways (even were we better ac
quainted with them than we profess to be) in which
fishes perform this curious function of their nature.
The eggs of fishes are very various with r te
colour, but agree in being of a spherical form. The
integument is more or less firm according to the species.
The yolk, instead of occupying the centre, as in the
eggs. of birds, is placed laterally, and is surrounded b
the glaire or albuminous matter. Between. the yo
and the glaire, is situated the germ or embyro. The
germ becomes ready for exclusion at very different pe«
riods, according to rls paiar Thus the egg of the
is.said to be perf in the course of three weeks,
while that of the salmon requires as many months, But
in the eggs of the same secon: a great deal ior
on the temperature to which they are d. Inthe
same pond, those eggs are soonest hatched which have
been deposited.in the shallowest water.
As the embryo is developed, the heart first appears,
afterwards the spine, eyes, and tail. The organs of
motion are evolved in the following order. The pectoral
fins first make their appearance, and afterwards those
of the tail; the dorsal Pas follow, and then the ventral
and anal fins.
2. Ovoviviparous fishes, with the sexes distinct. In Sexes dis-
this division are included the chondropterygii, and like- tinet. Ove
wise a. few. osseous fishes. Sexual intercourse takes “/P™S
We possess few accurate experiments on the chemi-
cal composition of the seminal fluid of fishes. Fourcroy
published in the Annales.de Chim. vol. lxiv. p. 3. some
experiments on the milt of the carp. It was neither
acid nor alkaline. It appears to consist of albumen,
gelatine, phosphorus, phosphat of lime, phosphat of
magnesia, and muriat of ammonia. More recently, Dr
John subjected the milt of a tench to a chemical analy-
sis, and obtained the following ingredients: water, in-
soluble albumen, gelatine, phosphat of ammonia, phos-
phat of lime, phosphat of magnesia, and alkaline phos-
phat. He could not detect the presence of any phos«
phorus, which had been given as a constituent. by
1.
* stomach and intestines.
place, and the eggs are hatched in the uterus, and ex-
cluded along with the fry.
In the males of this-division, at least in those of the
ehoridropterygii, the testes are two in number, flat, of
great extent, and situated between the spine and the
Each is divided into two por
tions; the first resembles the soft milt of oviparous
fishes, and the second consists of small spherical glan<
dular bodies. From these an epididymis is produced,
chiefly composed of convoluted tubes, which terminate -
ee eg A Be rem
eT
and
in a vas deferens; the underpart of which is greatly di-
aod _ lated, and forms, as in birds, a considerable receptacle,
or vesicula seminalis, Contiguous to the outer side of
the dilated end of the vas deferens, there is a bag of
considerable size, filled with a iquor, which is
i into the same with the semen, and
y at the same time with it. By some, this is
considered as a vesicula seminalis, while by others it is
ee ee the place of a te gland.
funnel throngh which hc senna aati peated,
aT ree
n are cer-
tain organs situated near the anus, ceiatings of bone,
cartilage, and muscles. These were long regarded as
the external otgans of reproduction. But Rondeletius
was of opinion that these were only accessory organs,
the males to retain the females more close-
ly during coition. The celebrated ichthyologist Bloch,
dissections, arrived at the same conclusion.
tagu has observed some peculiari-
ties in the sexes of the skate, which deserve to be no-
ticed. These are enumerated in the Memoirs of the
Wernerian Natural History Society, vol. ii. p. 414. After
ing of the at the base of the tail, he
says, “ Accom i is truly masculine distinc-
tion, are series of reclined hooked spines, never
to be found on the other sex, and which begin to shew
themselves early in all the species hitherto examined ;
these are placed in four distinct series, one on each
shoulder or fore-part of the wing, or pectoral fin, and
calb Ut the wing: These spines are com-
plete hooks resembling those used for fishing, and lie
with their points reclined inwards in two or three, and
sometimes four parallel lines, but the number of rows,
me Lace artery Sg roa a for in very
young specimens, I have noticed only four or five
—_ in a single row. For what — this formi-
armoury is given exclusively to the males, is not
known, but as the hooks are extremely s , and lie
partly concealed, with their points a trifle reflected, the
fixed on as a specific character ; and as it does not ap-
generally known that it is only a sexu: |
istinction, it has been thought proper to notice it for
the advantage of others who may be pursuing the same
track. There is another circumstance, which perhaps,
in the discrimination of species, requires more attention
percep Raps is, oot oberon sexes of each
species. necessity is is icularly evinced
by the great difference octets tie teeth of the
two sexes of the thornback, Raia clavata.
«In search of both sexes of this species, I was natu-
rally led by the usually described essential character of
the teeth being blunt, and I was not a little surprised
when, amongst several hundreds examined, not one
male could be found ; but I noticed a ray, not unfre-
quently taken with the thornback, that was in every
other respect similar, except that the wings were gene-
rally not so rough, and sometimes quite smooth about
the middle. A variety also of this fish had an oblong
dusky spot, surrounded with white, in the middle of
each wing. The teeth of these fishes were not above
half the size of those of the female thornback, and, ex-
a few of the outer series on the lips, were sharp-
ted. For a long time I was puzzled to discover to
what species of Raia these belonged, till, after an exa-
VOL. Xi. PART 11.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
~ tincti: ion
681
mination of a great number, I began to be as much
surprised at not finding a female amongst such a quan-
tity of these, as I was at not finding a male amongst
those with blunt teeth. These circumstances naturally
induced me to conclude, that the sexes of clavata had
not been accurately defined, and that the leading cha-
racter of blunt teeth might have been drawn from the
female only, The fishermen had not noticed the dis-
the teeth in these fishes, and had considered
all of them to be thornbacks. After much attention
to the subject, and after having offered a premium for
a male thornback with blunt teeth, an intelligent fish-
erman assured me, he had examined a vast number
since I pointed out the distinction of the teeth, and
that he could not find one instance of a male with blunt
teeth, nor a female with sharp teeth. It may therefore
be fairly inferred, that the sexes of the thornback ac-
tually differ in this particular, and that the male has
Saas been described as a different species, but un
er what title it is difficult to ascertain, unless it be
Raja fullonica of some authors.”
he male organs of the sharks and rays are such as we
have now described ; but few accurate observations have
been made on the male organs of those ovoviviparous
fishes, which belong to the branchiostegous and osseous
tribes, such as the syngnathus, blennius, and murzna.
In the females of the sharks and rays, the ovaria,
two in number,‘are situated at the sides of the spine,
and contain ova of different sizes. From each of these
proceeds an oviduct, the anterior extremities of which
are united to the diaphragm and spine. Internally,
these ducts are covered with glandular papille, and pass
through a large glandular body. After passing this
eg (come dilate into a large sac, which is the uterus.
en the ova pass into the oviduct, they are carried
to this glandular body, which is supposed to secrete the
giaire or albuminous and afterwards conveyed to
the uterus, where they receive the shell. At what pe-
riod the egg becomes impregnated, or in what manner
the operation is performed, are questions to which no
satisfactory answers can be returned.
The eggs are of a quadrangular form, with processes
at the four corners. By some they are called sea-mice,
but by our fishermen they are known by the name of
skate or shark-purses. The shell has a: horny consist-
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
—_—o_
ence, and may often be observed, at certain seasons, ~
among the rejectamenta of the sea.
When the young fish have been perfected in the ute-
rus, where they derive: their nourishment exclusively
from the egg, and not from the mother, they are eject-
ed through the openings of each uterus, at the sides of
the cloaca ; and upon escaping from the shell, enjoy
immediately an ind dent existence, and begin to
search after new nourishment.
3, Oviparous fishes which are hermaphrodite. In-
stances of hermaphroditism among fishes, were for a long
jod considered rare, and always as accidental. Bas-
ter detected such an arrangement in the whiting, and
Duhamel observed the same in;the carp. But it was re-
gerved for that able anatomist, Sir Everard Home, to
point out a particular tribe of fishes in which the organs
of both sexes are-always present in the same individual.
Having been unsuccessful in obtaining any male lam-
prys, although he got what were considered as females
in abundance, Sir Everard began to suspect that the
_individuals of the species were hermaphrodites, and
his observation on these fish at different periods justi«
fied his conjectures, '
} 4n
Herma-
phrodites,
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
Castration.
Hybrid
fishes.
682
«J found, (says he, Phil. Trans. A.D. 1815, Part I.
p. 266), upon examination, that the two glandular bo-
dies projecting into the belly, one on each side of the
ovarium, which have always been supposed to be the
kidneys, varied very much in size and appearance at the
beginning and end of the season. hen the ova are
so small that the animal is. reputed to be a male, these
glandular bodies, and the black substance upon which
they lie, appear to form one mass, and the duct upon
the anterior is thin and almost transparent, con~
taining a fluid equally so; but in the end of May, when
the ova increase in size, these glandular bodies become
larger, more turgid, and have a distinct line of separa-
tion between them and the black substance behind ;
their structure is more developed, being evidently
composed of tubuli running in a transverse direction,
and the ducts leading from them are thicker in their
coats, and Jarger in size.
«© On the 5th of June, the ova were found to be of
the full size ; and a small transparent speck, not before
to be observed, was seen in each; at this time the tu-
bular structure had an increased breadth, and the duct
going from it contained a ropy fluid, which, when exa-
mined in the field of the microscope, was found to be
composed of small globules in a transparent fluid. On
the 9th of June, neither the ova nor the tubular struc-
ture had undergone any change. On the 11th of June,
the ova were of the same size, but the slightest force
detached them from the ovarium ; the tubular struc-
ture had increased still more in size, the fluid in the
ducts was thicker, more ropy, and when water was ad-
ded to it in the field of the microscope, it coagulated,
and what was before made up of globules, had now the
appearance of flakes. The ova do not pass out at an
excretory duct as in fishes, but drop from the cells in
the ovarium in which they were formed, into the cavi-
ty of the abdomen, and escape by two small apertures
at the lower part of that cavity, into a tube common to
them and to the semen in which they are impregnated.”
In the lampern or pride, and in the gastrobranchus coe-
cus, a similar structure is observable.”
Although these observations leave little room to doubt
that the animals in question are hermaphrodites, still it
remains to be determined at what precise period, or in
what position, the eggs are impregnated.
Although the sexual organs of fishes had been long
known, it was not until the middle of the 18th cen-
tury that any experiments were performed to ascertain
the effect of their abstraction. Tully appears to have
been the on pn who performed the operation, and
an account of his experiments has been published in
the Gent. Mag. vol. xxv. p. 416, and in Phil. Trans.
vol. xlviii. hen the abdomen of the fish is laid open,
and the milt or roe carefully separated, and the wound
sewed up again, the fish appears to experience but lit-
tle pain, and the wound heals in a few weeks. These
experiments have frequently been performed on the
carp, and they are attended with little risk. The fish
grows toa larger size, and its flesh is said to have a more
delicate flavour. But castration has never come into
general use among the proprietors of fish ponds, being
seldom cetoned but from motives of curiosity or
seience.
We have already stated, that the impregnation of the
takes place without the body of the female, and
the experiments which have been conducted to esta-
blish this point, have likewise made us acquainted with
the existence of hybrid fishes. Even in a common fish
pond, where carp and trout are permitted to live in
ICHTHYOLOGY.
company, the carp sometimes impregnates the of
the trout, or the trout those of the carp. The limits,
however, within which this irregularity is confined, pire
have never been investigated with care.
Fishes exhibit very remarkable differences in regard
to the number of eggs which they produce. The rays
and sharks seem to prepare but a very limited number.
Rondeletius states the number in the Squalus acanthias
at six ; other observers have found in other ies 26
and even 30. But the number of eggs in other kinds
of oviparous fish, exceeds almost our powers of rec-
koning. The following Table (Phil. Trans. 1767),
may convey to the general reader some idea of their
prolific powers. ;
, : Weight of |Number of
Fish. Weight. sins an Season.
Oz. Dr.| Grains.
Carp .... (25 51] 2571 | 203109 jApril 4.
Cod-fish ...]| 0 0O| 12540 |3686760 |Dec. 23,
Flounder .. |24 4 | 2200 |1357400. |March 14,
Herring ...}| 5 10 480 36960 |October 25.
Mackrel ,.. |18 O| 12233 | 546681 \June 18,
Perch 2.65.18, 9 765 28823 |April 5.
Pike.....|56 4] 51003 | 49304 |—— 25,
Roach .... {10 63! 361 | 81586 |May 2.
Smelt ....}|2 0] 1493] $8278 |March 21.
Sole ..... 14 8 5421 | 100362 |June 13.
Tench ....|40 0 — 383252 |May 28,
It appears evident, from this Table, that there is no
regular proportion between the weight of the fish and
the weight or number of eggs produced. Nor is there
any estimated proportion between the number of eggs
deposited, and the number of fish which arrive at ma«
turity. The eggs are eagerly sought after by other
fishes, by aquatic birds and reptiles. In the young
state, they are pursued even by their own species, as
well as by beings belonging to other classes. But for
the numbers of eggs thus produced, the very race of
fishes would soon be extinguished by enemies while
young ; and we may add, that the diminution of the
number of eggs would cut off a large supply of food,
and destroy that dependence which we observe in the
polity of nature, of the different races of animals on
one another.
Structure
and
Number 0
The season in which fish deposit their eggs varies
according to the species, and even the habit of. the in-
dividual. It is well known that among salmon, even
in the same river, a difference of some months is ob«
servable, and we believe that the same remark is ap<
plicable to all other kinds of fish, In general, before
spawning, fish forsake the deep water, and approach
the shore, that the roe being placed in shallow wae
ter, the influence of the solar rays may vivify it. At
that season, some fish forsake the salt water, and as-«
cend rivers, and after spawning, retreat again to the
ocean.
The eggs of various species of fish belonging to the
oviparous order, with distinct sexes, are used as articles
of food. Where circumstances permit, they are con«
sumed while in a recent state. In other situations they
are salted, and form the well-known article of trade
caviar. she
The characters which the organs of reproduction fur-
nish, in the discrimination of species, have been hitherto
1
a
.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Secr. XII. Organs of Electricity.
From the remotest periods, the benumbin ers
of the have been the subject of L pt tae
ration. In the days of Aristotle and Pliny, some of its
curious properties were ascertained ; but it was not
until the year 1772, that any accurate observations were
made on the animal, conducted on scientific prin-
Wn Welch, Esq. carnage ke ed
of the ar which accom this action
ani Nearly about the sae n Bo and in
. furnished by Walsh, Mr Hun.
peo ge Pape ame with pe the
pearances of its electrical organs, and pointed out their
relation to one another. Previous te ees observations
of Walsh and Hunter, Borrelli, Lorenzini, and Reau-
mur, had each of them examined the fish, and arrived
conclusions. Since that time
&5
Fe
article,
ion of the electricity which these organs
ce saul edided come mew fists to thote which had
J
BE
inh
3
g,
lateral fins, as to be entirely
the muscles, which are inserted
, = the ~~ which the nerves have
in acing phenomena, made an incision on
pol. sper of the cranium and gills of a lively torpedo,
undisturbed. This was performed in the morning, and
when examined in the evening, it was impossible to
683
distinguish between the liveliness or activity of either.
of other two of these animals, the nerves of the elec.
trical organs of one of them were divided. Being pla-
ced each in separate buckets of sea water, they were
both irritated as nearly alike as possible. From the
perfect animal, shocks were received ; after frequent re-
petition, it became weak and incapable of discharging
the shock, and soon died. The last shocks were not
perceptible above the second joint of the thumb, and
so weak as to require much attention to observe them.
From the other, no shocks could be received ; it ap«
peared as vivacious as before, and lived until the se-
cond day. This experiment was frequently repeated
with nearly the same results. The nerves of one elec.
tric organ only being divided in a lively torpedo, from
which shocks had been previously received, on irrita<
ting the animal, it was still found capable of communi-
eating the shock, Whether there was any difference
in the degree of intensity could not be distinctly obser«
ved. One electrical organ being al er removed,
the animal still continued capable of discharging the
electric shock, and the same circumstance took place
when only one of the nerves of each electrical organ was
divided. When a wire was introduced through the cra-
nium of a torpedo, which had been communicating
shocks very freely, all motion immediately ceased, an
no irritation could excite the electrical shock.
The shock is communicated through the same con«
ductors as common electricity, arid intercepted by the
same non-conductors. The sensation ah, commu«
nicated to several persons at the same instant; and it
is of no consequence whether the animal be insulated or
not. The shock, however, is much stronger in air than
in water; in summer than in winter ; when the animal
is in vigour, than when im an exhausted state. The
shocks generally follow simple contact or irritation ;
but, in some instances, when caught by the hand, no
shock is discharged until sisecar energy has been
exerted in vain to extricate itself.
This electrical discharge is in general accompanied
an evident muscular action. There appears a swel«
ling of the superior surface of the electrical organs,
particularly towards the anterior part opposite to the
cranium. The eyes also appear at the time somewhat
retracted. If this action of the fish be too much ex
cited, the animal becomes debilitated, and soon expires.
Spallanzani, while prosecuting his experiments on
this subject, ascertained, that the young fish as well as
the old possessed this power; and, what appears still
more surprizing, even those sti)l in the egg in the ute«
rus were able to communicate a sensible shock.
Besides the torpedo, there are other fish which pos-
sess the same apparatus, and exhibit the same singular
henomena. One of these, the gymnotus electricus, has
se carefully examined by Hunter ; and the result of
his observations, communicated in the 65th volume of
the Phil. Trans. A third fish, the Silurus electricus,
the same property ; and probably many more
with which we are as yet unacquainted ; although to
this list there can only be added at present the Trichturus
Indicus and Tetraodon electricus.
The use of this singular faculty has often been point-
ed out both by ancient and modern naturalists. As an
instrument of defence, the exercise of such a power
will protect the fish from many of its foes ; and when
used in the offensive, it will be equally formidable.
Such animals may be able to benumb their smaller and
defenceless prey, and employ their electrical energies in
procuring food,
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
Structure
and
Functions
of Fishes.
Condition
of fishes.
Distribu-
tion of
fishes,
Salt water
fishes.
684
The characters furnished by the ous of electricity
were for a long time overlooked, an ‘were not even
permitted to constitute a generic distinction. The tor-
pedo was long classed with the rays ; and in many sys-
tems fishes with electrical organs, and such as are des-
titute of them, still belong to the same genus.
CHAP. IE.
CONDITION oF FisuEs.
Tue subjects which we propose to discuss in this
Chapter are rather of a miscellaneous nature, and em-
brace a variety of circumstances connected with the
natural and economical history of fishes. _ We shall di-
vide the whole into eight sections, and in these treat of
the distribution, migrations, education, naturalization,
dietetical uses, and diseases of fish ; and conclude with
some observations on the geological data which they
furnish, and the various methods which have been em-«
ployed to. preserve them in a museum.
Secr. I. Distribution of Fishes.
We have already stated, that fishes naturally reside
in the water ; but as this element is found te differ in
its constitution and temperature according to its situa-
tion, we may expect to find the finny tribes that dwell
in it influenced by these circumstances, Ata very ear-
ly period, the diversity in the distribution of fishes at-
‘tracted the attention of observers. Rondeletius at last
attempted a division of this class of animals, from the
different situations in-which they are found, into ma-
rine, fluviatile, lake, and pond fish. It will be more
suitable to our present purpose, to consider them as in-
habitants of the sea or of fresh water.
The salt-water fishes ave much more numetous
than those which reside in fresh water, They can-
not be distinguished from fresh water fishes by any
peculiarity of structure, or external form. They are
always found in the greatest numbers in tideways,
and on those banks which are formed at the junce-
tion of opposite currents. They in general resort to
a certain kind of bottom, in which we may sup-
pose they find a plentiful supply of food. Some are
always found near rocky shores, while others prefer the
sandy bays. Some are found only in the open ocean,
and are termed pelagic ; others keep within a short dis.
tance of the coast, and are termed liltoral. M. Risso,
in the introduction to. his Ichthyologie de Nice, (8vo.
Paris 1810, p. xiv.) has the following interesting noti-
ces respecting the distribution of the fishes of the Me-
diterranean, which we shall give in-his own words.
“ Ces grandes profondeurs sont hérissées de rochers
et ne sont fréquentées que par les Squales, les Balistes,
les Chiméres, les Ziphias, les Gades; les Caranz,
les Centronotes, les Lepidoléptres, les Frigles, les Cen-
tropomes, les Holocenires, les Bodians, les Tetragonua
res, les Pomatomes. A cent metres des profondeur,
en avancant vers la terre, les fond de Ja mer est recou-
vert de fange et de limon, séjour impur’ de Raies, des
Lophies, des Cepoles, des Zees, des Pleuronectes, des
Oligopodes, enfin de tous. les poissons a chair molle et
baveuse. En continuant de s’élever 4 cent cinquante
metres de profondeur, .a’ peu
nifeste: les algues, les caulinies, les ulves, les confer.
ves, les varecs, et les zoophytes qui tapissent ce séjour,
y appellent les Ophidies, les Stromatées, les Murénes,
pres, la végétation se ma- -
ICHTHYOLOGY.
les Uranoscopes, les Vives, les Scorpénes, les Peristea
dions, les Labres, les Spares, les Lutjans, les
les Murénophis, &c. vie
rivage, ou les Syngnathes, les Centresques, les Blena
nies, les Batrachoides, les Gobies, les Notoptéres font
leur demure accoutomée. Enfin les belles plaines de
a et de sable ou se nourrissent les Lépadogastéres,
es Ammodyles, les Callionymes, les Lepidopes, les Gym.
néetras, les Osméres, les Scombrésoces, les Argentines,
les Atherines, les Stolephores, les Mugil, les Clupées,
et les Serpes.”
These different depths at which fishes reside in the
sea, may be regulated by the presence of suitable food.
in those places. When fishes live at a great depth, the
air-bag secretes more oxygen than when residing near
the surface ; but this is a circumstance over which the
fish perhaps can exercise controul; and although the
pressure upon the body must increase with the depth in
the water, we are ignorant of the effect produced on
the sensations of the animal by the change. Even many
pelagic fish become littoral during the breeding season,
and the littoral fish retreat to the deep on the approach:
of a storm.
The fresh-water fishes are not so important, in an- Fresh wae
economical point of view, as those which inhabit the ter fishes. ;
ocean. Some species frequent rivers, and seem to re-
quire, for the preservation of their health, a continued.
current of water. Others live in lakes, and seem con-
tented to spend their days where the water is still,
Like salt-water fishes, they appear to prefer particular
altitudes; and in ascending mountains, we may ob-
serve that the fish in the lakes and rivers have their
boundaries, as well as the vegetables which cover their
surface. Thus Wahlenberg found, that the pike and
perch disappeared from the rivers of the Lapland Alps
along with the spruce fir, and when 3200 feet below the
line of perpetual snow. Ascending 200 feet higher, the
gwiniad and the grayling are no longer to be found in
the lakes. Higher up still, or about 2000 feet below
the line of perpetual snow, the char disappears; and
‘ beyond this boundary all fishing ceases, -
When a salt water fish is put into fresh water, its mo-
tions speedily become irregular, its respiration appears
to be affected, and unless released is tion dies. The
same consequences follow when a fresh water fish is
suddenly immersed in salt water. In what manner
they are influenced by the change, has never been sa«
tisfactorily determined.
There are not a few fish which may be said to be ama
phibious, or capable of living either in fresh or salt
water at pleasure. Such fish, inan economical point
of view, are extremely valuable, as they furnish to the
inhabitants of this and other countries an immense sup
ply of food, The salmon may be given as an instance
in this country, where, from one river, (Tay) 50,000
head of full sized fish have been obtained. ‘To the
Greenlanders, their Angmarset, or Salmo arcticus, is
perhaps more valuable, as it is formed into bread, as
well as consumed in a fresh or salted state.
All these fishes seem to reside chiefly in the sea. |
There they grow and fatten; but when the time of
spawning approaches, they forsake the salt water, and
return to rivers and lakes. But this desertion of the
ocean is only temporary, and regulated by the circum.
stances connected with reproduction. The instant the
spawning is finished, they repair with equal rapidity
to the ocean, to repair their exhausted strength, and
fit them for obeying again the laws of their existence.
Some of these fishes appear to be capable of living exe
Condition
of Fishes,
jennent ensuite les rochers dy ““"Y"™
——,
-_™ clusively
of Fishes. yer,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
in fresh water, when confined in a lake or ri«
e are informed in the statistical account of the
of Lismore, when ing of the fresh water
distinction ectly clear to this day. They retain
their shining silver scales, have no com-
the yellow trouts.”
circumstance of some fish being capable of living
either in fresh or salt water, has the idea of
ing to modify the constitution of salt water
so as to enable them to subsist in fresh water.
change is attem to be uced in young
degrees, and rans spent experiment ma
successful, especially with those fish that reside
the sea shore. But in the case of fishes
live in , a change not only in the re-
ear 4 organs must be produced, but likewise in
es as they must subsist on a new kind
e such experiments as curious, but
bring ourselves to believe, that they will
et quid quaeque
t few accurate observations on the
i ion of fishes, with to ture.
Living in an element subj "to late ee her wt
the change of the seasons, like sea-weeds, have an
extensive range of latitude as well as longitude ery
species with
to latitude. Thus the fresh water fishes of
are much more numerous than those in Scot-
In the sea at the south of England, the pilchard
is found in abundance, while it is rare in Scotland. In
the seas in the north of Scotland, the tusk (Gadus
brome) abounds, in the south of Scotland it is very
rare, and in land it is unknown.
hes living in the northern seas, or in
ine lakes, seem to cold water, there are fish
which ee een oeees Se waters of tepid
informs us that Desfontaines found
the Sparus De ontaines in the warm waters of the two
fountains whi apy the town of Cassa in the king-
dom of Tunis. waters raised Reaumur’s thermo.
meter 30° above the freezing point, or about 100° of Fah-
renheit. The waters contained no mineral im
tions, and when cooled, were used by the inhabitants,
En
Secr. II. Migration of Fishes.
Tose fishes which enter rivers for the purpose of
spawning, perform their migrations muti » but do
not appear at any very precise period. Their motions
appear to be regu by the condition of their gene-
rative organs, and these are in their turn controuled by
the temperature of the water in which the fishes remain,
or the supply of food. In rivers where salmon spawn,
it is observed that these fish continue entering the river
for the space of seven or eight months. Those marine
fishes, such as the herring, pilchard, and many others
which leave the deep water, and approach the shores
685
for the
with
P pest
Besides these movements, which depend on the ge-
nerative impulse, many marine fishes appear to mi-
grate from one shore to another, influenced by laws
which have never been satisfactorily explained. © Thus
haddocks have been known to visit a coast for many years
in succession, and then suddenly to disappear, and at
the same time all those predaceous fish which fed upon
purposes of spawning, are equally ir
respect to their periods of appearing and disap-
them. Per! these movements may depend upon the
supply of food, and be regulated by circumstances over
which we can exercise no controul. Accurate observa-
tions, however, would probably ascertain the limits of
these migrations, and enable us to derive advantage
from motions which at present we regard as calami-
tous,
In the summer season, all the fresh water fish are ac-
tive and lively ; but during the winter, many species
bury themselves in the mud, and, in a state of quies-
cence similar to natural sleep, outlive the vicissitudes of
that variable season. While active they require a copi-
ous supply of food; but in this state of hybernation
they continue fasting, and without inconvenience.
Sect. III, Education of Fishes.
Tue element in which fishes reside, removes them so
far from our sibdence and observation, that it is diffi-
cult to estimate the amount, or the qualities of the im-
material principle which they possess. We witness
them fly From ger, obey the impulse of appetite, and
provide a suitable place for the eggs of their future off-
spring. These, however, are in general regarded as
e lowest marks of mind, or as mere blind instinctive
motions.
Fishes, we have seen, possess in a greater or less de-
gree of perfection all those external senses, by means
of which the other animals acquire a knowledge of ex-
ternal objects. Hence we find that they speedily be-
come acquainted with the hand that feeds them, and
know the face of a stranger. They may be taught to
come to the edge of a pond when called by their usual
name, or to assemble at the sound of a bell. Baster
even informs us of a trout, which had been kept four-
teen years and seven months, which would come and
repose on the hand of its master while he removed the
water of the vessel in which it was kept.
That they possess some powers of deliberation, ap.
pears evident from the artifices which they employ to
eecape from the nets in which they have been inclosed, or
from the hook which they have incautiously swallowed.
Salmon have been known to lie close on the ground in
some hollow place, to permit the net to pass over them,
or by a sudden spring to leap out of the net. The fishing
frog, or angler, as it is also called, (Lophius piscatorius,)
has two long tentacula on the head, resembling in ap~
pearance small worms. Having buried its body in the
sand, leaving only these tentacula exposed, it moves
them backwards and forwards, until the eye of some
young fish is attracted by the deceitful appearance, and
falls a prey to its lurking foe. =~
With regard to their social instincts, fishes present
very remarkable differences. Some are gregarious at
all seasons, while others are solitary unless during the
breeding season. The sexual union is merely tempo-
rary, and no feelings of affection subsist between the
parent and the offspring. Indeed the life ofa fish is one
continued scene of suspicion and fear, no leisure being
left for the improvement of its faculties. Hence we are
Condition
of Fishes.
——
Education
of fishes,
686
Condition disposed to rank fish as the lowest link of the chain of
of Fishes. yertebral animals,—to regard the powersof their immate-~
rial principle, as casterouted by the dangers to which
they are exposed, and as almost exclusively occupied in
supplying the wants which are connected with the first
laws of existence.
Secr. IV. Naturalization of Fishes.
In tracing the history of those attempts which have
been made to subject this portion of the creation to our
controul, we trace at the same time the progress of civili-
zation and luxury. In Egypt, they had their sluices and
their fish ponds in the days of Isaiah, (chap.xix. 10,) and
from this early seat of the arts and sciences the Romans
probably acquired theknowledge of rearing and feedin
fish. During the more prosperous days of that refin
people, almost every wealthy citizen had his fish ponds.
In modern times, the Chinese bestow more attention on
the cultivation of fish than perhaps any other nation.
And in Europe, the importance of the subject has been
duly appreciated by the Swedes, Prussians, and Ger-
mans. In the latter countries, a considerable :part of
the revenue from property is derived from the carp
onds, ;
Fresh water : In general, the rearing of fresh water fish in artificial
fish. onds has hitherto beem chiefly attempted, few trials
Toke been made to rear the salt water fish in confine-
ment. In the construction of a pond for fresh water fish,
care should be taken to have a regular supply of water
free from mineral impregnations, to cover the deepest
parts of the pond at least six feet. The more exten-
sive the shallow ground at the sides is, especially if it
be covered with marsh plants, so much more abundant
is the supply of those minute animals, on which many
fish chiefly subsist. Care should likewise be taken to
introduce those small fish, which, by multiplying, may
furnish a constant supply of food.
When fish ponds are formed, it is in general the wish
of the proprietor to have a certain number of his stock
in good condition, that he may have a regular supply
for his table. For the accomplishment of this object,
there is usually one pond set apart for the purpose,
into which are introduced those full grown fish which
he wishes to feed. During the winter season little
food is required, but along with the heat of spring,
fishes acquire a keen appetite, and at that period a
constant supply of food should be given them. They
should be fed morning and evening at a stated time,
and always at the same place in the pond. The food
should consist of any kind of corn, boiled or steeped
in water for some time until it swells. Malt is esteem-
ed a very fattening food, and the crumbs of bread steep-
edin ale; but peas are considered as little inferior to
either. Pikes must have an abundant supply of eels,
otherwise they require a long time to fatten. Some re-
commend the laying of dead carrion upon stakes in the
middle of the water, that it may breed maggots, which
falling into the water, furnish an abundant supply of
very acceptable food.
In the construction and management of fish ponds,
there are many circumstances of a local nature which
it is impossible to specify. The methods employed to
stock these ponds are at present more deserving of our
attention. The first, and certainly the most obvious’
method, is to obtain living fish from similar situations.
In catching these, the utmost care should be taken not
* to bruise them, or to rub off their scales, and to keep
them as short a time out of the water as possible. The
vessels in which they are to be carried should be full of
Naturali-
zation of
Ashes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
water, as when the barrel is not entirely full, the fish Condition
are liable to be driven by the currents against the lid of Fishes.
or sides. This transportation should take place only in “~¥""
cold weather, and in the winter season, (as fishes can
bear cold better than heat,) and should be performed
with as much expedition as circumstances will permit. -
The second method of stocking fish ponds, is in some
respects preferable to the preceding, especially when the
waters are at a distance from which the supply is to be
obtained. This consists in ascertaining those places in
which the spawn of the wished for species is deposited,
and conveying the cage eggs toa similar situa«
tion in the new ponds. In this manner a vast number
of individuals may be obtained at once, and with t
certainty of success, provided they are supplied du«
ring the journey with fresh water, and but little agita-
ted. The impregnated eggs may be known by a’small
aperture, which may be detected on one side by means
of a good microscope, and which is scarcely perceptible
evious to impregnation. By means of this method,
wever, a much longer period must elapse ere fish
are obtained for the table than by the former, although
this objection is in a great measure obviated, by o
taining from the eggs a race of fish with constitutions
accommodated to your waters.
The last method, which has been rather absurdly
termed artificial fecundation, we owe to the ingenuity
of M. Jacobi, (Mem. del’ Acad. de Berlin. 1764, p. 55.)
It is founded on a knowledge of the mode of repro«
duction in oviparous fishes, and.in its turn serves to’
illustrate the function of generation in fishes. In
those places where the fish are easily procured, a fe«
male is obtained, whose roe is nearly ready for exclusion:
and having prepared a proper box with water, the fish”
is held by the head, with its tail downwards, and gen«
tly squeezed on the belly. The eggs which are per-.
fect, readily run out into the vessel. A male fish i is
next obtained, and being held in a similar situation,
the milt is poured upon the eggs. The eggs thus im.!
pregnated are conveyed to a proper situation as in the
second method, and protected from those enemies-
which we have already enumerated.
The advantages which result from the translation:
and feeding of fishes have been felt and appreciated in’
other countries, but in our kingdom they have been:
in a great measure overlooked. In Scotland and Ire«
land, and we may likewise include England, there are
multitudes of pends and lakes, which are at present
mere useless wastes, but which, if properly stocked:
with fish, would greatly contribute to the prosperity
of the country, by furnishing an additional supply.of
food. To our forefathers we owe the introduction of’
two useful species of fish into the country, namely,:
the carp, which was translated (probably from France
or Spain) into England about the year 1496, and the:
pike, which was naturalized about the beginning of the
fifteenth century. The gold and silver fishes of China
have likewise been naturalized in England, as objects
of beauty. We wish this catalogue had been more ex~
tensive; we fondly hope that it will soon increase.
The formation of ponds for salt water fish, has often Salt
been the subject Bf apachiacion, but in few instances fish.
has it ever been reduced to practice. Indeed the mos
tives for constructing such a pond must originate’
chiefly in curiosity, as those who are situated on a sea<
coast, where such ponds can only be constructed, have
access to that great storehouse of life, and may at all
seasons derive from it an inexhaustible supply. Be-«
sides, there are few situations favourable for the con«
‘.
1
i
i
>
ICHTHYOLOGY. 687
of @ pond, and even where most fa- pond. They kept chiefly, however, in the deep water, Condition
mip i i and, after = i oes a circular weep, and Of Fishes.
separate it from the sea, Some ponds of this kind making a snatch at the prey, descended out of sight to
have been constructed in Scotland. These are well de- devour it. It has often been doubted, whether the red
i 2. -warecodling of Scotland was the young merely of the
«A good many years ago, a small fish into common cod, or a distinct species, Gadus callarias,
which sea-water could be easily introduced, was con- Here one would think the a rei might easily be des
ee nes eeepigs Wemhens, in cided. Upon describing this red ware codling, we
Mr ). A few sea fish were were assured that it occurs on the coast of Galloway,
kept in it; but it soon fell into disuse, and that it had sometimes been caught and placed in
and it has of late been neglected. This however was, the pond; tiie thats aftacia one, ie bechina a large and
as far as we know, the first attempt of the kind in this as ating ns Seer grey’ cod This accords
country. 3 with our own observations, e in less favourable
Since that time two sea-fish ponds, of greater di- circumstances.
mensions, have been formed by private gentlemen in 2. Hadock (G. egiefinus)- These, contrary to ex
| penser eR lying their fami- pectations, we to be the tamest fishes in the pond.
lies. One of these is at Valleyfield, the seat of Sir Atebb tide, they come to the inner margin, and eat lim-
Robert Preston, Bart. on the shore of the Frith of pets from the hand of a little , the son of the keep-
Forth; the other is situated in Wigton-shire, in an in- er. They appeared white, and rather sickly. One
let called Portnessock, on the peninsular ridge of coun- was diseased about the eyes.
try called the Rins of Galloway, nine or ten miles _$. Coalfish (G. carbonarius). Some of these were of
south from Portpatrick, and is the property of Mr a large size, exceeding in dimensions the largest cod
Macdowall of Logan. in the pond. No fish has received so many different
here it is formed, there had originally names as the coalfish. When young, it is called at
been a small natural basin, communicating with the Edinburgh, podley ; in the northern islands, sillock ;
i b
sea by means of a narrow sinuous fissure, or in Galloway, When a year old, it is styled
an empty vein in the rock. This basin has been en- cooth, or piltock, in the north; and glasson in the
ee working away the solid rock, south-west of Scotland. When full grown, it is named
is grey wacke At flood-tide, the water sethe in the north; and stenlock in the south-west.
covers, to the depth of two or three feet, a ledge or Accordingly we were now told, that “ these stenlocks
walk which passes round an interior or deeper pond, were mere blochans when they were put in.” They
and) at this time, allows tolerably ample space for the were become of a fine dark le colour. They were
a of the fish, bold and familiar, floating about slowly and majestical-
ee ae ee keeper, _ ly, till some food was thrown to them: this they seized
whose is hard by. In easy weather, this man voraciously, whether it consisted of shell-fish, or ship
rows out in his fishing coble, to the mouth of Logan biscuit. e were informed, that they too occasionally
, in which the imlet of Portnessock is situated. approach the margin, and take their food from the
hand line, keeper's hand.
the usual baits. He is with a wide tub, | 4, Whiting (G. merlangus). These were scarce in
which he puts a convenient quantity of sea water: the pond, and very shy.
ly commits sach of his 5. Pollack (G pollachna. This was pretty com-
i the - He mon, and has found to answer very well as a pond
finds it necessary, during summer, to cover the tub fish. It is generally called layde or lythe.
with a in weather he experiences _ Besides these five — of gadus, we were told that
ee fishes alive in the tub till he the ling (G. molva) occasionally been kept in the
ascribed either to mere heat, orto the exhausting of | 6. Salmon (Salmo salar). This was the wildest
the air contained in the water, by the respiration of the and the quickest in its motions of all the inhabitants.
fishes. cee oh nee op lhe ee arse ge my ei When a mussel or limpet, freed from the shell, was
uid of atmosphere. De la Cepede, thrown on the surface of the water, the salmon very
in his essay on the culture of fresh-water fishes, parti- often darted forward and took the prey from all compe-
cularly mentions the powerful effect of this fluid on titors, disa| ing with a sudden jerk and turn of the
them, when confined in small portions of water, inthe body. I coaactal this to be the salmon-trout (S, trut-
course of their transference from one place to another. a); but was assured that it was the real salmon, which
As might naturally be supposed, the fisherman is occasionally taken in the bay.
iNale 7. , or flounders, of two sorts, were also in
size to those of large In selecting cod-fish, for the pond; but they naturally kept at the bottom, and
i we Sia. not see them. From the description given by
the people, we concluded that they were dab and young
lb. plaise.
alive till wan’ use, but, being ree The food given to the fishes consists chiefly of sand-
eels and of shell-fish, particularly li and mussels,
by the line and hook; and it In the herring-fishery season, they cut ngs in pieces
is probable, that the in best condition will not al- for this purpose.
first Wore codex kable, that all the kinds “fest abs; +4
pond were the follow- enumerated, seem to agree very well together. No
fighting had ever been Sadieed by the keeper, and. sel«
. They were lively, and dom any ryry Fed one species by another.
caught greedily at , which we threw intothe None of the “rip sara indeed, no oppor=
ie
it
5
z
F
|
:
fs
f
z
s
=]
3
|
E
5
, i
Condition
of Fishes.
—_—\—
Dietetical
uses.
688
tunity of breeding is afforded to them. A warm and
shallow retreat, laid with sand and gravel, would have
to be prepared for some species ; and large stones, with
sea-weed growing on them, would have to be transfer-
red to the pond, and placed so as to be constantly im-
mersed in the water for the use) of others. The di-
mensions of the present pond, however, are too cir-
cumscribed-to admit of its being used as a breeding
place. An addition for this purpose might; without
much difficulty, be formed, and here some curious ob«
servations might be made. The spawn of various sea-
fishes is frequently accidentally dredged up by fisher-
men, and could: therefore no doubt be procured by
using a dredge: its degree of transparency indicates
whether it will prove prolific. “This might be placed
in, a, protected corner of the breeding pond, and its
progress watched. On this branch of the natural his«
tory of sea fishes, little is known.”
Sect. V. Dietetical Uses.
F'1sn, considered as an article of food, is regarded as
light, and easily digested, and therefore well suited for
the young, the weak, and the sedentary. But for the
same reason it is unsuitable food for those engaged in
laborious occupations.. Among the Romans, he who
fed on fish was regarded as effeminate, It has often
been considered, though perhaps without cause, as
promoting the fertility of the human species; and the
immense population of China has been ascribed to the
abundant use of this kind of nourishment. Its ten=
dency to encourage diseases of the skin appear to be
universally acknowledged, and is indeed very evident
in the remote islands ef this country, of Faroe, of Ice«
land, and of Norway, where fish forms so great a pro«
portion of the food of the inhabitants.
Previous to using fish as food, they have frequently
to undergo some sort of preparation, varying according
to the situation, the necessities, or the taste of the con-
sumers. Where circumstances permit, they are in ge«
neral used in a fresh state; and even in large cities,
where the supply must be brought from a distance,
various expedients are resorted to, to prevent the pro-
gress of putrefaction. By far the best contrivance for
this purpose is the well-boat, in which fish may be
brought to the place of sale even in a living state.
Placing the fish in boxes, and packing them with ice,
is another method, and has been extensively em loyed,
particularly in the supply of the capital with salmon.
In many maritime districts, where fish can be got in
abundance, .a species-of refinement in taste, at least a
departure from the simplicity of nature, prevails, to
gratify which, the fish are kept for some days, until
they begin to putrefy. When used in this state, they
are far from being disagreeable, unless to the organs of
anes Such fish are termed by the Zetlanders dlawn-
fish.
Where fish axe to be found only at certain seasons
of the year, various methods have been devised, in ors
der to preserve them during the periods of scarcity.
The simplest of these processes’ is to dry them in the
sun. They are then used either raw or boiled, and
not unfrequently in some of the poorer districts of the
north of Europe, they are ground into powder, to be
afterwards formed into bread.
But by far the most successful method of preserving
fish, and the one.in daily use, is by means of salt.
For this purpose they are packed with salt in barrels,
as (er. after being taken as possible. When boiling
ICHTHYOLOGY.
them for the table, if the water be repeatedly changed, Condi
a great eae of the salt will be abstracted, and the of Fi
fish ren
ered more palatable. In this manner are pre-
served herrings, pilchards, cod, salmon, and many
other kinds of escule xt fish.
In many instances, after the fish have been salted in
vessels constructed for the purpose, they are exposed
to the air on a gravelly beach, or in a house, and dried.
Cod, ling, and tusk, so prepared, are termed in Scot-
land salt-fish. Salmon in this state is called hipper,
and haddocks are called by the name of the ace
where they have been cured, :
After being stee in salt, herrings are in many
places hung up in houses made for the se, and
dried with the smoke of wood. In this state they are
sent to market, under the name of red-herrings. ,
Although salt is in general employed in the preser~
vation of fish, whether intended to be kept moist or
to be dried, vinegar in certain cases is added. ‘This is
practised in this country, at least chiefly with the sal«
mon sent from the remote districts to the London
market, It can only be employed in the preservation
of those fish, to nth A aoe acid _ served as a sauce. -
The flesh of fish is always in the highest owas F
or in season as it is called, during the period of the ri«
pening of the milt and the roe. After the fish have
deposited their spawn, the flesh becomes soft, and
loses a great deal of its peculiar flavour. This is ow<
ing to the disappearance of the oil or fat from the
flesh, it having been expended in the function of re«
production. When in season, the thick muscular part
of the back, as it contains the smallest quantity of oil, -
is inferior in flavour, or richness, to the thinner parts -
about the belly, which are esteemed by epicures as the
most savoury morsels, :
There are some kinds of fishes, especially those which
inhabit the shores of warmer countries, which are re«
puted poisonous. These are, the Tetraodon ocellatus,
sceleratus, and lineatus, and the Sparus ‘Pagurus and a
few more. It is generally supposed, with some
probability, that the poisonous quality of these fish pro-
ceeds from the food on which they have subsisted.
This conjecture is supported by the history of the mus-
sel and the oyster, which owe their occasional noxious
qualities to the zoophytes on which they feed. Perhaps
the poisonous apy of these fishes might be consider«
ably diminished, if not entirely removed, were the in«
testines carefully taken away, and the fish placed for a
short time in salt brine.
Secs. VI. Diseases of Fishes.
os
Fisnes, in a domesticated state, are subject to va- “Se aah
rious diseases, the cause and cure of which are not sa- fishy
tisfactorily ascertained. Trouts, carps, and perches,
are subject to various cutaneous diseases. During se-
vere winters, when the surface ‘of the ponds in which
they are kept are frozen over, the various kind of fish
seem to contract diseases, and, in such cases, great mor=
tality often prevails. This seems to arise from want of
air in the water, and can only be prevented by remo-
ving the fish to a a pond, through which there is
a constant current. In some rigorous seasons, the ex-
tent of this mortality is most alarming, as, between
1788 and 1789, in some districts of France the inhabi-
tants lost nearly all their stock of carp, pike, and tench.
Journal de Physique, November 1789. | ; id
In the very same year, an epidemic distemper affect.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
} which live in the sea, as the follow-
ee, ae
to
burgh, in the i sixth volume of the Sta-
icttoal Account of Scotland, satisfactorily‘proves: “ On
sates Sots of
by birds, and left, without being killed, on rocks or
fields. This has given rise to many of the absurd sto-
ries which have been told of showers of fishes. Ron-
deletius observes with propriety, that those fishes whose
branchia are protected by a gill-lid which shuts close,
. or by a narrow opening, are most vivacious. The air
soon dries the fine of
mine the age of fishes. The element in which they re-
side is to preserve them from the pernicious
influence of sudden changes of temperature ; the slow-
ness of the process of ossification ; the coldness of their
blood; and the tardiness of all their primary move-
ments, are considered as indicating a len ed ex-
istence. A ingly we find, the age of the carp has
been known to t0 200 years, and the pike to i
‘The marks by which the age of fishes may be deter-
mined, have never been poi out in a sati
manner. As the age of trees may be at by the
number of concentric circles in wood, so it has been
supposed that the age of fishes\may be ascertained by
sushgen iowh saelngioc:seeecnngn. oe arte
Z ical reasonings are hurtful to
science, as occupy the place of observation. They
have does of Bs tie aes tee
It is seldom that a fish is permitted to die a natural
pees yryceuee, wo During every period of its exist-
ence it is surrow by foes; and when no longer able
to exercise its wonted watchfulness, or exert its powers
of detence, it falls an easy to its more powerfal ad-
versaries. In a state, vious to death,
the dorsal fins lose the power of maintaining the body
in a vertical position, the levity of the belly, and the ex-
traordinary jon of the air bag, reverse the natural
position, so that the back becomes undermost, and the
animal floats on the surface. Similar a re-
sent themselves, when the waters are contaminated by
noxious mineral or vegetable impregnations.
Seer. VIL. Fossil Fish.
Fouil fab. The investigation of those changes which have taken
VOL, XI. PART It.
quan- conclusions which have been drawn res
689
place in the race of fishes since the formation of the na
globe, is attended with peculiar difficulty. The exter-
nal form, on which in general the specific distinction is
founded, is d ed by re. All distinct traces
of the softer parts have disaj
, and the Foy nag
is left to draw his conclusions the form of the teeth,
or the outline and structare of the skeleton. pode the
pecting the par-
ticular species should be received with bstition In the
newer rock formations, which have been termed local,
such as the strata at Eningen, the remains of fishes have
been observed, belonging to existing races, and still na-
tives of the neighbouring lakes. But in the rocks of
those formations which are called universal, the skeletons
of fishes which have been found, in all probability be-
long to species now extinct, In examining the organic
remains which we consider of this sort, it would appear
that the teeth of unknown sharks are more numerous
than {those of any other description of fish. They are
found in all the floetz limestones of this country, in
company with the ancient camerated shells. Vertebrae
of osseous fishes are chiefly found in the strata con-
nected with the chalk formation, seldom in those of an
older date.
Before concluding this chapter, it may not be unac-
ceptable to the to be presented with a few ob-
servations on the preservation of fishes for a museum.
———
The simplest method consists in dividing the fish Method of
vertically and longitudinally, taking care to preserve
attachiod pectape the wid eel,
From this side the flesh is then to be scraped off, the
bones of the head reduced in size, the base of the fins
made thinner, and the i then stretched out on
pasteboard and dried. By this means a lateral view of
the fish is preserved, and if the fins and gill-flap are
cautiously spread out, the specimen will furnish suffi-
cient marks for recognising the species. A collection
of such fishes may be kept in a portfolio, similar to an
a te
species ma well preserved, by extracting
the cotcente df the body at as mouth, or skinning the
fish with the skin entire from the mouth towards the
tail, in the same way as eels are p for cooking.
Let it then be restored to its former position, fill the
whole with fine sand, and having spread out the fins,
let it be dried with care. Almost all wide-mouthed cy-
lindrical or tapering fishes may be preserved in this
manner. Some recommend filling the skin with plaster
of Paris, while others eraploy cotton. Preserved fishes
are usually covered with a coat of varnish, to restore in
part the original lustre. But no means of this sort can
retain many of the brilliant colours which the animals
of this class possess; and even the form of some of the
pe arse rh Hence fishes are in
neral preserved in bottles of spirits of wine. In this
way, it is true, they take up much room, but they can
be subjected to resmae se pemgeta and all their
characters satisfactorily exhibi
CHAP. IV.
CLAssiFIcaTIon or Fisues.
In the last
and function of fishes, we endeavoured to
relative value of those characters whi
ichthyologists have hitherto employed. We
4s
systematic
e gave
preserving
fishes for a
and caudal fins. juceum,
, when treating of the structure Classitica-
s tion of
int out the fishes,
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
Cartilagi-
nous fishes.
Lamprey.
Hag.
690
it as our opinion, that the organs of respiration furnish
characters which are obvious, permanent, and natural.
By means of these characters, fishes may be divided in-
to two great classes, viz. those with, and those with
free gills; and the inferior divisions might depend on
circumstances connected with the number, position,
and structure of the accessory organs. But instead of
attempting, in this place, to give a new system of ich-
thyology, we propose to lay before our readers a con-
densed view of the genera according to the system of
La Cepede, the outlines of which have been already
given in the historical part of this article. We propose
to add occasional observations on the characters of these
genera, and on the histo of rare or useful species. In
the account of species it is necessary to be concise, as
an enumeration of all the known species of fishes,
amounting to upwards of 1470, would swell the article
to an inconvenient length.
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
In the fishes belonging to this sub-class, the skeleton
never becomes so much indurated as to, deserve the
name of bone, but continues in the form of .cavtilage
more or less compact. As this internal character can-
not be discovered without, the use of the dissecting
knife, its employment in the formation of the. pri-
mary divisions of a systematic arrangement has been
justly condemned by many naturalists, and ought to be
relinquished.. The genera which are included under this
division, exhibit great, differences in the structure of
their organs of respiration and reproduction.
Sun-Cuass I.
Drviston I.
Tue cartilaginous fishes of this division are destitute
of a gill lid and gill flap... The gills are likewise fixed.
Orver I. APODAL. No ventral Fins.
The structure of the atimals of this very natural or-
der has been ably investigated by Sir Everard Home,
as we have already pointed out, while describing the
organs of respiration and reproduction. . They consti-
tute the last link in the chain of fishes, and form the -
transition to the molluscous animals.
Genus I. Perromyzon. Lamprey.
Seven gill-openings on each side of the neck, and
an aperture on the top of the:head.
The species of this genus possess an organ of adhe-
sion on the lips, by which they attach themselves to
stones ; hence the name Petromyzon, from zerg0s, lapis,
and pvgaw, sugo. Lac enumerates nine species,
three of which are British. They are distinguished by
characters drawn from» the form of the dorsal and cau-
dal fins. All the species are vivacious, and may be kept
in life for a considerable time when-out of the water.
The P. Planeri, found in the rivulets of Thuringia,
when plunged into diluted alcohol, will survive u
wards of a quarter of an hour; but it indicates, by its
convulsive movements, the painful effects produced by
the fluid on its organs of respiration. Some of the spe-
cies are used as food, but principally for baits,
Hag.
Gill-openings,two in number, situated under the belly.
This, genus was formed by Blech from the Myxine
Genus II. Gastrosprancuvs.
glatinosa of Linneeus.. This last author placed it among ©
ICHTHYOLOGY.
his Vermes intestina; and the former, upon restoring it
to its proper place among fishes, bestowed upon it a
new name. Only two species are known. Thed
Orvrr IV. ABDOMINAL. .
_ This is a very natural order. The species are ovovi-
viparous, and are distributed by Lacepede into three
genera.
Genus III. Rasa. Ray.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
——
Body depressed, five'gill-openings on each side’ placed Roy.
iiendath - 7 P
, mouth under the snout.
This is a very extensive genus, including, i
to La Cepede, thirty-six species, Some naturalists
however, are disposed to regarda few of these as hy-
brid animals. Several new genera have’ been separated
from it, particularly the genus CepHaLoprerus, which
in those species with a divided snout, and the
torpedo, the characters of which we shall:shortly notice,
The species have been divided into several sections,
from the form of the teeth, and the spines on the body;
but the observations of M appear to indicate
these characters, as pointing out the differences of the
sexes, not as sure marks by which the species may be
distinguished. His remarks on this subject we have
already stated under the head of reproduction. Many.
of the animals of this genus grow to a large size. They
furnish a wholesome and table food, and are used
either when fresh, salted; or dried. The spines of some
are considered by the fishermen as venomous. One
species, the R. Sephen of La Cepede furnishes, accord«
ing to this author, the well known article of commerce
termed shark’s skin, or shagreen. This skin is covered
with round hard tubercles, and, when dressed, is used
to cover boxes or cases. The squalus canicula furnishes
an inferior sort of skin, which is often used as a substi-
tute, but the tubercles are smallerjand not so regular
in shape.
Genus IV. Torrepo.. Cramp-Fish.
Body smooth, depressed, and obtuse before; five Cramp-fish.
gill-openings on each side, placed beneath ; electrical
organs single on each side. .
This genus, which has been lately revived, contains
at present four species according to Risso ; but the cha-
racters which separate them are far from being deter
minate. The best known no is the Raia torpedo
of Linnzus, whose electrical organs have been already
described under the article Execraicrry of this work,
Genus V, Squatus.. Shark.
Body round, tapering ; gill openings from five to Sharks.
seven on each side of the neck.
This genus contains upwards of thirty species, whose
characters and: organs have not been described with
sufficient attention. © They exhibit very obvious differ-
ences in the structure ‘of their organs of respiration,
and on that'account ought to be separated into several
genera. The characters furnished by the organs of
motion should be employed in forming the genera into
sections. » ¥
The sharks ate voracious and formidable ; they
sess great strength, and swim with considerable veloci-
ty. The smaller species are salted and dried, and used
as food. The liver yields a considerable quantity of
oil, and the skin of. some speciesis used, on account of
its roughness, to polish wood, brass, or ivory. It is
likewise employed to make’ thongs and tackle for car-
Pie ewes =
;
I
i}
\
ICHTHY
Ne a The teeth are employed by savages to point
L
f
} means of its formidable snout, it attacks
with success various kinds of whales, which it lacerates
in a dreadful manner with its lateral teeth.
Genus VII. Squatina. Angel-Fish.
Body snout rounded, mouth terminal.
This was recognised by naturalists. Lin-
neus it to and recently it has been re-
vived. It contains she species, the qualus squa-
g to some naturalists, given rise to
Genus VIII. Aopon.
Gill-openings, five on each side ; mouth destitute of
poe a= Two of these were observed by
Porskael in the Red Sea, and the third was observed
Marseilles.
att
cEeF
ih
fet
i
rh
i 33
1
i
:
:
agit
ttf
Faz
gee
HI
gee
af
é
OLOGY. gor
Division I, Classifica
tion of
: inous fishes, destitute of a gill-lid, but fure PS"
nished wih » gill far. gil! ptt ee
Orver VI. JUGULAR.
Genus IX. Lorurus. Angler.
i
|
:
:
z
another genus (Batrachus) of the wide-mouth-
The L. histrio might i
pa be Bh cy oon hep tree ge
i ius) as the representative of
é fot ot th) diferent ies is soft,
used as an article of food. iny remarks
common angler, “ that it puts forth slender
it has beneath its eyes, enticing by that means
the little fish to round, till come within reach,
ra Raw nabeap aber al,
transparent oil, is sometimes as a
er Seas peat tered Leet ee aoe
Orver VII. THORACIC.
Genus X. Bauistes. File-Fish.
ead and body compressed ; about eight teeth in File-fish.
“ narrow
In this La le enumerates twenty-nine
species. Fey chicfy iuhabit the seas of warm coun.
i
vt
Orver VIII, ABDOMINAL.
Genus XI. Curmera, Sea-Monster.
One gill-opening on each side-of the neck; tail Sen-mon-
duced, and ending in a filament. Rr eee
This genus consists of two a southern and a
northern. The last of these has been repeatedly found
in our seas.
Division IIT,
Cartilaginous fishes, with a gill lid, but destitute of a
gill flap.
Orxver XII. ABDOMINAL.
Genus XII. Potyepon,
Genus XIII. Acirensar. Sturgeon.
Mouth bearded before, without teeth, retractile, and sturgeon.
under the head.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
Sun. fish.
Globe-fish.
692
Division IV.
, Cartilaginous fishes, furnished with a gill-lid and gill
ap.
Orper XIII. APODAL.
Genus XIV. Osrracion.
Body covered with an osseous coat of mail ; cutting
teeth in each jaw. ;
‘This genus contains fifteen species. They are easily
recognised by the body being covered with an osseous
plate, somewhat resembling a tortoise. They are all
natives of the seas of warm countries. They feed upon
the crustaceous animals, and some of the testaceous
mollusca, . The flesh is excellent, but small in quantity.
La Cepede recommends the O. trigqueter as a fish which
he thinks might easily be naturalized in-our seas. The
O cubicus, a native-of the Indian seas and the Isle of
France, is often kept in pools, where it soon becomes so
familiar as to come to the surface and eat from the
hand. Its flesh is esteemed a great delicacy.
Sun-Fish.
Jaws bony, extending, divided at the tip into two
teeth ; gill-opening linear ; body round.
The fishes of this genus, have obtained their present
name from the double teeth with which their jaws are
furnished. La Cepede describes nineteen species, some
of which are natives with us. They have the singular
power of inflating their abdominal cavity at pleasure.
The inflation is produced by air sent from the gills, into
a sac formed of a duplicature of the peritoneum, and
from thence into the abdomen. The inflation aids the
animal in rising in the water, and as the abdomen isin
some species covered with spines, it brings these’organs
of defence into a more favourable position for resist-
ance.
Genus XV. Terropon.
Genus XVI. Ovorprs.
Jaws bony, extended, divided at the tip into two
teeth, destitute of dorsal, anal or caudal fins.
The single species, for the reception of which Lace-
pede formed this genus, was found described among the
manuscripts of Commerson. It is an inhabitant of the
Indian seas.
Genus XVII. Diopon. Globe-Fish.
Jaws bony, extended, undivided.
The globe fish are but few in number, La Cepede
having described only six species. They are natives of
warmer seas. They are covered with long and formi-
dable spines, like a hedgehog, and often exhibit a rich
variety of colours. The D. alinga, a native of the tro-
pical seas, is one of those fish considered by navigators
as noxious. According to Pison, the gall is so virulent
as to produce nearly instantaneous death in those that
eat the parts of the fish where any of it has been spilt.
The sound of the same fish, however, produces an isin-
glass, equal in quality to that which is obtained from
the Acipenser huso..
Genus XVIII.’ Spurrorpes.
Body globular, four teeth or more in the upper jaw,
no dorsal, anal or caudal fins.
La Papate formed this genus for the reception of a
species drawn by Plumier, and supposed to live in the
sea on the east coast of America.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Genus XIX. Synenatuus. Pipe. Fish.
Head produced, mouth small and terminal, furnish-
ed with a lid, no teeth ; gill-openings on the neck.
The species of this gentwhavenever been deterinihed
in a satisfactery manner. Even the British species are
in confusion. There are eight species described, and
some varieties ; but it is probable that the characters of
the sexes have been hastily considered as marks of dis-
tinct species. :
It appears from the observations of naturalists, that
the species of this genus belong to the ovovivipa-
rous division of fishes, or those which hatch their eggs
internally. Their bodies are covered with osseous plates
like a coat of mail.
Orver XV. THORACIC.
Genus XX. Cyetoprerus. Sucker.
Classifica’
tion of
Fishes.
‘ipe-
Mouth furnished with sharp teeth ; ventral fins uni« Sucker,
ted ; between these there is an organ of adhesion.
There are upwards of twelve species of this genus
known. .They may be. distributed into sections from
the union or separation of the caudal,- dorsal and. anal
fins. They inhabit the sea, but are occasionally found
in the mouths of large rivers. Their flesh is soft and
oily, and eagerly sought after by seals." Some of the
species, in a few hours after death, dissolve into a ho-
mogeneous gelatinous mass.
Genus XXI. LepanoGasTeER.
Tentacula four before the eyes; organs of adhesion
double.
We are indebted to Gouan for a knowledge of the
only species of the genus, which he found in the Medi-
terranean. It has since been observed, in other seas,
by many naturalists.
Orver XVI.
‘Genus XXII.
Snout produced ; jaws furnished with teeth ; scales
on the body small. ‘
This genus was formed by La Cepede, and contains
one species discovered by Osbeck in his voyage to
China, and described by him.
Genus XXIII. Prcasvs.
Snout produced ; jaws furnished with teeth ; body
covered with large osseous plates.
The first notice of this genus was given by Ruyschius.
It now contains three species. ‘These have the pectoral
fins uncommonly large, and are capable of empress
ey are
ABDOMINAL.
Macronincuus.
themselves for some time in the atmosphere.
all of a diminutive size, and live in seas of warm
climates.
Genus: XXIV. Cenrriscus. Trumpet-Fish.
Jaws without teeth, snout
sed; ventral fins united.
La Cepede describes three species belonging to this
genus, viz. C, scutatus, velitaris, and scolopax.
Sus-Ciass II. OSSEOUS FISHES.
produced; body compres vagueae
All the osseous fishes have fvee branchiz. With a Osseous
few exceptions, they are oviparous. They appear to fishes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
693
be the most numerous as well as the most perfect of were formerly included among the Gymnoti; but the
those animals which breathe by means of gills.
; Drviston V.
Osseous fishes furnished with a gill-lid and a gill-
Oaver XVII. APODAL.
Genus XXV. Cazcizia.
No fins ; opening of the gills under the neck.
ception of the Murana ceca of Gmelin. It is destitute
acta) eg riven eabedirw is | dae
has not satisfactorily determined. It is probab'
that it has fixed branchie, and is nearly related to the
Genus XXVI. Mownoprervs.
A caudal fin, but destitute of all others; open-
: onl ein of lien i ae La
ly is genus, is
Cepede from the unmucttign’ of Commerson. It isa
native of the Indian seas.
Genus XXVIII. Lerrocernatus.
Anal and dorsal fins, but no pectoral or caudal ones ;
if
1
i
Fe
z
A
i
I
:
ample of the Blennius gunnellus. But the late additions
which have been made to the history of the L. morrisii
in the new edition of the British Zoology, and by Mon-
tagu in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. ii.
p- #37, have removed all doubts on the subject. M. Ris-
wate lasined oth earmn ante Sa -
Genus XXVIII. Gymworus.
Genus XXX. Noroprervs.
Pectoral, anal, and dorsal fins present, no caudal fin ;
ee eh :
two known species which constitute this genus,
ee Pe ee obvious line of
isti The first species, N. kapirat, of La Ce-
pede, is a native of the seas at Amboyna. It is there
named y, or Kapirat. This last has been em-
ployed as the trivial name in the system, in defiance of
the established maxims of the science. The second
cies is the N. squamosus, a native likewise of the In-
dian seas.
Genus XXXI, Opuisurus.
No caudal fin ; body and tail cylindrical, and long in
ion to the thickness; head small; nostrils tu-
The three species of this genus have been called by
fishermen sea serpents, from their form and motions.
They twist themselves in various directions with asto-
i facility, and, when swimming, perform all their
evolutions like the The O ophis is a native
seas. The second, O. serpens, is found
in greatest abundance in the Mediterranean.
Genus XXXII. Trivavs.
Snout extended like a tube ; one tooth in each jaw ;
caudal fin very short.
The only known species of this genus was found by
sn de Beneeetiopes: Ta ia pesaiartinieas ane
be v us. In its an’
esl Rieck pniesldanihe dommblened oy thteonmnen
heaing same, eet nee See Ae Sa seheancbeee
other of the genus Scomber, which he had open-'
ed immediately upon being caught. We mention this
peeling! ay gale h ing the inexperiened ich-
thyologist, in euch situations he may often meet
with some of the rarest objects of his pursuit, and ina
1
:
8 condition still fit for a minute examination.
Genus XXXIII. Apreronorvus.
Jaws fixed ; no dorsal fin ; possessing a caudal fin.
La Cepede formed this genus for the reception of the
Gymnotus albefrons of Gmelin, whose trivial name he
has for that of Passan, by which it was desig-
benton. It presents some iarities of
structure, which merit an attentive examination. From
poe eh wey Rrsaig me! Charette cepa
the head, issues a fleshy filament, which, after di-
minishing somewhat in size, and describing an arch, be-
comes again united with the body near the organ of the
caudal fn. The filament is convex above concave
below, and is connected its whole length by
twelve short oblique filaments to the subjacent furrow
into which it is received.
Genus XXXIV. Reocatecus.
, dorsal, and pent no anal fin,
There are two species ppg yg am The
With
Sy
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
Eel.
Launce,
Sword-fish,
694
GENUS XXXV. ODONTAGNATHUS.
On each side of the upper jaw a long curved jagged
plate. This genus contains only one species, the O.
mucronatus. It was obtained from Cayenne, where it
is known under the name of Sardine, It lives in salt
water, and is considered as good food.
Genus XXXVI. Murana. Eek
Body furnished with pectoral, dorsal, caudal, and anal
fins ; nostrils tubular; eyes covered with the common
integuments ; body serpentine and viscous.
It is a matter of regret, that the history of the species
of this genus should still be involved in obscurity. ‘The
common eel is considered by some as oviparous, by
others as ovoviviparous, and the opinion of ichthyologists
is equally divided with regard to the reproductive or-
gans of the conger. The species are very extensively
distributed, being found in various parts of the new
and old world. Their flesh is used as food, but is con«
sidered as difficult to digest. The skins are employed
in place of ropes,
Genus XXXVII. -Ammopytes. « Launce.
Head slender ; caudal fin distinct from the dorsal
and anal ones; upper lip doubled in.
This genus contains only one species, which is a na-
tive of the European’seas. Its trivial name tobianus
has been chdtige tt by La Cepede into allictens, from its
being a tempting bait, we presume, to other fishes.
We cannot censure too severely such unnecessary in-
novations, as they perplex the student, and encumber
the science with a load of useless synonymes.
Genus XXXVIII. Opnipiwum.
Head covered with large scales ; body and tail com-
pressed and covered with small scales ; gill-flap very
large; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united.
According to La Cepede, there are three species be-
longing to this genus, two of which are natives, and
the third was found by Fabricius in Greenland. He
distributes them into two sections. In the first is pla-
ced the O. darbatum, having a beard ; and, in the se-
cond, the O. imberbe and unernak, which are destitute
of a beard. Risso, in his Ichthyologie de Nice, has de-
scribed a fourth species which belongs to the first sec-
tion, which he terms O. vassali. It differs from the
oO. oe in the four filaments of the beard being
equal.
Genus XXXIX. Macroanaruus.
Upper jaw produced; body and tail compressed ;
caudal fin distinct from the dorsal and anal fins.
La Cepede instituted this genus for the reception of
the Pentophthalmus of Ray, and another fish which
was found in the Dutch cellection. The name of Ra
ought to have been employed from its claims to priori-
ty. The M. aculeatus is found in the Indian seas, and
its flesh is considered good.
Genus XL. Zipuias. Sword-Fish.
Upper jaw produced ; bladé-shaped ; equal at least
to ie third of the length of the body. oi
There are two species described by La Cepede as be-
longing to this genus, viz. Z. gladius and ensis. Some
circumstances appear to favour the supposition that a
Species exists, which has been confounded with
the gladius. ‘After having, however, examined the fi-
gures and descriptions of several authors, in connection
‘
ICHTHYOLOGY.
with this subject, we feel ourselves at a loss to offer a Classifier.
decided opinion. The reader will find some judicious
remarks on the subject in the Scots Magazine for July
1811, and in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol, it.
p. 58, In the last work, there is a figure of what is con-
sidered as the new species, which will, we hope, create
the curiosity of naturalists to examine the subject.
Genus XLI. Makaira.
Snout produced ; two osseous lanceolate shields on
each side of the extremity of the tail.
La Cepede formed this genus for the reception of a
fish thrown ashore at Rochelle. The fishermen called
it Makaira,
Genus XLII. Anarcuicas. Wolf-Fish.
tion of
Fis!
Head rounded ; upwards of five conic fore-teeth in Wolf-fish.
each jaw; grinders flat and round; one long dorsal
fin. :
Three species of this genus are known to naturalists.
They inhabit chiefly the boreal regions, and furnish a
palatable food to the inhabitants.
Genus XLIII. Comepnorus.
Body long and compressed ; head and mouth large ;
rays of the second dorsal fin furnished with long fila-
ments.
The only known species of this genus was found by
the celebrated Pallas in the Lake Baikal.
Genus XLIV,. Srromareus.
Body greatly compressed and oval.
This genus contains five species, some of which are
found in the Mediterranean, and others in the equatorial
seas. The S, fiatola is the one which has been longest
known, and is remarkable for the agreeable brilliancy of
its colours. It inhabits the Mediterranean and Red Seas,
The S. paru, which is frequent on the coast of Tran-
quebar, is esteemed delicate food, its flesh being white
and tender,
Genus XLV. Ruomsvs.
Body compressed and short; each side of the ani-
mal appears like a rhomboid ; rays of the dorsal and
anal fins not articulated.
The only known species of this genus was brought
to Linnzus from Carolina by Dr Garden, and by him
inserted in the genus chetodon. The skin appears
to the naked eye to be entirely destitute of scales,
Orper XVIII. JUGULAR.
Genus XLVI.
Ventral fins consisting of one ray i gill-flap of three
rays ; body lengthened and compressed.
This genus. was formed by La Cepede for the recep-
tion of the Blennius mureenoides of Gmelin. It forms
a sort of connecting link between the apodal and the
jugular fishes of this division.
Genus XLVII. Caturonymus. Dragonet.
Mur2no1pes.
Head larger than the body ; eyes near each other ; Dragonets
gill openings on the neck ; ventral fins distant ; scales
minute.
There are five species of dragonets described by na-
turalists ; but it is probable that this number will be
reduced when the sexual differences are ketter known.
Mr Neill, to whose ichthyological labours we have al-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Genus XLIX. Urnanoscopus. Star-Gazer.
premade ay ym ya ty mei in ee
c ts is w i
Its bile was considered by the ancients as useful to heal
Smavere, encowings ,and_ attended witha
enaibie iaamen -
Genus LI. Gapvus. Cod.
Head smooth, compressed ; lid, of many pi
eee eee Pein eee
and ending in a point.
This is the most genus, in an economical
point of view, in the w stem. All the species are
esculent and palatable, and to the human race
695
Genvs LII. Batrracuoibes. °
Head depressed and large; opening of the mouth
wide ; srowpd. apd, eloes, th indies date pe
This genus was formed by Lacepede recep-
from the genera Gadus and Blen-
nius. The is the Gadus tau of Gmelin.
found in the Atlantic ocean, and was first accurately
described by Bloch. The second is the Blennius rani<
nus of Gnelin, the Gadus raninus of Muller.
Genus LIII. Brennivs. Blenny.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
—_—
Body and tail lengthened and compressed ; head Blenny.
blunt and steep: ventral fins consisting of from two to
foarn yer rays.
three
skin. La Cepede distributes them into sections, accord-
ing to the number of the dorsal fins and the condition
of the head. Into his last section, or those with one
dorsal fin and no tentacula, he has inserted the Gadus
brorme under the title Blennius Torsk, although he had
previously given the species under the cod genus.
Genus LIV. Oxicoropus. Spotted Blenny.
One dorsal fin extending from the head to the tail ; ~ se
Vv.
one ray in each ventral fin.
This aenes contains the velifera of Gme-
lin, a first described by It is a native of
Genus LV. Kunrvs,
Bod greatl com and carinated above and
t is a native of the Indian seas, and
feeds on crustaceous and testaceous animals.
Genus LVI. Curysostromus.
Onver XIX. THORACIC.
Genus LVII.. Leriporvs,
i bu
the same Montagu, inattentive equally to the
labours i Zi
Classifica.
tion of
Fishes,
Band.-fish,
Goby.
696
tral fins. We are disposed to consider this genus as
consisting, at present, of four species. The L. argen-
teus of Gouan, termed Gouanianus by La Cepede—L.
tetradens, the Ziphotheca tetradens of Montagu, and the
Vandellius argenteus, caudafurcata of Shaw.—L. Pe-
ronii and L. pellucidus of Risso.
Genus LVIII, Hrarvta.
No anal fin.
The H. Gardeniana of La Cepede, and the only
known species, is the Labrus hiatula of Linneus. It
was observed by Dr Garden in South Carolina.
Genus LIX. Cerota. Band-Fish.
An anal fin ; more than one ray in each ventral fin;
body long and blade-shaped ; belly scarcely the length
of the head.
_This genus was first characterised by Bloch. It con-
tains three species, whose specific differences are far
from being distinctly marked. The C. tenea and ru-
bescens (whose trivial name La Cepede, with his usual
fondness for innovation, has changed into serpenten-
formis, ) are found in the Mediterranean, while the
third species, trachyptera, has been hitherto observed
only in the Adriatic gulf.
Genus LX. T aniorpss.
An anal fin ; pectoral. fins disc-shaped ; body long,
blade-shaped ; belly scarcely the length of the head :
eyes indistinct; no caudal fin.
The genus contains one species, the T. Hermannii,
of whose habits or station nothing is at present known.
The trivial name which La Cepede has bestowed upon
it, is in honour of Professor Hermann of Strasburgh.
The eyes are so very small that they can scarcely be
distinguished. They appear like black points.
Genus LXI. Gosiwus. Goby.
Ventral fins united ; two dorsal fins.
La Cepede distributes the twenty-two species of
which the genus consists into two sections, from cir-
eumstances connected with the attachment of the pec-
toral fins. All the species are diminutive in point of
size, and have failed to attract the notice of the epicure.
A few. species, however, are used as food. The G, lan«
ceolatus is said to have a very pleasant taste. It lives in
the rivers and streams in Martinique.
Genus LXII. Gosiorpes.
Ventral fins united; one dorsal fin; head small ; the
gill-lid attached nearly throughout its margin.
La Cepede has poeueraceen this genus from species
which formerly belonged to the genus gobius. The
first species which he describes is. the gobius anguilla.
ris of Gmelin, a native of the Equatorial seas.
Genus LXIII. Gosromorvus.
Ventral fins distinct ; two dorsal fins; head small,
eyes approaching ; gill-lid attached nearly throughout
its margin.
The genus contains four species. The firet has been
long known to naturalists, and is the Gobius gronovii
of Gmelin,
Genus LXIV. Gosiomonorpzs.
Ventral fins distinct ; one dorsal fin; head small;
the gill-lid attached nearly throughout its margin.
The Gobius Pisonis of Gmelin is the only known
ICHTHYOLOGY.
species of the gertus. It was first described
his Natural History of Brasil.
Genus LXV. Gopsizsox.
Ventral fins distinct ; one dorsal fin, short, and placed
on the tail near the caudal fin; head larger than the
body,
The G. cephalus, of which the genus consists, is a
native of the American rivers, and was first described
by Plumier.
Genus LXVI. Mackrel.
Two dorsal fins; spurious fins in front of the tail
above and below ; sides of the tail carinated on the ends
of the lateral line.
This important genus contains fourteen species, two
of which are natives of our seas. Many of the species
exhibit the greatest variety and beauty of colour, and
almost all furnish wholesome food. The flesh of the com-
mon mackrel is somewhat greasy ; and from it the Ro-
mans expressed a garum or pickle, which was esteemed
not only as an agreeable seasoning, but as a valuable
medicine.
The Scomber germo of La Cepede, which is found in
great abundance in the Pacific ocean, proves extremely
palatable and wholesome to sailors. Commerson ob-
served that the shoals of this’species did not approach
indiscriminately all the vessels of the fleet, but chiefly
those which had been long at sea, and whose bottoms
were foul. The same observer supposes that fishes of
ten approach ships in the equatorial seas, enticed by
their shadow in the water, which screens them from
the direct influence of the sun beams.
Genus LXVIF. Scomperorpzs,
One dorsal fin, with spines in front ; spurious fins
above and below in front of the caudal fin.
La Cepede, who formed this genus, has described
three species. The S. Noelii has ten spurious fins
above, and fourteen beneath. The S. Commersonianus
has twelve spurieus fins above and beneath, while the
S. saltator has only seven above and eight beneath.
The second species is from the shores of Madagascar ;
but the habitation of the others is unknown.
Genus LXVIII. Caranx. Scad.
ScoMBER.
Fishes.
Piso in Classifive
by tion of
——
Mackret,
Two dorsal fins; no spurious fins; sides of the tail Sead.
earinated.
This was instituted by Commerson, and so named
from x«g«, caput, in reference to the size, the power,
and the lustre of that part of the body, and the domi-
nion exercised by the species of this genus over their
weaker neighbours. The genus contains twenty spe-
cies, which La Cepede has distributed into two sec~
tions. In the first are placed those which have no
spines between the dorsal fins ; and in the second, such
as are furnished with spines in that place. Many of
the species are from the Red sea, and present few par-
ticulars worthy of being mentioned.
Genus LXIX. Tracuinotus.
Two dorsal fms, with spines concealed in the front
of these under the skin.
This genus was formed by La Cepede from rgaxsies,
asper, in reference to its dorsal spines. It contains only
one species, the T. falcatus, first described by Forskael
in his Fauna Arabica. Commerson likewise observed
it on the shores of Madagascar.
ICHTHYOLOGY. 697
Genus LXX. Caranxomorus. - La Cepede instituted this genus. The name is from Classifi
One dorsal fin ; no spurious fins ; upper lip fixed. maAaxreer, pecten, and juyxos, dale There is but one tion of
This genus is nearly allied to the preceding, and con- species observed by him in the Dutch collection. __Fisties._
Classifien-
tion of
Fishes.
——
tains 4 species, formerly included in the genus Scomber.
Gexvus LXXI. Casto.
One dorsal fin ; upper lip extensile.
Oh ela yaelem this genus are two in num-
ber ; might with propriety have been united with
those in the i The first is termed C.
pee a eeu Czsomorvs. sah
dorsal fin ; no ; in
odes eg ridge ; separate spines
_ This os Nene ee eee , and con«
taine 2 species deseribed ftom, the SS. of Commerson.
Genus LXXIII. Conts.
the two ies which com this us.
termed C. ale ioed C amgelcias “
Genus LXXIV. Gompunosis.
in form of a nail; head destitute of
on the snout; two plates or
side of the extremity of the tail; skin
‘ommerson formed this 3, which contains two
one of which is Chetodon unicornis of
in, found in the Red Sea by Forskael, and at the
Isle of France by Commerson.
Gewus LXXVI. Kypunosvs.
peta peat yam
Ventral fins, of or six rays, spinous,
and the second terminated by a filament.
Genus LXXVIII. Tarcnoropus. -
Ventral fins with one ray longer than the body ; one
dorsal fin.
The genus contains two One of these is the
Liles See , a native of the Indian
seas. The is T. mentum, described from a draw-
ing by Commerson.
Genus LXXIX. Mownopactytus.
VOL, XI. PART It,
Genus LXXXI. -Poconias.
One dorsal fin ; chin bearded.
This genus, from eye, barta, was instituted by
La le for the reception of one species, the P. fas«
ciatus, in the collection of the Stadtholder at the Hague.
Genus LXXXII. Bosrrycnts.
Body long ; serpentine ; two dorsal fins; two tenta-
cula on the upper jaw. .
The two species of which the genus consists are but
imperfectly known. They rest on the authority of Chi-
nese drawings.
ot, ans: ses cg te: te
dorsal fin. In other respects like the preceding.
A Chinese drawing of tha anky apecleg-el this gems
was found in the Dutch collection.
Genus LXXXIV. Ecuenets. Sucking Fish.
Head depressed, and furnished with an
The name of the genus is derived from sya, habeo,
perchance" py yop the bee chen wees was
su to have rty of sticking to ships, and
ceedig Ute aatines di ta tha toecen of fhe oot,
Géxus LXXXV. Macrovurvs,
Lb gaescumpcey ler twee patie, grt iy an
of the Caryphene ropetris of .
i i » which is found
on the coasts of Greenland and Iceland. To the inha-
bitants of these countries it furnishes a plentiful supply
of nourishing food. In some of the districts where it
is found it is called berg-lax, or rock salmon, It is the
ingminniset of the Greenlanders.
Genus LXXXVI. Conypuaya.
peel teat Se YEE ONS) Sas Sree Se
ly as long as the body tail.
This genus contains sixteen species, which La Cepede
has distributed into sections, from the shape of the tail.
The first ies which La Cepede describes is the C,
» which is found both in the Atlantic and Paci-
fic ocean. Its flesh is
viewing similar in the expiring mullet, when
brought to the table the feast began.
Gesus LXXXVII. Hemiprenonotus.
arabe ale one dorsal fin, about half the length
genus Rm
lucca isles, and other places in the Indian Archipelago.
It is gregarious, ing in vast shoals, and is
ly sought after as an article of food. It is dried or 5
and forms an article of trade in those countries similar
to the cod fishery of our northern districts.
Genus LXXXVIIIL. Corvrenenores. f
Head truncated, or very obtuse ; one dorsal fin ; gill
opening a simple transverse slit. ;
This genus contains only one species, the C. branchio~
47
‘
of ad- Sucking
hesion, consisting of an oval plate with transverse folds, fish.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
—_——
Pogge.
Bull-head,
698
stega. It inhabits the seas of Asia, and differs from the
genus Coryphena principally in the form of the gill
opening.
Genus LXXXIX. Asprpopnorus. Pogge.
Body and tail covered with a scaly coat of mail; two
fins on the back.
This genus was first instituted by Scopoli, and after-
wards adopted hy La Cepede for the reception of two
species included in the genus Cottus. The first is the
Cottus cataphractus of Linnzeus, common in the Euro-
pean seas ; and the second is the C. japonicus of Gme-
lin, whieh was first described by Pallas as a native of
the seas about the Kurile islands. It is destitute of the
cirri or beard under the throat, and from that circum.
stance ought perhaps to be referred to another genus.
Genus XC. AspipornororpEs.
Body and tail armed with a coat of mail ; one dorsal
fin ; rays of the ventral fins fewer than four.
This genus bears a very close resemblance to the pre-
ceding, from which it is principally distinguished by
the union of the two dorsal fins. The only species it
contains is the Cottus monopterygius of Gmelin, a fish
which inhabits the coast of Tranquebar.
Genus XCI. Corrus. Bull head.
Head larger than the body ; form approaching coni-
cal ; two dorsal fins ; spines and tubercles on the head or
gill lid ; ventral fins with more than three rays.
La Cepede describes nine species, some of which are
used as food,
The grunting bull-head, Cottus gruniens, a native of
the American and Indian seas, is considered as esculent
food. The liver, however, is said to possess noxious
qualities. When first taken from the water, this fish
utters a sound, in some degree resembling the grunting
of a pig, and produced by the sudden expulsion of air from
the internal cavities through the gill covers and mouth.
_ The Cottus insidiator, a native of the Arabian seas,
is said to bury itself in the sand, and wait the approach
of its prey. _When the small fish have approached suf-
ficiently near, it then darts out upon them with consi-
derable velocity. The C. scorpius, which in this coun-
try is despised, is eagerly sought after as food by the
inhabitants of Greenland. From the liver they likewise
extract an oil. This animal is very vivacious. It can
close the gill opening so closely, by means of the lid,
as to prevent the atmosphere from drying the gills, and
consequently obstructing respiration.
Genus XCII,_. Scorpana.
Head covered with spines or protuberances ; desti-
tute of small scales; one dorsal fin.
The species of this genus, sixteen in number, are dis-
tributed into two sections from circumstances connected
with the beard. They have all a very uncouth appear-
ance, and they are armed with formidable spines,. The
$. horrida, says Shaw, resembles rather some ima: inary
monster of deformity than any regular production of
nature. The head is very large, perfectly abrupt in
front, and marked by numerous tubercles, depressions,
and spines. On the top is a semilunar cavity; the
mouth opens from the upper part, and is large, and of
a shape resembling a horse shoe. It is a native of the
Indian seas. The S. porcus is the most common Euro-
pean species. It is found plentifully in the Mediter-
ranean, where it lurks among the sea. weeds, and, as
opportunity offers, darts upon its prey. When seized
by any stronger animal, it twists itself violently, and,
erecting its strong spines, makes a vigorous resistance,
Wine, in which this fish was suffered to die, was esteem-
ed by the ancients as a salutary medicine. The S. scrofa,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
which is found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, is
said to prey not only on the smaller fishes, but. on the
aquatic birds as they swim on the surface. The S. an-
tennata, remarkable for two long tentacula, surrounded
by several fibrous brown bars seated immediately above
the eyes, is a native of Amboyna, and its flesh. is said
to be exquisite. In the S, volitans, the pectoral fins
are so large, that the fish can fly for a short distance.
It is the Gasterosteus volitans of Linneus,
Genus XCIII. Scomperomorus,
One dorsal fin; spurious fins above and below, in
front of the caudal fin; no separate spines in front of
the dorsal fin. :
The S. plumierii is the only species of the genus, and
is a native of Martinique.
pede from the drawings of Plumier.
Genus XCIV. Gastrerostevs. Siichkle-back.
One dorsal fin ;- separate spines in front of the dorsal
fin ; tail carinated laterally ; one or more spinous rays
to each ventral fin.
The species of this genus are natives of Europe. The
G. aculeatus is common in rivers. It is sometimes found
in such plenty as to be employed as manure, an oil
excellent for burning may be expressed from the body.
The other species are natives of the seas. They are
armed with sharp spines on the back, so that few fish
venture to seize them.
Genus XCV. Cenrropopus.
Two dorsal fins ; ventral fins with one spine, and
five or six small articulated rays. [
This genus, from Kevrgoy, aculeus, and wus, pes, was
created by La Cepede for the reception of one i
C. rhombeus, observed by Forskael in the Red Sea.
Genus XCVI. Cenrrocaster.
Ventral fins with four spines and six articulated rays.
This genus contains two species which inhabit the
sea of Japan. They were first described by Houttuyn
in the Act. Haerl. vol. xx. 2. p. $34. No. 22, ©
Genus XCVII. Crnrronotus,
One dorsal fin ; ventral fins with at least four rays ;
a longitudinal crest on each side of the tail, and two
spines in front of the anal fin. .
. This genus, formed from Kevrge, aculeus, and yates,
dorsum, contains eleven species, They are all of a
small size. The most remarkable among these is the
pilot fish of Willoughby, the C. conductor of La Cepede,
which has often excited the astonishment of observers.
It follows vessels to feed on the substances thrown
overboard ; and is generally seen in company with the
shark, which in the opinion of some it conducts toits prey.
Genus XCVIII, Leptsacanruus.
Scales of the back large, ciliated, and terminated by
a spine ; the gill lid denticulated behind. ~
Pa
Classifica- “
tion of
Fishes,
_—\o
Tt was described by La Ce-
Stickleback.
Pilot fish,
This genus, from Aewis, squama, and axavbe, spina, was .
instituted by La Cepede. It contains only one species
from Japan, first described by Houttuyn.
Genus XCIX, CzrpuaLacanruus.
Two long denticulated spines on each side of the head
behind. ;
This genus, formed from KeP«an, caput, and axavbee,
spina, was instituted by La Cepede.
one species, the Gasterosteus spinarella of other natu
ists. It differs from the Sticklebacks in wanting the spines
on the back. It is a small fish, and a native of India. ©
Genus C, Dacry.orrerus. ;
One small fin, consisting of rays connected by a
membrane near each pectoral fin, : BY. site whe’
It contains only
ICHTHYOLOGY. , 699-
Cepede formed this genus from dxxrvd0c, digitus, by this fine display, the fish was removed and dress- Classifica.
erg oo erie sete le db oo ad eal for the feast. : por of
fishes formerly included in genus oF Ay The D. Genus CVII. Arogon. ’ eer
ing for é y
short distance in the atmosphere. Hence it has been Seen erat ce sacasoamns Dee Dhomly rise ie
near the tropics, he Baggese irr in the Me. __ Lhe generic name is from «xwyy, imberbis. The
pally The oth das: Seviidada: wie 8 only known mtn Sabet of Ue amatles tbe
- . rst -Mullus imberbis of Willoughby. It is found chiefl
described by Houttuyn. It is the Trigla alata of Gmelin, Muu rocky woest of: Malin ied dimerg Croan the pad
dua Genvs CI. archon noe in wanting the beard or ig on the lower
: rays near each pectoral separate ; serrated lip. Tt is of a fine red colour; the opening of the
between the dorsal fins. neuti te tage; endrchermeliha andjeus very roagil
Genus CVIII. Loncuurus.
Pectoral and caudal fins equal at least to a fourth of
the whole length of the body: dorsal fin long and in-
Se Genus CII. Tricta. Gurnard. dented. : ’
Gurnard. separate rays near each pectoral fin ; no spines Bloch instituted this genus for the ion of a fish
in the interval between the dorsal fins. brought from Suarhaibe ie he termed L. barbatus.
The name of the genus is from , terpariens,in La Cepede changed the trivial name into dianema, in-
¢ gy a of the re ae ene eee eee
change. The nose or upper lip is produced into an
air, when. the sea does not afford them a safe asy- obtuse short snout, so as to cause the mouth to appear
lum. Their flesh is white and insipid; and is seldom as if placed somewhat beneath. The head is covered
sought after when other fish can be obtained, with scales like those on the back, and the jaws are
Genus CIIT. Peristrenrion. furnished ‘with small sharp teeth.
Soft separate rays near each fin; one dorsal fin; Genus CIX. Macropopus.
one or more bony plates on the under side of the body. _ Ventral fins the length of the body,. caudal fin fork-
This genus was formed Lacepede, and contains ed, its length equal to a third part of the body; head
two species, They are distinguished from the and gill lid covered with scales similar to the back ;
Be een eee ee ae of the mouth very small.
— oe aber: P. malar. This genus from 0s, Poe Hh ra Os al
mat of Lacepede, Trigla cataphracta of Gmelin, tains one species, M. viridiauratus, an inhabitant
Anemone 8 heen ee share It is sought of the theeh ates Tokens Chain but whose history is
is said to be dry and in- little known. ~
pap Pb git na aig, idity, and is active : _Genus CX. Laprus. Wrasse.
a sure, on the number of the
size, swims with great velocity, and undaunted 31) temarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, the
Ghanigie. Ywelten verter ke chantogekant veseila with cach size of their scales, and the of their teeth, and
add, for their extensive distribution. In all
— -
:
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F
Fae
F
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ay
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Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
——~
Gilt-head.
700
them, that according to Appian, when one has taken
the bait, another will come to its assistance, and bite
the cord to enable it to escape. This fish was eagerly
sought after by the luxurious Romans, who preferred
the liver, and even the intestines without being emp-
tied. Its food consists of marine plants. The second
species is described by La Cepede from the manuscripts
of Commerson, and is a native of the Indian seas.
Genus CXII. CueEttopiprerus.
Upper lip extensile, two dorsal fins; no cutting or
grinding teeth : gill-lid destitute of spines or processes.
This genus contains ten species, divided into two
sections, from the form of the tail. Little more is known
of their history than their systematic characters. They
‘were formerly included in the genera Sciena and Labrus,
Genus CXIIL. Opnicepuatus.
Scales of the head polygonal, larger than those of the
back ; all the rays of the Ens Jointed.
The, name of, this genus, from oss, serpens, and
xiQarn, caput, is sufficiently expressive of the distin-
guishing character of the species. These are two in
number, which were described by Bloch, and come
from the coast of Coromandel. The scales of these
fishes, where exposed, are tuberculated, and feel rough
to the touch. They inhabit fresh water lakes and ri-
vers, and feed om aquatic plants, Their flesh is esteem
ed agreeable and salubrious.
Genus CXIV. Horocymnosus.
Scales invisible; ventral fins resembling a fleshy
beard ; tail as if formed of two truncated cones, united
by their summits.
La Cepede formed this genus, from oAe;, tolus, and
yvevos, nudus, for the reception of the H. fasciatus, a
native of the equatorial seas, where it was first obser~
ved by Commerson.
Genus CXV. Scarvs.
One dorsal fin ; jaws osseous, prominent, occupying
the place of teeth.
This genus was instituted by Forskael, and contains
at present nineteen species. ‘They are remarkable for
the brilliancy of their colours, and the armature of their
fins. The mouth in the species of this genus is con
structed rather in imitation of some of the cartilagi-
nous fishes, as the Diodon, than of any of the osseous
fishes. The jaws are bony, entire in some species, and
divided in others, and destitute of true teeth, but often
tuberculated or crenulated. They feed on crustaceous
and testaceous animals, and likewise on sea weeds,
The flesh of the Scarus rivulatus is: pleasant to the
taste, but the wounds made by the spines of its fins be-
ing difficult to heal, it has been considered as venom-
ous. It frequents the coasts of Arabia.
Genus CXVI. Ostorincuvs.
Two dorsal fins; osseous jaws prominent, and occu-
pying the place of teeth.
This genus was instituted by La Cepede, and the
only species of which it consists (discovered by Com-
oe) has been named by him in honour of M. Fleu-
rieu. It is a native of the Equatorial seas,
a: Genus My ban Sparus. Gilt-head.
utting or grinding teeth in several rows ; the height
Selb bushy nearly erga tots length, ya
Forskael formed this genus, deriving the name from
exaiguy, palpitare, on account of the rapid motions of
the fish when taken from the water. It is a very nu-
merous genus, About a hundred species have been de-
scribed by ichthyologists. They are distributed into
three sections, from characters furnished by the form
ICHTHYOLOGY.
of the tail. The lunulated gilt-head, Sparus aurata,
was well known to the ancients, and by them dedicat-
ed to the goddess Venus. In spring, this species fre-
quents the shores, and even enters the mouths of ri-
vers. Its flesh is said to improve in fresh water, and
hence Duhamel and others have recommended its be-
ing translated into Jakes and rivers. As food, it was
much prized by the ancients, and valuable medical qua-
lities were ascribed to it. Where common, as in the
Mediterranean, it is often salted, and sent inland as an
article of trade. Several species have a remarkable phos-
phorescent property. Willoughby first observed this in
the S. pagrus, but it is more remarkable in the S. chry-
surus, This last fish inhabits the seas of Brazil, and when
a few of them are swimming in company, they emit so
much light, that in the darkest night a person might
see to read by means of it. This property enables the
fish to, pursue its prey with more certainty; but, on
the other hand, it gives informationtto its foes, Its flesh
is esteemed excellent, and much souglit after.
Genus CXVIII. Dipreropon.
Two dorsal fins ; mouth with several rows of teeth.
This genus contains six species. The D. asper inha«
bits the rivers of France and Germany; and, bein
very vivacious, might easily be translated into this
country, in the more temperate seasons of the year. Its
flesh is esteemed excellent, and in our rivers and lakes
would prove a valuable addition to our stock of food.
As this fish searches for its food in the mud, in which
there are occasionally small pieces:of gold, and as these
have sometimes been found in its stomach, the fisher-
men have concluded that its food was gold. The flesh
of the D. zingel is equally white, firm, and palatable,
and is found in the same situations. It is so bold and
vigorous, and so well protected by means of scales, that
few fishes will venture to at it. Hence it multi.
plies very rapidly.
Genus CXTX. Lursanus.
One dorsal fin; a process to one or more of the
pieces of the gill-lid ; no spines on these pieces.
This genus contains, according to La Cepede, seven-
ty-four species, The L. anthias is the étgos its of the
Greeks, who fancied that no dangerous fish could re-
side in the waters in which it lived, and ‘that divers
might descend with safety, if they knew that this fish
was an inhabitant of the place. . It feeds on small fishes,
and is very common in the Mediterranean. The L.
johnii, so named by Blech in honour of his missionary
friend John, is found on the coast of Tranguebar. _ Its
flesh is white and palatable. The L. plumierii of La
Cepede, the Anthias striatus of Bloch, found in the
Atantic ocean, is also esteemed safe and eeable
food. The Lutjanus scandens, first described in the
Linnean Transactions, vol. iii. is remarkable for its
power of creeping up the stems of trees, by means of
the spinous processes of its fins and gill-lid.
Genus CXX. Cenrropomus. Basse,
Classifica
tion of
Fishes.
——
Two dorsal fins ; one or more processes to each piece Basse.
of the gill-lid ; no spines on these parts.
La Cepede instituted this genus, which contains
twenty-one species. The name is derived from xsvzgov,
aculeus, and xaue, operculum. The Centropomus san
dat of La Cepede, the Perca lucioperca of Linne-
us, inhabits the fresh waters of all the countries of
the north of Euro It grows to a great size, and its
flesh is white, tender, and pleasant to the taste. In the
form of its head, and ‘the size of its teeth, it bears a
near resemblance to the pike; while, in the structure
of its gill-lid, the number and sitnation of its dorsal
taf
i ee
I
| Sa cell
ICHTHYOLOGY.
hardness of its scales, it approaches in
perch. Hence, almost all naturalists
have termed it luci It is a matter of regret that
this fish dies ickly upon being taken out of the
cannot be transported alive to any dis-
Bat as it is one of those fishes which, if trans-
lated into our lakes and rivers, would prove a valuable
addition, the feeundated eggs might be employed with
In this department of economy, how much
to be
- Sasa EEE Bote bas -
° on id; plates ill-li
Jeers Se: zi
The contains twenty-four species. The most
le is the B. palpebratus, first accurate-
ly described by Pallas. It has a moveable membrana-
ceous plate above each eye, supposed to assist the ani-
mal in regulating the admission of light to that ,
It is a native of Amboyna. The B. pentacanthus,
whose a, kao theca e, with his wonted ek of
isms, into j , is a native of the
coast of the Brazils. It prefers the mouths of ri-
vers, near which it grows very fat, and its flesh ac-
an increased degree of delicacy and flavour. It
© eee. caed or iad tthe eon ave
fit
iil
1
H
i :
F
Hi:
LP
F
e
g
e
Genus CXXII. Tewtanorvs.
te benno Sentral sas bm nsec Fame
genus, from rama, tenia, and »wre;, dorsum,
r sap remarkable for their length-
ies, T. latovittatus, was ob-
Commerson in Isle of France. He found
its stomach the fragments of corals and of shells. Its
pom vat ae ST a Ry epee Np
yet the hardness of its jaws, the number of
and the continuance of its efforts, enables it
Its ha-
ed in spirits in
the Dutch collection, during its captivity in Paris.
Genus CXXIII. Sciawa.
Gill-lid furnished with spines, but destitute of pro-
cesses ; Jrcnar Renee <
i us contains eleven species, distributed into
oro They differ from
sections from the form of the tail. age
genus Boclianus chiefly in the num! the dorsal
The Sei coro is a native of the Brazils, and
is taken at all seasons, al its flesh is said to be
and insipid. The Sciena umbra, the — cg
is the most important species e gem
and been long known. It inhabits the Medi-
and Adriatic seas, and is found liarly
abundant in the Nile. It lives in troops, and feeds on
erustaceous and testaceous animals. It is esteemed ex-
cellent food when in season. Those which are found
in fresh water are reckoned preferable to those taken in
the sea, and the young are considered as more palatable
than the old. ancients attributed. to this fish the
701
: Genus CXXIV. Microprerus.
Rays of the second dorsal fin short.
This genus contains one species, which La Cepede
has named in honour of Dolomieu, We are ignorant
of the discoverer and the locality of this species: it was
found in the museum at Paris.
Genus CXXV. Hotocentrus.
One dorsal fin ; one or more spines, and a process on
each gill-lid.
Bloch formed this genus from species chiefly belong-
ing to the Perca of Linnezus. At present, it contains
sixty-five species, divided into sections from characters
furnished by the caudal fin. The H. schratzer is found
abundantly in the Danube and its tributary streams.
Its flesh is white, firm, and nerges’ & and of a pleasant
taste. It feeds on small insects and worms, and spawns
in the spring. So valuable a fish ought to be translated
to other countries. Although it soon dies when taken
from the water, yet with care it may be conveyed to a”
distance, or the spawn may be used as a substitute.
Genus CXXVI. Perca. Perch.
Two dorsal fins; one or more spines, and a process Perch.
to the gill-lid; with or without a beard.
This genus, as it now stands, contains fourteen spe-
cies, The common perch of our lakes may be regard-
ed as the most im t species of the genus in an eco-
nomical point of view. The P. umbra, the umbra of
the ancients, another valuable species, chiefly resides
in the Mediterranean. Its head is compressed and co-
vered with small scales, and it has a thick short cirrus
on the lower jaw. Its flesh is firm, but easy to digest,
and its head was esteemed a favourite morsel by the an-
cient Romans. It feeds on sea weeds and worms.
From the skins of some of the species an isinglass is pre-
pared, little inferior to that which is obtained from the
air-bag of the sturgeon, _
“ Genus Sn oon Piha
any large strong teeth in jaw: intheu jaw
small compressed teeth inthaintervalabbetween the lar er
ones ; pe ae Romer Fear bere hay ar "
i us was instituted by La Cepede, and con-
tains only one species, H. cwruleo-aureus, of which little
isknown. It is described from the drawings of Plumier.
Geyus CXXVIII. Pimeveprenus.
The whole, or a great part of the dorsal, anal, and
one fins adi teas
his genus, from. wistAn, pinque , pinna,
pat yee species, viz. P. Bosquii, named in honour
of M. Bose, the discoverer. It is found in the Atlantic
Ocean, and follows. vessels, picking up the fragments
of food thrown overboard. It keeps in the eddy at
the rudder. It is very difficult to catch, as, with con-
siderable dexterity, it bites off the bait without swal-
lowing the hook. According to Bose, it is sought after
as food by the French, but neglected by the English, In
its manners it bears a near resemblance to the pilot fish.
Genus CXXIX. Cueto.
cmp Jey aed gill-lid destitute of —
scales ; lid carved ; under jaw pendant ; dorsal fin
low and long, ventral fins ke
This genus, from y4+A0s, labrum, contains two species,
first observed by Commerson at the Mauritius. The
first is termed C. auratus, on account of its golden yel-
low colour. The lateral. line. is with black
ponte om be is white, and of a ploewn t faiths
t disregarded, as it is common. The secon
species is termed C, fascus, ‘Lhe colour is brown, hav-
ing the ventral fins white, and the dorsal and anal fins
spotted with white.
Classifica-
tiun of
Fishes,
—_——
~ and is there called skibjack.
702
Genus CXXX. Pomaromus.
Gill-lid notched at its upper posterior margin, and co-
vered with scales like those on the back ; anal fin adipose.
The P. skib of La Cepede is the only known species.
It inhabits the bays and mouths of rivers in Carolina,
It performs its motions
in aremarkably rapid manner, ing suddenly toa
considerable distance. Its flesh is reckoned good. , It
was observed by Bosc during his residence in the Uni-
ted States.
Genus CXXXI. Lerostomus.
Jaws without teeth, and entirely covered with the
lips; the mouth under the snout.
Bose is the discoverer of L.-xanthurus, the only
known species, termed in Carolina yellon-tail. La Ce-
ede formed the genus from Asis, levis, and crouse, os.
t differs from the perches in the absence of a process
to the gill-lid, and in wanting teeth.
Genus CXXXIIL. Centrroioruus.
A longitudinal crest, and row of distant spines, in part
concealed in the skin, above the nape ; one dorsal fin.
This genus was instituted by La Cepede to include
a fish sent him from Fechamp by M. Noel of Rouen.
It was called by the fishermen Le Negre, and hence
he has termed the species C. niger. It is of a black
colour. The eyes are large, and in front of the dorsal
fin there are three spines placed vertically, or pointing
forwards.
Genus CXXXITI. Eguzs.
Two dorsal fins ; the rays of the first ending in long
filaments ; teeth numerous, rigid, and fixed.
The E. Americanus is the only known species of the
genus, and has hitherto been found only in the seas of
the new continent. It is the Chzetodon lanceolatus of
Gmelin. In point of brilliancy, and variety, and dispo-
sition of colours, this fish has few rivals. The head
is small and compressed ; the snout rounded. The ge-
nus was formed by Bloch.
Genus CXXXIV. . Leroenatuus.
_Jaws without teeth ; a strong curved spine on both
sides of each of the soft rays of the dorsal fin ; a long
flattened scaly appendage near each ventral fin; gill.
lid carved, and destitute of small scales.
This genus (from Assos, levis, and yvates, mazilla) con-
tains only one species, viz. L. argenteus, a native of Tran-
quebar. It was first described by Bloch under the ti-
tle Scomber edentulus, but it differs from the mack-
rel in being destitate of teeth. The head, body, and
tail are also compressed, and the opening of the mouth
is very small. Its flesh is fat and agreeable to the
taste ; and being found at all seasons, is of great use
to the inhabitants of those shores which it frequents.
Genus CXXXV. Cuztopon.
One dorsal fin ; gill-lid destitute of processes ; teeth
small, flexible, and moveable; opening of the mouth
small,
This genus has obtained its present name from ye«i-
zn, seta, and odous, dens. La Cepede has enumerated
forty-two species. They chiefly inhabit tropical seas.
Their flesh is excellent food, and they are much sought
after by sailors. They are remarkable for their form
and the brilliancy and variety of their colours. The
limits by which the different species are separated are
ill defined, so that much confusion prevails in their no-
menclature, They all inhabit the seas of tropical coun-
tries, and were unknown or disregarded by the an-
cients. The skeletons of some species have been found
along with other ruins of the animal kingdom, in the
strata at Mount Bolea. La Cepede particularly men-
tions the remains of the Chetodon vespertilio and teira.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
The Ch. marginatus appears to prefer the mouths of
rivers, is very common at the Antilles, and its flesh is
good. The flesh of the Ch, macrolepidotus, a native of
the East Indies, is said, in point of delicacy, to resem-
ble the sole. But the most extraordinary species is
the Ch. rostratus, a native of the fresh waters of India.
Dr Shaw, after informing us that its prey consists of
the smaller kinds of insects, says, ‘‘ When it observes
one of these, either hovering over the water, or seated
on some aquatic plant, it shoots against it from its tu-
bular snout a drop of water, with so sure an aim as g¢
nerally to lay it dead, or at least stupified on the sur-
face. In shooting ata sitting insect, it is commonly
observed to approach within the distance of from six
to four feet before it explodes the water. When kept
in a state of confinement in a large vessel of water, it is
said to afford high entertainment by its dexterity in
this exercise ; since, if a fly, or other insect, be fasten-
ed to the edge of the vessel, the fish immediately per-
ceives it, and continues to shoot at it with such admi-
rable skill as very rarely to miss the mark.”
Genus CKXXVI. Acantutnion.
One dorsal fin ; teeth small, flexible, and moveable’;
two or more naked spines in front of the dorsal fins.
The three species, of which this genus consists, were
formerly included in the genus Chetodon; but the
spines, placed behind the head, form a sufficient mark
of’ distinction, and is expressed in the name of the ge=
nus from axa, spina, and ive, occiput. The first
species, A, rhomboides, is a native the American
seas, as is also the A. glaucus. The flesh of the last
species is white and nourishing, and sought after as
food. It sometimes grows to the length of 18 inches,
The third species inhabits the rocky shores of Arabia,
where it was observed by Forskael. It has something
of the habit of a flounder, and seldom exceeds a foot in
length.
Genus CXXXVII. Cuzropiprervs,
Body and tail compressed ; two dorsal fins; teeth
small, flexible and moveable ; gill-lid destitute of pro«
cesses and spines,
La Cepede instituted this genus for the reception of
C. Plumierii. This species is nearly as deep as it is
long, and its sides are lozenge shaped. The general
colour is green, mixed with yellow, crossed by six nar-
row bands of deep green. It was observed in the West
Indies by Plumier ; and prefers a stony bottom.
Genus CXXXVIII. Pomacenrrus.
One dorsal fin; gill-lid furnished with a process,
but destitute of long spines; teeth small, flexible and
moveable,
This genus contains seven ee r
seas of warmer countries, and in general exhibit a fine
display of colours. One species has indeed obtained
the name of Peacock, (P. pavo,) from the variety and
lustre of its colours. It is a native of the Indian seas,
and was first described by Bloch.
Genus CXXXIX. Pomapysis.
Two dorsal fins ; teeth small, flexible and moveable ;
gill-lid furnished with a process.
Forskael discovered, in the Arabian sea, the only
species of the genus termed P. argenteus, with whose
habits we are still unacquainted.
Genus CXL. Pomacantaus.
One dorsal fin; teeth small, flexible, and moveable ;
gill lid furnished with long spines, but no : :
The seven species included under this head, were
formerly arranged in the tiie Chetodon. The Pe-
abia,
5
They snhaht the
canescens, a native of Ari and first described by
Classifica
tion of
Fishes.
———
lz
i
ICH THY OLOGY. |
He
1
ator is not only remarkable on
and distribution of its colours,
adie oh is remarkably fit sod palate-
its is
equal in point of flavour and richness to
It is considered as superior to any other
fish known in that vast ocean. It grows to about a
foot in and is of an oval shape.
T
i
Gesus CXLIL Enoptosvs.
maculatus of Bloch, a native of the fresh waters of Su-
rinam and Coromandel, is so full of bones, that none but
the negroes make use of it, .
Genus CXLIV. Acayruurvs.
One dorsal fin ; Mees aware mgs» pag one or
contains the chetodon argenteus and
703
b) cone CXLVII. ie mets
wo dorsal fins, with spines in the space between them.
‘This genus, from c:dxvz, luna, contains two speci
Classifica
tion of
Fishes.
natives of the West Indies and America. The first ¥
termed S. was described by La Cepede from
the drawings of Plumier ; and from its shape is termed
by the natives moonfish. The second S. quadrangula-
— is the me marinus fere quadratus of Sloane,
placed in the genus zeus by many naturalists. In
shape it is almost square. a ‘
Genus CXLVIII. Arcynerosus.
One dorsal fin, with spines in front.
The zeus vomer of Linnzus is. the oy
this genus. It is common to the coast of Norway and
same beauty of colouring. It arrives at the same size
in the seas of both continents, and in both its flesh is
esteemed as excellent. The name of the genus is deri-
> ved from «pyvptes, argenteus.
Genus CXLIX. Zeus. Doree.
minating in long
This genus, as now restricted, contains only three
i The first of these is the Z. ciliaris, so named
a few of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins
prs at ey Sg ay i nem
brane, and even farther than the tail itself. La Cepede,
of another species, the Z, insi-
, which like the chetodon rostratus, ej water
through its tubular mouth on flies that alight on aqua-
tic ts, and thus stupifies and secures them ; but the
is here very remote, as the points of resemblance
Se a ne en
agreeable ; a hook baited with a fly is employed in ta-
king it, Both species are natives of the Indian seas.
ird species is the Z. faber, or common dotee. It
is a native of the Northern Atlantic and Mediterranean
seas, and was well known to the ancients, :
are so few.
Mediterranean, South America, and the East and West
Indies. Its flesh is esteemed good. It feeds on small
worms and fishes,
Genus CLI. Curysorosus. h.
spection of drawings in the Museum at Paris, Lace-
pede is disposed to consider that it likewise inhabits
the Chinese seas. Dr Mortimer says, that the Prince
of Anamaboe, on the coast of Africa, recognised, in an
English imen, a fish which he said was common on
his own and very good to eat.
One dorsal fin, without spines in front, the rays ter- Doree.
filaments. ,
Classifica.
tion of
Fishes.
—\
Flounder,
no mention made of
704
‘Genus CLII. | Capnos.
Body and tail compressed ; jaws destitute of teeth ;
two dorsal fins.
This genus, from x«wpes, aper, was instituted by La
Cepede, and so named from the resemblance the only
known species bears toa wild boar. It is the Zeus
aper of Linnaeus, and has long been known as an in-
habitant of the Mediterranean. It is scarcely three
inches in length, and is of a reddish colour ; the snout
is somewhat produced and sharpish, and protrudes in
the act of opening like the common Doree. Its flesh
is said to be very coarse, and of a rank flavour.
Genus CLIII. Purvronecres. Flounder.
With pectoral fins; both eyes on the same side of
the head.
This extensive and important genus, containing up-
wards of forty species, derives its name from A¢vpoy,
latus, and vx7n;, nalator. The genus is divided into
two sections, from the position of the eyes, both of
which are always placed on one side of the head.
In the first division are ;placed those having the eyes
on the right side, and in the second those having the
eyes on the left. It sometimes happens, however, that
a species with eyes in general on the right side, has
been found having its eyes on the left, all the other
characters of a species remaining fixed. This circum-
stance points out the propriety of being cautious in re-
lying on the character furnished by the position of the
eyes.
"The genus contains at present upwards of thirty
species, but a more attentive examination of their cha-
racters, than has hitherto taken place, would perhaps
point out the propriety of as a few as varie~
ties, and some as hybrids. Their flesh is white, plea-
sant, and easily digested; and as the species are of
considerable size, they are much sought after as food.
Several species delight to reside at the mouths of rivers,
and even to live in the fresh water. By a little atten-
tion these might be translated into lakes and ponds,
and thus not only the quantity, but the variety of food
furnished might be increased. All the species prefer a
sandy bottom, and they are much more numerous in
cold than in hot countries.
Genus CLIV. Acnirus.
E Both eyes on the same side of the head ; no pectoral
ns.
This genus, from «@ privative and yep, mantis, was
formed for the reception of those species which have
no pectoral fins, formerly included in the genus pleu-
ronectes. There are six species known. ‘The A.
marmoratus inhabits the sea at the Isle of France,
where it was observed by Commerson. Its flesh is
esteemed excellent. We may observe, that Commerson
observed a row of pores at the base of the dorsal and
anal fins, equal in number to the rays in those fins,
which upon being pressed poured out a milky mucus.
Orprr XX. ABDOMINAL.
Genus CLV. Cirruitus.
Gill-flap of seven rays, the last remote; beards
mates by a membrane, and placed near the pectoral
S.
This lary contains only one species described from
the MSS. of Commerson. It bears a close resemblance
to the ies of the genus Holocentrus and Perca, The
‘seven ents.of the beard are long, and united by a
membrane, resembling a second pectoral fin. There is
place where it was found.
4
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Genus CLVI. Curiopactyius.
Body and tail compressed; upper lip double and ex-
tensile; head abrupt.
There is only one species belonging to this genus,
from the East Indies; and described from a specimen
in the Dutch collection.
Genus CLVII. Costtis. Loche.
Classifica.
tion of
Fishes.
Head, body, and tail cylindrical; eyesnear the sum- Loche.
mit of the head; no teeth; bearded; one dorsal fin ;
scales minute.
This genus contains three species, two of which have
been long known to naturalists. The first, G. barba-
tula, or common Loch, is. common in the waters of the
southern and middle districts of Europe. It prefers
rivers which have a gentle current, to those which are
either rapid or dormant. Its flesh, during autumn and
spring, is esteemed a great delicacy, superior indeed to
all other fresh water fish, especially when it is killed in
wine or in milk. It has been translated into some of
the northern countries of Europe. It soon expires
when removed from the water, and even when placed
in water in a state of rest. The G. tenia differs
in external character from the last, chiefly in having a
double spine on-each side of the head, a little before the
eyes. en taken from the water, it emits a grunt-
ing sound like the gurnard, and is more vivacious than
the last. Its flesh is dry and insipid, The G. Tricirrhata
was observed by M. ‘Noel in the rivulets near Rouen.
Its beard consists of three filaments.
Genus CLVIII. Miscurnus.
‘Body and ‘tail cylindrical ; one short dorsal fin; jaws
with teeth,
The Cobitis fossilis of Linneus is the only known
species of the genus. It inhabits marshes and lakes
with a muddy bottom. It is remarkably vivacious, and
is capable of surviving among mud, provided it be
moist. This is a wise provision of nature, by which
this animal is fitted for those situations in which it re<
sides. When the pools or ditches in which it lives dry
up, this animal buries itself in the mud, and lives se-
curely until the rain replenishes its pond. As it is
frequently dug up in this situation, it has been supposed
to search for its fo
It will remainalive under ice, provided there is a small
portion of unfrozen water around it. It appears to be
extremely sensible to the changes in the state of the
atmosphere. During calm weather, it remains at rest
on the mud in the bottom of the ditch; but, at the ap<
proach of a storm, or change of weather, it rises to the
surface of the water, and moves about with seeming uns
easiness, Hence it is often kept in vessels within doors
by the curious, for the purpose of predicting the chan-
ges in the weather. In winter, it buries itself in the
mud, and issues forth in spring when it spawns. It is
found in the marshes and lakes of the midland parts
of Europe. Its flesh is soft, and but little sought
after.
Genus CLIX. Anasiers.
Pupil of the eye double.
The A. surinamensis, the only known species, was
the cobitis anableps of Linnzus. It is a native of the
rivers of Surinam, near the sea coasts. We have al-
ready adverted to the extraordi structure of the
eyes in this fish, which appear as if furnished with two
pupils. The anal fin in the male is com of nine
rays, the last three or four only peng. istinct, The
preceding ones, are in part united with a hollow coni-
cal appendix covered with scales, and at the apex.
This opening communicates with the milt and the blad-
ood in the ground like an earth-worm. °
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Lx. Founpvtvs.
Body and tail nearly cylindrical; jaws with teeth ;
Cepede into F.mud-fish! It
in Carolina Dr Garden, and was thee
ies inhabits J: >
and. wan festidleieiibis op: Elentiagts tie Augh. Elan ace
In species there are six
the ventral fins; in the latter, eight
—e Genus CLXI. Nee rane
lengthened ; above covered with scales, like
ee ee ee
is genus constructed for the reception of
ci rests on the authority of a
the Dutch collection. La
Head Satin’ dope Soll, aslo Pteridial bearded
one short dorsal fin. : ; .
This formerly very extensive, contains at pre-
into
pon Sia ton Sores’of the cal ‘The is,
or
705
Its motions are all slow. It lurks under some root with Classifica-
its body sunk in part in the mud; and, by moving the
filaments of its Wandie'eaaites the sacalt etaeg toe.
tion of
Fishes.
when it seizes them. The flesh is white, fat, F :
proach,
and pleasant to the taste, but very difficult to di
The air. furnishes isinglass, which is consid eX~
cellent. skin dried and rubbed with oil, is some-
times used as a substitute for glass. This species might
be translated with ease into this country ; and there a
_ to be several favourable situations for its growth.
S. fossilis, which is a native of the East Indies, is
sometimes dug out of the mud like the Misgurnus,
which it appears to resemble in habit.
Genus CLXVII. Macnroprsronorvs.
Dorsal fin very long.
Sy oe this genus, four in number, were se-
— y La Cepede from the Siluri, from which the
iffer in the greater length of the dorsal fin. If such
a character be admitted as sufficient to constitute a
nus, we fear that the science of ichthyology will ily
revert to that state of confusion uncertainty which
prevailed in the days of Aristotle and Pliny. The first
species is the Silurus illaris of Linnzus, which La
now names M. uth. Geofroy, accordi
to La e, has discovered a cavity connected wit
the gills, which the animal has the power of closing.
In this cavity, there is a flat cartilaginous substance, di-
vided into many branches, having the surface covered.
with numerous ramifications of blood-vessels. 4 This
t from
native of Asia and Africa. The skin is so transparent
on the sides, that the divisions of the muscles can be
perceived like so many transverse lines. The remain-
ing species of the genus, viz. M. fuscus and hexacicin-
nus are described on the authority of Chinese drawings
in the Library of the Museum at Paris,
veg Ap cep aie ote. r
Dorsal ipose, placed near ; furs
siahind with diaieleat ingaiis ,
The Silurus.electricus of Linnzus is the only known
of the genus. It has been known as pos-
thore benumbing qualities wh are so re-
in the Torpedo, It is found in many of the
African rivers. See the article Erecraiciry.
Genus CLXIX. Piwetopes.
a earhet Mearhorage he. as "
i us contains twenty- species, formerly
sechaded' nr the potas Silutus! Thay sre divided inte
two sections from the form of the tail. The P. bagre
ee rivers on the American conti-
nent. eee —— Eee beet two ori«
fices to each of the nostrils, a lengthened cavity on
the head. The flesh is held in little estimation whe
P. ascita exhibits one of the most remarkable examples
of reproduction in the whole system.
still in the uterus,
0 is left, resting on the , and
attached to it by a cord of vessels. When all the yolk
is absorbed, the remains of the egg pass the
706
Classificae to enjoy an independent existence. Other -eggs-come
tion of
Fishes.
forward to the same position ; and when all have been
excluded, the edges of the opening meet, and speedily
row together, when a fresh rupture takes place in the
following season. This is a curious instance of the
ovoviviparous mode of reproduction. This species is
found both in the East and West Indies.
Genus CLXX. Doras.
Two dorsal fins; the second adipose ; longitudinal
rows of large hard plates on the sides of the body.
Two species; viz. D. carinatus and costatus belong
to this genus. They were formerly considered as
Siluri. The first of these is a native of Surinam ;
the second is common to America and India. Its
flesh is said to have a very unpleasant taste ; and the
formidable spines with which it is armed, are consider-
ed by the fishermen as venomous. For the purpose of
curing the wounds which they receive by accident
from this fish, they anoint them with the oil which
they obtain from its liver, a balm which they frequently
carry about with them.
Genus CLXXI. Poconaruus.
Dorsal fins two in number, supported by rays; body
with lateral plates..
This genus differs from the former, in the second
dorsal fin being radiated. It contains two species, first
observed by Commerson. The first named P. cour-
bina, a native of Plate river, has twenty-four filaments
in the beard of the under jaw. It grows to the length of
more than two feet, and weighs upwards of six pounds,
but its flesh is soft and insipid. The P. auratus has only
one filament in the beard on the under jaw.
Genus CLXXII. Carapnractvs.
Two dorsal fins ; the second with one ray ; body with
lateral plates.
We owe this genus to Bloch. It contains three spe-
cies, The first-of these, named C. callichthys, is found
both in the East and West Indies. It lives in limpid
running fresh water, and is said to creep out of the wa-
ter to a considerable distance from the rivers, and to
dig holes in the ground, in which it conceals itself. It
seldom exceeds a foot in length. Its flesh is said to be
palatable. It has four filaments in the beard, and the tail
isrounded. TheC. Americanus has six filaments in the
beard, and has hitherto been observed only in Carolina.
The C. punctatus has four filaments in the beard, and
the. tail is in the form of a.crescent. It is found in the
rivers of Surinam.
Genus CLXXII.. Pxrorosus,
Two dorsal fins ; the second of these, and the anal
fin, united with the caudal.
The P. anguillaris is the only known species, and is
a native of the Indian seas. It was inserted by. Bloch
in his genus Platystachus.
Genus CLXXIV. Acenetosvus.
: Two dorsal fins ; the second adipose; chin beard-
less.
The two species, A. armatus and inermis, are natives
of the Indian and South American seas, and were for-
merly included among the Siluri. The first of these
has a remarkable long serrated bony process on each
side ofthe head near the nostrils.
Genus CLXXV, Macrompuosus. -
Mouth beardless; first ray of the frst dorsal fin
lengthened; strong and notched; second dorsal fin
supported by rays.
he Silurus a of Gmelin, is the only known
‘mouth at
ICHTHYOLOGY.
species of the genus, It: was first described by For-
skael. The snout isabout half the length of the body,
compressed, and a little recurved at the top. The first
ray of the first dorsal fin is serrated beneath for about
half its length, and extends nearly to the tail... This fin
contains nine rays, the second dorsal fin contains only
six.
-Genus CLXXVI._ Cenrtanopon.
‘Head depressed, and. covered: with large-hard plates ;
e extremity of the snout, without teeth or
beard ; one or more spines on.each gill lid.
This genus contains only.one species, formerly term«
ed Silurus imberbis. It. was :first.described by Hout-
tuyn, andis a native of Japan. The body and tail are
lengthened, and covered) withdistinet scales. The eyes
are large-and approaching.
Genus CLXXVII. Lorrcarta.
Body covered with a coat of mail; mouth inferior ;
lips extensile ; one dorsal fin.
The genus contains two species, viz. L. setifera, and
maculata, natives of the American seas. The mouth
of the first is surrounded by .a mumber of small fila-
ments, which are not \observable on the latter. © These
fish bear a very close resemblance to the sturgeon in the
armature of the body, ‘the position of the mouth, and
the great size ‘to which they. attain. :
Genus CLXXVIII. Hypostromus.
Body covered with a coat of mail; mouth inferior ;
lips extensile ; two dorsal fins.
The presence of the second dorsalefin, is the charac-
ter by which.this.genus is distinguished from: the pre-
ceding. The only.known species isothe:H. iof
Lacepede, a native of the American rivers. It:is the
Loricaria plecostomus of Linneus. The flesh is said
to be good.
Grnus CLXXIX. Coryporas.
Body and tail covered on the sides with large plates ;
mouth terminal ; no beard: two dorsal fins, with more
than one ray in each.
A specimen of the C. Geoffroy, the only known
cies, was found in the Dutch collection. Its native
country is unknown. In the first dorsal fin, there are
pie ie and nine articulated rays. The tail is
or. . :
’ Genus CLXXX. Tacuysurvs.
Mouth terminal, bearded ; the first ray of the dorsal
and pectoral fins strong ; dorsal fins two, radiated.
The existence of the T. sinensis, the only known spe-
cies, rests on the authority of a Chinese drawing in the
Dutch collection.
Genus CLXXXI. Satmo. Salmon.
Classificas -
tion of
Fishes.
— et
Mouth terminal; head, compressd ; second dorsal gatmon,
fin adipose ; first dorsal fin as near the head as the
ventral fins ; upwards of four rays in the gill-flap ; teeth
strong and numerous.
The characters of the twenty-nine species which com-
pose this tand.extensive genus, have not been
satisfactorily determined. Naturalists, in general, at-
tending to the characters furnished by colour and by
the number of rays in the fins, have, we fear, multi«
plied the spe ies unnecessarily. At present, indeed, it
is difficult et the characters in ordinary use, to de«
termine the young animals as of the same species with
the old. Recourse must be had to the characters fur-
nished by the organs of respiration, and the intestines ;
and under the guidance of the marks which wey
furnish, the species may be satisfactorily determined.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Genus CLXXXII. Osmervus. Smelt.
to separate genus contains six species.
O. eperlanus, or common smelt, is well known,
other species are natives of warmer countries.
Genus CLXXXIII. Coreconus,
Teeth in the jaws
i
Beet
f
:
:
:
:
Genus CLXXXV. Sennasatuus.
Under part of the belly carinated,and notched like a
saw.
The S. rhombeus is the known species. It isa
ident uae nearapamnnesunmetudaaean
is said to attain to a considerable size.
\ ned by Bloch, no
707
and below by a strong spine, forming a first or spiny
ray on each side of the tail. In dia apalnsacheupa-
E — ray in the caudal fin could
be perceived. Dr Shaw, however, observed it in a fine
specimen preserved in the British Museum.
large; gill is oft te MEGALops,
es large ; gill-flap of at least twenty-four rays.
The M. filamentosus, brought from a by
Commerson, is the only species yet discovered. The
rays in the gill-flap are singularly numerous. The last
Ligh tad ‘mre a 7
a
ed Uh ead ke ee en
tai 3 nape raised, an
- spines in = of a dorsal fin.
The Acanthonotus of Bloch, is the only known spe-
s to nearly three feet in | Itisa
native of the East Indies, and is said to be remarkably
active in all its motions, and exceedingly voracious.
Genus CLXXXIX. Esox Pix.
Opening of the mouth ; jaws with teeth
snout jdiorest sd naa! fics dhowt, 2 ly equi-
distant the
This genus contains nine species, which are divided
to the form of the tail into two sections.
active voracious fish,
ran to a shark. inpreye
on young serpents, frogs,
vere OF fapetie lirde se Rah ia eld or able eati-
mation,
Genus CXC. Synopus,
Dorsal and ventral fins Sore equines from the
head; body and tail lengthened
This wok. contains five species, distributed into two
sections, from the form of tail. The onl ies
pfs dare gy an economical point of yaa the
i It was inserted in the genus Esox by
Bloch. It lives in the rivers on the coast of Malabar,
Its flesh is white and palatable.
Genus CXCI, Spuyrena,
Two dorsal fins ;
Genus CXCIT. Lepisostevs. Garfish.
Body covered with osseous
Classificn.
tion of
Fishes,
See
+ Pike,
>
scales ; one dorsal fin, Garfish.
Classifica-
tion of
Fishes.
—_——_
Saury.
_ and gradually tapering to a fine point.
708
The armature of the species of this genus resembles
a coat of mail, so hard are the scales, and so closely
attached to the body. The L. gavial of La Cepede is the
Esox osseus of Linneus. It is a native of the lakes
and rivers of Europe, Asia, and America, but in the
former country it is rare. The flesh is firm, white, and
well flavoured, and much sought after.
Genus CXLIII. Potyerervs.
Gill-flap of one ray ; two blow holes ; dorsal fins nu-
merous. :
The P. bichir, the only known species, exhibits many
singular peculiarities of structure. It is found in the Nile,
pas oe described for the first time by Geoffroy, in the
Bulletin des Sciences, No. 61. The body is nearly cylin-
drical, long, and serpentiniform ; in the anal fin are fifteen
rays; the tail is rounded. It is known to the Egyp-
tians by the name of bichir, and is considered as a very
rare animal. It is ‘supposed in general to inhabit the
depths of the Nile, remaining among the soft mud,
which it is thought to quit only at some particular sea-
sons, and is sometimes taken in the fishermen’s nets at
the time of the decrease of the river. It is said to be
one of the best of the Nilotic fishes, having a white or
savoury flesh ; and as it is hardly possible to open the
skin with a knife, the fish is first boiled, and the skin
afterwards drawn off whole.
Genus CXCIV. Scomperrsox. Saury.
Jaws long ; dorsal fin immediately above the anal
fin; between the caudal fin and the dorsal and anal
fins a number of spurious fins, as in the mackrel.
This genus, instituted by La Cepede, contains only
one species, with whose history he seems to be very im-
perfectly acquainted. It is the Saury pike of the Bri-
tish Zoology.
Genus CXCV. Fisturarta.
Jaws long, tubular; mouth terminal; one dorsal
fin.
The F. petimba of La Cepede is the only known spe-
cies. It is the F.tabacaria of Linnezus. It was first de-
scribed: by Maregrave in his history: of the Brazils, un-
der the name of Petimbuaba. The tail is perhaps of
the most singular construction of any species in the sys-
tem. It is Rais forked, and from the middle of the
furcature springs a very long and thickish bristle or
process of a substance resembling that of whalebone,
A variety has
been observed by Dr Bloch, in which this part was
double, and the snout serrated on each side. This spe-
cies inhabits the equatorial seas, lives chiefly on the
smaller fishes, and’ its flesh is poor, and unpleasant to
the taste.
Genus CXCVI, ep mir eet ch Yedinyp sallalad ta 2000, and now amounts to 2827. Within the last forty
In the 1773, the whole I
youn, dx take lieve ea Selle Jess than three miles of the-town, of thenr immediately contiguous, A magnificent court-
house was erected eight years ago in the middle of the town, and adds to the beauty of the streets.. An asylum is also provided. for. the-
zeeeption of persons deranged. Persons convicted of crimes are also confined im it to hard labour...
JED
a Roxburgh, at St James’s fair in the vicinity of Kelso,
Jejurry
——\
and enjoy the half of the customs; privileges which
redound more to their honour than profit, as they
are supposed to have been conferred as a reward for
meritorious services during the period of the Border
wars, but are not productive of any solid emolument.
There are four fairs held annually in the town of Jed-
ans The whole revenue of the town does not ex-
ceed £500 per annum, of which a large part is expend-
ed annually for the interest of debt. The mills were
formerly included in the lordship of Jedburgh, confer-
red on Sir Andrew Kerr ; but were afterwards transfer-
red, either gratuitously or for a small sum, to the burgh,
and confirmed by a charter of James the First.
The poor of the town are maintained by an assess-
ment, laid upon the inhabitants in proportion to the value
of their houses and landed property within the royalty.
The number of poor now in the list of supply amounts to
67, andthe assessment granted forthe last half year, (July
1817) to the sum of £135, The annual rent of the houses
and gardens within the royalty is estimated at 14000. A
parish bank was established July 1815 in the town of
Jedburgh, in partnership with the country parish, and six
neighbouring parishes, which has fully answered the
hopes of its patrons; the small sums deposited now
amounting, July 1817, to £1996. An auxiliary bible
society was established two years ago, under the direc-
tion of the most respectable, neighbouring gentlemen,
and the ministers of the town. A branch of the Bri-
tish Linen Company was established at Jedburgh in the
year 1791, and carries on business to a great extent.
There is a good butcher market in the town of Jed-
burgh ; the bread has been long excellent ; and in the
summer months, and in winter when the weather is mild,
the town is well supplied with fish, brought from the
distance of thirty miles. A e-coach runs from Jed-
burgh three days in the week, and returns in the alter-
nate days. A coach also runs from Hawick to Berwick,
which passes through Jedburgh and returns the same
day. The greatest grievanceto which the town and neigh-
bourhood are subjected arises from the dearness of fuel,
eonsisting chiefly of coals brought from Northumberland.
The average price may be stated at 1s. 7d. per ewt.
The diversity of surface, and the adjacent woods and
brooks, afford a variety of beautiful picturesque scenes.
The soil is deep and fertile even to the top of the hills,
and peculiarly favourable to horticulture and orchards,
for which Jedburgh has been long celebrated. Some
of the pear-trees, which bear the marks of great anti-
quity, are sup to have been planted by the hands
of ecclesiastical proprietors before the Reformation.*
JEDO. See Jippa.
JEJURRY is the name of a pretty large Mahratta
town in India in the province of mt sa It is prin-
cipally celebrated for its temple, dedicated to an incar-
nation of Mahadeva, or Siva. It is built of fine stone,
and has a very majestic appearance and situation, on a
high hill, m a beautiful country. The ascent to the
temple is by a handsome flight of bread stone steps,
arches being in many places thrown across over the
stairs. The inner temple where the deity is placed is
ancient and not very handsome. The establishment of
dancing girls attached to it, amounted. in 1792 to 250.
The revenues of the temple are derived from offerings,
and. from houses and ide given by pious persons. The
annual expenditure on account of the idol is £6000.
The idol has horses and elephants kept for him, and
along with his spouse, is bathed daily in rice and Ganges
water, the last of which is brought from a distance of
724
JER
1000 miles. At the annual fair which is held in Janu-
ary. no fewer than 100,000 persons visit Jejurry. East
Long. 74° 17’, and North Lat. 30° 54’, See Moor’s
Hindoo Pantheon.
JELLY. See Cuemistry, Vol. VI. p. 130.
JEROM, or Hieronymus, was born about the year
329 at Strido, a town on the confines of Pannonia and’
Dalmatia. His father, who was a person of rank and
property, took great care of his education; and sent
im at a proper age to study at Rome, under the best
masters of those times. Under the celebrated Donatus,
he made great progress in the belles lettres, and all the
learned languages ; and was particularly careful to ac-
complish himself in the art of oratory, that he might
the better recommend the Christian tenets. Having fi-
nished his education at Rome, he travelled into various
countries in pursuit of knowledge, examining all the
public libraries, and conversing with all the men of
learning in his way. Upon his return to Rome, he re~
solved to devote his future life to study, and to with-
draw himself entirely to some remote region, at a dis-
tance from large towns and civilized life. Taking with
him only his books, and money sufficient to defray the
expense of his journey, he proceeded through Asia Mi-
nor to Jerusalem ; thence to Antioch, where he had a
dangerous illness; and finally settled in a frightful desert
of Syria, where he entered upon a strict monastic course
of life, in the 81st year of his age. He applied himself
especially with the utmost assiduity to the study of the’
sacred scriptures, and of the oriental languages ; but,
after four years of laborious application, his health be-
came so much impaired, that he found it necessary to
return to Antioch. By Paulinus, bishop of that city,
he was ordained a priest in the year 378 ; but with the’
express stipulation on his part, that he should not be
confined to any particular cure. In 381, he went to
Constantinople, where he acknowledges himself to have
received much valuable instruction relating to the Scrip-
tures from Gregory Nazianzen ; and, in the following
year, he accompanied Paulinus of Antioch to Rome,
where he became secretary to Pope Damasus. After
the death of that pontiff in 385, and in consequence of
the vexations which he experienced from the followers
of Origen, he again removed from the city of Rome, and
took up his abode at Bethlehem in Judea.~_Thither he
was. foll
rious parts, who had resolved to embrace the monastic
life, and who were attracted by his fame for learning
and piety to put themselves under his superintendence.
Here he enjoyed all that repose in which he so much
delighted, and employed the remainder of his life in
composing a variety of learned works, and in diligently’
attending to the religious instruction of those who had
collected around him as their pastor. He was much
engaged particularly in writing against the prevailing
heresies of his time, especially against the errors of Ori-
en, and those who supported the tenets of that rival’
ather. He lived to the age of 90 years, retaining his
vigour of mind to the last; and died on the 30th of
September, A. D. 420. He has been pronounced by
Erasmus, “ the test scholar, the greatest orator, and
the greatest divine, that Christianity had then produ-
ced ;” but Le Clerc profezzes to shew, that his eloquence
is often the most hyperbouical declamation, his acquaint
ance with the learned languages far from accurate, and
his reasonings generally obscure and inconsistent. His’
style as a writer, is nevertheless acknowledged to be in
no small both elegant and animated ; and his
judgment and learning to have been upon the whole
® The Editor is indebted for this article to Tuomas SomEnvii4E, D.D. F.R.S,E.
owed by many persons of both sexes from va- _
Jerom.
Jermm,
Jersey.
Mineralogy. y!
JER
jor to those of any of the fathers who preceded him.
His talents were better than his temper ; and he made
greater attainments in the know] than in the spi-
rit of Christianity. He was aman of the most choleric
disposition, and ready to burst into the most outrageous
abuse upon the slightest provocation ; insatiably greedy
of fame, and bitterly censorious of his most ble
Tivals and ts. The first edition of his works
was pabli by Erasmus at Basle in 1526, with an
account of his life prefixed; but the latest and fullest
wes published at Verona by Vallersius, in 11 vols. folio.
They consist chiefly of his Latin version of the scrip-
ture, distinguished by the name of the Vulgate, com:
mentaries on different books of scripture, polemical trea-
tises, letters, and biographical accounts of precedin,
ecclesiastical authors. Of these, the commentaries ve |
letters are accounted the most useful, and the chief ad-
vantage of his writings consists in the information which
afford respecting the opinions of the learned Jews
in biblical literature, and the fragments which they
conta of the ancient Greek translations of the Bible.
See Mosheim’s Ci. Hist. vol. i.; Lardner’s Works, vol.
ii.; Milner’s Ch. Hist. vol. iii. ; Cave’s Hist. Liter. vol.
ii. ; Le Clere’s Questiones Hieronymiane ; and Jortin’s
Remarks on Eccl. Hist. (q)
JERSEY, is an island in the English Channel, sub-
ject to the dominion of Great Britain, lying off the coast
<= pee dee ayer ane pee -
logram, the extreme length of which is 12 miles, the ex-
treme breadth 7,and the ia) area 624 squaremiles,
or 40,000 acres. The climate is so mild, that frost is rarely
of any duration, and snow seldom lies above two or three
days in winter. Shrubs requiring shelter in the south-
land, sustain no injury here from ex-
wz flowers blow in the open air of the
season. Fogs are not ey acer we there are
frequent gales, together with keen penetrating
wiehetted darent, which are severe on delicate con-
The surface of Jersey is an inclined plane, rising
general 100, poy esse
hore te deer indented b fine be of which
shore is 1 y many ys, of w
Brelade, de
But they
ports
w water.
cliffs are in
a
of St Helier and St Aubin are
A chain of rocks runs out from
to mariners, as are
; and the tides, which rise
copiously, that it has been observed, there is scarcely-a
house which has not a spring or a brook near it. All
the mineral waters hitherto discovered are chalybeate ;
but only two have attracted any notice on account of
their medicinal i in the parish of St Ma-
by veins also perpendicular running north and south.
fi remarkable caverns have been formed in them
by the action of the waves. What approaches nearest
to granite is quarried at Mont Mado, of which ample
use is made for architectural purposes. Varieties
ly hard and compact are obtained at St. Brelade’s
and Plemont. These of sienite appear in some
725
JER
places to pass into porphyry, in others into a kind of Jersey.
green stone in a state of partial or entire decomposi-
tion. No metallic traces, except of iron and manga-
nese, are seen in any part of Jersey. It has been
said that copper ore is found. Ochre of different co-
lours is obtained in various places, and there are some
specimens of tripoli.
The surface of the island is extremely irregular, Vegetable
consisting of numerous small vallies running across produce.
the island ; and the soil, which is principally a light
and fertile earth, has been compared to that of Guern-
sey. Considerable variety of vegetables is produced
here. Madder grows wild, also the luteola, single
chamomile, and a number of aromatic herbs. La«
ver and samphire on the coast, and chiefly to
the north, Fine fruits of the highest flavour come
to maturity in the orchards, A kind of pear call-
ed chaumentelle is particularly celebrated, some at~
taining a pound in weight. It sells for a high price
at all times, and is sent in presents to England. From
the profusion of apples a great quantity of cider is ob«
tained yearly. There are no woods of forest trees
throughout the island; but one of the most important
vegetables is sea weed, or vraic, which grows all around
the rocky shore, and is used, either in a recent state
for manuring the land, or when dried, as fuel. Only
two seasons in the year, which are proclaimed by order
of the magistrates, being appointed for cutting it, whole
families watch the period when it is torn off the rocks
by tempests, to rake it er. The ordinary farina-
ceous grain of England is cultivated: also bearded
wheat, called froment tremais in Jersey, which is reaped
in three months, and the various edible roots. Lucern
and clover are in general cultivation, but hops have
not succeeded. Instead of reserving a field for each
kind of grain, it is common to sow several in patches ,
in those of very small size. The vegetable preduce of,
the island is considerably less than its consumption ;>
and there is sometimes a temporary scarcity in the
town of St. Helier, extending both to bread and meat.
Many species of fish frequent the shores, but the in- Animals.
habitants do not seem to avail themselves of the
advantage to be derived from them. Rays, turbot, plaise,
soles, and mullet are caught, besides others. * But,”
in the words of an old author, “the sea about Jersey
may be stiled the kingdom of congers,” which are seen
among the rocks at all seasons; some six feet long;
and weighing 54 pounds. Oysters, lobsters, and crabs,
are plentiful. Numbers of small snakes, all harmless,
and also beautiful lizards, are seen on the island. It is
infested by toads of er size, though none are
found on Guernsey. The legged partridge was once
common, but is now nearly extirpated. There are three
species of field mice, one of which, in as far as we can
learn,is the mus typhlus, or blind mole, hitherto ascribed
to southern Russia. It es to the size of a rat,:
and is of a colour, with long hair: the eyes are so
small as to be scarcely discernible; and under the fut
there are in the site of the ears two bare vesicles. The’
horses of the island are small, strong, and hardy; and
the cows are of that breed known in England by the
name of Alderney cows. Sheep are diminutive in size,
and mostly black. Another species is alluded to by
authors of the seventeenth century, as ‘ those famous
sheep with six horns, three of side ; one whereof
bent towards the nose, another backwards towards the
neck, and the third stood erected upwards in the midst
of the other two, mentioned by writers as one of the
singularities of this island, are become very rare.”
Some are bred ; and hares are scarce.
The inhabitants are distinguished by few peculiari- Inhabitants.
726
Jersey. ties from those of the rest of the British dominions, ex-
—_~—" cept in their language, which is French. This is the
Towns,
vernacular tongue ; divine service, pleadings in court,
and the public acts, are all in good French, which is un-
derstood, and occasionally spoken, 4 the upper ranks ;
but, in compli with custom, they figecnatp converse
in the provincial language, which is described as consist-
ing of more dialects than those of ancient Greece. But
English is becoming more prevalent daily, and, if it re-
ceived greater enco ent, would soon be universal.
In the year 1806, the total population of Jersey a-
mounted to 4363 families, consisting of 10,284 males
and 12,571 females, being 22,855 souls, which is at the
rate of 365 persons to each square’ mile. These are
dispersed in twelve parishes, containing two towns, se-
veral villages, and several fortresses.. The town of St.
Helier is the capital, situated on the east side of St.
Aubin’s Bay, and consisting of about 1000 houses,
wherein between a third and a fourth of the whole po-
pulation, or above 6000 individuals, reside. In the
year 1693, it seems to have consisted of only 210 houses.
Their antique sy PM is now modernized ; many of
the streets have footpaths, but they are liable to be overs
flowed by the channels of a stream from the north, and
the town isnot yet lighted; consequently, a great num-
ber of small lanterns are seen in motion at night. There
is a square, wherein stands a gilt statue of King Geor
H. in Roman costume, surrounded by a neat iron rail-
ing. The parish church, which is the most modern
in the island, was built in 1341; but, since that time,
it has undergone considerable alterations. It contains
a neat organ, and some handsome mural monuments.
There are also chapels for Presbyterians and Wesleyan
Methodists, both of which are neat and spacious build~
ings of recent erection. The Roman Catholics perform
divine worship in a private apartment, not being: suffi-
ciently affluent to erect an edifice exclusively devoted to
the exercise of their religion. There area workhouse
and a public hospital here for the use of the whole island.
The latter was rebuilt in 1783, in consequence of ano~
ther being damaged by an explosion of gunpowder. It
has commonly about 100 patients, of whom not above
two-thirds are natives of Jersey, and about a tenth part
of the whole labour under mental derangement. On
one side of the square is. the court-house, a plain but
solid structure, wherein are held: the assembly of the
states and the courts of judicature ; and the governor of
the island has a house and garden belonging to the
town. A new prison, situated at the west extremity-of St.
Heliers, on the sea shore, was completed in 1815. The
basement of this edifice has a squared front of sienite
from Mont Mado, and is separated from the upper sto-
ry by a fascia of ee granite from Sorel, a rocky
promontory in the northern quarter of the island. Above
this the sienite is resumed ; and the uniformity being
relieved by pilasters between every window, the whole
is conga with an elegant cornice of Portland stone.
The front stands on an arcade extending 120. feet in
length by 8 in width; and the intercolumnations are
grated to the crown of the arches. The space within
the arcade is for the accommodation of the male pri-
soners, when they leave their dormitories. Water is
raised to a capacious cistern in the roof, by means of a
forcing pump, and the prisoners of every description
have access to a constant and ample supply: The centre
of the upper floor forms a chapel, divided by partitions
of sufficient height, to prevent any communication what-
ever, whither the prisoners of the several classes are
conducted by different doors. An unfinished. house
in the town was converted to a theatre, where some
JERSEY.
comedians occasionally ir from England to
during a few months of the year, and there oi
siaceni lias in winter. A public library was established
by the Rev. Mr Falle in the 17th century, which since
that time has received considerable accessions. There are
three gazettes in French published here on Wednesday,
and one in English on Saturday. A weekly market is
held for fish and provisions, which is well supplied, espe-
cially from the coast of France since the late peace; most
of the flour is brought from that country and England.
Several packets are established between St, Helier’s and
Weymouth, and there are regular traders to Southamp-
ton, whither the voyage is usually made in between 16
and 24 hours. The town of St. Aubin’s stands on the
opposite side of the bay, to which it gives name, about
four —— from St eo per's es asmali place, situated
under a range of cliffs, consists principally of
one street, well sheltered from the prevalent winds, and
commanding a fine and interesti ct of the bay.
Being distant from the church of St Brelade, to which
Bars perereeaen a neat chapel has been erected by
private subscription. This town is protected by a fort
mounting 14 guns, which has been erected on a rock
dry at low water, but insulated with the. rise of the
tide. A strong pier projects from the fort, within
which there are 30 feet water at new and full moon,
and although this is merely a tide harbour, St Aubin’s,
on account of it, enjoys some portion of foreign trade.
Jersey, from its peculiar situation, has been
ened by more than an ordinary Arar of military archi-
tecture. Elizabeth Castle, which is the proper residence
of the governor, is a strong fortress in St Aubin’s Bay,
defending the approach to St Helier’s, from which it is
distant 663 geometrical paces, and is accessible by a
sandy beach during five or six hours while.the tide
ebbs, but is insulated with its flow. A fortification,
which was recently constructing on the town hill over«
hanging St Helier’s, is designed to contain 2000 or 3000
men. Here a well has been sunk 233 feet through the
solid rock, which has from, 80 to 100 feet of fine water.
Besides these, may be named. other strong places, as
Mont Orgueil, Fort Henry, La Rocco, Seymour Tower,
a fort at Noirmont Point, and Ich-Ho; as also a chain
of Martello towers, redoubts, and’ batteries in.every
maritime part of the island. Barracks, for the accom~
modation of regulars are erected in various quarters.
In the time of war there were, belonging to the island,
a troop of cavalry, six battalions of militia, consist-
i above 2000 men, and a company of artillery
amounting to 600 or 700.
Few manufactures are conducted on a large scale in
Jersey. About 24,000 hogsheads of cider, however,
which is the common beverage of the island, are made an-
nually; and a plentiful year will yield $6,000, Tanning,
soapmaking, candlemaking, and other works, are among
the manufactures for supplying the inhabitants. Great
quantities of worsted stockings are spun and knit in the
island. The principal ex; are cider, of which 1800
hogsheads are sent to En ; fruit, potatoes, cattle,and
worsted stockings, During the five years preceding
1813, the exports were.at an average 768 cows, 13 bulls,
900 pipes of cider, 1228 tons of a From
land. are imported corn, flour, seeds, live and dead "
cloth, linen, crockery and glass ware, paving stone, and.
in general all articles necessary for subsistence, apparel,
and furniture. Salt fish to a large extent is import-
ed from Newfoundland. The commercial relations of
Jersey were formerly restricted for the most to
England and France, after which another was
opened to that island, where about 80 fishing vessels
Jersey.
Fortifica--
tions.
Manufae-
tures, Com-
merce.
ns rk
ports,
JERSEY.
employed during peace; and now it trades
country in Eur and also with
merica. During the year 1813, there entered inwards
vessels, and 813 cleared outwards, of which 440
in Those constituting the difference, 79,
from England for which make no
ut clear outwards. Fifty-nine vessels,
rden amounted to 6003 tons, and na-
belonged to the island in the year
the of the island was prin-
French, with a small proportion of Spanish mo-
; and the amount of specie was about £80,000 Ster-
After the French Revolution, the ve of England
into more gradual use, until, b gradual rise
and silver, almost the whole Ba of the island
of five and ten ap ter gee Others soon
2
ee
F
il
ili
u
& .
bd
gg
aig
%
t
of
they were sendy aiken ;ibet
of silver coinage by government, accompanied a
prohibition issuing notes of lower value than
one aoe: le r Colquhoun, in his work on the Wealth
and of Great Britain, computes, that the to-
tal worth of the island, as property, is £2,610,030. In
this estimate are included the value of the soil, of the
blic and private i farm stocking, shi 3
Kinga offset peasy te thar
worth above £ ,000 at the highest calculation.
governor, are com-
of the States. The court of
of a bailiff, who presides, and
twelve jarats; together with an attorney and soli-
citor-general, a high sheriff, two under sheriffs, six
an usher, The bailiff is appointed by
the we ge the jurats are chosen by masters
of families: he keeps the public seal, which how-
cannot use without the consent of three ju-
The consist of eleven rectors and a dean,
corresponding to the twelve parishes in the island, and
forming a vagal spiritual court, of which the dean is
the head. In the assembly of the States, the attorney-
and high sheriff are admitted ex officio, but
have no vote. No assembly can be held without the
* permission, who has a negative voice. But
by an order of James VI. in council, he must summon
the States within 15 days if the bailiffs or jurats re-
quire it. Likewise he is directed to abstain from using
his ve voice, except in such points as shall con-
cern rae AN ey interest. Seven of each class of
jurats, clergy, and constables, must be present to consti-
tute an assembly of the states, whose business is chiefly
raising money for the public service. There are seve-
ral rities in the laws of Jersey, of which a code
was iled by the States in 1771, and sanctioned
the king. timation by su ent marriage is
as inode anal the cessio aoa ~ weep a,
he punishment of death is seldom inflicted; but
be are ised: A. criminal convicted of
forgery, which is not a capital crime, was sentenced in
1814 to lose the tip of his right ear,
727
Falle, the historian of Jersey, observes, that there are
“yet remaining in this island, some old monuments of
ism. We call them poquelays: they are great
flat stones, of vast bigness and weight, ‘some oval,
some quadrangular, raised three or four feet from the
wrerah 3s and supported by others of a less’ size. At
ten or twelve feet distant is a smaller stone set up on
end, in manner of a desk, where it is supposed the
priest kneeled and performed some ceremonies while
the sacrifice was burning on the altar’ The monu-
ments here alluded to are cromlechs, which the author,
from the quantity of ashes found around them, and
their position on eminences near the sea, sup
were dedicated to its divinities. Only four of a
decided character now remain, one of which is broken
down. Jersey had formerly an abbey, dedicated to St,
Helier, four priories, above twenty c apels, and twelve
parish iets All the last, which were consecrated
een 1111 and 1341, are still preserved, and some
of the chapels.
Jersey is supposed to ‘be the island mentioned under
the name of Cesarea, in the itinerary of Antoninus,
and to have thence derived its present name. It is said
to have been afterwards called Angia, in a grant by Chil-
debert king of France in the sixth century. About the
year 857, it is affirmed that acertain St. Helier suffered
martyrdom here, but how, or for what cause, or where-
in his sanctity consisted, we are not informed. Indeed
these early notices are extremely obscure and indefinite,
Having belonged to Normandy of old, Jersey became
an appendage of the British isles, when William the
Conqueror subdued England ; and it was annexed to
the crown, along with Gsse in the neighbourhood, by
Henry I. However, the French made frequent endea«
vours to recover what they conceived pertained more
naturally to their kingdom, from geographical posi-
tion, and in the course of the civil wars between the
houses of York and Lancaster, they reduced ‘about one
half of the island. In the year 1518, it was visited by the
2 , which became so destructive in the town of St
elier, as to oceasion the removal of the courts of justice
and the market. About this time the superficies was
partitioned among a number of petty owners, whose
oppressions and dissensions were such, that Henry VII.
instead of himself applying the sword of justice, which
might have produced extermination, obtained a papal
bull, excommunicating those guilty of intestine com-
motions. In the reign of Queen Mary, the island was
surprised by a company of Flemings, who eae did
not retain it long ; and it participated deeply in the civil
wars of Charles [. and his son. From that period Jer-
seems to have enjoyed profound repose until 1779,
when an unsuccessful attempt to take it was made by a
Po Fat aoe troops. In January 1781, the Baron
De Rullecourt endeavoured to capture it by a coup-de-
main, with 1200 men. But part of his force being
wrecked, only 700 gained the shore, who surprised the
town of St Helier, took the lieutenant governor prison«
er, and compelled him to sign articles of capitulation,
and likewise to direct the troops and fortresses to sur
render. But the officers who held the fortresses, having
leatned that these orders were given by the lieutenant
governor while under restraint, refused obedience ; and
a body of military, having collected under Major Pier-
son, speedily expelled the enemy, though with the loss
of their own brave commander. Distant 17 miles from
Carteret and Bail on the coast of Normandy; 21 from
Guernsey ; 75 from Weymouth ; and 120 from South~
ampton. Lat. of St, Aubin 49° 12’ 59” N, Long. 2°
10'44" W. (c)
Sersey.
Antiquities.
History,
Jersey,
New.
—y~" and 74° and 75° 29' of West Long.
General as-
pect.
Soil and
agriculture,
Manufac-
turese
728
JERSEY, New, one of the United States of North
America, is situated between 39° and 41° of North Lat.
Its length from
north to south is 160 miles. Its least breadth in the
centre 42 miles, Its greatest breadth in the north 70
miles, and in the south 75. It contains nearly 8320
square miles, and 5,324,000 acres. It is bounded on
the north by New York, on the east and south-east
by Hudson’s River, New York Bay, and the Atlantic
Ocean ; and by Delaware Bay and River on the south-
west and west, by which it isseparated from the states
of Delaware and Pennsylvania. The state is divided
into 13 counties, which contain 116 towns, viz.
No. of Counties. Bae Population. Chief Towns.
1800. 1810.
Cape Mary 3 3,066 3,632 |Bridgetown,
Cumberland 8 9,529 | 12,670
Salem .. 9 11,371 | 12,761 |Salem.
Gloucester. | 10 | 16,115 |. 19,744 bale aced
Burlington|
Burlington 12 21,521 | 24,979 {Borden
‘ - town.
Hunterdon 10 21,261 | 24,553 |Trenton.
Sussex... 15 22,534 | 25,549 |Newtown.
Bergen .. 7 | 15,156 | 16,603 |Hackinsac.
Newark.
Essex... .] 10 22,269.| 25,984 [Ble
town.
Middlesex . 8 17,890 | 20,381 |Amboy.
Monmouth 7 19,872 | 22,150 |Freehold.
Somerset. . 7 12,815 | 14,728 |Boundbrook
Morris. ..{ 10 17,750 | 21,828 |Modesttown
Total. . 13 | 116 |211,149 | 245,562
The three northern counties. of this state are moun-
tainous, and the next four are agreeably diversified
with hills and. vallies. The south mountain, which is
one great ridge of the Alleghany range, crosses the state
in Lat. 41°, and the Kittatinny ridge es a little to
the north of the south mountain. The highlands of
Navesink, on the coast, near Sandyhook, are about 600
feet above the sea. The greater part of the six south-
ern counties are occupied with that long range of flat
land, which commences at Sandyhook, and lines the
coast of the middle and southern states. Nearly four-
fifths of the six southern counties, or two-fifths of the
whole state, are entirely barren, producing only shrub
oaks, and yellow pines; but the rest of the state contains
good soil, and excellent pasturage. Great numbers of
_cattle are raised in the mountainous parts for the mar-
kets of New York and Philadelphia, and wheat, rye,
maize, buckwheat, potatoes, oats and barley, are rais-
ed for, home consumption. Large dairies are also kept,
and great quantities of butter and cheese made.
Great quantities of leather are manufactured at the va-
luable tanneries of Trenton, Newark, and Elizabeth-town.
There is a considerable shoe manufactory at Newurk,
a glass house in Gloucester county, and paper mills and
nail manufactories are erected and wrought to advan-
tage in several. parts. of the state. The iron works,
which are a great source of wealth, are erected in Glou-
cester, Burlington, Sussex, Morris, and other counties.
There are no fewer than seven rich iron mines in Mor-
- ris.county, two furnaces, two.rolling and slitting mills,
and about 30 forges, with from two to four fires each.
The annual produce of these works is about 540 tons
1
JERSEY.
of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs, besides large quantities of
hollow ware, sheet iron, and nail rods. . In the whole
state, the annual produce is computed at 1200 tons of
bar iron, 1200 tons of pigs, and 80 tons of nails, exclu-
sive of small articles.
The annual amount of articles exported from the sea-
pare of New Jersey, was, in 1810, 430,267 dollars.
he aggregate tonnage of the state for 1807, was 22,958.
The exports through New York and Philadelphia are
very great. The exports are flour, wheat, horses, cat
tle, hams, cider, lumber, flax seed, leather, and iron,
The principal rivers in New Jersey, are the Delaware
and Hudson rivers ; the Passaic, which is navigable
for 10 miles, and has very interesting cataracts at Pat-
terson ; the Hackinsac, which is navigable 15 miles ;
the Great Egg Harbour river, which is navigable 20
miles for boats of 200 tons burthen ; the Maurice, which
is navigable for 20 miles by sloops of 100 tons; and the
Musconecunk, which runs into Delaware.
The principal towns of the state are Newark, a flou-
rishing well built town, with a population of 8008, in
1810; Trenton, the seat of government, with a popu-
lation of 3002; Perth Amboy, so called from es
Drummond, Earl of Perth and Ambo, with a, popula-
tion of 815; Burlingion, with a population of 2419;
New Brunswick, where there is a college, founded in
1770, and a population of 6312 ; Princetown, a, village
with 80.houses, where there is a celebrated college called
Nassau Hall, founded in 1738 ; and Elizabeth Town,
with a population of 2977.
Besides 15 incerporated academies, this state has two
colleges, viz. the college at Princetown, and Queen’s
College at New Brunswick. The college edifice at
Princetown is of stone, and is 180 feet in length, 54 in
breadth, and 4 stories high, and divided into 42 conve-
nient chambers for the accommodation of the students,
besides a chapel, dining hall, and room for the library.
A theological seminary with two professors, has lately
been added to this establishment. In winter, there are
from 70 to 80 students in the five classes of the college,
exclusive of the grammar school; and in the summer
from 80 to 90. The college at New Brunswick was
founded by ministers of the Dutch church for the edu-
cation of their clergy, and was incorporated in 1770,
There. are a number of different religious denomina-
tions in New Jersey, The.Presbyterians, who are the
most numerous, had, in 1811, 64 churches, and 42 cler-
gymen ; the Dutch reformed churches 64, and 42 cler-
gymen ; the Episcopal church 24. churches, and. 10 cler-
gymen ; the Baptist church 30 churches, and 23 cler-
gymen; the Congregational. churches 9 churches, and
5 clergymen... The Methodists are very numerous;
the number of their communicants was about 6739.in
1811. The Quakers have 44 meeting houses in the state.
This state was included, in 1664, in the patent of
Charles II. to his brother the Duke of York and Alba-
ny, who soon after conveyed it to Berkely and Carteret.
In the same year, three inhabitants of Long Island pur-
chased from the Indians a tract of land, and called it
Elizabeth Town; and in the year following, the colony
received its own governor Sir. G, Carteret, and became
a distinct. province, -
The inhabitants are.a collection of Low Dutch, Ger- Inhabitants,
mans, English, Scotch, Irish, and New Englanders, or
their descendants. In 1810, the population was,
Males, .. ee es ee + 115,357,
Females. ..... a Nags BM
Total population in 1810, 226,868
The militia in 1810, amounted, to.33,710 men.
Morse’s American Geography.
See
Jersey,
New.
Rivers,
Towns,
Literatures
Religious.
States
History,
4 Population.
'
F
Ls
t
Jerusalem.
—_———
Tnhabi-
JERUSALEM.
JERUSALEM, a city of Palestine, in the pachalic of
and the a npiatra ent yg ingdom of the
Jews. It occupies declivity of a barren basaltic:
mountain, at the ity of an extensive plain, in a
climate ively cold, from its ele situation,
where much snow falls, with copious. rains.
The plan of the city is irregular ; but excluding the ci-
tadel at the west end, it approaches to a quadrangular
form. It is surrounded by crenelated wills of reddish
freestone of considerable height, strengthened by square.
towers, and mounting a few old 24-pounders, on car-
riages without wheels. The walls are modern, having
been built by Soliman, the son of Selim, as appears
from inscriptions upon them. They are too thin to
Sao pace tet comean ao ba tiliabewten teed
papi Ler ing commanded by neighbouring heights
on all sides. There are six gates, whose cuales
partly of Hebrew origin. The total circuit of the city
does not exceed two miles and a half. Some authors ex-
aggerate its ancient limits to a great extent, while others.
conclude that it has scarcely ever exceeded its present
boundaries. The streets are narrow, as-is in the
east, but straight and well paved. Several of them have
foot-paths, and they are kept cleaner than is common in
Palestine. Vacant spaces, and some covered by ruins,
are seen towards the west, but no.open square has been
purposely left within the walls. In general, the houses
are well built of free-stone, and for the most part two
or three stories high, with a plain simple front, without
= in the lower eye ee
a passenger walking the streets of Jerusalem ma
conceive himself in the corridor of a vast prison : the
door, besides, is so low, that a person must bend almost
double to gain admission. The roofs are either terraced,
or rise in domes, — the a mity of the =
is interru steeples @ mosques an
churches, rd tops of a few trees, and tufts:
of nopals. Some houses have lL gardens,
The total population of Jerusalem amounts to $0,000;
but from having been peopled by Jews originally, this
ee ee mixture of other nations, whose
appearance, habits, and sentiments, are at considerable
variance. Of these it is computed that 20,000 are
Christians of different sects denominations ; 7000.
. listinguished j :
of a disposition ; of a deadly. white
of wearing a white veil or a fillet round their faces,
makes them resemble so many walking corpses ; but the
faces of the Christian females are exposed as in Europe.
Much variety of costume is beheld in the streets ; every
one, whether Jew, Arab, Syrian, or Turk, adopting what
he The lower orders, however, usually wear a
-shirtof white or black, or one of broad striped brown, as
in Arabia. Christians and Jews wear a blue turban as a
mark of distinction, though a few diversify the colour;
and shepherds in the neighbourhood have theirs white
or striped like the Mahometans, - It ought not to escape
observation, that blue is in many parts of the East a
characteristic of Christi = diene unlikely
on eae er classes in some
parts of Europe a similar origin, Persons in easy,
circumstances adopt the Turkish costume, with a hig
turban. Both the Turkish and Arabic languages are
common in Jerusalem,
VOL, XI. PART Ms.
729
The mode of life among the inhabitants is dull and mo- Jerusalem.
notonous. They have little to interest them: no active
pursuit of manufactures, arts, or sciences ; no general.
bond of union ; no object of common interest in view.
They labour under the oppression of a despotic govern-
ment, which exercises incessant extortions, without en«
couraging the means which would enable the people to-
satisfy its avarice; and so obnoxious is the pasha, that
en his approach the inhabitants desert the city. Al-
most al] the Christians entertain a decided antipathy to
each other, independent of which a. strong aversion
subsists between them and the Mahometans. All the
different sects reciprocally consider the rest as schisma-
tics and infidels, Those of each persuasion believing
that they alone possess the true light of heaven, and an
exclusive right to enter paradise, consign the rest
without distinction to the infernal regions. Never-
theless, this apparently goes no farther than words ;
for there is more unrestrained intercourse among the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, than of any other place under
the sway of Mahometans, which is supposed to arise
from the predominant number of Christians. Some so-
ciality is practised among them; and even Christians
and-Mahometans mix indiscriminately together. All
the former, of whatever sect or denomination, devoutly
implore the downfal of the Turks; and certainly with
sufficient reason, for one leading feature in the political
economy of Mahometans is extortion from those who
are incapable of resistance.
. The sciences have entirely disappeared from Jerusa-
lem. Formerly, there existed large schools belonging
to a Mussulman temple, but at present hardly any tra-
ces of them remain, and only a few subsist where chil-
dren of every sect learn to read and write the tenets of
their respective religion.. The grossest ignorance is
found to prevail among persons of the highest rank,
who, on the first interview, seem to have received a li-
beral education. The arts are nearly ina state of equal
degradation: a late traveller affirms that he did not
see a single lock or key of iron during his abode in the-
city. ere are some weaving looms, and very hand-
some yellow slippers are made, but the other manufac--
tures are apparently inconsiderable. An immense quan-
tity of relics was wont to be made for the convents, as
it is not evident that these were fabricated within
their walls; which was either for export to Catholic
countries, or to supply those whose devotion led them
hither in pilgrimages, The traffic is not yet abandon-
ed. Jerusalem forms a kind of central point between-
Arabia, E » and Syria, and is a rendezvous for the
Arabs of three countries, who come for the pur-
of commercial concerns. But the chief trade of all
‘alestine consists in exporting oi] and importing rice by.
the way of Acre, However, little benefit seems to be de«
rived from it by Jerusalem. Possibly those whohave con-
templated its former. grandeur in history .draw a contrast
with its. present state, which is- scarcely. warranted by
the reality ; for the,activity required by the very. sup-
ies. which a city, of 30,000 inhabitants demands, is
inconsistent with the picture of desolation which
some travellers, such as Chateaubriand,. give of the
streets. ‘Enter the city; nothing will. console you
for its sad exterior: you wander over-an unequal sur-
face in narrow unpaved streets, walking amidst clouds
of dust, or among rolling flints. The darkness of this
labyrinth. is heightened by cloths stretched between
the houses. . Vaulted bazars, replete with infection, de-
prive the desolate. city. of the remaining light. Some
: AZ
730 JERUSALEM.
Jerusalem. mean shops display nothing but misery to the sight; to the Dutch and English, and abundance of liqueurs Jerusalem:
—y—" and they are frequently shut up from the dread ofa may be obtained.” All pilgrims are received here: on “VY
cadi passing near them. No one appears in the streets
—no one stands at the gates of the city. Sometimes
only a peasant glides along in the shade concealing the
fruit of his labour under his vestments, in the ap-
prehension that a soldier may despoil him of it. All
the noise which is heard in the city is the galloping of
a horse in the desert bearing a janisary out on his way
to pillage, or carrying him home with the head of a
Bedouin Arab.” Jerusalem is abundantly supplied with
game: provisions of all kinds are cheap, and the wine
is good, The shops and markets are, in the ordinary
streets, not restricted to a separate bazar, as is usual
their arrival, they undergo some ceremonies, and the
feet of Europeans are washed by the superior of the
convent. They are lodged and supplied with whatever
they require, and conducted to every sanctified place ;
but the duration of their residence is limited to a month.
It is common for persons of condition to make a pre«
sent to the convent on their departure, which, in Po«
cocke’s time, amounted to about £6 sterling. At pre«
sent, however, their table is apart from that of the fa-
thers: they bear their own expences, and the con«
vent derives no advantage from their residence. Onl
the poor are gratuitously maintained. The funds of
. elsewhere. the convent are ample, being the result of donations
Pilgrims. Independent of the stationary inhabitants and the from Catholics of all ranks, and especially Catholic
other subjects of the Turkish government, Jerusalem princes, either in money or in goods and merchandise,
is a great resort of pilgrims, among whom were many But the monks were lately reduced to great distress from
Europeans in former times.. But though the zeal for the interruption of their European supplies by the war;
pilgrimage has greatly declined, yet it is still very consi- and they are also occasionally harassed by the exac~
derable. In 1806, the number amounted to 1500, which tions of the Turkish officers. In eight years of the
was thought small; but there were only two Europe- present century, they were compelled to pay 40,000
ans, of whom one was a traveller. Ithas been believed piastres, or about £6000. Nevertheless, they have ob«
that the visits of Catholic pilgrims were the source of tained the esteem of the people among whom they
eat riches to the convents of Jerusalem—a point dis- dwell, by their excellent organization and the regula
puted by Chateaubriand, who quotes various instances rity of their conduct. The Armenian convent is the
to confute the assertion. The city swarms with men- largest in Jerusalem. It is maintained in a degree of
dicants, allured thither in expectation of alms from the splendour, attended with neatness, cleanliness, and
pilgrims. good order unexampled in Palestine. ‘ Every thing
Publie Jerusalem has a governor, who lives in state, and re- pertaining to it is oriental. The patriarch appears in
officers. ceives strangers in a dignified manner ; a cadi, or civil a flowing vest of silk instead of a monkish habit, and
judge, who is sent annually from Constantinople; a all around him bears the character of eastern magni-«
governor of the citadel ; a sheik el haram, or chief ofthe ficence. He receives his visitors in regal stateliness,
Mabometan temple ; and a mufti, or chief of the law. _ sitting amidst clouds of incense, and regaling them
Edifices, This city is particularly interesting to Europeans, in with all the luxuries of a Persian court.”
having been the capital of a people from whom all their
religious opinions are derived, and from being the thea-
tre of some events, which not only excited great sen-
sation at the time, but have been carefully transmitted
to posterity. Its public edifices are still numerous:
the spots which are mentioned in Scripture in the en-
virons are yet pointed out with pious anxiety ; but it
must not be disguised, that some recent travellers,
leaning more to ancient history than the affirmation of
the moderns, begin to question the identity of the lo-
calities which have remained undisputed for ages. The
The church of the Holy Sepulchre has been cele- Sepulchre
brated for ages as containing within its precincts a o Christ.
tomb believed to be that in which the body of Jesus
Christ was deposited. This structure stood on Mount
Calvary. It consisted of several churches united ; and,
besides the tomb, covered about twelve places cons
secrated as the scenes of remarkable transactions. The
tomb itself, a white marble sarcophagus of erdinary di«
mensions, occupies a subterraneous chamber highly de«
corated. Its sanctity, however, is denied by Mahomea
tans ; and the later travellers, though they rest their opi«
Citadel. resent citadel, which is supposed to occupy the site of nions on very different principles, have called its iden«
David's palace, is a Gothic edifice throughout, with inte- tity in question. The former deny its sanctity, be«
rior courts, fosses, and covered ways. No cannon are cause Christ ascended to heaven after imparting his
seen on its walls; and in one deserted apartment, full likeness to Judas, who was crucified in his stead; and
of old helmets, lie numbers of weapons resembling mus- the latter doubt its identity, because there is no evi«
ket barrels, of which the use isnow unknown. This dence that the tomb attracted any notice until cen
structure is also called the Pisan’s Tower, having been turies subsequent tothe event. Nay, they are di
built, according to Doubdan, by the republic of Pisa, to go much farther, and to question the identity of
when the Christians were in possession of the Holy all the localities pointed out as those of scripture,
Land. But the religious edifices are more important partly because the topography of the moderns is incon<
Convents. and interesting. There are several convents of Chris« sistent with ancient descriptions, and partly from the
tian monks, whose total number in 1807 amounted to
61 ; and of these no less than 43 were natives of Spain.
The Franciscan convent of St Salvador is a spacious
structure like a fortress, which, with all its convenien-
ces in relation to the usual accommodations of Pales-
tine, has been compared to “a sumptuous and well fur-
nished hotel, open to all comers who may be attracted
hither by curiosity or devotion. Meals are served up
in an apartment called the Pilgrim’s Chamber, consist-
ing of sufficient variety, and adapted to every national
taste. Even the beverage of tea is copiously supplied
eause above assigned, that such points were not de«
termined until the age of the Empress Helena, who
lived some centuries after the death of Christ. Under
this impression, the real sepulchre has been sought for
among the ce one nd catacombs of a hill facing
Mount Sion. The empress now named is said to have
founded the church of the Holy Sepulchre from the real
cross on which Christ suffered being discovered on the
spot; and the tomb was covered bya chart rotundaforms
ing one end of that structure, which has been lately des
stroyed by fire. This conflagration is ascribed to the Are
JERUSALEM. 781
Jeunlem. menians, who sought, by these means, to gain possession in diameter, and is sustained by four arches, reposing Jerusalem.
—"Y~" of the whole edilice, ehach was partitioned into churches on four square pillars, the “ifeent sides of which res! st earl
Mahometan This
and chapels belonging to various sects professing the
Christian religion. The monks who siostenanaed the
sepulchre were particularly the objects of Turkish op-
pression, which the sincerity of their devotion alone
could enable them rr support. Rs | not only suffered
grievous exactions, but were repea exposed to -
sonal insult and danger. The Nesatimen st Jeuinicnens
Seepage revere the tombs of ne ab which af-
a profitable speculation to individuals, either from
the pious endowments annexed to them, or the collec-
tion of alms.
At present the Jewish synagogue is a miserable
structure, consisting of three or four ts, with
roofs so low that they may be reached by the hand ; the
whole is covered with filth and cobwebs, and disgust-
ingly dirty. The _ palin mor phy tne pest
a certain quarter, and are represented as living in av
snleeralite wnnaltion. ieee
city is equally sanctified in the eyes of Maho-
enlarged with handsome columns of brown marble.
Each side of the nave which it crowns rests on seven
arches slightly
lars above two feet and a
igh. The walls rise thirteen feet above the tops of
the arches, and each contains two rows of windows,
A frontispiece, inlaid with pieces of beautiful marble,
ornaments the niche from whence the Imam directs the
prayer, with six small columns of white and de-
corating the entrance. In a vault at one side the Ca-
liph Omar was accustomed to pray. A causeway, 284
feet long, fronts the principal gate of the temple, in the
middle of which is a fine marble bason, with a foun-
tain in form of a shell that formerly supplied the wa-
ter; and at the end of the causeway is a fine staircase
sont | to the other temple Sahara, which takes its
name trom a rock greatly revered in the centre of the
edifice. This temple is octagonal, 61 feet of a side,
and 159 in diameter. Jt occupies a platform 460 feet
inted, springing from cylindrical pil-
lf in diameter, and pee el
temple. metans as of Christians. They call it e/ Kods, or the long, 399 broad, raised 16 feet from the ground, which
holy, and have a ificent temple here, whose inte- is ascended by eight staircases. The exterior is en«
rior has been anxiously veiled from the latter. Their crusted to its height with various kinds of marble,
pa nathtmanept edion were profanation ; and although
ising tra-
veller, who more recently traversed or Fey east
The disgples of the
i prophet two sane-
that of Mecca, Jerusalem ;
el Haram by way of distinction, and
ey eaten all who do
|
HI
rt
|
FRESHER
Hie
2
g
however, as it is a group of mosques erected
ccess is
RE
be considered as two distinct
oo Kp apa eee pe panting th ome
is composed of seven naves su
with atta pherical segm ith
which is a su: 8 i ent, with two rows of
large windows, and is supported by four large pillars,
together with 12 magnificent columns ranged in a cir«
cle. The rock of Sahara approaches the segment of a
$3 feet in diameter ; it is of its natural shape ;
surface rugged and uneven. Here the Mahome-
tans exhibit the print of their ’s foot when he
came to pray; and they believe, that, next to the tem-
ple of Mecca, the prayers of mankind offered up at the
rock of Sahara are most le to heaven. It
ae gS“ high gilt railing, and the sacred
impression i is by a cage of gilt wire,
The Mahometans are taught that it a evr erm 2 mo
ordinary guard of 70,000 angels, which is daily relieved,
and that other invisible of angels and prophets
resort hither to offer up om In the pave-
ment near the rock is a piece of waved marble or
j , fastened down by four or five gilt nails, which,
our ta uninviting, affirm is the gate to i
Some of the nails they relate to have been removed by
the devil attempting to pass, but he was overheard in
time, and beaten back for ever. In this temple there
is preserved a koran of enormous size, being four feet
long, and above two and a half broad, which was used
by the Caliph Omar. Every night 180 lamps are light-
ed up here, and 175 in mosque Aksa. Besides
these two structures, there are several others, and also
platforms for oratories, within the spacious limits of
the Mahometan temple, on one of which the throne of
Solomon is su to have stood, Not tar from the
ee ee building called the
hospital of St Helena, which is still dev to charita-
ble purposes. Every Mahometan any himself
at the gate formerly received a supply of food, but the
extent of the charity has declined.
Hospital,
It must not be conceived, that the few edifices hi- gnyirons of
therto named exhaust the curious and venerable remains Jerusalem,
of the capital of the Jews, On the contrary, they are
JER
Jerusalem. so numerous, that authors divide them into six different
inhabitants. It is si
notice, that
tives regarding the natives of Jesso, and those which the
Japanese obtained somewhat more recently. (c)
735
rar!
JES
JESSOP, Wituiam. . This able mngourend excel«
lent man was born January 12, O.S. 1745, at Ply-
mouth dock, where he was educated. After making some
in the classics, he aegenes a perfect knowledge
of the French language, and a considerable share of
mathematical science. He early discovered a propen-~
sity to bag past ei and possessing a dexteri
of working in w and metals, he constructed wi
facility such articles as juvenile projects occasionally
required ; and his family are now in possession of a
tolerably good violoncello of his workmanship when a
early dispositions recommended him to the
notice of Mr Smeaton, then employed in rebuilding the
Eddystone light-house, who confirmed his desire of
learning the profession of a civil engineer; and he ac
cordingly entered regularly into Mr Smeaton’s service,
under articles for seven years. This event not only afs
forded unities of employing his talents in a way
suited to his natural inclination, but was the means of
uiring the friendship of an able and judicious man,
who was well qualified to form his judgment and direct
Mr Smeaton having, after the completion of the Ed.
dystone light-house, full employment as a civil engi
neer, his pupil of course benefited by the surveying,
investigating, and executing the various works coms
prehended in such extensive ice. The construction
of mills, drainages, harbours, and bri and the ims
ement of river navigations, (as may be seen in Mr
eaton’s ) during his seven years ser=
vice, afforded an ample for acquiring knows
ledge and practical skill. Eyen in canal making, the re-
peated surveys, discussions, and pi ive practical
operations during the execution of the inland navigation
between the rivers Forth and Clyde in Scotland, which
was under Mr Smeaton’s direction, enabled him to obs
tain, at an early period of life, competent information
upon an important part of his profession, which was at
that time almost new in Britis eigen a i
The advantages which Mr Jessop thus derived from
Mr Smeaton were certainly great; yet there is reason
to believe, that his early ‘ate constant connection witk
this eminent engi created a degree of timidity in
the exercise of his own talents; for we have good au-~
thority for stating, that, for some years after the expi-
ration of his articled service, he was almost unwilling
to undertake business on his own account. He there-
fore continued to live with Mr Smeaton, and to act un«
der his immediate direction, and, even when occasionally
engaged in business for himself, he took no step without
ing hi . This conduct may, no doubt,
be ly attributed to his having become necessary
to Mr Smeaton, and to the uninterrupted mutual con-
fidence and esteem which always subsisted between
them.
In 1773, he was appoin ted engineer to the Aire and
Calder River navigation in Yorkshire, which, (accord~
ing to a memorandum in our ion) he states as
having found with an income of only £5000 a year,
whereas twenty-five years afterwards he left it in the
receipt of £30,000 per annum. For several years the
improvement of river navigations and drai consti«
tuted his chief employment, though he was also on
several occasions consulted in to bridges and
harbours. In the year 1783 he was appointed engi«
neer for directing the improvements upon the river
Trent, in which capacity he continued to act during
Jessop:
Jessop.
736 JES
the rest of his life. He made several surveys and
reports for improving the rivers Severne, Mersey, and
Irwell; and also the upper part of the Thames.
After Mr Smeaton withdrew from business, Mr Jes-
sop stood at the head of his. profession : In the prime
of life, and with a sufficient fund of knowledge and expe-
rience, his talents beeame eminently useful during the ra-
pid progress which, at this time, inland navigation made
in England, To enumerate the objects of his labours,
from the year 1780 to 1800, would be to give a list of
nearly .all the improvements, of this kind, which were
projected and executed during that period: But as this
would exceed our prescribed limits, we shall-here only
observe that the map of the canals in the counties of Der-
by, Nottingham, Leicester, and Lincoln, were planned
and executed: under his direction, as was likewise the
grand junction canal which connects the midland coun-
ties with the metropolis. Besides these, he was occa-
sionally consulted in regard to most of the other canals
which were then carrying on in other parts of the king-
dom. For several years, previous to his death, he acted
jointly with Mr Telford in conducting the great Cale-
donian canal in the north of Scotland, and that engi-
neer embraced every opportunity of acknowledging,
in the. warmest manner, the advantages and satisface
tion which he derived from the able, upright, and liberal
conduct of his enlightened colleague and friend.
In consequence of Mr Jessop’s merited reputation, he
was consulted respecting theinland navigation of thesis
ter kingdom, which was for many years conducted solely
under his direction, The-leading arrangements were
then made, in order to.establish a water communication
from the city of Dublin on-the east, to the river Shan-
non in the interior, and by, it to Limerick on the west;
besides various collateral branches to the southern and
northern parts of that fine island. The Mest yyw
most difficult operations required to accomplish these
desirable objects, were performed under his direction,
and the whole put into a state of progress, which afs
terwards only required to be regulated by the finan-
cial resources and growing demands of that rising
country.
In regard to harbours, besides many of compara-
tively inferior importance, which we have not room to
enumerate, the great canal-and magnificent West India
docks. in the Isle of Dogs; the extensive improve-
ments in.the ports.of Bristol, Hull, and:Dublin, were
planned and executed under his direction. These un-
dertakings, upon an unexampled scale of magnitude
and perfection, afford unequivocal-evidence of his abili-«
ties as.an engineer, and at the same time formed a va-
juable school for others who had: occasion to. construct
similar works.
From being scarcely of sufficient importance to con-
stitute a separate profession when he entered into it,
works requiring the attention of a civil engineer,
were, in a'shert time, so greatly increased, that Mr
Jessop found that the most unremitting exertions were
unequal to the demands upon his.services; he, there-
fore, in the year. 1785, introduced»Mr Rennie as engi-
neer to the Lancaster canal. This selection is a strikin
evidence of his discernment of human character, an
although as the demand about thattime became ur nt,
such natural talents and.assiduity must ultimately have
acquired distinction, yet: their progress was not a little.
facilitated by the long continued aid of so experienced
and enlightened a friend.
The preceding narrative contains only a rapid sketch
SOP.
of the professional career of this valuable man, who des Jessop
ih ale
parted this life on the 18th Nov. 1814.
It will be evident to the reader, that in the course
of discussing the important article Inland Navication,
we shall have frequent opportunities of stating more at
length the share that Mr Jessop had in the public works
which are here only slightly alluded to, and dec the pecu~
liarities in his mode of practice, as well as the particular
benefits for which his profession was indebted to him. »
His mind was comprehensive, inventive, and sin«
cere. At the age of threescore his mental energies
were unabated. Unshackled by prejudices, he retained
a youthful ardour for professional improvements ; and
he would even then not unfrequently display a degree of
jealousy, lest a more perfect mode was possible. He
constantly devoted his whole mind to the subject be«
fore him, and from which all personal considerations
seemed excluded. Under these impressions his uni«
form aim was to accomplish his. purposes by the sim-
plest and most economical means: these he sometimes
carried to a length to which the average talents of
mankind could not always do justice in the execution :
but he invariably disdained to screen personal respon
sibility by unnecessary expenditure, upon the grounds;
that it was the business of an engineer, and what
ought chiefly to distinguish him from the common
workman, to effect his purposes rather by ingenuity.
of construction, than quantity of materials : that it was
an imperative duty rather to risk occasional partial
failures from: imperfect workmanship, than uniform-.
ly to persevere in an unpardonable waste of capital ;
and that no. clamour of ignorance, or prejudice, or
consideration of personal interest, should for a moment
deter him-from this conduct, f
His discerning and ingenious. mind led him to found.
his practice upon observation and just principles rather.
than precedent. In-the important articles of Locks,
Wharfs, and Retaining Walls, he introduced:an entire=
ly new form, com of nearly one half the quantity
of materials employed by the French and cual Eng-
-lish engineers ; he contrived an excellent method of
draining morasses and boggy land, more especially for
the Eerpie of conbleqetion navigable canal through
it; he communicated very judicious views respecting.
the management of flood waters; he seized with ea-
gerness the idea of acquiring an expeditious mode of
conveying heavy materials hy iron rail roads; and
was particularly: zealous for the general use of cylin~
drical broad wheels upon roads. composed of gravel
But all. these matters, as has been already: observed,
will be discussed under their proper heads ; our inten
tion in mentioning them at present being merely to ex
hibit the general tenor of Mr Jessop’s mind and conduct:
Besides these extensive pursuits in the British islands,
his reputation as an-engineer led to his being consult-
ed. respecting a pri canal in Spain. What the
practical result was, in that distracted and feeble king
dom, it is easy to conjecture. He was also applied to
by the American states, to select a properly qualified
person for investigating and arranging several propo-
sed inland navigations in that extensive region. In
consequence of this, Mr Weston, a very ingenious and
well-informed person, was for several years employed
in North America ; but we suspect that some centuries
must’ yet elapse, before the introduction of this expen-
sive improvement can, with propriety become general
in that infant country. ‘
Like most men of truly great minds, his; manners
Pounder.
JES
were simple; when disengaged from business, and in
the company of intimate friends, he not nie,
displayed a playfulness of disposition, and a fund of
foe eae es a Totally free of all envy and
professional rivalship, his proceedings in
i were free from all p and mysticism, and
persons of merit never failed in obtaining his friend-
ship and encouragement. Although indefatigable in
performing all the duties of an active life, the writer
of this article, who for more than twenty years enjoy-
ed his uninierrupted intimacy, has heard it said that he
had a natural tendency to indolence ; no symptom of it,
however, could ever be discovered in his conduct, but
rather, as has already been noticed, a degree of anxiety
to be of the utmost service to his employers, and to
rentler as perfect as possible the works under his con-
sideration.
A mind thus constituted, and exercising the profes-
sion of a civil engineer, was, as might be expected,
never behind in regard to ge knowledge and ex-
imental : His irements in these
* ledge, nerd to his well-earned re-
putation, to intimacy with eminent persons of si-
milar characters, such as the celebrated Mr Watt and
Dr Franklin. For an acquaintance with the latter he
was indebted to an accidental discovery, made as early
as the year 1772, with to the repelling property
of oil on water, and w the Doctor mentions in his
works as havi oo communicated to him by an in-
genious pupil rt Smeaton.
before the public in the
Mr J has not a
character of an author ; for although many of his
were printed, yet as this was done at the expence of pri-
vate companies, and as they were not ex to sale,
are of course in the hands of few. Ashe was always
perfectly master of the subject, his mode of treating it
was i comprehensive, and laconic.
we TS, or the Society or Jesus, one of the most
celebrated monastic orders of the Romish church, was
founded in the year 1540 by Ignatius Loyola. This
was a native of Biscay ; and while
serving as an officer in the army of Ferdinand V. of
was cor ped er in ac — of
Pampeluna in 1521. Durin progress of a lingeri
cure, he happened to ave os other amusement than
what he found in reading the lives of the saints. The
perusal of their history inspired his enthusiastic and
ambitious mind with an ardent desire of emulating their
fabulous exploits. Forsaking the military for the ec-
elesiastical profession, he engaged himself in the wildest
and most extrav adventures, as the knight of the
blessed V After performing a ee the
t
1 number of associates ; and,
by his fanatical spirit or the love of distinc-
Seiten shqenaetes the ntchichaieased actets te
gious order. He produced a plan of its constitutions
and laws, which he affirmed to have been
VOL. XL. PART I.
737 JES
the scruples of the court of Rome. He proposed, that Jesuits.
the members of his society, besides the usual vows of
poverty, chastity, and monastic obedience, should take
a fourth vow of subserviency to the Pope, binding
themselves, without requiring reward or support, to
wherever he should direct for the service of chivcncs
and to obey his mandate in every of the globe.
At a time when the papal authority had received so se-
vere a shock from the progress of the Reformation, and
was still exposed to the most powerful attacks in eve’
bm this was an offer too tempting to be veidel,
he reigning pontiff, — naturally cautious, and
though scarcely capable, without the spirit of prophe«
cy, of mreD Se in the advantages to be derived Ny oe
the services of this nascent order, yet clearly: perceivin
the benefit of multiplying the number of his devo’
servants, instantly confirmed by his bull the institution
of the Jesuits, granted the most ample privileges to the
members of the society, and appointed Loyola te be the
first general of the order.
The simple and primary object of the society was to Object of
establish a spiritual dominion over the minds of men, the Society.
of which the Pope should —— as the ostensible head,
while the real power should reside with themselves.
To accomplish this object, the whole constitution and
licy of the order were singularly adapted, and exhi-
ited various peculiarities which distinguished it from
all other mohastic orders. The immediate design of
every other religious society was to te its mem-
bers from the world ; that of the Jesuits to render them
masters of the world. The inmate of the convent de«
voted himself to work out his own salvation by extra<
ordinary acts of devotion and self-denial ; the follower
of Loyola considered himself as plunging into all the
bustle of secular affairs, to maintain the interests of the
Romish church. The monk was a retired devotee of
heaven ; the Jesuit a chosen soldier of the Pope. . That
the members of the new order might have full leisure
for this active service, they were exempted from, the
usual functions of other monks. They were not re«
uired to spend their time in the long ceremonial of-
ces and numberless mummeries of the Romish wor-
ship. They attended no processions, and practised no
austerities. They neither chaunted nor prayed. « They
cannot sing,” said their enemies, “for birds of prey
never do.” They were sent forth to watch every trans-
action of the world which might appear to affect the in-
terests of religion, and were ially enjoined to stu-
dy the dispositions and cultivate the friendship of per-
sons in the higher ranks. Nothing could be oye geen
more open and liberal than the external aspect of the
institution, yet nothing could be more strict and secret
than its internal organization. The gates of the socie-
ty were thrown open to the whole world, as if there
were nothing in its nature to dread disclosure. Men
of every description were invited to enter, and talents
of every kind were drawn together. It was.a company,
such as had never yet appeared, of which all mankind
might be free at pleasure, but of which every member
became in reality an irredeemable slave, Other reli-
gious orders were in a manner voluntary. associations,
of which the-executive authority might be vested in
certain heads ; but whatever affected the whole body as
an act of legislation, was by the common suf-
of all its members.
the government of the Jesuits should be absolutely mos
5a.
f; ola, however, influenced Form and
by the notions of implicit obedience which he constitution
Bad derived from his military ere resolved that °f the order.
—
ae
738 JESUITS.
Jesuits. narchical. A general, chosen for life by deputies from
“"v~"_ the several provinces, possessed supreme and indepen-
dent power, extending to every person, and applying
to every case. By his sole authority he nominated or
removed every officer employed in the government of
the society. He administered at pleasure the revenues
of the order; and disposed of every member by his
uncontroulable mandate, assigning whatever service,
and imposing whatever task he pleased. To his com-
mands they were required not only to yield outward
obedience, but to resign to his direction the inclinations
of their wills, and the sentiments of -their understand-
ings. Every member of the order, the instant that he
entered its pale, surrendered all freedom of thought
and action ; and every personal feeling was superseded
by the interests of that body to which he had attached
himself. He went wherever he was ordered; he per-
formed whatever he was commanded; he suffered
whatever he was cagetnerts he became a mere passive
instrument, incapable of resistance. The gradation of
ranks was only a gradation in slavery ; and so perfect
a despotism over a large body of men, dispersed over
the face of the earth, was never before realised. To
render the subordination more complete, and to enable
the general to avail himself to the utmost of his abso-
lute dominion, he was provided with effectual means
of perfectly ascertaining the characters and abilities of
the agents under his controul. Every novice, who of-
fered himself as a candidate for admission into the or-
der, was-required to manifest his conscience to the supe-
rior, or toa person of his appointment ; and not only
to confess his defects and vices, but to discover the in-
clinations, passions, and bent of his soul. This mani-
festation was renewed every sixth month during the
novitiate, whicli was of considerable length ; and ev:
member was also constituted a spy upon the candi-
-dates, whose words and actions, and every thing of im-
portance concerning them, he was bound to disclose to
‘the superior. They were required, under this scrutiny,
‘to pass through several gradations of rank, and to have
attained the full age of thirty-three years, before they
were permitted to take the final vows, and to become
professed members. The superiors, under whose im-
mediate inspection they were placed, were thus tho-«
roughly acquainted with their dispositions and talents;
and the most minute details of every one’s character
and capabilities were regularly transmitted to the head
office at Rome. These reports were digested and en-
tered into registers, where the general could survey at
one view the state of the society in every quarter of
the world ; the qualifications and talents of its mem-
bers; and the kind of instruments awaiting his selec-
tion for any department in the service. The number
of these reports, from the whole thirty-seven provinces
of the order, have been calculated at 6554 annually.
Besides these, there may be “ extraordinary letters,”
or such as are sent by the monitors or spies in each
house ; and the provinces were farther bound to state
the civil and political circumstances of the various
countries where they had their residence. These state-
ments, when relating to matters of importance, were
conveyed by a particular cypher known only to the ge-
neral, The situation and interests of every department
were thus intimately known by the head of the whole
body ; and the employment of every individual mem-
ber was precisely adapted to his faculties.» The mean-
est talents were in requisition ; and, according to their
own expression, “ the Jesuits had missionaries for the
villages, and martyrs for the Indians.” There was thus a
peculiar energy imparted to the operations of this singular Jesuits.
ich has been compared to a system of me. “Y=”
society ; which
chanism, containing the greatest possible quantity of
power distributed to the greatest possible advantage,
‘“* The Jesuits,” it was said with justice, ‘ are a naked
sword, whose hilt is at Rome.”
The maxims of policy adopted by this celebrated so« tts maxims
ciety were, like its constitution, remarkable for their and spirit.
union of laxity and rigour. Nothing could divert them
from their original object; and ne means were ever
scrupled, which promised to aid its accoraplishment,
They were in no degree shackled by prejudice, supers
stition, or real religion. Expediency, in its most simple
and licentious form, was the basis of their morals, and
their principles and practices were uniformly accommo«
dated te the circumstances in which they were placed;
and even their bigotry, obdurate as it was, never appears
to have interfered with their interests. The paramount
and characteristic principle of the order, from which
none of its members ever swerved, was simply. this,
that its interests were to be promoted by all possible
means, at all possible expences. In order to acquire
more easily an ascendancy over persons of rank and
power, they propagated a system of the most relax«
ed morality, which accommodated itself to the pas«
sions of men, justified their vices, tolerated their im
perfections, and authorised almost every action, which
the most audacious or crafty politician would wish
to perpetrate. To persons of stricter principles they
studied to recommend themselves by the "ey of their’
lives, and sometimes by the austerity of their doctrines.
While sufficiently compliant in the treatment of ime
moral. practices, they were generally rigidly severe in
exacting a strict orthodoxy in opinions. ‘* They area
sort of people,” said the Abbé Boileau, ‘* who lengthen
the creed and shorten the decalogue.” | »
They adopted the same spirit of accommodation in Missions.
their missionary undertakings ; and their Christianity,
cameleon-like, readily assumed the colour of every re«
gion, where it happened to be introduced. They freely
permitted their converts to retain a full i
of the old superstitions, and suppressed without he-~
sitation any point in the new faith, which was likely
to bear hard on their prejudices, or propensities. They
proceeded to still greater lengths; and, besides sup~
pressing the truths of revelation, devised the most ab«
surd falsehoods, to be used for attracting disciples, or
even to be taught as parts of Christianity. One of
them, in India, produced a pedigree to prove his own
descent from Brama; and another in America assured
a native chief that Christ had been a valiant and vic-
torious warrior, who;in the space of three years, had
scalped an incredible number of men, women, and chil-
dren. It was in fact their own authority, not the autho-
rity of true religion, which they wished to establish ; and
Christianity was generally as little known, when they
uitted the foreign scenes of their labours as when
— them. '
But the most singular tions, which principal-
ly contributed to extend the er of the Jesuits, and
to form that enterprising and intriguing spirit by which
they were distinguished, were long unknown to the
rest of mankind, and were concealed with a degree of
care, which might alone have excited the worst suspi«
cions of their nature. It was their favourite maxim,
from their first institution, never to lish even the
ordinary rules and registers of the . These were
preserved, as an impenetrable mystery, not only from
strangers, but even from the greater part of their own
Bise5
JESUITS.
which
a ee of the institute were un-
veiled to world. But the “ Secreta Monita,’* or
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739
their salvation, and effectually escape the pains of pur-
gatory.—That the widow may di of her property
to the society, she must be told of those who have de-
voted themselves to the service of God, and be led to
expect canonization from the court of Rome. Confes-
sors must also enquire of their penitents what family,
relations, friends, and estates they possess, and what
they have in ; as also their intentions, which
they must endeavour to mould in favour of the society.
Such members as sot Pra 3 of acquiring riches for
the society must be dismissed ; and if they appeal to
the proyincials, they must not be heard, but pressed
with the statute, which commands implicit obedience
from all.—Such as retain a love for other orders, for
the poor, or their relations, must be dismissed, since
they are likely to prove of little service.—All, before
dismission, must be prevailed upon to subscribe and
make an oath, that they will never, directly or indi-
rectly, either write or speak any thing to the disadvan
tage of the order; and the superiors soonest
wires, in order to prevent their future advancement
ife; and noblemen and prelates, with whom they
may have credit, must be prevailed upon to deny them
their protection.—All must be caressed, who are dis-
See ase coe
rnp: ve fri oithe eicietiy:
or posstmed of fower ; such aust be sent to Raine, or
provinces, professors inveigle
into a surrender of their effects to the society, and the
superiors must shew a regard to such as have
ising youths into the society. The
ise or keep in subjection young
agreeable persons, and noble fa«
milies, like their other pupils : er must be won by
the i ce of ies peculiar to
; but on other occasions, ially in exhor-
ust be terrified with
samehags arched
Jesuits.
progress of
intention of the new order, was to promote with une- the society.
and unfettered zeal the ‘salvation of mankind.
Its progress, nevertheless, was at first remarkably slow.
Charles V. who is supposed, with his usual sagacity, to
have discerned its dangerous , rather checked
than encouraged its advancement ; and the universities
of France resisted its introduction into that kingdom.
Thus, roused by obstacles, and obliged to find resources
within themselves, the Jesuits brought all their talents
and devices into action, They applied themselves to
every useful function and curious art ; and neither ne-
glected nor despised any mode, however humble, of
* These and other Institutions, which contributed most essentially to the power and permanence of the society, are attributed to
the genius of Laignez and Aquaviva, the two generals who succeeded Loyola,
the science of government and the knowledgeof human nature.
and who were far’ superior to their fanatical master in
Jesuits.
Its power
and wealth,
its estas
blishments
in South
America,
740
gaining employment or reputation. The satirist’s de-
scription of the Greeks in Rome, has been aptly chosen
to describe their indefatigable and universal industry.
Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes,
Augur, schenobates, medicus, magus, omnia novit
Greculus.
They laboured with the greatest assiduity to quality
themselves as the instructors of youth ; and succeeded,
at length, in supplanting their opponents in every Ca
tholic kingdom. They aimed, in the next place, to be-
come the spiritual directors of the higher ranks; and
soon established themselves in most of the courts which
were attached to the Papal faith, not only as the con-
fessors, but frequently also as the guides and minis-
ters of superstitious princes. The governors of the so-
ciety, pursuing one uniform system with unwearied per-
severance, became entirely successful ; and, in the space
ef half.a century, had in a wonderful degree extended
the reputation, the number, and influence of the order.
When Loyola, in 1540, petitioned the Pope to author-
ize the institution of the Jesuits, he had only ten disci-
les ; but in 1608, the number amounted to. 10,581.
efore the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had
obtained the chief direction of the education of youth
in every Catholic country in Europe, and had become
the confessors of almost all its noblest monarchs. They
thus formed the minds of men in their youth, and re-
tained the ascendancy over them in their advanced
years. They took part in every public measure, and
possessed at different periods the direction of the prin-
cipal courts in Europe. They preserved the highest
degree of influence with the Roman pontiffs, as the
most zealous champions of their authority ; and were
equally celebrated by the friends, and dreaded by the
adversaries of the Catholic faith, as the ablest and most
enterprising order in the church. In 1710, they pos-
sessed 24 professed houses, 59 houses of probation, 340
residences, 612 colleges, 200 missions, 150 seminaries,
and 19,998 members.
In spite of their vow of poverty, their wealth increa-
sed with their power; and they soon rivalled, in the
extent and value of their possessions, the most opulent
monastic fraternities. Besides the sources of wealth
common to.all the regular clergy, they possessed one
peculiar to themselves. Under the specious pretext of
facilitating the success and support of their mission,
they obtained a special license from the court of Rome
to trade with the nations whom they laboured to con-
vert ; and though these mercantile schemes tended. ul-
timately to accelerate their ruin, they proved, during a
eentury and a half, a most lucrative source of property
and influence. Besides carrying on an extensive com-
merce both in the East and West Indies, and opening
warehouses in different parts of Europe for the purpose
of vending their commodities, they aimed at obtaining
settlements, and reigning as sovereigns. It was in this
latter capacity, unsuitable as it may seem to their whole
character, that they exhibited the most wonderful dis-
play of their abilities, and contributed most essentially
to the benefit of the human species. About the begin-
ning of the 17th century, they obtained from the court
of Madrid the grant of the large and fertile province of
Paraguay, which stretches across the southern conti-
nent of America, from the mountains of Potosi to the
banks of the river La Plata; and, after every deduc-
tion which can reasonably be made from their own ac-
counts of their establishment, enough will remain to ex-
cite the astonishment and applause of mankind, They
JESUITS.
found the inhabitants in the first stage of society, igno«
rant of the arts of life, and unacquainted with the firsts “"Y"""”
principles of subordination. They applied themselves
to instruct and civilize these savage tribes. They com-
menced their labours, by collecting about fifty families
of wandering Indians, whom they converted and settled
in a small township. They taught them to build houses,
to cultivate the ground, and to rear tame animals;
trained them to arts and manufactures, and brought
them to relish the blessings of security and order. By
a wise and humane policy, they gradually attracted new
subjects and converts; till at last they formed a powers
ful and well organized state of 300,000 families. Over
these they exercised a mild and patriarchal govern«
ment, and their subjects, docile and grateful, revered
their benefactors as divinities. The country was divi«
ded into 47 districts, over each of which a Jesuit pre«
sided. A few magistrates, chosen by the Indians them<
selves, assisted in every town to secure obedience to the
laws. In other respects all the members of the ‘coms
munity were, as one family, on a footing of perfect
equality, and possessed all things in common, » Every
individual was obliged to labour for the public, and the
fruits of their industry were deposited in commonsstore
houses, from which every person received whatever was
necessary for the supply of his wants. Punishments
were rare, and always of the mildest description, such
as an admonition from the Jesuit, a slight mark of dis«
grace, or at most a few lashes with a whip. | Industry
was universal, but wealth and want were equally un.
known ; and most of those passions, which disturb the
peace of society, were deprived of every opportunity to
operate. Even the elegant arts began by degrees to
appear, and full. protection was provided against every
invader. An army of 60,000 men was, completely
armed and regularly disciplined, a pete of cavalry,
infantry, artillery, and well provided with magazines
of all the implements of war. The Indians of Paraguay,
in short, under the government of the Jesuits, were an
innocent and happy people, civilized without being
corrupted, and yielding with entire contentment the
most perfect submission to an absolute but equitable
government. Yet, even in this most meritorious effort
for the welfare of mankind, the peculiar spirit of the
order was sufficiently discernible. In order to preserve
their influence, they found it necessary to keep their
subjects in a state of comparative ignorance; and, be«
sides prohibiting all intercourse with the adjacent set~
tlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, they endea-~
voured to inspire them with a hatred and contempt of
those nations. They prevented their subjects from learn«
ing any language, except a native dialect, (the Guas
rani,) which they endeavoured to improve asa general
standard, and plainly aimed at establishing an indepen<
dent empire, subject only to their order, which could
scarcely have failed, from its excellent constitution and
police, to have extended its dominion over all the
southern continent of America. :
Jesuits.
Though the power of the Jesuits had become so ex Reverses
tensive, and though their interests generally prospered and over-
during a period of more than two centuries, their pros throw of the
gress was by no means uninterrupted ; and, by their sity.
own misconduct, they soon excited the most formida-
ble counteractions. Scarcely had they effected their
establishment in France, in defiance of the parliaments
and universities, when their existence was endangered
by the fanaticism of their own members. John Chas-
tel, one of their pupils, made an attempt upon the life
of Henry IV.; and Father Guiscard, another of the or
4:
JESUITS.
Jemuits. der, was convicted of composing writings favourable to
1" regicide. The parliaments seized the moment of their
741
upon being indemnified from the funds of the order.
t Jesuits.
The claim was resisted, and a law suit commenced,
—
disgrace, and procured their banishment from every
their flexible system of morality, became their patron,
and selected one of their number as.his confessor.
They were favoured by Louis XIII. and his minister
Richelieu, on account of their literary exertions ; but it
was in the succeeding reign of Louis XIV. that they
reached the summit of their prosperity. The Fathers
La Chaise and Le Teltier, were successively confessors
to the king ; and did not fail to employ their influence
for the interest of their order ; but the latter carried on
i j with so blind and a zeal, that one of
esuits is ted to have said of him, “ he drives
at such a rate, ge ner ye Pg The Jan-
senists were i objects of his machinations,
wi herndenan ined eabomoplished the denoun.
tion of their celebrated college and convent at. Port
Royal. Before the fall, however, of this honoured se-
minary, a shaft from its bow had reached the heart of
a eh The “ Provincial Letters of Pascal”
been published, in which the quibbling morality
P retained in a considerable degree.
But they soon revived the odium of the public by their
intolerant
] 2 Reet, =: well matic im-
ear attacking au Encyc: .
oltaire directed them all i
ers of his ri-
gente iter
Fé IE
oe
I
:
2
that was wanted to put
ceased to be either popu-
“tt
trade Martinico, bo weight oe which would have
fallen in u society’s oats eo at
Lyons and Marselles. These merchants, however, al-
Jesuits in France were responsible for
the debts of their missionaries in America, and insisted
which the Jesuits, by virtue of their privilege, removed
from the provincial. parliament to the great chamber at
Paris. This measure rendered the dispute and their
defeat mies of more general notoriety. They were,
condemned to pay Jarge sums to the adverse party, and
prohibited thenceforth from meddling in commercial
concerns. The sources of their wealth were thus dimi-
nished, and their enemies encouraged to renewed at-
tacks. The questions at issue in the commercial dis-
ute, had given the mpapairaes a plausible occasion for
demanding to inspect the constitutions of the society ;
and, in a luckless hour for themselves, they consented
togendace their books. The parliament instantly saw
seized the advantage which they had gained, and
resolved to effect the destruction of the order. By an
arret of the 11th August 1761, the Jesuits were requi«
red to appear at the end of a year to receive judgment
on their constitution, which, it was now discovered, had
never been approved with the requisite forms. In the
mean time the king of Po was assassinated; and
Carvalho, the minister, who detested the Jesuits, found
means to load them with the odium ofthe crime, Mala.
grida, and a few more of these fathers, were charged
with advising and absolving the assassins, and having
been found guilty, were condemned to the stake. The
rest were bayished with every brand of infamy, and
were treated with the most iniquitous cruelty. Th
were persecuted without discrimination, robbed of their
property without pity, and embarked for Italy without
previous preparation ; so that no provision having been
made for their reception, they were literally left to pe«
rish with hunger in their vessels. These incidents pre«
pared the way fora similar catastrophe in France. Dus
ing the year allotted for the investigation of their rules
and records, the court evinced a disposition to protect
them, and the bishops declared unanimously in their fa«
vour; butan fro age pablic Sameny scar it ne«
cessary to appease the nation by some acceptable mea-
sure; and F 4 Jesuits, after all. are su to have
been sacrificed more as a trick of state as an act of
justice.
In March 1762, the French court received intelli«
ce of the capture of Martinico by the British ; and
ing a storm of public indignation, resolved to
divert the exasperated Ealing: of the nation, by yield-
ing the Jesuits to their impending fate. On the 6th
August 1762, their institute was condemned by the
parliament, as contrary to the laws of the state, to the
obedience due to the sovereign, and to the welfare of
the kingdom. The order was dissolved, and their ef-
fects alienated. But still the members, though no long-
er dressed in their religious habit, continued to hover
about the court; and, had they preserved their origi-
nal cautious and patient policy, might have succeeded
in recovering their privileges. But former successes
inspired them witha fatal confidence. One of the arch-
Subeps indignant that the parliament should presume
to dispense with ecclesiastical vows, issued a mandate
in favour of the Jesuits, and the fathers were accused
of having employed themselves too industriously in the
circulation of this pai The Ps jon ag took the
alarm, and pronounced a decree, that every Jesuit, whe-
ther professor or novice, should, within eight days,
make oath that he renounced the institution, or quit the
kingdom. In a body, whose moral principles were so
* See also La Morale Pratique des Jesuits, per Arnauld.
742
relaxed, and whose members, while it existed, scrupled
no subtilties in promoting its interests, it is a remark-
JESUITS.
mediately followed by Ferdinand VI. of Naples, and’ Jesuits.
soon after by the Prince of Parma. They had been “=
Jesuits.
—_——
able circumstance, that, as secularized individuals, they
acted in this instance with strict integrity, and refused
the alternative of the oath. They were therefore or-
dered to quit the kingdom, and this judgment was ex-
ecuted with the utmost rigour. The poor, the aged,
the sick, were included in the general prescription.
But in certain quarters, where the provincial parlia-
ments had not decided against them, Jesuits still sub-
sisted; and a royal edict was afterwards promulgated,
which formally abolished the society in France, but
permitted its members to reside within the kingdom
under certain restrictions. *
In Spain, where they conceived their establishment
to be perfectly secure, they experienced an overthrow
equally complete, and much more unexpected. The
necessary measures were concerted under the direction
of De Choiseul, by the Marquis D’Ossun, the French
ambassador at Madrid, with Charles III. King of Spain,
and his prime minister the Count D’Aranda. The-ex-
ecution of their purpose was as sudden as their plans
had been secret. At midnight, (March 31st 1767),
large bodies of military surrounded the six colleges of
the Jesuits in Madrid, forced the gates, secured the
bells, collected the fathers in the refectory, and read
to them the king’s order for their instant transportation.
They were immediately put into carriages, previously
placed at proper stations; and were on their way to
Carthagena before the inhabitants of the city had any
intelligence of the transaction. Three days afterwards,
the same measures were adopted with regard to every
other college of the order in the kingdom, and ships
having been provided at the different sea-ports, they
were all embarked for the ecclesiastical states in Italy.
All their property was ‘confiscated, and a small pension
assigned to each individual 4s long as he should reside
in a place appointed, and satisfy the Spanish court as
to his peaceable demeanour. All correspondence with
the Jesuits was prohibited, and the strictest silence on
the subject of their expulsion was enjoined under pe-
nalties of high treason. A similar seizure and depor-
tation took place in the Indies, and an immense pro
perty was acquired by the government. Many crimes
and plots ‘were laid to the charge of the order; but
whatever may have been their demerit, the punishment
Was too summary to admit of justification ; and many
innocent individuals were subjected to sufferings beyond
the deserts even of the guilty. Pope Clement III. pro-
hibited their landing in his dominions; and, after en-
during ‘extreme miseries in crowded transports, the
survivors, to the number of 2300, were put ashore ‘on
Corsica. The example of the King of Spain was im-
expeiled from England in 1604; from Venice in 1606;
and from Portugal in 1759, upon the charge of hav-~
ing instigated the families of Tavora and D’Aveiro to
assassinate King Joseph I. Frederick the Great of
Prussia was the only monarch who shewed a disposi-
tion to afford them protection ; but, in 1773, the order
was entirely suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. who
is supposed to have fallen a victim to their vengeance.+
In 1801, the society was restored in Russia by the Em-
peror Paul ; and in 1804, by King Ferdinand in Sardi.
nia. In August 1814, a bull was issued by the pre-
sent Pope, Pius VII. restoring the order to all their for«
mer privileges, and calling upon all Catholic princes to
afford them protection and ‘encow ent, This act
of their revival is expressed in all the solemnity of Pa-
pal authority ; and even affirmed to be above the recal
or revision of any judge with whatever power he may
be clothed ; but to every enlightened mind it cannot
fail to appear as a measure altogether incapable of jus«
tification, from any thing either in the history of Jesuit«
ism or in the character of the present times.
It would be in vain to deny, that many considerable general
mankind from the labours character of
Their ardour in the study of ancient the Jesuits.
advantages were derived by
of the Jesuits.
literature, and their labours in the instruction of youth,
tly contributed to the progress of polite learning.
They have produced a greater number of ingenious
authors than all the other religious fraternities taken to«
gether; and though there never was known among
their order one person who could be said to ‘possess an
enlarged philosophical mind, they can boast of many
eminent masters in the separate branches of science,
many distinguished mathematicians, antiquarians, cri-
tics, and even some orators of high reputation. They
were in general, also, as individuals, superior in de«
cency, and even purity of manners, to any other class
of regular clergy in ‘the church of Rome. Their ac
tive and literary spirit furnished, likewise, a most be«
néficial counteraction to the deadening influence of their
contem monastic institutions, Even the debased
species of Christianity, which wr introduced am
the savage tribes of America, and the more civiliz
nations of the East, was infinitely superior, both in its
consolations and morals, ‘to the b and licentious
rites of idolatry. But all these benefits by no means
couriterbalanced the pernicious effects of their influence
and ‘intrigues on the ‘best interests of society.
The essential principles of the institution, viz. that
their ‘orders is to be maintained at the expencelof ‘so«
ciety at large, and that the end sanctifies the means,
are utterly incompatible with the welfare of any com.
* The Duke de Choiseul, the French minister, was a principal agent in procuring their final suppression, and the following origin
has been assigned to be the hostility with which he pursued the whole order in every quarter of Europe. The Duke having no em-
ployment in the government of France, happened one evening at supper to say Something very strong against the Jesuits. Some
years afterwards, lie was sent ambassador to Rome, where, in the ustial routine of his visits in that situation, Ke called upon the Ge-
neral of the Jesuits, for whose order he professed the highest Veneration. ** Your Excellence did ‘not always, 1 fear, think so well
of us,” replied the General. The Duke, much surprised at this observation, begged to-know what reasons he had for thinking so, ds
he was not conscious that he had ever mentioned the order but in terms of the highest respect. The General, to convince him of the
contrary, shewed him an extract from a large register book belonging to the sogiety, in which the particular conversation alluded to,
and the day and the year in which it happened, were minuted down. The ambassador blushed, and excused himself as well as he
could, and soon went away, resolving within himself, whenever he should become prime minister, to destroy a society that kept up
Such particular and detailed correspondences, of which it might make use to the detriment of administration and ‘government.”—
Seward’s Biographiana.
‘+ It was long a current story at Rome, that this pontiff was accustomed to withdraw in the course of the grand mass to'take some
refreshment ; that a young priest, on one of these occasions, brought chocolate to his Holiness, and immediately. withdrew; that the
proper officiating priest soon after appeared with another cup, the pope shook his head, as conscious of having received a fatal potion ;
that he pined from that day of a lingering disease, which reduced his body to the appearanee of a skeleton; and that he was known
to have said, in allusion to the secret cause of his death, ‘** I am going to eternity, and I know for what.”
Jesuits.
a rality,
ES
stem of lax and pliant mo-
Sir iilocs sad lenin roseges on bie A
atrocity, an ing ray on ce
world. Their set i ea the juris-
diction of the court of Rome over every civil govern-
ment, gave currency to tenets ing the duty of
Po gy, Bc who were to the Catholic
faith, which shook the basis of all political allegiance,
and loosened the obligations of every human law. Their
indefatigable ind , and countless artifices in resist-
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JEW
desting division—lay a train which is to explode in the
citadel of truth, and overturn her sacred towers—we
venture confidently to affirm that Jesuitism is that in-
strument. But, as for any other adv: either to
Protestantism or Popery, it is for the Pope, or any other
infallible reasoner, to shew. Till some such superior
being shall stoop down to instruct us on this point, and
to establish a fact which the Jesuits themselves for two
centuries, and by a whole regiment of folios, endea-
voured to establish in vain, we must venture to con
clude, with our forefathers, with the kings, and queens,
and parliaments, and j , and churches of Europe,
and with the infallible Pope Clement XIV. that Jesuit-
ism is a public nuisance ; and that he who endeavours
to let it loose upon society, is chargeable with high
treason against the common prveraess ee iness of
his ies.” See Robertson’s History o rles V.
vol. ii. and the authorities there cited; D’Alembert’s
Narrative of the destruction of the Jesuits ; A short View
of the Polity of the Jesuits in Paraguay, attributed to
the pen of Mr Burke, and to be found in the Ist vol. of
The European Settlements in America ; Southey’s His-
tory of Brazil; Adolphus’ History of land, vol. i.;
Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv.; Christian
Observer, vol. vi.; and A Brief Account of the Jesuits,
$e. London, 1815. (q)
JESUS. See Curistianity, Eccresiasticat His-
Tory, vol, viii. p, 302, and TuzoLogy.
JET. See Minerarocy-
JET D'EAU. See Hypropynamics, vol. xi. page
507.
JEWELS. See Gems and MineraLocy.
and by directing their attention more to practice than
to di ion, in renderi
brave defenders of their independence.
Still there existed sources of calamity and distress
them; their country was na tha ems of
subject to the kings of Persia. The Syrian
governors, in order to secure and extend their influence
, conferred the administration of affairs upon
The bad effects of this measure soon
t oe hoe a claim to this office. first
ity befel the Jewish nation after their
lon occurred in the
of their having ded the king
Jericho, and carried off all the inha-
When Alexander invaded Persia,
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* Christian Observer, vol. xiv.
Sesuits
ll
Jewels.
Jews.
them austerely moral, and iD 5 cc
in creating jealousies among those .
$51 B.C, 32°! 8.
¢
Jews.
———
Jews fa-
voured by
Antiochus,
204 B.C.
Civil dis.
cords,
176 B.C.
Judea ra-
vaged by
Antiochus,
168 B,C, ¢
744 JEWS.
on their Sabbath, assaulted the city on that day, and
easily took it. When this monarch, five years after-
wards, .was obliged to yield Judea to Antigonus, the
latter behaved to the Jews in such a tyrannical manner,
that great numbers of them fled into Egypt and Syria,
and Judea seemed in danger of being entirely depopu-
lated till it was recovered by Ptolemy in the year 292
B.C. In the reign of Ptolemy Philopater, a dreadful
persecution was carried on against them, in conse-
quence.of their attempting to prevent that monarch
from profaning the temple, by entering into the sanc-
tuary.
On their ready submission, in the year 204 B. C. to
Antiochus the Great, they gained such a strong hold on
his favour, that he promised to restore Vercuslesn to its
former splendour, to recall the Jews, and to replace
them, as far as possible, in their ancient privileges.
He actually granted an exemption of taxes to all the
dispersed Jews that would come, within a limited time,
to settle in Jerusalem ; and he ordered all who were slaves
in his dominions to be set free. But the Jews were
not long to enjoy this prosperity. About the year 176
B. C. a quarrel happened between the high-priest and
the governor of the temple, which was attended with
the most fatal consequences, a civil war ensuing, in
which many fell on both sides. When Antiochus Epi-
phanes ascended the throne of Syria, Jason, the high-
priest’s brother, purchased from that monarch the high-
priesthood; and afterwards introduced Grecian cus-
toms, and the ceremonies of paganism among the Jews.
From this time the service of the temple was neglected,
and a general apostacy took place. The power of Ja-
son, however, was not of long continuance; for his
brother Menelaus having offered to the Syrian monarch
a higher price than Jason gave for the priesthood, and
having moreover promised to renounce Judaism, and
embrace the religion of the Greeks in all respects, that
monarch gave Menelaus a force sufficient to drive Ja-
son out of Jerusalem, Menelaus conducted himself
with great tyranny towards the Jews, who complained
of him to Antiochus; but that monarch paid no atten-
tion to their complaints so long as Menelaus could pro-
eure money to bribe him. About the year 170 B. C.
Antiochus marched against Jerusalem, in consequence
of the Jews having rebelled, and made great rejoicings
on the report that he had been killed at the siege of
Alexandria. He soon made himself master of the city,
where he behaved with such cruelty, that it is supposed,
in the course of three days, 40,000 Jews were killed,
and as many sold for slaves. Menelaus still retained
the protection and favour of the Syrian monarch, and
if possible exceeded his former acts of tyranny and
cruelty. But the Jews were reserved for yet greater
calamities; for, about the year 168 B.C. Antiochus,
having been most severely mortified by the Romans,
resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews. He ac-
cordingly dispatched an army of 22,000 men to plun-
der all their cities, to murder all the men, and to sell
the women and children for slaves. The Jews, inca«
pable of resistance, beheld their city taken, their temple
profaned, and their religion abolished. About 10,000
of them, who escaped the slaughter, were carried awa
captive, In order still more effectually to accomplis
his purpose, the Syrian monarch ordered the temple to
be dedicated to Jupiter Olympius, and his statue to be
set up on the altar of burnt-offering. All who refused
to come and worship were massacred, or tortured till
they complied, Altars, groves, and statues were raised _ Jews.
throughout Judea, at which the inhabitants were com.
pelled to worship, while it was instant deeth to observe
the Sabbath, circumcision, or any other of the rites and
ceremonies instituted by Moses,
The Jews now yielded to despair, when an eminent Jewsroused
priest, named Mattathias, had the courage to oppose bY Matta-
the orders of the king, and, by his eeiinte and exhor- er c
tations, roused the spirits and the zeal oF his country- is
men. In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias, finding that
his followers daily increased in number, attacked the
Syrians and apostate Jews, marching from city to city,
overturning the idolatrous altars, and opening the syna-
gogues. He was so successful, that in the space of a
year he had extended his reformation throughout a con-
siderable part of Judea, and he could probably have
com jeted it had he not died.
e was succeeded by the famous Judas Maccabeus, Judas Mac-
who, at the head of 6000 men, made himself master of ¢beus,
some of the strongest fortresses in Judea, and after de. 163 3. ©.
feating the Syrians in five pitched battles, drove them
entirely out of the country, except from a strong fort
built over against the temple. In the year 163 B.C.
after the death of Antiochus, a peace was concluded
\upon terms very advantageous to the Jewish nation ;
but it was not of long continuance. Judas was again
successful in five engagements; in the sixth, however,
having been abandoned by all his troops except 800,
he, together with this gallant band, was slain in the
year 161 B.C. Jonathan and Simon, his brothers, suc-
ceeded him. The latter drove the Syrian garricon
‘from the fortress of Jerusalem, but was at last treacher-
ously murdered by his son-in-law about 135 B. C.
Simon was succeeded by his son Hyrcan, who made
himself master of all Palestine, as well as of Samaria
and Galilee. He was successful and happy till the last
year of his life, when he became involved in a quarrel
with the Pharisees, which is supposed to have shorten-
‘ed his days. The factious and turbulent spirit of this Alexander
-sect also proved very troublesome to Alexander Jan- Jannaus,
neus, who obtained the royal power in the year 105 105 B. C.
B. C. and who seems to have been a monarch of great. :
activity, enterprise, and talent. While he was engaged +64
in subduing his foreign enemies, the Pharisees raiseda =~
rebellion at home, but this he quashed in the year 86 .
B. C.; and, by treating them with very great severity,
not to say cruelty, he prevented them from again dis~
turbing his reign. Alexander having made several con
uests in Syria, died about 79 B.C. He lefttwo sons,
yreanus and Aristobulus, but bequeathed the govern-
ment to his wife as long as she lived. The Pharisees Rebellion
by this time had again put forth their power, and be- of the
came so turbulent as to render the situation of the Ph#"sees
queen very unpleasant: they even compelled her to
rsecute the Sadducees in a most cruel manner. On
er death, contests began between her sons: the Pha.
risees supported Hyrcanus, but his army deserting to
Aristobulus, the former was obli, to abandon all ti-
tle both to the royal and ponti gnity. His a
notwithstandi etal eaiated and were active arena
having obtained the assistance of the King of Arabia,
invaded Judea, defeated Aristobulus, and closely be-
sieged him in Jerusalem. In this situation, the latter
called in the Romans, and by their means drove the
Arabians out of the country.
After this, both the brothers agreed to constitute
Pompey, at that time commander in chief of all the
_——
JEWS.
Jews. Roman forces in the east, the arbitrator of their differ-
ences. Pompey had resolved to take the part of Hyr-
foecin anus; and Aristobulus, ing this, to
the affairs of defend himself against the Romans. On this, the Ro-
man summoned him to appear before him,
which he reluctantly did. Pom insisted that he
should deliver
“JAS
tween Philip and Herod; the former of whom had Jews.
Trachonitis, Batanea, and Auranitis, with a="
small part of Galilee; the latter had the:rest of Gali-
lee, and the countries beyond the Jordan. x
A few years after this division, Archelaus was sum- ‘—
moned to Rome by the Emperor, in consequence of ah
complaints against his tyranny. His effects were con- |
fiscated, himself banished, and a Roman governor ap- |
pointed over Judea, which was declared a Roman pro- Declared a
vince. The Jews, dissatisfied at this arrangement, and Roman
moreover, excited to tumult by the taxes imposed upon province.
them by their new masters, were seldom quiet; their rest-
63 B.C.
vot that — The Jews were still so scrupulous,
w not do any thing on the Sabbath to
ores the besiegers from carrying on their works.
city was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C.
Twelve thousand of the inhabitants were slaughtered,
the dignity of high priest, with
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Zealots, after havi
lessness was increased by their expectation at this time
of their Messiah; and, as they anticipated in him a
temporal prince, they looked forward to his coming as
the era of their emancipation from the Roman yoke,
and their restoration to national independance and
wer. The governors inted by the Romans were
frequent changed, but seldom was the bene-
to
was one continued scene of rapine, tyranny, and cruel-
ty. Seven years after his sebndeitiinbios of our Saviour,
he was removed — ~
the grandson of Herod, was raised'to the royal dignity.
His character and conduct coupe siialiansi0 tober 08 ilo
grandfather, and his death was equally dreadful and»
singular. On his death, Judea was again déMared a»
Roman province. The governors appointed to rule
over it were distingui for every species of vice; .
and from them the Jews suffered so much, that many
of the inhabitants emigrated. About this time it was
computed that there were in Jerusalem between
2,500,000 and 3,000,000 Jews. :
In the year 67 A. D. ‘that fatal war between the War be-
Jews and the Romans commenced, which ended in the tween the
destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersi
mis pcs ae of this war was a dispute between
Jews and the Syrians respecting the city of Cesa-.
rea. Nero decided the question against xe former,
who immediately took up arms. ul cruelties -
were committed by both parties, but the Jews suffered.
most: 20,000 of were massacred by the Syrians
and Romans at Ceesarea; 50,000 at Alexandria; 2000
at Ptolemais, and 3500 at Jerusalem. Soon after these -
massacres, the Jews obtained some partial and tempo-
rary successes, in consequence of which Vespasian was
sent into Judea with an army of 60,000 men. in the-
year 68 A. D. His success was great and rapid, while -
the Jews, instead of uniting to oppose him, and save
their country, were divided into two parties: one were
for submitting to the Romans, the other opposed all
peaceable measures. This dissension was not confined
to Jerusalem, but h all the cities, towns,
and villages of Judea: even houses and families were
divided against each other. Jerusalem was the scene
of their contentions. The city was filled with butch-
eries of the most horrid kind. Twelve thousand per-
sons of noble extraction, and in the flower of their age,
were put to death by the Zealots, for so that party
who were for war with the Romans were called. The
massacred or driven away the 4
posite party, t their arms against themselves, till,
in the year 72 A. D. Titus advanced at the head of a
Jews. About the 16th year of Christ, Pon- Pontius Pi-
tius Pilate was — governor: his administration lateappoint- -
ed gover-
nor of Ju-
dea.
government, and Agrippa, a, D, 16.
ion of the Jews. Jews and
erful army against Jerusalem. This for a while Jerusalem
Siapeuied thelr mutual animosities ; but they soon re- besieged by
turned to them, and thus facilitated the triumph of th a +,
Romans.
52
746
Jews. As Titus wished, if possible, to preserve the city, he
"sent the besieged offers of peace, but they were reject-
ed ; upon which he resolved to carry on the siege with
vigour a fortnight after it commenced ; a breach was
made in the outer wall, by which the Romans entered,
‘the Jews retiring behind the next inelosure. Five days
after gaining this advantage, the Romans entered into
the second inclosure. Famine and pestilence now ra«
ged in the city to a dreadful degree ; and these scour-
es were increased by intestine feuds. As soon as
Titus learned their condition, he again offered them
peace ; but his offer was rejected. Upon this, he cau-
sed the city to be surrounded with a strong wall, which,
though nearly five miles in circuit, was finished in
three days. By means of it, the besieged could not es-
cape, nor receive provisions or succour. Nothing could
be more dreadful than the famished condition to which
they were now reduced. It was at this juncture, ac-
eording to Josephus, that a mother butchered and ate
her own child. ‘When Titus heard of this horrid deed,
he swore he would effect the total extirpation of the
eity and people. About the end of July, the Romans
gained possession of the fortress Antonia, which obli-
ged the Jews to set fire to the galleries which joined it
to the temple. the factious in the city, instead of mu-
tually yielding and opposing the enemy, grew more
embittered against each other ; and one of them actually
plunde’ed the temple.» On the 8th of August, Titus ha-
ving in vain endeavoured to save that edifice, ordered the
gates of it to be set on fire ; but he afterwards caused the
fire to be extinguished before the temple itself was de-
stroyed. On the 10th of that month, he determined on
a general assault ; but before this took place, the temple
was set on fire, whether by the Jews or the Roman sol-
diers is uncertain. Titus in vain endeavoured to ex-
tinguish the flames: his soldiers would not obey his
orders for that purpose. A dreadful massacre follow-
ed soon afterwards, in which many thousands perished.
In the meantime, great preparations were making for
an attack on the palace, which took place on the 8th,
when the city was entered by Titus. The whole num-
‘ber of Jews who perished during this war is computed at
nearly 1,500,000. Three castles were still untaken,
two of which soon capitulated; but the third, Massa-
dor, made a desperate resistance. It was extremely
strong ; and the Roman general, having in vain tried his
engines and battering rams against it, ordered it to be
surrounded with a high wall, and the gates to be then set
on fire. In this dreadful situation, the commander per-
suaded the Jews to kill their wives and children, and
afterwards to choose ten men by lot which should kill
all the rest, and, lastly, one out of these ten to dispatch
them and himself, having previously to-his own de-
struction set fire to the place. This was accordingly
done. Two women, however, who had concealed
‘themselves, came out,.when the Romans were prepa<
ring to scale the walls, and-acquainted them with the
fate of their town’s people. Thus ended the Jewish na-
tion and worship in their own country.
we
Temple
burnt.
Jerusalem
taken.
History of
the Jews led in England. From the prefac
in England, fions, it appears that Mr Richard Waller believed them
to have settled here during the government of the Ro-
mans. is\opinion was founded on the circumstance
of a Roman brick having been found at London, having
on one side a bas-relief, representing Sampson driving
~ the foxes into a field of corn. From the elegance of the
sculpture, end other circumstances, it was inferred that
to Leland’s Collec-
J EW S.
this brick could not be the work of later sand if Jews.
Roman, of Roman Jews, from the subject. However this “=~
may be, it is certain that the Jews werenumerous in Eng~ 4“ 9- 7*¥
land, so early as the year 740, since the 24th paragraph
of the Canonical Excerptions, published by Egbright,
Archbishop of York, in that year, forbids any Chris-
tians to be present at the Jewish feasts.. In a charter
of Witglaff, King of Mercia, made to the monks of
Fn 05 there are confirmed to them not only such
lan
s as had been given to the monastery by the kings
of Mercia, but all their possessions whatever, whether
they were originally bestowed on them by Christians
or Jews, During the feudal ages, the Jews, from their
aversion to war, and their love of gain, seem to have
been the most opulent, as well as the most polished and
enlightened portion of the laity... They were the only
bankers of the period. They conducted foreign trade,
and in the course of it often visited the countries of
southern Europe. - Most of the gold and silver orna-
ments for altars were wrought by them. William Ru- Favoured
fus encouraged them to enter into selemn contests with by Williay
his bishops concerning the true faith ; swearing by the Rufus.
faith of St Luke, his favourite oath, that, if te Jews
were victorious in the dispute, he would turn Jew him-
self. . Accordingly during his reign there was a public
meeting for this disputation, at which the Jews oppo-
sed the Christians with so much vigour, promptitude,
and acuteness, that the clergy felt considerable anxiety
respecting the issue. :
Henry II. in the 24th year of his reign; granted a Numbers
burial-place to the Jews on the outside of every city and wealth
where they dwelt. At this period, one Joshua, a Jew, in the reig.
furnished the rebels in Ireland with great sums of mo. f Henry 11
ney; and another Jew of Bury St Edmunds took in
pledge certain vessels Kina to the service of the
altar. Such was the confidence they felt either in their
numbers or their wealth, that at this time they under
rated the highest dignitaries of the church. In the
year 1188, the parliament of Northampton proposed to
assess the Jews at £60,000, and the Christians at
£70,000, towards carrying on a projected war. In the
reign of Richard I. the prejudices of the people of Eng-
land seem to have been for the first time generally and
strongly excited against them. A crusade had been re- pjyndered
iohead on ; the populace, roused by the declamations of jn the reign
the clergy, easily turned their zeal against the Jews. of Richard t.
In London, their houses were broken open and plun-
dered. On this occasion, three persons only were pu-
nished, who through mistake had damaged the houses
of Christians, In the space of six months, the persecu«
tion of the Jews became general throughout the king«
dom. The most dreadful outrage against them was
committed at Stamford fair. Here were collected an
immense number of the populace, who were p ing
to go with te be a: the eae” ies for this en«
terprise they ready expen e little Property
they possessed; they resolved to force the Jewsalsoto . ~
contribute their share. With this intention, they at«
tacked them when assembled in great numbers at this
: fair, and quickly made themselves masters both of their
II. It is uncertain at what period the Jews first set-. .
ns and fortunes ; the former of which they treated
with all kinds of barbarity. A few of them were so for=
tunate as to obtain shelter in the castle. The king did
not endeavour to prevent this outrage, nor did he pu-«
nish it.. At this period, it is sup by some writers
that they invented bills of ex ge, since mention
seems te be made of them by the name of Starra, Gon
the Hebrew Shetar,) in certain Latin documents of this
era, By an edict of Richard I. for. registering their
JEWS.
OA ark See uer the taxes, assessed u
Many emi- on them. The Jews found their situation under Ri
grate. ard so intolerable, that nearly all the wealthier of them
and there was a ‘consequent defalcation of
the revenue. . This was so considerable in the reign of
ear 1199, used his ut-
pl than ever. It has been
remarked, that Magna Charta sanctions an injustice to
this ill-used race, by enacting, that “if any persons
have borrowed of the Jews, more or less, and
die before they have paid the debt, the debt shall not
money-lenders, and as they were the only
alone are mentioned.
.
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747
In the third year of Edward I. a law passed the
Commons concerning Judaism, which seemed to pro- ort
mise them some security, Nevertheless, in the year oir. thei-
1290, this monarch seized on all their real estates, and property,
banished the whole of them from the kingdom. From A, D. 1290,
15,000 to 16,000 Jews were thus ruined, and then ex- and expels)
pelled. They left behind them several valuable libra- te™.
ries, particularly at Stamford and Oxford. The latter
being sold among the students, most of the Hebrew
books were bought by the famous Roger Bacon, who,
in a short note written in one of them, declares they
were of great service to him in his studies. The ex-
pulsion of the Jews at this time was so complete, that
no farther traces of them in England occur till long af-
ter the Reformation.
Oliver Cromwell made the first attempt to restore to Cromwell
England the industry and wealth of the Jews: the in- testores
tercourse between them was man by means of one ™*™-
Henry Martin, who ed a deputation from the
Jews at Amsterdam to wait upon the English ambas-
sador there : from him they obtained permission to send
a public envoy with proposals to London. Manasseh
Ben Israel, who stiled himself a divine and doctor of
hysic, but who was in reality a printer and booksel-
er, was selected for this embassy, of which he publish-
ed a particular account, On his arrival in England, he
presented an address to Cromwell, ising his au-
thority, and’ solicting his protection. On the 4th of —
December on re summoned a ey pes]
consisting of two lawyers, seven citizens, and 14 n
Ereschess, to consult upon this: request of the Jews ;
t he found so much prejudice and opposition, that,
after a conference of four days, he dissolved the meet-
ing. While this affair was pending, a Rabbi propagated
the opinion that Cromwell was the ex Messiah.
About this time a few appear to have settled in Lon.
don, since, in the year 1663, their register of births
contained twelve names; and during the whole reign Numbers
of Charles II. who introduced the sale of patents of increase un-
denization, their numbers increased. In 1684, James II, det Charles
remitted the alien duty upon all goods exported in fa- sate
vour of the Jews, This privilege was opposed by the
English merchants, petitions from the Hamburgh com-
Jews.
Public pro-
from the d company, and from 57 of the oq; :
leading merchants of the city, being presented against seein
it. After the Revolution, this privilege was taken away them,
from the Jews. In the first year of Queen Anne, a ar
statute was passed to encourage the conversion of oo IIL and 6th
Jews, by emancipating such converts from all depen- o¢ George
dance u their parents; and in the 6th year of 11,
George II. it was that the Lord Mayor and
Court of Aldermen of London, should apply to Parlia-
ment for the suppression of Jew brokers; no public
ing, however, ensued.
In the 7th year of James I. an act was passed pre-
venting all from being naturalized, unless they
first are the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, ac-
cording to the rites of the church of England. This
act effectually excluded the Jews from being naturalized.
In the year 1753; a bill was brought into the House of pin) for na.
Lords, and there without ition, which pro- twralizing
vided that professi e Jewish religion, them, 1753.
who had. resided in Great Britain or Ireland for three
years, might be naturalized without receiving the sa-
crament of the Lerd’s supper. On the 16th of April
this bill was sent down to the House of Commons, and, rguments
on its second reading, a motion was made for its being in support
committed. The bill was su by the petitions of of it.
a few merchants, chiefly dissenters: In behalf of it, it
748
Jews. was argued, that it would increase the numbers and
“_~"._ wealth of the people; that a great portion of the funds
belonging to foreign Jews, it would be highly politic
to induce them to follow their property ; that, connect-
ed as the Jews were with the great bankers and monied
interests of Europe, their residence in England would,
in future wars, give the nation a great command of ca-
pital, and facilitate loans ; that, even their prejudices as
a sect would operate in our favour, and occasion our
manufactures to be dispersed among the Jew-shopkeep-
ers in Europe, who now had recourse to the Jew
merchants of Holland and other tolerant countries ;
and lastly, that Poland had never risen to so high a
pitch of prosperity, as when her policy was most liberal
to the Jews ; and that the sect itself had always aban-
doned its offensive prejudices in proportion to its good
Against it, usage. On the other side it was urged, that by natu-
ralizing the Jews, we should import vagrants and cheats
to burden our rates, and supplant the industry of our
labouring classes ; that the rites of Jews would always.
prevent them from incorporating with the nation,
or becoming any real addition to its intrinsic strength ;
while their early marriages and frequent divorces would
occasion such a rapid increase of their numbers, that
in the end they might become troublesome or even dan-
gerous ; that. Jewish nationality would intrigue all the
trade into their own hand; that they were enemies upon
principle to all Christians ; and that it was endeavour-
ing te oppose the plans, and to frustrate the prophecies
of the Almighty, to gather together a sect of which the
Bible foretold the dispersion. é
The Jord mayor, aldermen, and livery of London,
first presented a petition to parliament against the pro-
posed naturalization, in which they expressed their a
prehension that the bill, if passed into a law, would
tend greatly to the dishonour of the Christian religion,
and endanger the constitution. Alarm and prejudice
spread rapidly and powerfully ; a zeal, the most furious,
vociferated in the pulpits and the corporations against
the bill ; and by the next sessions of parliament, instruc-
tions were sent to almost all the members to solicit-a
repeal of it; the minister yielded, and the bill was re-
pealed by an act which received the royal assent the
same session,
By the 10th of George III. cap. 10, whenever any
Jew shall present himself to take the oath of abjura«
tion, the words “ upon the true faith of a Christian,”
shall be omitted out of the oath. In courts of justice,
they are sworn according to their peculiar rites. If
Jewish parents refuse to allow their Protestant child-
ren a suitable maintenance, the lord chancellor may
-make such order as he may think proper.
Society A few years since a society was formed in London
for convert- for promoting Christianity among the Jews, and branch
ing them. 5 of the society have been established in different parts
of the kingdom. They have published several reports;
but the utility.of this society has been questioned, and
it has been alleged, we hope without reason, that they
have not been sufficiently attentive to the investigation
of the character and probable motives of their converts.
Our limits will not permit us to dwell long on the
history or present state of the Jews in other countries ;
nor are we in possession of materials sufficient to ena-
ble us to enter into detail on these points. In France,
the prejudices of Voltaire against che Jewish religion,
for a long time prevented the philosophic sect in that
country from extending their liberal ideas of toleration
towards the Jews. In 1788, however, the academy at
Petitions
against it.
Repealed.
Laws re-
garding
‘them,
JEWS.
Metz proposed as a prize question, “ Arethere means of Jews.
rendering the Jews in France usefuller and happier ?”.
A Polish Jew, acounsellor of Nancy, and the celebrated: Jews in
Abbé Gregoire, shared the prize. The work of the France.
Abbé on the moral, physical, and political regeneration
of the Jews, is an admirable performance, Inthe con-
stituent assembly, Mirabeau, Clermont, Tourere, and
Rabaud, advocated their:cause. The attention of the
French government, however, does not seem to have
been directed towards them: till the year 1806, when
Bonaparte issued a decree regarding them, in which he
appointed an assembly of deputies from them at Paris.
in the month of July: when they met, they were at-
tended by commissioners on the part of Bonaparte)
After assurances of liberty and tion -on the one
hand, and of gratitude and obedience on the other, it
was agreed that a grand Sanhedrim should be opened
at Paris, at which should be preserved as much as pos
sible the ancient Jewish forms and usages. This was’
announced to the Jews in France and Italy, in an ad«
dress, which advised them to choose men known for
their wisdom, in order to give to the Sanhedrim a pro=
per degree of weight and consideration. The Sanhe~
drim assembled on the 9th of February 1807: they
drew up 27 articles for the re-organization of the
Mosaic worship ; and passed several regulations’on the
subjects of divorce, polygamy, marriage, moral, civil,
and political relations ; useful professions, loans among:
themselves, and loans between Israelites, and those who
are not Israelites. At their second meeting in March,
a law for the condemnation of usury was passed. Bo-
naparte soon found, however, that he was‘not likely’to
accomplish his object of constraining his Jewish sub-
jects to assist in the cultivation of the land, and in fur
nishing their quota of conscripts. In March 1808, he:
issued another decree respecting them, in which he calls’
upon them to follow the pursuits of: honest industry,
and to purchase landed property. This decree also an=
nuls all obligations for loans made by Jews to minors,
without the sanction of their guardians; to married
women without the consent of their husbands ; or to’
military men without the authority of their officers.
There were also severe regulations respecting usury.:
At this period, the following return was made to Bona-:
parte of the number of Jews in all the different parts’
of the habitable globe, viz. in the Turkish empire,
1,000,000; in Persia, China, and India, on the east
and west of the Ganges, 300,000; and in the west of
Europe, Africa, and America, 1,700,000, making an
aggregate population of 3,000,000. It would appear,
however, from subsequent a AT on this ea
that this number is very far below the truth. Indeed;
in Poland alone, recent and well-informed travellers
reckon that there are 2,000,000 Jews. The Prince Pri
mate of Frankfort, following the example of Bona-
parte, put an end to every humiliating distinction be-
tween the Jewish and Christian inhabitants of that city.
Since the overthrow of Bonaparte, however, the inha~
bitants of Frankfort are said to have displayed great
illiberality and intolerance against the Jews: and, in«
deed, this feeling has manifested itself generally through-
out Germany. In this part of the popular tn Germa-
prejudice against Judaism was attacked some years ago ny,
by paar in his plays of Nathan the Wise and the
Monk:of Lebanon; and, at the same time, Meses Men-'
delsolm published an excellent defence of general tole-
ration, under the title of Jerusalem. C. W. Dohm, a
Prussian, in the year 1781, published in‘'German, Ree
JEWS.
of which treat of the law of Moses; in the remainder
In Holland, the condition of the Jews
has long been favourable. In Italy, the first attempts
were made to prepare the minds of the people for their
Simone Lazzarato, of Venice, is mention-
a pleader in their cause ; the friends of the Socini,
to entertain sentiments favourable
interference of the inquisition in
fuse to communicate with the Mussulmans, or to bear
arms. Cashmere also contains a large colony, su
by Bernier to have settled there during the Babyloni
captivity.
IIL. The Jewish history is divided into two
periods: the first eo ae to Christ ;
i present time ; and the Jews
in’ be of greater antiquity than the latter, and it
of however, not being satisfied
749
Jews.
of this article, we propose to confine ourselves to a “"\—
ect the most important parts of modern
The Jews divide the books of the Old Testament in- Their dive:
to three classes: the law, the prophets, and the hagio« sion of the
grapha, mae writings. They have counted not only Bible.
small sections, the verses and the words,
but even the letters in some of the books ; and they
have likewise reckoned which is the middle letter of
the Pentateuch, which is the middle clause of each
book, and how often each letter of the alphabet occurs
in the Hebrew scriptures. Besides the scriptures, the
Jews pay great attention to the te dee or Chaldee >
paraphrases of them: it seems probable that these were
written either during the Babylonish captivity, or im-
mediately afterwards, when the Jews had forgotten their
own language, and acquired the Chaldee of the Tar-
gums, at present received by the Jews; the most ancient
are that of Onkelos on the Law, and that of Jonathan
Ben Uzliel on the Prophets: the former is supposed to
proaches
in simplicity and purity of style to the Chaldee of Da-
niel and Ezra. The Targum on the prophets is believed
to have been written before the birth of Christ, and
though inferior in respect of style to the Targum of
Onkelos, is much superior to any other Targum.
The Jews also regard, with
is called the Talmud. This work consists of two parts; :
the Mishna, which signifies a second law; and the Ges.
mara, which means either a supplement or a commen-
. The Jews suppose that God first dictated the
text of the law to Moses, which he commanded to be.
put in writing, and which exists in the Pentateuch, and
then gave him an explication of every thing compre«
hended in it, which he ordered to be committed to me«
mory. Hence the former is called the written, and the:
latter the oral law. These two laws were recited by
.Moses to Aaron four times, to his sons three times, to
the seventy elders twice, and to the rest of the people
once ; after this the repetition was renewed by Aaron,
his two sons, and the seventy elders. The last month
of Moses’ life was spent, according to the Jews, in re-
peating and ae the law to the people, and es«
pecially to Joshua his successor. A prophet might
suspend any law, or authorise the violation of any pre-«
t, except those against idolatry. If there was any
dierense of opinion respecting the meaning of any
Taw or it was determined by the majority.
When Joshua died, all the interpretations he had re-
ceived from Moses, as well as those made in his time,
were transmitted to the elders ; these conveyed them to
the prophets, and by one prophet they were delivered to
another. This law was only oral, till the days of Rabbi
Jehuda, who perceiving that the students of the iaw
were ually decreasing, and that the Jews were dis«
keen dinkcnat e earth, collected all the tra«
ditions, arranged them under distinct heads, and form-
ed them into a methodical cede of traditional law ;
thus the Mishna was formed. It is written in.a con-
cise style, chiefly in the form of aphorisms, which ad~
mit v8 a variety of interpretations. On this account,
a gemara or commentary was written by a president of
a school in Palestine, which, with the mishna,
forms the Jerusalem Talmud. The Jews in Chaldea,
with this gemara, one of
their Rabbis com’ another, which, together with
the mishna, forms the Babylonian Talmud.
argums,
t veneration, what Talmud.
Jews.
—_—\—_
Cabala,
Articles of
faith.
Customs
respeating
child-birth.
Circumci-
sion.
750
One of the principal branches of modern Judaism, is
the Cabala, the study of which is regarded as the subli-
mest of all sciences. By the Cabala, the Jews mean
those mystical interpretations of the scripture, and me-
taphysical speculations concerning the Deity, angels, &c.
which they regard as having been handed down by a se-
cret tradition from the earliest ages. The Cabala is of
two kinds, theoretical and practical ; the former relates
to subjects only adapted to speculation ; the latter is, in
fact, a system of magic drawn from a mystical interpre-
tation of the Scriptures. The Jews believe that Abra-
ham, Moses, Solomon, &c. were adepts in this kind of
magic. It was much cultivated in the middle ages ;
but now the Jews have ina great measure discarded
faith in the practical Cabala.
- In the 11th century, the famous Rabbi Maimonides
drew up a summary of the doctrines of Judaism, which
every Jew is required to believe, on pain of excommu-
nication in this world, and condemnation in the next.
This summary consists of 13 articles, which he calls
foundations or roots of the faith. The articles are as
follow :—1. That God is the creator and active su
porter of all things. 2. That God is one, and eternally
unchangeable. 3. That God is incorporeal, and cannot
have any material properties. 4. That God must eter-
nally exist. 5. That God alone is to be worshipped.
6. That whatever has been taught by the prophets is
true. 7. That Moses is the head and father of all con«
temporary doctors, and of all those who lived before
or shall live after him. 8. That the law was given by
Moses. 9. That the law shall always exist, and never
be altered. 10. That God knows all the thoughts and
actions of men. 11. That God will reward the obser-
vance, and punish the breach of the laws. 12. That
the Messiah is to come, though he tarry a long time.
18, That there shall be a resurrection of the dead when
God shall think fit.
Before the delivery of a‘ Jewess, her husband, or
some friend, describes with chalk a circle on each of
the walls round the bed, and on the outside and inside
of the door ; he also inscribes on these, in Hebrew cha-
racters, the words, Adam, Chara, Chuts, Lilith; 4. e.
Adam, Eve, rejoice; Lilith signifying a wish, that if
the child be a boy he may be like fr he and blessed
with a wife like Eve; but if a girl, that she may not, like
Lilith, who, according to Jewish tradition, having been
formed before Eve out of the ground, on that account
deemed herself equal to Adam, and refused to be obe-
dient to him. Lilith, also, is supposed to have the
power of weakening and destroying young infants, and
therefore the names of three angels are written on the
inside of the chamber in which the pregnant woman
lies. A Christian midwife must not be employed ex-
cept in cases of most clear and urgent necessity, and
then'she must be surrounded and watched by several
Jewesses: In order to accelerate the birth, a rabbi re-
eites the 20th, 38th, 92d, and 102d psalms. On the
evening of the Sabbath after delivery, if a boy is born,
a feast is held called Jeshua Haben, or the safety of the
son. Preparations are‘next made for circumcision. The
guests must. be at least ten in number, and must all
have passed their 13th year. No woman or Christian
is allowed to circumcise, except in cases of necessity.
Where the latter performs the operation, some of the
blood must be drawn afresh from the part by an Israel-
ite. The regular circumcisers are distinguished by
their very long and sharp nails; they are taught their
business by operating on the sons of poor Jews, whose
consent is obtained for money. Besides the circumciser,
JE WS.
a person named Baal Berith, or the master of the cove«
nant, must assist. The operation ought not to take
——
place before the eighth, or later than the» twelfth day Circumd-
after the birth. Two chairs are provided, one for the %°-
circumciser and the other for Ehjah, who is supposed
to be present. As soon as the circumciser and his at-
tendant have entered the room, some boys make their
appearance bearing twelve wax tapers, bowls of wine,
a knife, a plate of sand, and a platter with olive oil, in
which the linen to be applied: to the wound is R
The infant must be bathed before the ceremony. He
is brought to the door by a woman, who is not allowed
to enter the room. If a child die uncircumcised, he is
circumcised in the burial ground, that the reproach of
uncircumcision may be taken away. No prayers are
said on this occasion, but a name is given him, that, at
the resurrection, when every one will be called by his
name, his parents “yr ——— him. The birth of a
girl is attended with little feasting. ‘The rabbis haye
abolished the distinction made by the Mosaic law be-
tween the period of the purification of: a woman after
the birth of a son and a daughter. They have also al-
tered the law respecting the mode of redemption of the
first born, if a son. According to them, the child can- Redemp-
not be redeemed before the thirtieth day, nor after the tion of a
thirty-first. On that day the priest asks the father, °°
whether he would prefer his child, or the five shekels
required for his redemption? to which the father re-
plies, that he prefers his son, and that he wishes the
riest to accept the money. The priest cannot ‘ee
Tabs ; but he may return what he accepts. If the fa«
ther dies before the thirty-first day, the mother is not
bound to redeem the child; but a piece of parchment
is suspended on the child’s neck, with an inscription,
that he is a son not redeemed, to teach him, that he
must redeem himself.
The education of the female children of the, Jews is Education
very much neglected. They are seldom taught more of females,
than to pronounce the words of a Hebrew prayer-book,
without understanding the meaning of a single sen-
tence. The sons are taught to read the law, the mish- Of males.
na, the , and the prayer-book. Very few of
them learn the Hebrew grammatically. At the age of
13 years and one day, a Jewish youth receives the ap-
pellation of Bar Mitsrah, a son of the commandment,
and is required to observe the 613 precepts, which, ac-
cording to the rabbis, comprehend the whole of the
law. , ea this time he is deemed liable to punish-
ment if he transgresses them; whereas the sins he
commits before this age are ascribed to his father, who
is liable to the punishment denounced against them.
At this age the father, in the presence of several Jews,
declares, that he is no longer chargeable for the sins of
his son. Jewish girls are accounted of full age at 12
years and a day old.
Marriage is reckoned the indispensible duty of eve- Marriages.
ry Jew. Men who live in celibacy long after eighteen
are considered by the rabbis as living in sin. Polyga-.
my is sanctioned by the Talmud, but is not practised
by the European Jews. The betrothing sometimes
takes place six months or a year before the marriage.
Ten men at least must be present at the marriage, other-
wise it is null. A velvet canopy is brought into the
room where the ceremony is to take place, and extend-
ed on four poles. Under this canopy the bride, hav.
her face covered with a veil, is led by two women, Y
the bridegroom by two men; these: are always. their
parents, or near relations. After a short prayer, the
bride and bridegroom drink of the wine which is offer-
JEWS. 751
Jews. we an fee A ring is used, as at Christian py pany At the place of interment, the Jews.
marriages. contract is next read; and, is opened, and some earth, said to have been
as soon as the reading is ended, the priest takes another brought from Jerusalem, is placed under the head in a
glass of wine, and repeats seven benedictions ; then the » or strewed about the body. The relations
married couple drink the wine ; after which the empty and friends of the deceased then take hold, one after
glass is laid on the floor, and the bridegroom stamping the other, of his great toes, imploring him to pardon
on it breaks it to pieces, indicating by this the frailty all their offences against him, and not to report evil
of life. The company next shout, “ Good luck to against them in the other world. The nearest retations
you!" The ceremony is concluded by a contribution rend their garments. When the coffin is placed in
for the poor in the land of Canaan, and a nuptial feast. the grave, each of the relations throws some earth on
A Jew is at liberty to Sanca hin aie Sap Aiea, it. soon as the grave is filled, all the attendants
or for any cause ; but, in order to counteract the con- run away lest they should hear the knock of the angel,
sequences of this liberty, the synagogue has ordered a who is supposed to come and knock on the coffin, and
| sd, which allow time ask the deceased if he can repeat the passage in
the parties to become cool, and to reconsider the i which has an allusion to his name: if he is
ies are it, the angel beats. him with a hot
his bones. _ When the relations re«
neral, — all sit down on the. floor,
hard boiled eggs, salt, and
the fast which are sup-
the moment of the decease of
and evening, ten Jews who
| .
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divorce any time before she arrives at the age of twelve in other countries will be rolled thither through sub-
aged at Liga. ik hao many before two witnes- terranean caverns; hence Jews in neighbouring coun
ses, who write out her . she will not mar- tries, if rich, are removed into Canaan before ey die.
ry the man ; this is called a divorcement of dislike. On the decease of a brother, sister, wife, daughter, or
Singular In reading the Jewish prayers for the sick, it is cus- son, the u garment is cut on the right. side, and
change of | tomary; pte lle a teiedbggeaaer eey Boo then rent about a hand-breadth in ; but on the
naman, name i
Fi
ft
i
F
i
?
;
q
;
to sit on the ground without shoes, and to give free
access to every visitant: they must not shave their
a a get mf NT ep dy ag
There are very pertonbe ru wn e€ Garments.
ne i = 5 ne a colours of
garments to be worn ews; but in general
they conform to the mode of dress in the country where
they reside. It is, however, deemed unlawful to wear
any garment made of linen and woollen woven together,
or made with either of these and sewed with the other,
E male is required to have a quadrangular garment,
talleh. It consists of two pieces of
woollen or silk joined together at the upper edge by
ces hang down, one on the back, and the other over the
breast. This is constantly worn as an inner garment.
From each of the corners a fringe, consisting of
ne pn ey pp 9 sight Siveain, pak Gad. ith ire kpee. Seely ip
return to ev i ‘or a month, garment is supposed to depend upon t i
which period. the thi S eer iapt: tn Onotee, The threads composing them must be of wool that
water is every night. In cases where — been shorn, not pulled, and spun by a Jewess for the
relations of the deceased are too poor to the express There are paper aan yy a
expence of this ceremony, a subscription is by _ ticular ions regarding the colour and the folding
tablished in London for this purpose—so sacred at night, nor is the wearing of it obligatory on women,
and imperative is this ceremony esteemed. Jews servants, or young children. It is never to bent
ew
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Hl hosts
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do not make use of close coffins, but only four plain to a Christian. Other dages
boards loosely joined A This is done in order wpb a ey wip oR ph
and burials. that the worms may the sooner the body. The forthe arm, The former is made of skin or leather
talleh, or square garment with fringes, is put over the stretched on a block, and sewed so as to form a leathern
Sa
752
Jews,
Syna-
gogues.
Religion,
ceremonies,
prayers, &c,
box, divided into four compartments, having impressed
on one side of it the letter Shin, and on the other a
character resembling that letter, only with four points
instead of three. In the compartments are inclosed
four passages of the law, written on parchment, which
is bound round with hair pulled from the tail of a cow,
and well washed. The strap which fastens the a
lactery to the head ought to be black on the outside,
and any colour except red on the inside. — It is fasten-
ed in such a manner, that the little box including the
parchments rests on the forehead below the hair, so that
the divine precepts may be fixed in the brain. The
phylactery for the arm is nearly similar, except that it
has only one cavity, and is without the impression of
the letter Shin. It is fastened to the naked skin, on
the inner part of the left arm, so as to be near the heart.
It would be tiresome to enumerate the directions for
tying on these phylacteries, which are excessively mi-
nute and multifarious. Besides phylacteries, there are
schedules for door-posts, which are generally placed on
the right hand of the entrance, and touched or kissed
by such of the Jews as wish to be deemed very de-
vout,
No synagogue can be instituted except there be at
least ten men who have passed the age of thirteen. The
highest ground is chosen, and no Jew is permitted to
build a house of superior or even equal height. In pray-
er, their faces are always turned towards the land of
Canaan ; the door of the synagogue, therefore, is always
placed at the opposite point of the compass. . A closet
or chest called the Ark, in which the book of the law
is deposited, is opposite to the entrance into the syna-
gogue. Every copy of the pentateuch must be in ma-
nuscript, The rabbis have laid down rules for transcri-
bing it, which must on no account be omitted or infrin-
ged. The ink employed is to be made of prescribed
ingredients. The book itself is to be in the form of a
roll. Near the middle of the synagogue is a desk or
altar where the law is read, and sermons delivered. No
seats are admitted between the altar and the ark. The
women are not allowed to sit with the men, and they
are even screened from their notice by a wooden lat~
tice. In each synagogue there is a reader or chanter,
clerks for the management of pecuniary matters, be-
sides inferior attendants. The general business of the
congregation is superintended by wardens or elders.
The privilege of folding and unfolding the law, and of
erforming other public services, is accounted a high
onour, and, as such, is put up to public auction. The
money arising from these sales is paid into the general
stock of the synagogue.
In every country there is a chief, or presiding rabbi,
who exercises not only a spiritual, but also a civil, ju-
risdiction : his authority is kept up by ecclesiastical
censures, excommunications, &c. The title of rabbi is
little more than an honorary distinction, and is easily
rien by any individual well versed in the Tal-
mud.
The Jewish religion is, perhaps, more a religion of
rninute and trifling rites and ceremonies, than even the
Catholic religion. The minutest circumstances in dress«
ing and undressing, washing and wiping the face and
hands, and other necessary actions of common and daily
life, are enjoined by the rabbis to be performed exactly
according to the prescribed regulations, Their prayers
also are numerous, and some of them relate to the most
trifling circumstances. Those esteemed the most so-
lemn and important are called Shemoneh Esreh, or the
Kighteen prayers, though they actually consist of nine«
JEW S.
teen, the last having been added against heretics. and
Jews.
apostates, They are enjoined to be said by all Jews y=”
above the age of thirteen, wherever they may be, three
times a-day. The members of the syna e are re-
uired to repeat at least a hundred benedictions every
y. A son who survives his father is enjoined to at~
tend the nocturnal service in the eynagogue every even-
ing for a year, and to repeat the Kodesh, in order that
his father may be delivered from hell. This service
may be suspended by any person going up to the desk
anil: closing the book. This is not unfrequently done
in case of quarrels ; and the prayers cannot be renewed
till a reconciliation takes place.
Nothing is to be undertaken on a Friday which cans Sabbath,
not be finished before the evening. In the afternoon
they wash and clean themselves, trim their hair, and
pare their nails. They begin with the left hand, but
think it wrong to cut the nails on two ———- fingers
in succession. Even the parings are directed by the
Talmud to be disposed of in a particular manner ; for it
says, ‘“ he that throws them on the ground is an im-
pious man ; he that buries them is a just man; he that
throws them into the fire is a pious and perfect man.”
Every Jew, of whatever rank, must assist in the a
ration for the Sabbath. Two leaves, baked on the Fri-
day, are set on a table. This is done in memory of the
manna, of which a double portion fell on the sixth day
of the week. The table remains spread all the Sab-
bath. Before the sun is set, the es are to be light~
ed; one at least with seven wicks. in allusion to the
number of days in a week, is to be lighted in each
house. The Talmudical directions re ing the wicks
and oil form part of the Sabbath evening service ; they
are most ridiculously and childishly minute. The les«
son appointed for the Sabbath is divided into seven
parts, and read to seven thr at the altar. The first
called up to hear it, is a descendant of Aaron, the se-
cond of Levi, the third an Israelite of any tribe; the
same order is then repeated ; the seventh may be of any
tribe. The portion read from the law is followed by a
portion from the prophets. There are three services,
morning, afternoon, and evening. On their. return
from the last, a wax candle, or a lamp with two wicks,
is lighted, and held by a child. The master then takes
a glass of wine in his right hand, and a box of spices in
his left. After a prayer, a little of the wine is spilled
on the floor; and the wine being taken in the left,
and the spices in the right hand, after another prayer,
he and all the family smell to the spices, and taste the
wine. This ceremony is called Habdala, or the sepa«
ration, because it separates the Sabbath from other Pom
e
The works forbidden on the Sabbath, according to
rabbis, may be reduced under thirty-nine general heads;
of which writing, blotting out, ruling paper, kindling a
fire or quenching it, form some. Other forbidden ac-
tions are brought under these heads by a very forced ana-
logy. Thus, curdling milk is included under the forbid.
den head of building, because a whole is formed by the
composition of different bodies. Filling ditches is deem-
ed unlawful, and therefore some rabbis have forbidden
the sweeping of a room on the Sabbath, lest any furrow
or chink in the floor should be filled by the operation.
Walking over new ploughed ground is also forbidden,
lest a hole should thus be filled up. A tailor must not
‘© out of doors with a needle stuck in any of his clothes.
he use of stilts is prohibited, because, though the
stilts seem to carry the man, yet in fact the man carries
the stilts, and to bear a burden on the Sabbath is un-
lawful. Dirt on = coat, &c, may be scraped off with
JEW
in Egypt, of commencing the year at the autumnal
equinox. The present Jewish calendar was settled by
Rabbi Hittel, about the middle of the 4th century of
the Christian era, and is constructed on ug inge-
nuity and astronomical exactness, not equalled by Chris-
tians till the improvement of the Julian calendar by
ere feats vals of the Jews we can mention only a few,
and those merely in a cursory manner. The princi
are those of the new moon, of the Passover, pom
cost, of the new year, the fast of atonement, and the
feast of tabernacles. That the festival of the new moon
celebrated as nearly as possible on the day of
Bleeds creer sarcastic fase,
twenty-nine ii 8;
the new moon is held on ae
r days of the month ; the wo-
AOS allowed to ae the men may. Good
i icularly distinguish this festi-
The “sin iam Pct on the 15th
the month Nisan, and continues among Jews
seven days, and else-
The Sabbath ing is called
and is kept with most scru
mode and materials for making the
for the P. er, are most minutely
ell as all the ceremonies
‘or every Jew to honour
sumptuous furniture he
feast is covered with a
on which are placed several dishes ;
one is the shank bone of a shoulder of lamb or kid,
cakes, wrapped in two
ce, parsley, celery, or
herbs; these are their bitter herbs. Near the
i and some salt and water.
ing the bricks which their
to make in Egyrt: this is
late
HL
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AG
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strictness. Contracts of marriage may
no marriage is to be solemnized durin,
fetival. The feast of 4
ivan, contin
hn harp Beal k ith icular
ad o, are kept with parti
Dy ih
(re E
=O e
7
ef
:
.
2
: received opinion of the Jews, that
world was created on the day of their new year;
they therefore celebrate the festival of the new
by a discontinuance of all labour, and by repeat.
nagogue. The fast of atonement
is on the 10th day of Tiers the first ten days of the
month are called days of penitence, during which the
od examines the actions of man-
kind, but he defers passing sentence till the tenth. On
the eve of the fast, a ceremony, evidently designed as
a substitute for their ancient sacrifices, is ormed ;
i pee te Wiking 6 eek, wth groct Semallty.
es
5
x
cocks must on no account be red; white is the
colour. Before the fast begins, they endea-
afternoon they
to settle all their disputes, In
i.
753
JID
make a hearty meal to prepare for the fast, which is of
the most rigid kind. The ‘feast of tabernacles com-
_mences on the 15th of Tisri, and is. kept nine days.
Every Jew who has a court or garden is required to
erect a tabernacle on this occasion, respecting the ma-
terials and erection of which the rabbis have given spe«
cial directions. The eighth and ninth are high days,
particularly the last, which is called the day of the
rejoicing of the land.
The Jews are not permitted to taste the flesh of any Food,
four-footed animals, except those which both chew the
cud and part the hoof; nor any fish except such as
have scales and fins ; they are not to eat the blood
és an sa f Oey bird. Cattle for their use must be
ughtered by a Jew, duly qualified, and. especiall
inted for that purpose. If the carcase has the least
blemish, it cannot be eaten; if it is perfectly sound,
he affixes to it a leaden seal, with word casher,
right, and the day of the week. If there be no Jew
butcher, a Jew appointed by the synagogue is station-
ed at the Christian butcher's to superintend the cutting
up of the carcase, and to affix the seal. The hind quar-
ters are not to be eaten unless the sinew of the thigh is
taken out. A cow and her calf, an ewe and her lamb,
a she goat and her kid, must not be killed in the same
day. The knife used for slaughter must be very sharp
and free frommotches. Meat and butter must not be
eaten together, on account of the law, “ not to seethe
a kid in his mother’s milk.” For this reason, also, they
make their cheese without rennet. No knife, fork,
spoon, or culinary vessel, used for meat, is to be used
for milk.
Such are the opinions, traditions, rites and ceremo- Caraites.
nies, of the great majority of the modern Jews; but
besides these, there is a small sect. denominated Ca-
raites, that is textualists—persons attached to the text
of the Scriptures. They reside chiefly in the Crimea,
Lithuania, and Persia; and at Damascus, Constanti-
baa and Cairo; their whole number is very incon-
iderable. agree with other Jews in denying the
advent of the Messiah. The principal difference be-
tween them consists in their adherence to the letter of
the Scripture, and in their rejection of all eaaeaion
and in tations of the rabbis. They also differ from
the rabbis in various particulars respecting the feasts of
the Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles. They observe
the Sabbath with far greater strictness; they extend
the d of affinity within which marriage is pro-
hibited, but they are more strict in matters of di-
vorce,
See Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities, and his Own Life;
Histoire de la Religion des Juifs pour servir de continu«
ation a U Histoire de yesgits par Basnage; Tovey’s
Anglia Judaica; Monthly Magazine, vol. i. for the year
1796; Gentleman’s Magazine for 1810 and 1811; Mos
dern Judaism, by John Allen. _(w. s+)
IGNATIUS Loyoua. See Loyoua.
IGNIS Faruvs, commonly called Will ?'the Wisp,
or Jack and the Lanthorn, is a meteor which is common-
ly seen in dark nights, in marshy grounds and other
pa laces. A full account of it will be given under
the article Metrons.
IGUANA. See Henrrrorocy.
JHANSU-JEUNG. See Tuer.
JIDDA, Jeppa, Joppa, Zirra, or Dscuepa, is a
small trading town of Arabia Felix, situated in the dis«
trict of Tahamah, about 40 miles distant from Mecca,
north latitude 20° 28’ 1", and east longitude from
5c
Fidda.
—_—" surrounded by a ruinous wall, built in the year 1514.
Its harbour is very extensive, formed by numberless
JID
Greenwich 389° 16’ 45”. It is defended by a fort, and
reefs of Madrapore, extending about four miles from
the shore, and full of small islands and sunken rocks.
The entrance is sufficiently dangerous, but the pilots
are expert, steering safely by the eye alone, and easily
perceiving the rocks below the smooth surface, espe-
cially when the sun is behind the vessel. Between
these shoals and islands are deep channels, with a good
bottom, where ships may lie at anchorage in six or
twelve fathoms, and where the water is as smooth as
glass, in the heaviest gales. The surrounding country
is sandy, barren, and destitute of water, and the town
is very ill supplied with provisions. A desert plain to
the eastward is occupied by Bedouins, or country A-
rabs, who live in huts made of long bundles of bent
grass, or spartum, and who supply the inhabitants of
Jidda with milk and butter. The situation is as un-
wholesome as it is unproductive; and, besides several
stagnant pools in the vicinity, the north-west wind
which chiefly prevails, blowing along the direction of
the gulf, brings a great dampness through the greater
part of the year. The highest degree of the thermo-
meter observed by Mr Bruce in July was 97°, and the
lowest 78°. The barometer in June was between 26°
6’, and 25° 7’; wind north-west. The tewn of Jidda
derives all its celebrity, and even its existence, from its
vicinity to the city of Mecca, to which it is the nearest
sea-port, and the great receptacle of the India trade,
which arrives once a-year. The inhabitants of the
place, indeed, derive little advantage from this rich
traffic, which passes on to Mecca, and for which the
payments return to the ships, without leaving much
profit by the way to the townsmen. The influx of
strangers, on the contrary, raises the price of provi-
sions; and the native traders, after the market is over,
which does not last above six weeks, retire to Yemen
and the neighbouring countries, where every article of
subsistence is found in abundance. Jidda, however, is
. also the great depot of all merchandize intended to be
carried to Suez for the demands of Egypt; and great
multitudes of the inhabitants find employment in land-
ing and reshipping these goods, in providing warehou-
ses for their safe deposit, and in acting as factors in re-
ceiving and disposing of them. The English traders,
in 1777, made an attempt to carry their cargoes direct-
ly to Suez, without passing them through Jidda into
native vessels ; and this trade, which continued about
three years, was encouraged by the Egyptian Beys, as
the English merchants paid them twice as much impost
as the Jidda importers. Butthe Sheriffe of Mecca, who
draws the customs of the port of Jidda, procured an or«
754
ILA
der from the Grand Seignior, that all vessels bound for
Eeypt should stop at Jidda, and pay duty there; and
obliged the merchants, when once in his harbour, to
unship their goods, and send them forward to Suez in
pr ie ; ie Sultan secured a’ share of these pro-
, and regularly appointed a pasha, who resided i
the citadel of J idday Goa divided the receipts of ie
custom-house with the Sheriffe’s Vizier. During the
convulsions of Egypt, and the insurrections of the Wa«
chabees, the Sheriffe contrived to expel the representa«
tive of the Sultan, and to appropriate the whole duties’
to himself. His extortions, however, in the name of
presents to himself and his servants, have caused a great
diminution of the trade formerly carried on by the Eng-
lish with Jidda; and many of the richest merchants
have retired from the place. The Sheriffe, made aware
of his folly by the reduction of his revenues, has be«
come more moderate in his demands. The duties re«
cently proposed, amount to about eight per cent. and
the presents to about half as much; but a merchant,
when once in the harbour, from which he could scarce«
ly escape without a native pilot, could never be secure
against further demands. See Bruce’s Travels, vol.
ii; Parson’s Travels; and Valentia’s Travels, vol. iii.
©)
ILANTZ, in the Rhetian language Ilan or Ilon, a
town of Switzerland, in the territory of the Grisons,.
and the capital of the division of the G re . The
town is situated in the widest part of the valley of the
same name, at the foot of the mountain Mundaun, or
Karlisberg. It is the first town that we meet with on
the Rhine, and is the only town in the world where the
Rhetian language is still spoken. It has two fauxbourgs,
viz. that of St Nicholas, and that of Portasura. ie!
bridge built over the Rhine is remarkable. The inha-
bitants —— the reformed religion. The women in
the neighbourhood are very much subject to the Goitre
necks.
The tribunal of the Grey League meets at Ilantz,
Thousis, and Trons, in rotation; but it is at Ilantz
that the archives of the League are preserved. A great
fair for cattle is held at Ilantz. Excellent fish, about
22 pounds weight, are caught in the Rhine.
At Rouvis, above Ilantz, on the left bank of the
Rhine, a mine of galena, containing silver, has been
wrought. The mineral is contained in nests in the
gneiss, . The mine of Rouvis, and one of yellow copper
at Ober-Sax, have been wrought since the year 1806
by M. Demengha. In descending the valley of Iantz,
the rocks are composed of argillaceous schistus as far
as Tamino. See Ebel’s Manuel d’une Voyageur en Suisse,
tom. iii. p. 227.
ILAY. See Isuay.
Tlantz,
Tay.
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