willl by the Internet Archive with funding from soft Corporation a “< . . ‘ | THE EDINBURGH ENCYCLOPADI CONDUCTED BY c eee DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. PF. R. 8. LOND. AND EDIN. AND M. R. L A. CORMESTUNDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY oF SCIENCES OF PARI, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES oF PRUs; MEMEER OF TUE ROVAL SWEDEN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK; OF THE ROTAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN, AND OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MODEXA; HONORARY ASSOCIATE OF THE ROTAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF LYONS; AMOCIATE OF THE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ; MEMDER OF THE SOCIETY OF THE AX- THEARIES OF SCOTLAND; OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCUTTY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; or THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK, OF THE MEFTORICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORE; OF THE LITERARY AND FUILOSOPUICAL SOCIETY OF UTRECHT; OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIETY OF CAMBRIDGE; OF THE LITERARY AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OF PERTH: OF THE NORTHERN INSTITUTION, AND OF THE BOVAL MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCETIES OF EDINBURGH ; OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA; or THE SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF NATURAL murToRT oF SERLIN; OF THE NATURAL MISTORY socIETY OF FRANKFORT; OF THE PRUGOOTUNCAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY OF LEEDS, OF THE ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL, AND OF THE PRILOSOPTUCAL SOCIETY OF TORK. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF GENTLEMEN EMINENT IN SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. | IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES. VOLUME XI. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD; AND JOHN WAUGH, EDINBURGH; JOHN MURRAY; BALDWIN & CRADOCK ; J. M. RICHARDSON, LONDON ;; AND THE OTHER PROPRIETORS. M.DCCC.XXX. 2 History. structive ignorance of barbarians. Several are alluded —— to in the Sacred Scriptures ; and we are clearly of opi- nion with Scheuchzer (Natural History of the Book of Job*) and Dr Young, (Notes on his Paraphrase on Job,) that the sublime description of leviathan given in the 41st of the book of Job, applies to no other animal with which we are acquainted, if not to the crocodile. His ample jaws and dreadful teeth, his compact impenetrable scales, his large and fiery eyes, his srength, ferocity, and courage, agree exactly with our best semignlons of the crocodile ; and though some might lead us to conclude that the poet was describing an inhabitant of the ocean, this objection is trivial, " we reflect that the large rivers and lakes, which form the ordinary habitation of crocodiles, might, in the glowing and figurative languages of the East, without too much hyperbolical exaggeration, be desig- nated by the terms deep and ocean. Of the ancient classic naturalists who have written on reptiles, we need mention only Aristotle and Pliny. The former, in his Historia Animalium, has described the crocodile, the salamander, and some other pede: but the latter, in his Historia Naturalis, has furnished the fullest account of reptiles, especially in his second, eighth, ninth, tenth, and twenty-eighth books, in which he re- Jates all that was then known, and all that was believed respecting the crocodile, the sea and land tortoises, the chameléon, and the basilisk. In the second book, he shews himself acquainted with the fact, that reptiles are not destroyed by cutting off their limbs or tail; in the ei, he mentions the spectacle of five living crocodiles exhibited by Scaurus, the edile, to the people of Rome ; Job. Aristotle and Pliny, in the ninth, he describes the mode then practised in In- - dia, for taking turtles; in the tenth, speaking of the crocodile, he tells us very gravely, that the male and female sit alternately on the eggs laid by the latter ; and in the twenty-eighth, besides mentioning the utility of the skink, and several parts of the crocodile, as medi- cines, he details at cansibeisble length the fabulous his- tory of the chameleon. . Among the modern writers on natural history, Ges- ner, in part of his Historia Animalium, treats of ovi- parous quadrupeds, though the number which he de- scribes, is by no means very considerable. Ais usual, “with the writers of his time, he imitates the ancient naturalists in mingling truth with fable, cially in his second book, in which he describes the, chameleon. In some , however, he is very judicious. He notices the wonderful tenacity “particularly exemplifies. it in the heart of the: sala- mander. About the same time with Gesner; viz in the middle of the 16th century, lived, Rondelet, a native of Lan- guedoc in France; who, in his work on fishes, has de- scribed some species of turtles as having been seen by him upon the coast of France. ‘ . That laborious collector and compiler, Aldrovandi, in that portion of his works which is dedicated to qua- drupeds, describes many reptiles, especially the tor- toise, the crocodile, the chameleon, and the salamander; bnt as his accounts are derived almost entirely from preceding authors, and abound with. marvellous fictions, are now rarely consulted. _ In hard ss of Johnston's Historia Animalium which. is dedi wtile quadrupeds, Fen ney also an account of several reptiles, among others the cr i g ocodile and the in the latter end of the 17th century, Blasius pub- Rondelgt. © Aldrovandi. Joknston, Blasins, HERPET OLOGY. of life in reptiles, and . ‘shed his Anatomia Animalium figuris variis illustra- gen Soitiing some sa, aa He on the structure of reptiles. He particularly remarks the im- perfection of their sécreting organs. He also describes the manners of a tame tortoise which he kept, and its~ kable abstinence. “ es the same time appeared Sibbald’s Prodromus Sibbald. Historie naturalis Scotie, in which he describes some species of turtles, as being found on the western coast of Scotland. ‘ : ; In 1685, Francis Redi published his Experimenta Redi, circa Varias res Naturales, and about the same time his Italian work on the same subject. — The experiments which Redi made on various species of tortoise, are sufficiently cruel; but they illustrate, in an eminent de- gree, the surprising tenacity of life possessed by these animals, ‘They will be particularly noticed hereafter. Our learned and scientific countryman Ray, was Ray. the first naturalist who gave any thing like a rational account of reptiles, in his Synopsis Animalium. He describes more species of tortoise than were known be- foré; and ‘besides the crocodile, enumerates several rare species of lizards. 1 a The immortal Swedish naturalist, in his Systema Linnaeus. Nature, divided the class of amphibia into four ders,—reptiles having feet, serpents without feet, gli dod reptiles, (meanies,) and swimming reptiles, (nantes). As the last order was afterwards removed to the class. of fishes, and some other important:emendations were introduced into subsequent editions of that laborious work, we shall defer any observations on Linnzus’s-me- thod till we notice his last and best editor, Gmelin, » In Seba’s Thesaurus Nature, published about Seba. middle of last century, a considerable number of the most remarkable reptiles is figured; and though the engravings are not in the first style, they give a suffi- ciently just idea of the objects which they represent. All the British species then known are described, Pennant and some of them figured in the British Zoology of Pennant, published in 1749, in 4 vols. He particular. - -ly describes the coriaceous, or leathern turtie, as having been found on the British coast. eid a ‘ Mr Pennant also contributed some of the very few papers on reptiles, to be found in the Phd ical Transactions, especially. a description and figure of the Festudo ferox, or soft tortoise, and the T. coriacea, or leathern turtle. Some species are also noticed in his Aretic Zoology. Tt In 1755, professor Klein of Leipsic, published his Kleia. Tentamen Erpetologie; but as that work is confined _ chiefly to serpents, we cannot properly do more than notice it here. 5 aa In 1768, ap the Specimen Medicum exhibens Laurenti Synopsin Reptilium of Laurenti, in which a new arrange- ment of these animals was attempted.. He distributes all reptiles (except tortoises, which he unaccountably omits altogether) into three orders,—Jleaping repiiles, walking reptiles, and serpents. Of the first order, he characterizes five genera, Pipq, Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and Proteus ; and in his second order thirteen genera, viz. Friton, Salamandra, Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chameleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco, Cordylus, Crocodilus, Scin- cus, Stellio, Seps. Among the serpents he places the Chalcides, which certainly belong to the second as pro- peny as the Seps. ‘ Nine.years after the “ Specimen” of Laurenti, Sco- Seopok. poli published his Introductio ad Historiam Naturalem, in which he divides the reptiles into legitimate or true, * See his Physica Sacra, published in 1731, P — = = So a) r) _ f rF Hi i é i I f : i q 2 32 | E ¢ | : 'F if ie | itl s F an 58 i tH PR? “1 i 1 & r i H bf ) i | ! FF EE : A i ify i Ff H If iH : | | i Lacepede exept) he saanerinlo to be pot inte ie hand’ The ~ a crested back, comprehending the guana, the basilisk, the agama, and three other species ; 3d, Those that Soe Sees Wile Sretvan haben, sad use wa analy containing eight species, an which are cor- dyine and — 4th, Those that have five toes be- fore, but no transverse bands on the belly, including the lng: under cach toe, prehending seven ies ; Fesde With emupnaeetecied bellies oksablee Game are fourteen species, including the pipa, or Surinam toad. The last head, which is not subdivided, contains “Fa oars is work of M. Lacepede was translated into Eng- = eens oa published at Edinburgh in 4 vols. 1 In 1792, was published at the Historia Tes Schocptt: tudinwe of J: D. Kchoepl, — work, left im- eee nee erereaney ae: toe Alene Brongniart, ished in 1799 in the Magazin Encyclo- fede Ase sal uly explain hs ification, after which be makes two genera, Chclonia and Testudo, cor- responding exactly thus far with the division of Lace- ; 2d, Seuriens, of which there are nine genera, viz. Crocodilus, Iguana, Draco, Stellio, Gecko, Chameleo, cepede, ‘except in placing the Salamander under the came heed with the frogs and toads, and a species of i without tale, and-two-froted tep-» Histor. f According to Daudin, the most natural classification Brongniar Shaw. 4 HERPETOLOGY. to ? in 5 vols. 8vo. with 52 plates at the end of the fifth vo- lume. Cuvier had, in 1798, published an elementary work on natural hi , under the title of 7'ableau Ele- mentaire de U Histoire Naturelle des Animauz, in which he gave a description of reptiles. . hl pec first volume of his Lectures, Cuvier reptiles, he has ed an t radically the same with that at Temalar aren first place, he divides reptiles into two sections; Ist, Those which have two auricles to the heart ; 2d, Those that have but one. Each of these sections is subdivided into two or- ders. The first order consists of those reptiles that have a shell or carapace, and their jaws defended by horn. These are the cheloniens, or tortoises. The second or- der consists of those that have the body covered with scales, and are furnished with teeth like the sauriens, or lizards, the genera of which are, with the addition of , the same with those of Brongniart. The first or- der of the second section contains the serpents. The second order comprehends those reptiles that have a naked skin, feet, and gills at an early stage of their existence. Of this order (the Batraciens) there are three families ; Rana, or frog, including the three sub- genera of Rana, Hyla, and Bufo; Salamandra, including the sub-genera of Salamandra and Triton ; and Siren. These excellent Lectures contain a very full account of the anatomical structure and physiology of reptiles, and to them we are almost entirely indebted for our on that subject. The first two volumes of this work were translated into English under the inspection of Mr Macartney, lecturer on comparative anatomy in London, and published there in 1801. \ In 1800, Dr Shaw began his General Zoolo- gy, which was intended to include all the genera and species of animals at nt known. The third vo- Jume contains the reptiles and serpents. In giving our opinion of this extensive work, we are somewhat at a loss. As a systematic arrangement of animals, it is very defective, and the references to other authors are extremely few. As a popular descriptive work, it is scarcely ing our attention ; for, though almost all the species are described, as well as figured, there is scarcely any thing like a history of the species. The arrangement is that of Linnzus, and the characters are to 1805. The first volume contains some historical no- History. _ tices of several writers on Herpetology, and a copious “y= introductory treatise on the structure and physiology of reptiles, illustrated by fifteen plates. The second volume contains the natural history of the CHzLoNIAN order, in which are described fifty-seven species of tor= toise ; and the same volume commences the history of the Saurian order, and describes seven es of cro-' codile, In the third and fourth volumes, the history of the Saurian order is completed, by a description of one species of Dracena, fourteen of Tupinambis, thirty-two of Lacerta, two of Takydromus, three of Iguano, three of Draco, two of Basiliscus, twenty-five of Agama, nine of Stellio, eight of Anolis, fifteen of Gecko, four of Chameleo, twenty-one of Scincus, six of Seps, and four of Chalcides. The fifth, sixth, and seventh volumes are occupied with the Opurp1an erder, or serpents, and the eighth completes the work with the history of the Barracran’ order, containing a description of twenty-seven species of Hyla, sixteen species of Rana, thirty-two of Bufo, fourteen of Salamandra, one of Proteus, and one of Siren. The specific characters in the bedy of the work are in Latin ; but, at the end of the eighth volume, the whole genera and species are arran together, with’ their characters in French, under the title of Zableau Methodique des Reptiles. Daudin’s Natural History of Reptiles has considera bly increased the number of species, and has brought us acquainted with many that were either not known before, or whose place in the systematic arran had not been distinctly ascertained. Though the mat- ter of this work is excellent, we cannot, however, say so much for the execution of the plates. The fi,ures are in general so deeply shaded, as to render it difficult to observe the characteristic lines, scales, and dots, that distinguish the species. Dumeril, whom we have already noticed asthe as- Dumeril. sistant of Cuvier, has published two works on natural history, which contain, among other animals, the new systematic arrangement of reptiles. These are, Zoolo= gie Analytique, published in 1806, and T'raité Elemens laire d'Histoire Naturelle, in two volumes, of: which the second- contains the animal kingdom. His ment is so near that of the other distinguished natu- ralists of the French school, that we need not detail it here, especially as we have already given a summary view of it under the article AmpHtBiA. We might have extended these historical notices to a much greater length ; but we consider it unnecessary, We have given a succinct account of the principal wri- tings on Herpetology, and shall now conclude this Part ~ oe in general derived from Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Nature. The work, however, abounds in excellent plates, the figures of which are in general well deline- ated, and beantifilly engraved, We need scarcely mention the Naturalist’s Miscella- aoe same author, as but few reptiles are there of our subject with a list of other works, to which the reader may refer for additional information. On the anatomy, physiology, and classification of Reference reptiles, see Swammerdam, "Biblia Natura ; Roésel, *@ oTks on Historia Naturalis Ranarum; Schneider, Amphibiorum re Ee Specimen ; and his Historia Amphibiorum ; ai aldesi, Osservazioni Anatomiche intorno alle Tarta Arps most complete account of reptiles, up rughe; Spallanzani, De Fenomini della chechicene: o' Frees day, has been given by M. Daudin, who his T’racts on the Natural History of Animals and Vee ores most of his attention to this part of getables; and his Memoires sur ‘la iration, lately + res rt rf me, several treatises on the sub- published by Sennebier ; Blumenbach, Abbildungen Na- a = ri pene Naturelle des Reptiles, pub- tur Historischer gigenstande; and his Hand! h, or dtled: Fhetne vi ( pt 2 uel of the same work, ene manual-of the same subject ; Schmid; Historia Testus mah ‘0 44 — le “ inettes des Grenouilles et dinum ; Daubenton, Dictionaire @’ Erpetologie, forming ty {meee oy Fea sea eight volumes octavo, a part of L’Encyclopedie Methodique; Perault, Me- he re Sader e “~ juminous and expensive motres pour servir a [Histoire Naturelle des Animaux; ssc een ae ished by Sonnini. These Humboldt, Recueil‘d’ Observations de Zoologie et d’ Ana- publis at different times, from 1802 lomie comparée; Walbaum, Chelonographia 3 the com- 1 * qeaHpWid te atyiapisas (SU HPYEyG gist gt gunn iegins ids i Whines eee LL Figiisias Hella, 4a3 iy Uae sant Ba ceteE arama anneeelt jell Heaiee he utili lt HAE at ath Wee rie Hua erat gi ine He bata daniels SUE ditnis Linen! = yaare sik eg Hil x if & 2: peceitti | quill SNe yt Ra li He tle teat : eh i ili ill i hath # i Ha al ident i Hale Hilig a Widiy i odin > adel HEHEHE Te rey LEE iat i iy | Henle SH ere ’ alte (ll shia ile ad ie sat 3 Hee i : bi CoM enh ee «Het. ; hind, with Chelobia and Testudo; the three toes on the fore feet, and two on of Cuvier into two former, fi lengthen- feet “fore and like hind ; and Siren, havin fin-li no persistent branchie members in the form rather of ed bod the sea tortoises, or turtles, which have the articulated tail, feet digitated, and furnished —branchise. than feet ; and the latter, or the tor- nished with claws, but Soar oes paws feet more or less Anatomy and Physio- logy of Reptles Vertebra. 6 HERPETOLOGY. Pant I. ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPTILES. Hoyixo now given a ral description of ‘reptiles, and explained the classification which we intend to fol- low in the subsequent pages; we shall proceed to ex- hibit a comprehensive view of their anatomy and = be logy, pursuing the same order which we have o rved in the comparative part of our ANATOMY. = ¢ ‘CHAP, I. Of the Motions of Reptiles. Tue orgins of motion in reptiles do not differ so much from those of quadrupeds as some other parts of their ical structure, though there is considerable variety in the several tribes of this class. The bones of most species are as firm as those of uadrupeds ; but in the smaller reptiles, as the frogs, are more cartilaginous. It is asserted by some naturalists, that the bones of tortoises have no medul- lary cavities ; but in the larger lizards, these are suffi- ciently ap t. The skeleton of a Saurian reptile is figured in Plate CCXCV. Fig. 1. The skull of reptiles is generally very — in pro- portion to the body ; but in many species, the jaws are ionally very large. The cavity of the skull is either exceedingly small, or not half filled by the brain. A remarkable ge takes place in the head of the cro- codile in proportion as the animal advances in growth after its extrusion from the shell. When first hatched, the skull.is thick and rounded, and the forehead pro- ‘minent, and the 0 are nearly at an equal distance be- tween the fore and back parts of the head. In proportion as the animal grows, the frontal prominence gradually disappears, and the jaws lengthen forwards; and in the adult state, the head ts quite'flat, and the eyes three times es far distant from the snout as they are from the back of the head. ‘ The skull of the crocodile resembles a truncated py- ramid, of which the cavity for the brain forms the base; that of and salamanders is of a form between the lindrical and the prismatic ; that of tortoises consi- derably resembles that of the crocodile. The cavity of the skull, in reptiles, is of an oblong form, and near] of an equal breadth. Of the jaws and teeth, we shall speak under the organs of digestion. With respect to the vertebral column, we may re- mark, that the number and proportions of its compo- nent vertebre v: more in this class than in all the other vertebral animals. The tortoises have generally seven vertebre in the neck, from eight to eleven in the back, and generally three or four in the sacrum. In this genus all the vertebra, except those of the neck and tail, are immoveably fixed with what is analogous to ribs, in the horny shield with which they are cover- ed. The crocodile has seven cervical, twelve dorsal, fivelumbar, two sacral, and thirty-four caudal verte- bre ; but in the other saurians, the proportional num- bers vary in almost every species. Frogs and toads having no ribs, the ordinary, division of the vertebral column cannot be distinctly made. The common fro has in all ten vertebrae, and the pi , has in all eight. Pipa, or Surinam Mee 5 "The muscles attached to the spine also vary consider- Anatomy ably. In tortoises, where only the -head and tail are and Physio. moveable, the spinal muscles are confined chiefly to _logy of these two organs, and those of the neck possess man, picttbaghiaarn The chief motions of the neck in this nus are those by which the head is thrust out from the shell, and drawn back within it. The spinal mus- « cles of frogs and salamanders are few in number, ex- cept that in the latter, the crocodiles, and other saurians, the muscles of the tail are proportionally numerous and powerful. ! The thorax is very differently formed in the different Thorax. orders, In the tortoises, the sternum or breast bone is lost in the breast plate or lower shell, while the ribs are, as we have said, firmly cemented in the shield. Of the saurians, the crocodile has the anterior part of the ster- num bony and prolonged, so as to receive the clavicles ; while the rest is cartilaginous, and extends backward to the pubis, furnishing eight cylindrical cartilages that surround the belly. . The ribsof this animal are twelve in number ; but the two most atlantal or forward, and the two most sacral or backward, are not united to the sternum. In the guanaand tupinambis, only six of the ribs are united to the sternum. The chameleon has a small sternum, but all the ribs are made to meet round the thorax, by means of intermediate cartilages. In the salamanders the ribs are extremely short, so as to ap like appendages of the vertebra. The frogs have a sternum though no ribs. . In most-of the reptiles, there is little peculiar in the muscles of the thorax and abdomen. In the tortoises, however, where the ribs are immoveable, and where the place of abdominal muscles is supplied by the breast- plate, the muscles which would be attached to the ster- num are inserted into the pelyis, upon which they act; and in frogs which have noribs, the muscles are united to the sternum by strong membranes. The superficial or glenoid cavity, in which the hu- pg ex- merus or large bone of the atlantal or anterior extremi- ty moves, is in reptiles formed partly by the and partly by the clavicle. The scapula has no spine ; it is elongated, and retracts and becomes thicker to- wards its neck. The clavicle is simple, short and flat. In tortoises, the disposition of the bones that form the shoulder is most remarkable, and is thus described by Cuvier. Besides the scapula and the clavicle, there is a bone which he calls the fork ; one of the bones stretches from the base of the rudiment of the first rib, to which it is attached by a ligament as high as the glenoid ca- vity, where it is intimately united with the other two. The second bone, which appears like the continuation of the former, is attached by its other extremity to the breast plate; and this extremity is bound by strong liga- ments to that of the bone behind it. These bones thus united are slightly curved outward, so. as to leave be- tween them, and those on the opposite side, an oval space for the passage of the gullet, the windpipe, and numerous muscles. Lastly, the third bone is placed below the abdominal and thoracic viscera, nearest the breastplate, and is extended from the glenoid cavity as far as the abdomen, It gives attachment to numerous muscles, and resembles the scapula in every thing but si« tuation. See Cuvier, Lecons d Anat, Comparée, Sec. IV. Dula . : HERPETOLOGY. i ogo ae Pema ea oe Se {i ! HI if % i ft ! BR 4 ; 3 ; = 7 f EPL RES AF lan if te t | i i j : } E 5 i ? ki rFT z g E i Es FF | [ i oa = F : FS F t i | i i ; z : a Fal i i if TH tH 3 F) , HIE ! F : Fat Lit * Im the twelfth payee. the Anmale: de saurians are the best among. the ; well, are abindscadtet aaa atk A great variety of reptiles swim well, especially sie swim well, the dragon, mi chge eM be said to fly is air resembles that of the flying squirrels. CHAP; Il. Of Sensation in Reptiles. As the cavity of the cranium in reptiles is very small, and not nearly filled by the brain, it follows that the size of this organ is very inconsiderable. It is calcula- ted that, in the turtle, the brain is little larger than ,-+.- part of the whole body, though in the frog it is propor- tionally much larger, being as 1 to 172. It consists chiefly of five rounded eminences, without convolutions, with a smooth base. There is no s callosum, situated behind the i The distribution of the nerves in the head no - The number of spinal nerves in the different orders Sorniz, verolii, or arbor vita, and what are called the thalemi of the optic nerves, are column is com: |, and their distribution is so little different from in man that it need not be here described. brachial plexus or net-work. Those of tortgises extremely complex ; those of lizards more simple ; those of froge i nerve in the body. extremity in lizards, after form a si cord, which thence supplies ng gts animals, in v different proportions and Their sight -4 to be very acute, and their eyes are in general and prominent. The sense of hearing, if we may from their want of external ears, is much less ect. than that of sight. Their smelling is supposed a imilar reason, and from the little use they a pear to make of this sense in seeking their food, to be still less eons a ond - is doubted we many of them possess t tasting at all, With respect to touch, it is le that those which have wot skins and digitated feet, considerable acuteness in ly _ that sense; while those which have scaly, shelly, or co- riaceous coverings, and more especially the , are capable of exercising touch in a very slight degree, if atall, We shall examine the organs of all these senses in the order which we have laid down in the article Axatomy, and exemplified in Ceto.ooy, sper, thet we shail deter the organs of feeling, if they ve that name, to the of Integumation. All reptiles appear to a tongue, but it varies much in substance and degree of mobility. In the tor- Musewm, is an elaborate Memoir by Cuvier on the Osteology of the crocodile, to which details, which it would be inconsistent with our plan to introduce in this place. tur- can 4 Anatomy and Physi- ology of Reptiles. —_— Braix. Nerves Tening. sod Piya clove logy ot Repules “yo Hearing. HERPETOLOGY. toises, it is covered on the upper part with long soft , giving it the a ce of velvet. In jles, these papilla are extremely short, and more like wrinkles. In these animals it is entirely fleshy, bout is so attached by the point and edges to the basilar or lower jaw, as to admit of scarcely any motion ; and it was long doubted whether crocodiles had atongue. In stelliones, again, it is very moveable ; and in the common lizards, and the tupinambes, it is considerably extensile. In these latter reptiles, the tongue terminates in two long flexible cartilaginous points ; and in the skinks and geckos it is notched at the ti tip. The tongue of salamanders is rough with papille, but that of and toads has a smooth slimy surface. The chameleon has the tongue of a cylindrical form, covered on its surface with deep transverse furrows ; and it is so constructed, as to be easily thrust out of the mouth, to collect the proper food of the animal. . The organs of smelling are imperfect, and consist chiefly of cavities opening in front of the snout, and communicating backward with the mouth, lined like the nostrils of mammolia with a pituitary membrane, for the ramification ofthe nerves. This membrane is in several species divided into several folds, su d By Seny plates. Tortoises have three of these. The ex nostrils are furnished with muscular fibres, by which they may be occasionally contracted and dilated. The nostrils are very close together in crocodiles, while in some of the other saurians, as the tupinambes,’ stell- iones, and chameleons, they are more apart and late- ral. In the tortoises, they are very small and close to- gether ; and they are also extremely small in salaman- ders. In short, from the small extent of the nasal ca- vities in reptiles, compared with those in quadrupeds, ita that they are rather organs of respiration than of smelling. These animals have, as we before hinted, no auri- cles or external ears, though their internal organs of hearing are sufficiently apparent. These consist of at um, (except in the salamander, ) and a laby- rinth with their attending bones and cavities. In tur- tles the membrane of the tympanum is cartilaginous, and covered externally by the integuments. The tym- panum contains only a single little bone, and from it proceeds a Eustachian tube. In‘this order there are semicircular canals, The saurians, with the exception of the salamander, have the same parts, and several little bones, besides several soft stony substances in the vestibule. The crocodile is the only instance among reptiles, in ‘which there is any appearance of external to the organ of hearing. ‘The batracians, espe- cially , have a large membrane of the tympanum, level with the surface of the body. The tympanum contains two cartilaginous ossicles, and has a wide open- ing of the Eustachian tube next the throat. The ves- tibule contains rudiments of those soft stony substances just mentioned, as occurring in the saurians. In the salamander, the vestibule contains one of these stony bodies, and the oval ‘hole leading to the labyrinth is closed by cartilage. In ‘general the vestibule and mem- branous canals in these animals are much sinaller than the bony or cartilaginous cavities in which they are contained, There is, ~e we believe, only one instance in reptiles eyes appear of little use. This is in that * Properly speaking there is ‘no masti prey. We have therefore taken the liberty of borrowing a the brightest light. the pupil in a very considerable degree. the chameleon can move both eyes at once, in different diction, a circumstance scarcely noticed in any other animal. tem of reptiles, and the influence of other organic functions, cannot properly be considered till these functions shall have been examined: The remarkable tenacity of life in reptiles, their cation in reptiles, and'the jaws an@ teeth -are used entirely for seizin singular species the proteus, in which the eyeballs are so Soeeient with the integuments, as not to be visible till these have been temoved. — : In the tortoise tribes there is a ben ring, om of thin plates at the anterior part e sclerotic coat; and a Fmilar structure occurs in frogs, chameleons, the guana, and some other saurians. The iris is vari« ously coloured, but generally yellow, red, or brown, The pupil varies in figure. In the crocodile it resem~ bles hat of the eat, being vertically oblong; in frogs and geckos it is rhomboidal ; and in tortoises, the cha~ meleon, and common lizards, it is round. The stalline lens resembles that of fishes in its sp ure, cides the two eye-lids common to reptiles, and the superior classes of animals, the former have, like birds, a third, or nictitating membrane, which is vertical in tortoises and crocodiles, but horizontal in frogs. In the crocodile there is a bony substance in the wu eye-lid. In the common lizards, instead of ere is a kind of circular veil extended before eye, with a sphincter muscle by which it may be closed. There is considerable variety among reptiles with respect to the lachrymal gland. Turtles have it very large, and situated at the lateral or posterior angle, In the fresh water tortoises again, as well as in frogs and toads, there are two small blackish glands. Thus it appears that the eyes of reptiles are well adapted to perfect vision, and provided with ample defence against the too stimulating power of the rays of light. It is well known that many of them are very quick in perceiving their prey ; and some species, as the green tianed and green og ante eateiadllle fond of Some few, however, shun the day-light, and seek their prey chiefly by night, having for this purpose the power of contracting or dilati tis said that The general phenomena respecting ‘the nervous sys- the brain on the ‘Te- productive power, and the phenomena of —— state which they undergo, all of which are more or connected with the nervous system, must also be de- ferred till we have treated ‘of the functions of circula- ‘tion and respiration. CHAP, IIL. Of Digestion in Reptiles. Dicestion in reptiles is divisible into what we may call prehension, deglutition, and digestion, properly so called.* We shall’here consider the organs and phe- nomena of these functions, in the order in which we have named them. _ We have seen thatthe mouth of the chelonians is fur- nished with mandibles. These close over each other somewhat like the parts of a box, and frequently have their edges so-deeply indented, as to have led to'the mistake that some tortoises have teeth. ‘The horny g and holding their word from the Latin, and bave‘called this action prehension, ond Phyo A : Prehensions Jaws, : ae : Supra & 228 Ht) ih A sid TET Hy TET it 2 TH fe ee Th HAUL Hu is ie al cules Hitree fate padi tte Fah at bao itt He auteet i ilu} ai eetabe : é. if + 2 33 He % i. ‘ay s3e8 7 34 ¥ 7 Sigeteos tt Hie he eile Ho ati ine i ile bal jit ipiiale! bal ‘ ea "i he Ae eid SHE Fi aiid ee 24 THE HEE sit yl! netireatie He ne ~ ride aul : oa! . aeiy piel ' ean tn a Sa eDaily tau AHH HEEL Serie HE ir Li a it aie i tt life ¢ ati ti HH i a tet ae HG Gari i 253 { Tis § are iret Ti PE eat sige! fe. 1B ial Hi sail is AUT ills ei a Fe stig fail il 3 HE ? Ht nil La nt ani i dt attra rile ll i Hitt stats GbE?22: i ih | i Anatom: i ; and that lpmame. “pen italf logy of Repules. Intestines. Rig..8. Pig. 9, 10. Fig. li. Food of reptiles. 10 portion which is opposite the ncipal curvature, has its sides thicker than the rest, and is internally plaited with longitudinal folds. _ The insertion of the gullet in these animals is distinguished by the sudden dilatation formed by the stomach. Among e Saurians, the crocodile has the stomach of a globu- lar figure, divided, however, into.two unequal portions. The stomach of the Guana is oval, and very long, with- out curvature, and not easily distinguished from the et. In the Tupinambis the stomach forms a long tube, bent nearly into a circle. The stomach of the Chameleon begins by an inflated portion, then takes the form of a long cylinder, and bends back upon itself. In the Dragon, this organ is strait, and has nearly the of a pear. In the Batracians, the form of the stomach resembles that in tortoises, but is proportionally more dilated. In Salamanders it is long, not much ex- panded, and strait, except near its farthest extremity. The intestinal canal of reptiles is not easily to be di- vided into small and large by any particular appendage, like the caecum of quedrupeds ; though the distinction, in point of diameter, holds in most species. All the Chelo- nians, most of the Saurians, and all the Batracians ex- cept the Siren, have a long small intestine inserted into one extremity of a short great gut, into which it is ysually prolonged, so as to form a valve, In the Jgua- na ae is there any thing like a caecum. The intestines of reptiles in general are very short. _In the Chelonians, what may be called the. small in- testine, is largest at its juncture with the stomach, and ually diminishes in diameter till it, terminates in — intestine, where its diameter is only about one-fourth of that of the latter. The coats of the in- testines in this order are thicker than in those of most other reptiles. See Fig. 8. In the nilotic crocodile, the small intestine is divided. into two portions, of which one is of greater. diameter, and has thinner coats than.the ether. This intestine is remarkable for a thin layer of a pulpy glandular sub- stance, between the muscular andthe villous coats. The large intestine of the nilotic crocodile is cylindri- cal; but in another species, the gavial, it is pear-shaped. In the lizard tribe, the large intestine is cylindrical, and of much greater diameter than the rest of the canal. In the chameleon, the whole intestinal canal is nearly of equal diameter, except at one part, where it forms a sort of valve. In the dragon, the intestines make about two circumvolutions and a half, before terminating in the anus. In most of the smaller saurians the. coats of. the intestines are thin and transparent. The most remarkable differences in the intestinal cas nal of the Batracians, are those which take place in the same species at different periods of its existence. In the tadpole, or young animal, the intestines are very long, small, and nearly of equal diameter, without any 2s vular distinction, and have numerous circumvolutions, In the perfect animal, the whole intestinal canal is much shorter, the distinction into small and large in- testines very evident, and the circumyolutions much fewer. In frogs, the large intestine is cylindrical ; in toads, it is more or less conical. The difference of dia- meter between the large and small intestines is most evident in salamanders, whereas in the siren this dis« tinction is scarcely to be noticed, See Fig. 11. The food of most reptiles consists of worms, insects, and other small animals, which they swallow whole. Of course the process of digestion takes place almost entirely in the stomach, where the gastric juice is evi- dently possessed of Conse solvent power, Some HERPETOLOGY. of the Chelonign order, , | : thence called turtle grass, which they bite off wit horny mandibles, and swallow whole. _ j Many of these animals are extremely voracious, and will gorge themselves with living worms or insects, till they become nearly incapable of motion, and till the animals they have swallowed craw] again out of their mouths, : ‘ : ‘ The process of deglutition, in most reptiles, is effect- ed by repeated contractions and dilatations of the throat and gullet, which are very evident to an observer. It is supposed by some physiologists, that part of the prey in some species undergoes a degree of solution in the gullet; but this seems to us not very probable. » Though the solvent power of the gastric juice in reptiles is undoubted, its action is sometimes very slow, esvecially on living animals, these having been found undissolved, and sometimes even still alive at the end of several days. Notwithstanding the voracity of some reptiles, it is astonishing how long almost all these tribes can sup- port the want of food. Turtles and tortoises, even when not in a torpid state, have lived for 10, or-even 18 months, without taking any kind of food. Newts have lived for two months, a chameleon for eight, salaman- ders for an equal period, protei for two years, and toads for a much longer time under the most perfect absti- nence. It is most extraordinary, and the circumstance forms a strange anomaly in animal physiology, that al- though these reptiles gradually lose their vitality from the want of f and.in some instances suffer no sensible diminution or flaccidity. of muscle. indeed, feed partly on pon plantas eir CHAP. IV. Of Circulation and Absorption in Repliles., Tuenre are several peculiarities in the circulation of reptiles, and the organs vary considerably in the dif- ferent orders. In some they are similar to those of the higher classes of animals, except that the principal cavities of the heart communicate more or less freel with each other; in others, the circulating system is , they do not lose weight in proportion, . A and Physio- logy of * Reptiles; —_—\— Abstinence of reptiles. entirely different. from that. of Mammalia, and: much . more simple. , In the Chelonian tribes, the heart is. very broad in proportion to its length, but differs in figure in the two genera, being nearly hemispherical in the proper Chelonie, and of an oblong squareform in the Testudines.. ‘Chelonians,. In both it has two auricles, and a ventricle divided in-. . to compartments. It is situated below.the lungs, and; between the lobes of the liver. The auricles are very large, forming each about one-third of the whole heart, and spread wide at the base of the ventricle. Their sides are thin, and their cavities do not communicate. The ventricle is strong and fleshy, and its cavity, which is naturally small, is still more diminished by nu- merous fleshy bundles that proceed from its sides, and. are separated from each other in sucha er as to, leave spaces between them, The auricles communicate - ~With the ventricle by large apertures, guarded by mem- . branous valves ; and on each side of the ventricle are. orifices, also furnished with valves, that lead to the great arterial trunks, The pericardium is large, and. closely attached to the contiguous m diaphragm in quadrupeds. n the Saurians, the heart is also provided with two \ ane, as to.the . Saurians,. HERPETOLOGY. 11 auricles ; and in one tribe, the crocodiles, is even more the temarkatle faculty” of reproduction of pert that Sa af z : z : ; z : F i i A i: z al ! d | | | is experimen i and partly between the lobes of the liver. have been made ; but it is reasonable, from ana- p**- are proportionally less than in the Chelonians, , to infer, that similar phenomena may take’ place in other tribes. ‘The lizards are peculiarly liable, from their smal!ness and the numerous nig b. are exposed, to partial injury or destruction eir i bers. this fe particularly the case with respect to other by numerous orifices. One ofthese the tail, which is long and slender, and in many species cron bf the right, and communicates so brittle as to break short on being handled. In these i been repeatedly observed, that the part in no time reproduced, generally si- to the original, but sometimes a double tail has FF AJ Tee Ht all E ae lk ik g Mt Le Ho 3 i i ; i i iA 4 : cf i efs g fat 3 is é % z 8 i luction of lost parts in reptiles, has been subject of numerous and satisfactory experi- Spallanzani, Bonnet, and Blumen- , that when part of either ity, or of the tail, is cut off, from two species of ¢ lacerta agilis, and lacustris or water newt, the wound is followed, for two or three minutes, by an | | 1 Pad [E i i nH j i cath 4 A E f : i Sti irk ; : : z i ; ; : E ; ? i new limb or tail begin to make their appearance ; that ) which impels it into the pulmonary artery, these rudiments are gradually developed, till in a few Gogh enede of fe probabt oozes into the left syste- months, or sometimes a little more than a year, there is leit i blood formed a perfect member, similar in size and propor- from the pulmonary veins, pours it into the left tions to that which had been cut off, only retaining for i intothe some time a rs of i ea os weg of left i , the carotids, and axillary arteries. not foand in the original organ. It is fur- he Batresien's ay a ple Gar-airel the chaseveausinuna may be again consisting of a single auricle, and a single undivided oe removed and reproda The most sur- z i : : i 3 ventricle, of a conical form, from which arises one ar- fring these experiments, however, are those of terial trank, that by its branches transmits the blood to net and Blumenbach on the reproduction of the all a of the 7 whole eye in the water newt. These have taught us, € cannot here enter into an examination of the num- that when the eye of that animal is di from ber and course of the blood-vesselsin the rep- the orbit, so as to leave about a fifth of the membranes Co ng Nod somata tenn teeing wed Soaell by the speaks’ ond sraioahy the vaceity is Aled tomie Comparée, Legon xxv. Art. 3. iv. closed eyelids, ua vacuity is are minutely described. = up with « ; at are pant, Dich Yo heed Ri oo. ‘There is not that well marked distinction between acquire the perfect structure of an eye, with its invest- the arterial and venous blood in , which isfound ing membranes, contained humours, transparent cor- in momealia, cetacea, and birds; but in some species nea, and coloured iris. there is a manifest difference, as Caldesi has observed We have already remarked the great power of ab~ qonscity of in tortoives. It iv said that reptiles which have fasted pose ye crepes 9 Be Bw em and have now to notice ji¢e, long have the blood of a paler colour than the same spe- some other unfavow circumstances under which fed. they continue to live, and perform most of their func« The quantity of blood in the circulating tions. -system of reptiles, Ae aa comer much emallerthan = Most reptiles possess the faculty of resisting extremes ; their muscles are whiter, of heat and cold, and the effect of chemical agents, bet- paler colour than in those classes. ter than other animals. Though nobody now believes animals, though not so com- the ridiculous stories of salamanders living in the fire, lieaetees sal irae take ee en it is still a curious fact, that lizards and alligators live fect circulation ; asin the classes, though with ease, and apparent satisfaction, in the waters of hot not in the same , the blood adouble course, y hag heated to a degree very considerably higher some of it 2 the lungs before it be distri- n the hottest temperature of the torrid zone. Vices bated —— pte taagsetoonthenar verde aptohe 4 ce be ad of cold far be- ‘ Chapter, although the lungs of reptiles are low the freezing point, ina of torpidity, and larger in proportion than those of mammalia and birds, they Tmave eves hatin instil eo tpidiiie buabedided tex 0 they. are less vaseular, and therefore contain a smaller block of ice for many hours, without having their vi- ey of blood. It is this imperfection of what has tality extinguished. Some of these animals, that have called the lester circulation, and the slight differ- been put alive into spirit of wine, for the pu of ence between the systemic and pulmonic , that lay preserving them as speci ,» have remained ie for the foundation for some of the most remarkable circum- several hours; and other instances are recorded of their stances in the physiology of these animals, We are existing for a considerable time in the exhausted re- Reptiles. Absorbent 12 ceiver of an air-pump. Frogs and water-lizards have lived, and moved with agility, many hours after having been deprived of their hearts; and Redi, by a curious but cruel experiment, proved that a land-tertoise, after having the cavity ot the skull laid open, and the brain dissected out, walked away with apparent unconcern ; and, except that its eyes , and never afterwards opened, it appeared for several months to enjoy life, and exercise its functions nearly as before the loss of the brain, Frogs, which were subjected to a similar experiment by Spallanzani, lived for five days. Nay, a turtle has been n to live and move its limbs for thirteen days after its head had been cut off. Not only is the body in general of reptiles thus te- nacious of life, but the s and organs that have been cut off shew signs of vitality and irritability, for hours and even days together. The tails of water newts have exhibited very lively motions for more than ten hours ; the heart of a frog has continued to palpitate, when irritated, for several hours after being taken from the : the head of a turtle has not only opened and closed its jaws, but has closed upon a stick with con- por ts force, two days after having been ampu- ta The absorbext system of reptiles has been very little examined, and the investigation has scarcely extended beyond the Chelonian order. We find that the thoracic duct of turtles is double, and that the mesentery in these animals abounds with lacteals, Numerous lym- pete are seen running in a longitudinal direction, on the superficial and central coats of the intes- tines; but it is not certain that these animals possess bie aay glands. If we may judge from the little waste that takes place in the body of reptiles during a long abstinence; and while in the tarpid. state, it would seem that their absorbent system possesses less activity than that of most other animals. CHAP. V. Of Respiration and Voice in Reptiles. Tue lungs of reptiles are proportionally much lar, than those of quadrupeds and binda, and they are alse of a much looser texture ; their structure is most compli- cated in the Chelonian order, in which they are of a uniform texture, but the air vesicles are very large. In the Saurian order, the lungs form two large vesicular bags, one on each side the heart, and have their inter- substance divided by membranous plates into nu- merous polygonal cells, which are again subdivided in. to smaller. All the Batracian order have lungs, which resemble those of most of the Saurians in largeness and simplicity ; but in the tadpole state, they have also gills, which curpet in the perfect spinels except in two tribes, in which they are permanent. In all, the lungs float loose with the other viscera in the same cavity, and appear to have no innate contrac tile power. : _ The windpipe, except in one or two instances, di- vides into branches or bronchi, before it reaches the lungs ; but this division takes place nearer the head in some tribes ap in — Be the Chelonians, it commences very early, while in the crocodile the tra« chea continues undivided for a considerable extent. In general, however, the bronchi are very short, and in. most instances they terminate abruptly in the lungs, ‘mouth. HERPETOLOGY. The extent of the lungs is greatest in the Chelonians, in whom they reach along the whole length of the. back. The lungs of reptiles are supplied with blood by the pulmonary arteries, there being in general no bronchial vessels. of Rept The gills or branchie of tadpoles, and of the pro- Branchia. teus and siren, resemble the gills of fishes in their ge neral structure, but are not, like them, inclosed wi a particular covering, but hang loose and floating on each side of the neck. They form three or four rows of small tufts or fringes, supported by small cartilagi- nous arches; and these arches are articulated on one side behind the cranium, while on the other they are united to a bene resembling the os hyoides, They have between the rows intervals, by which the water in which the animal floats is freely admitted to the The branchie of the siren consists of three tufts. The spongy texture and little vascularity of the lungs Respiration, in reptiles, enable them to take in a greater quan- tity of air than other animals at a single inspiration, and this capacity appears to be em: by the expan- sive power of the air cells. It is remarkable, that rep- tiles not only receive air into the lungs in the ordinary way of inspiration, but swallow it by the mouth, in which action they are assisted by the muscles of the throat. In fact; it is only by deglutition that the Che« lonians inspire, and in expiration the animals of this order employ chiefly two pairs of muscles, situated in two layers near the tail, between the shield and breast- plate. In the Saurians, the mechanism of respiration is executed chiefly by the abdominal muscles, and by those which move the ribs. From the large quantity of air which reptiles can inspire at once, there is the less occasion for frequent respiration ; and, accordingly, in these animals, the breathing ‘is remarkably slow. It is least slow in the Chelonian tribes, and it appears to be slowest when the animals are asleep. What is most remarkable, how- ever, in the respiration of reptiles, is the power they ess of suspending respiration. Tortoises have been nown to live more than a month with their jaws close- ly tied, and their nostrils stopped with wax ; and there seems little reason to doubt the remarkable instances that are on record, of toads being found alive in the trunks of trees and blocks of solid stone, where the function of respiration must have been suspended for years together. It also ap that reptiles can live for a longer time uninjured in deoxygenated or impure air than other animals; a circumstance that is explain« ed on similar principles. This continued vitality in vi- tiated air, has its limits however ; for it is found, that when these animals are confined in atmospheric air,’ they cease to exist when the oxygenous portion is ex« pended. The changes produced on atmospheric air by the res~ piration of reptiles, are similar to those produced by the breathing of other animals, viz. the consumption of oxygen and formation of carbonic acid. On this subject we may refer our readers to Mr Ellis’s Ingui: into the changes produced on Almospheric Air, published in 1807, and Further Inquiry in 1811, in which the experiments and observations made by the ingenious author, and collected by him from former writers, are fully and satisfactorily detailed. ' Intimately connected with the function of tion, is the vital heat of animals, We have alread seen that this in reptiles is very low. It appears, howe 8. a respira- Vital heat. , 'y , HERPETOLOGY. 113 ever, that, under the ordinary temperature of the like the kidney; in the Saurians, it is elongated; in Anatom the a ay apn gy ml sonst-of she Daacions, as pet wee it is stnall-sd Physi of the surrounding medium ; and and spherical, and in the former tribe is situated in the ral cavity of the abdomen. In the Saurians they are an oval form, more or less flattened and elongated, in. general they lie far back under the sacrum or : the tail. It is uncertain whether their form varies Fane See Oe eh Sauteed gteatingierion 4 at- with age in all these animals ; but it appears that in it i fi ag : f : [ 3 : af ; Has when extruded from the egg. Iguanas young crocodiles they are entire, while in full grown make a sort of whistling suund as hep sen.aleng the edivtinsle of the saree tribe, they are divided into se- trees, and the of frogs and is sufficient- veral lobes. In the Batracians, they are situated pretty ly known. far forward and very near each other, and resemble The organs of voice in these animalsare very simple, those of the Saurians in form. ‘ ; of a single larynx, without tis, but in- All the reptile tribes have not a urinary bladder. It Urinary Ay ara chords of the is, moved by is found in the Chelonians, in whom it is very large, >!der. muscles. In some species of frogs, espe- and is more or less divided into two portions. Of ally the males, there are alo membranous bags the Saurians, only the tupinambis, iguanas, stellios, Tg he Dende gate amen gage 8 chameleons, and dragons, have an urinary bladder, i to increase or which, when serve modify the it is found in the Batracians, in some of whom it con- sound, sists of two membranous bags, while in others it is le. CHAP. VI. sp there is a common le or passage Cloaca, for the urine and forces, called cloaca; and in Of Secretion and Excretion in Repliles. tribes that have no urinary bladder, the ureters, or eral secretions of a peculiar nature take lacein peculiar see Thos, in the crocodile, there is a g ds cron. its ee Sean In the a substance that smells like musk ; while glands of a is divided into two rounded irregular lobes, the one similar nature are found in the cayman, near the anus. i np oo an Gangempmes and the other In several of these animals, as in toads and salamanders, to the at its small curvature, It.is an acrid fluid exudes th numerous of the also divided into two lobes ip the crocodile and the skin when they are irri This fluid is not, how- chameleon ; but in the other Saurians, it forms only one ever. poisonous, as has been su ; but, In all the Batracians exeept the salamander, the liver toes a matter which is really of a venomous nature. - is composed of two lobes. ds ov _ See Guexo in the subsequent Part. eee eeneeneanen Senicenapeitionals smaller than in and birds. In the Chelo- CHAP. VIL nians, it is almost concealed in the right lobe of the liver, and is found in a similar situation in croco- Of Integumation in Reptiles. diles. There are generally two ducts leading to the intestines ; one fromthe liver, the hepatic duct, and the | A constprnaste variety is found among the rep-- other, the cystic, from the gall-bladder, and these, in tiles with respect to their integuments ; and as these Most instances, run from each other. varieties constitute many of the generic and specific: ~ The position and “of the pancreas are very va- characters, it is necessary to examine them with some rious. In most of the Chelonians it is tri andge- minuteness, nerally entire. In the crocodile it is divided intolobes. —_In all these animals there is the usual distinction of Cuticle. . In some of the Batracians, as the frog, itislodged in cuticle, true skin, and rete mucosum. The structure of the arch of the stomach towards the sternal part of the the skin and rete mucosum differs but little from that body ; in others, as the salamander, it is situated in the of other animals, except ‘in the and toad, where - first curve of the intestines. The duct is there is this peculiarity, that the skim adheres to the | commonly single, but in some instances, as in the Ni- parts beneath only at a few points, so that it forms a lotic crocodile, it is double. sort of loose bag about the animal, susceptible of occa~— Spleen, The spleen exists in all reptiles ; but its structure, sional inflation. The cuticle.is extremely various in the - form, and situation in these animals, has been im- different orders and tribes.. In the'Chelonians, though ; only the head, tail, and extremities, appear to be ce~- i | | Change of skin. 14 HERPETOLOGY. vered with skin, yet in feality the whole body within i with a thin t ee capable of being in plates. In most of these animals, the cuticle, when exposed, is covered with scales of a horny texture, and differing very much in number, situation and figure. A thin membrane re- first a cuticle enveloping the true skin, then scales, plates, or tubercles, and over these again another cu- ticle, as in the Chelonians. In the crocodiles and Draccena, there are strong and broad plates differently shaped and arranged, as we shall see hereafter ; in the tupmambes, the scales are disposed in circular rows or transverse bands; in the basilisks, they are diffused over the whole body, while in the lizards again, they are in transverse bands. The Batracians have the epidermis smooth, and in general slimy. The Saurians have generally very mes. and nume- rous subcutaneous muscles, especially in the tail ; and in most cases, there is an intimate connection or adhe- sion between these muscles and the skin. We have already seen that the Chelonians are co- vered, both on the upper and lower parts of their body, with a strong and hard shell, of which the upper part may be termed the shield, and the lower the breast- plate. Each of these is divided into a considerable number of separate plates, united together by their edges, sometimes in a smooth and even manner, at others overlapping each other. A row of these plates lies along the middle of the back over the vertebrz, -and these are surrounded on each side by several others, which, together with the vertebral plates, constitute what is called the disc. The other plates of the shield, lying between the disc and the breastplate, are called marginal, and are generally from'twenty-one to twenty- five in number, They are of a more irregular figure than those of the dise, and generally of an oblong form. The shield is more or less convex. The shield and breast- plate are united only at their sides, leaving a space at the fore and back parts forthe head, tail, and extremi- ties. This shelly covering, in general, resembles the hoofs of quadrupeds in its texture, though in some in- stances, as in what is called tortoise-shell, it is purer and more transparent than the finest horn. The Saurians and Batracians occasionally change the cuticle, throwing off the old, and acquiring a new one. This is particularly the case while they are young, and after leaving their winter quarters. In these animals, the change is not made at once, as in serpents, (see OpuioLocy,) but the cuticle is detached in scales or plates, till the whole is thrown off. CHAP. VIIL Of Generation in Reptiles. Tree is no part of the economy of reptiles more curious, none more interesting to the naturalist, than that function by which these animals generate their like, The differences, with respect both to organs and phenomena, which are found in this class, admirably illustrate the observation of a celebrated naturalist, that @ systematic arrangement of animals, as well as plants, might be composed merely from a comparison of their #senerative organs, A difference of sexes prevails in all distinction of male and ces very manifest. There is one part of the structure, however, found in both sexes. The cloaca, which has been already noticed as forming the common outlet Sexes. for the urine and feces, also forms, as in birds, the common receptacle of the external organs, and the out- let for the ova. ; e organs is in ‘most instan- #9¢ of } All male reptiles have testes, but these organs differ yy.1¢ oy. © in form and situation. In the Chelonians, they lie with- gang, in the abdominal rine (ss is the case in all these ani- mals,) contiguous to the kidneys, and united to their inferior or sacral surface. In the Saurians, they lie in front, or on the sternal side of the kidneys, on each side of the vertebral column ; and in the Batracians they are situated immediately below the anterior surface of those s. In the first order, the festes are composed of large vascular bundles, disposed in various directions ; and the epididymis is formed in the usual way, by the convolutions of the vessels, particularly of the seminal duct, or vas deferens. It is not certain whether these animals have seminal vesicles. The éestes of the croco- -dile are long and narrow, and communicate with two organs that are supposed by some anatomists to be se- minal vesicles, ra if so, ‘ee the only instance of these organs among the reptile tribes. In salamanders, each of the testes is divided into two spherical bodies, placed one before the other: and their texture consists, as in all the Batracians, of an agglomeration of small whitish granular bodies, interspersed with blood-ves- sels. The penis is single in all the Chelonians, and in most of the Saurians. ©The Batracians have ‘no organ of this kind ; but, in some of that order, its place appears to be supplied by a small papilla within the cloaca. This organ is most remarkable in the Chelonians, in some of whom it is of very considerable length. It is cylindri- cal, terminates in a point, and has a deep furrow alon the whole extent of its upper surface. It is furnished with two retractor muscles, by which it is withdrawn within the cloaca, where it usually lies concealed, and from which it is thrust out in preparing for copulation. In the Saurians, this organ is short, cylindrical, and beset with numerous spiny processes, resembling the bristles of the hedgehog. In the usual state, it is drawn, up under the skin of the tail, and, when erected, ap- pears externally at the slit of the cloaca. We must here notice a peculiarity of structure in the males of those reptiles which do not immediately copu- late with the female. There are found in these males, during the copulating season, hard brown or blackish papille or tubercles, attached to the thumb and palm of the fore feet, which assist in grasping the female. These tubercles are found chiefly in the frog and toad. Salamanders have, during the same season, a crest with divided edge upon the back and tail, which afterwards disappears. ; The female reptiles have ovaries, and most of them femaje or a uterus, or an expansion of the oviducts, which answers gans, a similar pw . The ovaries of the Chelonians re- semble those of birds, (see OrnrrnoLocy.) They are two in number, and have each a duct opening into'a uterus. The uteri are thick and fleshy, and have’ ings by which they communicate with the cloaca. The ovaries of the Saurians and Batracians are’ much alike ; but the former contain fewer eggs, and have larger and shorter oviducts. Those of’ frogs lie below the liver. A curious structure prevails in the female of the Su- rinam toad, or Bufo dorsiger. The skin of the back in ae I AS = Piatr » CCcxcy. ; i . : { : : HERPETOLOGY. ; Fr pu | 4 e 1 E ; and Saurians enter into actual co- and this act is different in the two orders. It y known in what manner the male and and tortoises thisact. Itis sup- asserted by some, that they unite breastplate, while others affirm, that the place in the r fi i i jon commences early in spring, or a8 soon. as the animals are roused from their winter state of torpor, and seems to return only once a year: it continues for a longer or shorter time, in different y= ote fem a TS we All reptiles are ly oviparous, in one inet tek ealedieedin aide orm ane in the oviduct. In most of the tribes, the eggs, though nu- merous, are laid distinct from each other ; and, in that ease, they are enveloped either by a calcareous shell, or a membrane i t. Frogs and toads, however, by eeg are connected together pt kind of bunch, ee eS TOT y containing in its centre a spot, which is connected gradually by the female, and each is by the male as it esca the considered as ect eggs, ¥ We have said, that the young of the Batracians un- dergo a meta 2s Ns eae ag esting part i i ion in these eng. the pogo poration te tium, has given a minate account, illustrated by fi- gures, of progress of the common frog, from the time when the egg is first fecundated to the completion animal. We shall here present our read- abstract of this account. s after the i ; 5 i SPREE Hip : 4 ii ELE aae jell he an F . find their accustomed prey, they: tinction of head and tail more evident ; and there are 15 Anatom also visible the rudiments of the fore feet and of the 2>4 Physior gills, It has now quitted the egg. At the end of nine days, the head and body are enlarged, and the tail con- siderably lengthened. Soon after this, the branchie are so much increased as to be distinctly observed ; but, about the twentieth day, these appendages are with- drawn below the skin, as no longer necessary ; and about four days after, the fore legs, which till now had been almost entirely concealed below the skin, appear externally. The body of the tadpole is still transpa- rent, its | head to tail, (see Fig. 16.) In a few days after this, the tail gradually disappears ; the hind legs are deve- loped ; and, in about two months from the first exclu- sion of the ovum, the animal becomes a perfect frog. The metamorphosis of all the Batracians does not pro- ceed exactly in the manner above described. In par- ticular, the tadpole of the Rana paradora undergoes such remarkable changes, as to have been mistaken for an animal of’a very different class. These will be no- ticed in a subsequent of this article. of salamanders also differ from the tadpoles of frogs, and have been denominated /arve, They remain four months in the tadpole state. CHAP, IX. On Hybernation in Reptiles. Havine, in the preceding Chapters, described the organization of reptiles, given a comprehensive view of their organic functions, we have only to con- sider the that take place in these animals at that season when they begin to lose sense and motion, and sink into a state of torpor. The young. logy of Reptiles. intestines are seen extending from PLaTE Ch. CCXCV: Fig. 16. If we except the insect tribes, there are no animals Effects of to whom Spappehs testendocaary tet enchiing iets agg to exercise their functions with vigour and activity than reptiles. We shall find presently, that by far the great- er number of the ies are natives of the torrid zone, and indeed the few which inhabit these colder regions are comparatively lifeless and inactive. The hest of the sun seems to increase not only their vivacity and agility, but their sensibility. produces the con- trary effects ; and when this takes place in any consi- derable degree, they become listless and i ve, and would probably perish, if they did not seek for refi in some situation where they are in some measure shel« tered from the cold in its extreme degree. According- ly, we find that, on the approach of winter, these ani-. mals betake themselves to some retreat: corresponding to their natural situation. Turtles and fresh water tor- toises imbed themselves in the muddy or the sandy bot- toms of lakes and rivers, while tortoises make an excavation in the earth, and there find a temporary grave. Crocodiles, and those other Saurians which re« semble them in their usual habitation, find retreats in sand-banks ; while others, especially the Batracians, re- tire to crevices of walls, cavities of stones, clefts of ' trees, and caverns of mountains; while a few seek a into gradually sink iene state of insensibility, and appear in a profound sleep, scarcely to-be distingui: from actual death. . precarious continuance of warmth. by. creepin dungbills. In these retreats, where:they can no As this torpidity approaches, their circulation becomes Phenomena sid, their respiration is extremely slow, their appe- 0 hybeima- 16 A y tite for food pears to cease, and their temperature aot Phyo sinks below ite natural standard. So complete is their ony ot want of sensation, that they may be cut, torn, and in Kn cd some cases broken to pieces, without expressing the least degree of pain, or showing any signs of motion. In this state they continue generally during the whole winter ; and, as the genial heat of the spring re- turns, or in those climates where the changes of season are not so remarkable, when the analogous revolution of the season takes place, the animal begins to shew signs of returning life, gradually recovers sense and motion, its heart beats with a gradually increased velo- city, its respiration becomes more frequent and regular, its temperature increases, it quits its retreat, resumes'its ordinary functions, searches after prey, and seeks a mate. It is remarkable that this hybernation of reptiles is not confined to those species which inhabit a cold or temperate region, but seems to extend even to the hot- ter climates of Barbary, Egypt, and South America. It is also worthy of remark, this continued state of torpor, unlike winter sleep of bears, marmots, and HERPETOLOGY. does not produce any Anatomy other hybernating qu not | very evident emaciation or loss of weight in the te animal. Land tortoises have been repeatedly weighed just before retiring to their winter quarters, and after emerging from them, and were found in some cases — not to have lost above two ounces. It is found that when some of these animals, as tor~ toises, in a state ~ domestication, are ae their winter retreat, and exposed to a more elevated tem ture, they recover, in some degree, their sense ate tion, though they scarcely ever take food during this pe~ riod, We have known a land tortoise kept in a room where there was almost a constant fire, lie for ‘several weeks together in the box that formed its retreat, with« out making any attempt to come out, and th when taken from the box, it opened its eyes, moved its head, and sometimes walked a little, it could not be prevailed upon to eat till its usual period of hybernation was com~ ted. The person with whom it lived, with officious agree would sometimes force a little broth or soup into its mouth ; but the animal never showed any desire to eat of its own accord. See HypeRNnarion. nephies ——— Part Il. CLASSIFICATION AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPECIES. ORDER I. CHELONIAN REPTILES. W: have seen that most of this order, comprehending the animals called turtles and tortoises, are inclosed within a horny covering, consisting of two parts; one covering the back, and usually called the shield; the other supplying the place of a sternum, and called the breastplate. Each of these is composed of numerous plates ; those of the shield being most numerous, and divided into those of the disc, or middle part, and those of the margin. The plates of the disc are generally thirteen in number ; and those which are ranged along the back from head to tail, are denominated vertebral . The plates of the margin vary in the different species from 21 to 25. There are several terms appli- cable to these plates, which occur in the ennai a- racters, and therefore require explanation here. » When the plates rise in a ridge in the middle, they are said to be carinated ; when they have de ions in the con- trary direction, they are furrowed ; when they are uni-~ formly highest in the centre, they are conver or sub« they , aecordin onan gree of rom mame when ie u ike tiles or slates upon a roof, they are pnbricated when they are sintched! about the like the teeth of a saw, they are serrated. _ — cere sore: vette animals are more or ly uni at ges, leaving open- ings for the head, legs, and tail. Some ratte ave the power of withdrawing all these within the shell, where they lie as if shut up im a box, safe from the attacks of almost every animal but man. |’ The legs of these ani very short, but so strong, that one of the larger turtles has known to walk with apparent ease, while several men stood on its back. In their motions they are slow and awkward, and, with Ne ae exceptions, they are inoffensive, and submit, wi resistance, to the most cruel treatment. They pass the winter in a torpid state. CHELoyI- ANS, Genus I. Citerowea TURTLES. (helonia, The feet flattened, so as to resemble the broad part of an oar; the toes of unequal length, united so as to form a broad expanded surface, with flat nails’ inserted into its margin. The Chelonie comprise the largest species of this ore der; some having been found weighed seven or eight hundred pounds. They are inhabitants of the ocean, and feed partly on fuci or sea-weeds, and partly on the mollusca and. other small sea-animals that har« bour among these submarine plants. The of all the species, and the flesh of most of fea i deli« cious repast even to the epicure. Of this genus only six species are: distinctly marked by naturalists, though it is understood that Schoepff, the Prussian naturalist, was acquainted with eight. These six species may be thus distinguished. Species }. Chelonia mydas. Green turtle. Plates wydas, of the shield neither imbricated nor carinated, in num- yi . ber thirty ; four feet, furnished with two nails. See PLATE Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 1. Me sa La Tortue-Franche. Daudin, Hist. Nat. des Reptiles, ©” par Sonnini, i. p, 10. Lacepede Hist. Nat. des Quad. Ovip. i. Art. 1. (Translation by Kerr.) estudo mydas, Linn. Syst. Nat. a Gmelin, p. 1037. Schoepff, Hast. Nat. Testudinum, p. 73. pl. xvii. fig. 2. Green turtle, Shaw, General Z , ii. pl. xxii. 2. C. rugosa. Wrinkled T. Plates marked with p three transverse black furrows ; body of the shield ches- mat nut-coloured, with a yellow margin. T. ridée, Daudin, i. ps 37. ‘ > _ 3. C. caretta, Caret, or Hawksbill T. Shell ellip= Caretta, tical, subcarinated, serrated; dorsal plates 30, imbri- Tf. caret, Daudin, i. p. 39. Laeepede, i. Art. 5. L. imbricata, Linn. a Gmelin, p. 1036, Schoepff, p. 83. pl. xviii. — poe rae: iii, 89. pl. 26. xxvi. k ana. Cepedian T. Feet thin shaped i furnished with one nail; plates of the breastplate 14." T. cépédienne, Daudin, i. p. 49: f . C. bie ra ag T. Shell ovato-cor- Cossumn ate, serr ; of the disc 15; vertebral plates gibbous behinds torpid and Physion —_———_- ii HERPETOLOGY. at ‘one time, she scratches the sand over them, and _Chelonian leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The Feptiles. | turtle, Shaw, iii. pl. 23, 24, 25. Coriaceous T. Body not shelled, i: r | if t ff ES % F THE gt ne i . Hit tfctt fi if (i zt ; nab 1 iit | wl ater! hedrismeabct) great facility, its above the surface of wouter but ‘thew it fours the ie fra =f ii pee L i i Li ite} i if i Hy F i i : : l 17 cere of this species are round, about the size of a tennis , and covered with a white skin resembling parch- ment. It /is said that that part of turtles which is analogous to the albumen or white in the eggs of birds, does not coagulate by the heat of boiling water. As the female turtle lays her eggs at three or four times, with intervals of about a ‘fortnight, the young are ofcourse hatched at different periods, the eggs of each laying requiring about three weeks before the young are ready for extrusion. . The little animals are of the same shape with their t, but have only a soft ing instead of a shell. As soon as they are released from their confinement, they make di for the water ; and though this be sometimes at a consider- able‘distance, they shape their course towards it in a straight direction. But a small ion of them, how- ever, in general, reach their natural habitation, Great numbers of them are seized by various predacious ani- mals, jally cormorants and other large birds, which hover the shore from May to September, for the desirabl prize. ee of a such a e % he individuals of this species are often found col- lected into numerous groups, though it does not appear that they have much enjoyment of a social intercourse, but are rather attracted to the same place by the abun- dance of their natural food which it affords, During the ing season, the malé und female seem warm] a to each other, and are said to continue their ae a for near a gee ef ‘o what age green t is capable of living, were it to remain unmolested, cannot Secicicmay’ J bat it is conjectured by those naturalists who sup the of an animal to depend on its size, ao the rae of years required for attaining its full, growth, that this species must live for at least a century. We shell see hereafter that this is no uncommon age for species of a mach more diminutive size. Even in. the time of Pliny, the taking of turtles for the tables of the great was practised in the East Indies; and if we may credit the accounts of lian and Dio- dorus Siculus, the barbarous nations of the East were accustomed to employ the shields of the largest indivi- duals as canoes, It is believed that it is only within these hundred years that turtles have been imported into Europe for the purposes of food. - Various wiethods are resorted to in different coun- tries for catching turtles, A very common mode is, to watch them as go.on shore, or return, during the season of laying their Bi when they are easily ar- rested; and, by the united force of several persons, are turned on their backs, a position from which they find it extremely difficult to escape. Several Gadivichasl are - turned, rex te a gp cee gat = been us sec t are dr awa ropes, and pened in boat® to théie Nay Bbstination. This is the method practised by the inhabitants of the Ba- hama islands, and is often employed with success by sailors, while touching at the islands between the tro- pics during their long voyages, Turtles are also taken while swimming ih the sea _ Some fishers of great dex- terity dive for. such as they see at the bottom, in the shallows, and getting on their backs, press down the hind part, and raise the fore part of their body, so as to compel theni to ris¢ to the surface, where au assistant is teady to slip a Noose over the head, and thus secure . the captured animal. The most common mode, how. - c. Chelonian Reptiles. Hawksbill turtle. 18 3 HERPETOLOGY. ever, of catching turtles out at sea, is by means of a kind of spear, or harpoon, with a long wooden shaft, to which the head of the spear is but loosely attached. This kind of fishing, as it is termed, is generally carried on by two men in a small light boat or canoe. One of persons manages the boat, while the other stands ‘ ready to dart the spear into the back of his destined victim. It is not long before a turtle is seen either swimming at the surface, or, what is more usual, feed- ing at the bottom, where the water is about a fathom deep. Sometimes the animal discovers the approach of his enemies, and endeavours to escape; but the men die after him, and generally contrive to tire him out in about half an hour’s chace. The spearman then hurls his weapon, the head of which, from the peculiar construction of the instrument, generally sticks fast in the shell, while its attachment to the shaft is secured by a long string. The animal thus wounded again, makes oft unless he has been so much fatigued in the chace, as to be incapable of further exertion. In either case, he soon becomes an easy prey to his pursuers, It is only for its flesh that this species is so much esteemed, its shell being of no use. In many of the West India islands, turtles are exposed in the open market, and a turtle-steak is there as common as a beef-steak in Britain. The flesh of the turtle is ex- tremely nutritious, and is considered an excellent re- storative in cases of debility and emaciation. me 3. Chelonia caretta, The imbricated or hawksbill turtle. : This species, though of considerable size, is much less than the preceding, the largest individuals seldom ‘weighing more than three or four hundred pounds. The shield is of an oval and almost heart-shaped form, slight- ly sinuated before, and narrowest behind. © The disk is covered with thirteen plates, that are two or three lines thick, of a smooth surface, nearly transparent, lying over each other like tiles. upon a roof. The five verte- bral plates are of unequal size and figure, though each is ridged longitudinally in the middle. That nearest the head is very large and quadrangular, with a semi- circular margin anteriorly. The three next plates are hexagonal, and have their greatest length across the body. The fifth is pentagonal, with one angle directed backwards, and a little prolonged towards the tail. The eight lateral plates are very large, and of an irregular pentagonal figure. There are twenty-five marginal plates, which are so much imbricated as to give the sides of the animal a serrated appearance. The colour “ of all these plates is generally black, with irregular transparent shades of red or yellow ; all of them toge- ther sometimes weigh from four to eight pounds. We have been thus particular in describing the plates of this species, because they constitute its most valuable product. They form what in Europe is denominated tortoise-shell, which, by the inhabitants of the West Indies, is more properly called turtle-shell. The head and neck of the caret turtle are considerably longer than those of the green turtle; and the upper mandible projects so much over the lower, as to give the snout a distant resemblance to the bill of a bird of rey, whence English sailors have given it the name of hawksbill. his species is found in the Asiatic seas, and on the Atlantic coasts of America; but is said not to be met with in the South Sea, Though so much smaller than the green turtle, the hawksbill possesses considerable strength ; and when at- , tacked, defends itself with much ae ee very severe and painful bites. It is also more difficult-to se« cure, as its shield is more convex, and its feet longer Chelonian ! than those of the first species; so that when turned on its Reptiles. back, it more readily regains its natural position. The — female begins to lay her eggs in May, and continues ‘vith intervals till July. She is said not to deposit them in fine sand, but in gravel mixed with shells. The young of this species very nearly resemble those of the former. The eggs of the hawksbill turtle are esteemed very delicious ; but its flesh is unwholesome, and affects those who eat of it with fever and dysentery. It is al- most entirely for the plates of tortoise-shell that it is made an object of search. ( The use of tortoise-shell was known to the ancients, but it is only in modern times that the manufacture of it has been brought to perfection. In selecting the plates, those are preferred which are thick, clear, and transparent, and variegated with dark-brown, geet yellow, red, and white. In preparing them for use, the plates are softened in warm water, and then re- duced to the desired shape, by pressing them in warm iron moulds. After they are cooled, they are taken from the mould, smoothed and perme For the pur- poses of inlaying in cabinet work, the moistened plates are pressed perfectly flat, and kept in that state till cool and dry. It is usual to place below them metallic leaves of such a colour as it is wished should appear through the transparent part of the shell. Sp. 5. Chelonia caouanna. Loggerhead, or Mediter- Loggerhead turtle, ranean turtle. j This has been sometimes confounded with the last species, under the name of caret, but Lacepede restrict- ed this name to the hawksbill, in which he has been followed by succeeding naturalists. This is a very large species of turtle, and is said by Lacepede, even to exceed the green turtle in size. Its head is much larger in proportion than that of either of the former species. The mouth, and especially the upper mandible, is also of considerable size. The neck is thick, and covered with a loose wrinkled skin, thinly beset with horny scales. The shield is of an oval form, narrowest behind. It is of a yellow colour, with black spots. The legs, especially the fore legs, are propor« tionally longer than in many other species; and both the fore and hind feet are furnished with two sharp claws. The individuals of this species are most abundant in the tropical seas, especially about the West India islands; but they are also found in the Mediterranean, particu- larly on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia. In its manners, this is one of the fiercest of the Che- lonian tribe; it defends itself with great courage and activity, both with its mouth and claws, and has been known to snap a moderate sized walking-stick with a single stroke of its jaws. It appears to be the most predacious of all the turtles, not only feeding on shell- fish of considerable size, the habitations of which it easily breaks with its strong mandibles, but attacking the young crocodiles, seizing them by the tail as they retire backwards into the water. Thus these animals instinctively perform an act of retributive justice. The older crocodiles make a prey of the eggs and young of those turtles which inhabit the shores to which they resort, and the turtles in return seize on the young cro- codiles while they are too weak to defend themselves. The loggerhead turtle wanders very far from land. It has been seen apparently sleeping on. the surface of the ocean, about midway between the Azores and Ba- hama islands, at a distance of many hundred miles from land. The female lays her eggs in the sand. g z 43 ; 5 th te Ht F Lit dd i uty a i 5 28 2 3 4.3 g a i r AHS au ait an i If ‘- A a du aby ig a a Thee pale j mood. 1h a a an it hi ai a ail | ii | a3 ore BE B Ske - i Lik: + iL Hitete lf F : i‘ Ge tell au i : ii q 1 § At Hat i aq i} RTH ene EGE eA I ual saa wets i | Seite set) (lala fl eer an E pai ial tit na ft iil Hina mate ne ce tate “4 & Hi i iu me tie E {95 beet ieee le Hetil Sibel Lt ga aa He | Ht Har ss % BE HEE Sei é Hat bas ee ee 20) HERPETOLOGY. Chelonian | , F--Fopenes Schoepfipp. i. pli...’ Speckled 1’. nit ‘Shaw, ili. p. 30. a 14, 1 tudaria.- Mud tortoise..,Shield of uniform Lutana. Caspica. Melanoce- phala, Scabra, Subrufa. Verrucosa, Galeata, Scripta. Porphyrea. Reticulata, Serrata, Centrata, dark-brown, colour ;, fibular or outermost toe,of the hind feet without claw. t La tortue bourbeuse,.Daud,,iz p..115, ,Lacepede, 1. art. vi. T. luiaria, Linn. a-Gmelin, p. 1040. Mud fortoise,, Shaw,,iii-p.32. .pl.:6. , 12. 7’. caspica. Caspian T. Shell,,orbieular; five nails on the fore-feet,, and four on.the hind, head scaly; no tail. La. torlue caspienne,. Daud. i. p,.124. T. caspica, Linny a Gmel, p.LO41. , 13. .7'. melanoce, » » Blackheaded..T..,. Shell, ches- nut-coloured ; head and feet black ; tail short.,- La tortue a téte noire, Daud, i. p. 128. 5 14. T. scabra. Rough T.» Upper,part of the,shield rough, yellowish, irregularly / gee and. striped with brown ; marginal. plates 25; feet palmated ;,.one hind toe without,claw, ;, ; : La tortue rabouteuse, Daudi, pe 129s»: Lacepede, tie: art. xviii. 7. scabra, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1040. ., 15. T.subrufa. Reddish or brown T. Shell ches- nut-coloured; plates of the disk flattened, smooth.,in the..middle,, streaked on the, margin ;) plates, of the breastplate 13; all the feet five-clawed. ,, La torlue roussdtre; Daud..i. p. 182. Lacepede, i, art. XXxv. 16. 7. verrucosa. Warty T. Shell, covered..with _ warty prominences; notched round the margin;.all the feet four-clawed. La tortue a verrues, Dandy i, p. 1346 7%’. verrucosa, Walbaum, Chelonograph, p. 116. T. scabra, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1040. 17. TZ. Galeaia. - Helmeted tortoise. , Shell oval, de- pressed ; three dorsal intermediate plates,-acutely. cari-.. nated ; marginal plates 24; head plated ; lower,mandi- ble furnished with filiforni, cirrhia, La tortue.a'casque, Daud.is p. 136. £. nee Schoepff, p. 12.pl..iii. fig. 1. Galeated T. Shaw, iii..p. 57. ipl. -xiiz 18. 7. scripta...Manuscript T. » Shell orbicular, de- pressed ; plates marked above with characters ;. margi- nal plates/25, spotted.on the lower. part. La tortue ecrite, Daud. i, p. 140. T. scripta, Schoepff, p. 16. pl. iii. fig..4. andi, Lettered. T.; Shaw, iii, p.57. pl. xii. 19. Z's porphyrea,. Porphyry T.: Shell.of an .oc red colour, sally scothed: “ith -ebscure green pat brown ; four squamous tubercles:at the anus. La toriue porphyrée, Daud, i. p. 142. 20.7. reticulata. Reticulated ‘T. . Shield , streaked and reticulated with black and brown, with yellowish lines in the middle of the plates; marginal plates not a three spotted:at-the juncture with the breast- plate. La tortue reliculaire, Daud. i. p. 144, pl. xxi. fig. 3. 21. 7. serrata. Serrated T. Shell marked above with transverse brown and yellow bands; posterior marginal plates not toothed ; lateral margin at the june- ture of the breastplate five-spotted. : ne tortue a bord en scie, Daud. i, p. 148. pl. xxi. fig. 22. 7. centrata. Concentric T. Dorsal and margi- nal plats marked with two or four black once — 3 breastplate yellow, without spots, notched bes hind, La tortue a lignes. iques, Daud. isp.153. © Chelonian Concentric tortoise, Shaw, p..43. pl. ix... , Reptiles. . 23. T. punctata., Dotted T.. Shell. oval, moderately ia convex ; dorsal plates and head smooth and black dot. ted, with yellow, (a-tietets La tortue ponctuée, Daud..i, p. 159. pli xxii. . T. punctata, Schoepff, p. 25. pl. v. » Spoited T’. Shaw, ili. p. 47. -pl. x. 24, J’. picta. Painted, T. | Shield oblong, convex, Picta. » very, smooth ; plates. nearly square, .brown, bordered with yellow; breastplate as long as the shield. » La tortue peinte, Daud. i. p, 164.. : T. picta, Linn, a Gmelin, p. 1045,, Schoepff, p. 20.. 1. iv. . Painted tortoise, Shaw, iii, p. 45. plex. 4 25, T.. martinella...Martinella.T. .- Shell a little flat~-ytertinctia. tened, oval, marked on the back; with two longitudinal, ; ridges ; -plates of the ,breastplate,13.) | ~ : a tortue martinelle, Daud. viii. p. 244, : 26. T. tricarinata. Three-ridged T. Shell orbicu- Tricarinata. lar ; three-ridged, vertebral plates transverse. - La tortue retenne, Daud, i. p. 174. T. tricarinata retzii, Schoepff, p. 9. pl. ii. Tortue a trois carénes, Latreille; Hzst..des Rep. i. p. » 118. Tricarinated T: pert iii. p. oe - “ ; 27. T. scorpioides. ion T. ell oval, longi- Scorpioides. tudinally weed nae net eocusbstelipiste ‘oblong, poste~. riorly imbricated. La tortue a trots carénes, Daud. i. p..178. © La tortue scorpion, Deen i. art, xii. T. scorpioides, Linn. a Gmelin, p. 1041. 28. T. amboinensis. Amboyna T. Shield convex, 4mpoinen. smooth, brown, both it and breastplate ‘bordered with sis, yellow ; head compressed, brown, cheeks and beak ra~ diated with yellow ; feet palmated. La torlue @amboine, Daud, viii. p. 345. 29. T. Pennsylvanica. Pennsylvanian T. ich pl Pennsylva- of the shield smooth, uniformly reddish, flattish in the mica middle ; three of the vertebral plates hexagonal, ob! ¥ imbricated behind, the first and fifth bemg-el and nearly triangular ; marginal : plates 25 ; tail tipped with a claw. ‘T. rougeatre, Daud. i. 182. pl. xxiv. » Lacepede, i. art. 2. T. Pennsylvanica, Linn..a Gmel. i: 1042.: “Schoepff, pl. xxiv. fig. A. Pennsylvanian T. Shaw, iii. p. 60. pl. xiv: 30. T. odorata. Odorous. T. » Shield smooth, uni--Odorata, formly brownish, flattish in the middle ; marginal platesi: ye breastplate moveable only in front ; tail tipped with a claw. T. odorante, Daud. 1. 189. , 31. T. glutinata. T. a batans soudées, Daud. i. 194. Glutinata, This, which is marked by Daudin as a distinct species, seems to be only a variety of the preceding, differing in the immobility of the bacsueiladpeses val 5 be 32. T. subnigra, Blackish T. Shield rounded, con- Subnigra. vex ; plates streaked at the margin, smooth in the mid- dle ; vertebral plates carinated ; plates of breastplate 13. T. noiratre, Daud. i..197. Lacep. i. art. 28. 83.. T, virgnlaie, Striped T. Shell dark brown, with virgulata, numerous yellow spots; vertebral plates longitudinally: carinated, i T. a goutellettes, Daud. i. 201. 34. 7. clausa. Close T. Shell brownish, striped on. cjauss, the hack with. yellow ; vertebral plates longitudinally a middle of the breastplate: a: little com-< pressed. an 2 \ T. squzmata, Linn. a Gmel. 1040. No. 2. Sect. II, Land Tortoises, asa aa ie a are 16 Fplatee of the disc » subgibbous; marginal 25, ; Piate Beovwhche Shishd black ced puliow, bes Plass OCACVE. 8. viz. T. Shield he- “il ; aust a ; g eF G80 s ia - E Se i ‘ 4 45 BE f i fi HERPETOLOGY. , 21 Chelonian = T, a bate, Daud. i. 207. middle vertebral plates radiated of a deep yellow late. Chelonian Repaies. pe ae treme el plienn ; ; lateral plates radiated below, Reptiles. Cae eee . Shell: brown bay, Tortué coui, Daud. i. 271, pl. xxvi., eon Sah marked above with ‘yellow linesand spots; dorsal plates’ 45. T.luicola. Yellowish T. Shield rounded, gib- 1 yteoia striated ; vertebra) plates carinated, la- bous, yellow, with sub-gibbous plates. 46. Ttedica, Indian, Shiga TT. ve, Daud. i. 207. i. art. xxv. \ indi i jield convex; anterior Indica, 7. earelins, Li Linn, a Gael. 1081, 1082, marginal plates reflected upwards, 47. T. arecolata. Areolated T. Shield ovato-ob- Areolata. convex ; plates nearl ps By yd furrowed, square, eleva~ with rough y areola. T. areolée, Daud. i. 287. ; areolata, Schoepff, p. 104. pl. xxiii. T.eafra. Cafre T. Shield flattish, broad ; plates Catra. except the last vertebral, which is gibbous ; yel- ji id 27. ‘ La T. cafre, Daud. i. 201. 49. T. juvencula, -Juvencula T, Shield square obe Juvencula. long, little gibbous, with concave grained areolz ; plates of the disc 13, yellow, with black radiated paints ; i 26. La T. 7 , Daud. viii, p. 348, hield brown-bay, vertebral plate carinated ; i La fascia Manche « Cin 51. T. with Pasciata, Daud. i. p. 294 shield va- Pusills. xix. T. denticulata, Linn. a Gmelin, p. 1043. Denticulated T. Shaw, p. 59. pl. xiii. Srecies |. Testudo feroz. Fierce tortoise. There are several species of the Chelonian order toise. which have the shield softer than the ordinary shell of most species. This is the case with the 6th species of | the former tribe, and with at least four of the present,’ The coriaceous turtle, or Luth of the French writers, ing in the comparative softness of their external cover- ing, differ very materially in general form, i manners. The coriaceous turtle has an _————<—— 22 Chelonian resemblance to that of the mole, The coriaceous tur- Reptiles. tle is an inhabitant of the sea, is frequently found in “~~” the Mediterranean, and has been seen even on the coast Mud tor- nf of Britain. The fierce tortoise has yet been found only in the rivers and fresh water lakes of America, especi- ally in Florida and Carolina. The former is a large species, often measuring above seven feet in length ; e latter seldom weighs above seventy pee The fierce tortoise frequents lakes and muddy rivers, and hides itself among the water plants that grow at the bottom, from which it is said to spring ey on its prey. . This consists of small water animals, and, in some aot: more particularly of young crocodiles, of which this species is extremely fond. They seize their prey by suddenly darting forward their long and strong neck, which they do with great celerity. This ies is among the strongest and most active of its che: ae as its trivial name implies, is possess- ed of ferocity and cou When attacked, it boldly defends itself, rising on its hind legs, and leaping for. ward to seize on its assailant; and if once it fixes with its jaws on any part, it is scarcely made to let go its hold without cutting off its head. The fierce tortoise forms an excellent article of food, at least not inferior to the green turtle. Se. 11. 7. lutaria. The mud tortoise. This is one of the smallest of the fresh water tor- toises ; its whole length, from the snout to the tip of the tail, seldom exceeding eight inches, while in breadth it is not more than three or four. It is of a blackish or dark brown colour. Its tail is nearly half the length of the shield, and is stretched out when the animal walks. Hence the mud tortoise has been sometimes called by the ancients mus aquatilis, or water rat. This is a very es ay inhabitant of lakes and mud- dy rivers in the south of Europe, and in many parts of Asia. It is very plentiful in France, especially in the provinces of Languedoc and Provence. It lives almost entirely in the water, only going on land to lay its , which it: covers with mould. It moves with a baer on land than many of this tribe; when isturbed, it utters a kind of interrupted hissing sound. Tt feeds on fish, snails, and worms, and often proves a troublesome inmate in fish-ponds, killing many of the fish, and biting others till they are nearly exhausted from loss of re | It has been proposed to employ the mud tortoise for ing vermin in gardens; but it is necessary to have a pond or large vessel of water for its ordinary re- sidence, With such a convenience, it may be render- ed tame and domestic. The young of this species, when’ first hatched, are not an inch in diameter. They continue to grow for a long time, and are known to live for at least twenty- four years. Sp. 86. T. Greca. Common land tortoise. Several varieties of tortoise, known both to ancient. and modern naturalists, have been described under the name of Greek; and, according to Daudin, Schoepff. was the first to remedy this confusion, and to mark each by its distinctive-eharacters. The species of which. we are now treating seldom exceeds. ten inches in. length ; is of an oval form, with a very convex shield, HERPETOLOGY. . broader behind than before. The breastplate is nearly Chelonian f equal size with the shield, and is-of a pale yellow pee, with a broad dark stripe down each side, while the middle part on its upper part with irregular scales; the mouth is ‘°* small, the legs short, and the feet pretty broad, and covered with strong ovate scales. The tail is very short, scaly, and terminated at its extremity with a curved horny process. It seldom weighs above three pounds. % This species is entirely confined to the land, and pre- fers elevated woody situations. It is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is very common on all the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in Sardinia, Bar- bary, and probably in Egypt. It is nota little curi« ous, that, even in the warmer climates, this species re- ularly retires to its subterranean quarters during the - winter months ; thus proving what we have before re« marked, that the hybernation of these animals does not depend solely on the degree of cold. It begins to bury itself in October, and usually makes a hole about two . feet below the surface, where it continues till wl The males of this species are in summer tolerably ac- - tive, and very fierce towards each other. The female lays her eggs towards the end of June, depositing them in a hole, and covering them with sand or mould. They seldom exceed five in number at one time, and are of a white colour, and about the size of those of a pigeon. They are hatched towards the end of Septem- - ber ; and the young, when first extruded, are scarcely bigger than walnut-shells. : The individuals of this species live on roots, fruits, worms, and insects, the shells of which latter they ea« sily break with their strong jaws.* The land tortoise is often domesticated, especially in gardens, We shall select the account of a tame tor< toise, given by the Rev. Mr White of Selborne, as a pleasing specimen of the manners of these animals in a state of captivity. This individual had been in pos« session of a lady for upwards of thirty years. It res gularly retired below ground about the middle of No« vember, and did not emerge till the middle of April. Its appetite was voracious in the middle of summer, but it ate very little in-spring and autumn. It seemed greatly alarmed if surprised by a shower of rain during its peregrinations in search of food ; and though its shell was so thick that it could scarcely have been in- jured by the wheel of a loaded: cart, it discovered as much solicitude to avoid rain, as a fine lady in her gay- est attire, shuffling away on the first sprinklings, and making for some shelter. Whenever the old lady, its mistress, who usually waited on it, came in sight, it’ always hobbled, with awkward alacrity, towards its benefactress, though-to strangers it appeared quite in- attentive. It never stirred out after dark; often ai peared abroad only for a few hours in the middle of the day-; and in wet days never came from its retreat. Though it.loved warm weather, it carefully avoided the hot sun, and passed the more sultry hours under the shelter of a large cabbage leaf, or amid the friend« ly shades of an asparagus bed.. Towards autumn, hows ever, he appeared anxious to improve the effect of the * We do novremember to have seen, in-any author with which we are acquainted, that land tortoises are accustomed to drink. Th . . " . ‘ * fn M4 writer of this article has lately, however, ascertained the fact, that although they can live without, drink for years, they swallow liquids with pleasure and avidit drunk water set before it. Its mode of drinking is peculiar. when offered to them in the spring. A land tortoise, bello, near Edinburgh, for,above six years, was never known to drink of its.own:accord. till the which has been in the possession of a carpenter at Porto- spring of this year (1816), when it has re- It puts down its head deep into the fluid, so as to cover even its.eyess. and then gradually, and almost ivoperceptibly, sucks it up, so as to drink some ounces in the course of a quarter of an hour, of the shield is of a blackish brown, Common mixed with yellow. The head is small, and covered land tor- HERPETOLOGY. . 23 == in Greece. eggs, however, are eaten very conenaiestainale: this order, in general arrangement. 5. remark, Sameta al.the apaslen ne er ich Pgs agherwnd : teal ty the contraction between the head a lengthened thorax, protected i rounded, z eg EF e i we iss i zi i + ; TG f i Bg re if tf u He Hue i piney it? He Famuy I. Sauri Planicaudati. Frat-tartev Saurtans. Saurian i Reptiles. Genus I. Crocopinus. CROCODILES. —— In this tribe, the back and are covered with Cnoce- plates ; the head is broad and flat; the tongue short, D'L™ 6 , and adhering to the lower jaw; the tail very much compressed, and armed above with a serrated crest, at first double, but single towards the tip. They have four strong feet, of which the hinder have five toes, more or less ted, only three being furnish- ed with nails. All the ies are capable of living both in water and on ; they generally inhabit the former, but move with ease upon the latter. Daudin has enumerated seven ies, which he ar- ranges under three Sections, as follows. Secr. I. Crocodiles properly so called. Snout long and flat; one tooth on each side of the Species. lower jaw, prolonged outwards, and shutting into a in the upper jaw. Species 1. Cossediles niloticus, ~Nilotic crocodile. yitosens, Muzzle flat and oblong; fourth tooth of the lower jaw resting against the of the upper jaw: six Puste a plates upon the neck. Pose CCXC ies ig. 3. crocodile de Nil, Daud. ii. p. 367, pl. xxvii. fig. 1. Le crocodile, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 1. Lacerta crocodilus, Linn. a Gmelin, p- 1057. Common crocodile, Shaw iii. pl. lv. lvi. lvii. Under this species, Daudin ranks as varieties the crocodile of Senegal, the black crocodile, and the In- dian crocodile. Secr. IL. Gavia ls. , narrow, nearly cylindrical ; two teeth at itunanen of the rf Se Le crocodile a bec etroit, ou le grand gavial, Daud, i. 393. pl. xxvii. fig. 2. Per tg nw Lacepede, vol. i. part ii. art. 3. pl. xii. Lacerta gangetica, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1057. Long-nosed crocodile, Edwards, il. Trans, xlix. p- 639. pl. xix. Gangetic crocodile, Shaw, iii. p. 197. pl. Ix. Sect. IIL. Caimans. 399. Lacerta : me 1058. No. li. Alligator, , iii, a 192. ° Sp. 5. C. yacare, Yecare C. Muzzle blunt, a little Yacare. Saurian Reptiles. Mississippi- or hl 24 elevated ; jaws furnished with 19 teeth on each side ; two fore teeth of the lower jaw elongated, and passing through the upper jaw. . Daud. i. p. 407. + Sp. 6. C. nia Soslinain Mississippi C. or alligator. Muzzle broad and ed ; four carinated scales, dis- posed in a square upon the neck. j Ppp ississippt, Daud. i. p. 412. ‘ Alligator, or Florida crocodile, Bartram’s Travels in South America. ; Sp. 7. C. latirostris. _ Broad-beaked crocodile Muz- zle broad and flattened ; jaws furnished with 19 teeth on each side ; eight scales, disposed in four pairs upon the neck. - Le crocodile 2 large museau, Daud. i. p, 417. Perhaps this may be considered as a variety of the alligator, from which it appears to differ only in the number and disposition of the plates on the neck. Such is the arrangement of Daudin. We must now notice’ the classification of Cuvier, as given in the 10th volume of the Annales de Museum. Essential Characters of the Genus. Tail flattened at the sides; hind feet palmated or semipalmated ; tongue fleshy, attached to the floor of the mouth, except at its edge; teeth sharp, simple, ranged in a single row ; penis single. Subgenera and Species, with their essential Characters. Suscenus I. Alligators. (Sect. III. Daudin.) Species 1. Cr. lucius. Muzzle parabolic, depressed ; scales on the neck four. Native of North America. 2. Cr, sclerops. A transverse ridge between the or-« bits; neck furnished with four bony bands, Native of Guiana and Brasil. a 3. Cr. palpebrosus. Bony, palpebre ; neck furnish« ed with Fame she bands. 4. Cr. trigonatus. Bony palpebre ; neck furnished with irregular triangular carinated scales. Suscenus II. Crocodiles. (Sect. I. Daudin.) 5. Cr. vulgaris. Muzzle equal; scales of the neck six; those of the back in sixes, square. Native of Africa. 6. Cr. biporcatus. Muzzle furnished with two ridges nearly Taellghg plates of the neck six; scales of the back in eights, oval. Native of the Indian islands. 7. Cr. rhombifer. Muzzle sub-convex, with two con« perging ridges ; plates. of the neck. six ; scales:of the bac is sixes, square, those of the limbs thick and ca~ rinated, 8. Cr. galeatus. Top of the head furnished with a two-toothed-elevated crest; plates of the neck six. Na- tive of India beyond the, Ganges. 9. Cr. biscutatus. Intermediate scales. of the back Square; outer ones irregular both in form and situa~ tion ; plates of the neck two. 10. Cr. acutus. Intermediate scales of the back Square ; outer ones irregular ; plates of the neck six ; muzzle elongated. and convex at the base. Native of the Antilles, SuscenvslII, Longirostres, or Gavials. (Sect. II. Daud.) 11. Cr, gangeticus. .Top of the head and orbits trans- “— ; "ogy small plates = the neck. - Cr. tenutrostris.. Top of the head and orbits con< tracted; four small plates on the neck, al M. Geoffroy St Hilaire, in a second Memoir on Cro- codiles, in the tenth volume of the Annales de Museum, HERPETOLOGY. has formed another species of Nilotic crocodile, under the trivial name Suchos; but his account of it is not sufficiently precise to determine its specific differences. As we have already, under the article CrocopiLe, given a comprehensive account of the three principal species of this tribe, viz. the crocodile of the Nile, the igator, and the Gangetic crocodile, or caiman, we at present dispense with any thing more on the natural history of these animals. Genus II.. Dracwna. DRAGON. Reptiles. _—\= In this genus the body is cevered with large rounded Dracawa scales, (those upon the back being carinated,) dispo- Genus sed in transverse bands, and separated by numerous other very small scales that are round and carinated. The head is thick, compressed laterally, and covered at the top with several smooth scales. Some of the teeth in the fore part of the jaws are sharp-pointed, and those behind are broad and flat like the molares of quadru- peds. The tongue is forked at its distal extremity ; and the tympanum of the ear is apparent externally of around form. The lower of the body is covered with smooth scales, dis in transverse bands. The tail is covered on that half next the body with plates, which form on its upper part first four, and then two toothed: ridges, -while the remaining half is covered with rough rhomboidal scales, carinated and imbricated. The four feet are each: furnished with five long toes - letely separated from each. other, and terminated claws. There is only one species, viz. Srecigs 1. Dracceena guianensis. Guiana dragon La Dragone de la Guian, Daud. i. p. 423. pl. xxviii. _ La Dragone, Lacepede, vol. i: part ii. art, 5.-pl. xiii. Lacerta dracena, Linn. a Gmelin; p. 1059. Dracena lizard, Shaw, iii. p. 218. pl. 67. See Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 4. This animal in many respects resembles the’smaller crocodiles, differing from them chiefly in its forked tongue and distinct toes. It is of a reddish-brown co-« lour, shaded with green. It is from two to four feet in length; of which the tail is about one half. This latter organ is very thick at its proximal extremity, ta- pering gradually towards the point, and is strong and flexible. The dragon: has hitherto ‘been found only in South America, and chiefly in Guiana. | It-is a land animal, frequents the savannahs and marshy plains; readily climbs trees, and. hides itself when in x from cro« codiles or other enemies, ‘Both its flesh and eggs are used as articles of food. Genus HI.“ Basmrscvs:: ‘BASILISK. The body- in this tribe is thicker in pro Species. Guianensis. PLATE ccxcevi, Fig. 4. ion to its BasILis- length than many of the order, and its whole surface, cus Genut as well as that of the head, neck, tail, and limbs, is co- vered with small scales that: are generally rhomboidal, and a little carinated.. The head is short and pretty thick, especially towards the back part; the tongue broad, thick, flat, rounded at its tip, not extensile, and almost wholly attached -within the lower jaw. The throat is susceptible of inflation. The tail is long, very much compressed laterally, and surmounted at least along its anterior half, with a high vertical crest that is radiated, capable of being folded together, and scaly. or ' — nfo Cepedianus. The feet are rather thick and long, and furnished each mS ihe cies di, cx cnamasdon Daud. iii, PT icilic, Lacepede voles 1 lic, ‘ i a ort dé Lacerta batiliscat Linn. a Geeelin, 1068. 2. B. amboinensis. Amboina B. Tail long; head naked, dorsal crest pectinated. Le B. porte-eréie d’ Amboine, Daud. iii. p. 322. Lacerta embotnensis, Linn. a Gmelin, p. characterised, Tortisam- ats Genus 'y in South America, Egypt, and the Daudin has characterised fourteen species, distribates under two Sections as follows : Seor. 1. Tupinamhes with the Tail compressed and t sim Safe =e 6. pl. xiii. fig. 2. , p. 1059. lizard, Shaw, iti. p. 214. pl. bevi. tT. Brownish with white Monit Elegans. 2. °T, concentric lines above tall very much compressed. : Le T. elegens, Daud. iii, p. 36. 3. T.cepedionus. Cepedian T. Brownish above, with from ‘2S to 24 transverse rows of spots; -white onthe VOt. £1. PART I, HERPET OLOGY. 25 fore part of the body, and black on the hinder; whitish _Saurian below, with interru transverse brown lines. eptiles. Le T. cepedian, Daud. iii, p.48. pl_xxix. “_ 4. T. indicus. Indian T.. Black above, -with .con- Indicus. fusedly scattered white dots. Le T.indien, Daud. iii. p. 46. pl. xxx, 5. IT. maculatus. Spotted T, Black above, irregu- Maculatus larly marked with transverse bands, and seven longi- tudinal rows of greenish spots on the upper. part; neck plaited below ; tail.half the length of the body, Le T. a taches vertes, Daud. iii. p. 48. 6. 7. griseus, Gray T. Yellowish-gray without Griseus. spots, paler below ; es nearly hexagonal, granulated on their margin ; tail nearly cylindrical, and as long as the body. Le T. gris d Egypte, Daud. viii. p. 352. Sect. I]. T'wpinambes having the Tail surmounted.with a small double Crest, slightly serrated. 7. T. stellatus, Stellated T. Blackish-brown above, Stellatus. with transyérse bands of small whitish circular spots, interspersed with whitish dots ; tail long. Le T. etoilé d’ Afrique, Daud. iii. p. 59. pl. xxxi. * 8. 7. niloticus. T. of the Nile. Differs from the Niloticus, former in having the acellated spots and dots irregu- larly disposed. Probably a variety. See Daud. viii. . 353. ; . 9. T. bengalensis. Bengal T. Ash-coloured above, Bengalensis. spotted with white and black ; black bands across the Sate; throat dotted with black ; whitish below ; tail or T. piqueté de Bengale, Daud. iii. p. 67. 10. T. ornatus. Ornamented T. y black ; throat Ornatus. white, radiated with nine transverse black bands ; with seven transverse rows of round white spots upon the back ; and from twelve to eighteen whitish r rings round Prater the tail. ‘See Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 6. CCXCVI. Le T. orne, Daud. viii. p. 907. Ann. de Mus, de ¥'8 ® Hist. Nater. tom. ii. :p. 240. pl. xiviii. ft 11. T. albigularis. White-throated T. Lower part Albigularis. and sides of the head and neck whitish, spotted with brown ; two whitish lines extending from the eyes to the neck ; tail long. Le T. a gorge blanche, Daud. iii. p. 72. pl. xxxii. 12. T. variegatus. Variegated T. ‘Blackish above, Variegatus. ted with double ‘transverse rows of round yel- low lines and shades ; tail twice as long as the body, Le T. bigarré, Daud. iii. p. 76. Variegated lizard, White, Voyage to N.S. Wales,p.253. 13. T. exanthematicus. Pisnply T. Black-coloured, Exanthe- with roundish white spots i rly disposed ; belly maticus. marked with brown bands; two black lines behind the eyes ; head scaly above ; tail of moderate length. Le T. exanthematique de Senegal, Daud. ii. p. 80. 14. 7. lacertinus. Lizard T. Some carinated scales Lacertinus, along the back ; eight longitudinal rows of smooth plates below the belly ; ‘tail long, with a small double crest at its base. Le T. lizardet, Daud. iii. p, 85. Lé Silonné, 1 e, i. partii. art. 11. Lacerta bicarinata, Linn. a‘Gmelin, p, 1060. Genus V. Iavawa. .GUANAS. The individuals of this tribe resemble those of the Iovana last, in having the ae and tail surrounded with nu. Se™ merous small rings of ite scales that are nearly of a square figure, and in sometimes having the tail a little ‘ compressed at ‘the ‘sides, though this is in a small de. . A high crest com of nutmerons pointed ec ratte Br the teeth of a comb, extends “abot D 26 HERPETOLOGY. 3 ; houlders: In other respects they Saurian. Saurian tebrae fi the neck to near the tip of the tail, of the body to the's c ] Reptiles. The bead is sconiowrlia pyramidal, and tae four sides; resemble the guanas, having, like re a crest along Reptiles. the tongue is broad, flat, fleshy, but little extensile, and he see nm soy o a on i an be aie pipsetlon, ss wel i its tip: and below the throat is a below the throat. ei , however, le ahs achargrer oe hier oseapilated Laseiitly; and fur- ally re = — Re rat towne i i i ing that limbs more delicately formed. Nat o ; oer pal Sky ar aah besemcrr mee sent day reckon three species, which Daudin has dis- gpecies, five toes ending in claws, and under each thigh is a row tinguished by the following names and characters. ie of small porous tubercles, The Guanas are found both Species 1. Draco lineatus. Radiated flying dragon. Lineatus_ in the E. and W. Indies; and chiefly inhabit the woods, Body beautifully variegated with blue and grey above ; sporting among the trees. There are three species, viz. wings brown, longitudinal] y streaked with white. . Species 1. Iguana delicatissima. Common guana. Le Pragon rayé, Daud. li. p. 208. | ma. Swelling of the throat pectinated anteriorly ; dorsal and 2. D. viridis. Green flying D. Body green, rather Viridis. A inated - forehead and muzzle covered scaly; wings grey, transversely marked with four brown PLATE Sah anooth ey Plate CCXCVI. Fig. 7. bands and connected with the thighs. See Plate cosa CCXCVL —_L’ Iguane ordinaire, Daud. iii, 263, pl. x1. CCXCVI. Fig.8. n Fig. 8. Fig. 7. L’Iguane, Lacepede, vol. i, part ii. art. 12. Le D. verd, Daud. iii. p. 301. pl. xli. Lacerta iguana, Linn. a Gmelin. p. 1062, Draco volans, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1056. Common guana, Shaw, iii. pl. Ixi. Le Dragon, Lacepede, vol. ii. part ii. art. 58. Cornuta. 2. I.cornua, Horned G. Swelling of the throat 8. D. fuscus. Brown dragon. Body brown, paler Fuscus, anteriorly pectinated ; forehead: beset with tubercles, beneath, scarcely scaly ; wings brown. especially one resembling a horn. Le D. brun, Daud. iii. p. 307. 3 , L’Iguane cornu, Daud. iii. 282. These animals so far resemble each other in habits, Le lezard cornu, Lacepede, vol. i. part ii, art. 13. manners, and habitation, that it is unnecessary to de- Cerulea. 3. I.cerulea. BlueG. Bluish-black, without spots; scribe each species. They are pune | of small size, a longitudinal row of pointed scales on each side of the seldom exceeding eight inches in length. . neck. From this small size, and the membranous wings L’Iguane ardoisé, Daud. iii. p. 286. with which they are furnished, they readily sup Common Species 1. Iguana delicatissima, Common guana, themselves for some time in the air, though their flight _ guana. This animal, after the crocodile and the dragon, is seldom extends beyond thirty paces, darting from tree one of the largest of the Saurian order, being not un- to tree in the manner of the flying squirrels ; ani« frequently found from four to six feet long from the mals which they much resemble, as well in their mo« muzzle to the tip of the tail. In its general appear- tions as in their manner of life. They are supported ance, exclusive of its colours, it is clumsy and unsight- chiefly by insects, which they sometimes take while ly, and occasionally even assumes a terrific aspect. Its on their flight. Flying dragons are found in Asia, Afri« head is large and thick ; its belly protuberant ; its tail ca, and America, especially in the island of Java. — very long, thick at its commencement, and taperin We need scarcely remark, that the fantastic animals gradually towards a sharp point. Its serrated back, tail, described by the older writers of natural history, under and throat, its long toes armed with sharp crooked the name of dragons, are mere creatures of the claws, and its jaws with numerous sharp teeth, are suf- nation ; though it may be proper to observe, that ficient to alarm an observer who is unacquainted with cimens are not unfrequently met with, in cabinets of its history. To counterbalance these deformities, how- animals, that nearly resemble the figures given by those ever, its whole surface is covered with numerous shin- writers. It is now known that these specimens are arti« ing scales, of the most brilliant appearance, reflecting ficial, and are formed by designing people, who make a various colours when viewed in the sunshine, though trade of selling natural curiosities, by dressing up smalk the aiiteoay tint is a brownish green. ray fish, so as to resemble the fabulous dragons. The guana is found both in South America and the West Toadies, where it inhabits the forests, especial] Genus VII. Acama, AGAMAS.. near the borders of lakes or the banks of rivers, It The species now ranked under this name had gene- Acaua sometimes ascends the highest trees in quest of insects; rally been regarded as guanas, or stellios, from which Genus. at others, seeks its prey among the grass and under- Daudin distinguishes them by the following characters. wood. It is a harmless, inoffensive animal, and soon Body oblong, more or less thick, entirely covered with becomes familiar with mankind. Its flesh forms ade- small rhomboidal scales, that are almost always carina« licious article of food, and is either roasted fresh, or ted and reticulated together ; tail in most instances cy- salted and barrelled up for exportation, by the inhabi- lindrical, but in a few compressed ; throat capable of tants of those islands where it is mast frequent. Itis being inflated ; tongue short, thick, a little cleft at its said that the negroes are very expert in catching this tip; head thick, callous, generally set with spines at animal, amusing it by whistling, and, when it suffers the back part, and covered with numerous small rhome them to approach, tickling it with the end of a rod, boidal scales; feet long and thin, having each five slen- having attached toit a cord with arunning noose, which der toes furnished with claws. There are twenty-five Species. ow aay slip over the head of the animal, and species, arranged under five Sections, us secure their prey. . 6 VI Heck! eh cule He sali ie S49 i : | .S 25% ee } q a al yee Sie Eig fit one Uy ee aX ————— Aa 28 HERPETOLOGY. Saurian head covered with numerous plates, colour brownish- Reptiles. bay, with transverse dark bands and green’ shades ; tail very long. L’A, marbré de Surinam, Daud. iit. p. 433. Lacerta marmorata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1065. Marbled lizard, Shaw. a Le marbré, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 39, plate ii. Sect. V. Agamas with prehensile Tails. 25. A. prehensilis. Prehensile A. Four transverse black bands on each flank ; belly brown, with black and white shades ; three black bands upon. the cheeks ; tail prehensile, scarcely longer than the body. L’A. a queue prenante, Daud: iii, p. 440. Genus VIII. Sreturo. STELLIOS. STELLIo Body oblong, thick, entirely covered with small scales, Genus. regularly disposed transversely ; tongue thick, short, and a little cleft at the tip; head broad, rather short, covered abéve with numerous scales or plates ; throat ble of slight inflation ; tail compressed, surround- ed. with transverse rows of large carinated’ pointed scales ; feet strong, furnished. each with five separate toes, tipt with claws. This singular tribe of reptiles, which, in the form of their bodies and the tuberclés with which they are of- ten covered, bear some resemblance to the toads, are found only in the hottest parts of Africa and America. They hide themselves during the day below stones, and in the crevices of old buildings, and leave these retreats at the approach of night. They prefer dry situations, and live chiefly on insects. Daudin has characterised nine species, which he ar- ranges under three Sections, as follows. Secr. I. Cordyli. Plates upon the head, body, and tail versicillated and spinous. Cordylus. Species 1. Stellio cordylus. Cordyle S. Head plated pointed. carinated Prehensilis, above, body and tail covered with scales, disposed in whirls. Le Stellion Cordyle,. Daud. iv. p. 8. Lacerta Cordylus, Linn. a Gmel. p, 1060. Le Cordyle, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 21. Sect. I. True Stellios. Head covered above with sinall scales, with some omer transverse bands of large scales upon the y. 2. S, Vulgaris: Common S. Body covered with small seales, with a few transverse bands of larger scales upon the back ; scales of the tail a little elongated. Le S. proprement dit, Daud. iv. p. 16. ek stellio, Linn. a Gmel. p- 1060. stellion, Lacepede, ii. ii, art. 33. Rough lizard, Stow. oe 3 Ss. Platurus. Broad-tailed S, Tail flat, broadest in the middle, spinous at its edges ; occiput and back tu- yo pe ae and spinous; muzzle slender ; colour brown- ish-grey. LeS*ta queue plate de la Nouv. Hollande, Daud. iv. p: 24, Broad tailed lizard. White’s Voy:to N.S. Wales; p.246. a Secr. ITI. Bastard Stellias. umerous very small scal PE ore ae es on the upper part of the Quetz- 4, §. quetz-paleo. Quetz-paleo.S. Pale ; bod me a an pmtel gt of 5 elongated scales, each: thi i ia low with a row of fifteen pores. aries Le 8. quetz-paleo. Daud. iv. p. 26, Vulgaris. Platurts. 5. Si spinipes. Spinefooted S. Body of a bright Shurian green, phe be with barrios scales, spinous at the sides ; Reptiles. upper part of the feet covered with round sharp scales ; —— pores below the thighs; tail a little elongated. — Spinipes, Le S. spinipéde, Daud. iv. p. 31. 4 6. S. azureus. Azure 5. Body of a light azure azureus. colour, without spots and slender ; tail elongated, and ; surrounded with 35 or 36 spinous whirls. Le’S: azuré de ’ Amérique meridionale, Daud. iv. p.- 36. pl. xlvi. ‘ 7. 8. brevicauda. Short tailed S. Colour light blue, Brevicauda. with transverse bands of a darker blue, and a star-like Prare spot upon the fore-head ; tail a little depressed and short. CCXCVII. Le S. courte quéue, Daud. iv. p. 40. pl. xlvii. Fig. 10, 8. S. pelluma. Pelluma S. Upper part of the body Pelluma. variegated. with green, yellow, blue and black ; lower: part with green and yellow ; tail the length of the body. Le S. pelluma du: Chili, Daud. iv. p. 46, Lacerta pelluma, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1060. Pelluma lizard. \ Shaw. 9. S. niger. Black S. Colour black, with a double Niger, broad white spot on each side of the neck. ’ : Le S. négre, Daud, iv. p. 48. Genus IX. Cuametro. CHAMELEONS. | The head'short and pretty thick, covered on its sur- Cuase- face with smooth five-sided or six-sided scales; nose LEO Genus. generally obttise ; eyes covered with a granular mem-~ brane, perforated in the middle; tongue long and cy- lindrical, terminating in a glutinous tubercle, and: very extensile ; tympanum of the ear very apparent ; ce capable of inflation into a compressed’ pouch ; body elongated, compressed, capable of considerable inflation, covered with small scaly tubercles, irregularly disposed at a distance from each other; back ; , and often furnished with a crest formed by small prominent or pointed scales ; tail at least as long as the body, cover- ed with a granular scaly skin, capable of being rolled in a spiral form round an object ; feet furnished each with Bye toes, terminating in claws, and united two to- gether and three together. : Species 1. Chameleo vulgaris.’ Common chameleon. Vulgaris. brownish-grey, with a spiny crest upon the back and throat; occiput pyramidal, four-sided, with prominent prarr - tubercles under the skin of the back. See Plate CCXCVIE. CCXCVII. Fig: 11. ’ Fig, 11. Le Caméléon ordinaire, Daud. iv. p. 181. Lacerta chameleon. linn. a Gmel. p. 1069. ‘See Shaw’s Gen. Zool. iii. pl. Ixxvi. Le Caméléon, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 26, 2. C. Senegalensis. Senegal C. Yellowish ash co- Senegalen- lour, shaded above with blackish; an acute slender sis crest upon the back, and a serrated crest upon the belly ; occiput furnished witha triangular eminence. Le C. a ventre dentelée'en scie du Senegal, Daud. iv. p- 208. ; theaina tf 3. C. pumilus. Dwarf C. Light blue, with two Pumilus. yellowish longitudinal lines-on each side of the body ; throat fringed below. he Le C. nain du Cap de bonne Esperance, Daud. iv. p. 212. pl. liii. Lacerta pumila. Linn, a Gmel. p. 1069. 4. C. bifidus, Two-forked C. Fore part of the pigaus, muzzle prominent and two forked, with each division long and compressed. C. nez fourchu de U’ inde, Daud. iv. p. 217. pl. liv. See Phil. Trans, vol. lviii. - The chameleons are remarkable both for liarity of structure and singularity of manners ; aid the first and ‘ i : a] ‘ : Geeeo a ‘ 7 : HERPET OLOGY. 49 . = -_, : He Ss BE ge iH is rif bee Psa x 4 : ; ree Fea 4 i E ir FFs Hie Pe] f if i : E ne : r I He i fii : sz FE Fi ; i i i ‘ i i I 7 Ui REE iE i ic FF Ty F i z E FE ' Ht i 23 | : | ie 7 BE HEE sf i i j : and the East Indies, They live about walls and in Ssurian trees, feed chiefly on insects, and have’ so little dread of Heptiles. mankind, as familiarly to enter their houses. rer Sie There are 15 species, arranged under three Sections. Section I. Geckos. Geckos, properly so called, having the five toes dis- tinct, or a little paknated at their mB the tail cylindri- cal, and the pe ge ee “ Species 1. Gecko Egyptiacus. tian or common £gyptiacus. gecko. Light sear to for sha ioe part having six broad rings at its base ; rather swollen, and a pirate little flattened. See Plate CCXCVII. Fig. 12. CCXCVII. Le Gecko ordinaire, Daud. iv. p. 107. Fig. 1, Lacerta gecko, Linn. a Gmel. p, 1068. Common gecko rove Shaw. Le Gecko, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 48. A very curious structure has lately been detected in the foot of this animal by Sir Everard Home, Bart. Sir J Banks had often observed at Batavia, that the Gecko comes ont in the evening from the roofs of the houses, and walks down the smooth hard polished chunam walls in search of flies; and it occurred to Sir Everard Home, that this must be done by a contri- vance like that of the Echincis remora, or sucking fish. Having procured from Sir Joseph a large imen, prare weighing 53 02. he was enabled to ascertain the pecu- CCXCV. liar ss, PS Ta by which the féet of the animal can Fig. 18, 19. keep hold of a smooth surface, The Gecko has five toes, and -at the end of each, ex the thumb, is a very sharp curved claw. On the under surface of each toe are 16 transverse slits leading to as many cavities, or pockets, whose depth is nearly equal to the length of the slit which forms the orifice: they all open for- wards, and the external edge of each opening is serra- ted like a small-toothed comb. The cavities, pockets, and serrated edges are covered with a cuticle. A large oval muscle moves the claw of each toe, and from the tendons of these large muscles, two sets of smaller muscles originate, one pair of which is lost upon the pos- terior surface of each of the cavities that lie immediately over them. The muscles draw down the claws, and necessarily the small muscles. When the small muscles contract, they open the orifices of the cavities, and turn down their serrated edge upon the surface on which the animal stands. By this means vacua are formed, and the animal adheres to the surface by the pressure of the atmosphere. See Phil. Trans. 1816, p. 149. and page 41, col. 2. of this article. 2. G. levis. Smooth G. Ash grey, all the scales Levis. very minute, inside of the thighs not porous ; tail of moderate length, simple at the base; tips of the toes triangular. Le G. lisse d' Amérique, Daud. iv: p.112. 3. G. spinicauda. Spine-tailed G. Body smooth ; Spinicauda. tail nearly the same length as the body, thick, and ring. ed at the base ; rings beset with spines on each side, Le G. a queue épineuse, Daud. iv, p. 115. 4 G. guttatus. Dotted G. Pale red above, with Guttatus. smal] round whitish spots disposed in rows; numerous sqaare scales upon the tail. Ex G. a goutielettes blanches, Daud. iv. p. 122. pl. xlix. 5. G. Surinamensis. Surinam G. Tail as long 48 o.rinamen- the body, with brown bands, a yellowish band border- is, ed with brown running from the eyes to the thighs; back marbled with brown spots. eGmame Daud. iv. 7 . G. porphyreus. Porphyry G. le red-brownish Porphyreus, above, with numerous small round spots of a paler hue. LL Saurian Reptiles. ‘Rupigauda. Fascicula- Triedrus. Tuberculo. sus. Fimbriatus. Cristatus. ANOLIs Genus. 30 Le G. ré, Daud, iv. p, 130. : 7..G, pone Squalid d. Tail short; toes earl- nated above, lamellated below ; scales very minute, un- equal, and dotted. Le G. chagriné, Daud. iv. p. 134. ; 8. G. vittalus. “Banded G. Reddish, with a longi- tudinal white band running from the occiput, where it is spare along the back ; tail long, marked with white bands, Le G. a bandeblanche de UInde, Daud. iv. .p. 136. te), Lacerta-viitata, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1067. Forkeddizard, Shaw. 9. G. rapicanda, Turnip-tailed G. Dirty brown, with a whitish band, bordered with brown, behind the eyes ; tail short, thick, and turbinated at the base, con- stricted at the anus, pointed at the tip. . Le G.a queue turbinée, Daud. iv. p. 141. plate li. Lacerta rapicauda, Linn..a Gmel. p. 1068. Turnip-tailed lizard, Shaw. Secr. II. Geckots. Tail cylindrical ; body covered with pointed scales. 10. G. fascicularis. Common geckot. Twelve lon- gitudinal rows of acute fasciculated scales on the body ; tail short, with two broad rings at_its base. Le G. fasciculaire, Daud. iv. p. 144. Laceria mauritanica, Linn. a Gmel. p. 160. Moorish lizard, Shaw. Le Geckotte, acepede, ii. part ii. art. 49. 11. G. triedrus, Triangular G. Body covered above with eighteen longitudinal rows of triangular pointed scales; lower part of the tail covered with.small trans- verse plates. Le G. a ecailles triédres, Daud. iv. p. 155. 12. G. tuberculosus. Tubereulated G., Brownish, covered above with scattered, sharp, tuberculated scales, with brown spots upon the back, disposed in pairs. Le-G. tuberculeux, Daud. iv. p. 158, Sect. II. Filat-tailed Geckots. 13. G. fimbriatus. FimbriatedG. Head, body, and legs flattened.at the sides, and bordered with a mem- branous fringe; tail broad and compressed, with a simple membrane on each side. Le G. a tete plate, Daud. iv. p. 160. pl. li. La tele plate, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 50. 14. G. cristatus. Crested G. Tail furnished with a pinnatifid membranous crest ; feet palmated. Le G a queue cretée, Daud. iv. p. 167. Lacerta caudiverbera, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1058. Flat-tailed lizard, Shaw. Le fouette-queue, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 4. 15. G. sarroubea. Sarroube G. Yellow, spotted with green ; four feet four-toed. Le G. sarroubé de Madagascar, Daud. iv. p. 176. La salamandre sarroubé, Lacep. ii. part ii, art. 58. Genvs XI. ANOLES. The animals of this genus are nearly allied to those of the last, in the form of their bodies and the struc- ture of their feet, except that, in the latter, only the first jomt.of the toes are scaly below. The body is co- vered with.fine granular scales; the tongue is‘not cleft, and is attached to the floor of the mouth ; the tail is cylindrical in some species, and compressed in others. The anoles are inhabitants of America, where they live in dry places much exposed to the sun, Daudin ANoLts. HERPET OLOGY. reckons eight species, arranged under two Sections. . Sect. I. Anoles having the Tail compressed, carinated, ~~ ae, and serrated. Species. Species 1. Anolis bimaculatus. Two-spotted A. Blu- pimacula- ish green, with.a black spot m each shoulder; back tus. flattened and serrated. Plate CCXCVII. Fig. 13, PsaTe L’ Anolis bimaculé, Daud. iv. p. 55. ; Craps Lacerta bimaculata, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1059. Le Bimaculé, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 10. Pennsylvanian lizard, Shaw. 2. A.carbonarius. Charcoal coloured A. Deep black, Carbona« with shades of blue; throat yellow ; toes broadest at t™* their tips. ; L’A.. charbonnier, Daud. iv. By ; 3. A. lineatus. Striped A. y marked on each “ineatus. side with two longitudinal rows of oblong black linear spots. ‘ ' LA. rayé, Daud. iv. p.66. pl. xlviii. fig. 1. Secr. Mi. Anoles having a cylindrical Tail articulated, but nol carinated. 4, A, bullaris. Red-throated A. Greenish or red- Bullaris. dish, with a black spot on the temple. a L’A. roquet, Daud. iv. p. 69. Lacerta bullaris; Linn. a Gmel. p. 1075. Le roquet, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 40. pl. iv. fig. 1. 5. A. punctatus. Dotted A. Blue above, with white punctatus, dots, se ie black longitudinal line upon the back ; sides dotted with black. , L’ A. a points blanes de ’ Amerique meridionale, Daud. iv. p. 84. pl. xlviii. fig. 2. die “ahaa Lacerta punctata, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1076, Dotted lizard, Shai Gen. La, vol. iii. a 6. A. podagricus, Gouty A. Greenish above, yel- iiccad lowish below, with marginated nostrils, and the ‘oeats eta: of the toes flattened. LA. goutteux, Daud. iv. q. A. auratus, Gilded A. A longitudinal white auratus, line edged with brown, running from the eyes along each side of the body ; toes slender. L’ A. doré, Daud. iv. p. 89. 8. A. sputator. Spitting A. Tail round, and ef me- sputator. derate length, covered below with a longitudinal row of plates; toes truncated ; body ash colour, with trans~ verse white bands bordered with liver colour. LA. sputaleur, Daud. iv. p. 99. Lacerta sputator, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1076. ’ Spitting lizard, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vol. iii. 87. Genus XII. Lacerta. LIZARDS. In the numerous tribe of lizards, properly so called, Lacerta the body is covered on its upper part with very smal] Genus. hexagonal or rounded scales, dis in numerous transverse bands, and below. with small smooth square plates, disposed in longitudinal rows. The head re- . sembles an oblong pyramid with four sides, covered above and on the sides with smooth plates. The tongue is forked, and capable of being thrust far out of the mouth. The opening to the ear is oval or oblong, and very apparent. The tail is at least as long asthe body, quite cylindrical, composed of jointed rings, and has no upper crest, All the feet are nearly of equal length, and under each thigh there is a row of small, rough, porous, scaly tubercles. . Each foot has five toes, com~ pletely separate, thin, and terminated by small crook ed claws. Many of the species inhabit woody situa- tions, and seek their food among the foliage, or in the Sel aaa i EFert HERPE underwood. This food consists chiefly of insects. Others live about ruinous or even approach the dwellings of mankind, and on insects, ieee a A few have their habitation in n or lakes; and eater ae cae inhabit them. are in general li and active, and, on the whole, form the most of all the Saurian tribes. They are innocent in their manners: cheerful in their movements; and many of them, from thei “ | ine i sf iu id ! f i | i. ii. art. 19. pl. xv. fig. 1. i green, marked numerous black or n points ; light below without spots. Le L. piqueté, d'Europe, Daud. iti_p. 144. pl. xxxix. 9. L.jamaicensis, Jamaica L. Back reticulated with TOLOGY. brown, with yellow dots; a double itudinal row Saurian of ovate blue along each side ; tail long. Reptiles. Le L. verd de la Jamaique, Daud. iii. p. 149. —— lo. L. bose tas ined L. ae: with Bilinear. two longitudinal white lines, edged above with brown ; a longitudinal row of brown spots, and white points on each side of the body, and a tail. L. verd a deuz raies, iii. p. 151. pl. xxxv. L LL. L. stirpium. Copse L. Bright green, spotted Stirpium. SEP hence s Pet ook. 8 rere. Eas eee lee ru the back ; a double row of black eye- spots along each side, and a dotted belly. de souches, Daud. iii. p. 155. pl. xxiv. fig. 2. Greenish Bright green above ; Viridula. yellow below ; tail three times the length of the body, black at the tip, with an orange coloured spot on occiput and neck. Toa Mauna , Linn. a n. p. 1070. 14. L.dumetorum. Wood L. ight with the Dumeto- oe nh he ted bright steel colour ; black, and tum. the collar of the neck serrated, and of a violet colour. L, des boissons de Surinam, Daud. iii. p. 172. dinal lines upon the back and sides ; long tail, blue on priate the upper part ; thighs FL crys with white, and the CCXCVIL next the head. Fig. 14, L. Galonné, Daud. iii. p. 175. pl. xxxvi. fig, 1. Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 25. Lacerta lemniscata Linn. a Gmelin, We 1075. 16. L. sexlineata. Six-striped [. Blackish brown Sealincaw. above, with six longitudinal white lines u with another short white line extending fri L. asiz rais, Daud. iii, p. 183: ‘Lacerta seslineata, Linn. a Gmelin, p, 1074. Le lion, Lacepede, i. part ii. art. 24. 17. L. bosquiana. Bosquian L. Bright blue above, Baan with nine white itudinal lines, with intermediate dots the back and sides, the middle line being short and undivided ; tail twice as long as the body ; thighs spotted with white. L. ien, Daud. iii. p. 188, pl. xxxvi. fig. 2: 18. L. caeruleocephala, Blue headed L. Head blue Caruleo- with a white longitudinal line along the middle of the cephala. back; two yellow parallel lines on each side ; white dots upon the thighs, and tail twice the length of the borly. Le L a tite bleue, Daud. iii. p. 19 19. La tryou. Teyou L. Upper part of the head Teyou. green ; back violet colour, with one green line and six white ones; throat and belly of a silvery white. Le Lt verd, Daud. iii. p. 195. 20. L. deserti. Desert L. Tail the length of the Desert, body ; back black, with six white interrupted longitu- dinal lines ; belly white without spots. Le L. du désert, Daud. iii. p. 199s Lacerta dese ti, Linn. a Gmelin, p. 1076, 2. L. velox. Swift L. Body ash- coloured above, va- Velox riegated with brown dots, and five longitudinal streak’ of a lighter colour ; sides spotted with black and blue. Pe 82 HERPETOLOGY. ; Saurian Reptiles. —— Lepida. Maculata. Agilis. Sericea. Arenicola, Fusca, Arguta. Le L. veloce, Daud, iii. é: 202. Lacerta velox, Linn, a Gmelin. p, 1072. Sect. IV. Spotted Lizards. 22, L. lepida. Languedoc L. Body greenish blue above, idea or ey SE aa black bands, spotted with small round white eyes ; belly whitish; tail scarce- ly longer than the body. Le 7 genlil du Languedoc, Daud. iii. p. 204. pl. xxxvii. fig. 1. 23. L. maculata, _ Spotted L. Blackish blue above, with a few fosnd sete of a pale violet ; belly whitish ; tail once and a as long again as the body. ii Le L. tacheté d’ Espagne, Daud. iii. p. 208, pl. xxxvi. fig. 2. Sect. V. Grey Lizards. 24. L. agilis. Agile L. Ash coloured above, whi- tish below ; back marked with a longitudinal dotted brown line, and a subreticulated brown longitudinal stroke, edged with paler colour on each side of the body. Le L. gris des murailles, Daud. iii. p. 211. pl. xxxvui. fig. 1. #25. L. brongniardi, BrongniardianL. Bluish grey, irre ly marbled on the back with black spots, and with three longitudinal lines of black spots and dots on each side. ‘ Le L. brongniardien, Daud. iii. p. 221. 26. L. Sericea. Silky L. Brownish are shaded with glossy green and blue; pale green below; tail twice . A, as the body, and a little streaked. Le L. soyeuxr, Daud. iii, p. 224. 27. L. laurentii. Laurentian L. Ash brown above, everywhere spotted, with the spots upon the back ob- scure, those on the sides disposed in a triple longitudi- nal row. Le L..de Laurenti, Daud. iii. p. 227. 28. L. arenicola, Sand L. Brownish grey, paler without spots below, with a row of brown spots upon the back, and a double series of brown eyes dotted with wae, and another single row of white dots on each side. Le L. arénicole, Daud. iii. p. 230. pl. xxxviii. fig. 2. 29. L. fusca. Brown L, Bark brown, with 4 ead gitudinal row of obscure spots on each side ; belly paler. Le L. brun, Daud. iii. p. 237. 30. L. arguta. Sharp.snouted L. Tail short and yerticillated, thick at the base, and very sharp at the tip ; a remarkable double plate under the neck ;_gene- colour sea green, with numerous transverse black bands ; belly white. Le L. a museau pointue, Daud. iii, p. 240. Lacerta arguta, Tipo, a Gmel. p. 1072. Secr. VI. Dracenoid Lizards. Having two scaly folds under the neck, and a cylin- drical tail verticillated at its proximal, and reticulated at its distal, half. 31. L, quinquelineata, Five-streaked L. Bluish, with five longitudinal black lines upon the back, and white spots on each side. Le L. a cing raies, Daud, iii. p. 243, Srct. VI. Striated Lizards. $2. L. striata. Striated L. Grey, bluish at the sides, with two longitudinal brown lines ; scales of the back Pea and belly carinated, and forming longitudinal streaks, 7 Le L. strié, Daud. iii..p. 247. rity A considerable degree of uncertainty and ambiguity prevails among writers, respecting the animals, called Lizards. It, with Linneus.and his followers, we com- prehend under this name not only the species just enu- merated, butthe Papingaies, the Stellios, the E ilisks, the Guanas, the Geckos,the Chameleons, the Seinks, and. the other tribes of the Saurian order; we shall find it com- hend above 150 species ; and even curtailed as it is y the modern French naturalists, we see that it is pretty numerous. As itis impossible for.us, within the circumscribed limits of.an article like the present, to describe even all the most important.species, we. shall here confine ourselves entirely to a;general account of those which are found in the British islands. 3 Mr Pennant, in the 3d vol. of his British Z , has described only three species of lizard as belonging to Britain, viz. the Scaly lizard, (a'vaviety of Lacerta agi- lis, Linn.) the Warty lizard, (Lacerta palustris, ‘Linn: ) and the Brown lizard, (Lacerta em Linn.) He indeed mentions two more, the Litt. brown lizard, and the Snake-shaped lizard, from Ray, but gives nothing on these species from his own observation. L.; L.anguiformis, viperine ° Ez deri to lizard; and L. maculata, spotted L. Of these he seems to consider the 2d, »6th, and per- haps the 3d, as new species. » His iptions of these species are sufficiently minute, but he adds nothing re- specting their habitats or manner of life. : The species most common in this country are the Warty lizard, or water newt, and ithe Brown lizard, or common land newt; and of these'the former has been most minutely examined. The warty lizard is extreme- ly common in ponds; and other stagnant waters. The young lizards continue for some'time in an’ imperfec or larva state, and the perfect animals annually change their skin. * 3 : Genus XIN. Taxypromus. TAKYDROME. == ~ Tus genus has been formed by Daudin for the pur- Taxy- pose of including two species, which differ from the li- DRoME zards, properly so called, in. having avery slender bo. &&¥% dy, which, as well as the extremely long ‘tail, is -verti- ae cillated, or formed of scaly carinated rings. They : have also two small vesicles at the base of each thigh, a long extensile forked tongue, and a remarkable cori- traction between the head and body. There are two species, viz. : Species 1. Takydromus quadrilineatus. Four-streak- Quadrili- ed Takydrome. Brown above, whitish below, with two neatus. longitudinal white lines on each side. Takydrome brun a quatre raies, Daud. iii, p. 252. f 2. T. sexlineatus. Six-streaked T, Bright shining Sexlineatus. blue, with three longitudinal black lines on each si of the body. See Plate CCXCVII. Fig. 15. _ PLATE Le T. nacre a six raies, Daud. iii. p. 256. pl. xxix... CCXCVIL ‘These animals inhabit dry places, and, as their ge- "8 1 neric name imports, run with great swiftness. rm * We have said (p. 31.) that the lizards are innocent reptiles, a position now generally maintained by modern naturalists, {We are, however, assured, by an intelligent friend, a clergyman, that when a boy, he had one of his finger uch affected, i or handling a brown lizard, as to be very nearly in a state of gangrene. sagt = ee : Mitt des leesnshat te: elt as sa Hi 2 aif fi es ue om z : F Bead ait: ee Ula? inf i 5 ai tq 2 Hit? ie a, bin de: ili (la ities a A mite Bafa sual iy My? <2 PL Lee Hin le oi ; Fe Heel ine tat Hilt Aaa: Bb ee tidal lida A if | li Pic ph a i te ine Ei a eee Unt AE t Hie a ida [ii wit fH HE ids aU Gad aaa TL EH cil a 3 i r eda deat | | tied fijh ay oa Le Ta ai gt i RRS ae rai Hi i aati Be +4 ita iia il et | ithe fd agit ue Slt fit fH i ar Sa ely i} | we ee dike d ee ee i a 34 Saurian Lacerta ocellata. Reptiles 91, §. lateralis. Variegated S. — Ash-coloured Latcralia, Dove, with'transverse rows of black spots, with oblong a white dots-in the middle; black longitudinal lines, dotted below ‘with white upon the sides ; tail shorter than the body, and ending suddenly in a point. Le §. a bandes laterales, Daud. iv. p. 314. Of all these species, the first or Egyptian scink is the most celebrated, both from the high estimation in which it is held by the natives, and for its having been once employed in Europe as a medicine, It is a small ani- mal, seldom exceeding six’ or seven inches in length, and is of a pale yellowish brown colour, In its man- ners it is perfectly harmless; and so active in its mo- tions, that it hides itself in the sand in an instant. This species is so numerous in some parts of the East, that several thousands of them have been seen at once in the great court of the temple of the Sun at Balbec. The ground, the walls, and scattered stones of these ruinous buildings, were covered with them, exhibiting Linn. a Gmel. 1077. a beautiful appearance from their glittering colours, as ~ they lay basking in the sun. See Bruce's Travels. ax Genus XV. Seps. EFTS. Body, neck, and tail very long, thin, cylindrical, and covered with imbricated scales of a roundish or ellipti- cal form. Head thin, oblong, covered above with few scales ; tongue rather thick, short, and slightly cleft at its tip. Either four or two fect extremely short, sim- ple, very slender, scaly, furnished with one, two, three, four, or five toes, indistinct, sometimes with claws, sometimes without. The animals which compose this genus so nearly re- semble some of the serpents, as scarcely to be distin- guished from them by a casual observer. Indeed, if we except the short and often indistinct feet, and the marks of an external auditory orifice, they possess almost all the other characters of serpents; and accordingly several of them have been ranked among the Ophidian reptiles. In their habitudes and manners, they nearl resemble the scinks, though, from the shortness of their feet, their motions are rather those of snakes than li- zards. Daudin enumerates six species, arranged under the two following sections, - Sect: I. Four-footed Efis. Species t. Seps pentadactylus.. Five-toed Eft: Five toes on each foot, furnished with claws; bay or ash co« Sers Ge nus, Species. Pentadacty- lus. PLATE whitish below. See Plate CCKCVIIL. Fig. 17. Pig Ie. Le Seps quadrupéde pentadactyle, Daud. iv. p. 825. * Lacerta serpens, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1078. "ridactylus. 2, §. tridactylus. Three-toed E. Feet furnished with three extremely short toes without nails; bay or ash colour above, with four longitudinal brown streaks ; paler below. - Le 8. quadrupéde,tridactyle, Daud. iy. p. 333, pl. lvii. 3. 8. monodactylus. One-toed E. Feet extremel thin and short, composed of one toe without claw ; tail three times as long as the bedy ; scales subimbricate, and slightly carinateds : ie. 3 querienpide manodaciyle, Daud. iv. p, 342, plate viii. fig. 1. Lacerta anguina, Linn: a Gmel. p. 1079, Sect. II. Two-footed Efts. Schneider 4, §, schneiderii.. Schneigerian S, Whitish above, A Monodae- tylus. HERPETOLOGY. loured above, with numerous.longitudinal brownstreaks;. with a brown line; brown below; feet remote from Saurian the anus, extremely short, either two or three-toed; Reptiles toes without claws, and as if arising from a common —— icle, . Lop ‘S.’schneiderien, Daud. iv. p. 348. 7 5. S. sheltopusik. Sheltopusik S. Head and body Sheltopu- without distinct separation ; tail long and round, as sik, well as ae , covered with pale imbricated scales ; ' rudiments of hinder feet only, two-toed, and without claws, at the anus. * Le 8. bipede sheltopusik, Daud. iv. p. 351. Lacerta apoda, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1079. , 6. S.gronovii. Gronovian E. Dorsal scales dotted Gronoviis with brown ; tail smooth at the tip; hinder feet only, very short, with one toe and no claw. Le §. gronovien, Daud. iv. p. 354, pl. lviii. fig. 2. Lacerta bipes, Linn. a Gmel, p. 1079. Genus XVI. CHALCIDES. These reptiles differ from those of the last genus only cuarer- in the disposition of the scales that cover the body and pzs Genus, tail, which, instead of being imbricated as in the seps, are arranged in rings, or verticillated. They inhabit similar situations, and have similar manners. There are four species, of which three are four-footed, and one two-footed, ae Secr. I. Four-footed Chaleides. ! Species 1. Chalcides tetradactylus. Four-toed Chal- Tetradacty cides. Scales of the belly hexagonal, witha longitudi- ™s- nal furrow on each side of the body ; feet four-toed. ae Le chalcide quadrupéde tetradactyle, Daud. iv. p. 362. ; 2. C. tridactylus. Three-toed C, Feet three-toed, Tridacty- very short, mor 4 without claws; tail a little longer than lus. the body. See Plate CCXCVIITI. Fig. 18. PLATE Le Chaleide quadrupéde tridactyle, Daud. iv. p. 367, CCXCVUI. pl. Iviii. fig. 3. mem Le Chalcide, Lacepede, ii. part ii. art. 52. 5 8. C. monodactylus. One-toed C. Feet short and Monodac- very slender, with one toe without claw; tail once and ‘Y™s a half the length of the body, and cylindrical. Le C. quadrupede monodactyle, Daud. iv. p. 370, CHALCIDEs, Sect. II, Two-footed Chalcides.. 4, C. propus. Grooved C. Fore feet only with five Propus, . toes, of which four are clawed and one naked ; each side of the body longitudinally furrowed. Le C. bipéde cannelé, Daud. ‘iv. p. 372. pl, lviii. fig: 4. Bipéde cannelé, Lacepede, ii. p. 325. Several remains of Saurian reptiles, in a fossil state, have been discovered in the bowels of the earth, parti- cularly the bones of two species or varieties of croco- dile, nearly allied to the gavial, but considered by Cu-. vier as distinct from that species. These remains of. j crocodiles have been found near Honfleur, Mons, An- ers, and Havre in France; at Altorf in Bavaria; at Iston near Newark, in the English county of Notting- ham ; and on the coast of Whitby in Yorkshire. See. Annales de Museum, tom. xii. p. 73, and Phil. Trans, vol, xxx. P. 963, and vol. |. p. 688, and 786. There. have besides been found in the mountains of St Pierre, . near Maestricht, some enormous bones of a Saurian rep- tile, which have occasioned some dispute between. MM. St Fond and Cuvier ; the former alleging them, “a to be the remains of a gavial crocodile, and the latter ar-, i guing, with much plausibility, that although so large, _ | | Fossil Sau rians. with four Ri z out claws, but terminated by i i | ey HfIE as hee aii Litte ti : iB f Hy 3 F i : HERPETOLOGY. |. 85 gon San ratdedead be etnech ncnn anheim. in Hist. Nat. des Reptiles, tom viii. p. 294. ! i | 2, rE H i a ! it Body slightly compressed, elongated, Tongue short and thick; the two fore feet furnished with five ; all of them with- lenticular name toes, the hinder EE 4 H E i + i] : af and smooth. tubercles. imports, have their in trees, to the leaves of which they adhere ae i ir Ht fi E te i e { rT ith t itudinal white lines alittle arched Batracian wi engl i le arche Dope La R, bi-rayée, Daud. viii. p. 30. —ve 4. H. femoralis. Thigh-spotted H.. Green, with Femoralis, RnR ARNON TENE: OR oO the upper part of the R. fémorale, Daud. viii. p. $2. pl. xeiii. fig, 1. 5. H. squirella. Yellow-rumped H. Obscure green, Squirell grey abore , interspersed with red spots and dots ; pale w. - La R. mélangée, Daud. viii. p. 38. 8. H. bicolor. Two coloured H. Blue above, yel- picsjor, lowish below, with white spots surrounded with violet. Prarr See Plate CCXCVIII. Fig. 19. cexevint, La R. bicolore, Daud. viii. p. 40. Fig. 19. Rana bicolor, Linn. a G 1052. 9. H. Blue H, Blue above, reddish cloud- Cyanea, ed ash-colour below ; hinder feet La R. blewe de la Nowvelle Hollande, Daud. viii, p. Blue frog, White's Voyage to New South Wales, p. 248, pl. iv. 10. H. frontalis. Banded H. Body and legs red- prontatis dish toons above, with ovate oblong white omen : La R.a bandean, Daud. viii. p 45. Rana leucophylla, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1055, 11. H. fincloria. Stained H. Body smooth, with Ti two longitudinal and one transverse yellowish lines ™< upon the back. La R. @ tapirer, Daud, viii. a brune, ii. iii, art. 16. H. rubra. H. Brownish red above, with a gubra, gale Madan get Sa cee senpaes epee are the . Le he 14. H. pray ‘our-streaked H. Blue or Quadriti. sulphur-yellow above, with a double yellow or whitish °°. R. a quatre raies, Daud. viii. p. 55. 15. H. aurantiaca. Orange-yellow, Aurantiacs, with a stain of reddish upon the back. : . orangée, Daud. vi 57. oqvelatie, Lacep, it. part iii. art. 19. rial H, Bluish- H the body and limbs vel tel, erse a camer tm , Daud. viii. p. 60. 17. H. lactea, Milky H. Milky wie, with abrown- ish line extending from the nostrils to the eyes ; fore- < Whitish ash-coloured, toans. Batracian Reptiles. —_—_——— Ocularis. Verrucosa. Marmorata, Venulosa, Tibiatrix. Palmata. Punctata, Blochiana. Genus. 36 19. H. ocularis. Eye-streaked H. Silvery-grey, with a lateral brown band extending from each eye to the side; limbs marked with transverse brown bands. La R. oculaire, Daud. viii. p. 68. P 20. H. verrucosa, Warty H. Uniformly brownish, with a warty back, La R. a verrues, Daud. viii. p. 70. 21. H. marmorata. Marbled H. Yellow-ash, mar- bled with reddish above, dotted with black below ; all the feet flat and palmated. L. R. marbre, Daud. viii. p.71. pl. xciv. Le Marbre, Lacepede, ii. part. iii. art. 33. 22, H. venulosa. Veined Pale reddish, marbled with i red streaks or spots, dotted with brown; hinder feet semipalmated. La R. réticulatre, Daud. viii. p. 74. Rana venulosa, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1053. La réticulaire, , ii, part iii. art. 6. 23. H. tibiatriz. Flute H. Yellowish white, inter- spersed above with reddish dots ; hinder feet semipal- mated. La R. fluteuse, Daud. viii. p. 76. 24. H. palmata. Palmated H. Pale reddish, mar- bled with reddish brown, with two streaks above th limbs ; all the feet palmated. a La R. patte d'ore, Daud. viii. p. 80; Lacepede, ii. part iii. art. 7. 26. H. ata. Dotted H. Whitish or grey brownish above, with scattered white dots, and a white line on each side ; belly white. La R. ponctuée, Daud. viii. p. 81. 26. H. blochiana. BlochianH. Ash-coloured above; whitish below, with an obscure line extending from the nostrils to the ear, and obscure transverse bands upon the thighs. ' La R. blochienne. Daud. viii. p. 83. 27. H. melanorabdota. B spotted H. Green above, with transverse black spots. La R. a-taches noires, Daud, viii. 28. H. surinamensis. Surinam marked with ovate red below ; all the toes La R. de Surinam, . 85. . Ash-coloured ; spots above, dotted with black te. ‘viii. p. 86. Genus II. Rana. COMMON FROGS. Body thick, a little compressed, elongated, moist, covered with a few small tubercles ; generally granu- lated below, except at the thorax, which is smooth; on each side «3 the back, above the loins, there is in some species a longitudinal angular fold ; tongue short and thick ; the fore feet eae aie with the thumb a little larger than the rest in the male; the hinder feet are.almost always palmated, and are much longer'than the body ; the toes are pointed, and have usually a small tubercle under each articulation. Common frogs cannot climb like the tree-frogs, nor can they be said to walk, their proper motion being that of leaping. They inhabit marshy and boagy ces, and the borders of lakes and ponds, into w F they frequently leap and swim about, either in search-of in- sects, worms, and the fry of fishes, or for amusement. Here too they pair and lay their eggs. About the time when the young frogs are come to maturity, it often happens that migrations take place among them from a crowded pond or stream, to one where they are less numerous, On these occasions, it is astonishing what numbers have been seen at once crossing a field or road in their way to:their new habi- tation. According to Mr Rae, two or three acres of HERPETOLOGY. ground have been seen nearly covered with them. Frogs Batracian arrive at full maturity in about five years, and are sup- Reptiles. posed to live about twelve or fifteen. The croaking of ““Y—™ some species, especially of that called the er remarkably loud, and in some parts of America, w this species abounds, the noise made by their united croaking is heard at a very considerable distance. Frogs are capable of being rendered familiar, and _ have become so tame as to eat out of the hand. Some of the species serve for food to man, and most of them become the prey of the larger animals that inhabit marshy situations. 5 5 Daudin enumerates sixteen species of Rana, viz. Species, Sp. 1. Rana esculenta. Esculent Frog. Green with Esculenta. black , and three longitudinal yellow lines upon the back ; belly whitish. La Grenouille verte, Daud. viii. p. 90. Rana esculenta, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1053. La Grenouille commune, | , ii. part. iii, art. 1. Gibbous frog, Pennant, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 7. . Esculent, or green frog, Shaw, iii. pl. xxxi. 2. R. temporaria. mmon F, Red or brown Temporaric, above, or greenish, with a blackish spot extending from the eye through the opening of the ear. La G. rousse a tempes noires, Daud. viii. p. 94. Rana t aria, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1053. La Rousse, Lacepede, ii. ili. art. 2. Common frog, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 3. wore 1 Xxxix. 8. R. punctata. Dotted F. Ash-colou dotted Punctate. with green above ; feet marked with transverse bands; toes separate. La G. ponctuée, Daud. viii. p. 100. 4. R. plicata. Plaited F.. Brown, with the sides Plicata. double plaited; breast and arms marked with four brown spots; feet separate. La G. plissée, Daud. viii. p. 102. ’ 5. R.clamata. Noisy F. Dull ash-coloured, inter- Clamata. eee black dots ; upper lip green; hind feet a La G. criarde, Daud. viii. p. 104. 6. R. nia. Typhon F. Ash-eoloured or red- Typhonia. dish, with a few brown spots, and either five or three —— yellow lines upon the back; belly whitish. G. galonnée, Daud. viii. p. 106, pl. xev. Las cepede, ii, part iii. art. xii. Rana marginata, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1058. Hurricane [ree Shaw. 7. R.rubella. Reddish F. Rusty colour above, with Rubella. three longitudinal black lines upon the back, and a triangular white spot the forehead. La G. rougette, Daud. viii. p. 109. 8. R. maculata. Spotted F. Grey, with a square Maculata. green spot upon the , and another round one on each shoulder ; whitish below, marbled with black. La G. tachetée, Daud. viii. p. 111. 9. R. pipiens. Bull F. Very large; dark green Pipiens. above, whitish grey below, interspersed everywhere with blackish spots. La G. mugissante, Daud. viii. p.113. Lacepede,, ii, part iii. art. 9. Rana ocellata, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1052. Bull freg, Catesby’s Carolina. Rana catesbiana, Shaw, iii. pl. xxxiii. 10. R. ocellata. Eye-spotted F. Very large; red- Ovellata dish brown above, with round brown spots, eyed with yellow on the sides and buttocks, La G. ocellée, Daud. viii. p. 118. ; 11. R. halecina. Pitpit F. Green above, with brown Halecina. spots eyed with yellow; three longitudinal lines shaded with yellow upon the back; white below. i il ei ee cae I 8 y ESusdeEee Bpfae EG. f 5 | 2 ii i 1 ie Giecag tata: ative’ Hil : iH 2a a, Fs : aw iii aie an Lap ele! | wed d ii PSHE L A inf i i le ae pie ata ey Ha sis Sd, 95 & PEL: geagedigids ebedggzzaes! fat Lily + Wess ph ret Mee Seqdeies i fie | ; Bet Hs | e233 du a8 2 445422 geeks sii a erat {pedis Ws a; tI HN eae AE wien eft Gai ° alti ile ele oe Ee ere tt ne ih i att ini faith is © fise , F 3 432 3 : “5 cf e fit ia Hie ttt Ht pen : HET. ii iit nis i rf e th E if, 3 j iF tie Ee Hy WE 3 pte Pe HH an] Ee Ht | i = ut ik. hy fi Hie ihe inkl 3 i i HHA re HS 3 “ath etal fj ital eng id Re it iatne ual F fs He Li agile Hai Ha i 2)! sitll na fie ih. nati tal pls Aunt Hin Faced Ss Be) aS lia Hi es sleet glen Mt Lids bs 88 Batracian srmer-yallow below, with bluish spots and a fold be- Reptiles. Jow —— Rocselli. Calamita. Viridis. Gibbosus, Fuscus. Cursor, Leavis. throat. Le C. sonnant ou pluviale, Daud. viii. p. 146. Among other synonymes under this species, Daudin refers to : Rana bombina, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1048; Rana rubi- ta, ibid. p. 1047; Rana salsa, ibid. p- 1049. La sonnante, Lacepede, ii. part iii, art. 4; La pluviale, ibid. art. 3. Natterjack, Pennant, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 12. 6. B. roeselli. Roesellian T, Greenish above, with elevated dark brown spots; greenish-ash coloured be- low ; feet palmated. Le C. de roesel, Daud. viii. p. 150. plate xcvi. Rana bufo, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1047. Toad, Pennant, Brit. Zool. iii. p. 7; Shaw’s Gen. Zool. iii. plate xl. Le Crapaud commun, Lacepede, ii. part iii, art. 21. 7. B. calamita. Calamite T. Olive above, with dark spots, reddish pustules, and a longitudinal yellow line ong the middle of the back. , Le C. calamite, Daud. viii. p. 153; Lacep. ii. part ii. art. 25. 8. B. viridis. Green T. Marked above with conti- guous green spots, and irregular whitish-livid lines dot- ted with red ; feet semipalmated. Le C. verd, Daud. viii. p. 156; Lacep. ii. part iii. art, 22, 9. B.gibbosus. Gibbous T. The body ovate, smooth, ‘convex, brownish above, with a longitudinal yellow in- dented band along the middle of the back ; toes sepa- rate. Le C. bossu, Daud. viii. p. 158; Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 29. Rana gibbosa, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1047. Gibbous toad, Shaw. 10. B. fuscus. Brown T. Marked above with broad brown spots, interspersed with livid ash-coloured lines, and one pale longitudinal line ; hind feet palmated. L. C. brun, Daud. viii. p. 161; Lacep, ii. part. iii. art. 24. : 11. B. cursor. Courier T. Smoothish above, spot- ted with reddish and black, with warty sides, yellowish below, with three black spots upon the breast ; toes se- ate, Le C. courier, Daud. viii. p. 164. 12. B. gutterrosus. Swelled throated T. Grey, spot- ted with brown, warts sharp, and reddish at the tip; throat swoln. Le C. geitreux, Daud. viii. p. 166 ; Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 28. 13. B. ventricosus. Inflated T. Mouth narrow, arms and thighs surrounded with a lax skin, capable of in- flation. Le C. ventru, Daud. viii. p. 168. Rana ventricosa, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1049. Humid toad, Shaw. . 14. B. levis. Smooth T. Pale yellow, with a smooth, rather flattened body, and a longitudinal row of small pointed tubercles above each side. Le C. lisse, Daud. viii. p. 171. 15. B. forsiger. Surinam T. Dark brown, head flat and triangular ; eyes minute, situated at the top of the head ; toes of the fore, feet separate, and three or four forked at their tips; hind feet palmated ; cells on oe in the eg . pipa, Daud. viii, p. 172; Lacep. ii, iii, art. 30. “ * Part Rana pipa, Linn, a Gmel, p. 1046. -vered with warts; yellowish grey; head slightly fur- HERPETOLOGY. Surinam toad, Shaw, iii. plate xxxi. Batracian 16. B. obstetricans. Accoucheur T, Dirty green, Reptiles. with small irregular brown spots above ; whitish be- grit low. : Le C. accoucheur, Daud, viii. p..176. on 17. B. Margaritifer.. Pearly T. A coriaceous auricu- yparsariti- lar lobe above each side of the head ; numerous warts fo, : upon the body, bearing some resemblance to pearls; hinder feet semipalmated. Le C. perlé; Daud. viii, p.,179. Rana margaritifera, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1050. Pearled toad, Shaw. La perle, Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 10. 18. B, Surinamensis. _DwarfSurinam toad. Bright surinamen- brown above; belly dotted with grey, with a) white sis. line on the hips ; all the toes separate. Le C, de surinam. Daud. viii. p. 184. - 19. B. albonotatus. White spotted T. Brown; slight- ,jponota- warted, with a white line extending from each nostril tus, toengn thigh ; upper part of the limbs spotted with white. Le C. a taches blanches, Daud. viii. p. 185. 20.. B. ovalis. Oval T. Head short; muzzle long; Ovalis, body ovate, nearly globular; brownish or bluish above, yellowish below ; feet palmated. Le C. ovale, Daud. viii. p. 187. 21. B: lineatus. Striped T. Warty, brownish red, 1 ineatus, with a white line drawn from each nostril through the eyelids to the hind feet, another on each arm; white bands upon the limbs, and all the toes separate. La C. rayé, Daud. viii. p. 188. , 22, B. musicus. Musical T. Brown above, with Masicus, blackish ts ; head furrowed above; limbs mark with blackish bands. Le C. criard, Daud. viii. p..190. Rana musica, Linn, a Gmel. p. 1046, Musical.toad, Shaw. a 23. B. Scaber.. Rough T... Yellowish, with black Scaber, lips; body a little spinous, especially about the legs ; head furrowed above ; hind feet slightly palmated. Le C. rude, Daud. viii. p. 194. Le pustuleux, Lacepede, ii. 24. B, bengalensis. Bengal T. iii, art. 27. Body thickly co- Bengalen- sis, rowed above; black sharpish pointed warts below the feet ; hind feet semipalmated. _ Le C, du bengale, Daud. viii. p. 197. 25. B. spinosus. Spinous T. Dark brown above, Spinosus, with broad spots of a paler hue; pale grey below, with tubercles tipt with a black spine. Le C. epineux, Daud. viii. p. 199. 26. B. horridus. Horrid T. Dark green above; Yorridus, warty, with numerous small black spines on each tu- bercle, marbled below with green and paler shades ; all the toes separate. . Le C. hérissé, Daud. viii. p. 201. . Shaw. Australian fro, Ses Spine-footed T. 27. B. spinipes. Brown above, Spinipes. _bluish below; sides marked with ochry colour ; fore feet spinous above. Le C. spinépede. Daud. viii. p. 203. 28. B. humeralis. Shoulder-knot T. Very ash-grey, irregularly spotted with brownish ; parotic glands large and gibbous. Le C. epaule armée, Daud. viii. p. 205. Rana marina, Linn. a Gmel. p. 1049. La grenouille epaule armée, Lacep. ii. part iii. art. 8. Marine toad, Shaw. 29, B. semilunatus, Semilanated T. Blackish, with ty.” tus. large i Humeralis. 3 89 GY. IERPETOLO HE ; i i i ¢ g6 i HM nl a : i | : fi ee ib yi aia ai J 42 i. ag agli “a : BF ait4 baie ar; eel! Ss ee it die rie Bia a | Ht i ina HBR A be rae iain i fide il Fa at ee eT Hd ee er Bis alert et He i as ey" Hula feiss A iC ia Tae Lm uu tig Heap nt ~~ pare diel 4H ne Hand aaa, nl buena Ht a llga §3 S A i Hit aunt 2i2 ae it Hen Fas Hig inti ata He 25 sg 3 Tae HL Hi a ‘ae cia ty Bian, atts at fa ee iat HEEOT ce] s ii ae ht it lala ii iS iF yee a ibd puis av aE t = ogc ‘Es 2 EE * “a Es ul S533 iil fill feet : ma if 14 bt Hi ini F Hatt ti shui uae 235 Ui HH i Eg ial sees ul fal HE jal iB if it 40 HERPETOLOGY. Batracian dotted yellow below with a white streak ; edged be- Batracian Reptiles. low with black dots ; all the toes separate. Genus VI. Siren. SIREN. Reptiles. . S. cee , d. viii. p. 259. “ ’ L. S. ceinturée, Daud. viii. p. 259. Body elongated, cylindrical, and’ terminated by a Sm=x i . S. tri la. Th . Fore feet three- 7 ai, Se mart et op eo . iid compressed tail, forming a fin; ton ue short, thick, and Genus. La S. tridactyle, Daud. viii. p. 261.—Lacep. oer 3 fore feet digitated ; no hind feet; branchie Le Li tridactyle, Lacep. rt ii, art. 59. rsistent. ; : : saa: eer ee ee gag Siren lacertina. Lacertine Siren. Feet Lacertina. four-toed. ; Genus V. Prorevs. PROTEUS. La Sirenlacertine, Daud. viii. p. 272. pl. xcix. fig. 2. 7 Body elongated cylindrical, terminated by a com- Siren lacertina, Linn. Ameenit. Academ. vii. p. 311. Sonia, ‘a mah tail eer a fin; tongue short, thick, ad- Murena siren, Linn. a Gmel. p- 1136. Perin within the lowerjaw ; fore feet furnished with Siren lacertina, Shaw's Naturalist’s Miscellany, N°20, three toes, and the hinder with two; all without claws ; pl. Ixi.—Schneider, Hist. Amphib. fascic. i. pl. 48. branchiz persistent. The extraordinary reptile which constitutes this last Anguinus, _ Species. Proteus anguinus. Serpentine Proteus. Fore us of Batracians was first observed in 1765, by Dr feet three-toed ; hind feet two-toed. : Le proté anguillard, Daud. viii. p. 266. pl. xcix. fig. 1. S Proteus anguinus, Laurenti, Synops. Reptil. p. 37. 1. li. fig.3.—-Scopoli, Annales Hist. Nat. vol. v. p. 70.— Finn. a Gmel. p. 1056, note.—Hermann, Tab. Affini- tat. Animal.—Schneider, Hist. Amphib. fascic. 1. p. 45.— Schreiber, Phil. Trans. 1801. The curious animal for which the present genus has been constituted, was first observed at the bottom of a lake in Carniola in Germany, and described in 1768, by Laurenti, in the work referred to above, It was afterwards described by Scopoli, and was briefly no- ticed by Linneus in his Systema Natura, who, how- ever, considered it as the tadpole of a salamander ; but the most complete account of the animal has been gi- ven by Schreiber, a German naturalist,in a memoir of his ublished in the Transactions of the Royal Society of, 8 for 1801. From this account it is now gene- rally allowed, that the Proteus is to be considered as a perfect animal, differing from all the other reptiles with which we are acquainted. Its general bse is about thirteen inches by about one inch of medium breadth, and the head is nearly two inches long. It has no external nostrils ; and its eyes, which are black, and situated towards the base of lexander Garden, in a fresh water lake near Charles- town in Carolina, and was described by Linnzus in the Memoirs of the Academy of Upsal for that year. He considered it either as the tadpole of a species of lizard or salamander, or as a new genus of his order Nantes, to which he gave the name of Siren. Soon after, Lin- newus placed the Siren in the order of Ampuisia, which he denominated Meantes, from which Gmelin, in his edition of the Systema Nature, injudiciously removed it to the class of Fishes, and considered it as a species of murena. The Siren very much resembles an eel in the general form of the body and tail. Its mouth is small, and fur- nished with small sharp teeth, set partly in the palate, and partly in the lower jaw. Its eyes are very but more Jie gs ee st the risa " Its skin is of a blackish colour, slightly grained an US, with a longitudinal white line, extending on onan from. the feet to the tail, and a shorter one along the middle of the back. The whole length of the animal sometimes exceeds three feet ; and the feet, which are small, and composed of a humerus, a fore arm, and four eg pointed toes, furnished with claws, are about an inch long. Its tongue is bony, and formed like that. of fishes ; the gills are composed of three fimbriated plates on the muzzle, are so small as with difficulty to be distin- each side, are very jem and are above an inch guished. The colour of the living animal is a flesh red, long. It has a real larynx, and its lungs resemble and the gills are scarlet ; but when immersed in spirits after death, it becomes white. It appears to walk with difficulty, but swims with great ease. One that was kept by Baron Zois, lived for about ten days, and du- ring that time refused all nourishment, and appeared in a torpid state. The Proteus undergoes three degrees of metamor- hosis before arriving at its perfect state. In the two ormer, it is blind and without feet. It is said on certain occasions to utter a sound re-« sembling that made by forcing down the piston of a syringe. Two reptiles have lately been noticed by the French naturalists, bearing a near relation to the Proteus above described. One has been described by Cuvier under the name of Axoloie Mexicaine, and has four toes on each fore foot, and five on each hinder. This we might call Proteus mexicanus, The other is described and by Lacepede, in the tenth volume of the dn useum, s de . 280, pl. xvii, by the name of Protée tetra- much broader tail, and the legs larger and shorter. those of salamanders. In its metamorphosis from the ovum to the perfect state, it seems to follow the same degrees with the Proteus, except that its eyes are sooner en. This animal appears to reside entirely in the water, where it must swim with great facility. It was sup. posed by Linnzus, from the form ef its feet, that it can also move with tolerable ease upon the land; but we believe it has never yet been seen in that situation, EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE CCXCV. | Fig. 1. Skeleton of a species of Tupinambis. Fig, 2. The head of the same animal. a, the inter i bone ; 4, 4, the two superior, or coronal maxil- lary bones; c, the nasal bone; d, one of the zygomatic arches; e, a supernumerary bone; f, Pa the two sides of the frontal bone ; g, the parietal ; h, h, two bony arches dactyle, (Proteus tetradactylus,) with four short pointed forming the interior border of the temporal fossa ; 7, a " toes on each of the four feet. It differs from Pro- small portion of the left basilar jaw; 4, the bone with teus auguinus in having a thicker and shorter body, a which this is articulated ; J, /, the occipital bone ; m, its condyle. 1 ee Ria “é ee Ty nny ae i Lyd Li 8 aad getke ; s HH a HTH Bee Jt E ceethih S| Mai ! i @e Hise 4 i) a: ld at ape Ha ul ae felt ii sates BF oe bp i HEE oe oben Bul ud d i ot ST 8 odigs ste OS odasaze 3 8 aak"2 efile lt fetal = a ne fl . ii itil dk sis Geoneye mations gE tis att a 2 il Bal catia ie be i WHITH Be Fall a ia? e<2! : if ei 3 ial i IIs Hille vite HGH ficial tt allele NE Hie abe Pity - bai“ Index. Agama paraguensis, ib. —\— plica, ib prehensilis, 28 rosacauda, 27 scutata, ib, stellaris, ib. superciiiosa, ib. versicolor, ib, umbra, 27 undulata, ib. uralensis, ib. banded, ib. harlequin, ib. marbled, 28 plaited, 27 rose-tailed, ib. rough, ib. starred, ib. star-gazing, ib. yellow-throated, ib. HERPETOLOGY. Bufo Surinamensis, ib. ventricosus, ib, viridis, ib. vulgaris, x Chalcides genus, 34 four-toed, 34 grooved, ib. monodactylus, ib, one-toed, ib. propus, ib. tetradactylus, ib. three-toed, ib. tridactylus, ib Chameleo genus, 28 ‘bifidus, 29 pumilus, ib. Senegalensis, ib. vulgaris, 28 Chameleon tribe, ib. common, ib. dwarf, 29 two-forked, ib. Chelonia genus, 5, 16 caouana, 6, 18 earetta, 16, 18 Frog arunco, 37 bull, 36 blue, 35 common, 36 croaking, 35 dotted, 36 esculent, ib. eye-spotted, ib. gibbous, ib. green, ib. grunting, 37 hurricane, 36 noisy, ib. paradoxical, 37 pitpit, ib. plaited, ib. reddish, ib. spotted, ib. surinam, 37 tigrine, ib. typhon, 36 yellow, 37 tree tribe, 35 black-spotted, 36 banded, 35 blochian, 36 blue, 35 cepediana, 16 coriacea, 17, 19 Ameivas, 31 bimaculatus, ib. bullaris, ib. dotted, ib. carbonarius, ib. charcoal-coloured, ib. gilded, ib. gouty, ib. lineatus, ib. podagricus, ib. punctatus, ib, red-throated, ib. spitting, ib. sputator, ib. striped, ib. two-spotted, ib. Axolate Mexicaine, 40 B. Basiliscus genus, 24 amboinensis, 25 mitratus, ib. Basilisk tribe, 24 amboina, 25. mitred, ib. Batracian order, 5, 35 Bufo genus, 37 mydas, 16, I7 rugosa, 16 Chelonian order, 5, 16 Chelys fimbriata, 19 Cordyles, 25 Crocodile tribe, ib. broad-beaked, 24 caiman, 23 common, ib. long-beaked, ib. Mississippi, 24 narrow-beaked, 23 Nilotic, ib. yacare, ib. Crocodilus genus, ib. acutus, 24 arctirostris, 23 biporcatus, 24 biscutatus, ib. caimau, 23 galeatus, 24 Gangeticus, ib. latirostris, ib. longirostris, ib. lucius, ib. Mississippiensis, ib. Niloticus, 23 palpebrosus, 24 agua, 39 albonotatus, 38 Bengalensis, ib. bombinus, 37 calamita, 38 cinereus, 37 cornutus, 39 cursor, 38 eyanophlytis, 39 dorsiger, 38 flaviventris, 37 fuscus, 38 gibbosus, ib. gutterosus, ib. horridus, ib. humoralis, ib. levis, ib. lineatus, ib. margaritifer, ib. musicus, ib. obstetricans, ib. ovalis, ib. panamensis, 37 roeselli, 38 scaber, ib, semilunatus, ib. spinipes, ib. spinosus, ib. rhombifer, ib. sclerops, ib. tenuirostris, ib. trigonatus, ib. vulgaris, ib. ” yacare, 23 Draczena genus, 24 Guianensis ib. Draco genus, 26 fuseus, ib. lineatus, ib. Viridis, ib. volans, Lin. ib. Dragon tribe, 24 flying, brown, 26 green, ib. radiated, ib. Eft tribe, 34 five-toed, ib. gronovian, ib. one-toed, ib. sheltapusik, ib. schneiderian, ib. three-toed, ib. Frog tribe, 36 brown, ib. croaking, ib. dotted, 36 eye-streaked, ib. flute, ib. flank-striped, 3 four-streaked, 35 green, ib. hypochondrial, ib. marbled, 36 milky, 35 mixed-coloured, ib. orange, 25 palmated, 36 red, ib. stained, ib. surinam, 36 thigh-spotted, 35 two-striped, ib. two-coloured, 35 veined, 36 _ variegated, 35 warty, 36 yellow-rumped, 35 G. Gavials, 23, 24 Gecko genus, 29 eegyptiacus, ib. banded, 30 cristatus, ib. common, ib, fascicularis, ib. dotted, 29 fimbriatus, 30 guttatus, 29 leevis, ib. porphyreus, ib. rapicauda, 30 sarroubea, ib. spinicauda, 29 spinetailed, ib. squalidus, ib. surinamensis, ib. triangular, 30 triedrus, ib. tuberculosus, ib. turnip-tailed, ibs ‘vittatus, ib. Geckot, common, ib. Guana'tribe, 26 blue, ib. common, ib. horned, ib. Hyla genus, 35 aurantiaca, ib. bicolor, ib. Hyla bilineata, $5 blochiana, 36 boans, 35 cyanea, ib. femoralis, ib. frontalis, ib. fusca, ib. . hypochondrialis, ib. intermixta, ib. lactea, ib. lateralis, ib. marmorata, 36 melanorabdota, ib. ocularis, ib. palmata, ib. punctata, ib. quadrilineata, 35 rubra, ib- squirella, ib. surinamensis, 36 tibiatrix, ib. tinctoria, 35 variegata, ib. venulosa, ib. verrucosa, 36 viridis, 35 Iguana genus, 26 — coerulea, ib, cornuta, ib, delicatissima, ib. a Lacerta genus, 30 agama, Linn, 27 agilis, 32 algira, Linn, 33 alligator, Linn. 23 amboinensis, Linn. 25 ameiva, 31 anguina, Linn. 34 angulata, Linn. 27 apoda, Linn. 34 arenicola, 32 basiliscus, Linn. 25 | bilineata, 31 bimaculata, Linn. 30 bullaris, Linn. 30 bicarinata, Linn. 25 bipes, Linn, 34 bosquiana, 31 brongniardi, 32 caudiverbera, Linn. 30 calotes, Linn. 27 ceeruleo-cephala, 31 cordylus, Linn. 28 crocodilus, Linn. 23 chameleon, Linn. 29 eruenta, Linn. 33 deserti, dracena, Linn. 24 dumetorum, 31 erythrocephala, ib. fusca, 32 5 gangetica, Linn, 23. gecko, Linn. 29. graphica, 31 guttata, Linn. 28 gutturosa, 31 helioscopa, Linn, 27 jamaicensis, 31 iguana, Linn. 26 interpunctata, Linn, SS laurentii, 32 marmorata, Linn. 28 mauritanica, Linn. 10 monitor, Linn. 25 acellata, 31 vi iit Lr sail lt 4 i iF 4a sy iti Bg, ‘4 2 a ve fii i ‘ciliata foisted 4 HERPETOLOGY. ita i ili | 3 | L wong st ES clamata, ib. ia Index. Herring, Hertford. 44 HERPETOLOGY. Tortoise, denticulated, ib. Tortoise, striped, 20 dotted, 20 three-ridged, ib. dwarf, 21 two-spined, 21 elegant, ib. warty, 20 euphratian, 19 yellow, 19 yellowish, 21 Tortoises, fossil, fierce, 19, 21 geometrical, 21 gopher, ib. Tortoise shell, structure of, 14 helmeted, 20 Trionyx genus. Geoff. 19 juvencula, 21 Tupinambis genus. indian, ib. albigularis, 25 inlaid, ib. bengalensis, ib. land, 21, 22 cepedianus, ib. manuscript, 20 elegans, ib. martinella, ib. exanthematicus, ib. matamata, 19 griscus, ib. mud, 20, 22 indicus, ib. odorous, 20 lacertinus, ib. painted, ib. maculatus, ib. pennsylvanian, ib. porphyry, ib. reddish, ib. reticulated, ib. rough, ib. scaly, 21 scorpion, 20 serpentine, 19 Serrated, 20 shagreen, 19 spenglerian, ib. spotted, 21 monitor, ib. niloticus, ibs ornatus, ib. stellatus, ib. variegatus, ib. Turtle tribe, 16 coriaceous, 17, 19 esculent, 17 green, ib. hawksbill, 18 loggerhead, ib. mediterranean, ibe. Testudo, Toad, oval, 38 scripta, ib. panama, 37 serpentina, pearly, 38 serrata, 20 roesellian, ib. . spengleri, 19 “rough, ib. squamata, 2£ semilunated, ib. subnigra, 20 shoulder-knot, ib. subrufa, ib. smooth, ib. tabulata, 21 spine-footed, ib. tricarinata, 20 spinous, ib. verrucosa, ib. striped, ib. virgulata, ib. surinam, ib. Toad tribe, 37 surinam dwarf, ib. accoucheur, 38 swelled-throated, ib. bengal, ib. white-spotted, ib. brown, ib. yellow-bellied, 37 blue-warted, 39 Tortoise tribe, 19 brazilian, 39 amboyna, 20 calamite, 38 areolated, 21 cinereous, 37 banded, 21 common, ib. beaked, 19 courier, 38 blackheaded, 20 gibbous, ib. blackish, ib. green, ib. bordered, 21 horned, 39 cafre, 21 horrid, 38 carolina, 20 humid, ib. caspian, ib. inflated, ib. cirrhated, 19 marine, ib. close, 20 musical, ib. concentric, ib- natterjack, 37 coui, 21 HER HERRING. See Icutuyotocy. HERRING Fisnery. See Fisuertes. HERTFORD Towy, in the hundred of Hertford, in Hertfordshire, is pleasantly situated 21 miles north from London, on the river Lea, which is navigable for bar- ges to thetown. The streets are chiefly neat and clean, and the houses well built. It contains two parish churches ; a handsome sessions house, in which the as- sizes for the county are held ; a market house and town hall, in which are kept the quarter sessions and count courts ; and a county gaol and penitentiary house, built on Mr Howard’s plan. The most important public se- minaries, for education consist of the East India College, for the education of youth destined to fill the various offices in the civil de ents in India; and a large school be ing to Christ’s Hospitalin London, where about 500 of the younger children are kept prior to their being sent to the metropolis, Hertford returns two members to Parliament. The right of election is vested in the inhabitants who de not receive alms; and in such freemen only as, at the time of their being made free, were inhabitants of the bo: h. Their number is ‘about’700. The only article of consequence manufactured here is malt, by which, and the large uantities of corn and wool sent down ‘the river to ndon, the inhabitants are principally supported. In 673, synod was held at Hertford,,.and. King Al- fred here:built a castle, by means of which:the Danes, who had come’up the Lea from the Thames, were destroyed. On'the site of the ancient castle the pre- sent one, now the East India College, was erected in the time of Charles I. The manor of Hertford belong- ed to the Crown from 1345 till the sixth year of Charles I., when it was granted to William Earl:of Salisbury, whose descendant, the present marquis, is now owner of it. In'the 25th year of the reign of Elizabeth, and afterwards in the 34th and 35th of the same reign, the Michaelmas term was adjourned from London to .this HER Index. town, on account of the plague then raging in the me- Hertford. _ tropolis. At Haileybury, in the parish of Amwell, in the vi- cinity of the town of Hertford, and about 19 miles from London, is situated the East India College. This site was chosen by the directors of the East India Com~ pany, when they formed the determination of aban- doning the grand and extensive plan of a college at Calcutta, sketched out and partly begun by the Mar- quis of Wellesley during his administration of India. The object of both institutions is to give a suitable edu. cation to those persons who are meant to occupy civ employments under the company in India. The college near Hertford was instituted in April 1805, and the foundation stone of the building was. laid on the 12th of May 1806. The beauty of the building, the'fineness of the situation, the salubrity of the air, and the object of the institution, render it an object of considerable interest. The college is capable of accommodating above 100 students, and rather more. than thirty, on an average, are annually sent from it to India. According to the plan of the institution, young men are received when they have completed their 15th year, and they continue at the ‘college ‘till they are 18, or till the court of directors shall deem it proper to send them to their respective destinations. A nomination to the college, on the part, ofthe court, is equivalent to an immediate appointment, The stu- dents ‘are instructed by courses of lectures, nearly on the plan pursued at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The college council, under whose direc- tion and authority the institution is more immediately. laced, consists of a principal and. several professors. Besides the general superintendance of the college, it is the duty and office of the principal more especially to watch ever the moral and religious conduct of the students, to instruct them in the principles of ethics and natural theology, and in the evidences, doctrines, HER 45 HER Hertford, and duties of revealed Besides, he, as well manner, so that its shape on the western side is rendered Hertford- Hertforé- 5 such of the as are in holy orders, preach extremely irregular by projections and indentures. It _ ‘© S~ aivolep , re laren abe eee chm eS ee ok tition > te ae ii dean, isan- North Latitude. Its test length ma: Ae of the at 25 miles, and its breadth from unahiae south at 35 miles, According to Halley, it contains 451,000 acres ; are arranged under but according ne ane rate returns, only $85,000. aft MY : : counties in E d. The general aspect of this county is pleasant. Thenorthern se of the Hite Neal it UE Huy du ie ui i : 1 ‘ ulth E FE it i [ master. i councillor in oriental department. take their rise from this side of the county. D Hertfordshire contains 1 county town, Hertford ; 8 Towns, &c. Cre Name mera pe fer pte aig rome hundreds ; 19 market towns ; 170 parishes; returns 6 5 and is in the province of comprises a course of lectures on Se eS ee en on lf i 3 | | I Ei? , ; i i 7 i z k [ Hi F i | ti i! F i ; A Th i Hie if jig ht i L [ ; ; w masters for pendent of the wood thus distributed in hedge-rows, very fine timber, in considerable ee is spread ; F 5 Lei i H partite each deportent.cf the rapective mers North Ming, the general deeription of ol i J ve merits , &e. ipti soil is of cach student. These hists are in the ——s The chalky soil prevails on the lic records of the company. Other lists are also given north of the county. The basis, indeed, of the pr inet mr at terre view of the conduct and profi- whole of Hertfordshire is chalk intermixed with a great: ciency of each student. Prizes of books, medals, &c. pores irae The landed property is greatly and certificates of superior merit, are given in consequence of the vicinity of the metropo- the chairman. Every student going to India, carries lis. with him a certificate under the seal, attesting The principal rivers are the Lea; the Rib, the Quin, Rivers what his attainments have been during his academical and the Colne The Lea enters this county near course. Bower-heath, and traverses it ina direction nearly from In 1801, Hertford contained 515 houres, and $960 north-west to south-east, to its confluence with the inhabitants. In 191}, the population sbetract gave as Stort, after which it runs neerly south, washing the follows : nt nr and ‘Ware, from the list of which it Houses inhabited to the Thames. It collects, in its course, Families inhabiting them . . . A all the streams of the northern and eastern parts of the SG aga ~~ county. The Rib, which rises in this county, joins Females ......00e0-0482 the Lea between Hertford and Ware: the Quin also rises in this county, and falls into the Rib. The Colne St Gee ee tikes near Kits-end, in Middlesex; and, after uniting - ¥.; Lyson’s En- part of its course, near Colney Park, it has a short un- . (me derground passage, b not particularly observable, RE is an inland county of Eng- except in dry weather. "The nine u ze of the . : é ; ellie of Engheal sal Welen vel”, Hertfordshire; them out of the county near Rickmansworth. In one rf arid leaves it following the. course of the Colne. The Watford canal commences near the town of Wat- 46 HERTFORDSHIRE. © Hertford- of the land is under tillage, and the produce in wheat, shire. —— Hertford- shire plough. Grass lands. Cattle and sheep. Roads, Trade and manufac- tures. Malt. barley, and oats, is very considerable, Wheat and bar-~ ley in particular are grown here of as good a quality as in any other part of the kingdom. In the neighbour- hood of Wheathampstead, great quantities. of wheat have been grown for a very considerable length of time, whence this place takes its distinctive appellation.. In- deed, in the opinion of many, Hertfordshire was dis- tinguished for the excellence of its tillage husbandry, even before Norfolk. | 'Turnips and clover are supposed to have been introduced in the time of Cromwell, who, it is said, gave £100 a year, on that account, to a far- mer of the name of Howe. Even the judicious culture and application of tares were practised in this county upwards of 80 years ago—at a period when they were scarcely known in any other part of England. It does not seem, however, that the arable husbandry of Hertfordshire has improved much latterly ; and the kind of plough still in general use, will, with many, be deem- ed a proof of this remark. This plough, known by the name of the great Hertfordshire wheel plough, though of yreat merit and utility in breaking! up strong flinty fallows in a dry season, ought certainly to be dispen- sed with in all the other operations of husbandry ; and, even for that purpose, it might be constructed in such a manner as to do its work with more ease to the hor- ses. It is excessively heavy, and so ill formed that it will not moye in its work one yard without the plough- man. The plough-shares alone weigh from 50 to 70 Ibs. The grass-lands of Hertfordshire, compared with those under tillage, are very trifling: in fact, it may be said that there is no grass district in it, except a ve- ry narrow margin in the south line, in the. vicinity of Barnet, which, being near London, is made artificially productive, by means of manure brought by the hay carts. There are, however, some tolerably good.mea- dows, especially those on the Stort, extending from Hackerell to Hertford, and those in the vicinity of the Lea, and about Rickmansworth. The many streams that flow through the county are extremely favourable to irrigation, though that system is not carried to any great extent. Inthe south-west corner of the county are many orchards. Apples and cherries are their principal produce. As the land in this county is chiefly arable, and the artificial grasses are cultivated almost entirely for hay for the London market, live stock is an object of very inferior consideration. ‘The Suffolk breed of cattle is regarded as the best. The sheep are mostly ewes of the Southdown and Wiltshire breeds. The horses are of various kinds, but the Suffolk punch appears to be preferred. The principal roads in Hertfordshire, in consequence of its vicinity to the metropolis, are very good. Six great leading turnpikes pass through this small district. Meoy of the cross roads are nearly as good as the turn- pikes. The great business of the county is the traffic of corn, and the malting trade. The latter is carried on toa very great exteit in the towns of Hitchin, Baldock, Royston, and Ware. Ware alone sends a greater sup- ply of malt to London than any other place ; and it al- ways obtains the highest price, not only on account of the excellence of the barley from which it is made, but also from the excellence of the mode in which it is ma- nufactured. The Hertfordshire malt, however, is not all made from perlex Brit in the county ; large quan- tities being purchased in all the surrounding districts, which, after being malted in the towns above mention- Hertford. ed, is sent to London. chiefly by ‘the navigation of the Lea. There are very few manufactures in Hertford- shire of any consequence : at St Albans there is a small cotton manufactory, and two silk-mills. The machi- nery of the latter is particularly well contrived. At Berkhampstead fringe lace is made ; and also a consi- derable quantity of wooden shovels, bowls, spoons, &c. In this, and some other parts of the county, plaiting straw is a resource for poor women and children. At Watford there are some silk mills, one of which is worked by the waters of the Colne ; the rest by horses, In 1803 the poor rates amounted to.£71,291 : they had increased to £98,380. shire... —_——— in 18] 5, Poors-rates. There are several antiquities of great interest in this Antiquities. county. The British City of Verulam, on the site of which St Albans stands, is of greater antiquity than ev- en London itself; and, under the dominion of the Ro« mans, acquired the dignity and privileges of a munici- pium. In the vicinity of this place Cesar defeated Cas- sivellaunus ; Boadicea conquered and massacred 70,000 Romans and Britons; and two bloody battles were fought between the rival houses of York and Lancaster in 1455 and 1461. .The field of Barnet, between St Albans and London, was also the scene of a bloody battle in the destructive wars of the two houses, which proved decisive in favour of Edward _IV., his great foe, the Earl of Warwick, »surnamed the king-maker, being there slain in 1471... During the Saxon heptar- chy, this county was partly in enh eaion of the East Saxons, and partly in Mercia. The king of the latter resided in a castle at Berkhampstead. At this place a parliament was held in 697, and the laws of Ina were published. William the Conqueror here swore to pre- serve the laws made by his predecessors. King Henry II. kept his court here, srk granted it all the liberties and privileges which it had engaged under Edward the Confessor ; and so lately as the reign of James I. the royal nursery was established here. Upon a hill in Harborough field, near Ashwell, are evi a Roman fortification, (now called Ardbury Banks), a large square work enclosed with a trench or rampart. Here the Romans had a standing camp, so advantage- ously situated, that they could discover the approach even of a small body of men at a great distance. - Se- veral Roman coins and earthen vessels have been dug up here at different times. t marks of ~ In 1801 there were 18,172 houses in this county, Population, and 97,577 inhabitants. In 1811, it appears, from the population abstract, that there were— Houses inhabited ........+. 20,345 Families inhabiting them ...... 22,744 Houses building .......++%+ ~ 181 uninhabited ......... 436 Families employed in sent .. 11,998 5 exe is 7,192 other lines. . 3,554 Males... are iplusvel elanst elk aed 55,028 Femalea” 20g is (0s et easton .. 56,631 _ Total inhabitants........, .. 111,654 The following is the statistical state of the county in 1811: a. ie Py Area in square statute miles ...... 528 English statute acres ....... + 337,920 Rental of land 9... 05. «ew see oe £842,350 Amount of tithe . 2.2... 2 t 2 2 © 45,292 © Annual value of a square mile .. . 4 - ‘T35" HES Number : s in a square mile ryt. 2 Veni icultural population in centesimal parts . 52, plore tina Babee 32 to the isle of Eubera, as the only occa- sion on he had ever been on shipboard ; but if he had come from Cuma, he must have f if Hj f f i 4 i lr i a | ri i ; é of 7 i ; i i i l | ; : it He Ui , fi : SEiF Hg i : [ f | ze . £ i : : i : | 1 H it third party, among by the venerable su- concur in making him a contem- ' that Homer's poems contained ev i thy haiagedge ” The ingenious argument of HES The attempts to decide the question of pri- Hesiod. porary. ority, from philological criticism and astronomical cal- ——Y—" culations, are equally vague and ineffectual. The in- ference in favour of Homer, which has been drawn from his use of the word tm:ere; for law, when Hesiod employs veues;, alleged to be of more recent origin, is Mr Elton justly remarks, “ unless we y word in r Samuel Clarke, on the same side, with r to the quanti Of xxass, Of which in Homer the first syllable 1s long, while Hesiod varies it at pleasure, and of eregive:, the penult of which in Homer is long, and short in Hesiod, is Searcely more successful. The difference of locslity, of dialect, and more particularly the very considerable alterations which the original poems have manifestly sincé their collection and arrangement, do not of any conclusive argument being founded on such minute diversities. Paterculus Hesiod 800 years before Christ, and Homer 920 ; and Herodo- tus, them ’ ies, fixes their common era at 884 before Christ. According to the Pa- rian marbles, Hesiod flourished before Christ 944 years, and Homer 907. » Few of the poems * ascribed to Hesiod are now ex- tant, and there is much difference of opinion respecting the small namber that have reached us; these aré the - Theogony, ‘the Works and Days, and the Shield of Hercules, These remains nave manifestly suffered greatly from jon and mutilation. spurious additions and alterations with which modern i have loaded and disfigured them, have so their original simple character, as to raise serious doubts of their antiquity. Joseph Sealiger denies the Shield of Hercules is the production of Hesiod, while Tanaquil Faber as fidently affirms it to be genuine. This contrariety of decision, in *0 competent to decide, can be accounted for only —— unauthentic afd adulterated : ith regard to his rank as a poet, Quintilian has given him the slender praise of medio- crity. “Ifthe Battle of the Titans,” says Mr Elton, “be Hesiod’s genuine composition, and if the Shield, as there is reason to believe, contain authentic extracts from his heroical genealogies, we shal! decide thet He- siod, a8 compared with Homer, is lee rapid, lew fer- veat in action, less teething with allusions and compa- risons ; but , energetic, occasionally vehement and daring ; more common! pretetthig with a slow and me pace. In mental or moral sublime, I —Z i a ae Homer.” Ye subjoin a list of Hesiod. —The Catalogue of Women or stersines;” in five parts, of i to have been entitled “ the He- regeny. The Melampodia, « on divination. great Astronomy, or Stellar Book. Descent of Theseus into Hades. Admonitions of Chiron to Achil- Soothsaying and Explications of Signs. Divine t Actions. Of the Dactyli of Cretan Ida; discoverers of iron. Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis. Agemius, Elegy on Batrachus, a be- loved youth. Circuit of the h. The Marriage of Ceyx. On Herbs, it er oe Pausanias, “ have a tradition that Hesiod only wrote the poem of the Works and Days.” Hesst,, ' Hevelius. —— HEV mers to the Georgium Sidus, See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 649, and Uranus, HESSE, a principality of Germany, is bounded on the south by the’ bishopric of Fulda, the principalities and the counties.of Irenburg, Nidda; Solms ; on the east, by Brunswick ‘Eichsfeld and Thanagins on ‘the west, by Solms, Nassau, Westphalia, and Waldeck ; and on.the north, by Waldeck, Padenborn, and Bruns- wick, Its figure is irregularly oval, and, it extends about 60, miles from north to south, and from 50 to.70 from west to east. _ It. oceupies 2760 square miles, and contains 750,000 :inbabitants,. of this principality was annexed by e new kingdom of Westphalia; and the grand duchy of Hesse, which was.one.of the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, was formed out of new territories. -Before the of Presburg it con- tained 164.square German miles, and had a population of 319,000 ; after the of Presburg, its extent was 202 square miles, its population 478,800, its military contingent 4000, and itsrevenue in rixdollars 1,660,000. An account of this principality will. be found in our ar- ticle on the circle of the Rurve, of which it forms a See Cassex and Darmstaprt. HEVELIUS, or Horverxe, Joun, a celebrated Po- lish astronomer, was born at Dantzic on the 28th Ja- nuary 1611, and was, the son of a brewer of that.city. After studying mathematics under Peter Cruger,. he travelled through Holland, Germany, England, and France, . between the years 1630 and 1634; and upon his return to his native place, he was principally em- ployed in the affairs of the republic of Dantzic, of which e was made consul. in 1651, About the year 1660, by the advice of his former master, he devoted, himself wholly to the study of astronomy. In the year 1641, he ‘built an observatory at his own expence, and furnished it with.excellent tel and graduated instruments, which he constructed with his own hands. With these instruments, which. consisted of a sextant, a quad- rant 63 feet radius, and very large telescopes, he made numerous observations, the result. of .which ,appear- ed at Dantzic in the year 1647, in his work entitled ~« Selenographia, sive Lune descriptio, atque accu- rata, tam maculorum ejus, quam motuum. diverso- rum, aliarumque omnium vicissitudinum, phasiumque telescopii ope deprehensarum, delineatio: in qua simul ceterorum omnium planetarum*nativa facies, varieque observationes, presertim autem. macularum,solarium et jovialium tubo specillo acquisite, figuris sub aspectum ponuntur ; necnon quam plurime astronomice, optice, physiceeque queestiones resolvuntur, Addita est nova ratio lentes expoliendi, telescopia construendi, et ho- rum adminiculo. varias observationes exquisite, insti- tuendi.’”” In 1650, he published an epistle to his friend Eich- stad, on the eclipse of the sun, on Nov, 4th 1649; and in 1652, appeared another epistle on the solar eclipse, addressed to Gassendi and Bullialdus. About this time, Hevelius made the important dis- covery of the moon’s libration, of which he. gave an account in a letter to Riccioli, which was published in 1654, and entitled De motu Lune libratorio in certas ia« dulas redacto. In 1656 he published his Dissertatio de Naliva Saiurni facie, ejusque variis phasibus, certa pe- riodo redeuntibus cui addita est Eclipsis Solis anni 1656, observatio et diametri solis apparentis accurata dimensio. 48 HE Vv" In 1661, Hevelius had: the good fortune to observe Hevelius. the transit of Mercury on:the sun’s disc; and in 1662, -"v—" he published his observations, entitled,“ Mercurius in sole visus anno 1661, cum aliis quibusdam rerum coe- lestium observationibus, rarisque phenomenis ; cui an< nexa est Venus in sole pariter visa L639, Liverpoliz a Jeremia Horroxio, nune, primum edita, notisque illus- trata. Accedit succincta historiola nove ac mire stelle in collo Ceti certis anni temporibus clare admodum ef- fulgentis, rarsus omnine evanescentis; necnon genuina delineatio paraselenarum et parheliorum * quorundam rarissimorum.” The reputation of Hevelius was now so. great, that the illustrious Colbert recommended him to the notice of Louis XIV..who granted. him a pension. A copy of the letter, in which Colbert announced this.act of bers ality to Hevelius, is preserved in the Royal Library at Paris. Hevelius shewed his gratitude by dedicating to Colbert his ‘¢ Prodromus Cometicus, quo Historia Come tee anno 1664 exorti cursum, faciesque diversas capitis ac caude accurate delineatas complectens, necnon disserta- tio de cometarum omnium motu, generatione variisque phenomenis. exhibetur,” Dantz. 1665. A supplement to this. work. appeared in. 1666, entitled, “ Descriptio Comete anno 1665, exorti cum, genuinis observationi« bus tam nudis quam enodatis mense Aprili habitis ; cui addita est. mantissa Prodromi Cometici, observationes omnes prioris Cometz 1664, ex iisque genuinum motum accurate deductum, cum notis et animadversionibus, ex« hibens.” In the year 1668, he published in folio, his great work on comets, under the title of «‘ Cometographia, totam naturam Cometarum, utpote sedem, parallaxes, distantias, ortum et interitum, capitum caudarumque diversas facies, affectionesque, necnon motum. eorum summe admirandum, beneficio unius, ejusque. fixe et convenientis hypotheseos, exhibens; in. qua universa insuper phenomena, questionesque de: cometis omnes rationibus evidentibus deducuntur, demonstrantur, ae iconibus eri incisis plurimis,illustrantur ; cumprimis vero Comet annorum 1652; 1661, 1664; 1665, ab ipso auctore summo studio observati.—Accessit omnium Cometarum, a mundo condito huc usque, ab historicis philosophis et astronomis annotatorum, historia, notis et annotationibus locupletata, cum peculiari tabula Cos metarum Universali.” When this work was completed, Hevelius. sent a copy of it to Dr Hooke, and to other. distinguished members of the Royal Society. In return for this work, Dr Hooke presented Hevelius with a Description of the Dioptric Telescope, and the method of using it ; and recommended it as preferable to the use of plain sights in astronomical instruments. In this way coms menced the celebrated controversy respecting the use of plain and telescopic sights.. Hooke maintained, that with an instrument of a span radius, the distances and altitudes of celestial objects could be-measured to a se- =e by ne sights, ; and Heyvelius insisted in his reply, that with a gocd..eye, and great experience, 9 had obtained the poo accu in the use of his instruments; and he sent, eight distances between stars, for the purpose of being examined by. Dr Hooke. Here the controversy was for the present ter- minated, * In the year. 1673, Hevelius published in folio, the first part of his «* Machina Celestis, organographiam, * These Paraselena and Pathelia are described in our article HaLo, Vol. X. p, 614, and represented in Plate CCLKXXXVII. Figs. 4, 5, 6. E | : i K | it A i A ie 1 tie trl fay! i E iu i f ite F | E £ Ss : : : i it 1 ; E a Bs i His ! ey ; i - A E8 a z i he had before been always doubt- ful, that his ions by naked sights might as to some minutes be uncertain, and had therefore wondered why he declined the use of sights ; be had, partly to gratulate the author's pu of ing of his and partly to satisfy bis own scruples, bea E- , which he now considers as no HE a oe himself abundantly pleased ‘it: and offers himself a voluntary witness of the almost incredible certainty of these instruments, as ay Teen arene abe a two, but a of observations of the fixed stars performed by f sometimes, though expert therein, be ‘Tepeated, most accurately and almost incre- , and never to differ more than by an in- part of a minute.” In 1679, Hevelius published his “« Ma- ELIUS. labore ex ipso wthere haustas, permultisque iconibus, Ria silver, household goods, pri 49 auctoris manu eri incisis, illustratas et exornatas, tri« ne, 2 . evelius fortunately presented about 30 copies of this work ta: bis friends : for Beture it was published, his property of every description was consumed by a dreadful fire, on the 26th September 1679. No fewer than seven houses, containing his money, plate, gold, ing houses, great part of his library, the remaining copies of all his printed works, published at his own ey, ome from year 1647 to 1679, and particularly his observatory, with all his optical and astronomical instruments, were com- pletely reduced to ashes Among the articles preserved were the latter part of his Machina Celestis, containing the observations of nearly 50 years, and his New Ca- _ i. the Fixed Stars. , full account of this calamity, and of his dispute with Dr Hooke, were published in 1685, in his “ An- nus Climactericus, sive rerum Uranicarom et observa- tionum annus quadragesimus nonus, exhibens diversas occultationes tam quam fixarum, post edi- tas cum amicorum nonul- lorum epistolis ad rem istam tibus et continua- tione historia hove stella in Ceti, ut et annota- tionum rerum celestium.” This work was the last which Hevelius published. Worn out with the infirmities of age, and with the la- bours of science, he died on the 28th January 1687, in the 76th year of his age. Hevelius left behind him the reputation of having been one of the most industrious and ingenious cal astronomers of the age in which he lived The surprise which Halley ex at the wonderful of his observations, must be felt by every person x examines them, and who consi- ders that they are well made by unassisted vision, and that the instruments were constructed and graduated with his own hands. Hevelius left behind him two complete works, and many other manuscripts. The first of these made it» appearance in 1690, in folio, entitled, “ Prodromus astronomis, exhibens fundamenta que tam ad novum plane et correctiorem stellarum fixarum catalogum con- struendum quam ad omnium planetarum tabulas cor- rigendas omnimode spectant, necnon novas et correc- tiores tabulas solares, wre el sre ad astrono- miam pertinentes, utpote jonum solarium, paral- laxium, declinationum, angulorum eclipticw et meri- diani, ascensionum rectarum et obliquarum horizonti Gedanensi inservientium, di jarum ascensiona- liam, motus item et ead —« - fixarum, . ibus additus est stellarum fixarum, Ter eidherh daa: 1004 pomp emo of tam 1700. Accessit C ii loco tabula motus lung libratorii, ad bina swcula ime ventura prolongata, brevi cum descriptione cum usu.” This work, which was published by his widow, con- tains the catalogue of 1888 stars. It was afterwards reprinted in the 3d vol. of Flamstead’s Historia Celes~ tis, and is incorporated in the catalogue of stars~given in our proiapeas Sat neal sen eee In same year is umous work, entitled, “ — Sobiescianum sive Ura- aphia, totum um stellatum, tam quod. tibet cides quam onmes et singulas ant, secundum genuinas earum ines nudo oculo ¢t olim jam cognitas, et nuper primum detectas, accuratissimisque- G élius. ' eel Hevelius Hexham. —_—— HE xX organis rite observatas, exhibens; et quidem quodvis i in peculiari tabella, in plano descriptum, sic ut omnia conjunctim totum gon celestem exactissime referant: prout ex binis hemispheriis majoribus, bo- reali scilicet et australi, adhuc clarius culque patet.” This work contains 54 charts, representing the whole heavens. Hevelius was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1664, and contributed several papers to the Philosophical Transactions. : When M, Delisle passed through Dantzic on his way to Russia in 1626, he purchased all the manuscript ob- servations of Hevelius, along with his extensive cor- respondence, forming seventeen folio volumes, four of which were occupied with his observations. These manuscripts contain much curious information respect ing the history of astronomy. They were lodged by Delisle in the depot of the marine at Paris. Those who wish for farther and more minute details respect- ing the life and writings of Hevelius, will find much information in a life of him, published at Dantzic in 1780 by Benjamin Leugnich, and entitled, Hevelius, oder Anekdoten und Nachrichten von diesem beruehmten Manne. Many particulars respecting our author will also be found in Bernoulli's Travels in Prussia, Poland, and Warsovia, 1782, p. 183. A figure of his mauso- Ieum is given in Bernoulli's Collection of Voyages, tom. ii. 1781. See also the Journal de Savans, Aout. 1782, and Murr’s Journal Literaire, Nuremb. _ HEXACHORD Major of Galileo, is an interval of music, whose ratio is 12, = 462 = + 9f 4+ 40m, or the Comma-redundant major s1xtu. See that article. Hexacuorp Major of the Greeks, or hexachordon major of Holder, &c. has the ratio 3, = 4515 + 9f+ 39m, or the Major s1xtu, which see. Hexacuorp Minor of Didymus, has the ratio 4%,,= 404254 8f+ 35m, or the Comma-deficient minor ‘stxTH, which see. Hexacuorp Minor of Galileo, has the ratio £3, = 4265 + 8f-+ 37m, or the Comma-redundant minor sIxTH, which see. Hexacuorp Minor of the Greeks, or hexachordon minor of Holder, &c. has the ratio $,= 4155 4 824 36 m, or the Minor sixtu, which see. (e) HEXAEDRON. See CrystaLtocrapuy. HEXAGON. See Geometry, vol. x. p..221. HEXHAM, is.a market-town ef England, in the county of Northumberland, finely situated on the south side of the river Tyne, at the confluence of the north and south Tyne. The two long streets, of which the town consists, are narrow, and not well built ; but the town contains some good houses. The road from Newcastle to Hallwhistle passes through one of the streets, and the other principal .street runs at right angles to this, At the intersection of these streets, stands the spacious market-place in a large-square, with a convenient piazza for the butchers market, which has moveable stalls, and which is well supplied with wa- ter from a fountain. The church of Hexham, which forms a part of its ancient monastery, founded in 1112, is highly ornamented in the inside, and contains many fine sepulchral monuments. This church was dedicated to St Andrew, and was much celebrated for its beauty -and extent by ancient historians. It is in the form of a Greek cross, The tower, which is in the centre, ap- pears low and broad, though it has a height of 102 feet. The architecture is Gothic and Saxon. A dou- ble gallery runs round the whole structure, opening with Saxon arches, each opening being composed of 56 three arches, the middle circular, and the others. HE Y pointed, with very light pillars, The nave was burnt down by the Scots in 1296, and nothing remains of it but part of its western door. The choir now forms the parish church, and is crowded with inelegant pews and galleries, The priory stood at the west end of the church; and not many years ago, its cloister and cha- pels were to be seen. There are two ancient stone towers at Hexham, one of which is used as a sessions-» house, and formerly belonged to the priors of Hexham. The other is situated on the top of a hill near the Tyne. It appears from two Roman inscriptions, found in a crypt of the church, that the Romans had a station, or town, at this place; for it is obvious, that this was not the Epiacum of the ancients, as Horsley sup ke The crypt, where they were found, is a place fifteen feet by nine, and contains a number of carved stones, which seem to have once formed part of a Roman fortress. The town is governed by a bailie chosen annually. The principal employment of the inhabitants consists in tanning leather, and in making shoes, hats, and gloves. The following is a statistical abstract of the parish for 1811; é Inhabited houses, . . ... «0 se eee « 729 No. of families, ...s:+ 01 0:0 s:e ob 'suis er ATE Do. employed in trade and manufactures, 639 Males. coc siete oh dlrses etre tie woes SS Females 'hijs.0le ste teancera eee aie Hal Ee Total Population, ....... pies Sum se aBOD See Pennant’s Tour in Scotland, vol. iii. ; Hutchinson’s History of Northumberland; and the Beauties of Eng- land and Wales, vol. xii, p. 158—168. HEXHAM, Bartie or. See EnGuianp, vol. viii. p- 638. col. 2. HEYWOOD, Jasper, D.D. a writer of the age of Queen Elizabeth, and son of the epigrammatist Hey- wood, whom we shall immediately have occasion to men- tion. He was born in London 1535, and studied at Mer- ton College, Oxford ; from whence, according to Wood, he was on the point of beng expelled for his i life, when he resigned his fellowship. Soon after he. repaired to St Omers, and entered inte the Society of Jesus at that place. From thence he went to Dili in Switzerland, where he distinguished himself by his learning and zeal for disputing with heretics; so as to obtain the rank of doctor of divinity. In the year 1581, Pope Gregory the XIII. sent him at the head of the first mission of Jesuits to England, but her majesty shipped him off, with 70 of his associates, out of the kingdom; and, returning to Italy, he died at Naples, where the zealous catholic.Joannes Pittseus contracted an intimacy with him, and speaks of him with great respect. He translated three.of the tragedies ascribed to Seneca, viz. the Thyestes, Hercules Furens, and Troas, in the measure oft the syllables, and from that circumstance has obtained a name in poetical biogra- was one of the earliest dramatic writers that ? produced. Warton says of him, that he drew the Bi from the stage, and introduced representations of po- pular life, and familiar manners. He was born at North Mims, near St Albans, in Hertfordshire, and in his youth contracted an intimacy with Sir Thomas More, who introduced him to the (afterwards queen) Mary. hy. r ie cae. Joun, father of the fe that England tronage of the princess . Biis jests, and musical ta- , Hexhane tt Heywood. HEY > | HIE Heywood. ents, made him a favourite with Henry VIII. who fre- HIBERNATION. See Hysernation. Hibernatign —\—" quently made him handsome presents. When Mary HIERA. See Kammenr. i r on i inti- HIERES, is a town of France, in the departinent eS, of the Var, about nine miles east of Toulon. It is ith his stories even in her last On the situated in a delightful valley, about four leagues wiselsbef Whindbeth, being bigented cathatic, be'no- long and one broad, on the south to the sea, and where in 1565. narrow pass, which is the road to ee At the Asa he was famous in his time, and his s sloping entrance of this , on the declivity of a ane = mountain that defends din haat plain, is situated the i- town, which is built in the form of an amphitheatre. The summit of the mountain is bare, and is cleft in se- [ i i i Fe5 it : it if i “fs places, to give ns ae sure of skill, that he himself that made it, nor from a distance. Towards base of the mountain, any one that readeth it, can reach unto the meaning stands the modern part of the town, which contains the thereof.” His Dialogue of Proverbs, and Siz Hundred principal street, the square, and the inns ; but it has a Epigrams, give us but a ble idea of the wit and gloomy and dirty appearance. The old town, which \ conversation of our ancestors. (2) neo wypertion. 0 setter dong soem presents a HEYWOOD, Tuomas. This author was an actor heap of uni ited ruins; but the suburbs, which as well as a writer, and in the reigns of Queen skirt the mountains, are chearful and clean, and have a James I. and Charles I. The date of his neat and rural . birth and we might almost add, the whole his- | Near the mouth of the small river Gapeau, which tory of his life,) is unknown, his profession and intersects the plain of Hieres, are , con- Say Jie Seteat 60 chy eeperapmndnan sadpeen taal ¢ e F ; g i for, besides his com sof The English Tra. workmen, have the appearance of a little sea-port. The veller, Apolony Actors, &e. &c. he tells us, that the salt is sent te Toulon, Marseilles, and Genoa, and the in wh had either a principal share, or wrote annual revenue amounts to about 500,000 francs. , amounted to-two hundred and twenty About four English miles from the town is the Etang, com situated in the centre of an isthmus, running from the southern coast. It is about a league long, and half a league broad, and the three little islands in the middle or a were lost from the desultory manner in which he of it contain a number of aquatic birds. The eastern part of the isthmus joins the road of Hieres, ees ee ee eae ene iis, ; true reason and is called La Plage de la Munasse. The lower part seems to have been, that the managers, in those days, of it is the peninsula Giens, which contains many inte- prcchased the scle property of the copies of ple and resting objects. not Biched till Hieres ts celebrated for the mild temperature of its . : of . u Ee #39 loss of so many of them. It has rif ; f i : [ H cr etapa poy: Ae meer Page dese winters ; but it is reckoned unhealthy from May to course when to be attractive, the October of them parish, and the ectess woeld met much At the chapel of Notre Dame, on a hill situated near en = ere ager rpeny meeeen , which, if they the sea-shore, and about a league from the town, is a had been , not have repaid the cost. Cragin entute pane oe Of 23 of his remain to us, there is one that a to redeem his name from oblivion. § The of M. Fille is well worthy of being vi- Peres melee ‘Seer ts certomeesra eater : ,ona Ss which is excellent, a story of domestic infidelity, and the that of artichokes sold, in 1793, for 1800 francs. The chiet ensues; but it terminates sanee tgiedily, and with « exports from Hieres are oil, wine, fruit, vegetables, severer moral lesson. Mrs Frankland, the penitent, flowers, salt, which are sent almost exclusively to though forgiven by her husband, cannot forgive her- Toulon and Marseilles. A thousand oranges are sold self, and dies broken-hearted. In this, and in severa] for 45 livres. Vessels are loaded in summer at the other pieces, Heywood, not ly fancifal nor beach near the salt-works ; but in winter, ail the mer- poetical, and though he seems to have possessed chandize must be conveyed to Toulon by land. East the common ambition of a poet—to be thought such,__ Long: 6° 7’ 55", and North Lat. 43° 7' 2”. Population Se ee] tard en wathing The about 7000. See Christ. August. Fischer Reise nach last scene between F and his wife is very Hyeres, im Winter von 1803 and 1804. Leipzic, 1806 ; touching. It concludes thus: ——— Voyages dome tas Dipeineeas Midi de Acton, (the brother of Mrs Froakland rance, tom. ti. . Ol. Mrs Pronk. — op Senet ) How do you feel yourself + HIERES, Isces or, (the Insular Arearum,) are a Prank. | see you are not, and I weep to see jt. cluster of three small islands in the Mediterranean, si- By mite, the mother tomy pretty babes, tuated about four es from the town of Hieres. abd, oth Gus Moy head cee spe” They dre called Pesgenvelion, Basticoeny as the isle of ‘Though thou art wounded in thy b : Titan. They were Stoechatles by the Marseillois, Honest in heart, upon my soul, thou diest. is Porquerolles, which is the largest and best wooded, Pe em Pardoned on earth, soul, thou in heaven art free 80d contains 85 inhabitants Porticros is three es more, Thy wife dies thus, embracing thee! () farther tothe eat and is more elevated and Verte I HIE 52 “HIE Hiero, has a haven, and contains about 50 inhabitants, The Nearly connected with this, was the practice»of de- Hierogiy. Hierogly- other island is about three-quarters of @ le: ‘to ‘the noting the efficient cause by the effect produced); ~ phics- — “_ east of Porticros. It has fewer inhabitants, and is less as harvest, by a sheaf of corn—winter, by a leafless “—Y"" . fertile than the rest. .All-these islands may be seen'from ‘to have been there that hierogl _ plicated action might the town of Hieres. They are defended by small forts, and are covered with lavender and strawberries. They are frequently visited by parties of pleasure from. the town. See Fischer's Reise nach Hyeres. HIERO. ‘See Syracuse. HLERO'S Crown. See Hypropynamics. HIEROGLYPHICS, (from ieges, saered,and yrogew, to-carve,) properly, seulptures or carvings, (and hence, by an easy and obvious transition, paintings also,) sym- bolically denoting, by particular figures and collocations -of external. or corporeal-objects, sacred, moral, :and reli- gious truths. : Hieroglyphics may be considered as a species, of which symbol is the genus; for hieroglyphics area par- ticular class of symbols, differing however from other symbols, as well-by the nature of the truths of which they are the signs, as by the mysterious and _recondite mode in which these truths are exhibited., The truths denoted by hieroglyphics properly relate not to com- mon or trivial objects, but to things sacred or divine ; and the mode of exhibiting these is designedly obscure and enigmatical, requiring ssagacity and acuteness, as well as patient attention, to develope their meaning. The origin of hieroglyphical writing has generally been derived from Egypt; and undoubtedly it ics first assumed the form of a regular system. But, in fact, the first steps in the formation and employment of hieroglyphic.em- blems, may be traced. as nearly coeval with the earliest attempts of mankind ‘to communicate their thoughts by visible marks, in addition to articulate sounds. In such attempts, it seems plain, that the first, as being the most natural, way of accomplishing the end, would be by presenting a picture or delineation of the object to denoted. To express: a man;\an animal, or w tree, the figure of the object would bedrawn and exhibited. To intimate that a man had been slain by a wild beast, the figure’ of a man stretehed»on the earth, and the’ani- mal standing over him, would be formed; to indicate that a hunter had caught his prey, the picture of the man with the prey in hie hands would be given. Such was probably the earliest mode of writing. It is the opinion of the best informed writers, that it prevailed among the Pheenicians, Egyptians, and other early com- munities ; and we know with certainty, that it was in use among the Mexicans when invaded by the Spa- niards,—intelligence of their arrival having been trans- mitted to the emperor in a picture, and ‘even the histo- ry of the empire having been delineated by paintings upon skins, afterwards found in one of the temples. This way of communicating thoughts, however, was, of necessity, liable to much ‘inconvenience. It was of- ten difficult, and bulky. To lessen'the toil, and abridge the’size of the’picture, different modes of abbreviation were resorted to. . The »principal part of the object might first be made tostand for the whole; a§ the head for the man, a hand holding a weapon for a warrior. Next, the principal circumstance in a com- ote the entire action; two or more hands, with weapons opposed, might denote a battle ;,a scaling-ladder, set against a wall, a siege. In‘a short time, a farther improvement would occur; ish ‘the instrument of an action for the thing i as, weare informed by Hori’ Apollo, two feet ies in water represented: the fulling of cloth. extension. of enquiry beyond the mere obj new subjects of thought, req: tree—hostile incursion; by ruined buildings and dead bodies. ' From these.different‘ kinds of ‘contracted gp ear the transition was easy to the third stage in the pro- gress of writing; to make one thing represent suelo, where any resemblance sufficiently striking ‘between the two objects could be perceived. To:this mode of communication it became frequently necessary ‘to, have recourse, Intellectual objects of every kind ; the pas- sions and feelings of men; the moral ‘qualities of ac- tions, admit of no direct delineation by picture, they must therefore be represented, if represented at-all, by sensible objects, to which they either bear, orare sup- posed te bear, some resemblance. Under the view of such analogies, wisdom was signified by an eye; in- gratitude, by a viper biting the hand that offered it food ; courage, by a-lion; cunning, by a serpent. ‘This con- stitutes what ma; operly be termed the symbolic mode of citi. tea in rai measure perth to that stage in the progress-of speech observed: among all rude tribes, w figures, tropes, and:metaphors, fill up.a great portion of-every d This mode. of writing is founded on resemblances perceived or supposed; and as it is difficulttto set limits to the power of imagination in discovering or figuti resemblances, it might be supposed that the symbolic mode of writing Gon be carried to an inulctebasthate extent. But in fact it has its limits; it:must:be under- stood if it is to be useful at all; the resemblanice, there- fore, must be either obvious and discerned by mere in- tuition, or so generally perceived and recognised, that the persons to whom it is addresed may easily pass from the sign tothe thing signified. If the resem- blance be very recondite and remote, if the analogy is traced from qualities not. generally observed, the sym- bolic writing becomes proportionally obscure, and to the uninstructed not even intelligible. : It is thus, by a natural progress, that wetan trace the origin of hieroglyphies. Mere picture writing’ was an obvious invention ; contraction of picture writing was probably taught by necessity: symbols: required the exercise of imagination ; at first; probably, plain and perspicuous, they soon became more \complicated and obscure. Among a people who'had ‘no: mode of representing their thoughts but by means of figures or characters of this description, the very progress of knowledge, orthe of sense or immediate observation, could not fail both to-add to the number, and augment the obscurity of the:symbo- lic signs made use of. New discoveries, new truths, i ps ‘and .ex- pressive symbols ; these might ei ‘becdrawn from objects not nitherto delineated, or figures previously in use might be employed, arranged in forms and col- locations remote from their former delineations, In either way it would follow, that to persons unacquaint- ed with the very subjects to which the signs related, the symbols, until explained, would present confused and unintelligible It was in this manner that the universe, or-universal nature, came to be denoted by a winged globe, with a serpent issuing from it; and a serpent itself was made to represent the divine nature, on account of its supposed vigour and spirit, its great age, and the reverescence ascribed tot. Hieroglyphics then are onlyan extension of ‘picture [eet Fae a " tis to see how ee erat of hat of mon ctniug at reputation of superior wisdom, it él EF Fi i FP Hy i d i i LSFE rie ats i f 3 capricious conveying a secret onl to the initiated. In os - community, 3 did the same opportunities occur, some com- HIEROGLYPHICS. 53 Egypt; the great “idbelisk brought from Egypt to Hicrog}y- Rome, jis full of such denied: an on almost all the Phics — obelisks now existing they are met with, Many cu- ,,! (3 ne " rious lyphic figures were engraved,on what was = concea wledge, but in fact to eandcom- termed the Isiack Table, a large black table, long pre- —\—~—— m it. But afterwards hieroglyphics came to be served at Rome, and at the sacking of that city, in by a poor tradesman, and afterw re- moved to Mantua, where it disappeared at the capture of the It had been iously engraved, and a Ezyptan i Seolghides .- al ed jan hieroglyphics were also engraved on gems, and small figures, which are still to be met with in ca- Sir John Marsham supposes lyphies to have been the origin of the worship of ; the figure and the thing signified, being as he supposes, so con- natives of Egypt, who had mixeda t of Paganism with their 3 cameet them are still to be met with in the cabinets of the cu- These abraxas were superseded among the su- tious orientals by talisinans. ous parti - but his explanations are fanciful, and n the second book of Mont- Blahep hee ext, howeter, heen euefl.to diel ' not, . to ish between emblems in , and hieroglyphics proper- ly socalled. Dr E. D. Clarke, in his lately ters of an ancient al and the forms ly a sernes of monograms. (3 HIEROGRAMMATIST, (from weed venue purrieees, @ writer,) an order of priests een an- « cient Egypti To them was committed the care of and the «u tendance of the Highgate Himaleb, —_——— HIG HIGHGATE is a vile in Middlesex, about four miles north of London, delightfully situated on the top and sides of one of the highest ills in the county, commanding the most beautiful and extensive p over Essex, Sareps and Kent, in one direction, and Hert- fordshire, Bedfordshire, and Buckinghamshire, in ano- ther. It consists principally of the villas of the opu- lent merchants, &c. of London, and its buildings are equal, if not superior, to any in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. In order to avoid the steep hill, it was proposed to cut a tunnel through it, which was begun in 1808. The roof of it, however, fell in after the work had made some progress, and it was found ne- to make an open cut shrough the hill. This great improvement is now completed ; and the London road passes below an arch, which it became necessary to build for the purpose of carrying a cross road over the cut. HIGHLANDS. See Scorianp. HILDESHEIM, is the name of a German bishopric, founded in 822 by Charlemagne. It extends about 50 or 60 miles from east to west, and about 35 from north to south, and contains about 54 square German miles. The soil of the greater part of the district is good, and pro- duces abundance of corn, flax, hops, and vegetables. The * southern districts are hilly, and covered with forests ; some of the hills containing excellent quarries and iron mines. The wood is principally oak, beech, ash, and birch. The diocese contains 16 bailiwicks, 75 manors, 13 towns, 234 villages, and 85,000 inhabitants, with an annual revenue of 250,000 rix-dollars. The principal towns are Hildesheim, Peina, Rosenthal, and Marien- burg. After the secularization of the diocese in 1803, it was given among the indemnities to the King of Prussia. After the peace of Tilsit, it formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia. HILDESHEIM, or Hitizsuerm, the Bennopolis of the ancients, is a town of Germany, and the capital of the diocese, of the same name. It is situated on a rug- declivity, watered by the river Innerste ; about 6 leagues. S. E, of Hanover, and 10 W. S. W. of Bruns- wick. The town is tolerably large, but is irregularly built, and old fashioned. It is divided into the Old and New Town, which were united in 1583. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, Holy Cross Abbey, the Gymnasium Andreanum, about eight Protestant churches, and several monasteries. The ca- thedral belongs to the Roman Catholics, and its bishop was the only catholic one in all Saxony. It is a richly ornamented Gothic building, and contains among its antiquities the celebrated Pagan monument of Irmin- sal, which fronts the great choir. It is a column which serves to support a chandelier of several branches. Population 12,600. HIMALEH, or Himazaya mountains, the Emodus, Himaxs, or Imaus of the ancients, is. a stupendous range of mountains, which bound Hindostan on the north, and. separate it from the country of Great and Little Thibet. In East Long. 76°; and North Lat. 34° 30’, the Himaleh range joins the mountains of Cashmere on the west, the northern range of the latter being as it were a continuation of the former. The Himaleh, mountains being supposed to commence at this point, take aS. E. direction to Bootan, and form. the boundary between that country and Thibet, in about 90° E. Long, and 28° N, Lat. stretching still farther to. the east they terminate to the north of Assam. The river Burram-pooter is. supposed. to wind round: the eastern extremity of the range about 95° of East: Long. it appears from Col, Crawford’s observations, that one 54 Hil P of the peaks of Himaleh, seen from Patna, is more than 20,000 feet above Nepaul, or about 25,000 feet above the level of the sea, The country declines in height from the summit of these mountains to the south, the surface being irregularly mountainous to the borders of Bengal, Oude, and Delhi, where the plains begin, which stretch to the sea. Several of the tribu- tary streams of the Indus, and probably the Indus it- self, have their origin from the western side of these mountains. It is supposed that the sources of the San- poo, or Burram-pooter, and its tributary streams, are separated only by a narrow range of snow clad peaks, from the sources of the streams which form the Ganges. See Rennel’s Memoir, and Asiatic Researches ; Hamil« ton’s Gazetteer ; and our articles Inpia and Tuner. HINCKLEY is a town of England, in Leicester. shire, situated near the borders of Warwickshire. The town is divided into the Borough, and the Bond with- out the liberties. The limits of the borough were for- merly those of the town, which has been extended by the successive addition of four streets, the Bond End, the Castle End, the Stocken Head, and the Duck Pud- dle. The parish church is a neat large structure, with a modern built spire, erected in 1788, on the old tower. The body of the church seems to have been built about the 13th century. Its length, from the chancel to the west door, is 66 feet, and its width near the chancel about 80 feet. There are three other places of worship, and a Roman Catholic chapel. The town-hall, school- house, and ball-house, are very curious, but in a ruinous state. TO: WA ae Hinckley was once of much greater extent, and was encircled with a wall and ditch, traces of which are stillto be seen. The tos called the Jewry-wall is said to have been part of the temple of Janus. There to have been a Ro- is near the river a mount, — man fortification ; and near the church are the ruins of” a bath, with three mineral springs. Tesselated pave- ments, and other Roman antiquities, have been chr : vered here. This town is said to form the middle of the highest ground of England, and commands a view of no fewer than 50 churches. Its principal manu- facture is that of coarse stockings of cotton, thread, and worsted. A larger quantity of stockings is sup- posed to be made here than in any town in England. The number of frames in the town and neighbourhood: is computed at 1200, which give employment to nearly 3000 persons. The town is likewise noted for the goodness of its ale. In 1811, the 2 ice of Hinckley, including Dadling- ten and Stoke Golding, contain Inhabited houses .........- SUD eats 1097" Fierlee>, 220. Sora. s eee een tas Nees Do. employed in trade and manufactures . . 1010 Males 25h te, 2 o: 2) HOR meee Females ..... oie) sccage ratte Kae = LSISE Total population ©... oe) ee eee - 6058 See Nichol’s History of Hinckley ; and the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. p. 473. HINDOSTAN. See Inp1a. HINZUAN. See Jonanna. HIPPARCHUS. See Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 590, 591. HIPPIAS. See Aruens. . HIPPOCRATES, commonly called the Father of Physie, was the most renowned physician of ancient Greece; and the oldest’ medical writer of whom there ‘are any authentic works now extant. He was a native of the island of Cos, which had been long celebrated-in the annals of medicine, being the seat. of one of ‘the Hinckley Hippo- crates, —_—~ HIPPOCRATES. schools founded by the Asclepiades or descendants of invited by that ‘i it be a eH 55 eh th e to favour them with the advan- belonged tages i skill; but, on inquiring into va- and is. by his biographers the 18th in rious circumstances attendii i m9 : cluded that his services would be ineffectual. He de- ean gre clined the journey ; and finding reason of Ww Pete peng angen Dre rn ic, he con- Pheealy aed war, His genealogy by Greece, he sent his sons to these countries, for the pur- aH a i i i a ap 5 ras Hy | E 4 g Ss i i | if i ‘ 2. BS, te) ut td vi na j ( i invited peg Are eminent physicians, bestowed much on his case, and take pose of preparing them to meet the visitation with These Fe awe In a p credited have contributed much to himself from society, e at Athens, he is eaill to ¢ health of the city, by or- large fires to be lighted for purifying the air, and by burning various i of Hippocrates have in the manner of the i i we material assistance. vate houses, singularity of manners, that he had become addicted contem 2a ae ae peer Fe pp tae gp fear i n conceived him to be insane, and to go and him under his i talents were offered to him on this sciences under Democritus; but it rather appears that occasion, but he declined ing of any recompense. eR pte: pyraqgabs gras till be was Kings and princes are said to have made different at- more ad in life, and asame- tempts to him in their service. We are told, dical practitioner. He enjoyed, from the circumstances that Perdicas, king of Macedon, invited him to his of his ancestors, and the spirit of the of his nativi- court to cure his son of a consumption ; and that Hip- ty, incitements to medical ies, and great ad- pocrates discovered the whole complaint to consist in ' for the prosecution of them. Under these fa- the workings of a secret passion which the young man relish for the cherished for Phyla, the mistress of his father. This PF F f i i i | J FE FE oF | | is if Li f ae : 4 tt i ‘Be af of Hi rd i rt siF in 1 called ra s{/ix«, sometimes published with the works Artaxerxes offered him large sums, and a splendid es- and the pre of which were controverted Se era inane oe ans ee My tis t with the sentiments offended Artaxerxes, who then demanded of the which were in all the con- bitants of Cos, that Hi should be delivered Others that he fled because into his hands, threatening them with the extremity he had some inscriptions in the temple of Aiscu- of his vengeance in case of refusal. The of Cos, the cures of sick persons, who thus re- however, were too honourable, and too much attached their ledgments to that deity. This re- to their illustrious countryman, to yield to these intimi- port le ouuslly groundiews with the other, and dose not dating threats ; and Hi i 3 9 ; thing that we know of the tenden- The high character of this physician gave him, cies of ancient He seems to have also tra- on.en cemtion, 98 apereny 9 ing an velled in Africa and Asia; but the chief scenes of his important political service for his native country, travels were on the Europem continent, where he fre- which he tenderly loved. The Athenians threatened quently visited different cities and countries for the the island of Cos with a f invasi ip- purpose of reliev sy ps pocrates solicited the of the people of Thes- they were afflicted, ile a ul pes- aly. on8..Fas oaining. centring: on8 28 the amen ‘tilence prevailed among the Illyrians, he was earnestly time sent son to Athens, to avert the Hippo crates. ‘ary 56 HIPPOCRATES. Hippo- storm by negotiation, and sage remonstrances on the to the perfection of the medical character. Hence his’ Hippo- crates, baneful tendency of ambition, ‘The exertions both of precepts on that subject acquire’a double authority. Crate —Y~" the father and the son were successful. The Thessa- Hippoerates lived to a great age; some say 109, lians, the Messenians, and the states of the Peloponne- sus, engaged to-espouse the interests of the island of Cos; and the Athenians, partly out of regard for Hip- pocrates, and partly from the apprehensions which so much resistance created, abandoned their hostile de- signs. Hippeckites entertained a deep sense of the import- ance of the duties of the professional character. He spared no’ pains which were necessary for his own im- provement, and the successful practice of his art. He was aware that medicine requires more assiduous at- tention than other employments; he exacted of all his pupils an oath, binding them to certain rigid prin- ciples of duty, and, among other things, to engage, that they would enter no house whatever except for the —— of relieving those who needed their assist- ance, ‘This rule, if taken according to the strict mean- ing of the words, appears somewhat fantastic, as'it sup- poses that the number of patients and of practitioners should-always be nicely accommodated to one another. It shews, however, the abhorrence which Hippocrates had of any degree of negligence and frivolity in the medical character. He was ready at all hours to attend on a call; and submitted with as much willingness to all those minute attentions which were necessary for the welfare of his patients, as to professional offices which were apparently the most dignified. It also re- dounded to his honour, that. his attention was not less directed to the gratuitous object of preventing, than to the lucrative employment of curing disease. Of this he has left a testimony in his writings, by treating on the subject of diet and of water. These features of disinterestedness would not merit great praise in mo- dern times, in which they are so common, and are re- quisite to establish a character, and are. therefore: of- ten either mimicked for this express purpose, or avoid- ed if they interfere with false and fashionable notions of dignity. They acquire greater lustre from the con- sideration of the different sort of manners which pre- vailed in the days of Hippocrates, as well as the com- plete superiority to'intrigue by which, in his conduct, they were accompanied. His zeal for science and humanity was rendered ef- ficient by his excellent talents, and the weight of his personal character. His sagacity in observing nature was a resource to him on every emergency; and the accuracy of his judgment led him to resist the useless frivolities which superstition had introduced into medi- cal practice. Inviolable secrecy, justice, and good faith, minha the whole of his conduct. Uniting dignity with humanity in his deportment, he employed firmness or complacency on such occasions.as called for the exer- cise of either quality. He spoke but little; and his language was masculine and concise. His actions were never conducted with agitation; no prescription was given with precipitance ; no circimstances were ne- glected; nor was the result ever left in any degree to accident. If at any time he failed of success from want of previous experience adapted minutely to any indivi- dual ease, he acknowledged his failure in the most in- enuous manner. In his writings, he sometimes warns is readers against mistakes and errors which he him- self had committed, and which were attended with fa- tal consequences. He exhibited in all respects a bright example of the qualities which he himself’ enumerates, with so much eloquence and good sense, as contributing others, however, make it mucli less. He died at La- rissa, and was buried between that city and Gyrtona, ' He left among numerous other disciples, his*two sons, Thessalus and Draco, both eminent physicians, and his son-in-law Polybus, who had been a favourite pupil, and afterwards became acelebrated teacher, and arranged and published the works of his friend and master, In statues and paintings Hippocrates is represented with his head covered, which is different from the usual manner of the Greeks, and was probably done on ac- count of his having been so great a traveller; as that was the only description of individuals who were uni- formly thus distinguished. Hippocrates has always been regarded as the father of bis art. The honour in which he was held, both during his life and after his death, was very high. The inhabitants of Argos erected a statue of gold to him. The Athenians more than once voted him a crown of gold, and initiated him in their great reli- gious mysteries. This last was a favour very seldom: conceded to strangers. rong > did not cultivate general philosophy except as subservient to medicine, he exemplified so ably its spirit, that Plato, Aristotle, and others, looked up to him as’a master, and some« times commented on his opinions. Aristotle even fol« lowed him as a model of stile. His works have been held in high esteem in all subsequent ages ; they have been translated or commented on by Galen, Celsus, and numerous other physicians of the most eminent genius, both in ancient and modern times. The treatises which have gone under his name are 7Z in number ; but they are not all of equal authenticity. Doctrines so contradictory are sometimes contained in them, as shew them plainly to have been the works of distinct authors. Some are probably of much more an- cient origin than Hippocrates himself. Some are thought to have been written by his grandfather, who bore the same name: and several have been either much altered and interpolated, or entirely written by~ subsequent authors. Those which are universally allowed to be genuine are, “ the Aphorisms,” “ the Prognostics,”? the first and third boek “ on Epidemics ;” and the book “ on the influence of air, water, and local situa- tion.” Some are regarded as supposititious, because they deviate from the character of Hippocrates, as shown in the works now enumerated, both in solidity, method, and correctness of language ; while others bear only in part the character of this master, and in- cline the critical reader to suspend his judgment of their authenticity. These last seem to have been such as Hippocrates left in an unfinished state, or the sub« stance of notes or a taken from his prelections by his pupils. Such are “ The Four Prognostics ;” “ the Pre- dictions ;”’ the 2d, 5th, 6th, and 7th books “ on Popular. Diseases ;” that “on Diet in acute Diseases ;” the books ‘on the Parts of the Human Body ;” “on Aliment ;” “on the Recoveries that huppen on critical Days ;” and “ on the Humours.” There is’ considerable difficulty, how- ever, indeciding in the negative His et the works said to belong to a particular author. We may give a judg« ment on the positive authenticity of n perform- ances, which bear the stamp of the genius and manner of a masterly writer. But such writers often produce works which are not equal to their genius, works which have been written under inauspicious circumstances, which have diminished their attachment to their sub- r il + ieners g ae RN, “7 A HIPPOCRATES. 57 ob. deeply skilled in the diagnosis and prognosis of dis- Hippo- exercise of their talent. Great dif- eases. By far the ter of his descriptions are ‘Te Oe adh eg el be i lame or vola- of observation. The article in whi and peed SeeeanS aceepad ae his observations are most deficient, is the pulse, which powers, may in the literary he so much overlooked, that some have supposed him it gi ‘Di of che altogether unacquainted with the changes to which it i is liable. It was chiefly from the degree of heat, and the difficulty of respiration, that he judged of the state times at which different of a fever. | ig Fr i & I BE : § H r i | | iF Hi it com In the treatment of diseases, he inculcated a pro- The editions of the works of found for the of nature, whom he re- in the original are, those of Aldus at Venice in 1526; ed as the arbiter and judge of diseases, and as hav- and of Frobenius at Basle in 1538, both in foli ing certain salutary objects in view in the Hieronymus Mercurialis, at Venice, they implied. This doctrine is in fact the same which Ba in 1579; of Anutius noe loms —— mavoarseg te theorists, under a Foesius, at Francfort, in 1595; of J.A. Vander Linden, different set of terms, with slight modifications, at Leyden, in 1665; of Renatus Chartrier, with the such as the archus of Van Helmont, and the vis medi- i f i 7 tice is ; Vatican ; of J. Cornarius, at Venice, tion of his genius has led to follow him closely, have i in been too prone to satisfy themselves with the exercise tracing the course of diseases rather than to re- logical methods at the time at which he wrote. terminate, and what length of time it would require to gavea theory of the formation and con- destroy the patient. seprocetes tales wepemenie he the doctrine some practical remedies ue hr pene eae i 0 i ntly correcting some one oe In slight deviations incident to it. His precepts in this long laxatives and emetics. In inflammatory cauebinerble ice was more active ; he used fomentations, blood- King and poring He also gave some weak wine and aromatics, which are, it must be confessed, less correct in diseases requiring the strictest anti- istic treatment. In (a collection of ee oe drew > the patient's tongue, poured a little irritating liquid, from the root of arum, Sembalisboece. : cop- , into the trachea, for the of exciting a vio~ fext congh,-endithus discharghng’ the purulent matter, | Ly i Ht a i # | " est F E = EFF tl bik ek i f il fe Hi i 4 | u | z - His Hippocrates He was also in the practice of shaking violently the patient’s body, with a view to detach the matter from Dela Hire. the parts to which it adhered. In diseases of the head he first applied fomentations, and then excited sneezing for bringing off the phlegm In pharmacy he made extensive improvements, His preparations are diversified in their composition and consistence, so as to answer minutely the various pur- poses of external medicine. He paid great attention to the diversities of state, and the shades of morbid sensa- tion in diseased parts, and nicely adapted to them the forms of his remedies. In this respect he may often ‘serve for a model to correct the gross ideas of those who exclusively venerate the agency of powerful sim- Asa surgical author, Hippocrates had great me- rit; though the vigour of his practice in this department sometimes exceeded the bounds of moderation. He placed great reliance on the revulsion produced by powerful disch by means of blood-letting, and which was assisted by the use of cupping instruments ; and when this failed, he formed extensive and deep ul- cers, by the actual cautery. A full account of the opi- nions, theoretical and practical, of this ancient author, ~would fill a large’ volume. In this country, an ac- quaintance with them is, even among medical men, reckoned an object of curiosity rather than an attain- ment necessary to the physician; but the perusal of the works of Hippocrates himself has an excellent ten- dency to cherish in the mind of a professional man, that zeal for the objects of his art, and that keen and : evering attention to his duties, whieh renders his fife most satisfactory to himself, and most useful to so- ciety. See Le Clere’s Histoire de la Medicine; Fabricius; also the Life of Hippocrates, by Soranus; and the intro- duction to Pinel’s Nosographie Philosophique. '(H. D.) HIPPOCRENE. See He tcon, vol. x. p. 703. HIPPOPOTAMUS. See Mammatia. — HIRE; Putte pe LA, an eminent ‘and industrious French astronomer, was born at Paris on the 18th March 1740. His father was painter to the king, and instructed his son in the same art, particularly in draw- ing, and such branches of the mathematics as related to his profession. In the year 1761, three years after he had lost his father, Dela Hire went into Italy to re- establish his health, and to study those fine models of painting and sculpture which every artist was ambi- tious to imitate; but, during the three years which he spent in that’country, he discovered that he was more fitted to excel in astronomy and geography than in the 58 HIS fine arts, and he henceforth devoted his whole time to De la Hire these interesting studies. We Upon his return to Paris, he was nominated one of pac gare the members of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1699, he was named Pensionnaire Geometre. Between ‘the years 1678 and 1718, he published no fewer than two hundred and forty-four memoirs on almost every branch of mathematics and natural philosophy. When the great Colbert had resolved to make a cor- rect map of France, De la Hire was associated with M. Picard in this important duty, which occupied him for several years. In 1683, he was employed in.con- tinuing to the north of Paris the meridian which Picard had begun in 1669, while Cassini was employed in ex- tending it to the south. The death of Colbert having put an end to this great undertaking, De la Hire was next employed in the formation of” he great water- works with which Louis XIV. embellished his palaces. De la Hire filled also the situation of royal professor of mathematics and architecture, and was much esteem-= ed among his countrymen. His name, however, is not aniscintat with any great invention or discovery; and we are called upon only to admire the extent of his knowledge, and the persevering industry which he ex- hibited both in acquiring it for himself and in commu- nicating it to others. The works which he published separately were, , 1. Nouveaux Elemens des Sections Coniques. Paris, 1678, 1 vol. 12mo. ‘ 2. La Gnomonique. 1682: : 8. Traité du Nivellement de M. Picard, avec des additions. Paris, 1684, : 4. Sectiones Conice Paris, 1685, folio. 5. Traité du mouvement des eaux et des autres corps fluides ; ouvrage Posthume de M. Mariotte. 1686. 6. Ecole des Arpenteurs. 1689. 7. Traité de Mecanique. 1695, 1 vol. 12mo. 8. Tabule Astronomiz Ludovici Magni jussu et munificentia exarate. 1702. De la Hire died on the 28th April 1718, and left be- hind him a son, Gabriel Philip de la Hire, who was much esteemed as a physician, and who published seve- ral papers on medicine and natural philosophy in the in novem Libris distribute. -Memoirs of the Academy from 1699 to 1720. HIRUDO. See Inrestina. HIRUNDO. See OrnituoLocy. HISPANIA. .See Spain. HISPANIOLA. See St Dominco. HISTORY. tiistory. — [yy this article it is proposed, ‘in the first place, to point —y~—"" out and explain the various advantages of the study of Division of history ; secondly, to enumerate those branches of study the subject. which ought to be entered upon, previous to, or con- temporary with the study of history; thirdly, to give a brief and rapid sketch of the order in’ which ancient and modern general histories may most conveniently and advantageously be read ; fourthly, to point out the “order in which the history of particular countries may be read, so that they may be illustrative of one another; . fifthly, to notice the different species of history besides what is emphatically called History. Advantages ‘I. With respect to the advantages which may be de- of the study rived:from the study of history, they are various and of history. important: if the value of: that department of science is to be rated highest; which combines advantages of History. the most obvious and beneficial nature, history pos- “7 sesses a very strong claim to our attention and study. It is equally attractive to ‘the unreflecting and phi- losophical mind: the former it interests by the excita- tion of novelty; the latter by the usefulness and i ance of the general principles which may be from the facts which it records. But perhaps the uti- lity and value of this branch of study cannot be placed in a more“obvious and conspicuous point of view, than by stating that it combines amusement of the deepest interest ; the exercise and improvement of the best fa- culties of man ; and the acquisition of the most import- ant species of knowledge. : A source 4 History, considered merely as a source of amusement, amuse tf 22% ewe yer on ~ _ ee - HISTORY. 59 preceding remarks, by the constant exercise which it History. i i veel taceredguans andidastednatvuiashs ain —— the imagination, and corrupts the heart be j affirmed, that the faculties of the human mind ill derive from its perusal a great accession to their if i f pee HI ; poison, Whatever impressions are made strength. upon the mind by fictitious adventures, the same in —_ But the great advantage to be derived from his- Makes us Se generally not equal in , tory,—and this advantage flows in the most direct acquainted are made by the perusal of history ; and while works of manner, of the highest character, and in the utmost ‘iththe me fiction are not in their nature le, in general, of abundance from the history of Britain,—consists in this, jocrety. any other uses than the authors in view, which that by means of it we gain our knowl of the pe oa 7g limited ; true hi , being mechanism of society ; of the reciprocal influence of an exhibition iin edechene ah Pinsidenan, lies tani national character, laws, and government; of those relations and uses, and may be as an inex- causes and circumstances, that have operated towards haastible mine of the most valuable knowledge. It has the production and advancement, or the destruction eee eee nane tamenen of Dae te and retardation of civil and religious li , and the machines which we contrive to illustrate various branches of science and literature. Itleads toa ps atage ogee , such as globes and orreries, knowledge of man in his social relations: it exhibits the uses of whi extend ino farther than the views of the various operations of different systems of polity up- eeees Syeehe ity ; stains pen abeaey resembles the cn pean epi. ie In a ae eps aa experiments i condensing en- great a portion of civil liberty as ily falls to t ical te Thich exhibit the opera- or the inhabitants of the British empire, almost every i order of the community has its influence upon the mea~ sures of the legislative and the executive powers ; con- sequently a knowledge of history should be diffused to as wide an extent as possible among them. A familiar acquaintance with the history of their country was, in judgment: by stadying the best times of the Roman republic, held to be essen- tially requisite to qualify youth for stations of dignity, unfolds, the ion is eter in the administration of public af- ind i — i Pe a mere Ans pacer me uttered by comprehension enlarged: hence are acquired fa- Marius, w asserted, in his degenerate days, of di i , ibility and men of illustrious birth did not begin to read the his- steadiness so necessary to be found in the conduct of tory of their country till they were elevated to the all affairs, that depend on the concurrence or opposi- highest offices of the state, that is, as he said, “ they of other men. It isa great but a prevalent mis- first obtained the employment, and then bethouglit to imagine, that history is calculated to enlighten themselves of the qualifications necessary for the pro- on those subjects which are con- per discharge of it.” mowipsiman acl degrie slenisted ec alighen the. derived free the dy of hissory, & ts preveppoced thes is y in an to enli iv ly of hi , it is presu that j on individual utility and historical facts are made the subj an OD comfort. In this respect the ad of history are tion. He who is satisfied with merely storing his mind re ara art ey eenndeton a ity ag wae Ser a ef i i experience ; for im- may be of i in point of importance, the latter will be more vivid, and Spon will dor i nor illatrate the mont wet prin ci w ive little profit from a ex of time and labour. ead IL. The sciences which are of the most constant and f use in the stady of history, so as to have de- studies, is before us; whereas in real life, every RA ee Eg ee RR a are . Without the former, no of history can thing at atime ;—hence we are liable have any clear and distinct idea of what he reads. i Moreover, by a knowledge of this science, we are able, eehy to verify many past transactions, which, if they ever per x =f happened, must have left indelible traces on the face logy. ly 28. « source of amusement and interest, it of the earth. Many curious examples of this nature this point of view. The rade may be seen in Addison's Maundrels, and Shaw’s i i its in- Travels, With respect to chronology, it is absolutely habitants existed at the period of the Roman conquest, impossible to form clear and distinct notions of the in- contrasted with its situation, when it has at- tervals of time, of the rise and fall of empires, and of the tained an i rank in the scale of intellect successive establishment of states, without some such and power than ever reached, cannot fail to act general comprehension of the whole current of time, as as a stimulus to the curiosity, to learn the various may enable us to trace out distinctly the ce u sodia- of events, and distribute them into such periods and metrically opposite. Besides this source of divisions, as shall place the whole train of past trans- i i of Britain actions in a just and orderly manner before us. For a holds out, there are many particular periods in it which further illustration of the uses of Geooraruy and esheets aqeally colpaletet te qnsiee and ify these CunonoLocy as applicable to history, we refer our feelings. is is considering the history of Great Bri- readers to those two articles in this work, : our Another branch of study, which ought to be pursued Statistics. sty . ull ih IH fat Liat al Bit Le Al ti Hl TB sty iH eof veil? Psat fit une BES yl wel pitt fa F Egde &, bade fil tf : F - F History. Statistics. The science of govern- ment, The laws, &c. of each state, 60. along with the study of history, is what is called Sta- tistics ; or that branch which rehends an account of the sources of the wealth and power of different states, such as their population, habits of industry, agriculture, manufactures, trade, commerce, and finan- ces. Unless we possess information on this head, it is obvious that we shall be much perplexed, and fire- quently led astray, in our endeavours to account for the comparative influence and exertions of different nations. Thus, for example, a person ignorant of the advances which Britain has made in agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and what may be called the economics of the state, cannot possibly satisfactorily account for the high rank which she holds in the scale of European nations,—a rank to which, from the mere inspection of the map of Europe, she does not seem by any means to be entitled. Another collateral branch of study ought to be that of the governments of nations; not a minute investiga- tion of the various parts of their government, but such a knowl of their general and leading pee as would enable us to ascertain, how far, and in what re- s, the influence and advances of each state might justly be attributable to their ctive constitutions. n this point of view also, Great Britain may be cited as an instance peculiarly illustrative of the justice and truth of our observations. A person who had made himself acquainted with the progress of this country in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and who be- held in them the sources of her wealth and power, would still be desirous of learning the causes which had enabled her to make this progress so far beyond that of other nations ; and of these causes, on investi- gation, he would find her free constitution to be the most prominent and operative. The observations which we have now offered respecting the connection between the history and the statistics and government of a coun- try, will be most fully and satisfactorily confirmed and illustrated by reading the articles Brrrain, History of ; Ene ann, History and Statistics of ; and Scor.anp, preewt and Statistics of, in this work. It is only within these few years that the study of statistics has been much attended to; and we think we may, without the charge of vanity, or partiality, refer to this Encyclo- pedia, as connecting the history and statistics of the various civilized countries of the world, more intimate- ly and fully together than they had been previously one in any work of the same nature. Whatever illustrates the manners, customs, feelings, circumstances, and condition of the inhabitants of a country in the various periods of its history, ought also to be studied by him who wishes to derive from his- tory its highest eect and its full advantage. The popular ballads of a nation, in this respect, ought to be perused ; collections of the laws, ordinances, and internal lations enacted in a state, during any par- ticular period of its history, are well calculated for the same object ; they give information ing the con- dition of the great mass of the community, whether they were free or slaves ; and also ing the pre- valent crimes and vices of the age, and what measure ¢ punishment was necessary to expiate or repress em. All ame 1 — ra of study, which are conn wi proper and advantageous sal of history in general; but those who wish en taiter more minutely into the history of any country, and to gain access to as many sources of evidence respecting it as possible, may derive great advantage and assist HISTORY. ance from the records of the courts of law. These History. — furnish a vast variety of historical facts, most minutely =“ investigated. To refer again to the particular instance of our own country: It may with truth be affirmed, p that no one can form an adequate and correct idea of the gradual amendment effected in our institutions, and of the value of those constitutional principles and efforts, from which those amendments have been de- | rived, who has not read with attention the state trials. State trials. — Treaties with foreign powers should also be perused ; and the despatches of ambassadors, especially the con- fidential communications made by diplomatic In the official letters of Barillon, publi by Sir John Dalrymple and Mr Fox, the impolicy of Charles II. and of his unfortunate successor, is clearly traced ; and in the papers of Sir Robert Walpole, as published by Mr Cox, a striking picture is exhibited of the diffi- culties incident to the administration of a free governe official dise ment. How much history may be illustrated by the patches publication of such official papers, or rather how inex- plicable the facts it records may often be, if not illus- trated by such papers, is proved in a most striking and interesting manner in the following instance. In the years 1775 and 1776, General Washington lay en- camped before the town of Boston, at the head of a force far superior to that of the British, for the period , of nine months, without striking a blow. The Gene« ral’s official correspondence with Con , published in the year 1795, accounts for this dilatoriness, which, till this publication, was inexplicable. From it, it ap- pears, that, during a + et part of this time, he was so scantily provided with powder, that, had the British been aware of his situation, and marched to attack him, he would have been under the necessity of abandoning his position. Biography also may be brought to the elucidation and Biography. assistance of history. In the lives of sovereigns, eminent statesmen, generals, and lawyers, peculiarities of cha~ racter, prejudices, motives, and reasons for conduct, which history cannot detect, and other circumstances, are often brought to light, which serve to elucidate what is obscure, to connect what is disjointed and abrupt, and to account for what before seemed without an adequate and appropriate cause. : The history of many nations may also be elucidated Monu- by visible monuments, such as pillars, edifices, or mere ments, &ce heaps of stone ; and by the names given to counties, towns, &c. Of the same nature with public monu- . ments are national customs, in commemoration of re- orp roe events He a lal Gerais sending annually a ship to ; aig ts Jews ; the Lord's — the Chris. tians ; our page onto on 5th of November, and carrying oak on the 29th of May. Cains end nseckda'are also of great use, in the illus- Medals. tration of history. On ancient medals, a number of events have been recorded, so that serve to confirm such passages as are true in old au to ascertain what was before doubtful, and to record such as were omitted. By means of them, Vaillant has been enabled to ascertain, in a very the of three important ki s of the ancient world, viz. Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Of Balbec and Palmy1 whose ruins are so famous, history ely makes any mention, and we have little knowledge of them, but what is supplied by medals and In the p ishing families. They must, urpose of . therefore, be of great use in tracing pedigrees, and con- >. : a ti] i. abedysgeggsyeta i 33 zi TE ET su Pe He F: iy ggeen’ i Br sgt g i:t rat bette ie : Hit Bil its 2% qtei alt rirtash ey Bu sith 3 nel ih tel Badal Fett i es Hi . gs weit; a &% bein iE baits ni 33 rea a Lea il un u in oUt daa heat Me He si shih li Bin Mil Bedi Hatt a Ht i} an tH fseaeitit Rat ih nt hit PTE aT pai iH “yy it te ile fue AL i i ilies at HH LE anlitt HT weil! veal esi dE | il eH of jn Bis Ue Le it fl Hell aa i aly ti eH te LG iin it Hl ; i> bn ane ial in fe i bil — i | hy | i | i i ee it rs History. ‘ Thucydides, Xenophon, 62 intermixture of fable. A more particular account of several events in the period of Herodotus’ History may. be extracted from the following authors: Justin, books i. ii. iii, and vii.; the 7th book of Xenophon’s Cyrope- dia; the lives of Aristides, Themistocles, Cimon, Mil- tiades, and Pausanius, hy Plutarch and Cornelius Ne- pos; and those of Anaximander, Zeno, Euripides, He- raclitus, and Democritus, by Diogenes Laertius, will illustrate not only the history of Herodotus,. but also the state of manners and philosophy at that period. Thucydides must be read after Herodotus. In his in- troduction he connects his history with that of Herodo- tus, by giving a summary view of the history of Greece, from the departure of Xerxes to the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. He proposed to write the en- tire history of that war, but his work reaches only to the 2st year of it. The method he pursues is direct- ly the reverse of that followed by Herodotus ; for his exact and scrupulous observance of chronological or- der, obliges him to interrupt his narrative, in a manner that is very painful and disagreeable to his reader. His style is uncommonly compact and dense; so that his meaning is frequently not brought out with sufficient fulness and perspicuity. His reflections are acute and rofound, but more interesting to the politician than the philosopher. After the first book of this author, the 11th and 12th of Diodorus Siculus ought to be read ; and, after the whole of his work, the 4th and 5th books of Justin, and the lives.of Alcibiades, Chabrias, Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plutarch. The Ist and 2d books of Xenophon’s History of Greece, complete the account of the Peloponnesian war, with the contemporary affairs of the Medes and Persians. After this the expedition of Cyrus, by the same author, should be read ; and, lastly, the remainder of his History of Greece, which contains an account of the affairs of the Greeks and Persians till the battle of Mantinea, in the year 363 before Christ. All the historical books of Xe- nophon comprise a period of about 48 years. The style of Xenophon is remarkable for its elegance ; his impar- tiality is undoubted; and his manner and plan form a happy medium between the loose and slightly cennect- ed excursions of Herodotus, and the extreme rigour of Thucydides. His account of the retreat of the Ten Thousand, in which he bore a principal part, is perhaps as interesting a portion of history as ancient or modern times can present, and is told in the most interesting manner. To complete the history of all that period of which Xenophon treats, the lives of Lysander, Agesi-. laus, Artaxerxes, Conon, and Datames, by Plutarch or Cornelius Nepos, and the 13th, 14th, and 15th books of Diodorus Siculus, ought to be read. . The continua- tion of the work of Diodorus Siculus brings the histo- ry of Greece and Persia down to the commencement of the reign of Alexander the Great, in the year 336 be- fore Christ. The history of Alexander has been written by Arrian, Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. After these authors, may be read the 18th, 19th, and 20th books of Diodorus Siculus, together with the 13th, 14th, and 15th books of Justin ;—these contain the history of Greece from the 323 before Christ to the year 301. At this period, the course of historical narrative may be traced from the 16th to the 30th books of Justin, and all that follow till the two last, which complete the of Greece till it mingles with that of Rome. The object of Diodorus Siculus was, by reading and travelling, to collect materials for an universal history, froma the earliest account of things to the time of Au- gustus when he flourished. But only a small portion HISTORY. of it has come down to us, Of 40 books, of which the History. entire work consisted, the first five, which bring the history of the world to the Trojan war, are entire; the next five are wanting; but from the 11th to the 20th inclusive the work is complete. The work of Justin is an abridgment of an universal history, written by Tropes Pompeius, who lived in the age of Augustus. It is written in a style of considerable perspicuity and force, and a due proportion and connection is observed among, its several parts. Plutarch’s lives of Pyrrhus, Aratus, Agis, Cleomenes, and Philopzmon, should be read to complete this portion of history. As these authors contain not only the history of Greece, but that of all the nations of the world that were known to the historians ; so the following course of Roman history must also be regarded as compre- hending all that is now to be learned of the subsequent ancient history of all other nations. The early part of the Roman history is treated in Dionysius the most full and satisfactory manner by Dionysius of hs Halicarnassus. His entire work consisted of 20 books, and brought down the history to the commencement of the first Punic war ; but of Shaan: only the 11, first. are now extant, and they terminate in the year 341 before Christ, after the dissolution of the decemvirate, and the resumption of the chief authority by the consuls, This author pays much more particular attention tomanners, customs, and laws, than the ancient historians usually did ; and, on this account, is peculiarly interesting and instructive. He is, however, very credulous; and. his, style, though pure, is harsh. To complete the :histo) of the period of which Dionysius treats, the Ist, 2d, and 3d books of Livy, and the lives of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Valerius Poplicola, Coriolanus, and Camil- lus, by Plutarch, should be read. After Dionysius, by reading from the 4th to the 10th Livy. books inclusive of Livy, the history of Rome will be~ brought down to the year 292 before Christ. The en«. tire work of Livy consisted of 142 books; but it has come down to us in a very mutilated and imperfect state, only 35 being left. This author is entitled to the highest praise for fidelity, impartiality, and the rich and eloquent grandeur of his style. A chasm occurs between the 10th and 20th books of Livy, which may be, however, in some measure, filled up, by the perusal of the Ist and 2d books of Polybius; the 17th, 18th, Polybius 22d, and 23d books of Justin ; and Appian’s Punic and Illyrian wars. From Polybius we may learn many, curious and important particulars respecting the art of, war among the ancients. His topographical descrip- tions of the places which have been the site of the re< markable events he records are uncommonly accurate. His style is harsh and involved; his reflections bear evidence of a strong and reflecting mind, After A pian should be read the remainder of Livy from the 21st. book to the end, which brings the history of Rome to the year 166 before Christ. The lives of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, Quintus Flaminius, Paulus Amilius, Cato major, the Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, Cato minor, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Brutus, by Plutarch,. will not only serve to complete the history of Livy, but. will also afford some striking particulars respecting the. manners and state of society of Rome during the most interesting period of its history. The war of Jugurtha, and the conspiracy. of Cata- sallust, line, which happened respectively 100, and 62. years. before Christ, have been narrated by Sallust. The great merit of this writer is his. i iality at a time. when prejudice and party spirit must have been very, 5 HISTORY. very rful in Rome. His style is re- —\—"_ markable for its conciseness ; and this quality is parti- Cesar. . i i ena itl calarly i in the characters which he draws. Most of the transactions in which Julius Caesar was are best illustrated by his celebrated Commen- and the supplement to it compiled by Hirtius and others. In the Commentaries Bese? gain some ery authentic and interesting in tion respecting aie aly state, manners, 30K and customs of those ions which now hold the most distinguished place in modern Europe. The merit of this work of Czsar’s is very high in ry phone to matter and style ; the advantage which i derived, in respect to a of information, from i ccuracy narrating his own exploits, 1s not, in a single instance, counterbalanced by soon jality, or the concealment of his faults: his style remarkable for its simplicity eae -<- se- history of this important period wi most understood from # perusal of Cicero's Epistles, also be consulted for information respect- society, manners, customs, &c. The history of Dio Cassius contain a detail which took place between the peri us flourished and the death of the Empe- In combination with this author may ium of Velleius Patercu- foundation of Rome to the reign of Tibe- od he lived. the way for the study of the works of with the Epistles of Pliny, will insight into the state society, = zigeie periisee FRE fis i i 4 ai 1 ; e [ : i at this period ie affairs prethit phPest; le fi F fe 2. F sit 2.8 2 { fi i it z E : i i iri 2¢ i t a tli Uli i ) si if at ae i et j i i i ih iu if ii 63 mianus Marcellinus wrote 31 books from the begin- ning of the reign of Nerva to the death of Valens, in whose court he lived ; but of those, the first thirteen, a superficial epitome of 257 years are now lost. In those which are extant, he oom with Gallus Cexsar, about the year of Christ 353, and largely describes the ac- tions of Constantius, Cesar, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian, and Valens—a period of 25 years, bringing down the history of Rome to the year of Christ 378. ‘He was the last subject of Rome who com a profane history in the Latin language. He we! and the praise which Gibbon gives him: <“ It is not without saepertin sincere regret (says that author) that I must now take leave of an accurate and faithful guide, who has composed the history of his own times with- out indulging the prejudices and the passions which usually affect the mind ofa contemporary.”” (Gibbon’s Roman Empire, Vol. IV. chap. xxvi. p. 426, 8vo. edi- History Ammianus Marcelli- deserves the character ™*- thon. A most im t series of events, connecting ancient Gibbon's and modern hi , is supplied by Gibbon’s History of ¥ork con- the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. This wor' nects an- cient and commences with a view of the policy which swayed joodern his. the Roman cabinet in the time of Augustus. passing on to the age of the Antonines, A. D. 180, it exhibits the extent and military force, the union and internal rity, and the constitution of the empire 'Y tory. at that peri It then begins to assume the form of . a history in detail, which is brought down to the total extinction of the Roman Empire in the west ; is after- wards continued to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, A. D. 1453; and concludes at the esta- blishment of the Papal son in the city of Rome, and the adjacent territory. The minute and extensive learn- ing displayed in this im t work not only supports the au icity of the facts which it records, but also enables the au to discuss many correlative or inci- dental subjects, which elucidate either the manners, customs, laws, and state of society at the different pe- riods of which he bone eee that even at t characterize istinguish inci mations of Europe. His style is by no seit chalets the unremitting pomp of his periods fatigues his read- ers; and he deserves unqualified and severe censure - for the disingenuous manner in which he has insinua- ted his animadversions on the Christian religion, But, after all these deductions from the merit and value of this work, it is highly useful; and indeed the onl work for the reader who wishes to obtain a clear, full, and interesting view of hi , and the state of society between the period of the ion of the Roman em- Se and the infancy of the principal European states. hose epi ’ nected wit ve tioned. confined to modern history. A good general was a work | wanting to the republic of letters. We have cmnitted to notice the Ancient Universal His- tory in the former part of this article, because it is much too voluminous to serve as an introduction to a general knowledge of ancient bistory. The same re- mark applies to-the Modern Universal Hi them are mach more useful as books of , or for consultation, after a tolerably accurate and exten- sive knowledge of history has been acquired, than as intreductory works; besides, the various portions of both are executed with very unequal of merit. Voltaire’s Essai sur les Meurs et 0 is rather a commentary on facts, an acquaintance with of modern ve which are con- Rpitomes of ancient history, have already been men- modern his- We shall now notice such epitomes as are Esprit des Nations, yycire, History. which is presup —Yo~" selves. Russel. General views ef the ing 64 HISTORY. , than a detail of the facts them- he Histoire Moderne of the Abbe Millot is a judicious abridgment. It deserves the character of accuracy and impartiality ; but, besides being liable to the objections that have been offered to the ancient history of the same author, it is too much compressed for the extent and importance of the topics which it embraces. Russel’s History of Modern Europe is a work of a much higher character, and much more va- luable and useful to the student in every respect. Its merits appear to us not sufficiently known and prized. Probably by those who have never read it, it is suppo- sed that no great talents could be required or exercised in drawing up a mere abridgment of history. But the contrary is the fact: to judge from this work of Russel’s, he must have been a man of considerable pe- netration, sound judgment, a philosophical spirit, and correct taste. His work is divided into two parts ; the first embracing the period from the rise of modern kingdoms to the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and the second comprehending the events of history from the peace of Westphalia to the peace of Paris in 1763. A third part, bringing the history down from the peace of Paris to the treaty of Amiens in 1802, has been add- ed by Dr Coote, who, though he has strictly adhered to the plan, has by no means attained to the merits of the original work. The subdivision of the plan is ef- fected with considerable skill and ingenuity in a series of letters, in which the principal transactions of the leading European states are concatenated with as rigid adherence to chronological order, as was consistent with the mixed and fluctuating interests of those states. By passing over events which derived their import- ance and interest merely from the period in which they occurred, or the personages who were concerned in them, he has been enabled to give more room for those of amore permanent nature. As a repository of facts, therefore, judiciously selected, methodically arranged, and authenticated with sufficient learning and diligence, this modern history of Europe may justly be regarded asa work of very great utility ; but it deserves higher praise. The causes and consequences of the most im- portant events are traced with great ingenuity and pe- netration, at the same time that fanciful speculations regarding them are carefully avoided. The observa- tions on the characters of the principal personages are distinguished by the vivid and faithful pictures which they exhibit. The progress of society from the rise of modern kingdoms down to the peace of Paris in 1763, exhibiting the manners. of the people in their rudest state, and in their highest polish, is given at stated pe- riods with much ability and research. The advances made in taste and science, and the usurpations of the ecclesiastical at the expence of the civil power, are clearly developed ; and, being connected with the pro- gress of war, politics, and legislation, exhibit, in a clear and conspicuous manner, the intellectual and moral improvement of European saciety. The style of this work is pure, elegant, and concise ; and the reflections that are interspersed, always illustrate and confirm the sacred principles of public and private justice. This work will serve to exhibit the great and lead. outlines of the events of modern history; and history of from Gibbon’s Decline and Fall may be traced the ori- Europe, gin of those barbarous tribes, whose chiefs, at different periods, making themselves masters of the various sub« divisions of the Roman empire, laid the foundations of the modern kingdoms of Europe. The student having thus gained a general knowledge of modern history, as well as a more particular meee into the origin of the History. European states, ought, in the next place, to peruse “"y"" those works which exhibit a general view of the histo- ry of modern Europe at various periods. Much valuable information relative to one of the Gaillard. most important of the early periods of modern history is to be derived from the Histoire de Charlemagne, pub- lished by M. Gaillard in the year 1782, in four vols. History of 12mo. The general state of Europe in the 11th centu- ene ry is described by Mr Berrington in the second edition “"* of the Lives of Abelardand Eloise. In the Abbe Sade’s History of Memoires Sur la Vie du Francois Petrarque, the author, °¢***! by regularly indulging in details of circumstances with which Petrarch has little or no connection, has contri« ved to interweave into these memoirs a minute and ela< borate account of the events which took place in Italy, France, and other parts of Europe, during the greater part ofthe 14th century. The history of this period may still be further illustrated by the Chronicles of Frois- Froissart. sart, which, besides a minute detail of the transactions which occurred from 1326 to 1400, give a most iute~ resting and amusing insight into the manners, customs, habits, and feelings of that period. A succinct narra- shepherd’s tive of general history is also to be found in Shepherd’s Life of Life of Poggio, which, relating to the origin of the fa- Poggio, mous ecclesiastical feud, the schism of the West, al- most touches the period of Petrarch, and traces the principal occurrences which took place in Italy and Europe in general, beyond the middle of the 15th cen- tury. The Life of Lorenzo de Medici, by Mr Roscoe, Roscoc’s may be next perused: as Lorenzo’s political connec. Life of tions were very extensive, his history embraces the principal occurrences which happened in the more ci- vilised portions of Europe, during his life from 1448 to 1492. The succeeding period-of general history is il- lustrated by the same author in his Life of Leo X. In and of this work, Mr Roscoe enters fully into the state of Ita- Leo X- ly and Europe, which had so much influence on the fortune of that people, and which was also in no small degree modified by his actions. In both these works, Mr Roscoe has given a copious history of the progress of literature and the fine arts. The History of Charles V. next becomes the most Robertson’s prominent in the general history of Europe; and, with Charles V. this view of it, it has been most ably written by Dr Ro. bertson. The first volume of his work contains a view of the progress of society in Europe, from the subversion of the Roman Empire to the beginning of the 16th cen- tury, embracing the several ete of government, laws, manners, military establishments, and the political con- stitution of the principal states of Europe. The Histo- ry itself comprehends the eventful period between the years 1500 and 1559, during which events. took which materially affected the state of society, and the ad- vancement of literature, knowledge, and in Eu- rope. The Histories of Philip II. and HI., by Drs Philip 11. Watson and Thompson, may also be read with refer- and UI. ence toa general acquaintance with the history of Eu- rope during the period of their reigns, and to a know~ 1 of several events, which tended materially to change the relative situation and i of the various states of E . Indeed, the political allian- ces and wars of these ty pes sory disp slay a of so many kingdoms, eir history di s the gene ral rose Ae of the history of Europe till the year 1621, the period of the death of Philip IIT.. as. Soon afterwards the French m began to as-~ sume such a rank, and to connect itself with so many states, that its history ought to be perused, as throw- 4 Os HISTORY. I z i : e | bale HUG Pine Sees 3 leis our manners and our language, are, in a great measure, derived our northern ancestors, the articles Genmany and Scanpinavia ought to be read im connection with the earl of the of Bri- tain. From the arrival of the Saxons till the crowns of Enciaxp and Scoraxp in the year 1603, the histories of these two countries are treated distinct- r : 8 8 H : Bris Fees re E | 5 ut in it ru 65 him to do, Rapin will afford him a very elaborate, and — History. in ee me Pam of England tillthe closes ““yY—" of the 17th century ; while, in Hume's History, he will Hume. find infinitely ilosophy, but farless impartiality and accuracy. The hi of England, from the period of the Revolution, cannot boast any writer of standard excellence. In Henry's History of England, and ‘An- Henry. drews’ - Lean on connected with the andrews. chronology urope, iterature, arts and manners, i and government of the several periods, which these works a comprise, are elucidated. The very early hi of Scotland has been most elaborately elucidated by Pinkerton; the same author, Pinkerton. and Lord Hales, have ecknamene in a masterly and sa- pales, tisfactory manner, the hi of this country duri a less remote . After the coabetd ent Or'vanie erton, should be read Robertson's History of Scotland, Robertson. during the reigns of Queen Mary, and James VI. till his accession to the crown of England ; and Laing’s Laing. History of Scotland from the union of the crowns to the union of the kingdoms. Leland’s History of Ire- Leland. land traces, in a masterly manner, the transactions which took place in that country, from the invasion of Henry II. to the treaty of Limerick in the reign of William III. Those portions of the history of this ill- fated and ill-used country since that period, which are particularly full of incidents, cannot yet be treated in an impartial manner. In the History of Wales, by the Warring. Rev. W. Warrington, all the facts are collected which tun. can throw light upon the government, manners, and final subjugation of a people, still strongly marked by a peculiar character, manners, and customs. History of France. my ] ion of the his- i ear’ ion e tae chet aaious from German tribes, nearly as much as the early history of Britain ; the article Gensawy, therefore, may be pro- After the affairs of intimately interwoven con. nected history of Austria the history of Italy. ‘During the 17th and the early of the 18th centuries, the history of France re- quires « reference to the histories of the Netherlands and of Spain. From the commencement of the war be- Britain and France in 174+ to the present time, the histories of the two countries are mutually illustra- tive of each wot Byak sia ™ The history of Spain, perhaps, on account of its to the histories of Britain and France, and on History of Italy. Spain and Portugal. and the early history. of the peninsula.’ After the ex- pulsion of the’ Moen the histories of France, Spain, and Italy, from the end of the 15th to the beginning of | 66 History. the 16th centuries, are intimately connected. As the “Ym discovery of the new world happened at that period, the articles America, Mexico, and Pexu, ought to be consulted for an account of the transactions of the Spa- niards there. Soon afterwards the history of this coun- try becomes connected with that of the Netherlands. After the separation of the United Provinces from Spain, its history may be chiefly elucidated by the histories of Portugal, Italy, France, and Britain. The history of Por- tugal admits of little elucidation from the history of any other country except Spain; the articles Arrica and Asia, however, may be consulted for a brief ac- count of their discoveries and settlements in these quar- ters of the globe. As an introduction to the history of the German kingdoms and’states, the article Germany ought to be perused ; this will prepare the way for the history of Austria, illustrated in its progress by the histories of Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, Russia, Turkey, Sweden, and the Netherlands: the history of Prussia, illustrated by the history of Brandenburgh, Russia, Austria and France; the history of Bavaria, Saxony, &c. The account of the Reformation, given in the ar- ticle Ecctesiasticat History, ought to be consulted, with reference not only to the history of Germany, but also to those of Britain, France, and the Nether- lands, during the 16th and part of the 17th centuries. The history of Russia will receive elucidation from the histories of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Poland, Turkey, and Persia. The article Scanprnavia ought to be con- sulted for a general view of the manners, customs, German kingdoms, Russia. Denmark, Kev Norway. These countries, besides mutually illustrating the history of one another, will receive elucidation prin- cipally from the history of Russiaand Germany. Under the article Netuertanps, will be found the history of that country, not only while it remained undivided, but also of the United Provinces, and of the new king- dom, which has reunited the whole seventeen provin- ces. That portion of the history of this country, which properly relates to the United Provinces, will receive elucidation. from the history, of Spain, France, and England, during nearly the whole of the period, from the establishment of their independence till they were merged in the kingdom of the Netherlands. The com- ‘atively pacific history of SwiTzERLAND admits of il- ustration, in no important degree, except from the history of Austria, during the very early period of the establishment of its independence, till, like nearly all the other states of continental Europe, its history be- comes involved in the revolutionary history of France. The general account of ITary ought to be consulted previous to the histories of Naples, Sicily, Venice, Tus- cany, the Popedom, &c. ; and these will be elucidated by the histories of France, Spain, Austria, and Turkey. The history of the Popedom indeed, both in its eccle- siastical and civil character, is so intimately connected with the history of all the European kingdoms, (except Russia and Poland, ) till the Reformation, that it ought to be studied carefully; for this purpose the article Eccuesiasticat History may be consulted. The his- tory of Poland will be elucidated principally by that of Turkey, Austria, and Russia. Respecting the histories of the kingdoms of Asia, Africa, and America, our notices must be very short. Of course before sa history of any particular country in any of these divisions of the globe is studied, the de- ae yg that particular division, under its proper head in this work, ought to be consulted. Turkey, Nether- Jonds. Switzer- land, Italy, laws, &c, and early history of Denmark, Sweden, and * HISTORY. from its connection with the histories of Austria, Po- History. land, and Russia, claims perhaps the first notice. The ““y-"” history of Arabia, illustrated by the life: of Mahomet, Arabia. is an interesting object of study, not only on account of the conquests and literature of the Arabs, but also from the connection of their history with that of the Penin- sula. Though the. history of Cana has little or no China connection with the history of any European state, yet the peculisrities of its inhabitants must render its his- tory interesting: Under that article will be found not only an accurate and well-proportioned abridgment of the history, but also a very faithful and detailed: de- scription of the manners, language, institutions, &c. of that singular country. Since the middle of the last century, the history of Inp1a has become se intimately India connected with the histories of France and Britain, and that country at present forms so large and valuable a portion of the British empire, that its modern history ought to excite considerable interest, even though its ancient history, and the character of its inhabitants, and their laws, institutions, &c. did not put forth strong claims to our attention. For an account of the histories of the other kingdoms of Asia, we must barely refer our readers -to the articles of Persia, Birman Empire, Japan, Tuiset, Tarrary, Mavacca, Ceyton, S1am, &c. The history of the principal states of Africa will be found under the articles Ecypr, AByssInia, Care or Goon Horr, Anciers, Moxoceo, Tripo.s, Tunis, &c, The history of the united states of Ame- rica, as already mentioned, should be sought for under the articles AMerica and Brirain; of the British co- lonies there, under the articles Canapa, Nova Scoria, &c. and also under Brirain ; of the Spanish colonies, under the articles Burnos Ayres, Cui, Mexico, Perv, &c. and also under Spain; of the Portuguese settlements under the head of Brazix, and also under PortucaL. V. We shall now conclude this article with a. brief Other spe- notice of the different species of history, besides: that cies of his- which is emphatically so styled. History, strictly speaking, relates to the narration of the wars and poli~ tical events of kingdoms; but besides this species of history, that which relates to the support which Chris-. Ecclesiasti- tianity has received from the secular power ; together: ° history. with the benefits or disadvantages resulting from this support; and also to. the internal administration of the church, its constitution and discipline, its doctrine and its worship ; or, in other words, the history of Chris- tianity, of its corruptions and reformation, and. of the influence which its principles, or the conduct of its professors, have had on the political condition and af- fairs of mankind, may justly be regarded, as very inti- mately connected with the species of history, which we have been so fully considering. Ecclesiastical history, Its connce- therefore, ought to be studied, not merely in its reli- tion with gious, but also in its political point of view. Whoever: Political his- reflects on the power of the Pope for several:centuries, *'Y* —on the friendly relations or wars between the diffe-. rent states of Europe, which they brought about,—on the wars arising from the Reformation, and on the great and decided change in the political character and power of the mass of the people which that event uced, : must be convinced that ecclesiastical history cannot safely be neglected even by the mere statesman, This article, therefore, ought to be carefully perused, both by itself, and in connection with the history of the dif- ferent states of Europe. The histories of the different arts and sciences are quite of a distinct class from political and ecclesiastical as America, a ee ; ed in their respective histories, and for the great i of the latter, must look beyond political history, to the history of those arts and which were ively unknown to the Eitmer reall and nearly in every instance, accompanied er eae resources, political er copious histories of the arts and Slasinac hhideoe, given in this work, under the respective heads of each art or science, ought by no means to be neglected by such as wish to read eal scsoune ef cash cous I See Bre, vol eB aes na as a li character, but chi oe hes itical « |, was unletteres of Malmesbury, Wilt- was born on the Sth of April 1588, at the when this mea was menaced by the formi- ilip 11. of Spain. “His mother, Ny affected by the consternation then so gene- the kingdom, was delivered before the full f “I H FE : ; i 2 i : ; eae Hi 3 ry Hi EE Fre i | B 6 @yG i with whom he remained for some time in France. In Hobbes. 1631, the Countess Dowager of Devonshire renewed ““\—™ his connection with her family, by patting the young then 19 years old, under his care. He went with his il to Paris, where he studied mechanics and ws of animal motion. On these subjects he had uent conversations with Father Mersenne and with i, tempt to revive the physical Tt was was then 1 in an ate doctrines of the Epicu- at the age of 40 that his attention was first turned to mathematical studies, in conse- ence of having accidentally looked into a copy of Buclid, where the enunciation of the 47th ition writen ae book arrested 2 phe ow * This,” he ex- imed, “is impossible !” et rapidly went over the demonstration, and traced in a direction the preceding theorems on which the steps of the process were . The lovers of the mathematical sciences much that he began these studies so late in life ; as he evinced a happy talent for them, yet la- boured under the disadvantage of an obstinacy of opi- nion which might have been corrected by the more va- ried views unfolded during the pliant period of youth. The ardour of his mathematical studies was in a t measure , in mence of the pro- found interest which he took in political affairs, in which he did not intermeddle as a busy politician, in- triguing with individuals for the establishment of one = on the ruins of another, but conceived the design ' eral impression by an open exposi- ae Spinlous; which, though new and peculiar, he to render lar, the force of t which he could display, and the strong evidences which were supported. When the political dif- ferences of the age were so strongly marked, it was a fair general conclusion that both ies were as likely to be wrong as one was to be exclusively right, and that a man of vigorous thinking powers, who de- voted much laborious meditation to his su might form a mote accurate system than any maintained by his cotemporaries. Nor was it unnatural for a author to me too much on the readiness of man- kind to lay themselves to conviction. These ideas he had cherished for a considerable time, and some re- present him as having cultivated mathematics chiefly with a view to habituate himself to a close and steady mode of thinking. His first political essay was a small tract, which was, not printed, but circulated in manuscript in the year 1640, ing the sitting of the parliament in April, which was dissolved the following May, when the par- liament and Charles [. differed so widely on the sub- ject of the ive. This tract strongly as- serted the sions of royalty, and condemned those of the ment and the people as unjust encroach ments. It occasioned a considerable sensation, and would have involved Hobbes in imminent danger, if that iament had not been dissolved. This was the of the noted political works which he sub- sequent! blished, his book De Cive, and his Levia- than. ainwaring, bi of St David's, was sent to the Tower for she Manner dando anenenn aR his studies in the eyment Here he however, Hobbes controverted the doctrines “tanahea uit ale Racal? Uinameaere ideas, which ter- intercourse. Hobbes, 68 In 1642, he published, while at Paris, a) few copies of his book De Cive. He became acquainted with Sir Charles Cavendish, brother to the Duke of Neweastle, who admired his mathematical talents, and attached him- self warmly to him as a friend,and ‘on. In 1647, his fame in mathematics procured for him+a recommenda- tion to instruct the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles IL., in this branch. of, science. His fidelity. and care in the execution of his trust secured to him, the esteem, of that. prince, which continued ever.after, though on some occasions prevented from, being. manifested by the obnoxiousness of his principles. In. this year, a more complete edition of his work, De Cive was pub- lished in Holland. under. the; care.of,Dr Sorbiere, to which two recommendatory letters were prefixed, one by Father Mersenne, and another by Gassendi. In 1650, his book De Homine was published in Lon- don, containing a developement. of his doctrines of sensation, particularly as illustrated, by the mechanism of vision, with.a dissertation on human speech, intel- lect, appetite, passion, action, and character: also ano- ther work, entitled, De Corpore Politico, or “ Elements of Law.” In this and the year 1651, he published in London his Leviathan, a work in which his opinions on moral and political subjects were more complete- ly embodied. After the publication of this.work, he returned to England, though Cromwell was now at the head of the government, and lived, at the Earl of Devonshire’s country seat in Derbyshire. It is remark- ed that he lived in. communion. with. a congrega- tion belonging to the church of England, and regularly resorted to their place of worship. His assertion of the royal prerogative was not now construed to his disad- vantage, as he had prudently intimated that his doc- trine was applicable to any individual possessed of su- preme power. In 1654, he published his letter on “ Liberty and Necessity,” which occasioned a long controversy with Dr Bramhall, afterwards lord primate of Ireland. He advocated the doctrine of necessity. He sometimes says he could not help being astonished that those who argue that men can act without constraint, forget that the determination of their actions depends on their will, and that it is not to the actions as separated from the will, but to the laws of the will itself that our in- quiries must be directed. He must be allowed to have added some precision to the nature of the arguments embraced in this controversy. He now began a dis« pute on his part not creditable, with Dr Wallis of Ox- ford, which involved the greater part of mathema- tical science. Not content with attacking the doc- trines of his adversary, he exposes with grovelling minuteness the inaccuracies of his language; and, though afterwards repeatedly refuted to the satisfac. tion of all the mathematicians of the age, he perse- vered with unaccountable obstinacy in asserting his first opinions. At the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, Hobbes re« moved to London, where he. now reckoned. himself safe. In the country, he was possessed of eyery ad- vantage that books could suy ply, by the ample library of his patron, which was always enriched with every additional work that he chose to recommend; but: he: wished to enjoy the advantages of the conversation of the learned, which he found necessary to his habits-of enjoyment, and to the full activity of his talents, Soon after he came to. London, the king observed him.from his carriage, and renewed his acquaintance with him: He fondly cherished his conversation, and settled on HOBBES. hi nual pension of £100. But the, fas Hobbes, m an an pe personal vour of Charles was not sufficient to screen. Hobbes from, the censure of the parliament, which, in 1666, was publicly pronounced against his book De Cive and the Leviathan. power, was a tool of the high church party, to which that controul on the part of the sovereign oyer ecclesi-| This prince, though fond of absolute, » astical affairs which Hobbes .recommended was ex= . tremely obnoxious. They professed the strictest attach- ment to hereditary monarchy, but certainly exacted it as a'condition, that the king should maintain their hier-. archy and forms as the-established religion of the state ;, and, if we may judge from subsequent events, would have entertained but. feeble objections to any prince capable of being seated firmly on the throne, who would shew himself most cheerful in assenting to this indis-, pensible condition... Hobbes iin a that the na-, tural ferocity of man renders it nece to vest the absolute power in,one person, to whom the church and. the consciences of the people ought to be subjected. Thus, he made the radical truth of any religious system, a matter of little importance. To admit this, would be to acknowledge the church to be wholly a plastic mu- table engine of government, and to compromise the dignity which she always.asserts of having her princi- ples founded in immutable truth, A bill was also, brought into Parliament to punish atheism.and profane- ness, which he considered as aimed at him ; for, though neither atheism nor the, denial of Christianity were tenets, maintained. by him, he knew himself to, be ac« cused of them by the general voice, and therefore wes) somewhat uneasy. On. this occasion, apprehendi that his house would be searched, and bis papers seized, he burned some of them, and particularly one which was the most obnoxious of all; a Latin poem on the en- croachments of the Romish and. reformed clergy on the civil power. The king was now obliged to with-- draw from him all public expressions of his personal regard. He continued, however, to live in London, unmolested ; was held in high esteem among the learn- ed; and was honoured by the visits of ambassadors and other illustrious foreigners, among whom was Cosmo. de Medicis, then prince, and afterwards Duke of Tus- cany, who. procured his picture for his cabinet, and a collection of his writings for his magnificent library at Florence. _ Hobbes, had it in contemplation to publish an elegant edition of his Latin works; but finding it. impracticable in London, he had an inferior one exe- cuted at Amsterdam in 1668. In 1675, he published his English translation of the Iliad and Odyssey. About this time, he took a final leave of London to pass the remainder of-his days at the Earl of Devon- shire’s seat in Derbyshire, where he continued to prose- cute his studies, In 1676, his dispute with Dr Laney, Bishop of Ely, on liberty and, necessity, made its ap- pearance ; and, in 1678, his Deeameron Physiologicum, or ten dialogues on natural philosophy ; also; his Art of Rhetoric, and his History: of the Civil Wars, from 1640 to: 1660, which he entitled Behemoth, of the pub- lication of which, however, his friend Charles the II. who saw it in manuscript, did not approve. His mental powers continued vigorous till his last, illness, and his great delight consisted in exercising: them. In his 85th year, he wrote an account of his own life in Latin verse, which evinced. considerable, activity of mind, though the execution of his task af- forded no bright display of literary taste. In the fol< lowing quaint conceit, for example, he depicts the cir cumstances of his birth : I ee ee eee eee Ore ~~ in cheer ce vi ; a partisans to igmat Sines rede; cesimetions. and extractable, seupersey cxsteiny. petesive conte tretes in 5 likewise find in them occasional ill t i i 7 He i H j i : a i FF &, EF NF if s : Es ty tt rl Fi rf : THit HOBBES. 69 a full exposure of it, read. mgr ey ind Oaferdvet be; cama tune ith the Wood. Hobbes was remarkable for vigour of nerve, and iness of intellect. He used to say, that in his igh value which he put on this natural quality, had some influence in rendering him impatient of i and gave origin to the harsh features which some of his works bear. According to the account given of him by Dr White Kennet, he wes considered in the house of the Earl of Devonshire as a humourist, or unaccountable being ; a character very readily acquired by a man who. dedi- she owen: bey interviews, being subservient considerations, were dic- from an unaccommoda' temper, cymes cas sobiaws batenes rarer re In this noble- ’s house he was retained from gratitude and affec- ion, rather than with a view to any sort of services, he lived in ease and plenty without any’ official His mornings were spent in violent exercise, running and climbing steep ascents, in which himself to fatigue. After breakfast, he went family, to wait on the countess, the children, visitors. Thus the time passed till twelve o'clock, when he had a little dinner for hirn, retired to his study, where he smoked, wrote for several hours. that he was obnoxious Fen rN ae ge he with habitual apprehensions for his safety. The —- the King Yn chiefly valued rom 3 i | z e disliked to be left in a house alone, some enemies, while an in When the Earl went from home, he im, even in his last illness, to be conveyed on a feather bed to survived ea loumaey only afew days, looking forward to his dissolution with that id in- difference with which men generally look back to the i their birth. He reckoned on the con- tinuance of life when his constitution was too much worn out to justify such ex tions ; and when, in reply to come anxious inquiries, he was forbid to for a recovery, he lay in a state of silence and apparent stupefaction, which was concluded to be ina mea- pare 2p warn the state of his mind. The words whi he wtteed in the fll poneasion of i senses were “(I shall be glad to creep out of the world ; of England, and preferred that religion to all others ; yet he had no confidence in the utility of religious ser- vices on his deathbed. On one oceasion, during his residence in France, whemhis life was seriously in dan- ger, he resented the solicitations of the Romish priests in London Hobbes. work of Mr “"Y—” “70 HOBBES. Hobbes. and the Protestant clergy to submit to some rite which “—Y~" -would proclaim him a believer in their respective sys- tems, and told them, that if they did not desist, ‘he would expose the impostures of their whole fraternity from Aaron downwards, “It is with the writings of Hobbes, and the opinions which he circulated, that the public is chiefly concern- ed. His writings were fitted to make a powerful im- pression at the ‘time at which they appeared ; but the character of society has subsequently so much changed, that they are now comparatively of little interest. His ‘small treatise De Homine is regarded by the philoso- phical world as the best of his works. In this he, in some degree, advanced the science of optics, then in a rude state. His notions, though crude and inaccurate, are ingenious and interesting. His moral observations sometimes breathe the sage spirit of Aristotle. At one time he, like that author, condenses his meaning in a few words ; at another he suddenly deviates into a style of extreme expansion. This chiefly happens when he er his doctrines to the opinions and transactions of his own times. A celebrated living author ( Profes- sor Stewart) justly remarks, that Hobbes, whether right or wrong, never fails ‘to set his reader a-thinking, which is the most indubitable proof of original genius. To attempt to collect-a system of moral, political and religious doctrine from his works, would now ap- ere ludicrous. In some parts his inquiries -are shal- ow and deficient, most especially ‘in ‘his investiga- tions of our ideas of morality and justice. “He consi- ders a regard for personal advantage asthe only law of man-in a-state of natural liberty, aud represents all the obligations of justice and good conduct to our fel. , lows as the consequence of civil contracts formed un- " der the influence of individual prudence. The laws, he says, are the foundation of justice: before them justice and injustice are unmeaning wordss If this view of rap 2 had been advanced only as a general description of the actual condition of man*under a to- tal want of laws, as well as the absence: of generous or deliberate reflection, and if he had considered pac- ‘tions and civil institutions as the means by which men agree to execute benefi¢ial ends, he could not have been greatly blamed; but he regards even eivil com- ae as the sole effect of the regard of each man for is own safety; and such feelings of kindness and compassion as most loudly proclaim the social virtues to be a part of our original nature, are represented as arising solely from a reflection on the possibility that -exists of experiencing in our own persons the evils which we deplore in others. In forming this, and some other views, he appears to -have been led astray-by the desire of giving what ap- ared to him a palpable account of human affairs ; but it partakes ‘too much ef those gross maxims which sometimes indecently .obtrude -on our ‘notice both in conversation .and books, which foster ‘our worst passions by boldly representing them as the :neces- sary springs of human conduct. No ‘doctrines can have a more destructive influence on ‘those finer feel- ings which are connected with just reflection and the encouragement of exalting sympathies, but which re- quire to be delicately cherished if they-are ‘to ‘be «pre- served from pollution and degradation. The same love of palpability seems to have been the origin of that-sys- ‘tem of materialism, or rather that preference :of ‘the Jangnage of materialists, which appeared in the -expla- mations which Hobbes gave of the origin and ‘laws:of thought. By representing justice as‘founded on positive Hobbel, law, he‘overturns the principles of jurisprudence itself, which must precede law, and determine the propriety of institutions. If he acknowledged the preservation of the general welfare to be a valuable end, it was certain« ly paradoxical to deny that a man, on his first interview with a stranger on an unknown shore, previously to the establishment of any mutual understanding, is un+ der obligations to cultivate personal kindness, and to abstain from violence arid domination. The boundaries of these early fedlings, and the modes in which they may be best expressed, aré fot indeed éasily defined, especially if we encounter distraction from'the circum- stance of a numerous population. Therefore it ap- peared the easiest method to pronounce tlrem arbitrary, and in no degree binding, compared to declared ‘pro= mises, compacts, and promulgated laws. But men may differ both about the formation and the execution of laws, and how are their differences to be decided? - « They must,” says Hobbes, “ choose a sovereign power, and to this their whole interests are at once committed.” Such is the origin of regal government; and from this simple fact he draws the monstrous conclusion, that kings can do no wrong ; that they must never be re= sisted ; and that to their hands the lives, properties, and consciences of the members of a state must be per- petually and unconditionally entrusted. That such will be the state of mankind, if they’are barbarous in their character, jarring in their views, or bereft of spirit ; that it will even be worse than this, if they are subjugated by the power of a brutal master, who feels no obligation to’ consult their welfare farther than as it is subservient to his imagined interest or the gratification of his caprice, is a fact too often exemplified in the history of the world: but to erect it into a principle that this ought to be the case, and that no efforts of mankind should be directed to the formation of any better state of society, is an idea which, in a reflecting mind like that of Hobbes, could only be generated by the miserable dissensions by which he was surrounded. In the days of Crom- well and’the Charles’s, the spirit of intolerance was ac- tive, extravagance contended with extravagance, and there seemed to. be no possibility of terminating the scene of violence by a temperate discussion of priaci- ples, or a mutual adjustment of views; it was therefore necessary to still the passions by some powerful agent. The agent that occurred to Hi as, the most suit- able, was the exertion of absolute authority in the hands © of the chief magistrate, and the perpetual establish- ment of this power seemed necessary for the prevention — As a temporary expedient, he might have been pardoned for advancing such a posi<' of future troubles. tion, even by those who dissented from him; but when he erects it into a universal principle, he must be re-° garded as an aggressor of the rights and interests of so- ciety, and a deliberate ba ewe tyranny. In theology Hobbes speculated with equal infelicity. Insensible both of the mysterious nature of his subject, and the reverence which it required, he examjned it with a minute and daring curiosity, and pronounced his opinions in the same dogmatic spirit which charac terises his other discussions. To retail his notions would be superfluous, Let it suffice to mention that, in conformity with his general th of right and wrong, he asserts that the attribute of justice has no meaning as. 2 aaa to the divine Being, who possesses uncontrol- le power, and is not accountable to any superior. His comments on scripture cannot be read with interest by c ¥ 6 2, i } ‘ . ae fl Ree . HOB ia AY HOG class of men. “The Christian must them as The town is large, atid of huts sulacions and wild; and the infidel as and un- Som bethroadenay syle The tovlonen the Delahy meaning. Although, with his usual love of palpabili- or governor, the mosques, the custom-house, and the have i pay eager y stead, or eman- a town in the interior, about 30 miles from the coast, ‘meoitedliy a ind from the wishes which it may have and only about half a day’s journey from the hills where i poe s. than to gain approbation. His intentions, however, are nues consist partly of the duties upon exported coffee. mot denerving of thet abbéavence which his neme excites All the mercantile transactions at Hodeida are carried - Ti : thought that the publication of his doctrines 42° 59’, and North Lat. 14° 49’, according to Lord Va- promote the political interests of his country lentia’s chart. See Niebuhr's Travels through Arabia, : i i iti sect. ix. chap. 2.; and Milburne’s Oriestal Commerce, philosophical reflection, we are not now in need of his =e De 2068 ING. Aonioutture, vol. i. p. 299% be eh eee Saree ped his father in his little freehold ; the second settled at Anecdotes; and Hobbes's Wor (4. Troutbeck, near Kendal, and was remarkable for a ta- HODEIDA is a sea-port town of Arabia, situated lent at provincial poetry ;* the third son, who was the on the Red Sea. A the harbour is larger than father of the painter, after having kept « school in the that of Loheia, yet it admit only small vemcls, coun © We tras that it will not be indulging in diffuse of impertinent tnele of the great Hogarth, whom we Gnd denominated the Mountain lighted te his umple fuel from the bills.”—Who does not recal Burns to his recollection in perusing this circumstance ?—"* He was,” continues Mr Wal- Br 2 be Schtenl a Ghearver of axtare ao bie pophow, for the narrow Geld he had to view her in. Not an incident or an abeardliy in may to the very boundaries of the Westmoreland dislect; so that hes songs were said to bave had a greater effct vn the manners of bis than even the sermons of the parson himeel{. Wut his poetical talents were not confined to the incidents of his vil- have bed the honour to bear # part in one of hie plays, (1 say one, because many are extant in MS in the mountains Westmoreland at this hour) This play was called The Destracten of Trey it was written in meine, mach in the manner of Lo- the ancient French drama. The ucities were not too strictly observed, for the siege of ten years was al! represented. ‘The plece, so that the dramatie persona comslaicd of every tad of genius in the whole parieh. The wooden horee— the fight of Moeas—end the burning of the city—were all reprevented. I re- happened to be about three feet bigh time of this still-talked-of exhibl- these tiny beings. The stage was a (abrication of boards placed about high o strong pusts ; the green- the same materials; its cciliog was the azure canopy of heavet the boxes, pit, and galleries, were » reader, thie humble state of the tb i ls | | rf I ! | H +t) = Fr g - : ; . i HL E eR : is f ; ' i ; H § | z : i i if | ; i fr ; : | j i : i @ compound of Harlequin and Metry-Aadrew, or rather the areh fool of our ancient kingh ss... - . The was opened by this character with a song, which answered the doubts purpose of a play-bill and a prologue; for his ditty pt on audience a foretaste of the rmeful incidents they were aboul to bebo, and it called ovt the actors one by one, to make the spectators See nie ih theie cames and characters, till the whole dramatis persons made one great circle on the stage. The audience being thas %, ie Bhd cmening | Poplaen tic antes Menelaus scampering after them. persuasions c. &t. and the whole interlarded with apt songs, (old) Hogarth. The tard, however, had been dead sonle years; and, I believe, this Pies was & jubiine bap oy mye Fido ee ae Emre S Ms Bercick ho say, thes Ms stieratond wes bat a copy of Sas forty years apn, any ' you, to introduce several bulls instead of one ? love pot coms Patisons; and so conclude, yours, &c. Anau Watans.”"—From Anccdotes of Hogarth. E F i uy f Hogarth. pation in Ship Court, in the Old Bailey. William Ho- and cruelty. In 1730 Hogarth made. a clandestine Hogarth. was born in the parish of St Bartholomew in marriage with the daughter of Sir James. Thornhill, ““y>" 1698, and seems to have received only the usual edu- cation of a mechanic. He was bound apprentice to Ellis Gamble, a silversmith in Cranbourn Court, Leices- terfields; and was to learn in that. profession only the branch of engraving arms and ciphers on metal. Be- fore his at had expired, his genius for drawing began to point to the comic path which it af- comers pursued. Having one day rambled to High- gate with some companions, he witnessed a quarrel in a public-house, in which one of the disputants received a blow with a quart pot, that made the blood stream down his face. Such a subject, one would think, was little calculated for gay effect; but humour is not an over-delicate faculty, and the distorted features of the wounded sufferer, it seems, so much attracted the fan- cy of young Hogarth, that he sketched his portrait on the spot, with the surrounding figures, in ludicrous ca- ricature. His apprenticeship was no sooner expired, than he entered into the a¢ademy of St Martin’s Lane, and studied drawing from the life, in which he never attained to great excellence. It was character, the pas- sions, the soul, that his genius was given him to copy. In colouring, he proved no great master ; his forte lay in expression, not in tints. and chiaro-scuro. It is not exactly known how long he continued in obscurity, but the first piece in which he distinguished himself as a painter is a representation of Wanstead Assembly. In this are introduced portraits of the first Earl Tylney, his lady, their children, tenants, &c. The colouring of this is said to be better than that of some of his later common ; yet what made him then noticed now sur- prises. us, to find so little humour in an undertaking so congenial to his talents. The success of his plates was sufficient to bring him business as a portrait painter; but it was not perma- nent, or attended with much reputation. The author of the volume of anecdotes respecting him, affirms with confidence, that though not a portrait painter, who could gratify the.self-love of bis employers, he drew sergeant painter, and history painter, to George I. Ho- garth was at this time called in the Craftsman an inge« nious designer and-engraver ; but his father-in-law re- garded him as so unworthy of his: daughter, and was so much offended by the match being a stolen one, that. he was not easily reconciled to it. About the same pes riod our painter began his celebrated Harlot’s Progtess, some scenes of which were purposely put in the wa of Sir James Thornhill to. bes -his favour. Sir James remarked, that the man who could produce such works could maintain a wife without. a portion; but he afterwards relented, and the young pair took up their abode in his house. By the appearance of his Harlot’s Progress, his fame was completely established, and his finances raised, by the rapid sale of the. plates that were struck from the pictures. -He might be said in this production to create a new species of painting,the moral comic; and in the furniture, dresses, and details of the scenes, to. give a history of the manners of the age. The Rake’s Pro« gress, which appeared in 1735, though, in the opi- nion of many, superior in merit, had not so much suc cess from want of novelty. In the following year, am- bitious of distinguishing himself as a painter of hi he finished the Ser i t 72 HOGARTH. | | ripture scene of the Pool of Bethesda, and of the Good Samaritan ; but the burlesque turn of his mind mixed itself with all subjects, and here with disadvantage. Nor was he more successful in his pics his Marriage a to have been then ready for sale. He had es ~ he ee ee } individual likenesses in ieces. One of his than politeness, was the designation of his character: a most striking — of thi Was the examination Under the screen of the hall, several rustic musicians ' of the committee of the House of Commons into the in grotesque attitudes, together with servants, tenants, : cruelties e: on the prisoners of the Fleet to ex- &c. were arranged. . Before the dri ping-pan stood a ‘ tort money from them. On the table of the committee well fed divine, with his gown » with his are the instruments: of torture. A prisoner in rags, watch in his hand, giving directions toa cook dressed) half starved, appears before them, with a good counte- nance, that adds to the interest. On the other side is the confronted and atrocious gaolor, with villany, ter- ror, and the eagerness to tell a lie, depicted in his fea- tures, and expressed in his gesture. This was Bam- bridge, the -warden of the fleet, who, with Huggins his mr, were both declared guilty of extortion all in white, who was basting a haunch- of venison. Among the faces of the principal figures, none byt that’ of the young lady was completely finished. Hogarth had been often reproached for his inability to give, grace and dignity to his heroines. The bride .was meant to vindicate his pencil from this imputation, The effort, however, was unsuccessful, The girl was’ * * Thirteen folio prints, with his name to each, appeared in Aubrey de la Mortraye’s Travels, 1723. Seven smaller printe for Apuleius’s Golden Ass, 1724. Fifteen “head pieces to Beaver’s Military Punishments of the Aneients; and five frontispieces for the. translation of Cassandra, in five vols. 1725. Seventeen cuts for Hudibras, 1726, Two for Perseus and Andromeda, 1730, Two for i the date uncertain ; and a variety of others between 1726 and 1733. . therefore é after the peace of Aix-la- to France, and ‘was taken into ing the of that town ; a circumstance which published 1749. He was ac- Old ealpaaetadiontamsenmmtene spy; and after a ‘strict examination, committed a pri to ire his landlord, on his i that H should not out of the house till he was to em k i Hi z ! : ; e fs Fie i i tf Hl HEE | 4 : feet Ht ies bi ut fir Ha i i i iH 4 : i li | ? if | i gree i ; i fs fr ; ' i i . 0 Pope whitewashing it, and bespattering the South Sea bubble. m OL. XI. PART I. < HOGARTH. 73 lic auction ; and the celebrated painting of Sigismunda, Hogarth. said to be the work of Corregio, (Mr Walpole thought —"y~" that it was by Furino,) excited his emulation. From a contempt of the oe virtuosi of the age, many of whom he had seen bubbled by vile copies, as well as from having never studied the great Italian masters, he pastended ‘hienielf that the praises’ bestowed on their glorious works were only the effects of prejudice. He went farther, he determined to rival the ancients, and chose the subject we have mentioned. His Sigi is described by Walpole as the repre- just turned out of amorous warmth turned holy by despair; in short, all was wanting that should e been there; all was there that such a story wéuld have banished from a mind of conceiving such complicated woe,— woe so sternly felt, and yet so tenderly. Hogarth’s ‘ormance was more ridiculous than any thing he ever ridiculed. He set the price of £400 on it, and had it returned on his hands by the person for whom it was painted. This unfortunate picture, which was the source’ of so much vexation to Hogarth, at least made a versifier of him. He arldressed an epistle to a friend, occasioned by Sir Richard Grosvenor (now Lord,) returning the picture on the artist’s hands. The verses are splenetic and conceited, without a particle of wit or hurnour. The last memorable event in his life, was his quarrel with Mr Wilkes, His conneetion with the Court pros bably induced him to quit the line of party neutrality which he had hitherto observed, and to en against Mr Wilkes and his friends in a print, Sepasmber 1762, j cither b his obscurity, or by the prudence of the poet. But he was now destined to feel the lash of a writer, inferior indeed in fame, but equal in the talents of vituperation. Churchill avenged the caricature of his patron Wilkes, by his Epistle to Ho« garth, pte be vt apne i of his works, and in which the severest of his strokes fell upon his age, Hogarth retaliated by cari ing Churchill under form of a canonical bear, with a club and a pot of pore ter. Never, a W truly remarks, did two angry men, of their abilities, throw mud with less dexterity. It deserves to be noticed, that, amidst the bitterest invectives on , his enemy, Churchill, conceded a degree of merit to him with which his warmest ad- mirers may be contented, and a description of his ge- nius to which they would find it difficult to add a ma- In walks of humour, in that cast of style, Which, probing to the quick, yet makes us smile; In comedy, his natural road to fame, Nor let me call it by 4 meaner name, Where a beginning, middie, and an end, Are aptly join’d; where parts on parts depend, ‘# In a piste, entitled, The Man of Tane, 1984, {lor & poem of Welsted, we telieve,) containing a view of the gate of. Buslington- htse, with Po the Duke of Chanden's conchy. ap well on tp s lndictows pictsee o the oubjern of Hogarth. ALO A phy Co Each made for each, as bodies for their soul, $o as to form one true and perfect whole, Where a plain story to the eye is told, Which we conceive the moment we behold ; Hogarth ubrivall’d stands, and shall engage Unrivall’d praise to the most distant age. Hogarth having been said to be in his dotage when he produced his print of the bear, it should seem was provoked to make the following additions to this print, in order to give a farther specimen of his still existing genius. In the form of a framed picture on the pain- ter’s pallet, he has represented an Egyptian pyramid, on the side of which is a Cheshire cheese, and round it £3000 per annum, and at the foot a Roman veteran in a reclining posture, designed as an allusion to Mr Pitt’s ignation. The cheese is meant to allude to a former 5 ta of Mr Pitt’s, in which he said that he would ra- er subsist a week on a Cheshire cheese and a shoulder of mutton, than submit to the enemies of his country. But to ridicule this character still more, he is, as he lies down, firing a piece of ordnance at the standard of Britain, on which is a dove, with an olive branch, the emblem of peace. On one side of the pyramid is the city of London represented’by the figure of one of the Guildhall giants going to crown the reclining hero. On the other side, is the King of Prussia, in the cha- racter of one of the Caesars, but smoking his pipe. In the centre, stands Hogarth himself, whipping a dan- eing bear, (Churchill,) which he holds in a string. At the side of the bear is a monkey, designed by Mr Wilkes. Between the legs of the little animal is a mop- stick, on which he seems to ride like a child on a hobby-horse. Atthe top of the mopsstick is the cap of liberty. The monkey is undergoing the same disci- pline as the bear. Behind the monkey is the figure of a man, but with no lineaments of face, and playing ona fiddle. This was designed for Earl Temple, in allusion to the inexpressiveness of his countenance. Amidst these disgraceful hostilities, Hogarth was vi- sibly declining in his health. In 1762, he complained of an inward pain, which proved to be an aneurism, and became incurable. The last year of his life was ce en po in retouching his plates, with the assistance of several engravers, whom he took with him to Chis- wick. On the 25th of October 1764, he was conveyed from thence to his house in Leicester Fields, in a very weak condition, yet remarkably cheerful; and receiv- ing an agreeable letter from the celebrated Dr Franklin, he drew up a rough draught of an answer to it. In the night time, however, he was seized with a vomit- ing, probably owing to a circumstance of which he had boasted before going to bed, viz. that he had eat a pound of beef steakes to his dinner, and expired about two hours after, aged 67. His corpse was interred in the Church-yard of Chiswick, on a monument which bears a simple inscription on one side, and on the other emblematic ornaments, with some verses by Garrick. In his private character this celebrated man is repu- ted to have been me omg and liberal, as well as accu- rately just in his dealings, but his manners were coarse and vulgar, and his powers of delighting seem to have been restrained to his pencil. To be a member of clubs of illiterate men was the utmost of his social ambition, and even in those assemblies he was oftener sent to ‘HOL Coventry than any other member. The slightest con« Hogartli. tradiction is said to have transported him to His genius as a comic th tion which breaks down the partition between con- noisseurship and the popular taste in the enjoyment of it. It is merit which his satyrist yet ablest panegyrist so well expressed, “ which we conceive the moment we behold.” The prs Du Bos wa ined that no histo inter is time went through a series of actions. What Dubos wished to see done, Hogartlr performed, though probably without knowing that he was so obliging’y complying with a eritic’s request. In his Harlot’s Progress he launches out his ad- venturer, a simple girl upon the town, an ucts: her through all the vicissitudes of wretchedness to a- premature death. This was painting to the under-- standing and to the heart. None had before made the comic pencil subservient to instruetion ; nor was the’ success of this painter confined to his One of his excellencies consisted in what may be termed: the furniture of his pieces; for as in sublime historical’ representations, the fewer trivial circumstances are per mitted to divide the spectators attention, the greater is the force of the principal figures ; so in scenes of familiar- life, a judicious variety of little incidents contributes an air of versimilitude to the whole. The rake’s levee room, (Walpole observes) the nobleman’s dining room, the apartments of the husband and wife in marriage @ la mode, the alderman’s parlour, the bed-chamber, and: many others, are the history of the manners of the age.* For a scientific view of the works of this great arte ist, we must refer the reader to Walpole’s Anecdotes of Painters, which we have already quoted.—A list of his prints, at least the most complete that has- been made out, will be found in the Biographical An- ecdotes, by Nichols. Walpole has made one remark upon them in his eulogy of Hogarth, against the truth of which his works bear ocular demonstration, viz. that his delicacy is superior to that of the Dutch pai or rather that his indelicacy is less. The illustration of this would be a task more easy than agreeable. Mr Gilpin, in his Essay on Prints, o es, that in design. Hogarth was seldom at a loss. His invention was fers tile, and his judgment accurate. An improper inci- dent is rarely introduced. In composition, he conti- nues, we see little in him to admire; in many of his prints, the deficiency is so great, as to imply a want of all principle, which makes us ready to believe that when we do meet with a beautiful group, it is the ef- fect of chance. Of the distribution of light, according to the same writer, he had as little knowledge as of, composition. Neither was Hogarth a master of draw- ing. But of his expression, in which the force of his genius Jay, we cammot speak im ‘too high terms; in every mode of it he was truly excellent: The passions he thoroughly understood, and all the effects which they produce in every part of the human frame; he had the happy art also of conveying his ideas with the/same precision with which he conceived them. (x) HOLBEIN, Joun, or Hans, an eminent painter, was born at Basle, in Switzerland, in the year 1498. He was instructed in the art by his father John Holbein, whom he very soon s d.. Holbein was the par- ticular friend of the celebrated Erasmus. At his re- * Among the small articles of furniture in the scenes of Hogarth, (says the compiler of the anecdotes of this life) a few objeets may speedily become unintelligible, because their archetypes being out of use, and of perishable natures, can no longer be found. Such is the dare for larks, a circular board, with pieces of looking-glass inserted in-it, hung up over the chimney-piece of the distressed poet ; ‘and the Jew’s cake, {a dry tasteless biscuit, perforated with many holes, and formerly given away in great at the feast of the passover) generally used only as@ fly-trap, and hung up as such egainst the wall in the sixth plate of the Harlot’s Progress. Holbein. painter is of that strong descrip. “"Y¥"" sna pert 2% He ET PE fal ela suc eee HF ei aaa fii 3 ro BE sftie meena alt pubis ice 2 iid i Lif i fee sae ett aaltnl: BE ney : a it if: Teac a rt a3 5 ayy. AOL 1 ste Seg E aa 3% B34 a at Rgiiieai ft fil ay et i ais3 UUrnteHTE 3 a Ae LEA LAD Hil Lips mia ls : ipl ee wae ie B2, 3 P he: : i i i 35 : is aa bias ire © abe 4 £- 7 sia SEFzt “Hh ih il adi ae | ' A vale i TASH .§ a 2] pe RS : i L| ansaasestaze|a o-cs |; | aeeenaaertn|a one Sees 255% i: E || Sede ed2ect | = less Sein i; || SHRHREREEERE | = 3 = : a Bagge gegza4 | ° #a¢au = 2 © sy || gpaceauaenee ie Hy sere E. —~% SREEE HEE I: : [ ak r-eaneo r Sette h i ft liana | 4 p | jue ca oagegognmmace the ae Willian Holden's Tempera- ment. Holland. — Situation, boundaries, and extent, 76 HOLLAND. In a subsequent edition of his work, in octavo, enti- tled, «« An Essay towards a rational System of Music,” Mr Holden, from having, unfortunately, adopted a defective rule for calculating the Grave Harmonics of a consonance, (see that Article), conceived, that he had legitimately introduced the prime number 7 into musical ratios ; and thereupon, in the 2d part of his book, grounds a great many unfounded and false rules. Holden's” ‘and conclusions, regarding harmonics: eee he gives an ascending and a pa ap , which, _ ™ent when combined, contains 24 notes wi the octave, . eleven of which involve the number 7 in their numeri« cal ratios. (e) HOLLAND. Hoxzaxp, one of the provinces of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and, before the formation of that kingdom, the most considerable of the united provinces of the. Netherlands, is bounded on the west by the German Ocean, or North Sea; on the north by the Zuyder Zee, which separates it from the province of Friesland ; on the east; by the same sea, which sepa- rates it fromthe province of Overyssel, and by the province of Utrecht, and part of Guelderland ; and on the south by the province of Zealand, and part of Bra- bant. It is situated between the latitude of 51° 40’ and 53° 10/ north, and the longitude of 3°56’ and 5° 30! east of London. . Its greatest extent, from south to north, including the isle of Texel, is about 90 miles, and from east. to west not above 25 miles in some places, and above 40 in others, it being of a very irregular figure, and extremely narrow towards its nerthern extremity. According to the calculation taken in the year 1554, there were upwards of 300,000 morgens of land in this province, each morgen being about two English acres, The states of Holland and Zealand, in a remonstrance made soon after this year to the Earl of Leicester, con- _ tended, that these two provinces, with all their heath, Divisions. South Holland. Rhineland, downs, and grounds delved out, could make in all but about 500,000 morgens; and De Witt, in his work on the true interests of Holland, calculates that there can- not possibly be more than 400,000 morgens of land in this province, down and heath not included. This province is divided into South Holland, com- monly called Ug Holland; and North Holland, gene- rally called West Friesland, and sometimes Water- land; there are also subdivisions, the principal of which will be afterwards noticed. Both South Hol. land and North Holland contain a great many consi- derable cities, besides a vast number of large and beau- tiful villages. In South Holland the principal places are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Leyden, Haer- lem, Dordrecht or Dort, Delft, the Briel, Gorcum, Gouda, &c. Rhineland is a subdivision or district in South Holland, the capital of which is Leyden: it contains within its jurisdiction 45 large boroughs and villages. This subdivision is bounded on the west by the coast of Holland; on the east by part of the pro- vince of Utrecht, and by Awiarelland on the north by part of the river Y, along the course of the dyke that goes from Haerlem to Amsterdam, and by the shallows and washes as far as Beverwic; and on the south, by a line drawn from Montfort through Ou- dewater and Gouda to the Hague: it has its name of Rhineland from the middle branch of the Rhine run- ning through it. All the inhabitants of this district are. obliged y Aca agreed to among themselves, to Prarie for the maintenance and reparation of. the ykes, sluices, and canals within the district ; and they have a council which meets every Saturday at the Rhineland House, in Leyden. This council is com= yojJana, posed of the Dyke-graaf, and seven assistants, called Heemraden. There are several islands belonging to ;.,.,4, South Holland: The island of Voornlees, between the mouths of the river Maese; Briel is the capital : This island, along with the small adjoining islands of Goree, and Overslackee, form the territory called Voornland, which was anciently part of Zealand. The isle of Ruggonhill, to the east of that of Voorn, of which Wil- liamstadt is the principal town, together with the isle of Finard, formerly belonged to Brabant. . <-er pe Ae wd OO pee oe, Se on a North Holland is divided from South Holland by. North Hol- the river Y.. The principal towns in it are Saardam, land, Edam, Monikendam, Alemaer, and Hoorn. Across the mouth of the Zuyder Zee lies a row of islands, belong- ing to North Holland. . The Texel island is separated: Texel. from the North Cape of North Holland. by a very nar- row channel; it is about eight miles long and five broad; it is defended from the sea by sand hills and strong banks; there are several villages in it, anda large town on the east side, called Burgh, which enjoys. the privileges of a city. As this island lies at the ~ mouth of the Zuyder Zee, and commands the only pas-, sage to Amsterdam, the States have built a strong for- tress.on it, in which a considerable garrison is always kept. . The island of Vlieland lies towards the north- east of the Texel; it is about nine miles long, and two broad. ; it has only two small villages; and is chiefly remarkable for the great aged muscles found on’ it. The island of Schelling lies to the north-east of Vlieland ; and is about 10 miles long, and three broad; there are five villages on it. These islands, together with several large sand-banks, break the rage of the ocean, and form two good harbours, or rather road- steds, at the Texel and the Vlie; the first being a noted station for ships bound to the south, and the other for those bound to the north. The Wierengen, thus called from the great quantity of sea-weed, named in Dutch, as in Scotch, Wier, is a number of little islands, which lie more to the south, on the coast of North Holland ; the principal of them is five miles long, and two broad, and contains several villages. The name of Holland, (the hollow land,) sufficiently Face of the indicates the nature of the country. The level of a country. great part of it is, indeed, below the level of the sea, which is kept out only by means of dykes, or natural sand banks. In many parts, the dyke, or mound, is 30 g¢ast ana feet above the adjoiming land; the width at top is dykes, enough to permit the passage of two carriages; and there is a sort of imperfect road along it. In its de- scent, the breadth increases so much, that it is not very difficult to walk down either side. On the, Jand. side, it is strengthened by stone and timber, and covered by earth and grass ; towards the.sea, somewhat above, and . considerably below water-mark, a strong matting of HOLLAND. ' 7 ney? @ em prevents . from ¢arrying away the sur- Holland; its course has been already mentioned. There Holland. pe prepealey i Sind of dliess cepane ts is another small branch of the Rhine called the Vaert, Se 8 . F | i : e E - H i 4 ‘| { iE ir un Hh Fd BERG ite eRe F i é : fH It i Hi i i tea the Zaye Pee racer at near are stronger, , ’ than in the ; for there Salendeta slelemen ry ogame merge Lowa. | ti te tH i a3 I a if i ri fF 1 At = i Fr ny g i li — ae 7 FE H ‘i FE E F i ; iF ee ren te Re prema sie in Holland. According to some geographers, northern mouth of this river must be sought in the Leck, which joins the estuary of the Meuse, between Dort and Rotterdam; according to others, it runs thronghi Lop, inate ide divides itself into two canals, poe Geom ten oy pny oy erp = z ; i i g i SS ee or Vecht, which falls into the Zuyder Zee at Muyden, about eight miles to the east of Amsterdam. The little Yssel falls into the Maes, a short way to the east of Rot- terdam. The Maes, passing before Gorcum, runs to Dort, where it divides iteclt inte two large branches, forming an island called Ysselmonde. The most north- ern branch runs to Rotterdam; it is called the New aes, to distinguish it from the southern branch, which is called the Old Maes. we — a wie before reach Vlardingen, and enter the ocean, by a wide pots a little below Briel. The Amstel is not pro- ly a river, but rather a collection of waters from the t, the Miert, and other rivulets, the waters of which are swelled by their communication with lakes and rivers, by means of canals. The Y, called by some iver, i ly a branch of the Zuyder Zee, from which it ins, at a sand bank called the Pam- Its here is half a mile broad, which th it continues to Amsterdam, but grows soon af- terwards twice as broad. It receives the waters from canal, called the Sparen, orth Holland. It after- wards passes northwards to Beverwyk, without dis- charging itself again into the sea. i From the town of Haerlem, the great lake called the j;.-:10m Haerlem Meet, or Sea of Haerlem, derives its name. It Meer. communication by means of the Y, which enters it by a sluice, strongly built with brick-work. From its Meer, from which a canal leads to the suburbs of Am- there is a dyke, over which loaded means of a wheel and rollers, into On the north of the lake there is ano- ther gulf, where there is a sluice, which opens and shuts itself by the wei of the water. This is the sluice by which the lake communicates with the Y. In one place, the neck of land which separates the Haerlem Meer and the Y is so narrow, that a canal cannot be 4 narrowest part, the neck of land consists of pile-work and masonry tothe thickness of about On the south and south-west, Haerlem Meer communicates with several small branches of the Rhine, one of which comes from Leyden. The Haerlem lake is about }2 miles long, and nine broad ; and as ground is very dear and valuable in Holland, it hay often been to drain it: but the draining of it would pro- vably be productive of great mischief, for it receives the waters when the viclent north winds drive them frora the German Ocean into the Zayder Zee and the Y; whereas if, by the draining of the lake, they were confined within the banks of the Y, the city of Amster- dam would be in danger of being overflowed. Besides this, the of Haerlem affords a vast quanti- ty of fish, and the conreneney af navigation not only to the adjoining ie bu to. Leyden, Haerlem, and Amsterdam. There are some lakes in North Holland, but none deserving of particular notice. The climate of Holland is humid, cold, and general- ¢yj..44 ly unwholesome ; the winters are sharp and very long, Holland. Soil, Progressive geography of the Zuy- der Zee. | ee the rivers being generally rendered urmavigable by the ice for a considerable length of time. In the spring, which is very short, and by no means agreeable, the sharp cold winds frequently blast the blossoms of the fruit trees. The’summers are not unfrequently very hot. The climate is also disagreeable and unwhole- some, from sudden and extreme changes of tempera- ture. The east wind generally blows nearly the whole of the winter, and is extremely fierce ; but it serves to drive away the fogs, with which this country is dread- fully plagued. The moisture of the air is such, espe- cially about Leyden, that all metals are apt to rust, and even the wood to mould. The climate about William- stadt is particularly unwholesome, from the extreme flatness and marshiness of the ground ; whereas, about Naerden, where the country is high and sandy, the-air is by no means bad. The soil of Holland is in gene- ral uncommonly rich, being in fact alluvial, and con- sisting of deep fat loam; in some parts, however, it consists of a barren sand. The soil of North Holland, especially in the drained land called the Bemster, is articularly rich. The country near the village of Sovagen is reckoned to possess the richest soil in Eu- rope. Land is sold here at double-the rate of any other in Holland, there having been trees upon it, one of which, upwards of a century ago, yielded the owner as much fruit in one year as brought him £10 ster- ling ; and a sheep, bred here, was sold, about the same time, for the same sum. The progressive geography of Holland is so interest- ing and important, that we have no doubt.our readers will pardon us for dwelling on it pretty fully and mi- nutely, It maturally divides itself into what respects the formation or extension of the Zuyder Zee, the al- teration in the course, and the diminution of the size of the Rhine, so far as it is connected with Holland, and the changes which the breaking in, or draining off, of the sea has preduced in different parts of this pre- vince. From the name of West Friesland, which is given to North Holland, it is highly probable that part, at least of this division of the province of Holland, was for- merly united to East Friesland. How much of it be- longed to the Frisia Occidentalis of the ancients is not accurately known: some geographers are of opi- nion, that only that part to fhe north-east, in which Hoorn, Enchuyzen, and Medenblic are situated, was the ancient Frisia Occidentalis. From the description .of Tacitus, it is evident that, in his time, no other dis- tinction was known but that of greater or lesser Fri- sons ; and that distinction arose entirely from the num- ber of the forces which each could respectively bring into the field. He informs us, that among the Frisons were great lakes, evidently implying that they were of fresh water ; and this is made yet plainer by the ex- pression ambiuntque immensos lacus, which proves that these lakes were inhabited round by these nations. Hence it is probable that the more inland part of what is now the Zuyder Zee, was one of the lakes mentioned by Tacitus, between which and the Texel and Vlie islands, there lay anciently a large tract of land. This opinion is strengthened by several cir- cumstances. These islands lie still in a contiguous Jine, and like the broken remains of a continued coast. The sea here, too, is remarkably shallow, and the sands through the whole extent very flat. From the inspection of the accurate maps of the ancient and mid- dle geography of Gaul, by D’Anville, it will be seen that part of the present site of the Zuyder Zee was oc- HOLLAND. ; cupied by a considerable inland lake called Flevo. Holland This lay towards the southern part:of the present Zuy- der Zee. The question then age By what means, and at what period, were the northern part of the Zuyder Zee formed, and the communication between this Sea and the ocean opened, or at least rendered so wide asit isat present? From the lake of Flevo rama river of the same name into the ocean. Formerly the Rhine divided itself into two grand branches at Burginasium, the pre« sent Schenck, about 5 miles north-west of the Colonia Trajana, now an inconsiderable hamlet, called Coln, near Cleves. The southern branch joined the Meuse: at the town of Meusa, while the northern passed by Ley- den into the-ocean, From this branch Drusus formed a canal, bearing his name, which originally joined the ‘Rhine to the Yssel, a river which flowed into the lake Flevo, This canal being neglected, the Rhine joined the Yssel with such force that their waters increased the lake of Flevo to a great extent, by which means it was carried forward to the ocean by a wide gulf, ins stead of having a communication with it only by means of the river Flevo. It is probable, also, that the en« trance of this river into the ocean was much widened by the force of the waves ; for, at present, the violent rage of the waves breaking in towards the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, threatens the parts of North Holland- about, Medenblick and Enchuysen, braving it over the sy HE and strongest dykes of the province upon every high tide and storm at north-west. The exact period when the lake Flevo was extended into the Zuy= der Zee is not positively known; indeed it is proba ble that the increase took place at different i We are informed by an old Dutch chronicle, published by Vossius, that the increase on the south side, by the breaking in of the inlet to the Texel, took place about the year 1170; others ‘say it was so late as ‘the year 1400. The increase of the lake on its northern side was probably at an earlier period, and also gradual. It certainly was about the year 1400 that the river Y be-« came navigable to Amsterdam by large vessels, In our account of the progressive Zuyder Zee, we have \ aniped noticed the c have taken place in the course of the Rhine. At the same time the lake Flevo gained its increase, the northern branch of this river was weakened by the di« vision of its waters; and even the canal of Drusus was afterwards almost obliterated by the deposition of mud in a low country. The Rhine seems to have been far- ther divided and weakened by a canal cut by Civilis, which, according to Cluverius, is the present Leck ; though Pinkerton thinks the deviation of the Rhine into the Leck was the work of natural causes. The same author regards the Leck, which joins the estuary of the Meuse between Dort and Rotterdam as the northern mouth of the Rhine; which, according to him, the Waal continues to be the southern, both being lost in a comparatively small stream, the Meuse. According” to other geographers, what fulls into the sea near Cat~ wyk is not the Rhine, but a canal bearing the name of that river. In the sea at low tides, are to be seen, near this village, the foundations of an ancient Roman castle, that commanded the mouths of the Rhine. The of the by Dort and Rotterdam, fell, as it Maese. Maese, runnin now does, into the sea, at Briel, with a powerful flow of water ; but the sands, which are gathered for three or four leagues upon this coast, having obstructed the exit of the river, have caused or increased those inunda- tions, out of which so many islands have been recover- ed, and of which that part of South Holland is so much phy of the of the es which Rhine. Lato Hi ne in an at 28 Te au: si Lesaney dua eel will 1d ie ah i, ae HUH A a. pats Hale ti a i 1 oe viii ' Bean itd, agian: Te (lies issn 1 walle i Hail Tee SHUT i ahat fe vile oe eigen iat ii ane ES iy ee ithe pitty HE Hula THe Hie 1 nit Hi af ll ili on rit if EF i eal aie ar bint HTH ian if et ike ele nuit UT Sialdul a ui Hil # pili i i, = 2 re i bah int Hee uh i alt eal ite i ii Lain Hit See b oa; i ii. Lai aut i if “ah i diet HELE i slit wiht Hi i re fa Lil 4a Lilie i HH tH i ab lf Hee is Ee oe aaa lit Hud ili - Ania Ea tf —s 80 HOLLAND ture must not be passed over: the mode of laying out Holland Holland. also for its seed, though some of the other provinces in the gardens is still very ungracefal and artificial; the “vy” —Y~" the Netherlands are more remarkable for this crop than Pastures. Milk. Butter. Cheese. Cattle. ‘Horses and sheep. Bees. Wax, Holland. The same remark applies to clover. The pastures of Holland, cannes as_has been al- ready remarked, of North Holland, are perhaps unri- valled for the abundance and luxuriance of the grass they produce. From it they obtain milk, cheese, and butter, all of excellent quality. Mrs Radcliffe remarks, that on her way from Helvoetsluys to Rotterdam, she passed now and then a waggon filled with large brass jugs, bright as new gold ; in these vessels, which have short narrow necks, covered with a wooden stopper, milk is brought from the field, throughout Holland. It is always carried to the towns in light waggons or carts, drawn frequently by horses as sleek and well- conditioned as those in our best coaches. The butter of Holland is of a very superior quality: the greater part of it is salted and barrelled for exportation ; Bee- nister is noted for the excellence of this article. There are several kinds of cheese made in Holland, some of which are rich and highly esteemed, and some, made from milk, which has previously supplied the butter, of course very inferior in quality. Leyden, Gouda, Edam, Gravesande, and Hoorn, are famous for their cheese: from the last place, vast quantities both of cheese and butter are exported to Spain, Portugal, and other countries, especially during their annual fair in the month of May. The cheese made in Holland is of two sorts, red and white; the red is much esteemed, and somewhat resembles the Parmasan; it is made into large and small shapes ; the former weighs from 18 to 20, and the latter from 6 to 8 libs: the white cheeses weigh from 6 to 7, and the richest kinds are excellent as toasting cheeses. Besides the. common Dutch cheeses, there are some called Kanterkaas; these are of various sorts, the principal of which are the green cheeses, the white of Leyden, the cummin cheese of Leyden, and the round cheese. In North Holland, about 18 millions of pounds of cheese were sold in the year 1801: and at Gouda, in 1803, about two millions were sold. The cattle which produce such large quan- tities of excellent butter and cheese, are not indigenous, but for the most part are of the Holstein or ‘Danish breed. In the vicinity of Hoorn they have a consider- able trade in Danish cattle, which are imported lean, and fattened in the rich pastures round this place, and then driven to the other parts of Holland. The utmost attention is every where paid to the warmth and clean- liness of the milch cows, so that even in summer the animals appear in the meadows clothed with ludicrous care. The horses are principally from England or Flanders. The number of horned cattle in Holland, in the year 1804, amounted to 902,526, of which 252,394 were under two years of age. At that time, it was generally believed that there had been a great decrease in the number of horses, sheep, and. swine. The ancient race of sheep indigenous to the country, have long been improved by the introduction of foreign breeds; but the soil and climate of Holland are not favourable to this animal: very little wool is exported, what is obtained from the sheep being chiefly consumed, in the manufactures of the country. In some parts of Holland, bees are an object of much attention to the farmer, chiefly on account of the wax which they af- ford. A vast quantity of this article is annually gather- ed ; and the bleaching of it forms a considerable branch of industry among the poorer classes: a great deal of white wax was former y exported to Spain. In con- nection with the agriculture of Holland, its horticul- trees are bent and cut into a thousand fantastic shapes, &, Jons, and the flower-beds are of every form that can displease and disgust the eye of taste. There are generally abundance of stagnated canals, with puerile bridges thrown over them. But. setting aside these points of inferiority, the people of Holland in. several respects are excellent horticulturists, especially in what regards the culture and improvement of the most beautiful flowers. nearly so great or general at present as it was formerly. There is to be seen in the registers of Alemaer, the re- cord of a circumstance which deserves to be mentioned : In the year 1637, there were sold eaacaly in this city, one hundred and twenty tulips, for 90,000 guilders: one of these flowers, called the Admiral of Enchuysen, with its root and offsets, was sold for 5200 guilders ; two others, called Brabanters, for 3800 guilders ; and one named the Viceroy sold for 4203 guilders. Not only the name and price of these flowers, but also their weight, are particularly set down in the registers of this city. The passion of paying exorbitant prices for flowers at: le came to such a height in Holland, that the States were obliged to put a:stop to it by se- vere penalties; many gentlemen having been ruined by that passion. The fruit of Holland, though abun- dant, is seldom of good quality; the humidity of the climate, as well as its rapid growth, from the richness of the soil, rendering it insipid. The fisheries of Holland consist of those which are Fisheries: carried on near the coasts, and these which are carried on at a distance. The shores abound with excellent fish, particularly turbot and soals; but for other fish, in consequence of the shallowness of the sea near the coast, the fishermen are generally obliged to go to the distance of more than five miles. The village of Sche- veling is particularly remarkable for the number of fishermen whom it contains; they-are distinguished by their ruddy countenances and athletic limbs. The principal foreign fishery of Holland, formerly was that of herrings: it was carried on from the ports of Dort, Rotterdam, Delft, Schiedam, Briel, Enchuysen, &c. The time of departure for the fishery was about the 24th of June. The cod fishery, which is still carried on to a considerable extent, commences in October, and ends in April. It is carried on en the Dogger Bank ; what is ht serves not only for the con sumption of Holland, but forms one of its chief ex- ports, The city of London consumes immense nti- ties of cod, caught by the Dutch. The whale-fish was formerly vested in a company, called the Northern Company: it afterwards became open and free; but, like all. the other branches of the. fisheries and com- merce of Holland, was destroyed by the revolutionary wars, and has not yet revived. It was chiefly carried on upon the coasts of Nova Zembla, as far as Davis Straits, and upon those of Spitzbergen, Greenland, &c. ° The vessels engaged in this fishery, during its flourish- ing state, were about 300 in number. The chief manufactures of Holland are linens, (osay Manuface of which, however, are made in Silesia) pottery painted tiles, woollen cloth, leather, wax, snuff, sugar, starch, paper, &c. At Haerlem, there are considerable manufactures for the fabrication of fine linen cloths, Linen. dimity, satins, &c. which, though they have fa considerably, in consequence of the war, and the mea- sures of Bonaparte, still give employment to a num- ber of workmen, and carry on a profitable trade with The rage for flowers, especially tulips, is not Tulips. a Ps 7 J i; 4} fl, i iH @ aepigeere lis hebaigaiid ghidea ee ai uedisiii eT re HEH Wile meee alaprapy ptiteidlh THEE bat eer HES TH EAE aban ilfitugtai alia erie BAER eG te teat gta Wis AHH dis: et Ie ae z 53a e325 Bees 3 Figse pte efegagsiay “fi rut Aur it HLH TERE et dale 3 fbi2 trict EE: FSPEseLisiyes Fs: tele i SETTER EST eT TAH i i oo. AERO UHEH H AEN eine i AG oe i ae H ie pi i i THE i eee iy = sa i : i i iplatia 3 iit elaine HoMand. Comunerce. Population. In 1622. 82 medicine, such as camphor, vermilion, sulphur, borax, lapis lazuli; likewise pitch, tar, rosin, spermaceti, &c. The oi! mills are numerous. The cordage made in Holland is very good; and Dutch paper, particularly cartridge paper, is still exported in very great quanti- ties, even to England, though we now rival or excel them in the manufacture of fine writing paper. The reparation of diamonds, that is, the cutting, polish- | ing, and grinding of them, is confined to ‘Amsterdam, wiiere many artists are employed for that purpose. The nianufacture of skaits is also of some consequence in’ Holland. The United Provinces were formerly pre-eminent in commerce; and the province of Holland, from its greater extent, population, and riches, as well as from its possessing near all the sea-ports, enjoyed nearly the whole of this commerce. Long before the French Revolution, however. the trade of the United’ Provin- ces had begun to decline ; and the circumstances of that tremendous event may be said to have utterly an- nihilated the commerce of Holland. While it lasted, ‘it was carried’ on principally with France, England, Spain, and Portugal, the Levant and Mediterranean states, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark ; ‘and with Ger- many by means of the Elbe, the Ems, the Weser, the Rhine, and the Meuse. The inland trade with Germany, by the canals and the Khine, is almost the only branch which has escaped the ravages of war. Of this, the most remarkable feature consists in the vast floats of timber which arrive at Dort from Andernach and other places on the Rhine. The length of these rafts is from 700 to 1000 feet ; the breadth from 50 to 90; and 500 labourers direct them, living in a village of tim- ber huts erected on the rafts for their reception. “The navigation is conducted with the strictest regularity. On their arrival at Dort, the sale of one raft occupies several months, and frequently produces upwards of £30,000 sterling. The commerce of Holland was ei- ther transit or direct. The articles of direct commerce were supplied either by her agriculture, such as butter, cheese, &c. or by her manufactures, as prepared drugs for medicine, dyeing, &c linen, woollen cloth, paper, &c.; or they were supplied by her East India posses- sions and her fisheries. . In return, Holland ‘received either what was necessary for her own consumption, particularly corn, or those articles which she again distributed over the rest of Europe. In the year 1807, nearly one million pounds of vil were imported into England from Italy through the medium of Holland. he province ef Holland is extremely populous ; perhaps more so than any other part of Europe. In ‘the year [515, it contained only 45,000 houses. In the year 1732, the number of hovfses was increased to 163,462. De Witt, in his work on the true interests of Holland, informs us, that, in the year 1622, the States laid a poll tax upon all inhabitants, none except- ed but strangers, prisoners, and vagrants, and those that were on the other side of the line; yet were there found in all South Holland no more than 481,934, although the instructions of the commissioners ap- pointed for that purpose were very strict. The follow- ing are the particulars, as registered in the Chamber of — Accounts : ‘Dort, with its villages. . . . . 40,523 Haerlem, with its villages 69,648 Delft, with its villages. . 4 41,744 Leyden and Rhineland . , 94,285 Amsterdam, and its villages . . . 115,022 HOLLAND. Rotterdam, and its villages - . 28,839 Gouda, and its villages ° « 24,622 Gornichem, and its villages . . . 7.585 Schiedam, and its villages. . . 10,398 Schoonhoven and its villages - . . 10,703 Brill, with its villages. . 9. 2 5 20,156 The Hague v1). Ree eso Heusden 2°. 4% Oe Pie 1,444 481,934 De Witt supposes that West Friesland, or North Hol- land, might have the fourth part of the inhabitants of South Holland, or 120,483, which, added to 481,934, would give 602,417 as the total population of the pro- vince ot Holland in the year 1622. ‘This, however, in the opinion of De Witt, was far below the truth, and he raises the number to 2,400.000. This must be an exagge- ration; and it is given here, only for the purpose of adding De Witt’s calculation of the proportions of this number, engaged in different employments : according to him, 450,000 were employed, directly or stn in the fisheries: 200,000 were supported by agricul. ture, inland-fishing, herding, hay-making, turf making, and by ‘furnishing materials for these operations : 650,000 in manufactures: 250,000 in navigation and trade: 650,000 in miscellaneous employments ; and 200,000 gentry, magistrates, soldiers, &c. In the year - ° 1732, the population of Holland certainly did not ex- ceed 980,000, In the year 1796, an estimate of the In 1796. population of the Seven United Provinces was made by order of the National ue eae which we shall give entire, for the purpose of comparing the popula-~ tion of Holland with that of the other provinces. ‘Guelderland, in the towns, . . . . 64,994 — in the flat country. . 152,834 217,828 Holland, in towns . .). . 0. .. . 495,017 in the flat country... 833,525 828,542 Zealand, intowns . . . . 39,978 ‘in the flat country. . 1° 42,234 82,212 Utrecht, in towns... 2... ee 45,204 in the flat country . . . . . 47,600" 923904 Friesland, in towns... 2. 3 . 44,824 in the flat country . . . . 116,689 161,513 Overyssel, in towns .. SRS SOG are in the flat country |... 98,255 Groningen, in towns, . > trees ee in the flat country. . 0. . f Se Se ee Serta sy oe SUS A im mya oly " ‘Helland. —oO HOLLAND. Themeapsamme etn ice ne a re 89,672 Dutch Brabant, inthetowns . . ... 48,711 in the flat country . . 159,466 208,177 ‘Total popo- The total is $10,192 in towns, and 1,070,274 in the flat countries, making the entire jon of the United Provinces, in the year 1796, to be 1,830,463. The po- pulation of the province of Holland as stated above, in the year 1732, was 980,000, and in the year 1796 it was 828,542, which shews a decrease of 151,458 inha- bitants, equal to one-thirteenth of the whole popula- tion. t : a1 f if a tat i i F i Ht F 3 | rf ; | i i 2 4 fr 1 l f ; ff i i never opened but when a corpse enaetataiee. ole erp ike aenlly serves for inary the family : this enstems ie poculiee to Marth. olland. The houses in almost part of the province have a gay appear- Hy i ; not ee windows. but the whole the towns, is generally two or three times a-week, by engines fer that ich are abundantly ied with water the same care is extended to the in which the more i i is litt i f rift is i i if; B i » from flying out; and 83 of a warehouse, used as a magazine for stock-fish, skins, tobacco, &c. so that the eye may turn from the works of Rubens and Titian to these disagreeable and dis- The custom of smoking is so that a genuine Dutch boor, instead distances of places by miles or hours, says, they are so many pipes asunder. Thus, a man may reach Delft from in four pipes ; but, if he goes on to the Hague, he will smoke seven during the journey. Ad- joining to their theatres is a room where refreshments ate to be sold, and preteen or ee br yah to smoke their pipes between the acts. Their rigid atten- tion to ot aad and bigotted attachment to smoking, jointly give rise to a most inconvenient and disgusting custom. After dinner, there is placed on the table, along with the wine and a spitting-pot, which is handed round as regularly as the bottle. All Dutch- men of the lower classes of society, and not a few in one ens ey their pocket the whole apparatus that is necessary for smoking: a box of enor- mous size, which frequently contains half a pound of tobacco ; a pipe of clay, or ivory, ing to the fan- cy or wealth of the possessor; if the latter, he carries also instruments to clean it; a pricker to remove obstructions from the tube of the pipe ; a cover of brass wire for the bowl, to prevent the ashes, or sparks, of the tobacco i sometimes a tinder-box, or bottle oy ~ repens rocure fire in case none is at hand. a otha te brought to bed, a bulletin is daily Holland. —_—— prevalent in Holland, smoking. of describing the Health bul- fixed to her house, for the space of a fortnight or longe®.letins t if she recovers slowly, which contains a statemen the health of the mother and child. This bulletip is fastened to a board, ornamented with lace, according to the circumstances of the person lying in ; and serves to answer the inquiries of friends, and to prevent unne- cessary noise near the house. When a pe of con- uence is ly il, a bulletin of th is rally affixed to their house ; but, unless it is a chil case, the board is not ornamented with lace. The women in Holland, in general, are lovely rather than beautiful ; in their persons they are well formed ; their complexions are fair, and their features regular, but their countenances are inanimate. Women are orcas ioe Saw men; and after twenty- ve generally al ir beauty. The management of children is very absurd and inpedicions The air of the country is regarded as so prejudicial to them, that for the first two or three months they are never taken abroad; and, during this period, the windows of their ments are kept invariably shut. Their dress con- bed Women, Dress of sists in flannel rollers, girt very tightly about their bo- chijacen, dies, and these rollers.are farther covered with a Jar flannel . bound three or four times round the bedy of the infant, and fastened with pins at its feet. The use of water is rigorously denied . Thas ma. naged, they are sickly, squalid objects. Children, par- ticularly females, are frequently indulged in the je cious use of egeries, or stoves, without which a Datchwoman could not exist, and this acids to their un- wholesome appearance. We may remark, by the bye, that the advances of Britain in ctvilization and useful knowledge, are perhaps in no instance more decidedly conspicuous, than in the improved management of children. Many of our readers must remember the period, when British children were almost universally clothed and treated as Dutch children still are. The female dress, such as it was generally worn in Holland. —— Ancient fe- male dress, Dutch lan- guage. Literature. Govern- ment and laws. St - Holland nearly two centuries since, is not unfrequently sull seen on the daughters of the ancient stock of burghers. The hair is bound close to the head, and covered with a small unornamented cap; with large plates of thin gold projecting from each side of the forehead, and a plate in the middle; ponderous ear- rings, and necklacesof the same metal ; gowns of thick silk, heavily embroidered, and’ waists of unnatural length and rotundity ; hats of the size of a small Chi- nese umbrella, gaudily lined within ; sometimes these hats are set up in the air like a spread fan ; yellow slippers, without qitarters at the heel Children and women of seventy are frequently seen in this preposter- ous dress, The women’ of rank or fortune are very fond: of ornamenting their dress with rare and valuable jewels. These, as well-asthe gold plates worn by the ower orders, are of great antiquity, and are most care- fully handed down from generation to: generation. The Dutch language is evidently of Gothic origin, but it is little knewn out of the United Provinces. Dutch literature will be more properly considered in the article Nerueruanps ; where, indeed, every thing relating generally to the history. and’ statistics of the Low Countries must be sought fer; as, in the present article, we confine ourselves, as» much as’ possible, to the province of Holland. With respect to’ the encou- ragement given to literature, this province’ was former- ly very remarkable. Leyden, Amsterdam, and? the’ Hague,'may be seen-on the title-pages of the most va- luable works, in Latin and French, which were: print- ed during the 17th, and the beginning: of the 18th'cens turies. The Elzivers, justly celebrated for the correct and beautiful editions which they have given to the world of the best writers of antiquity, resided in Ley- den, and ennobled its press by the elegant specimens of typography, which, for the space of a century, ap- peared from their press. During the bright period of French literature, when the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, D’Alembert, &c. were eagerly sought after by the learned and curious of Europe, the booksellers at the Hague and Amsterdam multiplied the editions of these authors, and carried ona lucrative trade with their works, Haerlem is one of the places which lays claim to the honour of the invention of the art of print~ ing; but at present, the literary character, as well as the bookselling and printing trade’ of Holland, are at a very low ebb. There is one university in’ the pro- vinee of: Helland at Leyden, and an inferior college at Amsterdam, Though the province of Holland is now only a part of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and of course has lost many of its peculiar privileges and institutions, yet some particulars respecting its government require to be noticed, as they still remain under the constitution of the Netherlands. Deputies of the nobles, and those of the towns and country, are elected for the parliament ofthe kingdom, There are’ also provincial councils of state for South and North Holland, For the admini- stration of justice; there are two courts held at the Hague; namely, the court of Holland, and’ the high council, The nobles of Holland. are subject to the ju- risdiction of this court ; an appeal lies to it from the sentences of the inferior courts. The high council of Holland judge peremptorily and definitively of all cases brought before them by an appeal from the court of Holland. Among the laws of this province the follow- ing deserve notice. No person can be arrested: for de t who has not been summoned regularly three times, with the interval of 14 days between each summons; and HiO@LULIAN D | q six weeks further must é! fromthe last official notifi- Holland: © cation and demand of the debt, before the creditor is pers =“ mitted to arrest or seize the effects of the insolvent per« “A son. By this mode of procedure, debtors are generally iy enabled either fully to settle their affairs, or to coms j promise with. their creditors, so’ that few ate sent to prison. No person can be arrested in his own house in Holland, or even standing at the door of it, though all fhe’ previous citations should have been made; and should his wife be lying in, he is privileged, during her illness, to go abroad. without molestation. The religion of Holland is Calvinism. In it: there Raigia. are two provincial synods ; oné for South Holland, and the other for North Holland. The whole province be- ing divided into a great: marly classés;coniposed of the deputies of five or six neighbouring churches; each: class sends four deputies to’ the respective synods, two ministers, and two elders. The synods meet twice’ a year, and: a political commissary ds their meeting: ¥ The ministers are paid by the magi , Their ries are small; few, even'in the cities, having £200 as yeni while in the country they have generally £60 or 70. wf The taxes of the’province' of Holland'are'very heavy: Taxes; They amounted:in’ 1795 to 24,000,000 of guilders, or’ 2,000,000 sterling, which, ori the supposition’ that the population was 800,000; formed an average of £2; 10s. each person ;) but'a large portion of this’ taxation is, in fact, paid by foreigners, who consume the’ articles tax ed. Among the taxes really paid: by the inhabitants” theniselves are the following: F i ere Hu Hib iF . i E = ° : i Ee g FR, zt li He i No. of inhabited houses,. . . . . . 5389 No. of families,. . . 2 701 Do. employed in trade and manufactures, SS a ee 1317 ee TL ee ee 1688 Total population, . . . . « . + 8005 from the coast of Northumberland, bet ing, im all civil matters, to the of Durham: (See Dwuanas, vol. viii. p. 201. col. 2.) It is situated to the mouth side of the monastery, inside of the walls being built of whinstone, obtained from the rock, which forms jor aahwe ier on the south side of the island. seniah sieamh Shuste:te the-Wnet of the reacts tery, is a plain but spacious Gothic edifice. The pe: destal of St Cuthbert’s cross, once highly esteemed, is now called the Pelting Stone. Holy Island is accessible at low water by all kinds of carriages, though there is considerable danger in crossing the sands without a guide. The island, which is a continued plain, is nine miles in circumference, and contains nearly 1020 acres, about one half of which is sand banks. On the north-east side of the island is a tongue of land about a mile long, and in several places not more than 60 yards wide. The tide may be here seen ebbing on the east, and flowing on the west. Though the soil is rich, yet, before the enclosure of the corhmon in 1792, only 40 acres were in tillage. In 1790, the rent of the whole island was <320, and in 1797, £926. The town lies on the west side of the island. It appears to have been once much larger, from the names and ruins of the streets. It is principall inhabited by-fishermen. The harbour, which is mall, lies between the town and the castle, and it is defended by a battery. The castle stands on a lofty whinstone rock on the south-east part of the island, about 60 feet high, and accessible only by a narrow winding pass. It is lly garrisoned by a detachment of invalids, The parish of Holy Island ix likewise called Island- shire, and contains the chapelries of Kyloe, Lowick, Ancooft, and Tweedmouth., Holy Island was made « bi s see by King Os- wald in 635. In 652, the chu was enlarged, but was only made of timber and thatched ; and, in 698, Eadberct, who was for 10 years, covered the roof and walls with sheets of lead. The Danes landed on the island in 793, and a second time in 875, when ewer Eardulph, with the inhabitants of the , took up the body of St Cuthbert, and left the island with all their rehes and sacred utensils. After a pilgrimage of seven years, at last settled in According the nk. H ing to the returns in 1811, were in Hol Island— 4 Namber of inhabited houses . . . . . 182 + agp tee rae me “ato et mele) & howe = in agriculture . . . 4 « Deie polecsa manufactures . . . . 47 Total population 2. 2 1 1 sw ee 675 See Scott's Marmion, canto ii. which contains a fine ical a of Holy Island; the Beauties England and Wales, vol. xii. p. 228 ; and Hutchinson's History of Durham. HOLYWELL, or Trerrynwox, is a town of North Wales, in Flintshire, which derives its name from a re- markably fine spring, which rises at the bottom of the hill just below the town. Holywell is pleasantly situa- ted on the slope of a hilly abounding jn lead ore, which rises beautifully above the town. The place is flourish- ing and well built, and consists of one long strect, an HOL Holywell. which is crossed by another near its centre of equal —_Y~ + goodness, 90 HOM. q See The Beauties of England and Wales, vol-xviiz p. 708; Homans The church was built in the year 1769. It is a plain neat building, with a square tower at the west end ; but though it is furnished with a bell, yet, from its si- tuation below the town, its sound is so inaudible, that it has been found necessary to summon the congrega- tion by a person, who suspends a pretty large one from his neck by a leathern strap, and fixes a’ cushion upon his knee. This moveable spire walks along eliciting sounds from the bell, whenever the cushioned knee strikes the instrument. There are other three places of worship in the town, two for Roman Catholics, and one for Protestant dissenters. The spring called St Winifred’s well is reckoned one of the finest in the kingdom. It was found by one ex- periment to discharge twenty-one tons in a minute, and by another 84 hogsheads, In the course of nearly two miles from the source of the spring to its junction with the Chester Channel, its water drives one corn mill, four cotton manufactories, built in 1777, 1785, 1787, and 1790, a copper smelting-house, a brass-house, a foun- dry, a large 8 smithy, a wire mill, a calamine calcinary, &c. The water boils up with great force into a well of a polygonal shape, covered by a colonnaded cupola, having its groined roof loaded with ornaments: It is supposed, but without much reason, to have been built by the Countess of Derby, mother of Henry VII. Near the well isa chapel in the pointed style, which seems to have been built before the time of Richard III. This building belongs to Mr Leo of Llanerch, and has recently been converted into a charity school. A precipitaus hill above the church was the scite of a fortress belonging to Ranulph the third Earl of Chester. No traces of the building, however, are now to be seen, The great mining concern, called the Holywell Le- vel, began in 1774, and till lately was an unprofit- able concern. The level is carried horizontally for the length of a mile into the hill, and serves both as a drain to the work, and as a canal for the delivery of the ore. Numerous vertical shafts have been cut from this horizontal archway, some of them in pursuit of the mineral veins, and others for the purpose of ventilating the mines. The products obtained from the hill are, 1. Limestone; 2. Chertz or petrosilex, which is‘ground for the use of the potteries ; 3. Lead ore of two kinds, viz. cubic or dice ore, employed in glazing earthen ware, and white or steel-grained ore, containing some silver ; 4. Calamine, or ore of zinc; 5. Blende, another ore of zinc, called Black Jack by the miners. The lead ore sometimes brings from thirteen to fifteen pounds per ton, and at other times not more than seven or eight pounds, . An account of the copper and brass manufactures of Holywell has already been given in our article Fiintsuie, vol. ix. p, $71. to which the reader is re- ferred. The following is the population abstract of the town of Holywell for 1811: &c. { HOMANN, Joun Bartist, an eminent German =e geographer and mechanic, anda very excellent engra< ver of hate was born at Kamlach, a village of Suabia, on the 20th of March, 1663. His parents, who were Catholics, intended that he should embrace the monas- tic life; but having repaired at an early age to Nurem-~ berg, he became a convert to the tenets of Lutheranism, and devoted himself to the art of engraving, particu- larly that of maps, which he executed with a degree of correctness and elegance then very uncommon. His first performances of this kind gained him so great a re- putation, that he waS summoned to Leipsic, where he was employed in engraving the maps to Cellarius’ Or- bis Antiquas. On his return to Nuremberg, he under« took to execute the maps to Scherer’s Allas Novus, which was published at eee in 1710. In the year 1702, he established at Nuremberg a manufacto of maps, from which there issued successively, speci- mens to the number of twohundred. In 1719, he pub- lished an Ad/as methodicus, for young persons, in eighteen sheets. Under the direction, and with the assistance of another able geographer, Doppelmayer, he also under- took the execution of an astronomical atlas, which ap- peared, after his death, along with Doppelmayer’s Ele- ments of Astronomy, in 1742. Besides maps, he like- wise constructed small armillary spheres and pocket globes, and a very curious and ingeniously contrived phical time-piece. . The scientific and mechanical talents of Homann were deservedly held in high estimation ; and his merit was not suffered to languish unrewarded. He was pa- tronised by the Emperor Charles VI. who appointed him his Majesty’s geographer ; and also by Peter, the Great, of Russia... The Royal Society of Berlin admit- ted him a member of their institution. He died in the year 1724.. The manufactory of maps, which he esta- blished at Nuremberg, -subsists to this day, and is stil} conducted under the auspices of his name. Homann is chiefly known.as.an excellent engraver of maps; but he likewise possessed a great deal of geo- graphical and astronomical knowledge ; and with an active and enterprising spirit, he combined an inven- tive genius and uncommon mechanical skill. (z) HOMBERG, Wiu1am, an eminent chemist, was born at Batavia, in the Island of Java, on the 8th of January 1652. His father was a Saxon, who had en- tered into the Dutch service, and obtained the command of the arsenal of Batavia. Having left this settlement, and gone to Amsterdam, he sent his son to the princi- pal universities in Germany and Italy, where he suc« cessively pursued the studies of law, anatomy, botany, astronomy, and chemistry. He was admitted to the bar at Magdeburg in 1674; but having become acquainted with Otto Guericke of that city, the celebrated inventor of the air pump, he devoted most of his time to the acqui- sition of the sciences. He now went to the university of Padua, where he studied medicine, anatomy, and. bo~ tany. After visiting Rome and Bologna, where he dis- ~ No. of inhabited houses, . . . . . . 1818 covered the method of making the Bologna stone lumi- No. of families, oe eet Se By hoe et OSE nous, he went through France to. England, and labour- Families employed in trade and manufactures, 752 ed for some time with our celebrated countryman Mr Do. in agriculture,, . . . . . . . . 117 Boyle. Returning to Holland, he resumed his anato- CS ait Regs Late 2925 mical studies under De Graaf, and took out his medi- Females, . . . . . . 8469 degree at prdarscse SF His passion for ape Z } os ing, however, ented him ' settling to the. Total population, . . . . . . . . 6894 hactiok of medio After suiting Baldwin and at ee ee ee eee Seal Home; Henry. — 91 LPH Pett a qasaeaguster 335558 eal G55 Zepegeisite 92% He eae Daeg TSH RH ee ree te LL aul teieiile f: qT HI dap aieais He iegiesdenes 32) relent; Hl Wiis elas aiiiss i SHARIR seth JRE Re Habe Etaas EA HAST PR IH ATE ees eree eH a HAGA fetes ailing ep ual belies sillier iit —- AeA a; ~ Peat PERS *Seesegeersu4 ‘ : : Seca att a eer (aati HB a tue inalile 2 idee 23 eet t ~ Huth ae vi at Hue ie ‘ies #3 eet page= 5 Melty bei Hi ictal en i i i vi i porte coe ae Was = stored and he Sees his first even a bigs 3 HH bss wlll : uF alk alle ial i eulatt a HITE il} ale > ti * : * —— — orn ee - Home, Henry. 92 the Court of Session did not meet for a period of eleven months. Mr Home employed that interval in various researches connected with the history, laws, and an- cient usages of his country, which he afterwards di- gested into a small treatise, and published in the year 1747, under the title of Essays upon several Subjects, concerning British Antiquities. These essays, although they contain some curious and important deductions, ef exhibit a great deal of ingenious reasoning, are by no means esteemed among the most valuable of the works of their author. We have already observed, that Mr Home’s mind was peculiarly turned to metaphysical speculations, for which he found leisure even amidst the pressure of his rofessional employment. In the year 1751, he pub- Fished his Essays on the Principles of Morality and Na- tural Religion. This work, in which he endeavoured to place the great principles of morals on a firm and im- mutable basis, unaccountably drew upon him, from certain quarters, the reproach of scepticism and impie- ty ; and his opinions, particularly on the abstruse ques- tion of free will, were attacked with great asperity by various writers. Some of these.were of so intolerant a spirit, that nothing less could satisfy their zeal, than the interference of ecclesiastical authority, to repress opinions which they conceived to be contrary to the canons of the established church, and subversive even of the fundamental principles of religion. To. his op= ponents, Mr Home made a formal reply, under the ti- tle of Objections against the Essays on Morality and Na- tural Religion examined. This controversy attracted the attention of the General, Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; and a motion was made in the committee for overtures, which was supposed to be indirectly levelled, among others, against the author of the Essays. The motion occasioned a very warm debate, but was finally negatived. However, Mr Anderson, a clergyman, and one of the most zealous of Mr Home’s. antagonists, re- solved not to let the matter rest here. He gave in a petition and complaint to the presley of Edinburgh against the printer and publisher of, the Essays on the Principles of Morality and. Natural Religion, requiring that the presbytery should summon them to appear be- fore them, and declare the name of the author of that work, in order that he might be subjected to ecclesias- tical censure. The persons complained against appeared by their counsel, and gave in formal, defences ; but Mr Anderson died during the course of the proceedings, The defendants, however, waving all. objection to the want of a prosecutor, consented that the court should give judgment on the merits of the case; which, after undergoing some discussion, terminated in the rejection of the complaint. In the month of February 1752, Mr Home was ap- pointed one of the Judges of the Court of Session, by the title of Lord Kames. His promotion gave general satisfaction to the country, as his abilities and. know- ledge of the laws, no less than his integrity and moral virtues, had raised him high in the public esteem. To the discharge of his duties, as a Judge of the Supreme Civil Court, he brought an acute understanding, an ar- dent feeling of justice, and a perfect acquaintance with the laws of his country ; which, amidst the variety of pursuits in which his comprehensive mind had been engaged, had always received the principal share of his attention, His judgments, which were always formed with deliberation, had deservedly the greatest weight with the Court, especially on all questions of recondite jurisprudence. Towards the bar he uniformly con- HOME. ducted himself with a proper courtesy and respect ; liss tening to the arguments of the senior counsel, who pleaded before him, with patient attention, and ani- mating the diffidence of the younger barristers by kind: indulgence and urbanity of demeanour. In his charac- ter he occasionally displayed something of the hu- mourist ; and, even on the bench, he could not always repress his constitutional vivacity, which sometimes broke out in amusing sallies, when the subject of dis- cussion led to a ludicrous train of thought, or when a happy repartee was suggested by the wit of the coun- 1 sel. A society had. been instituted in Edinburgh, in the year 1731, for the advancement of medical, knowledge, the’plan of which was afterwards extended, at the sug~ estion of the celebrated Maclaurin, to. subjects of phi+ Taonky and literature. It was now known by the ti- tle of The Society for Improving Arts and Sciences, but more generally by that of The Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. At what period Mr Home first became a member is uncertain; but he appears to have been elected its president about the beginning of the year 1769; and in the volume of the Transactions of. that learned body, published in 1771, there are three papers of his writing, viz, On the Laws of Motion ; On the Ad- vantages of Shallow Ploughing ; and, On. Evaporation. They exhibit the same ingenuity which is conspicuous in all his productions ; but the papers on physical sub- jects are not built.on sound philosophical principles. In the year 1755, Lord Kames was appointed a mems ber of the Board of Trustees for the Encouragement af, the Fisheries, Arts,.and Manufactures of Scotland ; and, about the same. period, he was chosen one of the come missioners for the management of the forfeited estates annexed to the crown, of which the rents were destined to be applied to the improvement of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. In the discharge of these import- aut trusts, he was a zealous and faithful servant “OF t the public. He seen attended the stated meetin MA these-boards, generally. officiating as chairman, and ta- king a most active concern in all their proceedings. In. the midst of his professional and literary occupations, he was at all times easy of access to the meanest indi-~ vidual who had any application to make; and was ready not only to advise, but even to, assist the igno- rant. and needy suitor in bringing his claims. fairly into - view.. In 1757,.he published The Statute Law of Scotland” Abridged, with Historical Notes, and two. years after. wards he gave to the world his Historical Law Tracts, each in one volume 8vo. The. latter work has under- gone several editions, and stands deservedly. high in the estimation of the public. It is one of the few. works which unite law. with philosophy, and the study of_ human nature; and it has accordingly received the praise, not:only of juridical authors, but of the. writers _ on politics and morals, both of our own and of foreign countries. In 1760, appeared his Principles of Equity, in which he traces historically the origin of the courts of equity in each of the united kingdoms, and endea- vours to ascertain those general rules by which a court of equity ought to be governed. The active mind of Ted Kames, however, did not confine its efforts to those studies and researches which were more intimate- ly connected with his profession, but,exerted its powers in various pursuits of a generally: interesting nature, In the course of the education of his own children, he was led to the composition of an elementary work suited to the minds of young persons, and calculated at ‘Home,. * Henry. HOME. 93 ‘the understanding, and to cultivate Clyde, which was begun in 1768, and from which, ome, poate rp = . This little work he published bie its ¢ . op — e Pe i - agosd of Hooghly, var 70 miles P “ tant; and so rapid is e tide, that it Devonshire, is situated in a delightful vale, upon a passes throu h thie extent fn hours. It d amen, on the winch ia oes « run on the Caleutts side; but proceeds slong the oppo. commanding a fine view of the surrounding country, site bank, from which it crosses at Chitpoor, ebeat bear a nee re ne as * % ae terw genetally practised, _ It passed into Holland and Germany, — was hardly known in France until the year 1695. See Histoire de la Mesure du Temps, tom. iL. p. 100. At the time when this clock of Clement's appeared, Dr Hooke claimed the invention of .it.as. his, .and af- firmed, that after the great fire of London, in 1666, he had shewn to the Reyal Society « clock with this very | t. . Considering,” says Sully, in his Histoire t « the genius, and the ot ace The dead. beat ‘scapement of Graham’s next succeed- Graham's ed, which was invented some time after the beginning of dead-beat tended to measure time very accurately. , & Lepaute’s very ingenious watchmaker im Paris, about improve- the-year 1753, or sometime before: it, a ‘scapement pe upoh ; founded on. that of Graharh’stlead-beat one. See Fig. 7. fig 1, In Lepaute’s, the rest of the teeth on the pallets was al. 118 HOROLOGY. Eseape- ways with the same effect, because it was on the same could be adduced of the excellent performance of clocks — Escape- ment. —_circle, whichever of the pallets it rested upon; theimpulse which had the recoiling ’scapement. Vi ee. ment. © Lepaute’s given was also always the same on whichever pallet it Let us now make a similar comparative trial with the Conpediad va escapement, Was given, the flanches of the pallets being planes equal- dead beat ‘scapement. An additional motive force be- of the dead Prate ly inclined. This was no doubt some improvement on ing put to it, we find that the are of vibration is consid- beat and ccc, raham's; but the teeth of the swing wheel in Lepaute’s erably increased, and the clock, in consequence of this, recoiling Big. 7. consisted of sixty small pins, thirty being arranged on goes very slow. There are two causes which produce ‘Pe each side of the rim of the wheel ; and where pin-teeth this; the one is, the greater pressure by the swing ™°™ are ysed, oil, which is in some degree necessary, can- wheel teeth on the circular part of the pallets during not easily be kept to them, the attraction of the rim of — the time of rest ; the other is, the increase of the arc of the wheel constantly draining the oil from these pin sort vibration. It was observed in the case of recoil, that of teeth; an evil which is perhaps not easily to be got ‘ an additional motive force made the clock go fast ; and the better of, unless by using stone pallets and hard the same cause is found to make the clock having the tempered steel pins. dead beat go slow. As the causes are the same, and yet Recoiling otwithstanding the seeming superiority and great produce effects diametrically opposite, does not this *seapement, character which the dead beat ’scapement had long ac- evidently point out what is necessary to be done? Fig. 8. quired over that of the recoiling one represented in Fig. 8. The pallets should be so formed, as to have very little this last had, however, its partizans; and among them of a recoil, and as little of the dead beat ; and here any were artists and amateurs possessed of first rate talents. variation in the motive force, or in the are of vibration, Such were Harrison, Professor Ludlam of Cambridge, will produce no sensible deviation from ita settled rate Berthoud, Smeaton, andothers. Harrison, indeed, always of time-keeping. We have been informed, that a clock rejected the dead beat ’scapement with a sort of indigna- was given by Mr Thomas Grignion to the Society tion. The author of the Elements of Clock and Watch for the prego i of Arts, Manufactures, &c.. Making, has said a great deal in favour of the dead beat, ‘* which had a dead beat ‘scapement, so ‘constructed and as much against that of the recoiling one, without. or drawn off, that any diminution or addition of motive having shown in what the difference consisted, or what force, would not alter the time-keeping of the clock.” was the cause of the good properties in the one, or ° All the ’scapements of this kind which have been hith- what the defects in the other. It appears doubtful erto made, were commonly drawn off nearly in the if these causes were known to him; yet he was very same way as Mr Grignion’s, that is, the distance be- deservedly allowed to be a man of considerable genius, .tween the centre of the pallets, and the centre of the- When pallets are intended to give a small recoil, their swing wheel, is equal to one diameter of the wheel,. form, if properly made, differs very little from those and the line joining the centre of the pallets, and the- made for the dead beat, as may be seen by the dotted acting part of them, is a tangent to the wheel, taking in lines upon the dead beat pallets in Fig. 6. ten teeth, and ’scaping on the eleventh. This is nearly the- Comparison | We shall endeavour to point out the properties and © same as that represented in Plate II. of MrCuming’s book. of the dead defects naturally inherent in each: When the teeth of The only difference is, that Mr Grignion’s circle of rest beatand —_ the swing wheel, in the recoiling ’scapement, drop or is the same on each pallet. But whether it possesses the- meting ts, fall on either of the pallets, the pallets, from their form, artes which have been ascribed to it, shall be left pement®- make all the wheels have a retrograde motion, opposing to the determination of those who may chuse to try at the same time the pendulum in its ascent, and the descent, from the same cause, being equally promoted. This recoil, or retrograde motion of the wheels, which is imposed on them by the reaction of the pendulum, is sometimes nearly a third, sometimes nearly a half or more of the step previously advanced by the movement. This is perhaps the greatest, or the on- ly defect that can properly be imputed to the re- coiling ’scapement, and is the cause of the greater wearing in the holes, pivots, and pinions, than that which takes place in a clock or watch having the dead beat, or cylindrical ’scapement; but this defect may be partly removed by making the recoil small, or a little more than merely a dead beat. After a recoil- ing clock has been brought to time, any additional , motive foree that is put to it, will not greatly increase the are of vibration, yet the clock will be found to go considerably faster ; and it is known that where the arc of vibration is increased, the clock ought to go slower, as would be the case, in some small asec’: with the ct af pendulum. The form of the recoiling pallets tends to accelerate and multiply the number of vibra- tions, according to the increase of motive force impres- sed upon them, and hence the clock will gain on the time to which it was before regulated. Professor Ludlam, who had four clocks in his house, three of them with the dead beat, and the other with a recoil, said) “ that none of - them kept time, fair or foul, like the last: This kind this experiment with it. Clock makers in general have an idea, that, in a *scapement, the pallets ought to take in seven, nine, or- eleven teeth, thinking that an even number would net answer. This opinion seems to-have arisen from the old. crown wheel having always an odd number of teeth, because an even number could not have been so fit for it. There seem to be no rules (as some have imagined). necessarily prescribed by either the recoiling or the- dead beat ’scapement, for any particular distance, which. the centre of the pallets ought to have from. that of the-- swing wheel. The nearer that the centres of the swing ack and pallets are, the less will be the number of teeth taken in by the pallets, when a tangent for them is drawn to the wheel. It is very obvious, that when the arms of the pallets are long, the greater will be the influence of the motive force on the vibrations. of the pendulum, and vice versa, when the pallets. are short, the angle of the ’scapement. will naturally be. greater than may be required, but this can be easily .lessened by making the flanches so as to give any angle -equired. When this angle is not quite half a degree oi it side, a very small motive force will keep a pretty heavy pendulum in motion. We have known a very good clock maker; who thought that the flanch of the pallets was an arbitrary or fixed point, which could be made only in one way, and it was some little while before he could be convinced of the contrary. The of ’scapement gauges the pendulum; the dead beat leaves flanches may be made so long as to act something like it at liberty.” Were it necessary, many good proofs detents, so as to stop the wheel altogether by the teeth, HOROLOGY:. (a . made so short, as to allow wheel teeth to pass them altogether, without gi Seen worsens: - necessity ving oi ns Ruta seems to be ! ve very rarely been adopted in anoint of oseha nature, that v be competent to execute it properly. : stances which led to the invention of them, were men- 5 Piarc oe this % and this ix he ich he About two or of this tract, Mr nearly Sartre Tema bela, hich gosol oye’ i durin thetime of the descent. In this’scapement, or motion of the pallets is independent of that verge, although the same, and concentric two detents were applied for locking pin v y commenced. In that ; which have no place in that of the other. 119 inion, that Mr Cuming borrowed his from Mudge’s. the *scapement of the clock made by Cuming for his Majesty the king in the year 1763, is of the free or detached kind, a name which was not then known. The improvement which he himself made upon it two or three years after, was to keep up the motion of the pendulum by the gravity of two small balls, inde} lent of the motive force the wheels of movement. In this ‘scapement, he insists on the adjustment between the pendulum screws and crutch being made so as just to unlock the swing wheel and no more. This can then be only unlocked at the time, when the force of the pendulum in its ascent is nearly gone, and that the dulum should not then meet with the arm of the ball, but to receive it, as it were, just before the descent of the ulum has of Mr Mudge’s, each tand detent were formed in one, and the unlocking takes place a considerable while before the end of the vibra- tion. Thus, the springs which maintain the motion of the balance are bent up, not only by means of the ac- tion of the swing or balance wheel teeth on the pallets at every vibration till the wheel teeth are |, but are still a little more bent up when unlocking by the exertion or momentum of the balance, or ulum it- self, ious to yo vibrations being apy finished ; and this is one greatest ies of this ‘scape- ment, whether fs applied to ie tala and spring, or to the ulum. No ’scapement appears tobe betters calculated than this is, to keep the pendulum or balance constantly up to the same arc of vibration, notwithstand. ing its having what some have been pleased to call a defect in the recoiling one, that of opposing the balance or pendulum in its ascent, and promoting its descent. In the spring pallet ‘ t, as in the recoiling one, the ulum is in its ascent, and has its descent equally + but there is still a difference be- tween valle notwithstanding this similarity. In the spring pallet ‘scapement, no retrograde motion is given to the wheels, pinions, and pivots, which produces that early wearing on them, where the seconds’ hand partakes also of this retrograde motion as in the com- mon recoiling ’ ent. These are circumstances In such ts as those now mentioned of Mudge's or Cuming’s, it has been said by some, that it matters not what sort of work the clock movement is, or however ill it may be executed ; since the motion of the pendu- lum is mar by a force, which, in some degree, is in- dependent of the motive force produced through the ae the movement. Flog ote true, yet no ‘scapement, w any i ity in the pitchings, pinions, &c. of the movement will be more readily discovered than in this, during the going of the clock, which gat aia’ f ible to the ear at the time of raising up the balls, or that of bending up the i We would therefore by no means advise, that this sort of *scapement should be put to a movement of indifferent execution: on the contrary, it seems to re- quire one finished in the best possible manner. The motive force put to it requires to be greater than that which is usually put to clocks having the dead beat ‘scapement. It may be asked, whether weights or springs are the best for these sorts of ‘scapements, which is perhaps a question not easy to be resolved. We confess that springs appear to be preferable ; they seem to have, as it were, an alertness or quickness of action, when com to the t heavy dull motion of gravity in the balls. pivots which are 8 Escape- ment, —_—— 120 Eseapt- at. the centre of motion’of 'the:pallets’and balls would ments. be regarded by.many-as objectionable, from the belief that oil is necessary to them. Oil does not seem to us in the least degree requisite, considering the very small angle of! motion whos they would have; and we have always thought; for the'same reason, that oil was) not necessary to the pivots of such detents as were some- times used in ‘the detached ’seapement. We shall now proceed to give a description of a clock ‘scapement, on the same principle as that of Mudge’s in his marine: time-keepers, which was put to a very capital regulator or astronomical: clock, madeésome years ago by: Mr Thomas Reid, for Lord Gray’s observatory at Kinfauns Castle. It had a mercurial compensation , pendulum, and ‘its time: of going without winding up was forty-five days. The great wheel, the second. wheel, and the swing wheel pivots, were’ run on rollers, three being put to each ivot. Rollers were first applied by Sully to the ba- face pivot of ‘his marine time-keeper, and have since been adopted by Berthoud, Mudge, and others. They have sometimes been used: for clock. pivots, but ‘in such an injudicious manner, that, in place of relieving the friction of the pivots, they have at last jambed' them ‘to such a degree, that the pivot could not at all. turn’ or revolve upon them. Description ~In Fig. 1. SW is the ’seapement or swing-wheel, of a clock whose teeth’ are cut not unlike those of the wheel for ’scapement. g dead beat, but not near so'deep.. P, P are the pal | &,~ ng lets; the wpper ends of whose arms at s, » are made Pirate very thin, so as to form’ a sort of springs, which must cccl. be made’ very delicate; for, if they are any way-stiff, Fig. 1. the force’ of the swing wheel will not be able to bend them when raising up the pallets. In order? that these springs may have a_ sufficiency: of ee and at the same time be as delicate as possible, they are cut open at the bending parts, as may be seen at’ Fig, 2. Fig. 2. These springs come from a kneed. sort of sole, formed from the same piece’ of steel, by which sole’ they are serewed on to cocks, which~are attached to the back’ or pillar plate of the clock-frame.. The pallet arms must’ be made very light’ and ‘stiff, in order that their weight'may have the least’ possible load’or bur- den on the: springs; a, a are the’ arms: of’ the’ pal- lets, as represented in the front’ view, Fig. 1. and are fully as broad ‘as is necessary. Their thickness may be’ niade much less than this: An edge view of the pallet arms is seen in Fig. 2; The acting parts of the pallets at P,P, Fig. 1. shouldbe made of'such thickness'as to al- low room for inserting-a piece of ruby, agate, or any fine’ or hard sort of stone; the thickness’ of the stone’ be» ing a very little more than that’ of the: ’scapement’ or swing wheel. Each of these stone’ pallets, has a’ sort of nib or: detent for the wheel teeth, which is left at the end of the pallet flanches, as may easily be seen at the left hand: pallet, Fig 1.. These’ nibs are made for the locking of’ the swing’ wheel: teeth, and’ their use will-be more’ particularly explained af- terwards. On the back of the pallets are’ screwed to each a-kneed light brass piece ¢, c, as seenat Fig. 1.) ‘On the lower ends ‘of these kneed pieces, the screws’ d,d-are put through, serving the double purpose of lege the *scapement, and setting the pendulum on beat. The upper part’ of the pendulum-rod is com- of a sort'of frame, whose steelplates'A, A, A, Aj. ig. 1; are represented as being contained within the dotted circular lines; the thickness of these ring-sort’ of plates is'seen-at A, A, A, A, Fig: 2. This frame has’ hree pillars to keep. the -plates-properly together’; and‘ HOROLOGY. though they are not represented in the drawing, yet Hecapes any one may readily conceive where their piece ought | ments. i At, ar to be, and what should be their length an ” e, e, Fig. 1. is seen on each side the-ends ofa thin steel plate, or traverse bar, which goes from plate to plate, : and is fixed in the frame... An oblique view of one of them is seen at e,¢, Fig. 2, In the steel frame plates, there is a circular opening, as represented by the dot- ted inner circle, Fig. 1. This opening must be of such a-diameter as to allow the swing wheel and the cock which supports it to come freely throngh; a part of the cock is seen at»; f, Fig. 2. the sole of which F is serewed to the back the other knee K turns up:to receive the pivot of the the pillar plate of the clock ;. arbor of the swing wheel, the pivot at the other end of . this arbor: being supposed to run in the fore plate, or in a cock attached to it, and is the pivot which carries the seconds’ hand. This description of the manner by which the swing wheel is supported within the pendu- lum, it is to be hoped will be sufficiently understood, notwithstanding the want of a proper drawing of that part. The swing wheel S W, bach part of its pinion arbor g; are seen ‘edgewise at Fig.2. ; also the arm a.of one of ‘the pallets. P, and. its screw d bearing on the steel. bar e,e. At the point of contact between the end of the screw d and the bar‘e, a small piece of fine stone: may be inserted into-each bar. This will prevent any Wearing or magnetic: attraction which might) otherwise take place, if the screw: was: left’ solely to act on the: steel bar ; for the smallest wearing here would in some degree alter theeffects of the’scapement. In Fig. 1. B represents! a part of the bar of the pendulum rod, which is fixed into the lower part of the: steel frame > an edge view of this: bar is seerat B, Fig. 2. At:the upper part of the steel frame is inserted a piece.c, c, Fig. 1. and:2.; in this: piece: the pendulum spring is fixed, whose top piece into a strong brass cock, which : firmly attache me the back of the clock-case,. or toa stone pier; the end of the projectin of this aa is ss at DD, Fig. 1, phn Hi of this part of it at DD, Fig. 2. The top piece of- the pendulum spring has a long: and. strong’ steel pin through it, which lies in.a notch made across on the - upper side and projecti of the pendulum cock. By. this. strong: ithe deuksiaes is suspended. In. the: side of the. pendulum-spring top-piece, is made a large hole, so as to admit freely a. strong. screwy the head of which. is) seen at. E, Fige 2. This together, after the pendulum has been made to take a true vertical position. This strong: pin and screw are not represented in the drawing, but.the descri tion which has been given will, itis presumed, supply this want. In the pendulum spring 4,4; Figs. 1. and 2, maybe: seen ‘an opening:in it; so as to have the appearance ofa intern as seemath, h, Fig. 2. This opening is made to allow the:spring parts: of the pallets s, sto be brought very near together, and this at the bending part of the: aaa spring,.so, that it and the- bending part of pallet springs should be as it were in one common centre. A. partionly of the cocks on which the spring pallets are screwed, is repre+ sented by~ 4, &, Fig. 1.; m,m are the heads: of the screws by which they are fixed to these cocks. It. must'be observed here, that the spring pallets are so placed, that they should act on the line. of and ‘gravitation of the pendulum, which necessarily brings the swing wheel to the place where it is; no verge, eruteh, or fork are required ; the influence of. o screw serves: to pinch the top-piece and cock firmly, © ~~ sigotey iF | rH li es Fe ae dent of any w rk, so. fox ee nee te s permanent and invariable, end 20 should be the arc described by the om. If the length ef the pen- dulum and of the are it describes are invariable, so ld be the time which is kept by the clock. Having the parts which compose this ’scapement, it Ht it i ‘ r 3 3 ee 2, ° : 2 2 RLESie i H at hi ‘ fF 3 ef : F a z | Fir eee A ff g é r i F =e ff i a Fs i: a 5 i § si 3 Hi 5 : z : | ag i 3 55 zs a ie h ‘ rye es PF i d : F a 4E z i a £3, ig i F | ay : Ei t i! | # ae a} & E FS é F : rs 5 s s & fs following is a scheme and description of another VOL. XI. PART I. - HOROLOGY. 121 clock ’scapement, which the writer of this article con- trived about twelve or fifteen years age. . In Plate CCCI. Fig. 3. SW is the swing wheel, whose diameter may be so large, as to be sufficientl which this swing wheel are cut thus deep, in order that wheel be as light as possible, and the strength thie teeth little mare than what is necessary to reat the action or force of a common clock weight through the wheels. They are what may be called the locking teeth, as will be more readily seen from the use of them afterwards to be explained. Those called the impulse teeth, consist of very small tempered steel pins, inserted Go Ciibastien of tha: tee of thewhesk cn che idecnly. Th them relatively as well be may be, so that their centres of motion may coincide as nearly as possible. A perfect coincidence of the centres might be obtained by using a hollow cylinder for the detent arbors running in the inside of yerge, with the » & this would have occasioned more trouble. That part of the pallet frame, as it may be called, in which stone for receiving the action or impulse small pin teeth, is formed into a rectangular so as to allow room for a dovetail groove, into lets are fixed, as may be seen at P, Fig. 4, which also gives a 4 is seen as fixed on the verge. At 4, Fig. seen outer end of one of the stone pallets made flush with the steel. dergee aes jd - a lets upon which the pin teeth act, may be seen in 3, where they are i sitions relative to the pin that which gives the dead beat. In Fig.3. are daseaal A, 2 chau tothe of medion 16 of C, Cs They are fixed on their arbors by a thin steel socket, made as forged with the detents, much in the same wa as the pallets were, as may be seen at c, Fig. 5, which ives a side view of one of the detents and its arbor. screws ec, ff, in the arms of the detents, have a ce made to receive them, which is more readily seen in Fig. 5. than in Fig, 3. Khe sees 6500S or the i part of the ‘scapemen Po dike Sa) mag pushing the detents out from locking he ends of the stone pallets, one of which is sented at b, Fig. 4. The screws f, f, serve to adjust the locking of the wheel teeth on Se eee De een Tewceapeer pleees ox studs, which are fixed to the inside of the pillor frame plate, and may be near an inch in height. The ends of the screws f, f rest on the side of these studs, and according as they are more or less screwed through at the ends ot wo ss Another 1en 'Y clock free of the arbor of the wheel that runs into its pinion, ’scapement in eight day clocks is the third. The teeth of by Mr Reid. PLATE Fig. & Fig. 5. ent 192 HOROLOGY. Escape- the detents, so much less’ or more hold will the detent ments.. _ pieces have of the teeth, These holding pieces of the de- Another tents'are not represented in the drawing, as they would nk have made other parts of it rather obscure. They are *scapement’ made of stone, and are fitted im by means of a dovetail by Mr Reid. cut ina piece left for that purpose, on the’ inside of the Prats —_ detenitarms, as may easily be conceived from the draw- CCCT. Migs. ino, where'it is’ renresented in part at e, Pig. 5; and $4,555 : I ss cd : Chg is in-the line across the arm with the’serew e, which is close by the edge of the detent stone-piece, which projects a little beyond the end of the screw. Having described’ the’ parts of the ’scapement, we shall now ex- plain their mode of action. On the'left hand side, the pin-tooth is represented as having just escaped its pal- let, asseen in Fig. 3; but, previous to its having got on to the flanch of this pallet, let us conceive that the back of’ the pallet, or end piece 5 of it, had come, in consequence of the motion of the pendulum, to that side, and opposing the screw e, which is in the detent arm, pushes or carries it on with it, and consequently unlocks the tooth of the wheel| which’ then endeavours to get forward; but the pin-tooth, at this instant of un- locking, meeting with the flanch of the pallet at the low- er edge inside, arid pushing forwards on’ the flanch, by this means impels the pendulum, and after having’ es- éaped the pallet, the next locking tooth is received by the detent on the right hand'side, where the wheel is iow again locked. In the mean time, while the pen- dulum is describing that part of its vibration towards the left hand’ free and detached, as the pallets are now at liberty to move freely and independently of the small pin-teeth, on the return of the pendulum to the right hand side, the detent, by means of the back of the pallet on that side, is pushed out from locking the wheel, and, at the instant of the unlocking, the wheel gets forward, and the pin-tooth is at the same instant ready to get on the flanch of its pallet, atid give new impulse to the pendulum, as is obvious by what is represented in the drawing, Fig. 3. After the pin- tooth has escaped the pallet, the wheel is again lock~ ed on the opposite or left hand side; the pendulum moves on to the right freely and independently till thé next locking on the left takes place, and so on. It may be ahbervod that the unlocking’ takes place when the pendulum is near the lowest point, or point of rest, and of course where its force is nearly a maximum. Without attaching any thing to the merits of this’’scapement, wé may remark that the clock was observed froma time to time by a very good transit instrunient, atid, during a period of eighty three days, it kept within the sécond, without any interim apparent deviation, This degree of time-keeping seemed to be’ as much a mattér of ac- cident as otherwise ; and cannot reasonably be expécted from this, or any clock whatever, as 4 fixed or settled rate. Method of | This *scapement being a detached of free ’scapement, thie scan. © at pleastire be converted either into a recoiling or caeak ake a dead beat one, without so much as once disturbing ot inion x6: stopping the pendulum a single vibration. To make a coiling or a dead beat of it, put in a pés of wood; ot a small wite to dead-beat each, so as to raise the detents free of the pallets; arid ne these being left so as to keep them in this position, the ini-teeth will now fall on the citcular parts of the pall , and so on tothe flanch, and the ’scapementis then, to all intents and purposes, a dead beat one. To make a recoiling one of it, let there be fixed to each arbor of the detents, a wire to project horizontally from them about 84 or 4’inches long ; the outer ends of the wires must be tapped about half an inch in length; provide two small brass balls, half ant ounce weight each; having’a hole through them, and tapped so as to screw on the Fscape- — wires; the’ balls'can be put more or less home, and be’ ments. adjusted ‘proportionably to the force’ of the clock on the’ k pendulum. No recoil’ will be seen by the seconds” hand);’ “ yet these balls will alternately oppose and assist the mo= tion ofthe pendulum, as niuch’ as’ any recoiling pallets can’ possibly do; and) as their ‘effects on the pendulum! i will be exactly the same, it may'be considered as a good’ ; recoiling’ ‘scapement. This sort of detached ’scapement, ‘ by becoming a dead'beat, or a recoiling one, at any time’ : when required, makes it convenient for making various’ experiments with the different ’scapéments. We shail now proceed to describe a‘ clock ’scape¥ ment, whose pallets require no oil, invented by the laté Mr Jotn Harrison, who received the patliamentary reward of £20,000 for a marine’ time-keeper. In Plate CCCI. Fig. 6. SW is the swing-wheel, Harrison's — whose teeth are shorter than usual. On the verge is a “lock brass arm, of a sort of cross and flat pro form, as wittat aati may be seen at ¢; ¢, ¢, Fig. 6. and at ¢, e, Figs. 7. and 8. Prave Upon this arm are screwed two brass-cocks, marked d, d, CCCI. Figee in Fig. 6. and din Figs. 7. and 8; the upper pivots of 6,7,8. the’ pallet arbors, as seen at a, Figs.’7. and’ 8. run in these cocks, arid: thé lower pivots In the end of the prongs: On'the lower end of the pallet arbors is a brass socket to‘each, having freedom to move easily on them, and also'a proper end-shake between the pro and the pallet arms. On the end of the sockets, aye pallet arms, is rivetted a thin piece of brass to each, the piece on the socket of the driving pallet being shaped as seen at h, h; Figs. 6. and 7. and Pavan two holes in’ it; one of thesé holes has a range, limited by a pin fixed to the brass arm from the verge; the other hole, which is at the outer end, allows range to a pin, which is fixed to an arm on the pallet arbor, as may be seen at Figs. 6. and 7. The piece of brass on the socket of the leading pallet arbor is sh as séen at F, h, Figs. 6. and 8. having a tail which comes to rest ofi the outer edge of the cock d, after being carried a little way by the mo- tion of the pallet; at the outer end, at 4, is a small brass screw, serving as a counterbalance to the opposite arm of pallet hook. In this pallet arm is an opening, throtigh which the swing-wheel comes, as may be seen at 1, Fig. 8. the‘arm at the other end being filed thin down leaving a sort of shoulder on it. AB, Fig. 6. is a sto piece of brass rivetted, or screwed; to the verge collet ; CC is the steel erutch, having another arm, which comes up on the ifiside of the piece of brass; the ball or paume of the crutch is ag to the verge collet by a sort of spting collet, which has two scréws outside, and through to thé verge collet, the crutch having liberty to turn on the verge. The piéce of brass AB has two short knees turned up, having a hole tapped in éach to ré- éeive the’ two screws s, s, Fig. 6. whose ends bear on the upper atm of the crutch, and servé to move the atm to one side or the other, so as to put the pendulum or clock on beat ; p, p, is a piece of wood put on the lower end of the crutch, having an opening in it, y clip or take in with the middle rod of a gridiron pen- alum. d The parts of this ’scapement being described, it now Mode of aca remains to éxplain their action. The tooth of the tionin Hare swirig:wheel, which has hold of the hook of the ledding-rison’s pale or right hand pallet, carries it on, until another = meets with the hook or notch at the end of the driving pallet arm. When this takes place, the wheel ig made to recoil a little back; at this instant, the hook of the leading pallet gets free of the tooth, and is made to rise clear of the top of it, by means of the eounterbalancing of the brass arm, and the screw & at possible. The nice execution required in a manner as 7 whether for a clock or a watch, formerh, ‘ in 1763, “ fl i; i ; Hi i i if i itt i EF Hi F x x if i f iff it i HOROLOGY. iplanen S7aS . from inciples, same time knowing nathing afhs properties, the gene- pallet ral ice was to taper , so that the coils, when = unbending, should preserve an equal dis- tance with one another ; and this method has been used ever since the application of the spiral spring. Those who finished watches for Mudge and Dutton, were. never employed to. make the pendulum spring. This was ed ways done at home by either M or Dutton th selves, who, no doubt, endeavoured to make them as nearly isochronous as possible. This, among other causes, perhaps gave their watches the celebrity which they at that time had deservedly acquired. The pallets,of the ‘scapement at the turret clock in Greenwich Hospital, are said to have been contrived by Mr Smeaton. The .following narrative will show how he came to be concerned in it. It may be observed, that at that time he was one of the commissioners, The turret clock, whichis in the of Greenwich Hospital, was undertaken by the late Escapement r John Holmes, of the tur- and executed under his directions by Mr Thwaites, ret-clock at But before any thi ed two gentlemen, w to be his most inti- mate fends; the one was the Rev. Mr Ludlam of Cambridge, the other Mr John Smeaton, both of whom were very eminently qualified to give such advice as was wanted in this business, not only about the ’ ment, but how every of the clock should be fitted “ty and utility in its performance. and may that ingenuity. They agreed that the ‘scapement the nee ae planes,as wy pallets, im ving was common their acting , should have curved surfaces, the Jead- ing pallet-being concave, and the driving one convex ; and miedo jolum was at or near to the extremity of the vibration, the ‘scapement should then be nearly dead. This was,as he said, what “old father Hindley at York had ultimately come into!" Mr Ludlam advised, that the swing wheel teeth should be thick and deep, and of such a shape as to roll as it were on the pallets, and not to slide on them, which would prevent biting or wearing. The pallet arms were of brass, made soas pales in the power ogee clockmaker to take the v y out, when repairing was necessary. had before this been used by Har- rison, and were ina clock of bisin Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge,as mentioned by Mr Ladlam, Broad rub- ing surfaces were strongly advised by them. Mr Smea- ton at this period took away gudgeons from a mill wheel, whose diameters were only 24 inches, and putothers in their of 8, inches with great success, .as it after- wards proved. On thesame principles which have just now been mentioned, was the ‘scapement made for the clock, which Mr Thomas Reid put up in St Andrew's Chureh, Edinburgh ; and although it has been going for about thirty years, Uere.is,not yet the smallest ap- pearance of biting or wae the pallets. ‘Scapements bave been divided into classes, one of which has been called those of the remontoir kind. Now, the mechanism of a remontoir may be applied to any ‘scapement, and even then. it can hardly be said to form a part of it, more. than the wheels of the mevement, . the ‘ was done, Mr Holmes consult- Greenwich Hospital. oan mae Ss wheels, may Remontoir. Escape- ments. Description of the re- montoir which was applied to the clock of St An- drew's Church, ‘Edinburgh, 124 HOROLOGY. toirs; that is, that the movement should at intervals be made to wind up either a small weight, or bend up a delicate spring, which alone should give its force to the ’scapement, by which means the pendulum or balance was supposed to be always impelled by an equal and uniform force, The earliest thing of this sort was used about the year 1600. Huygens applied it to some of his clocks, and gives a description of it in his Horologium Oscillatortum ; and Harrison had one in the marine timekeeper, which gained him the great reward. We are of opinion, that they are of no great use either to a elock or aspring time-piece ; for if the pendulum of the one is well fixed, and the momentum of the ball is not too little, any small inequalities of the motive force through the wheels will hardly be perceptible; and in the spring time-keeper, the isochronism of the pendu- lum or balance spring is’ sufficient to correct any ine- qualities whatever in its motive force. As their me- ehanism, however, is curious, and has been rarely de- scribed, it may not be uninteresting to our readers to have such an account of it as would enable them to make and adopt it should they think it proper. : The one which we propose to describe, is that which was contrived by Mr Reid for the clock of St Andrew’s church. Suppose a small frame, separate and indepen+ dant of the clock frame, to contain two wheels, one of which is the swing wheel, having within it the ’scape- ment work. The other wheel is crossed out, so as to be as light as may be, the rim being left just so broad as to admit fixing on it seven kneed pieces or teeth, each about a quarter of an inch thick and half an inch long, three of which are on one side of the rim, and four on the other side. Three on each side have the knees of different heights, corresponding each to each. The fourth is a little highet than either of the third highest. The wheel on which these are fixed, has a tooth pro- longed beyond the rim, of the same thickness and length as the others, making eight teeth in all, having a small space left between each. These teeth become as it were so many wheels in different planes, and are at equal dis- tances from one another, with the same extent of radius coming to the centre of the swing wheel arbor, being just so much larger than that of the swing wheel, as to allow the swing wheel teeth to clear the arbor of it. The edge or side of the teeth which rest on the swing wheel arbor is a plane, and rounded off on the opposite side, to the point or angle formed by this plane. The arbor of the swing wheel has eight notches cut into it a little beyond the centre. These correspond to the eight teeth of the other wheel, and are sufficiently wide and deep to allow the teeth to pass freely through them. Each notch stands at an angle of 45 degrees to the one which is next it, which difference is continued along the arbor through the whole, making 360’ degrees. for one revolution of the swing wheel. On each of the ar- bors of these wheels was fixed a pulley having a square bottom, in which were set about ten hard tempered steel pins a little tapered, something like the pullies at the old thirty hour clocks, whose bottom was round in place of square. The pendulum was fixed to the wall of the steeple, as well as the frame containing the ’scape- ment work, and the apparatus which has been descri- bed. The arbor of the eight toothed wheel had one of its pivots prolonged with a square on the end outside. ‘The clock frame containing the movement was in the cen+ tre of the steeple, and the pinion in it, which suppose to be that of the swing wheel, had one of its pivots also prolonged, and squared outside. These squared pivots were connected by a steel rod and Hooke’sjoints. The 7 main weight of the clock being put on, must-urge hot Escape- only the wheels to turn, but that of the wheel having the nae kneed teeth ; but some one or other of these teeth pres- | sing on the arbor of the swing’ wheel cannot turn, con- Description sequently none of those in the large frame ean. turn, o the re- nor can the swing wheel turn here unless’ some other weccaryalle. means are used. An endless chain was provided, and applied to passed over the two pullies fixed on the wheel arbors, the clock _ and through two common pullies; to one of which jis of St An- hung the small weight which is to turn round the swing “"e"'s | wheel, and to the other a counter weight. The paprsine ‘he weight which turns the swing wheel, has its” force urge placed on that side so as to make the wheel act proper- ly with the pallets; now, while the swing wheel is turn- ing, (the pendulum being supposed in its motion,) one of the other wheel teeth is gently pressing on its arbor. Whenever this tooth meets with its own notch, it will, by means of the-main weight, be made to pass quickly through it ; while passing, the small weight is wound up a little by the main one; the succeeding tooth then meeting with the swing wheel arbor, rests oa/it for a. quarter of a minute, till its notch comes about ; it then | passes in its turn, and so on. The swing wheel makes a revolution every two minutes, in which time the - wheel with the eight teeth makes also one. The mi- nute hand, by this mechanism, when passing one of the: notches, makes a start every quarter of a minute; at every such passing, the small weight is wound up a lit- tle by the great or main one. After the clock had gone a considerable time with this, it was found that the kneed teeth got a little swelled on their parts of rest, b the force of the main weight Whitly nade them fall on the swing wheel arbor. To remedy this, an endless screw wheel was put on the arbor of the remontoir wheel, (or wheel with the kneed teeth,) working into an upright endless screw, on the upper end of whose arber was fixed a pretty large fly, in order to lessen the velocity of the remontoir wheel, and make the kneed teeth fall gently on the swing wheel arbor. This helped the swelling greatly, but did not entirely prevent it, though it existed now in a less degree. The endless chain had also a tendency to wear fast ; in consequence of this, and of no provision having been made for the swelling of the kneed teeth, by making the notches on the’ swing wheel arbor much wider than was required for them. 7 when newly finished and first applied, this part of the . remontoir was taken away, and the rod, with Hooke’s . joint, was put on the square of a pivot of the swing , wheel prolonged on the outside of its frame. These : matters being guarded against, it might be well for «© some artist in future to try such a remontoir. During _ @ the four years it was in use, the clock went uncommon- ly well, and was the admiration of a gentleman who lived opposite the church, and who was.an amateur in horology. One of Mr Reid’s men who-took an interest in this clock, said it did not do so well after the remon- toir was taken away. This, however, may have been more owing toa change in the position of the weights, than to any thing: else, occasioned by a chime of eight large bells being put up in the steeple. For the weights, in place of having their natural fall, were carried-a great. way up in the:steeple above the bells and clock, in order to fall down again; and. here a complication’ of rollers and pullies became requisite. id DiS be Harrison’s remontoir is a. very delicate spring, Harrison whichis bent or wound up eight’ times in a minute. temontoir. Were it necessary, a more obvious description could be er of it than that which is given with his time- per. In Haley’s, the remontoir spring is bent’up Haley's. = 7) a # rd 4 A | the ’scapement of Mudge’s ene ~ . ‘a aE i ! t : Hs i i Bs j i li i i | Hl i : k f ! | : a ff i if af i i i li if : | | HH - wat Fa i Hi as TTT Hie ii 2 af sk tfee eh i : cf i i : 3 ut H 4 fil i rds 8 Bg OHH i ? E prestt HMB it 285 Byers Ee m spring nto fall into the teeth of the ratchet, : HOROLOGY. 5 is fixed; and, on winding’ u pry ing th b is, e its ‘a applying its end to the face of the ratchet teeth; by this the main spring must unbend itself very slowly, the motion of being checked by. the ’scaping of the v with society cioieian-ehaeats _ ie can- non pinion, put spring tight on arbor o' second ie aberieker tania goes outside or beyond the dial; where it is squared for the - of the minute hand-being put on it. Tis the minute wheel, its pinion ; the cannon pinion pitches into or leads Te clnestt whechel ther henben V having a hollow or socket /, is put on the cannon pinion, and is led. minute pinion which pitches into its teeth. It is of the hour wheel which comes a little stiches ldva'pleins ahd eashn! aleipinioa i ith a pinion turns it, inion 4s dsivim bythe whet if che’ pinion tarne the wheel is then said to be led by the pinion. The or balance spring ss has its inner end fixed which goes spring tight on the arbor of the = i ghitet FrEr f r : the sq The first watches may readily be supposed to -have been of rude execution. Having no pendulum spring, and only ae remtyert oe wound up a day, not be ex to time nearer than -- bla ar in the twelve whew 2 After the appli- cation of the alum spring, they would no doubt considerably sual dnd masiy trow bovanile! we Meepiaione sufficiently correct for the ordinary purposes of life. Indeed, when the crown wheel and verge ‘scapement is executed with care, it will do uncommonly well. Let the angle of the verge be 93 or 95 degrees, the Crown teeth of the crown wheel undercut to an angle of wheel and 28 or 30 degrees, and scaped as near to the body of Y«Tse the verge as just to be clear of it, (it is to be under. ““ipement, stood here that the verge holes are jewelled.) To carry per method the matter still farther, the body may so: far be taken of esecut- away as to admit the teeth near to the centre, which ing ix Les iedy wtb tabeteadielaenanbiae eitiines ook more and independently ; but this ires such sded euneationt here, and in-other parts of the “scape- ment, that from not having encouragement, few are fit to execute it, and therefore it may in general be safer not to bring the wheel teeth sonear to the . Care must also be taken to have the balatice of a proper diameter and weight, which has of late beea much neglected 126 Kseape- since the old fashion of half timing +has ‘been left off, ments that is, making the watch go without the pendulum spring, if it goes slow»$0, 82, or $3 minutes in jthe hour, the balance may be considered of such a weight as to be in no danger of knocking on the banking from any external motion the watch may meet with in fair wearing. When the pallets of the verge are banked on pins in the potence, they should, to prevent straining, both bank at the same time, alternately the face of one pallet ona pin, when the back of the'other is on its pin; or the banking may be done by a pin the rm of the balance, but mot near the edge of it. ‘Which ofthe two is preferable, we shall not stop to determine. he verge watch, as has been,already said, when pro- perly executed, will perform extremely well, Aboutthir- ty years ago or more, the writer of this articlehad some of them made up in such a way, that'they went fully as well as any horizontal ’scapement, and for a longer time ; this last requiring oil tothe cylinder, after going ten or twelve months. Oil, however, should never be allowed to come near the wheel teeth or pallets of a verge. Nerge or contrate wheel watches have, of late years, been very much overlooked and neglected in many respects, and in none more so than in the relative osition of the balance wheel, and contrate wheel ar- Relative ‘bors. They are rarely seen but at a considerable dis- position of tance from one another, which gives a very oblique the balance divection in the pitching of the contrate wheel with the balance wheel pinion. It is well known, that where force is indirectly or obliquely applied, it will »work under great disadvantage. These arbors ought-toibe placed as near to each other as canbe. In order toob- tain this, reduce the balance wheel pinion arbor towards the end to the smallest size it will bear, and turning a hollow out of that of the contrate wheel, will allow them to come very near the line of their centres. To get this pitching to the greatest advantage, some place the counter potence within the arbor of the contrate wheel, so as to have the line of the balance wheel :pi- nion direct'to the centre of the contrate wheel, as may be seen in Plate CCCII. Fig. 1. It has been recommended by a very celebrated ar- tist, that the movement wheels should be placed in such amanner as to act at equal distances from the pivots of those :pinions which they drive, in order to divide the pressure or action of the wheel between the pivots, and that one should not bear more than the other. Thisis ap- parently sound reasoning; but having put it in execution, the pivots unexpectedly seemed to wear very fast, even more so than in the common barred movement ; the pivots, it is true, were small, and the motive force ra- ther great. . It is to be wished that it were again tried by others to bring it to the test. No pivots have been found to stand so well.as those in movements of the double barred sort. On thepen- A pendulum spring collet, made as it ought to ‘be, dulum is as seldom to be met with, as that which we have no- Pring eol- ticed regarding the position of the contrate and balance- wheel arbors. Yet simple as the thing is, it seems to require a rule to shew hom it should be done, there appearing to be none, if we may judge by the greatest part of those which have hitherto been made. The ring of the collet should be no broader than to al- Jow a hole to receive the pendulum spring, and the pin which fixes it. The slit in the collet, for the pur- pose of its being always spring tight on the inside taper of a cylinder or verge collet, should be put close to where the small end of the pin comes, when the spring contrate wheel ar- bors, 4 HOROLOGY. is pinned in. The pendulum spring, in:this»case, ‘will ion the first or eoriend at such a distance, jas to al- low the point of a small screw-driver to get into:the slit without any danger to the spring, when it is wanted to set the collet and spring to any required place. If the slit is put at the other end. of the-pin, where it is oftener than anywhere else, it is evident that the workman can- not get into it without danger. The outer end of the pendulum spring ought to be pinned or fixed into a brass stud or cock, in performing which operation it goeseasily on; whereas with steel cocks, or studs, there isa kind of crossness and trouble, which shews that they should never be used. Studs .are, in general, very improper] at a greater distance trom:the cu pins aoe site. We have seen this distance so great, that the mo« tion of the pendulum-spring between the stud and the pins was such, as to take away a part from every vibra- tion of the balance ; which is:something like a pendu- lum when suspended toa vibratory cock, where it would not be allowed to have half the :motion .it would other~ wise have acquired. A few years ago, our ‘modern improvers would have the joint transferred from the pillar plate to the brass edge, than which nothing worse could have been proposed. In the old way, ‘the whole of the move-~ ment was kept in its place by the united assistance of the joint,iand of the bolt and its spring; whereas, in the other way, the movement had its sole dependence on the pins of the brass edge feet, from which it would be disengaged by violentexercise on horseback, &c. From what has been said of the imperfections in watches, it may be seen, that they are inevitable, ari- sing from a want of energy of mind in workmen, of which not one in a hundred is possessed. -Csn it be supposed, 'that)every new watch, which is purchased, is complete; and requires no assistance? Whoever thinks so, must be disappointed. . Persons of this de- scription, on finding it not to go as they expected, bring it to a-watchmaker, many of whom cannot put it ina better state than that in which the workman leftit. But it is not brought to him with the view »of any thi being done to it, but to see what is the matter with it; never considering, that any irregular going or stopping must:imply some fault or other,and is the very cause that brings them to the watchmaker. Jt does not follow, however, ‘from this, that every watch which stops is badly executed ; this will happen sometimes with those of the very’ best execution, and frequently from an over nicety of execution. On its being left with him, ‘he takes it down, ‘to examine what is wanting tomake it keep.time, The owner, on being told afterwards that it will cost somuch to make it .do what is required, strongly suspects, though he is -polite enough not :to say it, that there must be some imposition on the part of the watchmaker. Much is the trouble which many have of rectifying the faults of work given in to them, and thought to be complete, and much money is paid to others to have them rectified. We have known four guineas paid toa workman for do- ing a particular branch; and mot being executed to the satisfaction of the watchmaker, he has gi half as much more to another to have ‘it corrected. There are as few excel in this art ve > poe ture, painting, and aving, which are : fine th pooh to which the other in equally enti- tled, but which labours under the great mi that few or none are able to appreciate its merits. —_—\~— Escape- ments. placed, being Pendulum- is requi- spring studs, ” } . HOROLOGY. 127 = a tooth ‘the wheel impelled the pal- let, and w time-keepers, were much larger than those of our box dropped on the of the eylinder, near the | chronometers. The contrate whee! was cut into teeth edge, resting on the cylinder durin g this vibration of the of the same form as those of the common crown wheel, balance after poog the lle ede and mecting «litle » arid mace to ’scape with a verge of the usual kind. On recoil, it got on the pallet, gave a new impulse, sy the axis of this was a sort of contrate or crown which was given only itt a Cyr vibration. An othe teeth like the ordinary contrate wheel, oe ee ae ih this’scapement, that eal drove « pinion fixed on the axis of the balance. any inequalities in the motive force made no deviation Prsre | The verge, when ‘scaping with its wheel, caused the in its @; but the’ friction of the balance Cecil. balance to make several revolutions from every impulse wheel teeth on fh ara ome oe lp agd ay on the Some of them ha: nopenduluny spring, and destructive, that big Hep Maclay gregh oben i cael before its application. When Knowing what —— been doing, being bred Graham's the made revolutions in vibration, under him, Graham, a gootl many years after, set to ‘scapement. each being two seconds, this "scapement would be bat ill work with the “scapement, atid ultimately suited for the coils of a pendulum-spring. Those having succeeded. Although tlris “scapement is now pretty the shen opricigappaared sbext 1075. Thiswasthe generally known, yet we may be allowed to give an of half-timeing, upon seeing, when the pendulum. account of what he did. Ih place of Tompion’s solid was ; it made the balance give two cylinder he made a hollow oné; or the points of the im the same time that it gave one without it: wheel teeth of Tompion were raised something like Trenght fuse otis stnall pins or stems, on the tops of which a sort of in- PLATE cccll. Fig, 3. had two Balances, on the axis of each of wisa anil the heel of the other. A notch of opening was made toothed wheel, ven bee one another. The v across the cylinder, not quite half way down the dia- or axis of these had éach a pallet on it. meter ; the edges of the cylinder made by this opening - balance-wheel was flat, having a few ratchet of axw-like were dressed so that the curved edge of the tooth might teeth ; its arbor run in the frame, parallel to those of operate easily on them; the t hand edize was flanched the balances, at a equally distant from them; the outward, the left one ; when the balance was at as i roe Ama tgs Lala d «lM an aH ad spent hen « tooth of the balance-wheel tooth got then just in on the cylinder ed and no the more; a second notch was le below the other, to of the two wheels, was brought about to meet another allow the bottom of the wheel to pass, leaving hardly tooth, (after the wheel had escaped from the pallet on a fourth of the circumference of the cylinder, the other the opposite side, ) in order to receive impulse in its turn. eating more than a semicirele. The highest part of the Sanaa a paniba on one of the balances, wet ae Un aie eae eee re and the of their ater seen to that on which the point was, it is evident that, if - prevent the effects of motion on , while it the wheel is urged forward, it will make the cylinder to coche oho penance apnea ord about torn, and the of “sea will be according to the pallets, which still gave some recoil to the wheels by the height of the w : a tooth of the cylinder ; the reaction of the balances, Although this was a very wheel escapes from left of the cylinder, the ingenious contrivance for « "scapement, yet it appears point of it falls into the inside of the cylinder, after re- t not to have that satisfaction which was expected From, Nome beeen me and impelling the right A from it, from indifferent execution, which, edge ; on eseaping it, the point of the succeeding , from Sully’s account, was the case,) and the old one was tooth drops on the outside of the cylinder, where it re- again adopted. However, some other cca on the return of the balance, Sea aaa , artists, among whom was , Were attracted edge, giving = new impulse, “oon. The : this ‘seapement of Dr Hooke’s, and were led, from time teeth impel at both of the cylinder, giving by 4 to time, to make improvements on it. From it each a vibration to the balance. nated the duplex ‘scapement, which has of late years ‘This ‘sea being the best of any that had pre- been so much in repute. A large old German clock ceded it, (Debaufre’s perhaps except | iprocuted fee had a ‘seapement on the same iple as the above, of Graham's watehes a very considerable reputation, as i which the maker's name is unknown. Dr Hooke’s claim their performance was much superior to that of those to his own remains however undisputed. of the old construction. However, on comparing the Tomes The famous Tompion, who contributed greatly to of some of Graham's with those of a later Gunton hich in England to that re- *, we confess that none of his, though excellent, * which it had for a long period of were ever equal to them in this. e cylinders . A peed oa ihenries he practived it, were rather large in diameter, the balance too light, = & ‘seapement about 1695, and flattered himself the motive force too weak, and he had great diffi. being very successful. The verge ot axis of culty in obtain peal ogee lum spring wire, meet- var Wasi GMD CAP paain, oon ing eontmte’ th ue iron, where he expected steel 128 HOROLOGY. Escape- wire, Watches haying, the cylinder ” nents. ent were not known in Byrance’till,.1728, when. Julien Le Roy commissioned one of them from Graham. They were losing their character here, some time before the introduction..of the duplex, which contributed after- wards still more te bring them down. The duplex will in its, turn bes ‘for, reasons. which will be afterwards noticed. Flat movements, shallow balance wheels, steel and brass ofjbad materials, from the diffi- culty of getting them good, injudicious execution, and low prices, must have tended.to make thecylinder ’scape- ments so bad as they. were-of late ; many of the cylinders were destroyed and.cut to pieces ina very few years, and some .of them could -nat,Jast so long. Let these be compared with the cylinder, ’scapements of old Hull, many of which that-we have seen, have little or no im- pression even .on, their edges, after having been in use thirty years and upwards. Of what did Hull’s art consist? There must’ have been.some causes for it ; but what these are, we .shall not attempt to conjecture. As Graham, with whom he was instructed, did, Hull soldered in the plugs of. his ’cylinders, with silver sol- der, which. caused,a very tedious process afterwards in making the cylinder ;. but this is not offered as any rea- son for his excelling in the art of cylinder ’scapement making, The acting edges of the teeth have hitherto been made too thin, particularly for steel‘cylinders, with the view of lessening the friction; but, from cutting soon, this friction increased, .and was worse than a greater friction which .was constant, When the vibrations of the balance are at the lowest point, the resistance of the pendulum spring is at the Jeast ; but the more it is bent,or unbent, the greater is the resistance ; consequently, when at the height-of the wedge or tooth, it is greater than when the tooth first begins to act... Two or three different curves for this purpose have been imagined; one approaching nearly to a right line, which is suppesed to give the wheel time to acquire. a velocity during the passing of two- thirds of the curve, and the least resistance of the spring, by which the other third more readily over- comes, when the resistance to it is at the greatest. This has been thought to give a greater extent to the are of vibration, and has. been adopted by the French artists. Another curye, where equal spaces make the balance describe equal portions of a circle, is thought to give the least wearing to the edges of the cylinder, aan is that which is practised by our ’scapement mak- ers, Arguments equally good for either, it appears, anight be given. he weight and diameter of the balance, are circum- stances very materially connected with the wearing on the C hrstiad edges. Whatever will prevent this wearing, should be carefully attended to. When the diameter is large, the balance must of consequence be less heavy ; a sort of sluggishness in its motion takes place, the pendu- lum spring making great resistance to the teeth passing the cylinder edges, and causing wearing to go rapidly on. On the contrary, when the diameter is small, and the weight at a proper medium, there is an alertness in the vibration ; the momentum of the balance has such force over the pendulum spring, that it allows the teeth to pass the edges quickly; and hence there is a less tenden- cy to wear them. The diameter of the balance should be less than that in a verge watch of equal size, nor should it be heavier than just not to allow setting, unless where a going in time of winding is used. The cylinder *scapement, on the whole, must be allowed to be a very excellent one; and where care is taken to have it 3 made as it ought to be, such watches will give very Escape good performance. Provision for oil on the cylinder _ ™ents- should be made as ample as can be admitted; that is, the part where the tooth acts, should be as distant from 7 the notch where the wheel bottom passes as possible, and at the same time more distant from the upper c per plug ; the lower notch should not be longer than te give freedom to the wheel bottom to pass easily. When they are made long, which they frequently are, the cylinder will break there if the watch re« ceive a slight shock from falling. The acting pait of the tooth, as has already been noticed, should not be too thin, nor the stems too short. If the diameter of the balance is too great, any addition of motive force will make the watch go slow; if too little, | the watch will go fast; and if, of a proper weight and f diameter, any addition of motive force will make no . change on the time-keeping. We have made the me- tive force more than double, and no change took place ; the pendulum spring no doubt had its share in keep- ing up this uniformity. Balances whose diameters : are rather small, will have a natural tendency te : cross farther, that is, the arcs of vibration will be ; greater than where the diameters are great. Their ; weight will be in the ratio of the squares of their dia- meters ; from which it follows, that if the balance is Method of — taken away from a watch which has been regulated, &tmating and another put in its place, having the diameter only pias ‘ one half of the former, before the watch could be re= of watch ba- ¢ gulated with the same pendulum spring, the balance lances. would require to be four times heavier than the first. One way of estimating the force of a body in motion, is to mig | the mass by the velocity. Let us then calculate the respective forces of two balances whose diameters are to one another as two to four. The radii in this case express the velocity. According to this principle, we shall have for the small balance two for the radius, multiplied by eight of the mass, equal to sixteen, and for the great one, four of the radius by two of the mass, equal to eight; six teen and eight are then the products of the mass by the velocities ; consequently they express the force from the centre of percussion of each balance; and as it is double in the small one, it is evident that the arcs of vibration will be greater, having the faculty of over- coming easily any resistance opposed to it by the pen- dulum spring, without requiring any additional mo- tive force. Let us take an example done in another way, which : is the square of the product of the diameter multiplied 4 by the velocity or number of degrees in the vibration, and this again multiplied by the mass or weight, so as 6 to compare the relative momentum of two balances of different diameters, &c. so one balance to be .8 of an inch in diameter, the degrees of vibration 240, and the weight eight grains; the other .7 of an inch in diameter, the are of vibration 280°, and th weight 10 grains. 4 240 X .8=192 x 19236764 x 8= 204112. 280 x.7=196 x 19638416 x 10=384160. The balance having the smaller diameter, has its mo- mentum to that of the greater, as 384 is to294, When the ares of vibration are great, the nearer to isochron- ism will the long and short ones be. pact When a little expence in the cylinder or horizontal | *scapement is not grudged, a ruby cylinder is certain. ly a great acquisition to prevent wearing on the edges; if it is not steel cased, and wholly of stone, it is so much the better, giving a little more scope to extend HOROLOGY. would prevent either the cylinder or the cock pivot from breaking. A little practice should make the stone cylin- der easier, and perhaps made, than the cased one; at all events, even on terms, it ought to be the preferable of the two. From what has already been said, it appears that the w and diameter of the balance are matters not y arbitrary ; force is too great for that of the force of the balance, the watch will go fast when in the laying or horizontal po- = sition, and when in the vertical or hanging position: the motive force, i be made to of the q 3 ef Hi & rf : fl : fs £ ce 7 5&2 eI whose name was Debaufre, the business of watch-jewelling.* Facio's 129 short cylinder of two-tenths of an inch im diameter; Escnpe- the end of the cylinder was cut down nearly _™ents- one-half of the diameter, and flanched to the lower end and opposite side, rounded off from the circular of the base left at top, to the lower end of the flanch, re- sembling something like a cone bent over, and want- ing a part of the top. Two flat balance-wheels, having ratchet or crown wheel sort of teeth, were on the same arbor, the teeth of the one being opposite to the mid- die of the spaces of the other ; the distance between these wheels was a little less than the diameter of the cylinder ; the drop of the teeth in ing falls on what was left of the upper base of the cylinder, (the lower base being taken away in forming the | army. and near to the edge formed from the flanch ; they rested during the time of the vibration of the balance. On the return; the tooth gets on the flanch, and passes over it, during which, giving impulse to the balance, and esca- ping at the lower end, a tooth of the other wheel opposite on the same base of the cylinder, and so on. A watch having this ’scapement, and bearing Debaufre’s name, was put for trial into the hands of Sir Isaac New ; ton, who; in shewing it to Sully in 1704, gave a v flattering account of its ance. It attracted Sul- ly’s notice very much, but thinking it by no means well executed, and not being quite satisfied with two wheels, it was thought that an improvement would be made by having one wheel only and two pallets, which was of the scheme of the ‘scapement he for his marine time-k made in 1721. Considering the genius which Sully was allowed to ) this was by no means an improvement on Debaufre’s ’scapement, Although an Englishman, Sully’s name was unknown to his coun’ ; and would have remained so, had it not been for the accounts given of him by the French artists, in whom he excited an emulation, and whom he inspired with a taste to acquire such a pre-eminence in their profession as had been before unknown to them. Julien le Roy, who was intimately inted with Sully, account of Berthoud, are uncommonly lavish of their encomi- the labours umson him. Soon after he had completed his apprentice- of Sully, ship with Mr Gretton, watchmaker in London, he went *>? fn over into Holland, Germany, and Austria, and attract- vee degg ing the notice of several of the princes and nobility, he keeper. was much employed by them. Having scen, in brary of Prince Eugene, the Memoirs of the Royal Acade- my of Sciences of Paris, he eagerly acquired the French language in order to read them. This excited in him a strong desire to see Paris, to which he repaired about the year (713 or 1714, under the patronage, and inthe suite of the Duke of Aremburg, at whose hotel hel F with « pension of 600 livres. He had not been long there, when our coun Law of Lauriston, under the authority of the court of Versailles, got him enga« to establish a manufactory of clocks and watches, n consequence of this he came twice to London, and having carried away a great number of workmen at a vast expence, and spent much money on tools and other articles, Law to murmur, and the esta- blishment in two years or little more fell to the ground. This made him complain bitterly of his bad fortune to a friend ; but fortunately a nobleman to whom this was mentioned, feeling much for the disagreeable situation in which Sully was , sent him in a present some shares in the ic funds, value 12,000 livres, which enabled him, for several years afterwards, to pursue very zea- lously his fav scheme of making a marine time- * Some of Debaufre’s family, or name, were at this profession in London so late as 1773. VOL. XI. PART 1. x 130 Escape- keeper to ascertain the longitude at sea. In this at- ments. tempt he was not so successful in his first trials, as he had led himself to expect. It was in general believed, however, that had he lived he would have been the first to have deservedly acquired one or other of the pre- miums which were before that time offered by four of the greatest maritime powers in Europe, to those who should produce a time-keeper which could ascertain, to Rewards of. a certain extent, the longitude at sea. Philip the Third, fered for as- who ascended the throne of Spain in 1598, was the first aE a who proposed a reward of 1000 crowns for this inven- eal 7 tion. The states of Holland soon after followed his ex- ample, and offered 100,000 florins. The British Parlia- ment, in the reign of Queen Anne, voted £20,000 ster- ling for the same purpose ; and the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, in 1716, promised, in the name of the King, 100,000 livres. Sully may literally be said to have died a martyr to the cause in which he was enga- ged. Having got a false address to a person who it was said was occupied in the same pursuit with himself, he got so overheated in his anxious and vain endeavours to find him out, that he died in a few days after at Pa- ris, in the month of October 1728, and was buried with great pomp in the church of St Sulpicius. Sully act- ed so conspicuous a part in the profession, that no apo- logy is necessary for giving this short account of him. Nebaufre’s Lt may be observed here, that Debautre’s ’scapement *scapement has this advantage which is not in Graham’s, that the possesses an impulse is given the same in every vibration ; and the advantage time of rest on both sides is the same, bearing mostly oe on the foot pivot end, and a little on the sides of the aire pivots; and not wholly on the sides of the pivots, as in Graham’s. Having made one or two watches, to which this ’scapement was put, they were found to per- form very well; and we would recommend it to the at- tention of ’scapement makers: A little practice will make the execution of it very easy. The two thin steel wheels may at pleasure be placed at any distance from one another ; their diameters should be as large as can be admitted between the potence foot and the verge collet. An agate, or any hard stone for the pallet, whose height is half the spaces between the teeth, or a little less, is fixed on the verge or axis of the balance ; the level of the hase of the pallet on which the teeth rest being a very little above that of the line of the centre of the balance- wheel pinion. The teeth must be a very little under- cut, so that the points only may rest on the pallet. The nge should. be placed more inward in the frame than e common contrate wheel movement, in order to give room for the balance-wheels. The necessity of a contrate wheel movement for this ’scapement is a trifling objection, which will wear away in spite of prejudice. In 1722, the Abbé Hautefeuille, who long before this had at Paris disputed, in a process of law with Huy~ gens, the right of the invention and application of the pendulum-spring to the balance of a watch, published a quarto. pamphlet, containing a description. of. three new constructions of ’scapements for watches. One of these was the anchor, or recoiling ’scapement, on the. verge of which was attached a small toothed segment of a circle, or rack, working into a pinion, which was the axis of the balance. The idea of the axis of: the ba- lance being a pinion, seems to have been taken from the ‘scapement of Huygens, with this difference only, that the balance should not make so many revolutions as that of Huygens, and is contrived so as to make scarcely one revolution at every vibration. This ’scapement is the same as it came from the hands of Hautefeuille, without any improvement haying peen made upon it even to this ve m Abbé Hau- tefeuille’s "scape- ments. PLATE cccil. Fig. 5. HOROLOGY. day, although a patent was taken out for the same in- Escape vention above twenty years ago, by some person in Li- | ents. verpool. The name of lever watches, which they. re« ~~ ceived from the patentees, is that which is generally gi- ven to those having this ’scapement, which is the same: | that Berthoud has described in his Essai sur L’horlogerie, published in 1763; see tom. ii. No. 1933, and plate. i : 4 xxiii. fig. 5, of which our Figure is a copy. Ber-. thoud, under certain modifications, introduced the prin-. ciple of this ’scapement into some of his marine time- keepers. é ; A very able and ingenious artist at Paris, M. Duter-. putertre’s. _ tre, who was zealous in his profession, and had consi-. ’scapement derable success in his pursuits, invented, in 1724, a for a wa new ’scapement, or rather improved that of Dr Hooke’s Prarz with two balances, which has already been described. CCCI. The additions and improvements, however, which he. Fis: made, were so great, as to give him. a sort of title to, claim it as his own, and to render it, in the opinion of good judges, the best ’scapement by far that was known at that time. The additions which he made, consisted- in putting another wheel upon the same arbor with; the first, but it was considerably larger in diameter,. having the same number of teeth with the other, and. forming the principal merit of the ’scapement. _The- balance arbors at one place were made rather thick er than usual, for the purpose of having notches cut, across them, and as deep as to the centre. This on of the arbors becomes then a semicylinder. The lar« ger wheel, which may be called that of arréle, or re- pose, is placed on its arbor, so as to correspond with the semicylinders and their notches, the points of whose teeth are made just to clear the bottom of the. notches, alternately passing one of them, and resting. on the semicylindrical part of the other. The action of, the two wheels shall now be explained. Let us sup~ pose, that one of the larger wheel teeth, after reposing on one of the semicylinders, is, on the return of the vi- bration of the balance, admitted to pass through the notch ; after having passed, a tooth of the impulse-wheel: falls on the corresponding pallet, gives impulse, carrying it.on till it escapes ; when another tooth of the wheel of repose falls on the other semicylinder, and rests there, until the return of the vibration of the other balance ;- when it passes the notch in its turn, and the corre- sponding pallet presenting itself, is impelled by a tooth of the impulse-wheel, and so on.. Hooke’s ’seapement had a smal] recoil; the aim of Dutertre was to make a, dead beat one of it, in which he succeeded, There is Sen ee eonen wo ies. at ” aaa a drawing of this ‘scapement in Plate xiv. fig. 4. of Berthoud’s Histoire de la Mesure du Temps. He says, “ that the properties of this. ’scapement are such, that sudden shocks do.not. sensibly derange the vibrations ; ; that the pressure of the wheel-teeth of arrée on the cylinders, corrects the impulse that the balance re- ceives from the wheel-work, which, on the motive-« force being doubled, prevents the vibrations from being affected.” ’ In Plate xli. fig. 16. of the,first volume of Thiout’s Dutertre’s — work, is a drawing of this ’scapement, modelled for that clock scape. of a clock, described at page 101. He says, “ Fig, 16, ™e"* is an escapement of the Sieur Jean Baptiste Dutertre, Fig. 7. which has only one pallet, on, the axis of. which as’ the ¢ fork. The two,ratchets or wheels are on the same arq. bor, when. the pallet escapes from the small ratchet ; a the larger one, which is called the ratchet or wheel of arréte, rests on the arbor of the pallet, anc es the vibration to be pretty free. On the pallet’s returning to . meet with the teeth of the small ratchet, the pallet-ar- . i Sees olay Hy bat i f # rr i i i ae yet f : | i ft : i BY ' f I 2 L Fy i i z I : : : fF i | : t : t i ‘ t 131 Why should they not be made as thick as the pallet of a detached A bon t? There is no ‘scapement which requires to have the balance wheel teeth more correctly cut, or the steady pins of the cock and potence more nice- ly fitted to their plow! seen ate. The minu- tie alluded to were, too much or too little drop of the impulse teeth on the pellet, the ‘scapement not set quite so near to beat as might be, the balance rather heavy, or the points of the teeth of repose too much or too little in on the small cylinder. In a good sizeable pocket watch, the wheels having fifteen teeth, the ratio of the diameter of the wheel of repose to that of impulse may be as .520 of an inch to 400, the cylinder .030. The angle of ’ t will be 60 taking from the esca of the impulse tooth, to of the tooth of repose ling oxte cylinder ; the balance passes 20° of these, before the — tooth gets again on the pallet, con- sequently it has only 40 degrees for the acting angle of the ‘scapement. There is a variety of ‘scapements in Berthoud’s Histoire, which appeared in 1802, man of which are of very inferior note to that of Tyrer’s, and et he takes no notice of the latter. _ This is remarka- le, as he surely must have seen it, considering the great namber of them which were made. While Dutertre was engaged with Hooke's ‘scape- ment, an artist in England, whose name is unknown, pro- duced a " t with the dead beat, which seems at that time to have been the great object of pursuit. Ja- lien Le Roy having got one of these watches, showed it to Sully in November 1727, and told him that it was a ‘scapement very deservi it as a “sca t of M. of repose ; and says that it had much tion of the English watch-makers, who had made it for three or four years. bang page 108, plate xliii. fig. 26. of his first volume.) With our workmen it went by the name of the ‘scapement with the tumbling pallets. The axis of the balance had two semi-cylindrical pallets, whose faces stood in the same plane or centre of the axis; the balance wheel was the common crown wheel one, the teeth of which got a very small hold of the pallets. When escaping from the face of one pallet, a tooth on the opposite sic reese the semi-cylindri- cal part of the other pallet, where it rested during the going and coming of the vibration ; getting then on the face, it gave new impulse, escaping in its turn ; the pal- let on ite end of the verge received a tooth on the semi-cylindrical and soon. After having been laid aside for some time, it was of late years taken up by several, who no doubt must have thought well of it. of ce ee ae “ Ae ville having two _ sttreehed the atiens sae pallets. P.ate cocit. Fig. 5 Escape- ments. Scapement tumbling Among these was Kendal, a man possessed of no com- Kendal's mon talents. He transformed it into one having two ‘scapement. crown wheels on the same pinion arbour, the tops of the teeth in the one pointing to the middle of the spaces in the other, and with only one pallet, the diameter of the semicylinder being of any size. (See Plate CCCIIL, prare Pig. 1.) About thirty years ago we had some watches CCCIIL. made with this ‘scapement, and after a few gave them up. The principle of the ‘sca good, as long as the and the oi) continues : pement is vot te remain unimpaired, resh ; but the acting parts hav- ing such a small hold of one another, get soon altered, which Genet sree: devdetli, Beat Teaeaner dee with which it first sets out. They cannot be expected ng, unless a a st to last long, unless with a diamond pallet, and a steel wheel of the hardest temper. The free or detached ‘sca years trial Fig. 1. ent is that in which the P**¢ °% greater part of the vibrations of the balance is free and}. independent of the wheels, the balance wheel being scapement. detached *scapement, Berthoud’s model of a detached *scapement. 132 then locked ; when unlocked, it gives impulse which only takes place at every second vibration, In Mudge’s detached ’scapement, the impulse is given at every vi- bration, The progress which has of late years been made in improving the detached ‘scapement has been very wonderful, when we consider that half'a century ago the name of this ’scapement was unknown. The first rude draught of an thing like it, appears to be that of Thiout’s, described, at page 110 of the first volume of his.work, and shewn in Plate xliii. fig. 30, which he ealls *« A’scapement of a watch, the half of whose vibrations appear independent of the wheel work, during the time yy are made. A hook retains the ratchet or balance wheel ; the return of the vibration brings the pallet to its place of being impelled by the wheel ; in the returning, the hook, is carried outwards, and leaves the wheel at li- berty to strike the pallet, and so on. This sort of ‘scapement cannot act without the aid of a spiral or pendulum spring.” Peter Le Roy’s ’scapement is the next step that was made towards this invention. He contrived it in 1748; and, like Thiout’s, it has hardly ever been made use of, Both of them have a great recoil to give the wheel be- fore it could be disengaged, and their ares of free vibra- tion are not much extended. Berthoud informs us, that in 1754 he made a model of one, which he gave to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Camus, onits being shown to him at that time, told him that the late Dutertre had made and used such a *scapement, having along detent and free vibrations. Nothing appears now to be known of the construction of Dutertre’s, and Le Roy seems to have acknowledged the priority of it to the one he con- trived in 1748. < My thought, or invention,” he says} ‘* was not so new as 1 had imagined. Dutertre’s sons, artists of considerable repute, shewed me very soon af- ter, a model of a watch in this way by their late father, which the oldest Dutertre must still have. This model, very different from my construction, is, however, the same with respect to the end proposed.” The detached ’scapement in Le Roy’s time-keeper, which was tried at sea in 1768, is very different from that of 1748, Berthoud, in his Traite des Horloges Marines, pub- lished in 1773, has given, in No. 281, an account of the rinciple on which the model was made in 1754; and, in No, 971,.a particular description of the parts com- posing it, which are represented in plate xix. fig. 4. of that work. It may be somewhat interesting to lay be- fore our readers what is contained in No. 281. “I composed,” says he, “in 1754, an escapement upon a rinciple, of which I made a model, in which the ba- ance makes two vibrations in the time that one tooth only of the wheel escapes, that is to say, the time in which the balance goes. and comes back on itself; and, at the retarn, the wheel escapes and restores, in one vi- bration, the motion that the regulator or balance had lost in two, The ’scapement-wheel is of the ratchet ‘sort, whose action remains suspended (while the balance vibrates freely) by an anchor, or click, fixed to an axis carrying a lever with a deer’s-foot joint, the lever cor- responding toa pin placed near the centre of the axis of the balance. When the balance retrogrades, the first vibration being made, the pin which it carries turns a little back the deer’s-foot joint, and the balance conti- nuing freely its course, its liberty not being disturbed d the whole of this vibration, but by a very small and s resistance of the deer’s-foot joint ‘spring. When the balance comes back on itself and makes the second vibration, the same pin which it carries raises. “tooth, as has been done by some, when the drop is on HOROLOGY. the deer’s-foot lever in such a way, that the anchor Escape which it carries unlocks the wheel, in order that it ment may restore to the balance the force which it had. lost 1... Or de. in the first vibration. This effect is produced in the fol- tached lowing manner : In the instant that the deer’s-foot joint. ’scapement ed lever is raised, the wheel turns and acts upon the lever of impulsion, formed with a pallet of steel which acts upon the wheel, and with another arm) which acts on a steel-roller placed near the axis of the balance; and; in the same instant that the wheel acts upon the lever of impulsion, the second arm, which its axis carries, and which is the greatest, stays on the roller, and the mo- tion of the wheel is communicated to the balance al- most without loss and ‘without friction, and by :the least decomposition of force: As soon as the wheel ceases to act onthe lever of impulsion, it falls again, and presents itself to another tooth.” ‘ To render the vibrations of the balance more free and. independent of the wheel-work,” continues Berthoud in No. 282. “and diminish as muchas possible the resistance it meets with at every vibration, the pin must be placed very near the centre of the balance, sothat the lever may not be made to describe a greater course than that required to render the effect of the click perfectly sure, and while the ba- lance turns, and makes its two vibrations, prevent only one tooth of the wheel from escaping ; an effect which would be dangerous, by the seconds’/hand,:which is carried by the wheel, announcing more seconds, or time, than the balance by its motion would have measured. It was the dread of such a defect that made me then give this ’scapement up, which, I confess, seemed to be rather flattering ; but it did not give to the mind that security in its effects which is so necessary, icularly in ma- eS an or. S rine time-keepers, the use of which is of too great con- sequence, to. allow any thing suspicious in them to be hazarded.’” The principle given here by Berthoud is the same as that of the detached ’scapements now made, although the parts of the model are more complex. | This no ment had received a variety of modifications under his hand. In 1768, he had five marine clocks planned to have spring detents to their ’scapements, the lifting spring being placed on the roller, or pallet, which recei- ved the impulse. These were not finished till 1782. Subsequent improvements, made by the late Mr Arnold and others, can hardly be considered as differing very materially from those of Berthoud. ‘This *scapement in pocket watches may sometimes come under such cir- cumstances as have been noticed with Tyrer’s; but no other can well be admitted into box-chronometers, whe- ther it is made in the manner of Arnold, or in that of ‘ Earnshaw. In ‘the ’scapement of Arnold, (see Fig. 2.) Amol’ that part of the face of the pallet, at the point or nearly *scapement so, on meeting the cycloidal curved tooth to give impulse, pr arn rolls, as it were, down on this curve, for one half of the CCCI, angle, and in the other goes wp ; or it may be thus ex- Fig. % pressed—the curve goes in on the pallet for the first part of the impulse, and comes out during the last. In making this curve too circular near the point of the the nice side, the pallet has to turn a little way before the wheel can move forward, which has sometimes caus- ed stopping; but, where attention is given to the proper form, this is not likely to happen. In that of Earnshaw, Farns (see Fig. 3.) the face of the pallet is considerably under- ’scap cut. Here, the point of the tooth will slide up for the pig, 3, first part of the impulse, and down in the last; in the first it seems to have little to do, and may acquire some velocity in order to overcome the part it has to perform HOROLOGY. | 138 Baap i ‘he face of the pallet being undercut, had 60°, it is required to find the ratio ofthe diameter of the Esenpe- ments. dasntpatl matehe Sebtoamaumete said, in or- Settle palm mpc 4cen heer) eerie aie — , “—\~"_der fo prevent cutting or wearing. In Berthoud’s box- being taken at 15°, eof impulse must Free o aaa coke the face cf..the pallet is 45", whichidrather wide nt cher@ ide jtbut it withbe less ©, ! than this, when the thickness of the points of the teeth, ’scapemait. i if oe El E F i es i bie Hf fs Fe lf tt and the spacés for drop and, escape, are not taken into the computation. Now 300° being divided by twelve, the number of the wheel teeth, gives 30° for the quotient ; and again divided by 45, the number of degrees for the of im: , the quotient will be 8°. The diame- ter of the w is supposed .to be .6 of an inch. To find that of the roller, say, as 12:6: 8:4. Four-tenths of an inch is the diameter required for the roller, which will give somewhat less than 45° for the angle of im- pulse. The diameter of the roller may be found in ano- ther way, sufficiently near for practice. The diameter ofthe wheel is .6 of an inch, or .600; then say, as 118: 355:: .600 : 1.885 ; this last being divided by 12, the number of the wheel teeth, gives for the quotient -157, the distance between the teeth. This distance ta- ken as a radius for the roller, would give 60° for the of impulse. About one-fourth more of this added, | e i i balance pi- will give .200 for the radius, so that the angle may be the rollers, which were more than about 45°. b diameter ; and from them and the suspen- Nothing should be overlooked, which can contribute arose that ease and i ti l F to make the balance unlock the wheel with the least possible resistance. When the wheel is locked by the extremity of the teeth, it must. be easier unlocked than wher the locking is at a less distance from the centre. The unlocking cannot be done easier than with such a wheel for a detached ‘scapement as was contrived about fifteen by Owen Robinson, o,,.... po. (see Fig. 4.) a very judicious ‘scapement maker, who pinson's t with late Mr Arnold. This wheel is ‘scapement. like that for Tyrer’s ‘scapement. The long teeth of ar- p, ..> time. Three screws réle rest on the detent, and the upright teeth give im- cccitt. this ¥ pulse. It is evident that the unlocking with such teeth Fig. 4. a fe i na 8 Es ue i iH FF | S i ip Tip ‘ 2 E 3 Fr g [ ; 4 De NE ee ete a When the diameter of the pallet eto must be very easy, when compared with the teeth of those wheels which are made after the ordinary wa ; Lest what has been said concerning the principle of a detached ‘scapement may not be sufficient, we shall en- deavour to describe the ‘scapement itself, such as it is at commonly made, so as to give an idea of it, of the manner by which it acts. The balance-wheel of a pocket chronometer h.s fifteen teeth not very deep cut, and a little under cut onthe face. A notch cut in- toa round piece of steel or roller, which is thicker than the wheel, forms the face of the pallet. Sometimes a small piece of ruby or ire is inserted into the notch at the face of the pallet, for the wheel teeth to act upon, so that no wearing may ensue. The ratio of the di- ameter of the wheel to that of the roller, is that of .425 to .175. When the wheel and roller are in their places, the wheel supposed to be locked, the roller must turn freely between two teeth, having only freedom, and not much more. From the centre of the roller to the point of one of the teeth, that next the last es- caped, let a line be drawn at a tangent to this tooth. On this line is placed the detent and lifti — gs. The detent piece, on which the wheel is foc ed, is a small bit of fine stone, either ruby or ire, set into steel, formed into a delicate spring, of such a length as to be equal to that of the distance of two or three spaces between the teeth, with a sole and steady in at one end, which must be fixed to the potence plate bya screw, This is what is called the detent spring, the end of which within a little distance of the circle described by the extremity of the lifting pallet. On the left hand side of the detent spring jis attached another Escape. ments. Mudge’s detached *scapement, PLATE cccill,. Fig. 5. -rather thin than otherwise. 134 called the lifting spring, which cannot be too delicate, but is made a little thicker.towards the outer or lifting end than anywhere else. Thisend of the lifting spring projects a very little beyond that of the detent spring. On the arbor of the roller and balance, and-placed near the roller, is twisted a short and thick steel socket, in which is set a bit of precious stone, the face of which is made flat, and nearly in a line'with the centre, be- hind it is chamfered on towards the point, and made This is called the lifting pallet. The length or height is made so as to unlock the wheel to the best advantage, that is, by only ‘carrying the detent a short way beyond the unlocking. This excursion is to be confined to as small an angle as may be. Near to the detent piece is fixed a stud, in which is a screw to regulate the depth of the detent into the:wheel teeth. The point of the screw should be hardened, and have a part of the ruby detent to rest upon it, when the detent spring presses that way. When the balance is at rest, the face of the lifting “pallet is very near to the outer side and end of the lifting spring. If the balance is brought a very lit- ‘tle about to the left, the lifting pallet will pass the end of the lifting spring. On the balance being now turn- -ed towards the right, at the moment of the wheel being unlocked, the main pallet or roller presents itself, to re- ceive the point of one of the teeth, and is impelled with considerable force ; meanwhile the detent falls again to its place, and locks the wheel. The balance having com- leted this vibration, returns. In the returning, the lift- ing pallet pushes the lifting spring easily aside, being no longer supported by the detent spring when turning in Sis direction, that is, from the right to the left, the detent is again ready to be disengaged on the next re- turn of the balance to the right, and so on. The detached ’scapement of Mudge was contrived about sixty years ago or thereabouts, if we may reckon from the year 1766, when he showed it to Berthoud, who was then in London, and who informs us that it had been made a considerable time before. This ’scapement consists of a wheel and pallets, like those made for the dead beat ’scapement of a clock, on- ly the wheel teeth are not cut half the depth. On the verge or arbor of the pallets is placed an arm of any Jength, Lee a little more than that of the pallets. The end of the arm is formed into a fork-like shape. On the axis of the balance is a short pallet, whose act- ing end may be of a small circular form, having the sharp part of the angles blunted, coming a little way within the prongs of the fork, which alternately acts, and is acted upon. There is also on the balance axis a small roller, having a notch in it. On the end of the arm is attached a small steel piece or index, in a plane which may be either above or below the prongs of the fork ; this index is on the outside of the roller, when the free part of the vibrations is performing, and prevents the wheel teeth from getting away from the place of rest. -On the return of the balance, the in- dex passes with the notch in the roller to the opposite side. Meanwhile the short pallet gets into the fork, meéting with one of the prongs, pushes it on a very little way, and thus disengages the teeth of the wheel from the circular part of the pallet, where they rest du- ring the free excursions of the balance. During the dis- engaging, the teeth get upon the flanch of the pallet, and give impulse, which causes the opposite prong of the fork to come forward on the short pallet, and commu- nicate impulse to it. In Mudge’s ’scapement, as drawn in the plate for the work published by his son, there are two HOROLOGY. short pallets, and the prongs of the fork lie in different planes. The impulse in this ’scapement is given at every vibration ; and it seems to have done uncommon. ly well, particularly in the watch which he made for her Majesty Queen Charlotte. It is by no means suit- ed for the execution of ordinary workmen, as it re- quires more address than usually falls to their share. The late Emery was much taken up with it; and al- though he had a little success, and had the aid ofa v excellent hand, yet he experienced considerable diffieul. ties. It might be somewhat easier managed, by adopt- ing Lepaute’s mode of Graham’s dead beat, which we have tried. In 1792, a very neat and ingenious detached ’scape- Escape ments. Howells’ ment was contrived by the late Howells, founded on detached that of Kendal’s, (in whose hands he had occasion fre- ’scapement. quently to see it,) in which the wheel teeth rested on the cylindrical part of the pallet, during a part of the going and returning vibrations of the balance. See Fig. 6. Inthe other, after impulse is given on the face of the same semicylinder, and just before the tooth is quitting it, a detent is presented to receive one of the wheel teeth, by which the action of the wheels is suspended during the greater part of the going and returning vibrations, the pallet being then free and independent of the wheels. This ’scapement is composed of two crown wheels on the same arbor, the points. of the one being opposite to the middle of the spaces of the other. On the axis or verge of the balance, which stands quite close to that of the balance wheels, is a semi-cylindri- cal pallet, whose diameter should be according to the angle of ’scapement required, which will also regulate the distance of the wheels from each other. The pallet is put near to the collet on which the balance is rivetted ; a small arbor, having very fine pivots, is run in so as to stand parallel with that of the balance, and placed at some distance outside of the wheels, but where a line drawn from it, and passing at equal distances from the points of the wheel teeth, when continued, shall fall in with the centre of the balance; on this arbor is fixed an arm, at the end of which is a small fork and index ; on the verge or balance axis, and near the lower end, is a short pallet, and a roller connecting with the fork and index, in imitation of Mudge’s, acting in the same way as has been described, but only in the lock- ing and unlocking part. Where the arm passes between the wheel teeth, which may be at ninety degrees or so from where they act on the pallet, are fixed two detent ieces, one for each wheel ; opposite to the arm, and in the same line, A part of it is prolonged beyond the arbor outside, by way of a counterpoise, where two screws in fixed studs serve here as a banking to it. It may easily be conceived, that one of the wheels bei locked, suppose that on the left, the balance, when re= turning from the left to the right, will, by means of the short pallet and forked arm, &c. carry the detent away ; PLATE cecil. Fig. 6. .

as corresponded well known, in a common y watch, w , n 1665, Sie Robert Mo- the balance holes baigt vehgore its Fado will be kept up for a longer time than when it runs in brass holes, The friction at the balance holes cannot be supposed to be less than at those of the fusee; for, in the time of one-fourth of a turn of the fusee, the balance must The natural answer is, that make more than what is equivalent to 9000 revolutions. Berthoud regretted much that he had not an opportu- does a chronometer depend so much as nity of getting the pivot holes of his time-k jew- i gnelha.of Se pesiioians. 9 ing: as elled; yet, from that versatility of genius which he pos- : i Pa iy regu- sessed, he supplied admirably the want of this, in , extraordi- a manner that very few could have equalled. Some of regulating the motions the balances in his time-keepers were madle to give six 5 Res i zee TF a i in E 5B Fs é. f = g £j i e ? ee § nie in BRE a : : J aa 34 “EF ZF 8 e 3 & Je waa Pivot H 138 of vibrations in a second, while others gave only one. ‘’ His number eight made one vibration in a second, and was the one which gave the best performance of all those that he had constructed. It seems to have been considered as a wonderful discovery, that jewelled holes wore down the pivots, and thickened the oil, after they had been used for upwards of a hundred years. How came this not to be sooner observed, when. so many were engaged in making chronometers, and that too in considerable numbers? That pivots, from a length of time, even with good oil, and with greater probability from bad oil, may have got, as it were, glued in their holes, there is little reason to doubt ; but this never arose from particles wearing away from either the steel or the stone, by the friction. of the pivot. Let any one try to whet a pravets which re- mie some degree of force, on a polished Scotch pebble, or instance, and they will find that no exertion what- ever will make the graver bite the stone, or the stone the graver: for where any effect of this kind takes place, it must be nearly mutual, The hardness of the Scots pebble is well known to be much inferior to that of the ruby or sapphire, After being exposed to the air for a considerable time, oil gets viscid and thick, which arises, as has been observed by chemists, from its absorbing or attracting, oxygen. We suspect. that oil, from this cause alone, may become more glutinous at a jewelled hole than at a brass one. By ‘its applica- tion to brass it soon acquires a bluish green tinge, as if something acted upon it. This is owing to the metal becoming oxidated by the joint action of the oil and air, The oxide thus formed combines with the oil, and forms a metallic soap, which is much less tenacious than that formed at a jewelled hole, By the continuation of this process, the hole in brass in time becomes wider, and the oil disappears, leaving the pivot and hole in a great- er or less degree wasted ; and instead of the oil we have the metallic soap, which has hitherto been considered as rust. To be convinced, however, that this is not the case, we need only attempt to wipe it off from the pivot, from which it easily parts, and which it would not do were it really rust. Oil, however, can have no action on the jewelled hole, and any change that is effected by the oil must be confined to the steel pivot, on which its action is so exceedingly slow, that a’ great length of time must elapse before the oil is decomposed and dis- appears ; and hence what has been called rust in a brass hole, is seldom or never met with ina jewelled hole. If a little fine Florence oil is put into a small phial for about two-tenths of an inch yo. and remain for a few years, it will become exceedingly viscid and glutinous, and will be intermixed with parts tinged with red of various shades, The same appearance is sometimes seen at jewelled pivot holes, and has been erroneously sup- posed to be produced by the operation of the pivot.on the hole. It is singular that oil will act more forcibly on fine brass than on the .common sort, or even on cop- per; a metallic soap somewhat resembling verdigrease will soon show itself on the former, velifle th have no appearance of being injured. But we are not to infer from this, that copper holes would be preferable to those made in fine brass; for although the oil in this case would be more durable, from its acting more slowly on copper than on brass, yet the increase of friction from the inh 198 would more than counterbalance this advan- tage. It can hardly have escaped the eye eyen of the most indifferent observer, that oil acts more readily and forcibly on new than on old work. On the former, it will frequently show itselfin the course of 24 hours. Oil varies e latter will . HOROLOGY. so much in its quality, that some will become so thick and Jewelling of viscid in the course of a few months, as to stop the ma- FivotHoles, chine altogether. This has occurred in the experience of “ ¥—~ a very celebrated artist, who informs us that “his regu- lator, which has been found to go toa greater degree of accuracy (though not to a second in two months, as has been said of others) than even that at Verona, as observed by the astronomer Cagnoli, or that at Manheim, as ob- served by Mayer, was found to perform very indiffe- rently after being cleaned, and at the end of three or four months sto; altogether, which arose from the application of bad oil.” We are of opinion, that where the pivots are small, and the revolutions of the wheels Hah jewelled pivot holes are the best, It will not be an easy matter to do without oil, particularly in pocket or box chronometers, although astronomi clocks or regulators may be so constructed as not to re- quire it. CHAP. V. On the Machinery for going in time of Winding, Tue earliest machinery for going in time of winding, Machinery is the simplest and best, that has yet been produced, al- for going in though, upon the whole, it may not be so convenient ‘™¢ of in its application. In the old thirty hour clocks, the “™4i"s- first, wheel of the going part had on its arbor a fixed jagged pulley A: (See Plate CCCIV. Fig. 6.) On the arbor of the first wheel.of the striking part was a move- P able jagged pulley H, with click and ratchet to it. Over pz aoe these, and through or under the pullies of the counter cCCIV. weight p and main weight P, went an endless cord, woven Fig. 6. either of silk or cotton. .Both parts of the clock were car- ried on by asingle or’main weight; and, when winding it up, this was done by the striking pulley; by which means, the weight acted constantly on the going part. This is a method which we adopted in some common regulators, and afterwards found it was the same that Berthoud had used in some of: his. The moveable and winding up pulley with its ratchet was on a fixed stud, having a click and spring, which were fixed to one of the plates, as was also the stud. The other pulley was on the arbor of the first wheel, and fixed to it. The only inconvenience and objection to this contrivance, articularly in eight day clocks, arises from the wear ing of the cord on the jagged part of the pullies, which produces a great deal of dust, and makes the clock 4 sooner dirty than it would do, ifthis was effected ina dif ferent way. In clocks which go a month, or six months, as some of Berthoud’s did, this will be very much obvia- ted, particularly with a fine and well wove silken cord. There is a very ancient way of going while winding, 4. siney which was long applied to the fuseesin clocks and watch- jrechanism es. On the inside of the great wheel is another wheel, for going in whose teeth are cut to look inward to the centre, upon time of which acts a pinion of six, which runs in the bottom Winding. of the fusee, and is turned round with it. The fusee arbor is free within both the great wheel and the fusee ; upon it is fixed the fusee ratchet, and a wheel with about. half the number of teeth of those in the inward toothed - wheel. It is evident, that if the fusee arbor is turned. round, the wheel fixed on it, which acts also into'the pinion of six, will by this make the pinion turn ; and this again, acting on the inside wheel teeth, will apply as much force to it, as the fusee requires in setting up. When wound up, the click in the great wheel, as in the ordinary way, stops the fusee by the ratchet from -& i: First mecha- nism for this : HOROLOGY. 139 y running back. This method takes six times longer of several of which it was The third wheel has a Machinery wi ay clit eadkx d-tocan one ; nd Os oan socket (with a small sb ) tral fitted to it, the hole *°* sving im Sects sth iniiage the pastes tod fide wheel Cake i soundly and smoothly broached. That partofthe wii; : them. With a little more afu- third wheel pinion arbor, which works in thesocket, must — ding. see of this kind can be made to wind up whichever way also be truly turned, and made as smooth as any pivot,so Mr Reid's the arbor is turned ; hence it got the name of the drunk- as to be free, easy, and without shake. The end of the contrivance ene. ‘See the particnlars of it in Thiouw!, vo). ii. socket, which is not in the wheel, should be smooth f° going in p- 383, and Plate xxviii. Fig. +) and flat; its diameter outside about three tenths of an U6 %f, A going in time of winding, of later application to inch, and to apply to a flat smooth steel shoulder formed dicts tnt regulators, consisted of an within on the pinion arbour. On the side of the wheel opposite the frame, on which was a pin, and an arm inside, that on which the socket shoulder is placed, let there be fixed asmall steel pin, distant from the centreaboutthree- tenths of an inch, the height of it being about one-tenth, pass the third wheel teeth; a spring Make a piece of brass so as to have a fine small ratchet- the nib in a contrary direc- wheel on it, of about four-tenths of an inch in diame- ich i ter, with a sort of hoop or contrate wheel rim on one inding, side of it, three-tenths and a half in diameter inside, ofthe teeth, the thickness being a little more than that of an ordinary in contrate wheel of a watch, and the depth one-twenti of an inch. _ The ratehet-wheel and hoop have a socket common to both, which is twisted on the third wheel pinion arbor ; this socket on that side of the in- tchet; the other side, is the smallest matter lower than the ed the hoop ; SaEnD Dns © fhe. corhet Ss Fed the inner end of a small and weak spiral spring, of two or three when the force of turns, the outer end having fixed to it a small stud, i with. a hole in it, that goes over on the steel pin of on the great wheel, and not being allowed the third wheel, which works in a short circular open- i ESP Ue Whee cx. potion, of Se hoop, of a sufficient range for the spiral spring to keep the clock run in the frame, and an arm ing during the time of winding up. The detent ili Te the setchet han ctie of the pivets ot iis arbour in the back frame plate, the other runs in a small cock i attached to the maide of this frame plate, and sufficient- steel spring screwed or made ly clear of the third wheel on that side. The of inside of the great wheel ; in the hoop, when the socket is twisted home, should al- is a small hole, opposite to which is made a low the third wheel to have freedom during the action in i of the spiral spring on it. In, applying this going in as to correspond to the hole time of winding apparatus to a clock, it will easily be seen in which way the small ratchet teeth must be slit gre range for the cut, and diso in which way the spiral spring must ex- Coaing Seat se See. hen the force of the main ert itself. During the action of winding up, this al- i not act on the fusee, which istaken off when lows the minute hand to make are motion, but wintlig up; the auxiliary ratchet, and detent which hes it resumes its place as soon as the weight is at liberty. oeindes easing to kup © je ip plows, serve the same In. the early SAL ah ie, ae Coy 9 Peamneralls n described for the clock. intercourse was carried on between Holland and Port The mechanism of this going in time of winding, was Seaton, by the ship owners of Prestonpans, in East exhibited by I ek Lothian. Among the imports, was ld iron in hogs plaining its principles to the commissioners who were heads, and many of the articles were little worse for be- | ip zB : ie E 7 G. -£ eI ATE Hits We TEE: cyl aii Hea hy att : aniie 2 H He he ecbst deci q f ; ef 2 z F bl i zie Babacsit il A stelt ; wine el ithad been applied tokeep home, were some Toutyat C of a very ingenious con- origin. Two or : oci ing to the ighty.. The frame mounted on an upright stand, aes siti mbicls the sgl eight.be was about four fect or more in height, A thin and The water-jack, which has been known in this country of it was toothed like a straight rack, and work- for more than seventy is convenient in this into. the ‘pinion of the first wheel, by means of respect, as it is so easy to the of water at a weight or weights hung on a hook at the lower end the cock to run full, half, or.quarter, on the small kind of the bar; when the weight and bar came to the low- of mill-wheel which drives the whole of the machinery est point, it was aanlly seared up to the t height, = ; pep wound pinion had a ‘great many years we contrived an easy way hollow could turn freely round the arbor of atts ine of. winding fers deck, the first wheel ; on the lower end of the socket was a 140, Machinery ratchet which rested on the first wheel, where the click for xoiag and spring was placed to act with the ratchet, which by the hollow socket allowed the pinion to turn freel backward when winding up; on the weight being al- lowed to act on the rack, all the wheels were made to turn the proper way, and so on, An idea occurred to us, that, im place of the rack moving, a machine might be made to go by its own weight, by means of' a pi- nion turning down on the toothed edge of a fixed rack. A scheme shall be given for a box chronometer of this construction, which supersedes the necessity of either fusee, barrel, spring or chain. A contrivance of a si- milar kind, has lately been communicated to the Socie- ty of Arts in Paris, by M. Isabelle, and is described in the Bulletin de la Société d’ Encouragement, No. 52. The same method, which has been known for a consi- derable time, is used at Liege by Hubert Sarton, who makes eight day sprin doth on this plan. ; On the arbor of the first or great wheel, is fixed what may be called the fusece ratchet, working with the click ait spring, which are on the auxiliary or going ratchet ; in the last is fixed a pin, which comes through the end of the auxiliary spring, and the circular notch in the great wheel, which is keyed on in the same way as in the case with a fusee; and having also a detent and spring for the going ratchet, the whole forming the great wheel, and the mechanism for going in time of wind- ing. On the great wheel arbor, close to the main ratchet, let a small bevelled wheel be fixed, of any small number of teeth, fully stronger than those in the great wheel, the back of the bevelled wheel lying against the main ratchet: indeed both might be made from one and the same piece of brass. Supposing the diameter of the pillar plate to be 2.25 inches, that of the great wheel would be 1.5 inch, and the number of teeth 72; the bevelled teeth being half an inch in diameter, would admit @4 teeth; and if made a little thicker than the great wheel, the teeth would be sufficiently strong. Another bevelled wheel, of the same diameter and num- ber of teeth as the other, is fixed ona pinion arbor, (a hole being made in the potence plate, toallow the bevelled wheels to pitch together, ) whichis placed within theframe in ahorizontal direction, inthat line which passes through the centres of the great and second wheels ; one of the pivots runs in a cock inside of the potence plate, and placed near to the great wheel arbor; the other, which is a little beyond the pinion head, runs in a cock fixed on the outside of the potence plate. This pinion has six- teen leaves of the same strength as the teeth of the bevelled wheels, and runs in with the edge of a toothed rack ; every revolution will be over the length of one inch on the rack, and equal to four hours, or one turn of the great wheel ; the second wheel pinion being 18. The length of rack supposed to be 8 inches, would allow the time of going to be equal to 32 hours, 8 inches multiplied by 4 being equal to 32. Were the rack 12 inches long, it would admit the time of going to be 48 hours ; or the diameter of the pinion might be increased from .333 to .500 parts ofan inch, and the time of going would then be somewhat more than 30 hours. Let a slip of wood be made 15 inches long, ths of an inch broad, and rather more than 4th thick, on one side of this, and close to the edge, let another slip of the.same dimensions, but not quite so broad, be set on edge at aright angle to the side of the other; this will form a pattern to have two such cast in brass from it; after being dressed up, one is left plain, the ather so as to have twelve inches of teeth made on one of the edges ; the plain one is screwed to the inside of the ease, and the other is screwed on to the plain one, having HOROLOGY. the toothed edge on the right hand side of the pinion, so Machinery. as to make the second wheel and pinion turn the proper way. To the ring or cap which incloses the move- ment of the chronometer, are attached three pieces of brass, kneed up at each end; the distance from ~ the ends is about two inches and a half, in which are holes made quite parallel to one another, and go on three steel rods, 15 inches long’ and 3,ths of an inch in diameter, fixed in the lower and upper ends of the case, and parallel to one another, and near to the dial of the chronometer. The case may be either of wood or brass, having a door on one side, which serves the purpose of getting at the chronometer, ei- ther to observe the time, or to push it up after it is nearly run down. In the lower part of the cap, a recess may be made to receive any additional weight requi- site to load the chronometer with, in order to give greater extent of vibration to the balance; the upper part of the case should, if necessary, be hung in gimbols, and the lower end loaded with lead to keep it steady. A chronometer might be easily fitted up in this way to go eight days, by giving more length of rack, 4 greater weight to the bottom of the cap, more teeth to the bevelled wheel which is on the horizontal pinion arbor, fewer to that which is on the arbor of the great wheel, and the second wheel pinion to-make more revolutions for one turn of the great wheel. Suppose the great wheel 80, and the second wheel pinion 16, one turn will be a to five hours; the bevelled wheel which | is on it (being 16) will have a revolution also in five hours ; the bevelled wheel which turns it, having 24 teeth, will make a revolution in seven hours and a half. The rack being 25.6 inches long, the pinion of 16 ma- king a revolution on it in seven hours and a half, and’ 25.6 X 7.5 = 192, the number of hours in eight days. The length of the case, being thirty inches, could be no inconvenience where eight days going without winding is obtained. A similar, and we think a preferable, construction might be adopted, by having the chronometer fixed, and a weight hung to thie lower end of the rack, which, as in the case of a jack, would’ keep up the motion required for the chronometer. This. plan, however, of a moveable rack, would require a space for the rack to move in equal to twice its length. — CHAP. VI. On the Dividing and Cutting Engine. Amone the inventions in the art of Horology PrO= Dividing ‘and cutting duced in this country, may be mentioned that of the wheel-dividing and cutting engines, which are said to engines. have been invented by Dr Hooke. In the to the fourth edition of Derham’s Artificial aka er, he remarks, that “ the invention of cutting engines, (which was Dr cree fusee engines, and:others, were never thought of till towards the end of King: Charles the Second’s reign.” It is well enough known: that he contrived and used an endless screw and wheel for-the purpose of dividing astronomical instruments, in 1664, The wheel-cutting engine was contrived by. him in 1655 ; and, about the same period, he discover~ ed that the barometer indicated changes in the atmo sphere, and i Sineenna wande weather. mae ears afterwards, he pro a clock to register the. yes and fall of the bakunecinnd which was executed by Mr Cuming, in a clock made for his present Majesty. Sully carried over to Paris, »wheel-cutting engines, which were much admired there, not only for. theiz. 3, HOROLOGY. 141 ‘ . and fanciful execution, but also for their utility. the late King of Spain, is very true. It is more than Equatiow ues The artists unwillingly admit our claim to this twenty years since,ench clocks were mada in London, Clacks. . invention ; and could they haye brought forward docu- and I believe that I am the first who applied this me. —~ “~ ~ ments to the contrary, it Would most readily have been chanism (for equation) to a pocket watch, twelve or . They maintain, that it could not have been in- fourteen years ago.” onl the The follo ing is a description of a very excellent and i : pd grape apie : A curious tion clock, which belonged to the late Ge- wheel-cutting engine, and one which could divide al- eet ra It was left, with several other things, to r by means of an endless screw and the late Sir John Clerk, and entailed on the house of toothed wheel, was made about 70 years ago by Hind- Pennycuik... _ ae 1ot ae afterwards into possession The clock goes a month, strikes the hour, and has a Descriptior Mr from. whom Mr Reid purchased it 30 strike silent piece. The ’scapement of it is made after of Sav"~ yearsago. As Hindley knew what had been done in this that of John Harrison's, requiring no oil to the pallets; %°" @ ha any Dr Hooke, this seems to have been made inimi- (see p.1 10 jena poetaten is a gridiron compensation - was executed on this principle, the great merit of which hour as the minute hand does, only for the most part it consisted in ha' a more perfect screw than had (rms semetinenenaet Dts soretaea’s, waters £ va 35 fora copious history of Dining Engen, oa ine, and swe atl ’ , for a i ines, time, ws at times and a full account of the engines invented by Ramsden peg wpm sg The age and phases of the moon are roughton, also represented, the days of the year and of the month, tha degrees of thn. lige, porn pipes asmall motion progressive, accordin the minute and sun hands are near] . One half nearly of the sun wheel is out, on that side in which the sun’s hand lies, in order that the equili- brium of the hand and wheel may be as nice as sible, whatever may be the position of the sun hand. From the centre wheel hole on the fore frame plate, towards the left hand, and a little upwards, take, with a pair of com adistance of 3.8 inches, and sw ee ed cee tee ee heirs ak chat, in whi illar plate; the other runs into a cock screwed on the front of the fare famuse plate; a notes is media on the acige of each frame plate to admit the arbor to come into its place. gee ay ls aga panache page pillar plate, is a or segment of a circle 5 inches radius, having $2 teeth cut on it, and cut from a number on the plate of 318; the rack-teeth pitches into the wheel of $2, which lies behind pillar plate, whose centre coincides with that the minute pinion arbor, as mentioned before. On other end of this arbor, and beyond the fore frame a little, is fixed an arm of 4.5 inches long, ing at the end of it a smooth hard steel pin, whi on the edge of the annual elliptic equation plate, made to rtp lomnayplbs ber Yl tpt agiasen ing not very strong, at to the arbor, near Thosita of the tore fensun, plate, the outer end be- ed to one of the pillars, or to a.stud fixed for that purpose on the inside of the fore plate. The elliptic equation. plate is a very irregular sort of a » as may be conceived in some degree by the description of its shape ; its greatest length over all is 6.5 inches; the centre is 3.8 inches from the broadest end, and 2.7 inches from the narrowest; the nearest edge across the centre is about one inch, and the edge opposite is 1.8 inch; the greatest breadth of the broad end is near to 4 inches, of the narrowest end is 2.8 inches. Du- ring the course of its annual revolution, the edge of the elliptic plate makes the arm which has the steel pin in it rise to various heights, and fall as variously to dif- ferent By this rising and falling, the rack which is at the opposite end of the arbor, is made to have a motion sometimes backward, and at other times for- ward, which it communicates to the small wheel of 92, behind the pillar plate, and of course to the bevelled wheel of 38 on the same arbor, with it. This continually causes a small of place, to the bevelled wheel of 38, consequently a change of place to that which turns on the stud, and hence to the wheel carrying the sun hand; this change is what gives the equation, shewn. by the difference of time between the minute and sun hands... When the pin in the arm falls, the equation or sun hand goes forward, and when rising it goes backward? The negative equation for 1815, on the 3d day of November, is 16 minutes, 14.9 seconds, which, added to the test positive equation for the same yearon the Lith of Februaty, is 14 minutes, 36.5 seconds, making in all 30 minutes, 51.4 seconds ; so that one tooth of the wheel of 32 may be nearly equivalent to one minute of equation. To trace perly a true figure to the equation plate, meuthbee 3 ree ue g 3 gE e . - tO of an equa- equation ; and there are four times in the year when tion clock. 144 Fqnation very ‘tedious and nice operation; for this purpose Clocks. the rack, and all the wheels immediately connected edanae with the equation, must be put into their places, as also scription ° * : ofan equa. all those which give motion to the annual plate, and to tion clock. have a spring ‘tight arm, having a sharp point to it, bearing on the face of the brass plate whichis to be the elliptic one: the sharp point must lie so as to coincide with the side of the steel pin, when bearing on the edge of the elliptic plate. The sun and minute hands being on, and the annual plate set to the Ist of January, the equation hand set’to the equation for that day, then by setting forward the minute hand until 12 or 24 hours have elapsed, the equation hand may be changed to what it ought to be, in the same time; so by going on step by step in this way, the figure of the equation plate may be truly done. The rack must be artificially made to assist in this ; and when the revolution is com- pletely at the end, before taking out the rack and the equation wheels, marks must be made to one of those teeth, which must be marked by ‘its corresponding space in the other wheels, so that when they are again put into their places, they shall give such equation as was done when tracing for the elliptic plate. - Mechanism Besides the days of the month, which are shewn on for shewing the annual plate, there is a common month ring, havin the day of g} figures engraved on it, placed as usual at the’ bac pert of the dial. One of these figures is shifted every day shifting, ex- through the whole ring when the month consists of 31 cept in days ; and two figures at the last are shifted at once leap years. when the month consists of 30 days, to bring the ring to the first day of the succeeding month; and at the 28th of February four figures are shifted, so as to bring the ring to the ist of March: by this means the day of the month ring requires no shifting or correcting at these periods, as those in the common way do. To produce this motion, five short steel pins are placed in a circle, on the under side of the elliptic plate, whose radius may be about half an inch, and set at such a dis- tance from ‘one another as to correspond with the num- ber of days between February and April, between April and June, between June and September, between Sep- tember and November, and between November and February. This may be done by applying the elliptic plate on a cutting or dividing engine, ‘having the num- ber 365 on the dividing plate. When fixed on the en- gine, and set to the first point of the number, make a point for February on the elliptic plate, then count off 61 from’ the dividing plate, which will giye the place tor the pin on the 80th of April ; another 61 will bring it to June S0th ; 92 will give the 30th of September; 61 the 30th of November ; and 90 more will bring it to the 28th of February, the point which was set out from. When the pins are put in the elliptic plate, that for February will require to be longer than the others, for a reason which will be explained when we come to shew the use of these pins. The month-wheel of 84 teeth, and whose diameter is 2.75 inches, has its centre on the left hand side, distant from the central perpendi- cular line 1.4 inch, and from the centre hole in the fore frame plate 2 inches. The month wheel, as usual, is turned about by the month nut. A long piece of brass forming two arms, each four inches in length, has a ‘on, and presses it down grad HOROLOGY. with its end nearly below the circle in which are the Equation five pins, in the annual eg plate described as before. Clocks. A spring is placed below this upper arm to keep it up, - unless when any of the pins get on the end of the arm of an and press it down. ‘The end of the arm is chamfered, tion clock. or made se that any pin, when tapprechiag it, gets easily ~ “> , by means of rite f vias ing the chamfered part as it were; and when past this, © © it meets with a flat and very narrow place, where it cannot remain longer than sometime short of 24 hours, say 16 or 18 hours, or perhaps not ‘ . After hay- ing passed the'flat part, it, meets with @#chamfered side opposite to that of the first. “Besides that of freeing the pin, this is made for the purpose of more easily ‘setting back or forward’the annual plate. The month wheel has ‘its socket equally long on both Prarz sides, end quite ‘straight ; the length of each may be .6 CUCIV. or .7 of an inch. Two small brass pillars are rivetted Vis*. 8. % on the upper side, and opposite one another, each at a distance from the centre ‘of the wheel about .7 of an inch, (see Figs. 8,'9.) the height of the pillars from the wheel to the shoulder about half an ‘inch ; and from the’ shoulder of each pillar a sort of ‘straight pivot is longed, about one half inch more ; the diameter of has pivots about one-tenth of an inch; that of the pillar .2 of an inch, There is another socket which on the lower or under socket of the month wheel, whic is rivetted in a rectangular piece of brass, about an inch long, and half an inch bread, or nearly so, say .4 of an inch, In this piece of brass, on the side opposite that of the socket, are also rivetted two small and straight brass pillars, about an inch in length, and the diameter about one-tenth of an inch. There are holes in the month wheel, to allow these pillars to go easily back and forward in them ; their places will be equally be- tween the month wheel socket and the pillars which are rivetted nm the month wheel. The other ends of the small straight pillars are made fast, by two small steel screws, to a piece of brass, which is formed to cor- respond with two broad crosses of the month wheel. Only one of them is made to have at the end a segment of a circle, whose radius is nearly equal to that of the month wheel. On this segment three teeth are cut, 7 equal in their spaces and form to those of the month ring. In the arms or crosses of the segment are three holes, one of which goes casily over or on the npper soc- ket of the month wheel ; the other two holes go easily on the small straight pivots which have been already Z mentioned. This segment cannot be put on the ends of the small pillars, till the socket of the rectangular piece of brass is put on the lower socket of the month wheel, having previously made the pillars connected with it to pass through their holes in the month wheel, It will be easy to perceive, that when the segment is put on to its pillars, and a sufficient space left behind the month wheel and the rectangular piece of brass, its socket may be made to pump up and down on that of the month wheel, and at the same time carrying the segment back and forward with it; a pin in the month *« wheel stud keeps the month wheel socket always to its proper end shake, notwithstanding any motion of the segment backwards and forwards. Below the rectan- a Le: ofS small arbor through the middle of the‘whole length of gular piece on its socket, a small groove is turned out eight inches. The pivots of this arbor run into small cocks, attached to the front of the: fore plate, keeping the long piece of brass very near to the plate; indeed a great part, particularly the end of the wpper arm, and towards it, is sunk partly into the fore plate. This lon piece of brass is placed so that one of the arms shal come to the socket of the month wheel, and the otlier, of it, for the purpose of'a forked piece getting in on it ; this forked piece is formed on that end of the arm which lies along the fore plate, and on to the socket or centre of the month wheel. s Susy From tlre preceding description, it is evident that ‘when any of the elliptic plate pins come to press down that end of the long arm which lies near and under HOROLOGY. 145 vention is given by Mr Derham in his Artificial Clock- Repeating maker. aid in his Histoire, has ios the fol- Ee ah lowing account of it, which is taken chiefly from Der- atches. Fe ie Fir i 1 Th 2 Hl “ The art of measuring time, (says Berthoud,) was again enriched with two fine and useful inventions be- t i are 30 fore —— nes One was the the pins in the elliptic plate, which press equation ; other, which is most precious, of the pumped u sul of the most general utility, is that kind of striking back which has been called i i than the nious mechanism, and w ded to a clock, serves to two; one being shifted by it, and an- make known at pleasure, at every instant of the day or i night, without seeing the dial, the hour and the parts of the hour, which are pointed out by the hands of the i in i clock. Both these inventions are due to the English month of February being longer than presses artists.” ’ “ The clocks in question here, (says Derham,) are Repeating those which, by means of a cord when pulled, strike the motion- hours, the quarters, and even some the minutes, at all work in- times of the day and of then’ t. This striking or repeat- ty in in the month wheel, are ing was invented by a Mr Barlow, towards the end of . We to shift four teeth of the month ring, viz. from the reign of King Charles LI. in 1676.” the Ist of March ; and, by this It is not mentioned by Derham, whether Barlow was i a watchmaker or not. We have heard it said by old watchmakers, that he was a clergyman. ‘This seemsin -years. It may be some measure confirmed, by his having ap lied to Tom- fixed pin in the day of the month pion to make his repeating watch, w was about i to obtain a patent for the invention. “ This mgenious invention,” continues Berthoud, “which had not been before thought of, made at the outset a great noise, and much the attention of the London watchmakers. On the idea alone which each formed of it, they all set to work to try the same thing, but by very diferent ways; whence has arisen per stg he Ye a fa a a 5 rab raged andes ich was seen at this time in London. construction of the month wheel, and of the ap- — “ This di continued to be practised in cham- Lore nate bara month ring, will be better un- ber clocks until reign of James II. It was then from Figs. 8 and 9, where AA isthe month applied to pocket watches. But there arose disputes i pind mi eer ere the invention, of which I shall simply the facts to the reader, leaving him to goes freely on the upper socket of the month wheel ; on j ca phe ry ae one arms is a of a circle, nearly of the ‘owards the end of the reign of James II. Mr Bar- as that of the month wheel, having three low applied his invention to pocket watches, and em- like those of the month ring; a,a, are ployed the celebrated Tompion to make a watch of the upper side ofthe month this kind according to his ideas; and at that time, i ivots; conjointly with the Lord Allebone, chief justice, and wheel socket, thesegment is made some others, he endeavoured to obtain a patent for it. freely up and down. cow ae et es Mr Quare, an eminent watchmaker in London, had Quare’s re- into i i meer eer the — a some ae aatine, but peating not having brought it to ection, he thought no motion. more of it until the noise excited by Mr Barlow's *°™*- patent awakeved in him his former ideas. He set to work,and finished his mechanism. The fame of it spread abroad among the watchmakers, who solicited him to oppose Barlow's privi to obtain a patent. They ad- dressed themselves to the court ; and a watch of the in- vention of each was brought before the king and his council. The king, after having made trial of them, cock d, having gave the ce to that of Mr Quare. ring Hh ii aH Leg2E G2 betty a ‘lp bee i - Patt fi . Itis of the most inge- 3 4 i ze a Es i Es itt Mi 7 gE LA rt Hi ue it FE 5 iF chi +H BRS mn git ay pe ie Ht i 1 Fe Fg istk aif F i tf ; i : eke Sete i if of iE i f i i HL AV i r i ii: . : s ” 4 4 ' 4 f | it z HF iil Ht | : j f Pe 23 7 E: UF gs 7 é + i th Hy au ih fe : r | The di between these two inventions is this:— The repetition in Mr Barlow's watch was rn egeab 4 ing in two small pieces,one on each side of the CHAP. VIII. = pine sithes repeated the eumthusthon tes enan- On ters. Quare’s wi po naps pe wc gga in onl rT Repeating Clocks and Watches. fixed in the pendant of the case, which, ara gato wd '@ those who do not well, can be more in, made the repetition of the hours and quarters, the convenient and useful au it isin same as is done at this present time, by pushing in small fixed A history of thisin- once only the pendant which carries this pin. T : ‘146 Mac wf This invention of repeating’ the hours in small fixed Cleeks and ¢locks and in watches, was soon known and imitated in Watches. France; and these machines were very common in 1728, Difference When the celebrated Julien Le Roy was much occupied ix between _ their improvement. | It was at this period that he made Quare and the repeating clock of which a description is: given at Barlow's the end of The Artificial Rule of Time. This was made repeaters. for the bedchamber of Louis the Fifteenth of France. The first repeaters, even those of Quare’s, as well as others, gave the number of the hour according to the length pushed in of the pendant ; which was very in- convenient, by striking any hour, whether the pendant was pushed home to the’snail or not. This frequently caused’ mistakes, in regard to the true hour which ought to have been given. From the report of our predecessor, Mr James Cowan of this place, who went to Paris in 1751 for improvement in his profession, and who executed some pieces under Julien Le Roy, it was he who intro- duced the mechanism into repeaters, which prevented the watch from striking any thing but’ the true hour. This, we think, was done to the repeating clock for Louis the Fifteenth’s bedchamber. In this construction, unless the cord or pendant made the rack go fully home to the snail, it either struck none, or struck the true hour, which was a very considerable improve- ment. The piece employed for this purpose is called the all or nothing piece. Considering the great talents which Julien Le Roy possessed, we have no reason to doubt of this improvement being his. “« Although the repetilion,” says Berthoud, ¢ such as is now in practice, is a particular kind of striking, its me- chanism differs totally from that of the striking clock; Ist; Because every time that it is made to repeat, the main re- peating spring is wound up, whereas, in the common striking part, the main-spring is wound up only once in eight days, fifteen, or a month: 2d, In the repetition we must substitute for the count-wheel, which determines the number of blows that the hammer must strike, a con- trivance wholly different. The first author of this in- genious mechanism substituted for the count-wheel a piece, to which, in regard to its form, he gave the name of the snail. The-snail is a plain piece, divided into twelve parts, which form steps, and come u- ally in from the circumference towards the centre. It makes a revolution in twelve hours. Each of the steps is formed by a portion of a circle. Every time that the clock is made to repeat the hour, the pully which carries the cord is connected with and turns a pinion, which leads a rack, whose arm falls on one or other of the steps of the’snail, (on the cord being pulled), and regulates the number of blows which the hammer ought to give; and as this snail advances only one step in an hour, it fol- lows, that if it is wanted to be made to repeat at every instant in the hour, we should have always the same number of blows of the hammer; whereas; in setting’ off the wheel- work of an ordinary striking movement more than once in the hour, we would havea different hour. A count-wheel would then not be fit fora repetition. The mechanism of the repetition has a second snail, which bears four steps also in portions of a circle, to regulate the blows which the quarter hammers must give.” The count and hoop wheels, and locking plate of the old striking clocks, for regulating thé number of blows of the hammer, and locking the wheel-work, was ex- cellently contrived: It had only one inconvenience, for when set off by accident, it would prematurely strike the hour to come: this made it requisite to strike ele- ven hours before it could be again brought to the hour wanted. Had it not been for the invention of the re- peater, these would have continued, and would have 5 Difference between the repeating and striking motion- work, + HOROLOGY. . been still made in the modern clocks, the same as inthe Repeating ancient ones. But the snail of the repeater showed that Clocks anc it could be adapted for regulating the number of blows _W* ors for the hammer of a common striking clock, and has \ prevented the inconvenience of striking over a number of hours, before the clock could be set to the right hour of striking. ( « We owe to Julien Le Roy,” continues Berthoud, “ the suppressing of the bell in repeating watches, a change which has made these machines more simple, by rendering the movement larger, more sqlid, and less ex- posed to dust. Thesewatches, whichhe raised brass edges, are of amore handsome form. From the time of this celebrated artist, all the French repeaters have been made according to this model; but in England, where repeating watches were invented, they make them for the most part with a bell; and in Spain, this construction is still more preferred. In repeating watches. without a bell, the hammers strike on brass pieces, either sol- dered or screwed to the case. _ Repeating watches with a bell, have also, as those without one, the property of being dumb, that is to say, of being able to make it repeat at pleasure, without the hammers being allowed to strike on the bell, or brass pieces.” This effect is produced after the' pendant is pushed in, by putting the point of the forefinger ona small spring button, that comes through the case. Being a little pres- sed in, it opposes a piece against the hammers;which pre- vents them from striking either a bell or the brass pieces inside of the case; by which means the blows for hours and quarters are felt, though they cannot now be easily heard. This makes this kind of repeaters very conve- nient for those who are deaf, as during. the dark of night they can feel the hour at a time when they can- not see it. These sourdine or dumb parts have been left off of late years; yet they are not without their ad- vantages, as has been now shown. The late Julien Le Roy had tried.to render repeat- Le Roy’s ing watches more simple, by suppressing the. wheel- repeaters. work which serves to regulate the intervals between the blows of the hammers, and also the main ing spring. This celebrated artist succeeded in these, to construct new repeating movements, of which several have been made. But it appears that the public have not found them very convenient; so that this mode of — composing them has not been imitated. The only one of this kind which: we have seen: of Julien Le Roy’s, was a: ‘good one in: the pos- session of John Rutherfurd, Esq. of Edgerston. Al- though they have not been copied; they certainly de- serve to beso. Repeaters have of late been made with springs in place Repeaters of bells, which are a very ingenious substitute, it must/be with spring: allowed, of Swiss invention; h they areas superflu- a ge. of ous as bells. Considerable trouble is necessary in mak- ing and placing them. » They ought never to be recom- mended, if it could be avoided; but we are often obli- ged to yield to the fashion of the day, even when it does not cvincide with our own opinion. When three or more hammers are used to give the quarters, we then would admit springs in place of bells, as when they are well tuned, they give a most beautiful chime for the quarters: were bells introduced for this purpose, they would give a clumsy appearance to the watch. Julien Le Roy saw good reasons for setting aside the bell; and no plan of a repeater will ever be superior or equal to that of his, which Graham frequently adopted in many of his f watches, though Sn perme en mone Ju- we lien Le Roy’s having whatiscalled theplain, and Graham's 6 the Stogden motion, a most ingenious contrivance, re- F Ree HORO and nice execution in learn. * oe Lar age or pane ag er made aon ipti ing movemen motion-wor ja a ype ge toe we have taken princi- de- i 3 A i = fe fF if & 2 oe rest 7 [? ean 2 > hands point 1 A ppd of the dial work, Fig. 3. ed,and outside of the back of the pil- Conley pear ear ey cere name of minute wheel to what Berthoud the centre or third wheel, = LOGY. 147 and which serve to regulate the number of the hours which the hammer must strike. For this purpose the pulley P carries a pinion a, which pitches in with a a ection ofa wheal... Fig. 2 sallnd she! ravk. When the cord is- , and the rack is in made to advance towards the snail, the arm 5 on such a step of the snail as it may meet within its course ; and, according to the depth of this step, the hammer strikes a greater or less number of blows. It will strike only one hour if the arm b of the rack is stopped on the step 1, the most distant one from the centre, as then the pin wheel getting only one of its pi engaged, the hammer strikes only one blow. If, on the contrary, the step 12, which is the deepest and nearest the centre, is met by the arm @ in its course, which cannot get there until the pin wheel shall have made one turn, then the spring im the barrel bring- ing it back, will cause the hammer to give twelve ; blows. Clocks and Watches: —_—o_ It remains to be seen how the quarters are repeated. pratr The piece s, Fig. 2. which turns the star wheel, and cccv. takes one hour to make a revolution, is carried by Fig. 2. another snail A (called the quarter snail,) formed by four divisions, three paths or steps, on one of which, eo ogy gape gree Q of a piece fgg Ls » places itself, and as eg rsee on Rather fee dhncgntzcat die snail, the D of the finds itself more or less aside from the centre « of P; so that when the distance from tion of the arm D, and this is what determines th blows for the quarters : thus when the fin lots, wae on the pin nearest the centre of the , the hammer strikes only the number hours that the snail L and the arm 6 of the rack have determined, if i pin, it does not stop ill after the hour hammer has struck the ment. ge vrei ne gp 1, 2, and 3. ee all the parts of a repeating clock, seen in » ‘Fig. 1. re- Sndheuphanl apddelsarmensubeedcts in the , or what are put between the two plates, with the exception of the anchor A, which is placed in this way, to shew the ‘ t. wheels B, C, D E, F, are those of the move- ment. B is the barrel, which contains the clock main- epeing. The great wheel is fixed to the bottom of the B, and pitches into the pinion of the wheel C, which is the great intermediate wheel. D is the third or the centre or minute wheel.t E the fourth wheel, or that where the contrate wheel was usually F the ratchet, or ’ t wheel. The centre wheel D makes a revolytion in an hour. The pinion on which this wheel is fixed, has its pivot prolonged, which pas- ses through the fore plate, Fig. 3. This arbor or pivot, Fig. 4. enters spring tight into the cannon of the minute pipe wheel m, seen in perspective, Fig. 5. which makes also, by this means, a turn in an hour. This cannon carries the minute hand; and its wheel pitches into work, with the dial wheels, go under the general name of the motion work. gives the name of the returning wheel; and whathe calls the minute language. in conformity to their Repeating clock with an anchor *scapement. PLATE cccyv. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 148 HOROLOGY. Repeating, the returning or minute wheel S, of the same number Clocks. of teeth, and of the same diameter as the wheel m. The pinion of the wheel S makes twelve revolutions in the time that the hour wheel C makes one. The wheel C, which is one of the dial wheels, takes then twelve hours to make one revolution, and is that which car- ries the hour hand, It must be observed, with regard to these three wheels, C, m, S, which are called dial wheels, that they are al- ways the same, whether the clock is a striking one or a repeating one; their effect being, to cause the hour or wheel C to make a revolution in the. space of twelve hours. The wheels G, L, M, N, Fig. 1. and the fly V, form the wheel work of the repeating part. The object of this wheel work, as has already been mentioned, is to regulate the interval between each blow of the hammer. The ratchet R, and the pin wheel G, are fixed on the same arbor in common with the wheel L, within whose centre it freely turns. The spring r, and the click c, are all placed on the wheel L. When the cord X, which is wound round the pulley P, Fig. 2. is pulled, the ratchet R, Fig. 3. fixed on the same arbor as the pulley, retrogrades, or goes back- ward, and the inclined planes of the teeth raise the: endof the click at O. Then the repeating spring brings back the ratchet, whose teeth butt or stop against the end of the click, which carries about the wheel L, and the wheel work M, N, V: but while the ratchet R thus carries the wheel L, and while the pin wheel G, and the pulley P of Fig. 2. which are fixed on the same arbor, turn also, the pins of the wheel G act on the pieces m, , Fig. 1. whose arbors prolonged car- ry the hammers /, m, Fig. 2. Each piece m, n, is pressed by a spring, to bring forward the hammers, af- ter the pins had made them rise up or go backward. The spring ry is only seen, which acts on the piece m ; that which acts on the piece n, is placed under the plate which carries the motion work, Fig. 2. The piece o serves to communicate the motion of that of m to the arbor or piece x, which carries the hour hammer. The piece, (bascule,) or see-saw mx, Fig. 1. is move- able on the arbor which carries the quarter hammer. On this arbor below m.z, an arm like that of m moves, on which act the three pins placed on the under side of the wheel G, These three pins serve to raise the quar- ter hammer fixed on the arbor which carries the piece m. It is this hammer which the spring r presses. When the cord is pulled, the wheel G is made to go backward, the pins of which come to act on the back part of the arm m, which yields, and comes from m to z. The small arm which is below for the quarters, makes the same motion; and when the repeating spring brings back the wheel G, a small spring, which acts on these pieces m, obliges them to get engaged between the spaces of the pins, and to present the right planes on which these pins act to raise the hammers. The pulley P, Fig. 2. carries the pinion a, which pitches into the rack 4 C, the effect of which is, as has been said, to make the point 6 go upon the steps of the snail L, and determine the number of blows which the hour hammer must give. The star wheel E, and the snail L, are fixed together by two screws. ‘This star moves on a screw stud V, Fig. 2. attached to the piece TR, moveable itself inT. Thispiece forms, with the plate, a small frame, in which the star E and snail L turn. One of the radii or teeth of the star bears on the jumper Y, which is pressed by the spring g. When the pin ¢ of the quarter snail turns the star x wheel, the jumper Y moves out, receding from V the centre of the star, until the tooth of the star arrives at the angle of the jumper, which se pte when it has made half of the way which it oug pushes it as it were behind, and makes it precipitately finish the other half; so that from the changing of one hour to another, that of the star and of the snail is done in an instant, which is when the minute hand points to the 60th minute on the dial. The janet finishing thus in turning the star, each tooth placed in ¢ comes on the back of the pin ec, and makes the surprise s, to which it is fixed, advance.. The surprise is a thin plate, adjusted on the quarter snail ; it turns with it by means of the pin which comes through an opening made in the surprise ; the advance which the star wheel teeth causes the surprise to make, serves to prevent the arm Q of the finger from falling into the step 8, which would make the three quarters be repeated when at the 60th minute. As soon as the star changes the hour, it then obliges the surprise to advance to receive the arm Q; so that if the cord is pulled at this instant, the hammer will strike the precise hour. The arm Q and the finger are moveable on the same centre. When we have drawn the cord, and when the pins of the pulley have freed or left the finger at liberty, then the spring p makes the arm Q fall on the quarter snail, and the dogee D presents itself to one or-other of the pins in the pulley. These two pieces can turn one on the other, and be moved separately: This serves in the case where the arm Q going to fall on the step h of the quarter snail, and the finger D being enga- ged in the pins of the pulley, this arm bends and yields to the pins of the pulley, which at this in- stant cause it to retrograde or go backward ; it is ne~ cessary that the pin for the present in hold can make the finger move separately from the piece Q. The spring B brings back the finger D, as soon as the pin has retrograded, so that it may present itself to the pin which stops for the hour alone, or for the quarter, if the arm falls on the step 1, &c. . Having seen the most essential parts of the repeti« tion, there remains only one of which an idea must be given, and which we shall endeavour to make the read« er understand. This is the all or nothing, which: has this property, that if the cord is not fully drawn, so as to make the arm 4 of the rack C press on the snail L, the hammer will not strike, so that by this ingenious me- chanism, the piece will —e the exact hour, if other« wise it will not repeat at all. 4 We have seen, that when the cord X is pulled, the pin wheel G, (Fig. 1.), oversets the piece m, and makes it come to a; and that before the hammer can strike,a small spring must bring back this piece m, to put it in holding with the pins; after that, it is easy to see” that if, in place of allowing the piece m to take its situation, it were made to be still more overset, the repeating spring bringing back the pin wheel, the hammer would not strike while this piece remained overset; this is precise- ly the effect that the piece TR (Fig. 2.) produces, which is on that account called the all or nothing piece. This is effected in the following manner: ‘The . iece m (Fig. 1.) carries a pin, whi through, the a by. oe opening 0, (Fig. 2.) ; if we bull'the cord, the pin wheel causes the piece m to move, as we have just now seen. The pin which it carries comes to press against the end 0 of the all or ee piece, and sets it aside, so that the pin shall arrive at the extremi- eons] t to do. Having cccy. escaped this angle, the inclined plane of the jumper jig, 2, “7 . | ; . d ahi cee i; d i 2 z BLAH Pp FF accord “scapement wiiel “A serves to suspend the this method. i : f 7 ? tit 1s ; i z ies fi if i H E I § 3 i f 3 a HOROLOGY. 149 or which serve to measure the time, as the wheels B, C, D, E, F, and those ofthe repetition, which serve to Watches the interval between the blows of the py ,7¢ hammer: such are the wheels a, 5, c, d, e, 7, whose cccvi. is called the little wheel work, or runners. Fig. 1. The spring of the movement is contained in the bar- rel A; B is the great or fusee wheel; C the centre or second wheel, whose arbor prolonged carries the cannon pinion on which the minute hand is fitted and adjust- ed ; D is the third wheel; E the fourth wheel ; and F the cylinder, ’ t, or balance wheel. The fusee I is adj on the | ter wheel B, a spring-tight col- let pin i ¢ wheel to its place on the fusee ; the chain is w. round on the fusee, and holds like- wise of the barrel. The hook O of the fusee serves the hand, on the watch being full wound up, ing against the end of the guard de ee Arg cote Fete neniebe sedis ete (4 ; the modern name of it is the fusee stop,) C (Fig.2.) attached to the other plate ; its effect is the same as in the plain watch.- Fig. 8. of Plate CCCII. ts the cylinder ’seapement, of which a description has al- ready been given in p. 127. B is fixed on the cylinder ; F is the cy- is the balance ji wheel, which is represented as tending to act on the cylinder, and cause vibrations to be made by the balance. None of the pieces are drawn here, such as the cock, slidé, curb, and pendulum or spiral spring, as they would have rather made the “scapement part obscure. The wheel work, or runners of the ition, is com of five wheels, a, 6, c, d, ¢, and of the pi- nion f, and of four other pinions. The effect of this wheel work is to late the interval between each blow of the hammer ; so that if the first wheel a is made to have 42 teeth, the second 4 36, the third c 33, the fourth d@ 30, and the fifth e 25; and moreover, if all the pinions into which these wheels pitch have six leaves or teeth; then in the time that the first wheel a makes a turn, the pinion / will make 4812) revolutions ; but the ratchet R, which the first wheel a carries, is com- monly divided into 24 parts, the half of which are after- wards taken away, in order that there may remain only 12 to strike 12 blows for the 12 hours. If, then, we di- vide 4812 by 24, we shall have the number of turns that the pinion makes for each blow of the ham- mer, which gives 2004 turns of the pinion f for one tooth of the ratchet R. The first wheel a, or great wheel of the striking part, carries a click and a spring, on which act a small ratchet, put under the ratchet wheel R, which forms click and ratchet work, like what has been seen in the first wheel of the repetition (Plate CCCV. Fig. 1.), which has the same use ; that is to say, when we the nt or pusher, the ratchet R , without wheel a turning ; and the pring which is in the barrel B:(Fig. 2.) bringing back the ratchet R, on whose arbor g, the inner end of the spring is hooked ; the small ratchet comes butt against the click, and turns the wheel a; and the ratchet R makes the hammer M to strike, whose arm m is engaged with the teeth of this ratchet. The spring r attached to my we (Fig. 2.) acts on the small part n of the arm m (Fig. 1.) The effect of this spring is to the arm m against the teeth of the ratchet ; so that when we make the watch to re- peat, the ratchet R , and the spring r brin always back the arm m, in order that the teeth of the ratchet may make the hammer to strike.—Let us now on to the of the motion work. Figs. 2, s. pass description Plate CCCVI. Fig. 3. represents that part of a repeat- Fig. 3. 150 * “Repeating er which is called the dial or motion work. ..It is seen Big. 4, in the instant where the button or pendant is just push- ed home to make it repeat. In first taking off the hands, and then the screw which fixes the dial of repeating watches, we will see the same mechanism that this Fi- gure presents. This is the kind of repeating motion work most generally adopted ; it is solid, and of easy execution. P is the ring or bow to which the pendant shank or pusher is attached, and this enters into the sock- et O of the watch case, and moves within it its whole length, in tending towards the centre. It carries the piece p, which is of steel, and fixed in the pendant shank, both composing the pusher; the under side is filed flat. A plate of steel fixed to the case inside, prevents it from turning round about, and permits it to moye length- wise only. The end part of the steel in the pusher is formed so that it cannot come out of the case socket, this being also prevented by the small steel plate. The end of the piece p acts on the heel ¢ of the rack CC, whose centre of motion is at y, and at, whose ex- tremity c, is fixed one end of the chain ss.. The other end keeps hold of the circumference of a pulley A, put by a square on the prolonged arbor of the first wheel of the runners. This chain passes over a second pulley B. If, then, we push the pusher P, the end c of the.rack, will describe a certain space, and, by means of the chain ss, will cause the pullies A, B to turn. The ratchet R (Fig. 4.) will also retrograde, until the arm 4 of the rack comes upon the snail L; then the main spring of the repetition bringing back the ratchet, and the pieces which it carries, the arm m will present itself to the teeth of the ratchet, and the hammer M will strike the hours, of which the quantity depends on the step of the snail, which is presented tothe arm 6. In order to have a better idea of the effect and dis- ition of this repetition, itis only necessary to look at Fig. 4. where the rack y ¢ is seen in perspective; the hour snail L, and the star wheel E ; the pullies A and B, the ratchet R, the wheel a, the part of raising mn of the hour hammer ; and these are the principal parts of a repetition, which are drawn as if they were in action. The snail L is fixed to the star E by means of two screws ; they both turn on the pivot formed from the screw V, carried by the all or nothing piece TR, move- able on its centre T; the all or nothing piece forms with the plate a sort of frame, in which the star and hour snail turn.—Let us now see how the quarters are repeated. Besides. the hour hammer M, there is another N, (Plate CCCVI. Fig. 1), whose arbor or pivot comes up within the motion work, and carries the piece 5, 6 (Plate CCCVI, Figs.3, 4.) The prolonged pivot of the hour or great hammer passes also within the motion work, and carries the small arm q: these pieces 5, 6 and q serve to make the grater strike by double blows. This is the effect of the quarter rack Q, which has.teeth at the ends F and G, that act on the pieces g, 6, and cause the hammers to strike. This piece or rack Q is carried about by the arm 4, which the arbor of the ratchet R has on it, by a square above the pulley A, in such a manner, that when the hours are repeated the arm é acts on the pin G fixed in the quarter rack, and obliges it to. turn and raise the arms g and 6, and consequently the hammers, The number of quarters which. the. hammers, must strike, is determined by the quarter snail N,-aceording to the depth of the steps h, 1, 2; or $3 which it presents: the quarter rack Q, pressed by the spring b, retro-« grades; and the teeth of the rack engage more or less HOROLOGY. with the arms.g, 6, which get also a\vetrogyade motion, and are brought back by the springs 10 and 9: The arm / bringing back the quarter, rack, its arm m acts on the extremity R of the all, or nothing, TR, the opening of which at , traversing against a stud fix- ed to the plate, allows R to describe a small. space: the arm m, coming to the extremity of R, this last pressed by the spring i, is made to return, into its place, so that the arm m rests on the end R, and by this the quarter rack cannot fall or, retrograde, unless.the all or nothing piece is pushed aside. The arm wu, car- ried by the quarter, rack, serves to overturn or: set aside the raising piece m, (Fig. 4.) (which is moveable on the arbor of the hour hammer,) whose pin.1, comes up within the motion work ; so that when even the hours and quarters are repeated, the quarter rack still continues to moye a little way, and the arm wu turns aside the raising piece m, by means of the pin 1, which comes within the motion work, and by this it is put from having any holding with the ratchet R, so PLATE ~ CCCVI.’ > Figs. 3, & long as the all or nothing TR does not allow the quar- ter rack to retrograde or fall; which can only hz in the case when, having pushed home the pen against the snail, the arm 4 of the rack CC presses the snail, and makes it describe a small space, at the-ex- tremity R of the all or nothing: then. the quarter, rack will fall and disengage the becs or lifting pieces, and the hammers will aalee the hours and quarters, given by. the snails L and N, The great hammer carries a pin 3, Fig. 4. which comes up to the motion work through an opening marked 8, Fig. 3.: the spring r acts on this pin, and causes the great hammer to strike: this hammer carries another pin 2, which passes also through to the motion work by an opening 2, Fig. 3.; it is upon this that the small tail of the raising piece g acts, to make it give blows for the quarters :,the small hammer -has.also a pin which. passes engl to ye pays work by the opening 4; it is upon this pin that the spring 7 presses, to cause the quarter hammer to strike. The spring 'S is the spring jumper, which acts on the star wheel, E, Figure 6. represents the cannon pinion and the quar-fig. ¢. ter snail N, seen in perspective. The quarter snail N is rivetted on the cannon pinion c, the end of which D carries the minute hand ; this snail N carries, the surprise S, the effect of which is the same as. that for the repeating clock ; that is to say, when the pin O of the surprise shifts the place, or causes the star to advance, and the jumper having done. turning it, one of the teeth of the star comes to touch the pin O which is carried by the surprise, and causes the part of the surprise Z, Fig. 3. to advance, so that when the arm Q of the uarter rack falls on this part Z,. and. prevents it from falling on the step 3 of the snail; by this the piece repeats only the hour. The changing from one hour to another is by this way made in. an instant, and the watch strikes the hour exactly as marked by the hands. - The socket or cannon of the cannon pinion cD, igre is slit, in order that. it may.move spine tight on the ar- bor of the second wheel, on which it enters witha de- gree of stiffness or,friction, slight enough tobe able to turn easily the. minute hand to either side, by. setti it back or forward. according as it may be requir a. which sets also the hour hand to the hours. It is proper here to undeceive those who think that ahey injure their watches in setting the minute hand backward. In order to.convince one’s'self that there is _ the position . nothing in. this, it is sufficient to rem e which the pieces must have in a repeating motion work, when it has to repeat the hour, when the pendant or acne es LAS Se, et _ a a cee 4 « | HOROLOGY. has brought back and set aside all the pi with the snails LN; for at thistime or connection -between if | HIE sat ee § i : i FL hours and as marked by the hands. Ses teaneeianniae: ikebehabdewere waned in same instant that the watch is made to repeat, they : it is necessary then, before wait til it has clock or watch, to ted the , So that all the pieces shall have taken their natural situations. ; It is easy to conclude from this, that since with a ke aay gp we can set. backward or forward the minute , according as it ge Be! required, we may with mach reason do this in a plain watch, to it. of a peater does not strike the marked by the hour hand, when it would be necessary to put it to the hour which es the! repeater of itself by the | i F with the hou r i the watch a _ jumper S, or the pin yes well the effect they ought returning or minute wheel, mo menas E : wheel, Fig. 8. makes then four turns hour wheel ; the cannon pinion conse- turns for one of the hour wheel, tH the dial » so that between the f 151 or of the = plate, is sunk a little way, with scien ts hepe fast by means of keys, or griffs 13. and 14. The brass is covered by the dial, fixed after that of the brass , by means of a screw. A is to strike the hour which it in« Repeating Watches. dicates the moment we press in ee so that» the pr osna ine must be een a pres he ae may to in the pendant, and that the blows of the hammer may be the a ible. With respect to the first, on two things; the given force of the spring, and the } pethebeashbe + chad is to say, the space described, and the manner of making the act on the rack, With regard to the last, the rack must be in such a manner, that the point of contact of the pusher follows the are described by the rack, in such a way that the force shall not be de- composed, so that the action of the hand on the push- © With regard pecs ‘ubiacgll depep dow i to , its length depends on the int where it acts on the rack ; that is to say, accords ing as it acts farther or nearer the centre of motion. It is obvious, that if it acts near the centre, more force is required, and it will describe a less » and vice versa. As to the force of the blow of the ham- mer, it is limited by the force of the repeating main- spring, and by the force that the runners —— tomove or them in motion ; for it is clear, that it is only the excess of the force of the spring over the resistance of these wheels, that can be employed to raise the ham« mer. The number of blows of the hammer, for one revolution of the ratchet, determines again the force of the blow. CHAP. IX. On Compensation Pendulums. Compensation Pendulums are those which are con- structed to counteract the effect of heat and cold, in lengthening or shortening a pendulum rod. Godfroi Wendelinus, canon of Condé in Flanders, who published a dissertation, in 1626, on the obliquity of the ecliptic, seente'eo have beats the iret whio oben ved that, by change of temperature, metals changed their lengths. Graham was the first person who thought of maki a am rod that should counteract the effects heat and cold on it, by a combination of rods or wires of different metals, such as brass, silver, steel, &c. ; but he never put it in execution, from the opinion that it would not be effectual enough in its operations. It oc- curred to him at the same time, that mercury, its great ion by heat, would be more adapted to the bp he was in pursuit of. ——— a pendulum on is principle, it was applied to a clock, and set a-going. = jie we in the "ei ical reateaieay | No 392, in a paper which was given into the Society in 1726. He says, “ the clack was kept continually go- ing, without having either the pendulum or the hands altered, from the 9th June 1722 to the 14th November 1725, being three years and four months.” Some time eee eee Harrison fags the nye Barrow in i , was engaged in experiments on brass and steel rods wi aden tion) tat ced what is now called the Gridiron Pendulum.” See De- scription of tro Methods, &c. by John Ellicott, F.R. Si London, 1753. Some estimate be formed of the advantages of a compensation. lum, by comparing the going of a Compensa- tion pendu- lums. First sug- gested by Graham in 1715. Errors of simple pen- dulums, 152 Compensa- clock which had one, with that which had a simple pen- tion = dulum, as shewn ina letter from Mr Bliss, at Oxford, Pendulums. dated 12th July 1752, to Mr Short, in London. “I find, upon examining my book, that the greatestdifference in the going of the clock, between the coldest weather of the two last winters, and the hottest weather of the two last summers, is no more than one second per day ; and this was occasioned by the levers being made too short, of which I advised Mr Ellicott above a year since: Whereas a clock with a simple pendulum and brass rod, made by Mr Graham, and which pe to Dr Bradley, in the coldest weather lost above fifteen seconds per day, and in the warmest gained above thir- teen seconds per day, and went very near the equal time in temperate weather.” It is plain that Mr Bliss must have meant, gained in the coldest weather, and Jost in the hottest, otherwise there would be no analogy with the effect of the temperature in summer and winter on the brass pendulum rod. See Ellicott’s pamphlet, al- ready quoted. Graham’s Mercurial Pendulum. Graham's mercurial The mercurial pendulum, invented by Graham, hay- ing been the first that was applied to a clock for the pendujum. purpose of compensation, we shall begin with the de- scription of it, taking the others nearly in the order of their invention. This pendulum eonsists of a pendu- lum rod, which carries a large glass jar filled with mer- cury, so that the expansion or contraction of the rod may be counteracted by the opposite expansion or con- traction of the mercury. .To make this pendulum in the way which has hitherto been adopted, is attend- ed with considerable trouble. From the nature of the material, the construction of such a pendulum must always be troublesome, because any filling in, or taking out of the mercury from the cylinder or glass jar, to bring about the compensation, will cause a change of place in the index point on the graduated arch or index plate, if such a thing is used. A pendulum which will reme- dy this evil will be afterwards described, so that we shall now proceed to give a description of one made in the common way. : Dimensions The length of the a over all, from the bot- of a mercu. tom of the sole to the upper end of the pendulum rial pendu- spring, was 43.95 inches; the inside bottom of the jar, iim, .6 of an inch from the bottom of the sole; and the height of the column of mercury in the jar, about 7.47 lection. From the upper end of the spring, take a length of 39.2 inches on the pendulum downwards, then 43.95 inches — 39.2 +- 6, will give that part of the co- lumn of mercury below the centre of oscillation equal to 4.15 inches, and that above the centre 3.32 inches. The height of the jar outside, was 7.8 inches; a wire ut down inside, measured 7.6 inches ; mean diameter inside, 2.018 inches; weight, 7.5 ounces, Although it would be still better to have it of a less weight, yet it is doubtful if it would be then strong enough to sup- port such a column of quicksilver. The weight of the stirrup or cylinder frame was 1 lb. 6 ounces, and was reduced 6 ounces; that is, from the sole was taken 2.55 eunces, and from the top 3.45 ounces, both equal to 6 ounces. When the clock was set agoing after this. al- teration, with the pendulum the same length as before, it went slow at the rate of 46 seconds.in 24 hours, and when shortened by touching up the regulating nut, it was found to be about .15 of an inch less. than the for- mer length. The length of the stirrup bars outside, including sole and of the top, was 8.125 inches; the breadth of the frame from outside of the bars, 3.25 inches; the HOROLOGY. thickness of the pendulum rod and bars, 0.136 inch; Compeosnail breadth of ditto, 0.384 inch ; thickness of sole outside, ion i 0.515 of an inch; distance from bottom of the sole to rom . upper side of the jar cover, 8.187 inches ; jar sunk into pimehcons the sole about or near to 0.25 inch; distance from up- of amer- 4 per side of jar cover to under side of stirrup top, 1.25 curial-pen- inch ; height of stirrup top for flat of pendulum rod, dulum. 1.75 inch; thickness of the flat, 0.220 inch; diameter of the regulating screw, 0.218 inch; ditto of the nut, 1,150 inch. The screw had 36.25 turns in an inch; and the nut was divided into 30 prime divisions, each being equal to a second ina day. The prime divisions were , subdivided into four. Inches, Length of stirrup bars inside... ....... 8.05 Thickness of sole outside ..... vie oye « D515 Length of stirrup top ....... elec cere e LIS From the stirrup tep to the upper end of the pendulum spring ....... oles « 0) 0% GEARS Length of the pendulum over all .... ... 43.800 Inch. Length of pendulum spring. .........-- 625 Breadth of the double lamine, including 164 the space between them, eachlamina being.168 .500 Thickness of ditto’. 0) os eos 5 aye one 6 SOOT Ib. oz. dramsé ~ Weight of quicksilver in the jar... . 11 12 5.36 Ditto of stirrup frame ......... 100 Pendulum rod and spring, regulating nut, — Jarcover, Be.) ieee Vala e s $203) Oe: DAP Sie ta nie ie via ohne ns dau sik boned : 078 Total weight of Pendulum 14 O 13.35 Before the pendulum was altered, the rate of the clock shewed that the compensation was not sufficiently effective, although the height of the column of mer- cury was 7.5 inches nearly, and the jar being full, al- lowed no more to be put in: By reducing the weight of the jar frame or stirrup, the rod required to be short- ened, as has been stated, .15 of an inch; whether or not - this will be enough, remains to be determined. The daily rate for a month or six weeks was 0”.1 slow, when the temperature was from 36° to 40° of Fahrenheit’s ther- mometer, and got gradually slower as the height of the thermometer increased. When between 60° and. 66°, the daily loss was from 0".37 to 0’.45 ; for about two weeks, when the weather was extremely cold, the ther-. mometer at the freezing point and under, the clock showed a tendency of rather gaining. i Of late years, the mercurial pendulum has been adopted in some astronomical clocks; and it seems u the whole to answer very well. ‘The author of the Ele« ments of Clock and Watch-work thought, that it was not fit for this purpose, being too quick in its operations of expansion and contraction ; but if the cover is well fitted to the top of the jar, we can venture to say, from the resistance made by the glass toany of tempe- rature, that the operations will be too slow; and for thi reason, it is pro to make such a pendulum with a thicker rod gin, bars, that they wit not take heat and cold too hastily. A steel jar would perhaps. answer the end as. well as any other contrivance; but some would object to this, on account of the danger of netism. But even a jar of this kind, from its bei e thin, (for it would be heavy were it as thick as the glass one,) would be easily affected by the changes of temperature ; and mercury being still more suscep HOROLOGY. eo EEE bs re # STE it Fa H i 1 Hl Sree 7 rE if ail i H =i f i Es i ur HT B i Li oe i i the traverse or cross piece, requires whe Cte eee amar we tat gt eter St Fike ht A Bea rk Fee + ute Frcs * ATE festetl fee ifr ld Lehi i E F 4 a, Fr : r | | f th I E i f | F i 5 i g i . [ ae & ; : ES | = 5 i t : ! i 2* i ef if fr FF ij i F f] i F E i eye ae FF 3 f RE f 4 in : F i z Ets Hit : i 153 screwed into the upper iece, it binds to it the lower end of the pendulum rod, which is formed into a shape something like a compressed A, having lugs or soles, through which the screws for fixing it passes. The regulating screw has an untapped or plain part, which turns freely in a hole in the middle of this upper cross piece, formed in the same way as the upper cross iece for the jar frame ; the nut or head of the ane ing screw is shaped so as to lie under the hollow of the x, at the lower end of the pendulum rod, and on the u side of the cress piece; the lower ends of Geanicicihithe) cutee femee ano punt , and fitted into holes in the brass wheel, thro: the edge of which are put pins to fix them and the wheel to- gether ; this outside frame has no in the compen- sation. The brass cover for the jar, has the lugs hol- lowed out a very little, so as to come in on the rods of the jar frame ; the ends of the upper traverse, of which, as well as the lugs of the jar sole, are hollowed, and take in with a part of the rods of the outside frame, frame is moved up and down. the glass jar, outside, is about eight eight and other dimensions nearly the same as those stated for the former pendulum; and the diameter of the rod and A part is .331 of an Compensa- tion Pendulums. inch. A view of the improved mercurial pendulum is Pratr: given in Plate CCCVII. Fig. 1. cecv iL Philosophers seem not to be oe seeing the Fig. 1. expansion of mercury relative to that of other metals; some making it 15 times, others above 16 times that of iron, panies & She colntn: sion downwards. The second action up ‘is by the exterior tube, whose intemal di just al- lows the interior tube to pass freely through it: its bot- tom is connected with the lower ends of descri- oJ . " HOROLOGY. 159 { Compan m4 bed wires. To:complete the correction, a second pair Compensa , '. of wires of the same‘diameter as the former, and occu. Ward's Pendulum. pisgianiel Pendulums. 5ying a position at right angles to them, act downwards, , K : ly — - w little: below ‘the exterior tube, having also — The rod of this pendulum consists of two flat bars of Ward's * en's tubu- the interior one without ingeither. steel,andone of zinc, connected together by three screws, pendulum. pee s lowerends of these wiresare fastened to.ashort cys asshewn in Plate CCCVII. Fig. 10. No. 2. whichisaside », ..¢ qua. ical piece of brass, of the same diameter asthe exte- view of the pendulum rod when the bars are hers cccvil. re, i is sus; itscentre. hh, ii,” says Mr Ward, “ are two flat rods or of Fig. 10. Buse, Teen atisa ts wenumdaccdlicettbecsdiathich iven,phtutes cighthef axiach tick; bé is aes of sing Ne 26 Fig 9. edn adiodastathtioople teieatd torepresentthe interposed between them, and is nearly a quarter of an on twotubes;and the rectangular position of thetwopairof inch thick. The corners of the iron bars are bevelled wires round the middle one, are shewn by the five small off, that they may meet with less resistance from the air; é circles. By ing this arrangement, from the ecle- and it likewise gives them a much lighter appearance, construction of your own half seconds pendulum, These bars are kept together by three screws (, /, /, which Phil. Journal for August 1799;) I avoided nmuch trou- pass through oblong holes in / h and &k, and serew into which must/have occurred to me, unless; indeed, +i. The bar AA is connected tothe one k k by the serew I had been impelled on the same idea, by the difficul- m3 which is called the adjusting screw. This screw is ty of contriving the five wires to act all in arow, with tapped into hh, and passes barely through ££; but 9. sufficient freedom and in so small a space. Pig. 9. No.$. that part of the screw which enters £ & has its threads No 3. ins the part which eloses the upper end of the in- turnedoff. The bar i i has a shoulder at its upper end, scenes ‘the two small cireles are the two wires turned at right angles, and bears at the top of the zinc whichdepend from it, andjthe three largecirelessshew bar k k, and is supported by it. It is necessary to have the holes in it, through’ which the-middle and other several holes for the screw m, in order to adjust the pair of wires pass. compensation. No. 3, 4, 5, are a side view of each bar Fig. 9. Fig. 9. No. 4. eS part which separately. No. 6. shews the flat side of the zing bar. No. Pig..10, No. 1, is a front view of the pendulum rod Fig. 10. in the centre is where the middle wire is fastened to at screwed aon The letters have the same re- No. 1. it; the others'the holes for the other four wires to pass fereace to thé different figures.” Yig-9- through: Pig. 9 Nous. is the part whieh closestheup- The front steel bar being lengthened by heat, and Method of No. 5. er end of the external tube; the large circle in the centre having its expansion downwards, will carry along with compensa- Rte place where the brave covering forthe part it the zine bar, whose lower end jis su by: a tion. i erted; and deal) cincles rn ge we or hosel riees oma wre biter denote the fastening for the wires of the last i ve its expansion upwards, and carry up the steel ‘bottom | weeds, pate en rst mca of a knee onthe places for upper zine bar. penda ball hangs the wires of the second exy aartinerdan to the lower part of the back steel bar which has the holes for the other parr of to pass through, expansion downwards ; but the two expansions down- fastened to it, and the hole iv the middle is that where- Mr Ward's pendulum must be allowed to: be-a very ‘it is pinned to the centre of the bob. The fastening excellent one, as it possesses the advantage of permitti q of the tubes; but at the lewer ends they are all fixed, tions of the Society for the tof Arts, &e: 5 as : by No. 7. Phave: to-add to this for the year 1807, and in the pamphlet which Mr Ward - . description, that the pieces represented in Fig. 9. have published at Blandford in 1808, contain sufficient des — : each «jointed motion, by means of whieh the fellow tails toenable any common clockmaker to copy it. We - p id be stretched, although have only to add, that there should be a spare screw, for A me egee Md = dower shifting the compensation; and that the screws con- . Soieatiins ae connected, the middle wire will necting the two steel bars and the zine one should be: by the weight of the whole; the interior never on any account be moved. It will be found of tube will support at ita top the whole except the middle great advantage to have a spare screw, which may be wire; the second pair of wires-will be stretched by all put into-that place which is supposed requisite to cors ne middle wire and interior tube ; the exterior rect the compensation ; and then release the one sup+ at its top the weight of the second pair posed to be, where the compensation is thought to be of wires and the bob, and the second pai ipvatainene too much or-too little. Our experience with it soon led stretched by the weight of the bob us to this contrivance. Having made one ofthese te to oem 1 made of the tubolar culams, we shall now give an account of its dim ; kind, had pcan eee Es above &c. The distance from the pene eee the bob; that een ene gre oné*up; lum spring to the centre of the ball, is 40.75 inches; onl ity w ae gw short to-cor and oo thts lower endl of tie feamt steal Uae, Bie 31.5 was compensated: for, by extendi inches. From the upper end of the zinc bar, where those ml and ing the back bar of steel. rests om hangs;ony to the centre of the ball, it is 2 feet 6.25 inches. The steel bars are . ul i Hf zt isan forged from cast steel; and’ annealed ; their breadth is the rod reaching about 18 span n loweredge three quarters of an inch, antl their thickness about one- of the bob, otherwise it is not it ior-to the one first tenth of an-inch.. The of the zine bar-is 24.8 described.” inches ; and its thickness-a little more than two-tentirs 160 HOROLOGY. Compensa- of aninch. The centre of the ball hangs on the end of p bens the tube ofthe regulating nut, where it was tapped, to wep work on its corresponding screw, made near the lower Ward’s _ part-of'the back bar, formed here into a round rod) the pendulum. lower end of which isa oe. or index, to a graduated late fixed to.the back of the case, and 5:25 inches be- at the centre of the ball. The weight of the ball is 13 lb. 20z.; that of the zine and steel bars, nut, pen- dulum spring, and connecting screws, 2lb. 134 0z.; weighing in all nearly 16 lb. In making up steel bars or rods for any compensation pendulum, it is re to heat or blue them after they are finished, which will dispel whatever magnetism they may have acquired in working them up. The zinc bar of this pendulum, when brought near to the length of compensation, was about 21 inches. Taking the length of steel to be compensated by this at 61.75 inches, we may find what the compensation of the zinc should be, if the steel is zightly taken at 138. Steel in inches 61.75, ...... Log. 1.7906370 Matio 1388 .. 2... eee » Log. 2.1398791 8.9305161 ‘Zinc in inches 21......+... Log. 18222193 Ratio 405.7 .......+-.. Log. 2.6082968 $.9305161 The expansive ratio here is greater than $73, as given by Mr Smeaton ; but is not equal to 420, as given by Mr Ward, from trials made with his pendulum, Remarks on © The three zinc pendulums which have been descri« zine pendu- bed, have each their peculiar properties. The zinc rods dums. of the gridiron ene are very troublesome to make ; but they are more exposed to the air, or to changes of temperature, and are adjustable by means of the shortest traverse, and the sets of heles which are in them and'the centre'rod. When this pendulum is well - executed, it is perhaps the best of the three. The one with the zinc tube is the strongest, the bearing on it being more firm and direct than in either of the other two ; only it has no means for adjusting the com- pensation, unless by shortening the tube from time to time. According as the excess of its compensation is shown, something might be contrived to adjust it, without taking it from its place, but this would be too complicated ; so that the shortening of the tube b degrees is rather the better way. Ward’s is muc more easily made than the other two. Those who use gridiron pendulums should have a half traverse, with three pins on it, similar to the shortest one in the pendulum, which will be found very convenient, when it 1s necessary, to shift for compensation. The half traverse and pins should be put into the holes, where the traverse in shifting is not to come. . This will keep the pendulum rods in their places, and serve in € same way as the spare screw proposed for Ward’s pendulum. CHAP. XI. On the Wooden Pendulum Rod. Wooten Tue wooden pendulum rod does not come under the pendulum ¢lass of those which have just now been described ; rods. nor can it be supposed equal to any metallic compen= sation one. pty. a good opinion of it, however, we put to trial one of them made of a very fine piece of straight-grained deal, that, for the purpose of seasoning, -Woodex had kat for five years near a parlour fire, whi , Pendulum was almost constantly lighted throughout the whole year. The rod, when dressed up and fitted to the ball, and the pendulum spring put to it, was well varnished, so as to exclude any possibility of its being affected by damp. It was then applied to the clock, which, when regulated, went for about sixty days, during the months of June and July, without any apparent devia-« tion from time ; the very dry weather made the fixings for the clock case shrink a little. When these were again made more secure, the clock, during a trial of many months, could not be brought to give the same satisfaction. Whether this was owing to the wooden rod, or to what cause, we shall not at present pretend to determine, On this pendulum being taken away from the clock, a mercurial one was put in its place, having the same pendulum spring which was at the wooden rod, and every thing else being in the same state as before. The difference in the good going of the clock after this became truly pelea se and may be considered as a striking proof of the great superio< xity of the one pendulum over the other. It must here be observed, that, although the compa- “ative trial by the same clock with the mercurial and wooden rod pendulums was in favour of the former, yet this clock and another were fixed on two planks, exactly the same as those described in the next Chapter, and strongly fixed to a stone wall, opposite the brick wall where the other two clocks Lagi which ae — to the disco’ of their pendulums affecting ers mos tions, Not being aware of this at the time of trial, the errors of the going of the clock, while the wooden rod pendulum was used, and the good going of it when the mercurial pendulum was applied, may have arisen from various causes, such as the icity of the upper plank, or the pendulums being of unequal length and weight. This much may positively be affirmed, that they were not going under se payer as to crt Boyd trial. We propose however to repeat the experim the lates rod pendulum, applied to another clock, placed in a more insulated situation, An eminent A« merican philosopher says that deal has little or no lon- gitudinal expansion, making it less than glass, as may. be seen in Table under the article Expansion in this work. Rods. In the Astronomical Observations published at Came 7 yaam’s bridge in 1769, by the late Reverend William Ludlam, wooden Professor of Mathematics in that university, he has pendulum described a very neat and ingenious method of fit< tod. ting up a pendulum with a wooden rod, construct ed for the purpose of preventing any gyratory motion from taking place, as well as to have some resistance from the air. This was effected by having the pendue lum ball of an equal mass round the centre of a round wooden rod, and by athin flat hard steel crutch, to give impulse on the hardened ends of two screws put through the rod, which screws were to keep the flat crutch as near as possible in the plane or line of the dias meter of the pendulum rod, or at right angles to the middle plane of the pendulum ball. This ball was nears ly of the form of a cheese, or the middle frustum of a globe. For a more particular description of it, see Lud« lam’s Observations, page 81, Plate v. From the description given of this by Mr Ludlam, it appears to be a very complete one, and se= veral persons were on that account led to it; but, from our ience, it was found to be much inferior dele ght have been expected, and to possess, rae 4 HOROLOGY. 161 in a great degree, the very defect which Mr Ludlam from drawers, whose sides and bottom were of cedar, Wooden bo to avoid. The ‘coming and going of the there issued effluvie, that inspissated the oil at the = pendulum rod by heat and moisture, causes the screws locks, and thickened it so much, that the locks became _—”S, —*—" to come and go from the crutch, sometimes to clip it Tio.ens. lh they were talien off end choles hard, and at « it to have more a yur pe have roeree been made of Fe Pendulum om between the ends or points of the screws than is wood, are objectionable on this account, as il rods of ce- proper. Biating that it had a strong tendency to gy- at the pivot holes of the clock becomes thickened by it, dar wood. w was set agoing, (which P. if pendulum rods of cedar were strongly var- however diminished some time after,) arising from the ni this might deprive the wood of this inspissating mass of the ball being carried wa ae aan quality. passing centre, we thought of the following pendulum, which _It is of the utmost importance to have the pendulums Method of was afterwards put in cititiens thee the greater of clocks well fixed at the point of their s ion ; fixing pen- part of the mass of the ball! is kept at the centre, and and the cock to which they are suspended should, at “W!ums. where the least quantity possible is towards the edge. the same time, be strong and firmly fixed to the wall | Mr Reid's Fey ee ean ge ea iven in PlateCCCVII. of the place where the clock stands. This oe peadalum ; 2. ball is of a lenticular form, to be particularly attended to in turret clocks, and still _ with 7 inches in diameter, thickness at the centre 2.5 inches, more so in clocks intended for astronomical purposes. peoles tod. 4, seen at AA, AA, having a round wooden rod of These last ought to be placed upon an iron bracket, eccvit. about .6 of an inch in diameter, or thereabouts. The strongly fixed to as massy a stone pier as can pessibly Fig.11. rod be either round, flat, rectangular, or ellip- be got into the place where the clock is to stand. We tical. This last is perhaps the best form; the trans- have had an instance of a pendulum which ‘was so verse diameter being 1.5 inch, and the conjugate 0.5 well fixed up, that there did ed ps a possibility of bd ofaninch. aa,aa, No. 1. are two small round steel its being made any firmer, or that the motion of the pen- wires, whose diameter is less than .2 of an inch, or dulum could in the least affect the cock and suspension, say .175 of an inch, the beret he pin to pin abdéut yet the arc of its vibration was a little increased, after’ 8.5 inches. be 4 ' They shorter if care were wing made considerable exertions to put farther home’ taken to — the length of the roy the the screws, &c. concerned with the fixtures of the cock c ; i ir length; in and the suspension of the pendulum. The are of vi- “case, they need not project more than .2 of an bration did not exceed two degrees on each side of the the diameter _ The centres of point of rest, so that its ene native pone ety are one inch ing through could not be great at the point of suspension ; yet half Inch fleas the area 62, eanall os thie Saree ‘wes, it a clear that it wey satScluatly 1, and 2. are two pieces of brass, into wiuth the great to affect the cock there, as this cause made the arc the r i ir of vibration of less extent than when the suspension was their ree in the drawing. In one of them afterwards more firmly fixed. We have suspended the 1 icectinnta whi the:lewer and of the rad lifting turns. The letters a, a, a, a, a, represents a section or end view of a brass piece thus shaped. The length depends on that of the: barrel, and the number of hammers to be let into this brass piece, which is called the hammer frame, the length of it being sometimes three or four inches, sometimes ten or twelve. The flat part of the hammer tails fills up the thick part of the hammer frame, into which slits are made to receive the hammers. Near to the outer and lower angular part atia of the frame, a hole 4 is made through the whole length of it, not drilled, but ploughedeas the workmen call it, and this is done before any slits are made in it for the hammers. A wire is put this hole; and through corresponding holes in the flat part of the hammer tails, This wire is their centre of motion, and the holes in them are made so as to have freedom on it, and the flat part of the hammer tails are also made to have freedom in the slits made to receive them. On the under side of ‘the hammer frame at 6, the hammer ‘sprin c, ¢ are screwed, one for each hammer, acting on that part of the hammer tail just where it comes out of the thick part of the hammer-frame. When the pins in the bar- rel raise up any hammer 4 the nib, and carrying it away from the bell, at: the instant the pin quits the nib, the x 1808 c,c, by its returning force, makes the hammer head give a blow on the bell to elicit the sound. To prevent-any jarring in the bell by the -hammer head resting or touching it after having given the blow, each hammer has a) cou wos near the lower end of the shank, and insite of i 1 the counter-springs are made to project from one slip of well-hammered brass, and screwed on the top of three kneed brass cocks, fixed to the upperside of the brass frame. dd is a view of the side of one of the cocks; and Lu iid a i] 1) spsaee ‘ rg t Hi 7 itl at HE 3 at} it st th Pi PET itt att | pts, ia tal “a i: Lae i F 3 ra ; i 4 gchaaaan a dil Pa Hit “aH ii Bie ue cf a ahi Hit Hl Pn HA Thea HA a a pee tg a ‘th abel at + TRH LHe ee : bcice ae ts 8 | 73 322% “| fEesid HIE ui ud My itu ait) : ie ; CHEININE Hah san 1h ty Seecte He i Hor sf) aia ea Bei f He ead: gh paula § RLEGT ARSE Hae Hi in lee Hine TE f ria : rT Witeatitin = + ; one ts 5 apie sae 8 Hig He au ~~ | ae Hatt HES A She 5 ob BP £ 5 fbb 22% 4: SEES ae $ ; Hi La a lene Hie *ishelb rete te re ui MEE TARE i Tee Ae Pei fel ivi ; HE lili 4 teal ity herds fa i ee eT Han Hal Fa: 4 F gE Hb i nite iH ii #. Mi 174 Bells. ; — 9th . Oth 3K z ~. — | LA Li Ly t 10th x | = Ces rT On Bells. Bells. | It is still a point undetermined whether the com- mon shape of the bell, or that which is called the dish-form, and used .chiefly in house clocks, is the best. ‘The great expence which attends experiments on bell founding, will probably keep this point long undecided. Being in possession of a manuscript, con- taining some of Professor Ludlam’s remarks on the sub- ject of bell founding,* which we conceive to be very lam’ valuable, we shall lay them before our readers, “ I ba and saw a great deal of the art of bell founding,” says Mr on bell Ludlam, ‘in the time of the late Mr Thomas Eayre founding, of Kettering, a man who had a true taste for it, and spared no expence to make improvements. Much of tone depends on minute circumstances in the shape ; and Mr Eayre had crooks or forms cut on thin boards, carefully taken from the inside and outside of all the good bells he could find. This county (Cambridge) and Northampton abounds with the best bells I ever heard, cast by Hugh Watts of Leicester, between 1630 and 1640. Ringers in general, who are commonly constituted the judges of bells, (and as such are feed by the bell founder) regard neither tune nor tone, The hanging of the bell is all they regard, that they may show their dexterity in change-ringing. That shape of a bell that is best for tone, (a short one) is not the best for hanging, so tone is utterly disregarded ; to please the ringers, and to get money, is all. In my opinion, the thinner the bell and deeper the tone the better, provided it is not shelly, that is, like a thin shell, with such a tone as the fragments of a broken Florence-flask will give. A deep tone always suggests the idea of a great bell, is more grave, and better suited to the slow strokes of a church clock, and is heard farther. The clock in St Clement Dane’s church in the Strand, London, strikes the hour twice—once on the great bell in peal, and again on its octave or 12th, I know not which; listen to them, and you will per- ceive which is most agreeable and best heard. ‘The son of Mr Thomas Eayre, who was a good bell founder, east a dish-bell of five or six hundred weight, for the ehurch clock at Boston, in Lincolnshire, the tone of which was very deep and wild. Mr Thornas. Eayre, very early in life, made a curious chime for Sir T. Wentworth, afterwards Lord Malton, and father of the Marquis of Rockingham, which had thirteen dish-bells, the biggest about two hundred weight. This is at Harrowden, near Kettering.. Thomas Eayre, his son, and his brother Joseph, being all dead, to their bell« founding business one Arnold: succeeded, who had worked with Joseph Eayre, and is now at St Neot’s, Huntingdonshire. Arnold I believe to be a much bet- ter bell founder than the White Chapel bell founders, though by no means equal to old Thomas Eayre. Ro- milly always would confound Thomas Eayre with Jo- HOROLOGY. seph Eayre, and so imputed the faults of the one to the- other. milly was so conceited when at Leicester, where there is undoubtedly the best peal of bells in the kingdom, (partly old Watt's and: partly Thomas Eayre’s) that he would not so much as deign to ‘hear them. I cannot help thinking that a bell of five or six hundred weight, .of the dish form, might be cast far fitter for your purpose, than one of the church form. But who will do it?) Who has had any experience of bells of this form? It must also be observed, that small differences, in the form, in the shape or thickness of the sound-bole of a church bell, will make great dif- ferences in the tone. All I can say is, itis not the- weight of metal, but something resulting from the shape of the bell, that gives both freedom and of tone, as I can prove by many instances. What that shape is that makes a bell so willing to speak, isa question which a good bell founder ought to be able to. answer, It is a known and undoubted: fact, that a bell speaks. much better, when both the~clapper and. ‘the bell is hammer hardened, and when they are works. ed in to touch each other in many points. I now re- recollect, {that above 40 years ago, Thomas Eayre made a large turret clock, with quarters, for Lady E. Germain, ae Lord G. Germain’s) at Drayton; near: Thrapton, Northamptonshire, all the bells of which are Dish-Bells of a large size. [know not their weight ex« actly, but suppose the biggest four hundred weight they are heard a great way.”—“ There is an instrument brought from China, called a gon or gong, madeef hammered brass, or of some sort of a metallic cony sition, about 16 inches over. The drawing isa section. of it. B B on What J cal the sides ped AA are about four inches deep, and seem to supply the office of the sides of a drum, while the flat part BB answers to the stretched parchment ; only thereis a round part in the middle to stiffen it. On this raised . you beat with a ball of packthread of four or five- inches diameter, fastened to the end of a stick. The» metal, at a mean, is about one-eighth of an inch thick, but unequal, the whole form being manifestly raised. out of a flat plate by the hammer. The tone is aima- zingly deep, clear, and sonorous. The note of that I saw, and had some time in my possession, was F, an octave below the F fa ut cliff in the bass.” See our article GonG. That music which is produced by clocks with organ Constrne-. y preferable to, that of bells; tion of or- the tunes on clock bar- gan clocks. barrels must be great and the apparatus for marking rels is equally suited to do the same on barrels intend- ed by machinery to work or to sound the pipes of an organ ; the difference consisting in marking off on the barrel the spaces of the longer and shorter notes, as in lace of pins they have staples or bridges of various lengths, according to the length of the note, or the time which the pipe should be allowed tosound it: The very short notes are by pins of different thicknesses. . When an organ part is put to a clock, considerable power or force of weight or spring is required ; small - as the organ may be, or its wind-chest, some force is required to work the bellows, so as to keep the wind- chest full and no more. To work the bellows, that is, to move the lower board of them up and down, on the inside of which is an air valve that opens on the board being moved downwards, and. on the motion upwards. * These remarks are contained in a series of unpublished letters written by that eminent Professor, and copies of which ‘are in the posses sion of the writer of this article. See p. 123. col. 2. of this article. bd a7 5 HOR HOR it shuts, and the air being then compressed, it is forced being made like that which has been described, will Horology into the wind-chest by a communication between them serve to put or mark the places for the notes both on neo 0 for that and is ready to give sound to any of the and the plate-wheel ; the only difference is, Hoey. ; the Lora seen ir valves that the barrel will require to be marked. by a curved jjusic from arm sliding on a steel rod. The concentric ¢ircles on steel palit felipe i Be (Hi at Beh itt FE bleh Ht | 32 Ht rit fal i Ef s% Ce ego er ag wear is Lil 1 Ht ; Y j 3 tft : J 8 : i Li { {! other arms of these levers are in an opposite direction, and are about the same length as those which are lifted a te re on the barrel when turning, and are a and flattish towards the end, where the ci é 38 then by this means the valves of the pipes, and the sound is according as the lift is pins ! fruit gardener,” and a “ kitchen gardener.” _—ihis writings under the borrowed name of Thomas Mawe. 13. Im 1724; appeared: in two octavo volumes, the It is said he was patronized and by the first edition of the “ Gardener's Dictionary,” ae celebrated Dr Oliver Goldsmith. He was son of & Miller, of the Botanic Garden at Chelsea. pro- near Edinburgh, and had gone into fesses to collect and digest the labours of his predeces- when a young man, and after acting as a w sors; but the book partakes largely of the character of for some years at Kew Gardens, been an original work, and it soon attracted notice. enabled to begin business as a nurseryman at Hackney. He asserts that gardening never to any consi- The work entitled « Every Man his own Gardener” has derable pitch in till within thirty years last passed through at least twenty editions. This is form. past, «. ¢. from 1690 Seven years after the ed on the plan of a calendar, a in- publication of the octavo edition, which is now very structions under detached monthly Before his scarce, the first folio edition came out. In the preface death, which ha in 1806, he had prepared an« Engl garden smeaoees of Seodeent hich the = naan rove sean " the Second whi systematic is of i William and Mary. The jons of numerous under one article every thing relative to the culture of introduced into England, from America, the same plant. This: last been ished ‘in th ieee me ana of the 18th century, with details form of a thick duedecimo volume, Masons * Sketches of Botany in England, Vol. I. ilistory. Marshall. Speechly. Forsfth. Botanical Magazine. Maddock. Cushing. Knight. 180 « The British Fruit Gardener,’ ,“« The Complete For- cing Gardener,” and “The Complete Kitchen Gar- dener and Hot-bed Forcer,”? and still other books of similar import. It is perhaps to be etted that he was induced by booksellers to multiply his publica- tions so much, this circumstance having tended to bring upon him the imputation of book-making, and to ex- cite some degree of prejudice against him. In point of fact, however, he understood the business of garden- ing extremely well, and his ne altogether afford a very complete view of horticultural operations. 16. Another deservedly popular work on horticul- ture remains to be noticed. It is written by the Rev. Charles Marshall, a clergyman of the church of Eng- land, who is evidently a very zealous amateur gardener. The title is, «« An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening.” A great deal of correct infor- mation is here condensed into little space, and convey- ed in perspicuous and unaffected language. There is subjoined to it a compendious calendar, better calculated, we think, to be useful as a remembrancer, than any one published since the time of Evelyn. 17. The * Dictionary of Gardening,” bearing to be written by Alexander Macdonald, gardener, in two vo- lumes 4to, is an expensive work which has not acquired much reputation. It appears to be little more than a compilation, and is certainly not the work of a practical gardener ; but it necessarily includes a great deal of use- ful information. Of late years, the culture of the vine and of the pine-apple has been very well treated by Speechly, in separate works. Forsyth’s ‘“ Treatise on Fruit-trees and their diseases, with a particular method’ of cure,” first appeared in 1791, in 4to.. The royal patronage, kindly bestowed on an old and meritorious servant, secured to this work a considerable degree of attention, and even procured for the author the extraor- dinary distinction of a parliamentary reward. Many excellent remarks are to be found in the book. In 1802, it was republished with improvements in an oc~ tavo form. 18. Curtis’s “ Botanical Magazine” was begun in 1787; and it has been continued in monthly numbers, with little intermission, ever since; Dr Sims having edited the work since Mr Curtis's death. Important hints are frequently thrown out as to the habits, mode of cultivation, and uses, of the plants described and figured. Maddock’s “Florist’s Directory,” appeared in 1792; and it is-still the standard book of instructions for the cultivation of the hyacinth, tulip, ranunculus, anemone, auricula, carnation, pink, and polyanthus, the favourites of the florist, strictly so called. The «« Exotic Gardener,” by J. Cushing, foreman to Messrs Lee and Kennedy of Hammersmith, is the latest and best treatise on the management of the hot-house, green- house, and conservatory ; and on the soils suitable to tender exotics in general. 19. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1795, the first of Mr Thomas Andrew Knight’s horticultural pa- pers made its appearance: it is entitled, Observations on the grafting of trees. In the Transactions for 1799, 1801, and 1803, are contained his ingenious papers on the fecundation of fruits, and on the sap of trees. His excellent little «« Treatise on the culture of the Apple and Pear,” was published in 1797. He has presented several interesting communications to the Horticul- tural Society of London, which are published in the cis co cn of that Society, to be afterwards no- ticed. In the a sketch which has now been given of horticultur writers in England, many have been HORTICULTURE. passed over, some of whom would déserve notice, and History, perhaps commendation, in a more detailed account. 20. Scotland has been more distinguished for produ« cing excellent practical gardeners than good publica- tions on the art of gardening. There does not appear to have existed any Scottish system of gardening, as a separate book, till the beginning of the 18th century, when “ The Scots Gard’ner’ was published by John Reid, gardener to Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehai The work is divided into two parts ; the first treating of contriving and planting of gardens, orchards, ave- nues, and groves; the second, of the propagation and improvement of forest and fruit trees, kitchen herbs, roots and fruits ; with a gardener’s calendar; the whole adapted to the climate of Scotland. The style is very inaccurate; but the matter evinces not only an ac- quaintance with previous horticultural works, but a practical knowledge of the subject. About thirty years after the publication of Reid’s book, there a ** The Scots Gardener’s Director, by James Justice, Justice. F.R.S, and one of the principal clerks of Session,” (¢.e. of the Court of Session or supreme civil court of d.) This is characterized by tee Martyn, as “an ori-- ginal and truly valuable work, founded upon reflection and experience.” Nearly at the same time Dr Gibson Gibson. published an anonymous octavo volume on fruit-trees, containing many useful remarks, and some curious no« tices concerning the history of the most esteemed apples and pears of Scottish origin, or which are generally supposed to be of Scottish origin. In 1774, there ap- peared a small octavo volume entitled, ‘“‘ The Planter’s, . Florist’s and Gardener’s Pocket Dictionary, by James Gordon, nurseryman at Fountainbridge near Edin-~ burgh.” It is avowedly a compilation ; but the author being a practical gardener, occasionally gives his own opinions and practice. It has already been seen, that several of the Scottish gardeners who have settled in England, have attained distinction as authors. We al- lude, in particular, to Abercrombie, the voluminous writer lately spoken of, and to Forsyth, the author of the Treatise pao i (te athe 21. Among the recent Scottish writers on ening, one remains to be mentioned, who will long eid a dis- tinguished place,—the late Mr Walter Nicol. - He was the . son of the gardener who planned and executed the ex- tensive pleasure-grounds of Raith in Fifeshire ; and here he received his horticultural education. He afterwards acted for some time as gardener to the Marquis of Townsend at Reinhamhall in the county of Norfolk ; but he left England in order to take charge of the fine gardens and grounds of General Wemyss of Wemyss- Castle in Fife, the improvements there having been conducted under the directions of his father. Here he observed a praiseworthy practice now too much ne- glected by head-gardeners,—that of instructing his young men or assistants, not only in botany, but in writing, arithmetic, geometry and mensuration. He used to remark, that he thus not only improved his scholars, but taught himself, and made his cnowletiae so familiar, that he could apply it in the daily business of life. In this way he gradually became qualified to communicate his information. to the public, “In 1797 the first of his works appeared, under the title of «* The Scots forcing Gardener,” in one volume octayo, About this time he changed his mode of life, and dedicated his whole attention to the planning and vin Weg of ornamental grounds. In 1803 he published the « Prac- tical Planter,” a book which both increased his reputa- tion as a writer, ‘and extended his employment as an improver. In 1809, appeared the “ Villa Garden Di- h. Reid. Gordon. Nicol HORTICULTURE. rectory,” a littlé book which the e he died, on the 5th March 1811. His last work just mentioned, has since been completed and publi: by in Fife. j ~ Horticul- 22. In 1805, a Horticultural was instituted tural So- at London, under the of Earls Dartmouth ciety of snd Powis, Sir Joseph Banks, end other distinguished _ London. characters. The first volume of its Transactions ap- peared, in 4to, in 1812, containing several useful and scientific communications, by Mr T. A. Knight, Mr R. A: = pe Te ingenious horticulturists. In Caledonian 1809, the jan Horticultural Society was esta- : ag at Edinburgh by the individual exertions of that ‘ y- versity there. The Society has ee ae eae of gentry, the Duke of Buccleuch, the Frey and March, the Earl of Leven, Sir James Hall, : but a propor- ’ SbIDA cocaplssnh knuplolgs cfd lass cnciooed a. - a ’ mentioned . branch of horticulture, are extremely ill informed con- 181 oon es meme of fruit-trees. 1, The — History. botanical gardener implies, as already remarked, ““~\~" She cultivation cf all eorts.of rare either in the Povencr. open border, in frames, in the green-house, the conserva- ‘ tory, or the stove; the adapting of the soil and artificial climate, to the respective kinds of plants; a discrimina~ ting eye, and an acquaintance more or less familiar with the characters and names of the genera and species of plants as described by Willdenow, at least of such as are contained in the Hortus Kewensis, or the Cambridge Ca- talogue. To these qualifications must be added, general taste inthe disposi oy citemttiemadone dheteon ing and keepin ornamen a Be ruit- Fruit-gar- 4 have a correct know of the different dener. inds of fruit-trees, and the principal varieties of each kind; he must be familiarly acquainted with the method of training and pruning suited to each sort, and must at the same time judgment and experience to en- degree of ing or mode of e must understand the formation of fruit-tree borders, the operations of ing and budding, and the preserving of blossom. peach-house, the vine~ matters. Much may be learned from authors ; from Miller, ears Hitt, = ly, and others ; but an in- timate acquaintance wi proper training, and the ming and disbudding of wall trees, is to be Kitchen be very simple and easy; but he who can 2 it neatly and with success, may be accounted aise % rem rearing of soe culi- nary articles requires particular attention ; such as as- celery, ose-cale, mushrooms, and above all, dener and Nicol's Calendar ; oper fren ver witnessed nor practised any of the nicer parts of the kitchen-gardener’s duty, will be but ill qualified to attempt them. The public nurseries are useful seminaries to young gardeners. The overseers of these establishments are generally well-informed persons, and dexterous work- men, having been selected on account of ing these qualities. Many very useful of the profes« sion may here be acquired ; such as the level-digging of ground, and neat finishing off of beds or borders,—ap- parently simple matters, in which, however, many gar- deners are extremely deficient. In some nurseries ex- tensive collections of hardy and green-house plants are kept, and a knowledge of the culture of these may thus be acquired. Nor is the knowledge of the modes of rai- sing the seed and rearing in nursery-beds, of the various forest-trees, an inconsiderable matter: in many places, indeed, the head-gardener is required to maintain a nursery of seedling forest-trees, for the use of his mas- ter's estate. In the — nurseries a knowledge of ne processes of grafting and budding may be acquired ; but the gardener whe ies studied ihe in this 2 school, will afterwards discover how much he has to learn as to the wood to be used for a8 well as to the size and quality of the stocks, Under any of the first rate market- Sorennes atapiagen mae porte of his profession with great advantage, particularly the raising of all sorts of pot-herbs salads, and the for-. cing of many of them. But here too he will labour un- H istory. Scottish gardeners, €lassifica- tion of, gardens. 182 der disadvantages ; for'in few such ens .can he ac- quire any knowledge of the managementof fruit-trees, particularly peaches, apricots, and the finer sorts of rs A young gardener: who has spent his time in. places where the proper management of fruit-trees was not at- tended to, or where no opportunity of attending: to it existed, may possibly be willing to — lower wages, in order to compensate for the defect of his education. But the proprietor of ‘the garden will soon find him- self a loser by the injudicious economy of employing him : and if it were a general rule steadily followed by gentlemen, not to employ as their gardeners persons who had not duly sought opportunities of gaining an acquaintance with the different branches of their pro- fession, young men of merit would; instead of grasping at the situation of head-gardener immediately upon the expiry of their apprenticeship, be convinced of the ne- cessity of practically studying every department of their ‘‘maultifarious and’ numerous employment,” as Evelyn happily styles ‘it. Im: Germany, it) may be, remarked, a gardener has not only to serve a long apprenticeship, but to pass certain examinations, before he: can, be re- commended to a situation as head-gardener. | In this country there is no such regulation ; and the greater necessity, therefore, for the employer: being able: to judge of his gardener’s qualifications. 24. Seotland has long been distinguished for produ- cing gardeners in greater numbers than any other-coun- try of Europe; and: several of: them have risen to the. highest eminence in their profession. At. the present day many of the nobility:and gentry of England em- ploy Scottish head-gardeners ; while the numbers of those of an inferior order, to.be found in every county, south of the Tweed, is quite surprising. Some of the causes of the very great number, and of the real ex- cellence, of the Scottish gardeners, have been assign~ ed in the 9th chapter of the * General Report of Scot« land.” One is to be found in the early education. se- cured to the children of the labouring class, in. that country, by the ancient and most laudable institution, of parish schools: another, in the hardy mode of. life and sober disposition of the young men, which have very generally gained them the esteem of English masters ; anda third, in the tendency which struggling with a very variable climate: at home, has to call into action all the powers of the mind, and to create a habit of unceasing attention to the duties of the station. It may here be mentioned as a striking and very honour- able trait in the character of the Scottish master-gar- deners of the last age, (already mentioned, § 21.) that it was a common practice among them to spend a:part of the evening in instructing their apprentices in different branches. of education, particularly arithmetic, mensu- ration, drawing of plans, and botany. Even at. this day, there are still in some places of) Scotland to be found the remains of this praiseworthy custom. A turn for reading and study. was thus created among young operative gardeners ; and to this, their rise in life might in many instances be traced. The. taste for reading was perhaps never more prevalent: among gardeners than at thisday. Nor do they entirely neglect geome- try, though it must be admitted that) this. kind of knowledge is. on the decline among them. It is not; indeed, now nearly:so necessary as formerly to the pro- fessional gardener, grounds being no longer planned. into mathematical figures, and topiary work bes ing altogether exploded. - 25. We have little fear of being accused of partiality. when we give a favourable report of the character of HORTICULTURE, Scottish gardeners, the justness of their claim of merit being universally. recognized: but, without enlarging farther on the topic, we proceed to give some very ge-. neral account of the different kinds of gardens now ex- isting in Britain, All of them, we think, may be ar- ranged under one or other,of the following divisions, a. Royal gardens, and public botanic gardens. b. The gardens of noblemen and gentlemen of great opulence. c, Villa gardens. d. Cottage gardens, e. The public nurseries, which, especially near London, may without, impropriety be ranked as gardens. f. Market gardens. On. each of. these heads, a few examples and observa- tions seem necessary for illustration, and at the same. time they may prove not unentertaining. Royal Gardens. Horticul-. ture. ~ —_—— 26. The Royal Gardens.at, Kew, on the banks,of the. Royal gar- Z veg planned ‘or variety of plants. They were originally p d by: that datngiiehed pat Frederick. Prince. of Wales, father of King George III. The extent. is about 120,acres. The surface is flat; but: owing to the taste-, ful disposition, of trees.and.shrubs, the a considerable variety of scenery... They surrounded by wood, amidst. which rises:a : Chinese temple, to the height of 160 feet: this was de~ signed by Sir William Chambers, who afterwards, pub- lished a description of the gardens and palace of Kew, in folio. The exotic garden, was.established about the year 1760, after the Prince’s death, chiefly. by, the.influ- ence of the Marquis of Bute, a great. enco of bo- tany and gardening, He placed it under the care. of Mr William Aiton, who had long been assistant to. the famous Philip Miller at'Chelsea, The principal green- house and orangery is. 145 feet long, 25 high, and 30. broad. About:1794, a large green-house, 110 feet:long, was erected, for, the reception of African and, Cape plants only. There are twelve other hot-houses of va- rious descriptions. Adding together the lengths of all the hot-houses, the garden contains no\fewer than:839- feet:in length of glass; and. besides .this,, about, one- half. of the houses | es covered borders in. front, for the protection of different kinds of bulbs, and.alpine plants, during winter. One of the-hot-houses is aPRPapestety to the palm and. fern tribe, displaying the. atic. species of warm. climates almost in. their. native luxus riance and beauty.. Another; is. devoted. to the plants. of New Holland, which have. a character of foliage pe- culiar to themselves, so that the, botanical visitor finds himself suddenly carried, as it were, into a new world. A third contains chiefly the plants of China, and of these- the collection is very. rich, a magnificent. assortment. having some years ago been ured from Canton, ac- companied by,a Chinese er to take care of them. A. catalogue of the plants of the garden, entitled « Hor. tus Kewensis,” was first. published in 1768 by Dr Hill. A more scientific work, under the sametitle, was given to the publi¢:in 1789, by Mr Aiton the, superintendant,. assisted. by Dr Solander; this extended to three vos lumes, octavo, Between 1810 and 1813, an improved. and enlarged edition, in five volumes, octayo, was pub= lished by Mr William Townsend Aiton, who. had suc- ceeded his father: he was assisted in the first three vos. lumes by the late Mr Dryander, and, after, the. death of that:botanist, in the remaining two volumes, by Mr. Robert Brown, author of the “« Prodromus Flore Nove Hollandiz,” and justly considered as,one of the very, first botanists of the age. The Royal Gardens at Hampton Court were are: nearly, or ondon, are perhaps the first in the world. dens. Kew. unds exhibit _ . laid out Hamptoa by Londen. and. Wise, already mentioned as nursery- cout. HORTICULTURE. men and gardeners : of eminence in'the reign of William. A b Feet nae en cumference ; one. incipal branch, trained back, mea- sures 114 feet in ;_and the plant has produced, in one season, 2200 weighing on an average 183 higher character in the botanical world. The collec- Hertitul. tion, however, cannot be accounted very extensive. The many editions of the Hortus Cantabrigiensis, pub —-V—™ lished by the late Mr James Donn, the curator, tend- ed greatly to spread its fame. Not that it is to be ima- gined that al/ the plants enumerated in the Cambridge catal: are to be found, at any one time, in a livi state in the garden; if they were ever cultivated there, itis enough. The catalogue was printed in the shape of a pocket volume, and formed a convenient compa- nion to the nm or greenhouse: in fact, it long re« gulated the nomenclature of plants in this country. Now, however, many give the preference to the Hor- tus Kewensis, as a more accurate pwr ool and oe pocket edition of this has also been pub- lish The botanic garden at Liverpool was established by Liverpool. subscription, under the auspices of the patriotic Mr Roseoe. The suite of hot-houses is perhaps the finest in Britain, and the whole establishment is highly cre- ditable to that opulent commercial city. The collec- tion of plants is great ; and the many opportunities of procuring seeds from ships, constantly arriving from every quarter of the world, are eagerly embraced by an active and intelligent superintendant, Mr William Shepherd. Here Sir James Edward Smith, the cele- brated author of the Flora Britannica, and Presiderit of the Linnean Society, has occasionally delivered a course of lectures on botany. A public botanic garden has recently been set on foot 43,11, at Hull ; it is on an extensive scale, and can already boast of a very ample collection of plants. For it the blic are in a great measure ind to William Spence, well known not only as a naturalist, but as a wri- ter on —_ ; ions of political economy. 28. At in, there are now two botanic gardens; puptin. one ing to the Dublin Society, and another to a Trinity College. The former was established about the year 1798. It contains twenty-four acres (Trish), The collection of plants is very extensive. The general ent of the hardy herbaceous kinds, is according to system of Linnseus ; each Linnean class standing separate in a large grass lawn, and an alley leading from one class to another. Aquatics are necessarily placed by them. selves ; and = the i ncaa hei a piece of marshy ground for rubs form another division, rine wt . The collections in all of the there is an arrangement, on a smal occur likewise i ment. They hav set a eMac ager experiments on the different pe Ps grid By ager t are called artificial Lay a3 : t, if properly attended to, is evidently calculated to be very useful. "Ths College botant garden established only i e ic was only in 1806. It occupies no more than three acres and a half, It is enclosed by a wall twelve feet high, the south-east aspect of which is faced with brick, and on this the more delicate of the hardy climbing shrubs and others which require shelter are trained. Here, for instance, hibit the Flora of the country at one view ; but they ve 184 HORTICULTURE. Botanic Metrosideros lanceolata flowers every year, and here and the products are not oy plentiful, but every kind Private Gardens. may be seen the finest specimen in the three kingdoms, of fruit and culinary vegetable is of the first quality of By perhaps, of Ligustrum lucidum, or the wax-tree of Chi- its kind. _It may be affirmed, that in Britain a gentleman na, and which escaped unhurt in this situation, during may derive from his own garden, with the aid of glass and the severe winter of 1813, when the original plant _of fire-heat, a more varie and richer dessert, through- from which it was taken perished in England. ‘There out the year, than is to be met with on the most luxurious is in the garden a general arrangement of herbaceous, table in any other country. To prove this assertion, it perennial, and biennial plants ; the annual plants and will be enough to run over the fruits successively af- the gramina being each kept separate. Although the forded throughout the year, i a _well-conducted Bri- hore 3 ef space is small, there is not only a Fruticetum, but an tish garden. Strawberries, planted in pots and forced jivcq).” po oT a and, with equal taste and judgment, the _in a hot-house, produce their fruit about the middle of p,itin. principal part of this last is so contrived as to serve for pel and forced cherries are ready. at the same time. a screen to give shelter to the rest of the garden. There These are followed by early melons, about the begin- is an extensive collection of the hardy medicinal plants, ning of May. In June the first forced grapes and arranged according to Jussieu’s method. Thereisonly peaches are ready for the table, with the luscious pine- . one stove and one greenhouse ; but the exotics cultiva- apple: may-duke cherries on good exposures now ri- ted in these are curious and numerous. Upon the pen, and different kinds of strawberries in the open whole, this small botanic garden contains a richer and _ ground are abundant. These, with early melons, grapes, more varied collection than is perhaps to be found any _ peaches, nectarines, and pine-apples, continue plentiful where else in Europe within the same compass. It till August, when the currant and gooseberry come in. does honour to the liberality and public spirit of the By the middle of August the early pears are ready, and heads of the College ; and they seem to have been pe- _ the later houses of peaches, nectarines, and grapes are culiarly fortunate in their gardener, (Mr James Towns- _ in perfection, with melons; and by September, the open end Mackay, originally from the Botanic Garden at . wall crops of peaches, apricots, and nectarines, green- Edinburgh), who has here proved, that, to a thorough’ gage plums, and jargonelle pears, with the late preser- knowledge of practical horticulture, and extensive ac- oa gooseberries and currants, and the early jenneting quisitions in botany, he adds an acquaintance with the and oslin apples, swell the dessert. In October, late principles of landscape gardening. ‘ cae of melons and grapes, with peaches, nectarines, Edinburgh, 29. The Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh was _ and figs, join themselves with the ripening apples and lanned, in 1767, by Dr John Hope, then professor of pears ; tilt towards the end of it, the careful horticultu- Bsny. The collection of plants, both hardy and ten- _rist gathers and stores the remaining fruits of his la- der, formed by Dr Hope, was uncommonly great; and ours, that he may possess a supply during the winter some of the rarer trees and shrubs planted by him now season, The autumn pears, such as the beurré and the afford admirable full grown specimens: the Constanti- crassane, are in season till the new year ; when the col- nople hazel, (Corylus anda) Bi example, now ap- mart, St Germain, and chaumontel, still prolong the suc- par as a fine and lofty tree. Theassafcetida plant was cession of pears: then many varieties of keeping apples ere first cultivated, by the Doctor, ia the open air in present themselves, till the season revolve, when early this country. The quarter where it grew was shelter- . strawberries, cherries, and melons may again be procu- ed by a yew hedge, and saw-dust was generally laid . red. Several fruits not generally cultivated, such as over the root of the plant during winter. There are oranges and shaddocks, have not here been enumera- two hot-houses, a dry stove, and a large greenhouse; ted; and our nuts, such as filberds and walnuts, are all of them at present in a state of decay; but likely intentionally omitted. soon to be rebuilt in a magnificent style, and on an exten- The general extent of the walled garden is from sive scale. Dr Hope was a zealous disciple of Linnzeus, two to five acres. It is to be observed, that a walled and on the death of that illustrious botanist, he placed garden of three or four acres at the Penns day, affords in the garden a square monument, surmounted by an as much space for the production of fruits and kitchen urn, with the simple inscription, “ Linngo posuit Jo. vegetables, as did a of perhaps five or six acres Hope, 1779.” It deseryes to be recorded, that in the at the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th centu- dry stove a dragon’s-blood tree (Dracaena area) plant- ry, when the garden was invariably connected with ed by the Doctor, attained the height of thirty feet, ex- the mansion-house; so that the portion next the house actly double that of the largest specimen of the plant at was naturally laid outas a parterre,and large spaces were Kew ; but this invaluable plant, which ought to have occupied by arbours, fountains, and plats for sta- been the pride and boast of the Scottish capital, abso- tues or obelisks. A very few only of our modern fine lutely perished, owing to the want of funds for raising gardens can here be particularized, In all of them, the glass-roof of the house! In this garden lectures fruits and, vegetables are cultivated with care, and are delivered by Dr Daniel Rutherford, Professor of with remarkable success. In most of those to be now botany in the University of Edinburgh. The herbari- specified, besides these more ordinary productions, um of the late Dr Hope is kept at the garden. The there are rich collections of curious and ornamental present superintendant is Mr William Macnab, who was _ plants. j t bred at Kew Gardens, and. who is at once an excellent 31. To begin with England. The gardens at Chis- cultivator of plants and an acute botanist. Under his wiek House, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, near management the collection of hardy herbaceous plants Kew Bridge, are very extensive; and remarkable for has been so greatly enlarged, that it is now excelled containing a most magnificent range of hot-houses, At only hy that at Kew Gardens. White Knights, near Reading, the Marquis of Bland- icc 2 very. oat panied istingui ead es- Private ; ’ i or a choice collection of ornamental plants.— ae feces veces pall near Blackheath, the seat of the illustri- Gardens of 30. Many of the private gardens in this country are, ous President of the Royal Society Sir Joseph Banks, nobility and i¢ is believed, superior in some respects to those of any affords a very fair example of a well kept English gar- gentry» other. They are maintained in a more liberal style ; den. Here, in the open air, grows a noble specimen of 5 HORTICULTURE. 185 (Araucaria imbricata,) the most admi- flower more freely. Mr Vere, ‘at his villa at Knights- _ Publi¢. n Pam discovered and bridge, possesses a very ample collection of rare exotics, Nurseries. enzies: of this Spri Cot . . a justly tage Gardens. 35. Under the title of gardens, must be in Cottage gar- cluded all gardens of an inferior sort, such as those 4s. common about villages and towns. lens. Pp : so oo are ye guess Lone Beye and ; well. ‘ording not only an agreea! axation to Brentford; the “a! but contributin very much to the com- forts of their family. In South Britain, however, they are neither so useful, nor so well managed, as in some parts of Scotland. While in the former the vine may i i sometimes be seen extending its shoots over the cot- a princely style ; the gravel walks of the place are about _tage-roof, indicating a mild climate and a fertile soil, the PY sig 5 epee hy Though the soil of the garden really useful produce of the ground seems much ne- Seer fen ne Fhe Seb ° papropetions, glected. In ind, on the contrary, too little atten- a most productive state tion is doubtless paid to ornament ; but the healthy kale Fig! ingenuity and j of his Grace’s gardener, and cabbage plants, and other useful pot-herbs, with James M. as will afterwards be more par- well-earthed rows of early potatoes, shew that the in- ticularly mentioned. The Earl of Eglinton’s garden at ae rengay he a yr of ey ae] Eglinton Castle, A ; the Duke of Montrose’s at spots, w to draw em the most effectu seven ay the Earl of Mansfield’s assistance to their families. Public Nurseri many excellent private gar- 36, The public nurseries, especially near London, are Public nur- Bi = Li me of the first ae, These, besides being remarkable for series. | apo collections of plants, are hoon be distinguished ‘or excelling th some particular department. Thus at Lee and Kennedy's at Hammersmith there is not only a most extensive general collection, but more particularly of description, collected comers Lodilige Oy at Hacky ie “tan orhed ers of every wi ope ts, ige’s at ey is distinguis i for stove plants; Whitley, Brames and Milne, at Ful- i ham, have a general collection ; as have also Malcolm at Kensi and Jenkins & Gwyther near Padding. ton. At Thomson's at Mile-End, besides a rich Pil lection of young plants, are many fine old American trees of the rarer kinds, and a very large gingko tree of Japan, ae adianiifolia): at Colville’s, on the King’s , there is a great extent of glass for the grow- ing of showy plants for the London market ; Davy’s, in that neighbourhood, is famed for a fine collection of tu- lips, certainly the first in Britain: Milliken at Walworth excels in auriculas, ranunculuses and anemones ; and 5 Chandler, near Vauxhall, in camellias ; Gray and Wear at Brompton Park (formerly the nursery nds of are under the management of Scotsmen. ee gt be ny a sg if ruit-trees, . r Joseph Kirke, also at Brompton, ut a small Villa Gardens. nursery, but it is rich in the pia introduced fruits, particularly those raised by Mr Knight, and those re- commended by the Horticultural Society of London. i Ronalds at Brentford, and Wilmot and Lewisham at gar- Deptford, may also be mentioned as excelling in the i culture and training of young fruit-trees. At what is called the Botanic Garden at Sloane Street, kept by us if lh < i 5 4 é i f i rie : Lt r E & : a ei Hee cctibee i leet chr oe] rilbyie Hise Hi sess be ty: z ee i ru f “ j | gi a i fF a seueee He ul ie HAE ated poe ify f H : ety Hi FEE alt rail Ft i By Hid E 1 ; individuals, who devote their study of Mr William Salisbury, the partner and successor of vee e eakiretion of curious plants, must be Curtis, there is a considerable collection of curious shrabs at one Cpegh in see recpects Sr and plants in general. Several of the nurserymen pay qos most extensive is the fork tbattion tothe pepdection of seeds fr the marker, Count 1! pin at ater, on the Ux- sites eC calinaty glants.c¢ of orevmeeneel Bees. Ofthe bridge road, for a very rich collection of principal kinds of the former, such as cabbages, turnips, plants; and Mr Kent's, at near Hackney, and peas, they annually raise a small quantity of the diffe- . where aquatics, both hardy tender, are grown in_ rent varieties, in their own nursery grounds and under Pi = eae The tender aquatics are kept in a their eye, taking care however that each variety be as A stove uring winter; but, in the summer season, the far as possible from any similar crop; they Vessels containing them are placed on slight hot-beds examine the plants when in flower, and reject such as under glass-frames, where linings of horse-litter can be are spurious. The whole seed thus procured is k added at pleasure; it being found, that in this way they CO sean engi it ip then sent to some a Biles KI. PART I. “2A 186 Market. their employment, perhaps in a remote part of the Gardens. country, and grown by him. In this way there is year- Market gardens. ly procured a large stock for sale, and which in gene- ral is not only better saved, but more genuine than what can easily be got in a private garden. Throughout the kingdom there are public nurseries near all the principal towns. At Edinburgh there are several, which it may confidently be affirmed are kept in a state of greater order and neatness than any in the south ; they are particularly distinguished for the excellence of their seedling forest-trees. The number and the flourishing state of the public nurseries may be adduced as a strong proof of the general attention paid to horticultural improvements throughout the country. Towards this they afford great facilities, furnishing, when wanted, every possible variety of plants, at pri- ees comparatively low. In one important article we believe all of them are deficient,—fruit trees. These, indeed, they contain in sufficient numbers ; but their quality is often. doubtful. This is particularly the case with apples and pears. The grafts for these are often collected from the nursery lines, instead of being taken, as they ought to be, from bearing branches of fruitful trees. Sometimes, no doubt, they are selected from fruit-bearing trees in gentlemen’s gardens in different parts of the country ; but it is frequently impossible for nurserymen to procure grafts of the desired kinds in this way. Ifany judicious nurseryman, therefore, would form a collection of fruit-trees of his own, to be main- tained in a fruit-bearing state, he would thus not only be certain as to the kind which he propagated, but have at his command yearly a moderate quantity of proper grafts from the fruitful boughs of bearing trees. He would thus, no doubt, be limited in the number of his grafts, and might find it necessary to ask a higher price for his plants ; but this would most cheerfully be given by judicious purchasers. A nursery orchard of this kind could only, with propriety, be formed on ground the property of the nurseryman, or of which he held a very long lease. Till some such establishment take place, gentlemen who wish to avoid disappointment, must, in general, be content to graft their own fruit-trees. Market Gardens. 37. The market gardens near the metropolis are won- derful in extent, and managed in general in the best style. High rents are paid for the ground, so that as many crops as possible must be taken, and those must be of the most productive sorts. At the same time, such is the competition in Covent Garden market, that unless the produce be excellent of its kind, it will be re- jected. The accumulated heaps of kitchen vegetables to be seen very early in a summer morning in this place, are quite surprising, and would confound many who have frequently passed through the market in the day time, after vast quantities have been sold, and car- ried off by retailers, and other quantities have been placed out of sight. If from an inspection of Covent Garden green-stalls, one may judge of the general state of horticulture in Britain, it may be said to approach per- fection. It cannot however be denied, that although the kitchen vegetables exhibited for sale in this mar- ‘Ket excel in size, they are inferior in flavour, and per- haps in wholesomeness, to those raised. at a distance from London. Much of the land here occupied:as mar- ket-gardens has been heavily cropped every year for perhaps a.century past, and the soil has been. annually replenished with manure from the city. It thus ac- quires a grossness calculated to. give size certainly at -exclusive altogether of late HORTICULTURE. the expence of delicacy of taste. The vegetables of the London markets, however, ought not to be judged of from specimens to be met with in taverns : these are of- ten kept steeping in water for a day, or perhaps two or three days, as if it were intended to extract all fla- your, or otherwise sweating in a heaped basket in the cellar, the alliaceous and strong-smelling plants taint- ing the others. Every one, possessed of a garden is well aware of the superiority of pot-herbs when re- cently salteted ; but those sent to the London market are gathered and packed on one day ; they are carried, by the indefatigably. industrious gardeners, during night, either in waggons, or by boats on the Thames, so as to reach the market very early the next morning. Even in this way, a complete day and night must elapse before the inhabitant of London can set on his table the freshest vegetables to be procured in the markets. But as the gardeners come to town only three times a-week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Sa- .turdays, pot-herbs must very frequently be two or three days kept before they be used. They must therefore unavoidably suffer some deterioration ; and the wonder is, to see an enormously overgrown city so sply and regularly supplied, and with articles so excellent in their kind. ; 38. Fuller, in his ‘* Worthies,” fixes the date of the establishment of a market for pot-herbs at London, to be 1590 ; but Lyson properly remarks, that entries oc- cur in dinner bills of fare, detailed in the account of Queen Elizabeth’s progresses, which shew, that “ pars« ley, sorrel, and strong herbs, with peason,” were to be purchased at least twenty years before that period. Rathripe or early peas were then accounted a dainty for a queen ; and they still continue to be a dainty, selling, when they first come in, at a crown or even half a guinea a pottle (less than a quart.) _ Other ar- ticles, when produced early, give prices high in propor- tion ; asparagus, 6s. or 7s. a hundred; and earl tatoes, 3s. Gd. a pound. These and several other culi- nary plants are therefore extensively forced by the Lon- don market-gardeners ; that is, they are forwarded by the artificial heat either of a hot-bed or of a flued pit. Some idea may be formed of the encouragement given to horticulture by the demand of the metropolis, from considering the extent of ground occupied in the pro- duction of kitchen vegetables and fruit within 12 miles of London. Mr Lyson, above named, author of the * Ac- count of the Environs of London,” and who, in the course of his minute investigations and inquiries, had a good opportunity of forming an accurate calculation, es- timates that at least 5000 acres are employed, within that circuit, in raising kitchen roots and pot-herbs, tatoes, and of vegetables raised for cow-feeders. e states that 800 acres are cropped with fruit, including apples, pears, goose~ berries, currants, raspberries, and strawberries. Not fewer than 1700 acres are planted with potatoes for the market ; and 1200 with cabbages, turnips, and pars- nips, for the feeding of milch cows. The raisers of these articles are properly farming gardeners: they ma nure very highly, and raise garden crops, and then re- fresh their land by sowing with corn. They abound near Camberwell and Deptford. The production of medicinal herbs employs about 300 acres ; and from 400 to 500 are in the hands of nurserymen. In this way, the employment of about 9500 acres of the richest and most highly manured lands in the vicinity of London is accounted for. At Hoxton is a very extensive and well conducted market garden, Mr Grange’s; and this may } Marke Gard = 4 ; HORTICULTURE. 187 + ot ir example of all the others. But effectually concealed, by means of shrubs and low Situation of -“Teanien Spee mn fehfty stunted ed near the Thames, growing trees, so as not to be seen, at least from the # Garden. oth m1 pCa, Sec aoe enarenieacy 9 windows of the public rooms, and the garden yet be “~~ ler © ng duce to market, and situated much nearer to the house. . It is scarcely ne- : gp gehen Vatomead cessary to observe, that an access for carts and wheel ‘construction of hot-beds and the manu- ee — rroun mous for strawberries ; and in the last alone, there are bout 400 acres in fruit-trees, the produce of which is chiefly sent to London. et ig ae as Mia of the surrounding country at same emporium, Jot itis believed the demand is seldom stisGed. It an eminent horticulturist, (Mr Knight,) that the pa- r fruit is seldom p with strong nte and that as feeble causes continually tog ultimately 2 : produce extensive effects, the supply- with pe at hse rate wy to o rourab! on the physi health of the eee” Isleworth parish is re- for producing great quantities of ies, hich are poe, to Covent Garden market, but sold to distillers, or makers of sweets. In Fulham parish, there are nearly 1000 acres under ‘cow-feeders. In Mortlake parish there are gene- ners 1 ‘p- z 1 i z i E i produce having ired reputation all over the coun- try. What “called the physic gardens are chiefly near Mitcham, nine or ten miles from Westminster important when a new garden is projected. Most of them are appli i ta covial dasios Of giedbs . ‘bes when not o ise stated, a garden of the first charac- ter is to be understood as in view. Situation, Sc. of a Garden. 39. The consideration of the position of the garden with to the mansion-house properly belongs to the su of Lawpscare Gardening Te ay only here be remarked, that of late it has fashiona- barrows, without touching the principal approach, is indis le. Some of the cireumstances which are consi as constituting the best kind of situation may here be mentioned, and these, it may be remark- ed, ought never to be altogether sacrificed to effect. Shelter is, in our climate, a primary consideration. ghetter. This may in be derived the natural sha) and situation of the ground. Gentle declivities at the bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or the sloping banks of winding rivers with a similar expo- sure, are therefore very desirable. If plantations exist in the neighbourhood of the house, or. of the site in- tended for the house, the planner of a garden naturally looks to them for his principal shelter ; taking care, however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them, so as to guard against the evil of being shaded. If the plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall-growing trees, allowance is, of course, made for the future progress of the trees in height. Itisa rule, that there should be no tall trees on the south side of a garden, to a very considerable distance ; for during winter and early spring, they fling their length- ened shadow into the garden, at a time when every sun-beam is “valuable. On the east also they must be sufficiently removed to admit the early morning rays. The advantage of this is conspicuous in the sprin months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds and flowers: if this be gradually dissolved, no harm ensues ; but if the blossom be all at once exposed to the powerful rays of the advancing sun when he overtops the trees, the sudden transition from cold to heat often proves destructive. On the west, and particularly on the north, trees may ap nearer, perhaps within less than a hundred feet, and be more crowded, as from these di- rections the most violent and the coldest winds assail us. If forest trees do not previously exist on the tere ritory, screen plantations must be reared as fast as sible. The sycamore (or plane-tree of Scotland), is ofthe most rapid growth, making about six feet in a season ; next to it may be ranked the larch, which gains about four feet; and then follow the spruce and balm-of; Gilead firs, which grow between three and four feet in the year. Excellent instructions for the formation of screen-plantations, as well as for the regulation of forest- trees in , may be found in “ The Planter’s Ca- lendar,” already mentioned, § 21. Walls and quick are subordinate means of shelter, to be spoken of by and by. The best general exposure for a gar- den must evidently be towards the south; and a Cp tle declivity in that direction, equal Price) to a fall of one foot in thirty, is deemed very desirable; effectual draining being in this case easily accomplished. Water is not to be forgotten. If a streamlet can be Water. brought to flow through the garden, it may be render- ed conducive both to convenience and amenity: where this cannot be accomplished, the situation should be such that water may be conveyed by pipes from some ci eatrsigy | stream ; soft or river water being ly preterable, for the purposes of the horticulturist, to that of springs or wells. Where running water cannot be commanded, recourse is had to a aks or pond, it bees known that water freely exposed to the air and sunshine for some time, becomes comparatively soft, and fit for the nourishment of plants. Tn selecting ground for a garden, the plants growing Enclosure Walls, 188 naturally on the surface should be noted, as from these a pretty correct opinion may be formed of the qualities of the soil. The subsoil should also be examined. If this be radically bad, such as an iron-till mixed with gravel, no draining, trenching, or manuring will ever prove an effectual remedy; if, on the contrary, the subsoil be tolerably good, the surface may be greatly meliorated by these means. In every garden, two varieties of soil are wanted, a strong and a light one, or, in other words, a clayey loam and a sandy loam, different plants requiring these ‘respective kinds. For the general soil, a loam of middling quality, but par- taking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is account- ed the best. vf Enclosure Walls. 40. When the situation is fixed on, the next con- sideration is the enclosing with walls. Supposing a garden to be about an acre in extent, and the ground sloping gently to the south, the rule is, that the north wall may be 14 feet high; the south wall, 10; and the other walls, about 12. In a larger garden, containin, rhaps four acres, the north wall is sometimes raiaad 18 feet high; the side walls, or those on the east and west, 15; and the south wall, not more than 12. On a dead level the north wall is generally made 16 feet high ; the east and west walls 133 ; and the south wall, 11. It may be observed, that walls higher than 12, or at most 14 feet, are necessary only for pear-trees ; peach, nectarines, apricot and plum-trees seldom re- quiring more than 12 feet. It may also be right to no- tice, that the terms north and south wall are here used to denote the north and south sides of a square or pa- rallelogram ; but that, in speaking of wall fruit, if it be said that peach or fig trees require a south wall, this must be understood to mean a wall with a south aspect, or what is in reality the north wall of the garden, There are two motives therefore for raising this wall some feet higher than the others; first, sheltering the garden from the northern blast; and, in the next place, the procuring of ample space for training the finer Kinds of fruit-trees on the south side of the wall, or best aspect of the garden. Under the denomination of finer kinds of fruit-trees are to be understood not only peaches, nectarines, apricots and plums, but some of the French pears, such as the chaumontel, colmart, and erassane. Many gardeners are of opinion that the best aspect for a fruit wall in this country is about one point to the eastward of south; such walls enjoying the be- nefit of the morning sun, and being turned a little from the violent west and south-west winds. South-east is, for the same reasons, accounted by many a better as- pect than south-west. The south-west and west walls are assigned to fruits which do not require so much heat to ripen them as is necessary to those above men- tioned ; such are cherries, many kinds of pears, and ap- ples. The north walls are appropriated to apples and pears for baking, plums and morella cherries for pre- serving; and a few may-duke cherry, white currant and gooseberry trees; are trained against these walls with the view of their affording a late crop. Bricks, it is generally allowed, are the best material of which to construct the walls. The foundation and basement are often made of common building sand~ stone, while the superstructure is brick; and some- times the back of the wall is of sandstone, and the front only of brick. Sandstone which rises in flags is the best. substitute for bricks, Both kinds of materials admit of the branches of the trees being nailed-in regu- larly, and without difficulty. ‘Where the walls are HORTICULTURE. of common rubble building, a trellis of spars is some« Enclosure: times placed branches are ti is regarded as a very good plan; but the expence is considerable, as, to prevent the lodging of insects, the trellis must be smooth and painted. The trees thus: enjoy the shelter and reflected heat of the wall, without being injured by its dampness in rainy weather; and as the wall is not injured by the driving and drawin of nails, there are fewer lurking-places for the wood~ louse and the snail. The rails of the trellis are made closer or wider according to the nature of the tree to be trairied against it. In a few instances in Scotland, walls have been built of different kinds of whinstone, chiefly mstone and basalt. These minerals, on ac« count of their almost black colour, are calculated to al« sorb and retain more heat than stones of a light hue: but it is to be considered that it is not the heat retained by the wall which benefits the tree, so much as the heat. reflected from the wall. The proposal of painting walls i pe them, and to this trellis the black, is, on the same principle, not admissible. It. may here be of some importance to remark, particular- ly as applicable to Scotland, that in building brick walls, bricklayers only should be employed ; stone-ma-« sons working as awkwardly and clumsily with bricks, as-bricklayers would do with masses of whinstone. As the walls ofa garden form one of the principal sources of expence, it is proper, before proceeding to- build, to ascertain correctly the average level of the- borders, if the ground be unequal, so as to suit the depth of the foundation to it. If the inequalities be considerable, both walls and borders are made to. sink and rise, so as to humour them. Declivities in a gar- den are not unpleasing; and when they happen to slope to the south or east, they afford the earliest crop of different legumes, such as peas or beans. Some im- provers have constructed a series of low flat arches as the basement of the wall, these arches having their tops on a level with the surface of the borders; the piers left are from two to four feet broad, according as the foundation is firm or otherwise. The advantage con« sists not merely in saving much building, but in pers mitting the roots of the wall-trees, which are planted opposite to the arches, to extend themselves in eve direction, and draw nourishment from the soil on bo’ sides of the wall. In some places projecting stone but- tresses are set at intervals in the walls, in order to. strengthen them, and to break the force of the winds when’ sweeping along. But to this latter purpose they contribute little: temporary screens of reed, projecting at right-angles from the wall, and removed after the blossoming season, when the chief danger is over, are thought better: and if any sort of strengthening co- lumns or piers be necessary, they can be built so as to project only on the outside of the wall. In this coun- try, walls are generally made of the thickness only of three bricks laid side by side, or somewhat more than a foot; and to such walls in exposed situations, but- tresses may be very proper. When the walls are ins tended to be high, indeed, they are commonly made sixteen inches thick for a few feet above the basement, and then gradually reduced to twelve or thirteen. The basement, whether of brick or stone, is always about six inches thicker than the lower part of the wall. Walls have sometimes been built with curves; and in perfectly calm weather, the trees in these curves must receive more heat than on a straight wall; but it jis found that in windy weather they suffer much more; and that even when there is only a slight air of wind, a draught is produced around the trees, renders Walls. with osier-twigs or rope-yarn. This “Vv HORTICULTURE. 189 Hot Walls ing their situation colder than if they were at a distance for 45 or 50 feet of such frame-work. When the new Hot Walls. —"Y~" from the wall. Curved or semicircular walls are there- wood of the tree is sufficiently ripened, the whole is ““v¥“"” fore no longer constructed. The inclining of walls to taken down and carried under cover. When there is a the horizon, pe teed ivi sun's rays considerable — of hot wall, adapted er recep- more directly, is excel! theory, not ada tion of glass es, perhaps 250 or 300 feet, particu. to practice. Trellises may be so Vcinseds oc tains lar trees may be forced or omitted, and an opportunity wooden : such indeed have been successfully is thus afforded of restoring trees, by allowing them a some gardens, as at Brechin Castle, the year’s rest. For these hot walls, fire heat is required ; only for about four months, from the end of February stone or brick wall, however, to the end of May, and again for two or three weeks, be sufficiently inclined witheut the support when the new wood is ripening. = ion i Flued walls, — an apparatus coe tA covers continually damp A coping is neces- ings of canvas, oiled paper, or woollen nets, are neces- po Be oD he’ A weer Ho cary for the perfect production of the finer sorts of sinking into it at top, but to throw it off from and nectarines in all of Britain north ef where its —— would do much Yorkshire. Without the aid of artificial heat, the young ing is form i wood of these trees is seldom sufficiently ripened, in i to ensure a supply of good flower- SHEE Ste Ree 7 = Lege BE>S Frei dis: rpte é Hy FSse eae ordinary seasons, i made to buds forthe following year, and unless the buds be project the wall about two or inches, and strong and plump, the chance of a crop the ensuing pl run underneath the plinth, to collect season is lessened ; and frequently, after throw off the drops. a sufficient tity of fruit has been brought to full ‘What is commonly called the kitchen-garden has, in size, unless be supplied artificially, in autumn, ma- ps heen ra thee pens ae te tagr fpr turation is not Inthe raesthern:: parte of the sure. It is likewise the fruii walls being island, therefore, it is always proper to construct a por- chiefly intended for the and training of fruit- tion of the garden walls with flues: the additional ex- to be understood, are on a ing the flues, particularly where the inside ig defended generally by & sunk fence and an deration be attached to the expence of the small a the } i # E : J z i | j : Poke | | f Lt ft f [ | : a : : i 3 § walls are not placed nearer to each as many turns as the height of the wall will hundred mit. Former! made only three turns ; but it has it is perhaps better. They can scarcely been found, that oftener the flues are returned, i ! ; § z | papeertt it rll uf g Hid th ull Fui®, ffi ah sires batt itr [ieee crt plastering. In some places a wooden trellis covers the : a Hot Walls. wall ; but in general, the trellis i » 2 than the first range of the flue, the heat above this He wa. 41. + fon eed so nchenert, were ty lak not injuring the trees : where neatness is much studied, of as ch the best their con- the trellis rods are sunk into a small recess purposely struction is at the original enclosing of the garden. left in the wall, thus preventing the appearance of ; are intended to bulging, which is otherwise unavoidable, have sloping glass-frames attached to them, thus to a t certain extent forcing the fruit; and such as are not Soils have screens over the blossoms in ing. #2. The improvement of the soil naturally becomes ¢,1. are rally built about ten or twelve feet high. eR ge) lan dee adi wegen farapnen tet high, aad se citasonecFerhons re Erecsi-"ar gurdsacs ome hr e maser ea 7] ¥ n * as term it, is a matter of the wall, is in some places, formed for the interest. 2 giant eeees 0 Fest epon, thene ing heavy and strong; The various soils di ished leners and trees are trained on a trellis within a few inches of horticulturists consist of the simple earths (as they used the wall ; arid along the border in front of the trees, to be called) of the chemists, argil, silex and ois age tat -beans, or strawberries are lime, mixed in different i It is well known, raised. In other places, frames are of very slight that some of the principal offices of the soil are merely cep toyed oe ohn Mad wes mechanical ; such are, the giving proper su to the ' two feet shorter than t of the wall; and this vegetable by means of its roots, and the supplying these es ‘TEE with water in aslow and convenient manner, the super- fluous moisture: draining off. A mixture of clay and sand is called loam according as the one or other of these earth pretioniinates, the soil is denominated a é ! i Ai li on Soils, 190 clayey or afsandy loam. In the same way, in some counties of England chalky loams are common ; and in other districts, gravelly loams are not unfrequent. When oxide of iron prevails, and renders the clay hard and of a dark brown or red colour, the soil is called ferruginous loam, or more commonly till. Boggy or heathy soil consists of ligneous particles, or the decayed roots, stems and leaves of various ecarices, heaths and sphagna, and the coaly matter derived from these, ge- nerally with a slight mixture of argillaceous earth and sand. While the nomenclature of soils remains so im- perfect and unsettled as it now is, there seems no pro- priety in enlarging further on the different varieties: Some judicious remarks on these, and on the principles on which they should be distinguished and named, may be found in the Agricultural Report of Ross and Cro- marty, drawn up by Sir.George Mackenzie, Bart. Carbonaceous matter, and certain salts, in small pro- portion, are likewise ingredients in a good soil; plants deriving not only support from the soil, and nourishment from the water and from the decomposition of the water, supplied by the soil to their roots, but also other pecu- liar sorts of food from the carbon and salts alluded to. 48, Any substance added to a soil, either to supply a deficiency or to rectify what is amiss, is called a ma- nure. The use of manures is, of course, very various. They may be destined to render soil less retentive of moisture, or to make it more retentive ; or they may be calculated to communicate carbonaceous matters or salts. With the former view, clay or argillaceous marl form a suitable manure for a sandy soil, and sand or lime for one that is clayey ; while dungs and composts of every kind yield the other requisite materials to the soil, For opening clayey soils in gardens, marls are excellent, particularly gravelly marl. Where marls cannot be had, shelly sand, coal-ashes, or wood-ashes mixed with chips of wood, may be resorted to. For binding sandy soils, argillaceous marls or calcareous loams are proper; and the scourings of ditches are of- ten, for this purpose, valuable. The improvement of cold’ or sour clay is sometimes effected by scorifying it, or burning it, as it is common- ly termed. The sward, with two or three inches of the clay adhering to it, is collected in heaps, and brought into’a state of red heat, by means of furze, peat or coals, taking care to add clay on the exterior so as to confine the fire. Acids and vegetable matters of noxi- ous tendency seem thus to be driven off, and a soil fit ‘for garden culture produced... This is an old practice which has been lately revived.. In Hitt’s Treatise on Fruit-trees, published in 1758, there is a chapter “ Of the burning of clay for the improvement of land.” 44. The soil of a garden should never be less than two feet and a half deep; the best gardeners prefer having it fully three feet. The natural soil, therefore, however good, is seldom of sufficient depth. If it be not two feet, a quantity of earth from the fields is car- ried in. The cleanings of roads and grass-turf of any ‘ind, form valuable additions to garden soil. In the course of trenching, a portion of the subsoil is brought to the surface, and gradually meliorated ; but to bring up much of it at once, is very injurious. -Soil of the usual depth may be trenched two spit (spadeful) deep ; and if this be done every third yedr, it is evident that the surface which has produced three crops, will rest for the next three years; thus giving a much better ‘chance of constantly producing healthy and luxuriant crops, and with one half the manure that would other- avise be ‘requisite. Nicol insists for the deeper soil, HORTICULTURE, and recommends that, after taking three crops, the Soil ground should be trenched three spit, by which the =v bottom and top are reversed ; three crops are again to be taken, and the ground trenched #wo spit, which the soil which formed the top goes to the middle, and that which lay in the middle goes to the surface. Af. ter other three crops, the trenching is to be'again three spit deep. By thus alternately trenching two spit and ree, after intervals of three years, the surface soil is regularly changed, resting six years and producing three ; and.an approach is thus made to the desirable object of having always a new soil. It is agreed on all hands, that nothing contributes more to the preserving of the soil of a garden in good condition, than exposing it as often as possible to the ac- tion of the sun and air. It is a rule, therefore, that garden ground, when not in crop, should regularly be dug rough, or if possible ridged up, and left in that state to the influence of the atmosphere. If it be allowed both a winter and a summer fallow, the oftener a new surface is exposed the better; after it has lain ridged up during winter, therefore, repeated diggings are given in the spring and summer months. Whether some noxi- ous matter be exhaled, or some fertilizing substance be imbibed, or what may be the precise nature of the ope- ration that goes on, we do not here inquire. The fact is certain, that aéraiion, as it is sometimes called, is of the greatest advantage to garden soils, 45. It has been already remarked, that it is desirable to Mould. have soils of different quality in the garden. One of the most generally desired is what is called mould, by which is meant a soil in which vegetable earth predo- minates. Such as is of a bright chesnut colour is pre- ferred; it is usually styled by gardeners, hazelly mould, or hazelly loam, from. being of the colour of the hazel nut. The characters of the best mould, according to Miller, is, that ‘it cuts like butter, does not stick ob« stinately, but is short, tolerably light, breaking into small clods, is sweet, well tempered, without crusting or chapping in dry weather, or Kenn mortar in wet.’”’ It should be so open, as not to stick to the spade or the fingers after a shower of rain. Dark grey and russet-coloured moulds are likewise Gonsiderer’, good: ash-coloured are commonly bad; yellowish still worse. Good moulds after being broke up by the spade, or after rain, if the surface have been recently dug or hoed, emit rather a pleasant smell. What are called brick moulds or loams, are much esteemed both by the gardener and the florist, as auxiliaries to mix with other soils. For some purposes a sandy soil is wanted. In this case, either the surface sand, from a sandy pasture, is alone used,-as it contains a considerable portion of ve- getable matter, or if pure sea or river sand be employ- ed, light rich mould, nearly in the proportion of one- half, is mixed along with it. For a very great number of plants, particularly in the flower garden, an excellent Soil is to be found in the turf of old pastures, and the earth which adheres to the turf to the depth of six or eight inches, mixed with a portion of cow and horse dung in a rotten state, laid together in a heap for at least a year, and frequently turned over. This is a compost, and naturally leads us to speak more particu- Jarly on the subject of manures. oy Manures. 46. Many authors have treated of manures, and given Manure theories of their beneficial action; Fordyce, Hunter, Cullen, Ingenhousz, Senebier, and others. The learned HORTICULTURE. ¢ te + i i fe F i ty HEE 4 | 1 H fl s, F Fa ae Hel Bit ail | Li 2 z i: FE ig i ice rt F i Hl & F ¢2 é E Pee Hay | $ F ; | i ? i tt H i M 48 i iH Fee ite ant Hid ‘hit if E at : ih ij i 3 f i nd ip - i! must be dissipated and of its component of the putrefactive fermentation ; t during the progress of 191 and it is no less evident, that if this p to go on beneath the surface of the soil, tbe par- icles must first be applied to the roots of the plants, before they can escape. a Fruil-tree Borders. V9 50. The proper forming and managing of borders for fruit-tree fruit-trees is a matter of great consequence, especially borders. when peaches and nectarines, vines, and the best sorts of plums and pears, are cultivated. In many old gar- dens the borders are only five or six feet broad, and are crowded with perennial flowering plants. Such borders are too narrow, and such plants must greatly rob the trees of their nourishment.| The border, according to a gardener’s common rule, should not be less in breadth than the wall is in height; but the general breadth is only from 8 to 12 feet. If care be taken to make the soil good below the walk, such a border may prove suf- ficient. Ifthe bottom be not dry, it is made so by means of drains. Many are of opinion, that it should at the same time be rendered impervious to the roots of the trees, by means of lisbewrubbish, or clay and gravel rolled hard, or by complete paving: this precaution is particu- larly necessary where the subsoil is a cold wet till. The monastic cultivators of fruit-trees in the 1$th and 14th centuries were well aware of the importance of this matter, and seem to have been unsparing either of la- bour or expence. When Mr F. of Pitfour was laying out a new orchard in Aberdeenshire, he found, in clearing out the remains of the garden of the ancient Abbey of Deer, which is included within the precincts of the orchard, a border which had been prepared for fruit-trees in the following laborious and expensive com moulds as have been already yt 3 natural soil is to some extent re- tained, if it be a , itis opened by adding sea wep au sen been kept a ° a i quicklime this is seldom ad le, If, on the other soil be loose and sandy, the clayey tter to be found in ditches and open drains in plough- is resorted to, and laid about six inches thick at of the border. Many cultivators are parti- in adapting the quality of the soil or compost to nature of trees to be planted. For apricot le trees, the compost usually preferred, con- sists of three-fourths light earth, and one fourth TH ai il HEE the loam, well mixed and incorporated with some thorough ly rotten cow dung. For peach, plum, and pear trees, a stronger soil is prepared, and the proportions are re- versed, the loam constituting three-fourths, and the light soil one-fourth. Cherry-trees, too, like rather a coal bottom ; and equal parts of light earth and of loam form for them a suitable soit. In forming a new garden, it is advantageous to have the borders sihiainneioen before plant- ing the trees, equally, whether these consist mainly of travelled soil, or of the natural soil enriched by some composts, If the ground be repeatedly turned 5 ® made Fruit-tree Borders. —— ‘ 192 HORTICULTURE. Fruit-tree and ridged up, it is found ultimately to be ina much = Division of Borders. better condition for receiving the sian Division of the Garden, &. the | The soil of the borders is at first made higher by some inches above the walks, than that of the quarters in the interior of the garden: the reason is, that the quarters annually receive a large accession of manure, whereas the fruit-tree borders are afterwards to receive compa- ratively little that can add to their depth. Some judi- cious gardeners contend, that such borders are to be manured only with composts, rendered as homogeneous as possible by frequent turning and intermixing. Others do not hesitate to use well-rotted dung: this is dug in with a three-pronged fork, so as to avoid injuring the roots of the trees ; and it is generally applied in the month of November, after the winter dressing of the trees. ; 51. The borders, particularly those next to south walls, are in most places cro) with early peas, or turnips, or some other plant which does not extend its: roots deep into the earth; avoiding therefore cauliflowers and beans. But many puter disapprove of this, es- pecially in the case of peach and nectarine borders ; and certainly if a crop be taken, it should be of the lightest kind, such as salad herbs, and perhaps: a few scattered patches of ornamental annuals next the walk, In order to avoid using the fruit-tree borders, there- fore, it is a custom, in some well ordered gardens, to have low reed hedges or palings run across some of the quarters ; to these the earliest peas or beans are close- ly attached, as they advance in growth, so as to enable thaie to escape the frosts of March and April more ef- fectually, even than in front of a south wall. It need scarcely be remarked, that fruit-tree borders are kept carefully clear of weeds, and that frequent stirrings with the hoe, or the three-pronged fork, and frequent xakings are practised, the maintaining of the surface in a fresh and porous state being found of singular ad- vantage. hen the season proves very dry, they are watered perhaps three times in the week, after sun- set. 52. In many situations and circumstances, it is found impossible to form a soil for fruit trees, with the care, sa. at the unavoidable expence, which have here been supposed. In these cases it is necessary to adapt the kind of trees tothe soil. On soils naturally very light, gravelly, and sandy, peach and nectarine trees do little : it is better to plant apricots, figs, or vines, which agree with such soils, and, when trained against a wall having a good aspect, will, in the southern parts of the island, afford excellent crops of fruit. On such soils, even espalier and dwarf-stendard apple trees are short- lived, subject to blight, and produce only stunted fruit. Next to renewing the soil, the best remedy is to engraft and re-engraft frequently, on the best wood of the trees, giving the preference to grafts of those kinds which experience has shewn to be most productive and healthy in that particular place. In shallow soils some have been in the practice of making troughs or hollows, and filling them with rich earth, for the reception of ‘the trees: but this is not to be approved of ; the roots of the tree will probably be confined to the trough, and it is possible that water may be retained init. In thin soils, therefore, it is more proper to raise the surface in- to little hillocks than to dig hollows. If a tree be planted on the general surface, and have earth heaped around it, it will spread its roots in'every direction, and to a great distance, in the shallow soil; and some sub- soils, such as decomposed trap-rock, or chalk, are them« selves caleulated to afford much nourishment. ~the keeping of tender exotics. 53. It is, of course, understood, that the wall-tree Divi Bis! - borders extend all around the in of the garden; the gute It naturally follows that a gravel walk should run pa- rallel with them. On the other side of this walk, in - very many gardens, there is a row of espalier-trees, (or, to speak. more correctly, coun ier trees), fixed to trellis-rails, If the enclosure be tolerably extensive, the centre is traversed by a broad walk. Ifit be of the largest dimensions, and possess a cross wall, or cross walls, the arrangement of the walks falls to be altered . sonogsling’y's a main walk proceeding directly to the doors in the centre of the-cross walls. The rest of the garden is divided into compartments, and most of these compartments, in some of our best gardens, are laid out ~ in beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many alleys, mo doubt, occupy a good deal of room; but the advantages of conveniency and neatness in enabling the workmen to clean and gather the. crop without tramp- pling the ground, seem to compensate’ the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, the quarters are of course, reserved undivided; and nar- row beds are unnecessary in the case of large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhubarb. | Border-edgi are not in use, excepting for the walks next the walls, and the cross walks in. very large gardens; for these, dwarf box is almost universally employed. In the in- terior quarters, however, parsley may sometimes be ob= served forming anedging ; and ae: winter savory, or hyssop, are occasionally employed in the same way, and harmonize very well with the crops around. 54. Hitherto nothing has been said of the situation y1¢¢_jouses, of the range of hot-houses. In many gardens, these occupy a very considerable of the south wall, that is the wall on the north side of the garden: In the area behind them, are sheds for tanners bark, rich mould, and other requisites; while there is a cart ac- cess to the doors of the furnaces, and these, with all the rubbish necessarily attending the operations of forcing, are completely hid from view. In some places all the forcing-houses form a continuous range ; but generall the mi stove and succession pit, being of different ai mensions, are placed separately. In some elegant gar- dens, as at Raith-House and Wemyss-Castle in Fife, the hot-houses have a flower-garden in front of them, while every thing offensive is excluded: from view; as in the former case. In other places the hot-houses are dispo- sed in a different manner: the several kinds of houses stand detached from one another, each being set down as it were in a separate grass lawn; the back 3 where the furnaces are situated, is concealed by shrubs, so that the houses seem to stand in little thi and -thus form an agreeable variety with clumps and -ches of trees in the park. Donibristle, the seat shake Earl of Moray in Fife, may be mentioned as an exam- ple of this sort of arrangement. 55. In many instances, the flower garden is separa- Flower ted Som the po fe edge. B garden merely by a wall, den. r! by a qui . But in modern places, (as Ssciandak speak ) this garden is removed from the — by a considerable distance. To it belongs the house and the orangery ; there is often connected withit a conservatory ; and sometimes, where the/owner has a taste for the: culture of rare plants, a stove merely for Where the interior of the walled garden does not afford Slip. space enough for raising a sufficient supply of culinary vegetables for the family, a piece of ground is fenced off HORTICULTURE. 193 on the outside of the walls, on one or more sides, and is mus); the medlar (Mespilus); the red and the black — Fruit- called If the melon and be the Ribes) ; the Garden —— Seton adeeb of tn ipal suite of hot- (Rubus); and the nero bith ee Te an. ——— houses, it may very conveniently be in the slip. _ tic fruits are, the peach, nectarine, and almond (Amyg- ene ee yet to emnd crighal checien he , for thickness; but itis consider them as of the same original species. The ’ in clayey chestnut (Fagus) ; hazel-nut (Corylus) ; sorb’ (Sorbus) ; Se- elder-berry (Sambucus) ; and berberry (Berberis), are oyed, such as likewise natives: tne apn pee any o — i ly in the pleasure-grounds exterior to gar- ferred. den. The walnut (Juglans) is a foreign tree, ted hes wt eideot tie The Li i | i tf i f ce | FES i 1 : ee 4 He it gene 1 pitas Fae i $4 i , FF 5 i é rl fi i i B | i E i A 3 speaking of the more common. ; rench tamarisk ; the last two, howe- _ Before treating of each of the fruits in detail, it will centesateecmenisclcet ap tanphicesiene as Sotaes ties, where the can withstand the of ordi- ding, trai ting, all of which must divi- prone be frequently referred to. } most frequently —— for that pus- Stocks for Grafling. are composed of different kinds of rose- es, 58. When a cion, or part of a cion, is taken from a Stocks for sweet-briars, and em ewer the lately introduced fruit-tree, and inserted either on Sos on ween the grafting. a Rosa Indica, maki conspicuous appearance, of a full grown tree, it is grafting. But oa Fyre i is Uo tumer cece are camaanialotios. F : | : the year. Garden of kind are now much red; and in this way, chiefly, and are lew fre than:they used to be: In our pegated; -ated‘snenctimen Je rh rch climate must be surrounded with cion may generally be cut into two or three pieces, . the gation of fruit-trees, will properly fall under the flower-garilen, however, is still chiefly sheltered by article Nunsentes: a few ee in i or this place may therefore suffice. The subject is not a » forming a his garden and orchard well supplied with fruit-trees, egy eeeaeieal eqnsent: etalogoas to the lr ive-centl of should establish a small private nursery, in which, up- the From the interior of this garden, how- on stocks of different according to the end ever, hedges have been nearly banished, by the change view, he may graft or bud the kinds of frait which ex- of taste, and dislike of every thing formal. perience shews to be best suited to the soil and climate - In this og ere Rares 4 remarked, the Fruit- of the place, and which best meet his own views. garden and the garden are locally blenied to- 59. It is necessary that the stock should be a mem- , both being inclosed by the same walls: the ob- ber of the same genus or natural fimily. with the of each, however, are quite distinct, and may con- graft or bud to be inserted on it The principal kinds er atted enpreniy. The general dispo- of stocks employed, are the following : sition of the departments of the garden has been alrea- dy spoken of, and likewise the forming of fruit-tree For appler, borders. Other matters icularly connected with Common apple, from the kernels, for full stand- the /ruit-garden shall now be considered. ards, Crab apple, from the kernels, for half standards, — ___] Codlin, from layers or cuttings, Paradise, from layers, FRUIT-GARDEN. Creeper, from layers, all for dwarf trees. 57. Tur kinds See mnienied sichinthe For pears, cx. Walled garden, but in the open air, are eighteen in num- Common pear, or wilding, from tlie kernels, for ; and of these ten are considered as indigenous to full standards. country, and eight are exotics. The native fruits Quince, from the kernels, of by lnyers, for dwarf and espalier trees, VOL. Xi. PART I. 2a Fruit- Garden. — Stocks for grafting, 194 HORTICULTURE. For plums, apricots, peaches, nectarines; and almonds, Ted-wheat plum, either from stones, or layers, or suckers. é Black mus¢le plum, the same. Greengage ‘plum, the same. Bullace-plum, a common native species, which has'received its trivial name P. insititia, from being used for stocks, For cherries, a black cherry of the woods, Prunus cerasus; and, Wild red cherry of the woods, P. avium. ‘60. It may here be remarked, that seedling stocks which havea natural tendency to attain the full height of the species to be grafted on them, are by horticul- ‘turists universally denominated free-stocks. If the seeds of different varieties of apples-and pears be sown, free- stocks suited for the grafting of apples-and pears, are, generally speaking, produced. When very great num- bers of peck stocks are wanted, the seeds are procured from the manufacturers of cider and perry ; but where a private gentleman wishes only to have a'‘few-hundreds of stocks, itseems much better to employ only select seeds, that is, the kernels from good specimens of hardy and healthy kinds of choice fruits, when in a ripe state. Crab stocks are very much used: the seeds are to be precured dn quantity only where verjuice is made from the fruit. The paradise apple is of no estimation as a fruit; but the tree being naturally dwarf, grafting on it tends to dwarf the engrafted tree: The creeper apple has got its name, from its tendency to throw up suckers, which are easily detached with roots: it is sometimes called the Dutch paradise. Pear-trees, as already said, are grafted either on free-stocks from the seeds, or on -quince stocks from layers or suckers.” The latter are employed chiefly for dwarfing the trees, and throwing them more early into bearing ; but with the view also (whether well or ill-founded isnot the question) of im- parting some degree of hardness and sharpness to the melting sugary pears, the hard and breaking pears, on the other hand, being placed on free stocks. For, all practical gardeners, it may be observed, concur in stat- ‘ing, that the nature of the fruit is, to a certain extent, affected by the nature of the stock. Miller says de- cidedly, that erab stocks cause apples to be firmer, to keep longer, and to have a sharper flavour; and he is equally confident, that if the breaking pears be grafted on quince stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, whilé the melting pears are much improved by such stocks. This is scarcely to be considered as inconsist- ent with Lord Bacon’s doctrine, that “ the cion over- ruleth the graft quite, the stock being passive only ;” which, as a general proposition, remains true; it being evident that the graft or the bud is endowed with the power of drawing from the stock that peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its nature, and that the specific characters of the-engrafted plant remain unchan- ged, although its qualities may be partially affected. Quince stocks, it may be added, are also proper where the soil of the garden is naturally sioiet hie quince agreeing with such a soil. Peaches and nectarines are, in this country (as noticed in the tabular view) gene- rally budded on plum stocks, particularly the black muscle: but the more tender sorts are placed on seed- ling stocks of their own kind, raised from peach-stones; or perhaps on apricot stocks. In France, almond stecks are much used; and for this reason the French peach trees seldom last good more than twenty years, while the English endure twice. that period. Apricots also Fruit. — are chiefly budded on plum stocks, the red wheat plum =, Sarden._ ‘being’preferred for them. a ee 61. In the second volume of the London Horticul- grating tural Transactions, Mr Knight has given a few re- marks on the effects of different kinds of stocks in grafting,—well deserving of attention, as being the re- sult of more ‘than thirty "years experience. ‘He is of opi- nion, that a stock of a species or genus different from that of the fruit. to be grafted upon it, can rarely be used with advantage, unless where the -object of the planter is to restrain or debilitate. If, therefore, ex tensive growth and durability be required, the peach, nectarine, or apricot, should not be grafted on the plum ; but if it is intended to diminish the vigour and growth of the tree, and if durability be not thought an important quality, the plum stock is proper. ‘The same remark is applicable to the grafting of pears on quince stocks. The finer sorts of peaches and necta~ ‘ines are often budded on apricot stocks. Of this Mr Knight approves; but he , that, if lasting and vi ‘gorous trees be wished for, the bud cannot be placed ~ ‘too near the ground. 62. The seeds for stocks are commonly sown in March, in four-feet beds, The germination of some kinds is promoted by placing’them in moist sand, in a greenhouse or-cellar, for some time previously. Next season, the seedlings are transplanted into nursery rows. Here they remain till they reach the size wished for; in order to the forming of wall or espalier dwarfs, or dwarf standards, half standards, or full standards,—the cha- racters of which will be immediately explained. . For the first three kinds, they are generally ready after two seasons: for the last, not sooner than after three or four. The finer kinds of plums are budded or grafted on plum stocks, raised from the stones. The common kinds of plums, and the almond, are propagated chief- ly by suckers; figs, mulberries, and quinces, principally by layers ; gooseberries and currants by cuttings. Se- veral varieties of apple, as the original or bur-knot, the brown apple of Burntisland, and some others, grow by cuttings ; and many kinds, indeed all those sorts of fruit trees that have small buds, may be propagated by laying down branches, having a ligature of leather or wire ed firmly around them, either above or below a bud, in the part buried in the earth. At the place of binding, the circulation of the sap being interrupted, a swelling ensues, and roots b: forth. . The lives is separated the following year, and planted where it is intended to remain, This mode of propagating fruit trees is well known and often practised on the conti- nent, though little attended to in this country ; by it, in the course of three years, bearing trees are produ- ced, without the trouble of grafting. Stocks for cherry trees, raised either from the native black cherry or guigne, or the wild red cherry, are considered as less apt to prove gummy or diseased, than those raised from the stones of garden cherries, and they are at the same time accounted more durable. . Nursery Training. 63. Fruit trees are trained as standards, of different Nursery kinds ; as wall trees, or as espalier trees. For these, training. - stocks of different ages or sizes are requisite. Standards are subdivided into three kinds, full standards, half standards, and dwarf standards. ; Full standards are less used in Scotland than in Eng- Full stan- land, where stems six or seven feet in height before dards. 3 HORTICULTURE. 195 the branches set out, are indispensable in orchardsto 65. The mode of grafting most commonly, ad » _ Bruic- which cattle are frequently admitted. and in forming y fruit-trees, is called ton ing. alike para ec ig pry a hy the eet Tia cherries and efit et extremity of the graft, should be nearly of equal dia- Tongue have shorter stems, perhaps from three meter. are cut off obliquely, at co ing an-, stafting- ‘ gles, as nearly as the eye can guess ; and the tip of the in small : stock is cut off horizontally. A slip (or very narrow Dwarf stan- ‘standards have low stems, from one foot to two angular opening made by cutting out a thin piece) is feet high; ma an the most dwarfing stocks then made in the centre oy itiedeaene aate i apples on paradise stocks, similar slip in the graft upwards. (Plate CCCIX. and pearson quinces), to them produce low heads, Fig. 1.) - sharp and narrow b knife is ne- suited to small compartments or borders ; come cessary. The thin point of the upper half of the slo- soon into bearing, produce large fruit, and in con- ping end of the is then inserted into the slip in eteisieap-edanite esched nprthe Iand..-Apples; of uieck sad gu arn rengot clnclp in eslhest ext may of stock are b t ly to unite, at least oe ae Ye arama da aad on the right hand side, so as not to be displaced in tying, as ; and sometimes-apricots, peaches, which is always done from left to right, or in the course and figs. The French frequently train themtoa cylin- of the sun. Strands of fresh bass-matting, steeped for drical or somewhat pyramidal shape (en amen) a little time in water to render them more pliant, and their i ed, and to prevent the knot from slipping, are generally used for eed aarpaacaenge we etapa ann png ee ties. A quantity of clay is worked fine, and mixed with must prove detrimental to the fruitfulness of the coma hap chapped madi Son APSE and some- tree. In this country, they are usually trained like times with a little salt. It is found better to have bushes (en duisson) ; from which, it is presumed, Mr it prepared a day or two beforehand, and to beat it Nicol denominates them buzelars. up with a little water as needed. The tying is then For dwarf wall trees, stems five or six inches inlength covered with this clay, in the form of a collar, or ball are sufficient ; these, it will be observed, are the trees tapering at both ends, the upper end bein applied which are ultimately destined to cover the garden wall, closely to the graft, and the u Arey A hese being named diar/sonly from the humble stocks on balls are not removed till after midsummer. A neat h they grow. substitute for clay is mentioned by Abercrombie: a Riders are wall trees grafted or budded on tall stocks, composition of turpentine, bees wax, and rozin, at first pes pemiy mene for the temporary purpose of melted together, and afterwards heated as wanted ; care filling the wall till the dwarfs get forward. The term being taken not to apply it too hot. A coating, laid on riders is of Scottish origin, English gardeners having with a brush, to the depth of a quarter of an inch, is no jate name for wall trees trained in this man- said to be less liable to crack than clay ; and, it is add- ner, merely calling them standards. ed, that when the full heat of summer arrives, the com- - Espalier trees are intended for being trained against position melts away of its own accord. It may be re- low treillages or latticed work or rails which consist marked, that the whip grafling mentioned in old horti- ee tree Sane se arene See cultural books, is ly kind now described, i — wanting the important improvement of the tongues or y en espalier is their term for what 66. When the stocks to be grafted upon are strong, Cleft graft. we call wail training, and that our espalier training is or perhaps branches of | trees, rafling is of- ing. (See ee a Br ag ’ ten aed to. The heal of = leh er branch, The management of these it kinds of trees, prac we may suppose to be two or three inches in th jiameter,).is first cut off obliquely, and then the sloped — the raising of stocks, part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the to the nursery department. operations of i slope; a cleft, nearly two. inches long, is made with a and budding, however, oy ne meaner stout knife or thin chisel in the crown downwards, at in ight angles to the sloped part, taking care not to di- be described. ide the pith. This cleft is kept open with the knife. (Plate CCCIX. Fig. 2. a.) The graft has its extremi- Grafting. ty for about an inch a half cut into the form of a wedge, (Fig. 2. 5.); it is left about the eighth of an oy ed may be performed in several different inch thick on the outer or bark side, and is brought to ways. ‘The most important points are, to apply the in- a fine edge on the inside. It is then inserted into the ner bark of the stock and of the graft precisely to cach opening prepared for it; and the knife being with- other, and to bind them firmly in that situation. M. drawn, the stock closes firmly upon it. A circular in- Thouin of Paris; in his laboured but excellent papers cision is now made in the bark of the stock at the base in the Memoires du Museum d’ Histoire Ni » has of the wedge, to the extent of three parts of the cir- made many minute distinctions, enumerating and de- cumference of the stock ; by this means a shoulder can ee ee ae be formed on each side of the cleft. pendent altogether of modes of grafting by ap- 67. Old stocks are sometimes din another, 6, wn ae . We-shall content ourselves, way, called genying © the bark or rind, or crown grafl~ grating. , with ing only the principal hinds ing. The of the stock or thick branch is cut off practised by our own These, as well as se- horizontally ; a perpendicular slit is made as in bud- veral other votes ee are distinctly de- ding, (to be presently described) ; a narrow ivory fol- scribed, by igure, by the late Cur- der, or a silver fruit-knife, is thrust down between the tis, in his “ Lectures,” vol. ni wood and the bark, at the places where the grafts are Saddle grafting. Side graft- ing. Znarching. Root graft- ing. 196 to be inserted. The graft is cut, at the distance of an inch and a half from its extremity, circularly through the bark, not deeper than the bark on one side, but fully half way through, or beyond the pith, on the other, The cut portion is then sliced away ; the end of the graft is pointed, being sloped a little to the point on the outside, but left straight on the inside. A B os der is likewise left, to rest on the bark of the stock. The grafts are then inserted into the openings made by the ivory folder; and either three or four grafts are in- serted on a crown, according to its size. This mode cannot be practised till the sap be in full motion, per- haps in the end of March, as till then the bark cannot easily be raised from the wood. When the grafts are placed on old trunks, they are apt to be drawn from their places by violent winds ; it is proper, therefore, to bind them to stakes for the space of perhaps two years, when they will have acquired a sufficient hold of the stock. 68. Saddle grafting consists in cutting the top of the stock into a wedge-like form, and in making a corre- sponding angular notch in the bottom of the graft, to fit the wedge like a saddle. It is a mode sometimes adopted in the grafting of orange trees. 69. Side grafting is merely tongue grafting, per- formed in the side of a branch, or in the body of a stock, without heading down. The bark, and a little of the wood, are sloped off for the space of an inch and a half, or two inches; a slit is then made downwards, and the graft is cut to fit the part, with a tongue for the slit, (Plate CCCIX. Fig. 3.) ; the parts being pro perly joined, are tied close, and clayed over. ‘This mode is sometimes employed for supplying vacancies on the lower parts of full grown fruit trees. It cannot properly be performed till the sap is in action, or till about the middle of March. 70. Grafting by approach, inarching, or ablactation as the older horticulturists termed it, is practised on some kinds of fruit trees, chiefly tender, such as oranges, le- mons, pomegranates, and mulberries, and on several ornamental trees which do not readily succeed by the ordinary means, such as myrtles, jasmines, andrachnes, and some rare species of oaks, firs, and pines. Walnut trees are sometimes also increased in this way. The principle is, that the graft shall continue to have a de- of attachment to the parent plant sufficient to keep it alive, until such time as its bark shall have become united to the bark of the stock which is approached to it. The stock is often planted in a pot (Plate CCCIX. Fig. 4. a.) at least a year before, and is brought close to the tree or shrub to be grafted on it, (Fig. 4. 6.); if too low, it is raised on a slight s to the required height. Where the tree is strong, the pot is sometimes fixed upon one of the branches of the tree. The ope- ration of inarching is.seldom performed before the mid- dle of April, or the beginning of May. When it can be accomplished, tongue grafting is even in this way advisable. In four or five months the inarched graft is generally found to be fairly united -to the stock ; the head of the stock is then cut off; but the graft is not separated from the parent plant till nearly a year have elapsed. Sometimes, for sake of curiosity, branches of contiguous trees are joined by approach-grafting. To make this experiment succeed, it is necessary to fix the branches to poles, to prevent wind-waving; and in- fleed this caution is in general necessary in all kinds of inarching practised in the open air. 71. Recourse is sometimes had to root-grafling, either for curiosity, or on account of seedling stocks being HORTICULTURE. scarce. A piece of the root of a tree of the same genus, well furnished with fibres, is selected, anda graft placed Garden on it, tied and clayed in the ordinary way. Thus uni- ted, they are set with care in a trench in the nd, the joining being covered, but the top of the graft be« ing left two inches above ground. Some -gardeners have thought that in this way the plant must preserve - a nearer resemblance to the t tree; but Aber- crombie remarks, that though it is an expeditious: way of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot’be mate- rially different from a cutting or layer. 72. What is called shoulder or cheek grafling, was fors shoulder Fruit. merly much more frequently employed than it is nowy grafting. The head of the stock being first cut off horizontal« ly, one. side of itis then a The graft is sloped in the same manner, and a shoulder left at the point where the sloping a This shoulder is applied to the horizontal head of the stock, and the bark is brought to join at each edge if possible. Another old method of grafting was called terebration or peg-grafling: the head of the stock was cut off heiciaesiaadly and a hole was bored in the centre of it; the graft was selected of — pw bole with the stock ; within an inch and a half of the lower end of the graft, a circular incision was made, and the bark and a great part of the wood were removed, leaving only a peg to fit the hole bored in the Cions for Grafts. 73. The cions are gathered'a good many weeks be- Cions for fore the season for grafting arrives: the reason is, ‘that experience has shewn, that grafting may most success- fully be performed, by allowing the stock to have some advantage over the graft in forwardness of a re It is desirable that the sap of the stock should be in brisk motion at the time of grafting ; but by this time, the buds of the cion, if left on the parent tree, would be equally advanced; whereas the cions, being gather~ ed early, the buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out when the graft is placed on the sree Cions of pears, plums, and cherries, are collected in the end of January or begemning of February. They are kept at full length, sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of frost, till wanted, which is some time from the mid- dle of February to the middle of March. Cions of ap- ples are collected any time in February, and put on from the middle to the end of March. The selecting of proper cions is a matter of the greatest. importance, if we wish to enjoy the full advantage which may be derived from grafting. They should be taken-from a healthy tree in full bearing, and from the outer side of the horizontal branches of such a tree, where the wood has freely enjoyed the benefit of sun and air. It is however the observation of a judicious practical garden- er, Mr James Smith at Hopetoun eae. that. ticular notice should be taken, whether the tree to be fted from be in a luxuriant or in a debilitated state. ff the former be its condition, the grafts are very perly taken from the extremities of bearing Pei me: but if it be in the latter predicament, the most, healthy. shoots in the centre of the tree should be: resorted. to; and if no proper shoots exist, the amputation of some central branches will quickly tend to produce. them. The least reflection must convince every one, how extremely improper it must be to take cions from young trees in the nursery lines, as is too often done. It may be remarked, that the middle of the .cion ge-. nerally affords the best graft. - >» . 4 HORTICULTURE. 197 . are carefully cut off. ‘The head of the stock iy not re. Fruit- "eee er xtgeuites 4 © moved till ‘the following March: after this, the bud _Gs‘en- —— += 74. Budding; or , as it is sometimes, grows vigorously, and in the course of the summer — ‘— Budding. though correctly depends on the same makes a considerable shoot. Against the next spring, principle ee between abud the shoot is headed down, in the manner of young and a graft being, a is a shootimembryo. On grafted trees. : r Production of New Varietics of Fruits. 75. From the well-known facts, that some of the fa- ‘Production vourite cider a of the 17th century have become ° Dw va- extinet, and that others are fast verging to decay, the [°° fruits. re Cot ——— ee me speak, the root of the bud has gone of remaining withthe bark. Itis to be noticed, that the bud, and the portion of bark above and below it, receive “Shee moved puta otarher the mocks Ona part of the of the stock, a trans- verse section is now made, through the bark down to the wood: from this is made a longitudinal cut down- ward, aboot an inch and a half long, so that the inci- ‘somewhat resemble a Roman T ; by means of the flat haft of the » the bark is raised a on each side of the inal incision ° ~e a = ; 4 i ei a0 part is then cut off transversely, and the bud ohes upwards till the bark of the bud and of the stock join together. (Fig. 5. d.) It is retained in this situation by Biecealdtaenianinniae ee In about a month after the operation, the tying nearer Abt Wiel | Aa and the footstalk of the old leaf falls on being conclusion has been drawn, that our varieties of fruit are but of limited duration. Each variety springs from an individual at first; and this individual has been ex- tended by means of gratting and budding. Dr Dar- — — in his Ph ba has ——— oe! d is a separate t, viviparous o sprin a bud of the seeming webs; and deriving pee pr ee of a set of lengthened radicles oe . This opinion cannot be supported. r Knight's view is more rational, and more consistent with > rs ther All the extensions ee of grafts buds, must naturally partake qualities of the original ; Shere the ovigieal is old, there must be inherent in the derivatives, the tendency to decay incident to old age. Some popular writers, such as pra te te pooimgre ee oat wi t of t madryads, or as equivalent to sa’ that a graft could not survive the wank from which ft was taken: but these authors are more lively than ac- curate ; for such an absurdity was never taught by any horticulturist. It may be assumed as a fact, that a variety or kind of fruit, such as Lom oe pippin or the ribston, is equivalent only to an individual. By careful management, the health and life of this individual may be ; and grafts placed on vigorous stocks, pot woe. rd favourable situations, may long survive the parent plant, or original un tree. Still there is @ progress to extinction ; and the only renewal of an individual, the only true reproduction, is by seed. This doctrine seems Se eee more particularly as to i } u caktivesion : whether it can safely be pore A ne mieten in general, may admit of some doubt. 76. As the uction of new varieties of fruit from the seed, is a subject which now very much occupies the — of horticulturists, nbon Le oP state the precautions adopted r Knight end others in conducting their trials. It is, in the first place, a rule to take the seeds of the finest kinds of fruit, and from the ripest, largest, and best flavoured specimens of that fruit. When Mr Knight wished to procure’ some of the old apples in a healthy and renovated state, he the following method: he prepared stocks of the kinds of apple that could be ted by cuttings, and planted them against a south wall in very rich soil ; these were next grafted with the stire, golden pippen, or some fine old kind. In the course a the following winter, the young trees were dug up, and the roots being retrenched, they were replanted in the same place. By this mode of treat- ment they were thrown into bearing at two years old. Only one or two apples were al to remain on each tree ; these consequently attained a large size, and more The seeds from these fruits Mr. ess maturity. night then sowed, in the hopes of ring seed~ lings of or of promising qualities ; and 198 HORTICULTURE. Pees . It may here be mentioned, that in order to pro- roots carefully traced, and raised at full length if poss — Fruit ae “ene duce a hybrid variety, possessing perhaps a union of sible: should this be inconvenient or thought unneces- Garden. Production the good properties: of two known kinds, Mr Knight sary, the roots should be cut with a sharp knife, not -~—~ of new va- had recourse to the nice operation of dusting the pol- hacked with a blunt spade. A tap root, or one which To rieties of | Jen of one variety upon the pistils-of another: He penetrates straight down, should not be left more than fruits, opened the unexpanded blossom, and cut away, with a a foot long at most. If the trees are only to be car~ pair of fine-pointed scissars, all the stamina, takin great care to leave the styles and. stigmata uninjured. The fruits which resulted from this artificial impregna- tion were the most promising of any ; and: the seeds of these he did not fail to sow. Mr Knight has generally observed in the progeny a strong prevalence of the constitution and habits of the female parent: in pre- paring seed for raising new pears, therefore, he would employ the pollen only of such delicate pears as the chaumontel, crassane, and St Germain, upon the flowers (deprived of stamina) of the swan-egg, longueville, muirfowl-ege, auchan, or green yair, which are hardy. Every seed, though taken from the same individual feuit, furnishes a distinct variety : these varieties, as might be anticipated, prove of very various merit ; but to form a general opinion of their value, it is not neces= sary to wait till they produce fruit > an estimate may be formed even during the first summer, by the reeemblance the leaves bear to those of the highly. cultivated or. approved trees or to those of the wild kinds; the more they approach to. the former, the better is the prospect: the leaves of goed kinds improve in charac- ter, becoming thicker, rounder, and more downy every season. The plants whose buds in the annual wood are full and prominent, are usually more productive than those whose buds are small, and shrunk into the bark. But their future character, as remarked. by: Mr - Knight, must depend very much on the power the blossoms possess of bearing cold, and this power is.ob- served to vary in the different varieties, and can only be ascertained by experience. Those which produce their leaves and blossoms early, are preferable ; because, although inore exposed to injury from frosts, they are less liable to the attacks of caterpillars. It is also to be observed, that even after a seedling tree has begun to produce fruit, the quality of this has a tendency to improve, as the tree itself becomes stronger and ap- proaches maturity ; so that if a,fruit possess any pro- mising qualities at first, great improvement may be ex- cted in succeeding years, Mr Knight has of late.brought into public notice se- veral new varieties of apples, pears, and cherries, Some of these seem likely to maintain a high character of excellence: they will be noticed in their proper places. He has, at his seat at Downton in Hereford- shire, many hundreds of promising seedlings coming on, some of them annually improving in character. . 77. From this digression we return to the young grafted or budded fruit trees. When they have been trained one year, they are called. maiden plants; and these, especially in the apple and pear, are considered, as forming the best plants. But trees of two, three or four years growth, or even more, succeed very well, provided due care be taken in transplanting. . Transplanting. Trensplant-. . ‘78. Here it may be enough to observe in general, ing. that in raising young fruit-trees from the nursery lines, or in transplanting them from one part of the garden to. another, much more care should be bestowed thanis often given, pecteuiariy in. public nurseries. The surface earth sho’ uld be removed, and the horizontal: ried: a short way, the roots should be as little cut as: possible. When they are to be carried) to a distance, it is thought best to prune off the small.and soft fibres, which are apt to.rot and injure the whole root. . If the tree be several years old, and have a large head, it is proper to dig a trench all round, and to scoop out the earth from under the root... In this way a ball of earth rises with the tree, and its success is ensured. A bass= matting is sometimes introduced as far as possible be-. neath the tree on one side; and when it comes to be. turned over on the other side, the root and ball of earth are completely included in the matting ; but this.is sel- dom necessary.. As it unavoidably happens that.some roots are destroyed at the time of transplanting, and, the means of drawing nourishment are thus lessened, many consider it proper to prune the. tops of the trees. to.a certain extent, that the demand, on the.roots.may be diminished. This however must be done.cautiously, and by an experienced gardener ; to lay down rules. for it, is.impossible. ' It may here be observed, that when the plants are of considerable size, they are prepared for transplanting, by cutting the roots .a year beforehand, or in some sorts. even two years before lifting. In this.way.the remain- ing short roots are induced to. set out many radicles or fibres, and the entire roots of the tree are contained within a small compass. . If. the trees be young, this abridgment of the roots may be effected by.a downright cut with a sharp spade all around, at a short distance from the stem; passing the spade entirely under the plant on one side, if it be wished to cut off the tap root. - It may scarcely be necessary to remark, that an es- sential preliminary to transplanting, is the preparing of the ground to receive the trees, by digging it over. The distances should likewise be fixed, even the holes dug. Some gardeners make a point of digging the holes for the trees perhaps a fortnight before plant- ing: in this way the soil into which the fibres are like« ly soon to penetrate, is softened and meliorated by the action of the air ; but this. practice is more applicable to orchard planting. In putting in wall-trees, it is not uncommon not only to have the border well Se generally, but to have a quantity of very iable mould for each tree in particular, into which it may strike young fibres freely: this mould however should not be screened or made fine, but should be of the or- dinary degree of roughness natural to garden soil. When the trees have been brought from a vi distance, so as to have been several days on their jour- ney, Miller recommends the placing the roots in water for eight or ten hours before planting. It may be considered as a sate general rule, to plant shallow, more especially for dwarf’ standards and half standards, the soil for which is not particularly prepared. Whether the general soil be cold and moist, or thin and gravelly, it is found. better to place the roots of the young trees almost on the. surface, and rather to earth over them in the form of a hillock than to si them into the soil. Sup the subsoil be a moulder- ing rock, and a hole be dug in it, it is evident. that the tree will be placed in a sort of well, which will at once retain water, and, hinder the spread ofthe roots. If the.tree be placed, on the surface, it will insinuate its 3 HORTICULTURE. 199 1 into and draw nourishment from many invisible ed: in this way they find that a tree can much sooner Fruit Pokal —_ i Seallehanpradeaontalds be brought to ri igh , andthe loss ‘of a Garden. —"—" ed, it follows as a necessary consequence that stakesare branch can much more easily be ee t+ ae ie iil - standard and half standard trees. For lower walls, the horizontal m is preferred ; they settle or subsi om ier steady eabgeme nae border. Were they nailed to the wall, they would run the risk of being suspended. must be i 30. pare A methods of training wall-trees which are followed in this cou 5 ane ealied the fin and the horizontal modes. In the , the branches few of the wall-trees are trained in a stel- late form, the stem being led about six feet, and then some branches others la- From about: , orafter the shedding and the same plan is almost universally on es- of the leaf, till the end of November, is consi as ier rails. fir Hitt strongly recommends this mode the best time for the ing of fruit-trees in this coun- most sorts of wall-trees ; and for he adopts what is called the screw stem, or training the stem in a serpentine manner, the branches going off horizontal- ly as in the ordinary straight stem. In the first volume of the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society, Mr Knight has made some inge- nious and excellent remarks on the training and pruning of fruit-trees. His year old plants are headed down as usual, early in the spring, and two shoots only are train- ed from each stem in ite directions, and in an eleva- tion of about 5°. (Plate CCCIX.Fig.6.) To procure the shoots to be of equal lengths, the stronger is depressed, or the weaker elevated. ll lateral shoots are destroy- ed. - Thus far it may be remarked, Mr Knight's method agrees very much with Hitt’s, described in his Treatise on Fruit-trees. This shape, Mr Knight observes, ought to be given to young trees in the nursery, and is per- jhaps the only one that can be given to them without the risk of su’ ent injury. Next season, as many branches are suffered to spring from each plant as can be conveniently trained, without shading each other ; and by selecting the strongest and earliest buds towards the points of the year-old branches, to be trained low- est, and the weakest and latest near their bases, to be trained inclining a each a tae will be in vigour. (Fig. 7.) In the following win- ihettens se cians shertened, and Toft at full length. In the course of the third year, (Fig. 8.) ifthe tree be a peach, the central consists of i wood: And, upon the whole, the size and general heal vageler distribution ofthe sap'than Mr Knight has wit. i tion of the r Knight has wit- nessed in any other mode, 5: The distance at which the branches are laid in, in all the different modes, varies from eight to ten inches, ac- cording to the nature of the tree, or the size of its foli- age or fruit. While fan-trained trees are still in pro- gress, a few more shoots are preserved at the summer ing, than are likely to be ultimately laid in : this is ‘or fear of accidents. Trees that have filled the tase thet lppeats Wosd-bade.on ol peas wv vivayn : ds on old are alwa displaced. "Trees n i to; all the buds that ed, till enough be procured to lay right and left, and form the tree. All wood-buds on the horizontal branches, excepting the leading one, are displaced. The fan-training is consi- dered as best for apricots, cherries, and plums, placed inst walls, even though the walls be low. None of kinds of fruit answer well for iers ; cherries or plums succeed better as half standards or dwarf stan« dard Ss. 81. The wall-trees which have now been spoken of prodbgpmant ste: dyes orm It is a very come mon Learn a standards on the intermedi- warf trees; such trees are in fed at any tne. n'a Fruit- Garden, Espalier trees, fy warf-stan- dards, 200 they would otherwise draw from the border: but if the border be tolerably rich, and be only slightly cropped with herbaceous plants, it does not seem likely that the temporary trees can do much injary. 82. In popular language, the term Espalier is some- what equivocal: it means either rows of fruit-trees planted like hedges, or the individual trees composin the rows ; or ly, it means the stakes or rails to whic the branches of the trees are tied. By using the terms espalier-tree and espalier-rail, ambiguity may always be avoided. Of late years, some have proposed to ba- nish espalier-trees altogether, alleging that they injure the kitchen-garden quarters, by depriving them of sun and air. But in point of fact, they exist in the greater number of kitchen-gardens, and are not likely soon to be laid aside. If they are sometimes injurious by mapevone the plants of air, they are at other times very useful, acting as a hedge in protecting the young crops from the violence of strong winds. Espalier trees generally produce excellent fruit, the sun and air ha- ving access to both sides of the tree; they common- ly afford abundant crops, and the fruit is not apt to be shaken by high winds. Further, they tend to hide the crops of culinary vegetables from the eye, and to render the walk of the kitchen garden as pleasant as an avenue in the shrubbery. Apples and pears are the fruits best suited for es- paliers. The apples are generally grafted on crab stocks, to keep them of moderate size; or, if the tree be wished still smaller, on Dutch paradise stocks.” The distance allowed between the former is from 20 to 40 feet ; between the latter, 25 is found sufficient. These may seer large spaces at first; and, to take away the naked appearance, a small cherry-tree, or white currant bush, is sometimes planted in each interval. It is to be studied that, in the same line of rail, trees of similar growth be planted: so that the whole may be nearly equally filled. The trees, when planted, should be of one year’s growth, or at most of two years. If the rail be not previously erected, so that the branches can be tied to it, a stake is necessary, to prevent wind-wa- ving. Very often, the permanent rails are not put up till the trees have been two or three years trained on ‘temporary stakes. Simple ash-poles firmly stuck in the ground, and either charred or smeared with tar at the bottom, to retard rotting, form a very efficient substi- tute for a rail; for it is to be observed, that during ¢ummer, when the leaves are expanded, they equal- ly hide the roughest poles, or the most finished rail. Mr Nicol, however, recommends sinking hewn stones in the earth, and fixing a wooden rail in them: and 2 writer, in the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, vol. i. has described a kind of cast iron espalier-rail, which of course must be highly durable, and, what is remarka- ble, is cheaper at the first than a wooden one. Some gardeners shorten the head of the tree in the usual way; others preserve the original branches at full length, never cutting a branch unless where there is a real deficiency of wood for filling the rail. The prun- ing is chiefly done by disbudding in the summer season. The distance at which the branches are laid in depends on the size of the fruit and leaves; when these are large, seven or eight inches are required ; when small, four or five may be sufficient. 83. Dwarf trees were formerly much in vogue; and, strange as It may appear, the prospect of fruit was ge- nerally sacrificed to a fine shape. It was thought ne- cessary that the lower branches should spread horizon- tally near the ground, and should decrease in width upwards, so that the tree should have a conieal form. HORTICULTURE. Now, it is well known that the fruit-buds of ne and apples in general, and of many sorts of plums and hustle: are produced at the end of the former year’s shoots, which therefore should remain at full length ; yet these were necessarily shortened, in order to pre- serve the desired shape, and it may easily be conceived that trees so d could not prove fruitful. For these reasons, the training to espalier-rails has generally been preferred. A few dwarf trees, however, prove or- namental, and they sometimes afford a great deal of fruit. The kinds of dwarf fruit-trees now in request are chiefly pears and apples. ‘The pears must be of the summer and autumn sorts, the later fruits pat a wall in our climate. Dwarf pears are chiefly ed on quince stocks, The trees are planted out, at two or three years old, where t are to remain, and they are placed from 20 to 25 feet asunder. A few stakes are driven into the ground, and, by means of tying down, the lower branches may soon be made to acquire a horizontal direction. No branches must cross each other, and no central upright shoots are permitted. The only other particular to be attended to is, when the trees are to be trained in a concave form, that, in short. ening the shoots, the uppermost eye or bud is to be left outwards, as in this way the hollowness in the mid- dle of the tree is better preserved. Sometimes the branches are trained round a hoop, which es by three or four small poles. Dwarf-sta “ le trees on paradise stocks may be planted very close- ly, as they occupy butlittle room: they do not require more than 10 or 15 feet; on crab stocks they need at least 25. Plums are now seldom planted as dwarf. standards ; cherries more frequently ; apricots scarcely ever, Preserving of Blossom. 84. In this country, particularly on the east coast and in the northern division of the island, it is an im- portant part of the gardener’s duty, to preserve the blossoms of apricots, nectarines, peaches, and the finer sorts of plums, from being destroyed by spring frosts, and especially frosty winds. One of the means0first employed is still occasionally resorted to ; namely, sha- ding the trees slightly with branches of spruce-fir, yew, or beech: but the branches ought to be'so firmly fixed as not easily to be displaced by the winds, or to shake much: if this precaution be neglected, they will be ready to beat off the blossom which they are intended to defend. Strong fronds of the common brake (Pte- ris aquilina) have been used with advantage in this. way ; being the remains of the former year’s growth, they are light and dry, and much less apt to injure the blossom than branches of trees. The most effectual protection, however, is afforded by canvas-screens, in moveable frames ; the fabric of the canvas being made thin enough to admit light, and yet affording sufficient shelter, The stuff called buntine, of which ships flags are sometimes formed, is recom- mended by Nicol ; and he adds, that it may be render- ed more transparent, and more durable by being oiled. The stuff called osnaburg, manufactured in the towns of Dundee, Arbroath, and Montrose, answers equally well, especially if made on purpose, of a wider texture, so as to resemble gauze. These screens:are kept clear of the tree, a foot at top; and 18 inches at bettom. If, when not in use, they may be stowed int adry loft, they _ last for many years. Sometimes the canvas is 1 in the form of sheets to hoist up and down; and in some laces (as at Dalmeny Park garden, one of the finest in Britain) the contrivance is such, that the comeing Dwa dards, ga of blossom. ‘ . HORTICULTURE. 201 i : freezing moistened Fruit ne higher pedir i prec gna a _ Gaaden. 85. We now proceed to the consideration of the dif- Garden ferent species of fruits cultivated within the walled gar- fruits. CX LY the winds, screens made of reeds projected, ears r= with the wall, to the distance ten and at intervals of thirty or forty feet from each other; and at the same time nets wrought straw nets are deserving the attention deners whe vary nd thelr walls too much exposed to east winds during the spring months. Old fishing-nets, kept at the distance or eighteen inches from Re orang Sawn ae germ rare a played 5 may be doubled over, in order to ren- the interstices closer. But nets made of coarse woollen or worsted, are preferable to these. At in Lothian, woollen nets for this ee en ee ee, eae ite te at much They are woven thick, the meshes not bei Laolitr’ thpio'to wsait the OS a as wi over is evident; very small mesh ing in effect rendered still smaller, by arash material, and its con- stant tendency to contract ; from its aptitade to at- tract and concentrate moisture, such as cold dews and VOL. XI. PART 1 den, and the principal varieties of each. The orderin = op Poa ey by Srewnp tps bad tee ment: the following ‘arrangement is b: Parehy: at account ofthe importance of the fut, and partly be- cause of natural alliances: . Recarines Red Currant, i Gooseberry Raspberry,— Rubus. ’ Strawberry, six ca eS gga Some other hardy fruits and nuts, which are planted exterior to the en, will afterwards be noticed ; as also the pine-apple and the melon, which require a constant high temperature, and the orange, lemon, and 2 a which are rather inhabitants of the green- se. All the common fruit trees and fruit-bearing plants, are extretnely well known, both here and on the con- fre unnecemry. ‘The genic an Wil ba even ‘ore . i trivial names given by Linnwus ne aa mentioned, and at the same time the class and order in his system, and the family in the Natural Method of Jussieu, to which the ee Occasionally, when it may a use- 1, some of the foreign names of the trees or the fruits shall be given. Ganpen Fauits. ‘ daa beter wim ang Persica of Lin- order Icosandria Mo- Pes firm ; the ski doer erly on tne te ten. next the sun, and of a yellowi the stones. Those with a firm flesh, to which both the skin and the stone adhere, are the pavies of the French, by 2c Fruit Garden, 202 our gardeners named cling-stones. The latter require more shelter and better seasons to bring them to per- fection than the former. In countries possessing suffi- cient climate, as in France and the warmer states of North America, the pavies are preferred: in this coun- try, the preference is generally given to the free- stones, pavies being chiefly planted in forcing-houses, where the climate can be made. 87. Parkinson, in his Paradisus, enumerates twenty- one kinds of peaches, several of which, particularly the Old Newington, are still cultivated. Miller gives a list of thirty-one, with their characters; but as these are taken only from the fruit, without any notice of the bud, blossom, or leaf, they sometimes prove unsatisfac- tory. The following are the names: 1, White Nutmeg, Boudine, Red Nutmeg, Rossana, Early orsmall Mignone, Admirable, Yellow Alberge, 20. Old Newington, 5. White Magdalen, Rambouillet, Early Purple, Bellis (Belle de Vitry.) Large Mignone, Portugal, Teton de Venus, 25. Late Purple, Belle Chevreuse, Red Magdalen, 10. Early Newington, Nivette, Montauban, Royal George, Malta, Persique, Noblesse, Monstrous Pavie, Chancellor, 80. Catherine, vNF 15. Bellegarde or Galande, Bloody Peach. Lisle, f 88. The characters of such of these as are chiefl cultivated, and chiefly deserving of attention in this country, may be mentioned. ' The White Magdalen, or Early Magdalen, is a round fruit, of a middling size, with a deep furrow; of a pale colour, and the flesh white to the stone; melting, juicy, with considerable flavour ; ripening in August ; the tree sometimes succeeds on the open wall, even in North Britain. The Red Magdalen, however, is altogether a supe- rior fruit ; it is large, round, and of a fine red next the sun; the juice very sugary and of exquisite flavour ; ripening in the end of August: the tree isa free grower and great bearer: the blossoms are small. Nicol re- commends the red magdalen as the “ best peach we have, either for the open air or the hot-house.” In doing so he is justified by the experience of Scottish gardeners; for the peach commonly known in Scot- land by the name of red magdalen ripens well; in ordi- nary years, even in the northern districts of the coun- try. This we believe to be the same which goes b that name in the south; ‘but we have reason to think that the same name is applied, in some parts of Eng- land, to another peach; for English hortiultanists sometimes complain that the red magdalen does not succeed well, The Large Mignone is somewhat oblong in shape, and generally swells out on one side; the juice is very sugary, and of high flavour: this, though a free-stone, being rather a tender sort, is generally budded on a ween or apricot stock. The Early Nemington or Smith’s Newington (sup- posed to be the pavie blanc of Duhamel) is a fruit of middling size, of a fine red next the sun; flesh firm, with a sugary well-flavoured juice; ripening the be- ginning of September: a clingstone: the tree a good bearer. 4 HORTICULTURE. The Noblesse is a large fruit, red or marbled next the sun; flesh greenish-white and melting, very juicy, and, against a good wall and in a favourable season, the juice becomes rich and well-flavoured ; ripens in the begin- ning of September ; and should be eaten sharp ripe, as the gardeners term it, the fruit being apt to become mealy if not taken just when it ripens, The Boudine, sometimes calle + the bourdine, is a large round fruit, of a fine red next the sun; the flesh white, melting, juice vinous and rich; ripens from the beginning to the middle of September: the tree a plentiful bearer, especially when old. In favourable situations in the south of England it has sometimes produced fruit on standards. Pex ; The Old Newingion, already mentioned, is a large round fruit, of a beautiful red next the sun; the flesh white and melting ; when ripe, the juice very rich and vinous ; a clingstone, and not ready before the begin- ning of October. The Rambouillet, often called rumbullion, is a fruit of middling size, deeply divided by a furrow ; the flesh melting, of a bright yellow colour; juice rich, and of a vinous flavour: ripens about the middle’ of September: the tree a good bearer. ug The Téton de Venus is a fruit of middling size and longish shape, of a pale red next the sun; flesh melt- ing, white; juice sugary, and not without flavour ; ripens the dod of September: the tree is a free bearer, ona warm light soil; but the fruit comes to perfection only in fine seasons. if The Royal George is an excellent peach; and in a very good soil and aspect, the fruit becomes large, dark red next the sun, juicy, and high-flavoured. If the soil and aspect be not favourable, the tree proves a shy bearer. The Catherine is a large round fruit, of a dark red next the sun; the flesh white, melting, full of a rich juice; aclingstone; ripens from the beginning to the middle of October, against a good wall and im a fa« vourable season; the fruit, however, is improved by lying two or three days before being used: it is some- times called the October Peach. sob | 89. To the ample list of Miller, a few others might be added. The ake Peach, sometimes called the Early Ann, isa small round fruit, of a yellowish white co- lour, faintly tinged with red on the sunny side ; ripen- ing about the middle of August. This is'said to be of English origin. The Royal Kensington is described by Forsyth, and the tree is said to grow freely, and not to be liable to blight. The Orange Peach is mentioned by Nicol as the most elegant he was acquainted with, and the best-flavoured of the cling-stones; rather large than otherwise, round, dark red or pupils next the sun, and bright orange on the other side; the flesh of a deep orange colour, but purple at the stone ; the tree a very great bearer. It is possible this may be the Yellow Alberge, the fourth in the tabular list above given. The Double-flowering Peach is sometimes cultivated for curiosity, on standards, being very ornamental while in bloom; the flowers being only semi-double, fruit is generally produced, and in fine seasons abundantly ; in most cases, however, it is fit only for preserves. 90. That indefatigable and excellent horticulturist Mr Knight, has produced several new peaches of the most promising qualities, at his seat of Downton in Herefordshire. After due precautions to bring his trees (small ones planted in large pots) to the highest state of health and vigour, he im ated the pistil of one with the pollen of another: three peaches x HORTICULTURE. 203. were suffered to remain on each tree: from sowing the wood-bud, which may become a leader, toattract nour- —_Fruie Gardens aecheret Conearemigdinde Maa tare winiation. si- ishment towards the shoot; for a shoot possessing Garde —"—" tustion of Downton being rather high and late, it may flower-buds, but having no wood-bud to act as a lead- “~~ - reasonably be pr that fruits produced there, er, may blossom, but will produce no perfect fruit. will succeed in all places not less favourably situated Branches which are considered as too weak to ripen these new peaches deserve par- fruit, are commonly cut, as they must tend to rob the peaches. ticular notice ; 1. The Acton Scott Peach; the fruit ri- other parts of the tree. When the trees have com- early, and uniformly attains perfection; it is juicy pletely filled the spaces allotted to them, the principal _ sweet, with a rich flavour; where secluded from shoots are not shortened unless with the view of filling the sun's rays, the skin is very white: the tree isan vacancies, or when the extremities of the shoots have abundant bearer, and not subject to mildew: and Mr remained unripe and been checked by the frost. ight considers it as calcu to succeed in many |§ Mr Knight has explained the nature of what are | cated unfavourable situations, where the more de- called /wruriant shoots, and also the right mode of ma- y Tieate varieties would certainly fail. 2. The Spring naging them. Most gardeners have directed the short- ; Grove Peach has a firm fiesh, but not hard; the ening of these in summer, or the cutting of them out in exterior colours are bright yellow and dark red; it the following spring: But Mr Knight has experienced the mouth, resembling anectarine in consist- great advantages from leaving them wholly unshorten- taste, having a remarkably rich, brisk, ed, but trained with a considerable inclination to the really from the horizon: for, in this way, they have uniformly produ. which is of a greenish cast: it never becomes cohen ataerensatnp eth Sn ths aqcsiing ovet-ripe or mealy, but is apt to shrivel a little, and is year ; and so far is this practice from tending te render then most perfect: the tree grows slowly, but the wood naked the lower or internal parts of the tree, whence : is , and i ity early in the season: these branches spring, that the strongest shoots they eee Seana tf tis dpcioct too A plum stock, * afford, invariably issue from the buds near their bases. : By persevering im the track pointed out by Mr The laterals from luxuriant shoots, if stopped at the in time, to obtain peach-trees first leaf, often afford very strong blossoms, and fine every fruit in the succeeding season. — Pi. In the milder nat of England, the blossom of irginia, trees are peach-tree scarcely requires protection : in less fa- Pad oN voured places, it is coeeed by some of the means al- i ready specified. Dr Noehden, in the second volume rs of the London Horticultural Transactions, has mention- of these American ed rather a singular mode of preventing the bad effects i i of frost on the blossom or young fruit of the peach- tree. It is this: after a frosty night, the first business : fruit, i ; of the ing is to sprinkle cold water over the trees lume of the London Horticultural Transactions, under by means of aoe engine, taking care. that the the title of Braddick’s American Peach, pe ie or young fruit receive their share, and that the In arranging the different varieties of peach-trees in operation be performed some time before the rays of : the late kinds, ially the pavies, the sun strike the trees. Whether the water is useful ( must have the full south aspect ; others may be a a a a gradual thawing, has not been ascertai at the same time should, as far as possible, be placed When the fruit has attained the size of lar s, or rata ie this afterwards saves much trouble in cole of small hazel-nuts, it is thinned, to the distence of five p iF i : H : i | it i il i : z i : E i - f r Z a1 iH lecting for the dessert, especially in a large garden. or six inches between each fruit.. In this way it ac- 91. The fan mode of training is conslered as best quires a larger size, and the tree is not Pas wor § The suited to peach-trees, and is the plan generally ad picking off of leaves which overshadow the fruit, as ed, These trees may, to a certain extent, be - recommended by Nicol and others, is not a good ed as constantly in a state of training. In pruning tice; at least it must not be pushed toan considerable Ee ow ony ast of the ive extent ; Sor the florwer-bud for the socenwiing ‘year ber arin » that is, with a ing lodged in the axilla of the leaf-stalk, must greatly of new shoots, laid in to the wall every ear. on the leaf for its nourishment. This is to be attended to in April, and spe in n dry seasons, and especially in soils naturally dry, the wood and young shoots laid in aiter- a hollow bason, about six feet in diameter, is sometimes ripen sufficiently to stand the winter. formed around the root of the tree; this is covered with os, at that early season, the sw shoots can mudoh (small dung moistened, mixed with a little loam, be 1 ~ Lot wt of the knife. peda. rf: er like mortar,) and water is occa- 1 it may rise imme- sionally according to the state of the weather. diately from the eyes of the shoots ; a fv round, This is practised only while the fruit is growing, and ; r shoot buds the intention is, to cep it always in a state of pro- gress. : end of October till the Mr Knight seems to think, that in the milder parts end of February ; but the early part of winter is gene- ot Eng) plentiful crops of fruit might be procured is not a great deal of wheeer, i ured. Ii ee ral should be planted in ae . ot . prun ty ers : su t i la belind & in the Uinection of nest endl epntha they should | © These two varieties were sent by Mr fm the spring of 1916 to the garden of Sir George Mackensieet Coul, in Ross-shire & south wall. eipmabkdtes san inecaekteese mec ae ‘ | Fruit Garden. Nectarine. 204 not exceed five feet in height ; and that while the blos- som is exposed to danger from frost, mats should be thrown over them, so secured as to descend on each side nearly in the angle of an ordinary roof of a house. On account of the usual mode of training and prun- ing peach-trees in this country, they do not occupy much space on the wall. Some of the old horticultural writers speak of twelve or fourteen feet as enough: but the trees are now permitted to spread wider, from fifteen to twenty feet being allotted to each tree. Near Paris, a single peach-tree may sometimes be seen co- vering sixty feet of wall. It is at Montreuil that peaches are cultivated in perfection, peach-gardens be- ing here established for the supply of the capital, Ma~ king due allowance for the difference of climate, advan- tages might probably be derived from copying some of the practices of these French cultivators, whose whole attention is devoted to the management of peach-trees. In 1814, Mr John Mozard, who was bred under the famous gardener Pepin, and is himself one of the prin ci roprietors of peach-gardens at Montreuil, pubs lished a little piece, entitled, “ Principes pratiques sur Péducation, la culture, la taille, et ’ébourgeonnement des arbres fruiliers, et principalement du pécher,’? which is well deserving the attention of horticulturists in this country. Nectarine. 98. The Nectarine, as already observed, is merely a variety of the peach. The English name may be sup- posed to be derived from the nectareous flavour of the fruit. The skin is smooth, not downy as in the peach ; and the flesh is rather more plump than in that fruit. Nectarines, like peaches, are either free-stones or cling- stones ; the former are called by the French Péches lisses, smooth peaches; the latter, Brugnons. Miller enumerates ten varieties : Fairchild’s Early. Red Roman. Elruge. Murrey. Newington. Golden. Scarlet. Temple's. 5. Brugnon or Italian. 10. Peterborough. Of these the following are in most esteem. The Elruge, a middle-sized fruit ; when ripe, of a dark red-or purple next the sun, pale towards the wall ; ready in the middle of August; the tree grows freely, and is a sure bearer; indeed it is perhaps the best nectarine for the open air, especially in the less favour- ed counties. The Newington nectarine is rather a large fruit; of a beautiful red next the sun, and, on the other side, of a bright yellow ; flesh melting; juice very rich, racy and highs flavoured ; a clingstone, not ripening before Sep- tember: the tree a good bearer, when in a favourable situation. The Red Roman nectarine is a large fruit ; deep red or purple next the sun, and yellowish on the other side; flesh firny and of excellent flavour ; when quite ripe, it shrivels ; a clingstone, not ready before the middle of September. ’ The Murrey (i.e. murrey-coloured) is a middle- sized fruit, ofa dirty red colour next the sun ; the pulp pretty well flavoured ; ripens from the beginning to the middle of September. Temple’s nectarine is a middle-sized fruit, of a light red next the sun, and yellowish-green on.the other side; pulp melting, with a fine poignant flavour ; the skin HORTICULTURE, shrivelling when the fruit is perfectly ripe, which sel« dom happens before the of September: the tree grows freely, and is generally productive. To these may be added the Early Violet nectarine, of middle size, violet purple next the sun, pale yellow on the other pn flesh sugary, juice with a vinous fla~ vour ; a clingstone, ripening in the beginning of Se tember: the blossom is wy small, but the wee sea productive ; it requires a good situation, and su only in warm seasons, The production of a new and early nectarine, suited to the climate of Britain, may be considered as one of the desiderata in our horticulture. It may here be mentioned, that a new variety of white nectarine is de- scribed by recent French writers as being remarkably early and of excellent flavour ; the foliage of the tree is of a pale or whitish green; it was raised by Mr Noisette, a nurseryman at Brunoy. The ent of the nectarine-tree is in every re« spect the same as that of the . In this country, nectarines require the best exposure in the garden; and to the northward of Yorkshire, they seldom i ney, without the aid of a flued wall and artifici eat. Almond. Fruit 94. The Almond-tree, (Amygdalus communis, L.) aimond this can searcely be ranked as an effective fruit-tree in’ country. In clumps of shrubs on the lawn, it makes a fine appearance in early spring, when covered with its beautiful blossoms. In good seasons, such standards produce some ripe fruit: but ornament is its principal recommendation ;' and if the fruit be no object, the double-flowered variety is preferable. Trained against a wall, the almond-tree perfects its fruit in our ordin seasons, when the outer cover opens naturally to give out the stone containing the kernel. They are very sweet and fit for the table when green, and they are sometimes kept in’ sand till winter. R In France, the almond tree is much cultivated. Bas- tien enumerates nine varieties; among which is an amandier pécher, or peach-almond tree, sup’ to have been derived from an impregnation of the almond by the pollen of the peach. On the same tree, he tells us, two sorts of fruit occur; the one round, fleshy, and divided by a furrow like the peach; ‘the other oblong, not fleshy, and resembling the common almond. *The kinds of almond chiefly cultivated for their fruit are, The common sweet almond ; Tender shelled ; Hard shelled ; Sweet Jordan; and Bitter almond. These different varieties are propagated by budding on plum or peach stocks, or on almond stocks raised from the stones ; plum stocks being preferred for strong and moist soils, and peach or almond stocks for such as’ are light and dry. In this country it often happens that the varieties are little attended to. Almond trees are — raised from the stones, and of course are liable to sport, as gardeners speak. It may be remarked, that even when they are raised from the stones, budding or working of one new variety upon another, is extreme- ly oat in ehis the production of fruit. x The general management in re, to pruning, &e. is jg to that of the peach pe ap that the bear- ing twigs are often left six inches long without being nailed to the wall. Garden. —_——— . ‘Fruit _—_o HORTICULTURE. Apricot. ii I ze ail fF fr i : ? juice, v le -Seusaned os apricots, and the tree is a liber- Moorpark is a fruit, flat of a colour, and very hi devoured. Wiel declare one Moorpark is three of any other kind of ; and it is esteemed by many the richest of stone-fruit kind. The tree ires a soil as of ; r | F j ty B . warmer districts of 205 to lay in and protect a sufficiency of new wood for next season. In June, the superfluous and fore-right shoots can be displaced with the finger and thumb; late in the season a knife must be used. The young shoots cut off, it may be mentioned, may be used for dyeing a fine cinnamon colour. Some good fruit, it must be ob- served, ~ tte apes orn curzons or upon two- e shape of the buds in- dicates those likely to be fruitful, and which of course are to be . The winter pruning is done any time from October to March. Not only all decayed and very old wood is as much as possible removed, but some of the most naked parts of the bearers of the two last are cut out, so as to make room for a su ply of new wood. ete eee med shortened a little, and are always cut next a wood-bud, which is to act as a leader. The full grown apricot tree is much in the same way pow my but its late or autumn shoots do not agree with being shorten- ed; when wanted as bearers therefore, they are laid in at full length to the wall. The small and subordinate, or late shoots of the apricot, are more apt to be destroy- ed by frost than those of the tree. On this ac- count, the pruning is often delayed till the end of Ja- nuary, when it ean be seen which shoots are alive, and which have perished. 98. When the fruit is over-crowded, it is thinned, but cautiously, in the early part of summer. In the beginning of July it is finally thinned, and the best of the thinnings may then be used for tarts. Some deners recommend thinning the Moorpark to a fruit to- every foot square, and the smaller kinds of apricots to a fruit to every eight inches ; but, in general, the thin. ning is not po so far. As the fruit approaches ma- turity, it is nailed close in to the wall, in order to its gaining as much reflected heat as possible. In this country, apricots begin to ripen in the end of July, and continue till peaches be ready. Before the intro- duction of the new style, they were sometimes — early in July, and hence received the name of Mala oa to which epithet our English name may be tra Apricot trees are generally placed against an east or a west wall; the heat of a full south wall being apt to render them mitaly before they become ripe. In the northern parts the island, however, a south-east or south-west aspect answers best. In some of the ha ae several varictics of the apricot, i oorpark; transparent, Bre- da, and rsenta, es frequently saleited un espalier trees, horizontal branches aaa tied to the rail, but the left loose. Occasionally some of these, es- My the Breda and Brussels, are tried in the form of warf standards; and in fine seasons, they yield the highest flavoured fruit. hen an apricot tree has been greatly mismanaged, it may be cut down very much, as it sets out st r branches sent per tree, and these may soon trained so as to fill the former space. The strong branch- es of this tree are very apt to throw out gum at places where any accidental hurt has been received: the usual remedy is to cut out the diseased part, filling up the space with pitch and rosin melted together, or merely with a little tar; or any sort of mild paint. Apricots are seldom forced, as they do not in general answer expectation in this way. The Moorpark, how- ever, is 1 a seen on the flued wall along — peach trees ; dwarf or espalier plants e early masculine and Brussels, are scclenally introduced inte Fruit j Garden. —— Plum. 206 the border of the cherry-house or the peach-house, with success, Plum. 99. The Plum-tree,( Prunus domestica, L.) is complete- ly naturalized in this country, but can scarcely be said to be indigenous to Britain: itis however admitted into our F lore Sir J. E. Smith, and is figured in English Botany, plate 1783. There are many varieties, of which seme of the oldest and best marked are P. praooz, the primordian ; damascena, the damask or damson ; julia- na, the St Julian ; pertigona, the perdrigon ; and cerea, the magnum bonum.. Parkinson enumerates no fewer than sixty sorts. Miller describes only about thirty. 100. The following are the kinds chiefly cultivated at present; © White primordian, Apricot plum. Early damask. Mirabelle. Black damask, Drap dor. Precoce de Tours. White imperial, or mag- Maitre Claud. num. bonum, Monsieur’s plum. Red imperial. Imperatrice. St Catherine. White Perdrigon. Orleans. Blue or Violet Perdrigon. Fotheringham. Red Perdrigon. Winessour. Queen Claudia, or true La Royale. green-gage. La Roche-corbon. White gage. Coe’s golden drop. Blue gage. The While Primordian, which is also called St Barna- by’s plum, and sometimes Jaune-Hative, is the earliest plum we have, commonly ripening in the end of July. The fruit is small, of a longish shape, sugary, but with- out much flavour. One tree on a wall is reckoned enough, the tree being a free bearer. The Early Damask, or Morocco, immediately succeeds the white primordian. The Precoce de Tours and Mai- ive Claud are well flavoured plums, and the trees grow freely, and bear well as standards. 5 Monsieur’s Plum, or the Wentworth, is a large fruit, somewhat resembling the white magnum; the tree is a copious bearer, and answers very well as a standard : the fruit is much used for tarts and in sweetmeats. The Imperatrice is remarkably late, seldom ripening on stan- dards till the end of October. The Perdrigons ave melting, sugary, and perfumed fruits; the trees are not very free bearers, but are in many places planted as espalier and dwarf standards. The Queen Claudia of Rouen, or Verte-bonne, seems to be the proper Green-gage ; “the best (says Mr Nicol, ) the most generally known, and most highly esteemed of the plurn kind.” A few trees of this sort are generall trained to a south-east or south-west wall ; but ina shel- tered situation, and where the soil is a rich deep loam, with a dry bottom, the fruit acquires a higher flavour when produced on standards. The white or yellow gage, and the dlue or red gage, though inferior to the green, are much cultivated. The Drap-dor, golden drop, or cloth of gold plum, is a good fruit ; but it requires a wall, and the tree is not in general a plentiful bearer. he White Imperial,or white magnum bonum, has also several other names, as yellow magnum, Holland mag- num, Mogul plum, and egg plum. Itis a very coms HORTICULTURE mon fruit; of a large size; sweet, but with no great flavour ; excellent for tarts and sweetmeats: the tree grows freely, and seldom fails to bear, either on a wall, or as a standard. ] , The Red Imperial is likewise called red magnum bo- num; it is also a large fruit, and of fine appearance ; but it is-principally used for baking and rving: the tree is a free bearer as a standard. The St Catherine has a rich sweet juice, and is fit either for the dessert, or for being used in confectionary. ~ The Orleans is ammiddling good plum, of which there are several varieties, as the old or red, the new, and white. The tree is a vigorous grower, and great bearer : it succeeds perfectly as a standard, but is sometimes placed Ss ra a wall: it is well suited for a market fruit-garden. The Fotheringham, or sheen plum, is a beautiful large red fruit, of considerable flavour ; ‘* there is hardly any plum that excels it,” says Forsyth: the tree answers equally well for a wall, or as an espalier or standard. The Wine-sour is a plum said to be of Yorkshire ex- traction; it is not much cultivated, but seems deservi of attention ; it is very late, and chiefly used for pre« serves. : La royale is an excellent plum, of a red colour ; the tree however is generally a dull bearer. The Roche- corbon, or red diaper plum, is large and of high flavour. Coe’s Golden Drop is a late ene. plum, the me- rits of which have within these few years been attended to, in consequence of a recommendation by Mr Knight in the first volume of the Horticultural Transactions of London. This gentleman considers it as a new varie- ty, while others allege that it has been known for many ears. The tree is distinguished by the great size of its foliage, the leaves being often five inches long and three broad. The flesh of the fruit is of a golden co lour when ripe; on the side next the sun, the skin is dotted with violet and crimson. | It is beautifully figu« red in Hooker’s Pomona, t. 14; and is there announ- ced as superior to any late plum at present in the Bri« tish gardens, y tions, that he suspended some of the fruit by their stalks in a dry room in October, and that they remained per fectly sound till the middle of December, and were then not inferior, either in richness or flavour, to the green gage, or the drap dor. This variety requires a wall, but succeds extremely well on a west aspect. The Bullace-plum is the fruit of a distinct species of Prunus, P. insititia, which grows naturally in hedges in England. It is often planted in shrubberies or lawns; it is a great bearer, and the fruit is excellent for baki or preserving. There is a variety with wax-colour fruit, called the White bullace. The Myrobalans, or - cherry-plum, is by some considered as only a variety of the common plum ; but others rank it as a distinct spe- cies: Willdenow describes it under the title of P. cera« sifera. 101. If the wall be high, or above ten feet, a plum- tree is allowed about 24 feet in length; if it be low, perhaps 50 feet, horizontal training being in this case adopted. An east, south-east, or south-west aspect is found to be better than a full south exposure, in which last the fruit is apt to shrivel and become mealy. Se- veral kinds bear well as espalier trees; and ened as standards. Even in some parts of the Highlands of - Scotland, the yellow magnum and the green-gage trees may be seen thriving luxuriantly, and bearing excellent aie of fruit. The late Mr Hunter of Blackness, a zealous Scottish horticulturist, describing the garden of ’ It keeps many weeks: Mr Knight men- a oe HORTICULTURE. Macdonald of Glenco, says, “ The ums were large, well sha fee fom gen, and of ach yellow colour gees ail fi ‘| H af ne i Li i 2 : Fl Hy 1) it i ft i i 1 ae Hl u g rks ne Hl FFE the trees into bearing. When the fruit come in close bunches, some are thinned out, in the beginni ly, when the stoning is over, to allow rest to ac- pcre pe care is taken to lay in close to the wall, so that the sun and oa ; the y og mt rein Ley Penelope or ; m0 are pr after being planted. Dien raise the roots at full ee Sere ens Dee ereaapencwich i : cherries were introduced into England by the fruiterer of Henry VIII. ; bat Professor has shown that they were known much earlier. Lyd. his account of the London cries in the mididle of the 15th century, mentions that | 207 Ryse is a word not yet obsolete in Scotland, signifying spray or twigs ; and on the stalls of the Edinburgh fruit market, cherries may sometimes be seen “ in the ryse,” or at least stuck on the thorns of hawthorn sprigs, in order to catch the fancy of children. The white pescoct is a kind of plum. wnt 103. Parkinson's list in 1629 contains about thirty) varieties of cultivated cherries, several of which are. still known, and in esteem, as the mayduke; heart,. . amber, and morello, but others have entirely disappear= ed. Miller enumerates only twenty-one ; and of these it is not necessary to notice more one half, being: those commonly cultivated. May-duke. Carnation cherry. Archduke. Morello. Harrison's heart. Lundie guigne. Hertfordshire heart. Black coroun. White heart. Tartarian cherry. Black heart. Kentish. OF the May-duke Nicol observes that we have no’ cherry equal to it, and that the tree thrives in all situa- tions. It does very well as a standard ; but against a good wall, and with a southern aspect, the: fruit be- comes considerably larger, and, contrary to what a pens in other fruits, it seems to acquire a higher fla- vour. It ripens early in June ; and before the change of the style, it was often gathered in May: this was cere the case with a Small variety called the ay. Archduke is also called the Late duke: it is a good cherry when ripened on a wall ; but the tree does not answer well as a standard. Harrison's heart is a cherry, of qualities, and the tree bears freely. The Hertfordshire has a firm flesh and excellent flavour : it is a late cherry, not ripening till A The Carnation cherry has re- ceived its name the fruit being variegated red and white: it is a late c , and requires a good wall. Though the taste of the Morello cherry, a that of the mulberry, is not agreeable to many, yet when ri on a wall in the full sun, it acquires a size richness of flavour superior to any other: The tree grows freely, and bears well. The Laniicquqne fa dak nalows, andl neatly a0 large as maydukes which grow on standard trees : it re- ceives its name from Lundie in Fife, the seat of Sir James Erskine, where the original trees still remain. The black coroun resembles black heart; it is an ex- cellent fruit, and the tree is a healthy grower and great bearer. The dlack and the white Tartarian cher- ries are much cultivated at Petersburgh, and were in- troduced from Russia about 1797: the fruit is of good flavour, and ri early ; and the trees produce plen« tifully. The Kentish is chiefly planted in orchards, and in market gardens : the flowers being late in expanding, they generally escape the spri ‘those, and efford a plentiful crop: the : Spring fr it, however, is fit only for tarts. Fruit Garden. 104. That indefatigable and truly meritorious horti- New ¢he:- culturist Mr Knight, has lately new cherries raised from seed ; they have been called the Elton, the Black Eagle, and the Waterloo. The El'on is the offspring of a blossom of the graf. fion, or ambrée of Duhamel, fecundated by the pollen of the white heart ; it is distinguished by a very deep tinge of crimson in the petals, and by the extraordinary length of its fruit-stalks. The pulp is very juicy, and to our list three rics 208 HORTICULTURE, Fruit of delicate flavour. The tree grows vigorously, andis a shoots being displaced by the hand in the early part of _ Pruit Garden. free bearer: am 4} 4 summer, Much fruit. is produced on small baat Garden, — —y—" The Black Eagle was from the graffion, with the proceeding from wood two or three years old; these ">" pollen of the mayduke, and the tree and its fruit re- side-spurs are therefore carefully preserved. — . e semble the mayduke in a considerable degree. When the fruit begins to colour, it Is assailed. by The Waterloo was of the same origin. “It sprang blackbirds, jays, and_other birds. The most. effectual (says Mr Knight) from the largest and finest ambrée cherry that I ever saw ; and I imagine it was the best fed ; for it stood alone upon a tree which was well ca- ane of bearing at least half a dozen pounds of cherries.” he Waterloo is somewhat later than the black eagle. It is nearly as hardy as the mayduke ; and it has been observed to acquire tolerable perfection even in cloudy and rainy weather. On approaching maturity, one side presents a dark livid colour ; but in’ripening, it acquires a rich and deep red colour, nearly black, It is larger than the black eagle, and more conic towards its point. All of these three varieties possess valuable qualities, and deserve the attention of cultivators in every part of the country. The only plants of these yet brought to Scotland, as far as we know, are in the garden of Sir George Mackenzie, Bart. at Coul in Ross-shire, where, as it is situate far to the northward, their qualities in re- gard to climate will be put tothe proof. They who pos« sess opportunities should also attempt the production of new kinds. The cherry, it is believed, sports more exten= sively in variety when raised from seed than almost an other fruit ; and Mr Knight justly remarks, that it is probably capable of acquiring a higher state of perfec- tion than it has yet attained. 105. The finer kinds of cherries are trained against the wall, chiefly in the fan manner: they are placed about twenty-four feet distant from each other, and, at the first planting, a temporary tree is usually put in between each. When favoured with a south aspect, they not only produce early, but large and excellent fruit, highly worthy of a placein the dessert. To:prolong the cherry season, some of the duke and heart varieties are generally placed againsta west wall. The morello bein chiefly wanted for preserves, has frequently’ a’ nort aspect assigned"to it. This variety in so far differs in habit from the others, that it is produced rather on the young wood of the former year than on spurs; it is necessary therefore, at the time of pruning, to have a supply of young wood in view.” Cherry-trees are some- times trained on espalier rails; and inthis case, as in wall-trees, it is a great object to keep up a stock of young wood, or at least a quantity of young spurs, or eurzons. The branches are’ generally tied to the rails by means of willow-twigs, or strands of bass-matting. All stone-fruit trees being liable to become gummy at places where they are galled, attention is necessar: that the tyings do not injure the bark. Cherries, it may be added, succeed much better as half-standards or dwarf standards than as espalier-trees. It is a general rule to bud or graft cherries at the height where the head is intended to begin. Some prefer having only two main branches for a wall cherry- tree; but three branches are, in general, found more commodious. Miller suggests, that budding heart cherries on stocks of the birdcherry (Prunus padus), might have a similar effect as grafting apples on para- dise stocks ; that not only might the tree be thus kept in less compass, but rendered more fruitful. In pruning cherry-trees, the shoots are not shortened, for they produce many fruit-buds at the extremities. It is a common remark of practical gardeners, that cherry-trees dislike the knife. The branches there- fore are trained at full length, superfluous fore-right remedy is found in hanging a net in front of the tree, or over it, if it be an espalier or dwarf-standard. In gathering the fruit, care should be taken not to break the fruit-spurs, which are very brittle: to avoid the risk of this, some gardeners are at the pains to cut the fruit-stalks with a pair of small scissars, ; Apple. 106. The Apple-tree (Pyrus Malus, var. sativa, L.) bes Apple. longs to the class Icosandria, order Pentagynia, and natural order Rosacee of Jussieu: The crab-tree, P, malus, is a native of various parts of Britain, and jis fi- gured in English Botany, t. 179... Like the wild pear, it is armed with thorns. Many of the cultivated kinds have been imported from the continent. at different times ; and many others have been raised) from) the seed in this country. Ray, im the close of the 17th century, described seventy-eight sorts, then accounted good: several of these still retain their character, but many more have either lost it, or have entirely disap- peared. The ane which was then so: com- monly sold in London that dealers in apples were styled costard-mongers, is not now known. At this: time among the favourite cider apples were the redstreak, the golden-pippin, the gennet-moil, the white and red masts or musts, the fox-whelp, and the stire; allsof which, as remarked by Mr Knight, are now fast hasten« ing to decay and extinction. Several new apples, hows ever, possessed of excellent qualities, have of late years been brought into notice; and so many amateurs of rdening are now engaged in raising new. varieties m seal, that there seems little reason to. apprehend a deficiency. This is as it should be; the apple bein, doubtless the most useful of the fruits freely produ in this country. ; 107. Forsyth, in his Treatise on Fruit-trees, describes no fewer than 196 varieties, exclusive of many, of which he gives the names only, without descriptions. » In this place only a few of the finer apples: cam be noticed ; such as are‘commonly cultivated in gardens, as wall or espalier trees, or as half and dwarf standards. The other standard apples used for baking or in the manu- facture of cider, will be treated of under the: article Orcuarps. Golden pippin, « Aromatic pippin, Balgone pippin, Royal Russet, Nonpareil, Codlin ; al, Kent- Scarlet nonpareil, ish, Carlisle; and Ribston pippin, Keswick. Oslin pippin, — Hawthorndean, Newton pippin, and Margaret, Spitsenberg. Jenneting, —- Nonsuch, Rennets, grey, golden, . Margil, and Canadians Quince apple, Violet apple. The Golden pippin is a well known excellent fruit, ripening late in autumn ; when fully matured it keeps long, and forms, during winter, one of the choicest dessert apples ; it is generally small, but beautiful, and the juice is sweet and high flavoured. The tree re- HORTICULTURE. i light but good soil ; if the subsoil be wet, it is casenelp to canker. It is rather of low growth; p acm te however, it freely, and produces of fine fruit. Seer free-stocks instead of crab-stocks ; the latter, we believe ee ree a ore ney old age. — ippix, so named prea sein Lort Lothian, much re- it k few cll Apel t v . remaining quite ill A: or May. Me Nica fe festly im ranteres with it “It eee nen cpio in taase hinges; i will thrive and even ripen at John-o-Groat's, and it de- serves a at Exeter or at Cork.” It was long sup- — been raised at Ribston Hall in Yorkshire; it is now ascertained to be a Normandy pippin, in- troduced early in the 18th century. The Oslin pippin is sometimes called the Origi and sometimes the Arbroath pippin: by F. it is named Orzelon. This is avery good apple, excelled in the nonpareil, over which it has the ad- i fl i i ! i fF 4 | Hee | i ter in aH ATFLEE He u i of i ‘ i f i ; continued So erp bf 209 summer apple, but does not keep long; it is juicy and —_ Fruit good, excellent for kitchen = The wha free _ Garden. grower, and bears quickly and ifully ; it is how- Pra. ever but short-lived, generally ing symptoms of decay when twelve or fifteen years old: it is well cal- culated, therefore, for a temporary tree in any situation, and for this purpose it is much employed. : The Margaret apple is also called Magdalene apple ; it is an early fruit, of good flavour, but does not keep long. The tree is of middling size; commonly produc- tive, ; Jenneting, or Geniton, as Dr Johnson has it, is ge- nerally supposed to be a corruption of June-eating. It is a small fruit, but very early ripe; certainly how- ever not in June, nor earlier August. It is per- haps inferior to the Oslin, Margaret, and one or two other early apples; but no one possessed of a healthy jenneting tree in full bearing would willingly part with it, The Nonsuch is a well known pippin; the tree is rather subject to the canker, but it generally bears more or less every season. : The Margil is a ey A late apple, fit for the des- sert in January ; the fruit is much improved when the tree is trained against a wall. The Quince apple is a small fruit, shaped like the quince ; the side next the sun of a russet colour, the other side yellowish ; it is an excellent apple for about three weeks in September, but does not keep much longer. The tree is of low growth. he Aromatic pippin receives its name from its fine flavour ; the side next the sun is of a bright russet co. lour. It ripens in October, and is fit fur use from De- cember to February. The russet, or leathercoat russet, is so named from the russet colour of the skin; it is a large fruit, of an oblong figure, broad towards the base: it is an excellent kitchen fruit, and may also appear in the dessert ; it keeps till April. The tree grows to a size, and bears very freely. different varieties of Codlins are chiefly baking apples, although they may also occasionally taken to a! they are op L but none of them are good ing a) The trees are t bearers, and a gpa ious half and Ramet ceil he gar- dens ; the latter are frequently trained around hoo to support their branches. An account of the valuable ies of the Carlisle and Keswick codlins is given by the Right Hon, Sir John Sinclair in the first volume the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs. The codlins are frequently pr trees thus procu than grafted trees, The Nenton pippin and Spitsenberg apple are two American sorts, which have of late years become fa- yourites in some of thiscountry. The former was introduced from Island, New York: it is a beau- tiful and excellent apple ; it ripens best on a wall, but in favourable seasons it succeeds on ier rails, or even on dwarf standards, Ze. is alsoa very good fruit, with somewhat of the pine-apple fla- vour; the tree requires a sheltered situation and a good soil; it is observed to thrive better on a west than on a south wall. The Grey rennet, Reinette grise, is a middle-sized fruit, of a grey next the sun, but on the other side intermixed with yellow ; a juicy apple, of a quick flavour, yet sugary: it ripens in October, but does not 2p by slips, suckers, or layers, yielding fruit much more quickly a <1 S New apples, 210 keep long. The Golden rennet, Reinette dorée, is a very good apple, ripening in the end of September, fit either for the table or the kitchen, and keeping till Fe- bruary. The Canadian rennet is called by the French horticulturists Reinette de Trianon: it is a large fruit, of a yellow colour, with a tinge of red: it keeps till February. The Violet apple, Pomme violette, is a middling large fruit, of a long shape ; pale green on one side, but deep red next the sun; flesh delicate, juice sugary, with a slight flavour of the sweet or March violet. The tree grows vigorously, and the fruit ripens in the end of October. The Eve apple is originally from Ireland, but now very generally cultivated in the west of Scotland. The tree is nearly as ample a bearer as the Keswick codling; and it is peculiarly well calculated for forming small standards, to be trained either hollow, or like a cylin- der or a cone, the tree growing close and compact, and the fruit-spurs being regularly distributed along every part of the branches. The apple is of a fine colour, and well tasted, fit either for table or kitchen use. It keeps nearly four months. The tree produces fruit the second year after being grafted; and, like the burknot, it may be propagated by cuttings or by layers. Several excellent and well known garden apples are not included in the list above given, in order to avoid prolixity ; such as the summer and the winter Thorle ;* different varieties of Pearmain; the Wine apple or Queen; the red and the white Calville; Wheeler’s Rus- set; Holland pippin ; the Strawberry apple; the De- vonshire Quarenden, the Crofton, and the Kerry pippin. It cannot be too often inculcated, that the choice of varie- ties of fruits, and especially of apples and pears, ultimate- ly to be employed as standards and dwarf standards in gardens, ought to depend very much on eaperience,— on observing. which kinds succeed best in the particular soil and situation in question. 108. As formerly mentioned, several new apples have of late been brought into notice. Of these, the following have deservedly acquired a good character : The Yellow Ingestrie pippin, the Downton pippin, and the Wormsley pippin. The Yellow Ingestrie pippin was raised a few years ago by Mr Knight, from a flower of the orange pippin dusted with the pollen of the golden pippin. - It is si- milar in form and colour to the latter, which it almost rivals also in richness and flavour: it ripens in Octo- ber, but does not keep. The tree is very productive. The Downton pippin, named from Mr Knight’s seat, had the same origin ; and also possesses very good qua- lities in certain upland situations; but in the low grounds about London it is not good. The Wormsley pippin is another of Mr Knight’s ap- ples, a very large fruit, and, in the consistence and juiciness of its pulp, nearly resembling the Newton pippin ; it ripens in the end of October, and keeps for some time. called Hughes? th 4 The apple e es’s new g0 nm pos- sesses the finest qualities ; but oo inpsced te “wilt be found to be, not a new fruit, but a French apple, cul- tivated in Normandy, and not unfrequently shipped for this country at Charante. Some varieties are cultivated chiefly by way of cu- viosity ; particularly the Fig-apple, which is remark- able for producing no seeds, and indeed for having no proper core ; it is said also to shew stamens and pistils only, or to be destitute, or nearly so, of petals. The Dwarf rennet is also deserving of notice; when graft- HORTICULTURE. ed on a paradise stock, the tree searcely exceedsin size Fruit a large plant of gillyflower. It is therefore sometimes kept in pots and forced, and placed in a on the table. The fruit completely resembles the com- mon French rennets.. To these may be added, the Pomme d’ Api, or nS apple, a very small fruit, of a yellowish colour, but bright red next the sun; and the Pomme de deux ans, or John apple, remarkable for having apples and blossoms on the tree at the same time. Garden, owing state “"Y—™" 109. Apple trees intended for full standards are graft. Apple trees, ed on free stocks, or crab stocks ; those for espalier rails or walls, on paradise and codlin stocks. A young graft. ed apple tree should have three branches; and, if in< tended for a wall-tree or espalier, the centre brancly only is cut down, perhaps to a foot in length, to encou- rage the setting out of a succession of branches. The fruit of the apple tree is produced on small side and ter- minal spurs, or short spurs or curzons, from an inch to more than two inches long, proceeding from branches two, three, or four years old, the same wood continuing fruitful for a number of years. The nonpareil, and some other varieties, indeed, yield a few fruit from shoots of the former year ; but this isnot usual. Espa- lier and wall trees are pruned twice in the season, in summer and in winter. In May and June, foreright and other superfluous shoots are taken out, a few being laid in, to supply wood where wanted. Any time between December and March a selection of these is made ; and unfruitful, decayed, or cankered branches being cut out, new branches are led along in their place. At the same time, old rugged spurs, and useless snags, are ta- ken clean off close by the trunk, applying any mild ointment to the wound. - On walls from nine to twelve feet high, the fan-training is preferred; but on walls under nine feet, the horizontal method is often adopted. About twenty-five feet are allowed to each tree. Stan- dard apple-trees receive, and indeed require, but little attention. The ground is dug over, lichens and mosses on the trunks or branches are destroyed, dead branches are cut out, and such as cross each other so.as to rub together. When a standard or a dwarf standard is hea- vily loaded with fruit, several clefted or forked stakes are stuck into the ground, and made to support.the droop- ing branches, which are otherwise apt to break down. Standards in gardens are placed ly thirty feet apart ; espalier trees on dwarf stocks, fifteen feet apart ; on free stocks, perhaps twenty-five feet. 110. The on tree grows and thrives on very various soils. It equally dislikes a strong clayey and wet soil, as one’ that is open, dry, and gravelly ; a deep rich cool soil answers best. To lay down more particular rules would be nugatery. It is a fact, that im each particu- lar place, certain kinds of apples are observed to succeed better than other kinds. When therefore the cultivator has discovered the varieties most congenial to the soil and situation, it will be his wisest plan to encourage them, by multiplying grafts of them on his other and less productive trees, or by forming new additional trees of those successful sorts. Where the soil is shal- low, and the subsoil bad, it is by following this plan on- ly that large crops of apples can be regularly procured ; the new wood of the grafts bearing for a few years, and then giving place to other E Soy: This may be illustrated, by instancing Dalkeith Park garden near Edinburgh, belonging to the Duke of Buc- cleuch. Formerly few or no apples were here produ- ced, the soil being very shallow, and the subsoil perni- cious, But his Grace’s gardener Mr James Macdonald, * if it suas s5548 ods $2152 33 Hii ap ii cH ie "gg il a ladelitiit je fia dale EAU uTE A oh Hees Hea Cope waite i AML cea eeie dtl ah He £ Tee ne BH sf Tatil ; if : ile ie P Ur aBuE Lr 29483 7a benetstlyia sib qideeee HE ‘2 BEL Bee iar fils ie a dat o4 De ee 22758 iil sa ait} it i : Haale Fee Lg iii? Bai is if i ig aul j Bu BEeIEHE j eet Abend een see inet i i biter te titi alt MRR rte aa i ill Hidde nin ae ay inl lh Automn pears. 212 longueville of Jedburgh, in Roxburghshire, it may be remarked, seems to bea variety, the fruit possessing the quality of keeping for many weeks: the trees at that place are very old, and evidently the remains of or- chards or gardens belonging to the rich religious esta- blishment which once flourished there. The Green Yair, or Green Pear of the Yair, is a small green fruit, sweet and juicy, but with little flavour: the tree is a copious bearer, either as a standard or espalier tree. It is supposed to be of Scottish origin, the Yair being an ancient seat on the Border. 114. The Bromn Beurré, or Red beurré, is a large and long fruit, of a brownish-red colour next the sun, melting and full of sharp rich juice, slightly perfumed ; indeed it is one of the best autumn pears we have; it must however have every advantage of soil and shelter, and a good aspect on the wall. The fruit varies con- siderably in colour, the difference seeming to depend on accidental circumstances of soil and vigour. The Autumn Bergamot often gets the name of Eng- lish Bergamot: it is a smaller fruit than the summer bergamot, but resembles it; the flesh is melting, and the fruit richly perfumed: the tree is a free grower and great bearer. - Gansel’s Bergamot is of English origin, having been raised from a seed of the autumn bergamot by the late General Gansel at Donneland Hall near Colchester. It is nearly allied to its parent. In good situations, the tree answers excellently as a standard ; and if the fruit be gathered in the middle of October, it is in perfec- tion about the middle of November, and continues a month on the wall: it sometimes attains a large size ; we have seen one produced at Torry in Scotland, which measured in circumference 14 inches, and weighed, when taken from the tree, nearly 1lb. 10oz. The Swiss bergamot is a round fruit with a tough skin, of a greenish colour striped with red; flesh sis ing and full of juice, slightly perfumed: the tree a co- ious bearer. ‘a as The Verte lon (long green pear,) or Muscat-fleuri, is a handsome fruit, of hee qualities : ina dry soil and ‘warm situation, the tree produces great crops. The Green Sugar pear, or Sucré vert, has a very smooth green skin ; flesh melting, and the juice sugary, with an agreeable flavour: the tree is a free bearer. » The Great Mouthwater, or Grosse mouille-bouche, is a very good pear; and the tree answers equally well for the wall or espalier rail. : The Red Orange pear is middle-sized, of a round shape, greenish colour, and purple next the sun; the flesh is melting, and the juice sugary, with a slight ume, The Orange Rouge was formerly the most common pear in France, but it is now much less cultivated. The Great Russelet, or Gros rousselet, is a large ob- long fruit, of a brownish colour, becoming dark red = the sun; the flesh tender and agreeably perfu- med, The Red Doyenné or Dean-pear is smaller than the common doyenné; it is usually a little turbinated or top-shaped, sometimes, when the fruit is clustered, al- most globular, crowned with the persistent leaflets of the calyx; colour yellow; when ripe, rednext the'sun; ripens from the end of October to the end of November, and continues in perfection a fortnight or three weeks; the flesh is pale-coloured, melting, and, though not very juicy; agreeably perfumed. The tree is a great bearer even in unfavourable seasons, answering perfectly well either as a standard or espalier. .The Dean-pear has HORTICULTURE. been long known in this country, but rather neglected, Fmit_ perhaps on account of Miller's characterizing it ge- Garden. nerally as “a very indifferent fruit.” Mr R. A. Salis- bury, however, having recommended the red doyenné pears, in the Memoirs of the Lrortienlearad Society of London, particularly for high and exposed situations, it has risen in estimation, The Auchan sometimes receives the epithet of gr or red: it is an excellent pear, said to be of Sooftish origin: in Scotland the tree is often placed against an east or a west wall, but it answers better as an espalier or a standard. It probably deserves more of the attention of English gardeners than it has met with. The tree isa ie grower and plentiful bearer, even in light soils. The fruit is sweetish, with a pecu- liar and rather agreeable flavour. When the name Auchan alone is used, this is the kind to be understood: What is called the Summer Auchan is a gins, # oni fruit not worth cultivating ; and the Black or Winte Auchan is a smaller and later variety. The Muirfow! egg is another pear of good qualities, said to be originally Scottish. It ripens in September, and keeps for many weeks. It is often p against walls in Scotland, but the fruit from standards is much higher flavoured, though not of so large a size. ; 115, The finer sorts of winter pears are of French __ origin ; and in this country they require all the aid of Wir a wall with a good aspect, and very considerable atten. °°“ tion after they are taken from the tree, several kinds attaining’ maturity only in the fruit-room. The Chaumontel, or winter beurré, was raised at Chaumontel near Chantilly, where, it is said, the original tree still exists. It is a large rich flavoured ES ne pear; the skin a little roug 3 often of a pale green colour, but becoming purplish next the sun; some- times with a good deal of red. The tree may be con- sidered as in general requiring a wall, and a pretty good aspect : in a few places it succeeds on espalier- rails in good seasons. ‘The fruit is left on the tree till the close approach of winter ; it is fit for eating in the end of November and continues till January. The Chaumontel is produced in great perfection in Guernsey and Jersey, and considerable quantities are yearly com- missioned from these islands by the London fruiterers. The Colmart, or Manna pear, is large and excellent ; the flesh very tender and melting, and the juice grently sugared ; both in shape and quality, it considerably resembles the autumn or English bergamot: it keeps throughout the winter, and till the end of ore: The tree requires a large space of good wall, but de- serves it. The Crassane (said to derive its name from crassus thick,) or Bergamot crassane, is a pear of a large size and round shape, with a long stalk ; the skin is roughish, of a greenish-yellow when ripe, with a russety coat- ing; the flesh is very tender and melting, and full of a righ sugary juice. It is fit for use from the middle to the end of November, and is one of the very best pears of the season. The tree requires a good wall. The St Germain is a large long pear, of a yellowish colour when ripe; flesh melting and very full of juice, with considerable flavour. If the tree be planted on a dry soil, in a warm situation, and trained against a good wall, it bears pretty freely: There are two varie- ties, a spurious, and the true; and it is believed the former is by much the more generally disseminated, The spurious fruit ripens in December, remaining green when ripe, and generally decays by the end of January ; unless the soil and season be favourable, it is insipid HORTICULTURE. 9138 The Marquise, or marchioness’s pear, is a long pyra- Fruit midal fruit, of a greenish-yellow colour, with a litle _ Garden. brown ; the flesh is melting, and the juice rich and yi sweet. In season in November and ber... In s this country the tree requires a good wall and favoura- ble aspect. The Ambrette is an oval middle-sized fruit, melting and sugary ; when produced from a ary soil and against a south wall, the fruit acquires a flavour resembling the scent of the sweet-sultan or ambrelte of the French. The Poire d' Auch is described by Forsyth as resem- — bling the colmart, but fuller towards ‘he stalk, and « without exception the best of all the winter pears.” The § is a very good late pear, for use in November December. It is egg , of a colour, thinly ted with brown; -melt- ing, and abounding with a pleasant juice. On stand- ards or i e fruit acquires a higher flavour than on wall-trees; indeed it is only trained against a wall in high and bleak situations. 116. With the exception of five, all the pears which have now been enumerated and described are of French on of ay: five, two are pee yt Pas of Eng- ish origin, the Gansel’s bergamot an wan-egg ; and cones of Scottish origin, the Muirfowl-egg, Green Yair, and Auchan. Some,other Scottish pears, which occur chiefly in country ens, but are of qua- lity, may just be . Such are Pear-James, the Early Carnock, Late Carnock or Drummond, Golden Knap, Crawford or Lammas, the Grey Goodwife, and the Joku Monteith. Among English pears little known or attended to, may be mentioned the Elton pear, figured in the Lon- don Horticultural Transactions, vol. ii. It ripens, on standards, for which it is best suited, from the mid- dle to the end of ber; but it must be ga- thered ten days before being ripe, else it is apt to get mealy. in ion, it is ibed as uni- ting much of the fine flavour of the bergamots with the melting softness of the beurrés. The fruit is without seeds, and indeed almost without internal cavity. The original tree stands on its own roots in an orchard of seedling pears at Elton in Herefordshire. It is about a hundred and fifty years old, but still healthy. The Aston-town pear is regarded as a native of Che- shire, and said to have received its name from Aston- te ave ‘ ne lpneenn 6X, fae Siew Seve 8 jar tendency to twist round in growing upwards. The young shoots are pendent, and fg a produced chiefly at the extremities. The leaves are small and oval. a fruit somewhat resembles ore swan-egg ; is of a greenish colour, errs russet; when ripe, the flesh is melting, and high fla- It is mS + pean early in October, but does keep. The fruit seems to be improved when the i i toa wall; but in order to have fruit in shoots should be trained downwards ac- i their natural inclination. new pears of any kind, our list. is very scan- New Pears, Wormsley bergamot has of late years been rai- r Knight, from the blossom of the autumn stri of its stamina, and dusted with the A? _ 259% yond z 3 Siz = the St Germain. It is a good melti » and the tree grows freely in any common Sait aors other -trees thrive ; blossom appears to possess the advan of bei hardy ; fruit remains tage on the tree till the of Gctober. and is in ection about three weeks afterwards. Atthis time, we have scarcely any winter keeping pears sufficiently hardy to Bruit Garden. 214 grow on standards. Mr Knight, however, confidently predicts, that winter pears will, in the course of ano- ‘Trainmg of ther generation, be obtained in the utmost abundance pear trees, from standard trees; that is, that new varieties, com- bining perhaps the hardiness of the swan-egg with the valuable qualities of the colmart or chaumonte), will be produced. 118. All the kinds of summer pears ripen, in ordi- nary seasons, on the different sorts of standards, or on espaliers ; the autumn pears, on dwarf standards or es- comer Espaliers, however, are in both cases prefera- le to dwarf standards, as the tree may in the former way stand on a free stock, and yet have ample space allowed it. The finer French winter pears in general require a wall, with an east, south-east, or south-west aspect ; and in the northern parts of the island a full south aspect. Several of the kinds, however, answer on espalier-rails; and as the fruit ripens more slowly and equably when hanging in the open air, than when assisted by the shelter and reflected heat of a wall, it is found to keep longer. While the espalier-trees are in blossom, and till the fruit be fully set, they require some protection ; such as screens of reed or straw, or woollen nets. A pear-tree, especially on a free-stock, cannot do with less" than forty feet of wall. In many varieties the fruit-buds are produced chiefly at the extremities of the new shoots: if the dimensions of the tree must be much cireumseribed, therefore, it will often happen, in the ordinary .way of training and pruning, that the fruit-buds will be cut‘away. One well-trained horizon- tal tree, is, on this account, better than two or three upright or fan trees; and theres little danger of keep- ing the wall covered, however high it be. Miller men- tions a summer bonchretien which extended fifty feet in width, and filled a wall thirty-six feet high, and was at the same time extremely fruitful. The object of the French gardeners, such as Quintinye, was to keep their pear-trees within narrow bounds: hence their prolix and confused descriptions of the mode of’ train- ing and pruning, forming a perfect contrast with the concise and: perspicuous directions of Hitt and Miller. 119. For wall -trees horizontal training is now very generally preferred to the fan mode; chiefly be- cause in this latter way, the nearly upright position of the branches encourages the throwing out of numerous strong shoots, in producing which the sap of the tree is exhausted ; these shoots are destined to be cut out in the winter pruning, and the middle part of the tree comes in this way to be barren. In the horizontal mode, provision is made for having fruit-bearing wood near the stem as well as at the extremities of the branches ; and it is estimated that, on an average, wall pear trees so trained afford a third more of good fruit than such as are trained in the fan way, or suffered to ramble on the wall as chance may direct. It is a general rule, therefore, that the branches of pear-trees are not to be shortened unless where wood is wanted to fill up a va- cancy ; the only effect of shortening being, that in place of small fruitful spurs, rambling and unfruitful shoots: pes hee During the summer, foreright and su- perfluous shoots are ‘displaced with the finger. In this way, no wood buds are left to form shoots next season ; and if disbudding be carefully performed, there will be little to do at the winter pruning. It is a rule, that the fruit spurs, especially of the finer French pears, should at all times be kept as close as possible to the wall. 120. But the mode of managing wall pear-trees re- commended by Mr Knight (in the London Herticul- HORTICULTURE. tural Transactions, vol. ii,) deserves here particular notice. . It will be best understood by describing near]. in his own words, his mode of reclaiming an old St Germain pear-tree which had been train form. The central branches, as usually happens in old trees thus trained, had long reached the top of the wall, and had become wholly uctive. The other ‘branches afforded very little fruit, and that little never acquired maturity. It was necessary therefore to chan the variety, as well as to render the tree seodnctive: To attain these purposes, every branch which did not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, was taken out at its base; and the spurs upon every other branch intended to be retained, were taken off closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches, at their subdivisions, grafts were inserted: at different distances from the roots, and some so near the extre« mities of the branches, that the tree extended as widely in the autumn after it was grafted, as it did in the preceding year. The grafts were also so disposed, that every part of the space which the tree meraare f covered, was equally well supplied with young As soon, in the succeeding summer, as the young shoots had attained sufficient length, they were trained almost perpendicularly downwards, between the —— branches and the wall, to which sa pee. cies most dicular remaining branch, upon ide, was opteccebows four feet below the top of the wall ; and the shoots thus procured, were trained inwards, and bent down to occupy the space from which the old central branches had been removed; and therefore very little vacant space any where remained at the end of the first autumn. In the second year, and subse- quently, the tree yielded abundant crops, the fruit being equally dispersed over every part. Grafts of no fewer than eight different kinds of — had been in- serted; and ‘il afforded fruit, and nearly in equal lenty. By this mode of training, Mr Knight remarks, the bessiog branches being small and short, may be every three or four years, till the tree be a century old, without the loss of a single crop, and the central which is almost necessarily unproductive in the fan mode of training, and is apt to become so in the horizon- tal, is rendered in this way the most fruitful. Where it is not meant to change the kind of fruit, nothing more, of course, is , than to take off entirely the spurs and supernumerary large branches, leaving all blossom buds which occur near the extremities of | the remaining branches. In some varieties, particular- ly the crassane and colmart, the dependent bearing wood must be longer than in others. The training the bearing shoots downwards, has alsa been found to throw young trees much sooner yoda ductive state. Fruit isin this way generally obtained the second year: eventhe colmarttree, which seldom produces sooner than six or seven years from the time of grafting, yields fruit by this mode in the third season. Mr Knight recommends giving to young trees nearly the form above described in the case of the old St Germain, only not itting the existence of so great a number of large branches. In both cases, the bearing wood should d wholly beneath the large branches which feed it ; for, in Mr Knight's opinion, itis the influence of gravitation upon the sap which occasions an early aah plentiful produce of fruit. ‘ 121. To destroy old pear-trees, if they be tolerably, healthy, is in any case very injudicious, because, by proper management, they may again be brought into = Pruit’ Garden.» VW of in the fan pear trees, HORTICULTURE! 215 bearing state. If the soil be bad, it be mended; disagreeable smell, and an austere taste when raw; — Fruit if the tree be fll of wornost spur ew herent ee coures re x “Geil or aesaeaiiel 2. branches, or new dependent as exempli- portion of it to stewed or a © ouince the of fruit be bad, useful for giving quickness and flavour. Quince mar- : i as we have seen, malade is commonly sold in the confectioners shops. James Smith, gardener to the The Portugal quince is the best, but the fruit is pro- Earl of at House, has written a duced sparingly. Like the others, it is of a yellow co- anima These are commonly prepared spring. 157. The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum, Linn.) is also pisck cure in : They should consist of last sean deme proceeding considered as a native of Britain, and is described and rant. from bearing branches, and may be from nine inches to figured as such in English Botany, t. 129]. It is very 2 foot in length. They are planted ina border of light generally cultivated, not in great quantity, in earth, about four or five inches deep. Inthe spring, private gardens. The berries have avery peculiar taste, if the weather prove op Finer tage nce man which however to many people is not disagreeable. In eh thahenes Cronpenked In the course of the sum- England, chester pelt uddings and tarts. A well mer, all the shoots are di excepting three: in- hsncwn jellpeis \niitio Beak than; and if a small - deed, some gardeners prevent the th of more tion only of sugar be used, an agreeable rob is formed. extracting, i i i t E i i 5 | Z to that of green tea. black currant bush agrees with a damp soil bet- than the red. The ent of both is much same ; the shoots of the black are not cut to err ty the fruit ee ea Aap oa way. The are regularly ev winter, k thie toa foaxth part ef the old oF es hausted wood being cut out annually, and the straight- ih 2s if 3F : $3 f i i if 7 ff fii rHLLEE tid Hal {5H fits tie 72% ret raul ob g Ef fit Af iu Bat in these spaces, coleworts be planted in bly larger. : ‘ ‘Ifthe ground be not Gooseberry. cropped in this way, it should lie rough Sithe winter. -) 155. Mr oon at Dalkeith- House, 158: The Gooseberry-bush (Ribes grossularia, Linn. Gosseberry, ; and white, of the finest qua- rough-fruited gooseberry, Eng. Bot. t. 1292, and 2. A good deal depends on the way in which he wea crispi, L., common or smooth-fruited, Eng. Pot. 4 Vruit Garden. oo Gooseberry. 224 t. 2057), if not 4 native plant, is at least completely naturalized in this country. | It often sin woods, and not unfrequently on the walls of ruinous buildings; but to these places the seeds may no doubt have been carried by birds. The culture of this fruit has for a number of years been particularly attended to in the north-west of England; and the size and beauty of the Lancashire gooseberries have procured them the first character. In the south of Europe, we believe, the fruit is generally small and neglected: and when foreigners witness our Lancashire berries, they are ready to con- sider them as forming quite a different kind of fruit. In France, the gooseberry is called groseille a maque- rau, from its being used as a seasoning to mackerel. 159. The varieties of the fruit are very numerous, perhaps not fewer than two hundred. They are dis- tinguished by names not less sonorous, nor less fanci- ful and unmeaning, than those bestowed by the Dutch on their tulips and hyacinths ; such as, leer: of Eng- land, Glory of Eccles, Bank of England, Nelson’s Vie- tory, &c. Many new ones are constantly coming into notice, and others are falling into neglect. They are classed according as their colours are red, green, yel- low, or white. The names of a very few of each of these, which are at present most in esteem, shall be mentioned. Red. Old Ironmonger, Smooth Red, Early Black, Hairy Red, Damson, or dark red, Red Champagne, Large Rough Red, Nutmeg, Red Walnut, Captain, Warrington, Wilmot’s early red. Green. ‘Green Gascoigne, Green Globe, ‘Green Walnut, Green-gage. ‘White’ Smith, Yellow. Great Amber, Sulphur, Globe Amber, ‘Conqueror, Great Mogul, Yellow Champagne, Hairy Globe, Golden-knap, ‘Golden Drop, Royal Sovereign, Honeycomb, Tawny. White. ‘Large Crystal, White Dutch, ‘White-veined, White Walnut. ‘Royal George, It must be admitted, that although the large goose- berries make a fine appearance on the table, they are often deficient in flavour, when compared with some of smaller size. Many of them have very thick stro: skins, and are not eatable unless thoroughly ripened. Some of the large sort, however, are of very good qua- ‘lity, such as the red champagne and the green walnut. Among these, also Wilmot’s early red deserves further notice. It was raised by Mr Wilmot at Islesworth in 1804, and has been cultivated by him very extensively on account of its valuable properties, being early ripe, of excellent flavour, and extremely productive. It usually ripens from the middle to the end of June. For culinary use in the month of May it is larger and better than most others, the skin not being tough, but the whole berry melting to a fine consistence. The gooseberry, it may scarcely be necessary to notice, is HORTICULTURE. 5 used not only for tarts, pies, and sauces or g Fruit creams, before being ripe; but, when at maturity, it Garden. forms a rich addition to the dessert for several months. Gathered unripe, gooseberries can be preserved in bot~ Gooseberry. tles against winter: the bottles are filled with berries, close corked, and well sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till wanted. By plunging the bottles after being corked into boiling water for a few minutes, (heating them gradually to prevent cracking, ) the berries are said to keep better. ae 160. Gooseberry-bushes, like currants, are propa< gated chiefly by cuttings, preferring for this purpose clean and strong shoots of the former year, about a foot in length. They may be planted any time early in the spring. They are trained for two or three years, and should have a stem six or eight inches high. ‘ Strong suckers of straight growth are sometimes used, but they are considered as apt to produce suckers again. ° In many places little attention is paid either to the soil in which the gooseberry-tree is planted, or to its pruning and management ; yet the fruit is greatly im~ proved by attention to these circumstances. The best practical gardeners now prune the bushes so as to form them somewhat like a hollow sphere ; no main stem is encouraged, as was Grundy done; but the centre is cut out, and eight or ten side branches preserved, ac« cording to the size of the plant. All water-shoots of the former season are removed ; but any young shoots wanted for branches, are left at full length. In this mode of pruning or training, the stem may be short, perhaps half a foot, instead of a whole foot. The bushes may also be planted nearer to each other than such as are allowed to rise many feet in height. They should not however be less than five or six feet asun« der in every direction, the free admission of light and air being quite necessary. If the bushes be attended to in the month of June, and all central water-shoots and suckers be displaced, the additional light and air thus admitted, will be found very beneficial to the fruit, while the labour of winter pruning will be at the same time diminished. In many gardens goose« berry-bushes are still en in single rows along the sides of borders; but this is not so a plan as ha« ving a separate quarter for them. They may be plant. ed in November, or any time before February ; and the plantation should be renewed every seven or eight ears. : 161. The plan above described for prolonging the season of currants, by matting up the bushes when the fruit is ripe, it is still more important to adopt in regard to gooseberries, as this fruit forms a more desirable in- gredient of the dessert. If some of the late yellow sorts be matted in September, they remain good till November. A few plants of the finer kinds are some- times trained against a south or east wall; here the fruit not only comes earlier, but attains greater size than usual. They also do very well on a low ier= rail. In some places, gooseberry-trees on the sides of the borders, are trained to a single tall stem, which is tied to a stake: this, though six or eight feet high, occasions scarcely any shade on the border, and it does not occupy much room, nor exclude air; while at the same time the stem becomes closely hung with berries, and makes a pleasant appearance in that state. Some sorts of gooseberry-bushes, and those producing the largest fruit, have a natural tendency to bend their branches downwards. In this case the branches must be supported with small forked sticks, in order to admit air, and to save the fruit from» touching the ground. HORTICULTURE. werp; Nowish-white Antwerp ; cane or smooth- Zelda flled red ; twice bearing white, red. Some still the common kinds of red white, thin’ an increase of the expence Saker toasier, bee the vw vartoliaraner epee - new varieties are, u See ae st edeee kind e nd i is in 1 t tech aro a ie; bt yt he berry season is ti nning of Novem- ber. Srirteh) pedtety watieedl howtres, Cour dhs ee ene tapes eae should be almost ly used after being gather- ed: it will remain good on the bush for a few days af- ter ripe, but a dish of ies kept in the house two will ly be found to have flavour, i ae e wring. They are, plate bearing. are any time from Oc- tober to February. A menos seldom less than three feet between the plants, and the quincunx order is adopted, five feet left between the rows. the larger varieties be , the distances are in- creased. A raspberry ion continues good for six or seven years ; but after the lapse of that period, it bat should be entirely renewed: it is genera! "C= tien the third year shor planting ; Gaavet nn berry quarter should be prepared two years before & | : i : i = r i Hi FFE it fe : fi ‘ if i i : 225 bear fruit in one year die in the following winter ; leav- ing in awe been produced during the summer. Where the stools are very strong, six or eight stems are allowed to remain ; but in young or weak plants, only half: that number are suffered to carry fruit. At the same time, the tender tops which have been injured by frost and hang down, are cut off. Plants pruned or dressed be- fore winter, it be observed, sustain most injury from frost; the old stems, when left, affording a degree of protection to the young shoots. In exposed situations stakes are found necessary for supporting the stems ; but in general it is t sufficient to twist the shoots loosely together, and to tie them at top with a strand of bass-mat: Sometimes, the tips of half the shoots on one stool, are tied to half the shoots of the next; and in this way a series of festoons or arches is formed, producing a very agreeable appearance, and at the same time affording security against the highest winds, Li teen ae! Toe ws freely in any good garden soil; but it is better for being slightly moist. Al- though the place be inclosed by trees, and even slightly shaded, the plant succeeds. in an inclosed and weil sheltered quarter, with rather a oma soil, containing: a proportion of peat-moss, we have seen very great aan of large and well-flavoured berries produced ; for le, at Melville House, the seat of the Earl of Le- ven in Fifeshire. Sometimes a few plants are trained against a west wall, or a trellis or rail, and the fruit here comes more early and of larger size. By trainin ee err cone crop is proportionally retard- New varieties of are easily raised from the seed ; and they come to bear in the second year. Strawberry. 166. The Strawberry (Fragaria of ee nr belon, to the same class and , and natural family, as the r ; the plant is called /e Fraisier, and the fruit la Fraise, by the French ; and it is the Erddcere of the Germans. Several ies of strawberry are cultivated in our gardens, po pore varieties ; indeed new hy- brid juctions are yearly appearing. We shall men- tion the kinds which are at present most esteemed. 167. The Scarlet Sir of the Hortus Kewensis. only sort of small strawberry cultiv for the Edinburgh market, a place distinguished for excelling all others in the abundance excellence of this kind of fruit. It is a native of Virginia, and very different in habit from our wood plant, the leaves being dark green, of a more even surface, the flowering stem shorter, and the fruit com- monly concealed the leaves. It is a hardy —_— producing plenty of fruit on high and rather bleak situations, near Edinburgh, where the Chili straw- berry does not 168. The Alpine CF. collina is larger than our wood 2. Alpine. species, the stem higher, the “es broader ; the fruit red, (sometimes white,) tapering to a point, and of considerable size. The fruit is of cupilioes flavour ; and being produced from June to November, the plant is well ing of culture. The summer shoots, it may be mentioned, must not be cut off ; for they flower and yield fruit the same season, and it is on this property that the autumn crop depends, From observing this, Mr Knight was led toa new mode of treating the al. QF their place a succession of new stems, which _Grden. , (Fragaria Virginiana |, scarier, his is he: 226 pine strawberry. He sows the seeds early in the spring, in pots which he places in a moderate hot-bed in April. As soon as the plants have attained sufficient size, they Strawberry. are planted in the open ground, where they are to re- main. They begin to blossom soon after midsummer, and continue to produce fruit till stopped by the frost. The powers of life in plants thus raised, Mr Knight re- marks, being quite energetic, operate more powerfully than in plants raised from seeds even in the preceding year; and he therefore concludes that the alpine straw- a might with propriety be treated as an annual plant. . 169. The Carolina (F. Caroliniana) is very regular in form, and of a fine red colour ; but inferior in flavour to the scarlet. It does not appear to be a distinct spe- cies. 170. The Wood strawberry (¥F.vesca, Lin.) has been cultivated from time immemoriel, and in some places it is still preferred. It is a native of most of the woods of Britain, and figured by Sowerby, t. 1524, There is a variety with white fruit. : 171. The Pine strawberry (F. grandifiora, Hort. Kew.; F. ananas of some writers.) The'leaves resemble those of the scarlet, but are somewhat larger, and evidently .of a thicker substance; the flowers also.are larger, and, the fruit approaches in size and shape to the Chili, be- ing large, tapering, very pale red on the exposed side, and greenish on the shaded side. When the plants are kept free from runners, this kind is very productive of fruit, and is therefore highly deserving of cultivation. 172. The Chili (F. Chiloensis, Hort. Kew.) is dis- tinguished by its very thick oval ‘leaves, which, with the leaf-stalks, are set with hairs. ‘The flowers and fruit are both uncommonly large. Some English gar- deners speak slightingly of this kind, saying that it is a bad bearer: it has therefore been rather neglected. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, however, it proves abundantly productive: 50 Scots pints have frequently been gathered from an acre, by a single person, in the course of a day. It is the only large strawberry cul- tivated for the Edinburgh market, and is generally sold ‘there under the name of hautboy. The Chili, it may be noticed, has a red berry; while the true hautboy is of a greyish colour, 173. The Hautboy, or Hautbois (F.elatior, Smith, Fi. Brit.; Eng. Bot. t. 2197.) is remarkable for its very large oblong fruit, with a musky flavour. -There ‘is a variety called the Globe Hautboy, which is much es- teemed, but apt to degenerate. 174. Of late years many new varieties have been rai- sed from seed: Some have for a time acquired a name, and have again been forgotten: others however are likely to retain their character. When ripe seed. is _ wished for, the fruit should be allowed to wither some- what on the plant before being gathered. It may, in passing, be observed, that although, in compliance with popular practice, we term the fruit a berry, it is not such in correct botanical language: a berry (dacca@)con- tains the seeds within a pulp; but here we find the Fruit Garden. 8, Carolina. 4. Wood. 5. Pine. 6. Chili, 7. Hautboy. seeds on the outside; it is, in fact, a fleshy receptacle, - having the surface studded with the seeds. In Covent Garden market, strawberries are sold in small pottles, the fruit having the calyx-leaf attached. In the Edinburgh market, they are sold in wicker-bas- kets, each basket containing a Scots pint, or four Eng- lish pints, the fruit being freed from the calyx-leaves. Edinburgh 175. As it is generally admitted that the market~ strawber- gardeners in the vicinity’ of Edinburgh excel in the cul- ries, ture of strawberries, their mode shall here be detailed. HORTICULTURE, A claneg soil or strong loam is considered as best suited to the straw 3; on a sandy or very light soil, it never succeeds. Indeed as the fruit naturally ripens in June, when drought may be expecta we might Strawb conclude @ priori that. a retentive soil would be much more proper for it than an one., New plantations are formed eitherin September or in the beginning of April, the soil being trenched or at least deeply delved, and at the same time manured. The offsets are always taken from the runners of plants of the preceding year, in preference to those from plants of longer standing. They are placed in rows two feet distant, thus afford. ing sufficient room for delving, or turning over the surface. earth between them, a practice which is found very beneficial, both during summer and winter. Three ‘plants are commonly put in together at each place: the distance between each th cluster of plants, is at least fifteen inches ; sometimes a foot and a half. When the weather is dry at the time of plant« ing, they are watered ‘every day till they be well esta« blished.. For the first year few berries are produced ; and the common practice is, to sow a line of carrots, or some such crop, between the strawberry rows. In. May the runners are cut off, this being found to promote the swelling of the fruit. Every stool is rendered quite distinct and free from another, and the earth between them is stirred with the spade or hoe. _ In the dry wea~ ther of summer, strawberries are (by some careful cul- tivators, for it is not a general practice) watered, not only. while in flower, and when the fruit is setting, but even when it is swelling off; as the berries begin to colour, however, watering is desisted from, lest the fla~ vour should be injured. About eighty acres in the vicinity of Edinburgh are occupied by market-gardeners, in strawberry crop, for the supply of the Scottish capital ; and the amazing average quantity of 60;000 Scots pints (240,000 Eng- lish) are yearly sold in Edinburgh and its neighbour- hood. In a favourable season, about 75,000 Seots pints (300,000 English) have been brought to market ; and it will be remembered that the berries are freed from the calyx-leaves, which leaves in the English market greats ly swell the measure. When the distance is consider« able, the wicker baskets are packed ever-each other in a hamper-creel, and conveyed to town: on: a light cart hung on springs. The highest price is commonly half a guinea a Scots pint; but this.is only got for a few pints at the beginning of the. strawberry season: the average price is about 1s.; the lowest 9d. a Scots pint. The berries are picked as they ripen, by. women and children: hired for the purpose,to whom the-strawberry harvest is a profitable time. As soon: as the strawberry season is past; the plants are shorn over, and all runners are-again cut off. To- wards the end of October; the ground. een the rows ‘is delved over. The cultivation of strawberries is thus attended with a good deal of expenee, requiring much labour and constant assiduity in digging and hoeing be- tween the plants, clearing them of weeds, cutting off runners and leaves, watering (where that is preceny and picking the berries for market. They may, wi success, be continued on the same land for an indefi< nite space of time, but the plants must be renewed every fourth or fifth year, and manure) at that: time supplied. It is ‘however found. preferable to change the crop altogether after twelve or fifteem years. — 176. Strawberries are: generally ] ina quarter of the garden by themselves, and itshould be one which is freely exposed to sun and air, They are sometimes, Fruit — —— a HORTIC : edging in the-shrubbery. In prodace their fruit perfectly well, and aan ! 4 | F i i: & : ULTURE. 227 very beautiful, oh arr a pra vame -_. granate is generally propagated by layers. lowers proceed from the extremities of branches produced the same year. The stronger branches of the former year are therefore shortened, in order to obtain a supply of new shoots. The best time for this pruning is Novems' ber. ia; Jasminece, Juss.) which constitutes much of the riches of the south of France, Italy and Spain, with difficulty survives in the mildest parts of our island. Protected during winter in the same way as the myrtle, generally by short litter laid around the stem, and by a slight temporary screen of evergreen branches, it some- times flowers ; and in some very warm seasons, it has produced a few unripe fruit. 182. The Pishamin or date-plum, (Di L.; Polygamia Diacia; Guatacane, very is chiefly ealibediedcaih account of its fine shining leaves. Its fruit, however, is relished by some. It is the size of a cherry, of a yellow colour, and eaten, like the medlar, in a state of over-maturity or incipient decay. The plant is tender for the first year or two; and even afs terwards requires a sheltered situation, and rich but dry soil. It was known in the time of Gerarde, but is stil very little attended to in gardens. 183. The Cornelian c much cultivated as a frait-tree, and it is enumerated as such in all the old books on gardening. The fruit was used: in making tarts, and a rob de cornis was kept in the It is now transferred to the shrubbery, where its early flowers, a ing in February and March before the leaves, render it ornamental. The wood is remarkably hard; so that spears were in an- cient times formed of it. e- Fruit 181. The Olive, ( Olea Europea, L. Diandria Mono- Olive. Lotus, Pishawin. (Cornus mascula, L.; Te- Cornelian trandria Monogynia; Caprifoliacea, Juss.) was formerly cherry. apple, pear, and quince, Apple ge- “st ae tP Pyrus genos are cultivated The us. inese ap A abils, L.) is planted in many Chinese. quietest, de idberion. de Ooo voeahs of Ragin chiefly on account of its fine show rere Aen buds in May. It is on crab stocks. Beautiful trees The Siberian crab (P. prunifolia, L.) is prized for its ries, whi ; 3 . the quass or cider of Siberia is made; and we ma Pruits occasionally cultivated. add, that it makes an excellent preserve with psn 180, The Pomegranate-tree hear » L.; The Japan apple, (P. Japonica, L.) blossoms and Japan, Jemandria Monogynia; Myrti, Sass.) is a native of the bears fruit if trained against a south wall; but the Levant, bot naturalized in the South of E It fruit is of no value. The plant requires to be covered was introduced into England toward the end of the with a bass-mat or close cA meg we winter. The Sorb, or Service-tree, (Pyrus torminalis Crataegus torminalis, L.) is a large: tree, ing na- turally in some parts of England, as in Hertt ire, from whence the fruit is brought to London in large quantities in autumn. It is figured in Sowerby’s “ Eng- lish Botany,” t. 298. The fruit is of the shape of the common haw, but ; of a brownish colour when ripe; if kept till it be soft, in the same way as med- lars, it has an agreeable acid flavour, It succeeds in any strong clayey soil; it is scarcely ever cultivated as a fruit-tree, but is often planted in lawns and about orchards, Hort. Kew, ; Sorb. ¢ Fruit Garden. Azarole. Bullace. Sloe, 228 ~ 185, The Azarole-tree ( Crategis axarolus, L.; pro- perly a Mespilus) has a still larger fruit, but does not roduce it so freely, being a native of the Levant. When fully ripe, the fruit has an agreeably acid taste, for which it isso much esteemed in Italy and the south of France that it is frequently served up in desserts. It is the pommeite of the French. In this country it is seldom used. Native Fruits. 186. Of the genus Prunus, we have several species growing naturally in our woods, and by the banks of rivers. The small black cherry or guigne, (P. cerasus, Eng. Bot. t. '706,) and the red-fruited variety, common- ly distinguished as Prunus avium, have already been mentioned, as well as the common wild plum, (P..do- mestica,) which if not native, is at least completely na- turalized. To these may be added the bullace, the sloe, and the bird-cherry. The Bullace plum (fruit of P. in- sititia, Eng. Bot. t. 841,) when sales by frost, is not unpleasant ; -indeed it is one of the best of our native productions. It may.be made into an excellent con- serve, by mixing the pulp with thrice its weight of su- gar. It varies with dar geen or almost black fruit, and light or wax-coloured fruit. The Sloe (fruit of ' P. spinosa, Eng. Bot. t. 842.) likewise requires to be Bird-therry. Barberry. Elder berries. Roan ber- ries. mellowed by frost. To home-made wines, it is calcula: ted to communicate the colour and roughness of red Port ; indeed it is said to enter as an ingredient into the manufacture of this wine. The juice of the unripe fruit forms.the German acacia. When the fruit is ripe, the juice affords an almost indelible ink, which is sometimes used for marking linens. Mr Knight (in the London Horticultural Transactions, vol. i.) seems to consider the sloe as the original species from which all our cul- tivated plums-have been derived ; but on what grounds he passes over the common wild plum and the bullace, which are more nearly allied, he does not enable us to determine. The Bird-cherry, ane of P. padus, L. Eng. Bot, t. 1883.) in Scotland the Hag-berry, is, to most pa- lates, nauseous. The fruit is scarcely used, unless oc- casionally that in Scotland.an infusion of it is made in the favourite liquor of the country, whisky. 187. The. Barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris, L. ; Hexandria Monogynia; Berberidew, Juss.) is a native of various parts of this country; and is figured in « English Botany,” t. 49... The fruit is in consider- able > paca for preserving ; and the berries of the va- riety without stones are preferred for this purpose. If planted in good soil, and pruned somewhat in the man- ner of gooseberry-bushes, barberry plants yield both larger bunches and larger berries. In the shrubbery, while in flower, they are ornamental ; and the sensi- tive stamina may afford entertainment; for when the antheree are ready, if the bottom of the filament be irri- tated with the point of a knife or a straw, the stamen rises with a sudden jerk, and strikes the anthera against the pistillum. In autumn, the scarlet fruit makes a fine appearance. 188. The Elder (Sambucus nigra, L.; Pentandria ._Trigynia; Caprifoliacee of Ventenat,) is a well-known native tree, figured in English Botany, t. 476. In Scot- land it is called Bourtree. Elder berries may be in- cluded in the list of native fruits ;-for they are still sometimes gathered for the making of-elder wine. 189. The Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia,L. ; Ico- sandria Trigynia ; Rosacee, Juss.; Eng. Bot. t. 337.) is perhaps the most ornamental native tree we possess. 5 myrtillus, Eng. Bot. t. 456.) is HORTICULTURE. It is deservedly planted in pleasure grounds; its’foli- Fruit , flowers, and berries being all beautiful in success Garden. sion, and the whole tree forming a fine object. Roan- ““Y— berries are still held in some esteem in the Highlands of Scotland, and in Wales; and in both countries, the ; boughs of the tree are used in many superstitious ce- remonies. 190. Of the genus Rubus, the raspberry has been al- ready mentioned. The Common bramble (R. fruticosus, L. ; Eng. Bot. t. 715.) may be added as one of our na- tive fruits, and not one of the worst. The Stone bramble, (R. saxatilis, Eng. Bot. t. 2233.) is another: In Scot- land, the fruit a a distinct name, Roebuck-berry. Cloud-herries, or knot-berries, (the fruit of R. chame- morus, Eng, Bot. t.'716.) are perhaps the most grateful and useful kind of fruit gathered by the Scots Highland- ers: on the sides and near the bases of the mountains, it may be collected for several months in succession. It is not cultivated without difficulty, and it very seldom yields its fruit in a garden. With this may be si, 0 the Dwarf crimson bramble, (R. arcticus, Eng. ; t. 1585.) This is found only on the highest and wild- est mountains of Scotland. The berry is excellent; but it is not easily obtained in ‘sufficient quantity; for ; though the plant grows freely in gardens, and shews its . flowers, it rarely produces its fruit in low situations. . i 191. Of the cranberry (Vaccinium, L.; Octandria Mo-« ; nogynia; Eric, Juss.) there are various species, three of them native ; but the most important is a transatlan- tic species, which however we may be excused for in« ¢ troducing in this place. It is called the smooth-stem- { med American Bom a (V.macrocarpon). Thisisan American addition made within these few years to our list of cul. cranberry. tivated fruits. The plant was indeed known; but the opinion given in Miller’s Dictionary was general, that «‘ they can only be cultivated for curiosity in gardens, for they will not thrive much, nor produce fruit, out of their native swamps and bogs.” ‘To the indefatigable Sir Joseph Banks, we are indebted for pointing out the practicability of cultivating it for use. Wherever there is a pond, the margin may, at a trifling mce, be fitted for the culture of this plant, and it will continue productive for many years. All that is necessary is to drive in a few stakes, two or three feet within the mar- gin of the pond, and to place some old boards within these, so as to prevent the soil of the cranberry bed from falling into the water: then to lay a parcel of small stones Cloud. berries, or rubbish in the bottom, and over it peat or earth to the depth of about three inches above, and seven inches below the usual surface of the water. Insuch a situation the plants grow readily ; and if a few be put in, they entirely cover the bed in the course of a year or two, by means of eye long eaer: which take _ at different points. From a very sma pets a very large quantity if cranberries may be gathered; and they prove a remarkably regular crop, scarcely affected by the state of the weather, and not subject to the attacks of insects, P 192. The native species of Vaccinium, which afford berries in the highlands of Wales and Scotland, are the following. The Common cranberry, or moss _berry, Common | (V. oxycoccos, Eng. Bot. t. 319.) Great quantities of cranberry.) this berry are gathered in upland marshes and turfy | bogs, both in England and Scotland. The berries are | made into tarts, and have much the same flavour as the Russian imported cranberries, or those — by cul- tivation. The Bilberry, blaeberry, or whortleberry, (V. Blac in autumn for making tarts: in Devonshire the berries are eaten with HORTICULTURE. cidedly inferior to the cran! . It makes however a good rob or jelly, which in Sweden is eaten with of roast meat, and forms a sauce for venison, which is thought superior to currant jelly. dessert, 193. The Hazel, { Corylus avellana, Lin. ; Eng. Bot. t. 723; Monecia Polyandria ; Amentacee, Jussieu,) is a ive of Britain, and very common. In Se r, nuts are collected by coun- sent to market. There are several va- the White Filberd, and the Red Fil- for its size; the ; and the Dwarf er 7 In some plantations of dw bered trees are are not allowed to rise more than ‘Hype it fF the grown by the expanded branches is about six feet Each tree is twelve feet from another. i ied with different TF, if i 3 Fe tif 4 repeated stirring is the produce of nuts from trees in this way, that in some parts of such plantations are with a view to the of the London market. The trivial name Avel- may be remarked, is derived from a town near inhabitants of which have long cultivated the Spanish filberd tree to a great extent, much of their riches depending on the sale of the nuts. The hazel tree s vigorously in a strong loam, or in any soil which is somewhat retentive and moist. It is sometimes suckers, but better plants & ly about the end of male flowers, and the fe- bright red styles, i l fret al? p H i ih He] iit int E a large bush or tree of it is seldom to be met In the Botanic Garden, Leith Edinburgh, one of the finest specimens in Britain is now (1816) about 25 feet in height, and fifty Wi BE The dete offi introduction is not and old trees of it are very common in it ri its fruit _ In ea trey the frail qomes. to periee- tion, only in fine seasons: in ordinary years it attains h 229 clotted cream : in the lands of Scotland, they are that state in which it is fit for ing. Several Fruit sometimes SE . but more common! x oo varieties are cultivated, particularly the round, and the Garden. - into jellies. The Red bilberry, or Cowberry, (V. vitis oval walnut; the large walnut; and the tender shelled, “> The chief thing to be attended to in the culture of the tree, is to induce it to spread its roots near the surface, and to prevent their getting down into cold wet soil. As it generally attains a large size, it must stand in the lawn or park, or a row of walnut-trees may form. of the screen of the orchard. Mr Boutcher of burgh long ago recommended the inarching of a branch of a bearing tree, the quality of whose fruit was known, upon a common stock, and added, that fruit was thus roduced in one-third less time.. The same idea has Ieealy. scuurved tn Mr Knight, and in this way he has ap gene lants which proved fruitful in three years. t is evident that the peculiar varieties can only be continued by /ayering and grafting; for large planta- tions, however, the nuts are sown. The nuts are teady in October, and are gathered by ing the trees with long poles ; they may be kept through the winter, by covering them with earth in the manner ot toes, and mixing some dry mould among them to the interstices ; for this last purpose, dry sand be- i le 196. The Chesinut-tree Fagus castanea, L.; or Cas- Chestnut. tanca vesca of Brown; Monacia Polyandria; Amen- tacea, oe) “a compere as a native of ee a a parts nd, w » at any rate, it ori Ses It has a place ah “ English Botany,” t. 886. It is not much cultivated for its fruit in this country. As a forest-tree it is well known, though perhaps scarcely duly prized. The variety preferred is called the Spanish tnut. It may be proper to observe, that when fruit is the object, grafted trees should be resorted to. The ing of chestnut-trees has long been practised in Devonshire, and it is now likely to become The stocks may be raised from the common nuts, but the grafts are to be taken from bearing branches of such trees as yield the largest and fairest fruit. The timber of these grafted trees is of little value; indeed the tree generally continues in a dwarf state: but the fruit is not only sooner produced, but is of better quality and more abundant. The nuts are not so large as those imported from Spain; but they are more sweet. They may be kept in earthen- ware jars, in a cellar somewhat Pp, or covered with earth or sand in the manner recommended for walnuts. The French call these trees, marroniers; and the forest trees, chataigniers. The chestnut is suited to the “ kind of situations as the walnut-tree above 197. The chinguapine, or dwarf Virginian chestnut, (Fagus pumila, L.) a long been known in English ph aaaly but the fruit is small, and has not been much attended to. 198. In this country, even in ordi seasons, se- veral of the fruits which have now i treated of, such as the grape, the noe and nectarine, and the fig, and more particularly the finer varieties of these, are found to be brought to greater perfection, or the trees are more effectually kept in a healthy and fruitful state, by having recourse to a certain of artificial heat. If this be true in the south of England, much more may it be affirmed of all that part of the island which lies to the north of York. Glazed houses, under various names, have therefore been contrived for the pur- pose of forwa anddefending the blossom of the trees, and the setting of the fruit, in the spring, and for ripen. ing the bearing wood for next year in the autumn, the Chinqua- pine. Fruit Garden, Dry stove, “many weeks before the natural season arrive. 230 maturation of the fruit itself, at least in the case of peaches and nectarines, being left as much as possible to the influence of the sun and air. The vinery, the peach-house and the fig-house, ought not, in general, to be considered as forcing houses; but as calculated rather to assist the natural efforts of the plant and to make up for the imperfections of the climate, every possible use being in the mean time made of the natural climate. ‘They may, however, be converted into for- cing-houses, by varying the time of applying the arti- ficial heat; ‘and in this way, not only cherries and strawberries, but grapes and peaches, may be a 1e pine-apple, which has not yet been spoken of, requires continually an increased, and even high temperature ; while the orange tribe needs little more than to be saved from frost during winter. The disposition of hot-houses, in regard to the gar- den and pleasure grounds, has been already spoken of. A’suite or range of glazed houses is generally form- ed together, with only glass partitions between them. In this case the green-house is sometimes placed in the middle, and the stoves at each end, so that, during winter, a person may pass into either hot-house with- out opening a direct communication between it and the external air, which, on account of the rarefaction of the air-within, is ready to rush in, Hot-houses are comparatively of modern inyention. They were unknown in the days of Gerarde and Par- kinson, that is, of Elizabeth and James VI. After the civil wars, horticulture seems to have received more at- tention; but a glazed house, with a furnace and flues, does not appear to have been constructed previous to 1684, Sir Hans Sloane, writing in that year, mentions that Mr Watts, gardener at Chelsea Garden, then re- cently instituted, had a new contrivance for preserving tender exotic plants during winter ; “‘ he makes under the floor of his green-house a great fire-plate, with grate, ash-hole, &c. and conveys the warmth through the whole house by tunnels, letting in upon occasion the outward air by the. windows.” The green-house was thus converted into a stove, or made to answer the purpose of both. Separate houses for plants belonging to very warm climates were soon found to be necessa- ry; and in 1724, Bradley describes a stove or conser- vatory, with flues and every thing in the manner of a modern dry stove. The bark stove was soon afterwards introduced ; the heat resulting from the fermentation of tanners bark being employed, however; in the cul- ture of pine-apples before it was applied to ornamental plants of hot climates. Two kinds of stoves are at pre- sent in common use, the dry stove and the bark stove. Dry Stove. 199. The dry. stoye is generally constructed with upright glass frames in front, and sloping glass frames by way of roof, extending perhaps to within four feet of the back wall of the house, which space of four feet is commonly covered with slates. The angle at which the glass is made to slope is usually about 35°. The floor is raised two feet above the exterior surface, in order to give room for the flues, which if sunk low do not draw freely. The flues are carried to the extremi- ty of the house, and returned several times, according to the length and breadth of the building. They are constructed of fire-brick, and the covering is com of square tiles, about an inch and a half thick. In Scotland, where sandstone abounds, the covers are usually form- 3 -HORTICULTURE. of flags, two inches or somewhat more ini thickness. The flagstones of the Hailes Quarry, near Edinburgh, are excellent for this purpose: the finer lamine from the — at Carmylie, in Forfarshire, commonly called Ars broa vement, are apt to crack and shiver from expo- sure to heat. They are generally made about 18 inches deep, and of nearly equal breadth, and horticultural wri- ters have in general recommended these dimensions ; but there canbe little doubt that the breadth should be nearly double the depth. Mr Stevenson, civil engineer, found- ing on some experiments made in constructing a dry ing-house, has strongly recommended this improve- ment. (Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 143.) He observes, that “ the flues in general use are of too small dimen- sions ; there is not capacity in them for allowing the heated particles of air to expand; so that the heat pas- ses rapidly through such narrow flues, and makes its escape with the smoke, in what may comparatively be called a latent state, without being allowed to act on a surface er enough to rob it of its caloric.” He far- ther remarks, that an apartment heated with flues of a wide, but shallow form, is less liable to sudden of temperature, than where the flues are small; and that such flues possess the advantage of seldom or ne- Fruit Garden, Dry Stove, wer requiring to be cleaned. The furnace is generally - So situated, as. that the upper of the arch is as hig as the top of the flue, where the heat is introduced in- to the house. The height of the body of a furnace, of» the usual dimensions, is two feet four inches, varying however, according. to the slope of the ground; the width is nearly the same; the length of it inside: three . feet ; the door a foot square; and the length of the back of the furnace two feet. In the dry stove a stand. is erected for supporting shelves on which the plants are to be placed ; the stand and shelves together being called the stage. In this stove all kinds of succulent plants, such as cacti, mesembryanthema, stapelie, and aloes, are preserved, with many other which do not require bottom heat. It may here be noticed, that it having been found that certain parts of hot-houses where one furnace only is employed, are not heated equally-with other parts. nearer to the furnace, it has been proposed to convey to these heated air from the furnace by means of tinned iron tubes. Nicol and others object to these tubes . resting on the flues,as being apt to diminish the evolution of heat from their surface: might, however, be car- ried free of them, and: certainly deserve further trials, Such tubes, it is to be observed, are only necessary in hot- houses already built, In the constructing of new houses, a small flue, perhaps 23 inches or a brick square, can ea- sily be carried along in the back wall. Heated air drawn from the furnace into this flue can be conveyed to the opposite end of the house, and there admitted by a valve or door at pleasure. Matters must of course be “ contrived, that no smoke can pass into this small ue. Bark Stove. 200. The bark stove is distinguished by havin, large pit, nearly the length of the house, three feet deep, and six or seven feet wide. This pit is formed with brick walls, and has a brick pavement at bottom, to-prevent the earth from mixing with the tan, which would hinder its heating. It is filled with fresh tan- ners bark, well dried ; and in the bark, pots containing plants from the East or West Indies, or tropical cli- mates, are plunged. The bark acquires and long re- tains a moderate heat; but besides this, it preserves a a Bark stove, — HORTICULTURE. 231 degree of genial moisture, well calculated to keep the the operations of nature are ual; and a good gar- _Fruit- roots in constant vigour and action. Ex- dener will always fellow narnia cmettomaton. Garden. : n can be He will never willingly apply artificial heat before buds poo Store. heated by one furnace, If thoug proper; have naturally swoln ; he will then increase the tem- jouse. ea gmc sen ep ober natioe A two perature ually for some weeks; he will in parti- house being divided in cular, guard against any sudden decrease of warmth, i ee it being most necessary towards success, to continue one division, the course of vegetation uninterruptedly, through fo< liation, inflorescence, and fructification. In all kinds of forcing, it is of importance that free admission of air the succulent tribes, such as be given ing to the state of the atmosphere ; and i it too should be given and withdrawn by degrees, espe« cially in the early and cold time of the year: the sashes, bark stove is considerable, from 68° to 81° Fahren- or the ventilators, may, for instance, be partially open- i ed by 8 in the morning, top air being given before front air; full air may be allowed about 10; a reduction should take place before $3 P.M., and the whole be furnace, and out of reach of the sun’s closed between 4 and 5, according to the season and other circumstances. mon to give air tosach ahot- | We shall now proceed to notice the peach-house, day, to shut it up close at cherry-house, a and fig-house, in succession ; then increasing the temperature in the the pine-stove and appen 3 and the orangery. udicious horticulturists reverse the prac- Here we shall take occasion to introduce a short de- that in the West Indies, scription of the magnificent and commodious suite of hot-houses at Dalmeny Park, near Edinburgh, plans nature, by shutting up the and elevations of which we are enabled to lay before ing i ig evaaeab eatin Ghee hte staanianemast dara bie only be followed, in our provements whi ve been or pro- J posed in this branch of horticulture. The cultivation of of modern invention. In the melon, being allied to that of the cucumber, will lead us to the kitchen-garden, | Ee in which pots of The Peach-house. 204. A peach-house, intended to be commanded by Peach. perhaps dwarf-cherry- one furnace, is commonly made about 40 feet » 10 house. ccaihinaintieReeapae It has a is bark-stove, no upri in front ; a parapet 18 high, which the rafters immediately rest, In thus introduced, which yield an some the peach and nectarine trees are trained acceptable addition to the spring dessert. In some , toatrellis next to the glass, none being placed on the the more delicate kinds of grape-vines are here also back wall ; in others the trees are trained only to the cultivated, and trained along the rafters of the upper wall, or to a trellis placed against it ; but in the great- — - er meer ees coe mmeh etree nearly half ing stoves are intended chiefly for peaches, nec- way up the glass roof, and at same time others of oge! i fail dhaeeoe pleou’ ‘mguiabe thé: thasle: wil The flue passes in front, but at some distance from mm gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The w and is returned also at some distance from the back area of the house is filled with well prepared rich com- wall; so that both flaes taken together, with the space = os ene The trees, having been previous- between them, nearly the centre of the house, trained to near a bearing size, are transplanted into ‘The old ice of wren Tae dma te | G Bot i FF ze th ig 1 : Be z 1 ‘ fi ae it i i i F oe . F i : i e e k / Ee i a if 3 S i i ; : if ' A i 7 H _ if i ae it rqulld i i Fe i Hh lf i fi , i a + i u F in it : = J i ; be is now discontinued, standing flues within the house is ga- being found preferable. 1 parapet and flues rest on i perhaps pillars, so as to allow the roots of the trees free egress altogether removed, in order to admit air and rain, and to the border on the outside of the house. If early or thas harden the annual shoots of the trees. In this foreed fruit be wanted, the house is made narrower and state, the houses remain till after mid-winter, when shorter, so as to give a greater commund of temperas are partially shut, in order gradually to prepare ture. In such houses, either three or four dwarf trees, the trees for the ure. Different kinds with intermediate riders, are planted ; the riders being require different of management, and taken out at the end of four years at farthest. When : im all first-rate gardens, small trees are aleo trained in front, three are commonly i peach- sufficient there, or nine or ten trees inall Fire-heat is to cherries, called generally applied about the middle of February, the tem ; & third to the production of grapes, perature being for a time kept at 45°; and afterwards or G house, and in some places, gradually increased to 50° or 55° Fahr. The temperae . to led the Fig-house. The di ture is fegulated by a thermometer, every morning and structure of these houses is not considerable. evening ; during sunshine, air is admitted, to keep down general it may be remarked, that what is the heat, as near as possible, to the average point. Trees mg is the more perfectly performed in pro- thus forced, generally shew their blossoms in March. less forcing or violence is employed. All While in flower and till the fruit be sci, gentle steam- tae cyt if k: = F Fs Fy ruit Gardens — Peach- house, Gherry- house. 232 ing is practised, by sprinkling water on the surface of the warm flues. After this, washing the foliage with the garden engine is found very conducive to the health of the plants. When the stones of the fruit are formed, the temperature is raised to about 60°, and the crop is thinned, if thought necessary. _Water-is now liberally applied to the border. After . May, little fire-heat is given, and air is very freely admitted through the day. Mr Knight strongly recommends the exposing the fruit, when ripening, to the full influence ‘of the sun in warm and bright days, and covering it with the glass roof during cold night, air or rains. He has, in the London Horticultural Transactions, vol. i. p. 199, de- scribed an improved peach-house. The angle of the roof is only 28° in Lat. 52°. In order that the lights may be moved to the required extent with facility, the are made short, and divided in the middle. The bac wall does not exceed nine feet high. Two rows of trees are planted; one in front, tramed on an almost horizontal or very slightly inclined trellis; and the other on the back wall. The house is 50 feet long, but commanded by a single furnace. The usual displacing of useless buds and spray, and laying in of new shoots, are operations which must, of course, be attended to, as in the management of peach and nectarine trees on the open wall. Some of the best fruits for the peach-house are, the red magdalen, the white magdalen, royal George, noblesse, late mignone, early Newington, teton de Venus, and Ca- therine peaches; and of the nectarines, the Newington, the red Roman, and the violet. But all the kinds former. ly mentioned § 88. are occasionally placed in the peach- ouse, The Cherry-house. 205. The cherry-house, if one furnace only be em- ployed, is nearly of the dimensions mentioned for the peach-house. The cherry-house is always considered and managed as a forcing-house. There is commonly a glass front between two and three feet high; thus givingroom in the fore-part of the border, for some dwarf trees, either cherry or fig, or perhaps apricot ; the prin- cipal cherry-trees being trained against a trellis in the back wall. The flue along the front and at each end, is covered with a small horizontal grate or trellis of wood, and on this pots of strawberries or of kidney- beans are forced. For the dwarf trees in front, such as have been kept in pots or tubs for some time, are to be preferred. Poecing in the cherry-house is usually begun about the new-year ; but for a month: before the fire is lighted, the house is shut at night, so as gradual- ly to accustom the plants to the confined air and in- creased temperature. At first the temperature is kept at 40°. Till the flower-buds appear, air is admitted, in the day-time, freely ; but after this, till the season be- come mild, with great caution. by the upper sashes only. When the fruit is setting, in the beginning of March, the temperature is kept as steadily as possible about 50°. After it is set, water is given plentifully. at the; root, and also dashed over the foliage, and air is freely admitted. when the weather will permit. When the fruit is colouring, little water is given, the temperature is raised, and as much air as possible is given, When the crop is gathered, the house.is generally. thrown quite open ; in many cases, even the glass-roof is taken off, By much the best cherry for forcing is the com- mon Mayduke. ; 206. The kinds of strawberries preferred for frcing,. HORTICULTURE. are the scarlet, the alpine, and wood.strawberry. The plants undergo a course of pre they be forced. They should alwa the most fruitful plants ; and the offsets nearest to the parent plant are to be preferred. During the first sum- mer, they are not only regularly deprived of all run- ners as they appear, but the flowers are also picked off: vigorous plants, filling the pots, are thus secured for fruiting in the following spring. If the fruit be wanted very early, the plants are placed in a hot-bed frame in the end of October, and there brought to flower, be- ing transferred to the forcing-house when the furnace is set agoing. They generally yield ripe fruit early in March, and continue to afford successive gatherings till the end of April, making a pleasing appearance at this season, and a rich addition to the spring dessert. Water is pretty liberally supplied till the fruit begin to ripen, when it is given sparingly. It may here be re- marked, that if strawberry plants which have been pre- pared as for forcing, be planted in front of a hot-wall, they can scarcely fail to ripen fruit early in May. : 207. Of kidney-beans the best kind for forcing, is’ the early speckled dwarf. The beans are sown, in small pots, (called 24’s or 16’s,) in any sort of light rich earth, three beans in each, and placed in the house when fire-heat is begun. As they advance, they re~ quire frequent watering, and as much air as circum- stances will permit. The pods should be gathered when rather young, as in this way the plants continue. longer to yield them,. The Vinery or Grape-house. 208. A vinery with two furnaces is generally fifty Vinery. feet in length, and fourteen or fifteen in width within ; the height of the back wall being ten or twelve feet, and of the parapet about eighteen inches. When one furnace only is employed, the length of the house should never pr irty or thirty-five feet. The arapet wall is generally supported on small arches or rt. 4 as mca described in the peach-house, so that the vines, which are planted inside the house, may. send abroad their roots in search of suitable nourish- ment, Sometimes the vines are planted without, and introduced through slanting apertures. 209. Very commonly the roof is formed of sashes, which can be let down for the admission of air. Ina grape-house described by Mr Knight, (Hort. Trans. Lond, vol. i. p. 100,) the air is admitted at the ends, where all the sashes are made to slide; a free current may thus be made to pass through the house. Besides, about four feet of the upper end of every third light of the roof is made to lift up, being attached by hinges to.the wood-work on the top of the back-wall; and in this way, air is given in hot and calm weather, with- out any additional shade. Here it may be remarked, with great submission to that eminent horticulturist, that currents of air are seldom wanted in hot-houses ; they often indeed prove hurtful. To give air, there- fore, principally by means of currents seems not a i plan ; for the ] openings in the roof are not to be able to. counteract the rush of cold air at the ends. In giving air to vines, it is of great importance to have a free and soft circulation : this will prove. highly sa- lubrious to. the plants, while, in the same temperature of the atmosphere, a current would be hurtful. 210. In planting a new grape-house the young vines are put in, in February or March, and little or no fire heat is given ; they make strong shoots the first year, ation fora year before Garden. s be taken from SY HORTICULTURE: 238 such 2s are wanted for the trellis are means, and where the roots and branches bear arelative —_ Fruic- pe ; pho. ee ion to each other. But supposing they were Garden. poche smegma nadhigasomiti oo “ 2 easily keep grape-houses cons with, Vinery, y fruit-bearing plants, and that the kinds may be almost at pleasure. When it a sen that. too much bearing wood has been trained in, the plants: are relieved, and sufficient sun and air admitted, by thus: removing two or three shoots; and supposing these to contain each several bunches, _ amen fine sort of grape, are not lost, but may be ripened, by setting. the sommes. side-shelves, or flue trellis, of the pine-« ry, or any hot-house. 212, The proper management of the grape-house has. now become an important part of the duty of a gar- dener. To lay down particular rales in this place is d, impossible ; a few general hints only can be given. A t deal of useful information on this subject may be found in the excellent Treatise on the Culture of the Vine, by’ Mr William Speechly, London, 1789; and in the Forcing Gardener, by Mr Walter Nicol, Edinburgh, 1809. These and similar books the gardener should study, as containing the results of experience; . but many cases will occur, in which he must on his own practical knowledge, and be guided solely by his own judgment. z E : a it wood containing a joint, into the soil in the The forcing of the earliest -house is often begun The earth is kept in a wet state ; pore Boren Brsatener is Janmary. “Zill all the buds be broke, air ia daily adq @ moist warm air is maintained in the house. Inabout mitted by the sashes, and the heat is kept moderate, so a week or ten days, roots are found to have proceeded that the thermometer may indicate only 50° or 55° in the t | Fe r F i i A f y mornings and stows when the sun has no influence. may be seen by merely stirring the surface of the earth, The temperature is then gradually raised, in the course or sometimes may be observed ing to its ofa fortnight or three weeks, to about 70°. .When the safely dletachest Very flowers appear, it is increased nearly to 75°, and the house is frequently steamed, by sprinkling water on the flues, or on the walk when the sun shines, expe be- ing found to set best in a strong moist heat, gar- y dener now selects his bearing wood for next year, and toning Sashentaso es pepe trellis, a foot above the other, and the wires of which are perhaps two feet method, above described, in apart; while he nips off all lateral and superfluous to be made onthe produce, and at the same time shortens the bearing cut, and removed to the shoots at an inch beyond the uppermost cluster. While the berries are swelling, water is moderately given. a covered with shoots, and next sea- Nicol, indeed, recommends, that it should be given li- they fieteae Hey : HE rf vein iabelt He rs a3 H 3 F £3 g F 3 Es Ff g83 F i ield a full crop of grapes. It is berally till they begin to ripen ; but this has been con- : Id be allowed to do so, if per- sidered as likely Se hear the grapes of their proper manently plants be wished for: on the contra- raciness and flavour. ry, they should be suffered to carry only « very mode- = The thinning of the bunches deserves attention. This Sr are teeta are On Saas cand net is sometimes neglected; but in many kinds, without sustain a full one; or at any rate, that this attention, the berries in the middle of the bunch the plants would necessarily shew their exhausted are apt to get mouldy and to rot ; and in all cases where state, by barrenness in the following season. By this thinning is practised, the berries become larger and the more delicate kinds, as the frontignac, may more equal in size. In the operation of thinning, par- be quickly propagated we have seen layers of the ticular care should be taken that the left hand, with Gibraltar or oye pean in the beginning of which the bunch is held, be kept cool, and also quite July, reach the feet before the end free from ired matter. For this pu , the gar- of the month, i cS the same time two or three dener shewla hove a vessel with pure Til eae beside bunches of oom 2 more hardy, such as the white him, into which he may now var then dip his hand, to muscadine, stronger plants in that space of keep it cool aud clean. Without this precaution the time. - Little difficulty is experienced in removing the berries often suffer from being handled, acquiring a from the pots into the holes prepared for them: rusty diseased look, and not swelling freely. if there be fears of preserving a ball of cart! tothe new | When the grapes approach Naatnitty, sib abe nerend roots, the pots may be sunk with them, and then bro- that no more watering is proper. Air, however, is free- ken and removed ; or the plants may be kept in the pots ly admitted. In general,.a proportion of the foliage, till autumn, when they may very easily be taken out of especially on the stubs on which the clusters hang, is ‘them wichout detriment. “Mr Macdonald’ experience removed. The fruitought to remain till it be fully ripe ; does not lead him to think that plants ted in but this the impatience of the owners seldom permits. this way are Jess durable than those by slower When the fruit is all gathered, the stubs which bore it OL, XI. PART I. 26 Fig-house, Pinery, ' pine-apple: a bark pit, for nursin 234 are cut off, and the new shoots:are let down from’ the upper trellis to their proper places. Watering both of border and foliage is now resumed; and the house’ is usually left fully exposed tothe atmosphere. The ge- neral pruning is performed from’the middle to the’ end of October, and time is thus’ given for the ‘healing of the wounds before forcing be again commenced: At this pruning the loose part of the outer bark on’ the old wood is carefully peeled off, and the whole plant and ‘the trellises are washed with some penetrating li- quid, calculated to destroy the minute eggs of insects. For about a fortnight after this severe pruning: the house is kept shut, but it is afterwards freely exposed as before. The management of the late ie eter entirely res sembles that of the early, making due allowance for the difference of season, It is not intended for forcing the fruit, but merely for supplying the deficiencies of our natural climate in spring and autumn. As the vinery may remain without its glass-covers for many months in the year, in some places, especially in the south and west of England, the peach-house is formed exactly of the same dimensions ; and, when the peach season is over, the glass frames are transferred to the vinery, and, if the blossoms have escaped, a crop of ripe grapes, of the best sorts, is thus procured in tember or October, and the new wood is thoroughly ripened, Fig-House. 213. The fig-house is generally constructed on the same plan as the cherry house, with fig-trees on the back wall trellis, and either dwarf figs, cherries, or apricots in front, the flues being likewise covered with a small trel- lis for holding pots of strawberries or kidney-beans, A separate hot-house, however, is but seldom erected for the cultivation or the forcing of figs ; a few dwarf trees, such as the brown Italian, and purple Italian, intro- duced into the peach or cherry house, being by most people thought sufficient. It has been found by expe- rience, that dwarf standard fig-trees, planted in the middle of a vinery, between the flues, and so under the shade of the vines, bear fruit plentifully, ripening both the spring and autumn crops. This may be seen in the vinery which forms a ber of the splendid range of hot-houses at Preston Hall near Edinburgh, designed by Mr John Hay. The Pinery. 214, Three sorts of frames, pits, or houses, are res quired for the successful or extensive culture of the the’ crowns and suckers ; a low stove, generally called the succession pit, where the plants are kept till they be ready for fruiting; and a pine-stove or fruiting-house. 215. The Pine-apple is the Bromelia ananas of Lin-« neus, (belonging to the class and order Hexandria Mo- nogynia, and to the natural family Bromelie of Jussieu.) Some have supposed it to be a native of Africa; but Linneus considered it as a Brazilian plant. It was in- troduced into this country as a curiosity about 1690; and Bradley has preserved to us correct’ information concerning its first cultivation for the sake of the fruit. In1724, Henry Telende, gardener to Sir Matthew Deck« er, at Richmond, had forty ananas, which ripened their fruit by means of the artificial heat arising from’ the fermentation of tanner’s bark ; and by the year 1730, HORTICULTURE. pine-stoves, of various kinds, were established in all the principal English gardens. Garden, The name pine-apple seems to’ be derived from the “~V~ general resemblance of the fruit to some large cone of a Pine-appl ine-tree. The' fruit may be described botanically asa ind of pulpy sealy strobilus; composed of a number of coadunate berries. In richness of flavour it cannot be surpassed ; and it is one’ of the greatest triumphs of the gardener’s art to'be able to boast, that this fruit can be produced in Britain in as high perfection as in'a tropi- cal climate. Its culture is however very expensive, the plants requiring constant attention for at least two years, very commonly for'three. ¢ 216. The following are the most approved varieties: The Queen pine. The King pine, Brown sugar-loaf. Green pine. Striped sugar-loaf. Black Antigua. Montserrat. Black Jamaica. The Queen pine is perhaps the most common in this country, and in Europe, as it is the hardiest. The fruit is of an oval or rather tankard shape, of a yellowish colour, but the _ pale. It grows to a large size, sometimes weighing 3 lb. : The Brown sugar loaf is of a pyramidal or conical shape, with a yellow or straw-coloured pulp, and brown- ish leaves. The plants may be distingui by the leaves having purple’ stripes on’ the inside throughout their whole length. The fruit also grows to a tango size. Its juice is‘accounted less astringent than that of some other varieties, and consequently it may be eaten more freely. ; The Striped sugar-loaf is’ so named, from its green leaves being striped with purple; in one sub-variety they are prickly, in another smooth. In colour and fla« vour, the fruit resembles'the Queen pine, and it is near« ly as hardy. The Montserrat pine is distinguished by the leaves being of a dark brown, inclining to purple on the inside; and by the pips or protuberances of the fruit being lar- ger and flatter than in the other kinds, The King pine is a large fruit, first raised in this country by Miller; its leaves are of a grass n Co- lour ; the pulp is hard, and rather stringy, but of good flavour when ripe: The Green pine is not common; when ripe, the fruit is of an olive hue. The Black Antigua pine is shaped like the frustum of a pyramid. The leaves of the plant have a brownish tinge, and fall down; they have strong prickles, thinl seattered. The pips of the fruit are large, often an in over ; it attains a large size, wT caeetedeed Sb. or 4lb.; it is of a dark colour till it ripen; very juicy, and high flavoured. ‘ The Black Jamaica is likewise a very large kind, and similar in habits and. character to the black Antigua. 217. In gardens of the first order, the pinery is now nerally placed in a detached situation, and the three inds of pits or houses above mentioned conveniently form a continuous range or suite by themselves; the fruiting-house, being higher in the roof, occupies the centre, and the nursing pit and succession house are placed to the right and left. ie 218. The nursing pit is commonly about three or four Nursing pits feet high in front, and between seven and eight at the back wall, or the difference between the height in front and in rear does not ner tears <; — ~ > -' of » w , oo “y tess Leuven ne oe “be aides The pine-apple is by planting either the or w c it, or by the suc- er i il i of ior quality, may be en- ockare, by plunging them i Ht ne i i E an hay cf al Fs + ¥ if i eg + n i i ; i : HE ‘ ie Ht 7 Fe TE . The. now used inches across, SP iaaiery teed roots are carefully cut off, and a few of the or lowest leaves are removed. 220. In the /ruising-house, more room, greater height, ’ succession frame, so that the lower 235 and at the same time a higher temperature arerequired. Fruit- The here used are from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and 10 inches deep. In the bottom of these fruiting- pots, it is better to put half rotted grass-turf than shivers Fruiting in to shew house. or gravel. From the time that the plants fruit, the temperature is not suffered to fall below 65° Fahr. ; it is kept generally at 75°, or at least above 70° : in sunshine it is allowed to rise to 85°, or even 95°, as fresh air can thus be more freely admitted. Water is iven very cautiously, sufficient only to keep the plants y, but not to injure the flavour of the fruit. Pine- apples should be cut a short time before they attain complete maturity, or be dead ripe. When the fruit changes colour, in most varieties when it becomes ish-yellow or straw-coloured, and when it also dif- fa its peculiar odour to some distance, it may be con- sidered as fit for cutting. 221. A clearer idea of qed par tase, in the nursing pit, succession pit, and fruiting-house, ma * haps be Stained from the following pouipendions wate of the operations, sug by Abercrombie, in which specific days or months are assumed, merely in order more distinctly to mark the anniversary or relative pe- riods, Norstxe Prr. 1616, Aug. 15. Crowns or suckers planted. —— Oct. W. df the plant», from rapid growth, require more room, some are removed i Three-year fruiting plants. Nuxsino Pit continued. 1817, May. Plants intended to Succession Prr. - 1817. Mar. 30. Forward plants complete abe ne peop moans | along are ted ; having to larger The ball of earth iia teonghe Ge oleae away, and the old root here. fibres pruned off. —— May or June. Succession pines are sometimes in- Suocnssion Per. termediately shifted, —— Aug. 15. Plants that have Mimepe Poe yas Meas } wpe the nursing pit previous year, are i transferred shifted and Favttixe Housr. —— Aug. 15. Plants from the succession pit, after be- ing only one year in the first and second y are shifted into the Ce ae tee re. 1818. Aug. 1. Such plants afford. it fit for cutting. Paortixe Hover. 188. Aug, 16. Plants which have remained one year in the nursing pit, and a second year in the succession - pits axe removed to this 1919. Aug. 1. Such plants ri L. Su pen 222. Success in the culture of this fruit, it may be remarked, very much depends on two circumstances ; on giving them plenty of-room in the nursery pit and = of the plant may swell out and increase in bulk, without being drawn up ; and on keeping the fruiting plants in a con- tinued healthy or vi i state: for this last purpose, early in the spring the tan of the fruiting house should be stirred, anc. a fresh quantity intermixed, so as to Fruit- Garden. —\— Pine-apple. Orangery. Orange. 236 raise a new fermentation and accompanying heat. In the different pine-stoves it is found very diattageias frequently to white-wash the plaster, and to repaint the wood work, 76s 223. The plants, especially if weak or not: healthy, are subject to the attack of a small species of coccus C. hesperidum, Lim) commonly called the pine-bug. he insects adhere closely to the leaves, often near the base, and seem almost inanimate. Mr Miller recom- mends turning the plants out of the pots, and ‘cleaning the roots; then keeping them immersed for four-and- twenty hours in water in which tobacco stalks’ have been infused : ‘the bugs are then'to be rubbed-off with a sponge, and the plants, ‘after being washed in'clean water and dripped, are to be repotted. Mr Muirhead, a gardener in the north ‘of Scotland, ‘has describeda similar mode, (Scottish Hort. Mem. vol. i. p.209,) only in place of tobacco juice he directs flowers of sulphur to be mixed. with the water. With a bit of bass-mat fixed on a'small stick and dipt in water, he displaces as many of the insects as he can see. He then immerses the plants in a tub of water, containing about 1 lb: of flowers of sulphur to each garden-pot-full. They remain covered with the water for twenty-four hours, as desired by Miller. They are then laid with their tops downward, to dry, and are repotted in the usual manner. What share of the cure, in either of these ways, may be due to the sulphur or to the tobacco liquor, does not clearly appear ; the rubbing off or loosening the insects is evidently important ; and it is not unlike- ly that immersion, in simple water, so long continued, may alone be sufficient to destroy-them. Indeed, the experience of one of the best practical gardeners in Scotland (Mr Hay) leads him to conclude, that even moderate moisture is destructive to these insects. Du- ring many years, he regularly watered his pine-plants over head with the squirt, during the summer months: this was done only in the evening ; it never injured the plants ; and the bug never appeared upon them. The Orangery. 924, This is merely a green-house, and indeed is generally employed in part for protecting ornamental plants and shrubs. In a few places the orange trees are planted in the border soil, in the manner of shrubs in a conservatory. The genus citrus includes not only the orange, but the shaddock, lemon, citron, and lime: it belongs to the class and order Polyadelphia Polyan- dria, and natural order Aurantiz of Jussieu. In warm countries the trees rise to the height of perhaps fifty feet ; here they seldom exceed the size of shrubs. The species may readily be distinguished by the petiole or Jeaf-stalk: in the orange and the shaddock, this. is winged ; in the lemon, citron and lime, which are con- sidered as varieties belonging to one species, it is na- ked. The orange and shaddock fruits are almost sphe- rical, and of the yellowish-red colour known by the name of orange; the lime is spherical, but of a pale yellow ; the lemon is oblong, with a nipple-like protu- berance at the end; the citron is oblong, and distin- guished by having a very thick rind. 225. Of the Orange (Citrus aurantium, Lin.) there are two principal varieties ; 1. The sweet orange, inclu- ding the China orange, the Portugal orange, and simi- lar kinds; and, 2. The bitter orange, including the Se- ville orange, and other varieties called Jigarades by the French. . The Seville orange-tree produces its fruit more readily in this country, and has larger and more beautiful leaves than the China orange: -the former is HORTICULTURE. therefore more generally cultivated, but the latter also the willow-leaved or Turkey orange, the dwarf or nut- meg orange, the double-flowering, and many other va- Orangery. 1 pera some with the leaves variegated yellow and white. ; ' Sir Francis Carew is said, by Mr Lyson,' (Environs of London, vol.i.) to have introduced orange trees into this country, in thé reign of Elizabeth ; Bie whether he brought plants, or raised them from the ‘séeds of oranges brought’ home by Sir Walter Raleigh, is not clear ; it may be remarked, however, that it has long been known from experience, that in this climate orange plants raised from seed shew no inclination to Lobeiae fruit ; whereas Sir Francis Carew’s yielded plenty of fruit. What is further curious in the ‘history of these eatly orange trées, is, that they were planted in the open border, and bapa during winter’merely by a moveable shed. They grew on the south side of a wall, not nailed against it, but at full liberty to spread; they were 14 feet high, and extended about 12 feet wide. ‘They were finally cut off by the great frost of 1740, after having stood a century and a half. Profes- sor Martyn informs us, (Miller’s Dict. in loco), that . they had, the year before, been inclosed in a perma- nent building like a green-house; and he very just- ly remarks, that the dampness of new walls, ht en want of the usual quantity of free light and air to which they had been accustomed, might probably have killed them, even had the great frost never occurred. 226. The orangeries of this country are supplied in two ways; either by plants raised from the seed, and budded, inarched, or grafted by our nurserymen and gardeners; or by small budded trees imported in chests from Italy. : shee A stocks are common citrons, this tree mak- ing strong straight shoots, and receiving readily either orange or shaddock buds ; they are procured by sow- ing ripe citron seeds. Next to these, Seville orange stocks are desirable ; the seeds may be taken from rot- ten Seville oranges, which are generally the ri They are sown in pots sunk in a bark hot-bed, and, about two months afterwards, each plant is transferred to a small flower-pot, about five inches in diameter. They are gradually hardened, by admitting air, till the end of September, when they are transferred to the greenhouse for the winter. Next spring they are forwarded, by being again plunged in a moderate hot- bed; but after midsummer they are hardened as much as possible, and in August they are ready for budding. The buds should be taken from trees in a bearing state, and which are known generally to afford a good crop, preferring buds from round shoots to those from flat shoots. ‘The plants are again preserved in the green- house through the winter; and inthe following spring, they are once more planted in a gentle hot-bed, the stocks at the same time being cut off about three inches above the buds: By this means, the stem of the fu- ture tree generally grows up straight in one season. | Trees raised in the way now described, require no less than fifteen or sixteen years to attain the size of those imported in boxes from the Mediterranean. The latter, if they be good plants, if they have not suffered greatly from the voyage, and if they be properly ma- naged on their arrival, will bear fruit in three or four ‘years. But it is chiefly the shaddock and citron that are thus imported. Those stocks which have two buds inserted in them, it is observed, make finer heads than such as have one only. To recover the trees after their being so long out of the earth, requires some care and Finite succeeds very well in some places. There tre besides, Garden, _ r ee ee ae) ee » zm, HORTICULTURE. 237 attention : planted in fine vegetable mould, in orange; but it is more hardy than that species, and re- —_ Frutit- peared = ct of some inches in the qhr une the air duri Y inti: It should also be _ Garden. tin oe aneieinees re uous moisture, and watered somewhat more liberally. In ge ety ie doe are placed in abot-bed; at the same time, hay bands England, lemon-trees succeed very well in the open are w round the stems, to prevent the sun’srays border against south walls: they are sheltered during fen ertnaeying che task. . _ winter by moveable glass frames, and produce plenty ~ 227. Young. trees are every season repotted, of large fruit, making a pleasant variety on the wall. — in i for successive years, till they pro- 232. The Lime is and treated much in Lime earth or compost must be at the same way as the lemon. x be completely rotten. V conue locas, that Jasin cr sight Routt: Tunlghey they are generally planted in wooden cases or tubs. When old ge trees have been mismanaged, it is found very neefal i ee plished by. planting them in baskets, and sinking these tae Wie bakits ant anade of & laweine than are restored to these, the are cut away, and the empty space filled with It is shee np ler egit every season, are removed to the air: the place Secliared frons high srinde' and it 1s found best thet the LEE iH Hi win wilt Hat fit | Indifferent places of England, Seville trees ee ee ee ee border, mn emu- lation of Sir F. Carew’s trees, and covered during fed, afforded | Citrus decumana, L.) is the pelmous of the French, Dela however describi the chadec a8 a large variety of C. aurantivm: the de- nomination Shaddock was given from the name of the officer who first conveyed the from the East to the West Indies. It is managed like the orange tree, but is somewhat more tender, and must be treated large and rij as at Wi 230. Se like the orange ; ing rather in be the warmest and most sheltered in the garden. There ee - | oom v it, poncire rench. ~ 281, j paar y budded or inarched on acitron stock. Its culture is the same as that of the ; vers, in which are two ventilators to admit: air, - at right angles, a wall is extended di 233. Having thus given a general account of forcing. houses, or hot-houses for producing fruit, taken ty rately, we shall now describe a range or suite, and at the same time shall illustrate what we say by refer- ence to the plans, elevations and sections contained in Plates CCCX, and CCCXI. The magnificent suite of lazed houses ted in the former Plate, it will G observed, is by no means ideal, but exists in the en of Dalmeny Park, the seat of the Earl of Rose- am near Edinburgh ; and the accuracy of the plans may be relied on, Mr Hay, the designer employed at Dalmeny, having, with permission of the noble pro-« prietor, fav us with them. We shall at the same time give a short description of the garden, and particu- larly of the walls, as illustrative of some improvements in this branch of horticulture introduced by Mr Ha 234. The garden at Dalmeny Park lies on the face Dalmeny of a bank having a considerable declivity to the south Park gars and south-east. It is bounded on the north by a low 42 hill crowned with trees cos about 40 years old ; on the west, by rising ground with trees of the same stand- ing ; and on the east, by hollow marshy ground, like- wise covered with trees. On the south flows a little rill, the bed of which terminates the slope on which the garden is placed: from this lowest point the d rises gradually to the south, to some height. Part of this risin on the south side of the streamlet is included within the ring fence which surrounds the en, and is laid out in shrabbery and parterres through these the walk from the house to the fruit. garden is conducted. The soil of the lowest part con- sists chiefly of bog or peat earth, admirably adapted for the growth of American shrubs, such as rhododendrons and kalmias. The contains about two Scottish acres within the walls. The fruit-tree borders are 18 feet wide, and the walks seven feet broad; the soil beneath the gravel of the walks was with the same care as that of the borders. The walls in gene. ral are 14 feet high; the east wall is somewhat more. are built of bricks manufactured at Leven in Fife, and regular bricklayers were brought from Newcastle forthe purpose of rearing them, The whole extent of the south wall, 961 feet in length, is flued, the heat being supplied by twelve furnaces placed on the north side of the wall, stx on each side of the central door. The tops of the furnaces are covered with flags, which are on the same level as the soil of the garden; and the stock holes or entrances to the furnaces have hatchway co. In this way the furnaces produce no disagreeable appear- ance. The trees on this wall may, at the same time, be covered with the osnaburg canvas mentioned in § 84. From the corners of the walls where they meet ly about 17 feet. This extension is found very useful in break- ing the force of the wind when ranging along the walls. At the same time it does away in a considera- ble ee the formal box sha of the garden when Pe from the higher in the neighbourhood. grou apex of the projecting wall is rounded: here a 238 Fruit- jargonelle pear-tree is planted ; the branches are train- oe ed to’ both sides of the wall, and the fruit of course PLaTE ccoxX. ripens at different times. 235. The contrivance for watering or washing the foliage of. the wall-trees in this garden deserves par- ticular notice, . Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir situated on.an eminence a considerable height above the) garden walls. Around the whole garden, | four inches below the surface of the ground, a groove between two and three inches deep has been formed in the walls, to receive a three-quarter-inch pipe for con- ducting the water.. About 50 feet distant from each’ other are apertures through the wall, two feet and a half high and ten inches wide, in which a cock is placed, so constructed,.that.on turning the handle. to either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. It has a screw on each side, to which is attached at plea- sure a leathern:pipe, ,with a brass cock and director, roses pierced \with holes of different sizes being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance all the trees, both out-~ side and inside the wall, can be most effectually water- ed and washed in.a very short space of time, and with very little-trouble.. Oneman may go over the whole in two hours. At the same time, the borders, and even a considerable part of the quarters, can be water- ed with the greatest ease when required. The conve- niency and. utility of this:contrivanee must at once be perceived by every practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing water is adopted in a garden which Mr Hay planned and executed. for Lord Viscount Dun- can at Lundie House near Dundee; and after the ex- _ perience of several years it has been greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to the garden from a considerable height, and is thrown from the point of the director with great force and to a good dis« tance. A sketch of the cock, pipe and director, is given in Plate CCCX. Fig. 6; a the cock; 6% the leathern pipe; c the director. 236. In the middle of the north wall of the garden is the great range of hot-houses, consisting of seven, a central one, and three on each side, The entire suite extends from east to west 181 feet. .The elevation of this fine range is :seen in) Plate CCCX. Fig. 2. The houses differing: considerably in breadth, the eye is not offended. with monotonous: uniformity ;, and: the addi- tion of a central door, with a diamond-trellis \arch, ornamented with tender and showy climbing: plants, is a great. improvement in point of appearance. The ground, plan. of, these houses is given at Fig. 1. of the same Plate. The middle division A, with those on the-right:and left of it, B,and C, are peach houses, On the) back wall.are placed. trellises, to which the principal, peach-trees are trained. Small trees: are al- so trained on low sloping trellises in the front, over the flues. The farthest east. division D, is. what is called a Double Peach-house ; peach trees being trained on the back wall as in the other houses, and likewise in front on a wire trellis on the roof of the house, reach- ing upwards as far as-the first or under sash only. The trees on the front part of the house may be forced -be- fore those.on the-back wall. To accomplish this, the upper sashes of the house are kept off, thus admitting air freely tothe trees on the: back wall; while mean- timethe front trees.are inclosed within the first two re- ommeen the flues, by some of moveable shutters: made for urpose, one of them bein aced omhin spalitoed. as a door. . Hence the one ee Double Peach. house... The partition remains only until the fruit be set; at which time it isremoved, and the roof-sashes put;on. . By:these:means the fruit season in thisshouse HORTICULTURE. is protractefl a considerable time, perhaps a month or. more. Fig. 5. in Plate CCCX, is a section of this double peach-house. The other three divisions of the range, E, F, G, are grape-houses. The back. walls geal covered with trellises. A vine is planted in the middle, and trained on the trellis at the top of the house, where in general there is plenty of light in the early time of forcing. The lower part of the trellis is covered with fig-trees, which, as already mentioned, § 213. have been found to suc- ceed very well in such situations. Fig. 3. Plate CCCX, is a section of division F. A; In all the houses of this suite, air is given by moying the'upper sashes by means of weights and pulleys placed in a cavity in the back wall, as seen at aaa, in the sections, Figs. 3,.4, and 5. Into. each of the hot-houses is introduced a three« quarter-inch pipe, coming from an inch one, which passes along the back of the walls. ‘The.cocks are of the same kind as those in the walls already described ; andthe directors, when screwed upon them, water the houses with very little trouble, and are exceedingly use« ful in keeping under the red spider, and other insects, 237. On the.north side of this range, opposite to the middle hot-house, is a mushroom-house, constructed on Oldacre’s plan, (to be afterwards described), It has a large and. a small pit, with four shelves on the. back wall, and three shelves on each of the two ends, all of wah hone be used for the purpose of raising mush- rooms, either at the same time,.or in succession. The large pit is partly filled with earth, and kitchen vege- tables are kept/in it in time of severe frost. Sea cale can also: occasionally be! forced.in this pit Fig. 4. Plate CCCX. is the section of the mushroom-house, and. also of the middle peach-honse, the ground plan of the pa rie, being at H, and of the peach-house at A. 238. On the east side of the en is situated.the melon ground. The garden wall. is extended onthe north of it tothe of 152 feet, of the same. height as the other walls, and flued like the rest of the. .wall having a south ct. The pine-stoves are situated here. The ground on which stand falls consider- ably from north to south. The _are placed on the south side of the stoves; and, on the same side, there is a narrow nursi length of the house. This pit may, at pleasure, be divi- ded, at the fctniomeasiareiiedae pit, four feet broad, the whole. « divisions, p;D,p. The prare lass-roof of the pit covers the top of the furnaces, and CCCXL. thence heated air is introduced, by means of aper- tures with dampers, into either pit as it may be want- ed. » Heated air can also be admitted from the stove to the small pit, by means of openings in. cast iron. doors, which can be shut when required. When still more of the warm air is wished to be communicated from the stove to the small pit, the doors are made. to lift out altoge- ther, and as the front flue of the stove passes these doors, the heated air has free access to rush in ; or it can beadmitted from the vacuities between the flue and front wall. As the tan in the small pit is of no great body, and cannot long maintain its heat, the front of the ‘pits built of brick, with pillars and holes similar to a ‘pigeon house ;,and there is an inclosed, space in front of it, to:receive a lining of warm dung, when the heat, is ‘wished to be increased. This. linmg is covered over with flooring, which forms. part of the walk, tends to. prevent the dissipation of the heat, and gives the whole a neat and clean ‘appearance. — : 7 The spaces over top of the furnaces can at plea~ sure be converted into distinct or separate forcing -«< Ryan HORTICULTURE. natural heat do not abound, the form which admits —Fruit- test quantity of light through the least breadth Garten. Svtiieke. es lar heat y eh Hi f gi be ave on the outside, but are bevelled inwar double their exterior width. The bevel. RESERRSE betenglt He ef 1 #8 ee if £3 ? in & at ! iH rf if a 5% 5 ly 1H 8F i i ti E A z 7 F . j : : . % oF aL : : : Hl F FE fice u E é z e itt BR 88 3 $8 Fs e9 £5 TET ty He - dicularly as ‘239 the of | and which affords the greatest’ regu with the least expenditure of fuel, must be the’ best. It is evident that the sun’s rays ought'to fall as perpen+ ible on the glass roof’; because the pened of light which glances off without entering house, must be inversely proportionate to the de- gree of ~n with which it strikes upon the surface of the glass, Mr Knight made many experiments to ae what elevation of the roof the quantity of light can be made to pass through it; and he found that in latitude 52°, the best angle of eleva- tion is $4°. But it canndt be denied, that the rays of the sun will fall, in a directly icular direction, on this inclined plane, only twice in the year, and then for only very short of time: at all other periods, they must fall in an inclined direction, and never per- icular to the plane of the glass. Without expect. ing, therefore, that the rays will ever fall precisely per- a upon it oftener than twice in the year, it is of portance test t they should do so as much as possible, during those periods when the influence of the sun is most Seaired. Mr Knight (in Hort. Trans. Lond. vol. i. p. 100.) and the Rev. Mr Wilkinson (same volume, p- 162.) do not agree as to the proper inclination of the lass-roof: instead of 34°, pro by the former, the would Wave the angle 45°. It seems unnecessary to detail the reasons assigned by either writer. 240. It has been remarked by Sir George Mac- kenzie, that if a form for the glass roof can be found, such that the rays will be icular fo some part of # during the entire period of the sun's shining, not on two days, but on en ton f of the year, that form must be considered the This form is to be found in the ; and he proposes the quar- ter segment of a , or a semi-dome; though, to catch the sun at all times, the would have to See ee e does not propose to bring each into the form of a small segment of a 1 ee: sive, but unneces« of a glazed house of this kind can scarce yee propriety exceed a radius of fifteen feet, that is, irty by ae oom and scientific horticulturist, have been publi by the Lendon Horticultural Soci. Be the second volume of their Transactions ; and in CCCXIL. we have given these, with considerable ts sinee made by the author. It has been may remark, is that commonly used for a slip of any mate. rial so cut, as when peat tee ks ta or any round figure. ‘The frame-work might also be made of wood ; but the wrought iron isnot only much cheap. er at first, but far more durable. The under frames be about thirteen feet high ; they are rivetted into an iron ring at top, and made fast all round to the coping and upright wall. [ton rods may be placed for supports at 2, 2,2,2, Fig: 3. if t necessary. The width of the at the bottom is about a foot, diminishing to six inches at the second set of ribs ; when they begin again at one foot, and contract upwards to four inches, eet of length for training. The plan, elevation p and section of a vinery constructed on the principles thus COCXIL. Fruits Garden. ged if thought proper, in the 240 Air is admitted by sliding shutters, which may be gla- pet wall in front ; and also by wooden shutters, moving on pivots, and opened or shut by means of cords along the back wall; and by windows in the pediment roof, The glass-roof itself is immoveable; but the upper part of it may be made into moveable sashes if required, by forming a. sufficient number of ribs with grooves, and fixing stay rods on the under sashes, to receive the upper ones when let down: and Sir George Mackenzie mentions, that, from viewing the structure of the roof of Short’s old observa- tory at Edinburgh, he is convinced that the glass semi- dome might be made in two parts, and. placed. on rol- lers, so as to expose at pleasure every plant in the:inte- rior to the direct influence of the sun. If it is wished at times, to defend the plants from the sun, a. gore of canvas may be so contrived as to cover one-half of the glass. The general appearance of such a house (as seen in the elevation, Plate CCCXII, Fig. 1.) is doubtless highly elegant; and it seems. pretty evident, that .se- veral such houses, tastefully disposed in a garden, would have a much finer effect than one great range, although the latter must necessarily be more, economical... Mr Knight, we understand, highly approves of this inven- tion, and is of opinion that it will answer every pur- pose, better than any form hitherto contrived. 242, It may here be mentioned, that Mr Robert Fletcher, at Bonnyrig, near Edinburgh, a good many years ago, constructed a grape-house, in the form of a regular polygon of 24 sides, having a base 24 feet in diameter. A thin brick -wall, two feet high, passes around, forming the proper angles: on this wall rest the couples which support the central or flat part of the roof, which is eight feet in diameter. An iron ring connects the couples at the base as.well as at the top, The length of the couples is 10 feet $ inches. Between these are glazed sashes, 3 feet, wide at base, and tapering to 1 foot at top. In this way the ceiling is.8 feet 6 inches from the ground, and the sashes incline at an angle of 40°. The door of the house is to the north ; the -fur- nace close by one. side of the door; the flue makes a circuit around the house at the distance of 2} feet from the wall, and the smoke escapes on the other side of the door. _ Air is admitted, as wanted, by means of three ventilators on the south-west side; but in point of fact air can pass. in by many crevices, particularly at the flat part,of the roof, and no putty has been used in glazing. The brick wall being founded merely on the surface of the ground, the roots of the vines pass under it in any direction. The soil is dry and rather shallow. In the end of June, Mr Fletcher forms a heap of vege- tables, commonly the weeds from his garden, in the centre of the floor of the house ; when this heap begins ‘to decompose, some degree of heat is produced, a good deal of vapour rises, and nutritious gases are exhaled : the heap is occasionally fed, so as to keep up the fer- mentation till about the middle of September. In this house, and under this sort of management, has this in- genious person, for a number of years, raised very. good crops of grapes of different sorts, particularly the black Hamburgh, the Lombardy, and the white sweet- water, the berries of all these kinds becoming large and, of high flavour..- wack. Snel 243. It may also be noticed, that Mr. Henderson, nurseryman at Brechin, has constructed. a small het- house, which he styles. the triple meridian. The nar= row end of it is placed to the south, and the roof, which is ridge-shaped, is inclined in the same direction, by a slope of one foot in six. In consequence of the posi-~ tion of the house, one side has the sun’s rays approach« HORTICULTURE, ing to perpendicular at 9A. M, and the other at 3 P. Mi; and, on account of the to the south in the roof, the sun’s “ys are enjoyed partially all the time he is above the horizon. Air is ‘admitted by ventilators, After several years trial, Mr Henderson has found such a construction to answer all his expectations. If melons be the crop raised, no furnace is necessary». In place of fire heat, the warmth arising from the fer-. mentation of weeds, or a mixture of grass and rushes, is sufficient; proper chambers for holding these, and enabling them to communicate their heat, being pre- pared within the house. The employment of refuse vegetables in such a melon-house, or in Mr Fletcher's grape-house, must ae as a premium for the de« struction of nettles, thistles, and other weeds, re 244, At Lord Mansfield’s garden at Scone in Scotland the hot-houses are constructed on a new plan, inas- much as they have no upright front glass, and all the sashes are fixed, or not calculated to slide up and down. Air is admitted by ventilators in front, and at the top of the back wall. The houses are 12 feet high; the back wall two feet higher, or 14 feet; and the front.or parapet. wall only two feet. The advantages of this plan seem to consist in saving the expence, at, first, of upright wooden rafters or pillars, and in preventing the breakage of glass, which must toa certain extent be oc~ casioned by the moving of sashes upand down. But it is not.to be-concealed that these immoveable sashes are attended likewise with. some disadvantages, . A liberal circulation of air is sometimes necessary to the.health of the young fruit, which, without it, drops off at the time of the first swelling ; and an equable exposure to the air is highly important for communicating flavour to peaches and nectarines when just approaching to ripe- ness, . Air admitted, however, origins openings in the front parapet and in the top of the back wall, must in. some measure form currents, which, as formerly remark- ed, (§ 209.) are seldom desirable, Even in avoiding ins juries to the glass, the advantages cannot be very con~ siderable, particularly if the moveable sashes be drawn. up and down in a steady manner by means of pulleys. and weights. Whoever erects a house, with a glass roof, must of course lay his account with occasional ac- cidents, whether the roof be fixed or moyeable, and one would be apt to think, that the repairs of panes acci- dentally broken on fixed roofs, could scarcely be accom- plished without very. considerable risk of-increasing the damage, in clambering over them with ladders, Gathering and keeping of Fruits. 245, Fruits in general should be gathered in the middle part of a dry day ; not in the morning, before the dew is evaporated, nor in the eveni gins to be deposited. Plums readily part the twigs when ripe: they should not be much handled, as the bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be ac- counted ready when the side.next the sun feels a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. They ad- here firmly to the tree, and would over-ripen on it. Peaches and nectarines, if moved upwards, and al- lowed. to descend with a slight jerk, will separate if ready ; and they may be received into a tin cup ok nel lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers,or bruising. If this funnel have a handle two or three feet long, the fruit may be gathered with it from any low or ordinary wall.. The old role for Jndging of the ripeness of figs, was to observe if a drop of water was hanging at the end of the fruit; a more certain one is, to notice when the small end becomes of the same colour as the large end. The most ss hel grapes when it be-) tei i Fi ‘ HORTICULTURE. 243 3 Es i i nu ; F il F : 5 Fs ef is rf & 2 g t ches maturity ; flavour. Winter a std FetEN} i ine : 1 Take Hil rest F 3 zB F i i i anf ft ha zak HEL aH eit he file ui eReire AG i iL | VOL. EI. PART I. 241 pears till April ; the terling till June; and many kinds of who emp sap ake, #8* ed by Mr White: in his History, of Selborne, must have been used by our Saxon predecessors, for. they named the month of February sprout-kale, Cabbage was a favourite vegetable with the Romans; and their Italian kind would doubtless be introduced during the long period of their sway in the south of Britain... To the inhabitants of the north of Scotland cabbages.were first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell. ort 274. Of the common white cabbages there are ma= ny subvarieties, some of which are preferable fora sum- mer crop; others for an autumn crop ; and a third set, for winter supply. The Small early dwarf, Large ear« ly Yorkshire, Early dwarf Yorkshire, Early Battersea, and Early sugar-loaf, are generally preferred for sum- mer use, and are ready from May. to July; in some early situations, even in April. The Imperial, Large sugar-loaf, Hollow sugar-loaf, and Long-sided, are ex- cellent for autumn use, and also, in private gardens, for the winter crop. The Large drum, the Scots, and the American cabbage, resist the severity of winter, and grow to a large size; but they are better suited to field culture and the feeding of cattle. ; 275. Very few remarks on the kinds of close cab- bages seem requisite. The Long-sided is also called Large-sided ; it is an excellent sort, but rather .ten- der, so that it should not be sown till May, nor plant- ed out till July. The Scots cabbage is much cultiva- ted in cottage gardens in Scotland ; it grows to a size, and is seldom affected by the severest frost... Th Drum is named from its flatness\at top, resembling he head of a drum: it is also. called White Strasburgh, and of it chiefly the Germans make their sour-krout. The American also grows to a large size, and good till a late period in the spring. The Musk or med cabbage is almost lost, being preserved only in a few private gardens. , A.small firm cabbage called the Russian has also become, rare, being very apt to degenerate in this country: it is the least and most 1 HORTICULTURE. 247 pede = ayant el , quick of year, very fine cabbage. ts are produced, not much Kitchen The Wlrien es quality. 00 meall young cba, as, H H 5 3: t : i 4 Lj 4 ? j aE if : et {i : a 4 H 4 ; eed, plant their earliest cabbages consi- in the rows, perhaps at fifteen inches be- and eight or nine inches between the i sun ie ! ue ue ie lp i ai 3 : ty 3 2 i iE; ‘| 7 i (i r HH Lf EE if i cf ¢ ; i i & ivirigiil’ | fat Hl Fe : 278. Young zebbege. plants ore, sheo. ARE RY Cee: worts or greens. ect, dr iggy wanting Yeas oak |, such as the large York, or the sugar-loaf. The seed is sown in the latter part of summer at different times, so that the plants may be ready for use during winter and in the followi i spring. 279. The Red Cabbage, (Brassica oleracea capitata b. ‘ ickling; and the dwarf yy rubra) is chiefly used for red variety certainly does make one of the most beau- tiful pickles that can be presented at table, It is also Fa oddewe ie wegee gia. alge ier ae and, a sort of cabbage is much cultivat by the common ak under the name of Aberdeen 280. Of the Savoy Cabba, da), which is distinguished b there are two principal sorts, the yellow and the green, the latter being esteemed the hardiest. Savoys are sown about the middle of April, and planted out in June. They may be planted considerably closer than the common cabbage. If savoys are wished before winter, the seed is sown in February, or even in the ing autumn; in which last case, fine large plants, coleworts, as al- pede He w of the different sorts em it to man in of land, It is well eee. Gat no Apr payer amg ts of any icu- lar variety, when in flower, be kept at a LF a or pmpursalincopermpapestany Megs meee, ia Bower, bese are extremely apt to carry en one to the other, pes hats confusion in the progeny. Market and many private individuals, raise seed or their own use. of the handsomest cabbages of the different sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the ground to the head; early next summer a flower ready mentioned. 281. The raisin of cabbage, a various , are more liable to be stem & , which is follow abundance of seed, A few of the soundest and iest cabbage stalks furnished with sprouts, answer the same énd, When the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will for six or eight years. It is mentioned by Bastien, that the seed growers of Aubervilliers have learned, by ex- perience, that seed gathered from the middle flower« stem ces plants which will be fit for use a fort- night earlier than those from the seed of the lateral flower-stems ; this may deserve the attention of the watchful gardener, and assist him in regulating his successive crops of the same kind of cabbage. ith this view some of the pages, , ( Brassica oleracea sabaue savoy Cab- by having wrinkled leaves, bage. ‘Kitchen Garden, See ee Coleworts. ‘Open Kale. Colewort. 248 In the neighbourhood of all considerable towns, market gardeners and others raise white cabbage and savoy plants for sale at very easy rates: this proves a t conveniency to those who have only small gar- ens, and who perhaps require only 200 or 300 cab- bage plants. ‘Open Kale, Colewort, Kale, and Borecole, (Brassica oleracea, vars.) are general terms for greens that do not cabbage or form heads, but remain loose and open. The com- mon colewort is plain ; the others are generally curled or crumpled. 281. Common coleworts, (or Dorsetshire kale), being intended chiefly for winter and spring use, are com- ‘monly sown in July, and planted out in August. They -are set pretty close tegether, perhaps not more than -eight or ten inches apart every way. They withstand completely the usual frosts of our winters. But young plants of the common cabbages, particularly of the large sugar loaf variety, are now generally used as coleworts, and sold in the markets, under that name, from De- cember to April. So completely, indeed, have these cabbage coleworts supplanted the true kind, which is more hardy, but at the same time coarser, that one of ‘the most popular modern books of gardening (Aber- crombie’s Practical Gardener) describes only the for- mer sort under the title of coleworts. 282. The principal kinds of ‘ale are German greens, Scots kale, Buda, Red curled, and Milan. Of the German Greens, a tall growing light coloured kind is preferred, as producing a large quantity of small tufts or loose heads of delicate leaves on the “stalk in the spring months, when coleworts are gettin scarce, ‘German greens are sown in May, and plant out in June, at eighteen or twenty inches asunder every way. Some are also sown in June, and planted out in August, to be ready for use late in the following spring. The seed of the Scots kale, (Siberian borecole, or choux pancalier), is sown in the beginning of July ; and in the course of August the young plants are set out in rows a foot and a half wide, and ten inches dis- tant in the rows. This green bears the severest cold without injury, and indeed is not reckoned good for use till it have endured some sharp frosts. The Milan kale cultivated in this country has a thick stem, the leaves of a dark green colour, and much curled or fimbriated. Milan greens are greatly prized in France, and different varieties are there cultivated. The Anjou kale grows to a large size; as does likewise a sort called Cesarean kale. “Neither of these is so tender as the other kinds; but the they might probably be found u cows. A vg A variety of open kale is described by the late Mr Delaunay, in the last edition of « Le Bon Jar- dinier” published by himself. It is called Choux pal- mier. It frequently rises to the height of six feet, with a straight bare stem, the leaves displaying themselves only at top, and thus producing the appearance of a little-palm tree. The leaves are much puckered, and so much rolled back at the edges, that they appear natrow, while at the same time they hang in a curved manner ; thus aiding the illusion. ‘This variety is evi- dently to be considered merely as a curiosity. It was first raised in Italy, and is not very hardy. Another tall sort, sometimes rising nearly to the same height, is described by the same author under the name of roduce being great, ul in the feeding of HORTICULTURE. Capousta, or Russian kale. The leaves are of a fine purple colour, much cut and fringed. This variety is represented as extremely hardy, resisting the utmost severity of a Russian winter. 283. The Borecoles, properly so called, are of two kinds, the tall purple and the dwarf purple. But all the curled and cut-leaved kale or colewort plants, are commonly called Borecoles. There is a variegated sort which is very ornamental when growing, but not so good for the table as those of more ordinary appearance. All kinds of kale seeds are sown in the beginning of April; the young Pome! are generally pricked into a nursery bed for a few weeks, to enable them to gain strength ; and they are finally transplanted in June or July, in rows three feet asunder, and two feet apart in the rows, giving water if the weather be dry. A few are generally not haere out till September, that they may afford a supply late in the following spring. The only other attention requisite, is the drawing of earth to their stems before winter, in order to support them in times of snow or storm. ah _ Brussels Sprouts. 284. The variety called Brussels sprouts may be classed with the kale plants. The leaves come out in small crowns or sprouts all along the stem, and are very delicate when boiled. The culture is nearly the same as that of coleworts in general. The seed is sown in March or April, and the seedlings are planted out in June, preferring showery weather, or watering care- fully at root. They grow upright and pyramidal, and may therefore be placed nearer to each other than more spreading kinds. They are earthed up in October, are ready for use by midwinter, and continue good till March or April. Brussels sprouts are much used in London during the spring months; but they seldom appear in the Edinburgh market, nor is’ the plant so much cul+ tivated in Scotland as it deserves. U Cauliflower. 285. Cauliflower and broccoli, (Brassica oleracea, var. botrytis), are curious varieties of the cabbage; the flower-buds forming a close firm cluster or head, for the sake of which alone the plants are cultivated. These heads or flowers being boiled, wrapped generally in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate ve- getable dish. Cauliflower is a particular favourite in this country. ‘« Of all the flowers in the garden,” Dr Johnson used to say, “I like the cauliflower.” Its culture, however, had been little attended to till about the close of the 17th century; since that time it has been greatly improved, insomuch that cauliflower may now fairly be claimed as peculiarly an English product. Till the time of the French revolution, quantities of English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland; ‘hed the Low Countries and even France, ded on us for cauliflower seed. Liven now, English seed is preferred to any other. 1 Rt The two varieties called the early and the later caus liflower, are scarcely different. The first is the kind generally produced under hand-glasses, and the difference consists merely in the seed having been saved from the most forward plants. A variety having the stalks of the head of a reddish or purple colour has lately been introduced, under the name of Red Cauliflower ; and it is reputed more hardy than the other sorts." 286. The seed for the early sine-$ is sown about the Kitchen Garden. _—s Coleworts. Borecole. Brussels. sprouts. Cauliflower, oe eee HORTICULTURE. i F rllialy strife th F i i : 2 q il i eal i | ee] i 4 gre g FI a ey & i F F 5, : E : winter ; and again in May, into wry bes in Jue o the beginning o uly and. tan i late, thi pot-herb is pro- the end of . Even after this, the cau- uncommon cauliflower ground, in the winter season, and in any convenient Kitches part of the floor of a vi ac oleae aaeeeaaden In Garden. the beginning of March they are taken out of the with the ball of earth attached, and planted in the open If be here protected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they come into head in the course of April, if the weather prove favourable. It may be mentioned, that in some places it is not an practice to sow a little radish seed onthe , a fortnight before planting out the cauliflowers. patna reise Ymten tote infest the ts, tender leaves radish to owed the ao, and that the latter Pots, sp rascolis thus escape. Market often mix spinach seed with the radish, but from a different motive ; thus procure a useful crop soon after the cauliflower is removed. More frequently, however, these gardeners employ the cauliflower ground in producing a late crop of cucumbers for pickling. When seed is wi cee ait parecer | ts are selected, and left to flower, plenty of ing drawn up to their roots. The seed ri in ber, but at various times, on the different ch- lets of the same head, so that it is proper to gather it at successive times as it appears ripe. ° Broccoli. 289. Broccoli is generally considered as merely a va- Broccoli. iety of cauliflower. It is indeed nearly allied, aad the part consists, as in cauliflower, of the clustered flower-buds ; but the broccoli plant is dis- tinguished by its cut leaves, its larger growth, and greater degree of hardiness. There are several varie- perpls nd the whine: No Coliomy plot i oo labs white. No culi t is so liable to as broccoli ; so that new kinds, slightly differ- ent, are continually coming into notice or favour, and as ried sinking into neglect. f the purple, there are several sub-varieties, the early, dwarf, ee teacly introduced. What are called the brown and the black broccoli are likewise slight variations of the pur- Te A aetanaetned te aoe eee for ex- situations ; but not porsoarncpe edgy bong the E and cultivated to great perfection near Edin By many, the sort called sy pens ~igarenacr 8. AO or The white, -N itan, or cauliflower-broccoli plant, is rather more ten than the others, bat the flower is at the same time more palatable ; it forms a close curdly head of considerable size in the spring months, and the plants do not branch as most of le kinds do. A hardy variety of the whish weal dhesafore grave #i quant nejpialtiots 290. Broccoli seed is sown in il for an autumn crop, to be planted out in the inning of June; and, for a spring crop in the followmg year, the seed is sown late in May, or even in June. The seedlings are afterwards placed in nursery beds, where they remain till the middle or end of July, when they are finally transplanted. A light, but deep and rich soil, in an open situation, is preferred. To those situated near the sea, it may be interesting to know, that sea-weed forms an manure for broccoli. In the second volume of Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, p. 266, Mr William x4 Kitchen Garden, Broccoli. €ape broc- coli, 250 Wood, one of the most successful eultivators of brocco« li near Edinburgh, gives an account of his remarkable success with this sort of manure. When drift ware abounds on the shore, he bestows on the quarter next intended for broccoli a very liberal supply, immediate- ly digging it in roughly. The ground is afterwards slightly delved over before planting. From the soil thus treated, very large and fine heads are produced. It may be added, that grubs will not infest the roots, as they are very apt to do when stable manure is used., The broccoli plants are set in lines, two feet asunder, and a foot and a half apart in the lines. Water is given when thought necessary, according to the state of the weather. They are hoed and earthed up like cauli- flower plants. Nicol reeommends, that, in the end of October, the most forward crops, especially of the tall growing kinds, should be raised and laid over on their sides pretty closely together, placing the heads just clear of one another. If this be done in a dry soil and free situation, the plants are seldom injured by the frost of the severest winters. The heads of winter broceoli generally begin to appear early in January, and they continue till April. In gathering broccoli, five or six inches of the stem are retained along with the head; and in dressing, the stalks are peeled before boiling. 291. The early purple Cape broccoli, already men- tioned as lately introduced into this country, deserves more particular notice. The seed, it was understood, was first brought from the Cape of Good Hope, but the same kind has since been received from Italy. A par- ticular account of the mode of cultivation is given .b Mr John Maher, in the first volume of the London Horticultural Transactions, p. 116. Three crops are sown: in April, between the 12th and 18th of the month; in May, between the 18th and 24th ; and in Au- gust, between the 19th and 25th; and by means of these, this kind of broccoli is procured from September till the end of May. ‘The seeds are sown very thin, on a bor- der of light rich earth. In about a month the plants are finally transplanted, at the distance of two feet eve- ry way, in a sandy loam, well enriched with rotten dung. Frequent hoeings are given, and the earth is drawn to the stem as in the case of ordinary broccoli. Mr) Maher never pricks the seedlings into a nur- sery bed. He finds, that the head is by that measure rendered less in size, and more apt to run to flower and seed. A part of the second crop is often transplanted into pots (sixteens), and plunged into the open ground, where the head forms. Against December, these pots are removed into a shed, frame, or pit; and in this way fine broccoli is secured in the severest weather of winter; the head often six or seven inches in diameter. The seed for the third crop is sown in a frame; and about the third week in October the plants are ready for transplanting. A few plants for affording seed are selected at this time, and planted in a remote part of the garden, covering them with hand-glasses during winter, in the manner of cauliflower. 292. When broccoli seeds are to be saved, plants with the largest and finest heads are selected, observi that no small foliage appear on the surface of the heal Mr Wood, already mentioned, makes it a rule to take up such plants in April, and lay them, in a slanting direc- tion, in a rich compost, (cleanings of old ditches, tree Jeaves, and rotten dung,) giving, at the same time, a eel watering, if the weather be dry. The raising, e thinks, prevents them from producing proud seed, or from degenerating. When the heads begin to epen or HORTICULTURE. push, he cuts out the centre, leaving only four'or five Kitchen of the outside flower-stalks to come to seed, The cen- tre, it may be remarked, would probably produce the stronger seeds ; but the object seems to be, to check the tendency to luxuriancy and consequent sporting in the plant. , ij Kohl-rabbi. _ Garden, 293. The Kohil-rabli or turnip-rooted cabbage ( Bras- Kohl-rabbi. sica oleracea, var. Napobrassica, not a variety of B. rapa, er turnip, as supposed in Salisbury’s Botanist’s Com- panion), has large broad leaves, and the stem protube- rant like a turnip at the base: there are two varieties, one swelling above ground, the other in it. Both are sometimes used in a young state for the table ; but the are not much cultivated in this country. Kohl-rabbi is very hardy, and might probably be advan sly cultivated in the ‘colder parts of the island; for it is found to be a very profitable crop in Sweden and other northern countries. Leguminous Plants. Peas. 204, The Pea ( Pisum sativum, Lin. Diadelphia De- Pes, candria ; Papilionacee or Leguminose) is an annual climbing plant, so well known as not to need any de- scription. The legumes or pods are commonly pro- duced in pairs ; the seeds contained in these are the part of the plant used, and to which, in common discourse, * the name peas is always given. In some varieties, call- ed Sugar-peas, the inner tough film of the pods is want- ing, the pods of such, when young, being boiled with the peas within them, and eaten in the manner of kidney-beans. Concerning the native country of the pea, there is no certainty; it is guessed to be the south of Europe. It has been cultivated in Britain from an early.period ; but some of the best varieties, such as the sugar-pea above mentioned, were introdu- ced only about the middle of the 17th century. There are very many varieties, differing in size, time of coming in, colour of flower and fruit, and alsa in taste: but the principal distinction is as to their being early or late; supposing the sorts to be sown on the same day, the former are ready a fortnight at least be- fore the latter. ‘ 295. The early peas are called hotspurs and hastings. Of these there are different subvarieties, especially the Charlton, Reading, Golden, Double dwarf, and Early frame pea; the last being so called from its being often forced in hot-beds, especially for the London. market. These being comparatively of dwarfish growth, do not require sticking ; and it is a common remark, that peas supported on sticks yield more, but that those recum- bent on the ground ripen soonest. Some of these kinds are gen sown. towards the end of October, in front of a south fruit-wall, and at right angles to it, or in- clining a point to the east, in order to catch the morn- ing sun. With some ne i ay of branches of evergreens or old peas-haulm, the crop a oniee. winter, and produces young peas by the end of May. Many gardeners prefer sowing in longitudinal rows near the wall, the ¢rop thus np equally. In January and February more peas, of the early sorts, are sown, to follow in succession those sown before winter. Some gardeners are in the practice of raising i. HORTICULTURE. and planting sufficiently distant sueceed very well without sticking. added Leadman’s dwarf, which is than any of them, while at the same time the ific, and the pea remarkably sweet. late kinds, the Tall marrowfat, the Green marrowfat, the Grey rouncival, and the Sugar- pea, have long retained their character; while the Spa- nish moratto and Imperial are also in good plants and copious bearers. The is well known; but it is as fre- that Parkinson, in his “ Paradisus,” ascribes igin. A new white pea raised by Mr omitted. It is sometimes called Knight's marrow pea ; sometimes the Wrinkled pea, the circumstance of the skin of the fruit being wrinkled or contracted, being an obvious mark of distinction. The plant is of luxuriant growth, iri wiring Sete nied diver whee bailed pa aparece Est caeEREe an its Hi BF aH it RF : - § ; L if 4 i : F 5S if ¢ EF pitty is ; 4 f 251 situations, or places surrounded by trees. The remedy Kitchen applied, is the spreading of new slaked lime _Gerden- over the surface of the ground, very early in the morn- ing when the slugs are abroad. A simple preventive of the attacks of mice consists in being particularly. careful, in sowing the peas, to leave none sed on the surface ; if the ased bevel duly covered, these ani- mals do not seem to be very expert at discovering the rows. It is generally thought advisable to change the seed: yearly ; few pas Pract therefore ripen their own seed. Indeed the professed seed-growers possess superior opportunities for saving the kinds in a genuine state ; and if they be men of judgment and fidelity, it is bet- ter for the er to buy from them, than to trouble himself with saving either the seeds of peas, or of any other garden plants which are apt to degenerate by in- termixture of pollen. Beans. 297. The Bean (Vicia Faba, Lin.) belon same class and order, and natural family, wi It is the Feve de marais of the French. It is superfluous to mention, that it is an annual t, ri- sing from two to four feet, with a thick an stem ; the leaves divided, and without tendrils; the flowers white, with a black spot in the middle of the wing; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and inclosing the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated in gardens. It is a native of. the East, but has been known in this country from the earliest times. 2098. There are two principal kinds of the plant, the garden bean and the field bean: The first only falls to be — of here. Of this there are many varieties. The lazagan is one of the hardiest and best flavoured of the small and early sorts. Mazagan is a Portuguese settlement on the coast of Africa, near the Straits of Gibraltar ; and it is said,that seeds brought from thence, afford plants that are more early and more fruitful than those which spring from home-saved seed. The Lis- bon is next in point of earliness and fruitfulness ; some indeed consider it as merely the Mazagan ripened in Portugal. The Dwarf-fan or cluster bean is likewise an early variety, but it is planted chiefly for curiosity : it rises only six or eight inches high; the branches spread out like a fan, and the are produced in small clusters. The Sandwich bean has been long no- ted for its fruitfulness ; the Toker and the broad Spanish are likewise bearers. Of all the large kinds, the Windsor bean is preferred for the table. When gather- ed young, the seedsare sweet and very agreeable ; when the plants are allowed room and time, they produce very large seeds, and in tolerable plenty, though they are not accounted liberal bearers. There are several sub-varieties, such as the Broad Windsor, Taylor's Windsor, and the Kentish Windsor. The po Yr bean rises about three feet high, and is a = ‘ the pods being long and narrow, and closely filled with oblong middle-sized seeds. ‘This sort is now very much cultivated, and there are several subordinate va- rieties of it, as the Early, the Large, and the Sword . The White-blossomed bean is so called, be- Ce ee ee is wanting. is en w oun, it has little of the peculiar bean flavour, and is a thie account much esteemed ; it is at the same time a copious bearer, and proper for a Jate crop. It may be men- the pea. ps Beans. to the pean. 252 tioned,. that Delaunay, in Le bon Jardinier, describes as excellent a new variety cultivated at Paris, which he calls the green bean from China ; it is late, but very productive; and the fruit remains green, even when ripe and dried. 299. The early sorts, such as the Mazagan and Lisbon, are sown in the end of October or beginning of Novem- ber, in a sheltered situation, in front of a wall, reed-fence, or other hedge, and in drills about two inches deep. The plants are earthed up in November as they advance. In severe frost, some haulm or fern is laid over them, as in the case of early In March and April, as the beans begin to shew flower, they are kept close back to the fence, by means of lines of pack-thread. When the lower blossoms are fully expanded or beginning to fade, the tops of the stems are pinched off, this being found to forward the, production of pods. With this sort of care, a crop is generally procured about the end of May or first of June. Successive autumn and win- ter sowings are managed much in the same way ; being sown in rows, eighteen inches apart, in sheltered bor- ders or quarters. It is necessary to guard against the ravages of mice, which are very apt to attack the new sown rows. Some gardeners sow their winter beans thickly, and cover them with a frame, transplanting, them in February or March: in this way they prove very productive. $00. In February and March, full crops of the late and large beans, such as the Windsor, Sandwich, and Long-podded, are planted, in a free and open exposure. The middling sized kinds are allowed two feet between the rows; but the large growing kinds, two and a half or even three feet. The plants in the rows, however, are only five or six inches separate. Sometimes the beans are planted with a blunt setting-stick, obser- ving to close the earth down upon the seed ; but drills drawn, two inches deep or a little more, with the hoe, are in general erred. One of the principal things to be attended to is the earthing up: in per- forming this operation, it is necessary to take care that the earth do not fall on the centre of the plant so as to bury it; for this occasions it to rot or fail. Nicol says, that topping is not necessary for any but the early crops, and is practised only to make them more early. Most other horticulturists are of opinion that topping improves the crop both as to quantity and quality ; and it is very commonly performed on the late crops as well as the early. The crops of beans when in flower, it may be remarked, are very ornamental to the kitchen-garden, and render it a pleasant walk, the flowers having a pow- erful fragrance, not unlike that of orange-flowers. The latest crops in May and June are sown in strong or moist land, as on an arid soil scarcely any return could at this season be For these late crops, the long pods, broad Spanish, and Toker are preferred. In a dry season, it is found useful to soak the seed-beans for several hours in soft river water, before planting. An expedient sometimes resorted to in order to pro- long the bean season, may here be mentioned: A bed or quarter of beans is fixed on; and when the flowers appear, the plants are entirely cut over, a few inches from the surface of the ground. New stems spring from the stools, and these produce a very late crop of beans. In gathering beans for table use, such pods as are too old should as much be avoided as such as are too young, the seeds ing in delicacy after they at- tain about half the size which they should possess at maturity. When beans are to be saved for seed, none of the pods should be gathered for the kitchen, : HORTICULTURE. the first pods being the most vigorous, and affording the best seed. The whole — should be and the seeds should be allowed to dry these last still remaining on the stems. Kidney-bean. 301. The Kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Lin. Com- mon kidney-bean; and P. multiflorus, Willd. Scarlet runner ) belongs to the same artificial and natural classes as the pea and the bean. In this country it is often call« ed French bean ; and it is the well known and favourite haricot of France. It is an annual, originally from India ; its stem is more or less twining, but in the dwar- fish kinds it scarcely shews this propensity ; the leaves are ternate, on long foot-stalks ; the flowers on axillary racemes ; the corolla generally white, sometimes yellow or purple: The pods are oblong, swelling slightly over the seeds; these last are generally Eiiney-sheped, smooth and shining when ripe, varying exceedingly in colour, white, black, blue, red, and spotted. The date of the introduction of the kidney-bean into this co is not known: it was-in familiar use in the days of Ge- rarde. The unripe pods chiefly are used in Britain ; but in France, the ripe seeds or beans are also very much employed in cookery, being dried in the autumn and kept for winter use. _ 802, There are many varieties, both of what are call. ed dwarfs, and of runners. By Dwarfs are meant kinds that do not much exceed a foot in height, and do not need support ; 4 Runners, such as have long climbing stems, and which require stakes, Of the , the Early white dwarf, Early black or Negro, the Speckled dwarf, Early yellow, and the Battersea and Canter« bury white, may be mentioned as principally esteemed. Of the latter, the Scarlet runner is erred, the pods being tender, especially if gathered y , and being produced in succession for a long time. This was fore merly considered as merely a variety of the common kid-~ ney-bean ; but Willdenow has described it as a distinct species, under the name of Phaseolus multi, istinguished by its racemes equalling the leaves in length, and by its bracteze or floral leaves lymg close to the stalk ; while in the common kidney-bean, the Garden, pulled up; : in the pods) —-Y— Kidney- bean. 3 itis: former are shorter than the leaves, and the latter pro= ject from the stalk. The scarlet runner is frequently cultivated as an ornamental flower, particularly in form- ing fancy hedges: when trained near a wall, and led up with lines of pack-thread or spun-yarn, it unites both characters, or is at once shewy and useful. The white runner seems to differ from the scarlet, merely in the colour of the blossoms and of the seeds. The Dutch white runner produces long smooth pods, but does not afford so many successive gatherings as the other two. 303. The kidney-bean is too tender for sowing ear lier than the middle or end of April. From that time successive crops are sown every fortnight or three weeks, till July ; and in this way the young and tender pods are to be had all the summer and autumn. The dwarfish sorts are sown in drills from two to three“feet asunder, perhaps three inches separate in the lines, and covered with something less than two inches of soil. As advance, they are hoed and cleared of weeds, a little earth being at the same time drawn to the stems. As the young pods come to be fit for use, the more re- ly and completely they are gathered, the greater is the successive produce. The runners, being rather more tender, are not sown till about the middle of May. ey: —, # 7 . HORTICULTURE. : 3 i : | rilis il ae j if 3 ; 4 Hi 8 E 3 Sthi sy : i i f Hi 253 Spain about the middle of the 16th century, as they are mentioned, under the name of papas, in Cicia’s Chro- nicle, printed in 1553, and now a very rare book. They were not introduced into this country till near the close of the century, when they to have been brought from Virginia by the colonists sent out bier Walter Raleigh, and who returned in 1586; lerriot, one of these colonists, describing the potato, they bad visit carpal me: weke hyd visited, preserv in De ’s Collection of Vv It is said, that Sir Walter leigh planted them on his own estate near Cork. They were soon carried over into Lancashire ; but near half a century ¢ were much known at London. Ge- sack and sugar, or baked with marrow and even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers. 1663, the Royal Society took some measures for encou- raging the cultivation of toes, with the view of ing famine. Still, however, although their uti- ity as an article of food was better known, no high character was bestowed on them. In books of garden- ing, published towards the end of the 17th century, a hi years after their introduction, they are spoken of rather slightingly. “ They are much used in Ire- land and America as bread,” says one author, “ and may be with advantage to poor people.”— “ I do not hear that it hath been yet essayed,” are the words of another; “ whether they may not be propa- gated in uantities, for food for swine or ot cattle.” Even the enlightened Evelyn seems to have entertained a prejudice against them. “ Plant pota- toes,” he says, writing in 1699, “ in your worst Take them up in November for winter spend- Me remain for a stock, though ever ise, whose names have been already repeat- edly mentioned, have not considered the to as worthy of notice in their Complete Gardener, publish- ed in 1719; and Bradley who, about the same time, wrote so extensively on horticultural sibjects, speaks be as inferior to Fam = radishes. a e use of toes ually spread, as their ex- cellent wor A rence better understood. It was near the middle of the 18th century, however, before they were generally known over the wena oH since that time they have been most extensively cultivated. In 1796, it was found that, in the county of Essex alone, about 1700 acres were planted with potatoes for the supply of the London market. This must form no doubt the principal supply ; but many fields of po- tatoes are to be seen in the other counties ing on the capital, and many ship-loads are annually import- ed from a distance. The cultivation of potatoes in gardens in Scotland, was very little understood till about the year 1740; and it was not practised in fields till about twenty after that period. It is stated in the “ General of Scotland, (vol. ii. p. 111), a8 a well ascers tained fact, that in year 1725-6, the few potato lants then existing in gardens about Edinburgh, were eft in the same spot of ground from year to year, as recommended by Evelyn; a few tubers were per- haps removed for use in the autumn, and the parent plants were then well covered with litter to save them Kitchen Garden. Potatoes. . 254 HORTICULTURE. Ri ichep from.the winter's frost. Since the middle of the 18th Ox-noble, a large round sort with deep eyes; the Ame- Kitchen Ne, century, the cultivation of potatoes has made rapid rican cluster; the Yam potato; and the Lancashire, Garden, progress in that country; so that they are now to be or large round rough red potato, are’ held in high esti- pou Ee Potatoes, * seen.in almost every cot mation. , ayreer - ed as to shape, into round, oval or Professor Martyn, in hha ellition of the ** Gardener’s Dictionary,” has given an account of various notices that occur concerning the introduction of the potato, in the writings of successive horticulturists, and most minute and accurate details respecting its tillage, de- rived from all the best sources of information, and se- lected with great judgment and care. To the learned and industrious Professor's labours, and to the article AcricuLtore in this work, we must refer the inquisi- tive reader, contenting ourselves in this place, in ad~ dition to the short history already given, with some account of the qualities of the plant, of a few of the principal varieties, and of its culture in gardens. The potato is now considered as the most useful es- culent that is cultivated ; and who could @ priori have expected to haye found the most useful among the na-< tural family of the Luride, several of which are dele- terious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect! {t is at the same time the most universally liked; it seems to suit every palate. So generally is it relished, and so nutritious is it accounted, that on’ many tables it now appears almost every day in the year. It is com- monly eaten plainly boiled, and in this way it is ex- cellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in the spring months, the best parts of each tuber are se- lected, and mashed before going to table. Potatoes are also baked, roasted, and fried, With the flour of potatoes, puddings are made nearly equal in flavour to those of millet. Bread has also been formed of it, with a moderate proportion of wheat flour ; and po- tato starch is common. To cottagers having a num- ber of children, the potato is of inestimable value. Dr Johnson, in his “ Journey,” remarks, that before the Scottish peasantry acquired cabbages, they must have had nothing; but with much more reason might it now be'\said, that they must have been destitute in- deed, before they knew the potate. By many cottagers in Scotland, and especially in Ireland, potatoes are cultivated on what are called /azy-beds. In construct- ing these, the manure is laid on the surface; sets of potatoes are placed immediately on it; and a little earth is thrown over all. In this way a very great return is procured. $07. In regard to general qualities, potatoes are of two kinds, mealy and waxy; the former of a loose, the latter of a firm contexture. They are distinguish- idney, and clus« tered; and as to colour, into white, and red or purple. It would be quite an unprofitable task to enumerate the many varieties which have been raised from seed, and have obtained a name for a day. A few of those at present in esteem can alone be named. Kidney po- tatoes of various sorts have long been in repute, par- ticularly the White and the Yorkshire. Red, and White, and Black potatoes, have their admirers, The Early dwarf, Champion, Early frame, Manly, Cumberland, early, Fox’s yellow seedling, and the Goldfinders, still retain their fame for summer use: but they are per- haps excelled by varieties well known in Scotland by the names of the Ash-leaved, and Mathew Cree’s early, The large red-nosed kidney, a white potato with a tinged eye, is a great favourite in the London market, the kind most esteemed, and most commonly sold in the Edinburgh market. Far the feeding of cattle, the 5 for qe culinary purposes; and the Don potato is, The raising of potatoes being now considered as ra- ther the business of the farm, in many gardens only a quarter of early potatoes is to be found. For the ori« inal production of the varieties called earlies, we are indebted to the kitchen gardeners near Manchester. Encouraged by the demand of that populous town, ° they vied with each other to have potatoes first in the market: they noted those plants that flowered early, saved them, and sowed their seeds; by again watch- ing the earliest of these, they procured varieties which arrive so much sooner at a state approaching maturity, as far as the tubers are concerned, that young potatoes may be had for table two months after planting. The most productive of these, and least apt to degenerate, are such as do not shew a disposition to flower. 308. The potato is chiefly propagated by cuts of the tubers, taking care to leave one or two eyes or buds to each cut, but eradicating all clustered eyes. The» best shaped and cleanest potatoes are selected for this purpose. The cuts are the better for being allowed to dry for a day or two before planting. Any light soil, in a free airy situation, suits the potato, Too much manure can scarely be given, if the quantity of produce be alone looked to; but potatoes of more delicate flavour are procured from ground not recently enriched. About the middle of March some of the early kinds, such as the ash-leaved, are planted on a light warm border. As they are to be taken up soon, sixteen inches between the lines is accounted enough, and seven or eight inches’ between each plant. They are commonly planted in. drills, and covered to the depth of three or four inches, The tubers being small, are generally only cut in two to make sets ; but not more tlian. two eyes are left on each set. Rooted shoots accidentally er among the stock of early potatoes, have been found to afford a very speedy return. Instructed by this circumstance, some gardeners lay the sets on a floor sprinkled with sand or barley-chaff, till they have sprung four or five inches, thus advancing the growth of the plants as much as possible under a low temperature, so as to avoid all unneeessary expenditure of their excitability. Great care must be taken, however, to preserve their germs and roots from injury in transplanting. By this means the plants are forwarded nearly three weeks in their etowth: The young potatoes are fit for use in June and July, and in August the tops of the parent plants change to a yellow colour, indicating maturity. Only a few plants are taken up at once; for the young and immature tubers do not keep good beyond a day or two: it is found better, therefore, to let them remain in the ground till wanted, and in this way they may be made to meet the later sort. About the middle or end of April, the general potato quarter is planted. Two feet is the space commonly allowed between the rows, and, from ten to fourteen inches between the plants. For, planting, some use the potato dibble; which is an in-- strument about three feet long, with a cross handle at top for both hands, the lower end blunt and shod with iron, and having a cross iron shoulder, about four inches - from the bottom, so that the holes must of necessity be. struck of equal depth. The only attention the crop requires is hoeing, and drawing earth to the stems: the oftener this last operation is performed, the greater is the produce, The potatoes are taken up and used in the autumn months; the winter supply being drawn HORTICULTURE. 255 ary sand till spring; or the seeds may be immediately Kitchen separated from the pulp, and kept in paper-bags over _Garden- winter. In April the seed is sown, in any og ight Poaliaal! a foot and summer; and improvement in keepi then, A Edmeevhcig of stthntion. The Rev. Dr Kilspindie (in the first volume of Scottish Hor- ticultural Memoirs) has described a mode, the advan- Sccdgeiisaia Siius pincioos Caataed Sr lang hoses ‘or gene into small pits, holding about two bolls each ; are formed under the shade of a tree, wall, i i ! Hi 3 ; & if i Ee Ee B i ! f | known, that if these be placed in boxes among or other very light vege- table mould, and still in the cellar, will yield a crop of small mid-winter. A small su rally some in April and May in succession as are formed. $10. Many persons amuse ves with raisi soil, in drills half an inch deep, and perhaps asunder, keeping the kinds carefully separate, and marking them with tallies. When the plants rise, they are thinned out to six inches apart. They are kept clear of weeds, and once or twice earthed up. When the haulm decays, the tubers are taken up; they are carefull preserved from frost during the winter ; and being planted next spring, the crop which results will determine the qualities of the different kinds. The should be boiled separately, and regard had to their flavour, mealiness or waxiness, size, shape and colour. When the seed of early varieties can be procured, it is, for different reasons, to be preferred. Mr Knight sus- = the cause of these early varieties not producing wers, to be the preternaturally early formation of the tubers, drawing off for their support that portion of sap which should have gone to the production of the blossom. He therefore Serised means for preventing the formation of tubers ; and when this was accomplish- ed, he found no deficiency in the production of flowers and berries. The means were simple: having fixed strong stakes in the ground, he raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them; on the south side he ited the oes. When the plants were about inches high, they were secured to the stakes with shreds and nails, and the mould was then washed away with a strong current of water from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only entered the soil, and no runners or tubers could be juced. 311. The disease called curl has in many places ved extremely troublesome and injurious. Jt has given rise to much discussion, and to detail all the various opinions would be a useless task. It may, however, be remarked, that the experiments of Mr Thomas Dick- son (Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, i. 55.) shew, that it arises from the vegetative powers in the tuber plant- ed having been exhausted by over-ripening. That ex- cellent borti¢ulturist observed, in 1808 and 1809, that cuts taken from the waxy, wet, or least ripened end of long flat potato, that is, the end nearest the roots, jeter healthy plants ; while those from the dry and ripened end, farthest from the roots, either did not vegetate at all, or produced curled plants. This view is the observations of a very good —— gardener, Mr Daniel Crichton at Minto, who, rom many years experience, found (Jd. p. 440.) that tubers preserved as much as possible in the wet and im- mature state, and not exposed to the air, were not sub- ject to curl. And Mr Knight (in Lond. Hort. Trans. for 1814) has clearly shewn the beneficial results of using, as seed-stock, potatoes which have grown late, or been imperfectly ripened, in the preceding year. Mr Dick- son down some rules, attention to which, he thinks, w prevent the many disappointments occasioned by, the carl. He recommends, 1. The procuring of a sound healthy seed-stock (stock of tubers for planting) from a high of the » Where the tubers are never pow ol onde 2. The plantin of such potatoes as are intended to su seed.stock for the ensuing season, at least a fortnight later than those planted for acrop, and to take them up whenever the stems be- come of a yellow colour, at which time the cu- ticle of ae opera i poten rubbed ror poweare finger an 5. preventing those planty tliat are destined to yield seed-stock for the ensuing year, from producing flowers or -berries, by cutting ad the Curl. Kitchen Garden, ae ~ ‘Potatoes, Jerusalem Artichoke, 256 flower-buds ; an operation easily performed by children, with a sickle, at a trifling expence, Mr John Shirreff (in the same volume, p. 60.) takes a general and philosophical view of the subject, apply- ing to the potato the doctrine by which Mr Knight had accounted for the disappearance of the fine cider fruits of the 17th century. eé maximum of the duration of the life of every individual, vegetable as well as ani- mal, is predetermined by nature, under whatever cir. cumstances the individual may be placed: the mini- mum, on the other hand, is determined by these very circumstances. Admitting, then, that a potato might reproduce itself from tubers for a great number of years in the shady woods of Peru, it seems destined ‘sooner to become abortive in the cultivated champaign of Bri- tain ; insomuch, that not a single healthy plant of any sort of potato that yields berries, and which was in cul- ture twenty years ago, can now be produced. Mr Shirreff concludes, therefore, that the potato is to be considered as a short-lived plant, and that, though its health or vigour may be prolonged, by rearing it in elevated or in shady situations, or by cropping the flowers, and thus preventing the plants from exhaust- ing themselves, the only sure way to obtain vigorous plants, and to ensure productive crops, is to have fre- quent recourse to new varieties raised from the seed. The same view, it may be remarked, had occurred to Dr Hunter, who, in his “‘ Georgical Essays,’? limits the duration of a variety in a state of perfection to about fourteen years. A fact ascertained by Mr Knight deserves to be particularly noticed: it is this; that by planting late in the season, perhaps in June or even in July, an exhausted good variety may in a great measure be restored ; that is, the tubers resulting from the late planting, when again planted at the ordinary season, produce the kind in its pristine vigour, and of its former size. Jerusalem Artichoke. $12. The Jerusalem Artichoke, or tuberous-rooted sunflower, (Helianthus tuberosus, L. ; Syngenesia Poly- gamia frustranea; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a perennial plant, originally from Brazil. It has the habit of the common sunflower, but grows much taller, often rising ten or twelve feet high. Though its roots endure our hardest winters, the plant seldom flowers with us, and it never ripens its seed, The roots are creeping, and have many tubers clustered together, perhaps from thir- ty to fifty ata plant. These.are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent relish. The plant was introduced into our gardens ear- ly in the 17th century; and before ers became common, it was much more prized at present. The epithet Jerusalem is a mere corruption of the Ita« lian word Girasole, or sunflower ; the name artichoke is bestowed from the resemblance in flavour which the tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes. As the po- tato is the pomme de terre, this is the poire de terre of the French, \ The plant is readily propagated by means of the tubers. They are cut in the manner of potato sets, and planted, in any light soil and open situation, in the end of March. They are placed in rows, three feet asunder, and a foot or fifteen inches apart in the rows. In September they are fit for use; and in the course of “November they are dug up and housed, being kept in sand like catrots. Sometimes they are left in the ground, and dug only as waited, being best when newly raised. 4: HORTICULTURE. The only disadvantage is, that in tliis way thiey cannot be had in severe frosts. It is not very easy to clear the ground of them where they have once grown; and on this account, some gardeners devote a by-corner to them, and allow them to remain from year to year, taking up only what is wanted for the occasional use of the family. But the tubers thus produced are not so clean or well flavoured as those produced on newly delved ground by yearly planting. Turnip. 313. The Turnip plant, growing naturally in some parts of England, and ‘hinted bo « English Botany,” t. 2176. The root-leaves are large, of a deep green colour, very rough, jagged and gashed. In the second season it sends up a flowers stalk, four or five feet high, having leaves which em- brace the stem, very different from former ; smooth, glaucous, oblong, and pointed. The cultivated variety with a swelling fleshy root has long been known. Of this there are several well marked subvarieties, distin- ished as garden or as field turnips, To the former Golees the Early Dutch, Early Stone, and the Yellow; to the latter, the Large White, the Globe, the Swedish, the Red-topped, and the Tankard or oblong. 314, For the supply of the table during the early part of summer, some of the early Dutch turnip is commonly sown. If fe weather ee ne watering is er. For a general crop, arge penieackapeid Tehite turnip is Faceamansed excellent, as being soft, juicy, and sweet. One of the kinds with bah the bcabons market is often supplied is the stone turnip, a hard sweet sort, seldom of a large size. The yellow is now perhaps less cultivated than it formerly was ; but the yellow Dutch may still be considered as one of the best kinds for winter use, as no frost» hurts it, and it is of excellent flavour. It is a very distinct Kitche Gardeny xa Turnip.» GBriies Rapa, L.) isa biennial Turnip. é variety, the flesh being yellow it; whereas, _ iu tae elite acichiee,.snay allfierenae.iok ahd 6 abby in the rind. The red or purple-topped turnip was for- merly much cultivated ; but the green-to’ has now in a great measure superseded it, though less hardy. The general crop is often sown towards the end of June, when refreshing showers may be expected. It not uncommonly occupies the ground from which early have just been removed. But as turnips are most esirable for the table in a young state, a small sowing is commonly made once a month from April to August. — If sown earlier than April, the plants are apt to run to seed, To divide the seed more equally when sown broadcast, a little fine earth is mixed with it in sowing. It is frequently sown in drills, an inch deep, and some- what more than a foot asunder. If rain do not occur, frequent watering is of great advantage to the young crops. A light sandy loam, not recently manured, is best for turnip; in a rich garden soil, the roots are apt to become rank and woody. When the root-leaves are about an inch broad, the plants are hoed; and, if they have been sown broadcast, thinned to six or eight inches distance from each other. When young turnips are daily drawn for the table, they may be allowed to stand somewhat closer, the proper degree of thinning being accomplished by pulling for use. If in drills, they may stand at five inches from each other in the lines. Turnips bear transplantation’ difficulty ; et in moist and wes Beene where the seed fase thided! mitegeitog ed up. showery wea- ther has made the leaves spring too- , 80 as to lg he ines I HORTIC A i oe | 8 a | fav gees i ‘a é i 3 ? . | w P = 1 s to be saved, it is of advantage that transplanted, it being thought, that from so transplanted a progeny having sweet and ten- roots red ; while from the untransplant- ed stock-turnips, larger but coarser roots may be ex- tft é tance as i ion of the seed-stock plants is often more completely accomp! possibly be in private gardens. $17. The turnip-fly, or beetle, (Haltica nemorum), is very destructive to the crop when in the seed-leaf. One of the easiest remedies is to sow thick, and thus ensure a sufficiency of plants both for the fly and the crop. Mr Archibald Gorrie, a Scottish gardener of merit, has found, from repeated experience, that if quick- lime ne wei dusted over the crop while yet in the » no attack will be made. A entive is i the young i other herbage, and disappearing g is z t i i z growing. In some places both small roots of stored turnips are en- t may be mentioned, that when turnips over winter, the top leaves form early in the spring, which are par- ly good for eating with salted meat. Naver. ei SS eh 5 8 Ek turnip is a varicty of the Napus, Lin. or Rape, whi parts of Britain. (Eng. tf FE : rs . . i ‘ F 3 : gEPES cPreas 1 ; six inches apart. ULTURE. 257 coarse, and deficient in flavour. The seed is sown April, and the plants are thinned out to about five The navew is sold in Covent Garden Carrot. $19. The Carrot (Daucus carota, Lin,; Pentandria Carrot. Digynia ; nat. ord. Umbel/ifere) is a biennial plant. In its wild state, it is a common weed in this country, ing by the road-sides, and known by the name of ird’s-nest, from the appearance of the umbel when the seeds are ripening. It is in English Botany, t. 1174. The roct of the wild carrot is small, dry, of a white colour, and strong flavoured. The root of the cultivated variety is succulent, and commonly of a yellow or an orange-colour ; it is universally known, and very generally relished, when cooked in various ways, Several varieties are cultivated, particularly the Orange carrot, with a large long root, of an orange- yellow colour; the Early horn and the Late horn car- rot, of both which the roots are short and comparative- ly small ; and the Red or field carrot, which acquires a large size. $20. Carrots are sown at two or three different sea- sons. The first sowing is made as early perhaps as new-year’s day, or at any rate before the first of Feb- ruary, on a warm border or in front of a hot-house. Some employ a gentle hot-bed for this first crop ; while others only hoop over the border, and cover it with mats during frost. The main of carrots is put in, in March or April; and in June or July a small bed is sown to afford young carrots in the autumn months. In some places a sowing is made a month later, to remain over winter, afford young carrots in the following spring. These, however, often prove stringy, but they are useful in flavouring soups. In light early soils, it is better that the principal crop should not be sown sooner than the end of April or beginning of May ; for in this way the attacks of many larve are get seal de ihe thee vocab best ; or rincipal crops, the orange variety is preferred, but the red is also much cultivated. dois The seeds having many forked hairs on their bor- ders, by which they adhere together, are rubbed be- tween the hands with some dry sand, so as to separate them. On account of their lightness, a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be trod in before raking. They are sown either at broad-cast, or in drills a feot apart. When the plants come up, several successive hocings are given ; at first with a three inch, and latterly with a six inch hoe, The plants are thin. ned out, either by drawing young carrots for use, or by hoeing, till they stand eight or ten inches from each other, if sown by broad-cast, or six or seven inches in line. The hoeing is either performed only in showery wea- ther, or a watering is regularly given after the opera. x Kitchen Garden, Carrot, Parsnip. ‘sons insist that the tops should be entirely cut o the time of storing, so as effectually to 258 tion, in order to settle the earth about the roots of the plants left. ‘ , Carrots thrive best in light ground, with a, mixture of sand. It should be delved very deep, or even trench- ed, and at the same time well broken with the spade. If the soil be naturally shallow, the late horn carrot is to'be preferred to the orange or red. When manure is added to carrot ground, it should be buried deep, so that the roots may not reach it, else they are apt to be« come forked and diseased. In general it is best to make carrots the second crop after manuring. From the Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, however, (vol. i. p- 129.) we learn, that pigeons-dung, one of the hot- test manures, far from injuring carrots, promotes their health, by preventing the attacks of various larve. A considerable quantity of carrot-seed for the sup- ly of the London seedsmen, is raised near Wethers- field in Essex; but much is imported from Holland. Cautious gardeners generally prove this and some other kinds of seeds, such as onions, before sowing. This is easily done by putting a sprinkling in a pot, and pla- cing it under a hot-bed frame, or in a forcing house, “Other gardeners transplant a few good roots, and raise their own seed: in this case it is better to gather it on- ly from the principal umbel, which is likely not only \ to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigor- ous plants. $21. Carrots are taken up at the approach of winter, cleaned, and stored among sand. They may be built very firm, by laying them heads and tails alternately, and packing with sand. In this way, if frost be ex- cluded from the store-house, they keep perfectly well till March or April of the following year. Some per at eb their growing ; while others wish to preserve the capability of vegetation, though certainly not to encourage the tendency to grow. : 4 Carrots are now cultivated on an extensive scale in the field. They are excellent for milch cows or for ‘horses ; so that the overplus of a garden may always be turned to good account. From old Parkinson we learn, that carrot leaves were in his day thought so ornamental that ladies wore them in place of feathers, It must be confessed that the leaves are beautiful. If during winter a large root be cut over about three or four inches from the top, and be placed in a shallow vessel with water, over the -chimney-piece, young and delicate leaves unfold them- selves all around, producing a very pretty appearance, enhanced no doubt by the general deadness of that sea- son of the year. Parsnip. 322. The Parsnip, (Pastinaca sativa, L. ; Pentan- dria Digynia; nat. ord. Umbellifere), isa biennial plant. The wild parsnip is not uncommon by the way sides near London, and in many parts of England, chiefly on calcareous soils: it is figured in English Bo- tany, t. 556. ‘The garden variety has smoo leaves, of ‘a light or yellowish green colour, in which it dif- fers trom the wild plant, the leaves of which are hairy and dark green ; the roots also have a milder taste: 4t does not, however, differ so much from the native plant, as the cultivated does from the native carrot. t has long been an inmate of the garden, and it was formerly much more in use than it is now. It was, mm Catholic times, a fayourite Lent root, being eaten with HORTICULTURE. salted fish. It is doubtless a highly nutritious eseus lent, and the increase of its cultivation might be useful to the labouring class in England. In the north of Scots land, parsnips are often beat up with potatoes and a little butter; of this excellent mess the children of the peasantry are very fond, and they‘do not fail to ‘thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a pleasant table be- verage is prepared from the roots, brewed along’ with hops. Parsnip wine is also made’ in some places. If the crop prove too large for the use of the family, the superfluous part (as has been remarked of turnips and carrots) will be found to be very acceptable and useful to a milch cow, : The soil preferred for parsnips is a light loam, but almost any soi] will do, provided it be pretty deep ; the parsnip requires, however, a stronger soil than the carrot. The quarter should be trenched, or at least deeply dug, in order that the roots may have seme to strike freely downwards. The seed is sown, cast, in. March, either alone, or together with a pro- portion of radishes, lettuces, or carrots, and in light soils it is well trodden in: the salad plants being soon removed, or the carrots drawn young, do not materi- ally hinder the growth of the -parsnips, which spread and swell chiefly in the latter part of the summer. The parsnips are hoed out to about eight or ten inches asunder, or in strong ground a little wider; and the hoeing is repeated as often as the growth of weeds may render it proper. When the leaves begin ‘to decay, the roots are fit for use. ‘They are taken up as wanted during the winter, the root not being in the least injured by frost. About the beginning of Febru- ary, however, the remaining part of the crop is raised and stored among sand, as the roots become stringy 2s soon as the new growth takes place, and the’ flower- stalk begins to form. In some places, the whole cro is taken up in the end of October, and either sturrelt in sand like carrots, or placed in covered pits in the manner of potatoes. If two or three large’ roots be transplanted to a sheltered border, they will not fail to ripen their seeds, and to afford a sufficient supply: it is proper to tie the flower-stems to stakes, as they grow high, and are apt to be broken over by the wind. Seed that is more than a year old should never be sown. . In the first volume of the Scottish Horticultural Me- moirs, (p. 405), Dr Macculloch has described two va- rieties of parsnip, which are cultivated in the Channel Islands, and there attain extraordinary size,—the ‘Co- quaine and Lisbonaise. The former runs deep into the soil, perhaps three or four feet; the latter becomes thick, but remains short, and is: therefore suited’ to shallow soils. The French writers describe a variety having the root of a yellowish colour, more tender, and of a richer taste than the common kind: they call it the Siam parsnip. te Red Beet. $23. Red Beet (Beta vulgaris, L, Pentandria Digy- nia; Atriplices, Juss.) is a biennial plant, a native of the seacoast of the’south of Europe. It was cultivated by Tradescant the younger in 1656. It >was : called in, this country beel-rave (or beet-radish), from the French name bette-rave. The leaves*of the: cultic vated sort are large, thick, and succulent, generally red or purple; the roots large, perhaps three or fourinches in diameter, and a foot inl , and of a )red co- lour, They are boiled and sliced, and eaten‘cold, either a Pérsnip. ¢ 7 Red beet. ; HORTICULTURE. iy i i 4 i = a ; i 5 j eee i ghee at j i r F i 3 4 i i i : ; use in August. that of common esteemed and more in use it is at the present day. In the “ Systema Horticultwra, by J. W. gent. 1682,” ere is decked to be the ~ sweetest, whitest ond most pleasant of roota.” It is a perennial it; the lower leaves pi 5 the athe daieiptiinene tot high, and terminated by an umbel of white flowers. The root is composed of fleshy tubers, of the size of the Kitchen ous little finger, joined together in one head : these formthe .. 5.2), : part of the plant used. They are considered wholesome and nutritive, but, having So te 2 OB ae relished by many persons. are y boi and saneed ith teetind like decent Tathe north of Scotland, the plant is cultivated under the name of crummeck, It 1s the chervis of the French. Any light soil is found to answer for skirret. If the ground be naturally moist, so much the better. In very dry soils, or during long-continued drought, watering isproper: The seed is not sown sooner than the beginning of April, lest the plunts should ‘ran to flower the first season, when the tubers would become harsh and stringy Repeated thinning and hoeing are proper, as in the case of similar crops. When the leaves begin to decay in autumn, the tubers are consi+ dered as fit for use; but they are generally left in the ground, and taken up as wanted. Sometimes the plants which remain over winter, are dug up in the spring, and the side-shoots, each with an eye or bud, are trans- for a new These are commonly put in with the dibble, and covered over head with an inch depth of soil. But the tubers yielded by plants pro- pegated in this way are not solarge as those of seedling plants. Scorzonera, 327. Scorzonera, or garden viper’s grass, ( Scorzonera Hispanica, L. ; Syagenesia Polygamia las ; Cichora- cea, Juss.) is a native of Spain, the south of France, and: Italy. stem rises two or three feet high, with 'a few embracing leaves, and is branched at top; the lower leaves are eight or nine inches long, and efid in a sharp point; the flowers are yellow. It was culti- vated in gardens in this country tn the end of the 16th cen - The tap root is the part used ; it is carrot. , about the thickness of one’s finger; tapering ly to a fine point, and thus bearing some resem to the body of a viper: it has a dark brown skin, but is white within, and abounds with a mi juice. The outer rind being scraped off, the root is map tnd oe in order to abstract a part of its bit- ter flavour. The plant is not, in the present day, much gees hae The seeds are sown in an deep soil, general! in drills, about a foot pire: Bos tins they ots mf main, after being thinned out to four inches apart. The is perennial; but the roots are fit for use only the first autumn and winter after sowing, while as yet no flower-stem has risen ; the roots, like all others, becoming tough when the flowers are produ- ced. To avoid the risk of the plants running to flower the first season, the seed is not sown till the middle of April. If a few strong plants be left, they yield seeds freely the following year; or the plant may be by slips in the manner of skirrets; but the roots thus procured are not so good or tender as those from seed. In some gardens, the roots arte lifted in November, and stored in the manner of carrots ; in others, they are left in the ground, and taken up during winter as wanted. _ Salsify. * $28. Salsify, or purple porrifolius, L; Syngenesia Polygamia aqualis ; Cicho- racea, Juss,), is a fie plant, a native of some parts Scorzonera, ve-beard, (Tragopagon gutsity. Kitchen of England, but not common ; Garden. Sulsify. Radish, 260 figured in English Bo- tany, t. 638. It is the salsifis or cercifis of the French, The root is long and tapering, of a fleshy white sub- stance; the herb smooth, glaucous, and rising three or four feet high; the leaves resembling those of the leek, as intimated in the trivial name; the flow- ers of a dull purple colour, closing soon after mid- day ; the setd, as in other species of goat’s-beard, re- markable for having attached to it a broad feathery crown. » It has been cultivated for a century past in our gardens, but Gerarde and Parkinson do not men- tion it; while they recommend the yellow t's beard, Tragopogon pratensis, which is now neglected. Salsify roots boiled or stewed like carrots, have a mild sweetish flavour. The stalks of year-old plants are sometimes cut in the spring when about four or five inches high, and dressed like asparagus. Salsify is at present, however, but little attended to. It is sown in April, and thinned, like similar crops, to six or eight inches apart. A mellow and deep soil affords the best plants. They may remain in the ground all winter, and be taken up as wanted. If two or three roots be left, or be transplanted in the au- tumn, they will afford abundance of seed the follow- ing year. Radish. 529. The Radish (Raphanus sativus, L.; Tetrady- namia Siliquosa; nat. ord. Crucifere) is an annual plant, originally from China. It is mentioned by Ge- rarde ; and was probably known in England long be- fore his time. The leaves are rough, lyrate or divided transversely into segments, of which the inferior less ones. are more remote ; the root fleshy, fusiform in some varieties, in others subglobular ; white within, but black, purple, or white on the outside ; the flowers pale hoa with large dark veins; pods long, with a sh ; There are two principal varieties, distinguished by the shapes of the roots already mentioned : 1. With fu- siform roots, the long-rooted or. spindle-rooted radish, the rave of the French ; 2. With subglobular roots, the turnip-rooted radish, the radis of the French. The roots of both are used principally in the way of salad, in winter and the early part of spring. Formerly the leaves were often boiled and eaten ; but now the roots only are employed ; and as they are always used raw, the plant might, without impropriety, have been rank- ed under the title of Salads. $30. Of the spindle-rooted kind, the subvarieties much in cultivation are, the small-topped or short-top- ped purple, the leayes of which occupy little room ; and the pink er rose-coloured, or, as it is frequently cal- led, the salmon radish. There is also an early dwarf- ish short topped red, and an early short-topped salmon- radish, sown for the first crops, and used for forcing. Of the turnip-rooted kind, there are several subvarieties, The small turnip-rooted white or Naples radishes, when they appear in the green market in spring, are not un- frequently mistaken for young turnips: they should be eaten young, when crisp and rok » being, when full grown, rather hot and harsh. There is also a small turnip-rooted red radish ; and, the queen radish, both red and white. The black turnip-rooted or Spa- nish radish (raifort of the French) has a dark coloured skin, but is white within; though rather coarser than the others, it is much esteemed for autumn and winter use. Radishes are sown for the earliest crop in the be. 1 HORTICULTURE. ginning of November in a sheltered border, or in front of a pinery or green-house ; and they are ready for ita Gardety — eer drawing early in March. More seed is sown in De~ pia cember or Jan : and sowings are continued once a fortnight till ‘Apes so as to secure a succession of young roots as they may be wanted. Any sort of light soil answers, but it should be of sufficient depth to allow the long roots to penetrate easily. A slight covering of fern (pieris) is found very useful in the early spring months, when sharp frosts occur: this cov may be raked off in the day-time, and restored at night, without much injury tothe leaves of the young radishes. When very dry weather oc- curs in the end of march, the crops are regularly wa- tered. They who wish to have large radishes, are sometimes at the pains to prick a number of holes with the finger, and to drop a seed into each hole. Only a little earth is then tumbled into it, the greater part of the hole being left vacant. The root is hes induced to swell, and long and semi-transparent radishes are cured. Some gardeners mix spinach seed with their later sowings of radishes ; so that when the radishes are drawn, the other soon covers the ground. \ Others sow lettuce and onions along with radishes. If radishes are to be drawn when small, they are allowed) to stand at two inches only apart ; otherwise they have twice that space or more allowed them. When crowded, they are apt to become stringy in the root. $31. The turnip-radish is sown in February or March, and the plants are thinned out to about six inches with a small hoe. The red and the white queen radish, and the black Spanish radish, are sown from the middle of July to the middle of September, and thinned out in the same manner. They are fit for use in the begin« ning of September; and before hard frost comes on, » they are generally taken up, and stored among sand like carrots, the tops being cut close off: in this way they are ready for use throughout the winter. ; The dwarf early short-topped red, and early short« topped salmon radishes, are easily forced on a hot-bed: if the seed be sown by the middle of November, the radishes will be fit for drawing by the end of Decem- ber, and will afford a supply for a month. Care must be taken to have a sufficiently thick layer of earth to hinder them from penetrating into the dung. The seed of any of the sorts is easily procured by transplanting a few of the best and most cteristic plants of the respective kinds: the sorts should be placed as far from each other as possible, to prevent commixture of pollen. It may be noticed, that the young and green seed« pods are sometimes used for pickling ; and are perhaps scarcely inferior to nasturtiums. It may also be mentioned, that Delaunay, in his Bon Jardinier, 1815, describes a new sort of turnip< radish, introduced of late years into France from Egypt; it is remarkable for being of a yellow colour. It has more poignancy than any of the kinds except the black ; and experience. has shewn that it may be pro- duced, in the Paris gardens, at almost any season of the year. Alliaceous Tribe. Onion. $82. ‘The Onion (Allium Cepa, L. Hexandria Mo- Onion nogynia; Asphodeli, Juss.) is a biennial plant, well 1 HORTICULTURE. 261 the growth to the bulb, the erop is Jaid over, as it is Kitchen called. This ion is described by Nicol in his Garden. « Kalendar.” Twe people, with a rod or rake-handle, a. walk along the alleys, holding the rod so as to strike the stems an inch or two above the bulb, and bend oval very them flat down. Winter onions thus managed, may be long. - a? onion may be asa taken up about the end of June, and are generally firm subvariety of Strasbargh. The white Spanish and long. eae 2 onion grows to a large size, and is of a flat Al. ,_In order to firm Senate babs prepara pickling, some seed should be sown late in the spring, en about the middle of April, in light'and very poor d. It should be sown pretty thick; and ‘the seed- lings need scarcely be thinned, unless where they rise absolutely in clusters, The bulbs thus treated are gene- rally of a r size for pickling in August. The smalt silyer-skinn pay & it has been already mentioned, is well adapted for this purpose. It may here be noticed, that such of the ing onions as have sprouted in the loft, are sometimes plant- ed in a bed early in the spring, re roar market« In a short time they appear , throw- ing out long green leaves. They are then sent to mar- ket, tied in small bunches, and sold as a substitute for scallions, and under that name. ; $35. It has long been known, that y seedling onions might be transplanted with success. Even Wor- lidge, in his little treatise on gardening,* published in the end of the 17th century, praises this mode. The practice has of late years been revived, and recommend- ed in England by Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq. and in Scotland by Mr James Macdonald, to the Duke of Buccleuch at Dalkeith. Mr Knight's plan is, to sow the onion seed at the ordinary autumn season, thick under the shade ofa tree, and to trans plant the bulbs the following spring: be thus es onions equal in size and other qualities to those import ed from Spain, Mr Macdonald, again, lants the young spring sown onions. He sows in P sometimes on a slight hot-bed, or merely under a glass frame ; and between the beginning of April and the middle of the month, according to the state of the wea« ther, he transplants the young seedlings, in drills about 1 : : il i i ib i 3 but en, which has : it 1 be well delved, ly levelled. In heavy land, it is to sow in the end of Hala: ret iar Utes f : iti L h i ; ; E 5 f : be dry at the time of thinning, a plentiful watering is eight inches asunder, and at the distance of four or five necessary for paring ine to the roots of the re- inches from each other in the row. It is evident, that plants. A the end of August the is by thus having the crop in regular rows, hoeing may ripe, which is known by the leaves falling down. The not only su hand-weeding, but may be more ef= onions are then drawn, and laid out on a dry of fectuall ormed. The bulbs thus enjoying the great ground, such as a gravel walk, and occasionally turn- and well-known advantages of having the surface-earth ed. Ina ight they are generally found sufficient- frequently stirred, swell to a much size than : ly firm and lor keeping; and they are then stored those not transplanted ; while in firmness and flavour in gare o (never in a cellar,) and excluded as they are certainly not inferior to foreign onions. At 3 as may be from the air. They are still very apt the same time the transplanted onions remain free from } to grow ; and to prevent this, some are at the pains to wire-worm or rot, while those left in the original seed- aelect the finest bulbs, and singe the radicles with a bed are frequently much injured by both. The beds ' hot iron. In many places they are strung in bunches, «lestined for these onions having probably been under a 4 and ap from the roof of the loft. winter crop, are deeply delved over in the beginning of 4 334. secondary crop of onions is sown in Au- April, and thus rendered clean at the most critical sea- ba gust or the beginning of September, and called the Mi- son of the year for the larva that infest the soil. Be-« ' chaelmas or winter crop. They are thinned in the sides, the plants grow with superior vigour, in conse~ . usual way ; and weeds must be carefully kept down, as quence of the repeated hocings and are thus better a they spring up\very rapidly at this season of the year. able to resist injuries. Mr M‘Donald, indeed, some- 7 In the spring months, when the keeping onions fail, times practises the dipping of the roots of seedlings + part of these autumn sown onions are drawn for use: in a puddle prepared with one part of soot and three the remainder form bulbs, which are ready in the early bape po In the course of May, however, some bs will be observed a flower-stem: these are cast out; and to check this tendency, and divert rts of earth; but this may probably be dispensed vith, as it seems likely that the cxnenption from the at- tacks of the worm or the power of resisting them, de- pend rather on the other circumstances mentioned. It * Systema Horticulture, by J. W. gent.—2d edit. 1083, Kitchen Garden. Onion. Tree onion. 262 may be added, that all the varieties of onion seem to answer equally well for transplanting, Various means have been suggested of guarding against the attack of the maggot alluded to. One of the most simple and most important, consists in select- ing a fresh soil and an airy situation, never sowing on recently manured land, It is proper to avoid having very tender plants at the season when the maggot is known commonly to make its appearance: by sowing a fortnight or three weeks later or earlier, crops might often be saved. It is frequently remarked, that while spring sown onions are cut off, the autumn sown crop escapes. Mr Machray at Errol has suggested the pro- ptiety of sowing onions only after crops known not to be subject to the attacks of the maggot, such as straw- berries and artichokes. This plan, he informs us, (Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 274.) he has practised for a number of years, and has found effectual in preser- ving his onions ; while it is attended with no inconve- niency, as nothing can be more easy than to keep up a succession of strawberry and artichoke plants. 336. The procuring of fresh seed is a matter of im- portance ; for if it be kept over a year, a great part will not germinate. Onion seed can be ripened in our cli- mate; but some how or other it is very apt to degenerate. A good deal, however, is yearly saved in the neigh- hourhood of Deptford. Imported seed is always pro- ved by attentive gardeners, and also by seedsmen: a small sample being sown in a flower-pot, and placed in a hot-house, the quality, as far as capability of germi- nation is concerned, is soon determined. When it is intended to collect home seed, some of the firmest, largest, and best shaped bulbs are selected, and planted out in February or March, in good ground, near a south wall or hedg . When the heads are formed, they are supported by lines of small cord passed be- tween stakes. In September, if the season be favour- able, the seed ripens, turning to a brown colour, and beginning to burst the baile which contain it. The heads are then gathered ; and when dried, the seeds are beat out, and kept in paper bags. 337. A bulbiferous variety is cultivated in some gardens, under the name of Tree onion. Its eulture has been recommended by Mr George Nicol of Edin- burgh, in the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, (vol. i. p. 350.) under the title of Adium Cana- dense, a species for which it has very generally been mistaken. The stems from two-year old plants rise more than two feet high. Several bulbs of different sizes are produced at the top of the stem, and these, as well as the root-bulbs, may be used for kitchen pur- poses like common onions. They are of good flavour, though rather stronger in taste than common onions. begs oe well adapted for keeping, and especially for pickling. Mr Nicol observes, that they are very seldom infe by ots; and he recommends, therefore, that a few stock-bulbs should be preserved in gardens, to provide against the contingency of the crop of com« mon onions failing. . This bulb-bearing or’ tree-onion is figured in the « Botanical Magazine,” plate 1469, and described by Dr Sims as merely a variety of the Allium cepa. It is certainly not the Allium Canadense of Willdenow or Pursh, (for which, as already noticed, it has been ge- nerally mistaken,) the Canadian plant having flat linear leaves, and a slender uninflated stem, with top-bulbs resembling those of garlic. But, on the other hand, it differs from the common onion, not only in producing bulbs at top, but in having a stronger alliaceous fla~ HORTICULTURE: Se reset, aay ieee Seal vour, and in might constitu } : $38. The Egyptian onion, or Ground onion, has been considered as another variety of Allium cepa, but seems to be more nearly allied to A. fistulosum. Instead of producing bulbs at the top of the stem like the form- er, this plant produces clusters at the surface of the areas in the manner. of potatoes. It was brought tom Egypt, it is ‘believed, during the occupation of that country by the British army, and was ‘first -culti- vated in the neighbourhood of Bainburgh in 1811, by Lieutenant Burn of the Royal Navy. The bulbs are planted in April, at a foot or sixteen inches asunder, and covered with earth only about half an inch dee In the course of the season, a number of bulbs form in clusters around the parent bulb, as already described ; those nearest the surface grow largest; those toward the centre are’ soonest ripe, and may be removed ‘to give room to the others. If intended for keeping, the should be taken up before they attain maturity. If al. lowed to remain long in the ground, they sometimes become of a very large size, The bulb seems quite hardy, having been observed to brave the severity of frosty weather, at least equally well as the common onion. Flower stems rise sparingly, and only from strong bulbs. In quality the ground onion seems not inferior to the common onion. It morespeedily reaches maturity, being planted in April; and reaped in Au- gust and September. Maggots have not been observed to infest it; but it has’ not been ascertained that they will not attack it. T'rom our own experience: we suspect, that it will speedily degenerate in this coun- try. 339 The scallion seems to be a third variety of the geattion. Allium Cepa, distinguished by the circumstance of its never forming a bulb at the root. Miller states, that the scallion is propagated by parting the roots in au tumn; that it grows in almost a soil or situation, and resists our severest winters. He adds, that being green and fit for use very early in the spring, it is wor- thy of a place in all good kitchen gardens. It was, in« deed, formerly much in use; but the true scallion is now very little known, and is said to exist only in a few gardens, where it is preserved by way of curiosity. Some derive the name scallion or escallion from ascalo~ nicum, and without more ado identify it with the rocams bole, (A. ascalonicum) ; others consider it as synony« mous with the Welch onion, (A. fistulosum) ; but both these species were well known to Miller, and accurate« ly distinguished by him, and yet he describes the scal-« lion as something different. In popular language, scal« lion means sometimes a thick-necked seedling onion, drawn for use in the green state ; and sometimes, as al- ready mentioned, a winter kept onion which has sprouted, and is planted for some weeks in the spring till it acquire green leaves. Leek. 840. The Leek ( Allium Porrum, L.; Poireau of the Leck. French) is’ a native of Switzerland, and a biennial plant. The stem rises three feet, and is leafy at bot- _ tom, the leaves an inch wide. The flowers a in May, in close very large balls, on purplish peduncles. The whole plant is used for culinary purposes ; but the blanched stem is most esteemed. It is in season in winter and spring, and is chiefly used in soups, and for stewing. It is mentioned by Tusser in 1562, but was if — 9 ee mae _—— a HORTICULTURE. known in this country Jong before that date. ee TS aol ata to the Welch, to Dutchmen butter’s dear !” Dodmdar eg sng ion of a plain. prose writer i remark : “ I have oop eet ‘there. stored with leeks,” says Worlidge, : Wales, “ and part of the remainder with “t L ni g5 be to be derived from p e error jes: the ede or : the Scotch, leek, sometimes called Hessibnae leek ; and the broad-leaved or tall latter variety is often cultivated ; situations, the Scotch leek is by much i : ef i : 3 bu' the more z are Tabed from seeds sown in the spring, same Way as onions, and occasionally along ; They are at first sown closely in beds ; and in June or July, when early cabbage or an early crop is removed, the leeks are planted out in rows about a foot and six inches asunder in the rows. The tips of the leaves, and the pau of the fibrous roots, are before planting. A good commonly trimmed o' : os rice hole with the dibble, and mere- to lay in the - up to the leaves, without ing the earth about it. In this way the stem of the leek is encouraged to swell and len, and is at the blanched. This plan, however, must either ri i a5 . E Z : as : FS Le ft z E aE u a 2 9 a i ee if : B E ‘tah He peice 268 use, then very greén and tender. As might be expected of a Siberian plant, it withstands our severest Kitchen: Garden. winters. The wide-swelling fistular leaves give it ra- Goyx aA ther a curious appearance ; a few ts ma’ be suffered to stand on Tee inde of te pully where they will in ripen their seed. Dr Johnson (Dict. in loco) remarks, that the name cibol is frequently used in the Scotch dialect, but that the lis not pronounced. By the term cibo or sybie, however, the Scots mean a young ing onion of the common kind, gathered for use before the swelling of the bulb: the true cibol is very little cultivated in Scotland, and is not distinguished by the common_peo- ple. Chives. $42. The Chive, or Cive, (Allium Schenoprasum, Chives. L.) is a perennial plant, of more humble growth than _ of its rae 8 the garden. It is a native of Britain, but not common: it occurs, among other pla- ces, in the south of Scotland, we: bora hills rae Haw- ick ; it is figured in “ English Botan ;" plate 2441. The bulbs are very small and flat, and he connected in clusters. When gathered for use, they are cut or shorn like. cresses, and on this account are ge- nerally spoken of in the plural. The young leaves are employed principally as a salad ingredient in the spring, being accounted milder than scallions. Occa- tonal the leaves and émall bulbs are used together, sli to the bottom, and thus forming, as it were, separate little cibols. Sometimes they are added as a seasoning to omelets ; end they are useful for other cu- Chives are readily propagated by parting the roots, either in autumn or spring, and they will grow in any soil or situation. They should be repeatedly cut du- ring the summer season, the successive leaves us ced in this way being more tender. A small or border thus managed, will afford a sufficient supply : it will continue productive for three or four years, when a new plantation should be made. Chives are some- times p as an edging; and if they be allowed to grow up, they make a pretty enough appearance with their pale purple flowers in June. ~ Garlic. 348. Garlic ( Allium sativum, L. ; Ail of the French) Garlic. is a nial t, ing naturally in Sicily, and in ae conth EF: rence. The leaves i “al long, and narrow. It has a bulbous root, made up of a do- zen or fifteen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. It was cultivated in England in 1548 ; but had probably been known long before that period. When an entire bulb is planted, it does not fail to throw up a flower-stem in the summer ; but this is not wished. Garlic.is there- fore propagated by detaching the cloves, and i them ; and in this way the tendency to flower is less. It may be propagated also by the seed ; but this mode is tedious, three years elapsing before a tolerable is produced. The soil should be light and dry, well ved, and broken fine. The sets are placed four inches distant from each other in every direction, and between two and three inches deep. smaller the cloves, the more healthy and productive are the plants. They are t in, in February or March. About the middle of une the leaves are tied in knots, to prevent the strong- er plants from spindling or running to flower, and Kitchen Garden. Shallot. Shallot, Rocambole, 264 to promote the swelling of the bulbs. The crop is taken up in August, when the leaves begin to wither. The roots are tied in bunches, and hung in a dry room for use. Garlic is used in seasoning various kinds of dishes, being in general introduced only for a short time into the dish while cooking, and withdrawn when a sufficient degree of flavour has been communicated. It is much more employed in French cookery than in ours. An ordinary sized bed commonly furnishes a sufficient supply for the use of a large family in this country. Shaliot. $44, The Shallot (Allium ascalonicum, L.) is a per- ennial plant, a native of the Holy Land, where it was observed by Hasselquist. schalot (or Eschalotte, F.) is the more correct denomination, the name being de- rived from Ascalon, a town in Palestine. In some old books it is styled barren onion, from the circumstance of its seldom sending up a flower-stalk. In size and general growth the plant resembles the chive; but it produces bulbous roots composed of cloves like garlic, These are used for culinary purposes in the manner of garlic ; but they are milder, and do not communi- cate to the breath the offensive flavour which garlic or even raw onions impart. The culture of shallots is greatly similar to that of garlic; only the offsets or cloves are planted more early, and the crop is somewhat sooner taken up. The smallest and longest cloves form the best sets, being least subject to grow mouldy. A good soil is desira- ble for them ; but one that has been manured for a for- mer crop is to be preferred ; for in soil newly dunged, the plants are much more apt to be infested with mag- gots. Mr Marshall very properly recommends plant- ing in autumn where the soil is dry, and in spring where it is naturally damp. The severest frosts seem to-have no effect in injuring the roots. The crop is taken up, in the end of summer, when the leaves be- come discoloured ; and the bulbs are hung up in nets in a cool airy place, for use. Mr Machray at Errol mentions (Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 275), that he has found soot mixed with the manure given to shallot beds effectual in preventing the ap- pearance of maggots ; while the shallots were impro- ved in size. But Mr Henderson, gardener at Delvine in Scotland, has recommended the planting of shallots in autumn, as the sutest way of enabling them to escape or withstand the attacks of these vermin, (Scot- tish Hort. Mem. i. 200.) He plants his shallots about the middle of October, the ground being previonsly manured with old well-rotted dung mixed with house ashes. He mentions, that he had, on one occasion, a parcel of spring planted shallots only seven feet distant trom those planted in autumn; and that the former were totally destroyed by the maggot, while the latter proved productive and good. Rocambole. $45. The Rocambole (Allium Scorodoprasum, L.; Ail d’ Espagne of the French) is a perennial plant, in- digenous to Sweden and Denmark. It has compound bulbs like garlic, but the cloves are smaller; it sends up a stem two feet high, which is bulbiferous. We know that the rocambole was cultivated by Gerarde in - 1596, but it was probably introduced long before. The cloves are used in the manner of garlic’or shallot, and HORTICULTURE. nearly for the same purposes. At the top of the stem,’ along with the flower, in July and August, small bulbs (which have-sometimes been called seeds) are produced; these may likewise be used, and indeed they are, strict- ly speaking, the proper rocamboles. The plant may be propagated by means of either sort of bulbs ; but those of the root are most speedily productive. They are commonly planted in the spring ; but in dry ground they are put in, in the aatumn, the produce being in this way of a larger size. Those plants which do not push up a flower-stem naturally produce the strongest root-bulbs ; and if it is not wish- ed that the plants should fruit, the smaller the offsets planted the better. The culture is otherwise the same rd that of garlic, A few rows of rocambole are suf- cient, - Spinach Plants. Spinach. 346. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea, L.; Diwcia Pen- tandria ; Atriplices, Juss. Epinard, F.) is an annual plant, with the leaves large, the stems hollow, branch- ing, and, when allowed to produce flowers, rising two feet high. It is dicecious, or the male and the female flowers are produced on different plants ; the former come in long spikes; the latter appear in clus- ters, close to the stalk, at every joint. Spinach is the only dioecious plant cultivated for culinary use. West- ern Asia is the country of which our garden spinach is considered as originally a native. It has been cul- tivated in Britain from the earliest times of which we ssess any horticultural record, for the sake of the ener which are used in soups, or boiled and mashed, and served up with butter, and eggs hard done. There are two principal varieties, the prickly-seeded, with triangular, oblong, or ittate leaves ; and the smooth-seeded, with round or blunt leaves. The for- mer is the more hardy, and is employed for winter cul« ture; the latter has more succulent leaves, and is pree ferred for summer crops. For the winter crop, therefore, the seed of the prick« ly kind is sown in the beginning of ny, Sry when rains may soon be e ed. efi i ih : F g z i i if fi i t ee 3 paper already overdone in covking ; it should be thoroughly drained, and then suffered to remain a few minutes be- fore the fire, that a farther ate mecictonn ax be exhaled. From four to six s, according to the size, loured down ; the midrib deeply channelled and fur- rewed. The appearance of the fower-heads is familiar. These, in an immature state, contain the part used, which is the fleshy receptacle, commonly called the bottom, freed from the bristles and seed-down, vulgarly called the choke. In the usual way of cooking, the en- tire heads are boiled. In eating, the portions of the receptacle adifering to the base of the calyx-leaves or scales are also used. The bottoms are sometimes fried in paste, and they form a desirable ingredient in ra- gouts. They are occasionally used for pickling ; and sometimes they are slowly dried, and kept in paper- bags for winter use. In France the bottoms of young artichokes are frequently used in the raw state as a salad ; thin slices are cut from the bottom, with a scale or calyx-leaf attached, by which the slice is lifted, and i in oil and vinegar before eating. 365. There are two varieties cultivated ; the French, conical, or green artichoke ; and the Globe or red arti- choke. The head of the former is rathér of an oval shape ; the scales are open, and not turned in at top as in the globe artichoke. The latter is distinguished not only by the shape, and by the position of the scales, but by Ne of » dusky purplecolour, The re- ceptacle of the globe artichoke 1s more succulent than that of the Freneh, but the latter is generally consider. ed as possessing more flavour. Artichokes are increased by rooted slips or suckers of sea-cale as a delicate culinary v le, should be taken off at the time of the spring dressing, in the be- unknown. in _an edition of his . ginning of April. They delight in a light loam, cool lar du Jardinier, published in 1807, deseribes t dry, and which is at the same time rich and deep. the chow marin ore 2 ragtremine Foy we but he appears to have to make use of the full grown In eee i for this crop, the soil should be trenched to the depth of three feet, or at least two feet and a leaves, instead of the blanched saree half, and manure should be liberally placed in the bot- a Coarser mess can be imagined ; it isno tom of the trench. In dry weather, the young plants wonder therefore that he the merits of sea- Artichokes ren regular es for some time. wi well in a situation somewhat shaded, bat oad aes bo elder the drip of trees. Ina free airy situation, however, the heads are of bet- “ool 2 ions, that th he icol mentions, that the strongest ever saw, | glee ange Fong fo that had been trenched ully a yard in depth, and had been well enriched with dung, and limed ; and that the plants were covered before winter with a mixture of le Vitter Kitchen Garden. Artichoke, 270 luxuriance of the plants in. these is to be ascribed to the liberal supply of ‘sea-weed dug into the ground every autumn. It was long ago remarked by a_horti- cultural writer, that ‘* water drawn from ashes, or im- proved by any fixed salt, is very good for artichokes.” Systema Agriculture, 1682. 366. The plants are often placed four feet apart every way: sometimes they are planted three feet apart in rows, and the rows are kept six feet asunder. In many of the market-gardens near London, the rows are eight or ten feet from each other ; intermediate low- - growing crops are sown or planted, the artichokes be- ing always allowed five feet free. Some gardeners plant two offsets together ; and if both survive and prove Strong, they afterwards remove one. Others plant three offsets in a triangular patch or stock, each offset being ten or twelve inches from the other; and these stocks are af- terwards treated as if they were single plants. A crop of spinach or turnip is generally taken, for the first year, even between the closest rows. At the end of the first season after planting, a small and late crop of articlioke-heads is Pore generally in October. In the second year, the leaves of the plants will almost meet in the rows. To encourage the production of large main heads, some detach all the lateral heads in a young state, These are commonly ina fit state for eating raw, having attained about one third of their proper size ; and they are for this purpose frequently sold in Covent Garden market, chiefly to foreigners. Another thing practised with the same view, is the shortening the ends of the large leaves. When all the heads are gathered, the whole stalks are broken down close to the ground, in order to save the useless expenditure of sap, and to promote the setting out of young shoots at the root. In November the plants are earthed up, or, in other words, a portion of earth is drawn around each plant. It was formerly a custom to make a trench between the rows, and to fill this trench “ with dung which would not freeze ;” the earth thrown out, forming a ridge around the plants. Some modern writers re- commended the shaking of the trench, but omitted to speak of filling it with dung; so that the roots of the plants were thus more exposed than if the ground had been left untouched. In this way the forming of any trench came into disrepute; and, as already noticed, the best practical gardeners now only draw the earth from the surrounding surface towards the plants.. Lon dung, peas haulm, old tanners bark, or such stuff are then laid around, but kept at some distance from the stems and leaves of the plants, 867. The spring dressing is equally important. The litter and earth being removed, in March or April, ac- cording to the kind of season, the stocks are examined ; and two or three of the strongest or best shoots bein selected for growing up, the rest are removed : this is of+ ten done merely By pressure with the thumb, but some- times a knife or chisel is employed. It was formerly mentioned that this is the proper time for procuring young plants. It is remarked by gardeners, that the shoots from the under part of the stock, which are soft and crisp, are preferable to those from the crown of the roots, which have hard and rather woody stems. If the sufficient to ensure its growth. ‘Artichoke plants continue productive for several years; but, teh Season, some well-rotted dung or fresh , sea-weed, should be delved into the ground at the win- ter dressing, It is certain, however, that after a few- HORTICULTURE, years, the plants begin to degenerate, the héads'bes Kitchen er and less succulent. It is therefore a Garden. - coming smal general rule not to keep an artichoke plantation bes ““Y——" yond four or at most six years. Scarcely any kind of ein grub or wire-worm ever touches the roots of artichokes : they form, therefore, an excellent preparative for a.crop of onions, shallot, or garlic. In many gardens a small new plantation is formed every year; and in this way the artichoke season, which begins in June, is prolong« ed till November; those from Ao old stocks continuing till August, when those from the new stocks come in. If the last gathered be cut with the stems at fulb lpi, and if these be stuck among moist sand; the heads may be preserved a month longer. Tf some of the large heads on the old stocks be sufs fered to remain, the calyx-leaves expand, and the cen tre of the head becomes covered with jagged purple florets, producing a fine appearance, The flowers pos« sess the quality of coagulating milk, and have some« times been used in place>of runnet, In general the seed is not perfected in our climate... When ripe seed is wanted, it is found useful to bend down the heads af: ter flowering, in such a way that the autumnal rains may be cast off by the calyx-scales ; and the heads are retained in this posture by being tied to stakes, 368. The chard of artichokes, or the tender central leaf-stalk blanched, is by some thought preferable to that of the cardoon. When the artichoke quarter is to be shifted, and the old stocks are at any rate to be de< stroyed, the plants may be prepared, after midsummer, when the best crop of heads is over, for yielding chards against winter, ‘The leaves are to be cut over within half a foot of the ground; the stems as low as is ble. In September or October, when the new cist or leaves are about two feet high, they are bound close with a wreath of hay or, straw, and earth or litter is drawn round the stems of the plants. ‘The blanchi is perfected in a month or six weeks. If the are wished late in winter, the whole plants may be dug up, before frost sets in, and. laid)in sand in their blanched state; in this way they may be kept. for ses veral weeks, Cardoon. ~ & y ' 369.. The Cardoon, (Cynara Cardunculus, L.) or, a8 Geraoon, it is sometimes written, Chardon, is known by nearly the same name in all the European languages. Itis a perennial plant, and.is considered as indigenous to the’ south of France and. to Spain. It so greatly resembles the artichoke as to require no other description. It. rises to a greater height than that plant, and becomes sometimes really a gigantic vegetable. It was culti- vated in 1683, by Sutherland, in the Botanic Garden at Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh; but its use ‘as a culi- nary plant. was known in England previous to that period, The leaf-stalks of the inner leaves, which are fleshy and crisp, afford the eatable part, or chard. They are rendered white and tender by blanching, to’ the extent of two or even three feet. Cardoons are in season in winter; they are employed in soups and stews, and sometimes as a salad, eaten either raw or _ boiled. In this country they are not muchin demand, shoot be six or eight inches long it is enough; and if, it be furnished with two or three small fibres, they are. and the crop is to be seen only in some private gar- dens, and in a few of the principal rmndliee pt near London. sein The best a for -cardoons is one that is it, and not over rich; but it ought to be’deep. Although. the cardoon is a perennial) plant, it is'sown for use: every year.. Formerly the plants were. raised on. hote- AY i 3 I HORTICULTURE. So little is it cultivated here, that Nicol does not speak Kiicws £ and ‘in May or June; bat now the is ge ‘sown the plants are to remain. not sooner than the middle or the end of ] should be inclined to throw up flow- oda our et stan rm ech te in eed ih i dit : ! A 4 : ih | i 4 F i it ‘ 3 5 fff bie i a fs $7 E R is sometimes cul- Tours, and is ac- 4 we So my fz E 3 9 i ,L.;P. ws enon mga a but rare ; figured in Eng- Hf agit ‘ Fil [i rt : = i os i re /! i i i ZF. 271 of it in his “ Gardener’s Kalendar.” The seed is sown in the end of May, in a quarter somewhat shady. If sown earlier, or in a warm sunny situation, the flower-stems would be apt to spring up the first year, when, as repeatedly mentioned in similar ¢ases, the roots would become hard and unfit for use. The seed is very minute, insomuch that, to enable the yardener to sow it equally and thin enough, it should mixed with sawings of timber. A thimble-full of the seed is sufficient to sow a large bed. When the. plants are about an inch high, they are hoed, and thin- ned out to the distance of or four inches from each other. They are afterwards to be kept free of weeds, and the surface is occasionally stirred. The roots are ay for use at the approach of winter, and continue till the spring growth commences. If a few plants be left, a flower-stalk rises, and the pale purple bell- flowers appear in the end of July, followed by plenty of seed in the autumn. Fresh Salad and Soup Herbs ; Garnishes, &c. Severat of the principal plants which are used raw in salads, are likewise employed in making soups ; such are lettuce, endive, and parsley. Others are merely sa- lad plants ; such are cresses and radishes. Lettuce. 371. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa, L. ; Syngenesia Poly» Lettuce, gamia wqualis ; Chicoracea, Juss.; Laitue, F.; Gar- tensalat, G.) is an anmual plant, the 1 country of which is we habe Site authors indeed Soten, eae - ned to consider it as merely an accidental variety, sprang from some of the other species of Lactuca. It was cu tivated in England in the middle of the 16th century, and ly much earlier. The leaves are large, milky, frequently wrinkled, usually pale green, but varying much in form and colour in the different varieties. The Ae tag Bynes for le salad is well known ; it is also a useful i tin soups. It con- tains, like the other species of this genus, a quantity of perf oe of an opiate nature, from which of late years a medicine has been Dr Duncan senior of Edinburgh, under the title of lactucarium, and which he finds can be administered with effect in cases where opium is inadmissible. $72. Many varieties are cultivated; but these are generally considered as belonging to one or other of two kinds, the Coss (also called Womian and ice) and the lettuce ; the former with long upright ~~ the latter with ad leaves — Low! faced, growing squat u e . sorts at sent most aaovi poahe dec lettuces, the pate tian green, and the white coss or Versailles ; of the lettuces, the imperial, and the grand admiral, or admirable. The large Roman and the Cilicia lettuce, © brown and green, are the kinds chiefly used in soups, or for stewing. By means of successive sowings, and by care durii winter, fresh lettuce is now uced almost the whole year round. The plants are used either when quite young and open, or when at full growth and ‘A small sowing is often made in January, the seed. lings Lage detec pes in March. A considerable crop is sown in the end of February ; the main sowing is in March and April; and sometimes a portion of lettuce Kitchen Garden. Lettace. Endive, 272 seed is sprinkled in along with onions or-carrots, the lettuces being drawn before they can hurt the other crop. Lettuce seed is sown at broad-cast, and is merely raked into the ground. The plants bear transplanting very well, particularly in showery weather ; and a part of each crop should be regularly transplanted, to come in season immediately after those left in the seed-beds, They may be transplanted very young; when ‘they have four or six leaves, they are fittest for this purpose. They are placed from ten to fifteen inches apart, according to the size they are likely to attain, When it is wished to forward the cabbaging of cos let- tuce, the leaves are sometimes tied together, in the manner practised with endive. If the winter do not prove very severe, lettuces will stand without much Injury close by the foot of a south wall, and be fit for use in January, February, and March. In some places they are protected by hoops and mats; in others, by means of glass-frames; and sometimes a few cabbage lettuces are kept on a slight hot-bed. When it is wished to save seed, the best plants of the approved kinds are selected, and planted at a distance from all others, so as to avoid any intermixture of pol- len. If the plants have stood over winter, they pro- duce their flowers more abundantly, the stem becom- ing thick, and rising between two and thiree feet high ; and such plants also ripen their seed more certainly and early. Endive. 873. Endive (Cichorium Endivia, L.; Syngenesia Polygamia equalis ; Cinarocephale, Juss.) is an annu- al, or at most a biennial plant, a native of China and Japan. The root-leaves are numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, smooth ; the stem rises about twe feet high, is branched, and produces pale blue flowers. It was in- troduced into this country about the middle of the 16th century. There are three varieties; Broad-leayed Batavian, Green curled leaved, and White curled leaved. The curled varieties having less of the bitter quality, are now generally preferred ; and the green curled, being the hardiest sort, is adopted for the fate or winter crops. Endive is one of the principal ingredients in autumn and winter salads, and is frequently used for stewing, and for putting in soups. The seed is not sown till after the middle of May, eften not till near the middle of June ; because, if sown earlier, the plants would be apt to run to flower. An- other sowing is made in July. The seeds are scatter- ed thinly, so that the plants may not rise in clusters, and become weak. When they are about three or four inches high, they are transplanted into a well prepared bed of rich soil, in rows a foot asunder, and at the dis. tance of ten inches from each other in the row; or in large drills, at the same distances, the blanching being in this way facilitated. In dry weather, watering is necessary. ‘ ) 374, The blanching is the next operation; and on this being well done, the tenderness, crispness, and mild fla« vour of the endive depend. It is accomplished by ty- -ing up the heads with strands of bass-mat or small wil- low twigs: this must be done when the plant is dry, that is, when neither rain nor dew rests on it; and some nicety is requisite in gathering the leaves toge- ther in regular order, so as not to cross each other, and’ in rejecting such leaves as are unhealthy. The plants - odour. en the flower-stem of the fool’s-parsley ap- pears, the plant is at once distinguished by what is vulgarly HORTICULTURE; are at first tied twoinches below the top; afterwards Kitchen about the middle of the plant. In three weeks or a Garten month they are found to be blanched ; and they conti- praiv, nue fit for use in this state for about a fortnight. A few plants are therefore tied up every week, when the weather permits, in order to their being ready for use in succession. The plants from later sowing are placed in sheltered borders near a wall or hedge ; and when very severe weather comes on, the rows are protected with dry fern or any other light covering. After October, in- deed, the mode adopted is to make some trenches or small oblong mounds of earth, and to sink the plants _ nearly to the head in these: here they become suffi- cleneey blanched in four or five weeks; and if addi« tional plants be sunk in the trenches every fortnight when the weather happens to be so mild and dry as to ermit it, the endive season may be continued for a~ ong time. Endive thus blanched in the earth must be dug out with the spade, and it requires to be very tho« roughly washed, A few of the strongest and most early plants are se« lected for producing seed. These are planted in the beginning of March, in a sheltered situation, if possi« ble near a paling, to which the flower-stems may be tied, so as to prevent accidents from the wind, The flowers come out in June, and are succeeded by ripe seeds about the middle of July. The seeds are ga- thered at different times, as they are observed tbe: come ripe. , Parsley. $75. Parsley (4 ium Petroselinum, L.; Pentandria Digynia ; Umbellifere) is a biennial plant, considered as a native of Sardinia, but naturalized in several places of England and Scotland. Three varieties are cultivated ; Common parsley, and_, Curled parsley, for the leaves; and Large-rooted or Hamburgh parsley, for the roots. The common and the curled parsley are raised in drills, generally on the edges of a border in the kit- . chen-garden. They are sown in February or early in March, as the seeds lie from a month to six weeks in the ground before springing. Parsley bears transplant- ing, sothat blanks in the edging may easily be filled up-in rainy weather. . : i In order to have fresh parsley leaves through the winter, it is worth while to lay some larch or beech branches, or long broom, over the ley border, and above these, in hard weather, a little dry bean haulm, braken fronds, bents or reeds, preferring the two latter articles on account of their durability. Mr Nicol re- . marks, that in this way fine young parsley may be had all winter, and may be gathered even from under the snow. If a few strong plants be allowed to run to flower in May or June, plenty of seed will be produced in Au- st. On may be right to notice, that the poisonous plant called fool’s-parsley (thusa i a com. mon weed in rich garden a some te aa nie taken for common. parsley. ey are very i tinguished: the lave of fool’s-parsley are of a aa een, of a different shape, and, instead of the pecu- iar parsley smell, have, when bruised, a dis: le Parsley. ee ed its beard, three long pendent leaflets ef HORTICULTURE. Kischea the involucrum. » The timid may shun all risk of mis- = SS only the curled variety. This last, makes the prettiest garnish. Hamburgh Parsley. Hamb 376. , although considered only “a as a large ee a ae chiferent in its whole appearance. The leaves Celery; It was introduced by Philip Miller, from Holland, in 1727. He could not for some years le the market-gardeners of London to cultivate it: Now, how- ever, oo ene Soares Garden aon npn many parts country it : un- known. The-soats, Shich.aw thneen of inary car- aeathep + trequently balled mean inane : are eaten and are excellent TS soups and stews. H i 1 i a i i i BF. lh ib FF f f u z i { i f [ 5 <3 i i ry : 3 - e8 fee °§ f E bE i H 5 z i é at all ee id i ; - i i : i rf i u : r ? preferable for sou = epee the best for all pur- pr I yw There is a large upright vari differs chiefly in the roots swelling out like tur- Sut eee i or as an jent in stewed di and The letes atten G oe, varieties, and spreasl open horizontally. eral i a i § j z | & ree H is not often brought to market. VOL. XI, PART L. i same time, are shorter than _j 273 gnewee a recension of plants & fox transplanting at va- rious seasons. The first sowing is commonly about the Kitchen Garden. inning of March, on.a gentle hot-bed ; the second, Calery. weeks afterwards, on a shi border ; the third, about the inni of May. Gn. A aaa shady border. The strongest plants of the first sowing are generally ready, from the middle to the end of April, for pricking into nursery beds of rich earth, in whi Mas way tal separate three or four inches every way, in to gather strength. Water is gi- uantity thus be pricked out, Some gardeners, however, con- tent, cheqnselves with. sowing very thin, and take the ly. from thi ad to be placed in the ; but it is not a plan. If any plants be inclined to run to flower, tr ia better they shonld shew this tendency in the nursery-bed. 379. An improvement on the formation of the seed. ling-bed has been ad at Mr Walker’s of ‘ord, near Manchester. It is made entirely of very old hot- bed dung, laid thinly on a piece of well trodden soil, or hee: etree ty eden Sonim to be impervious to the roots. The young celery ts, therefore, form bushy fibrous roots, as cannot shew no inclination to throw upa Tomenie the end of May, the most forward plants may be transplanted into the trenches for blanching. ery weather, at this season, water is given free- G) to the transplanted plants, and to those left in seed-bed,. The usual modes of transplanting and blanching are the following: Trenches are formed, at the distance of three or feet from each other, a foot and a half wide, and about a foot in depth. The in the bottom of this trench is delved and worked soil fine ; and, if thought , a little rotten du or ri comport is mixed. with it. The soil for ce. lery should deep and rich, somewhat moist, yet of a light nature: in earth, if moderately dry, it snceneels remarkably Be A ieee nee Bion seer as has been remarked, delights in growing ides of ditches, The gd on em is laid in ridges on each side, ready to be drawn in as ge hy ay 5 Sanh 5 having the tops ves cut shoots are in the bottom they advance i ek ae ea drawn ir vance in is drawn in to- ware ineie. Betbape ance tn ten Coys, taking care fo perform 18 Operation only in weather, and not to Gover the near? or aontre of tho p ts with soil. When ry haulus or other loose litter is thrown over the beds. It is a common com that very fine looking celery is often found to be rotten at the base of the leaf-stalks: tha Sats , that after the blanching is completed, cel wu not good in the ground for more than a mont 2M 974 Kitchen at most, The necessity of successive crops is therefore Garden. Celery. Cress, American eress, evident. In lifting the plants for use, it is proper to dig deep, and to loosen the roots with the spade, so that the entire celery plant may be drawn, without risk of breaking the leaf-stalks or injuring the main roots, the fleshy tender part of which is relished by many. 380. Celeriac, after being raised in a seed-bed, is planted out on level ground, or in very shallow drills, as it requires but one earthing up, and that a slight one. Attentive gardeners generally save celery seed for their own use. All that is necessary, is to select seve- ral strong healthy plants of the winter stock, and plant them out in rich soil early in the spring. When the stems run up to flower, they are apt to be broken by high winds, and should therefore be secured by stakes. The seed is ready in the end of August, and is dried in the usual way. It may be mentioned, that the seed, when bruised, communicates the celery flavour to soups, and may be thus employed when stalks or roots cannot be procured, Garden-Cress. 381. The Garden-cress (Lepidium sativum, L.; Te- tradynamia Siliculosa ; Crucifere, Juss.) is an annual plant, the native country of which is not known. Be- sides the common or plain sort, which is the kind prin- cipally used for salads, there are two varieties, with curled leaves and with broad leaves. The plant par- takes strongly of the smell and taste which distinguish the Crucifere, Like mustard, it is very easily raised during winter on a slight hot-bed; and in the spring ~ months, in close patches, under hand glasses, in the open border, or in drills near a south wall, or in front of a hot-house. It is therefore a favourite article in winter and early spring salads. Where it is wanted through the summer, it must be sown once a fortnight, as it is only fit for use when young and tender. The plain cress is sown thick, and remains so; but the curled and the broad-leaved require to be thinned out to half an inch asunder. The curled variety makes a pretty garnish ; it is rather the hardiest of the kinds, and may therefore be sown late in the season. If arow of cress plants of each of the different sorts be allowed to spring up, plenty of seed will be produced in the autumn. ring winter, cresses are often raised on rous earthen-ware vessels, of a pyramidal shape, hav- ing small gutters on the sides, for retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids ; they are somewhat orna- mental, and they afford repeated cuttings. American Cress. 382. The American Cres, (Erysimum precox, Smith; Tetradynamia Siliquosa ; Crucifere, Juss.), although its name might lead us to expect a transatlantic origin, is anative plant of this country. It was formerly con- sidered as a variety of the common winter-cress, (E. Rt fond it was described as such by Ray and Pe- “tiver: iller made it a distinet species, by the name of E. vernum ; and Sir J. E. Smith has figured and de- scribed it, under the name of E. pracor, Eng. Bot. t. 1129. It is only biennial ; while the common winter- cress is perennial. It has smaller leaves, more frequent ly sinuated ; the pods thicker, and the seeds larger. It “is often called Black American eress, and sometimes French cress. § ‘HORTICULTURE. It is either sown at broad-cast, on a small bed of Kitchen Three or Garden, _ four sowings are usually made, at intervals of about “a : light earth, or thinly in drills a foot asunder. five weeks, from March to July ; and in this way young leaves are always to be had. A late sowing is made in August or September on some sheltered border ; the plants stand the winter without injury, and are fit for ~ use in miners and March. The plants being cut over, or the outside leaves gathered, new leaves are produced, fit for use in succession. ; : White and Black Mustard. Mustard, (Sinapis, L.; Tetradynamia Siliquosa; Criu= ciferw, Juss.), is of two kinds, white and black. Both are annual plants, and both natives of this ree? f 388. White mustard, (S. alba), grows naturally in White mud our fields, though not so common as some of its con- tard. geners. It is figured in English pear: t. 1677. It is cultivated only as a small salad, and is used while in the seed-leaf, along with cresses. It may be raised at all seasons; during winter, in boxes in a hot-house or on a hot-bed. When it is wished to save the seeds, a spot of ground somewhat renfote from other similar ‘plants should be chosen. 384, The Common or Black mustard, o nigra) is a Black mus- more common native than the white. It is figured ih * English Botany, t. 969. The French call the plant senevé, and confine the term moutarde to prepared table ‘mustard. The tender leaves are sometimes used as greens in the spring, and the seed-leaves occasionally as a salad ingredient ; but the plant is chiefly cultivated for the seed, which, when ground, affords the well known condiment. If the seeds taken fresh from the lant be ground, the powder has little pungency, but 1s very bitter; by mpi vinegar, however, the es- sential oil is evolved, and the powder becomes extreme- ly pungent. In moistening mustard powder for the table, it may be remarked, that it ma the best ap- pearance when rich milk is used; but this mixture does not keep good for more than two days. The seeds in an entire state, are often used medicinally. = * The black and the white mustard plants may be dis- tinguished by observing, that the black is a larger plant than the white; that it has much darker leaves than the white, and the divisions of the leaves blunter; the whole upper part of the plant smooth, and the upper narrow leaves hanging downwards ; the flowers small, the pods generally quite smooth, and lying close to the stem; while, in the white, the flowers are large, the ds rough or hairy, and standing out from the stalk. he names white and black are given in consequence of the colour of the respective seeds. sib ae ‘*, Black mustard is principally cultivated im fields ; but a small bed of it in the garden is often found con- venient. The plants require considerable space, and repeated hoeings. ‘The seed ripens in August. Chervil. 385. Chervil, (Scandix Cerefolium, L.; Pentandria Chervil, Digynia; Umbellifere), is an annual plant, a native of various parts of the continent’ of Europe, and some- times observed naturalized near gardens in E d, but not admitted into our Flora by Sir J. E. Smith. The leaves are of a very delicate texture, three times divided. The plant rises from a foot to near two feet high, when in flower; but it is the foliage only when in a young state that is used. It was formerly niuch oT _ HORTICULTURE. | 275 more cultivated in gardens than it is at present. The which, though not an oxigien) native, is pave 99,com- Kobe H the B fish Flora by Git WE. Smith, cas E H it i 3 Stuarts, by using our ommon fennel will in any soil or situation, Species. Eee Peararene: er by parting the roots, or by . The seeds of chervil are sown in autumn, seeds. The should be sown in autumn soon after after they have ripened, commonly in shallow tay, gen Tine. A few plants are sufficient for a family, i they endure for many successive years. up, remain san puiding weates agdeg* Sef Finochio is a dwarfish variety, characterized by a ten- Finochie. in i par- dency in the stalk to swell to a considerable thickness, but This thickened part is blanched by heaping earth at i runs to flower. against it, and is then very tender. As the plant grows oe a a gg ty ill afford plenty of rapidly, and the swoln stem is best when young and seed in nck oh toly. _There is a very beautiful va- tender, several successive sowings are requisite, at least iety cultivated in the with finely friazled where the article is much in request. Owing to the leaves. peculiar natute of this variety, it is more tender than the common fennel, and often peri in the course of Prvelene. the winter. Misled by this circumstance, several bor- : ticultural writers describe it as an annual species. milan eat yee : ; , JUSS. 5 7 Jaan, anneal plant, a netive of the Re ona ane. amooth rather procumbent stem, and diffused branches ; 388. Dill (Anethum graveolens, L.) is a. oiennial pit. the leaves somewhat w and fleshy ; the aa native of the ose Rede ba Sais end Eortnonl flowers was mn It has been cultivated in our gardens as an aro- in at least as early as the middle of the 16th matic and carminative, and the leaves were formerly century young shoots and succulent leaves are used in and sauces ; but the plant is now scarce- aera Ramsey nA were ly employed, unless that the seeds are sometimes added salads and pickles, and as pot-herbs, than to cucumber pi In order to ensure a crop, the are at present. — seeds should fate ogg baa A. aah lena If te Sex mumiorciclapeeper to wate: de young plats a Si Esghed Wehes th aikdie Cee iTWeeoaey el it is to water ts at iddle 17th century, and night two or three times a week. With this care they will itis now common. The leaves’ afb aotabrichiat cotdate be three or four inches high, and ready for cutting, in or bastate, but blunt or rounded, and entire ; glaucous, the space of six weeks. Purslane when cut over springs smooth, soft, and fleshy ; the stems rise from a foot to again, and it may be repeatedly cut. When thustaken a foot and a halfhigh. It is sometimes called Roman young, it is of a cold and tender nature, and forms a sorrel; and, from the breadth and bluntness of the pansemied. If it be wanted earlier than June, itroust leaves, often distinguish it by the name of raised on a hot-bed, and planted out toward the end Round-leaved sorrel ; our native species being their of April. If a few of the earliest and strongest plants -leaved sorrel. The acid is considered as more be left, they soon run to flower; and in warm seasons grateful than that of comman sorrel, and the leaves are they ripen this sess; but ienperted coed ia always to more succulent ; it is therefore preferred for kitchen to in the shops, and it keeps good for several use. The plant runs at the root, and is in this wa ‘years. easily It grows best in a light sandy soil ; : and the plants are placed about a foot The only - Fennel. attention it is the cutting off of the flower-stems eta ' - and branches in July, so that new leaves ma t fe In or four action A samdho ia; nat. ord. Umbellifere) is a perennial plant, plants generally give indications of decay ; and new t i | | | ” Kitchen Garden. —— . Common sorrel, Wood- sorrel, Corn-salad. 276 ones must be raised from Seed, or Offsets proéured from young and vigorous plants. Ifa few stems be allowed to remain in the summer, plenty Of seeds may be pro- cured in autumn. _ ’ 390. Common Sorrel (R. Acétosa, L.) is'a well-known perennial native, growing in meadows and by the sides of rivers ; and is figured in * English Botany,” t. 1270. The lower leaves have long foot-stalks; they are ar- row-shaped, blunt, and saHead with two or three large teeth at the base: the upper leaves’ are sessile, and acute. It is easily raised from Seeds sown early in the spring. It thrives best in a shady border. ‘The leaves are used, like those of French sorrel, in various soups, Sauces, and especially in salads. As formerly mention- ed, they give an excellent flavour to herb patience, used as a substitute for spWiach. This species, it may be remarked, is used in France nearly as much as the other, which we generally call French sorrel. : There is a third species of sorrel, reckoned by the Parisians more delicate than either of the others. It is the Rumex arifolius of the Flore’ Francaise. Its leaves are larger and less acid ; and it very rarely throws up a flower-stem. $91. Wood-sorrel is an entirely different kind of plant, (Oxalis Acetosella, L. ; Decandria Pentagynia ; belonging to the Gerania of Jussieu.) Having a very grateful acid taste, the leaves form a desirable addition to salads, particularly when young, in the months of March and April. It is to be found in almost every wood: but if the roots be transplanted, in tufts, into the more shady parts of the shrubbery, they will there establish themselves, and be at hand when wanted. Corn-Salad. _ 392. Corn-salad, or Lamb’s Lettuce (Valeriana olitoria, Willd. ; V. Locusta, Lin. ; Tetrandria Monogynia; Di sace@, Juss.) is a small annual plant, growing on the margins of our fields, (Eng. Bot. t. 811.) and only 2 or 3 inches high. Cultivated in gardens, it rises, when in flower, a foot or more in height. The leaves have a pale glaucous hue ; they are long and narrow, the lower ones rather succulent. The flowers are very small, ale bluish, and collected into a close little corymb. n the fields, lamb’s-lettuce may be gathered in March, and it flowers in April. In gardens it may be had still more early in the spring ; indeed during the great- er part of a mild winter. The tender leaves are little inferior to those of young lettuce, having a slight agreeable flavour ; they form an excellent ingredient in winter and early spring salads, It has very long been a favourite spring salad-plant in France, under the vari- ous denominations of mache, doucette, salade de chanoine, and poule-grasse. Gerarde tells us, that foreigners using it when in England led to its being cultivated in our gardens. The seeds are sown in autumn, generally about the end of August. They are either sown at broad-cast or in drills, en a small bed or border. The plants soon rise, with a low tuft of oblong narrow leaves: they are then thinned out to two or three inch- es asunder: and in Febvuaty they are fit for use. The entire plat: is drawn, in the manner of lettuce. The younger the plants are when used, the better: in warm dry weather, the leaves soon acquire rather a strong taste, disagreeable to many persons, Sometimes a ‘small sowing is made in February, which affords plants -with fine tender leaves in April and May, A few plants may be allowed to spring up to flower, and they perfect their seeds in July and August. The culture HORTICULTURE. of lamb’s lettuce, as a salad plant, has for some time’ Kitchen! past been declining, but without any good reason, Garden. —\— Milk- Thistle. 393. The Milk-Thistle, or Our Lady's Thistle (Car- Milk-thistle, duus Marianus, L. ; spite Polygamia equalis ; Ci- narocephale, Juss.) is a biennial plant, a native of Bri- tain, (Eng. Bot. t. 976.) Itis at once distinguished by the beautiful milky veins which form’ an irregular network on’ the leaves. Some’ readers may be sur- Si to find’a native thistle ranked among our escu< ent plants; but it is certainly not more unpromising at first aspect than the artichoke or the cardoon. When very young, it is eaten as a salad; the tender leaves stripped of their spines, are sometimes boiled and used as greens ; the young stalks peeled, and soaked in wa ter to extract a part of the bitterness, are’said to be ex. cellent ; early in the spring of the second year, the root is pretty good, prepared like salsify or skirret ; the re- be er is pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke. The young plants are ‘sometimes blanched like endive, and used in winter salads: for this purpose the seeds are sown in spring, and the plants are allowed to re- main about a foot and a half distant from each other ; in autumn, the leaves are tied together, and the earth drawn up close to’ them, till they be whitened. ‘The plant, however, is but rarely cultivated for any culina- ry purpose. It grows naturally, or has been naturalized, near all the sit eaaslie or strongholds of Scotland, such*as the castles of Edinburgh, Stirling and Dunbarton. From this circumstance, and the formidable ‘spines of ‘the calyx, many consider it as the “ true Scots thistle,” the national badge. But the way-thistle (Carduzus lanceos latus) is incomparably ‘more common in that moot The Gardeners Lodge of Edinburgh, it may be remarks ‘ed, generally adopts the cotton-thistle ( Onopordum acan- thium) as its emblem; but apparently without any good reason, that plant existing only in one or two parts of the country. It may be/added, that the re« presentations of the Scots thistle, whether carved on ancient buildings, impressed on the coins of the realm, or emblazoned on armorial bearings, as'seen in seals or in old engravings, bear equal ‘resemblance to all of these, or, to speak more correctly, are equally unlike any thistle described by Linneus, as they are dissimi- lar to each other. Burnet. 394, Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba, L.; Moncecia Burmet. Polyandria; Rosacea, Juss.; petite pimprenelle of the French,) is a jal plant, growing naturally in some parts of England, in dry upland oy a ‘It is figured in “ English Botany,” t. 860. he leaves are pinnated ; they form a tuft next to the root, but are alternate on the stem; the leaflets are partly round- shaped, partly pointed, and much serrated on the The stem rises fifteen inches high, and the flowers form small greenish or purplish heads. ~ Burnet leaves are sometimes put into salads, and oc« ¢asionally into soups; and they form a favourite in- gredient for cool tankards, When slightly bruised, they smell like cucumber, and they have a somewhat warm taste. They continue green through the winter, when many other salad plants are cut off, or in a state unfit for use. ‘The’plant is easily raised by sowing the ‘seeds in autumn; soon “after ‘they are*ripe; or it may Ji a Horse-ra- iF HORTICULTURE. : a7 ing the roots.. A few plants are tiful contrast with the flowers of The seeds be-inerented. by pastas in use. To promote the when green, form a favourite pickle ; _are_ often - $95. thick as a salad herb, to be cut while in the seed-leaf, ployed as.a temporary or screen, to hide an im-the same way as mustard. A variety of this plant linnreable abject, sakes ing fed hich it son the small French turnip or navew, already completely covers. Although of proper ten- stomachic, and take them boiled. by which they attach themselves to any small bod In the same way, radish seed (Raphanus sativus, omming, te Sie ways ad canst Oe ieee The seeds i i i i ipen freely in September, and may then be gathered for use. for pickling, keeping some of the largest and ripest for 396. Horse-radish (Cochlearia Armoracia, L.; Te- the warmer part of a green-house, all winter. It is tradynamia Silit 3 Crucifera, Juss.) is a perennial both highly ornamental as a flower, and forms a still plenty growing naturally in places. and by the more beautiful ish than the single. sides of ditches in some parts of and figured 398. Dwarf Indian Cress, (Tropwolum minus, L.) is eye. eae amme | a The leaves are very also a Peruvian plant, and an annual ; it is cultivated large, and vary considerably in appearance; being some- in the same way, and for the same purposes as the times entire, or only crenated, sometimes ly pinnati- other. It is ly sown on borders, and allowed fid ; the flowers are white, and come in pani- to spread on d, There is likewise a double cles. It haslong been cultivated in gardens; the root variety of thiss which forms a very pretty greenhouse scraped into shreds, being a well known accompani- ornament. ment of the roast beef of Old aeons to @ zest to winter salads. should ‘wold. Senden tacbhgandadan ahorplectndeatn aia their roots freely. Crowns having about two or three $99. Marigold, or « marigold, (Calendula officina- inches only of root,attached to them, make very good lis, L.; Syngenesia Polygamia necessaria; Corymbi- plants ; buteuttings of the knotty parts of the roots, _fera, Juss.) is an annual t, a native of France and on eer be furnished .with one or two Spain; but one of the and best known inhabi- or eyes, are preferred, as they are to be tants of our gardens, its flowers having formerly been planted entirely under the soil. They are generally much in repute, as ‘* comforters of the heart.” Though planted, in F or March, in lines, leaving a foot little faith is now placed in its virtues, it still keeps its and a half betweenveach line ; and for the first season place ; it is to be found inven ouanape. guanene. FA therefore, a SE Ley onan ear geno in England and Scotland; and Mr ll observes, taken between the lines. The sets are placed at the that “ the flower is a valuable ingredient in broths and pe 2 pe least a foot; if the soil be li fifteen soups, however it may have got into disuse.” The ‘is not-too deep. ‘The roots are not for use flowers are dried in autumn, and kept in paper bags ere er ner acme gi pares for use. rohe engi Romane), can e marigo post wanted, ity rapidly as aromatic, the most proper for ing. re is root dries. Tine bed Letts fee four or five years; care a pale flowered variety, called the Lemon-coloured being taken, in digging the roots, to leave the stock marigold; and there are double-flowered varieties both plant, or original set, untouched, removing for use only of the orange and Jemon colour. The most curious ron ap ne straight root of twelve or fifteen inches in variety is the childing or proliferous, which sends out , produced by planting at that depth. small flowers from margins of the calyx of the large central Bowens; Wit i amt is very apt yer Indian Cress. ; to give a fair chance of preserving it, Srould be saved only from the large central flowers, 997. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium, (Tropeolum majus, The common marigold sows itself abundantly, and the Lu; Octandria Monogynia; Gerania, Juss.) isa native seedlings way be transplanted in May ; so that, when Pera: it was introduced into England near the Can.pigatiber enencrteyiiched Ssesl, thane ia pylons aay : or sowing. French. if i Te the leaves are peltate, or have their petiole Borage. to I! it F H : s : i i . i : year. The flowersand are oblong and sp on the nd; the flower- : ise near two. feet ‘hi mi 5 they and the i i istly hairs; the bright blue \flewers make a beautiful appearance, and are produced for several months in succession. Borage was SF it rE v i if 1 T F Indian cress. Dwarf In- dian cfess, Marigold. Borage. Kitchen Garden. Borage. Angelica, Love-apple. 278 formerly high in estimation as a cordial plant, for driving away sorrow ; but “ very light surely (says Sir J. E. Smith) were those sorrows that could be so driven away.” It isstillsometimes used when young as a pot- herb, and in salads; the spikes of flowers form an in- gredient in cool tankards, and the blossoms are occasion- ally employed as a garnish. The juice of the plant af- fords nitre, and the withered stalks have been observed to burn like match-paper. Borage will sow itself, and come every year. There is a variety with white flowers, and another with flowers of a pale red or flesh colour ; but neither is common. : Angelica. 401. This is the Angelica Archangelica of Linnzus, (Pentandria Digynia ; Umbellifere): it is a biennial plant, with very large pinnate leaves, the extreme leaf- Jet three lobed. The roots are long and thick; and they, as well as the whole plant, are powerfully aroma- tic. It is truly a northern plant, being common in Lap- land and Iceland. It was cultivated in Britain in 1568, and probably more early. The stalks of it were former- ly blanched, and eaten as celery.» Now they are used only when candied ; and the. young and tender stalks are for this purpose collected in May. Though the plant is only a biennial, it may be made to continue for several years, by cutting over the flower-stem before it ripen seed ; in which case it immediately sets out be- low. Itis easily raised from seed, which should be sown soon after being gathered. It grows-best in a moist soil, and thrives exceedingly by the side of a ditch. Love- apple. 402. Love-apple, or Tomato, (Solanum Lycopersicum, L.) is an annual plant, a native of South America; it was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. The stem, if supported, will rise to the height of six feet or more. The leaves are pinnate, and have a rank disagreeable smell. The flowers are yellow, ponies in bunches in July and August, and followed by the fruit in September and October. The fruit is smooth, compressed at both ends, and furrowed over the sides ; it varies in size, but sel- dom exceeds that of an‘ordinary golden-pippin. The common colour is yellow ; but there is a red-fruited va- riety, which is now the sort principally cultivated ; and there is also a small variety called the cherry-shaped. When ripe, it is put into soups and sauees, to which it imparts an agreeable acid flavour. The green fruit is frequently pickled; and sometimes also the ripe. A preserve is likewise made of the fruit. The seed is sown on a hot-bed in March; when the seedlings are two inches high, they are transplanted in- to a slight hot-bed till they acquire a little strength. They arethen placed near a wall, paling, or reed hedge, to which they can be trained, in a sheltered place, with a full south exposure. The fruit, after all, ripens only in favourable seasons. In dry weather the plants re- quire regular watering. Two or three of the ripest and best of the berries are selected for seed ; the pulp being taken out, and the seeds separated by washing. Love-apples have by many been considered as the Aurea mala spoken of by Virgil: but the plant ier’ f deserves the title of “arbor silvestris,” and would har ly receive it from a poet who was a naturalist ; and on this account probably, Dr Duncan, sen. has suggested, that Virgil’s plant might really be an apple-tree, such as the oslin or original pippin, the fruit of which is of orth. It had no covering, and was generally much =~ HORTICULTURE. ' eaten ; here the plant is often cultivated as an ornament a snege colour. In this view, the Doctorissup- Kitchen orte the authority-of Sir Wiliam Temple. (Mas- ae bell vol 3 8 oc =~ 403. Allied to the love-apple is the Egg-plant; (So- lanum melongena, L.) It is a tender annual, rising about two feet high, with reclining. branches. The flowers are of a pale violet colour ; they are followed by a very large berry, generally of amoval shape arid white colour, much resembling a hen’s egg, or in large speci- mens a swan’s egg. There is likewise, however, a va- riety with globular berries; and the fruit is sometimes of a violet colour. In southern countries the fruit is Egg-plant, for the hot-house and the greenhouse ; but the fruit is seldom made use of. It is sometimes transplanted to successive hot-beds, and planted out in June in a warm border ; where, if the autumn prove fine, the fruit makes a beautiful appearance. Capsicum. 404. Capsicum, or Guinea pe , (Capsicum an- Capsicum, nuum, L. ; Pentandria Montmyrter-Soliveasiee/ Bion is an-annual plant, rising about two feet high; a native of both the Indies. It has been long known, being mentioned by Gerarde. It is raised principally for the sake of the young pods, or tos more correctly; in- flated berries, which make a favourite pickle. They are sometimes also used in the ripe state, when they form a spice of the hottest quality. The seed is sown in the spring, on a gentle hot-bed; and the seedlings are transplanted into another bed, where they are nursed till June, when they are planted out in a sheltered bor- der. The berries vary much in shape, producing many subvarieties of the plant. They are long or short, heart-shaped or bell-shaped, and angular. They vary likewise in colour ; being generally red, but sometimes yellow. In Scotland,. capsicum shen are often potted and kept under glass, the climate being seldom suffi- cient to ripen the berries in the open border. ; A small-fruited annual species, called Cherry-pepper, (Capsicum cerasiforme, Hort. Kew.) is sometimes raised ; and occasionally the true Bell-pepper (C.grossum, L.) is cultivated. This last is a biennial species, of hum- ble growth, but producing large berries. These are better for pickling than the others, the skin — pulpy and tender ; while in the others, it is thin and tough. i oe biennial species must of course have a place in e stove. Caper. 405. The Caper-bush (Capparis spinosa, L.; Poly- Caper. andria Monogynia ; Cappartdes, Juss.), though com- mon in the south of France, and growing in the open air even at Paris, seldom withstands our winters, even though placed in the most sheltered situation. Trained, however, against any spare piece of wall in a: stove, it grows luxuriantly, and produces its flower-buds Sometimes it effectually establishes itself in crevices:of old hot-house walls; this sort of situation resembli its native one. The use of the flower-buds for pickli is familiar.. Per a hardier’ variety oe be ob- tained by repeatedly raising it from the at firstin Guernsey or Jersey, and thus gradually inuring the ny to cold. It may be sansicl , that in the eden at Campden House, Kensington, a caper-tree ry. It had from the ‘stood alive in the open air for near a a south-east and was well. shel i Hh | oe ate RS geass i ossasliile 52e%235 gH Mme tire mE nb Bhi tiettppieiii, GHB UREG eek cal eH Haat H $= £35 r igé Be 3 4 eats & FP Barca: ¥e. i. Bal Te Hee aH Fara let Hut Heenan M ale guid $2 52g tbsieee. Hit i af i Ht ii til rt Paria tH TRUE a é i gs 8 : = Th isis: es EF {nif a RT id ie ti Hat tet aT E hae Hie 1 we Sale ; q agtpe thet 3 ebeT [fat (Me eta pat ql LAA fl CETAEH & (Hiei Hie 4d Ls iti a : eid a +f i He Hes yi ih aa ah : Ait stilt Hue yen A ll a RCE | ~ he ieee pee Kitchen Garden. Nene ey Mints, Spearmint. Pepper- mint, Penny- royal. Balm, 280 Mints. Several species of mint (Mentha; L.} Didynamia Gym- nospermia ; nat, ord. Labiatew) are cubitada in gar- dens ; all of them’ indigenous to Britain, and hardy perennials, The principal kind is, 410. Spearmint, (M. viridis, L.) This is not a’com- mon native plant ; it is figured'in English Botany,” t. 2424, The young leaves and tops are a good deal used in spring salads in England ; they also form an ingre- dient in soups, or, more frequently, are employed to give flavour, being boiled for a time and withdrawn. They are also shredded down, and mixed with sugar and vinegar as a sauce to roasted meat, particularly lamb. A narrow-leaved and a broad-leaved: sort’ are cultivated in gardens; and some variegated kinds are considered as ornamental plants, particularly a reddish variety called’ Orange-mint 411. Peppermint, (M. piperita, L.) is likewise a rare native, figured in Ang. Bot. t. 687. A few plants are sufficient in a garden, it being scarcely used ‘but for distilling. 412. Pennyroyal, (M. pu Bot. t. 1026, is sometimes are sufficient. All of these mints delight in a moist soil. Spearmint and peppermint are readily propagated, by patring the roots in autumn, by making slips in spring, or by means of cuttings during’summer. Pennyroyal is easily increa- sed byits creeping and rooting stems. Stalksof spearmint are often dried in the latter end of summer, when the plant is coming in flower, and kept for winter use ; but unless the drying be gradually accomplished, and in the shade, much of the flavour escapes. Young mint leaves, however, may be had at any time of the winter or early spring, by settinga few roots in flower-pots in the au- ium, L.) figured'in Eng. tivated ; but,a few plants tumn, and removing some of these into the corner of a | hot-bed, or of the stove, some short time before the leaves be ‘wanted. Balm. 413. Balm (Melissa officinalis, L. ; Didynamia Gym- nospermia ; Labiate, Juss.) is a hardy perennial, with square stems, which rise two feet high or more ; leaves large, growing by pairs at each joint ; a native of Swit- zerland and the south of France, and very early cultiva- ted in our gardens. It is readily propagated by part- ing the roots, preserving two or three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring. The roots or slips being placed about’a foot and a half asun-~ der, and watered, soon establish themselves; and the balm plantation does not require to be renewed oftener than every third or fourth year. In order to have young leaves and tops all the summer, it is proper to cut down some of the stalks every month, when new shoots im- mediately spring. As the ining stalks approach the flowering state, they are cut over at full length for drying. They should’be cut as soon as the dew is off in the morning ; for in the afternoon, at least in bright sunshine, the odour of the plant is found to be much diminished. The stalks and leaves are carefully dried ‘in the shade, and afterwards kept in small bundles, pressed down, and covered with paper. The primum ens meliss@, by which Paracelsus was to renovate man, is now quite forgotten, and the pec is used only for making a simple balm tea, which affords a grateful di- ink in fevers, and for forming alight and agree~ ine, ; luent , able beverage under the name of ‘employed to give relish to soups, broths, s HORTICULTURE. Marjoram.’ Marjoram, (Origanum, L.;.Didynamia Gymnosper- rene Yeilate, Juss.) Of shies. thine species are ad va Kitchen Garden, Marjoram. 414. Pot: Marjoram: (0. Onites, L,) is a perennial Pot marjo- plant, a native of Sicily. The stem is somewhat woody ; ™™- it rises more than a foot high, and is. covered with spreading hairs; the leaves are small and acute, almost sessile, and tomentose on both sides. Though it sel- dom ripens its seeds in this country, it is sufficiently hardy to withstand our winters. It is easily propagat- weer cuttings or slips. It is now little’ used by the 415. Sweet Marjoram (O. Majorana, L.) is a native Sweet mar. of Portugal. It resembles’pot marjoram, but the leaves joram. have distinct petioles, and the flowers are collected in small close heads; from which last cireumstanee it is often called Knotted Marjoram. Being only a biennial, a little of the seed should be sown every year. The seed seldom ripens in this country, and is therefore commonly imported from France: It flowers in July, and is then gathered and dried for winter use, 416. Winter sweet marjoram (O. heracleoticum, L.) Winter isa requires a sheltered border and a dry soil. » The leaves resemble those ‘of common sweet marjoram; but. the flowers come in spikes. The plant is propagated by Parting the roots in autumn. ' Both the kinds of sweet marjoram are a deal , ce, They are used fresh in “summer ; and; for sbiater use, are drawn by the roots, and dried slowly in the shade, being afterwards kept hung up in a dry place. Savory. Savory (Satureja, L.;| Didynamia a ; Smbieae Jas) "two species are cultivated, wit. ter and the summer savory. 417. Winter savory (8: montana, L. long cultivated in gardens. It is a small shrubby ever- green perennial plant, with two narrow stiff leaves, an inch long, opposite at each joint, and from the base of these afew small leaves ms clusters. It is by slips or by cuttings of the young roots, and also by seeds. It is hardy, and continues good for several years, especially on: poor soils. Some plants. havin established themselves on an old wall, have been i served to continue for many years. is a native of Winter sa- the south of France and of Italy, which has been very V°ry- vennial species, a native of Greece, and) which marjoram, 418, Summer savory (S. hortensis, L.) is an annual Summer &~ plant, a native of the south of Europe, with slender ¥Y- erect branches about afoot high ; leaves opposite, about an inch in length, This is propagated only ‘by seed, which is sown in the spring time, thinly in shallow drills, eight or nine inches apart. When it is to be stored for winter use, it should be drawn up by-the root, as in this way it retains its flavour better. Basil. Basil (Ocimum, L.; Didynamia Gymnospermia; Labiate, Juss.) Two species are cultivated, both na- tives of the East, and both annual plants, ' 419. Sweet Basil (O. basilicum, L.) is generally sown Sweet basil. on a hot-bed in the end of March, and planted out in ‘May, at eight or ten inches square. Ifraised from the it Hin H i i i a) HORTICULTURE. J é : Fe : i Hi i z | ' i} 5 Fs 4 i > of cloves, basil is often in demand where i are in use: a few leaves are Ae Hl F J i g 3 ; : : ars i 3" a 8, F j if ir : : : Ht The] g81 cre or whi ecment te boson nal ig is oeianes abese for remembrance,” says the elia, in Shakespeare. parts ind, the sprigs are still distributed to the company at funerals, often thrown into the ve upon the coffin of the deceased. Abercrombie, in his Practical Gardener, alludes to this practice, but supposes the motive to be the “ preventing of conta~ gion.” There are varieties with white-striped, and with yellow-striped leaves ; the former rather tender. The plant is easily propagated by slips or cuttings in the spring. Lavender L.; Didynamia Gymnospermia ; Labiate, Juss.) is a na- tive of the south of Europe, and has been cultivated in our since the middle of the 16th century. The t is shrubby, rising from two to four feet edges ; the flowers forming terminating is a narrow-leaved and a broad-leaved varie~ — is oy 5 a medicinal t than Yo the cook. ery garden, however, a few ae The es of flowers being ve fra~ = es rape ie make imitation scent bottles tor} requently are put in paper bags, linens to ume them. In physic plant is extensively cultivated for the sake a which lavender ae is distilled. W cuttings, or young slips, any time months. In inn iris easullll ee ing, but it is too bulky. If lavender be soll, its flowers have a | 23 : i I : bere ijt garden soil, new plan- tations should be made every four or five years. Coriander. 425. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum, L.; Pentandria Coriander. Digynia; Umbellifera, Juss.) is a native of the East, but has naturalized itself in Essex, near places where it has i cultivated for druggists and confectioners, is therefore Sgured in lish Botany, t. 67. It rises about a foot high, with ly pinnated leaves, It is not often raised in private gardens. Formerly the y leaves were aan! 5 salads, and in soups; but they have a and scarcely agreeable scent. The seeds are now chiefly a for medicinal purposes. If these be wanted, the should be sown in autumn, promaed meicty eign ee or ry peg Caraway. 426, Caraway (Carum carui, L.; Pentandria Di- Caraway. gynia ; rer ee x 424. Lavender, or Spike Lavender, ( Lavandula Spica, Lavender. Kitchen Garden. — Caraway. Tgnsy. Costmaty, 282 some of England, and ed in English Bo- tany, t. 1503. The»plant rises hy and a it high, with spreading branches ; the'leaves are deco d; the leaflets in sixes. In former times, the tapering fusi- form reots were eaten like parsnips, to which Parkin- son gives them the preference. In the spring time, the under leaves are sometimes putin soups. But the plant is now principally cultivated for the seeds; these are used in making cakes, and are incrusted with sugar for comfits ; they are likewise distilled with spiritous li- quors, and for this purpose large quantities are raised in fields in Essex. Nicol and others direct its being sown in the spring ; but itis much better to sow in au- tumn, soon after the seed is ripe ; the seedlings quickly rise, and, the plant being biennial, a season is thus gained. A moist rich soil answers best. The seed is generally sown in rows; and in the spring, the plants are thinned out to four or six inches apart. In the end of summer, when the seeds appear to be nearly ripe, the plants are pulled up, and set upright to dry, the seed -being then more easily beat out. Tansy. 427. Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, L; Syngenesia Polygamia superflua ; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a well known perennial plant, a native of most parts of Bri- tain, generally growing on the banks of rivers ; it is fi- gured in English Botany, t. 1229. In a cultivated state, it rises to the height of three or four feet ; the stem leafy, the leaves alternate, deep green, finely di- vided; the flowers appear in terminating corymbs, and are yellow. It has long had a place in the garden, tly on account :of its medicinal virtues, being in high estimation as a vermifuge, and partly for the e of its young leaves, which are shredded down, and employed to give.colour and flavour to puddings. There is.a variety with curled leaves, which is rather ornamental ; this is often called Double tansy. There is likewise a sort with variegated leaves, which is some- times admitted into shrubberies. Tansy is extremely hardy, and will grow in any soil or situation. A few plants are sufficient ; and it is very easily propagated at any time by parting the roots. Tansy leaves may be procured very early in the spring, by laying two or three tufted roots of the plant upon a slight hot-bed about mid-winter, arched with hoops and covered with mats in severe weather. The young leaves may also be had throughout the summer, by cutting down the flower-stems close, so as to encourage a new growth. Costmary. 428, Costmary, or Ale-cost, ( Balsamita vulgaris, Hort. Kew. ; Tanacetum Balsamita, L.; Syngenesia Polyga= mia equalis ; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a native of Spain, Italy, and the south of France: it is however a hardy perennial, and has been cultivated in our gardens from the earliest times. The lower leaves are large, ovate, of a greyish colour, and on long footstalks ; the stems rise two or three feet high; they are furnished with leaves of the same shape, but smaller and sessile. ‘The flowers are of a deep yellow colour, and appeas in loose corymbs in August and September ; in indifferent sea- »sons or in cold situations, they scarcely expand, and the seeds very seldom come to maturity in this country. The whole plant has a pleasant odour. Costmary was formerly more used in the kitchen than it is at present. In France it is an ingredient in salads, It was also HORTICULTURE. put into ale, and hence'the name Ale-cost. The other Kitchen naine, cost-Mary, intimates that it is the cosius or aro- , Garden. matic plant of the Virgin. A few plants are enough in “~~” a pa They do best in 2 dry soil, and will remain good for several years. It is readily pr ted bi parting the roots in autumn. There is a variety witl deeply cut and very hoary leaves, but this sort is less ant. Hyssop. 429, Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis, L.; Didynamia Gyms Sonera’ Totten ene) is a perizmajad: ever, oer undershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and has been long cultivated in-our gardens. The stems rise a foot and a half high; the leaves are lanceolate, narrow like those of lavender, but shorter.. There are several varieties, blue, red, and white flowered, and hairy leav- ed; but the first is the most commonly cultivated. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent. The leaves and young shoots are sometimes used for culi- nary purposes, in the way of a pot-herb; and the leafy tops and ip eecna omy are cut, tied, and preserved for ; medicinal uses. It is sometimes planted as an edging in the kitchen garden, the plants being set only t ten inches distant from each other: in a separate bed, 1 they should be two feet asunder. It may be propa- gated by seeds, “3 rooted slips, or by cuttings, in the spring months. In a poor.dry soil it is not only more hardy, but more aromatic, than in.a rich soil. It often grows on old walls; but the “hyssop that sprin out of the wall” of Solomon, is supposed. by Hasselquist to have been a small moss, whichte observed covering the ruins of Jerusalem, Rue. 430. Rue’(Ruta-graveolens, L.; Decandria Monogy- Rue. * nia; Rutacee, Juss.) is a A ris es evergreen under shrub, a native of the south of Europe. It was early cultivated in our gardens, and was in former days called Herb of Grace, from the fam ueeinet age bunches of it having been used by the priests for the sprinkling of holy ae among the pedule: There is.a tall = ing and a small kind ; the latter is now chiefly cultiva- ted. Formerly border edgings were Aponte made with it; but it is now seldom employed for that pur- pose. It-ought, however, to be occasionally pruned down, and kept from flowering too much ; in this way it continues in “tape bush; hag for a number of ars. It is easily propagated by slips or cuttings in the spring; and a ae pr are generally thought sufficient in a garden. Like rosemary, lavender, hyssop, and other similar aromatics, it does best in poor dry soils. The leaves are sometimes used as a medicine, and often given to poultry afflicted with croup. Chamomile. 431. Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis, L.; Syngenesia Chamomile. Polygamia superflua; Corymbifere, Juss.) is a well known ial plant, which grows naturally in Surrey, Cornwall,.and some other parts of Britain, and is fi in English Botany, t. 980. Few are F without a chamomile bed: it is certainly a highly aro- matic plant, and.an infusion of the dried flowers makes a safe Pitter and stomachic, much used under the name of Chamomile-tea. The double-flowering v: is or« namental, and is generally kept in gardens; but the HORTICULTURE. i hy Se ER I P pene Sn He HTD En nal | ee UL apa i Hel st aH lp itl Petit ia ‘ie ; RE eu ial i cys Saban i Bb ses . ide tet il ititllich TRAE 4 iia ae HeneiH eotitid AE i ET 7 i RHE atk § TILLER re Hilti BRAT He i Aut Tied Mel (UG: —ne coynie ri #3 8 38 & mnie liueinete: elias i nina ine Hn i HH Rata Re me HH ‘ feysill ih JEG ee i al ni ii iy uf ei Pit Bert. ut HE HE iy : ai, te Le Tt “itl te sa ae rH i in Ae iti a Tae an if | { ‘ie a ee 284 Kitchen’ to take deep root in an old wall, or on an artificial rock- Gardens work, they will have a much better chance to remain. ““Y~" The name samphire is.a corruption of sampier, and this again is derived from the French name of the plant Saint Pierre. It may be observed, that what is called golden samphire in Covent Garden market, is the Inula crithmifolia, Eng. Bot. t.68 ; and that the Marsh sam- hire of the same market, is the Salicornia herbacea, ng. Bot. t. 415. Buck’s-horn 441, Buck’s-horr Plantain (-Plantago coronopus, 1.) Plantain. was formerly cultivated as a salad herb, but is now ne-~ glected, the smell being to many rank and disagree- able. It is still, however, regularly sown in French gardens as a salad herb, under the name of Corne de C 442, The young leaves of the Ox-eye Daisy (Cheys santhemum leucanthemum, L,) are noticed by Dr Wi- thering as fit to be eaten in salads; and John Bauhin — that they were much used for that purpose in ly. 443. The Cotton Thistle ( lum acanthium, Li; English Botany, t. 977.) is.a biennial, growing natu- rally in different places, and remarkable for its large downy leaves sath p lofty stem. It was formerly culti« vated and used like the artichoke and cardoon; the re- ceptacle, and the tender blanched stalks, peeled and boiled, being the parts used. 444. Alewanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum, L.; English Botany, t. 230.) is a biennial plant, rising about two feet high, and flowering in the spring ; the leaves of a pale green colour, and the flowers yellowish. Itgrows naturally near the sea in several places, and may often be observed to be naturalized near old buildings. | It was formerly much cultivated, having been used as a pot-herb and salad. In flavour it has some resemblance to celery ; by which it has been entirely fr cant 445. Water«Cress (Nasturtium officinale, Hort. Kew. ; Sisymbrium Nasturtium, L..; English Botany, t. 855.) is a well known perennial inhabitant of our ditches and slow running streams. It forms an excellent spring salad; and it is easily cultivated in any mar shy spot, or by the side of a garden pond, by in- troducing a few plants from ditches where it grows wild. The popular remedy called spring juices consists of its juices, with those of brooklime, scurvy-grass, and Seville oranges: it is therefore cultivated by a few market gardeners for the supply of Covent Garden. In France, the. sprigs are used as a garnish to roast fowl, 446. Brooklime (Veronica beccabunga, L.; English Botany, t. 655.) is a perennial plant, growing in wet places near springs, and in slow running streams or ditches, very generally associated with the water-cress, The leaves-are mild, or have only a slightly bitterish taste, and form a very tolerable salad ingredient in March and April. In Scotland the plant is called wa- ter-purpie, and the sprigs are gathered for sale along with wall-cresses (well or water cresses.) 447. The young tops and leaves of the Great Net tle (Urtica dioica, L.; English Botany, t. 1750) are gripes in early spring, about February, as a pot« erb, and form atolerably good one. Nettle-kail isan old Scottish-dish, now known only by name. If net« tle-tops be wanted, they can readily be had without cultivating the plant. 448. Sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceus, L. ; English Bo- tany, t. 843.) is a common annual weed im our gar« dens. There is a prickly and a smooth variety. Th latter is in some countries boiled and eaten as greens; Cotton. thistle. Alexanders, Water- cress. Brooklime. Nettle. Sow-thistle. HORTICULTURE. : ° hence the Linnean trivial name oleraceus, The ten- Kitchen der shoots boiled in the manner of spinach are very Garden, good, superior perhaps to any greens not in common ““Y"™ use, 449. Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum, L. ; English Dandelioa. Botany, t. 510.) isa well known perennial, generally despised as a troublesome weed : yet the leaves, in ears ly spring, when they are just unfolding, afford a very ingredient in salads. The French sometimes eat the young roots, and the etiolated leaves, with thin slices of bread and butter. Blanched dandelion loses its disagreeable flavour, and considerably resembles en+ dive in taste. — ‘ 450. Bladder Campion, or Spatling Po Silene Bladdex inflata, Hort. Kew. Penelish Bounty, % 14 { Cucu. campion, balus behen, L.) is a hardy, perennial, growing natu- rally by the sides of our corn-fields and pastures. Its young tender shoots, when about two inches long, are excellent when boiled, having something of the flavour of peas. The plant sends forth a great number of sprouts, and when these are nipped off they are sucs ceeded by fresh ones. his 451. The Hop (Humulus Lupulus, L.; Eng. Bot. Hop-tops: t. 427) is well known as being cultivated for he sake of its flowers for preserving beer ; but for use as a kita chen-herb it is little ed. The young shoots, hows ever, which, early in the spring, rise abundantly from old stocks, are not much inferior to asparagus. They are sometimes, but not often, sent to market, and sold by the name of hop-tops. For further particulars regarding esculent plants which have fallen into neglect, the reader may be res ferred to the “ Flora Dietetica” of Bryant. Fungous Plants. Or the tribe of Fungi several esculent species occur in this country, belonging to the genera Agaricus, Tus ber, and Phallus. Only one is cultiva' the Com- mon Mushroom, Agaricus campestris of Linneus, A. edulis of Bulliard and others. Common Mushroom. 452, This is well known. It is most readily dis« i tinguished, when’ of middle-size, by-its fine mh ge ashram flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant smell: in a more ad-« vanced stage the gills become of a chocolate colour; and it is then more apt to be confounded with other kinds, of dubious quality; but the species which most nearly resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine odour, having rather a disagreeable smell: further, the noxious kind grows in woods or on the margins of woods, while the true mushroom springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered only in such places. The uses of the mushroom are familiar; it is eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled ; and preserved, either as a pickle, or in der, The sauce commonly called ketchup (supposed from the Japanese hil-jap) is, or ought to.be, anece-fromiite $uicoyiavith salt vaind Aneel Wild mushrooms from old pastures are generally con- sidered as more delicate in flavour and more tender in flesh, than those raised in artificial beds. var nto or button mushrooms of the cultivated sort are firmer : better for pickling ; and in using cultivated mushrooms, there is evidently much less risk of deleterious kinds being employed. - Jamain \ HORTICULTURE. 285 produce tubercles in the is inserted into each by are then ~~ situation filled up with the compost. Ten da afterwards, the “™"™ Without atall beds are covered with a coating of rich mould, mixed generation, we may wns Bae oo eee ings, to the depth This is beat down with the ne - twomonths the done with great circumspection. will be found penetrating cea pest wae we are assured, yield abundant rt ce i If a number of shelves or draw- He ah Hy id si HfL bee ie in aide i Ae at all seasons. into the mush- [ | as Eer§ E F 2, : : { i f i : : it i f i pact, and are more damp: compactness and may therefore be considered as important. Iindeath the beretcial effects of keeping the spawn dry, were noticed by Miller, in his Dicti q who Pre § ‘tat spawn which had lain for four settee near the furnace of a stove, yielled a crop in less time and in greater profusion than any other, In some old authors, a very sage advice is given for i! TH 7 i e 1 t 8 mushrooms in beds pre- promoting the fecundity of mushroom beds constructed droppings and fine mould, is on the ordinary plan, viz. to take a few full grown and has been fully described in a mushrooms from pastures, and, breaking them down in part of this work, (art. Fuwor, vol. x. p. 57.) the watering-pot, to water the beds with the infusion. proper, however, in addition to whatisthere This is nothing else than sowing mushroom —_ what is called Oldacre’s pn cee ye RY in the gi rome considered as an i suspended in the water, in with it of mushrooms. Ua se into the bed. = an Englishman who for 454. Although the Agaricus cam is is theonlyspe- gardener to the Em- denauidbvanhitn ia tht thin encatdaheatnef thataiintes to 1814, he visited flavour, nor perhaps the best ing of culture. occasion, at the desire Some of the others should be tried, an there seems 3 2 Grove; no reason to doubt of ultimate success. A. aurantiacus mushrooms. In forming possesses excellent qualities; the flesh is tender, and qtF ' i fresh short dung, the flavour delicate: it is im high repute on the Conti- mill. The dang nent, where it is in pine forests, about the exposed to wet nor to fermen« end of summer. It is the oronge of the French, and part of cow or sheeps is distinguished from another species, called the false ! ! i E are well oronge, by having a complete volva. A. solitarius is they may be so remarkable for its fine flavour. A. procerus is a great s, or in drawers or boxes, favourite in France, where it is known by the name of 2 z i & z —- A. deliciosus is much used in Germany and taly ; but though it is not uncommon in our fir plane about three inches tations, it is scarcely ever eaten in this country. The rT i li t i ti ; a flat Cham (A. pratensis) is used in Soups, and is layer is added, and ore occasionally brought to market; but, as res the marked by Mr Sowerby, in “ English Fungi,” it is apt, compact. ——_ to be confounded, by the common mushroom gatherers, | with A. virosus, one of those most to be avoi A. vioe be not qui percep- laceus is sometimes sold in Covent Garden, under the be adel, all’ # z till sufficient name of Bluets: it is a harmless kind, but has no other ea tet merit. a most commonly forms the Hi circles and on downs near the sea-shore, call« pg the spawn. These titans This Mr Lightfoot, in 286 Kitchen his Flora Scotica, considers as the mousseron of the Garden, Traffe. Morel. FLOWER GARDEN. French ; but their mousseron is A. virgineus of Per- soon, a fleshy species, nearly of a pure white colour, while our plant is coriaceous and buff-coloured. Truffles and Morels. These have already been described under the article Funer, and are figured in Plate LX XV. of this work. 455. The Truffle, or subterraneous puff-ball, ( Zuber cibarium,) is one of the best of the esculent fungi. It grows naturally in different parts of Britain, but is most common in the downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Kent, where dogs are trained to scent it out; the plant growing and coming to perfection some inches below the surface. The dogs point out the spot by scraping and barking, and the truffles (for several generally grow together) are dug up with a spade. They are principally sent to Covent Garden market. No attempt, it is believed, has hitherto been made to cultivate truffles; but of the practicability of the thing, there seems no reason to doubt. In their habits of growth, indeed, they differ essentially from the mushroom ; but it is certainly possible to accom- modate the soil and other circumstances to the peculiar nature of the fungus. It has been said, that the tu- bercles on the surface of truffles are analogous to the eyes or buds of potatoes, and that they have been pro- pagated, like potatoes, by means of cuts furnished with tubercles: it may however be suspected, that the pieces thus planted contained ripe seeds. Truffles, we may add, seem to delight in a mixture of clay and sand ; and a moderate degree of bottom heat, such as is af- forded by a spent hot-bed, might probably. forward their vegetation. 456. The Morel (Phallus esculentus, L.; Helvella esculenta of Sowerby, and Morchella esculenta of Per- soon) rises, in the spring months, generally in woods, but sometimes on commons. It frequently appears for sale in Covent Garden market in May and June ; but it has never been cultivated. The cultivation of mo- rels, however, would probably be more easily accom- plished than that of truffles. Morels are used either fresh or dried, commonly as an ingredient to heighten the flavour of gravies or ragouts. If intended for ae ing, they should not be collected when wet with dew, nor soon after rain; if gathered in a dry state, they may be kept for many months. Having treated at great length of the Kitchen Garden and of culinary plants suited to our climate, we now turn to the Flower Garden ; and here we shall study brevity as much as possible. FLOWER GARDEN. 457. Tue flower garden, it has been already obser- ved, § 55. has a separate situation, generally at some distance from the fruit and kitchen garden. It should indeed form an ornamental appendage to the mansion, and be easily accessible in all kinds of weather. There is no objection to the flower garden being seen from the windows of the house: on the contrary, this is some- times considered as desirable. In some places, the flower en consists of parterres of various shapes, generally curved, separated from each other by hittle HORTICULTURE. ass lawns. Such insulated parterres look very climate, being always of a lively green, and forming a fine contrast with the dressed ground, and with the gay hues of the flowers. But for many days in the year these grass-girt parterres are inaccessible to the proprietors, more especially to ladies, it being impos= sible to pass along the turf without getting wet, at, times when well made gravel walks are comfortably dry. Wherever, therefore, this kind of flower garden amidst turf is formed, there should be another, which may be considered as the winter garden, and which may contain one or more of the glazed houses for pre« serving plants, In many cases the flower garden is defended by low walls or by close pales, covered by shrubs. If there be little room, they may be concealed by a single row of some evergreen, such as phillyrea, alaternus, pyra~ cantha, laurustinus, or tree-box. The wall on the north side of the garden, however, is in some places used for a double purpose ; the more tender kind of shrubs be« ing trained against it on the south aspect. In situa~ tions where a wall would be unsuitable, an “ invisible fence” of wire is employed, this proving sufficient to exclude hares and rabbits, while it nowise offends the eye, and scarcely interrupts the view. Evergreen hedges, of laurel, yew or holly, make excellent fences, especially if united with a sunk fence. ‘ 458. The shape and size of the flower garden can be regulated only by the taste and the means of the own-. er, If the eye embrace the whole at once, the garden should evidently be of some regular figure. But if the size be considerable, it is advantageous that the ground should be unequal in surface, and irregular in shape. In general, a greenhouse, conservatory and stove, should form prominent objects in different parts of it: it should abound with evergreen trees and shrubs, so as to main< tain its verdure even at midwinter ; the principal bor« ders should be destined for mingled perennial flowers, of the most ornamental kinds; a few may be devoted to showy annuals; and particular beds should be ap- propriated for the different kinds of flowering bulbs, as well as for pas polyanthuses, and auriculas. These borders and beds, it may be remarked, should be so placed, that from the windows of the house, or from the principal entrance of the garden, they may be seen across or laterally, so that the colours of the flow- ers may appear in mass, without being broken by the alleys. A rock-work is generally formed; and if the situa- tion admit of it, or if curiosity in plants be indulged in, a small piece of water for aquatics is proper. A circular or oval plat is commonly devoted to a collection of roses ; and a damp border with peat soil is set spent as an “ American ground.” One of the walks is o! arched over with strong wire or with slight spars, on which climbing shrubs may be trained, so as to form a berceau. Covered seats of various kinds are constructe ed, under the names of heath and moss houses, are bours, and grottoes. If, however, the garden be re« gular in surface, bowers of light lattice-work, covers ed with climbing plants, are to be preferred. In very few places do fountains or statues now enter into the composition of the flower garden ; and urns, busts, or inscriptions, are not to be introduced without caution. Taking it for granted that the flower garden should have a ready communication with the principal gravel- walks near the house, and also with those | to the shrubberies ; and likewise that it is extremely de- . well Flotver om the windows of the house ; the turf, in our moist Gardens. HORTICULTURE. , 287 Flower sirable to have the walks at all times dry, we shall first 461. If the flower garden is to consist of parterres Flower Garden. ee aay ttatles of inch walks in separated by grass-turf, the first formation of these Garten —Y~"’ general; ‘and shall then consider some of the principal little lawns requires particular attention. When the Ways. ~~ constituént parts of the garden more in detail. ground is delved over and levelled, a stratum of sand > ely sewet ay = ’ or very poor sandy earth, perhaps three‘inches thick, is inner id VE CO 2 Walks. laid on, and over this an South of gon? eantuen eae eh j which to sow the grass a a Garden “459. Formerly grass walks were common in gar- below is to ent the grass from getting rank. This Walks. Se eas ae is necessary where a mixture of rye-grass cially and liability to wear bare in the middle, and brome-grasses (particularly Bromus squarrosus and have caused them to be in a great measure relinquish- multiflorus) is sown ; and all the grass seed, it may be ed and they are be seen in a few ol . observed, sold in this country, consists of such a mix- dens. Walks prin yada ro principally ok a ture. Were only fescue a sown (Festuca durius- with gravel. If walks formed at cula and ovina), with petiaps crested —— ( Cyno. first, much future issaved. If judged necessary, surus prim there would be much less danger of a drain should be made to pass below them ; but at all over-luxuriant —— appearing, while their fine wiry events a quantity of lime-rubbish or very coarse gravel leaves and aan, glaucous hue, would render the turf should form the foundation. In the flower-garden it is highly beautiful. The selection of grasses for lawns is Not necessary to have a fine permeable bottom of earth, too little attended to. The same kind of seed is sown such as is under gravel-walke next to fruit-tree indiscriminately in exposed and in shady situations. If borders. Rusesubblih prevents the lodging of carth white clover and rye-grass be sown under trees, it is am ee to ope other gg em little wonder that the md should remain bare: if tends to drain the and keep them dry. Over the seeds of Poa nemoralis were scattered in such situa- ish i some places tions, the bare spaces would soon be covered with a live- ee ee eee ly green sward. A judicious little essay on the em- without the addition of a little clayey matter. ployment of the gramina, and particularly of the spe- Bate Bl Reena: it, cies last mentioned, presented to the Hi id Society reofclay. The by the late MrG Don of Forfar, may be seen in of Blackheath have long the third volume of the Transactions of that Society, celebrated. If gravel be liberally laid on at first, p. 194, et seq. of by turning over the surface gravel, and then Soil. six be feet broad, it should rise 462. The soil of the flower- should of course Soil. and a half in the centre. It is often made be various. For the general ers a loamy soil is ; but the isthereby preferable. The surface earth from old pastures, taken annoyed Ifthe walk be of along with the turf, is accounted excellent. There i y i may be mixed with it a quantity of old hot-bed dung, : so that in ten feet of breadth, a rise of at wber sethin tddenn ; © third ora fourth, gietalioat as the earth is naturally rich or poor. If the compost seem apt to bind, a small proportion of sea-sand is the their exceeding eight’ They shoud be W aantc bene ambicese: seria two or same time is open, then -rotten tan three inches lower in level than the flower-borders, showa'te mubatieeted for dung. It may here be remarked, that various composts ia Li ti i ! Ti i rt it i nF aE immediately after rain is practised, the gravel binding OPetaall vey lin the dened ah od ul mn ower-; en. 13 . al g poms through woods or large shrubberies, being merely American plants ; the latter, to other American plants, red by to alpine plants, to Cape heaths, and to many green- the of trees in rainy weather, and are not easily house plants. The best sort of peat-turf is frequent] ‘opal, while sand walks require Goines shar to be found constituting a abs skin over a ot surface stirred with a Dutch hoe, delta’ salted’ cand..:The turf or nod thesld. be. taken, with whet smooth It is, however, of importance to have _peat-soil adheres to it, and should be allowed to moule a ot Named arto broken field stones, der in the com yard, Spots where wild heath or lime rubbish, the sand. Sand from an inland grows luxuriantly, or where it closely covers the sur- pit, having commonly a to bind, is preferable face, are likely to afford excellent light or sandy peat. to pure sea or river sand. In near the sea, and It may be , that at the points where mountain where banks of shells occur on the beach, sea-shells rivulets enter the flat country, accumulations of peat when broken will be found to form a neat walk, earth and sand may often be found, the peat being also ding ansthy 2 a certain . The freed, by the washing of the rivulet, from the chief utility of the binding is manifold; it gives the of the salts and other principles likely to prove Siting on ea peas cree ae he map| by pee, Be gence oy equal ned : se i v oe permits of sweeping, without end peat suitable for very man f inds of plants. 0 eee ae Mili soci) 288 HORTICULTURE. a mends a compost prepared of one-half earth from the or being washed into them by heavy rains, Ifthe box Flower - _ Surface of a common, where the soil is light; and the be kept low and regularly clipped, it endures in good Garden, . Soil. other half drift sea-sand and old lime rubbish screened, repair and beauty for several years. eet Edgings, in equal parts. Decayed leaves of trees have long been considered as forming the most suitable ingredient in composts, where it is wished to imitate a vegetable soil. Large pits are dug in convenient parts of the woods, and into these the heaps of leaves and small spray are raked during winter ; a slight sprinkling of the surface soil being wn over all, to prevent the leaves from being blown about. After the lapse of a year, a ver light vegetable soil is thus procured ; while the half rotten spray forms an appropriate soil for some kin of epidendrum, cultivated in the stove. ‘ In the first forming of composts, considerable atten- tion should be paid to the thorough mixing together of the ingredients. The heaps should not be round and of great bulk, but should rather be formed into long and narrow ridges, the sides of which may more effectually be exposed to the influences of the atmosphere. The compost should remain for at least a year before being used, and should be several times turned over and mix- ed in the course both of summer and winter. The best kind of rich manure for the flower-garden is found in old hot-beds which have been formed of stable dung and litter; but even this should not be delved into the borders without being mixed with a portion of good loam ; for there are few flowers to which wy rich manures do not prove detrimental. uantity of pit sand should always be in readiness for mixing with other soils, or for striking cuttings of different plants. The purest and finest pit sand is pre- ferred. However pure to appearance, it still contains a portion of very fine vegetable matter ; sea-sand being destitute of this, is not nearly so proper. To enlarge further on soils for the flower-garden seems unnecessary. In Cushing’s Exolic Gardener may be seen a table of genera, shewing the peculiar soil most suitable, in a general way, to each genus ; and the same little book contains some very useful remarks on the preparation and use of composts. It may here be observed, that for all border plants, as well as for tulips, ranunculuses, and other flow- ers kept in beds, the earth or the compost should not be screened fine. It is enough if stones which the spade sensibly strikes against be cast out, and if clods be broken small at the time of delving. Screened earth is apt to bind after heavy and continued rains, and thus to impede the progress of the roots which it was meant to facilitate. For plants kept in pots, and particularly for seedlings and cuttings, the matter is quite other- wise ; the soil for most of these should be made fine by passing it through a sieve. Edgings. 463. In the formal style of gardening which prevail- ed in the 17th and the early part of the 18th century, edgings of various kinds were much more needed and more attended to than they now are. The compart- ments of parterres were generally divided by box, and on the margins of the walks were frequently small hedges of lavender, or rue. Thyme, savory and hys- sop, were also in those days employed as ornamental ings. ~ 464, For the general gravel-walks in gardens, the best edging is without doubt the dwarfish Dutch box ( Buaus se irens var.) A compact low hedge of this effectually ke the walks clean, by preventing the earth of the border from falling down into them, clipped twice in the year, in April and July. It shoul be kept about three inches broad at the base, and taper- ing upwards to a sharp ridge. A linear and continuous edging of this kind pleases every eye. Box is planted either in the beginning of autumn, or in the spring about the month of April. If slips having few or no roots be used, watering is proper till the plants be fair- ly established. N bras box, plant — forms is best. retain- ing edging is ps threft or sea-pin tatice arme- a in Jane and aaunen in dower, - makes a showy edging ; and it answers the purpose during the rest of the year with its dense tufts bf leaves, Tt should be replanted every year, or at farthest every second year. The double-flowered daisy (Bellis perennis, var. fl. pl.) has very long been used in this way. When kept inrepair, it forms an edging very pleasing to the eye. The plants should be separated and tanaplehted every season, in the beginning of September, and enly one strong stem or bud left to each bunch of roots. Double catchfly (Lychnis viscaria, fl. pl.) is sometimes employed; but it seldom makes a neat edging: the flowers are ornamental, but the stems are too tall. Dwarf gentian (Gentiana acaulis) of all other forms the most brilliant edging, while in flower in the spring; but it is necessary that a continuous azure line be kept up, and for this we hae the verge must be of some breadth: It is applicable therefore only to large or broad borders, and it succeeds best in a strong or clayey soil. London-pride (Sazifraga umbrosa) forms a loose and straggling verge, but is very pretty while the plants are in flower: It is fittest for a shrubbery walk. Lady's cushion, or Indian moss as it is some« times called, (Sazifraga hypnoides) is oe plant- ed as an edging, and makes a pretty enough appearance, Some other similar species of Saxifraga, such as palmata and cespitosa, may be used in the same way. For gay parterres, the large blue-flow ney vio= let (Viola tricolor var.) makes a beautiful slight ging. Although strictly speaking an annual —_ if it be parted every season, it endures for several years. It is very commonly used for adorning the margins of ele- gant flower-borders in the neighbourhood of Dublin. Dwarf bell- (Campanula pumila, or C. rotundia Jolia var.) makes a fine edging for little borders where nicety and beauty are studied. Sometimes a few feet of the edging are formed alternately of the blue and of the white variety. For small borders also, a very or. namental edging may be formed of Stone-crop (Sedum acre), preferring the variety which has the tops of the shoots of a yellowish colour ; this, even during winter or very early in the spring, having the appearance of being in flower. It may be remarked, that patches of several of the different edging plants which have been enumerated, perhaps a few yards alternately of each, have an agrees able effect, especially in a long or extensive border. Most kinds of edgings may be planted early in the spring. In planting them, it is more proper to usethe spade than the dibble. The nd being slightly beat, a drill is cut by the -line, endicular on the side next the border ; the plants are against og sare side, their roots ‘spread out, and the osed upon them, — : For edgings to Sane or oblong beds intended for tulips, ranunculuses, or similar plants, thin hoards It is —— Régings es HORTICULTURE. sheep’s-fescue Festuca ovina), fine foliage of ing Bouman the extensive Newcastle, this sort of verge F. duriuscula being mixed, however, a places with the true sheep’s-fescue. If very sown oF planted in a narrow. straight li it has slender linear mrance, and docs not occupy more space a . Fora tem ing, another kind of neg Pe cto ns iza maxima), is sometimes very happily employed, loose racemes, wi! i ing spikes, having a i iets pin ap age rare l ett maa soon seeds ripen, ts become stronger than those sown in the spring. Geneon ly be less than a foot in breadth, and a the showery weather season,—Only a very few hardy cay) “roe here be noticed. ’ pmo ame: ee Seen ie several varieties, y e plain leaved, and the gald andithe silver polaeal. Resem- this is the a; but the genera may at once be di i seeing the flowers, by ob- that in the former the leaves are aliarudih s, among the most favourite tonsile mS Sycti an Arbor vite (Thaja orientale) and the American (7. occidextalis) are large, and suited 289 the common laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), and the Por- tugal laurel (P. dusitanica). 2 468. The Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis), which is a con- siderable tree in the south of Europe, appears but as a shrub in this country, producing its flowers only in sheltered situations and good seasons. The common lanrel above mentioned, we may remark, is often mis- taken for the bay, and regarded as the plant which furnished crowns for the Roman heroes. The error is fortunate, our bays thus escaping mutilation on occasions of public rejoicing. There is no doubt, however, that it was the sweet bay which furnished the wreath worn on the brow of the victor, and of the riestess of Delphi. The mistake has arisen from the y having formerly been called laurel, and the fruit of it only named bayes. The Alexandrian Laurel ( Ruscus racemosus ) has been mistaken for the heroic plant ; but although destitute of this honour, it is a most ele- gant shrub, worthy of a prominent station. The different varieties of Laurustinus (Viburnum ti- nus) are very ornamental, as they not only enliven the winter scene with their green leaves, but delight us with their flowers at that dead season. -These last, how- of ever, are uced only in sheltered situations. 469. thes Strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) is an ele- t plant at all times; but when at once covered with it and flowers, the arance is not only beautiful, but curious. .In Ireland, about the Lakes of Killarney, this species, which ranks as a shrub in Scotland and the north of En , attains the size of a lofty tree. In the Transactions of —— oe we a a gigantic specimen is described by Mr J.'T. Mackay as growing in Rough Island, an islet in the lower lake, entirely composed of limestone. In 1805, this tree measured nine feet in circumference at two feet from the ground ; at the height of five feet it branches off into four limbs, each of which then measured two feet and a half in cireumference ; from the base of the trunk to the extremity of the branches, the length was 36 feet; and the tree has a fine spreading head. The andrachne (A. andrachne) is a beautiful shrub or small tree, but liable to be injured by severe frosts, and suited only to the milder counties of E: and Ireland. The superb Yucca, or Adam's needle, ( Yucca Petes may here be mentioned, as-it retains its leaves at times. When in flower it makesa ificent ance. Young plants are at first rather tender; but when fairly established, they prove sufficiently hardy for the open border. A fine specimen has stood for about a century in the pleasure-grounds of Kilochan, belonging to Sir Andrew Cathcart in Ayrshire; and it flowers every second or third year, The Aucuba, or gold plant, (Aucuba Japonica) was formerly _ in fe green-house ; but it now orna- ments the flower-garden with its fine spotted yellow leaves ; and in a sheltered situation it sustains no in- jury from our ordinary winters. 470. Rhododendrons of different species are highly ornamental, particularly R. maximum, Ponticum, hir- sutum, and ferrugineum. These grow well in any loamy soil, although they no doubt flourish more among sandy peat. Ifa rivulet the flower garden, the banks of it should be planted with them. Kalmias also be introduced, icularly K. latifolia, angustifolia, and glauca; tog with m palustre and L. latifolium, or the Labrador tea plant; likewise different species of Vaccinium, and of Andromeda, particularly pulverulenta and cassinefolia; and Gaultheria procumbens. 20 . Flower Garden. —— Evergreens- 290 Flower 471. Among low evergreens for the front of the bor- Garden. ders, different species of Cistus or. rock-rose are excel- Even lent; and s&veral hardy. exotic Heaths, which shew Sreens their flowers early in the spring, particularly Erica. mediterranea and carnea, E, arborea, the flowers of which are fragrant, sometimes attains the sizeof a con- siderable shrub, and is.very ornamental, but it succeeds only in the milder parts of England, Even our four na- tive species deserve a place. The most. common is E, vulgaris, of which there is a white-flowered variety, and.one. with double flowers. E. cinerea, fine-leayed heath or bell-heather, is the next in point of abundance; it is more showy than the former, and there is a va~ riety with white flowers. LE, tetralix,, or cross-leaved heath, is the third species; it is an elegant plant, dis- tinguished by the leaves srowinig in fours, and by the flowers. coming in clusters on tops of the stalks. E. vagans is. a native of the south of England, found indeed scarcely any where but in Cornwall, These na« tive heaths grow perfectly well in any poor soil ; but the ground should not be delved close by them, as their roots are generally extended very near the surface, Pittos- porum tobira is a beautiful glossy-leaved Chinese ever- green, which succeeds in a well sheltered border, but unless it be situated in a dry soil, is apt to be cut off by the damp at the surface of theearth. Several:species of Daphne are very ornamental. as evergreens, and. pro- duce their flowers in the spring months, particularly D. cneorum, collina and pontica; and although the me- zereon (D. mezereum) is a deciduous shrub ; yet as it a its blossoms very early in the spring, generally in February, it deserves a place; there are three va-~ rieties, dark red, pale red, and white. The Periwinkles (Vinca major and minor), when regularly cut over every year, form neat evergreen: bushes. : 472. The:Musk rose (Resa moschata) may be considers ed as approaching to.an evergreen; and thereis. an almost evergreen variety of the sweet-briar (R. rubiginosa). But of all others, 2. Indica is the greatest acquisition to our gardens, being not only always in leaf, but. flowering both late and early, in November and in March. The Ayrshire Rose, a species not well ascer~ tained, deserves a place, especially for covering any: wall, pale, or winter seat; it grows very rapidly, and always retains some of its leaves. It is said to be from America, and to have received the hame of Ayrshire rose, from having been first cultivated at Fairfield, near Kilmarnock. A rampant native’ species (R. arvensis) has likewise iain among nurserymen the name of Ayrshire rose, and is often sold instead of the other, ta. which it bears a considerable resemblance. Aulumn, Winter, and Spring Gardens. 473. It now very commonly happens, that the au< tumn and early part of winter are the only seasons in which families, swayed by the fashionable world, reside at their country mansions. The forming of an autumnal and a winter garden is therefore im nt. In the former, many late-flowering perennial plants, such as asters, solidagos, rudbeckias, hollyhocks, and many kinds of annual flowers, may render the borders gay till the frost prove too severe: The carnation shed may with propriety be situated in the autumn garden, 474. Addison, in one of his Spectators (No, 477.) sets forth the pleasures and beauties of a winter garden. « In the summer season,” he observes, ‘“ the whole country blooms, and is a kind of garden, for which reason we are not so sensible of those beauties that at Autamn garden. Winter garden. HORTICULTURE. | py a : this time may be evety where met with; but whenina« Mower ture isin her desolation, and presents us with nothing, Garden. but: bleak and barren prospects, there is something un+ speakably cheerful: in a spot of ground which is co- jon. vered with trees that smile-amidst all the rigour of; winter, and give us a view of the most gay season in the midst of that whicl is’ most. dead:and: melancholy. I have so far indulged myself in this’ thought, that I have set apart a whole acre of ground for the executing: of it.. The walls are covered with ivy instead of vines. The.laurel, the hornbeam, and the holly, .with: other trees and plants-of the same nature, grow so in it, that you cannot imagine a more lively seene.” A winter garden of much smaller dimensions ‘tham here: suggested, would in general be’ found sufficient. The idea was taken up also by Lord Kames, in his “ Ele. ments of Criticism,” (vol. ti. p.448). ‘ In a hot:couna’ try,” he remarks; “ it isa capital object to have what: may be termed a summer garden, that is, a»space) of ground disposed by art and by nature to exclude the: sun, but to give free sacentier air. In acold couns , the capital object : ,a winter garden, " je the cans iebstenes from the wind, dry. under. foot, and having the appearance of summer by a variety of tea hg ‘All the evergreens which hae sboealp been mentioned would enter with propriety into the ~ composition of such a garden. The hornbeam, it may be noticed, however, must have crept into the Spectas tor’s list by inadvertency, it being a deciduous tree. Be- sides evergreen trees and shrubs, there area good many humble herbaceous plants which retain a greenness: in their foliage over winter; such are common. daisies, thrift, ce none-so-pretty, burnet, and several others, These may also be admitted ; and plants which flower in winter or very early in'the spring, may be:scattered over the borders; such are Christmas rose‘and winter aconite (Helleborus niger and hyemalis) ; dog’s-tooth violet, white and pink, (Hrythronium dens canis). bul< bous fumitory (Fumaria bu and solida); and others. To the winter garden a Conservatory. may be: consi« dered as an appropriate app 475. A part of the winter ga may be ‘appropria~ Spring ted asa spring garden, and planted chiefly with the garden. early agen ri Bee "eb as the prance and. the double dw: on yedatus nana and pumila), and the sweet almond (4. communis.) On the ried ders, the different species of narcissus, » particularly the poetic, the daffodil, jonquil, and polyanthus-nar~ cissus, may appear ; these, even’ wheii: rising through the ground, produce a lively appearance: And. other early spring flowers might be added, such as the spring bitter-vetch (Orobus vernus) ; comfrey-ieaved hound’s tongue ( Cynoglossum omphalodes) ; suowdrop, ( Galans thus nivalis) ; the puccoon; (Sanguinaria: Canadensis) ; and red, blue: and white hepaticas (Anemone hepatica. ) The heathery or heath-house might very properly form the principal object in the spring garden, many of the exotic erica flowering early in the year, The auricula frame might likewise be situate here. Border Flowers. pe 476. The principal borders are of course dedicated to: Hardy per- mingled mnial plants, sufficiently hardy to’ endure’ ennial our ae ie ysoiaibies A very rower Soucteare be: plants. specified: those mentioned shall.be the most showy and desirable of their kinds, They are:arranged in the r borders partly according to size, and partly according to colour. The tallest are planted in shrubbery bor- Winter gare Re Aw f i HORTICULTURE. 291 i B ir fF Hl f ¢ i t uh f if e gull ite bia i : F 7 + A 3 : [ | quincunx order ; the distance between each plant vary- Flower ing, according to the size of the border, and in some Garden. measure according to the nature of the plant, whether [73 ¥ it be apt to or to form a compact tuft. In re- gowers, to soil, it may be sufficient to observe, that most of the a herbaceous plants grow very well in a soil that is light and mellow, such as a sandy For certain p strong loam, turf mould, or vegetable earth, are proper ; and this circumstance is f should be paid by those fond of fine flowers t0 the pro- pagating of this plant. Several stems should with this view be cut down before the flower a : these are tobe divided into pieces five or six i long, which i of leaves except at the top, and sunk up to are colours; the leaves in the earth; they are covered fora few weeks i i 2 i # it i Fas gf 5 leaved meadow-rue. 492. Late tulips are the only kind now attended to by florists, the double and parrot sorts being in little esteem with them. They are divided into six fami- lies, distinguished by barbarous titles, a mixture of French and Dutch, 1. Primo baguettes, very tall, (the term. baguelte inferring that they resemble a small walk- ing-stick, or switch), cups with a white ground broken with fine brown ; and all from the same breeder. 2. Bagueites rigauts (or rougeaudes), with strong stems, though not so tall, very large cups with a white ground, likewise broken with fine brown, and all from the same breeder. 3. Verports, (or, as they are more com- monly called in this country, Incomparable Verports, HORTICULTURE. or simply Incomparables), with very perfect ving a beautiful white ground, or bottom, well with shining brown approaching to rose colour, and all from the same breeder, 4. Roses, allied tothe verports, Tulips the petals streaked with cherry and rose colours, ona white ground. _5. Bybloemens, sometimes contracted into el with the ground white or nearly so, from different breeders, and broken. with variety of colours. €. Bizarres, (probably a corruption from annie) with a yellow. ground, from different breeders, and. with variety of colours. The terms breeders, whote diowers, and seedlings, axe all applied to such flowers, raised from |, as are plain or of one colour, have a bottom or ground colour, (visible atthe base ofthe petal), and are well shaped, They may thus be either bybloemens or bi- zarres. The petals.of these, in the course of time, break into various elegant stripes, according to the nature of their former seli=colour. In correct » the term breeders would mean plants, from the seed of which ‘young tulips are to be raised. ! 493. The florist’s criterion of a fine flower is fre« quently at variance with that of the world at large. Many tulips which would excite the admiration of thousands, are rejected by the connoisseur. The pro- perties of a fine tulip, as set forth in the Florist’s Di- rectory, are the following. The stem should be strong and tall, two feet ormore. The flower should be large, with six petals ; the petals at the base proceeding for a little way almost horizontally, and then. sweeping up- wards, so as to form an elegant cup, with a rounded bottom, and somewhat wider at top than below. The three outer petals should be rather larger, or broader at the base, than the three inner ones ; all the petals should have the edges perfectly entire ; the top of each should be broad, and well rounded; the ground colour at the bottom of the cup should be clear white or yel- low, free from stain or tinge; and the various rich stripes, which are the principal ornament of a fine flower, should be regular, , and distinct on the margin, terminating in fine broken points, elegantly feathered or pencilled; while the centre of each petal should contain one or more bold blotches or stri of colour, mixed with small ions of the original or breeder colour, broken into irregular obtuse points; this last character, however, of central stripes or blotches, not being indispensable, and any trace of the breede» colour displeasing many florists. 494. The raising of tulips from the seed is a tedi- ous process ; but in this way alone are new varieties and vigorous bulbs to be expected. Seed is collected only from flowers of one uniform colour, or which are self-coloured, and are at the same time of good shape ; for, contrary to what might naturally be expected, expe- rience, it seems, has shewn that the seed of the most beautiful striped tulips does not yield so fine a produce as is got from the plain coloured. The tulips intend- ed for seeding are planted deeper than usual, perhaps eight or nine inches deep, in order that the stem may be kept longer ina vigorous state ; and are pla- ced ina border where they may enjoy the full benefit of the sun. Towards the end of July the begin to nsahay ene inn pauisiagon Nis wi fooaee in them, in a dry place, till the beginning of Septems ber, when the seed is sown. This is generally done in shallow boxes containing fresh light earth ; a covering of about half an inch thick, of the same light or sandy earth, is sifted over them. These boxes are placed in a sheltered situation for the winter. By the middle of March the seedling tulips shew their grass-like first » ha- Flower. oken Garden, 7% HORTICULTURE. | 295 eaves :’ these continue for about two months, and storms, and afterwards, when the season of flower- Flower Garden. — decay, so that they entirely disap- ing arrives, covered by an awning of thin canvas. In Garden. pear in June. ra year, the small bulbs are this way only can the delicate colours be fairly brought qoyc raised, and: into a nursery bed, two. inches’ out; even half an hour's full exposure to the sun’s rays bed be in an ex- has been known to alter them ; besides, the enjoyment i or mats areplaced over it during of the finesight is prolonged for near a month. T XS ity of winter: Im this bed the bulbs remain the'scent of the tulip is so slight as scarcely to be per- for and fourth years. oe ; ceptible in single specimens, the united odour of so kept some short time out of the earth, and transplant- many, confined im some measure by the cover, becomes ed to another hed, -in whielt they are placed four inch- quite evident. Watering is ly ever necessary for eS seperate Here’ remain other two years; and tulips. The seed-pods of all fine tulips are cut off as im this interval many of them begin to chew flowers. wer so for these, as already said, are by een wre reheat thr pamaanen ~ or tired no means from which to procure seed, and the fallgrown bulbs exhaust themselves in forming them. The bulbs bulbs; and after they have flowered: fortwo or three are lifted in the course of the month of June, the their real value rey ascertain- tions bektig ascertained by observinig'whan the'Silizgle tad : : promisin is, tall, well sha. decayed, and two or three inches at the top of the stem ped, with bottoms, and self-coloured, they are re- begin toacquire a purple tinge. Ifthey be left longer tained for @ longer time, im expectation of improve. in the earth, the flowers are apt to become foul the next course retained ; but these are apt quickly to d till October. The offsets, chives, or babies, are taken rate. Those that appear eee and’ portman te am : om a8 er ae pointed petals are rejected wi itation. separate |, not so as the parent , an The to break is promoted in the b about 9 month earlier ‘Wnny te tetitthd, that all small, may be considered as likely to produce it; et partie dent from the bu third part old lime rabbish sifted, all well mixed sand bare and clean state. By the end of February most of ae The beds are made two feet deep, the tulips appear above ground: the surface is at this the drills about four inches season gently stirred with the fingers, aided perhaps by deep, and six or seven inches from eachother in every little bit of stick ; this stirring tending greatly to pro- direction. eh pearance 3 mote their health and growth. all traces of its self-colour, and continuing till the pe- The finest and most extensive collections of tulips in arn to’ this country at present, are probably those of Davy, Whether the breaking is Ranunculus. ’ consequence not ap- f ; but it seems to be a general fact, that ex 496. ‘This well known flower (Ranunculus Asiaticus) poyuncy. ipuaidelarddventercrsin. is # native of the Levant and ofthe Greek Islands. It jus, emcee worms Forme management of was cultivated by Gerarde in the end of the 16th cen- A : practice not uncommon with gardeners must here be have been raised semi-double flowers, both in this is the of tulip bulbs ‘with a cowntry and in Holland: some of these possess also seat 7 fl ait ati ler aif et ! Ly ei ise i sds i Hu es i z 5 : i E bed is improved ing made to » a little ceeds 180; the proper contrast of colours is studied, the conte to sah ide stronger should and the whole, Lvs in full flower, prodtices a ver receive the sit found difficult to invent names for’them. Mr ere ivides the colours into twelve families: Dark di 495. The bed of choice’ is, by the true florist, purple ; light and grey ; crimson ; reds ; at Gistected by haope tad’ masts Som tae eens rosy ; orange; yellow yellow spotted ; white and Flower Garden. ee eee Ranuncu- lus, 296 white spotted; olive; purple and coffee-coloured stri- ped; red and yellow striped ; and red and white stri- ped. The Turquoy, or turban-shaped ranunculus, is a very distinct sub-variety. . 497. The qualities of a fine double ranunculus, as described by him, consist in the flower being of a he- mispherical form, at least two inches in diameter, the numerous petals gradually diminishing in size to the centre ; the petals broad, with entire, well rounded edges ; their colours dark, clear, rich, or brilliant, either of one colour, or variously diversified on an ash, white, sulphur, or fire-coloured ground, or else regularly stri- fk spotted or mottled. The stem should be strong and straight, and from eight inches to a foot in height. The root is composed of several thick fleshy fangs or claws, uniting at top into a head. When the plant becomes strong, several subordinate or lateral heads are formed, and each of these may be taken off with their proper claws, to form anew plant. These offsets, it may be observed, form better flowering plants than the central head, which is exhausted by flowering. The soil preferred for the ranunculus bed is fresh rich loam, inclining to clayey. It should be deep, per- haps. little short of three feet ; for it is surprising to what a depth the fine fibres from the tubers penetrate downwards. Some gardeners raise the bed a few inches above the surrounding ground. If manure be at any time added, it should be well rotted, and must be in- troduced at the very bottom of the bed at least two feet and a half below the tubers. Miller mentions three feet as the proper depth of soil for the beds, adding, that on such beds plants will produce forty or fifty flowers, which in a shallow soil would not afford a do- zen. The beds are kept flat on the surface, not raised in the middle as for tulips. Miller directs, that the roots should be planted six inches apart each way ; but this is too wide: Five inches between the rows, and three or four inches between each plant in the rows, are sufficient. In some situations, the plants grow strong- er than in others ; and a good general rule is, to ob- serve the size which the leaves commonly acquire, and then, in that garden, to plant so close as that the grass or foliage of contiguous rows may just meet ; the ground being kept in a desirable state of moisture by this close covering of leaves. The tubers should not be more than an inch and a half dee should be placed with the claws pointing downwards or the bud upwards. It is not right to plant ranuncu~ luses year after year in the same bed, If a little fresh soil be introduced, they may do twice ; but after this, - the earth of the bed should be entirely changed, or a new bed should be made in a different part of the gar- den. The time of planting is either the latter end of Oc- tober, or the first mild and dry weather in February. When put in in October, the buds sometimes appear above ground in November ; in this case, a thin cover- ing of half an inch of light soil, is cast over them be- fore severe weather set in. Autumn planted ranuncu- luses also require attention in the spring ; if hard frosts occur when the flower-stems appear, a covering of hoops and mats may be proper for a | Sie days. The beds are weeded with the hand, and by careful cultivators the earth between the rows is stirred up only with the fingers, a hoe being very apt to cut and injure the tubers, or break too many of the fine roots. When the flowers begin to expand, the florist does not fail to. guard equally againet nightly frosts and scorching suns . 5 in the earth; and they’ HORTICULTURE. beams, by means of a canvas awning, or at least of mats laid over large hoops. When drought occurs, li- pace eee proves very beneficial to the ranuncu- us bed. ; When the flowering is over, and the leaves have be- gun to decay, the tubers are carefully lifted ona dry day ; being thoroughly cleared of earth, they are dried in the shade, and then deposited in separate drawers or boxes, or in paper bags, till wanted for replanting. When it is wished to raise seedling ranunculuses, the seed is collected from flowers having: nat. fewer than fiye or six rowo of petals, of good colour. It is sown in August, in boxes or pots, on the very surface of the earth, and a ‘little very fine mould is sifted over it, so as hardly to cover the seeds. kept under a glass frame during winter; and most of them flower the second year. : _ Anemone. 498. The garden anemone is of two kinds, the broad~ Anemones leaved (A. hortensis,) and the narrow-leaved (A. coros pe The former is the more hardy, being a native of Italy and the south of France; the latter grows na- turally in the islands of the Archipelago, where it ap- s of all colours. 499. A fine double ‘anemone should have a strong, upright stem, eight or nine inches high ; the: flower should be from two to near three inches in diameter ; the outer petals should be firm, spreading horizontally, except that they turn up a little at the end, and the seanier petals within these should be so disposed as to form an elegant whole, distinct. The flowers are generally divided by florists into red and pink, rosy and crimson, spotted, dark and light blue. ; In preparing an anemone bed, the surface soil of some old pasture, with the turf itself, is to be mixed with . some well rotted cow-house dung, and allowed .to lie for a year in heap, but occasionally turned over. \ Lar, stones are to be cast out, but the soil should not screened, or at least should not be made too fine. The roots are tuberous, and very irregular in shape. They are commonly planted six inches apart in each direction, and about two inches deep, taking care to place the bud uppermost. The best season for plant- ing is considered to be the month of October; but some roote are generally kept back till December ; and: others are not put in TiN February, in order to ren- der them later in coming into flower, and thus to pro-« long the anemone show. Where the flowers are prized, the beds are sheltered during the severity of the early spring, by mats laid over hoops; for it is. remarked by practical men, that double flowers often become single, by “ the thrum (collection of narrow thread-like ; petals) that is in the middle of the flower being de- stroyed.”? In April and May, if the weather prove very dry, they are regularly refreshed with water. In July, when the leaves decay, the roots are taken but always in dry weather. They are cleared of either with the fingers, or by washing. They are then packed in baskets or drawers till the planting season recur. Of choice sorts, the smallest offsets are valua- ble ; and as these are minute, and very much of the colour of the soil, great attention is requisite to have them all picked up at the time of lifting. _ 500. New varieties are raised from the seeds of > The young plants are. The plain colours should be. brilliant and striking ; the variegated ones, clear and. white and white - Flower’ Garden. ; Ranuncu- lus. a : | HORTICULTURE. 297 called Poppy Ane- ‘into flower in October and November, the period cor- Flower colours. Some care is responding to their usual time in their native coun- Garden. ‘the seeds, which try. They may, however, be brought to shew their pina. sand. The seedlings the luxuriance is most effectually flowers more early. This is accomplished by checking : oft herbage, by ae of leaien the first year, par- roots in very poor soil, sometimes even in screened the frost is apt to vel. ' Water is supplied only till the flower-bud be Siscernible in the heart of the eaves ; after which none a is given. . j are selected. e roots, which are large and tuberous, like those bright red and of peony-rose or yellow asphodel, are taken up every im-tha garden bor- year, and kept for some weeks in sand. Some cultiva-_ being only taken tors alwxys plant them in pots, the restraint thus im- : Feb- posed on the roots having the same effect as planting in in ruary, and form the gayest parterre ornament at that om The growth in the spring may, in this way, forwarded, by placing them under a frame ; and the very early into flower. may be sunk in the dahlia bed in June. If the be situate close to a south-east or south wall, the flowering of the plants is greatly promoted. The more tender sorts, such as the scarlet variety of D. frus- is or Flower-de-luce is extensive, tranea, may be placed next to the wall, and have its ies, many of which make branches nailed to it, in the way practised with love- ist and shady borders; apple. All secondary branches are pinched off while only a few species young and tender, and even some leaves are removed, of what arecalled the if the plant shew a disposition to be very luxuriant. @ principal part. Pinks. and sometimes curious varieties 505. Thé common pink and the carnation, though Pinks. most common colour is blue, deep- considered as distinct kinds of flowers by the florists, yellow, or white; have originated chiefly from one and the same species shades, or violet of plant, the Dianthus rere of Linneus, or in other Clove Pink. It grows naturally in rocky situations in with I. variegata some parts of Germany ; and Sir J. E. Smith has even into the bed. L eae Rn pin Engr Salind, toh) ona nabien of ingular species both tain. pinks seem to have been en- Salikeciecenaen tirely unknown to the ancients; for Pliny does not is bed should be a light loam, with to thers. ‘ ees Sis Pinks were not held in much esteem by our own an- should cestors ; indeed they seem to have risen to distinction added. with florists only in the 18th century. They are di« east border, the flowers make a finer appear- vided by them into several classes ; such as k to the south. : cobs, and pheasant’s-eyes, The first are white, a . susiana) is yearly import- flower early ; the cobs are red, and flower late. Both i - [ 7 F: E Le i z his observations on hand- is magnificently rich of these kinds are considered as originating from D. but seldom shews caryophyllus ; but the pheasant’s-eye, of which there are too agrees with» numerous varieties, is regarded as having sprung from arm eunny situa. D. plumarius. the fin A copious watering is then given, and lets are firmly own over the plants: , were little known if the weather be t, these may have some ‘atives.of Mexico, they come earth thrown against while the glass is pest Qr Flower Garden. Pink, €arnations, 298 order to produce a degree of shade, or some large leaves may be laid on them for a few days. These: hand- glasses are not removed till the new growth: of the pinks be distinetly perceived, which happens generally in the course of a month or five weeks ; water is how- ever occasionally applied around the covers. The plants are afterwards transferred to a larger bed, or to a garden’ border, in time to permit them to become well rooted before winter. Slips of pinks, four or six inches long, drawn from the sides of main shoots, and planted any time in the spring; seldom fail to'grow. New varieties ate procured by raising plants from seed: for this purpose the seed of the Best sorts only is saved ; it is produced sparingly in such flowers as are not perfectly double ; it is procured more plentiful- ly from semi-double flowers, and if these be of good colours, the offspring is frequently very promising. It is sown in the spring, and the plants are nursed up in beds, and afterwards planted out. From a consider- able bed, only a few can be expected worthy of being preserved ; and these are likely to be found among the weakest plants. 506. Those flowers the petals of which are elegantly: lacéd with colours, while the edges are scarcely notch ed, or are as nearly as possible rose-leaved, are consi- dered the finest. Being very double, and at the same time opening fairly or without bursting, are qualities highly prized. A clear white for the body of the flower is always desirable. | In'the lacing, a'rich black, shaded toward the centre with red, is much esteemed. Scarlet lacings are most rare, arid much in request. A gl lace'is greatly admired, as in the variety known iy the name: of Davy’s Duchess of Devonshire, which riiay be considered. as the model of a’ perfect pink. Pinks are carefully tended by-the zealous florist. When the flower-stalks rise, they are tied to a stnall stick to keep them up ; and when the’ petals begin to appear in the pod, those pods which seem apt to burst on one side are restrained by a small piece of slit neat The finest flowers when expanded are covered with ieces of tinned’ iron® in shape of inverted funnels’ or Fittle umbrellas, equally to save them from rain and from the sun’s rays. Carnalions. . 607. Formerly these were divided: into: Carnations, often called Bursters, having very large leaves and flowers, and into Gill 8: (girofliers, F.), the leaves and flowers of which are smaller. The former are now called: Tree-carnations; the latter, Common carnations. "Fhe florists of the present day distinguish carnations into four classes. 1. Flakes, having one colour only, on a white ground; ‘the stripes: large, and the ‘colour extending through’ the substance of the petal: when the stripe is pink, and of high colour, the flower is called a Rose flake. 2. Bizarres, flowers with'two co-« lours, o 2 white ground: they are called scarlet, ‘pur- ple, or pink bizarres, ‘as these colours happen toabound;) when deep'purple and’ rich pink occur together, the flower is accounted»a crimson bizarre. 3. Piquetiees, with a white; and ‘sometimes! a yellow nd; spotted: with scarlet, ‘purple, or other colours, eedges of the petals generally notched or serrated. 4. Painted.ladies,: with’tlie-petals red or purple on the upper side, but white below. Thiswas ter is not. sprinkled.over the whole plant, but is applied only to the root, The stems, are tied to stakes as they siemiehe In. this: situation: the plants cons tinue till their stems: becotne too: tall! for remaini under the hoops. They are then placed»on the s for flowering. Here slender stakes, four feet in ; and sometimes painted, are employed, and: the stems are neatly tied to them at the distance of every six inches. As the flower-buds’ advance, they who are nice watch any appearance of irregular bursting, and prevent it by slight ligatures, as already mentioned in the case of fine pinks, Only three or four pri flower-buds are allowed: to-come forward; the» lateral ones being cut off as they appear. When the earliest flowers begin to expand, tinned iron or common paper covers, such as) those above described, § 506; are placed: over them. When the flowering be» comes’ general, a canvas awning is resorted to. A tulip-bed frame answers perfectly well for covering carnations; and: tulip bulbs: are raiced and stored, bes fore carnations come into flower : every one therefore who delights in tulips, should also cultivatecarnations, that his canvas: frame may thus be occupied with veges table beauties twice in the year. fel ba Earwigs prove very injurious, sometimes almost de- structive to carnations. They should be daily looked for, hunted out, and destroyed. Numbers may be en- trappedin dried hollow stalks of rhubarb; reeds, or similar fistular plants. Sonie have been at the pains.to insu- late the raised stage, by setting its:supporters in; vessels. filled with water; forgetting perhaps that igs: oc~ casionally take wing. When’ the flowers«are: and:apt to droop; bits) of fine: brass-wire are used as. supports. Zealows carnation florists sometimes dress the flowers, by removing with a pair of pincers:small or ill« coloured petals, adh iciahging ba seevedigaldolllide the defect. bearish 509. When the plants have passed the height of their ae sm HORTICULTURE. 299 bleom, raust not lower cinalis) decks the pastures and margins of corn fields, leaves of the layers ae pert Bagoneree Turticvlarly in the south and west of England, and the Jeaves cropped, an incision is made below on ieee tye Gaiudiag ee Sa third joint, and contin through the joint; the loose places a pleasing em hildren. | oo ae eaniaeveete so that The ip (P. elatior) is much less common than the daptreintere eris ; such fern —mecgapreg of the frond, .about-half a line below the second joint ft “mity of the shoot, and shortening the foliage as for lay- ers, are in water for some time, to plump them as florists They are then pricked into an exhausted hot-bed, and: covered with hand-glasses. The soil is kept i fibres be sent out ; but it is to observe, ascetiguntaal Jot be replaced till that after , the glass should not “the leaves of the pipings be dry. When in to ‘shoot upwards, air is regularly but cautiously admitted. La or pipi when 'y rooted, are removed, and, if choles kine encrally planted in pos, three o -four in-each pot. ror aehin season, carnativis, a ther , or su mother plants, are Se cqpadaycmterrtotes used “ ity 7 fl i F a E i : ef A ne i ret = ? i i H : i Hl . t , ; such are cast out; and It may here be noticed that carnations are susceptible of the operation of double-flow: seat th to a ay ge red, and -whip.geafting ts beet. Dylans ) ~ Polyanihus. i of the small-flowered polyanthuses. ccowslip, and is chiefly in woods, and by the mar- gins of woods. It seems to be the parent of several The bird’s-eye primrose (P. farinosa) is certainly one of the prettiest natives we can boast, and it grows on the poorest moors. Of the exotic ricula) is a well known favourite, of which we shall speak after treating of the polyanthus. Garden. —_—o ies, the auricula or bear’s-ear (P. au- ° 611. According to the florist, the properties of a good Polyanthus. -polyanthus are following: The tube of the corol- above the calyx should be short, well filled at the mouth-with the anthers, and terminate fluted rather above the eye. The eye should be circular, ofa bright clear yellow, and distinct from the ground colour be- low. The ground colouris most admired when shaded with a light and dark rich crimson, resembling velvet, with one mark or stripe in the centre of each division of the limb or border, bold and distinct from the edg- ing down to the eye, where it should terminate ina fine point. The petal should be large, quite flat, and round, excepting the minute indentations between each division, which divide it into five (sometimes six) heart- like segments. The edgin should resemble a bright -gold lace ; it should be i, clear, and distinct, and nearly of the same colour as the eye and stripes. Endless are the varieties of polyanthuses ; and as they are easily raised from seed, they are generally the first kind of flower that a young florist cultivates. Seed is kept in the shops for sale; but by sowing this, very few varieties may be . The seeds should be saved only from flowers with large upright stems, prodacing many flowers upon a stalk, which are large, finely shaped, which open flat, and are not pin-eyed ; and all ordinary flowers near to these should be cut over, to avoid any intermixture of pollen. The seed is ready in June, and the should be gathered as they successively — seed is commonly sown in boxes in January. The seedlings are regularly watered in dry weather, and shaded from the forenoon sun. They are fit for pricking out in the end of May ; and they are transplanted, in August and September, to the borders where they are to flower, which should be somewhat moist and shady, and exposed only to the east. A loa- my soil answers ‘best. Most of them will flower in the ‘succeeding spring, and then those that are indifferent ‘may ‘be cast out, or transferred'to the shrubbery. The plants ‘being again transplanted, will b in full —<— the Moe year; and, ifthe kinds be ve- good, will, in collective beauty and brilliancy, be lit- the inferior to a show of paiseabe 2 After this, they must be yearly removed, and tlie roots must be ed, else the flowers will inevita degenerate. The truth is, that seedling plants produce stronger and more brilliant flowers than offsets ; and ‘they who would have polyanthuses in perfection, must save seed from their finest plants, and sow annually. The best way is to raise two or three of the finest with a ball of earth attached, and to t them in ano- ther part of the garden, where ry intermixture of pollen, and may be regularly attention to watering bei the production of vi; plants which thus yidll seed Flower Garden. —\~— Auricula, 800 Snails and slugs infest polyanthuses in the spring of the year, and should be watched in the morning. In summer the red spider often. forms its webs on the rough under side of the leaves, which is indicated by their becoming yellow and spotted. If the plants thus attacked be not removed, the whole polyanthus bed will be destroyed... An effectual cure is found in soak- ing the foliage of the diseased plants for two or three hours in.an infusion of tobacco leaves, and planting them at a distance from the others, Auricula. 512. The Auricula is a native of the Italian Alps ; and there the most common colour is yellow, but it oc- curs also purple and variegated, with a white powdery eye. The varieties raised by florists are innumerable ; many of them are of great beauty, and some extremely curious. Parkinson, in 1629, names twenty varieties, and mentions that there were then many more. Rea, in his Flora, 1702, describes several new sorts raised by himself and cotemporary florists. . A century after- wards, Maddock’s catalogue enumerates nearly 500 va~ rieties, 513. The properties of a fine auricula are the follow- ing. The stem should be strong, upright, and of such a height that the umbel of flowers may be above the foliage of the plant. The peduncles or foot-stalks of the flowers should also be strong, and of a length pro- portional to the size and number of the blossoms or pips: these should not be fewer than seven, in order that the umbel may be close and regular. A pip or single flower consists of the tube, eye, and border ; these should be well proportioned ; if the diameter of the tube be one part, that of the eye should be three parts, and that of the whole flower or pip six parts nearly. The circumference of the border should be round, or at all events not what is called starry. The anthers ought to be large, and to fill the tube; the tube should terminate rather above the eye; and this last should be very white, smooth, and round, without cracks, and distinct from the ground colour. The ground colour should be bold and rich, equal on every side of the eye, whether it be in one uniform circle, or in bright patches ; it should be distinct at the eye, and only broken at the outer part into the edging. Black, purple, or bright coffee-colour, form excellent contrasts with the white eye ; arich blue or a bright pink are plea- sing; and in a deep crimson or glowing scarlet, edged with bright green, are concentred the hopes and wish- es of the florist, which however are seldom. realised. On the green edge much of the fine variegated appear- ance of the auricula depends, and it should be nearly in equal proportion with the greund colour. The dark grounds are generally strewed with a fine white bloom or powder, which ares a rich appearance: the leaves of many sorts are thickly covered with the same kind of powder, which seems destined by nature to save them from the scorching effects of the sun’s.rays.. Mr Maddock considers the forming of a proper com~ post for auriculas, to be of great importance, The in- gredients and proportions recommended by him. are these: One half well rotted cow-dung; one sixth fresh sound earth, of an open texture; one eighth ve- getable earth, from tree-leaves; one twelfth coarse sea or river sand ; one twenty-fourth soft-decayed willow wood, from the trunks of old willow-trees; the same pro- portion of peat or bog earth; and.a like proportion of the ashes of burnt vegetables, tobe spread on the sur HORTICULTURE. face of the other ingredients. This compost’ isto be © Flower kept for at least a year, exposed to sun avert several Garden. times turned, and passed through a coarse sieve. Mr ayricula. Curtis properly remarks, that if the compost be rich and light, it is not necessary to adhere rigidly to the above Sage ag, He mentions, that two-thirds of rotten dung from old hot-beds, and one-third contain- ing equal parts of coarse sand and of peat-earth, form a very suitable compost. 514. Choice auriculas are always kept in The inner diameter of these at tap ~y-+- via tunes, at bottom fous Licnes, and t they should be about seven in« ches deep. A little gravel in the bottom is proper as a drain below the roots of the plants. Auriculas are annually repotted in May, soon after the bloom is over. The balls of earth are to be preserved around the roots,,. -and only a certain portion of new mould given: Mr Maddock, indeed, advises the shaking of the earth from the roots; but this necessarily gives a check, from which the plant does not recover in the course of a year. At the same time offsets are taken, and planted in separate pots. The whole auriculas are then placed in. an airy but rather shaded situation, not however under the drip of trees. The place is generally laid with coal-ashes, to d ena the earth-worm from entering: the pots, and the pots are often set on bricks, to allow a freer cireulation of air about them. Here they re= main till October. They are then placed under a glass- frame, or other repository, to shelter them for the win- ter months, giving as much air as circumstances will permit. In Panny they are earthed up; that is, the superficial mould, to the depth perhaps of an inch, is. _ removed, and replaced by fresh compost, mixed with a little loam to give it tenacity. This is found greatly to aid the flowering. When several flower-stems appear in one pot, a selection is made of one or two of the strongest, and the others are pinched off. As the: flowers advance, the plants are arranged in the co-« vered stage, which contains four or five rows of shelves. rising one above another. The roof is generally of glass:;. and the front, which is placed facing the north or the east, is. furnished with folding doors, which may be shut when desired. Here the plants are regularly wa- : tered two or three times a week, care being taken not to touch the flowers or foliage with the water. A good collection of auriculas treated in this way, forms, when. in flower, a very captivating sight. Sometimes the richness of the scene is.increased, by introducing mir- | rors into each ond of the frame, and by having a bed of hyacinths, and perhaps a row of fine pelyon of which flower at the same period, in front of the stage, and covered with a thin awning. The soft light pas- Y sing through the awning, heightens the effect of the | auriculas. It may be mentioned, that, in order to se-. cure the filling of the stage with good flowering plants, l which alone ought to appear there, it is necessary that, the collector ess at least twice as many plants as the: eee is calculated to hold. _ The interest of the florist’s pursuits receives in this, . as in all other cases, a great increase when he attempts | the raising of new varieties from seed. To purchase auricula seed in shops is a bad plan. It is much bet« | : : ter to encourage the ripening of the seeds of a few very good ftowers, which may be done merely by ie nt them fully to. sun and air, and saving by - glasses from heavy rains. The seed ripens about the end. of June ; but it should be kept in the umbels till sown. This may be done, either in autumn or early in spring, in boxes ; and the seed should be very slightly As HORTICULTURE. 801 earth, - ight le of the juice in their thick succulent leaves and ee alee a Mg to be Faeie shel- fem evaporates, instead of eer the bulbs, ter during the winter; but in weather the seed- This is “ ripening the roots.” en choice hya- - aoe Ni have plenty of air ; they must not, how- cinths are cultivated in pots, as is commonly the case lings be exposed directly tothe sun’s rays, which would in this country, the pots are laid on their sides after the Suey Seale Shee eee rain, Wie ¥ are always of the test promise. When of ‘i ye transplanted into other boxes, and fit for pots. If one plant in thirty in the collection, the success ~~» the be ted out as border flowers, shove they aameant Way resem oot for a few years. Hyacinth. 515, The garden Hyacinth ( Hyacinthus orientalis, L.) is one of the ere ot whi Serica bare themselves, It is originally from been brought to its present im- Countries. Double hyacinths i though formerly these double tulips are now, the seers Dales, Sen, equnied sm comets regularity of the shape disposition of the blossoms, and in the richness of the colour. Whole acres of nursery ground are covered with this flower near Haarlem and Utrecht in d. Here new varieties are annually seed, which is collected sity,—the the World ; the sterdam ; the Princess Charlotte ; the Earl of Lauder- dale, &c. &c. ; The seed is sown in ; tulip seed. The seedling bulbs are not raised or trans- dark pees. SEE. ee ie, yor), eset tn. Soa ae ers make their a: 7 and lor, or till the leaves decay. Bulbs four or five ly in Britain, and they then floweri pow a flower most olland they endure a great gradually fall off ; but in Flower Garden. menue number of years. It is remarked that they succeed . best in situations near the sea. It is curious that bulbs im from Holland flower more beautifully in this country the first year, than they ever do afterwards. Polyanthus- Narcissus. 517. The Polyanthus-narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) Polyanthus- is a native of Spain and other parts of the south of N#‘sss. Europe. The flowers are very ornamental, and come early. The plant has long been a favourite with the florists of Holland and F ‘eau There are la incipal varieties: Some have yellow petals, with cu page ka either orange or sulphur coloured, " have white petals, with orange, yellow or sulphur co- loured nectaries ; in a third set, both the s and the nectaries are white ; and there are double flowers of all the varieties. The subordinate varieties are more than a hundred in number. A double variety called the Cc Narcissus, is curious and beautiful ; the outer pe- are white; those in the middle partly white and partly orange ; and it has a very agreeable scent. A pure white variety is called the Paper Narcissus. The florists of this country generally depend on the supply of bulbs imported from Holland. The seed, however, often ripens in good seasons here, and there is no peculiar difficulty in raising the plants in this way. shallow vessels in the manner of The beds containing oung bulbs require to be defended from severe frost means of a covering of mary eye straw, or fern. Full grown bulbs are planted in the beginning of September. They do not require to be raised every year; it is better indeed not to remove them oftener than once in three ge They flower in April and May ; and if they choice kinds, they should be saved from sun and rain by an awning, as practised in the case of tulips. Crocus. 518. The crocus, though a well known flower, has Croeus, aye late years been accurately studied as a genus, Miller admits only two species, the autumnal or saffron C. officinalis), and the spring crocus, (C. vernus), ir J. E. Smith mentions three species as natives of Britain, C. vernus, nudiflorus, and sativus. Of the for- mer there are several varieties, blue and purple, yellow and white, and striped ; and besides these, the follow- ing species are cultivated in crocus beds: C. versico- y-colour crocus, a kind which requires a light loam, while most of the others best in sand ; biflorus, or yellow bottomed ; mesianus, or common yellow ; susianus, or cloth of gold; and aureus or true . The Scots crocus is a beautiful striped vari The bulbs may be planted in any light soil; but they succeed best in sand ; and some cultivators to the westward of London haye been at the pains to carry sea-sand fifty miles for this purpose. They should not 802 Flower ‘be:planted deep, not being covered more than an inch. Garden. In February the flowers begin to appear; in March they are in glory ; and by the end of April the seeds begin to ripen. In good ‘seasons’ these are produced plentifully, and by means of them new varieties may be procured. The leaves of most of the species grow chiefly after the flowering is over: these should not be cut, as is often done, the bulbs being thereby deprived of much of their nourishment ; they may, however, very properly be tied up. Annual Flowers. Annual flowers. 519. Many of these are very beautiful ; and in fine flower-gardens, they not only appear in patches on the ‘borders,*but some of the elegant sorts are cultivated in beds in a separate compartment, called the Annual Flower-garden. ‘They are commonly divided into Hardy, Less hardy, arid Tender. The hardy are sown in the spring, in ‘the natural ground, where they are ‘to remain ; ‘the less hardy are raised on a slight hot-bed, and planted out in April and ‘May ; and the tender require to be passed ‘through two nursery beds before planting in the open border, and in thenorthern parts, of Britain they are kept almost always under glass. In this place only a few of the most beautiful-er curious of each of these divisions-can be named. Pretty ample and correct tabu- lar lists of them may be found ‘in Abercrombie’s Prac- tical Gardener, under the head Flower-garden. _ 520. Of the Hardy Annuals, different’ species of Adonis are showy, none more so than the Pheasant’s. eye, A. autumnalis: this, if not a‘native, ‘has become ‘completely naturalized in fields‘near London, and quan- tities of ‘the flowers are-every summer sold in the city by the name of Red Morocep. Several species of Snap- “dragon | (Antirrhinum) ; white and purple Candytuft (Iberis umbellata); Lobel’s ‘Catchfly, red and white (Silene armeria); Venus’ Looking glass (Cam spe= culum) ; with the purple and ‘the red te» Clary (‘Sal- via horminum), are very ornamental. Varieties of the Convolvulus major and minor, and of the Bluebottle { Centaurea ‘cyanus), with the Sweet Sultan (C. mos- chata); the Fennel-flower (Nigella damascena), with many sorts of Scabious (Scadiosa), and the well known Stock 'Gillyflower (Mathiola incana), deserve cultiva- tion. The Yellow Balsam (Impatiens noli tangere ) is ve= markable for its ripe capsules exploding the seeds upon being touched ; it thus sows itself, and should therefore be placed in a by-corner. The yellow blossoms of the Bladder Ketmia or Flower of an hour, ( Hibiscus trionum) are extremely perishable if the sun be bright, but they are produced in long succession. Many varieties of Lark- spur (Delphinium Ajacis), single and double, branched -or with simple ‘stems; with several kinds of Lupine (Lupinus), and of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus) are well known; and ‘very ornamental. The varieties of Carnation Poppy (Papaver somniferum) are'very showy ; ‘they are generally allowed’to sow themselves, Straw- berry ‘Blite'(Blitum ‘capitatum) is a curious plant, the fruitresembling strawberries, only however in appear- ance. Belvedere\(Chenopodium Scoparia) is a hand- some plant, resembling in its close pyramidal ‘shape a ‘dwarfish cypress-tree ; from which ‘circumstance it is often called Summer cypress, The Caterpillar (Scor- piuruscermiculata), Hedgehog, and Snail plants (Me- dicago intertexta and scutellata) have no beauty, but are remarkable on account of ‘their vermiform Se The Eternal Flower .(Xerantkemum) is excelled by 5 Hardy annual flowers. HORTICULTURE. none, and there are red, white, purple, and blue varie- “Flower ‘ties of it, Mignonette (Reseda odorata) is uni Ganien, liked; it is generally sown in large patches, oran en- — %q tire border is filled with it, common y in front of the irae conservatory or green-house. : Hardy annual plants are generally sown in circular patches, traced with a hand-trowel, with which, at the same time, the earth is broken small. A bit of stick is placed as a mark in the-centre of each patch. Usually two or three successive sowings are made, from the middle of March to the middle «€.™*~y, te season of flowering eng aus prolon The plants must af- terwards be thinned, according to the nature of their growth, the belvedere, the sunflower, and some others Standing quite detached. After thinning, a plentiful watering is , in order to settle the Bin. about those that remain ; and in dry weather, frequent water- ing will ensure the production of much finer and strong- er plants. Most of the kinds bear transplanting in dull and showery weather. ‘The tall-growing plants ‘should of course be placed in the back part of'the bor- der; the low-growing in front. When the flowering is nearly over, some of the earliest and ba ee ps yo should be marked for affording a supply of seed, and should, if ‘tall, be tied to stakes to t their be- ‘ing broken, or falling down. It happens that some of the kinds spring up in the bordore trom seeds sown naturally the former year; from these ‘the best and ripest seed may be expected. : 521. The list of Less hardy annual plants embraces Less hardy many fine flowers, such as different varieties of the ul African Marigold ( Tagetes erecta), and of. the French *°¥** Marigold (2. patula) ; the Amaranth or Love'lies bleed- ‘ing (Amaranthus caudatus), and ‘Prinee’s Feather (A. hypochondriacus) ; the rich and elegant Balsams, many ‘varieties, (Impatiens balsamina); different kinds of “Chrysanthemum, particularly ‘C. tricolor, and also of Zinnia ; with the Indian corn (Zea mays’), and Tobaceo plant (Nicofiava tabacum’), which are curious. For «these and others a moderate hot-bed is necessary, on which they may be sown in March or April, so as to be ‘ready for transplanting into the borders in May or June. It is’better, however, instead of removing the seedlings at once to the open border, to prick them into a nursery ‘border, covered with a canvas awning, or hooped over and protected'by mats at night: here they may be allowed to establish themselves and get hardy, for‘some weeks. In dry weather, frequent watering 1s essential, especially-at the times of transplanting. — 522. The list of Lender éunucl plants is not nume- Tender an- rous, unless the balsam and some others from the less nuatnowers. hardy list be included, which in the northern part of the island is always the case. Many varieties of Cock’s- comb (Celosia cristata), with scarlet, purple, and yellow heads, some of the plants dwarfish, others three or four P feet high, are exceedingly ornamental. The Globe- ‘amaranth (Gomphrena globosa) of various sorts, with the Amaranthus ‘tricolor, having each leaf composed of ‘three colours, bright red,-yéllow and green, are like. “wise among the more showy of the tender annual flowers. The Egg-plant:deserves the same character ; not on account of ‘its flower, ‘but of its singular and elegant berry, which has much of ‘the shape and ap~= ce of a large egg, as already noticed (§'403). The Icesplant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum), re« markable for its stalks and leaves being covered with crystalline globules like small icicles, and the well- known Humble plant (Mimosa ica), may also be mentioned. These ‘are raised, in March, in a small i HORTICULTURE. 303 : ; : oo aetite | state of fermentation, rastium s freely, but is apt to overrun the Flower Sa ce ee er in Ea oder rm In the irely to hide a rubbish wit ts, more moderate warmth. ve ei Paes: Sees eas for the e a Plants ocicowork. the plants, or perhaps in the green-house those already mentioned may be added, par. ae i~ Selves of which, may thus decorate, while the num; Europeum and herderefolium ; pe eet eee ee ill ri Saxi (Saz: a opposili, uble aatied i i a (Ss. , fi. ph); the borage-leaved : oe mgm A few cockscombs, globe-ama- Mullein (Verbascum Myconi) ; alpine Lychnis (Lychnis : d egg- Uh~—-i-= make a fine appear. alpina) ; and different species of Primula, P, nivalis, invegrifolia, helvetica and marginata. The basjl-leaved | { : i! | [ cf a { u Soapwort (Saponaria ides) is one of the most Biennial Flowers. beautiful ihe plants Pe gpm the flower-garden, and it is peculiarly well suited for rock-work. All the smaller species of hardy Stone-crop deserve a place, i icular Sedum album, glaucum, rupestre, aizoon, ; as well as several species of House- leek, especially the cobweb kind, (Sempervivum arach- noideum). In small flower gardens, the rock-work is often constructed on the margin of a little pond for m i bE 5 i ll : a F r mi if it; ; : : i | to | A = § -_ Aquarium. of the pond is generally either cir- Aquarium. ape cade eee inamenaly Se ize neighbouring e or lawn, and by the owner for the cultivation of aquatic eee woes and yellow ly ( Nymphaea a Yuphar lutea) in perfec- must be at least three feet deep. Ifthe ially if the subsoil be sandy or lly, caeeeereeees tet oe y, and aii i F il iP PERT 8 z : 8 i? Fe a7 Fs y f f A i f z f To : =f : | i i : g : 2 Fs | 4 4 Hi F i g F | i I Sedudlmnaly an this ee : 3 on are containin various marsh plants, sock an the Masse Calle, (Cale om each i If such ae In some gardens, (as formerly noticed, weather-worn stones be selected, and mossy earth be § 191.) the margin is occupied with the American cran- i and va will be found to thrive, Several of our native aquatic plants are very orna- on masses mental; particularly the yellow and the white fringed Hi H ' some part of the stones being al seen, the : ance of these is to be Masses covered ter-violet or Feather-foil ( Hottonia palustris) which wiek Lichens, pully Lichen atro-flavus, i oe in ditches near London. The Cats-tail or cus, ventosus, perellus, and stellaris, are ore de- -mace ( Typha latifolia and angustifolia) has a sins sirable. Pieces of plum-pudding stone and of serpen- gular appearance, ially when in flower, but it i ise a very good effect ; some joints of i sera ore ani ee rn ne Or eanitane var Umentone Rosary: trees. 2 particalarly valves of the Chama gigas, are occasional} 526. The has al been d ed favou- placed in the rock-work ; and raat sand in thane, rite ; po prt sioar it sninis exgnaueretiaainde an sius, sre highly ornamental. Red Valerian (Valerian fewer than 315 varieties ; but the Species are not diss rabra), a aren | of it, grow very readily tinguished. Many of the finest varieties have been beau- be used, Erinus alpinus is tifully figured by Miss Lawrence, in her splendid col- le plant. It forms close tufts, and lection of Drawings of Roses. Most of the species throw : ; and out suckers, These should be annuaily removed in Oc- its seed, and tober, and in this way abundance of plants may al ion may he. pees and deltoidewm, Ce. pared by laying down beiiselied; aand:thie is the chief Vilower Garden. Rosary. 304 way of propagating adopted by the dealers in roses. Few of the kinds need any other pruning than shorten- ing some of the strongest shoots, to cause them push new buds and bear more flowers. The following are the species generally preferred, but a few only of the varieties can be enumerated. Hundred-leaved rose, (Rosa centifolia.) Of this there are many varieties, as the Dutch, blush, velvet, and Burgundy, the latter an elegant little plant, sometimes not more than a foot in height. Red rose, or Crimson rose, (R. Gallica.) This is the kind the unexpanded petals of which are uecd for ma- king conserve of roses. A sort with variegated flowers is called Rosa Mundi. Damask rose, (R. Damascena.) Of this there are some pretty variations, as the blush damask, the York and Lancaster, and the red and the white monthly roses, these last continuing to flower in succession du- ring most of the summer. Provence rose, or Cabbage rose, (R. provincialis,) is one of the most beautiful of the tribe, and perhaps the most fragrant of all the roses. Of it there are likewise some favourite varieties, as the scarlet, the blush, and the white Provence ; the rose de Meaux, and the pom- pone or dwarfish rose de Meaux. It may be remarked, that if the new wood be in a great measure cut down every year, after the flowering is over, the plants throw out more vigorous shoots, and yield a greater profusion of flowers. The Moss rose (R. muscosa) is well known in gar- dens in a double state ; but it is curious that the single moss rose is quite unknown to us. The double is of- ten propagated by budding on other stocks ; but better and more durable plants are procured by laying down the branches.. A white moss-rose has lately appeared in the London nurseries ; but it is still scarce and high priced. The common White rose (R. alba,) both single and double, deserves a place ; as well as the varieties called, large, small, and cluster maiden blush. . Single yellow rose, (FR. lutea.) The Austrian rose, with the petals orange or scarlet at the base, is consi« dered as a variety of this. Both kinds grow better in upland places than in the richest and warmest situa- tion. The Double yellow rose. (R. sulphurea) is remarka« ble for the flowers seldom opening fairly. It should be lanted in a cool and rather shady situation, or at least it does not succeed against a south wall. It is quite a distinct species from the single yellow ; the leaflets, for example, are simply serrated, not glandular, and they are glaucous underneath ; while in the single yellow, they are doubly serrated, glandular, and of a shining een, Of the Cinnamon rose, (R. Cinnamomea,) a variety with double flowers is usually cultivated. It is the emallest and the earliest of the double roses, “often coming into flower in the beginning of May. Scots rose, or Burnet rose, (R. spinosissima.) Of this species, which, as a native plant, is more common in Scotland than in England, several varieties have long been known, ears bee the red, the semi-double white, and the semi-double red. Messrs Brown of the Perth nurseries, have of late years raised several new and very beautiful varieties of this rose. The Rosa Ciphiana, celebrated in a Latin ode by Sir Robert Sib- , the earliest illustrator of the natural: history of Scotland, was a variety of this species. Professor Mar- tyn says it was found on his “ Ciphian farm ;” but the fact is, that the name of Sir Robert’s estate was the un, . HORTICULTURE. poetical one of Kips, from which, euphonive gratid, Ci+ aoe phia was formed. Sweet-briar rose, Ge rubiginosa.) Of this well rn known species, the Eglantine of the poets, there are se. veral varieties,—the common double flowered, mossy double, marbled double, and red double. A single flowered yellowish variety is kept in some gardens, but itis very scarce. The Musk rose (R. moschata) is. a climbing kind, flowering late, and continuing till the end af ¢ It varies with 1--ble Quwers. ; The deep red China rose ( R. semperflorens) if. Lng against a south wall, or in front of a green-house, flowers for the greater part of the year. There isa pale China rose, by some considered as only a variety of R. semperflorens. ‘ : The Indian rose, (R. Indica, already noticed, § 472.) is a yery great acquisition to our gardens, being perfect~ ly hardy. Although but lately introduced, it has now become Sey; common ; and by means of it we pos- sess, in the open air or against a wall or paling, full blown red roses in March and | April, and in Nov ber and December.. The common. sort has very little smell; buta Sageont variety has heen raised, thus uni- ting all the-excellent properties of the rose. a order to have a continued succession of roses, for instance of the common muss ruse, the best plan 1s, to cut off in May the tops of shoots produced the same spring. In this way new shoots are elicited, which come into flower late in autumn. ] Beds of roses, of different shapes, are now commonly formed in the lawn near the mansion-house, or by the sides of the approach to the pleasure garden ; when of an oval form, they are often called daskets of roses. The surface of the circle or oval is made to rise in the middle ; the shoots are layered, and kept down wy. means of pegs till they strike roots into the ground ; the points only, with a few buds on them, appear above the earth. By this sort of management, in two or three seasons, the whole surface becomes covered with a close and beautiful mixture of flowers and leaves. Sometimes only the moss rose is employed for this, urpose ; but frequently several kinds are intermixed. ven a single plant, particularly of the moss-rose,; may, by continued attention, be made in this way to cover a large space, and to afford at once perhaps several hun- dred flowers. Plans for rosaries of different shapes, circular, oval, square, and octagonal, have been pub lished by Ice Kennedy, Se crcinted along with their list of roses. se —hewae Climbing Plants. 527. In many gardens a walk is arched over with eon trellis work, either of wood or wire, poneipelly for the urpose of affording a proper opportuni tivating The finer kinds of ty ing orate, se enjoyi beauty and ce of their flowers, which render such a berceau walk extremely delightful in the warm weather of July and August. The finest of them, how ever, flourish only in the milder counties of ingen and are planted in vain to the northward of York- shire. : The Kidney-bean tree (Glycine jfrutescens), shews elegant clusters of purple pay and the ¥; silk-tree (Periploca Graca) produces bunches of flowers of the same colour. Smilax aspera, sometimes called Rough Bindweed, and S. ezcelsa, although their flowers are not showy, are desirable climbing plants, as they retain their verdure during winter. Of the honey~ scl Gia a HORTICULTURE. the A. alpina ; other, but the Austrian comes into leaf and flower two months before the other; the American species is also Clematis ox virgin’s-bower ly ornamental, particularly the purple ((. vi/i- er are double-flowered variety of it, with red varieties of the single; the Virginian (C. vir- giniana) with white flowers; and the evergreen (C. i ), which produces its ish flowers about mid-winter. _ The common Traveller’s.joy (C. vilalsa) is too t to be trusted near to delicate climbers. The common Passion-flower (Passiflora cerrulea) suc- ceeds in some sheltered places, ut in general it flowers better when trained against a wall. _ 628. For covering walls, some other plants are well suited. If the exposure be good, Bignonia radicans or ash-leayed Trumpet-flower, is highly ornamental, ing covered with or flowers in ph ey this isa however, which requires some management as to pruning ; all small weak shoots must every year be removed, and when the plant has filled the s ‘allotted to it, 2 quantity of new or young wood for flowering is procures, by annually shortening a num- ber of strong shoots. Common Ivy (Hedra heliz), with the silver-striped and gold-striped varieties, and the wed or Irish, are very desirable ; as is like- wise ‘9 © or five-leaved ivy, (Vitis wet double Pomegranate has been ie py magpconernlig ry moon a wall, or of a house, especially if it have a 529. It has been more than once noticed, that the most effectual way of acclimating the plants of warm- er countries, is to endeavour to bring such plants to i ripen their seeds in the air in climate with a little assistance as possible, and then to sow these seeds, from which a more hardy progeny is likely to . Some Repairs aaeeareaiotis #0 be- come to our climate, even without being repro- duced. by seed : or these plants were at first ac- more delicate than they really arc. Several Japan have of late years become common ornaments of ur gardens, particularly the Loquat or Mespilus Japo- 4 Pyrus 2), Coes i Jape _ This last was introduced only about 1804; it may now be seen growing like a willow in our en eee a ee a west wall, to save frost, ucing a ‘usion blossows early in the spring. tainel te hot-house at the Botanic Garden at Edin- i i 5g. : : « th =; Fr _ : a f i 4 305 tered borders, or trained against a wall. Several na- tives of the south of Europe now inhabit our borders ; such are, Jupiter’s-beard, Anthyllis barba Jovis ; Coro- nilla glauca ; and Moon trefoil, Medicago arborea. Two species of Leptospermum or South Sea myrtle, L. ju- nhiperimuta and baccatum, succeed in the milder parts of England, if trained against a wall; and Metroside- ros lanceolata, likewise from New South Wales, has al- ready been noticed as trained on the open wall in the College Botanic Garden at Dublin, § 28. Rhamnus ulosus from Madeira, is an addition to our ever- greens. Some perennial species of Convolvulus, for- merly accounted tender, are now trained against the border walls ; particularly C. bryoniefolius from Chi- na, and C. altheoides from the Levant. Of the com- mon myrtle ( Myrtus communis) there are several varie- ties, some of which are more hardy than others: a sin- gle-flowered sort, resembling the double-flowered, but with narrower leaves than the Dutch broad-leaved, is the most hardy; and a variety of the narrow-leaved, called the bird’s-nest myrtle, seems also to be more hardy than the Dutch broad-leaved kind. Framed Borders. 530. They who are curious in flowers have a border,covered with glazed frames, which can be easily removed during the warm season of the year, from the middle of June to September. Many plants, particularly of the bulbous kind, grow much better planted in a large border than when confined to flower-pots. Bulbs in general require a deep in earth, Some of the bulbous plants which succeed well in such covered borders are, several species of Ixia, of African Gladiolus, of Hamanthus or blood-flower ; and_ the Tigridia pavonia, or Tiger-flower, equally re- markable for its gorgeous beauty and its transitory na~ ture. Tuberoses (Polyanihes tuberosa), alter having been fostered on a slight hot-bed, ay be sunk in in a framed border, in order to their flowering. Several species of the splendid genus Amaryllis might be ad- to the list, icularly the Belladonna lily (A. del- ladonna), the Jacobea lily (4. formosissima), and the Guernsey lily (A. Sarniensis), Concerning this last, it may be observed, that a few plants only can be expect- ed to flower every year ; for, as noticed by Miller, the same nay does not flower in two successive years, nor yose y till after the lapse of several years. Dr Maceulloch (Scottish Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 60.) has iven an account of the cultivation of this favour- ite lily in Guernsey. Even there, the Doctor informs us, “ scarcely five flowers are produced among a hun- dred healthy roots.” Boxes containing of the bulbs, generally with the flower-stems formed, are an- nually sent from the Channel Islands to the nursery. men of Lofidon, and by them distributed t h Bri- tain. Miller has justly remarked, that this lily may more properly be cultivated in a bed on a south border than in pots ; it is therefore peculiarly well adapted to the peep en bie the Tht recommends a third part earth from some light pasture ground ; about an e pert of tee-sind; mal the renatning third to be composed equally of rotten dung and sift- ed lime-rubbish. The different species “ Cyclamen: or sow-bread are Q frequently Fewest Flower Garden. Green- house, 306 humble plants, likewise well adapted to the framed border, where they make a Ya beautiful appearance. Tn many gardens, where fine bulbous plants are much attended to, as at the Botanic Garden at Liver- pool. all the borders immediately in front of the various ot-houses are covered with moveable frames. In these framed borders, it may be added, many alpine plants may likewise be preserved during winter; for such plants being ac ed, in their native place of growin to the protection of a thick covering of snow uring that severe season, are impatient of intense cold. Green-house. 531. The proper situation for the Green-house has been already pointed out (§ 55.) as being somewhere in the flower garden. Its aspect ought of course to be towards the south. In fixing on the plan and eleva- tion ofa green-house, there is great scope for fancy and taste ; for, the indulgence of these is quite consistent with the production of a house which shall afford shel- ter during winter to plants which require little more than to be saved from the effects of frost. It is scarce- ly ever wished that the temperature should exceed 45° Fahrenheit ; and when the weather is such that air can be given, it is enough if the thermometer indicate from 38° to 42°. To every part of the house, however, light ought to be freely admitted, else some of the plants will necessarily become drawn up and distorted : a great part of the front of the roof should therefore be of glass. Nicol observes, that a green-house may have two straight sides, but should have circular ends ; he is better pleased, however, with an octagon whose sides are not equal, but which has two opposite longer sides, forming as it were an“ angular oval.” In some gardens the shag rs seme forms a complete circle ; in others it is of an oval shape: in these cases, and indeed in general, it is now constructed of glazed frames on every side. The roof is not made nearly so lofty as for- merly ; indeed, it seldom exceeds in height ten or twelve feet from the paved walk. The furnace and stock-hole are of course as much concealed as possible ; and if the house be circular or octagonal, the smoke is carried by a flue under ground to some distance, and then discharged by a small chimney, hid by shrubbery. The interior is fitted up with stages and shelves for holding the plants. These are arranged according to their sizes, the shape of the leaves, and the general tint of colour : the smaller plants are chiefly placed in front, and those that are likely to flower during winter have conspicuous stations allotted to them: the taller plants occupy principally the back shelves: in this way a symmetrical mass of varied foliage is presented to the eye, interrupted only by projecting clusters of various- ly coloured blossoms. Several of the sashes, or per- haps each alternate sash, should be made moveable for the admission’ of air; and ventilators are also proper, for promoting a circulation, when the state of the wea- ther prevents the admitting of air by the roof. Very little water is given to the plants during winter; and they are cleared of dust rather by means of a bellows than by the ee of the syringe. The roots of green-house plants are generally exa- mined twice in the year, by turning the plants gently ‘out of the pots. Many kinds only need repotting once in the year; and this operation is commonly orm- ‘ed in August: but others require it twice in the year, and the other period is usually March, It is not al- HORTICULTURE. ways necessary that the plants should be shifted into Flower larger pots; on the contrary, it is often better to re- Garden. trench the matted roots, and keep to pots of the same “7 size. It is always proper that some small gravel or shivers of broken flower-pots be put in the bottom of the pots, to drain off moisture. And here a very com- mon error in the manufacture of that earthen-ware ar- ticle may be pointed out: the hole in the bottom is frequently made so as to have a small unintended rim on the inside, which necessarily retains a portion of water ; whereas the sides of the hole ought to havea slope from the interior, so as to allow every particle of water to escape. 532. In the course of this treatise, the different sizes Piower- of flower-pots have more than once been mentioned in pots. the tecnichal style employed by gardeners, such as “ eights,” ‘ sixteens,” &c., or * No. 1,” * No. 3,” &c. These terms it may be proper here to explain. The meaning of them will be rendered obvious by a tabu- lar view ; but it may first be observed, that potters usually make seven sizes, also called numbers, ofp pots ; that the pots of each particular size are sold in what are called | casts; and that the number of pots ina cast increases proportionally as the size of the pots de- ereases. Of No. 1., which is the largest kind of pot in common use, there are eight in the cast, and a pot of this class is called either a “ No, 1,” or an “ eight.” No. 1, first size, has 8 in the cast, called Eights. —- 2. second size, 12........ . . Twelves. <8 third! size,’ LO. 3/08 60e, eee Sixteens. —- 4, fourth size, 24........-. Twenty-fours. —- 5: fifth size, 32 .....0 0028. Thirty-two’s. — 6, sixth size, 48.......2.6 0008. Forty-eights. —- 7. seventh size,60.......... Sixties, — Pots larger than eights, or of extra size, such as 4 in the cast, are often made, for the accommodation of large plants ; and, on the other hand, pots of a smaller size than sixties are sometimes manufactured, particu- larly ied Poggio yt seedling plants, or very young “Cape heaths. ese very sm are am - déhert called thumbs. ne one it: igi 533. Plants suited to the green-house are extremely numerous, and constantly on the increase: the selection of them must depend on the taste of the owner, and ‘the size of the house. To give any enumeration seems unnecessary : it may be sufficient to refer to those excel- lent lists, the Epitome of Hortus Kewensis, and the ‘Cambridge Catalogue ; in these the plants suited to the ‘green-house are marked G; and their duration or cha« ‘acter are indicated by the marks usually employed by botanists and gardeners; © for annual; ¢ for biennial ; 2 for perennial; and } signifying that the plant is shrubby or arboreous. In the first mentioned catalogue, the plants which res a a black heath mould, or peat soil, have an asterisk * prefixed to them. In the Bo- tanical Magazine, edited by Sims, (formerly mentioned § 18,), all new and curious green-house plants are fi- gured and described as they come into notice. 534. To keep up the show of plants actually in flower in the L dacgaann’ especially in the early spring months, a_usual and very proper expedient is to plant a number of the common ornamental bulbous plants, in pots, in the month of October; to forward these in the stove, and to place them, as the flowers appear, upon the shelves of the green-house. For this some of the many varieties of hyacinth, with single and double jonquil, white and yellow polyanthus-narcissus, Pers 1 siz ify HORTICUTURE. tm] muni phical Transactions, for 1731. November is the usual season for beginning this sort of chamber forcing. The om. and, if possible, near to windows to the forenoon sun. If they be placed in a hot- for a they are greatly forwarded, and appear in pomee mere: January. The numerous varieties of yacinths raised by the incredible industry of the Dutch florists, answer extremely well for this purpose likewise the different sorts, white and yellow, of the po- i ee eee a in tulips called Duc de Vanthol, Pottebakker, may be treated in this Persian iris is sometimes E 2 : H iL z i | | Hint i i if — é. Ey i Fs i F H i i i : i 3 i i iL i i iit =e Lf § f f 307 the red-flowered Anise-seed tree, Illicium Florida num; the Malabar nut, (Justicia Adhatoda); the Camphor-tree (Laurus camphora); several of the ele- gent genus Protea, and one or two of the no less plea- sing and curious genus Banksia, Where the house is of an oval or oblong square shape, and is composed of glass only cakieen sion the back is covered with a is, to which several of the arborescent Cranes-bills, (such as Pelargonium inguinans, different varieties, P. tum, iad of Convolvulus, and the Maurandia semperflorens. The pn pe already noticed, § 405. is at once showy in some measure useful. Flower Garden. Sy 588. In a few fine grdens, where the cultivation of Heathery. i attended to, a heath- edition of five and In 1775, Mr the king, sent Southern Africa; and the IEEE il 2 ef E y 539. The hot-houses for exotic plants have al been mentioned under the title of Dry Stove and Stove, (§ 199, 200). It was there observed, that in the latter some of the more ‘delicate kinds of grape vines are often trained along the rafters, and that pots with kidney-beans and strawberries are sometimes placed on the side shelves. In first rate gardens, where the stove is entirely ig ay to ornamental plants from tro- pical climates, house is sometimes formed of glass Hot-houses- 808 Flower on all sides, those plants which naturally per in shad Garden. woods in their own country being p Diseases, on the nort side of the house. It may here be mentioned, that a book, in folio, on the Construction of Hot-houses, Green-houses, &c. has been published by Mr George Tod, including plans and elevations of some of the fine stoves for exotics at Kew gardens, which were executed by Mr Tod, under the direction of the late distinguish- ed Mr Aiton. Many curious and beautiful plants might be mention- ed as'deserving a place in the bark stove, but only a very few can here be named. Among the curious may be noticed, the Date-palm tree (Phenix dactylifera) ; the Sago-palm (Cycas revoluia) ; the Cyperus Papyrus of Egypt, which afforded the scrolls of bark on which the ancients wrote with the stylum; the Coccolobo pubes- cens, remarkable for producing the largest round-shaped leaves in the world; Hernandia sonora, or the whist- ling tree of the West Indies ; Musa paradisiaca, the plantain tree, and.M. sapientum, the banana; several of the larger species of Acacia, which yield gum arabic ; with others which, in our Eastern or Western posses« sions, afford well known commodities, such as the sugars ‘cane,.'the coffee-tree, the pimento and the clove-tree, the indigo plants ; and the Ficus elasticus, from which the substance called Indian rubber is procured. The Papaw-tree (Carica papaya) deserves a place in every large hot-house, on account of its possessing a remarkable property, which has been long known to those who have resided in the West Indies, but which has only of late been particularly described in this country by Dr Holder,—that of intenerating butchers- meat or poultry. This singular property is not even hinted at in the last edition of Miller’s Dictionary. The juice rubbed on beef or mutton has the effect of ren- dering the meat as tender as veal or lamb, without in- juring. its other qualities. Indeed it is affirmed, that if a fowl be hung against the trunk of a papaw-tree, it becomes intenerated in a short space of time, by’mere proximity ; and that the oldest poultry may thus be rendered as tender as chickens. In stoves in England, the papaw-tree has been known to attain the height of twenty feet-in three years, and to produce its flowers and fruit :. it is not however a durable plant. Among the more showy stove plants, may be men- tioned, the different species of Strelitzia, Limodorum Tankervilli,. Plumbago rosea, Canarina campanula, and Lantana odorata, Along the rafters may be trained Passiflora quadrangularis, which in the West Indies af- fords the fruit called Granadilla, but which in this coun- try requires the utmost heat of our stoves to induce it to shew its brilliant and fragrant flowers, P. alata is also highly deserving of a place. Diseases of Plants. 440. In treating of the different kinds of fruit-trees and esculent plants, several of the maladies to which they are subject have already been noticed, as well as the usual means adopted either for prevention or cure. The diseases of plants shall therefore be only very slightly touched in this place. Any extensive discus- sion of the subject, indeed, could not be attempted : Our knowledge of it is yet in its infancy. Some au- thors have no doubt given us lists of diseases of the ve- . getable race, drawn up in the formal style of nosolo- gical. nomenclature ; but they are in general destitute of the requisite permanence and precision of type and HORTICULTURE. character. We shall therefore continue to use the pos Diseases pulat terms, such as Canker, confessing at the same of Planw. time that they are sometimes much too indefinite. 541. Canker is by far the most prevalent and the Canker. most fatal disease incident to fruit-trees in this country. It may be described as a sort of gangrene which usu4 ally begins at the extremities of the branches, and pro- ceeds towards the trunk, killing the tree in two or three years. It seems, in different situations, to arise from different causes; very often from bad subsoil, trees planted over a ferruginous and retentive soil being ob- served to be very liable to it. Sometimes it appears to take its origin merely from some external injury, or from injudicious pruning, and leaving ragged wounds and snags. In other cases, it makes its first appear= ance after exudations of gum; and Mr Spence of Hull has remarked, that the foundation of canker in full grown trees is often laid by the attacks of insects, par= ticularly the larve of Tortrix Weeberana. It frequent- ly happens that cions for grafting have been taken from infected trees ; and the young trees produced in this way, are, as might be ekipectadh peculiarly obnoxious to the disease. Among apple trees, those which come soonest into a bearing state, such as the nonsuch and Hawthorndean, are observed to be most subject to can- ker. Trees trained as standards or against espalier rails are more liable to it than wall-trees; the more tender and finer sorts of fruits, than those’ that ‘are hardy,— the reasons of which seem to be, that the young: wood not being thoroughly ripened, is killed in the course of the winter, or the buds and early shoots are incurably injured from the same cause. In order to guard against canker, if the subsoil be indifferent, the trees should be planted as much on the surface as possible. (See § 78.and 110.) If certain varieties of fruit seem peculiarly liable to the disease in any particular garden, other varieties should be in- troduced by means of grafting. The greatest care ~ should be taken, in pruning, to make the cuts quite clean, and to cover with a plaster any accidental wound. Where the extremities of unripe shoots are nipped by the frost, they sheuld be carefully removed with a sharp knife. Mr Forsyth, as is well known; ‘was re« markably successful inovercoming the ravages of canker, in the Royal Gardens at Kensington, by means of head- ing down the trees, and thus procuring new branches ; an example which may in similar ‘cases be followed. Mr Knight seems to consider canker as principally af- fecting those varieties of fruit-trees which are in an ad- vanced stage of existence, or which have long been-pro- pagated by means of grafts or buds: and the observa- tion is probably well founded, Mr Sang of Kirkcaldy (Scottish Hort. Mem. i. 839.) very justly insists on the importance of grafting only on healthy stocks, and mens tions a case which occurred in his own experience, where many stocks became diseased with canker, ape parently from having been raised in an unpropitious soil. For further information regarding canker, the reader may be referred to a paper on subject by Mr James Smith, gardener at ton House, publish- ed in the first volume of Scottish Horticultural Memoirs, p. 221, et seq. bua ap 542, Blight commonly means the effects of cold winds or of sections on the pages reves ie trees. In this country, easterly winds, accompanie with fogs, often ain blight: the buds are nipped, and the tender vessels burst ; innumerable minute in- sects soon appear, feeding on the extravasated juices, and these are often erroneously supposed to have been 8 . HORTICULTURE. | 309 Tiveases wafted hither by the wind, or “ by the tication is by no means’ a novelty in’ gardening’; it is Diseases hazy” east. When some fine weather has induced the recommended by several of the authors mentioned in’ of Plants F i" . the introduction to this article. Thus, Le Gendre, (§ ——~ about 1650, says, ‘* Those trees which have thei base, you must with a bill take away the old bark to the quick; for the trees being thus: cleared and discharged, do “shoot forth with new strength, bearing fairer and better nourished fruit.” (Translation, p. 186.) And Hitt (§ 14) who wrote iv 1754, recommends for trees that have been neglected or ill dressed, “taking off the old rind, and cleansing 10. ‘by ing* overgrown cankered parts, thus destroying many insects, as also with lichens and mosses ; an evil to which the trees in their concealed in these places.” (Zrcalise on old orchards, where pe the bottom is naturally Fruit Trees; 3d edit:p: 271.) | Of late years Mr Knight used for this pu' ; but one of hard wood answers Lee Aa trunk and larger branches are af- hard swept with a birchen rubber, and it is useful, these operations, to soap-suds or any ! iH Hi li 3 i F | ; i k i i ‘be remarked, is proper wherever any accident has occur- ved to fruit trees, or where large branches are lopped off. i ; i e 545. When a tree becomes hide bound, or when the Hide. bound bark. stem swells too fast for the bark, the usual remedy is, tion, with a knife, to score or divide the outer bark longi- m various . ae ee decortication on some old fruit trees, particu- ly red-streak apples, and found the new growth thus produced quite surprising, so that the growth of some trees deprived of their external bark in 1801, ex- ceeded in the yn ea soba the ona of the five receding years taken . (Treatise on Apple pa Pear, ith edit. P 86.) aan pe 547. More recently, a zealous horticulturist at Edins burgh, Mr P. Lyon, surgeon, has called the attention of the public to the advantages of decortication.. At first Mr Lyon recommended the removal of the bark only in cases where it was cracked and rugged, and — with the view of destroying the ova of insects ; but of late he has inculcated the stripping off the outer bark even of young trees, and of the new shoots of full trees, even where the bark is sound and heal- y/ The beneficial effects of the former practice we have y witnessed ; old trees which usually bore very little frait and produced little new wood, becom- ing, after the removal of the outer bark, fruitful. and smetog-anacger nr : nang ear becry mary Ea however, though tiful, in of smal- ler size than usual. The pater young trees and new shoots of their bark is quite a different thing: we know that — earnest rans ACP many ex- cellent practical eners to keep the on, pro- vided they can preserve it in a clean and health we We shall only, therehore, for an explanation of this of Mr Lyon's doctrines, refer to his book; entitled, « A Treatise on the Physiology and Pathology of Fruit- trees,” 8vo. Edin. 1816,— ing the reader that he must make allowance for no small proportion of extra- neous matter, 548. In order to clear trees, especially wall-trees, of in- sects and their eggs and larva, and to prevent the breed- ing of these, the trank, branches even twigs, are, by careful horticulturists, regularly washed with some penetrating liquid every winter. Some of the most ex- perienced practical ga rs in Scotland have followed this plan, tedious and laborious although it may seem, for a number of years past, and have found the great- est benefit result from it. They have very generally me huge: mitted vectindiiendear ey ake Wechs aan hes from his writings, therefore, the recipe shall be given: “ Take of soft soap, 2)b, ; lowers of sulphur, 2Ib. ; leaf . or roll tobacco, ab. nux vomica, 40z.; turpentine, a ill English measure. These ingredients are to be foiled in eight gallons woe of soft or river water, down to six gallons.” This mixture is applied, by means of a house-painter’s brush and a sponge, gene- rally when in a milk-warm state. All the branches in succession are loosened from the wall, and completely rubbed or anointed on every side, particular attention being paid to the ing of angles or cavities. If the trees have been much overrun with insects, even the wall should be anointed, or the trellis in the case of Mildew. The scale. 310 espalier trees. This operation-may be p eeinated any ill the middle of 549. Sir George Mackenzie has lately communicated to the Caledonian Horticultural Society, the resvJ¢ of an extensive experiment of anointing the stems and branches of trees with oil, or oily matter, for the pur- pose of destroying the eggs and pup of insects. The experiment has su ed beyond expectation; but care must be taken not to touch the buds, particularly those which are to produce blossoms. Apricot and cherry trees are the only kinds which seemed to suffer injury from oil, every other kind having made vigor- ous shoots, and the bark of those which had a diseased appearance, having sloughed, and shown the advance of new healthy bark; and aphides, &c. seeming to have been banished. é The same gentleman has discovered a nocturnal ene- my ina Curculio, supposed to be C. vastator, whose ravages have been attributed to caterpillars. This kind of weevil conceals itself during the day about the foot of the stems of trees in the earth, from which, owing to its brownish-grey colour, it is difficult to distinguish it; and at night, it crawls up and attacks the young shoots and blossoms. It is very destructive to young grafts. The method which Sir George Mackenzie took to destroy them was, to tread the earth about the foot of the stems of the trees, at night when the weevils were on the trees, and putting small flat stones, pieces of slate, or the like, on the trodden space. In the morning the enemy having retreated under these, were destroyed. The trees and grafts should, however, oc- casionally be examined by candle light, and the insects eel off. They have been found sometimes to har- ur also in the clefts of branches, and about portions of dead or decayed and rugged bark. 550. Mildew consists in a thin whitish coating, in- vesting the leaves especially of peach-trees and. the finer kinds of fruits. It is observed that it common- ly appears in the warm months, when the ground is dry, the weather calm, and when hazy vapours or slight fogs appear in the evenings. It is a remark of experienced gardeners, that trees washed during win- ter with such a liquid as that above described, are scarcely ever known to be affected with mildew, pro- bably owing to the leaves being perfectly healthy and able to withstand the immediate cause of the evil, whe- ther it be minute fungi or the slime of aphides. Wash- ing the foliage with the garden-engine is found very useful in removing the mildew or in stopping its pro- 551. What is called the scale seems to be the nidus of an insect, or a collection of its minute eggs, covered with a thin pellicle. It very much resembles a drop from a spermaceti candle. The hatching of the eggs and consequent bursting of the pellicle, have been ob- served and described by Mr Thomas Thomson, an ex- cellent Scottish gardener. It generally appears in August, . and it continues in the state of a scale during the win- - ter. The larve usually emerge about the time when the trees are in blossom, and they immediately begin to devour the tender parts of the flower. Afterwards, as shey acquire strength, they attack the young leaves and even the new shoots of the trees. When about to un- dergo their transformation, they involve themselves in leaves drawn together with fine silky threads: from this retreat they come forth in the form of small moths, but the species has not been ascertained. The most effectual method of destroying these scales consists in res ‘the border is delved over, so. as to bury t HORTICULTURE. moving them with the nail of the finger at the time of Another simple method of overcoming them, is tomake a paste of fine clay of the consistence of thick paint, and with a coarse brush completely to. anoint the branches of the tree. . This should be done in March; and if heavy rains do not. immediately wash away the coat- ing of paint, the breeding of the insects at the proper season is prevented, and their destruction thus ensu- red. Several of the diseases of plants, we have thus seen, arise from the attacks of insect assailants. Some more of these. remain to be mentioned, and also a few ene- mies of larger size. Enemies to Garden Productions. Diseases winter dressing. In rainy weather they are most dis: of Plants, cernible, being of a lighter colour than the wet bark, “~*~ 552. Aphides or green-flies, of many species, very phides. of much annoy wall-trees in the spring and: early part summer, attacking the leaves while just expanding, and preying much about the points of the young shoots. A fumigation with tobacco is the common. cure, and it very generally proyes effectual. In the case of wall- trees, a large cloth, preferring one. that is waxed or oiled, is placed over the tree, and the tobacco smoke applied under it with bellows; the wall and the tree are previously wetted with the garden engine, the mois« ture having a tendency to detain the smoke. The tree is then briskly washed with the force-pump, and an Poem . “ stunned aphides. In the same way goosebe or currant uauben may be freed from yo in, bet noneds the fumigation is easily performed, while the doors and sashes are kept close, It is likewise very. readily, ac- complished in melon or cucumber frames, the crops in which are sometimes infested. In the kitchen-garden, kidney-beans are subject to the attacks of aphides ; and in the flower-garden, rose-bushes are peculiarly, obnoxi- ous to them. The Apple-aphis (A. lanigera), soreties called Apple. proved exceeding’ American blight, which has o destructive to young apple-trees, first appeared in the neighbourhood. of London only about the year 1795. It is a minute insect covered with a long. cotton-like wool; it breeds in chinks and rugosities of the bark, and at le almost covers the infected tree. It is said that the application of the spirit of turpentine to the bark proves an effectual remedy ; and. we know that it has been wholly banished from a garden where it had spread, by merely smearing the infested branches with oil, as recommended by Sir George Mackenzie. (Sir Joseph Banks extirpated it from his own apple-trees, by the simple means of removing all the rugged old bark, and then scrubbing the trunk and branches with ahard brush. Mr William Salisbury, in his «* Hints to the Proprietors of Orchards,” publi in 1816, gives it as his opinion,that this is the same insect which has of late infested larch-trees.. He supposes it to have been brought to this country hy the Protestant refugees in the reign of Louis XIV. ; but he has assigned no reason for this extraordinary opinion, nor has he attempted to explain why so destructive an. insect had lain dormant for so many years, and at length suddenly extended - its ravages in so striking a manner, . He observes, that some of the insects descend during winter to the upper reots, and lodge there; in cleansing the, trees, there- fore, these should be examined, as well as the trunk and branches. stat ais ater HORTICULTURE. 811 ‘Diseases 553. There are several distinct kinds of gooseberry- cided preference to the sweet exudation they afford, Diseases of Plants. caterpillar. One spé of a whitish colour, becomes leaving grapes and peaches untouched. of Plants. ish five th gocr-tnged wings scion body, 556. ige ( Forficula auricularia) attack all sorts —Y and ; probably the Tenthredo caprew. of ripe fruit. No remedy is known but ensnaring and —_ r, of a hue, which becomes T. flava, killing them. Short cuts of reeds, or of strong wheat- often proves destructive to the foli of the straw, er hollow stalks of any kind, are placed here , and consequently to the fruit. A third, of a and there among the branches, and also at the roots of ‘size, and sometimes very common, is the larva the trees. Into these the earwigs take refuge in great ea = a grossulariata, Lin. A- numbers; and from .the tubes they are blown into a brazas of )- young of this last haunt du- bottle containing water. . ring Winter about the crevices of the bark; and this is 557. The woodlouse, called sclater in Scotland (un. Woodlouse. considered as the best time for destroying them. Their der which name are included the Oniscus asellus and destruction be effected merely by hard rubbing of ee eee ae Cenhins; ing boiling hot wa- wi earwig. It is almost equally injurious to ri oda not in- fruit as that insect. 7‘ . 24 . ies orteu- § 558. Flies of many different species, woe eens Flies, thredines penetrate an inch under ground in July, to various genera, may be numbered among the ene- Sasol tamara abject tasty) senate tears 00 mies of ripe fruit. The wasp, the earwig, and the the following spring, when they come forth in the form woodlouse commence the attack, and “ sap the blush- donreylaig one of the most effec. ing rind ;” the flies enter the openings made by these tual means consists in delving the ground about the more powerful insects, and extend the devastation. Se- bushes very deep during winter, taking care to bury eral musca are very frequently to be observed, parti- the surface-soil m the bottom. In this way the chry- cularly M. tenax, Cesar, and canicularis. Wherever salids are beyond the genial influence of the at- the juices begin to corrupt, the | blow-fly (M. vo- mosphere, or ifthe transformation be accomplished, the iforia) is to be found in every hollow. ; fly is unable to gain the surface. 559. The ee — devour ipal eat of Caterpillars. ies of Coccus, i c. i- , Savoys, broccoli, are princi e Jar- i car ees nap coral Meats brassice, and N, nail The com- the conservatory, parti the myr- pletely green caterpillar, which frequent! s on the and the olive. thorns onahe sr i and broccoli plants, is the rr WE ‘apilio wih soap and weter, rabbing the leaves with a woollen rape, Lin. ( Pontia, Fabr.) The cabbage tribe is ob- rag or bit of sponge tied on a small stick, is the remed served to be most subject to the attack of caterpillars the i h in the neighbourhood of towns and in long cultivated : with pure water. Coceus vitis infests vines soils, where much crude manure has been applied. in stover, and is often very injurious, covering The best and simplest remedy consists in turning up as it were, with little tufts of white cotton. the soil in ridges in the autumn, and leaving it expo- The means of freeing pine-apple plants from the coc- sed to the action of the winter's frost ; but the applica- See ere tion of quicklime is also useful. 554. i ; nl 4 ——— is -_ war om sort of me for Wire-worm, ly the pine-stove, vinery, and melon-frames, but often any read-like grub, which lodges in roots proves very injurious to ornamental toe lants. Water of culinary plants, particularly such as are of'a bulb- inge is destructive toit. Some per- ous or tuberous nature. These grabs appear to be da aay ‘of Waiantidinee > OaieSe rk principally the larve of different species of Elater. They sometimes attack also the roots of ornamental plants kept in pots: The remedy, in this case, con- sists in repotting, shaking the roots clear of the old earth, and using fresh soil brought from some old pas- ture ata Various expedients are resorted to for destroy- The maggot which infests onions and shallots (§ 335 In some places, phials half filled with honey and 344), is a small larva, cha toomplorshatingis Of CAEL or any sweet liquid, are in different have not yet been traced by naturalists. “ For further information concerning the natural his- tory of the insect enemies of fruits and culinary vege- tables, we may refer to the first volume of a very enter- early part of the season, and the taining and instructive work, entitled, “ An Introduc~ 7 an hot-houses they are, in tion Alpes Di ore 3 ee and Spence, employing temporary doors, 8vo. , 1815; to the article Enromotocy in tee | ith the 9th ee this seme (gauze: kinds of doors are never al- 561. The other enemies of garden uctions can only be very slightly noticed here. E, Slugs, meaning principally Limax cinerarius and L. Slugs flavus, are often very mischievous to wal]-trees, which is found very useful to have a plant of Hoya carnosa they ascend in the spring months, cutting off the fruit : established. This is an ornamental climber (named in at the time of setting. Inverted flower-pots are some- honour of Mr Thomas Hoy, a botanist, times placed as decoys at the bottom of the trees, the a been head-gardener slugs being induced to take shelter within them. Ducks 3 to the Duke of N at Syon House), and are very good destroyers of slugs; and a few are often be trained along any spare parts of the house. turned into gardens for this purpose; they must be If freely ; and as long as the blossoms continue, kept in it for two or three days, and get no food but ¥ several weeks, the wasps give ade- what they cull for themselves. Be] spide:. § i it i Hl is ; 74 Wasps fe i $F i E | i be i Ty fe ati Fe ] H | i af fi EHTEL Fe tier eeu asl beet : rege fu Hil 312 Tisorses Snails (meaning ehiefly Helix aspersa of Mont of Plants, op 77, ee oF aie sdibaetbaed tum acicity Snake where the garden-walls are old or ru . In:well kept gardens they are looked for in the mornings, par- ticularly after showers, when they never fail to-ap- pear, and are destroyed. Moles. Moles ( Talpa Europea).are sometimes very injurious in gardens, and must be extirpated wherever they appear. Traps are set-for thect: bey persons who have studied their habits: and the expertness of some of these in taking them is wonderful.. The moles seem to be social animals, keeping together in families or societies. The great art in catching them de- ends on ascertaining their recent and frequented gal- eries or subterraneous roads, and in:placing the.traps neatly in these. Mice (principally the field-mouse, Mus sylvaticus) frequently devour newly sown peas and beans, if these have not been duly covered with soil ; and they some- times likewise attack the beds of tulips, ranunculuses, and crocuses. They may soon be subdued by placing a number of fourth-figure traps (as they are called, from resembling in shape the Arabic 4) in the garden: this kind of simple but effectual trap is figured and descri- bed both in Nicol’s « Calendar,” and in Abercrombie’s «« Practical Gardener.” Many kinds of dirds may be numbered among the enemies -of gardens. Even the beautiful bulfinch (Loxia pyrrhula) destroys many blossoms of fruit-trees, scooping them clean. out ; but whether.the bird feeds on, the blossom, or.only nips it: off for the sake of ca- terpillars contained within it, is not known. The jay (Corvus glandarius),. the black-bird (Turdus .merula), and the mavis (7. musicus), make great havock among the best kinds of cherries, where means are not.resort- ed to for saving them. Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) oft- en attack pear-trees, and destroy vast quantities of the fruit ; and jack-daws (C. monedula) are sometimes also uilty of this sort of trespass. The common sparrow CFringilla domestica), and the chaffinch (F. celebs), likewise commit great depredatiens. For the protec- tion. of large.standard trees, dead birds are occasionally hung:up, so.as to.wave with the wind ; and such scares are of considerable service in deterring depredators. In the case of espalier and wall-trees, nets are generally employed, being hung over them, and fixed close to the ground. It may be remarked, that different spe- cies of tit-mouse (Parus caruleus and ater) with the common creeper (Certhia familiaris), and all the Mo- tacillze or warblers, may be considered as useful in de- stroying insects or their larvae, which are their. princi- pal food, and should therefore be winked at in gardens, although they may possibly destroy a certain quantity of the blossom, Nice. Birds. Implements of Gardening. 562. The principal tools employed in horticultural operations have already been mentioned incidentally ; Implements cf Garden- - but it may be proper in this place to. enumerate them together. Tools. The spade may be first named, as the oldest and most indispensable garden tool. Besides common sized spades for delving, small spades are required for work- ing in the flower-borders. The manufacture of spades is carried on to a great extent at Dalston near Carlisle ; at Gateshead, Newcastle; Bedburn, near Durham; Burton upon Trent; and Ulverstone in Lancashire; and of late years, some Scots forges, particularly those et Cramond, near Edinburgh, and Dalnottar, near HORTICULTUREs Glasgowy have disputed, with those mentioned,» the ™ palm of excellence in this useful and important article ofour iron manufacture. Shovels of different sorts are made-at the same manufactories. Forks are necessary for pointing over ground where it is improper to.use.the spade: They are of differeat. sizes, and some have. flat and others rcunded tines ; -asparagus-forks have been al- realy menticned (§ 353.) Hoes :of different sizes are indispensable, witn small weeding and thinning hoes, and also the sort called the Dutch hoe. , Rakes of different sizes are necessary: for large ones, ,those in which the teeth are of iron, and the > of well-sea~ soned ash, are best; and for small ones, those in.which, the teeth and head are formed of one solid piece of iron, are to be preferred. . Shears for clipping hedges, and a kind -with bent handles for dressing grass verges, are not to be forgotten. A flat faced hammer, with large headed nails, both of wrought iroa and of cast iron, and a stock of lists or roonds are requisite for the nail-, ing of wall-trees: as well as a proper wall-ladder, such as is described, § 245. Pruning, grafting, and bud- ding knives, with hand-bills, chisels, and small saws, are indispensable. Some. recently invented. pruning, instruments might here be noticed. One called the Averuncator has a handle from,5to 8 feet in length; by means of a cord and pulley, a lever connected with a cutting blade is acted upon ; so that a person stand- ing on the ground may prune the greater part of ordi- nary sized trees. The Pruning-shears are more easily managed, and are found very useful on many occasions, making the cuts more clean and neat than can be done with any kind of knife. Both instruments take off branches an inch and a half indiameter with great ease. The form.of the averuncator is given at Fig. 6. of Plate CCCXIL., and of the pruning-shears at Fig. 7. of the same Plate. Trowels of different sizes and shapes, with plastng irons and dibbles, are all very useful implements. hese, with scythes and paring-irons, and similar in- struments, -are manufactured to a great extent at Shef- field ; and from the subdivision of Jabour there esta- blished, they are furnished at rates so cheap .as_can« not fail in a great measure to. command the.market: but it is not to be disputed, regarding hoes, and rakes in particular, that the blacksmiths of some towns not distinguished as manufacturing, places, such as Edin- burgh, produce these instruments. of better materials, if not of neater workmanship. A garden reel and line is constantly needed. Sieves of iron or of brass wire of dif. ferent de of closeness, are required wherever atten- tion is paid to the raising of exotic seedlings. Fumiga- ting bellows are useful for green-houses, vineries and melon-frames. Where forcing is practised, or where a collection of stove-plants is kept, thermometers are necessary : those graduated to the scale of Fahrenheit are universally in use: what is called the botanical thermometer differs in no respect from another, except- ing that some terms, such as ‘* Ananas,” are inscribed Garcen- ing. _—~ at the proper degrees on the sides of the scale. One ° thermometer is placed in the open air ; and in the centre of each. of the hot-houses there is another :_ by compa- ring these, the-propriety of increasing or diminishing the fire-heat or the quantity of fuel, is regulated, Wa- tering-pots are made by tinsmiths, with pipes of differs ent lengths, and with roses more or less closel per- forated ; for watering delicate seedlings, pots with brass nozles finely perforated are used, producing an extreme- ly light or minutely divided shower. er ae 4 563. The garden engine has been repeatedly mention- Garden ex- ed, and its use recommended, (§ 92, 205, &c,). Con« 6% iments ” | HORTICULTURE. 813 1 : i i ‘having been made on this in- gallons of water, wine measure. The cistern has like- Implements : 1 few words additional concern. _ wise a'strong wooden bottom, to which are attached two of Garden. —y— or commonly two inches and a quarter in facilitate the moving of it when taken into hot-houses or Emer, to the btm ich, above the valve, is vineries. The is, at the same time, fitted to a omen : into this the’ water is forced; barrow with w! for the conyeniency of wheeli and.it is emitted from it, by the action of the com- it through the garden ; and to this the rollers form no pressed air, through the directing pipe in a continued obstacle, as they between the s/eels of the barrow. stream. This pipe is attached to the of the air- The pump is by a lever, and requires very little vessel by means of a swan-neck swi A aged exertion. The water can be projected about fifty feet ; double screws, which are water tight: in way the so that wall-trées of hefghhe ‘tnsly be washed, while eae ook me fm a i Formerly, leathern the engine remains on the gravel walk. and a leathern flexible director- were in use; but from occasional exposure to the seams. The best writers on the various branches of horticul- of the leather were very apt to allow water ture; particularly British authors, have been mentioned to } well executed brass work, on the other hand, pr 8 Nee gerry chm Spo Ee en wt f is of all others least liable to derangement. The pump of treating ie subject ; but it ; and air-vessel are fixed in a cistern, sixteen itr Be ere & te them here, in alphabéeti- inches deep, and capable of ining abouttwenty-two cal order. (¥r..) ‘ . LIST OF AUTHORS AND WORKS QUOTED OR REFERRED TO. ‘ (The Figures indicate the Sections.) Abercrombie, John, Practical Fitzherbert, Booke of Husban- Lawrence, Clergyman's Recrea-_ Plukenet, Dr, Phytographia, Gardener, &c. § 15 drye, 3 tion, 12 Pulteney’s Sketches, 13 + Alton, W. Hort. ~ Bdedit. F Treatiseon Fruit-trees, Leland’s I 2 * Quintinye, Complete ¥ 17, 26, 107 London and Complete W. T. Hort. Kew. Sdedit. Fualler’s Worthies, 38 Gardener, 9 Rea, John, Flora or Complete Aft Gendre, Sieur le, 10 Lyon, P. Treatise on Fruit- aomnstetia, de Peon Gerarde, Herball or Historie of trees, 547 Reid, John, Scots Gardener, 20 Austen, on Fruit-trees, &e. Lyson, Environs of London, a Wm. on Orchards, Gibson, Dr, on Pruit-trees, 20 38, 127 &e. Barrington, Hon. Daines, Mis- Googe, + - Mackenzie, Sir Gea. Report of Scotland, General Report of, 24 cellanies, 8 Gordon, Florist’s and Garden- Ross and Cromarty, 42 Sinclair, Sir John, 1 Basties, Manvel du Jardinier, _—er’s Dictionary, 20, 358 Maddock, Florist’s Directory,18. Sherrock, Dr, History of Pro- 4, 363 Hales, V Statics, 16 = Mandelsio’s Travels, 5 Cention cod lepearatont of Beckmann, Hist. of Inventions, Hill, Dr, Kew. Ist edit. Marshall, Rev. Cha. Introduc- egetables, 10 364 26 tion to Gardening, 16 Sloane, Sir Hans, 198 Biith, Walter, Improverimpro- Hitt, Treatise om Fruit-trees, Martyn, Prof. edition of Gar- Smith, Sir J. E. 27, &c. ad, 7 “4 dener’s Dictionary, 13 Speechly on the Vine and the Bradley, Richard, on Husban- Home, Francis, Principles of Mascall on Fruit-trees, cuoceees Te wpe: Ou Wr. Beonsipiion Vegetation, 14 Meager, L. Gardener,10 Switzer, Fruit and Kitchen Gar- bes ware Hooker, Pomona Londinensis, Memoirs of Hort. Soc. dener, 1 f of , 2 22, &e. Temple, Sir William, Miscel- Cartis, Bot. Mag. &e.18, 64 Hanter, Dr, Georgieal Essays, Memwoires du Museum, &e. 64 lancous Works, 10 Cushing, Exotic Gardener, 18, Sil Miller, Gardener's Dic-_ Tod, Plans and Elevations of 455 Hyll, Profitable Arte of Gar- tionary, 13, 27, &c. Hot-houses, 539 Darwin, ‘76 Mountain, Transactions of Hort. Soc. Lond. ot ten neat er’s Director, 20, 318 mland. Plocintey Tomte Five Hundred Points 7 sur 5 Dene, Juban, Comets Conus Kirby and education da picher, &c. 92, of H . 340 logue, 27 sy, 560 Nicol, Walter, Vispré on the Vine, 124 Dubamel, Traite des arbres Kirwan, on Manures, 46 lendar, &e. 21 Wolridge, Systema Horticultu- mies Dae titints, Cate. senegal PP egg Youn, Avie Aneel ie kit: ‘cor, 19, oung, . ner’s Almanack, &e. 9 Knoop, Pomologie, 311 of Arte and Nature, 4, 43 culture, 358 a ; aoe aes INDEX. Index. A Apple, Chinese, 194 - B BI 542 ym Adlactation, § 70 aphis, 552 Baigone pippin, 107 Dik. proavtll diet " Pron 529 Apricot-tree, 95 Balm, Blotches, 544 Acton Se Aquarium, 525; also 536 Barberry, 196 Bog-soil, 42 Aération of soils, 46 * Arbotus, 469 Bark-stove, Bonchretien pear, 115 Alexanders, AS-==——————SsCArrtichoke, 364 * Basil, sweet, 419 Borage, Alliaceous plants, 332-345 Jerusalem, 312 Basil, bush, 420 Borecole, 283. Almond-tree, 94 Asparagus, 352_ Bay laurel, 468 Borders for fruit-trees, 50 Anemone, 498 nig of, 355 Beans, 297 framed, 530 oy _ Aspect of walls, Beet, red, 323 Border flowers, 476-—_489 ‘Ann peach, 99 ~ Auchan i itt Boudine | “a Aphides, 552 \“Aateae 52 Boo pour, 118 : Bor edgiogs, 406 4 new sorts, 108 Aeawles 183 ; fat 450 Breda ot 96 ots ~ . i : Bladder-campion, rn apricot, 314 HORTICULTURE. Index. Brick walls, 40 Gress, Indian, 397 Fruits, for supply of London Knight, preeautions adopted in Index. Broccoli, 289 winter, 438 market, 38 ‘raising new varieties, = Cape, 291 water, 445 ~ list of native and exotic, 16 ' Brooklime, 446 Crocus, 318 57 and 85 mode of training and pru- ~% Brussels sprouts, 284 Crown grafting, 67 production of new, 75 . ning fruit-trees, 80 Buck’s-horn plantain, 441 Cucumber, 264 Fruit, gathering and keeping of, new peaches, 90 Budding, 74 on hot-beds, 266 245 mode of treating Iuxuri- Bullace plum, 100; also 186 drilled, 267 room, 249 : ant shoots of peach+ Burnet, 394 Curl in potato, 311 Fungous plants, 452—456 _ trees, 91 j Burning of clay, 43 Currants, red and white, 154 ‘ new cherries, 104 ; black, 157 G new apples, 108 : Get Garden, situation of, &e. 39 new pears, 117 Cabbage tribe, 272—293 D division of, 58 mode of managing pear- white, 273 Daisy edgings, 453 winter, 474 trees, 120 red, 279 ox-eye, 442 tools, 562 new grapes, 128 Savoy, 280 Dahlia, 504 engine, 563 on constructing peach- Z Cambridge botanic garden, 27 + Dalkeith garden, 110 Gardens, classification of, 25 houses, 204 Canker, 541 Dalmeny Park garden, 233 Royal, 26 new marrowfat pea, 296 Cantaleupe melons, 252 Dandelion, 449 Botanic, 27 : on the potato, 310 Canvas coverings, 84 Decortication of vines, 136 Gardeners, importance of their on cultivating onions,335 Cape broccoli, 291 * of apple and pear trees, profession, 23 Kohl-rabbi, 293 Caper bush, 405 546 fame of Scottish, 24 Caprification, 146 Dill, 388 Garlic, 343 5 Capsicum, 404 Diseases of plants, 540 Good Henry, 350 Labyrinth, 26 Caraway, 426 Downton pippin, 108 Gooseberry, 158 Lamb's lettuce, 392 Cardoon, 369 Doyenné pear, 114 caterpillars, 553 Lavender, 424 Carnations, 507 Dry-stove, 199 Gourds, 270 , Leek, 340 Carrot, 319 Dublin botanic garden, 28 Grape-house, 208 Leguminous plants, 294, &c Caterpillars, 553; also 559 Duke cherries, 103 _ Green house, 55; also 531 Lemon, 231 Catherine peach, 88 Dung store, 48 Lettuce, 371 Cauliflower, 285 Dwarf wall-trees, &1 H Lime fruit, 232 Cedars of Lebanon, 27 standards, 83 Hamburgh grape, 125 Liverpool garden, 27 Celery, 377 Hampton Court, 26 Loam, 42 Celeriac, 380 E . Hautboy, 173 Longueville pear, 113 Chamomile, 431 Farwies, 856 Hawthorndean, 107 Love-apple, 402 % Champignon, 454 Edei Ana AGS Hay, Mr John, horticultural Lyon, Mr, barking of fruits * Chard of artichokes, 368 SINSSs ‘ improvements by, 235; also trees, 547 7 Edinburgh botanic garden, 29 j, of cardoons, 370 E 1 403 452 and 563 < Chaumontel pear, 115 ge-plant, Hazel-nut, 193 M q Ler Elder-berry, 188 ae ’ Chelsea garden, 27 Hiecas mat? 433 Heath-soil, 42 Macdonald, Mr James, mode of 7 Cherry, 102 Elruo i Heathery, 538 treating apple-trees, 3 ge nectarine, 93 ; ‘ new sorts, 104 Elton cherry 104 Hedges, 59 110 7, house, 205 sar AL 6 Herb-patience, 351 of planting grape-houses, a Chervil, 385 Raateasese Herbs, sweet, 407 211 We ie Chestnut, 196 Knsiner werdens808 Hide-bound trees, 545 transplanting onions, 335 +4 Chili strawberry, 172 te Hine. AO» Hop-tops, 451 “ Mackenzie, Sir George, impro- ‘ » Zspalier-trees, 63; also 82 t x / Chinquapine, 197 “Eve apple, 107 Horizontal training, 80 / ved hot-house, 240 ; Chives, 342 fvdiitnesa aek Horse-radish, 396 mode of blanching sea- ’ Cibol, 341 8 v! Horticulture, history of British, : cale, 360 . t Cions for grafting, 73 ois F 1—22 anointing of trees with Ay Citron, 230 Horticultural Societies, 22 oily matter, 549 if Clary, 409 Fan-training, 80 Hot-beds, 257, &c. Magdalen peach, 88 : ' Clay, scorifying of, 43 Fennel, 387 _ Hot-houses, situation of, 54, 559 Magnum bonum, 100 iM used in grafting, 65 Fig-tree, 140 origin of, 198 Maiden trees, 77 ¢ as a soil, 42, 462, &e. mode of protecting, 145 suite of, 236 Manures, 43 ? Cleft-grafting, 66 house, 213 improvements on, 239 Mangold-wurzel, 348 x Climbing plants, 527 Finochio, 387 Hot walls, 41 Marigold, 399 ‘4 Clingstorne peaches, 90 Flies, 558 Hyacinth, 515 Marjoram, pot, 414 2 Cloudberry, 190 Florist’s fowers, 491—518 Hyssop, 429 sweet, 415 ' Coccus, 223; also 653 Flower-garden, situation of, 55 winter, 416 a Codlin apple, 107 constituents of, 457, &c. I Market gardens, 37. Coe’s golden-drop plum, 100 pots, sizes of, 532 _ Inarching, 70 Masculine apricot, 96 ‘ Colmart pear, 115 ; glasses, 535 Indian cress, 397 Mayduke cherry, 103 Dy Colewort, 281 Flowers, perennial, 476-.-489 -Ingestrie pippin, 108 Mazagan bean, 298 } Composts, preferable to simple annual, 519—522 Implements of gardening, 562 Medlar, 150 “ dungs, 47 biennial, 523 Iris, 503 Melon, 251 ini preparing of, 455 Flued pits, 355 impregnating of blossom, Conservatory, 536 walls, 41 J 260 Constantia grape, 125 Forcing stoves, 202 Jargonelle, 113 importance of the foliages Constantinople hazel, 194 Forsyth’s composition, 544 Jenneting apple, 107 263 ies | Coriander, 425 Framed borders, 530 Jerusalem artichoke, 312 Melon-ground, 238 — ‘ Corn-salad, 392 4 Rree-stocks, 60 Mice, 561 7 Cornelian cherry, 183 French beans, 301 ' K Mignone peach, 88 f Costmary, 428 Frogmore gardens, 26 Kale, 282 Mildew, 550 : Cottage-gardens, 35 Frontignac grapes, 125 Kensington gardens, 26 Milk-thistle, 393 Covent-garden market, 37 Fruit-garden, 456, &e. Kew gardens, 26 Miller grape, 125 Crab-apple, 184 Fruit-tree borders, 50 Kidney-bean, 301 Mints, 410 stocks, 60 Fruits, varieties cultivated in forcing of, 207 Moles, 561 Cranberry, 191 . 1629, 6 Kitchen garden, 271, &c. Moorpark apricot, 96 Crassane, 115 produced in a well Knight, Mr, opinionconcerning Mborels, 456 . Cress, garden, 381 managed English the. decay ofcultivated Morello cherry, 103 : American, 382 garden, 30 fruits, 76 Mould or vegetable soil, 45 5 tp 7 a 4 i 4 : a: : sfeitiit at Ep {tate init i be feel : a etn Ue a a He | FREE i phe ah ft 24.88, l, rae ae Ey il tity, | * is ite | ia Heit arate eure a Hi =i Reise zi 2a) j ais ‘ e ills eegte sci i i at at fing Wl i ney i iiil i i ee 4 ‘Ses ak i bit iii mrs 1} ar he i eee i Hee s336 eee ail ne : i i HE ep iia fut oI iia a a Wi i MO 816 . H O T Hot-house, specting these, as well as concerning the use of tan- the Cape of Good Hope; nor of the early Portuguese Hottentots, Hottentots: ners-bark and decayed tree leaves in forming hot-beds, navigators, had much communication with the nas == see Horticutture, § 257, 355, &c. tives; and the Hottentots were scarcely known to Fitst noti- HOT-HOUSE. See Horticurrure, Index. Europeans till about the year 1509; when Francisco pele HOTTENTOTS, an. extraordi people in the D’Almeyda, Viceroy of India, returning home after southern extremity of Africa, paren | occupying the his quarrel with Albuquerque, landed at Table Bay, territories around the Cape of Good Hope. They are and was killed, along with seventy of his people, altogether an insulated tribe, confined toa small cor- ina scuffle with the natives. A Portuguese captain, ner of the African Continent, and bearing no resem- having touched on the coast, about three years af- blance either tothe Negro race along the western coast, terwards, planned the following cowardly scheme of or to the Caffre nation to the eastward. Various con- avenging his countrymen, He landed a piece of ord- Origin. | jectures have been proposed, but nothing very satis- nance loaded with grape shot as a pretended present to factory has yet been established respecting their origin, the Hottentots; and while the unsuspecting natives or affinity. Kolben, in full consistency with his multi- were crowding around the engine, the brutal Portus tude of marvellous stories on the subject, affirms that guese fired off the piece by means of a rope which was they have a tradition among themselves of having been attached to it, and viewed with savage delight the thrust upon the promontory of the Cape ovt of some mangled carcases of the deluded creatures, hp had narrow passage ; and, as a narrow passage might signi- trusted their professions of friendship. They were oc« fy a door-way or window, he forthwith concludes, that it _casionally visited for refreshments by the English, Por- could be nothing else than the window of Noah’s ark, tuguese, and Dutch traders in their voyages to the out of whichthey crept. Mr Barrow considers themas East Indies, till the establishment ef a colony among approaching nearest in colour, and in the construction them by the last mentioned nation, in the year 1650. of the features, especially in the shape of the eye, to the They made little opposition to the new settlers; and Chinese or Tartar race ; and’accounts for this relationby were soon induced, ie their passion for brandy and supposing them to have proceeded from the Egyptians, . tobacco, first to sell their country and cattle, and next who have been not improbably represented as origi- to become themselves the servants of the purchasers, nally the same people with the Chinese. In support for the purpose of guarding those flocks and herds, of this opinion, he adduces the strong resemblance be- which had so recently been their own property. These conaition _ tween the physical character of the re esionee or real wretched people, duped out of their possessions and under the _ Hottentots, and the descriptions given by ancient wri- their liberty, have entailed upon themselves and their Dutch co. ters, particularly by Diodorus Siculus, of the PeyP- offspring a state of subjection, which is’ comparatively louists. 4 tians and Ethiopians, especially of the Pigmiesand Tro- worse than slavery; inasmuch as, in consequence of a glodytes, who are said to have dwelt in the neighbour- their not being transferable property, their immediate : hood of the Nile. The early Portuguese writers, also, value is diminished, and their treatment less tempered u mention a colony of Chinese in the vicinity of Soffala; by the self-interest of their oppressors. In the remoter ‘ and the natives in the interior of Madagascar are de- parts of the colony especially, they are subjected to scribed as a small race of Tartars, resembling the Hot- cruelties, which have not been surpassed’ in the worst un tentots.in stature, colour, and countenance. The name of the West India islands, Instant death is not unfre- { Name, Hottentot, though frequently represented as their na- quently the coe of that brutal rage, to which \ tive appellation, is now ascertained to be of modern fa- they are exposed. ‘To fire small shot into their legs or i brication, and has no place or meaning in their own thighs is no unusual punishment. One of the gentler : language. They take it to themselves, under the idea chastisements, which they endure, is to be lashed or of its being a Dutch word ; and it is conceived to have rather bruised with thongs, cut frem the hide of the | been applied at first as a term in some degree imitative sea-cow or rhinoceros, which are nearly as hard and iT of the remarkable clacking made by them in speaking, heavy as lead. With these horrid instruments they which is said to sound like hot or tot. Each horde had are flogged at leisure, not by a number of blows, but formerly its particular name, as the Attaquas, Hessa- by a period of torture ; and the savage master makes it quas, Houtiniquas, Namaquas, and Coranas; but the one of his favourite recreations to regulate the time of designation by which the whole nation was distinguish- their suffering, by smoking as many pipes of tobacco as ed, and which they still bear among themselves in he deems proportionate to the offence.* These boors every part of the country, is Quaiquz. or Dutch farmers are authorised by an old law of the Country oce . ‘The whole of the Hottentot country, comprehend- colony to claim as their property all the children of the cupied by ing all the different tribes of the race, extends along Hottentots in their service, to whom they may have the Hotten- the east ‘coast to the 32° of S. Latitude, and to the given in their infancy a morsel of meat; and, though mene 25° on the West. None of the first discoverers of the same regulation directs their emancipation at the * Among many instances of the cruel treatment to which the helpless Hottentots are daily exposed, the following are recorded by Mr Barrow as peculiarly striking: ** We had scarcely parted from these people, when, stopping at a house to feed our horses, we by accident ob= served a young Hottentot woman with a child in her arms lying stretched on the ground in a most deplorable condition. She had been cut from head to foot with one of those infernal whips, made from’ the hide of a rhinoceros or sea-cow, known by the name of Sarabocs, in such a barbarous and unmerciful manner, that there was scarcely a spot on her whole body free from stripes; nor had the sides ofthe little infant, in clinging to its mother, escaped the strokes of the brutal monster.” ++ The only crime alleged against her was the attempt to follow her husband, who was among the number of those of his countrymen that had determined to throw themselves apon the pee: tion of the English.” «* The next house we halted at upon the road presented us with a still more horrid instance of brutality. @ ob- served a fine Hottentot boy, about eight years of age, sitting at the corner of the house, with a pair of iron rings clenched upon his legs, of « the weight of ten or twelve pounds; and they had remained in one situation for such a length of time, that they appeared to be sunk into the leg, the muscle being tumified both above and below the rings. The poor creature was so benumbed and oppressed with the weight, that, being unable to walk with ease, he crawled on the ground. It appeared, upon inquiry, that they had been rivetted to his legs more than ten months ago.” The fellow shrunk from the inquiries of the indignant general ; he had nothing to allege against him, but that he had always been a worthless boy ; he had lost him so many sheep, he had slept when he ought to watch the cattle, and such like frivo- ‘Tous charges of a negative kind,” &c, i ‘l Wl HOTTENTOTS. 87 this is a privilege which are vellers. At the same time, so many of the strange and Hottentots Bad ridiculous stories, published on the subject, have been “~V~ discovered to have originated in ignorance, credulity, or deliberate fiction, that little dependence can be pla« - Soe oo eertiveahich patella rback. Those who are apparently lightened enquiries personal observations of Barrow, 4 ruter, Somerville, &c. The Hottentots of one dis trict, differ considerably, in the present day, from those the service, their children are of another, in consequence of their living together in farm house, where particular clans, and mixing with different kinds of iH sre Hie i i Bly Sel aRoFE i tT iF z. : upon this ground, people; but from observing their manners in these are often claimed as the property of the farmer when parts of the colony, which have been most recently oc- their parents are desirous to remove, or perhaps forci- cupied, some approach may be made to a sketch of - bly turned away, Those who are unmarried, as well their origi native character, The personal appear- Personal as free, are doubtless. the least wretched; but even ance of the Hottentots, though by no means prepos- appearance. their service is easily converted into the hard- Sate See Teerenng canary sateen res est bondage. Their wages are upon sented. Their countenance, indeed, is in éx- every frivolous pretext ; nt} should any of the cattle tremelyugly. Prominentcheek bones,andanarrew point« entrusted to their care be missing, they must prolong ed chin, give to the face the form nearly of a triangle. their service without pay, till sont ot earned the va- The nose, in most of them, is remarkably flat, aikeaed lost. Or, should no damage of this broad between the eyes. The eyes are of a deep ches- nature be imputable to their negligence during the nut colour, long and narrow in their shape, and the ill have nothing to receive at the end Fae mage am me next the nose, ose of of it, in consequence of a bill for brandy or tobacco, ape an e as in Europeans, are rounded into = to 4 i each other, exactly like those of the Chinese. Their ges. In such circumstances, nv little induce- mouth is of the ordinary size, the lips thinner than i iage ; when they do enter those of the N and Caffres, and the teeth beauti« into that state, they are frequently without any off- fully white. The hair of their heads is of a singular reas Sa eee Os ore ee Sane manee growing in small tufts at certain distances from Their extreme poverty, scanty food, and and extremely hard and frizaled, resem- eo ahem rapes ped bling, when short, the bristles of a shoe-brush twisted lifie powers of nature ; and their practice of marrying into round lumps about the size of a large pea, and, their own limited horde is considered as an when suffered to grow, hanging about the neck in heional Windirance to their increase. Multitudes of the strong tassels like Gee. The colour of their skin is ‘more independent tribes, also, have perished by the that of a yellowish brown or faded leaf. Their figure, hostilities of the Caffres, and the ferocity of the wild especi apace + » is not devoid of symmetry. beasts, as they receded towards the interior of the ‘They are erect, clean-limbed, and well proportioned ; . country." From all these causes combined, the Hot- their hands, feet, and all their joints, remarkably small ; tentot race is rapidly diminishing, and in all probabi- and the muscular parts of their body delicately formed, lity will soon become wholly extinct. Many of their so as to indicate rather feminine inactivity, than mas- tribes mentioned by the earlier travellers, have entirely culine exertion. Some of the women in their youth, and disappeared ; and, at the commencement of the pre- before child-bearing, are described as models of perfec. sent century, nota kraal or vi was to be found tion in the human figure; every joint and limb bein about Camtoos river, where, ly 20 years before, well shaped and turned; their breasts round, Seat aed hundreds of the natives were met in grou In the distant; their hands and feet small and delicately form- whole auteneive district of Greall Reynet, there net a ed; and their gait not altogether deficient in grace. single horde of independent Hottentots ; andthe whole But, at an early period of life, and immediately after number within the limits of the colony does not amount the birth of their child, their beauty vanishes ; their | ' 3; A F breasts begin to grow loose and flaccid, and at length colony came last into the possession of Great Britain, become enormously distended ; their bellies protrude, o ~ lr wae wet nae ely aenaseren pear ram Seer ah ha Pe EBON TRE of fat, so progress of missionary settlements, to protect as to give to spine an appearance of extraordinary rea cggreeed race of ings; but, though a curvature inwards, It is very rarely that a cripple or remnant may thus be , the nation, itis deformed is seen among the Hottentots of either to be feared, is almost already ray meg A mised sex; aad hepa not subject to any particular dis- breed, called Bastaards, produced from Hottentot wo- eases. Their vy cee ep A sound ; and their life; men and. fathers, or the slaves from other if not cut short “3 ident or violence, js usually ter« are to supplant the original inhabi- minated by a ual decay. But they are not so long- tants. are & numerous race in the co- lived as the natives of most other countries, which re- leny jen en tally tout, end sative people. semble their own in point of temperature ; and it is a ¢ ancient manners and primitive character of the rare occurrence when any of them attains the age of sixty years. poe engi. ne ee to ang epee ed he dress of a Hottentot is very simple; and: in Dress the 5 be a sufficient summer is so trifling, as not to deserve name of bape de of former accounts, that they covering. It consists of a belt cut from the hide of . not correspond the observations of recent tra- some animal, and fastened round their body. From “« One woman mentioned to Mr Campbell that she had born ten children, who hed all been destroyed by lions, tygers, and serpents, a Food. 318 HOTTENTOTS. Hottentots. this strap is suspended in front a kind of tase or bag vy" made of the skin of a jackal with the hair outwards ; and which is intended to receive those parts, which modesty requires to be concealed. . From the back part of the girdle hangs a piece of stiff dried skin, shaped - like ‘an isosceles triangle, with the point uppermost, and reaching nearly to the middle of the thigh. Some- times two of these pieces are used; but these straps, especially when the wearer is walking or running, en- tirely fail to answer the purpose of concealment; and are conjectured to have been originally intended rather as a kind of artificial tail, to fan the body by its motion, and to lash away troublesome insects. In the winter months, they wear cloaks made of skins, generally of sheep, which are worn, as the weather requires, either with the wool inwards or outwards ; and which serve as blankets and bedding through the night, as well as for a garment through the day. The women suspend from their belt in front a kind of apron made of skin, but cut into threads, which hang in a bunch between the thighs, and reach about half-way to the knee; or they wear a smaller apron about seven or eight inches wide, not divided into threads, but ornamented with shells, metal buttons, and any of their most showy trinkets. In place of the tail worn by the men, they have a sheep’s skin, which entirely covers the posterior part of the body from the waist to the calf of the leg, and makes a rattling noise as they walk. Instead of the thongs of dried skin, which formerly covered their legs from the ankle to the knee, as a protection against the bite of poisonous animals, they have substituted strings of glass beads and shells. These they wear also in great abundance around their necks and arms. Some of them have skin caps on their heads, differently shaped and adorned according to the fancy of the wear- er; and they have sheep skin cloaks resembling those of the men. When these cloaks are laid aside, which is commonly the case in the warmer weather, both sexes may be said to be nearly naked ; but their bodies jare in some measure protected from the influence of the sun or air by the unctuous matter which they rub over the whole of their persons ; and which, however filthy in itself, is a very natural and useful resource in hot climates, to prevent the skin from being parched and shrivelled by the scorching heat. It is supposed that a similar practice in parallel latitudes would pre- vent that disgusting and dreadful disorder, the ele- phantiasis, which is so common in many hot countries, but which, with most other cutaneous diseases, is wholly unknown among the Hottentots.* This greasy covering applied from time to time, and accumulating perhaps for a whole year, sometimes softening in the sun, or melting before a fire, catches up the dust and dirt, and gradually covers the surface of the body with a thick black coating, which entirely conceals the na- tural colour of the skin. This native hue is perceivable only on the face and hands, which are kept rather cleaner than the other parts of the body, not by wash- ing them in water, which would have no effect upon the grease, but by rubbing them with the dung of cattle. The Hottentots are often reduced, especially in their native state, to live upon gums, roots, and the larvee of insects, and at times make a kind of bread from the pith of the palm tree ; but their universal delight is to indulge in animal food. “They are remarkably patient Hotteritots. ge patie es of hunger, and are able to fast a very long time; but are equally voracious when supplied with their favour- ite diet, and are described as the greatest gluttons cn’ the face of the earth. Their manner of eating’ suffi- ciently indicates the voracity of their appetite. They cut a large steak from the carcase upon which they feed, and, passing the knife in a spiral manner from: one edge till they reach the middle, form it into’ a string of flesh two or three yards in length: ‘This they’ coil round and lay upon the hot ashes ; and, when the meat is just warmed through, they grasp it in both hands, and, applying one end of the string to their mouth, phoned’ without intermission, and with con- siderable expedition, to the other extremity. ‘They do: not think of cleaning the meat’ from the ashes of the green wood, which serve as a substitute for salt; and they wipe their hands, when done with eating, merely by rubbing them on different parts of their body: They are passionately fond of ardent spirits and tobacco ; and, to make as much as possible of the flavour of the latter luxury, they purposely employ a very shert pipe. The Hottentot families, who engage in the service of Huts. the colonists, live in smali straw huts around the farm house. Ina more independent state, they horde toge- ther in kraals or villages, where the houses are com- monly ranged ina circle with the doors opening to- wards the centre, and thus forming a kind of court, into which their cattle are collected at night, to pre- serve them from the beasts of prey. The huts are ge- nerally circular in their form, resembling a bee-hive, covering a space about twenty feet in dianieter, but commonly so low in the roof, that, even in the centre, it is rarely possible for a man of middle size to stand upright. The fire place is situated in the middle of the apartment, around which the family sit or sleep in a circle; and the door, which is seldom higher three feet, is the only aperture for admitting the light, or letting out the smoke. The frame of these arched habitations is composed of slender rods, capable of ~ being bent in the desired form, seme parallel with each other, some crossing the rest, and others bound round the whole in a circular direction. » Over this lattice work, are spread large mats, made of reeds or rushes, which are about six or ten feet long, and sewed toge~ ther with a kind of thread or rather catgut, made from the dorsal sinews of different animals. These materials are easily taken down; and removed on the backs of the oxen, when there is occasion to change the place of residence. These free Hottentots depend for subsistence upon Weapons. the milk and flesh of their cattle, and the produce of their skill in the chace. They are excellent marksmen with the musket, but still make use occasionally of their ancient weapons, the Hassagai or javelin, and bow with poisoned arrows. The Hassagai is an iron spear about a foot in Iength, fastened to the end ofa tapering shaft about four feet long, which is thrown from the hand by grasping it in the middle, raising it above the head, and delivering it with the fore-finger and thumb. The bow is a plain piece of wood seldom much more than a yard long, and sometimes tapering to a point at each extremity. It is furnished with a composed of hemp, or the fibres of animal-tendons *A similar practice prevails among the inhabitants of Tombuctoo, as observed by the American sailor Adams. “* It is the uni- versal practice of both sexes,” says his Narrative, ** to grease themselves all over with butter produced from goats milk, which makes the skin smooth, and gives it a shining appearance, This is usually renewed every day ; and, when neglected, the skin be- - gomes rough, greyish, and extremely ugly.” te ee AT s: Bs HH ees Hy dpe Ht fae R seal n ng Pry fsa oft uaa gpa ita HHI ine is ity pie | ut D areata Lilla ga aha nf Nal g3 ay Boheds tats at ie Hohe nee iia # dis lial TH fe satel ha alias Hitt da eee iba a : ee AEH weil ie i Wa i net i viet alt Hy S Ae nn areal 4 nf HAE Hed i mie i iF a ct rie i i iti ii fig a (ama iil ui Fa "on did IT ie Fe a li Hetty if Ce eeatlals a3 Hur g bigs 1 ye e i Peel ak tity i i In Waites nn i lis i _ ‘ pawl Bit. _ 820 Hottentots. been formed into any kind of communities, than the “~~ remains of a tribe or nation who had once sed Customs, Character. any laws or customs common to them all. The truest specimens of the unmixed Hottentot people and prac- tices are probably to be found among the Bosjesmans, (see Bossesmans); but, whether that wretched race existed in their present condition before the dispersion of the Hottentots, or in consequence of that event, must remain a subject of mere conjecture. A few detached customs and practices of the Hottentots may be briefly stated. One of the customs still generally prevalent, is to shave the heads of young girls as soon as the first symptoms of maturity appear, to remove all their or- naments, and wash the whole body thoroughly ; and to restrict them to a milk diet, and seclude them from the company of men during the continuance of the periodi- cal symptoms. Though they inter their dead without any ceremony, it is a common practice to pile a heap of stones over the grave; and it is firmly believed among them, that some misfortune would soon befal the individual who should pass the place without add- ing a stone to the heap. This custom is supposed to have originated in a wish to secure the bodies of the deceased from being dug op and devoured by wild . beasts., The Hottentots in drinking from a pool or stream, throw the water into their mouths with their right hand in a very expert and expeditious manner, seldom bringing the hand nearer the mouth than the distance of a foot. ‘They generally wash their poison- ed wounds with a mixture of urine and gun-powder, besides frequently using the actual cautery; and, for the most part, recover easily unless wounded severely. They kill their cattle, by thrusting a sharp-pointed in- strument into the spinal marrow immediately behind the horns ; and the animal being thus instantaneous deprived of life, the throat is cut to let out the blood. Among the Hottentots who reside at the mouth of the Orange river, a superstitious practice prevails, similar to what has been observed among the South Sea islanders, of cutting off the first joint of their little finger, as a remedy for a particular disease to which they are subject when young. The most prominent point in the habits and disposi- tions of the Hottentots is their extreme indolence, which even the urgent calls of hunger are scarcely able to overcome. Provided they are allowed-to sleep, they would willingly fast the whole day, rather than under- go the trouble of digging the ground for roots, or pro- curing food by the chace ; and Mr Barrow particularly relates, that in the course of his journies, the Hotten- tot servants frequently passed the day without a morsel of food, rather than walk half a mile fora sheep. They are habituated -from their infancy to a life of sloth; and, having obtained what is barely sufficient to sup- port nature, contentedly spend the day as well as night in sleeping under a bush upon their sheep-skin. Even in the service of the Dutch colonists, they are rather confirmed in their laziness, than cured of it; as, in every farm-house there is so great a multitude of ser- vants, that little work falls to the share of each indivi- dual. It is not uncommon. to see twenty or thirty, where there is not employment for more than. four or five ; so that one of the domestics, during the space of a whole day, may have only to bring his master’s whip from the next a ent; another to fetch his mis- tress’s fire-box and place it under her feet ; and a third to supply some of the family, three or four times in the day, with lighted wood to kindle their tobacco pipes. They are by no means, however, a stupid HOTTENTOTS. people. They are uncommonly expert in finding out Hottentots, ey —— a passage over a desert uninhabited country. are remarkably quick-sighted, and can discover the game in the chace at a very great distance. They will follow with the eye the flight even of a bee to an in- credible distance, watching its motions, and tracing out its nest. They are able to distinguish. the prints of the feet of whatever animal they chance to pursue, if they be at all acquainted with it ; and would single out among a thousand foot-marks those of their compa- nions, They learn the Dutch’ language with great fa« cility ; and though seldom employed as domestic ser- vants by the colonists at the Cape, they can be taught to do every kind of work with as much propriety as Europeans. They ate a mild, quiet, and rather timid people; but endure pain with extraordinary patience, and, when led on by superiors, will encounter danger with sufficient alacrity. They are honest and faithful, and have little of that cunning which savages ‘al- ly possess; but are ready to divulge the truth, when charged with crimes of which they have been guilty. They seldom quarrel among themselves, or make use of provoking language; but are kind and affectionate to one another, and ready to share the last morsel with their companions. Though extremely phlesmatic, they are not incapable of strong attachments, and are parti« cularly sensible to any act of kindness. These are sen- sations, however, which they have, unhappily, few op- portunities of indulging. In the state of hard bondage and cruel oppression, under which they spend their miserable existence, the muscles of their countenance are rarely seen to relax into a smile, but are constantly overspread with the deepest melancholy. It has been sufficiently proved, that under humane treatment they are capable of being rendered active, industrious, and useful members of society. About 500 of them had Hottentot been embodied by the Dutch ina corps called the Cape regiment. Regiment ; and, though unsupported, had acted with considerable spirit in opposing the British troops at the capture of the colony in 1795. General Sir James Craig found it expedient to take them into the British service, and to increase their numbers. They became excellent soldiers, orderly, tractable, and faithful, ready on all oc- casions to obey the commands of their officers with cheerfulness and alacrity. <‘ Never,” says the above- mentioned officer, “were people more contented, or more grateful for the treatment they now receive. It is with the wapeicaety of knowing them well, that I venture to pronounce them an intelligent race of men, All who bear arms exercise well, and understand im- mediately and perfectly whatever they are taught to portage: Many of them speak English tolerably well. e were told, that so great was their epee to drunkenness, we should never be able to uce them to order or discipline ; and that the habit of roving was so rooted in their disposition, we must expect the whole corps would desert the moment they had received their clothing. With to the first, I do not find they are more given to the vice of drinking than our own peo« ple; and, as to their i propensity to roving, that charge is fully confuted by the circumstance of one man having left us since I first sure of assembling them, and he was urged from having accidentally lost his firelock.”—« Of a the qualities, it will little be expected I should expatiate. upon their cleanliness ; and yet it is certain, that at this- moment our Hottentot parade would not suffer in a comparison with that of some of our regular regiments. $ Their clothing may pabepe have suffered more than it: the mea- ; have been taught to keep bright, are always in good order. ‘They are now like- wise cleanly in their persons ; the practice of smearing with grease being entirely left off. I have frequently observed them washing themselves in a ri- could have in view no other object but cleanliness.” men shewed themselves high- of this favourable testimony, during three in the distant district of Graaf Reynet, required, by an unfortunate train of inst their own men and com- | fi rf overnment, Fit i : i it r tt ie Mf 2 particularly « Moravian Brethren, have not been less successful in forming the Hottentot race to live under the influence of religious principle, and to fulfil the duties of civili- zed . The progress of their disciples ? ottentots, and their eda of or raising ¥ Those, who first j the society, choicest situa- tions at the upper end of the valley near the church ; and their houses and ‘were very neat and com- fortable ; numbers of cet mem nadey , and few better. Those Hottentots, who chose to Sientaemvens cen Saertiet caaben soon as could earn wages. Some hired themselves out by the week, month, or year, to the neighbouring ee nen Tae rac teeter Some Aaa Glide ienop, tnd bareen?” 22 Ow Seaedaye, thes * s , attend the Susie of diiaweoeiecy ge it : i 821 © HOU was short, but replete with good sense, » well suited to the occasion: tears flowed abundantly ' from the of those, to whom it was particularly ad- dressed. females sung in a style that was plain- tive and affecting; and their voices were in general sweet and harmonious.” This establishment is descri- bed by Lichtenstein, little more than six years after- wards, as containing two hundred houses and huts, built in regular streets, and occupied by nearly 1100 Hottentots ; several of whom had become very expert in various kinds of iron work, particularly in the ma- nufacture of knives. “ The men are clothed in linen jackets and leather smal) clothes, and wear hats ; and the women have woollen petticoats, cotton jackets with long sleeves, and caps. Other missionaries have col- lected the wilder Hottentots in the more distant parts of the colony; and have succeeded in instructing and civilizing them in various degrees, proportioned to the duration and circumstances of the different establish- menits. found in places beyond the limits of the colony to be a docile and tractable people, inoffensive in their man- ners, and ex grateful to their benefactors. The recovery of the colony by the British has at least se- cured to these defenceless tribes a protection from cruel oppression, and an encouragement to every benevolent exertion for their benefit, which they never enjoyed under the Dutch government. See Sparrman’s Voya to the Cape of Good Hope. Paterson's Journies into t C the Hottentots. Barrow's Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa. Campbell's Travels in Africa. Lichtenstein’s Travels in Southern Africa, (9) HOUNDS. See Doe, Huntixe, and MamMania. HOU-GANG, or Hoo-Quano. See Cuina, vol. vi. p- 214. HOURS. See Curonooey, vol. vi. p. 402. HOUSSA, or Haoussa, the capital of a kingdom of the same name in Africa, is supposed to be situated two days journey south from the Niger, and about 200 miles south east from Tombuctoo, As it ap to have been unknown to the African geographer Leo, it is suspected to be of modern date; and, as Park could hear nothing of Tokrur or Tekrur, mentioned by Edrissi and Abulfeda as the metropolis of a great central em- pire of Africa, it is conjectured that Houssa must have superseded that ancient capital as the seat of govern. ment. Former accounts represented it as almost equal to London or Cairo in population, and its inhabitants a8 acquainted with the art of writing, and other civi- lized attainments. The country along the banks of the Niger, between Houssa and Tombuctoo, was also de- scribed as fertile, and well inhabited. All the native travellers, with whom Park conversed, assured him that Houssa was larger and more populous than Tom- buctoo ; and that the state of trade, —_ and govern- ment, were nearly the same in both places. The recent Narrative of Adams the American sailor enables us to estimate the amount of this comparison, and to form some idea of Houssa, when he tells us, that Tombuc- too, to which it bears so near a resemblance, covers about as much ground as Lisbon with houses irregu- larly scattered ; that it contains no shops for its boasted commerce, but that the we ways goods are cn an in the king's. » till they are disposed of; that this royal and warehouse is constructed of mud, and a mean in its appearance ; and that the principal food of the king and queen consists, like 28 Even the Bosjesman Hottentots have been. thetic, and Hottentots oussa, 322 Howard. that of the people, of Guinea corn, boiled like burgoo, and eaten with goat’s milk, to which, in the case of their majesties, is added the luxury of a little butter. See Park’s Travels and Appendix; Adams’ Narrative ; and Tomeucroo. (¢) HOWARD, Jon, the celebrated philanthropist, was born at Enfield, about the year 1727. His father was originally an upholsterer in Long-lane, Smithfield ; but, having acquired a handsome fortune, had retired from business several years before his death. He was a strict Protestant dissenter; and, wishing that his son should be educated in the same principles, placed him under a airway sa08 at some distance from London, who seems to have been more distinguished by his religious character than literary qualifications. Under the tui- tion of this person, young Howard continued for the space of seven years, without being thoroughly in- structed in any one branch of knowledge ; and, though he was afterwards removed to the academy of Mr Eames, he never surmounted the deficiencies of his early education.’ He was not able to write his native language with grammatical correctness ; and, excepting the French, his acquaintance with other languages was very superficial. His father died when he was young, and directed, in his will, that his son should not come to the possession of his property till the twenty-fifth year of his age. In conformity, also, it is supposed, to the wishes of his parent, he was bound apprentice to a wholesale grocer in the city ; but he found this employ- ment extremely irksome; and, as soon as he came of age, bought up the remainder of his time, and set out on his.travels to France and Italy, Upon his’ return to England, he lived in the style of other young men of fortune ; but had acquired a taste for the arts, and an attachment to the study of nature. The delicacy of his bodily health required him to take lodgings in the country, and to follow a rigorous regimen of diet, which laid the foundation of his future extraordinary abstemiousness. About the 25th year of his age, he married Mrs Sarah Lardeau, as a return of gratitude for her kind attention during his invalid state while he lodged in her house at Stoke-Newington ; but she was twice as old as himself, as well as of a sickly habit, and died at the end of three years after their marriage, in the year 1756. After the death of his wife, he set out upon another tour, which he designed to have com- menced with a visit to Lisbon, which had been recent- ly overthrown by an earthquake; but the packet, in which he sailed, was taken by a French privateer, and he endured for some time all the hardships of a pri- soner of war in France. The sufferings of his country- men in the same situation made a strong impression on his mind, and first directed his attention to the condi- tion of those unhappy persons who are doomed to in- habit the cells of a prison. Having remained abroad only a few months, he fixed his residence, after his re- turn, on his estate at Cardington, near Bedford ; and, in 1758, was united in marriage to the eldest daugh- ter of Edward Leeds, Esq. of Croxton in Cambridge- shire. In jthis connexion and situation he spent the most tranquil and happy years of his life, occupying his leisure and his wealth in executing plans of beneficence for the more indigent part of mankind. But his do- mestic felicity was fatally interrupted by the death of his wife in the year 1765, soon after the birth of her only child; and, for many years afterwards, he che- rished her memory with the most affectionate sorrow. For some time he was attached to his home, by an anxious attention to the education of his son; but the HOWARD. child was sent to school at an early age, and Mr Hows Howard. ard began to assume a more public character. In 1773 he was nominated High-Sheriff of the county’ of Bed- ford ; and entered upon his office with a resolution to erform its duties with his accustomed punctuality, n the inspection of the prisons within his jurisdiction; his humanity became deeply engaged by the distresses which he witnessed ; and, in the ess of his enqui- ries, he was led to extend his investigation -to all the places of confinement and houses of correction throughs out the kingdom. He pursued his object with so mach assiduity, that, in the beginning of 1774, he was de- sired to communicate his information to the House of Commons ; and, in-consequence of his representations, two bills were brought forward for the relief and health of prisoners. Being desirous. before he should publish his account of English prisons, to suggest remedies, as well as to point out defects, he resolved to examine personally the practice of the continental kingdoms in this branch of police. For this purpose, in 1775, he visited France, Flanders, Holland, and Germany; re= peated his visit in 1776, extending his tour to Swit- zerland; and, during the intervals of these ~ travels, made a journey to Scotland and Ireland, and most of the counties of England. In 1777, he published the information which he had collected with so much risk, toil, and expence, and dedicated his work to the House of Commons. Anxious to diffuse the knowledge of facts so interesting to humanity; and, at the same time, desirous to obviate any suspicion of his wishing to re- pay his benevolent labours by the’ profits of book- making, he not only presented copies of his work to the principal persons in the kingslom, and his particu- lar friends, but insisted upon fixing the price of the volume at a lower rate than the original expence of ublication. In the conclusion of the work, he pledged imself, if a thorough parliamentary enquiry were in- stituted for the improvement of prisons, to undertake a more extensive journey into foreign countries, for the purpose of obtaining additional information. The House of Commons having zealously entered upon the busi- ness of regulating places of confinement, Mr Howard, agreeably to his promise, which he was well inclined to fulfil, began a new tour in 1778. . In his progress, he revisited the establishments of a penitentiary kind in Holland ; directed his course through’ Hanover and Berlin to Vienna; went to Italy by way of Venice ; proceeded as far south as Naples, returning by the western coast to Switzerland; pursued the course of the Rhine through Germany ; and, crossing the Low Countries, returned to England in the beginning of the year 1779. During the spring and summer of. the same year, he made another complete tour of England and Wales, besides taking a journey through Scotland and Ireland. In the year 1780, he published the re- sults of this extensive research, as an appendix to his former work ; and also a new edition of that publica- tion, in which all this additional matter was incorpora- ted. Still intent upon the farther improvement of his plans, he resolved to explore those countries of. Europe which he had not yet visited; and, in 1781, he set.out on a tour to Denmark, Sweden, Russia and Poland, from which he returned about the end of the year. In the year following, he made another complete survey of the prisons in England, and another journey into Scotland and Ireland. In 1783, he examined the pri- sons of Spain and Portugal, and returned through Franee, Flanders, and Holland. In. the summer of the same year, he again travelled — Scotland and Ire~ a tear eg etre So, se HOWARD. 823 ‘Moward. Jand, and visited of the ish prisons. In 1784, various Lazarettos in Europe, papers relative to the Howard. age he ccmmntiniented to the pablic he fruits of the pre- Sian: with additional feomiahce ae prisons and hospi- “1” ceding three investigations, in the form of another Si iiccty tebalen ofthe ‘eaddes veeiic, come prising all the additions. With the view of acquiring information respecting the means of preventing conta- i infection, he resolved So eae the Sesecipal Eeseretioe ia E and to ex- tend his researches to those countries which are most ra of the plague. Aware of the ene ree arenes ne Sask perilous is journeys,’ he would not permit an of his servants to partake of these but detes- mined to travel without attendants. About the end of the year 1735, he entered this tour, taking his way through Holland and to the south of France. His former visits, however, had so much alarmed the PRN eee of the government the last mentioned country, that he was apprehen- sive of his personal safety; and travelled with the greatest secrecy under the character of an English phy- ici From Nice, he went to Genoa, rm, and obtain, by personal experience, the fullest information See ahentnaeleett ee for the purpose was, for of gow to Ventice in 4 vessel with a foul bill of beaith, i epee aca 6 9 ema sn —_ course v . Coit hee deolie Soun stake to i i i off after a smart skirmish, in which he rendered essential service, by tals. After the printing of this work, he remained but a short time at home; and pre to revisit Russia and Turkey, and to extend his tour to Asia Minor, Egypt, and the coast of . In this new journey, he is understood to have had no peculiar object in view; and to have been actuated chiefly by a convic- tion, that, in such researches, he was pursuing the th of his duty ; that, in those countries where he had ormerly travelled, he might be still farther instrumen- tal in relieving human suffering; and that, in explo- ring new regions, he might discover farther subjects of observation connected with his main pursuit. He had resolved to undertake this journey also without an at- tendarit ; and it was only in consequence of most ur+ gent intreaties, that a faithful servant obtained permis- sion to accompany him. Arriving in Holland, in the beginning of July 1789, he proceeded through the north of Germany, Prussia, Courland, and Livonia, to Petersburg ; thence to Moscow, and finally to the ex- tremity of Eu n Russia, on the shores of the Black Sea, w he Bal a lamented victim to one of those infectious diseases, the rav of which he was exert- ing every effort to restrain. While residing at Cher- son, he was earnestly requested to visit a young lady, about sixteen miles from that place, who had caught a ry a fever ; and it was his own opinion, that from he received the disease. During his illness, which from its commencement he considered as likely to prove fatal, he received a letter from a friend in d, containing favourable accounts of his son. He was tly affected by the intelligence ; and often desired his servant, if ever his son should be restored to reason, to tell him how much he had for his hap- piness. Except during the fits, with which he was occa- sionally seized in the course of the distemper, he retain- ed his faculties till within a few hours of his death, which took place on the 20th of January 1790. He was bu- ried, according to his own request, at the villa of M. on a about eight miles from Cherson ; where, in- of a sun-dial, which he had desired to be erected over his grave without any inscription, * a rude pyra- mid, surrounded b and chains, was rai by the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. Mr Howard, though frequently requested, would never consent to sit for his picture; and the various rtraits, which have been given of him, are said by intimate friends to be totally unlike. The nearest resemblance, is said to be a head sketched by an artist in London, and copied for Dr Aikin’s View of his Character ; which, though considered as somewhat of a caricature, is said to have exactly the expression of his countenance, when in a very serious and attentive mood. His eye was lively an etrating, and his features strong and prominent ; his gait quick, and his tures animated. In his youth, his constitution was licate, and his habit supposed to be consumptive ; bat he afterwards attained (probably in consequence of his abstemiousness in diet and application to exer- cise) a power of enduring, without inconvenience, the greatest privations and fatigues. The strict imen in point of food, which he had originally adopted from a regard to health, he afterwards conti- nued from choice. He made no use of animal food, * He had a strong distike of monumental honours, and had once given directions before he set out on & journey, that in case of his death his funeral expences should not exceed ten ia Cardington church, with this inscription, ; that his tomb should be a plain slip of marble placed under that of his wife ** John Howard died » aged My hope is in Christ.” 324 HOWARD. Howard. or of fermented and spirituous drinks. _Water and the ological observations, and he seldom: travelled without Howard: —y~"_plainest vegetables sufficed for his ordinary diet, and some instrument for that milk, tea, butter and fruit, were his luxuries. He was sparing in the quantity of his food, and indifferent as to the stated times of taking his meals. . He was equal- ly tolerant of heat, cold, aud all the vicissitudes of cli- mate ; and could without difficulty dispense with the ordinary seasons and proportions of sleep. When he travelled in England or Ireland, it was generally on horseback, and he rode regularly about forty English miles a day. He was never at a loss for an inn; but, in Ireland or the Highlands of Scotland, could accom- modate himself with a little milk at any of the poor cabins in his way. When he came to the town, where he was to sleep, he bespoke a supper like other travel- lers, but made his servant remove it, while he was preparing his bread and milk. When he travelled on the continent, he usually went post in his own chaise, in which he slept as occasion required ; and has been known to travel twenty days and twenty nights with- out going to bed. He used to carry with him a small tea-kettle, some cups, a little pot of sweet-meats, and a few loaves. At the post-house he would get some water boiled, send out for milk, and make his repast, while his servant went to the inn. He was remarkably at- tentive to the perfect cleanliness of his whole person ; and water was always an indispensable necessary for his ablutions. His peculiar habits of life, and his ex- clusive attention to a few important objects, made him appear more averse to society than he really was. He assiduously shunned all engagements, which would have inyolved him in the irregularities of general in- tercourse.; but he received his select friends with the truest hospitality, and was often extremely communi« cative in conversation, enlivening a small circle with the most entertaining relations of his travels and ad- ventures. He was never negligent of the received forms of polite life; and, however much he might be charged with singularities, no one could refuse his title to the character of a gentleman, He was distinguish ed especially by his respectful attention to the female sex ; and nothing afforded him so much pleasure as the conversation of women of good education and cultiva- ted manners. His own voice and demeanour were so gentle as to be almost denominated feminine ; and fur- nished a striking contrast to the energy of his mind and the extent of his exertions. His language and manners were invariably pure and delicate; and it must have been no small triumph of duty over inclina+ tion which brought him to submit, in the prosecution of his benevolent designs, to such frequent communi- cations with the most abandoned of mankind. Yet the nature of his errand appears to have inspired the most profligate with respect; and he has himself re. corded, that he never met with a single insult from the prisoners, in any of the jails which he visited. He possessed an elegant taste for neatness in his house and furniture ; and employed much of his leisure time in the cultivation of useful and ornamental plants. — In the course of his various travels, he brought home many curious vegetables ; and his garden became an object of curiosity, both for the elegant manner in which it was planned, and for the excellent productions which it contained. He was elected a Fellowiof the Royal So- ciety in 1756; and contributed a. few short papers which have been published in its Transactions.* His philosophical researches were chiefly directed to meteor- : r rpose. He applied himself, likewise, with considerable assiduity, to the prosecution of experiments on the effects of the union of the pri« mary colours in different proportions. In his intellec- tual character, he discovered less of the faculty of ex« tensive comprehension than of laborious accuracy. By his talent of minute examination and detail, he was peculiarly qualified for the patient: investigations in which he engaged ; and in his modest estimates of his own abilities, he was used to say of himself, « I am: the plodder, who goes. about to collect: materials for men of genius to make use of.” His liberality with re« ees to pecuniary concerns, was early and uniformly isplayed ; and he La Ow never to have considered money in any other light than as an instrument of pro- curing happiness to himself and others, . Contented with the competence, which he inherited, he never thought of increasing it ; and made it a rule with him- self to lay up no part of his annual income, but to ex= pend in some useful or benevolent scheme the surplus. of every year. Moderate in all his desires, and un= tainted by the lust of growing rich, he was elevated above every thing mean and sordid. He expended much in charities, and displayed in all-his transactions. a spirit of the utmost honour and generosity... He im bibed from his earliest years a devout principle of reli- gion, which cnsomeaa steady and uniform throu every period of his life. The body of Christians, to. whom he particularly attached himself, were the tists ; and the system of belief, to which he adhered, was what has generally been called moderate Calvin= ism. But he was always less solicitous about modes and opinions, than the internal spirit of -piety.and sin< cerity ; and though always.warmly attached to what« ever interests he espoused, he possessed that true spirit. of catholicism, which led him to honour virtue ‘res ligion wherever he found them. It was his constant practice to join in the service of the established church; when he had not the opportunity of attending a dis« senting place of worship; and he often dwells in his. works, with great complacency, on the pure zeal and’ genuine Christian charity, which he frequently disco- vered among the Roman Catholic clergy. But the culiar feature of his character certainly consists in that decisive energy, and unshaken perseverance, with which he prosecuted the great work of benevolence, 'to which he seemed to have devoted his life. He was distinguished by decision and dispatch in all his pro- ceedings ; and this was rather the predominant habit of his mind, than the occasional result of any excited feeling. ‘ At no time of his life,” says his friend and biographer Dr Aikin, ‘¢ was he without some object of warm pursuit ; and, in every thing he pursued, he was indefatigable in aiming at perfection. Give him a hint of any thing he had left. short, or any new acquisition to be made ; and, while you might suppose he was de- liberating about it, you were surprised with finding it was done.” Nor was it a a short period of ar« dour, that his exertions were thus awakened. He had the still rarer quality of being able, for any length of time, to bend all the powers and faculties of his mind to one point, unseduced by every allurement, which curiosity or any other affection might throw in: his way, and. unsusceptible of that satiety. and di which are so apt to steal u a protracted pursuit.” — Impressed with the idea of the importance of his * See the Phil. Trans: vols. live Ivii, 1xi. a ca NE te ee PR ai ee Na oe me — HOW the uncertainty of human life, he was im- as done as possible within the al- designs, and ree yet ag Tonsigied Cate Mili the pubis monpsond kis actoe. i phi e ic su im actua- ted ; for, Siecne his cool and steady temper gave no idea of the character usually distingui by that Femope nem He followed his plans, indeed, with won- areca constancy, but by no means with that heat and eagerness, that inflamed and exalted imagina- tion, which denote the enthusiast.” Neither was he moved, as some ry oye Pp or rigidity of or insensibility of feeling. “ I spirit of indignation flash from them, instances of baseness and o ion. Still his constancy of mind, and self-collection ne- € was never agitated, never off ”*» His coolness and intrepidity proceeded nature and principle; and, when marching of duty, he was fearless of consequences. neither originated in any idea of SERGE 4 Hitt F Fy i f o the sentiments by which presses : ts whi FE Law intance,” he says in a letter during ae eto iH i if Fé ui EEE pRESEEE ee iH ee HBL 4 Hat reir mi eh Bae He Hitt Hae 825 HUD Yi of charity.” See various lives and anecdotes of Howden ‘oward ; and particularly Dr Aikin’s View of his Lie ,, —tnie, and Character. (q HOWDEN, or : east riding of Yorkshire, is situated upon an inlet of the Ouse, named Howden Dike, which may be considered as the harbour of the town. Howden consists princi~ pally of two considerable streets, extending in the di- rection of north-east and south-west, intersected by three’ or four lesser ones. The town has of late years under- gone very considerable improvements ; and, though the ouses are ancient, yet they are neatly built and com- modious. The principal public buildings are the moot-hall, a large edifice in the market, where the courts, &c. are held; a work-house, built by subscrip- tion in 1791, which contains from 20 to $0 paupers, who are maintained at an annual expence of £300; and the old Gothic church. This church is a large building in the form of a cross, and, excepting the chan- cel, which is of more recent date, it appears to have been built during the first period of the pointed arch style. The tower, which is quadrangular and well pro- ioned, is 135 feet high, and is said to have been wilt in 1390 by Walter Skirlaw, Bishop of Durham, as a place of refuge from the inundations of the Ouse and the Derwent, which were formerly very frequent. The chapter-house, which is now unfortunately in ruins, is reckoned a most beautiful specimen of the pointed style. The chancel, particular! the east end of it, is greatly admired. A peal of eight bells was cast for this ch in 1775. The ruins of the of the bishops of Durham are situated almost close to the church-yard, and are now converted into a farm-house. One of the om, is held here on the gry horse fairs in the ki So of September, and continues till the 3d of Octo- ber. Besides the church and its two chapels of ease, there is an Independent and Methodist meeting-house. The celebrated historian de Hoveden, who was = of the abbey, and chaplain to Henry IT, was born The township of Howden contained in 1811, i ie 314 EE EA OR Ie er 409 Do. employed in trade and manufactures 250 Total population ... ~~... .4., 1812 See Savage's Hi of Howden Church; Hutchin- son's Durham ; and Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. p. 562. HOWITZERS. See Onpyance. HOY. See Onxney Isxes. HUAHEINE. See Sociery Isianps. HUDDERSFIELD, or Huruensrieip, a town of England in the west riding of Yorkshire, is situated on the river Colne, and onthe Huddersfieldcanal. This town is chiefly celebrated for its woollen manufactures, which. consist of narrow and broad cloths, kerseymeres, frize, &c. The buyers and sellers of these goods for. merly met in an open square ; but in the year 1765, Sir John Ramsden, who possesses all the land which the town covers, and also a many of the houses, built a commodious cloth- It is a circular build. ing of two stories, and is divided by a diametrica) range into two semicircular courts, into which all the windows . It is subdivided into ranges like streets ; and the are laid close together upon their edge on benches or stalls. Over the entrance, is a bell pla- * See also Darwin's Botanic Garden; Cowper's Poem on Charity ; Hayley's Ode to Howard ; and Foster's Essay on Decision of 4 field. OVEDEN, a town of England, in the —— Hudson's Bay. Wxtent and description. HUD ced in a handsome cupola. The Huddersfield canal (see INLanp Navigation) extends 8 miles to the river Calder. Ruins, supposed to be the ancient city of Canbodunum, are to be seen on the castle hill, about two miles south of the town, and west of Almonsbury ; but Mr Watson thinks they are of Saxonorigin. The Ro- man road, however, passed near Almonsbury. There are several medicinal springs in the neighbourhood. In 1811, the township of Huddersfield contained, Inhabited houses .........--- 1871 ROGUSINGM) 5). jf. eiJel «erie Eielis Ie) nile 4a ys 1881 Do. employed in trade and manufactures 1842 ALES ios 0d) Se opie) v elte Wel ails « 4824 Females MUMIA Tete the is balheh 29 4847 Total population. .........4, 9671 See the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. p. 767. HUDSON'S Bay, lying between 55°and 650 of North Latitude, is about 250 leagues in length, and 200 at its greatest breadth. It is 140 fathoms deep in the mid- dle, and is navigable during four months in summer, but is filled, all the rest of the year, with shoals of ice. Numerous rocks, sand-banks, and small islands, are dispersed through it, of which may be mentioned ; Southampton island, in 64° north latitude, stretching about 100 leagues from north to south, but of very in- considerable breadth ; Marble island, in 62° north lati- tude, about 6 leagues long and two broad, composed of white marble, variegated with green, blue, and black patches ; Carleton isle, in the south-east corner of the bay, covered with trees, moss, and shrubs. The en- trance of the bay is a strait, of dangerous navigation, more than 200 leagues in length, and in some places of considerable breadth. It stretches from south-east to north-west, in 623° north latitude, bounded on the north by the isle of Good Fortune, and on the south by Labradore. Its eastern extremity is formed by Cape Elizabeth on the north, and — Chudley on the south, between which is situated Resojiution island, about 15 leagues in length, and a little westward Sa- vage and Grass’ islands, almost uninhabited. In the north-west extremity, between Point Anne on the north, and cape Walsingham on the south, are several small islands named Salisbury, Nottingham, Mill Diggs, and Mansfield. The principal bays of this inland sea are, James’s Bay in the south-east corner, containing many islets ; Button’s Bay on the western coast ; Chesterfield Inlet on the north-west coast, stretching far inland, and terminating in a large fresh water lake; Roe’s Wel- come, a deep inlet of the sea on the north coast; and Repulse Bay still farther north. The most remarkable rivers which flow into it, are Great Whale river, East Main or Slude ; Rupert’s, which has its origin in lake Mistassins ; Abbitibbe flowing from a lake of the same name; Moose, and Albany, which all empty their streams into James’s Bay ; the Severn, which is supposed to roceed from lake Winipig; Nelson or Bourbon river, Kom alake of the same name; and Missin-ni-pi,* or Churchhill river, which loses itself in the bottom of Button’s Bay. The north coast of Hudson Bay is yet imperfectly explored. The cauntry on the east is part of Labradore, called East Main. The tract which stretches southwards below Button’s Bay, is called New * South Wales, bounded on the south and east by Cana- da. The regions to the north-west are in like manner called New North Wales, and very little known. And, $26 H UD on the west, is a vast tract of country extending across the American continent to the Pacific Ocean, separated from the territories of Canada by a mountainous rid in 49° north latitude, which covers the sources of the rivers flowing north and south. Hudson’s Bay was discovered in 1610 by Hen Hudson, who had been sent out by the English Russia Company in quest of a north-west passage round the American continent; but his crew having mutinied, Jeft him with his son and other seven persons to perish in those seas, which now bear his name. It was after- wards more Srougily explored by successive naviga~ tors employed by the same enterprizing Company, par- ticularly by Button in 1612; by Lucas Fox, an Tho- mas James, in 1631, the former equipped by govern. ment, and the latter by a company of Bristol mer- chants ; and by Zacharias Gillam, in 1668, who was sent out by Charles II. at the solicitation of Prince Rupert, and was assisted by two French merchants of Canada named de Grosseliers, who had previously made a voyage from Quebec to the scene of the present expedition. Gillam passed the winter in Rupert’s ri- ver, where he built the first stone fort erected in the country, which he named Fort Charles, and provided it with a sufficient garrison. Before his return, the king had granted to Prince Rupert, and divers lords, knights, and merchants, associated with him, a charter, dated May 2d 1669, in which he styled them “ The Governor and Company of Adventurers trading from England to Hudson’s Bay ;” and, in consideration of their having, at their own costs and charges, ‘ under-« taken an expedition to Hudson’s Bay, in the north-west arts of America, for the discovery of a new pas into the South Sea, and for the finding of some cade for furs, minerals, and other considerable commodities, and of their having already made by such their under- takings, such discoveries as did encourage them to pro- ceed farther in pursuance of the said design ; by means whereof, there might probably arise great advantages to the king and his Airrigcdian “ebbaclntay ceded to the said undertakers the whole trade and commerce of those seas, &c. in whatsoever latitude they might be, which are situated within the entrance of Hudson’s Straits, together with all the countries upon the coasts and confines of the said seas, straits, &c, so that they alone should have the right of trading thither; and whoso. ever should infringe this right, and be found selling or buying within the said boundaries, should be arrested, and all their merchandize be confiscated, so that one half should belong to the king, and the other half to the Hudson’s Bay Company.” Of this extensive grant the Company have enjoyed uninterrupted possession from the year 1669 to the present day, except during the space of 17 years, from 1697 to 1714, when the set~ tlement was occupied by the French ; but the charter, instead of promoting the progress of discoveries, is un- derstood to have produced the opposite effect. The Company have been charged with having rather endea-~ voured to conceal as much as possible the situation of the coasts and seas connected with their territories ; and even to influence those who had any knowledge of these quarters, to withhold it from the world. The few feeble attempts which they did make, to save appear- ances, between 1720 and 1730, rather excited the dis- pleasure than satisfied the expectations of the lic ; and, by the exertions of Mr Dobbs, Capt. Middleton was sent out by government in 1741, and Capt. Moor * A word signifying ‘ Great waters.” j iq 4, Historye ss ay ys i a per ey riper om HUDSON’S BAY. _ Duffield for eras: Nm a pair of deer-skim shoes over ara them ; two pair of thick English stockings, och oa y- irs : if S i mouth of a small ames’s Bay, in 51° 28’ smaller establish- aie § st i H eas f 3% . is extremely severe, es- rit : | i i i . 5 E F 2 sf : a 5 § { il : Ff L i : ‘§ Bil if ret Hi 3E SEERLs : E = 4 : & F i Se Sa FFE ? on Sirens day» 20d bot love suspended in the windows 5 this will preserve the beer, ink from freezing ; and after the fires go out, of the walls and menareres ore foand ory with ice two or three inches thick, which is every cut away with a hatchet. For a winter dress, of socks of coarse blanketing or _ @ The reeent of the Hudson's Compacy. tear in Lord Selkirk's parophiet, pla ‘A Shes ‘ of Monircal. London, 1816. + See our 827 of cloth ings over them ; breeches lined with nel ; two or three English | aaa tp and a fur or leather gown ; a large beaver cap, double to come over the face and shoulders, and a cloth of blanketing under the chin ; yarn gloves, and a large pair of beaver mittens, hanging down from the shoulder, ready to receive the ieodan high as the elbows. Yet, with all this cover- ing, they are frequently pawn frost bitten, when they stir abroad during the prevalence of the northerly winds; and many of the natives even fall victims to the severity of the climate. Watery vapours, ascend- ing from the open sea-water, and condensed by the cold, occasion thick fogs, which are carried to a con- siderable distance along the coast, and which obscure the sun completely for several weeks together. But, during the intense cold of winter, the atmosphere is commonly remarkably clear and serene ; and the stars shine during the night with extraordinary lustre. The aurora borealis age is seen almost every night darting wi during winter, inconceivable velocity over the whole. hemis exhibiting the greatest variety of colours, and completely eclipsing the stars and planets by its brightness... Parhelia and paraselene, or mock a snd moons - hays oe peas. ve appear very uentiy durin e@ CO; months ; and, at the AA op na different diameters and various colours 4re seen around the sun for several days together from his rising to his setting.+ The frost is never out of the ; and even in summer, when the heat is oppressive, and the thermometer frequently at 90 degrees of Fahrenheit, the earth is thawed only to the depth of three or four feet below the surface. country. On nosis coast of Hudson’s Bay, the soil is soit. completely barren ; and about Lat. 60° vegetation en- tirely ceases. The suriace of the country is extremely rugged, covered with enormous masses of stone; and in many places are seen the most frightful mountains of an astonishing height. Its barren vallies are watered by a chain of lakes, which are supposed to be formed merely by rain and snow, and of which the water is so cold, as to be productive only of a few small trout. A little moss, or a blighted shrub, may be seen here ant there on the mountains, and a few stunted trees in the lower grounds. The soil about Churchhill Fort is ex- tremely rocky and barren, and bare of vegetable pro- ductions. There are no woods within seven miles of the shore; and those which are found at that distance consist only of a few stunted junipers, pines, and pop- lars, pas aen capable of affording a sufficiency of win- ter’s fuel to the F . Upon advancing northward from that settlement, the earth becomes gradually more unproductive and desolate, till at length not the least herb is to be seen, nor any trace of human observed in the frigid waste. e produce of a few garden seeds, put into the ground about the middle olen, and shooting up with surprizing rapidity, is all that the residents are able to gather Son the adjoining soil. At York Fort, the soil, which is of a very loose and particularly as connected with its disputes with the North. west Company, will Sketch of the British Pur Trade in North America, with ions relative to the GREENLAND, Vol. x. p. 487; and Hato, vol. x p 61% Buy. — 828 even though the climate were favourable. Cresses, radishes, lettuce, and cabbage, are raised by careful “culture, and, in some propitious seasons, peas and beans have been produced, but they rarely’ come to perfec- tion. The face of the country is low and marshy ; and the trees, though superior to those at Churehhill Fort, are still very knotty and diminutive ; but, after pro- ceeding inland towards the south, about Moose and Albany Forts, the climate is more temperate, and the trees of considerable size ; potatoes, turnips, and almost every species of kitchen garden produce, are reared without difficulty ; and it is supposed that corn also ‘might be cultivated by proper attention. Upon ad- ~vancing ; L ‘still milder, and the soil more productive. inland towards the west, the climate becomes Wild rice and Indian corn are produced in considerable quantities in the plains; various kinds of animals abound in the woods; the rivers and lakes are stored with the most delicious kinds of fish ; and iron, lead, copper, and mar- ble have been found in the mountainous parts. In the woods of the more northern tracts, the only trees are pines, junipers, small scraggy poplars, creepin birch, and dwarf willows. The ground is covered wit moss of various sorts and colours, upon which the deer rincipally feed. Grass is not uncommon; and some Kinds, especially rye-grass, are so rapid in growth, as frequently ‘to rise, during the short summer at Church- hill Fort, to the height of three feet. Another species of grass, adapted for the support of the feathered tribes, is very abundant on the marshes and banks of lakes and rivers.’ Vetches, burrage,: sorrel, coltsfoot, and dandelion, one of the earliest salads, are plentiful in some parts around Churchhill river. A herb called ‘Wee-suc-a-pucka grows abundantly in «most parts of the country, of which the leaves, and especially the ‘flowers, make a very agreeable kind of tea, much used ‘both by the Indians and Europeans, not only for its pleasant flavour, but also for its salutary effects. It is of an aromatic nature, and considered as serviceable in rheumatism, for strengthening the stomach, and pro- moting perspiration. It is likewise applied outwardly in powder to contusions, excoriations, and gangrenes ; but in this view does not appear to possess any medici- nal quality. Another herb, named by the natives jack- ashey-puck, resembling the creeping boxwood, is mixed ‘with tobacco, to make it milder and pleasanter in smo- king. Several small shrubs are found in the country, which bear fruit; of which the chief are, gooseberries of the small red ies, which thrive best in rocky ground, and sp’ along the ground like the vine ; * currants, both red and black, are plentiful around ‘Churchhill river, and grow best in moist swampy soils. ‘The black berries particularly are large and excellent ; but in some persons both kinds occasion severe pur- ging, unless when mixed with cranberries, which com~ pletely correct that tendency. » Hips of a small size are foutid on the coast, but large and abundant in the in- terior of the country. Upon a bush, resembling the creeping willow, grows a berry similar in size and co- lour to the red currant, but of very unpleasant taste and smell. Cranberries are very abundant every where; and, when gathered in dry weather, and carefully acked with moist sugar, may be preserved for years. eath-berries are also produced in great quantities, and their juice makes a pleasant beverage. Juniper ‘berriés are frequently seen, chiefly towards the south, but are little esteemed either by the natives or thé Eu- ropeans, except for infusion in brandy. Strawberries and raspberries, of considerable size and excellent fla- HUDSON’S BAY. Hudson’s ‘clayey nature, is nearly equally unfit for agriculture, vour, are found as*far north as’ Churchhill ‘river, and * are often most plentiful in those places where ‘the un- derwood has-been set on fire.’ ‘The eye-berry, resem- bling a small strawberry, but far superior im flavour, grows in small hollows among the rocks at ‘some dis- tance from the woods. There are also the blue-berry, which grows on small bushes, and resembles the finest plum in flavour ; the partridge-berry, growing like the cranberry, but of a disagreeable taste ; and the bethago- tominick, or dewater-berry, which grows’ abundant] in swamps on a plant like the strawberry, with a hig stalk, each bearing only one berry, and is accounted an excellent antiscorbutic. The principal animals around Hudson’s Bay are the Moose-deer, rein-deer, buffaloes, musk oxen, and bea- vers ; polar or white bear, black bear, brown bear, wolves, foxes of various colours, lynxes or wild cats, wolverins, which are remarkably fierce and powerful animals, able to withstand the bear itself ; otters, pine- “martins, ermines, a smaller otter called ‘jackash; which ‘is very easily tamed, but, when an or frightened, apt to emit a most disagreeable smell ; the wejack and skunk, the last of which is remarkable for its insup- portably feetid smell ; musk beavers, porcupines, hares, squirrels, castor-beavers, and mice of various kinds, one species of which, the hair-tailed mouse, is nearly ‘as large as a common rat, and capable of being s§ ly tamed even after they are full grown. Amphibious animals frequenting the coasts of the Bay, are the wal- rus or sea-horse, some of which have been killed of so enormous a size as to exceed the weight of two tons; seals of various sizes and colours; and sea-unicorns in the northern parts. Of the feathered race, theré are eagles and hawks of various kinds, white and grey owls, ravens, cinereous crows, which are very familiar and troublesome birds, frequenting the habitations of the natives, and pilfering every species of’ provision ; woodpeckers, ruffed use, pheasants, partridges, pi- ates: thrushes, gree Beakes Npintthge pidiess i titmice, swallows, martins, cranes, bitterns, earlows, snipes, plovers, gullemels, divers, gulls, pelicans, go0s- anders, swans, geese of different kinds, and ‘ducks in great variety, particularly the mallard, long-tailed, wi- on, and teal. There are several kinds of ‘frogs, as ‘ar north as the latitude of 61°, which in winter are generally found in a gt ie? frozen ‘state, yet capa- ble of reviving when thawed. Grubs, spiders, and other insects, are found in the same icy condition, from which they can be recovered by exposure to a gentle heat. Several kinds of shell fish are found on the shores of the Bay, particularly muscles, periwinkles, and small crabs. The empty shells of cockles, wilks, scallops, and other sorts, are frequently thrown upon the beach; but none of these have been seen with the fish in them. There are few fish in Hudson’s Bay. White whales are found in considerable numbers at the mouths of the principal rivers ; and the Company’s ser- vants, in the settlements on the west coast of the Bay, have been known to send home in some years’ from eight to thirteen tons of fine oil. A small fish called kepling, about the size of a smelt, and very excéllent for eating, resorts in some years to the shore in great numbers, but at other times is extremely scarce. No other salt water fish is found in’ the country, except sal- mon, which are also very plentiful at some seasons, and equally rare at other times. It has been observed, in short, that every species me, ped, fowl, or fish, is remarkably variable at different periods ; and it thus becomes necessary to provide in plentiful seasons a quantity of such provisions as are most capa- ‘Hudson's ‘Bay. Animals. | : | a) i su eee TTI atE BT GT Se ai ai UE He OEE H OAT HAE SSH x; Hi Bit HInNR: elit Huei iliehpl PRES E SASH EE ES ELSES ESE Sg. :. 8S sy ris 23.2 epee Al ee TRA iH Hata ne eet zh teu Hane aula HGTERRERY Hil i ot se UrTEyE Hat sg7gpgipeaghaa pee SOLUTE laa sa UL aT Ute Pv ET eH EL TL Dae TL eR P ee SHA Gee a Hh it fH g 8: 3825°5! qaae sees ac rit alta HA) THE il ‘aly if iF ae AIRE ite Hil! Hadi brat i it HTH TH LE Hatt HiNiiet Hin 2 i hid it i ih : fal 330 Hudson's hairs by the root, though they seldom’ effect»this very Bay. Hunting. completely. They have no hair under their arm. pits, or on any other part of the body, except in those places which nature directs them to conceal. The skins of the women are soft, smooth, and polished; and, when they are dressed in clean clothing, they are entirely free from any offensive smell, All the tribes of the North- ern Indians have three or four parallel black strokes on each cheek, which are ne Ae introducing an awl or needle under the skin, and. rubbing powdered char- coal into the wound. after the instrument is drawn out. As almost the whole of their country is little better than a mass of rocks and stones, scarcely producing any other vegetable food: than moss for the deer, they have few opportunities of collecting furs ; and subsist chiefly by hunting and fishing. A few of the more active or rest- less ameng them, who. have acquired a taste for Euro- pean articles, collect the furs from the rest, or from the Dog-ribbed and Copper Indians, or from their own hunting excursions towards the inland districts, where the proper animals abound; and, after carrying these to the factories with great risks and fatigues, barter, on their return, the fruits of their traffic with their less am- bitious countrymen for necessary food and clothing. But the greater part, though they may have visited the factories once in their lives, lead a happier life, and en- joy a more comfortable subsistence in their own coun- try. Their real wants are easily supplied ; and a hatch- et, ice-chisel, file, and knife, are almost all that is requi~ site to enable them; with alittle industry, to procure a plentiful supply of food and clothing. . They subsist chiefly on venison, and generally spend the whole sum- mer in hunting the deer on the open plains, or catching fish in the rivers. and lakes. As they have no dogs trained to the chace like the Southern Indians, and as they seldom have powder and ball in sufficient abun- dance for the purpose, they make use of their bows and arrows in killing the deer, as they pass through the narrow defiles, into which they drive the herds in the following manner. Upon seeing the deer, they betake themselves to leeward, lest they should be smelled by the animals; and then search for a convenient place for concealing the marksmen, They next collect a num- ber of sticks, like large ramrods, with a small flag at the top of each, and these they fix upright in the ground above fifteen or twenty yards from each other, so as. to form two sides of a very acute angle, terminating in the defile, where the huntsmen are concealed behind loose stones, heaps of moss, &c. _ The women and boys then divide into. two parties, and going round on both sides, till they form a crescent behind the herd, drive them straight forward between the rows of sticks into the place of concealment, where they are shot as they run along. The same.mode is employed in the winter season, to drive the deer into a pound or inclosed space fenced round with brushy trees. These pounds are of various sizes according to circumstances, and are some times about a mile in circumference. The door or en- trance is not wider than a common gate, and the inside of the space inclosed is so crossed with hedges as to form a ind of labyrinth, at every opening of which also are placed snares made of thongs. As soon as the deer are driven into the pound, the gateway is blocked up with trees and brushwood, prepared for the purpose ; and, while the women and children walk round the out- side of the fence, to prevent the imprisoned animals from breaking sbrongh or leaping over, the men are em- ployed in shooting those which run loose, or in spear= ing those which have been entangled in the snares. 4 HUDSON’S BAY. About the end of March or beginning of April, when the snow, slightly thawed during the day, is frozen du- ring the “__ into a thin crust, which easily bears the Indian on his snow slices, but sinks ander the hoof of the deer, it is a common practice to kill the moose deer, by literally running them down. The hunters, lightly clothed, and armed only with a bow and arrows, a knife, or broad bayonet, generally tire the deer-in less than a day, though sometimes they continue the chace for two days before they can come up with the game. These animals, however, when incapable of running farther, make a very desperate defence with their head and forefeet, and. unless the Indians are provided with a short gun, or with bows and arrows, they find it ne- cessary to fasten their knives or bayonets to the end of. along pole, in order to stab the deer, without coming” within reach of their feet. The flesh of the animals: killed in this manner is so overheated by the long ran, that it is never well tasted. In taking fish, they make use of nets and hooks at all seasons of the year. . Their: fishing nets are made of thongs cut from raw-deer skins, (much inferior to those of the Dog-ribbed Indians, which are made, of the inner bark of the willow tree). and are furnished with various appendages, such as. the bills and feet of birds, toes and jaws of otters, &c. which they superstitiously consider as essential-to their success. These nets are always used’ separately, and placed at a distance from each other; and on, no ac- count would they unite them together for the purpose. of stretching across the channel of a narrow river ; be- cause they imagine that one net would become jealous of its neighbour, and would not catch a single fish, » In fishing with hooks they are equally influenced by ‘su- perstitious notions ; and all the baits which they. use: are compositions of charms, inclosed within a piece of fish-skin, so as to resemble a small fish: Thesecharms. are bits of beavers’ tails, otters’ teeth; musk-rats’ ens trails, squirrels’ testicles, cutdled milk taken from the- stomachs of sucking fawns and’ calves, human hair, &c.; and almost every lake and river is supposed to: require Agr sey combination of different articles.» A. net or hook, that has taken many fish, is valued accord= ingly ; and would be taken as an equivalent for anum- ber of new ones, which had never been tried, or which had not proved successful. In winter the hooks are let down through round holes cut in the ice, and are kept in constant motion, both to. allure the fish, and to. pre- vent the freezing of the water. From want of fuel, they are frequently obliged to eat their victuals in a raw state; and this they occasionally do from choice, especially in the case of: fish, which. they seldom dress so far, (even where fire is at hand) as to warm it tho- roughly. A few of them purchase brass kettles from the European factories; but the greater part stillpre- pare their food in large upright vessels made of birch bark. As these vessels will not admit of being ex to the fire, the water is made to boil by a succession of hot stones being introduced; a method which effects the purpose very expeditiously, but mixes much sand with the victuals, in consequence of the stones. fre- quently mouldering down in the kettle. They pe also the ordinary methods of broiling their food, or roasting it by a string. They make a favourite dish, by boiling in a deer’s paunch or stomach a mixture of minced meat, blood, and fat; but the fat is chewed by the men and boys, to prepare it for mixing more inti- mately with the other ingredients, and the igested food, found in the animal’s stomach, is carefully added to the mess, In winter, when. the deer feed upon a Hudson's Bay. —_—o Fishing: 4 oi] ‘ Food. ‘HUDSON'S BAY. 331 sledge is turned up, so as to forni a semicircle of fifteen (Mucson's © or twenty Stiched cimneter, to prevent the carriage from __**5-_ diving into light snow, and enable it to rise over the prot res the surface. The trace is a double line the or slip of leather fastened to the head of the sledge, and ; ai toa collar, which is put across the shoulders a often drink the blood, as it flows from of the person who hauls it, so as to rest upon the breast. i They are sometimes dragged by dogs, but too common- q ly by the women. The snow shoes of the Northern Snow shoes. ‘Temarkably fond of the womb of Indians differ from all others in that country, in being &c. even when they are some made so as to be worn always on the same foot, having gone with young; and are not desirous of clean- a large sweep or curve on theoutside, but riearly straight Tas tlie toby tase plete! before boiling it for use. inthe inside. The frames are usually made of birch our Ronan rag. tolgadogers wood, and a netting of thongs from deer skin fastens the toes and heels to the bottom or sole. are four ‘ feetand a half in length,and about thirteen inches broad. which they kill, whether male or female, The canoes of the Northern Indians are smaller and Canoes. Gk pein iin tev, putiy'es lighter than those of the Southern nations, so as to be dish which they relish, and rtly as a superstitious carried by a single person on the longest journies ; and fee RM eg alpen are chi yy employed for crossing the rivers and lakes, 7 i? re tf 4 { j F Hatt ue F y ae li i u : cess in the deer skins also, freed from the with which they meet in their These canoes hair, and well boiled, are frequently used as food. Even are flat bottomed, and sharp at end, so as to bear the worms, which infest them after the rutting season, some resemblance to a weaver’s shuttle,. They seldom are squeezed out and eaten alive as great delicacies. exceed twelve or thirteen feet in length ; and are from When animal food is scarce, the natives boil a kind of twenty to twenty-four inches broad at the widest part. hard c ly moss which grows upon the larger stones, The forepart is unnecessarily long and narrow; and is and which for 802 0 aay ag y preparation, all covered over.with birch , So as to admit of no- sometimes used to en other of broth, and thing being laid into it. The hinder part is much wider, ron a Roca lie ead sang baal og a All for receiving the baggage, or a second person, who sa end Hews Ear Southern, Northern, must lie along the bottom, that the vessel may not and yux, constantly the secretion which pest, ‘while tie rower elts oa his heels in the middle comes the nose; devour the maggots which are space, impelling the vessel with a single paddle, A !»stru- ee oe ee tina handful of hatchet, a knife, a file, and an awl, are all the tools ™"* as much as a European epicure is known to relish which these Indians employ in making their canoes, the mites in a decayed cheese. snow-shoes, bows, arrows, and other kinds of wooden The clothing of the Northern Indians consists chief- work. These few instruments they use with the ut- ly of deer skins, with the hair inwards; but, for sum- most dexterity, and execute every thing in the neatest mer bh from these skins a fine soft lea- manner. In tanning their leather also, they use a v: Tanning, ther, they make their stockings, jackets, &c. simple, yet Soeeent ee The skins are first we pb A a > acre tld ted oped saad ta Tales ¢ of the brains, marrow, and soft ee oe rts of eight or ten deer ;and fat of the animal ; then dried before the fire, and even these must, Sekabke, ts escnted month of hung in the smoke for several days. They are next ‘ur is ; in the August, or of September, when the fi is thoroughly steeped and washed in warm water, till the thickest the sha Tet injured worms. Each grain of the skin fe perfectly open ind moletened j sfet person Sede er ee ee which they are carefully wrung, and dried before a slow Se ae ing ,forthongs, fire, being in the meantime repeatedly rubbed and ‘and othe purposes, what is stretched as long as any moisture remains. Last of d for tents, &e. The coverings of the tents all, they are smooth with a knife, and are ex- are formed of skins with the hair; and by the tremely soft and beautiful, almost equal to shamois N ‘Indians are commonly composed (di ly leather. The women of the Northern Indians, as in Women. from the oa tribes) of - most other tribes, are more the ‘slaves than the com- rate five skins in Atthe panions of the men ; and are held in a’state of unmiti- skins of the deer’s legs together in the shape stature and a delicate shape; but being inured to la- of which they use asa kind oftempo- bour from their infancy, they are able'to sustain all rary ‘till they reach a where wood can kinds of drudgery, and to carry very heavy loads on be p ; _then construct proper sledges of their journies. It is nothing unusual to see them bear thin boards of larch fir; and’make them of various si- on their backs a burden of eight or ten stone of four- zes, according to the of the by whom teen pounds each, or haul in a sledge a much greater pe Both general do not exceed weight. They are expected also to dress the deer skins, eight or nine feet in length, and e or fourteen make the clothing, cook the victuals, pitch the tents, imches in breadth ; but sometimes they are not less than home the game when killed, and perform all the Fatty hn od. eet ane seg rec work of splitting, drying, and g it for use. wide. The boards, of they are made, are on- Ose eS eee are not allowed to about a of an inch thick, arid five or six inch- joke bs , even weer Steer] or ve eaten what’ think pro- Semmes cumtpeanat: ict Sercet nt : se- their Jot to without a ‘single morsel. They eure the ground lashing. The head or fore part of the sess little beauty even in yout and Become old and pan teh Aaah reat frequently sew gated subjection. They are commonly rather of low — 832 Hudson's wrinkled before they reach the age of thirty. | But Bay. —\— they are remarkably chaste, mild, and obliging crea- tures, making the most faithful servants, affectionate wives, and indulgent mothers. A plurality of wives is customary among all these Indians, and every man takes as many as he is able to maintain, or has occa- sion to employ in his service. It is not uncommon to see six or eight in one family; and they are changed or increased in number, at the pleasure of the husband, From the early age of eight or nine years, the girls are kept under the greatest restraint, and are not permitted to join in any amusements with the children of the other sex ; but are obliged to be constantly beside the old women, learning their domestic labours. They are betrothed at an early period of life, without any choice of their own, but entirely at the will of their relations, who are chiefly anxious to connect them with men able to maintain them, .No ceremonies attend their mar- riages, or divorces ; and they are taken or dismissed as the husband chooses. When he suspects any of them of incontinency, or is not pleased with her accomplish. ments, he administers a beating and turns her out of doors, telling her to go to her lover or relations, as the case may be. It is also a daily occurrence among them to take by force, the wives of others, whom they may happen to fancy ; and all that is necessary to decide the claim, is to vanquish the former wa, wrestling. On these occasions, the by-standers never attempt to interfere ; nor will one brother even offer to assist an- other, except by giving his advice aloud, which being equally heard, may be equally followed by both the parties engaged. In these contests, there is properly nothing like fighting ; and it is very rarely that either of the combatants receives any hurt, The whole affair consists in pulling each other about by the hair of the head, or, if they should have taken care to cut off their hair and grease their heads before beginning the con- test, they endeavour to seize each other around the waist, and struggle to prove their superior strength and title, by throwing their antagonist to the ground, When one of them falls or yields, the other is entitled to carry of the woman, who was the cause of conten- tion; but as the children usually go with the mother, it is chiefly for the younger wives, that these contests take place. It isa common custom among them to exchange wives for a night, as one of the strongest ties of friendship between the two families ; and, in case of the death of either husband, the other considers him- self bound to support the children of the deceased. The women among the Northern Indians are less pro- lific than the females of more civilized nations ; and their children are commonly: born at such intervals, that the youngest is usually two or three years old be- fore another is brought into the world. The wife, when taken in labour, is removed to a. small tent erect- ed for her separate accommodation, at such a distance from the other tents, that her cries cannot be heard ; and no male above the age of childhood approaches the place. No assistance is offered by the other women to facilitate the birth, which is generally easy, and the recovery of the mother not Jess speedy. A woman af- ter delivery, however, is accounted unclean for a month or more, and continues to occupy a separate tent with one or two female acquaintances ; nor does the father, during all that time, even see the child, in the appre- hension that he might dislike its appearance, before its countenance is duly formed. At certain monthly pe- riods, also, the women are not itted to remain in the same tent with their husbands, and are obliged to HUDSON’S BAY. make a small hovel for themselves at a little distance ‘Hudson's from the rest. When these periods arrive, they er out of the tent at the side where they happen to be =“y™™ sitting, as on such occasions they are not permitted to ‘0 out or in by the door ; and it is said, that, upon isagreement with their husbands, they often make a pretence of being in that situation, as a reason for a temporary separation. During these periods, a woman is restricted from walking on the ice of rivers or lakes, or where a fishing net is placed, or from crossing a path where the head of any animal has been carried, or from eating of any part of the head ; and all this from a su- perstitious notion that by so doing she would impede their success in hunting. The children are not put in cradles as among the Southern Indians, but merely haye asmall bundle of dry moss placed between their legs, and are thus carried on the mother’s back next her skin, till they are able to walk. Though managed in this awkward manner, very few deformed persons are ” seen among them. The children are named by the parents or near relatives; and the names of the boys are generally taken from that of some animal, place or season. Those of the girls are most frequently ex- Seeaeire of some quality or part of the martin, such as. hite Martin, B Martin, Summer Martin, Mar- tin’s-head, Martin’s-foot, Martin’s.tail, &c. ‘The men, though very indifferent about their wives, express much affection to their children, ially to the youngest ; apparently actuated by no other principle than mere natural instinct. When two parties of these Indians chance to meet, salutations, te r their mode of salutation is tather singular, and qui different from all Euro) practices, When about twenty or thirty yards int from each other, they make a full halt; and sit or lie down upon the ground _ without speaking for some minutes. At 1 the oldest on one side breaks silence by relating to the other y all the misfortunes which have betallen him or is companions, since they had last seen or heard of each other, and also all the deaths or calamities of any of their countrymen, as far as may have come to his knowledge. A similar communication is made in re« ply ; and, should any of the two companies be nearly affected by any of the bad news announced, they be« gin to sob and cry, in which all the rest unite with the utmost vehemence. They then advance by degrees, and mix together, the two sexes, however, always asso~ ciating separately. The pipes are passed freely, if any tobacco can be found among them ; conversation be~ comes general ; the good news circulate ; cheerfulness appears on every countenance ; and small presents of provisions, ammunition, or other articles,are made, some- times as gifts, but more frequently as ulations to draw forth a greater present in return. and arrow; playing a game resembling that of quoits, in which they won oa of short Sie ks a one end ; or shifting a button, or small bit of wood from hand. to hand, as in “ which hand will you take?” in which the player, whenever he guesses rightly, receives a counter or chip of wood from his antagonist, and he who first gains all the sticks, is winner of the stake, which is usually an arrow, or a single load-of powder and shot, or something of inconsiderable value. At times they. amuse themselves: with ing, which is always performed during the night; but in which.they have nothing peculiar to their own nation, and:always imitate the s and. dances of the Southern tribes, or more ert * the .Dog-ribbed Indians, These Their princi- Amuse. pal amusements are shooting at a mark with the bow ments. . 333 HUDSON’S BAY. Hudson's Bay. —_— ir em a meat was ‘y- as the original The notions which these Indians entertain in religion to ey the like young children, . , mm Patt with fat, and now and then drop of water. At other times, a small bi and de- quite y their > that one up- the hoarse- 3 and when influence to any and finall: ; for es fixed as if in The absolute Deca so an ab- Sy eae oe they often shapes of beasts, to place in quest.of pposed to be equally were of id all ment, not even so poor deluding ce, endeavo feigned erable time after- mode of conve: juring+ house, with die to be no so sore that the is so being always one’s life with the worst of the vice any on bh a malign imagina’ vi t held for them to smoke. e first day ; after which its or fairies, with whom ise to wear ; deliberately abandoned and whom to them under the &e. T any easy. considered iy well, except iri perf eae py enya ue eye con) uage. A sp are su) oe ectl with their e Sinaia urors profess to accomplish their sat constantly by oar 4 es.come to et, has! e ; ay not an: their hair, —~ y ery calamity that When any oe by his y despise e of iserable manner. , OF a pi ingle word, exce gs and xo in their lan part aged may be unnatural custom. water. When these ‘oats came out of the co so to do for three days and four nights, taking people three or “ contin aiieede dees much asa a little their as the least rest or refresh ger able to. walk of want. This i to converse, of the famil. of y Tiree nly them, uses of this they were very careful not too much at one time, particularly for phate join ast y of moving from SR yg oe Hf a i ulin! i bln a PATHE 1 Here nine iH line dae 543 at isp HIDE age % La re Mle ‘Bit These ae igbetd ieee His ert whe er ‘his farce onl: half at least of the of their —. 4 an lay; and, ance Mr feat of swallowin tse took with him other five men and es dance ack, and their and, indeed, some of them, to pat into thei posed to die in this mi necessit stinence, without for yes like an These b et va possible. bl ‘and some- able to articulate a s feet alter- mouths were so y forwards, deluded naked, began ca k man, ay egal the around the sic = heads quite bu the part tad vocables: such as ty Hows it, the as long unusually ; and the ne which, sere : min * ahead and to &e. ; ening oe Some and laborious, as aan belies aor rene : yi quik fiona — emsely and e are b sant op nae, and, wi pa - . stiff, > and as hi drum or alo’s a or small with the voice, kind of tune, the words hee 3 i ui iit ; ue alu PH ie cal ane tha ne ali a ani simple, a Lars Be their es kept b made of , and filled with pebbles &c. The women are never allowed to te Hie 3 each : 1E fil te i ts are Soke oa, be Ke ei i Dircaves. 334 Hudson’s are so extremely vague and limited, that they may al- Bay. Religion. Character, most be said to have no ideas at all on that subject. With regard to the origin of the world, they have a tradition, that the first person on earth was a woman, who, after being some time alone, found an animal like a dog, which followed her to the cave where she lived, and transforming itself’ during the night-time into the shape of a handsome youth, rendered her the mother of a family. Some time afterwards, a person of such gigantic stature as to reach the clouds with his head, came to level the land, which had been hitherto a con- fused heap, and this he effected merely with the help of his walking stick, marking out, at the same time, the lakes, ponds, and rivers. He then took the dog, and, tearing it in pieces, threw its intestines into the waters, commanding them to become fishes ; dispersed ts flesh over the land, with a similar charge to form the different kinds of beasts; threw the pieces of its skin in the air, to give origin to the feathered tribes ; commanded the woman and her offspring to kill, eat, and never spare, as. he had charged these creatures to multiply for her use; and then returning to the place whence he came, has never been heard of since. They believe in the existence of several kinds of spirits, whom they suppose to inhabit the different elements, and to whose influence they attribute every change in their lot, whether favourable or adverse. They have no fixed creed, however, in these matters; but are conti- nually receiving new fables from their conjurors, who profess to receive intimations in dreams from these in- visible beings. They have no practical religious ob- servances whatever, except perhaps speaking with re- verence of certain beasts and birds, in which they ima- ine these spirits to reside. But they restrict the in- uence of these beings upon their welfare entirely to the present life, and have no idea whatever of a future state.* They have indeed a multitude of superstitious customs, some of which have already been mentioned, respecting success,in hunting, fishing, &c. but which seem to partake more of the nature of civil than reli- ious institutions. One of the most remarkable of these is that which they observed after having put to death any of their enemies in war. All those who have shed blood are, for many months afterwards, in a state of uncleanness, and obliged to perform a number of strange ceremonies. They are prohibited from cooking any kind of victuals for themselves or others; required to paint their faces with red earth before every meal ; restricted to the use of their own pipe and dish ; for- bidden to eat various parts of animals, particularly the head, entrails, and blood ; precluded from having their food pr in water, so that, if they could not have it broiled on the fire or dried in the sun, they must eat it in'a raw state ; and finally denied the privilege of sa- luting any of their wives and children. When the ap- pointed time is expired, they kindle a fire at some dis- tance from the tents, into which they throw all their ornaments, pipe-stems, and dishes; and then partake of a feast, consisting of all those articles of food which they had been prohibited from using. The Northern Indians are an indolent, improvident race; and are frequently in danger’ of starving from mere want of exertion and foresight, especially in their ‘and often fall a sacrifice to the fu HUDSON’S BAY. trading excursions to Prince of Wales Fort, the only one of the factories which they frequent. They are seldom guilty of pa, Mia one another, but are ready to pic P every kind of iron work which falls in their way at the Company’ssettlements. They excel in all the arts of defrauding and overreaching, and es< pecially in playing the part of feigned want and dis~ tress. - They are continually pleading poverty even among themselves; and, at the factory, they may be said to hee begging more then traffic. They are generally of a morose and covetous disposition, and re- markably deficient in gratitude. They are by no means a warlike people, and are not inclined to acts of cruelty, except towards their enemies the Esquimaux. Whatever losses or injuries they may sustain from one another, their revenge rarely extends beyond a wrest- ling match with the offender, Murder is almost un- known among them; and the perpetrator of such a crime would be treated by universal consent as an out« law from their tribe. At the same time, they testify little humanity to the sufferings of others beyond the circle of their immediate relatives; and are known rather to ridicule, in the most unfeeling manner, the most af- flicting cases of distress. They are not at all addicted to the use of sprituous liquors ; and, though some, who have intercourse with the factory, may learn to take them freely enough, when given gratis, they never think of them as an article of purchase. They are thus always sober, and are guilty of no greater rioting, than what consists in abusive language. They are apt to become insolent and uncomplying when treated with indulgence ; but nevertheless are by far the mildest tribe of Indians to be found on the borders of Hudson’s Bay. The og age who inhabit the northern coasts of Esquimaux. Hudson’s Bay, * (to whom alone the following parti« culars a py) seldom approach the Company’s fort at Churchhill River ; but a sloop is regularly sent to trade with them at Knapp’s Bay, Navel’s Bay, and Whale Cove. It is only since the middle of last century, that the Company’s servants could venture to land among them, (partly perhaps because they were considered by the Esquimaux as the allies of their most inveterate enemies, the Northern Indians,) but they have of late ‘become so much civilized, and reconciled to the Euro peans, as readily to welcome their arrival, and to treat them with every mark of hospitality. They have lony been persecuted by their more powerful neighbours the Northern Indians with the most savage barbarity. No quarter is ever granted on either side; and the strongest party never fails to massacre every creature of the vanquished, without sparing even the women and children. Of late years, however, the company’s servants have extended their protection to the oppress- ed Esquimaux, and have succeeded in establishing a peace between the two nations, so far at Jeast that par- ties and individuals of both tribes can meet each other in a friendly manner, or rather without any disposition to plot each other’s destruction. But the more distant Esquimaux, who reside so far to the north as to have no intercourse with the Europeans, are still exposed of their enemies. They are tolerably well protected in winter by their * The Southern Indians consider the aurora boreulis as the assembled spirits of their departed friends dancing in the clouds ;_but the Northern Indians have no belief of this nature, and merely speak of that phenoménon by the name of Deer, in consequence, it is said, of observing, that a hairy deer-skin, when briskly stroked with the hand in the dark, emits: electrical sparks like these lights the atmosphere, in + For an account of the other tribes of that people, see Grzextinn and Tasrapone Hudson's Bays —_— _t {i HUDSON’S BAY. ty. They were, at the same time, admonished, to trade Hudson's of their, Bay- to study “Yo” : nn F fa a) i a I i f Ff 2 2 z F Fy 4 t Seite aa ae | | i : uit 2 i F i i j Bs FH 'F 18 ip F iit z t i g § : & : F: : iH i at i ¥ i ith ifs i it i a 4j i i a Ee) Bx rear ie =F j : | i i 2 & § é tie ; = i ; at the same time, with 385 with them equitably, and to take no adv; native simplicity ; to explore the country, to derive such benefit from its soil and produce, might redound to the interest/of the mother- ae as ~ mee — emolument; to beni over viour servants, especially as to so- briety, tem aps akan ose for. the services of religion. The chief person in command at each settle- ment is called the governor of the fort, and sometimes there is one appointed to act under him termed the se- cond... These, with the and the master of the sloop attached to the place, constitute a council, who deliberate together in all matters of importance, or cases of em . . The governors are appointed for a pe- riod of three or five years, a ate #50 ee per annum as fixed salary, with a premium u e trade, which consequently fluctuates csnding its amount.* The labouring servants, who are chiefly procured from the Orkney islands, are generally en- gaged for three, four, or five years, and, about twenty years received £6 per annum as wages, indepen- dent of maintenance. . Their employments consist prin- cipally in carrying fuel, sledging the snow out of the avenues of the factory, and hunting. The company export muskets, pistols, powder, shot, brass and iron kettles, hatchets, knives, cloth, blankets, baize, flannels, as ? | roa om ly su to gain about 2000 cent. It se Fe sca however, as praportlopsbiy detri. mental to the mother-country ; and it has been affirm- ed, that, if laid entirely open, the numberof persons employed, and the quantity of wares exported, might easily be increased ten-fold. The com are charged, the and al ; Peeler > a aon greatest secrecy, ways i utmost reluctance to the details. of their trade to. public view. On the other band, during a i. toe wiry into their proceedings in 1749, p p sedi to prove, that ‘their profits were sufficiently limited, as from the following summary of their expenditure and returns, in the space of ten years, from 1739 to 1748 inclusive: Charges of shipping, factories, &c. in ten JO. nhs 8% os £157,482 14 4 Exports during that period . 52468 9 0 Total : £209,896 3 4 Amount of sales 273,542 18 8 Clear profits from the trade in ten? > Res ohn } £63,646 a5 4 Dividends in one year shares of £100 each For each proprietor of £100 stock among 100) poses 13.6 £63.12 11 The following aecount of imports and sales. for one year, from ‘Mi 1747 to Michaelmas 1748, may * The second has about £40; an assistant, £25; and a clerk, £15 per canum.. 336 HUDSON’S BAY. : Hudson's afford a more detailed view of the articles of the trade, Bay. and their respective values. a a. Hudson's Bed-feathers.. 5,8381bs. at... 1 2 perlb. me Castor ..... 308..at...6 213 do. —_—— Pd | In forming a standard of trade with the natives, the beaver skin is taken as the universal measure; and a comparative valuation made of the other kinds of pel- Articles. Number. Led Whale fins... 226..at...2 0. Beaver skins. . 52,7165. at... 7 6 per skin. Minks ..... 83... at... 38 1 perskin. . Martins .... 8485 ..atv..6 8 do. Racoons .... 26.01. abs/.'6 2/9 “dos Otters». 6.5 .1,445 0 at... 9 74 do. Goose quills . 43,000 ..at.. 15 OM.» Cats ..4... 1,199... at... 10 10} do. Musquash... 268 ..at...0 91 perskin, Foxes ..... 627.. at...8 14 do. Badger .... 80..at...1 2 do. Wolverins .. 977. at. 5 0 do, - Beararicce. oi S71) 20. dt!) Boge do. Total value... £30,160 5 11 : . Wolves .... 1,663 ,. at... 9 6} do. ' Woodshocks . . 32 sat 210-7 do. The Company’s establishments in the Bay, in the Re PF eps SOE ab Gov! ‘de ear 1790, may be seen at one view in the following Deer). sus) “TOS ats Wi) 2 -Bedo: able. Settlements. ‘Number of |I[ndian Set-| Ships con- | Sloopsin | Trade on Servants. | tlements. | signed to. |thecountry.| average. S Ships. Tons,|Sloops, Tons, een ne Gk hes we 25 1 of 250} 1 of 70}/£10,000 Bevenithodaet 2 * wacmundoanps 200 “I 1 of 250)11 of 60} 25,000 ; Albany Fort......... 50 2 5,600 Moose Fort .......... 40 2 1 of 280} lof 70 7,000 ; Wegst Maiti’. ce ss = ate 5's 25 lof 70 _ ; : Total . . 240 8 3 780) 4 270|£47,600 ' No. 1 as 2 beavers. try, &c. A full grown moose j Cub ditto . Old bears... ° Cub ditto . r Foxes, black . gra ‘ * Ditto, white Ditto, red. é Ditto, brown & Wolf . 3 . Wolverins . Cats 5 é Otter, old t Castor . é skin 1 as 2 beavers. e er és ate Ge & a CE ene iz - 9 DW 6019 eee DE De eRe — a — =) ee ee ee on ee Be With these the trading goods are bartered, or rather directed to be bartered, at the following rates: — r . Ib.1 as 1 beaver. Glass beads ee China ditto ; Kettles, brass = Coarse cloth “ Tobacco, Brazil . Ditto, leaf . Ditto, English roll Shirts, check J F las2 Ditto, white FS a stam toe Stockings, yarn. - )pairl. 2 Seeds z “ ‘ x Pb. Ritucw Shot m “ a 4 S 4 1 Duffels . 20 ant Mato yale d clut Knives 4 z ‘ No.4 1 4 Guns. g ‘ ‘ No.1 14 j Combs Pee ae a bal GF bint ti F ‘lints . . . - > 16 1 4’ Vermilion . ¥ & lb.1 16 } Pistols F z ‘ No.1 7 Small burning glasses . . 1 1. 7 | Gartering . «» . yard13} 1 = | aoee lace. F * < 13 1 i ings, brass . . 03 1 iden! swiss. ial Ga ae : Tobacco boxes « . . head Awl blades if i = 8 yt g Boxes, barrel 1. Aus at Gade Be We ; Hawks-bells | i - pairl2 1 : Sword blades n £ No.1 1 y Ice chisels . Fe - ‘ 2 uly Gun worms > Pt . 4 1 Hats, coarse x Nol 4 Trunks, small leather 3 ee ' Needles . - . . 12 1 Hatchet Bd é 3 gall - : Brandy, i A . ion f ; Medal moe F " g No.12 1 Thimbles ; - ‘ ‘ ey Collars, brass : . . 4 ia@ a Fire steels . . . * 3 1 Razors ne ‘ < Fy 2.41 Thread ‘ % r Ibidhanoboe Out of this standard, however, which is in itself sufficiently hard upon the Indians, the factors are al- lowed, for their own emolument, to raise a surplus- fin prada allay to seek it through a long titors under Joseph Fycbialier, the Geaigany’i trade suffered so severely, that, in 1775, it fell short nearly one half of what it had been in 1774 They immediate- ly commenced it of the ii erect- trading houses in the interior. In 1775, ae - Gia seonhenk ok Preedinee Laks,"ta ‘north itude longitude 102° 15’; in 1793, their fs u Saniziey of the ein north latitude 50" 42", Since the establishment of these the Indians have in a rivil sa ey F t f | ised their agents the encroachments of Ca- with i From that date, 1762 to 1764, I yearly sent inland, and directors of what was goi tablish settlements inland, with which readil and have continued to do so wheal ius Awa turers, and far superior to the Com : the former work for their own benefit, not.”” “I repeatedly advised the Direct Gubaten 5 Dee ies VOL. XI. PARTI. HUE never would venture, would be in want of food.” e company, however, have been loudly and publicly Gerget Wak making only the most languid exertions, with failing from an ill-judged parsimony to animate their servants by ade- quate salaries, and with gene ne buter ing in the carrying part of the inland trade native Indians, who are so much less active than the Canadian ser- vants, and who are thus withdrawn from their more been the gainers, by the remissness of those from H ’s Bay ; and who must be convinced, that, if the trade were thrown n, it would naturally be ted rather through the more favourable stations on Hudson’s Bay, than through the circuitous rout of the St Lawrence. See Foster's History of Voyages and Discoveries in the North ; Hearne’s Tr lo the North- ern Ocean ; Mackenzie's Voyages through the Continent of North America; Umfreville’s Stale of Hudson's ; and Long’s Travels in Canada. (q) ver, Perek Daniet, Bishop of (ee in France, an eminent scholar, was born of a good family at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of F; , 1630. His parents died while he was but an infant, ‘and left him to the care of guardians, who neglected him ; but his natural abilities and innate love of learning over- came all disadvantages, and before he was thisteon aoe.o pan Be had finished his studies in the belles tres. a : ing entered into the study of ag he found pao bm guide in father Main run, a rsd suit, who directed him to begin by learning a little etry. Huet, however, went farther than his tutor Tat, and contracted such a relish for the mathema- tics as had almost induced him to abandon his other studies. Having finished his elementary studies, it was his Sidet fo spely himself to the law, and to take his de- grees in that faculty ; but from this pursuit he was di- verted by two books which were then published. These bod “d vega a geet: »”” and “ Bochart’s 3 To the philosophy of Descartes, of which he was Bs iat ede, he adhered for many years; but afterwards abandoned it, when he disco. vered the fa of its principles. The immense eru- dition displayed in ‘s work made a great im. pression on him, and inspired him with a strong desire to become conversant with Greek and Hebrew learn. ing. To assist his ress in these studies, he con- tracted a friendship with Bochart, who was minister of the Protestant church at Caen. At the age of twenty, he was emancipated, by the custom of Normandy, from the tuition of his guardians; and soon after made a journey to Paris, with the view of purchasing books, and becoming acquainted with the learned men of the times. About two years after. wards, he accompanied Bochart to the court of Chris- tina, queen of Sweden; and had thus an opportunity of introducing himself to the learned in other parts of Europe. The queen, it is said, wished to have enga- ged him in her service; but owing to the jealousy and © The late Andrew Grahame, Esq, Prestonpans, 2u ing as excuse, that they Huet - Huet. —“v—" ception had not been very r 0 HUE, intrigues of Bourdel, another physician, Bochart’s re- ‘acious ; and Huet bem aware of the fickle tem Christina, declined all of- fers, and returned to France after an absence of three months. The principal advantage which he derived from this journey, besides the acquaintance he formed with the learned men in Sweden and Holland, con- sisted in the acquisition of a copy of a manuscript of Origens Commentaries upon St Matthew, which he tran- scribed at Stockholm. While engaged in translating this work, he was led to consider the rules of transla- tion, as well as the different manners of the most cele~ brated translators; and in 1661, he published his thoughts upon this subject at Paris, under the title De interpretatione libri duo ; a wérk written with great vi- gour and elegance, in the form of a dialogue between Casaubon, Fronto Duceus, and Thuanus. In 1664, he published, at Utrecht, an elegant collection of Greek and Latin poems, which was afterwards enlarged in se- veral successive editions, At length, in 1668, he pub- lished at Rouen his Origenis Commentarii, &c. cum La- tina inierpretatione, nolis et observationibus, in 2 vols. folio ; to which was sf ipcecnps an ample preliminary dis: course, containing all that antiquity relates concerning Origen. In 1659, Huet was invited to Rome by Christina, who had abdicated her crown and retired thither ; but he again declined the invitation. About ten years af- ter, when Bossuet was appointed preceptor to the Dau- phin, Huet was chosen for his colleague, with the title of sub-preceptor. He accordingly went to court in 1670, and remained there till 1680, when the dauphin was married. It is to this appointment probably that the learned world is indebted 4 for the editions of the classics in usum Delphini; for although the first idea of the commentaries for the use of the dauphin was started by the Duke de Montausier, it was Huet who digested the plan, and directed the execution of this useful un- dertaking. Although necessarily much occupied with the duties of his situation, he found leisure, at this pe- riod, to compose his Demonstratio evangelica, which was published at Paris in 1679, in folio, and has since been reprinted in various forms.. He was admitted a member of the French Academy in 1674, At the age of forty-six, Huet entered into orders ; and in 1678 he was presented by the king to the abbey of Aunay in Normandy, whither he retired every sum- mer after he had left the court. In 1685, he was no- minated to the bishopric of Soissons, which, with the consent of the king, he exchanged with the Abbé de Sillery for the see of Avranches. In 1689, he pub- lished his Censura philosophie Cartesiane ; and in 1690 his Questionis Alnetane de Concordia Rationis et Fidei, which work is written in the form of a dialogue, after the manner of Cicero’s Tusculan Questions. In 1699, he resigned his bishopric of Avratiches, and was presented to the abbey of Fontenay, near the gates of Caen. Soon after, he removed to Paris, and lodged among the Jesuits in the Maison Professée, to whom he bequeathed his library, reserving to himself the use of it while he lived. Here he resided during the last twenty years of his life, and employed himself chiefly in writing notes on the vulgate translation of the Bible; for which purpose he is said to have read over the He- brew text twenty-four times, comparing it, as he went along, with the other Oriental texts, In 1712, he was seized with a severe illness, from which, contrary to the expectation of his physicians, he gradually reco- vered, and applied himself to the writing of his life, which was published at Amsterdam in 1718, under the 338 HU Le, title of Pet. Dan. Huelii, Episcopi Abricensis, Commen- larius de rebus ad eum pertinentibus. The critics have wondered how such a master of the Latin language as Huet should have been guilty of so great a solecism in the very title of his book, by using the pronoun eum instead of se. This performance, although composed in an amusing style, is by no means equal to his other works, his faculties being then a good deal impaired. He died on the 26th of January 1721, in the 91st year of his age. ‘The Abbé Olivet relates a most remarkable singularity of Huet, viz. that for two or three hours before his death, he recovered all the vigour of his ge- nius and memory. Besides the works we have mentioned in the course of the preceding narrative, Huet published a variety of other treatises upon literary and philosophical sub- jt He had been, throughout the whole of his long ife, a hard student; and he left behind him the repu- tation of one of the most learned men of the age, ever Historique de M. Huet, par M.U Abbé Olivet, pres fixed to his Traité There de la foiblesse. de Fis prit humain ; Aikin’s Life of Huet, London, 1810 3; and Gen. Thee. Dict. . (z) HUGUENOTS, a name of uncertain origin, given to the Protestants of France. A full account of their history will be found in our article France, Vol. IX. p. 563. et seq. ? HULL, or Kinestren-vron-HUutt, is a seaport town of England, in the east riding of Yorkshire, situated on the west side of the river Hull, and on the northern side of the river Humber, about twenty miles from its mouth, aus The town, which lies on a level tract of ground, exe tends nearly in a direct line along the river Hull, from the Humber bank to very near the church of Sculcoates, a space of about two miles. It stretches nearly as far in another direction, from the High Street on the river Hull towards Beverley, Anlaby, and Hessle. The dock, or artificial harbour, divides the town into two princi« pal divisions. The one to the north of the dock be- ongs to the parish of Sculcoates, and is without the ori- ginal boundaries of Hull. It consists. of several y spacious streets, which have been built chiefly within the last. thirty years.. The principal streets of Hull are clean and spacious, and the whole town is paved, flag- ged, and lighted. The public buildings of Hull are numerous but by no means elegant. The Trinity church, which was partly built about the year 1312, is a magnificent and beautiful structure, built in the Gothic style. It occupies a space of 20,056 square feet. It extends 279 feet from the west door to the east end of the chancel. The nave is 144 feet long, the breadth of the transept 28, and the length of the chancel 100. ‘The breadth of the nave is 72 feet, and the breadth of the chancel 70 feet. St Mary’s church, commonly called the Low church, was built a few years later than the preceding. Its length is 74 feet, and the height of the steeple 74 feet. St John’s church, a neat and simple brick building, was erected at the sole expence of the Rev. Thomas Dikes, and finish ed in 1792. It is 86 feet long, and 59 broad. It is wholly built upon arches, raised seven feet above the surface, and contains more than 70 vaults for burying the dead. The town contains several places of worship belonging to the three denominations of dissenters, to. the Methodists, and other sectaries. The Methodist chapel in Waltham Street is crecionn pea: Among the charitable institutions of Hull, that of the Trinity-house is the most ancient. It was established in 1369 for the reception of decayed seamen who haye HULL. - area. The di which they contain, are well oe intendance of a master. AA pais jecting wi and is built of Gack ecaetl with blue slate. It contains the pen who are allowed 3s. 6d. per week each oh egos pelo g ss proetachs Banal antl The cha- 1, which is spacious and neat, is in the of the bod ih The = charities re Lister fst reception of 12 pers; Gregg’s ital ; Crowle’s H I, for 12 paupers ;, Watson’s Hospital, The y Hall or Work House was established in the reign of William IIf. The house is decent and commodious, and bas a house of correction adjoin- i and modate tly spot, can accom seventy in- ga of wards open Cec ie can ‘or the pu of obtaining a perfect total number of sents adnitted be: tween 1782 and 1816 is 15,129, of whom 11,248 have cured, and 193 greatly relieved. The total nam- t of persons vaccinated up to January 1, 1816, is 5305 The aa vs pe Bove been esta- d - More than 4251 patients song wm pn i 5th April 1802, and the num- of children born 4,314. The Hull Female Peni- was opened in July 1311. More than 100 Micdlasites Diazeamery be jade and a Humane Society tients, The i | cvs rill i piigter pipiey! mere si TE rf eight > J i 1 fi i i : F yise ale BES F E : I ’ . E on the east bank of the river. The ancient castle, call- ed the Magazine, is a mere storehouse for arms and am~- munition. A battery of 21 guns faces the Humber, and the embrasures on the mounds are well furnished with cannon. The citadel is surrounded with a ditch palisa- doed in the middle. ,The garrison generally consists of a few companies of invalids. The exchange was o on the Ist of January 1794. It isa brick building on a most substantial plan, witha spacious flagged area in front of it. The public subscription news room is above the) ex- change. The custom-house is a spacious and hands some building, situated in White Friar Gate. The the atre, erected in 1809, is a building in Humber Street. The present gaol, which contains very healthful accommodations, was erected in consequence of an act of sn t passed (in 1789, The Hull subscription li« ‘was instituted Dee: 6, 1775 ; and the foundation stone of the present building in Parliament Street, was laid on the 21st of June 1800. The library possesses a spacious reading-room, which is open to the subscribers every day. The collection of modern books is excellent, and the number of subscribers is nearly 500. The avenue from the market-place to the Humber was widened some time ago, by removing the guildhall, on the site of which the most elegant and well ventila- ted shambles were erected in 1806, The east end of Trinity church is thus exposed to the market-place, in the centre of which is a beautiful equestrian statue of King William III. erected in 1734 by subscription, and executed by Mr Sheemaker, Hull may be considered as one of the first commer- cial towns in the united kingdom. It carries on a great intercourse with the Baltic, and sends an immense num~ ber of ships annually to the whale fishery. — The wet dock, which was originally intended to re- ceive all the ships engaged in the trade of Hull, was begun in virtue of an act of parliament passed in 1774, The foundation stone was laid on the 19th Oct. 1775, and the whole was completed in four years instead of seven, as required by the act. Government gave a grant of the ground, and of £15,000. It otcupies the place where the walls and ramparts once stood, and it enters immediately from the river Hull, about 300 yards from its mouth. It is 700 yards long, 85 wide, 22 deep, and is capable of containing 130 vessels of $00 tons. Inclus ding the wharfs and quays, it covers an area of 13 acres, the area of the d bein an aaa Semen, oe 1 that of the quay 17,479. The subscribers are incorpo- rated under the title of the “ Dock Company at Ki stun-upon-Hull,” The number of shares was original- ly 120; but acts were passed in 1802 and 1805, ems powering the Com to raise them to 180. The mo-« ney arising from this increase in the number of shares, amounting to £82,390, was appropriated to the con- . struction of another wet dock, called the Humber Dock. The foundation stone of the Humber Dock was laid on the 13th April 1807, and it was completed in 1809, at the expence of £220,000. The area of the dock is 7 acres and 18 perches, and that of the road and wharfe is 3 acres and 38 perches, amounting in all to 10 acres 1 rood and LL perches, It opens into the Humber a lock, which will admit a fifty gun ship, and which is crossed by an iron. bri extending the dock a little farther to the , to extremity of White Frar Gate, the old town may be completely insulated. Hull possesses also several dry docks for repairing ves~ Hull. HUL sels. The following Table, shewing the amount of the customs in different years, will exhibit a correct view of the progress of the trade of Hull. 1701 . . £26,287 1805 . £386,070 1778 . . 78,229 1806 .. 374,907 1785... 91,366 1807 . . 340,825 1792 . . 199,988 ~ 1808 .. 198,487 1802 . . 438,459 1809 . . 276,811 1808 .. 879,675 1810 .. 311,780 1804. . 287,210 | ' The following Table exhibits the state of the Green- land fishery, from 1806 to 1811 inclusive. Uni- Sea Years. sip. Whaler Seats corns.|Bears| Horses. |Tons Oil. 1806 | 37 | 239 |1804/ 10] 3 6 | 3382 1807 | 35 | 377. | 722) 24] 9 4233 1808 | 27 | 467 |.552) 13] 4 2 | 4330 1809 | 26 | 419 | 311) 9 7 4230 1810 | 34 | 449 |1238) 8} 13 4912 1811 | 42 | 552 | 993} 21.2 4782 The inland trade of Hull exceeds that of any other English port. In the year 1792, merchandise, stores, coals, &c. to the value of £5,156,998, were conveyed to and from the Aire and Calder navigation alone. The following Table contains the number of ships that entered inwards and cleared outwards, from 1804 to 1810 inclusive. Years. | With Cargoes. In Ballast. | Coasting Vessels. Inw. © Outw. | Inw. Outw. | Inw. Outw. 1804] 728 ..279| 51.. 880 | 1560 . 1547 1805 | 658°... 232 | -47 . . 327 | 1626 . 1602 1806 | 513. . 226 29 . . 272 | 1576 . 1636 1807 | 525 :.. 158 9 .. 335 | 1484 . 1614 1808 | 207... 67 | 109... 135 | 1557 . 1733 1809 | 473 . . 256 55°. . 223 | 1806 . 1938 1810 | 622 ..193| 30. .427 |1786 . 2033 Various manufactures are carried on in Hull. One of the principal is the pen gpa and refining oil from lintseed, and preparing the residue for feeding cattle. Many of the mills for this purpose, and for grinding corn, are from about 80 to 100 feet high, and’ contain excellent machinery. ‘he other manufactories are an iron foundery, a large soap-work, two sugar-houses, se- veral white lead manufactories, several breweries, and several ropeworks and ship-builders yards. The civil authority of the county of Kingston-upon- Hull, which includes a district of more than 18 miles, comprehending the villages of Hessle, Anlaby, Kirk Ella, West Ella, Swanland, and North Ferriby, is vested in the corporation, consisting of the mayor, the recorder, the sheriff, two chamberlains, and twelve .al- dermen. The town sends two members to parliament, who are elected by the burgesses. » The following is an abstract of the population returns or the town of Hull in 1814b: * Number of inhabited houses ........ 4611 ~ Do. of uninhabited houses so a 306 Do. of families»... 0... 0 bbw maSR Do. employed in agriculture ........ 305 Do. employed in trade and manufactures . 2608 Do. not included in any of these classes . 3628 840 HUM Males Te Sis She alee baa, Pier 3 Females’ so"... 14,794 Total population .........+.++- 26,792 See the Guide to Hull, published by Mr Craggs, who has favoured us with the proof sheets of it before it was published ; ‘Tickhill’s History of Hull; and the Beau- ties of oa and Wales, vol. xvi. p. 447—537. ' HUMBER, the Abdus of Ptolemy, is a large river or estuary in England, which runs into the German Ocean after separating the counties of York and Lincoln. Be- low the confluence of the Ouse with the Trent, the for- mer of which carries off almost all the waters-of York- shire, the united streams receive the name of the Hum- ber. It is gradually enlarged to the breadth of two or three miles, and below Hull it swells into an estuary about six or seven miles broad. The Humber has been compared tothe trunk of a vast tree, srrending its branch- es in every direction, and commanding the navigation and trade of a very extensive and commercial part of England. See Eneianp, Vol. VIII. p. 687, 688. HUME, Davin, an eminent historian, metaphysician, and general literary character, was the younger son of a very respectable Scottish family, and was born at Edinburgh on the 26th of April 1711. He lost his fae ther whef an infant, and the care of his education de- volved on his mother, whom he describes as a woman of great merit, who ormed in a most exemplary, ikea the duties of Racal parent. In his poath he made a creditable appearance as a scholar, and acquired a high ardour for literature. This did not, as often haps pens, subside as soon as those more serious occupa- tions to which, in the common calculations of mankind, literature is reckoned preparatory and subservient, were esented to his mind. His fortune being slender, e was destined to the profession of the law. But this pursuit, with all the prospects of honour and wealth which it presents to an apne mind, had not for him sufficient charms to eclipse the attractions of classical literature and philosophy, Nor was Mr Hume even content to cultivate the two pursuits in conjunc- tion, the one as the means of his future livelihood, and the other as having a more immediate relation te man as a thinking being. The contrast of their intrinsic character had the effect of disgusting him with the study of law, which he wholly neglected in order to devote himself to literature. He therefore renounced entirely these professional pursuits. Not entertaining the hope, however, of supporting himself comfortably by literary occupations, he was prea on, at the age of twenty-three, to make a feeble attempt to enter on a mercantile employment in the city of Bristol. This he soon relinquish as totally unsuited to his turn of mind ; and at last, combining a regard for his favourite studies with the dictates of prudence, he formed a plan for leading the life of a literary man. He resided for two years inFrance, first at Rheims, and afterwards at La Fleche in Anjou, where he practised a strict economy, and prosecuted with much industry his literary studies. In this retreat he Lape had not access to extensive libraries, and depended chiefly on a small collection of ' his own, with such assistance as was furnished by the convents of the country. Here he was chiefly occupied in the composition of that ingenious, but singular and somewhat. paradoxical work, his Treatise on Human Nature. He acknowledges that, in the midst of these studies, he was not certain of the utility of his labours, - and was in some measure puzzled by the interminable problems which his own ingenuity had raised ; yet he gave himself up to the bent of an inquisitive mind, ree 1 { HUME. it | | | 1 E 5 t ig’ + iE : 33 [ I f i a u itt tg ; i i : | i EBPETE i i i it l i [ é F : i 3 work excited no interest; i read, and, as he himself expresses it, “ fell dead born from the press.” He continued, however, to value the opinions which it contained ; and endeavoured, by va- Bows penovting efforts, to conciliate to them the pub- i admirers of his metaphysics reckon mounted by a cheerful and sanguine ; and he ted, with renewed industry, his li labours ee . In 1742,he published the first part of his Essays, which met with a j iently favour- able to console him for his first di i In 1745, he resided as a companion to the is of An- ets. coal bp meqpenarat pork nates time, ired a i accession to his fortune. About this time the fessorship of moral philosophy in the university of (afterwards Sir John) Pringle, Mr Hume became a candidate for that situation ; but the sceptical princi- ples which he had advanced in his first work were too offensive to allow the magistrates, pa- noe baths echoes dg amecairwenge anager yo to receive as a public instructor _ In 1746, he - i sep vel y say stir secretary, in an expedition destined for Canada, terminated in an incursion on the coast of France. In 1747, he attended the same in his military embassies to the courts of Vienna and Turin. From this cause his literary ions were for than the success iginal freatise. A new edition of is ay wa al pb, which met not with a ag “ Saeed in sate dagtes, bes discouraged, by these i continued his efforts to rouse the attention of srerid to bis fo- vyourite subjects. He had now returned to his brother's in Scotland, where he composed his Political Dis- courses, and his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Mo- rals. His opinions gradually worked themselves in- to notice ; am effect which the plausibility of his reason. 841 ings, the charms of his | and the importan the subjects, could not fail to produce. Being adverse to the prevailing philosophy, as well as ing strongly on the religion of the age, and considered by many as alarming in their tendency, could not, of course, be — to extend their ra ney out havi ir validity subjected to the most rigi are a Mr Hume, Geher unalterably confident in the justness of his views, or considering them as less at ag than his fame, was principally disposed to on the appearance of a succession of replies as flat- tering symptoms of his rising reputation, and derived from them encouragement to proceed in his career. In 1752, his Political Discourées were published. This was the first of his works which gained immediate at- tention, and general approbation. He also now pub- lished his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, a work which met with little notice, though more high- ly valued by the author than any other. It appeared to too much with the sceptical principles of his other writings on moral subjects, by referring all mo- ral distinction to utility. It certainly, however, display- ed much acuteness of research, and contributed to remove much of the rubbish by which questionsof this nature had been encumbered. The dangerous character which Lord Kames, and some others of his ts, attached to a theory which reduced all moral di to utility, as leaving them to thearbitrary decisions and varying judg- ments of individuals, is more or less applicable to every theory on the subject. The agreement or di ent of mankind on particular moral questions is mate ter of fact than of theory. The apprehensions of an dangerous tendency” attached to the theory. of Me Home, imply, in ir most obvious sense, a contra diction in terms. Utility is, in itself, real and precise, however obscurely understood ; and in its every essence excludes all idea of danger. We hava indeed, heard icular acts ted as inculcated by utility, sar teee ten, miming wanton Far peed ag most convincing terms. ‘These arguments only prove, that the character of utility may be rashly applied, ee essential to it are omitted. tility, in , is not a sim igi inciple. It Mg see | feature applicable oo watson) of piicesiligs na, among which human actions are to be numbered ; and even with those who t that there are prior inciples of our nature which serve to moral istinctions, all such suggestions must be allowed to become the subjects of computation ; and in all discus- sions of the propriety of particular actions, utility is the ultimate test to which we are referred, and is to stamp them with the character of rectitude. In the same year, he was made librarian to the Facul- ty of Advocates of Edinburgh, a situation which not only gave him command of the invaluable library be- longing to that body, but forcibly directed his atten- tion to the character of the works which it contained. It was now that he to write his History of Eng- land, that highly pleasing performance, which, however = subgrains its - and tendencies, is read wi ight classes of persons, and does high cre- dit to the coantry which Lapeterapieyntrit eng The first volume that was published, commenced with the accession of the house of Stuart, and contained the reigns of James I. and Charles I, on ger ale The public, however, were not so casi y won by the Sy which deaeaminontieeriee ts easy philoso- hy which dictated the remarks of the historian, as to give any quarter to his obnoxious sentiments. He of= ce of Hume, 342 HUME. Hume, fended the Christian world, by treating religious sys- He confesses that his mortification would have now Hume tems too lightly, and even the advantages which this determined him to retire to a corner of France, to —\——™ characteristic might at first seem to promise to the spi- rit of toleration were found to be coldly withheld. His displeasure is chiefly directed against the complaints, and even the non-conformity of the people; and he pal- liates in the conduct of princes all deviations from pa- triotism and law, as well as that offensive arrogance which set at nought the object of general satisfaction. He construes the slightest incongruity in the complaints of the nation, which was capable of being turned to ri- dicule, into a vindication of the most arbitrary and in- tolerant conduct on the part of the sovereign. The party questions relating tothe rights which king or peo- ple respectively derived from. precedent and law, were of much Jess moment than the spirit in which the con~ tending parties maintained their point. Appeals to the original and universal rights of man are reckoned dan- gerous, as being subject to the widest differences of opi- nion, and therefore precedents in tavour of liberty. had been chiefly appealed to’ by the Whigs. Precedents, however, were to be found on both sides; and Mr Hume points.out the shallowness of any pretence to make the ultimate decision of great and general ques- tions in politics depend on\them. It is with the de- gree of correctness and generosity of the spirit) in which the king and the people approached to one ano- ther for the adjustment of their differences, that: an unbiassed_ historian is. chiefly concerned in measu- ring to each party his share of approbation and of cen- sure, . This. was certainly so offensive and unconciliating on the part of the Stuarts, as to amount to a forfeiture of all submission, and even of all sympathy from the party which they laboured to crush. That the dissen- sions of the times rendered the duties of a sovereign ar- duous must be acknowledged, and strong measures might have beeg on some occasions necessary.. But the measures of these princes’ had. neither the merit of strength, nor the inoffensiveness of total inactivity. They were.both irritating in their tendency, and desti- tute of efficiency. The exertion of a despotic authori- ty, if evidently directed to ends substantially good, might have saved the country, and preserved the dy- nasty. But the Stuarts made their right of power a matter of ostentation: rather than an instrument of good government, and. thus) insulted the nation instead of ruling it. There were errors on all sides. The peo- ple were often fanatical, and their complaints were sometimes inconsistent. ‘All these facts should come alike under the scrutiny of the historiau. But the plau- sible coolness. of Hume degenerates into a cavalierly insensibility : his sarcasms are directed only against the great mass of the nation, while his sympathetic feeling andindulgence are reserved for kings and their ministers, Dr Herring and Dr Stone; the one primate of Eng- land and the other of Ireland, were the only’ persons from whom the author heard favourable sentiments of his work. Both of these gentlemen wrote ‘to him not to be discouraged, ‘The impression made on his mind by. the unfavourable reception of his'work was however very deep. Although on looking to the periodical pub- lications of that day, we find the due tribute repeatedly and even liberally given to his merits as a writer, he seems not to have been at all prepared to. meet with any opposition or neglect. He shewed on this occasion the oyerweening importance which authors are dispo- sed to attach to their own powers, and how little they calculate on the difficulty of making any impression in opposition to the general sentiments of the public, change his name, and never more revisit his native country, had not a war breaking out between the two nations prevented the execution of any such scheme. ’ He next published his Natural History of Religion, which was attacked with considerable acrimony by Dt Hurd, and, though otherwise not much attended to at the time, produced at a subsequent period no slight. sensation in the religious world, as tending to reduce: the general principles of religion to an uncertain and even a frivolous origin in the human mind. ° a A second volume of the History of England, which brought it down to the revolution, was published in 1756. This, containing fewer obnoxious sentiments, was better received than the first, and even served to impart to it a degree of adventitious character. | ~ In 1759, he ‘published his om of the House o Tudor. In this publication he displayed considerab: e address in supporting his Tory principles. While he details facts which Sleisionatiti’ the duplicity ‘of the character of Elizabeth, he gives her a character far high- er than these facts can warrant. At the samie time he describes her conduct, as well as that of her predecessors of\the same family, as so offensively harsh, that the max- ims of the Stuarts, reckoned by many tyrannical, must on the contrast appear mild and liberal. He neglects to give the due weight to the beneficial tendency and the magnanimous justice which marked some of her most arbitrary acts, and the activity which she display- ed in managing the vital interests of the state. These characteristics were widely different from the vexatious and idle exaction of reluctant homage which the Stu- arts delighted to make from their subjects. Habit had now rendered Mr Hume callous to the impressions of public opinion, which he affected to despise; yet he owed his equanimity in some measure to the increased for+ bearance of his opponents, and the tribute of admira~ tion which some of his qualities as a writer extorted from all. In 1761, he published the two volumes which contain the éarlier part of the English history. The copy money given to him by the booksellers much’ exceeded any thivg ofthe kind formerly known in England, ‘and his circumstances were in consequence’ rendered’ opulent. asta, At this time a storm of ecclesiastical censure was pre= paring by some members of the church of Scotland, di« rected against Mr Hume, and imtended to include ‘Lord Kames; and various other writers, who, though differs’ ing in their opinions, agreed in treating religious subs jects with coolness, and subjecting them to metaphysi- cal analysis. | A motion was made in the committee of overtures of the General Assembly, in which Mr Mame’ was named as the most obnoxious aithor. It was proe posed to call him before that court, to answer a list. of accusations, on the tendency of the ‘principles which he had published. This; however, was afterwards abandon= ed, as it was supposed that the influence of such dis- cussions was limited to a narrow circle; and that there could be no propriety in extending them to the common mass of readers, who might, from the sympathy natu- rally felt for a man subjected to violent opposition, be led ‘to an undue bias in favour of his opitiions, |” --In 1763, he attended the Ear) of Hertford on his em= bassy to Paris, where he was loaded with great civili« ties. He expresses himself highly pleased with the po« liteness and information which characterised the socie= of that metropolis. aby ai In 1766 he returned to England, and then to Edin u F i : H HUME. s subj and had it in contem- le in a retired situation in admiring his genius, and attach. ng 2s a free-thinker, exerted ide for his comfort. But, the ynarhie Rousseau disappointed every scheme ‘could be adopted. He conceived him- lected by the world, and was prone to sus- intending to undermine his in- ef is ; & g : He hy i g m perceived the troublesome temper of his ; yet he treated him with great tenderness, mak- ance for an excess of natural irritability, height - a severe bodily. disorder under which he |.- " He even found that oon af a eaggg of extreme pov ‘wasan entirely retence, held, out for in othe itech. others. frailties Mr Hume dep but did not cease to do what ley in his power to serve him. At last Rousseau sus Mr Hume of being the author of a very improper sar- ene, lee whi i name of the i : ER uf 3 : E if 4 Ee Ese i at 5 J FE (ie “ g _ Daw w 343 The zeal of Dr Blair him from. cire ; and Hume found } mate to that worthy clergyman the necessity of abstain- ing from all pogecn which implied serious differences. of sentiment, if they were ever to enjoy one another's so- ciety. This is decidedly though delicately expressedin the letter which he wrote to him, after the perusal of the work of Dr Campbell on Miracles, which Dr Blair had sentto him,. Dr J Black, the celebrated pro- fessor of chemistry, and Adam Smith, were among the most intimate of his friends. The latter, however, Was now engaged in the composition of that work which has associated his name in an indelible manner with the great interests of society, his. Inquiry iato the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, and lived in a state of retirement with his mother at, Kirkcaldy, a town.on the opposite shore of the Frith of Forth, This Be ion, was vexatious toHume, who often ineffectual ly urged his friend to take up his residence in Edinburgh. had both written on the origin of moral ideas; they had embraced different opinions, and found it interest- ing to make the discussions implied in them part of the subject of their conversation, They were both ready to enter on any subject to which the ingenuity of either was directed, and, a delightful diversity of topics was undoubtedly suggested by the fates, characters, and all ‘the memorabilia of many literary friends, whom on)fore mer occasions, and in different parts of the eer and. of Europe, they had known.. Lord Kames, Mr Smellie, Allan. Ramsay the painter,. (son ofthe Scots tish poet,) were alsd among the number of the literati who, in 1. Hume, adorned ‘the circle of this metropolis. manners of literary men were partis cularly easy, and they had the character of great frank ness and ready accessibility. .No cause of political en- mity operated asa source of division; differences of religious opinion were tempered in theigexpression by manners; the facility of in was not ob- structed by affectation, or a harsh incommodious eti- quette ; literary controversies and private debates were i oceasion of offence. If any excess existed, it seems to have been on the side of familiarity, ' which admitted of an indulgence ina coarse species of raillery. From this school issued the following curi- ous sentiment, to be found in Lord Kames's Art of Thinking: “You area are a dream, and such like, are we 4 bear from friends. A+ convenient bias to another, and those who without going far arb 4 > un , in , is literary society Sober convivial clubs of men of taste and. which have been su with much ter steadi- ness than the nature of such institutions renders They are soon broken and on the. other hand, of liberality when are apt to lose the stamp. on aprinciple of fastidi ~ a a Maat obliggtte inte Hume. —~— 844 selection, It is therefore chiefly by a quick succession of them formed by the buoyant spirit of liberal sociali- i Sayed surmounting occasional causes of separation, that they prove le and useful. _The philosophical opinions of Mr Hume subjected him to many controversial attacks. ‘To these he never published any formal’reply, but satisfied himself with making occasional private observations, and availing himself of public criticism for amending his works in subsequent editions. In the manner in which he expressed himself towards those who wrote against him, he shewed himself ex- tremely sensible to the pleasing influence of civility, and the galling effects of disrespect or rudeness. He was pleased with Dr Campbell’s Essay on Miracles, and with an anonymous tract, entitled, A Delineation of Morality, written by Mr Balfour, an advocate and professor of moral philosophy. But such severities as those of Hurd, Warburton, and Beattie, teeming with petulance and abuse, produced in his mind the strong- est feelings of alienation and contempt. His good hu- mour probably too much depended on the cultivation of that radical hauteur which sometimes forms the man of fashion, and was too little cherished by that steady forbearance and that system of universal allowances which would have better suited the character of a phi- losopher. The progress of his bodily disorder was rapid. In April 1776, he set out for London at the intreaty of his friends, who hoped that a long journey might im- prove his health. At Morpeth he met with Dr Adam Smith, and Mr Home, the author of the tragedy of Douglas. The latter remained with him in England, while Dr Smith returned to the north. Mr Hume finding himself seemingly improved when he arrived in London, went next to Bath to drink the waters, which contributed still farther to a temporary recovery. But his complaint _relapsed with additional violence, and he returned to Edinburgh under a deliberate expectation of soon finish- ing his ihe He employed himself in correcting his works, reading books of amusement, and conversing with his friends. He encouraged his friends to speak to him in the frankest manner as to adying man. This evident that he did not entertain a belief in any future state. Yet the constant expressions of a hope of this sort which a man is accustomed to hear in the course of early education, and in the common intercourse of life, render the mind familiar with an imagery founded on that hope to which the most sceptical occasionally recur for amusement, even while they reject a belief which appears to them incongruous. Some of them playfully indulge in supposing themselves to have been imbued with the belief of a mythology belonging to a different age or country, and thus balance the influence of pre- sent systems against that of others. Mr Hume had too much respect for society to indulge in any open scurrility directed exclusively against the religious sen- timents of the age: but he playfully retailed the con- versations which were likely to take place between himself and Charon, the ferryman of the river Styx, at the moment of his transit from the present to the un- known world. He did not affect any great wish to speak on the subject for the purpose of displaying his indifference or his courage, and only touched on it oc- casionally in reply to the enquiries of his friends. His strength very gradually declined. When no longer able to.converse, he continued to read in a state of com- ure; and after four or five days passed under“this degree of debility, he died on the 25th of August 1776. HUME. In stature Mr Hume was above the ordinary size. Hume. _ His countenance was open and free, a just picture of his benevolent and cheerful temper. His features were large, and were exempt from that trifling smartness and habitual intensity of expression which characterise a bustling fashionable ambition. Lord Charlemont on this account considered them as blank and unmeaning, and wondered that the ladies at the court of Turin valued so much his company and conversation. His attrac- tions seem to have consisted in the liberality of his mind exhibited in the jolly openness of his counte- nance. See Hardy’s Memoirs oF Lord Charlemont, and the critique on them given in the Edinburgh Review. The manner in which he died has sometimes been. made the theme of injudicious comment, for the pur- pose of elucidating the merits of particular views of pavcesy or religion. The equanimity displayed in is last moments has been boastfully represented as a triumph to infidelity, and a Bie that a philosopher’ may die in tranquillity. Such were the sentiments in-" culeated in a tract entitled, An Apology for the Life and Writings of David Hume. But the eagerness with which a single instance of this kind is grasped at might be plausibly construed into a presumption of the gene.’ ral fallacy of the remark. On the other hand, it is equally unfavourable to candour to embrace, with ex~" clusive keenness, those anecdotes, whether well or i ~ supported, which represent persons of these sentiments as doomed to the agonies of remorse in the hour of death. This spirit has given rise to some misr tations of fact, which fall under the character of pious frauds. We are told, that though a man may lead the life of a fool, by’ advocating the cause of Deism, yet a fool he cannot die; and then an anecdote is told of some noted infidel, which ' bears the marks of evident fabrication. That this di- rection of zeal is wholly superfluous and inefficient in the support of religion, we may be satisfied, when we reflect, that such anecdotes are only circulated concern<’ ing those who are infidels by profession. It is maine tained that many who, from motives of policy, ath rently acquiesce in the religion of the age, do not be- lieve it in their hearts. Such persons might be suppos sed to labour under the double weight of infidelity and hypocrisy ; yet we hear nothing of their death-bed ago~ nies, Allowing, therefore, facts of that kind to which” we have alluded to be as general as they have been some= — times represented, they must be otherwise accounted for than by being considered as the unmingled effects of» the power of truth on the human conscience. They will be explained in a more satisfactory manner, if ascri-’ bed to the influence of that contrariety which an ins’ dividual ef solitary professions feels between. himself and the rest of society, oppressing a mind bereft of” its energy by the decay of nature. Weak man, even” in his most vigorous moments, needs company to sup= port him in the enjoyment of his opinions ; and the in=~ fluence of this principle enters much deeper into the” rivate comfort of individuals than most men are will-. Ing to allow. We should always beware of resting” questions of so grave moment on data thus preca-’ rious. The character of David Hume as a man has been va-* riously estimated. About his agreeable qualities there could be no difference of opinion; and those who” abhorred. his principles allowed that he ssed as much worth as was compatible with infidelity. The ’ chief difference, therefore, depends on’ the amount ‘of that degree of praise. One tells us that he was a pate’ tern of good humour, benignity, and self-command ; 4 HUME. The censure which we have expressed is most of all Hume. fault with the measure of his faith, but we cannot deny him the credit of good works. To this ae parte th ‘9 fo sagem . this such words in the sense in which by the ge lag sel md men haces geaag enter- tain an cay ag i or senti we must ac- rt Hume to have been distin- gure agg, Bags canon: oy ify ge Amik or religious. have remarked, that, by his own confession, FF ) 1 z lr i F ae i ul Fe 1 | i it ap | itself could desire, possessing also the fullest i i ptile u a i cf i Eft i SEERA! i j z 2 iF ¢ F 5 Pat 2 | f : ae ie hich, though chargeable FH, fo.net destitute of actented, VOL, 3. PART 1. we pula. . historical $45 applicable to two tracts published after his death, one On. the Immortality of the Soul, and the other On Sui- cide. The former is little more than a compression of doctrines which he had advanced, or to which he had at least pointed in his shee but peti in more dogmatic language. His tract On Suicide con- i which he had not formerly touched upon ; it must be admitted to have a most per nicious tendency. We read without unpleasant emo- tions the sentiments which the Romans entertained on this subject, because they cultivated a species of manli< ness, mistaken indeed, but plausible, and. apparently consistent. Mr Hume, on the con » encou! that temper which leads to suicide, not by cultivating a heroic contempt of death, but by laying the mind open to the most wretched discontent. He. maintains thon dhabereinen hepeihese ii grantor ia’ at of superstition have the most urgent motives to rid them. selves of life, yet are cruelly prevented by the creat which their belief of future punishment inspires. This remark, inculcated with all the zeal of apparent sincé> rity, tends to generate the utmost degree of moral con- fusion ; and the motive which could have prompted'any writer to commit such a sentiment to paper cannot we be assi , except by referring it to the erseness which 1s so incident to the human mind. I the super- stitious are deceived in the dread which they entertain of suicide, they must also be deceived in entertaining a belief in those gigs Cen iy nee render their lives miserable ; a philosopher wishing to emancipate them from their errors, pany weagee ge. Be for ene mending suicide, since he relieves them from the evils which generated a weariness of life. The only tenden- cy that such a sentiment can have, is, by sw i a new doubt to their former ities, either to pro- duce a still more wretched life, or give rise to.an act of suicide committed in a tumult of horror, by cowardice. Whoever the person was that publi is posthumous piece, he could not have any motive t is as a historian r Hume is most general] The beauty of his diction, and the interest which t turn of thought imparts to the course of events TT oat Lim Whole tonsoemiplene ing book of English re! in our language. Man Wie tee peniibis stake faults formerly mentioned, do not a any a for it in their ) tpn ieeepyecn to general readers. It might perha rendered less excepti in its tendency, pon ie ht valuable for common use, if accompanied with corrective notes, and references in the most faulty places to other au- thors. It would ire much delicacy, however, to do this without ialite the effect, by a harsh inter- ruption of the current of the narrative, and an inter- ference with the general spirit of the historian. Fox's published uniform with some po- pular edition of it, would tly contribute to render it worthy of general ,» by correcting the distrust, by the peculiar colouring of the author, See Hume's Lift, written by himself, prefixed to his History ; Smellie’s Lives; Ritchie's bi ¢ of Hume ; and a variety of an scattered in di t bi phical tracts, as Professor Stewart's Lives of Dr Robert- son and Dr Smith, Lord Woodhouslee’s life of Lord Kames, and the Memoirs of Mr Gibbon in his “Posthu« mous Works, (H.D.) HUMIDITY, See Hycnomeray. 2x 346) HUNGARY. History. Tar Huns, trom whom the kingdom of Hungary de- ——" rives its name, are the Hiong-nau of the Chinese, and Ancient were a nation of Tartars, who had their ancient, per- iad haps their original, scat in’ an extensive barren tract of country, immediately on the north side of the great wall of China, But the valour of the Huns extended their dominions; and their chiefs, who assumed the appellation of Tanjou, gradually became the sovereigns of a formidable empire. Towards the east, their victo- rious arms were stopped only by the ocean. On the west, near the head of the river Irtish, their enemies were numerous: in a single expedition, twenty-six na- tions or tribes are said to have been subdued. On the side of the north, they are said, but on dubious autho- rity, to have extended their empire to the ocean; it is more ‘probable that the Lake Baikal was the limit of their conquests in this direction. Towards the south, were most desirous of extending their empire ; and, in the third-century before the Christian cra, a wall of 1500 miles in length was constructed, to defend the frontiers of China against the inroads of the Huns. Their cavalry frequently consisted of 200,000 or 300,000 men, who managed their bows and their hor- ses with matchless dexterity ; they supported the in- clemency of the weather with hardy patience; and marched with incredible speed, being seldom checked by any obstacle. The Chinese were unable to oppose them, or to protect their empire, notwithstanding the defence of the great wall. A regular ent of mo- ney and silk was stipulated as the condition of a tem- and precarious peace ; and by a more disgrace- ful and degrading condition, a supply of women was annually given to the Huns; and the Tanjou was united in marriage with the imperial family of China. Mode of 1m the'verses of a Chinese princess, who laments that life at this ; She had been condemned by her parents to a distant period. exile under a barbarian husband, some particulars of the mode of life of the Huns at this period are given: she complains that sour milk was her only deike raw flesh her only food, and a tent her only palace. In the long reign of Vouti, the fifth emperor of the powerful dynasty of the Han, which continued for the space of 54 years, from the year 141 to the year 87 be- fore Christ, the Huns were frequently defeated by the Chinese. About the year 87, the camp of the Tanjou was surprised in the midst of sleep and intemperance, and though he eut his way through the ranks of his enemy, he left above 15,000 of his troops on the field of battle. But the power and empire of the Huns were not weakened so much by their defeats, as by the policy pursued by the Chinese emperors of detaching the tributary nations from their obedience; and these generally became their inveterate and formidable op- ponents. The Tanjou himself was at last obliged to renounce the character and privileges of an independ- ent monarch, and to perform the duty of a respectful ieee homage to'the Emperor of China. The monarchy of _— we mo. the Huns after this gradually declined, till, about A. varchy, A, D. 48, it was broken by civil dissension into two hos- D.-48. tile and separate kingdoms. One of the princes retired to the south with eight hords, which composed between 40,000 and 50,000 families: he fixed himself on the verge of the Chinése provinces, and attached himself to.the service of that empire. The Huns of the north Conquests / before Christ. Wars with the Chi- nese. Defeated by the Chinese ‘before Christ 87, continued to languish about fifty years, till they were History. oppressed on every side by foreign and domestic ene- —)—— mies. The Sienp?, a tribe of oriental Tartars, retalia- Their emi- ted upon them their former injuries ; and, in the year yi Ay A. D. 98, the. power of the Tanjous, after areign of * ~” 1300 years, was utterly destroyed. The emigrations of the Huns now ‘began: above 100,000 persons, the poorest of the people, were contented to remain in their native country, to renounce their name, and mix with their conquerors, Fifty-eight hords, about 200,000 men, retired towards the south, and claimed and received the protection of the Chinese emperors. But the most warlike and powerful tribes of the Huns sought more distant countries, and moved westward in two great divisions. The first of these colonies esta- blished their dominion in the fruitful and extensive plains of Sogdiana, on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea. Here their manners were softened, and even their features were sensibly improved ; and they ob- tained the appellation of White Huns, from the change White of their complexions. The only vestige of their an- Huns. cient barbarism was the custom which obliged all, or nearly all, the companions who had shared the liberali- ty of a wealthy lord, to be buried alive in the same grave. Their vicinity to the kingdom of Persia in- volved them in frequent and bleody contests, in the F i 4 course of which they gained a memorable victory, but, unlike their ancestors, they were moderate and mildin their use of it. The second division of the Huns gradually advan- Huns of ced towards the north-west ; and, by their intercourse the nortl- with tribes more savage than themselves, their native °* fierceness was exasperated. As late as the 13th cen- tury, their transient residence on the eastern batiks of the Volga was attested by the name of Great Hungary. In the winter they descended with their flocks and herds towards the mouth of that river. It is impossible to give even an outline of the histo- ry of the Huns from this period till they became known to the Romans ; but there is reason to believe that the same force which had driven them frem their native seats, still continued to impel their march towards the’ frontiers of Europe. In their first irruption into the Roman empire, they are mentioned by ancient histo- rians under a variety of appellations, all comprised un- der the general name of Ugri or Hunni. nore Different general distinction, however, was the Nephthalite or tribes. White Huns, who possessed a rich country on the north : of Persia; and the Sarmatian or Scythian Huns, The latter are exhibited to us under the character of sava-. ges, without faith, laws, or any form of religion ; living in the open air without houses or buts, which they de- nominated the sepulchres of the living; quite umac- Manners quainted with the use of fire, their only food being and appear- roots and raw meat, and their only clothing the skins 9° of animals. They were also distinguished by their broad shoulders, flat noses, small black eyes deeply buried in the head, and the. want of beards. This race, inured to all manner of hardships and ivations, and having no fixed settlements, were delighted with the first accounts which they received of the rich and fertile kingdoms of the west. Crossing, therefore, the Volga under Balamir, one of their chiefs, they over- whelmed the Alans and Goths, who inhabited the ex- sd G: Seotae ctand a = seiinthcbe! | | ui HU i : i : i i H Pas i ¥ He i LILEREF ALE < iFeies ¥ a ¥ 4; fy | is : : G : F ' $F Fe rf t 7 I | f de : 1 | i : Fh ; 21s Hi re 7 i! lil i at : i z= : git iF 7 x | HUNGARY. ; were filled by white veils of thin linen, which the wo- History. 8347 men on either side bore aloft in their hands, and which —— formed a canopy for a chorus of f who chanted hymns and songs in the i The wife of his favourite ius, with a train of male attendants, saluted Attila at the door of ber own house, on his way to the palace ; and offered, aecording to the custom of the country, her ul * Yaw g him to taste thon oc phate had for his tion. As soon as the monarch iously accepted her itable gift, his domestics lifted a sreall Tew thao te Cecuecteed height, as he sat on horseback ; and Attila, when he had touched the goblet with his lips, again saluted the wife Cf Onepasing, ined Conmieniel Ceviandele” sins * The Romans both of the East and of the West, were Royat~ ee eee mere feast. the princes and nobles of Scythia. Maximin (the Roman ambassador) and his ae were ped on the threshold, till they had a devout libation to the health and ity of the king of the Huns; and were conducted, after this ceremony, to their ive seats in a spacious hall. The table and couch, covered with and fine linen, was raised by se« veral steps in the midst of the hall ; and a son, an uncle, or a favourite king, were admitted to share the ei and homely repast of Attila. Two lines of small each of which contained three or four were in order on either hand; the right was 7 or eet dee e most distinguished in the same manner his loyal and ful vows, This ce- remony was successivel ed for all, or at least for the illustrious of the assembly ; anda con- siderable time must have been consumed, since it was thrice repeated as each course was set upon the table. But the wine still remained after the meat had been removed ; and the Huns continued to indulge their in- tem longafter the sober and decent ambassa- dors of the two empires had withdrawn themselves banquet. Yet before they retired, singular nity of observing the i ir convivial amusements, Two ians stood before the couch of Attila, and recited the verses which they had composed to cele- brate his valour and his victories. A profound silence prevailed in the hall; and the attention of the guests was captivated by the vocal harmony, which revived and perpetuated the memory of their own exploits: a roartial ardour flashed from the eyes of the warriors, who were impatient for battle ; and the tears of the old men expressed their generous ir, that they could no longer partake danger and glory of the field, This entertainment, which might be considered as a school of military virtue, was succeeded by a farce, that debased the dignity of human nature. A Moorish and a Scythian buffoon successively excited the mirth of the rude spectators, by their deformed figure, ridi- culous dress, antic res, absurd and the strange unintelligible confusion of the Latin, the Go- thic, and the Hunnic wes; and the hall resound. ed with loud and licentious peals of laughter. In the midst of this i riot, Attila alone, without a change of countenance, maintained his stedfast and in- 348 History, flexible gravity ; which was never relaxed, except on the entrance of Irnac, the youngest of his sons: he embraced the boy with a smile of paternal tenderness, gently pinched him by the cheek, and betrayed a par- tial affection, which was justified by the assurance of his prophets, that Irnac would be the future support of his family and empire. Two days afterwards the ambassadors received a second invitation; and they had reason to praise the politeness, as well as the hos- pitality of Attila.” On the death of Attila, Ellac, by the will of his fa- ther, succeeded to an extensive empire, which, however, was soon embroiled in civil war by the ambition of his younger brothers. They insisted upon an equal di- vision of their father’s dominions, and immediatel A+ D. 453. Weakened by civil dis- sensi? took up arms to support their demand. ‘This afforded a favourable opportunity to the nations that had been’ subjected by Attila to throw off the yoke. Ardaric, king of the Gepide, accordingly declared that he would no longer obey the sons of Attila ; and other nations led by his example, hastened to join his standard. Ellac, who ssed both intrepidity and experience in war, and are = marched against him with all his forces. The two ar- compelled mies met on the banks of the Netad in Panonia, where + tora yl the Huns were utterly routed; and king Ellac fell in the to their own field, after having performed prodigies of valour worthy settlements, Of the representative of the great Attila. They after- wards received repeated defeats, both from the Goths and Romans, and were compelled to confine themselves to their own settlements for nearly sixty years. Again break | 1n 539, however, the Cuturgurianand Uturgurian Huns into the | united, broke into the empire, and laid waste Thrace, empire in Greece, Illyrium, and all the provinces from the Ionian 589, sea to the very suburbs of Constantinople. They then retired without molestation, with immense booty, and 120,000 captives. The Uturgurian Huns proceeded to their own country on the Euxine Sea ; but the Cu- turgurians received lands in Thrace, and an annual pension from the Emperor Justinian, upon condition of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies, Unable, however, to restrain them from committing continual depredations in the neighbouring provinces, Justinian had recourse to the Uturgurians; and by means of presents, and offers of pensions, embroiled the two nations in a bloody war, which lasted many years, and by which they were so weakened, that they were long prevented from offering farther molestation to theempire. From this time, no credible historian makes parti- cular mention of the Huns, till A. D, 776, when the remains of this nation, reinforced by the Avars, and other northern tribes equally barbarous with them- selves, and with whom they are frequently confound- ed by historians, seem to-have recovered their strength, and we find them masters of Dacia, Upper Meesia, ahd the two Panonias. Two of their princes sent ambassadors to Charlemagne, desiring his friendship and alliance. Charles received them with extraor- dinary distinction, and readily agreed to their re- quest ; but a misunderstanding afterwards arising be- tween him and them, he entered their territories with two numerous armies, ravaged the country with fire and sword, the Huns being unable to keep the field against so powerful an enemy. After a war of eight years continuance, he reduced them to complete sub. jection, and built strong fortifications along the Raab to repress their predatory irruptions into his territories. They remained within this boundary for more than a century, when Arnolph, emperor of Germany, in- vited them to his assistance against the king of Mo A.D. 176. Reduced to subjection by Charle- Magne. HUNGARY. ravia. Equally ferocious with their ancestors, and) History. glad of an ras tered to renew their devastationsy ST they ravaged Bavaria, Suabia, and Franconia. Ger _ ow they many afterwards became a prey to their fury; and ravage) Louis IV. submitted to an annual “aoe to get rid ate of them. In the reign of Conrad I. who also be- came their tributary, they again devastated Germany, penetrated into Lorraine and Languedoc, plundering and massacring the inhabitants wherever they went. boob The Huns were at this time subject to chiefs, whose precarious authority rested on no solid foun- dation, and were respected only because the choice fell on the bravest. Fear’ naturally attached them to the man whose vengeance they dreaded, or to whom they looked for protection in the continual wars im», D. 955. ~ which they were engaged. Their last irruption into)... Germany was severely emer the valour of Otho griven with the Great, and the united power of the German princes, dreadful who compelled them, after a dreadful slaughter, to retire slaughter within the limits of Hungary, and to fortify witha ditch inte their and rampart the most accessible passes into their country: ("" “°4" In process of time, and by their intércourse with ”” other nations, civilization began insensibly to spread among them ; and in 997, under their first king Ste+ Their king phen, they assumed a place among the nations of Eu+ — cB rope. ‘This monarch established the Catholic! reli. ‘#blishes gion in his dominions, and received from the Pope ;jjigion in the title of Apostolic, which the sovereigns of Hungary his domi. to this day retain. From him also they date the origin nions. } of many of those institutions and laws’ by which the f state is still governed.» On his death, the respect in which his:memory was held by his subjects, led them to choose his son as his successor to the throne ; and, with- t, out renouncing their right of election, to maintain the royal dignity in his family for more than three centuries. There were twenty-four kings of the dynasty of Ste- hen, few of whom, however, deserve to be drawn m_ oblivion. The most remarkable were; Ladislaus, surnamed the Saint, on account of the purity of his life, who added Dalmatia and Croatia to his dominions, and flourished near the end of the eleventh century. Geicza or Geiza II, expelled the Saxons, Austrians, and Bavarians, from Poland and a part of Hungary, where they had committed great ravages. Bela Ill. after having freed his territories from the brigands which infested it, employed himself in the internal ad- ministration of his kin . He instituted many ju- diciary regulations, which still remain in force, and was the first who divided the kingdom into counties, appointing a governor toeach. His son, Andrew 1k: was one of the most renowned sovereigns of his age. He joined the Crusade in the beginning of the thir- teenth century, with a numerous army, and acquired great glory by his bravery and skill in war; and the nobles, as a reward for their services on this occasion, received from him very extensive privileges. In his reign, the regulations of his father were perfected and formed into a national code, called the Golden Bull, which every king at his accession was obliged to con- firm by a solemn oath. The famous clause, however, which granted to every noble the right of veto in the election of their monarchs, had been so often the occa- « sion of civil wars, that it was abolished in the reign of Leopold I. in 1687. The reign of Bela IV, is rémark- able for the invasion of the Scythians, who, after hay- ing overrun Russia and Poland, penetrated as far as * Pesth, spreading terror and rapine throughout the king- » dom. Bela, surprised in his camp, was compelled to a fly. The Scythians continued in possession of the ; é 1 al ~—_ AeD.1 a Geiza II. Bela Ill. 7 A.D. 1196, — Andrew If, . lo} : Ae as FF i 1 | i peel pay, ype it. Com was “ne dissensions, Charles of Anjou was solemn- ing in 1310. Underhis reign, Hunga- Transylvenia, Bulgaria, Bow Moldavyi ont chia, received the ws of Charles. His wa iage with to his family, im 1339, beloved by his subjects and all his neighbours. ie ae : : : 4 ‘ Hh ie STE ERs At i is 3 A ut z 4 8 zt a 3 = 3 rt F ry ZESEE it Hy per SF ee Ee a fr he rT bE &, i z F 238 i Hi 4 é f A ¢ % ~ however, were too cruel to be erased from her memory, 349 that she would forget her injuries. These injuries, and repelling the oath which fear alone had extorted from her, she visited them upon the fierce avenger of presse a manner still more critel ot ie a Sigismund was twenty years of when he ascend igismund. the throne ; but the Tinle of hi Yoljn was cally Bost pr cession of wars, troubles, and calamities to Hungary. ¢o nae the Mary dying without children in 1892, new dissensions tyrone. arose ; and the Turks taking advantage of these, seized upon Bulgaria. Sigismund was defeated, and put to flight at the battle of Nicopolis ; when his subjects re- against him, seize his , and confine him in i The i then offer the crown to La- Loses and recovers his crown, In 1410, he was elected emperor Ce Mat ge ee ughter igismund by . a second marriage, inherits all his i and as- tinetek cends the throne of Hungary in 1437. This event forms Austria. the earliest basis of the Austrian claim to the Hunga- ian monarchy. The reign of Albert, however, was very short, and his death was succeeded by civil wars, which con- tinued to desolate this kingdom for another century. Ladislaus, king of Poland, was invited to the throne ; Civil wars. but soon after perished in the battle of Werna against the Turks. famous John Hunniades was then inted regent ; and on the decease of another La- the posthumous son of Albert, in 1457, Ma- thiasCorvinus, the sén of Hunniades, receives the crown from the states assembled in the field of Rakos, near Mathias seized Vienna and the other Austrian A. D, 1499. states, which he retained till his death ; and is regard- ed as the prince that ever held the Hungarian ie was brave, prudent, and generous, the friend of letters and arts, and a man of letters himself. He founded the ificent library of Buda, which he furnished with the best Greek Latin authors, and valuabl ipts. the descenclgnta of Albert again fill the throne ; but both the battle and his life in the plains of Mohats in1527, A.D. 1527. emperor im 1410, and E i defeat at Tokay, was compelled to eva- , when Ferdinand was crowned at . Some time after, the waywode The Turks returned with the Sultan Soliman, at the head ofa for- i™vade midable army, who his conquests as far as Vi- 4¥6"7- enna ; but on the death Ft ag. a, his partisans, in- dignant at the conduct of the Turks, and preferring the dominion of Austria to that of the barbarian, immedi- ately joined Ferdinand, who was crowned a second Ferdinand time. This monarch was afterwards called to the em- Avra pire ; but he retained the crown of Hungary till 1563, °°" when he resigned it to his son Maximilian. The Hun- qhe Hun. garians, however, bore the Austrian yoke with much garians beat impatience, and every new election called forth their the Austi- aversion to their masters, who led. them as their ™ yoke lawful inheritance. But their efforts were fruitless, and — — those who ventured to support the rights of the nation, 350 History. were silenced by the stroke of the executioner, In vain did Tekely raise all the provinces to revenge these_ ah AOS, outrages ; and, supported by the Turks, to w the Hungarians in their despair had surrendered them- selves, laid siege to Vienna, All Germany immedi- ately armed against the common enemy the Turks, who The crown Were driven back into their own territories, Rakotzy, declared he- Who after Tekely endeavoured to support these efforts reditary in of independence against tyranny, was equally unfortu- the house pate. The Archduke Joseph, son of Leopold I. was of Austria, acknowledged king in 1687, and the crown was decla~ A.D, 1740. red hereditary in the male descendants of the house of STATISTICS OF HUNGARY. HUNGARY. Austria. This line, however, failed at the deathvof History. Charles VI. ; but the Hungarians, exhausted by e¢onti-. nual wars, and fatigued so many fruitless revolu- owed tions, had lost that ardent love of liberty for which they submit on were so conspicuous, and which led them to brave so the acces- many dangers. They therefore submitted to the acces- sion of Ma. sion of Maria Theresa, the daughter of Charles, in 1741. tis, There- She had gained and deserved their love and affection, ** 174. | Her husband, the emperor Francis, was associated with ; her in the government, and their descendants still hold the Hungarian a The ing sketch of Hun- garian history is all that our limits will allow. Statistics, ae Honeany, properly so called, a kingdom in Eu- = — rope, and’ under i dominion ep ace lies in g 2 i \(—m Situation, Latitude 44° 33’ 18"—49° 26' 20” North; and in BE; [Sey 2 e 5 Longitude 13° 45’ 2”—22° 46’ East of Paris. Na- 2s £BQlest ets 4 ture herself points out unt boundaries of this kingdom. Covntive: 2 : $x BL Poh ee .. The Carpathian or Kra mountains separate it on ‘& |S seers ancibana east from haceaieer Silesia, Galicia, Buc- $ a |5 kovina, and Transylvania; on the south, the Danube |- IJ. The circle on t and the Drave divide it from Servia, Sclavonia; and . |other side of the Danu! Croatia; and on the west the Morau or Morava, with a |eontains 11 counties: site range of mountains lying between the Drave andthe | 1 Wieselbourg, . . 139. S7lo04) Danube, form its boundary with the Archduchy of |-2 Oedehbourg, ... 3} 38| 196) 6 Austria. According to Captain Lipsky, it contains | 3 Eisenbourg, . . -. i 43| 607| 5Y Extent, 4051 German square mile ;* its greatest length from | 4 Raab,. . . . . 1 2} 80) 35 west to east being 136, and its greatest breadth from | Komorn,. . . 5 1 5 69 north to south 77 German miles. 6Szalad, . 2... 25} 584] 101 Division, | The kingdom of Hungary is divided by modern geo- | 7 Schumegh, . . » 2 256 graphers into four circles, comprehending forty-six | § Veszprim,.. . .: 1 g) 1 177 counties, besides the districts of Jazyg, Great Cumania, | 9 Stuh' weissenbourg, 1 19| 65) 115 Little Cumania; the sixteen cities of the Zips; the six [10 Barany, . ... 1 7) $36). '73 cities of Heidukes, which enjoy peculiar privileges; {11 Toln, . . . . 17 85 and the two frontier regiments of the Bannat, and the | battalion of Tschaikistes. ‘The whole, according to the III. The circle on this} following Table, contained, in 1805, 42 royal free cities, |side of the Thiesse con-| 8 episcopal cities, 590 towns, 9214 villages, 2338 pre- tains 10 counties: dien,t and 22 cities of Zips and Heidukes. 1 Abaujwar, .. . 1 2 Berepgh, . . 2. Table of th | 8 {B. ‘¢ Os 3." *e)) J a 0! e = : . asaeien CounrTIES. fe Es & |g 3 t é F: Pe mane BPE, cine cities. FS ieg (Ss 5 a |3 ae ag ; S,| 2 |sz ae aE 6 Scharosch, 3| I. The circle on thiss" =| $ |3=z}° | |™ | | 7 Zips, 2. 20. side of the Danube con- ge ls Cities of the Zips, . tains 13 counties: S Tepe, os ES aE 1 Presbourg, 5 24| 295; 41) | 9 Unghwar, ... 2Neutra, ....} Wo 2 38| 418} 46 |10 Zemplin, . . . 3 Trentschin, . . ] 19} 39) u 4 Thurotz; . 4 . 6} 96 IV. The circle on th 5 Arw, . is ope 5} 95} 1) lother side of the Thiesse GLiptau, .... 10} 121} 2} |contains 12 counties: 7 Sehl,. (50. te'G 5 8} 147 PAPA) 2 Ls ards 1 c 8 Barsch, . . . 2 11| 201} 21) |-2 Bekesch, . 9... I 3 9 Hont, .-. 36 3 3 9} 171| 30) |-3 Bihar,. 2. 2. 1 r 10 Neograd,. . . . 10} 245} 1 ‘4 Tschanad, . . . | 11 Gren,-.. 2 3 ot 1 5| 44 8| |S Tschongrad,. . .| 1 12 Pestth. . 5 5.) 2 2 20} 165] 1 ‘6 Kraschow, ; bd 13 Baatch, . . . « 3 96]: 52| |°7 Marmarosch,. . . 4 he district of Jazyg, 8 Saboltsch, . .°. : $Do. of Little Cumania, 3 2 Cities of Heidukes, . * In this Article, where English miles are not marked, German miles must be understood. ae , f ; By the laws of Hungary, the proprietors of the soil are obliged to let out to farm one halfiof their lands to their vassals; what + they cultivate on thelr own account is called Prediens : HUNGARY. Towns. Hoeldukes, Chies of Zips and Episcopal Cities. i [i i i file A 77 i ers the cotnty of Rent. The 351 inferior, either in breadth or excellence, to any of the aid rae Apart pa amare manor d sublimest natural scenery, sees to his surprise. greatest artificial labours pli with neatness, ornament, and economy ; beautiful roads re- cesses, and over steeps, that would otherwise be im- passible ; churches crowning the most elevated sum- mits; towns and villages; and vineyards; all de- corating without diminishing the wild grandeur of the Hungarian Alps.” Indeed, the whole of this district, aa far as is ingly rich and beautiful. Statistics. —-—S The most prominent feature of the Hungarian land- Mountains. scape are the mountains, the principal of which is the Carpathian chain, or mountains of Tatra, which run in a semicircular direction from west to east, about 500 English miles ; and its summit, which consists of huge sfocinut aii) fa,che county of, ine;"is-abene 1280 ight, in coun ips, is tl Saecea level of the Black eee The moun- | tains situated in the east and south-east, are from the northern chain by a plain, which extends from. Hungary into the grand duchy of Transylvania. They take their rise in the latter province; and, follow- ing the direction of the Marosch as far as Arad, strike towards the south the Bannat upon the confines of Transylvania and Walachia; the highest of these are ee ee le mare, or, the. high mountain. on western of the kingdom, run from i empty tae Stiria Austria, as far as the Leitha; and some of them equal the Alps nearly in height. Besides these, there are other considerable mountains in the counties of Pesth, Gran, Veszprim, and Szalad, some of which po pire ipa forests of oak. ad. counties of Zips, Goemor, Sohl, Liptau, eadeonths western part of the counties of Arw, Thurotz, and Trentschm. It also abounds in the northern of Zips, where the mountains of Fleischbank, Porte de Fer, Altendorf, and some others, are entirely composed of it. Near Altendorf it begins to di , and is replaced by a ish free-stone, which covers almost th country, and forms the great mountain of ta. This stone extends along the extromity of the western frontiers of Tatra, Godivilk, and towards the south the county of Arw. From the eastern ex- tremity, it extends still more along the frontiers of Hungary, and into the counties of Zips, Scharosch, Zemplin, and Unghwar. There another kind of stone itself; clay slate covered with brown free- pear in ce it nd different kinds of opals. The boli ofthe arpa- a i t the C thians on the north-enst, congist principally of clay-elsta. The chain which stretches along the valleys rosch and the borders of the seven mountains, as far a8 5 Mineralogy. 352 Statistics. the Theisse, and traverses the counties of Szathmar “—vY~" and Ugotsch, is composed chiefly of porphyry and\gre Grottos, Plains. Rivers free-stone. In the eastern mountains, and, in general, in those of the Bannat, there is a great deal of lime- stone; which prevails also in the interior mountains. The other stones that are found there are clay-slate, brown free-stone, and porphyry. The neighbouring mountains of Stiria and Austria contain lime-stone, free-stone and granite, The mountains of Hungary, especially the Carpa- thian chain, abound with grottos of various dimensions, the principal of which are Mazarna and Dupua in the county of Thurotz, Drachenhole in the county of Lip- tau, Holgocz in Zips, Agtelek in Goemor, and Sziliacz in Torn. Bones and skeletons, partly petrified, are found in these grottos, and the most beautiful stalactites of every size and form. Those of Drachenhole and Szi- liacz are particularly curious, being filled during the summer with ice, which is formed in spring, and melts at the approach of winter. The grotto of Veteranische Hole is famous for the defence which General Veterani, with a few followers, maintained against the Turks, in 1694. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube, a little above the village of Ogradina. The rock of which it is formed is inaccessible on every side except at the entrance of the grotto, which is about four feet high and two broad, and secured by an iron gate. The interior is large enough to accommodate a thousand men; and, from the embrasures cut out in the rock, it has the complete command of the navigation of the Danube. Here also, in the last war of Austria against the Turks, the brave Major Stein, with a battalion of infantry, defied the whole power of the Turkish army, and after enduring for three weeks the most painful pri« vations, made an honourable capitulation, and marched out at the head of his surviving followers with their arms and baggage. The interior of Hungary consists of one almost con- tinued flat, excepting a chain of mountains which, taking’ their rise near the Danube, run through Gran, Pesth, and the neighbouring counties, and divide the country into two immense plains, called the Upper Plain and the Lower Plain. The former is the est, and is of a circular form. It extends from the lake of Neusiedl for about twenty German miles, to the foot of the mountains on the north, and then stretches as far as the Drave, upon the confines of Croatia. The Lower Plain is of much greater extent, and compre- hends all the eastern part of the kingdom, as far as Transylvania ; and where it approaches the mountains, is finely diversified with hills and vallies, ‘The level is evidently higher in the upper than in the lower plain, as the rivers in the former almost uniformly di« rect their course towards the Danube; and the lowest spot in the whole country is at its south-eastern ex~ tremity, near Orsova. The athian chain gives rise to innumerable ri- vers, which flow in all directions, according to the de- clivity of the ground and the sinuosity of the vallies, but which eventually fall into the Thiesse or the Da- ‘nube. The Thiesse has its source in the county of Mar- marosch. — Its course from its commencement is full and rapid while it continues among the hills ; but when it reaches the plain its rapidity slackens, and, bending towards the west, receives innumerable tributary streams from the northern mountains, Taking a south- erly direction, it is joined by the Marosch, near Szegedin, and, after a course of about 420 miles English, falls in- to the Danube not far from Belgrade, As the banks of HUNGARY. this river are low, it often overflows them, and occasions Statisties. extensive inundations, particularly in the neighbourhood’ "YY" of Tokay. Few rivers in Europe abound more with fish than the Thiesse ; and it is a common saying in the country, that it contains two parts of water, and one of fishes, -It is navigable as high as Szegedin. . The Waag or Woh fertilizes the counties of Thurotz, Trentschin and Neutra. — Circumscribed in its channel, it dashes its impetuous waters over frightful rocks, and forms du- ring its course above a hundred whirlpools. It enters the plain at Sillein, and discharges itself into the left branch of the Danube, which forms the island of Schutt, Besides these, the other principal rivers which com- mence and finish their course within the boundaries of the kingdom are, the Gran, the Gollnitz, the Hernad, the Torisza, the Sajo, the Nera, the Temesch, and the Bega, The rivers which have their sources in other coun tries, but which water, in some part. of their course, the kingdom of Hungary, are the Danuse, (of which a particular description will be found in vol.vii. p. 574.); the Drave, which rises in the Tyrol, and flows with such rapidity that its banks are neither so high nor so solid as to retain its waters. Itis navigable during the whole of its course through Hungary, and falls into the Danube above Essek ; the Samosch, the Marosch, and the Korosch, which take their rise in Transylvania, and fall into the Thiesse ; the Morava, which gives its name to the province of Moravia, washes the western boundary of the kingdom ;. the Raab, which rises in Stiria ; and the Leitha in Austria. _, The lakes and marshes of Hungary rous and extensive. Inthe Upper Plain the most con-, siderable are Lake Balaton. The Lake of Neusiedl, which the Hungarians call Tento, lies between the coun- ties of Oedenbourg and Wieselbourg. Its western bank is formed by hills, which are covered with vineyards, woods, and, cultivated fields, while the opposite shore is low and marshy, ucing nothing but reeds. . It.is about thistoommliies nglish in length by four in breadth, but so full of shallows and sand banks, that its navi tion is both difficult and dangerous. In the.Lower Plain, the principal is the lake of Palitsch, in the county,,of Batsch. It is about eight miles (English) long, having a hard bottom covered with alkaline salt. Its water is used in the neighbouring baths, and is considered y, salubrious in nervous disorders. The most remark of the Carpathian lakes is the Grune-See, which is form ed by an enclosure of rocks, and is about 300 paces)in, circumference. It takes its name from the green) co< lour of its waters, which is produced by the reflection of the surrounding pines. Its banks are covered with gravel and blocks of granite, and its water is pure and transparent, and excellent for drinking. Marshes of various extent pervade almost every quar ter of the kingdom, and are in general formed by the inundations of the rivers, The most considerable are those of Saretje, Mohatsch, and Etsed. In the plain of Bannat, they cover more than a third of the county of Toronthal, almost the whole of Temeschwar, and the reatest part of the district of the frontier regiment of aang The marsly of Hansag, which joins the lake of Neusiedl, is five miles long by three broad, | The water appears only in the middie, the greatest part being co- vered with turf, and studded with trees. It ces plenty of hay; but it is dangerous to cross it, unless well acquainted with the particular direction of the It would be proper to notice also the sandy plains, which overspread many parts of this country, the most are both angat Lakes. Marshes, Sandy plains. r pe Mew eet. yt ee. HUNGARY: 353° «extensive of which are’ Kétschkemeten-Heide, or the four oxen, beginning at: sun-rise, and finishing, at sun-- Statistics, heath pe ln hn between the Danube and set ; a fourth part of them must be performed during the == the left bank of the Thiesse; Dedreczin, inthe county winter, and, in the time of harvest, she, propeieine tats of Bihar; and the Ager Romanorwm, near Delliblat. Be- demand two in the week : a ninth part of the crop, and i i ties of Tolna, also of the sheep, goats, lambs, and bee-hives; and if Stuhlweissenbourg, Baranje, and particularly in Schu- the number is under nine, 4 kreutzers for every lamb, i $ kreutzers for every goat, and 6 kreutzers for every hive: 2 hens, 2capons, a dozen of eggs, and half a in pint of melted butter: 30 farms together pay a calf or ir damp a florin, and 30 be a a poery's ga married i prneconin as ighteen days work, and pay a florin ; this is i ap ed Fy er Wp mga la wind from the Carpathian mountains; days work: every vassal to beat the bushes three times therremarkable for a year in the hunting season : four gpg ag In some of the counties on the sessing a farm, to unite in performing a job with four P horses at the distance of two days journey, excepting in the Bannat, on the north-east part of the the time of harvest or vintage: two florins for permis< ee neta ceiacetetideenes The-piaprieen ferekkes be sepekerie seek he feel are sudden. A and inflamma- ietor furni is ¥: with w or $ sai edeatiamn the and building; and in return, they must cut acord of a healthy is scarcely to be seen. Baron wood in the forest, and transport it to the castle. The here, fancied himself in the realms of death, respective rights and obligations of the noble and his vas- in fine tombs instead of men; and sals are regu by a Statute, which is called urbarium, he was invited,all the guests had and which was provisionally confirmed by the diet in 1791. The peasant, however, holds his lands only from ng their teeth. term to term, and must resign them when proper warn- we except the barren heaths and the mountainous ing has been given by his lord. acts i i otwithstandirfg these disadvantages, the soil is so pro- Produc. any other country in Europe. It contains ductive, that the annual exportation of grain to Italy and tions — is very considerable. Wheat is the principal object of cultivation ; and in the mountainous parts of the Stal caeeidadi ete 2, ,and oats are ity, and in bat wa | SR eee sa ag peas, turnips, melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, onions, and garlic. Lint and hemp are cultivated in many of the . t farther care.the harvest is laxu~ counties; also poppies, saffron, madder, and woad, Tos But much of the grain is lost, by themanner in bacco forms a considerable branch both of agriculture i 1 ae ca penta and apron he cepa was field after it is cut until very scarce, the city rieste alone exported Hunga; rian tobacco to the amount of 100,759 pounds yo ith horsesand cattle der, and 3,263,136 pounds in leaves or carrots, The i i i Lest tehocre, te. prednand.et Tolna, Kospalogh, and Sze, gedin. aeibtivopsucahdectn ies py ney a er ey en uture are country, unless in seven of its in the bottom and sides with the northern counties, where age ome is too ot i 3 q s [ : or H ese : ul HI 3 Fs5 eae HS ie8' 5 | nM i i ; a lH i : Han iit a 4 Hl iu ta FRESE: i fit Hl al este agiest He ieee tite nh iF 3 Be LEEE ee Het i tH Mi tal ifs Hf Hi fe a it : by far i Tokay, grow on the mountain of Hegy-Allya, and on the frontiers of Austtia and Stiria, the soil re- in the county of Zemplin ; but as this mountain pros ose of the inhabitants to make it pro- duces a very inconsiderable proportion of what passes a crop; and were their exertions under the name of Tokay, they sell for it the wines of and method of culture (though still imperfect )transferred Mada, Tallya, Zumbor, Szegu, Zsadany, Toltschwa, to the southern parts of the kingdom, Hu would Benye, &c. which few but a Hungarian palate can. dis- become the of An obsta- ish. Next to the wines of Tokay, the most cid Comncapdaate ee a eentien pn pay ete ee Pet Suomen the tenure, by which the farmer holds his lands. The cultivated with great care and intelligence. The others lands are parcelled out into farms, half farms, quarter of consequence are the wines of Erlau, Buda, Neustad- farms, &c. A farm is measured by the seed it requires, tel, Menesch, Scohmla, Resmil, and Ratschdorf. being 48 bushels,, and. 12 fagwerk of meadow ; if the —_ Although the climate of H be very favourable. orchards, a at ae ey eg 0 mie ee for the cultivation of all kinds.of fruit, very little atten- In Croatia they distinguish three kinds of , good, tion is paid to them in the Lower Plain, . The orchards. middling, and bad. A farm of the first quality is 21,000 are confined chiefly to CEdenbourg, rg, Neutra, square toises ; of the second 34,000; and of the third and the neighbouring counties, where chesnuts, almonds,, — 40,000, The annual burdens attached to a farm in epoca paaneed les, and pears abound, and are of Hungary are, fifty-two deya work with two horses, or firs} quality. Entice forests vt of plumtrees flourish Y : : F - r 354 Statistics. in the counties of Trentschin, Neutra, and some others ; and their fruit, both fresh and dried, is exported in great quantities to Austria and Prussia. The meadows and pasture grounds of Hungary are very much neglected. They cover 1,483,008 acres, and yield about 17,085,985 quintals of hay. The northern and western districts of rangery abound in immense forests of fir, pine, and oak, interspersed with yews, ash, hazel, and linden, which overspread nearly nine millions of acres. In the district of the frontier regi- ment of Walachia, the forests cover 465,862 acres, and afford employment and profit to many of the inhabi- tants. In 1802, there were drawn from these woods the following articles, which will give the reader some idea of their value and importance. 58,446 pieces for the construction of wheels. 1,414 cubic toises of ash. 108,732 staves for casks. 2,725 do. for scuttles. 2,560 do. of oak, ~ 80,920 do. of beech. $44 cubie toises of oaken joists. 702,800 staves. 2,363 planks a foot square. 900 green poles. 11,013 planks for boat building. 5,298 laths. 1,704 planks for scaffolding. 40,624 do. of linden and maple. 1,099 do. of hazel. 196 posts of do. The forests of Hungary produce an immense quantity of gall-nuts, which, from their exportation during ten years, (from 1777 to 1786,) yielded 516,679 florins of revenue, In the south, however, from Pesth to Debret- zin on the one hand, and from the mines of Bannat in the county of Kraschow to Peterwardein on the other, a wood is scarcely to be seen. In this district the fuel, on account of the scarcity of timber, consists chiefly of reeds, and cow dung made into bricks with straw. On the pastures of Hungary are reared a great num- ber of cattle, which forms one of the principal sources of national opulence. The oxen are nearly equal to those in Kent, which are the finest in Europe. They are generally of a whitish colour, or light grey, and are valued for their great weight, and the fine flavour of their flesh. About the conclusion of the last century, there were reckoned in Hungary 797,540 fat oxen, 89,805 bulls, and 1,508,177 cows; and according to the commercial tables, during ten years of the same pe- riod, the exportation of oxen amounted to thirty mil- lions of florins, when a pair of oxen sold only for 50 or 60 florins. The horses are in general small, but are equal to any in Europe in elegance and swiftness. They have been, however, much neglected; and, notwithstanding the many attempts.that have been made by the government for their improvement, they are still far removed from that state of perfection of which they are capable, The royal studs at Mezoehegyes in the county of T’schanad, and Babolua in the county of Komorn, were established by the Emperor Joseph II. ; and from them 60 stallions are regularly distributed every year throughout the country, to produce a more noble breed. In 1795, the stud of Mezoehegyes consisted of 10,000 horses, of which 1000 were mares, and 60 stallions. It is under the direction of a major, 12 officers, 50 sub-officers, and 200 soldiers, besides grooms and labourers; and is obliged to furnish annually 1000 horses for the ats Woods, Animals. Horses. HUNGARY. . of every description my. There are also several private studs, of which the Statistida most considerable are those of the lordship of Holitsch, ! established by Francis I., of Prince Esterhazy. at U- zor, and of Count Palfy at Dertrekoe. The small size of the Hungarian horses may be attributed to their be« ing too young when brought to the yoke, and to their scanty nourishment. They seldom give them hay, but drive them out at all seasons to pasture; and even when on a journey, they are sent into the fields, to find at oe a4 time food ree rest, e Hungarian sheep are very beautiful, especially she those with forked peg of which none are reared + = any other country, except on Mount Ida, and in some of the islands in the Archipelago, Their wool, how- ever, which is long and hairy, is used only in fabrica- ting coarse stuffs, which are worn by the » In 1773, the Austrian government pe Shared preae rail the wool of the native sheep, by the introduction of Spanish rams ; but it was long before this practice be« came general. At present, however, many of the no- bles possess immense flocks of the improved breed, and draw from the sale of their wool a considerable reve« nue. Some of these flocks produce annually about 1500 quintals of wool, worth 274,000 florins, Flocks pass the winter in the open fields. The shepherds, whom they call juhasz, are very little Shepher rented from savages. ey abe under ground with their dogs, and, ex a boy or two who assist them and bring their food from the village, and the merchants, who in the beginning of summer come to. make purchases, they seldom see a human face. Yet retired as they are from the world, they are fond of or- naments in their dress; and though their clothes are of the coarsest description, and besmeared with grease, they trim their hats with ribbands of various colours, bm have their leathern girdles thick studded with bright metal buttons. s bacon is a favourite dish with the Hungarians, Hoge. they rear an immense quantity of hogs; and the head of a family who had not a piece of fat pork on his table at Christmas, would be regarded as a very bad econos mist. The consumption of this animal in the is so great, that they have none of their own to spare for exportation ; but they carry on a very lucrative trafa fic, by buying them in Turkey, and selling them to their neighbours. According to the Commercial Ta- bles, they annually purchased in Turkey to the amount of 531,978 florins, which they sold for 895,337 florins, Among the animals of this country may also be men- tioned a race of shepherds’ dogs, of a white colour and noble size, and also a breed of immense mastiffs, ° Bees and silk-worms form considerable branches of in« dustry in this country, and it abounds also in poultry“ and game. Fish are so abundant in Bungtty) that they form an important branch of industry and com-. merce; and sturgeons, salmons, pikes, carps, es, &e, are to be found in all the principal rivers. In 1803, they were exported to Austria to the amount of 98,230 florms. ' <4 Hun, abounds in minerals of every description; \inerals, gold, si te copper, lead, iron, mercury, cobalt, anti- mony, salt, slate, &c, which, in their exploration and manufacture, afford employment to a great i of its inhabitants. Native gold is found in the of many of the rivers; and in the Koeroes, pieces of the size of a nut are picked up by the inhabitants of the Bans nat, who upon an average gather to the amount of 900 ducats. In general, however, it is extracted from the auriferous sand, which is not only taken from the chans 4 eee Ctieeenn £33 4 HY PSPESEE TUsT ys Ret in ila i f REE EPH ne ea iip alt Hh ee aa tea stab aly st juli UREA a ital rine abit LE: petits peti TG Ei neha Tihieta He He ater aie HOHE H | Bers ait i nell elt nanny! Ele eee Pibrisat fey saetdagaeeareeere deg TE iti | ERA all Ar i bd. a4 : UE HE Se rt ne ae ea i = Hied: = sani Gl Bir ihe Huta SRT istenil Mh ee 2 . - : 3 : nhs jin pata ios qe rit inh : Mine i ih HEH Uber Bae Ae ani HATE Hida 3 salu atiial Letiteey iE Ht i iy i a Bol: Hein Rai ii me 1 ini! ee viuiii HH eh i HE ii] like an i eae HALT —" Bi ii i Statistics, Essaying laboratory. 856 rise to the surface, and are raked off in the form of sco- riw, which they carry, as lech, to be fused again in the first operation. The lead thus combined with. gold and silver, is collected into large crucibles, and carried to the fourth fusion, or fifth operation, for the sepa- ration of the lead. 5th, The furnace used for the separation of the lead is called a purification furnace. The shape of it resem- bles a hollow sphere, whereof the upper part is so con- trived, that it may be taken off like a lid, being raised by large chains. Here the richest ores that can be procured are added to the compound of lead, silver, and gold ; and the whole is fused, not with charcoal, but by means of a flame.drawn over the superficies, unin- terruptedly for twenty-four hours at least. During this process, the lead becomes calcined. A portion of it is absorbed by the bottom of the furnace, consisting of wood-ashes and. silica; another portion escapes in a gaseous form; but the greater part is raked off as it rises to the surface, in the form of galena, by men em- ployed with instruments for that purpose. During all this operation, the gold and silver concentrate more and more, until at the last they are found pure and combined together in a cake of metal, at the bottom of the purification furnace. Then follows the sixth . and the most beautiful of all the operations,—that of separating the gold trom the silver. ’ 6th, The cake, or combined regulus of gold and sil- ver, obtained from the purification furnace, is separated into thin ‘pieces in this: manner: It is melted, and, in a state of fusion, cast into cold water. By this means it is obtained with a very extended superficies, and ea- sily divided into a number of thin scales. These are put into immense glass retorts, of a spherical form, nearly filled with nitric acid, Here the silver dissolves, a gentle heat being communicated to the retorts to ac- celerate the solution. It has been usual to exclude foreigners from the great laboratory, where this takes place ; but as we had witnessed every operation, we were also permitted to view the interior of this cham- ber. The sight was beautiful. It was a spacious and lofty hall, filled with enormous globes of glass ranged in even rows, whence the nitrous gas was escaping in red fumes to the roof; the solution of silver being vi- sible in all of them by the effervescence it caused ; the gold falling at the same time, in the form of a black powder, to the bottom of every retort. After the solu- tion of the silver is completely effected, the acid con- taining the silver, by augmenting the heat, is made to pass into another retort, and the gold is left behind in the former vessel. Afterwards increasing the heat to-a great degree on the side of the silver, the whole of the acid is driven off, and the silver remains beautifully crystallized within the retort. All the glass globes containing the crystallized silver are then cast into a'ecommon furnace, where the glass, by its levity remaining on the surface of the metal, is removed in the form of scorie. This is the last operation... The gold is smelted into ingots of 12,000 florins each.” “In the essaying laboratory, instead of the long process we have described for extracting the precious metals from their ores, two simple re easy experi- ments are suflicient.. The first is a trial of the pulver- ized ore by cupellation. About a tea-spoonful of the pulverized ore, first weighed, is put into a small cupel made of calcined bones: this being exposed to the heat of a erful furnace, the lead, semimetals, &c, ‘are either absorbed by the cupel, or they are sublimed. Nothing remains afterwards'in the cupel but a small bead of combined gold and silver ; and by the propor« HUNGARY. tion of its weight to! the original weight of the dre,the | Statistics. value of the latter is Fret ee : Phe gold is'then see ““V-—" parated from the silver by the solution of the: latter in nitric acid; and the difference of the weightofthe gold from the whole weight of the two metals combined, determines the quantity of silver dissolved by the atid.” «* A hundred pounds weight of their richest ores cons tained from four to five marks of silver; and éach mark of the silver about 15 deniers of gold.” - The mines are wrought y at the expence of the crown, and partly at the expence of individuals, who pay a duty called urbur, and are besides’ obli to deliver the metal at a fixed price to the royal trea- sury. The number of miners employed by the crown at these mines amounts to 9,500, of whom 8000 are at Schemnitz ; and the expence to government of working is estimated at 50,000 florins a month, and the ‘clear profits during the same period 12,000 florins, about £1338, calculating the pound sterling equal to nine florins. . The workmen are paid, when the ore’ is rick, according to the quantity and quality of the ore raised, but when it is poor,’ recéive wi The Schem- Produce 6 nitz ores, in the space of thirty-three years, (from 1740 the mines. to 1773) prod seventy millions of florins in: gold and silver ; and those of Cremnitz thirty millionsduring the same period. The greatest luce, however, was derived from them in: 1780, when they yielded 2,429 marks of gold, and 92,267 marks of silver, making 3,043,000 florins, In common years, according to the calculations of Born and-Feérber, these mines, including the copper mine of Neuwsoh/, where:one quintal of cop- produces twelve ounces of silver, yield ‘from 58,000 to 59,000 marks of silver, and from 1,200 to 1,300 marks of gold. 4 ve a The silver mines in er Hungary at -Banya, Felsoe-Banya, and Lapie Bangin in the tnt ae Szath- mar; at Metzenself in the county of Bihar, with the copper mines of Retz-Banya and Schmoelnitz, accord< ing to Mr Ferber, give an annual produce of from 12,000 to 15,000 marks of silver, and from 300 to 400 marks of gold. The copper and lead mines in the Ban nat at Oravitza, Saszka, ka, and Moldava, yield annually about 11,041 marks of silver, and 203 marks of gold. y ' The copper mines of Hungary produce annually from Copper 80,000 to 40,000 quintals. The richest are situated at mines. Schmoelnitz in the county of Zips, and im the Ban- nat. The lead mines in 1786 were t to the extent Lead of from 14,000 to 15,000 quintals, but this produce is now considerably diminished. i The iron mines in this country are almost inexhaust~ Iron ible. The best is drawn from a mountain called Hra- dek, near Esetnek ; but as this metal is not subject to any duty or tithe, the annual produce of these mines have not been ascertained. In the county of Goemor, including the district of Kleinhont, there are eight great furnaces, a floating furnace, eighty-seven ‘small ones, and forty-nine forges, which furnish annually 94,200 Q quintals of iron, worth 1,304,240 florins. But notwith« f standing the great quantity of iron which this country ; produces and exports, they are obliged to be indebted t to Austria for most of their tools and vessels made’ of this metal. ttt Ty GUT » Manganese is found near Felsoe-Banya; and in some Metals. — of the iron mines ; Titaniwm, in the county of Goemor f near Roeze ; and tellurium, which was discovered by Dr Kietaibel in a mineral of Deutsch-Pilsen in the county of Hont, Many valuable and beautiful mi. 3 = = TO sy, Mer } .» 9 | Gall-nuts. ... ..» . 240 Fox-tails....... $71 | Olives ....... 288 Horned cattle . . . 2,384 | Olive-oil ...... G4 MCAIVER™ 0 crete sts co 129 | Frankincense ... 48 Horses : . - 609 | Raisins. ..... . 304 EOD sc ots sits 3,150 | Buck-horns..... 19 (lone, 3 ai sti tees L830. | RUGS 5 5 sneie- seit nue Le Hogs outs 6, SPOOL AEUNE dle cs igus ue 23,349 UB ss. 6, 6s 214,584 | Soap ...... . 1,268 Tortoises. .... . 2,239 | Reed-mats . 627 Salt meat .....6,053 | Boots........312 Beef tallow. ... . 4,419 | Cordage ..... 5,750 The imports which enter by the Danube are of the same description as those in the preceding Table ; but their. amount is comparatively inconsiderable. Of co- lonial produce Hungary consumes annually about 8,000 quintals of coffee, and 10,000 quintals of sugar. U the whole, notwithstanding its commercial difficulties and obstructions, the exports of Hungary are to its imports, in the proportion of more than four to three. According to the calculations of Schwartner, durin ten years (from 1777 to 1786) its exports were wahied at 148,229,177 florins, and its imports at 106,721,371 florins, : The money, weights and measures of this country correspond nearly with those of Austria. In money, the common reckoning is in florins and kreutzers,—60 kreutzers being equivalent to one florin. The copper coins are ; the polturak, equal to a kreutzer and a half; the zel, value of half'a polturak ; and the ungrisch, of which five are equivalent to three kreutzers. The ideal or fictitious money of Hungary, consists of the bauer-gulden = 494 kreutzers the kurze-gulden = 50 do. the vonas-gulden = 51 do. and the ort ee do. The measure prescribed for corn throughout the kingdom is the Presbourg bushel. In the county of Zips this measure is called a kudel, and is divided into two korelzs; but in other places the kubel is divided into four koretzs or veka. The eimer is the general measure for wine, but it varies in its contents in diffe- rent parts of the country. At Oedenbourg it contains 84 halben or pints, and at Buda only 60. The great eimer of Debretzin is 100 pints, and the small one 50. In consequence. of this discrepancy of measures, the merchants presented a remonstrance to the committee of commerce appointed by the diet. On this subject they remarked, that such a variety of measures were the Theisse. -only in 1802, It receives the waters of the Danube at h, and discharges itself into the Theisse- _ tals; and their HUNGARY. hurtful to commerce, and destroyed their credit among to hold an eimer and a half, in general contained scarce- ly an eimer ; and that a piece of wine, which ought to contain 64 halben, has seldom more than 58. The foot of Vienna is the standard square measure for surveying. According to a regulation called uréa- rium, the joch or acre is fixed at 1600 square toises ; but in some of the counties where this regulation has not been introduced, this measure varies greatly ; as at Oedenbourg, for instance, the acre measures only 900 square toises. wes The weights are in gerieral the same as_at Vienna, (except the stein used in Upper Hungary, which weighs 20 pounds) viz. 1 quintal (ewt. 1 Sotind ( ) 1 mark 1 loth 1 quintale 100 pounds, 2m 16 loths 4: quintales or drams, 4: deniers. « WU The greatest obstructions to the commerce of this country arise from the difficulty and expence of con- veyance. pact in the. districts on the north and west, there are few made roads in Hungary, and these are kept in very bad repair. The bridges in general are wretched, and almost all built of wood, which the rising of the rivers often carries away and destroys. Some of the flying bridges, however, used in.this country, are very magnificent, and are adorned with consider~ able elegance. That over the Danube "at Gran con-< sists of a large platform constructed across two barges, and held by other boats at anchor. It is provided with several small houses, a large bell and cupola,. images, &c. and is capable of conveying, at the same time, a great number of carriages, passengers, and cattle. From Pesth, the centre of Hungarian commerce, the road to Vienna passes through Komorn, Raab, and Wiesel« bovrg; to Gallicia, by Erlau, Kaschau, and Eperies ; to Transylvania, by Debretzin, and also by Ketschke- met, Szegedin, Temeschwar, and Lugosch; to Wala- chia, by Temeschwar, Karansebes, and Schuppenek.; to Semlin and Belgrade, by Theresienstadt and Neusatz ; to Croatia, by Stuhlweissenbourg, Veszprim, and Kanis- che ; and to Stiria and Treiste, by Veszprim, Somogy, and Pettau. — is : Statistics, - foreigners ; that an antal of Tokay wine, which ought ~~~ Weights, Roads. Bridges, The transportation of goods by water, though more expeditious, suffers many interruptions, from the shal- lows and rapids in the rivers. The Danube itselfis far from being tree of these inconveniences ; but boats with from 6000 to 8000 quintals of grain can pass as high as Komorn. The formation of canals, however, whi of late become an object of improvement, promises to fa- cilitate greatly the internal commerce of this country. Those that are finished are the canal of Baatsch, the Bega canal, and the Tranzisci canal. The Bega canal commences near Facsed in the county of Krascho, and after forming a communication between the rivers Bega and Temesch, traverses all the Bannat, and falls into The Tranzisci canal was first opened Monoflor. at Foldwar ; and in its whole extent requires only four sluices. In 1804, there passed through this canal 634 boats, many of which carried from 4000 to 5000 quin- which we here present to the reader, will enable him to form some idea of the inter- nal commerce ef thiscountry, = + has Canals, HUNGARY. $59 ‘) Salt’ 5 See.” 52,443 quintals towns and vi The Croats dwell principally on Statistics. Wms Xess eo. eimers the banks of lake Neusiedl, and counties of —“v——" Wheat. :..°...... 607,8742 bushels Wieselbourg and Oedenbourg ; and the Vandals on the Meee aes ee 1640 do. mountainous parts of Eisen . The Rasciens or anes le fate ove, 16676 = agent Ses oe eee SOMME. SS eS ee ee 4,407 Sigism ey occupy a great part “Oats 0. ee eee eee orice do. of the military frontiers, and also many places in the Breit : 2°. ...- «++... 1,250 quintals interior, and have had considerable privileges granted and Silver. ..... 2400 dao. to them by the kings of Hungary. ; irate siclels = » « SHEOD. “do. The Walachians, who are su to be the de- walachi- Fire-wood ......+-+..-.- 850 do, scendants of the ancient Reman ies, dwell chiefly ans. Oak-plank ......-.-+-- do. in the Bannat on the confines of Walachia, and in the NE Gade else oo ate oe do. counties of Arad, Bihar, and Szathmar, in 1,024 towns ty casks 6... ..--- 2,376 do. and villages. Those of the Bannat bear a very bad eax dg sialeale mary iy: ~ ie *¥ character. are noisy and quarrelsome, fond Bay 5 es rere ees 280) do. of gambling. and crimes, Marble ...... et ea twye do. which have been attributed y. Beene sor err Bag as Free-stone ..... Bie%e + 300 do. priests, who are called Popes ; it calcula- Tobacco . 2... ee ee ee « 271 do. ted, that in twenty executions for capital offences, there Planks ...... SFel siete ye 1,444 do. is always one pope. Mill-stones ...-..+-+.- 402 do. The German tion is peat thane hw ys A Wheel-barrows ........- "2 do. over all the-ki , but it predominates in 921 vi Pie oes Ft . 115 do, * lages and towns in the counties of Zips, Eodenbourg, Earthen-ware.......-.-6,189 do. and Wieselbourg, and in some of the royal free cities. ‘Hoops: .....+5+--+- 100 do, They are almost all Suabians, and their reception as Lime......++-++-++ 1,450 do colonists into H is of a late date, chiefly between : ‘ the years 1765 nd 1787 In the last of these years Population. The of H is much less in propor- alone more than thirty villages were built for them. In tion to its extent, than that Loner gape pe coun- oe 8 a penne pce eget tries of Austria, Moravia, or Bohemia; and this may Geek the goveroutent ware than six milieu oF @s- Suite ne nar eaihen of mouieet hee tins. The population of the royal free cities varies from and the great numbers of morasses and heaths, 30,000 to 1,100 inhabitants. Pesth, and De- f which render a great portion of the lower entirely in, are the most populous ; but on the lake i ne iedl, in 1794, contained only 1,105 inhabitants. Of the towns, the principal are, Ketschkemet, contain- every mile. These consist of a variety of na- ing, in 1803, 24,000; Nagy-Koros, 12,000; Szarwasch, abs Sieaguriend, Glavons, Welachiane, Germans, Se. 9,000 ; Sazbereny, 12,000 ; and Bekesch, 11,000 inha- most fruitful part of the kingdom. They inhabit al- tainous districts they seldom exceed 700, most all the lower plair begining at Marmarosch,and _—_ Besides bared sep nations, there are also Macedo- the western part of Hungary, form the population —nians or Modern Grecks, who have no settled habitations, but travel over es oeaniey, oapaet entirely in com- labours of agriculture, to every other employment. hemians or i is Vv. race are very nu- ‘ isti asaieata ; and, in spi of all the attempts YPsies and military half-boots, with spurs fastened of the Emperor II. to and civilize them, : by they still maintain their ancient customs and habits. and men; and the Hussar uniform, which is pe- Those of the Bannat get their livelihood as itinerant FEF ee nhs its of wood. bar an ee tee ap Pa Naat Marco form the at all ings and merry Slowacs Croats, Vandals, and Servians or meetings; and many of the richest nobles invite them Rasciens, The Slowecs inhabit chiefly the counties on to their castles, to amuse their guests with their music the north and north-west, those of Pres- and national songs. Schwartner, in his Statistics of . y H , attempts to account for this variety of popu- towns and villages, Of all the inhabitents of lation: “ From the earliest history, Hungary has been oer hay kets CREE Ge ne. the native abode of the Sarmatians or Slavonic tribes, er have ed themselves among Hunga- Since the fourth century, it has been the hospitable rians or Germans, these have ceased to provper, and region where the innumerable hordes which 360 Statistics. wealth-in Europe,—as the frontier of Christendom, the “—"Y~"_ theatre of European valour and Turkish ferocity,—and for a long time the cherished homes of the ies, the El-Dorado of the Germans, especially of the laborious Saxons, and numerous Suabians.” The inhabitants of Hungary may be classed under three heads, viz. the nobility, the citizens, and the pea- sants, The nobility are very numerous, and are calcu- lated at 325,894 individuals, making nearly one. for every twenty-one inhabitants and a half. These consist of the barons of the kingdom, or officers of state, and the: order of Magnats (liberi barones). Of the latter there were, according to the Political Almanack of 1805, 95) families of counts, 79 of barons, and 297 of noble stran-. gers, who had obtained letters: of naturalization’ since) the commencement of the Austrian sovereignty. ‘There, are only, three families whose heads:enjoy the title of prince: Esterhazy, Bathyany, and Grassalkovies. The first is supposed to be the richest subject in Europe. Among the nobility, also, are included all gentlemen who possess, landed property, as the individual doing so is ¢pso facto ennobled. The title of citizen or burgh~) er belongs only to the inhabitants of the royal free ci- ties, who have particular privileges; and their num- ber, including the inhabitants of the six free cities of Croatia and Sclavonia, amounts to nearly 366,000.) The peasants are the inhabitants of the country, who: belong neither to the noblesse, the clergy, nor the mi- litary, but, who live entirely by husbandry, the culti- vation, of the vine, or the rearing of cattle, Of these they reckon 509,825. With them may also be classed 788,993 other individuals, whom they call haiisler, who have no lands to cultivate, but who live by their own labour. The government of Hungary is a limited monarchy, where the king enjoys great authority and influence ; but where the nobility also have extensive rights and numerous privileges, The order of succession is esta- blished in the descendants: of either sex of the House of Hapsburg, who at’ their coronation must take an oath in the presence of the diet, to preserve and main- tain inviolate the liberties, privileges, rights, laws, and usages of the kingdom at present existing, or which may hereafter be decreed during their reign ; never to carry the Hungarian diadem out of the kingdom, but to entrust to two Jay guardians elected by the diet for the purpose; to unite to the crown of Hungary all the countries which it formerly possessed should they be reconquered ; to restore to. the estates of the realm the right of electing,a king after the extinction of the line of the descendants of Charles VI., Joseph I., and Leopold [.; and that each of their successors shall be bound to sanction this conservative act at the diet of his coronation within six months after his accession. The prerogatives of the monarch consist in his exerci« sing the executive power in its full extent; but the le- gislative power he holds only in conjunction withthe diet, whose decrees alone have the force of laws ; the nomina- tion to.all bishoprics and abbeys, and ecclesiastical digni- ties, as also to all civil and military appointments, (the Palatine, and the two keepers of the crown exce} who are chosen by the diet from a list of candidates presented by the king); the of making peace and war, and of calling out the perso- nal levy ;,the right to the revenues of all vacant be- nefices, as also to the properties of all deceased nobles who have died without heirs, or who have been con- victed of treason or rebellion ; the immediate superin- tendance and direction of all establishments of public Classifica- tion of the inhabitants, Govern- ment. Preroga- tives of the king. HUNGARY. “trates. Besides the royal free cities, there are others which possess particular privileges ; the most consider-~ wer of creating nobles, . instruction, whether religious or temporal, whether Ca- tholic or Protestant ; and the right of convoking the diet, of pointing out the matters that are to be there discussed, and of proroguing or dismissing it. The privileges of the nobilit , by.an act of the diet in 1741, were formed into a fundamental law of the king- dom, and consist in the-right of assisting at the deliber- ations of the legal assemblies of the county, wherein they dwell or possess property, whatever be the sub- ject under consideration ; the inviolability of their per- sons from arrest, unless.in the cases of felony, high-way robbery, and some other crimes ; the sole right of pos- sessing lands with the.seignorial power over their vas- sals; and the exemption from all contributions and imposts, The royal free cities enjoy the.same rights as the no- Royal’ pr- bles without exception, and are subject to the same Vileges. laws and usages. They are considered as domains of the crown, which can neither be alienated nor mort gaged. .They constitute the fourth. order of the diet, and are represented by two members each; and the ci« tizens elect their own burgomasters, judges, and magis- Privileges of the no. bility. able of which are the sixteen cities of Zips, which were mortgaged to Poland by, King Sigismund, but re- stored to Hungary in 1772. Their jurisdiction, civil and military, is independent of the county; and they enjoy the right of appeal from their own tribunals to. the supreme courts of the kingdom, Their population: is 45,000. The six cities of Heidukes, in the county of , Saboltsch, which possess nearly the same privileges, . and send two deputies to the diet. They contain about. 27,500 inhabitants ; and the districts of Jazyg, of Great and Little Cumania, which form a population of 112;723 souls. They are under the immediate juris« diction of the palatine, and form, like the royal free ci. ties, a domain of the crown. They pay neither oa nor tithe, and send two representatives to the diet. , these, however, are subject, like the other cities, to the , general contributions. The peasants, since 1791, by an act of the diet, are Peasants. no longer attached to the soil, but are at liberty to — leave their habitations at the proper term, and seek an- . other lord. Formerly it was not permitted for plebeians . to plead in, law against a noble; but the free cities . pleaded for their individual burghers, and one noble defended the rights of his vassals against another. By © the diet of 1802, however, it was decreed, that, for the - future, citizens and peasants should be permitted, in certain cases, to prosecute for themselves. Plebeians, © also, as such, may fill the highest situations in the » church ; and it is not unfrequent, that, on account of | their learning and good conduct, they obtain letters of _ nobility. When once ennobled, the career of honours is open to them, and they may then aspire to the first » offices of the kingdom. The principal officers of state are the palatine, who, Officers of besides other duties, presides. at the assembly of the S* diet, is viceroy in the absence of the king, and general« © issimo of the Hungarian troops; the grand judge of . the kingdom; the bann of Croatia, Dalmatia, and - Sclavonia ; and the grand treasurer. . : The. Diet of the states is composed of four orders, Diet of the viz. the prelates ; the lay-barons and the magnats ; the state. representatives of the counties, each ey em two members ; and the representatives of cities, They are invited to the diet, in the name of the king, by letters of convocation dispatched by the chancery ; . * 4 py HUNGA-RY. 861 and these letters often contain a statement of the differ- whom must be present, in order to constitute its’ deci- Statistics: t points that are to be there discussed, that the coun- sions valid. It pronounces on all disputes _ j i property, the maiming or murdering of nobles, to their deputies. A ing to the constitu- crimes of high treason. It is also a court of appeal, one but a noble, that is, one who and holds: four sessions during the year. ; can sit and deliberate in i diet. The inferior and special judicatories are the four tri- Special _ assembled, all the members are considered as bunals of the circles, which decide only in civil cases, judicatories. ; nei i i having no criminal jurisdiction ; the county tribunals; which have also four sessions, and take cognizance: of all matters civil and criminal, except in cases of high treason ; the district tribunals; the city tribunals ; and of the kingdom, the governors of the tribunals of individual nobles. Croatia has also a court of appeal called tabula banalis, which sits at Ag- ~ iet ; ram, and of which the ban of Croatia and Sclavonia is most numerous body, constitute the chamber of states, president. It has the same jurisdiction within these where cat gran judge Passe When a motion has provinces: as the royal table at Pesth, with this differ- pont chambers, king has the power of con- ence, that an appeal may be carried from the tabula ing or Tejecting it, his approbation being necessary banalis to the royal table. to give it the force of a law, The bases of Hungarian jurisprudence are the corpus Jurisptu- internal police of the kingdom is administered juris Hungarici; decretum tripartitum Verboeczianum, dence. su aulic chancery, the council of govern- ‘and decisiones curiales. The corpus juris Hung. is a ment, and other subordinate courts. The first sits at collection of all the decrees passed by the diet from the i i ices commencement of the monarchy, and was first formed in 1584. Since that time it has received so many ad- + ditions, that it is increased one half; but, latterly, these King laws have been so ill digested, and so intermixed with * iti other matters, that the confusion which is thus occas sioned renders the study of them both difficult and la- borious. The decretum triparlitum Verboeczianum, is a collection of customs introduced into the administration of justice, which, by long usage, have received the ne it : : f : : : Te aH ret Hie Taal Frofaa iF ul FE 5 LE L $ [ fet 1 SF F 7 i d i il tl 4 f 2 Fs r ? i é at Buda; and consists of the palatine, who is president, force of laws. This collection was made by Verboecz, and 24 counsellors. It has the superintendance of all the grand jadge in the rtign of Ladislees Il. ;.and m1 ne ear perrelgedprenien eeroyd aren vam py rg, em j as a national code by seve~ lice and public safety, and the inspection of churches, ral » yet, the course of time, it ac- and commerce ; and decides in all matters of liti roughout the kingdom as forming a legitimate part respecting the services of peasants towards their lords, of Hungarian Sew. The 5 these hi are the dee se : cisions of the judges of the royal table on certain ques- The subordinate courts are those of the counties and tiene to. whicli-1 isting Jaw could be directly ap- free cities.. Each county has its governor and two vice- plied. They were col by order of Maria There- governors, a r and vice-procurator-fiscal, a re- sa in 1769; and, after having revised by no ceiver- and. assistant, a notary, &c. The go- temviral and royal tables, were published under vernors are Pt tee epee dena joabenaperr title of planum curiale. primate, the princes and The revenue of Hungary arises from three sources ; Revenue. Bathyany, the counts Kobari, Illeshazy, Palfy, N ly, the reyal domains, the regal duties, and the contribu- aborn, Csaky, Erdody, and baron Revay, who are tions or imposts. The royal domains consist of the SeErriranac of eanntion; dinates sneglotoates kron-giiter, or such property as is attached to the crown, — and is a ; and the kammer-giiter, that ae governor convokes eounty w belongs to ing personally, and which he can dis- ever he thinks it necessary, and all the nobility within pose of at his so The annual value of both pa saga Pom y me! to a Aen oe _ police 7 vd 6,000,000 of florins. The regal dutics com- oe 4 i pre’ tl t of the salt, which is supposed | agriculture of the county ; the election of their de- to yield nearly £800,000 florins; the mines, which, 3 the |e ions after deducting all expences, produce 1,097,000 florins ; r the decrees of the the duties upon exports and imports, valued at 1,300,000 diet, and of the council of government. The magis- florins; the quit-rents of the royal free cities, and of the a bu » sixteen cities of the Zips, amounting to $4,000 florins; a counsel, a notary, &c. to whom are en the ad- the royal exchequer, which brings 94,000 florins ; the ministration of justice and police within the royalty. _ toleration tax paid by the Jews, producing 100,000 flo- j rins ; the tax of 5 per cent. upon all employments, to which is attached a retiring pension, vieidin 87,000 florins ; the ecclesiastical subsidy, which, in 1781, was members, but it is now 71,000 florins. To these may be added the post-office, to twenty-two, of whom the palatine is pre- the tolls upon the bridges, the tax of 10 per cent. which It is only a court of cassation, and receives all must pay who their fortune out of the country ; al table and inferior the lottery ; and the s, of which there are two, one the grand judge at Presbourg, and the other at Buda. The contribu- of tions or imposts are levied upon the counties and cities. 22% &e.; it encourages agriculture, industry, —— such reputation, that it is actually acknowledged ? tH z EF : dt i ab Ae | | : 362 Statistics. ‘The total amount is fixed:by the diet, and. is divided into porten or portions, each of which is valued at 688 florins, 50 kreutzers. Every county and. city is then burdened with so many porten according to its —popu« lation and resources, which they collect from the citi« zens and peasants. The sources of this branch of the revenue arises from the poll-tax.; tax upon cattle, &c.; the land-tax paid by the farmer ; and a tax upon trades, &e. The total amount of the contributions in 1802 . was 62103 porten, making 4,277,827 florins, 124 kreut« zers; to which may be added 113,615 florins, 582 kreutzers for Croatia. The total revenue of H cannot be well ascertained, as the different items given above are not for the same year, and authors are also much divided in opinion respecting it. Schloezer makes it 13,500,000 florins ; Busching, 18,000,000 ; De Luc. ea, 15,000,000 ; Schwartner, 11,750,000 ; and Demian, who is the latest author, fixes it at between 15 and 16 millions of florins. After deducting the public expen- diture, the surplus, according to Schwartner, amounts to 1,002,296 florins. The management of the finances is entrusted to the royal chamber of Buda, which is independent of all other authority within the kingdom, and corresponds with the royal treasury at Vienna. It administers all the royal revenues, except the contributions, which are lodged in the government chest, and the mines. and mint, which are entrusted to.a particular council. Since 1802, the Hungarian army, exclusive of the frontier regiments, is formed of twelve regiments of infantry and ten regiments of cavalry, making an arm- ed force of 64,000 men. The military cordon, which extends along the frontiers from the Adriatic tothe coun- ty of Marmarosch, is formed of seventeen regiments of armed peasants, each regiment having its particular dis« trict; viz. eight in Croatia, three in Sclavonia, two in the Bannat, and four in Transylvania. Each regi ment has two battalions, and in time of war a batta- lion of reserve; the whole, exclusive of the reserve, amounting to 49,402 men. There is also a regiment of hussars, whose complement, in time of peace, is 1364 men and 1212 horses. The Hungarian’ army is maintained by an annual contribution, fixed by the diet in 1715, which is levied upon the citizens and peasants, and amounts to nearly three millions of flo- rins. The country is also obliged, to furnish bread and forage necessary for the troops at a fixed. price, whatever be the price of these necessaries in the ublie markets; and the loss which is thus sustained be the counties, is computed at about a million of flo- rins. The extraordinary contributions, however, which were required during the late wars with France, were paid almost entirely by the nobility. In addition to the permanent army establishment, the diet, in urgent cases, grants a levy at the request of the king. During the middle ages, every Hunga- rian noble, by a law.of the kingdom, was obliged to arm himself and his vassals in defence of the country when threatened by an enemy; and in cases of imminent danger, the whole nation took up arms. The levy now, however, is confined to a certain additional force, fur- nished and paid by the counties and cities. The first levy of this description was raised in 1741, for the war of the succession ; and in the first .coalitions against France, regular levies were decreed by the diet; but they were always too late of being brought into. the field, to be of any service to the common cause. The levy of 1797, 40,000 strong, was scarcely assembled before the peace. of Campo Formio was concluded ; that of 1800 was stopped in their march by the peace ‘Finance. Army. Kevies. HUNGARY. of Luneville 3 and that-of 1805 was withdrawn onat. Statistics. |e count of ‘the peace of Presbourg. 4 iy All religious ‘sects enjoy full: toleration «and security Religion. in this kingdom, as well-as in/other parts of the-Aus- trian dominions. c tholie ed religion, and is under'the jurisdiction of threearch- 6. och, bishops, Gran, Kolotcha, and Erlau ; 14: diocesan bi« shops, and 16 titular bishops; 16:\metropolitan chap» ters, and two others of collegiate churches; 178 bene- ficed canons, and 79 honorary: canons; 1 -archabbot, and 146 abbots;/19 grand provosts, and 89 provosts. The revenues of the bishops and chapters are very con- siderable ; and, according to Schwartner, that of the former, in his time, amounted to 864,776 florins, and of the latter to 530,668; but, according to Demian, they may now be valued, when taken er, at above two millions of florins.. The inferior clergy-are coms posed of pastors and monks. Of the former, there are 4189, including 2298 rectors, 402 chaplains, and 1489 curates; and of the latter are $059; including 2236 priests, 214 novices, and 609 lay brethren. The Em- peror Joseph II. increased the number of the pastors, so that every commune, containing a certain number of parishioners, should have one; and fixed:their allow= ance at 800 florins for each rector, and 240 for each chaplain or curate. According to Grellmann, the Ro- man Catholic pastors, comprehending those of Croatia and Sclavonia, receive 1,379,500 florins, © But, while the Emperor Joseph augmented the number of pastors, he at the same time De 2 134 monasteries, con taining 1209 priests 275 lay brethren... There are still 186 remaining, of different orders: the Piaristes, who have two residences. and 23 colleges; the Bene« dictines, four abbeys: and three residences’; the Pre- montres, five abbeys ; the Citeaux, twoabbeys and three monasteries; the fathers of Charity, ten monasteries ; the Cordeliers, 61; the Minimes, eleven; the Capua chins, seven; the Dominicans, four; the Carmes, one3 the Servites, three; and the mes Fevey ah one. support of these religious beggars, since ' were pre= cluded from ncnidiaegiiia costs the chest of religion 75,000 florins a. year.. There are also: ten convents, containing 274 nuns and 116 lay-sisters ; six of the order of Sta. Ursula, two of Sia. Elizabeth, one of Notre Dame, and one for English ladies at Buda. Six convents had been suppressed by the Emperor Joseph, containing 152 nuns and 39 lay-sisters. 1802 there were 500 monks and nuns of the sw . convents still living, who received pensions from the chest of religion ; the priests and nuns from: 300. to, 200 florins, and the lay-brethren and sisters 150 florins. The num- ber of Roman Catholics m the kingdom is calculated at about 4,000,000. The Greek Catholic church, whose members amount Greek’ to nearly 500,000, is under the direction of two bi- Catholic shops, who are suffragans to the Roman’ Catholie arch- church. bishop of Gran ; two chapters composed of two grand provosts; eleven beneficed canons and six titular canons, and 820 pastors.. The revenue of the two bishops is 28,000 florins, that of the chapters 9150, and that of the pastors 78,000 florins. Belonging to this church, : are eight monasteries‘of the order of St Basil, contain« ing 68 monks, 21 novices, and 17 lay brethren) The Greek Schismatic Church-has five + ee ana Greek suffragans of the metropolitan archbishop of Carlowitz — in Sclavonia, whose dioceses contain 1120. parishes. There are ten monasteries of this religion, having a re- venue of about 17,000 florins, and are inhabited by 82 monks, .This sect amounts to 1,877,587 souls, Lutheran The Protestant Evangelical, or Lutheran-Church, shurch. The Roman: Catholic is the establish. Roman Ca- HUNS. See Hunoary. HUNTER, Witutam, M.D. celebrated as a physi- cian and author, and as the collector of the Hunterian museum now in Glasgow, was born on the 23d of May 1718, at Calderwood, his father’s estate, in the ish of ide. At the age of 15 he was sent tothe university of Fem where he passed five winters, eee by his father for the church. This pur- suit, ever, did not accord with some modes of think. ing which he had adopted ; and an acquaintance which milton, inspired him with a taste for the medical pro- fexsion, to which accordingly he attached himself. He 1740 and 1741 ; and in the summer of 1741 he went to London, where he lived in the house of Dr Smellie ; for publication. Mr Hanter, obtaining his 's Con. sent, of this offer. ‘His father died soon after, is and ina months, he also lost his patron Dr Dou- gat whe died, leaving « widow and two children. Mr unter continued to reside in the family, superintend- ing the education of the children, and prosecuting his Society hi lages of the joints, in which he shewed that, to the ideas previously entertained, they were form a cr Ban me ag thom Seg teeth. ing with applause is anatomical = suits, he wished oa some years lectured to a society of naval surgeons, and declined Nn tans eons Mr Hunter. In commencing hi course, he felt great solicitude ; but he soon inet with applause which encouraged him. He had little difficulty to encounter compared to one who commences such an undertaking, without previ- 364 HUNTER. Hunter, ous introduction ‘to public notice, His eminent talents He, after this, became engaged in some personal Himter, William. were in the first instance exereised in a field in which disputes with the present Dr Monro, senior, of Edin. William. they were sure to be-recognised. He therefore proceed- ed, not merely with confidence, but with enthusiastic zeal, in the pursuits in which he somuch delighted. The profits of the first winter put him in possession of a lar- ger sum than he had ever before possessed, 70 guineas; but.as his generosity led. him to supply the wants of different friends, his fund was completely exhausted before next winter, and he was even obliged to delay his lectures for a fortnight for want of money to. pay for adyertising. This incident, together with the ulti- mate inutility of some of his generous acts to those who were the objects of them, impressed on him a lesson of prudence, which preserved him ever after from similar inconveniences, and laid in part the foundation of that fortune which he expended in.a public-spirited manner. In 1747, he became a member of the college of sur- geons; and in the spring of the following year he made a tour with the son of Dr Douglas through Holland to Paris.. The beautiful anatomical preparations of Albi- nus which he saw in Holland inspired him with admi- ration, and an ambition to emulate their excellence. He returned to resume his, lectures ; and in the mean time he practised both surgery and midwifery. But he soon gave up the former of these branches, and attached him- self to midwifery, in which his late preceptor Dr Dou- glas had been eminent. He was elected, in 1748, surgeon .accoucheur to the Middlesex hospital, and the following year to the British lying-in hospital. These appointments, together with his agreeable person and address, in which he furnished a favourable contrast to Dr Smellie, who at that time enjoyed a high reputation, promoted greatly the extension of his practice, which was rendered still greater by the death of Sir Richard Manningham, and the retirement of Dr Sandys. In 1750, he obtained the degree of M. D. from the university of Glasgow. At this time, he quitted the family of Mrs Douglas, and took a house for himself in Jermyn Street. In the summer of 1751, he paid a visit to his mother and other relations in Scotland, where he had an opportunity of exchanging congratulations with Dr Cullen, who was now, like himself, rising into emi- nence, and was established as a physician and professor in Glasgow. In 1755, he was made physician to the British lying- in hospital on the resignation of Dr Layard, was ad- mitted licentiate of the college of physicians, and soon after became a member of the medical society of Lon- don. He published, in the Observations and Inquiries of this body, a history of an aneurism of the aorta. Dr Hunter turned his extensive practice to very eminent account, by adding to the pathological and medical knowledge of the age. He had. the merit of first explaining the nature of the disease called retrover- sio uteri, and distinguishing it from other diseases with which it had been confounded ; he explained the tex- ture of the cellular membrane, and the pathology of anasarca and emphysema; he also threw much hght on the subjects of ovarian dropsy, diseases of the heart and stomach, and hernia. For his papers on these and many other subjects, we refer to his Medical Commen- iaries. In 1762, he was consulted during the pregnancy of the queen, and in two years after was appointed physi- cian-extraordinary to her Majesty. In 1767, he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and enriched their Trans- actions with his learned observations on the bones of animals found on the banks of the river Ohio, and on the rock of Gibraltar, burgh, on their contending claims to priority in anato- mical discoveries. This contest became keen, and was enlivened with wit and pleasantry ; but probably more was lost by the irritation which it created, than was in any respect gained by either party. A man, in de« fending his own claims, is tempted to expose every de- fect which tends to shake the general credit due to his adversary, and the feelings which are most profitable and becoming for men of liberal pursuits are ‘extin« guished. Those are happiest who feel no temptation to enter on such controversies, or who, if accidentally betrayed into them, soon perceive their pernicious ten< dency, and in good time relinquish them. The sub« jects of dispute were indebted to both of these celebra« ted anatomists, but they both had been anticipated in some of their boasted discoveries by Haller, in others by Nouguez. The principal of them were the origin and uses of the lymphatics ; the possibility of injecting oe e a5 A fee the excretory ducts of the lacry« mal gland. : In 1768, Dr Hunter was elected a member of the Society of Arts, and was appointed anatomical profes« sor to the Royal Academy of Arts. By now applying his anatomical knowledge to the elucidation of painting and statuary, he displayed in a new field the versatility and extent of his genius. In 1781, he was unanimouse ly elected to sueceed Dr John Fothergill as president of the London Medical Society. In the same year, the Royal Medical Society of Paris elected him one of their foreign associates; and, in 1782, he received a similar mark of honour from the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. Dr Hunter’s most distinguished publication was his Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus, which he began in 1751; but, from his great ambition to give it in the most com~ plete state, he delayed to publish it till 1775. In consequence of a memoir read by Mr John Hun- ter in 1780 to the Royal Society on the functions of the placenta, Dr Hunter was led into another keen dis- ute with this eminent man and near relation, in which e claimed, with considerable warmth, the share of me- rit which belonged to himself in the discovery. He seems to have perceived that he carried these disputes too far. They promoted an irritability of temper; which must have created to him much uneasiness; and it was remarked by those who occasionally conversed with him on professional subjects, that sometimes, when an organ or function was barely mentioned which had been the subject of a dispute, he broke out into a tor« rent of abuse of the knavery of his adversary. In the supplement to the first part of his Commentaries, he ex- cuses his polemical appearances by representing enthu-« siasm as necessary to promote the sciences, and observ+ ing, that no man had ever been a great anatomist whe had not been engaged in some violent dispute. Dr Hunter was long employed in collecting and ar+ ranging materials for a history of morbid concretions formed in the human body. This design, however, was left imperfect, along with others contained in difs ferent manuscripts. : his . The magnificent museum, which we have already mentioned, is a monument which’ will perpetuate the name of Dr Hunter. The systematic manner in which he planned and conducted that undertaking was cha- racteristic of a strict philosophic prudence. He did not follow the occupation of a collector under the influence of a passion the effects of which might afterwards inter- fere with his private happiness. He first laid aside a HUNTER. 368 tune to some plan of public utility. In 1765, he pro- Re ted phast on» pest exe tovoding ing, and to endow a pro- ee ee: He ee receive — encouragement ernment which he expected ; and, dndakde the Fist of Sbdberte entered sq much into the scheme as to offer 1000 guineas to en- courage the execution of it by means of subscription, the doctor's delicacy would not allow him to accede to this and he chose to execute it at his own nce : for which purpose he a house in Great Wind- oer teammate Ewell ot he Lag gla an amphitheatre apartments for dissection, be- sides a magnificent room for a museum. Previously to this time he had confined his collection to human, com- ee eee eer te mee Sttended is views to the formation of a general museum, inclu- ee ee eee Oe In an account of a of this collection published by his friend Mr Cothbe, m, in ten days after his March 1783. His fi- [ Fb ge to the preservation mentation of it. [t has already been enriched with resort to it which it has so long and so deservedly at- — tracted. (H.D.) HUNTER, Jonn, an eminent surgeon and author,and Jared brother to the subject of the ing article, was born at Long Calderwood on the 14th of July 1728. He was about ten years old when he lost his father ; and, beingthe youngest child, was so much indulged by his mother, that, though sent to the grammar-school in Glasgow, he made no iency in his studies, and at last leav~ ing them, lived for some time idle in the country. Tir- ing of this mode Of life, he wrote to his brother Dr Hun- ter in London, ing to become his assistant in his dissections ; or, if that would not suit him, to go into the army. The doctor gave him a kind invitation to London, and he went up to himn in September 1748. The doctor found, on a very short trial, that he ised to become an expert dissector; and, entertaining great hopes of him, gave him every encouragement to persevere in professional pursuits. The following summer he at- tended Chelsea hospital, where he learned the first rudi- ments of practical . By the succeeding winter he had made such proficiency, that his brother left in a measure to him the superintendence of his pub- ic dissecting room. In the following summer he re- newed his attendance at Chelsea hospital, and the sum- mer after that he attended at St Bartholomew's. In 1753, he entered as a gentleman commoner at St Mary’s Hall, Oxford. In 1756, he was appointed house surgeon to St George's hospital, where he had attended as a pupil the two preceding summers. In 1755, he was admit- ted to a partnership in his brother's lectures, His un- common dexterity in making anatomical preparations, and some distinguished discoveries which he made in anatomical science, gradually raised him to great celebri- ty. He traced the ramifications of the olfactory nerves on the Schneiderian membrane ; he demonstrated the mode of termination of the arteries of the uterus in the placenta ; and he was the first who discovered the lym- phatic vessels of birds. By directing his labours exten- sively to comparative anatomy, he Tnid the foundation of his id anatomical museum. These labours were not conducted with the design of exhibiting pre- parations of the entire bodies of different animals, but for the more useful purpose of illustrating, in a regular series, the varieties of organization subservient to each function in the different classes of animals. He appli- ed to the keeper of the Towar, and other persons who — aa a to procure - bodies of = poo that ied ; had generally in his possession living ani- mals of different species, for the purpose of observing their manners and instincts. Two anecdotes are related his brother-in-law Sir Everard Home, that are very stic of his enthusiasm in this amusement. Two leopards which he kept broke loose on one occasion from their den, and the howling of his in the same yard alarmed the whole neighbourhood. Mr Hunter ran into the yard, and fi one leopard scrambling over the wall, while the other was surrounded by the dogs. He without reflection seized both of the leopards, and of Jed them back into their den ; but immediately after, when he thought of the risk which he had run, as an unlucky irritation on their part might have terminated in his immediate destruction, he was so much agitated that ee On another occasion while he was ing with a young bull, a species of amusement in which he had delighted, the animal got — down on the ground, and would have grésieded te utmost extremities, if a person luckily coming to the had not reseued him. - In 1767, he was made fellow of the Royal Society, Hunter, John. 366 and formed a party.of.friends, who met at a coffee- house to discuss points of science after the meetings of the Society, which he soon found to increase, and to consist of some of the most, eminent men of the age. It contained Sir Joseph Banks, Dr Solander, Sir Charles Blagden, Sir Harry Englefield, Mr. Watt of Birmingham, and. several others.. An accident which he suffered, the rupture of the tendo achillis of one leg in dancing, led him to study particularly the surgical pathology of that part, which he illustrated by experi- ments on animals. In 1768, Mr Hunter went to the house which had been occupied. by his brother in Jermyn-street, as the latter moved to his house in Wind- mill-street, which he had just completed, and adapted on an extensive \scale to his, learned pursuits... Mr; Hunter was thus placed in a favourable situation for private practice, and he now became a member of the College of Surgeons... In May 1771, he published his celebrated work on the natural history of the teeth. In the following July he married Miss Home, of whom the present Sir Everard Home was a, younger, brother. The latter was then at Westminster school, and was brought up by Mr Hunter to the profession. of surgery. It is to this gentleman that we are indebted for the in- teresting life of Mr Hunter, prefixed. to.a posthumous edition of his book on Inflammation. Mr Hunter's pre- gress in acquiring practice was at first slow, as he was not possessed of those winning manners, and did not study those superficial arts by which many rise in. this respect to distinction. But the weight of his character for genius and professional industry at. last brought him into the highest repute. His income was greatly: augmented ; but it was chiefly expended on his muse- um, to which he also regularly devoted. his mornings: from sun-rise to the hour of breakfast. He continually laboured to turn his physiological discoveries and obser- vations to account in improving the art of surgery. To enumerate his improvements would far exceed our li- mits, and they are only to be learned by perusing his va- luable works. He always delighted in making acute dis- coveries, and striking out new views. It is in explaining the phenomena.of inflammation in its various forms, and the principles on which the healing process under various circumstances is conducted, that Mr Hunter’s genius is most usefully displayed. Some of his opi-: nions cannot be easily admitted as well-founded; such. as his doctrine of the life of the blood, and.of the iden-: tity of syphilis and gonorrheea, Inthe winter of 1773, he began to give lectures on surgery, in which he deli-: vered a full account of his practical improvements, as: well as: his pathological views, . His first. two courses were given gratis. He continued to improve compa-: rative anatomy by the dissection of various animals, some of which were rare and curious, ‘such as the tor- pedo and the gymnotus electricus, the electrical organs: of which he described. He repeatedly dissected the ele phant ; he discovered those receptacles in the bodies of birds, to which the air passes through the lungs, which threw a new light on the function of respiration as per=. formed by that class of animals.. He engaged an artist to live with him, for the purpose of making drawings. of such parts as did not admit of being. preserved, ..In 1776, he was appointed surgeon. extraordinary. to his Majesty. In the autumn of that year however, he was taken dangerously ill, and began to reflect seriously on his situation and that of his family. Ashe had expended his fortune in his museum, he was desirous of making it appear to advantage, that it might bring its value after his death. Accor ingly, as soon as his health permitted he arranged it, and made. out a systematic catalogue of HUNTER) | its contents en ss repos wi Peal meen Rania rosecute siological and surgical investigations; Job. - - 4 ras papers heaven by him after this a and numerous in, period, appeared in the Transactions. of the Royal Socie« ce In 1788, he had the honour of being admitted inte the Royal Society of Medicine, and the Royal Academy of Sur of Paris. The lease of his house in Jermyn< street having at this time expired, he purchased one of a large house in Leicester Square, on which he was tempt~ ed to expend above £3000, which sum was ina, measure lost to-his family by the shortness of the 2 Here he had ample accommodation for his museum, The eclat which this great object gave to him, however, was very great; and the services of his friends and the public were always readily furnished, when they could.contri« bute to adorn it with new. articles in com ive ana tomy... In.1786, he published his work On the Vene« real, and his Observations on certain parts of the Ani« mal Economy, consisting of a collection of papers which had appeared in the Philosophical Transactions. About this time his health began to decline, and he was obli« ged to resign much of his laborious duty to ‘his brothers in-law Mr Home; but we find him still active in add« ing to the stock of professional information. ..He wrote some physiological papers, for which he obtained the Copleian medal. In 1792, he gave up his course of lec« tures entirely to Mr Home. But he continued to re+ ceive splendid marks of public respect; he was ap pointed inspector-general of hospitals, and s general to the army; he was made a member of the College of Surgeons of Dublin, and one of the vice- sidents of the Nebabeas College then first establi in London, He continued to write various papers which appeared in the Transactions of the Society for promo« ting medical and chirurgical knowledge. His health during the last twenty years of his life was greatly impaired. The symptoms of his'disease, which was angina pectoris, are minutely described by Sir Eve« rard. Home in the account of his life. The first attack was brought on by mental irritation, and, though he was liable afterwards to slight affections from causes of difs ferent kinds, every severe attack arose from some men- tal cause. Unfortunately his mind was easily provoked by trifles, while matters of real importance produced no effect. He died suddenly under an accidental irritation at St George’s hespital, while he laudably attempted to controul it, till he obtained information of the circum- stances by which it was occasioned. This event took place on the 16th of October 1793, in the 65th year of his age. He was aman of uncommon originality of thought, which he displayed under considerable deficiencies-of general-erudition. In this respect he was a contrast to: his brother, who united genius with erudition in an emi« nent degree. This circumstance seems, however, to have: had the effect of concentrating his attention more come: pletely in his favourite objects of-pursuit, and to have given a character of more obvious originality to alk his’ writings. . Though ambitious ofa high name imhis own: line of investigation, he was not envious of the well: merited honours ef others. But he was liable:to strong: indignation at the presumption of ignorant oe or indolence.. He was prone to undervalue too much’ those professional men who were his inferiors im merit,’ and. who, while they paid no homage to: his. doctrines, made feeble attempts to shine by their own light... He was frank in his manners and conversation, a decided. enemy to all deceit and intrigue, but on the whole too apt.to speak harshly of his cotemporaries. The museum which he left, was. purchased by the HUN ‘3670 HUN ~ Brit ‘then? committed-to» the ‘indebted for their possession. This invaluable crea- Hunting. pe ae na: ae a aN and-is . ture is trained not only to rouse the game in the forests, “~Y—~ now contained in asplendid hall fitted wp forthe pur- to pursue it on the plain, and after a successful chace, pose, a professorship of comparative anatomy is instead of devouring its prey, to watch until the ap- attached to i nn eeemenniesninaannel the of its master, or to lay it uninjured at his feet. , week for the greater t substitute could the huntsman find for his dog? of the year. This museum affords a brilliant of Deprived of its aid, those excursions which enable him d ive views and persevering assiduity of to return laden with spoils, would terminate in fatigue \the colleetor.. It presents a very extensive collection and disappointment. , ee Arne such ‘@ manner, as to Hunting is ‘prosecuted after a variety of fa- Modes ef oo ev soa eve oalaia joan on vn a wild a ; im the ions of ised nature from description of the game. 1. Wi imals are hunt ene bvieae iw don- pape sey einen, specially trained for that purpose. als to the beautiful complication exhibited in the fa- 2. They are caught by various stratagems ; 2s by nets \bric of the human body. It is divided into four parts, and pitfalls, or in traps formed either tage we te ee ey jects; and 4. The parts subservient to the propagation low, or ty s. ‘These are the principal me- of the species. We understand that the arrangement thods employ the world in destroying ' Man is en in incessant warfare against the rest Animals rative anatomy. In this museum, the eye surveys asin of the creation: the numbers sacrificed by naturally | one vast landscape all that is interesting in the sublime him exceed all credibi ; for scarcely has he come in~ bent eech : the hi interest, ee ee ee i by moderns, it bitably ‘exists in respect to the earliest of those vast efforts, which have been made snakes. The rhinoceros, herbivorous animal, is said i : E i . r : f i 3 : t i ; z | | Hl | i F ; : ; it H E: 7 } H al sgt S38 i 3 Hl rs iH ib improve ucation, is little known ; but it appears to hunt in to combat the power and instinct of animals. SS eee their this way it does not dread to attack the most feroci- ous of os (ews . In Africa, it has been tox z 9 peaendint sree Freda a observed, that dogs hunt with much sagacity, - | F i Fee : fi i] : i i et into a . While employed to subdue with merely satisfying their h A are said to the horse, the ox, and the elephant in their native wound an Gesevey new thing tue in their which i tries, and are so y veleed, reo te thy ernhiem of Africa, The wolf, the fox, and jackal, all hunt in ~ Hence have resulted various expedients troops, though each may be seen alone in quest of Bettis tehis ktchcly heen animals. prey. But many animals are nature sdlitary in thatman is chiefly their pursuits, and seem jealous of the presence of each lr | | : ! 368 7 HUNTING. Hunting, other. The lion never hunts-in company, and is said —— to chace its prey at full speed by the eye, from. its sense of smelling being obtuse. It makes a spring when within r of the object; but, if foiled by dis- tance, skulks away, as if ashamed of the disappoint- ment. The tiger, a cruel and terrible destroyer, is ge- nerally single in its immediate attack ; and instead of trusting to speed, like the lion, it lies in wait in some thicket, whence, with an astonishing leap, it pounces on its victim in an instant. Immediate death follows a blow from its tremendous paw, and the prey is then dragged off to be devoured at leisure. Nothing ean restrain the ferocity of the tiger; not even fire, the dread of all wild animals. It is the terror of the forest ; it attacks man as readily as beasts, and even ursues boats while navigating rivers, As the fatal Clow. is always inflicted by the paw of this animal, in like manner others evince the same uniformity in the mode of hunting and killing their prey. The! wolf bites it in the throat; the jackal invariably seizes a cow by the udder; and the crocodile, fixing its teeth in the nostrils, draws its prey into the water to be drowned. rd a great extent of territory, and driving numbers of Hunting: wild animals into a narrow space, where their destrue-. ~~~“ tion is accomplished at will. Some of the sovereigns of China have carried an army of people into Tartary, and occupied themselves several months uninterrupt- edly in the chace, while the monarch himself, unable to use fire arms, dexterously shot the animals with arrows. The modern princes of Hindostan were wont to ad- vance with 400 or 500 elephants, besides horses, and all the necessary equipment of several hundred dogs, nets, and weapons, to the country where the game was sought, Even in Scotland, we read of hunting matches conducted on a great scale, where 12,000 men were present, and when “ thirty score of wild beasts” were killed. But the real hunting for profit and utility, in which many thousands engage for subsistence, is con- ducted by small parties, or by individuals only. It appears that in Britain it was very common for ladies anciently to participate in the pleasures of the chace, The lion is a large and powerful animal, less ferocious, py yn¢ and not equally dreaded as the tiger, perhaps from an the lion, imaginary attribute of generosity, and from the belief that,it never wantonly kills its prey. Nevertheless, the Animals Man, in every country, has availed himself of the lion is alsoa terrible enemy, and its roar inspires all other employed to instincts evinced by certain animals in hunting their animals with fear. Shaw, the eastern traveller, affirms, hunt. prey, to aid him in the chace. Dogs of many differ- ent kinds are trained to it, and in every possible fa- shion ; either running down the game by speed, con- quering it by absolute strength, or dislodging it from its haunts, or merely | ag out its position. In the East, a species of panther, there named cheeta, but more eommonly the hunting tiger, is taught to pursue the antelope; but if caught young, and sles up among mankind, so much of its activity and fierceness are lost, that it proves unserviceable. ‘Therefore the cheeta is always taken old in pits, and soon becomes familiar with its keeper. The cheeta is carried hoodwinked on a eart to the vicinity of the game; and being then un-« hooded, steals from bush to bush, until approaching within 70 yards of it. Rushing forwards with surpri- sing swiftness, by a dexterous use of its paw it throws the animal down, and seizes it firmly by the throat, until it feels that respiration has ceased. Sometimes the cheeta cannot be induced to run; but if it is for- ward to the chace, it seldom continues longer. than for 300 or 400 yards, within which space the antelope is either caught or escapes. If disappointed in its original spring should it get near enough, or be. foiled. in the course, it lies. down, testifying much disappointment ; and in its resentment will sometimes, though rarely, turn on its keeper. On the day of hunting, the cheeta is kept without food, at other times it is allowed 4 lb. of flesh daily. The lion is said to be taught by the Afri- cans to hunt for them, as is also reported to have been practised by the ancient Romans. In this country, we teach the ferret to hunt after rabbits; and, considering that many animals are susceptible of this education, it is not unlikely that more would be trained to.hunt, were not their use superseded by the universal employment of the dog. There is hardly a situation in which the dog is not serviceable. . There is scarcely an, animal which it will not venture to attack, when encouraged by the voice and, presence ofits master ; and it equally paenstes the capture of the terrestrial and the feather ed tribes. The most general mode of pursuing game is by a small and select company of huntsmen, and then, per« haps, the greatest success attends their exertions ; but in some countries, vast multitudes assemble, surrounding 5 that the wild boar is principally its prey ; but some- times after so courageous a defence, that victory has in- clined to neither, or both have been found lying dead together, and torn in pieces, We have said that the lion never hunts in company, and on this head M. Golberry relates, that a lion anda lioness having discovered a wild boar on the skirts of a forest, the latter sprung forward to the attack. Having furiously seized the boar by the throat, she lashed its sides with her tail, while the lion sat a tranquil spectator of the combat, which lasted five minutes, seemingly indifferent to the struggles of both. At length the boar, yielding to the force of its oppc nent, fell with horrible cries; and, only when the lion leisurely advanced to participate in the repast of his mate. It is supposed that. the lion will not at~ tack women, but the number of victims evince the fal= lacy of this hypothesis. However, it is confidently afs firmed, that no person is in danger who has courage to look the lion stedfastly in the face. An African coa lonist of the Cape of Good Hope having unexpectedly inet «lion; leytlled ‘his quam, but, the ball. fall short’ as the piece hung fire ;, and, apprehensive of the conse- quences, ‘he immediately fled. The lion closely pursued him, when the colonist, leaping on a small heap of stones, resolved to defend his life with the butt end of his gun, being precluded from loading it again, as he had unfortunately dropped his powder flask in his flight. At this moment the lion made a sudden stand also ; and then lay down, at the distance of a few paces, quite unconcerned. Meantime the colonist durst not move; but the lion, after remaining before him com- pletely half an hour, slowly retired. The fleetness of this animal enables it to keep up with a horse gallop- ping: and its strength is such that it cam drag away a eifer with perfect facility. In general, it is said to lie in ambush, wlience it springs upon its prey; but. should the object be missed, no second attempt is made ; the lion returns silently to the spot, to practise more address on the, next occasion. Probably animals are more usually preferred, but there are instances of asingle ‘lion attacking a whole caravan. The lion is hunted by horsemen on the plains, and large dogs, but not of any ticular species, are used to dislodge him from his unts. At the first sight of the huntsmen, he always en- | HUNTING 369 ‘ _ Honting. deavours to esc yy speed; but if they and the dogs | 1s his or : nce ha ietly sits down to wait their attack. The does ir rush on; and he has time roy two or three, each with a blow of until tear him in pieces. Twelve or six- teen are, in hireenac trestle mateh, Huntsmen on the i in ae ; not the number of dogs, one, when with- e Spied sh dhe Bien , leaps off his horse, and aims at the animal's heart ; but he must instantly remount, in order to fly from its i ed. Should he miss, the ays narrowing the circle until this is a moment of danger, as nearest to him. my ie z ty : i ‘Ant bei : aetna beckons ths eakeal iin, cad her: ee eee re . , no sometimes so as to measure 15 feet from had set him,” as it is called, stealing long a wore a himself of all incum- brances, he a broad sw: te ne the moment of the g, with y as singular sa tiger takes possession of a tenth of tie GatstbA dls mine daily. This ani- is hunted in various fashions, but chiefly by a nu- F E i if TG i is ul : rFe : | : of a tiger is«liscovered, which is generally in a jungle Hunting. near the carcase of a mangled animal, < line de eo s- than one; and as the tiger becomes lethargic when sa- tiated, and does not remove far from the spot of its de- ions, the jungle is entered with much precaution. ere the is made with the largest and best _ trained elephants; and it is they that first disclose the presence of the tiger by a peculiar kind of snorting and trumpeting, and likewise an uncommon agitation. The tiger is prone to spring on an approaching object ; but if skulking off, the whole covert becomes impregnated with its smell, and the elephants, uncertain of its dis- tance, and always dreading an attack, frequently be- come perfectly vernable, nor can some be restrained from flight. A certain emanation from the body of the lion and the tiger, even when unseen, has a power- ful effect on other animals; and men themselves have experienced a kind of shuddering sensation solely from that cause. The huntsmen who, mounted on their ele- phants, are not above ten yards asunder, immediately on discovering the tiger, fire from a piece of large calibre ; but should the shot not prove instantly fatal, the tiger springs up with a furious roar, and endeavours tu at- tack its enemy. Particular danger may thence ensue, and both skil| and oe a —_ hunter expeditious! ng his discharge for his own servation. The elephant may then.be brought pee to crush the fallen animal, and gore it with its tusks ; which, although quite dead, it often testifies a repug- nance to do. Horses shew the most decided anti- pathy, and dogs take a tour around the carcase. Some- times the tiger will spring upon the elephant, and put the hunter in the most perilous situation. Notwith- standing its intimate resemblance to the cat in every thing, the tiger takes the water without hesitation, and it has been known to force its way into a boat in spite of all opposition. It does not appear that hunting this ferocious creature solely with dogs is ever attempted : indeed it could not be accompli without great loss tothe huntsman. It is taken in nets, however; but the sport is dangerous, for the game is apt to recoil on its ——— ; and besides, the nets are not always of su t strength, nor is the tiger so perfectly enve- and secured, as to be deprived of the power of doing mischief. Tigers are caught, but very rarely, in a eee constructed like a igo cage, and baited with a live dog or goat, which is confined in an interior division. They are likewise shot by a single sportsman, who, having discovered a carcase half devoured, ptly constructs a platform of bamboos 15 or 20 feet high, and there awaits the return. The natives of the hills of Ben- set poisoned arrows in their path to be di from a bow of extraordinary strength, sometimes so Saat oy se Weapon penetrates to the heart. It is ifficult, however, to give it the proper direction from the step of the tiger, which effects the discharge. Even though the arrow does not touch a vital part, the poi- son speedily a to operate, and never fails to de- ma stroy the animal within an hour. The same apparatus is used with an arrow free of . By means of the vi s warfare carried on ti many places India, formerly almost uninhabitable, are completely cleared of them. In other parts they are still common, and the appearance of one inspires the whole neigh- bourhood with alarm. The panther, leopard, ounce, and lynx, all of the Loopard. ; Sa 370 Hunting, feline tribes, are closely allied in habits) anc disposition —_— Hyena. Wolf-hunt- ing. _plished its destruction, ‘these animals. to the lion, and tiger. But none readily attack man. Their depredations, nevertheless, are not confined to smaller animals, as some of them are endowed with considerable strength. The leopard is particularly expert in climbing trees, whence it drops or springs on its prey... _It greedily devours dogs; but seldom prowl- ing about by day, it chiefly commits nocturnal ravages. Ali animals of prey, of every tribe, are for the most part occupied in seeking their sustenance at dawn and twi- light. . Leopards are roused by dogs, and shot with fire-arms or arrows. The natives of the East also cap- ture them in deep pits, which-are baited with the car- cases of beasts. Animals of the canine species are endowed by na- ture with the most remarkable sagacity. Almost all, with suitable treatment, may be rendered tractable, while those of the feline tribes seem absolutely indocile and void of attachment. The hyena is one of the fier- cest of the canine kind ; its strength enables it to resist the lion, and encourages it to attack the panther. It overpowers the bear, and readily assails mankind. Act- ing as a decoy, it is said to imitate the cries of other animals, or, by a frightful howl, to scare a whole herd, that it may then seize some one of the stragglers. It is a solitary animal, inhabiting the clefts of rocks and caverns in mountains, whence it issues forth on its prey at night. Hysnas are hunted by dogs, and traps are set for them, but few are taken. One of the most remarkable methods of capturing these animals is prac- tised bythe gypsies of Aleppo ; who, according to M. Olivier, enter -with torches in the day-time into the grottos known as the haunt of hyznas, and, on per- ceiving one, make a great outcry, or-boldly approach, speaking aloud, in order to intimidate the animal. The hyena, which is terrible by night, does no injury by day ;:and the effect of the light and clamour-are such, that it retires farther and farther to the extremity of the cavern, where no sooner do the gypsies sae it than it is bound, muzzled, and led out. When taken after other methods by the Arabs, they carefully bury the head, lest the brain should be employed against them in sorcery and enchantment Hunting the wolf, an animal the type of destruction, and the enemy of the shepherd, has been every where and in every age an ardent pursuit. But its sa- gacity is so great, that while others run. headlong into danger, it carefully avoids the snare. When roused by hunger, the ferocity of the wolf is great. It attacks man, and runs down creatures far larger than it- self, It boldly leaps inclosures, and steals into cotta- ges to carry away children, which are always seized by the throat. A wolf suddenly appeared in a dis- trict of France, which it ravaged a whole year about 1765, proving so crafty, that an association of 68 pa- rishes provided a band of 40,000 men for its destruc- tion. At length 40 huntsmen and their dogs accom- Hunting the wolf was anxi- ously enjoined by the laws of this country, parti- cularly in Scotland, formerly a ~wild and mountain- ous country, whence it could not be easily extirpated. King Edgar is said to have effected the utter destruction of wolves in England, by commuting the tribute of money into an annual tribute of the heads or skins of They still subsisted in Ireland in the reign of Elizabeth, and were not extirpated from Scot- land until the year 1670. The means which have been devised of destroying this redoubtable enemy are not ifew ; but owing to.the habits and sagacity of the ani+ HUNTING. mal, they are of very uncertain success. Its haunts are Haring exceedingly diversified : It sometimes seeks the recesses of the woods, sometimes the bottom of the cavern; it hunts by day and also by night, first assuming one ath for its exit, and then another for its returns n certain seasons of the year it has no fixed abode. In Tartary, and other parts of the East, the wolf is hunted by eagles trained specially for the purpose. In Eu-« rope, the strongest greyhounds and other dogs are em- ployed, and the chace is prosecuted either on foot or on orseback. Much difficulty, however, is experienced in running down the wolf; nay it frequently proves im- practicable, for the full grown animal is infinitely strong- er than any dog. An old wolf is able to run 20 miles easily, which added to the nature of the ground to which ‘it resorts, often renders the pursuit abortive. The wolf besides, has recourse to many stratagems for deceiving’ both the dogs and the huntsman,. When one is known to infest a district, the first attempt is to dislodge it from the covert, and to bring it to an open ehace. But hunting the whelps is more interesting sport, because they have fewer means of defence, nor are they so capable of foiling the hunter as the old and experienced animals. Independent of the constant use of fire arms, it becomes necessary to recur to various stra- tagems, as nets, traps, and pitfalls. If an animal of large size, as a horse or an ox, is discovered to have be- come the prey of a wolf, to which it will return for the purpose of satisfying its appetite, the huntsman drags the carcase‘above a mile from the spot, always proceeding against the wind. Then leaving it ina place exposed to view, as the wolf will follow, he takes his station in concealment by moonlight, in a spot whence he may pierce the animal with a ball. It is said that the wolf never passes through by a door where it can leap a wall; whence the position of traps is regulated, so as to deceive its watchfulness. Sometimes the traps are con- structed with springs and iron teeth ; sometimes with a wicket, which yields to gentle pressure, but refuses an exit to the captive. Some years ago, during a ter- rible famine in India, where the miserable sufferers were devoured half alive by wolves, these creatures, emboldened by the want of resistance, continued their ravages after its cessation. They openly attacked men and women, and children at the breast seemed to be their fayourite prey. An ingenious and simple apparatus was devised for their destruction. Two bamboos eight or nine feet high, were erected at the opposite sides of an old well, and their tops being ae. together, a basket, contain- ing a kid, was suspended from the junction. A pot of water with a hole in the bottom, loosely stopped by a rag, was hung over the animal, which was og bleat- ing and in constant agitation by the dripping upon it. Brushwood and thorns disguised the edge of the well, and the wolves in stretching over or leaping up to reach the bait, readily tumbled in. On another occasion, they were successfully smoked out of burrows in the earth, which they had chose for a retreat, or were killed in attempting to escape suffocation. In digging up the burrows, an incredible quantity of trinkets, not less than ten pounds weight, was found belonging to chil- dren they had carried away and devoured. The af- fliction of the unfortunate parents at recognising the different ornaments that had decorated their offspring, presented a most impressive scene. At present packs of wolves are said to infest a district of France, where the inability of the inhabitants to resist them, has Jed to extraordinary instances of their attacks.in open day, and on every opportunity. wo a naan a a aa ‘Wanting. Vox-hunt- ies oe HUNTING. 371 Similar address, though demonstrated in a less con- i n the jackal and th eplonces. comity pieemeyen by, tn ragchand : dogs, while in full it, are sometimes attacked with great tary by salir troop of jackals attempting to rescue the fugitive, and beaten off with severe injuries. The jackal itself hunts in packs of 30 or 40 together. As fox-hunting is so common a sport in Great Bri- tain, and of so much consequence to other nations which traffic in the fur of animals, we shall lay before our read- ers a pretty full account of it. Though the total number ‘of foxes in this island may not exceed a few hundreds, yet in the north of Europe and America, and in the north- eastern parts of Asia, they are morenumerous. There they are frequently to be found in vast multitudes, and of va- rious species, called the black, blue, grey, and arctic fox- were discovered in 1786 in the Northern Pacific Ocean ; ‘the first does not exceed 50 miles in cond 19; yet in the course of only two years, 8000 blue foxes were taken upon them. But to enable the hunts- man to conduct the chace successfully, he must always with the nature instincts and ities of the fox are exhibited ait et eel adnate * manner ; n lous and civilized coun- tries, it is shy and watchful; in those seldom trodden by the foot of man, it exhibits no a ensions at his may easily be led to ction. Inone it will devour nothing except what has been Killed by itself; in another, w ne bre 573 every kind of animal food is acceptable. It is i in many places; yet in some it fat- tens on and is noxious to vineyards. The craf- of the fox fo proverbial. Without the strength adventurously approaching the object it has cin- out, and viking A fevonreble opportunity of "ie. ‘complishing its ends; but, not content with satisfying the cravings of , it often destroys many more vietions than it can devour; which are either left be. hind, or carried away and stuffed into a hole, or bu- ried in the to ide for future necessity. It is said to sleep, in order to betray its prey into pre pf ee ee ee *> Spent its around purpose of attracting poultry with- in the length of its Chain. aleh bomew biitis exch, or inhabit the clefts and rea ond Slee dwell thick coverts, or among furze. swallows testif Oe caedie ea Ge tena soniary ot » AD the clamour of crows and magpies the retreat of the fox, when unseen by his ene- mies ; and during pursuit, the latter will scream from tree to tree, according to the course which the animal Hunting. takes, By the northern nations, where the of the fur is an object, the fox is captured in traps, by bows set in its path, discharging arrows against it, and it is also destroyed. by poisons, Sometimes a net is used. The natives observe, as a remarkable circum- stance, that the more valuable foxes are the most cun- ning: and Krascheninikow mentions, that the Cos- sacks of Kamtschatka tried unsuccessfully during two ears to catch a black fox frequenting the Great River. But it is likely that this arises from such animals be- coming more sagacious in endeavouring to avoid dan- ger, than those which have none to apprehend. In ation » Britain and some other countries, foxes are hunted al- Houndé. most exclusively by packs of hounds trained to the sport; and the chief source of entertainment arises rom the nature of the scent itself. A id ae, peculiar to its species, of which it can never ivest- ed, constantly escapes from its body, and is distinguish- able by the hounds from that which emanates from other animals, whereby they are enabled to follow the same course without once obtaining a view of the game. The: manner in which this effluvia is conveyed, isa point of exceedingly difficult explanation ; but, like all odorous emanations, it is of very unequal intensity at different times. Our ancestors were certainly ac- quainted with the properties of hounds, as “ pad scented dogs fit for hunting wild beasts,” are mention- ed at a very early period of English history ; and the aborigines of every nation are addicted to the chace. But we are unacquainted with the particular species which were employed. Much attention is requisite both for the breeding and training of hounds ; and no where has the art been more studied than in Great Bri- tain. When the are bred and trained, then the selection is to be made. Hounds are prized for colour, ogee, voice, and ially for staunchness, without which the rest of their qualities are of little avail, In re- spect to the first, there can be no absolute rule; and the huntsman who has had a few excellent hounds of a certain colour, will be prejudiced in its favour; but we must admit, that the properties depending on co- Jour are very uncertain, particularly when we reflect that a total change takes place in several animals ac- cording to the alternation of the seasons, and that it i We oso restored without having occasioned any extraordinary effects. Naturalists have not yet deter- mined the inseparable concomitants of colour. Hounds of a uniform colour seem to rank highest in the estima- tion of en; next, those spotted with red, and white hounds with black ears and a black spot at the root of the tail. Those spotted with dun are con- ceived to be defective in courage, and therefore bear an inferior value. Properties which would require the most undoubted confirmation by ted trials, are ascribed to some external characters. A hus it is said that the black tanned, the uniform white, the true Talbots, are the best for string or line ; that the grizzled, if the hair iss , are the best runners, and that a couple of these Id always belong toa . Those uniformly dun are thought fit for all kinds of the chace ; their sa- gacity is great; they are more sensible of their master’s voice or his horn, and less liable to be influenced by the unsteadiness of other hounds, The figure of the hound is probably more essential than his colour, being more decisive of pure descent. A small head, very pendu- lous ears, a thin neck, broad back, deep chest, straight legs, and round feet, not too large, are esteemed pro- te oe ~ ive proportions indicate’. —_—yO” Fox-hunt- ing. Hunting. Fox-hunt- ing. 372 that little can be expected from exertion. Hounds of middle size are the strongest, and most capable of pro- tracted fatigue: and here it is nece: to parhints the equality of the pack. There should be complete uniformity in speed ; for, though the fleetest hound is commonly esteemed the best, yet he may do much in- jury among his companions in the chace. Speed and vigour are indispensible qualities, and these are likely to be promoted by having hounds of the same family. Both are conspicuous in those of English breed. A hound has been known to run seven miles in four minutes; and a fox chace is said, on one occasion, to have been continued for about 120 miles, calculating, as nearly as possible, from the places where the hounds were seen, The ardour of the hounds is so great, that they sometimes actually die in the course of pursuit. A prejudice formerly prevailed in France against Bri- tish hounds, which probably arose from their having degenerated on being transported from their native cli- mate. Most animals degenerate under great transitions, whereas, were they ‘carried to moderate distances, they might easily be habituated to the change of climate and of circumstances. The breed of all the useful animals ought to be anxiously studied, because real quality can be obtained in no other way than by selection from the offspring of parents who are themselves of the genuine stock. On both sides those alone should be ‘chosen which ‘demonstrate the properties of the fox hound in a superior manner: age must be avoided ; and, as both sexes reach maturity nearly about the same period, there ought not to be a great disparity between them. General rules nevertheless admit of many exceptions, as the origin and properties of ani- mals are but little known. The breeder will often be disappointed of his expectations, and he will some- times Rees to admire the offspring of parents from whose union nothing was expected. In both cases, good qualities and defects may lurk in concealment during one generation, and be unfolded in the next. Some persons who have paid strict attention to this ' subject, maintain, that, in the course of numerous expe- riments, they succeeded in obtaining excellent hounds. The whelps must be kept very clean, both before and after leaving the mother, When they cease to obtain sub- sistence from her, it is recommended that they should be fed with wheat bread, to improve their strength ; but, in France, itis said that bread made of barley-meal is universally admitted to be better feeding, and is given at the rate of two pounds and a half cr three quarters daily, in two portions. The whelps should be well aired, and have sufficient exercise, until they attain their full strength, or arrive at an age a little beyond it, when their active powers are to be called forth. It is suppo- sed that dogs continue to grow during eleven months. Something probably depends on climate; for a much longer time frequently elapses before some of them haye acquired all their vigour. Numerous specific rules are given regarding the entrance or initiation of hounds to the chace, on which head there are hunters who ad. vance extraordinary, and apparently inconsistent, opi« nions ; such as, that the first object of pursuit ought to be different from that for.which the dog is ultimately destined. But it has been judiciously remarked, that nature will instruct hounds how to hunt; art only is necessary to prevent them from hunting what they ought not to hunt.” _ Instinct is incessantly operating ; ‘and if it is to be modified, we must always keep in remembrance, that early habits have a great pre- ponderance ; and that animals will probably be most HUNTING. eager in the pursuit of that game which they have Hunting. been taught to hunt originally. One of the primary qualities of a dog is, to addict itself exclusively to the Specific object of pursuit, and to abstain from every other ; whence it would appear as inconsistent to enter poner with larks, as fox hounds with rabbits. If ounds ‘are accustomed, at an early age, to woods, or hills and vallies, it is likely that they may not be equally successful when there is a complete transpo- sition of circumstances, whence a considerable vari of surface seems beneficial in exercising those whic are young. These necessary preliminaries having been attended to, hotinds are to be assorted in packs, the extent of which is quite arbitrary. Experienced hunt- ers affirm, that 25 couple are sufficient at any time to be taken into the field; and this is the ordinary num- ber. Forty couple will admit of hunting three times a-week ; but if packs are very numerous, each hound will have too little occupation in the chace: hence it is essential that the qualities of hounds should be fre- quently brought’into action, in order that they may be preserved by practice. Although instinctive habits may be permanent, ee artificial acquirements are soon forgot- ten. A pack of good hounds is a valuable property, and. has been sold in England for a thousand guineas, _ With respect to the actual practice of fox-hunting, it is a subject susceptible of so much detail, that we must chiefly refer those who-are desirous of becoming masters of it, either to certain districts of England and Ireland, where gentle« men of fortune follow it as a kind of profession, in pres ference to the more useful pursuits of agriculture, and more delicate and refined amusements, or to the mo- dern authors Beckford and Daniel, who treat copiously of the subject. They have not only exhausted the ob- servations of their predecessors, but have embellished their writings with new and entertaining illustrations. As the fox Che his burrow in guest of prey before the day breaks, all the earths are to be stopped ata very early hour in the morning; and the huntsmen having met at the appointed covert, itis to be carefully drawn for the game. A bad or windy day is always to be avoided, as the scent is so much affected and so precarious, that the hounds may be disappointed, which 1s injurious to their nature. It is not necessary that the fox should ever be seen by the dogs; when once roused, they pursue him by the scent alone, continu- ing the chace through many miles, But this animal neither possesses much. speed, nor apparently enter- tains great dread of the hounds. His principal object is gaining the earth ; and he trusts by wiles and stra- tagems to deceive his pursuers. If he is foiled, man‘ turnings, doublings, and crossings, are resorted to: when fatigued, he will either lie down in a field, should one be in his way, or run amidst a flock of sheep, or a herd of cattle. In the course of the chace, sometimes the scent becomes quite imperceptible, especially when confounded with the emanations of other animals, as in the latter case, when the hounds are said to be checked or at fault ; and the recovery of it becomes most inter- esting to hunters. Silence is then to be observed, as the dogs will be industrious enough themselves in a7 deayouring to regain the scent, If they are successful, which does not invariably happen, they rapidly renew the pursuit, and gaining distance as the strength of the fox declines, they at length come up, and tea) him to pieces. “Then,” say sportsmen, “they should be allow- ed to eat him ravenously.” It frequently oecurs, that amidst a number of earths all are not Cnrereiant the fox having taken shelter, is dug out or : odged by ter- Frox-hunt- ing. Ae rapt oa HUNTING. . 373 riers ; sometimes the hounds him thither, and will generally tire a moose in less than a day, and very Hunting. are themselves suffocated within. It is difficult to kill often in six or eight hours; though it sometimes hap- “VY” the female while breeding, from her never wander- pens, that the hunters continue the pursuit two days ing far from the burrow, and retreating into it on before they can come up with and kill the game. They the alarm. A modern author remarks, that are very lightly on such occasions, and carry « thes art of fox-hunting is to keep hounds well in as Se eeere a See arrows, coming | blood ; therefore every advantage of the fox is taken. with implements for striking fire. Dogs are trai — is but a secondary consideration with the true for this sport by the southern Indians, which renders hunter ; his first motive is the killing of the fox, it easier and more expeditious; and they are likewise — he makes his hounds. Present success is used in Europe and ther countries inhabited by the a sure forerunner of future sport; and he is deer. In Britain, hunting is followed with hounds, better with an indifferent chace, with death at and the strength swiftness of the animal renders the close of it, than with the best chace orp ifit this description of the chace particularly emeome. of is terminates with the the fox.” kind of Its agility surmounts every obstacle ; the plains vani ene i le time in under its feet; rivers are no barrier ;.and it seeks for Great Britain. That King James I. had its commen- shelter alike in the woods and the mountains. Thence dation in view, when treating of the education of the pursuitis generally and difficult, and thestag can i be wearied down only by pe a ervey weed omit here the hunting with running hounds, which is hounds. When the stag despairs of escaping, it some- the most honourable and noblest sort thereof; for it is erceceetarhen inet She pctv Spe moa. roe 3 - its life to ; bows; and greyhound hunting is not so martial a sible. The huntsman, however, is always the victor, game.” Fox-hunting is certainly no inconsiderable and his tions most commonly secure him from gg eed of horses running themselves a ut a more treacherous method is generally ind, or dyi i irriders; fi in stalking or approaching in disguise to shoot of perishing during the chace, and of men break- this fine animal, at least in those parts of the north and ing their limbs, or di ing their necks, But whether western parts of Scotland where it still runs wild. In it is an amusement either humane, or attended with the northermtlimates deer are shot with arrows, by , might admit of some discussion. means of a spring bow set in their path. utility, Wid cattle. Wild cattle are numerous on the southern continent The antel is a ious animal, very shy, and ante} | ee ee of use of the cheeta, it is hunted by numbers of men forming a circle, which, gradually closing, brings it within reach of the sports- man; or it is p by dogs, while hawks, trained for the purpose, being let fly, retard its swiftness by striking it on the , and fluttering before its eyes. There are various species of bears, which are hunted after different fashions both in the warmer and colder 3¢#*. climates. The white bear, an enormous animal of the polar regions, is never seen but on ice and snow. Win- bn hepa pe Ae lb about terers on Nova Zembla remark, that it retreats from tw feet long, and the hunteman, when within the their abode as the sun sinks below the horizon in No- necessary distance, having swung one of the balls seve- vember, and returns with his appearance in January; Hi He Ral Hilf ae rf ii rF #1 ‘ i i i t TH Alia 4 F ie ral times around his to give it an impetus, throws meanwhile, _— visited by the arctic fox, which it at the animal's legs, also parting with the other where- retires as the approaches. White bears attack by they are entangled. the buffalo, which man, and swim around ships as if to get on board. La ene bay nd msl animal, is attend. They are hunted by the northern savages, on the ice ) heme wwe ly for it readily attacks its pur- and snow, with pi swords, bows, and arrows; but nist trust to the ewiftness of their horsesfor the bear makes a vigorous defence, turning on its as- escape. It entertains the wtmost antipathy to ev sailents, whose victory is sometimes dearly ‘ eee eee of However, a si man has been known to engage in- : hn teekets 2. nit Sat ene Renee ony trepidly wheorve on fierce bear, without any venting its rage upon it, that untsman has suf. other wea a knife, and to destroy his antagonist. ! i! advance or to retire. The black bear never attacks man unless when pro- a Hs Soh A ible onimal, the deer, has been liberally disper. voked ; it then rises upright, and, clasping him in its roe 2 Nena a at the world, in the fore paws, endeavours to crush him to death. Before an In Siberia, vast herds shift any encounter, it is said tomake a ascend trees, their at Certain seasons, leaving the woodstoseck This animal can be dislodged wit “difeculty from its tnd swim neross wide rivers, always retreats by dogs; but when once roused, it is pursued, having a leader at their head. Then they become aneasy and shot. It is likewise taken eA number of Se ene nar ki stratagems, of which we have ly given an ac- \ the an is count under the article Bear, Vol. II], page 865. ay tee his game. The elk ormoose deer north of Hunting the badger, which pertains to the same ge- Badger. H ’s Bay, is hunted in a si manner; forthere mus, is followed in another shape. It burrows in the Indians absolutely ranitdown. Thisis the earth, and is also difficult to dislodge. When attempted only when the earth is covered by snow, and driven out by terriers, it fights boldly, inflicting se- ‘especially when the surface is encrusted over ; then it vere lacerations on its pursuers, However, it is gene- ~~ with the weight of the animal, while the snow rally overpowered. covered with a strong ‘the hunteman bear him up. A good runner hide and long hair, which render it tenacious of life, a : Hunting. —_——— Hare-hunt- ing. Goursing, S74 slight blow on the’ nose occasions inevitable death. The badger is caught alive in sacks covering the mouth of its burrow, into which it is driven by the ter- riers. After speaking of all these powerful, ferocious, and crafty animals, it is painful to treat of the hunting of the timid hare—a weak, harmless, and defenceless creature, which the very sight of man renders breathless with alarm. Yet, in Britain, whole troops of men, horses, and dogs, collect to enjoy the gratification of running itdown; a feat which is accomplished either by grey-hounds sur- passing its utmost speed, or by slow hounds wearing it out with fatigue. But these are not the only means devised for its destruction, as numberless traps and snares besides fire-arms are always ready to bereave it of life. The hare is the ordinary prey of other animals : yet it feeds on none; its subsistence is derived exclu« sively from vegetable productions, and in few instan- ces does it appear in sufficient numbers to occasion inju- ry. Many fables ‘are interwoven with the history of this animal, and the prejudices of mankind have determined its presence to be ominous on certain times and occa- sions. In general the hare shuns the haunts of men: it is abroad chiefly at dawn and twilight, and during the night troops of this animal meet to sport in the fields, Its vigilance is incessant: the eyes, which are not clo- sed .while it~ sleeps, are so constructed, that it can see farther around in the same position than other ani- mals: its ears are adapted for the reception of the faintest sounds, and its foot is particularly fashioned for protection against different substances that cover the ground. As if aware that safety is to be found in con- cealment, it remains closely squatted in its form, even though its enemies be near; but when once roused, no bounds are set to its flight. Unlike the fox, which is regardless of distance, the hare feels confidence only when beyond the voice of its pursuers; but it is never- theless full of stratagems. In the first outset a cir- cular figure is described; all the subsequent course will approximate to the original line: but doubles are repeated after doubles, and the point of depar- ture will ay baa f be approached during the chace. Hares are hunted either by harriers, a species of slow hound, or by greyhounds, the latter sport being technically pes Re coursing. Under a few modifica- tions, nearly the same rules and principles are ud cable here as before, regarding the choice, breeding, treatment, and entrance of hounds ; but it is invariably to be observed, that the best harriers are those that ne- ver pursue any other game than hares. There is a very -diminutive species called beagles, which are in much request for this kind of sport, and some of them are so small, that ten or eleven couple are said to have been car- ried to the field in a pair of large panniers slung across a horse. Twenty coupleof harriers are esteemed a sufficient number in any pack. The hare, though swift, and en- dowed with considerable strength, is weaker than the fox,-and the chace is rarely of equal duration ; yet there is an instance of a hare, after having been chaced six- teen miles, taking to the sea, and swimming nearly a quarter of a mile before it was caught, and also of one running above twenty miles in about two hours. The -chace is followed by the scent, which is lost and reco- vered.as in fox-hunting; and this peculiar emanation is thought to depend on the motion of the animal, be- cause it is seldom perceptible while the hare remains quiet in its form. When it is first started, strict silence should be preserved by the hunters, as the hare is so timid, it is very readily headed back; whereby the 3 HUNTING. hounds pushing forward lose the scent. ae is Hunding. more generally practised in different countries, — requiring less’ of the A of hunting, and be- Hare-huute” cause every master is in t Whether the shaggy or the smooth greyhound should be preferred, is not decided; but a greater portion of strength is usually ascribed to the former, Con- trary to the nature of harriers, greyhounds hunt en tirely by the view, and while the others remain in« tent on recovering the scent, they very soon become bewildered on losing sight of the game. They should attain their full vigour before they are initiated into the chace, and in the meantime they should have abun« dance of air and exercise; but sportsmen aré coms monly too impatient to wait for the proper period, The qualities of the greyhound are often to: be dis- covered almost entirely from their figure; and some have instinctively the property of carrying the game to the hunter’s feet. Coursing can be traced to a very carly period: it is said, however, that the Bri- tons anciently abstained from eating the flesh of hares. Grants of land were obtained from several of the earlier sovereigns, for an annual tribute in horses, hawks, or hounds; and as greyhounds were used in stag- hunting, it is not to be supposed that they would be omitted. In the reign of King John, two charters were granted. in 1203 and 1210, in consideration of which'a certain number of greyhounds should be deli- vered, in addition to other obligations. . Coursing is a favourite amusement. in many countries besides Bri- tain; and a good greyhound is so highly prized by -some tribes in the eastern parts of Persia, that, accord- ing to a recent traveller,. Lieut, Pottinger, the natives sometimes pay £50 for one of acknowledged quality ;.a very high sum considering their narrow finances. But sportsmen go farther still among ourselves, as, under ‘the article Doc, it will be seen that, £ 152 has been aid for a greyhound. The greyhounds of Cyprus ‘interrupt the chace by the huntsman merely throwing.a - pie before them, which indicates singular docility. t is said that a huntsman should acquire so much knowledge of the stratagems of the hare, as to be able to defeat the whole in two or three seasons; and he will also find his greyhounds improve by experience. The speed of the hare is great, te @ so are the s; and strength of the greyhound. Two are reported to have coursed a hare seven miles, though they were then so -completely exhausted, that medical aid could scarcely preserve them ; and there are examples of their dying in the very act of seizing the game. Whether the hare can see distinctly during the oe! of its flight, or how its vision is then directed, is doubtful. It runs against obstacles with great violence ; and we are told of a terrier eagerly coming up to join the chace, hay- ing been met by the hare, when the latter was killed on the spot by the concussion, and its skull broken to pie« ces. Whenhard pressed, the hare will run to earth li afox ora rabbit: it often takes the water ; seeks shelter in a house; or even leaps on the breast of a spectator. Thus do we behold the effect of terror and the love of self-preservation conquer its almost invincible timidity. But the devoted victim seldom escapes its merci pursuers. Compared with that description of the chace, where the power, the ferocity, and the craftiness of animals, are to be combated by the peg na il nuity of man, it may be questioned whether hare- hunting should be ranked among the more elevated kinds of sport. te Asa ye, We gia say a few words of hunting animals is case his own huntsman: ”® nfl a Poe Bees ER ME i nm Li it HUNTING. , for the value of their furs, with- which are ony to which they bel to the to which ; et gett of sep. woesel tcibo, thet : .The fur of some of these, as the ermi Semeeneiens Cnpe Sow qestiiys and always bear a price. ton soammsenrs ty Ae ce seen sae Sie 06: She es aes - they erect huts, and constitute a leader, to whom the ise implicit obedience, The party subdivides to hunt in different districts, and in this second excur- sion small huts banked up with snow are built, while all are occupied in constructing As the sable is a car- nivorous animal, they are suitably baited and set; and being so devised that the slightest touch ensures its capture, they are seldom long empty: but should the huntaman be unsuccessful in this manner, he is con- ducted by the tract of the sable in the snow to its bur- one hole to the burrow, as the sable would than come forth. Sometimes it runs up a ich case is then cut down, the huntsanan agai spreading his toils in the direction in which it is to fall ; he employs blunt arrows to shoot the sable, whereby from injury. Hunting being clo- begins to melt, the whole produce is col- the skins properly prepared, and when the ri- vers are open, carried down in the boats. Many su- perstitious ceremonies are ised by the hunters: while skinning the sable; nor must any thing hang on the stakes around them. The carcase is laid on dry sticks, which are set on fire, and it, previous to its being bu- ried in the earth or snow. A portion of the spoils cal- led God's sables is always devoted as an offering to some honour of which each leader also builds his hut. _ However arduous and tedieus a task it may be to hunt the sable, the it of the sea otter, combined with that of a few to many , engage in it, and ten ae eee their return home. Far ] a of sport or pleasure, it is an oceu- joer i ity : the are spsringly sub- they “4 clothed, and, exposed to all the a wiconabhe Ynes. cok gf wytsr pa ay Sea natives of the continent, amphibious nature. It inhabits the shores of the Northern Pacific Ocean, and is found, thou not in plenty, as far as Japan, or even the Yellow It is ene ly cep iam: lor phe safety od ey : — is persecuted, and destroy sa fal j black fur that covers it. “The hunt- weteel a ohio which the Russia go- or 8 of what will prove most acceptable to the savages of the p- hunters, are” p small 875 distarit islands which they mean to visit. Taking session of some of these, they either to depart alone in quest of game, (and in this way a fleet of canoes, carrying 300 Aleutans, went out some, years ago, which was never after heard of,) or they are: themselves of the Hunting the sea otter is in other respects attended both with danger and difficulty., Two very small canoes, each containing two expert with bows and arrows, and a , to which last is. attached a line a few: fathoms in length. - Though the animal is hunted also on ice, it is more commonly, captured by pursuit in the’ water, continued during several hours. From the necessity of iration, it can dive but for a few mi- nutes ; the principal skill to be displayed is in the canoes taking the same direction which it does in its course. They te, therefore, as the sea otter goes down, in order to inflict a mortal wound either with the arrows or her at the moment it rises. If hunted on a larger e, the mode adopted renders the animal so sure a prey, that scarcely one in a hundred can escape. A number of hunters being engaged, when one obs serves a sea otter he endeavours to pierce it, and at all | events rows to the spot where it plunges. Here he stations his canoe, and raises his oar as a signal, on which the rest of the hunters form a surrounding circle, The moment of reappearance, he discharges his arrows, or throws another m, and hastening to the place where the otter dives, makes a _ by again raising his.oar. A second circle is then formed, and the chace protracted, until the animal is exhausted. The first plange exceeds a quarter of an hour, the next is of shorter duration, and thus the intervals diminish until the animal can plunge no more, When the female sea otter is overtaken with its young, parental affection is manifested in the most interesting manner: it super- seces all sense of danger. Taking the cub in her paws, she dives to save it ; but obliged to rise for breath, she is exposed to the hunter’s weapons. Should it be taken first, she becomes regardless of her own safety, and, approaching the boat, falls an easy sacrifice. But both parents sometimes defend their young furiously, tearing out with their teeth the arrows that have pierced them, and even attacking the canoes. Incessant pursuit of this animal has almost totally extirpated it from places where it was common formerly. ; It would require a long enumeration to specify all the different modes of hunting, and the various strata- gems employed for the capture of wild animals. Some are exceedingly ingenious, and others require continual alteration, according as the becomes more w of the designs of its pursuers, The skill of the bent man, which an ordinary spectator is ready to under. value, is the result of long continued experience only : the footstep, the track, the pasture of the animal, and other indications, are all studied, to discover its age, its sex, andl its haunts ; and it cannot be denied, that much of the naturalist’s knowledge is deduced from the ine formation of huntsmen alone. The whole geographi- cal discoveries of the Russians in the north-east of Si- beria originated exclusively with their hunters, to whom also they were indebted for the discovery of the Kurile and Aleutan islands, the ontory of Alaksa, and the island Kadiak. Hunting, when directed to the more important game, is an interesting, manly, and athletic exercise. Yet, if prosecuted for no other ob- ject than to deprive an innocent animal of life, or merely for the pleasure of winepeag its speed, and beholding the vigour of its defence for selt-preservation, it is a . Hunting. I the natives ““yY""” Hunting, Hunting- don. ——_ HUN cruel and hateful pastime. Men familiarised with the torture of animals, whose flesh is needlessly torn from their bones, will soon behold with indifference the pain of their fellow creatures. See Chasse au fusil. William< son’s Field Sports of the East. Daniel’s Rural Sports. Beckford On Fox and Hare Hunting. Sportsman's Dic« tionary. La Chasse Eneyclop. Method. Krascheninikow’s History of Kamtschatka. Meare's Voyage. Lisianky’s Voyage. Krusenstern’s Voyage. Hearne’s Journey. Cart- wright's Journal. See Braver, Bean, and Everwant, for an account of the method of hunting these animals. (c) HUNTINGDON, is a town of England, and the principal town in Huntingdonshire. It is situated on a gently rising ground on the northern side of the river use, It consists principally of one street, stretching in a north-west direction from the Ouse to nearly a mile from it, with several lanes branching off at right angles. The houses, which are built of brick, are gen- teel and commodious, and the streets are well paved and lighted. The town is nearly connected, by a cause- way and three bridges, with the village of Godman- chester. The principal public buildings and establishments are St Mary’s church, All Saints church, and the town- hall. St Mary’s, which is the corporation church, was rebuilt between the years 1600 and 1620. It has an elegant embattled tower at the west end, with nave, chancel, and aisles. All Saints church stands on the north of the market-place, and appears to have been built in the time of Hetty VII. It is an embattled edi- fice, with nave, chancel, and aisles, and a small tower at the north-west angle. The town-hall, which stands on the south side of the market-place, is a good modern brick building, with a piazza at the front and sides, and butchers’ shambles behind. In the lower part of the building are the civil and criminal courts, where the as- sizes are held. Above is a spacious assembly-room, a- dorned with the portraits of George II. and III. and their respective Queens, and of Lord Sandwich, who died in April 1792. The Free Grammar School is well endowed, and well conducted. There is also a green- coat school, called Walden’s Charity, where 24 poor boys are clothed and educated. The county gaol, which stands at one end of the town, has recently been re- paired and rendered more commodious. There are two laces of worship here belonging to the dissenters, one or the Quakers, and the other for the sect patronised by the Countess of Huntingdon. As Huntingdon is situated on the great north road, it has several good inns. The brewing trade is carried on here, though less extensively than formerly. It has also’a small vinegar manufactory. Coals, wood, &c. are brought to the town by barges, which come up the ri- ver from Lynn in Norfolk, and return with the corn of the surrounding country. This borough returns two members to Parliament, the right of election being vested in about 200 of the freemen and inhabitants. It is governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen, and a number of burgesses. The follow- ing is the population of the borough of Huntingdon in 811: x Number ofhouses . . . . . 450 Number of families oe, 6g te hee Families employed in trade and manufactures 291 Bae re Gee 1085 A oe CE ae 1312 Totalpopulation . . . . . . . . . 2397 See the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. p. 345. 376 ° HUN HUNTINGDON. See PENNSYLVANIA. Hanting- HUNTINGDONSHIRE, an inland county of Eng- @onshire. land, is almost inclosed by Cambridgeshire and Nor- 5194; am thamptonshire ; by the former it is bounded on the poundaries north-east, and part of the south; by the latter, on the and extent. north and west. Bedfordshire bounds it also partly on the south-west. Its limits are nearly artificial. The river Nen, and the canals which join it to the Ouse, form its limits on the north and north-east, on the Nor- thamptonshire and Cambridgeshire borders. The Ouse, at its entrance, separates for a short space from Bed. fordshire, and at its exit from Cambridgeshire. The figure of this county is so irregular as scarcely to afford a proper measurement ; but reckoning from its furthest projection, it does not exceed 24 miles each way, and in general is of much less extent. In fact, it is the smallest county in England except Rutland, and is very nearly the size of Middlesex ; Huntingdon containing, according to the best accounts, about 210,000 acres ; Rutland, 110,000; and Middlesex about 200,000 acres. The whole upland part in ancient times was a forest, and particularly adapted to the chace, whence the name of the county took its rise. It was disafforested by Henry II., [11., and Edward I., the last of whom left no more of it a forest than what covers his own ground. It is divided into four hundreds, namely, Normans pjvisions, cross towards the north; Toseland towards the south ; Hurstingstone towards the east ; and Leightonstone to-~ wards the west. It contains one county-town, Hunt- ingdon ; six market towns, of which the principal are Kimbolton, St Neots, St Ives, and Godmanchester. The number of parishesis 104. It is in the province of Canterbury, and diocese of Lincoln. The ecclesias- tical government is managed by the archdeacon of Huntingdon, and it is divided into five deaneries. It is in the Norfolk circuit, and returns four members to Parliament, viz. two for the county, and two for Hunt- ingdon. This county and Cambridgeshire are joined together under one civil administration, there being but one high-sheriff for both ; who is alternately cho- sen one year out of Cambridgeshire, the second year out of the isle of Ely, and the third year out of this county. It is one of the seven counties, Bedford, Huntingdon, Bucks, Berks, Hertford, Essex, and Suf- folk, that are contiguous without a city. The fenny part of it lies in the Bedford level on the surface, north-east, and joining the fens of Ely. There are be-~ sides three distinct varieties of surface in this county. The borders of the Ouse, flowing across the south-east part, consist of a tract of most beautiful and fertile meadows, of which Portsholme Mead, near Hunting- don, is particularly celebrated. The middle and west- ern parts are finely varied in their surface, fruitful in corn, and sprinkled with woods. The upland parts still bear the appearance of ancient forest lands. The soils are various. In the upland parts, they are Soil s. chiefly a strong deep clay, more or less intermingled with loam, or a deep gravelly soil, with loam. Of what are called the deep stapled lands, by far the greatest rt are still in an open-field state. Indeed, there is a feat proportion of this most unproductive land in Huntingdonshire than perhaps in any other county of England ; upwards of one-third of the high lands be- ing still uninclosed. The more anciently inclosed parts are, generally speaking, in the possession of a few pro- prietors ; but in the new inclosures, and in the open fields, property is divided among a much Fase num- ber of persons. The woodlands are but of inconsider- able extent, and the county is thin of timber. This : | — | to the very great demand for it in the fens, ul ly A FFs § acres of ‘what are vincially called skirty The fens of Huntingdonshire constitute nearly a seventh of what is called Bedford Level. About $000 or 14,000 sures of them are productive; but the of ing them from inundation amounts $s Eiaiiek ception oF the rents, in consequence of the ; a out-fall near the sea. between this county Garages ie it enters the great level of the fens It is navigable along its whole line across Z ire, and i c t to cover on} pay yj pea Tt affords excellent saili i ing; awe ap tan Temaies seseen, much frequented by parties Anciently, there was a navi tion from by the river to this Mere, and from thence to Ramsey. Though this county has long been celebrated for its wealthy akg beaks h the vicinity of God. manchester, yet its agriculture very little that is interesting or im t. In Camden's time, God- manchester was reckoned the largest villoge in Eng- land ; and at that period. no place em so man plovahs i and, ing to that author, no people so much advanced in agriculture, either by their VOL. XI. PART . 4 HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 877 purse or their genius. When James I. came through it Hontag: on his j y from Scotland to take possession of the br nergy throne of England, the, inhabitants met him with 70 new ploughs, drawn by as many teams of horses ; for they hold their lands by this tenure, that whenever. the sovereign took this place in their progress, the far-) mers should make the most pompous appearance with ploughs and horses, adorned like triumphal cars with rustic trophies.. King James was so pleased with the sight, that he granted them: a charter constituting Godmanchester a borough, mt oe same a - descending to partake of a collation prepared under a bush, still ee by the name of the King’s Bush, and the Beggar’s Bush. But Huntingdonshire is no longer rema for. the excellence of its agriculture ; nor, indeed, could improvement in this most. useful art be excited im a county where so large a proportion of the land.is still in the barbarous state of open field.., Besides the common produce of wheat, barley, oats, hemp, and.rape in the fens, turnips on the drier soils, and a few hops, this county grows a considerable quan- tity of mustard ; it is cultivated on various soils, chief- ly rich loam, old land, rich clay, and the best. fen. soils. The ground is ploughed only once for it: it is sown any time between Candlemas and Lady Day. There are two kinds, the black and white ; the former is most esteemed. The weeding is performed by yy way ys will not eat the mustard. The pro- duce i 28 to 4% bushels per acre. e enclosed lands is of @ sheep and” mixed iption, nearly. ap ing to the Leices- cattle. tershire and Li ire kinds, with which the native. breeds have been. much crossed.. Those bred on the fields and commons are much inferior. The cat- are for the most the refuse of the Lancashire, anne ire, and Rene pees oxen are pur- grazing without any attention to. the breed, and are never aad in eh ag From , the open state of the county, dairy farming is not much followed ; and the cows are used for suckling calves in . the southern parts, to supply the London market. The rich and celebrated cheese, called Stilton cheese, takes __. its name from a village in Huntingdonshire; but it is S‘#%" made in the vicinity of Melton Mowbray in Leicester. ““"* shire ; and it is generally supposed never to have been made at Stilton, but always to have been sent there for sale; of this, however, there seems some doubt. Mr Nicholls, in. his aang yn, Antiquities of the:Coun- ty of Leicester, says it began to be made in the of Little Dalby, in that county, about the year 730; bat, on the other hand, there is the evidence of a very old inhabitant of Stilton, who died there about the year 1777, aged 80 years, that, when he was a boy, the cream used to be collected in the neighbouring villages for the purpose of making Stilton cheese: this of course fixes the making of this famous cheese at Stilton - before, according to Mr Nicholls’ evidence, it was ¢ in Leicestershire. In the fens of Hun- tingdonshire, mares are used for all the purposes of agriculture ; and every farmer breeds from them as many feals as he can, selling the colts off at two years old, and as many of the fillies as can be spared, with proper attention to the team. The high roads in this poads. county, in peneral, are tolerably good; the cross roads are but indifferent, and in the winter season many of them are nearly impassable, No manufactures of note are carried on in Hunting- manufac. donshire except wool, stapling, and spinning yarn : the tures. latter is the business of the women and child 38 Mustard. florses. Huating- donshire, Huntly. Poor's rates. Antiquities. History. Populatior. H U N- in the winter season ; in the summer t fitable employment in the fields. There is a small pon secon 6 lace at Kimbolton; and at St Neots, there is a very lar rt mill worked b tent ma- chinery. At Btaridgtound, there are two ron for sacking. The markets and fairs of St Ives for live cattle are some of the greatest in England. In the year 1803, the r’s rates amounted to £30,952: in the year ending the 25th of March 1815, it amounted to £40,625. There are few remarkable antiquities in this county. Dornford in the north-west part of it, formerly called Deorm-ceaster and Caer Dorm, is probably the Duro- brive, a passage of the Nen mentioned in the Itinera- ry of Antoninus. A little above Stilton, a Roman path- way, leading from Dornford to Huntingdon, appears with a very high bank, which, in an old Saxon charter, is called Erming- street. From Ramsey, which stands on an isle of the same name, formed by the fens, there runs a causeway, called Kings-delf, for ten miles, to Peterbo- rough. It appears upon record in King Edgar’s time. At Ramsey, was formerly a very rich abbey, built in’ the midst of'a bog. There is little left of it, beside a part of the old gate-house, and a statue of its founder Alwyn, who was called alderman of all England, and’ cousin to King Edgar. The keys and ragged staff in his hand, denote his offices. This is reckoned one of the most ancient pieces of English sculpture extant. This county, under the Saxon heptarchy, formed part of the kingdom of Mercia, or the middie Angles. Mr Speed mentions an observation of Sir Robert Cot~ ton, that the families of this county were so worn out even in his time, (about the beginning of the 17th cen- tury,) that, though it was formerly very rich in gentry, et few surnames of any note were then remaini that could be traced higher than. Henry VIII. Mr Camden remarks, that-in the civil wars, there: were more actions in this than in much'larger counties, be- cause it was the native county of Oliver Cromwell. According to the returns made in the year 1800, the population of this county was 87,568. In the year 1811, the returns afford the following results. ; Houses inhabited . 2. . . . . 2°. 7,566 Families occupying them . - °8,808 Houses buildmg . 2... se 23 dea Pypt “pik hd Families employed im agriculture. 5,361 : in trade and manufactures 2,205” not comprised in these Classes 1242 a ee ee | aN tS atte |, eee Oa BUH eye a ee 21,806 Total 42,208 Square statute miles =. 2. 1. 1 Rental or at) AP 8 et SBR OTE Amonnt of tithe . . 2.9... . £10,166 Annual value of square mile £574 Persons in a square mile . : : 114 Agricultural population... . . 61 Net product per family . .. £40 : (w. s.) HUNTLY is a small town of Scotland, in the coun-’' ‘ty of Aberdeen. Tt is pleasantly situated on a point of land at the confluence of the rivers Bogie’and It consists of two principal streets, crossmg each other | at right angles, and forming a spacious market-place at their junction. ‘The town contains some good houses, and has of late years increased considerably. In 1792, it contaimed 52 flax-dressers, the annual value of whose 878 find more pro-~ HUS manufactures was £16,224; and 209 weavers, who duced yearly 73,150 yards of cloth. Huntly Lodge, the seat of the Marquis of Huntly, stands near’ Huron Iss town, on the banks of the Deveron; and near the : bridge Castle. The town and parish contained, in 1811, Inhabited houses...» 6 ¢s-8 0) ew s0 608 Number of families . . ».s 0.05 » 720 Ditto employed in agriculture... +) vie, 190: Ditto employed in trade and manufactures, . 510 over the same river are the remains of Huntly Males du hahuese kotor? teaile..veniPeecere har ae MEMSIAS, « nariciax ix> rte dee. ta eahdicane, Se Total population. 2 epie)ie, eo wey pn: TOK, HURON, Lace. See Canana, vol. y. p. $29, col. 2, HURRICANES. See Metroratocy, °° HUSBANDRY. See Acnricutrure. | HUSS, Jonn, the celebrated reformer and founder of the sect called Hussites, was born at Hussinez, a village in Bohemia, about the year 1876, and received his education at ‘the’ Seay one ® of Praga, where he took his degrees of M. A and'B. D. and at Jength bes came minister of a church in that city In the year 1400, he was chosen confessor to the queen Sophia: and at this early period, he already began to distinguish himself by his freedom and zeal in reprehending the corrupt morals of the laity, as well as the vices of the clergy. The monks, under the protection of some of the nobles, contplained of him to the king Winceslaus ; but this prince, who was no friend to the clergy, de- clined to interfere. * About this period, in consequence of the marriage of Ann of Bohemia with Richard II. of England, a come munication and intercourse were opened between these two countries; and several young Bohemians repaired to England, where they became acquainted with the writings of Wickliffe. Among these was Jerome of Prague, who had formerly been a pupil of Huss, and after spending some time at the university of Oxford, returned to his native country, non along with him several of the works of the English reformer. Huss perused these writings, and having found that many of the opinions which they contained coincided with those which he himself had been led to entertain, he conti- nued to preach openly and zealously against the errors and corruptions of the reigning church.’ His eloquence _was powerfully directed against the sale of indalgences ; he inveighed against this system of Papal extortion with uncommon.warmth ; and his arguments received countenance both from the monarch and the people. By this conduct, however, he rendered himse ly obnoxious to Subinco, the archbishop of Pr ague, a violent, bigotted, and sn as ag thenceforth became his irreconcileable enemy. Being’ aware that Huss was secretly attached to thie duétttuee? of Wickliffe, be obtained a decree of the university, in’ which the opinions of the En reformer were con= demned as heretical, and those who should in future at- tenrpt to disseminate these opinions were threatened with the punishment of burning. that this decree was levelled at his person, rather than the opinions of Wickliffe; but he relied upon the pro- tection of the queen, and the acknowledged purity of his Tife and conversation. Water * “Meanwhile, two yeti Englishmen, and zealous dis- ciples of Wicktiffe, having arrived at Prague, contribu- ted to strengthen his attachment to the doctrines of that reformer ; and Wickliffe’s treatise De realibus Uni- eat~ ie, Huss perceived at once Bild y! versalibus —r— = much, that he the — bes Po we 4S ee HUSS. papal tribunal ; and the town of Prague was laid under — Huss: an interdict. The number of his friends and adhes -“y~—” into his hands, he relished it so inions of the author, and a decided: realist. The whole university was at thie time divided into two parties, the German and the Bohemian, or the nominelists and realists, whose ginal constitution allowed them three votes in all elec- tions and deliberations; while the native Bohemians of number ; yet that, ~datennss of Kinaiian SS id rmes'eupeantly -Aoclened, ut fe ur | nit HH ee to Leipsic, where a new univer- soon after founded. ians find themselves in full i parce a morals amang the clergy ; Secddenidie tapchaie tontoweth the superfluous revenues of the church, rstlitiE ul ait i i e the of the king and queen, several powerful cade ead des dotocinl, declined seiemaina tation it | et ciri ryett hi Ht i nh 819 rents would probably have enabled Huss to set at this sentenee ; but, in order to remove every pretext for tumult and disorder, he resolved to with- draw from Prague, and accordingly retired to his births place, Hussinez. . Here, and at Cracowitz, to which place he soon after repaired, Huss continued to disse- minate his doctrines by preaching, and composed seve- ral treatises, with a view to expose the most objection- able tenets of the Romish church. : Matters were in this situation, when the Emperor igismund agreed with Pope John to assemble a = council at Constance. T'o this general council Huss was summoned, in order to defend himself publicly against the accusation of - His friends having Haare oe eRe AR OC UM ror, and ing likewise provided with attestations of his ortho- doxy and innocence from the university and the papal inquisitor at Prague, he set out upon his journey to Constance, where he arrived shortly before the opening of the council. The pope him with kindness, assured him of his ion, and even removed the sentence of excommunication. But shortly afterwards, some of his most violent persecutors having arrived at Constance, they used their utmost influence to procure his condemnation ; and Huss himself having had the imprudence té promulgate the doctrines of Wickliffe at Constance, he was summoned before the pope and the cardinals, and, notwithstanding the emperor's safe-con- duet, thrown into prison. Upon receiving intelligence of these proceedings, the emperor, who had not yet arrived, sent an order to his ambassador to insist with the and the cardinals upon the liberation of John Huss, and to threaten, if refused to comply, that-the prison would be open- ed by force. The pope and the cardinals, however, disregarded the command of the king, and caused the prisoner to be more strictly confined. When Sigismund arrived at Constance, he allowed himself to be persua- pant et eer iy NS HR he was not to keep faith with a notorious heretic; and he issued a declaration that the council should have free power in all matters of faith, and should be allowed to proceed as judges against all those who were accused of heresy. Some of the most considerable among the Bohemian nobles, indignant at the perfidious conduct of the emperor, repeatedly requested, in pretty bold language, that John Huss, who had received a safe- conduct from the monarch himself, and otherwise would certainly not have repaired to Constance, should be set at liberty, and publicly heard in his defence be- fore the whole council. But Sigismund excused him- self in evasive terms, and thereby drew upon himself qual, poovedk hight — Bohemians,-whicli; in the ses ) igh! gerous to his power. yan aera ys har pane than ‘six months in ison, he was, for the first time, allowed a public ing, i 1 ose which, however, been drawn up by his enemies, and were all to have been extracted from his writings. Huss acknow- ledged such of these as contained opinions which he HUS 386 had really held; but with regard to the ‘greater num- ber, he utterly denied them, declaring that’ they were either garbled and distorted, or altogether forged by his enemies. ‘Some of the prelates, and even the em- “HOU'T. poralities of the clergy. These principles were natu- Husare, rally considered as dangerous to the power and influ- Hutcheson. » ence of the priesthood ; and his-brethren, who dreaded “~Y——” the effects of his eloquence-and example, were glad to peror himself, now urged him to retract and abjure the whole of these articles; but Huss required that he should first be convicted of error; for so long as this was not done, it was impossible for him to retract an of his opinions. And to this determination he prion: 4 with immoveable firmness, as often as the council en- deavoured to induce him to retract, and even threaten- ed to bring him’to the stake. At length, in the 15th session, which Sigismund at- tended in. persen, -the final sentence was pronounced, that the writings of Huss should be publicly burnt; -and that he himself,as a manifest heretic, who openly taught, and refused to retract, doctrines which had long »-been condemned as dangerous to the Catholic’ faith, should be deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity, and delivered .over, ‘for punishment, to the temporal arm. Hass, who was -obliged to ‘listen on his knees " while-this sentence was «publicly read, repeatedly at- tempted to complain, and to vindicate himself in re; to several offences which were falsely laid to his-charge; but he was always interrupted, and compelled to keep silence. The unfortunate victim was now forced to submit-to the punishment of degradation, which was performed with several absurd ceremonies by seven bishops commissioned for that purpose. He was then delivered over, by the emperor, to the elector palatine, who was commanded to execute upon him the usual punishment of heretics. Immediately after the termination of the. session, Huss was conducted under a strong escort to the square ‘in front of the-episcopal palace, where he was compelled to witness the public burning of his writings ; and from thence to the place: of execution before the city gate. While he was preparing ‘for the stake, several fruitless attempts were made to extort’ from him a recantation ; but his fortitude remained unshaken to the last. When he was fastened to the stake, and fire was laid to the faggots around him, he continued his devetional exer cises until the vital spark became extinct within him. His ashes were gathered up and thrown into .the Rhine. , Such was the fate-of John Huss, who fell a victim to the most abominable ‘persecution. | His talents and ac- quirements, although not of the first order, were highly respectable ; and his moral character was universally acknowledged to be irreproachable. In his manners he was gentle and condescending. ‘Strict in his prin- ciples, and virtuous in his conduct, he looked more to the practice than to the opinions of others. His piety was calm, rational, and manly; and his zeal in the cause of Christianity was untainted with fanaticism, The events of his life sufficiently prove, that his forti- tude was not'to be shaken by any human power. It is difficult to conceive how such a: character as that of Huss should have been exposed to such unre- lenting animosity and furious persecution. His creed, it is true, did not exactly square with the tenets of the established orthodex'faith ; yet several of his perseeu- tors had publicly maintained almost all the offensive doctrines which he was charged with disseminating: ‘It seems most probable, according to the opinion of some authors, that the violent animosity excited against him is to-be ascribed chiefly to the zeal with which he declaimed against the dissolute morals of the ecclesias- tics, the usurpations.of the Roman court,.and the tem- have re¢ourse to an accusation of heresy, as the best and least unpopular means of destroying the enemy of their corruptions, and of crushing those principles which appeared subversive of their privileges and pre- tensions. ' ; ‘ Jerome of Prague, the friend and pupil of Huss, underwent the same fate with his companion. | He, in- deed, was at first terrified into a temporary submission ; but he afterwards resumed his fortitude ; and, at length, on the 30th of May, 1416, sealed. by. martyrdom his belief in the principles he professed. : The memory of John Huss was long cherished by his countrymen, the Bohemians; the sixth of July was for many years held sacred, as the anniv of his martyrdom, and medals were struck in honour of the martyr. The Bohemian and Moravian nobles address+ ed a spirited protest to the council of Constance, in an swer to the intimation of his sentence and execution; and the zeal of his indignant disciples afterwards broke out into an open war against the emperor, which, was conducted, on both sides,’ with a savage spirit of bar« barity, and gave rise to acts of atrocity at which hu- manity shudders. These troubles were at length for- tunately terminated by the interference of the council of Basil in the year 1433. See Zitte Lebens beschrei- bung des Mag. Johan. Huss, Prague, 1789; En. Syl« vii Hist. Bohem. in Freheri Script. rer. Bohem.; Wil. Seyfried De Johannis Hussi martyris vila, fatis. et scriptis, Jena, 1743; Pelzel’s Geschichte der Bohmen, Prague, 1782; Mosheim’s EKcclesiast. Hist. vol. iii. ; Fie Lives, Life of John Huss ; and the Gen. Biog. ict. (2 i ¢ . HUS Ms is a sea-port town of Denmark, situated on the west coast of the duchy of Sleswick, about two miles from the small river Ow, and about four from Sleswick. It was formerly celebrated for the great quantities of malt which it exported. At one time 40 large vessels belonged to this town, and the oyster trade was almost confined to its inhabitants. : HUTCHESON, Francis, an ingenious philosopher and elegant writer, was the son of a dissenting minister in the north of Ireland, and was born on the 8th of August 1694. From his childhood he discovered a su- perior capacity, and an ardent thirst after knowledge; and having received the usual elementary instruction ata grammar-school, he was sent to an academy to begin his course of philosophy. In the year 1710, he was entered a student in the university of Glasgow; where he renew- ed his application to the study of the Latin and Greek languages, and explored every: province of literature; but devoted himself chiefly to divinity, which he propo- sed to make the peculiar study and profession of his life. After spending six years at Glasgow, he returned to his native country ; and having entered into the minis- try, he was just about to be settled. in a small con gation of Dissenters in the north of Ireland, rr some gentlemen about Dublin, Who were acquainted with his great talents and virtues, invited him to under- take the charge of a private academy in that city, With this invitation he complied ; and he had resided but a short time in Dublin, when his talents and accomplish- “ments attracted general notice, and procured him the acquaintance of persons of all ranks, who had any taste for literature. rd Molesworth is said to have taken great delight in his conversation, and to have assisted ‘Hutcheson. nal. ag ‘ : HUT : him with his criticisms and observations upon his En- quiry into the Ideas of ee a si vour from Dr Synge, re ren eteents Rienctetp. work to which we have just alluded, was ; but its great merit did not experienced the same fa- in, with whom he he first edition of the lished ano- toremain long concealed. Lord Granville, who was then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, sent his private secre- tary to enquire at the booksellers’ for the author ; and pa al me orb Aan i-rspanatered conveyed to him, in'consequence of which he soon came ‘with his excellency, and was ever af- ter treated by him with distinguished marks of familia- and esteem. vfrom this iod, his to be still Sent aeentieietce ater King held him in esteem ; and the friendship of that prelate was highly useful in screening him two attempts which were made to te him, for ——e to'take upon himself the education of youth, without i ee oe mr wi deere year! vaudient aoa ‘to iversi of a ly or an ex- shibitioner to be bred to any of the learned professions. In the year 1728, Mr Hutcheson published his Trea- tise on the Passions ; and about the same time he wrote some philosophical inserted in the collection called Hibernicus’s Letters, in which he accounted for f ter in a manner different from the veo Sal HH , and more honourable to human nature. having in the “« London Journal, 1728," subscribed Phi containing objections to some Barat the doctrine contained in the Enquiry, he was to give answers to them in those public pa- -pers. Both the letters and answers were afterwards i ‘moral this situation of G In of his life, in-a ret i ‘ : inated ow ene i 1747, when he had on- 53. married, soon after his settlement in Dublin, daughter of a an in by whom he left one son, nok Maan - 2 phy the ori- re is father, A System of Moral Philosophy, lasgow, 1755, 2 vols. 4to. a ” i man of considerable learning, various acquirements, He was not only acquaint- those intimately connected with well versed in mathematics philosophy. His works have been fre- reprinted, and have been universally admired, the sentiments and even by those spies enmaedenainaaiena’ i He an ace al HH TF H ® F rt of yet 3st ty and Virtue, before it was ° HUT our notions of right or wrong from a moral sense or fa- good actions ourselves, and to approve of them when performed by others, independently of any rea- soning with to their utility or fitness. He was a decided antagonist of the doctrines of Hobbes; en- tertaining high notions of the dignity of human nature, and being aded that, even in this corrupt state, it is capable of great improvement, by proper instruction and assiduous cultare. See Dr Leichman's Account of the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr Hutcheson, pre- fixed to the System of Moral Philosophy ; and the Gen. —_ Dict. © UTTON, James, M. D. well known as the author of an ingenious T of the Earth, was the sun of a the 3d of June 1726. He received at the high school and the university the rudiments of a liberal education, during which his curiosity was powerfully excited by various facts in chemistry which came under his know- , and he acquired a taste for chemical pursuits which distinguished him through life. His friends, however, placed him as an apprentice with Mr Chal- mers, Writer to the Si ut this gentleman soon Leen that he disliked his employment, and occu- pied much of his time with chemical experiments, libe= Tally released him from his engagements, and advised him to turn his attention to more congenial pursuits. He now entered on a course of medical studies, which he prosecuted first in Edinburgh, from the year 174+ to 1747. He next studied ar Pas and in 1749, he took the d of M.D. at Leyden. Having thus completed his education, however, he perceived serious difficulties to his views of success in obtaining practice. He also apprehended that the labours of a Ser en life might interfere with the gratification of is taste for wer + | ; and in 1750, he resolved to ap- ply himself to agriculture. For the pu of learning that art, he went to Norfolk, where he resided two years in the house of an intelligent farmer. During this residence, he made estrian excursions to differ. ent parts of England for his improvement in agricultu- ral knowledge ; in the course of which he contracted an attachment to mineralogy and the kindred ‘speculations of geology. fn 178 +, he extended his agricultural knowledge, b making a tour in Holland and Flanders. Durin, ait these peregrinations, he made a collection of facts which were afterwards made to contribute to his theory of the earth. He returned to Scotland, and reduced his agri- cultural knowledge to practice, by improving his pa- trimonial property in Berwickshire. In this occupa tion he was en for 14 years. He had the honour of being among the first who introduced good husban. into our country, where it has since been so sucé cessfully cultivated. In 1768 he let his farm, which he had now brought to a high state of i ement. He‘ had been for several years concerned in a manu- factory of sal ammoniac, conducted in Edinburgh under the name of Mr James Davie, who was one of his early and constant friends ; and in 1765, a regular partnership had been formed, ‘after which the work was conducted in the name of both. When he gave up his farm, he took up his residence in Edinburgh, and devoted his attention ‘to the pursuits of science, in which he was assisted and animated by his Jearned friends, whose company he enjoyed in this metropolis. In the course of his chemical pursuits, he discovered that soda was contained in zeolite; the first time an le merchant in Edinburgh, and was born on - Hutton. implanted in our constitution, which leads us to ““V¥—" 382 prosecution of his geological inquiries, which assumed greater and greater consistency. In 1777, Dr Hutton published a pamphlet entitled, Considerations on the Na- ture, Qualities, and Distinctions of Coal and Culm, with a view to throw light ona disputed point, whether the small coal of Scotland was liable to the duty on Eng- lish coal, or to that on English culm. On this sub- ject he. displayed great accuracy of observation; and is discussion led to a satisfactory decision of the ques- tion. From the time of fixing his residence in Edin- burgh, Dr Hutton had been a member of the Philoso- phical Society, known by the three volumes of literary and physical essays which it published. In that Society he read several papers, none of which have been pub lished, with the exception of one which appeared in the second volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, “ On certain natural appearances of the ground on the hill of Arthur's Seat.” The institution of the Royal Society, which happened in 1783, called forth from Dr Hutton the first sketch of his Theory of the Earth, which he had matured in his own mind, but communicated only to his friends Dr Black and Mr Clerk of Eldin, both of whom approved of it. For an account of this theory, see the article Mineratoey. The distinguishing feature of it was, the universal agency of heat in consolidating the rocky strata, after the ma- terials of which they were formed had been collected by the subsiding of loose earthy materials at the bottom of the sea. This heat he conceived to be seated in the central parts of the earth. To the expansive power of this agent, acting on water or other bodies, he ascribed the elevation of the strata from the bottom of the sea to the higher situations which they have since oceupied. He thus accounted for the present appearances. He supposes the earth to have undergone many revolutions at very distant intervals of time, and to be subjected to a law which produces a general and sudden convulsion as a stage in certain cycles of changes, which at all other times are slowly yet incessantly advancing... This theory has been defended by the author and his followers with much learning and ingenuity ; and in a particular man- ner by his zealous and enlightened admirer Professor Playfair. It has however met with a formidable com- itor in that of Werner ; the leading feature of which , to account for consolidation by crystallization from a state of aqueous solution, rejecting the hypothesis of a central heat, whether as concerned in the fusion of the rocks, or in the elevation of the strata. It supposes the materials of the strata to have subsided at their present elevation ; and its chief embarrassment consists in the difficulty of accounting for the retiring of the waters: The illustration of these opposite general views includes a vast variety of discussion on the constitution of the rocky strata. The controversy has eminently promoted the investigation of the mineral kingdom. A great part of the world content themselves with a smile ber- dering on contempt, when they casually listen to these speculations ; and a superficial observer is generally struck with the character of extravagance which ap- pears so prominent in the hypotheses assumed. No hy- pothesis, however, within the limits of possibility istoo extravagant for the subject. The disposition of the strata is itself an extravagant fact, if we may be allowed to apply this epithet toany thing in nature. It points to causes so different in their general character from any that we see in actual operation, that no hypothesis is to be rejected for its strangeness ; and hypotheses of this HU DON. Hutton. alkali had been found in a stony mineral... He con- yw" tinued to make tours to various parts of the island, in kind are unavoidable to those who attempt to explain the phenomena before them. A wish of this sort cannot be reasonably condemned. There ean searces ly be a more sublime speculation in physics, then to attempt the resolution of problems which nature sug? gests on so magnificent a stale, | We may indeed sometimes wonder to see a particular theory so tena- ciously adhered to ; and it may be reg as a cus rious fact, that in the present age the one or the other of the theories now mentioned should be a d by all geologists. It might be supposed, that the sub- ject wou it is probably not so much a satisfaction with their own theory as a simple preference of it to its oppo» nent, that is indulged in by the greater part of ge- ologists.. The tinexplained phenomena of magnetism, particularly the fluctuating variations of the needle, and the supposition of interchanges of materials among’ the different planets, (countenanced in some measure by the well authenticated instances of stones which have fallen from the atmosphere,) will perhaps at some-fu» ture peried lead to.a) modification of our geological theories, or to the formation of others, . Tost sr A paper, of Dr Hutton’ “On the Theory of Rain,” was published in the first volume of the’ Edinburgh Transactions. It forms the only scientific explanation of the phenomena that we have, \ The discovery of it evinced profound genius and. accurate information, and it will probably always be. retained by meteorologists. Two portions of air of different temperatures, 8a. turated with humidity when mixed, and thus reduced toa medium temperature, have not the power of retain- ing the same quantity in astate of vapour. The reason of this is, that the quantities of humidity retained in ‘this state proceed in a geometrical ratio, while those of ‘temperature increase arithmetically. A larger quantity of water is retained by that heat which had kept the one portion of air aboye the resuiting medium, than when the same heat is employed in raising’ to that me- dium the temperature of the coldest portion: The ¢on- sequence of this is, that a part of the water is precipi- tated. This theory was opposed by Monsieur de Luc, who maintained, that the heat was communicated from one part of the atmosphere to another without the ac- tual intermixture of different portions of air. Dr Hut- ton made several other acute improvements in meteoro~ logy, which were afterwards published in his “ Physi- cal Dissertations,” in which his theory of rain was again given. It was by the theory of the earth, however, that the greatest portion of his interest was absorbed, |The journeys which he madeto Glen Tilt, to Galloway, the isle of Arran and St Abb’s Head, supplied him with facts which afforded him exquisite delight, especially those which elucidated his peculiar views of the nature of granite, and the circumstances under which it assu- med its present situation in relation to the other rocks.. He supposed it to have been forced up in a state of ig- neous fusion by the expansive power of the central heat, and injected in that state intothe rents produced in the superincumbent strata, which had previously formed the exterior crust of the globe. It was the continuation of the granite upward into these rents or veins that so much. delighted Dr Hutton. This is a fact which still fur nishes one of the strong points of the Huttonian the- oeThis P also turned his attention n fo another subject suggested by his chemical pursuits, viz. ge- neral maene of matter. His doctrines on this subject, are given in his “ Dissertations ondiflerent subjects in. Hutton,’ —\yew afford several others equally plausible; but _ It was ouly now that he began to > bis to been but jally wi in a variety of papers. He a volumes in 1795, and a third was left behind in manuseri >% of E the that important art. this he suffered under a renewed and very se- a cine Ng negli cq and. in 1796 and 1797, his strength was greatly reduced, and his constitution broken. Still, however, he employed himself in read. ing and writing. Saussure's travels among the Alps, w at this time were newly publi furnished him with high entertainment, ial with the faveu- was undoubtedly a man powerfully qualified to advance science. Jt is reckowed by some a retin an the memory of any philowpher, t discernment. phe th i uncertain Ts + speculations, i and thus fur. nish SoBe Sr whan deficiencies than of should be ackn to be as yet an enigmatic de- + and the varions attempts which e been mace to solve its di beth those of and those of recent date should be allowed their re- ve share of plausibility, while the defects of each be equally kept in view. It is.amisteken idea 7 383. ) to suppose, that enthusiasm in favour of one tome! Fal —_—— HUY in any degree necessary to keep up the spirit lege aes of intemperance ; the ac- tivity to which it gives birth is of a. complec- tion, and is not of that kind which promises greatest durability. Dr Hutton’s private character was highly amiable. His manners were simple, but his conversa- tion was animated. A combination of sincerity and ar- dour gave a charm to his company in the eyes of all his learned friends, though he was not formed on such a model as to fit him for gay or general society, which he did not relish or in any degree cultivate. His ex- pressions in his views of points of science were: clear and forcible, and would not have led his friends to expect so much obscurity as is found in some of his writings. For an interesting view of his character and its, we refer to the account of him blished im the 5th volume of the Transactions of the Society of Edinburgh, from the pen of his friend Professor Playfair. From that source the present short s abstract has been chiefly taken. (H. D.) HUYGENS, Cenisrian, a celebrated mathematician and natural philosopher, was born at the Hague on the 14th April 1629. Heé was the son of Constantine Huy- gens, Lord of Zelem and 2 ep who had acted as secretary and counsellor to three successive princes of the house of Orange. Constantine Huygens was not only a poet.but a good mathematician, and took par- ticular pleasure in the instruction of his son, who, at the carly age of thirteen, exhibited an ardent passion for raathematieal learning, and was constantly occu- pied in examining all the machines and pieces of mechanism that accident threw in his way. In the sixteenth year of his age he went to the university of Leyden, to stuily law, under Professor Vinnius; bat he still pursued thie mathematical studies, in which he was assisted by the learned Professor Schooten, the commentator of Descartes. ' After remaining a year at Leyden, he prosecuted his studies at the univer. sity of Breda, which had been newly established, and placed ander the direction of his father. In the year 1649, he travelled into Holstein and Denmark, in the suite of Henry, Count of Nassau; but, on account of the short stay whieh that prince was to make in Denmark, he was prevented from visiting Descartes in Sweden, at object which he was very anxious to accomplish. . Inthe year 1651, he began his career as an author, by publishing a refutation of the famous work of Gre- gory St Vincent, entitled Opus Geometricum quadratu- ra: circuli ef sectionwm Cont. Uvygens’ reply, which is considered os a model of distinctness and precision, was entitled: Exetasis quadrature circuli P. Greg. a sancto Vincentio, 4to. He “published, in’ the same year, his Theoremata de cireuli et hyperbola Quadratu- ra; and in 1654 a his ingenious work, entitled De cireuli magnitudine inventa nova, accedunt problema. tur re tlustriam consiructiones. In 1656, he travelled into France, and took out his de of Doc. tor of Laws at the university of An e new sub. ject of the calculation of probabilities, which had been successfully begun by Pascal and Fermat, and which has reeently been so much advanced by La Place, now occupied the attention of Huygens, 0 developed the inciples of the science in his treatise De Ratiociniis in Ludo Ale, which appeared itt 1657. In the same year he printed his Brevis institutio de Usu Horologio- rum ad wnveniendas Longitudines, in which he described the model of a ny ees pendulum. In 1659, Huygens published is Systema Saturninum, sive de 5 Huttoa, 384 _ HUYGENS, — Unygens. causis mirandorum Salurni phenotnenon, et comite: ejus vw" Planeta novo, which contains the various it : discoveries relative to the planet Saturn, of which we have already given a full account. See Astrronomy,. vol. ii. p. 598, 647, 648. » ate In the year 1660, Huygens travelled into France; and in the following year he came to England, where he made known his method of grinding the lenses of te- Jescopes. In the year 1663, he paid a second yisit to this.country, and was one of the hundred individuals who were declared members of the Royal Society, at a meeting of the council held on the 20th May 1663. At this time the Royal Society had requested its mem- bers to apply themselves to the consideration of the laws of motion, and Huygens resolved several of the cases which were proposed to him. On the 15th November 1668, Dr Wallis communicated. to the So- ciety his principle of the collision of bodies. Doctor, afterwards Sir Christopher, Wren made a similar com- munication on the 17th of December; and on the 5th January 1669, Huygens wrote a letter to Mr. Ol- -denburgh, containing his first four rules, with their de- monstration, concerning the motion of bodies after impact. The method of Wallis was the most direct, but related only to bodies absolutely hard. Wren’s method was founded on the same principle, but related only to elastic bodies; and the method of Huygens was the very same as that of Wren. Huygens had now acquired such a reputation, that, in the year 1663, he was invited by Colbert to. set- tle in France. He accepted of the honourable and ad- vantageous conditions which were offered to him, and took up his residence in Paris in 1666,.when he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In 1668, he published, in the Journal des S¢avans, and also in the Memoirs of the Academy, a'paper entitled Ex- amen du livre intitulé Vera Cireuli. et Hyperboles qua- dratura a Jacobo Gregorio, which led to the dispute of which we have already given some account in our life of Gregory. In. the year 1673, he published his great work, entitled Horologium oscillatorium ; sive de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demonstrationes geometrice, in which he published his great discove' of applying pendulums to clocks, and rendering all their vibrations isochronous, by causing them to vibrate be- tween cycloidal cheeks. ‘This discovery was made ahout the year 1656; and about the middle of 1657, he presented to the States of Holland a clock construct- ed on this new principle. In our article Horotoey, * we have given a description and a drawing of this:ma- chine. The contrivance of cycloidal cheeks, however, though exceedingly beautiful in theory, was found in practice to be of no advantage. About this time our author invented the spiral spring for regulating the balances of watches, without knowing what had been done by Dr Hooke; and he applied to the French government for the exclusive privilege of employing it.. The Abbé Hautefeuille ad, however, conceived the first idea of this invention, and communicated to the Academy of Sciences, in 1674, the secret of regulating the balances of watches “ by a small straight spring made of steel.” He therefore dis- puted Huygens’ right to the exclusive privilege, and the affair was accommodated in consequence of Huy- gens renouncing his claim. The observations of Mon- tucla on this subject are certainly unjust towards the * See HonoLoey, p, 317. and Plate CCC. Fig. 4. ‘ Abbé Hautefeuille, when he characterises his invention Huygens. as rude and clumsy, and claims all the merit for Huy- Seo gens, The idea of regulating the balance by a sprin *was certainly the principal part of the invention, whic is unquestionably due to the Abbé Hautefeuille ; while Huygens is entitled to the credit of having perfected the invention by giving a spiral form to the spring. Huygens would probably have continued in France during the remainder of his life, had it not been for the revocation of the edict of Nantz. He resolved to remain no longer in a country where his religion was proscribed, and its professors persecuted ; and, antici- pating the fatal edict, he returned to his native country in 1681. - After his return to Holland, he continued to proses cute his favourite studies with his usual zeal. In 1684, Sr cgay his Astroscopia Compendiaria tubi Optict imine liberata, in which he gives an account of a method of using telescopes of great focal length, with- out the incumbrance of a tube. He published also in 1690, at Leyden, his Traité de la Lumiere, and his T'rac- ip de peg ‘dice first of these works contains his eory of Light, which he su s to be propagated like sound, by the undulation OF an eladtie’ nnedonma and the beautiful law by which he represented all the phenomena of double refraction as exhibited in Iceland spar. The remainder of our author's life was occupied in composing a work on the plurality of worlds, en- titled KocpeoSewess, sive de terris celestibus, ecorumque or~ natu conjecture. While this work was in the printer’s hands, Huygens was seized with an illness, which proved fatal on the 5th of June 1695. All his papers were bequeathed by his will to the Library of Eeyders with a request that Burcher de Vol- der and Fullenius, two excellent mathematicians, should print such of them as seemed of most importance. In the year 1700, this posthumous volume was pub- lished. The Cosmotheorios had appeared in 1698, and was speedily translated into French, English, German, and Dutch. In'1703, there appeared another posthu- mous volume, entitled Curistiant Hucenu Dioptrica, Descriptio Aulomati planetarit ; de parheliis, Opuscula Posthuma, This work contains Huygens’ interesting dis- sertation on corone, and mock suns, of which we have given a short account in our article Hato, vol. x. p. 615, and which was reprinted ‘by Dr Smith in his Complete System of Optics. A complete edition of the works of Huygens was published, in four volumes, by M, S’Gravesende. The two first appeared at Leyden in 1724, in 4to, entitled Opera Varia, and the two last at Amsterdam in 1728, entitled Opera Reliqua. He pub- lished also several papers in the early volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, and in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. In the Machines Approuvées par P Academie, tom. i. p. 71 and 72, he has published two papers, one of which is entitled Machine Mesurer la Jorce mouvante de Lair ; and the other, Maniere d’empc= cher les vaisseaux de se briser lorsquw’il echouent. He also published a letter on a new microscope, in the Collec- tions Academiques, tom. i. p. 281; and another on the Toricellian experiment, in the second volume of the same work. . Christian Huygens was unquestionably one of the most eminent mathematicians and natural philosophers of the age in which he lived. His application of the pendulum to regulate the motion of clocks ; his beauti- + This doctrine has found an able supporter in Dr Thomas Young}; but recent discoveries respecting the polarisation of light, seera, to give a new degree of probability to the doctrine of the emanation of material particles. © © ‘ ate, a HWY Moorem@eany HUY | pee ee ne spelonlal Soke tae Jn 1682, M, Chris H se published Me Gaokeg Tempe penduluins swing between 3 his _ M. n Huygens Ce satellites of Saturn ; hisapplica- Harmonicus, pci EE I 4a of 31 diy Jo hay he ici De np an ap pp The i : was anticipated major visions. temperament 7 i of the law of collision, which calculated by Mr Farey’s 12th scholium, in the Phi- he shares with Dr Wallis and Sir Christopher Wren ; losophical Magazine, vol. xxxvi. p. 52. are as fol- In our articles Astronomy, Hato, Horotocy, neither i easy of application, or exact enough, and Oprres, the reader willfind an ample we have calculated them anew, as follows, viz. account of his various labours. \) re) Sot Suc x tF CH REHRUMIMOD- couosetS2ssrse CEE EEREETS nae £ any eaarans —- nae eae ee 2 uygens. (¢) sharp or as marked at the bottom of ZENA. See vol. pdarachihivedienaiideasonmiepts. cnidebaameane si p+ 870. and ou _ HYBERNATION OF ANIMALS. - Tore changes which tke im the condition-of . Inthe Animal.Kingdom, changes remarkable H are familiar to all of precede the ri of winter, The forsakes of us. Itt the course of a few weeks in autumn, the fields Seeuadintndtiicthaatampehatensinels seuntinendioe Animals. fields, and the cuckoo deserts the The sch Anaad Scclecied hinioave senastelydm: cumplotatioleaptier ap ee eae ulionah of aithingasiiocbactadnedl quest, ‘This oubjece ail in mueh obscurity. I i is, d ity. It pV ee a a nee Animals which ob- tain a sup- ply of Clothing. ——— 886 connected with the ordinary concerns of life. Hence we possess few well established facts, and even those which have been ascertained, are still widely scattered in various publications ; as naturalists in general are more anxious to establish the nomenclature of animals; than to investigate their habits and instincts. Naturalists are in the practice of restricting the term hybernation, to that condition of animals during the winter season more familiarly expressed by the term torpidity. We are not aware of any reason to induce us thus to limit the original meaning of the word ; and therefore in this article, we use it as expressing the various conditions in which animals are found during the winter season, and the circumstances by which these conditions are distinguished. The subject naturally dividesitself into four branches, corresponding with the different states of hybernation which animals exhibit. The first includes those ani- mals which obtain a change of dress ;—the second, those which provide for themselves a store of food ;—the third, those which migrate;—and the fourth, those that become torpid. CHAP. I. HyserNaTInG ANIMALS WHICH OBTAIN A SUPPLY OF CLoruine. « Ante omnia (says Pliny when comparing the con- dition of man with that of the inferior animals) unum animantium cunctorum alienis velat opibus: ceteris va- ria tegumenta tribuit, testas, cortices, coria, spinas, vil- los, setas, pilos, plumam, pennas, squamas, vellera, Truncos etiam arboresque cortice, interdum gemino, a frigoribus et calore tuata est. Hominem tantum nu- dum, et in nuda humo, natali die abjicit ad vagitus statim et ploratum, nullumque tot animalium aliud ad lacrymas, et has protinus vite principio.” But this con- dition of man is most agreeable to his nature, as he can provide for himself a suitable covering, and accommo. date his dress to all climates, seasons, and occupations. As the inferior animals do not possess such powers of contrivance, we find that nature has furnished them with clothing suited to their situations and habits. Hence those animals, whose appointed residence is in the warm regions of the earth, are in possession of the thinnest co- verings; while those which are destined to dwell in the arctic regions, are enveloped in fur. Thus in the cli- mate of Spain and Syria, the dog and the sheep have fine tufty and silky hair ; while in the Siberian dog and Iceland ram, the hair is long and rigid. In still warm- er regions than those which we have mentioned, the fur becomes so very thin, that the animals may be consi- dered as naked. This is strikingly illustrated in the dogs of Guinea, and in the African and Indian sheep. The clothing of animals living in cold countries, is essentially different from that of the animals of warm regions in another respect. If we examine the fur of the swine of warm countries, it consists entirely of bristles or hair of the same form and consistency ; but those which live in colder districts possess not only common bristles or strong hair, but a fine frizzled wool next the skin, over which the long hairs project. . This statement may so J be verified, by a comparison of the fur of the swine of the south of England with that which is found on those of the Scottish Highland breed. The same observation may be made on the sheep of warm and. cold countries. The fleece of those of England consists entirely of wool ; while those of Zetland, Iceland, and HYBERNATION. other northern regions, besides the woolcontainsanum- “Animals ber of long hairs, which at first sight give to the fleece Which ob- while on the back of the animal, the appearance of great “!" Se RZ « ply coarseness. ‘The living races of rhinoceros and elephant Clothing. sup- of of southern regions, have scarcely any fur on their bo- ~—\— dies ; while those which have formerly resided in the middle and northern parts of Europe, now only found in a fossil state, have been covered with long hair, and a thick coating of short frizzled wool. Climate in this case exercises a powerful influence over the secretions of these animals, in the increase or diminution of their clothing. Were such changes not to take place, the inhabitants of cold countries would perish by the inclemency of the weather, while those of warmer regions would be exhausted by a profuse pers spiration. The effects which climate is here represented as pro~ ducing on the clothing of animals, are also observable as the annual result of the season of the year in all the temperate and cold 4 moe of the earth. There is al- - ways an increase in the quantity of covering during the winter season, and not unfrequently a change in its colour. Let us now attend to each of these changes. INCREASE IN THE QUANTITY OF cLoTHING.—If we attend to the condition of the clothing of our domestic animals previous to winter, we shall witness the chan- ges which take place. The fur is not merely renewed, but it is increased in quantity and length. This is very plainly exhibited in those quadrupeds which are kept re of doors, and exposed to the vicissitudes of the wea- ther. ry according to the warmth of their habitations ; and as the temperature of these habitations depends in part on the elevation, so we find the cattle living on farms near the level of the sea, covered with a shorter and thinner fur than those which inhabit districts of a higher level. Hence if we look at the horses, for example, of the farm- ers in a market day in winter, we might determine the relative temperature of their respective farms, from the relative quantity of clothing provided by nature for the animals which live on them. This winter covering, if continued during the sums mer, would prove inconveniently warm. It is, there- fore, thrown off by degrees as the summer advances ; so that the animals which were shaggy during the cold months become sleek in the hot season. This process of casting the hair takes place at diffe- rent seasons, according to the constitution of the animal with respect to heat, The mole has, in general, finished Increase in the quan- clothing. But even with those animals kept in houses du- In quadra- ring the winter, the length and thickness of the fur va- Peds. this operation before the end of May. The fleece of the Sheep. sheep, when suffered to fall, is seldom cast before the end of June. In the northern islands of Scotland, where the shears are never used, the inhabitants watch the time when the fleece is ready to fall, and pullit off with their fingers, The long hairs, which likewise form a part of the covering, remain for several weeks, as they are not ripe for casting at the same time with the fine wool. This operation of pulling off the wool, provin« cially called rooing, is repcasented! by some writers, more, humane than well-informed, as a painful process to the animal. That it is not even disagreeable, is evident from the quiet manner in which the sheep lie during the pull« ing, and from the ease with which the fleece separates from the skin. ea We are in general inattentive with respect to the an« nual changes in the clothing of our domestic animals ; but when in search of those beasts which yield us our most valuable furs, we are compelled to watch these HYBERNATION. 887 - s. During the summer months the summer dress remaini + Inapaing Moving ED Smitele ob. ’ is thin and short, and is scarcely ever an object. becomes in mottled; oses much of 1 j tain a sup- of uiaenbiding the winter, it in beauty. Even the birds in their first dress re- ont + er letectia When the begin- semble their parents in their mottled plumage, and like ““,,:j, on of winter is for its mildness;the far is them become white at the of winter. Clothing ; f ‘ , — ‘in ripening, as the animal stands in-no need of ¢ i for a covering ; but as soon as a nee one = ag increases in the quantity and length ir. is in- ‘crease is sometimes very rapid in the hare and the rab- bit, whose skins are seldom ripe in the fur until there fall of snow, or a few days of frosty weather ; the hair in such instances-being dependant the Alpine See erases the high sore emo ernst try, on mountains Grampiar’range. Its summer dress is of a grey colour; but, about the Z valuable fur called ermine. in spring, the white ’ becomes freckled with brown, and in the month of May ; it resumes its summer feathered tribes such instances of change of colour in the winter are numerous, Among the aquatic birds similar in the co* a= lour of the plumage have been observed. The black Guillemots. guillemot (Uria grylie), so common on our coasts, is of a sooty black colour during the summer, with a white on the wings. During winter, however, the colour disappears, and its plumage is then cloud- ed with ash-coloured on a white ground. In the winter dress it has been described by some as a distinct under the name of the spotted guillemot. the more northern regions, as Play at a for exam- , this bird, in winter, becomes of a pure white co- This is a decided caps pars mag og ture in ucing this change of colour. re is fine ad this bird in ite white winter dress in the collection of the Dublin Society, where we saw it a few months ago. It was brought from Greenland by that intelligent and enterprising naturalist Sir Charles Giesecké. ‘ These changes of colour, which we have already Little auk. mentioned, extend throughout the whole plumage of the bird ; but in other instances, the change extends to * only a smal) part of the plumage. Thus the little auk (die alle) faring summer has its cheeks and throat of @ black colour, but in winter these parts become dirty white. In this its winter garb, it is often shot on our coasts, Its summer dress induced Pennant to consider it as a variety, and as such to figure it. The black Black-head- headed gull (Larus ridibundus), has a black head ¢ gull. during summer, as its trivial English name intimates. During the winter, however, the black colour on the head diss ; and when in this dress, it has been regarded many as a distinct species, under the name of the red-legeed gull. In many other birds there is a remarkable difference in point of colour between the summer and the winter plumage, although not so striking as those which we ve noticed. The colours of the summer feathers are rich and vivid ; those of the winter obscure and dull, This is well illustrated in the Dunlin (Tringa alpina), Dvntin. whose summer plumage has much black and rufous co- lour, but whose winter plumage is dull and cinereous. In its winter dress it has been described as a distinct species, under the trivial name of 7’. cinclus, or Purre. Similar instances might be produced in the case of the Wagtails, Linnets, and Plovers, and a great many other From the preceding statements we are naturally led Mode of the to inquire, in what manner these changes in the colour ‘h=ge of of the dress are produced? It has been supposed by °!™™- some, that those quadrupeds which, like the alpine hare and ermine, become white in winter, cast their hair twice in the course of the year; at harvest when‘ they part with their summer dress, and in spring when they throw off their winter fur. This opinion dees not to be supported by any direct observations, nor is it countenanced by any ical reasoni If we attend to the mode in which the hair on the human head becomes grey as we advance in years, it will not be difficult to perceive, that the change is not produced by the growth of new hair of a white colour, but by a change in the colour of the old hair. Hence there will be found some hairs pale towards the middle, and white towards the extremity, while the base is of a dark colour. Now, in ordinary cases, the hair of the human head, 888 Animals unlike that of the inferior animals, is always dark at the Ri . base, and still continues so duriig the change to grey; cosines op Hence we are disposed to conclude from’ analogy, that their the change of colour, in those animals which become: Clothing, White in winter, is effected, not by a renewal of the hair, —_~ but by achange'in the colour of thé secretions of the rete mucosum, by which ‘the hair is noarished, or per~ haps by that secretion of the colouring matter being di« minished, or totally suspended. As analogy is a dangerous instrument of investiga- tion in those departments of knowledge which ultimate- ly rest on experinient or observation, so we are not dis- posed to lay much stress on the preceding argument which it has furnished. ‘The’ appearances hibited by a specimen of the ermine-now before us are more satis- factory and convincing. It was shot on the 9th May (1814), in a garb intermediate between its winter and summer dress. In the belly, and all the under parts, the white colour had nearly disappeared, in exchange for the primrose ‘yellow, the ordinary tinge of these parts in summer. The upper parts had not fully ac- quired their ordinary summer colour, which is a-deep . yellowish brown. There were still several white spots; and not a few with a tinge of yellow. Upon examining those white and yellow spots, not atrace of interspersed new short brown hair could’ be discerned. ‘This would certainly not have been the case if the change of eolour is effected by a change of fur. Besides, while some parts of the fur on the back had acquired their proper colour, even in those parts numerous hairs could be ob- served of a wax yellow, and in all the intermediate stages from yellowish brown, through yellow, to white. These observations leave little room to doubt, that the change of colour takes place in the old hair, and that the change from white to brown passes through yellow. If this conclusion is not admitted, then we must suppose that this animal easts its hair at ‘least seven times in the year. In spring, it must produce nie yellow hair ; then hair of a wax yellow ; and, astly, of a yellowish brown. The same process must be gone through in autumn, only reversed, and with the addition of a suit of white. ‘The absurdity of this supposition is too apparent to be farther exposed. With respect to the opinion which we have advanced, it seems to be attended with few difficulties. We urge not in support of it, the accounts which have been published of the human hair changing its colour in the eourse of a single night; but we think the particular observations on the ermine warrant us in believing that the change of colour in the alpine hair is effected by a similar process. But how is the change accomplished in birds? A The young ptarmigans are mottled in their first plumage similar to their parents. They become white mm winter, and again mottled in spring. These young birds, provided the change of colour is effected by moulting, must produce three different coverings of feathers in the course of ten months. This is a waste of vital energy, which we do not suppose any bird in its wild state capable of sustaining; as moulting is the most debilitating process which ‘they undergo. In other birds of full age, two moultings must ‘be neces- sary. In these changes, the range of colour is from blackish grey through grey to white, an arrangement so nearly resembling that which prevails in the ermine, that we are disposed to consider’the change of colour — a in — old feathers, and not by the growth of new plu ; this change of colour bein indepen« dent of Megdtieary antaull meubiangs of the birds. HYBERNATION. Independent of the-stipport from analogy which the. Animals ermine furnishes, wemay observe that the coleursef which ather parts of a bird vary according to the season, changethe This is frequently observable in the’ feet, legs, and bill. spire Now, since a change takes place in the colouring secres Clothing. tions of these organs, what prevents us from supposing ———_~ that similar changes take place inthe feathers? But even in the case of birds, we have before us an exs ample as convineing asthe ermine. al mentioned, It is a specimen of the little auk, (Alea alle,) which was shot in Zetland in the end of FE 1810... The chin is still in its winter dress of white, but the feathers on the lower part of the throat have assumed.a dusky hue. Both the shafts and webs have become of a blackish grey colour at the base and in the centre, while the extremities of both:still continuewhite: The change from black to white is here effected by passing through grey. If we suppose that in tliis bird the changes of the colour of the plumage are accomplished by moulting, ora change of feathers, wemust admit ° the existence of three such moultings in the counse of the year—one by which the white winter dress.is produced, another for the dusky ‘spring dress, anda third for the black garb of summer. It is:sunely am- necessary ‘to point out any other ex i of our ara sages this subject. We ve. followed nature, and our conelusions appear to be justified by the appearances which we have described. : ‘ Having endeavoured to ascertain the mannerinwhich Causes of this change of colour takes place, we are now reatly:to the change: investigate the causes by which it is produced. Ais this °f colour. change of colour inwinter is peculiar to theanimals which inhabitcold countries, we may sately conclude, thattems perature exercises over it a powerful.influence. This supposition ‘is countenanced by the slowness of the pro= cess of change of colour in:a mild autumn, and its ims perfect accomplishment during a mild winter. Besides, in some animals, such asithe’/black guillemot, the change is never complete in the more rate regions, but becomes more perfect as we proceed northwards, until at Greenland the bird is of a pure white. If this. change of colour proceeds from a renewal of feathers, here at least the colour of the feathers:must be considered in- fluenced by the temperature, and consequently a.cor- responding influence must be exercised on the seereting ans, oneThe distribution of colour inthe animal kingdom in general seems'to follow the same Jaw; the deep and bright colours prevailing in the warm regions, while the tints of the colder regions are pale and dull. Are we to conclude, that:cold diminishes the action of the vessels which furnish the colouring matter, and, when intense, entirely suspends their functions? or are we to consider light as in part concerned in producing the effect? In general, the fur of , and the feathers of birds, are darkest where exposed to the light, and ‘are’ pale ‘coloured towards the: base; but inthe instances before us, this difference disappears, and a complete uniformity in all the parts of the cavers ing prevails. Besides, the change does not take place on all parts of the body at the same time, but app in spots, or on single hairs or feathers. Light therefore has little nooawe ‘ scatsisithe commana There is.another agent kes - con eerned in’the change in,the colour of the feathers of birds. In all birds the feathers become more yivid in — spring, and certain spots which are not obser- vable at other seasons. ‘This brightness. of plumage and these spots continue only during the:season of love ; ture; it has generally been iy these periodi- alpine hare agg ee st ussumed their snowy winter plumage, ‘the surface of the ground was not consonant colour, few would escape the piercing eye of the falcon or the in the Jofty-and-empesed -citus- tions’ are found to inhabit.” To suppose that in inter the ptarmigan is rendered white, to cause it to re- undergoes similar changes for the same pur- pose, would be to yield our assent to public opinion. But all our conclusions concerning final causes ought to bethe while with mine, an animal well qualified to at all times, by its determined | Hy@irsatine ANIMALS weich Lay up a Stock oF — TONS. anima!s, they obtain an adilition to their clothing, while as to furnish a supply of food when the fruits and HYBERNATION. 889 . iety be termed storing animals, as they all. s aomaeey 20 heautifalig' expressed by Virgil. baxr: Ventureque kiewis memores estate laborem Experiuntur, et in medium quesita reponunt. This class of hybernating animals contains but few species. These are all phytivorous, and, without ex- maaan cine tribe of Glires or Gnawers. All the ani of this tribe do not possess this storing ——— although it is certainly observable in many Of all these animals, whose industry in. -and wisdom in ing a winter store, have at. branches of an old tree. After making choice of place where the timber is beginning to decay, and where a hollow may be easily formed, it scoops out with its teeth a suitable magazine. Into this store-house, acorns, nuts, and other fruits are industriously conveyed, and neig' holes they had scratched, and in which they had fully covered up the acorn. These the hogs would, day after day, hunt out by their smell.” birds, and fishes, no,examples are known of this kind of hybernation. The bee, among insects, is an interesting example, but requiring no ex- i No instances occur among the animals which com the inferior classes. Since all these storing animals are destined to live on the productions of the vegetable ki i such : fortably maintained, under circumstances which would prove fatal without it. The seeds of many plants are translated by them from the of their growth, and more extensively disseminated. But how are we to aceount for the conduct of those animals, in thus viding for a futurity, who have never suffered from neevion ience, as must be the case with young ani- cottored se poctansly;thapahesld schjocs homesies scattered so 7 subject Ives. to much labour, in ing up a treasure for supply- ing the deficiences of a winter, of whose ere ing privations they are i Part of this industry: pe byron ee: 7 mn RP Tes _ Aniovals which lay up Provi- sions. —— Beaver. Mice. Animals which Migrate. Migrating quadrupeds, Migrating birds. 890 sult of education ; but in other instances, we must con- fess our inability to offer any explanation. Such baffled searches mock man’s prying pride, The God of Nature is your secret guide, CHAP. III. Hypernatine ANIMALS WHicn MIGRATE. Tats subject has long occupied the attention of na- turalists ; and several important observations have been ‘published by different authors. It is ehiefly, however, as it regards birds, that the subject is deserving of parti- cular consideration. We are acquainted with but few -circumstances connected with the migration of quadru- ~peds. Limited in their powers of locomotion, their range of travelling is confined, so that other means are -provided for their safety and sustenance during winter. The cheiroptera are well fitted for migrating; and ac- cordingly we find that some species are known to do so. In Italy, the common: bat (Vespertilio murinus) abounds ; but it migrates southwards at the approach of winter, and is not found in any of the caves in a torpid state. The V. noctula, however, arrives annually to winter, although it retires to:spend the summer in more northern regions. Dr Barton informs us that some species of dined migrate from the northern to the southern ‘parts of America during winter. Many of the ruminating animals shift their habitations accord~- ing ‘to the changes of the year. Thus, the stag and the rocbuck leave the alpine regions at the approach of winter, and seek protection in the more sheltered plains. More extensive migrations are performed by the palmated quadrupeds, particularly the seals. These: shift their stations to reach safe breeding places, in whatever country they live in. But the common seal {Phoca viiulina) often performs regular migrations in quest of food. In the Statistical Account of the parish of North Knapdale, we are told that the lake called ‘Lochow, about twenty miles in length, and three miles in breadth, “ abounds with plenty of the finest salmon; and, what is uncommon, the seal comes up from the ocean, through a very rapid river, in quest of this fish, and retires to the sea at the approach of winter.” An- other species, the P. Groenlandica, seems to seek more temperate regions ean 3 the winter. Seals of this kind, says Horrebow in his History of Iceland, “ ar- ‘ive annually in the month. of December, especially about the northern parts of the country, and generally stay till May, at which time, those that escape the Icelanders depart.” A few curious facts regarding the migrations of the Cetacea may be found under the article GREENLAND. Several kinds of small whales visit the coasts of Scotland, chiefly during the autumnal months; but we are ignorant of the places from whence they come, and unacquainted with the laws of their migration. Migration of Birds. The migrations of the feathered race, as connected with their hybernation, have been the subject of popu- lar observation since the days of the prophet Jeremiah, ‘* Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane, and the swallow, observe the time of their coming.” (ch. viii. v..7.) Many important facts have been ascertained, and a few ge-~ neral conclusions have been established. But the sub- ject is still far from being exhausted; nay, without fear of contradiction, we may venture to assert, that it HYBERNATION. is but very imperfectly understood by naturalists in general. Popular errors have gained admittance as scientific documents, and the well authenticated facts have been suffered to remain, in their original detach- ed form, destitute of connection and arrangement. It is not our intention to enter into any minuteness of detail regarding the eB te of the different spe- cies of birds. ‘This has already been done under the article Birps, where the reader will. find a statement of several facts connected with the migration of our na~- tive species. And he may also consult at his leisure, the ornithological productions of Pennant, White, and Montagu. general nature, and will have for their object to ascer- tain the laws of migration, and the circumstances un- der which it takes place. y4 Migrating birds may be divided into two classes, from the different seasons of the year in which they ar- rive or depart. To the first class will belong those birds which arrive in this country in the spring, and depart in autumn, and are termed Summer Birds of Passage. The second will include those which arrive in autumn, and depart in spring, and are called Winter Birds of Passage. - Aninials which Migrate, SS. ow Our observations in this place, will be of a ; Tue Summer Binns or passace are not.confined to summer any particular order or tribe; nor are they distinguish- birds of ed by similarity of habits. Some of them belong to passage. the division of Water Fowls, as the terns and. gulls; while others are Land Birds, as the swallow gg z Animals which become . Torpid. —_—\—— 896 pid animals of this country usually retire in October, and reappear in April. It appears probable, however, that the different species do not all retire at the same time, but, like the migrating birds, perform their movements at separate periods. It is also probable that the time of retirement ofeach species varies according to the mild- ness or severity of the season, In general, however, they retire from active life when.their food has become difficult to obtain, when the insects have fled to their hiding places, and the cold has frozen in the ground the roots and the seeds on which they subsist, At the riod of their reviviscence, the insects are again sport- ing in the air, and the powers of vegetable life are ex- erted in the various processes of germination and vege- tation. In short, during the dead season of vegetable life, these animals pass their time in this lethargic state. We see the coincidence, but we cannot well account for the connection. Previous to their,entrance into this state of lethargy, these animals select a, proper place, in general assume a particular position, and even in some cases provide a small stock of food, All these torpid animals retire toa place of safety, where, at a distance from their enemies, and protect- ed as much as possible from the vicissitudes of tempe- rature, they may sleep out, undisturbed, the destined period of their.slumbers. The bat retires to the roof of gloomy caves, or to the old chimnies of uninhabited eastles. The hedge-hog wraps itself up in those leaves of which it composes its nest, and remains at the bot- tom of the hedge, or under the covert of the furze, which screened it, during summer, from the scorching sun or the passing storm. The marmot and the ham- ster retire to their subterranean retreats, and when they feel the first approach of the torpid state, shut the passages to their habitations in such a manner, that it is more easy to dig up the earth any where else, than in such parts which they. haye’ thus fortified, The jumping mouse of Canada seems to prepare itself for its winter torpidity in a very curious manner, as we are informed by Major-General Davies, in the Linnean Transactions, vol. iv. p.. 156, on the authority of a la- bourer. A specimen which was found in digging the foundation for a summer-house in a gentleman’s garden about two miles from Quebec, in the latter end of May 1787, was “ enclosed in a ball of clay, about the size of a cricket ball, nearly an inch in. thickness, perfectly smooth within, and about. twenty inches under ground. The man who first discovered it, not knowing what it was, struck the ball with his spade, by which means it was broken to pieces, or the ball also would have been presented to me,” Much stress has been laid upon the position which these animals assume, previous to their becoming tor- pid, on the supposition that it contributes materially to roduce the lethargy. In describing this position, Dr Peed (in his Essay on the Torpidity of Animals) ob- serves, “ that this tribe of quadrupeds. have the habit of rolling themselves into the form of a ball during ordi- nary sleep ; and they invariably assume the same at-~ titude when in the torpid state, so as to expose the least possible surface to the action of cold: the limbs are all folded into the hollow made by the bending of the body; the clavicles and the sternum, are pressed inst the fore part of the neck, so as to interrupt the flow of blood which supplies the head, and to compress the trachea: the abdominal viscera and the hinder limbs are pushed against the diaphragm, so as to inter~ rupt its motions, and to impede the flow of blood, . HYBERNATION. through the large vessels which penetrate it, and the longitudinal extension of the cavity of the thorax is en- irely obstructed, Thus a confined circulation is cars ried on through the heart, probably ada; to the last weak actions of life, and to its gradual recommences ment.” Professor Mangili of Pavia, (Annales du Mu- seum, tom. ix.) with greater simplicity of language, says, that the marmot rolls itself up like a ball, havin the nose applied contrary to the anus, with the teeth and eyes closed. He also informs us, that the hedge- hog, when in a torpid state, in general reposes on the Fant side. The bat, however, during the period. of its slumbers, prefers a very different posture. , It suspends itself from the ceiling of the cave to which it retires, by means of its claws, and in this attitude outlives the winter.. This is the natural. position of the bat when at rest, or in its ordinary sleep. In short, little more can be said of the positions of all these torpid animals, than the correspondence with those which they assume during the periods of their ordinary repose. It is also observable, that these animals which are of solitary habits during the summer season, as the hedge- hog and dormouse, are also solitary during the period of their winter torpidity; while the congregating so- cial animals, as the marmot, the hamster, and the bat, spend the period of their torpidity, as well as the ordi- nary terms of repose, collected together in families or roups, - ee of those animals, particularly such as belong to the great natural family of gnawers, make provision in their retreats, during the harvest months. The mars mot, it is true, lays up no stock of food; but the ham- sters fill their storehouse with all kinds of grain, on Animals which Torpid. . —— which they are supposed to feed, until the cold be-. comes sufliciently intense to induce torpidity. The Cricelus glis, or migratory hamster of Pallas, also lays up a stock of provision. And it is able that this animal partakes of its stock of provisions, not only pre- vious to torpidity, but also during the short intervals of reviviscence, which it enjoys during the season of le« thargy. The same remark is equally applicable to the dormouse. Having thus made choice of situations where they are and assumed a position similar to that of their ordinary jects which we are now to examine more minutely. In this torpid state they suffer a diminution of tempe~ rature; their respiration and circulation. become lan< protected from sudden alternations of temperature, while eel pid animals repose, they fall into that state of insensibility to external undergo. fy guid ; their irritability decreases in energy ; and they . suffer a loss of weight.. Let us now attend to.each of these changes separately. 1. Diminished temperature. When we take in our Diminished hand any of these hybernating the same time that they are stiff, so that we mp conclude, without farther examination, that they are Thisreduction of temperature is notthe same inalltorpid quadrupeds. It varies according to the species. Hunter, in his “ Observations on certain parts of the Animal Eco« nomy,”.informs us, on the authority of Jenner, that the temperature of a hedgehog at the cap -engene 97° of Fahrenheit, in summer, when the t in the shade stood at 78°. Professor Mangili states the ordi- nary heat of the hedgehog a little lower, at 27° of Reu- mur, or about 93° of Fahrenheit. In winter, accordi to Jenner, the temperature of the air being 44°, an the animal torpid, the heat in the pelvis was 45°, and at the diaphragm 484°. When the temperature of the torpid animals, which tempera- we are now considering, they feel cold tothe touch, at Animals which become Torpid, —_—o Diminished respiration. 5 an 4 vied Leer es ERE s sages — He elite Us 1H git We vip Mace HE iff i ay at Eee ceeet : Bll Hi eiai 72-4] ; . HUE u- H sree FELL jeeagesceas ae 3 iF g HE Sie hze ie nes : iY cbs EEE ek gh a PY le Fires HE HI aaell aie plate llth ll TEM AE ira eet a (lah ai if sh ped ae Hay i ; Aen He i CHL amiaetihaela |" Ha ae Titith Fit 2 Pius : . Bilal i HHH sg BRS aH THY ital tb aL aie ENTE He Lids PIE iH, stat in ie eae ane itt ha : os dit or iat ale Hee beibiia 3 daca cel 5 Fi de Er “lh rie ily i iy fall his 1 te ts] iil Hn a : i iH isi eee i Hil a Binet iy 3 3 Raa Hf ide Heb ivy Animals which become Torpid. Diminished airculation. 395 it awoke and ate a little, and thén became torpid again. On the 10th of February the intervals of repose were eighteen or twenty minutes, and then thirteen to fifteen respirations. On the 21st February, the thermometer being 48°, the intervals of repose were from twenty- eight to thirty, and the consecutive respirations from five to seven. From the observations already made on this impor- tant subject, it appears, that respiration is not only di- minished, but even in some cases totally suspended. During the severe winter of 1795, Spallanzani exposed dormice to a temperature below the freezing point, and enclosed them in vessels filled with carbonic acid and azotic gas over mercury three hours and a half without being hurt, and the sides of the vessels were not marked by any vapour. Hence we may conclude, that they did not breathe, nor give out any carbonic acid. Mangili placed a marmot under a bell glass, im- mersed in lime water, at nine o‘clock in the evening. At nine next morning the water had only risen in the glass three lines. Part of the oxygen was abstracted, and a portion of carbonic acid was formed, as a thin pellicle appeared on the surface of the lime water, which effervesced with nitric acid. Spallanzani placed torpid marmots in vessels filled with carbonic acid and hydro- gen, and confined them there for four hours, without doing them the least injury, the temperature of the at- mosphere being several degrees below the freezing oint. But he found, that if these animals were awa- ete by any means, or if the temperature was not low enough to produce complete torpor, they very soon perished in the same noxious gases, A, bird and rat, introduced into a reservoir containing carbonic acid gas, did not live a minute; whereas a torpid marmot remained in it an hour, without betraying the least de- sire to move, and recovered perfectly on being placed in a warmer medium, In the exhausted receiver of an air bat lived seven minutes, in which another bat died at the end of three minutes. Torpid bats, when confined in a vessel containing atmospheric air, consumed six hundredths of the oxygen, and produced five hundred parts of carbonic acid. Viewing this in connection with his other experiments, this philosopher concluded, that the consumption of the oxygen, and the evolution of the carbonic acid, proceeded from the skin. The respiration of torpid quadrupeds is thus greatly diminished, and even in some cases suspended ; and im_ general, instead of being performed with regu- larity as in ordinary sleep, the respirations take place at intervals more or less remote, according te the condi- tion of the lethargy. 8. Diminished Circulation. From the experiments al- ready detailed with regard to the reduction of the tem- perature and the respiration of torpid quadrupeds, we are prepared to expect a corresponding diminution of action in the heart and arteries. In the hamster, ( Cricetus vulgaris,) the circulation ef the blood during its torpid state is so slow, accerdin to Buffon, that the pulsations ef the heart do not excee fifteen in a minute. In its active and healthy state they amount to one hundred and fifty in the same space. We are informed by Barrington in his Miscellanies, that Mr Cornish applied a thermometer to the body of a torpid bat, and found that it indicated 36°. At this temperature the heart gave sixty pulsations in a minute. When awakened so much as to be able to fly a little, he again applied the thermometer, which now indica- ted 38°, and the heart beat one hundred times in a mix ump, a torpid HYBERNATION. nute. As the torpor becomes profound, the action of Animals the heart is so feeble, that only fourteen beats have been » distinctly counted, and those at unequal intervals. Dormice, when awake and jumping about, breathe so rapidly, that it is almost impossible to count their pulse ; but as soon as they begin to grow torpid, eighty-eight pulsations may be counted in a minute, thirty-one when they are half torpid, and only twenty, nineteen, and even sixteen, when their torpor is net so great as to render the action of the heart imperceptible. Spallanzani and others are of opinion, that the circu- lation of the blood is entirely stopped in the remote branches of the arteries and veins, and only proceeds in the trunks of the larger vessels, and near the heart. But it is probable, that however languid the circulation may be, it is still carried on, as the blood continues fluid. He found, that if the blood of marmots be subjected, out of the body, to a temperature even higher than that to which it is exposed in the lungs of these animals, it is instantly frozen; but it is never congealed in their dormant state. , which become Torpid. | mpl 4, Diminished is The irritability of torpid Diminished ty animals, or their susceptib tion, is extremely feeble, and in many cases is nearly suspended. Destined to remain for a stated period in this lethargic state, a continuance of their power of ir- ritability would be accompanied with the most perni- cious consequences ; as thereby they would be often raised prematurely into action under a temperature which they could not support, and at a time when a seasonable ‘supply of food could not be obtained. In their torpid state, therefore, they are not readily acted upon by those stimuli, which easily excite them to ac- tion during the period of their activity, Parts of their limbs may be cut off without the animal shewing any signs of feeling. Little action is excited even when their vital parts are laid open. When the hamster is dissected in this torpid state, the intestines discover not the smallest sign of irritability upon the application of alcohol or sulphuric acid. During the operation, the animal sometimes opens its mouth, as if it wanted to respire, but the lethargy is too powerful to admit of its reviviscence. ; Marmots are not roused from their torpid state by the electric spark, strong enough to give a smart sensa« tion to the hand, and a shock from a den phial only excited them for a short time. They are insensible to pricking their feet and nose, and remain motionless and apparently dead. Bats are also equally insensible to the application of stimuli. The most curious experiments on this subject are those of Mangili. Having killed a marmot in a torpid state, he found the stomach empty and collapsed, the intestines likewise empty, but there was a little matter in the cecum and rectum. The blood flowed quickly from the heart, and in two hours yielded a great quan< tity of serum. The veins in the brain were very full of blood. The heart continued to beat during three hours after. The head and neck having been separated from the trank, and placed in spirits of wine, gave signs of motion even after half an hour had elapsed. Some portions of the voluntary muscles gave symptoms of irritability with galvanism four hours after death, In a marmot killed in full health, the heart had ceased to beat at the end of fifty minutes, The flesh lost all signs of irritability in two hours; the intercostal and abdominal muscles retaining it longer than those of any other | 8 of the body. 5. Diminished Action of the Digestive Organs. The of being excited to ac« iitability. HYBERNATION. digestive faculty in torpid animals is exceedingly pire?! Vide? & = e : 4 E F tf Hl Rs rs 4} 3a i g 899 clusion, that all torpid animals sustain a loss of weight Anmals during the continuance of their lethargy. a From the experiments which we have already quoted, Torpid. it must appear obvious, that iration is in —— carried on, although sometimes in a very feeble man- ner. Carbon, ly, must be evolved. Ac- cordingly we eco achacltn iad predeced me Geneeiae sels in which these id animals have been confined ; and hence must ude, that a loss of weight has taken B Such being the and accompanying phe- nomena of this id state, let us now endeavour to discover the cause of these singular appearances. Ina subject of this kind, so intimately connected Causes of with the pursuits of the naturalist and the physiologist, torpidity. it was to that numerous brypotheves would be |, to explain such ~ me Unfortunately, indeed, many hypotheses have proposed, while few, from a connected view of the sub- ject, have ventured to theorise. Perhaps we are not prepared to draw a sufficient number of general conclu- sions, from the scanty facts which we possess, in order to build any theory. But the following observations may be considered as embracing the principal opinions which have been formed on the subject, and announ- ing the more obvious causes in operation. n an investi eineuhaay- ob habe tr eaeplt tae tempt to trace this si ity of habit in torpid > ani- ra some peculiar Peo in the brs sit of organs. oe ly we many anatomists as- signing a peculiarity atiaatl as a reason why these animals become or at least pointing out a structure in torpid animals different from that which is observable in animals that are not subject to this brumal lethargy. Pallas observed the thymus gland unusually in — quadrupeds, and also perceived two glandular jee under the throat and u of the thorax, — appear particularly florid and vascular during ir . M i is of opinion, that the veins are larger in size, in proportion to the arteries in those animals which be- come torpid, than in others. He supposes, that, in uence of this t, there is only as much blood transmitted to the brain during summer as is ne- cessary to excite that to action. In winter, when the circulation is slow, the small quantity of blood transmitted to the brain is inadequate to produce the effect. This circumstance, acting along with a reduced temperature and an empty stomach, he considers as the cause of torpidity. By analogy he infers, that the same i euliacin torpidity with all the other other classes. superior cava divides into two left passing over the left auricle of the heart into the inferior part of the right auricle near to the entrance of the vena cava inferior. The veins usu-~ ally called azygos accumulate into two trunks, which open into the of the vena cava superior, on its, own sile of the thorax. The intercostal arteries and. veins in these animals are unusually large.” Phil; Trans. 1805+ Effects of cold, 400 We cannot refrain from observ ings that these general views do not appear to be the, result of a patient inves- tigation of a number of different kinds of torpid ani- mals, but a premature attempt. to theorise from a few insulated particulars. Passing, therefore, from these attempts.of the anatomist to illustrate the phenomena in question, let us attend to those other causes which are concerned in the production of torpidity. From the consideration, that this state of torpidity commences with the cold of winter, and terminates with the heat of spring, naturalists in general have been. disposed to consider a reduced temperature as one of the principal causes of this lethargy. . Nor are cir- cumstances wanting to give ample support to the con- clusion. When the temperature of the atmosphere is reduced, as we have already seen, below 50°, and towards the freezing point, these animals occupy their torpid posi- tion, and by degrees, relapse into their winter slumbers. When in this situation, an increase of temperature, the action of the sun, or a fire, rouse them to their former activity. This experiment may be repeated several times, and with the same result, and demonstrates the great share which a diminished temperature has in the production of torpidity. If marmots are frequently disturbed in this manner during their lethargy, they die violently agitated, and a hemorrhage takes place from the mouth and nostrils, The cireumstance of torpid animals being chiefly pe chee the colder regions, is another proof that a di- minis! temperature promotes idity. And, in confirmation of this, Dr Barton rf ane - that, in the United States of America, many species of animals which become torpid in Pennsylvania, and other more northern parts of the country, do not become torpid in the Carolinas, and other southern parts of the conti- nent. But while a certain degree of cold is productive of this lethargy, a greater reduction of temperature pro- duces reviviscence as speedily as an increase of heat. Mangili placed a torpid marmot which had been kept in a temperature. of 45°, in ajar surrounded with ice and muriate of lime, so that the thermometer sunk to 16°. In about half an hour a quickened respiration in- dicated returning animation. In sixteen hours. it was completely revived. It was trembling with cold, and made many efforts to escape. He also placed a torpid bat under a bell glass, where the temperature was 29°, and where it had free air. Respiration soon became ‘painful, and it attempted to escape. It then folded its wings, and its head shook with convulsive tremblings. In an hour no other motions were perceptible than those of respiration, which increased in strength and fre- quency until the fifth hour, From this period, the signs of respiration became less distinct; and, by the sixth hour, the animal was found dead. He also ex- posed a torpid dormouse (from a temperature of 41°) to a cold of 27° produced by a freezing mixture. Re- spiration increased from ten to thirty-two times in a minute, and without any intervals of repose. There were no symptoms: of uneasiness, and the respirations seemed: like those in natural sleep. As the ’ : ture rose, respiration became slower. He then placed it in the sun, when it awoke. Two hours afterwards, having exposed it to the wind, iration became fre- quent and painful; it turned its back to the current without, however, becoming torpid. That cold is calculated to produce effects similar to torpidity on man himself, is generally known, When HYBERNATION. persons in health are immersed in salt water at the tem« perature of 40°, the thermometer under the sinks from seven to nine degrees below the stan heat. In a little, however, it recovers its ordinary ele- vation, and becomes stationary. Exposure to cold has also the effect of diminishing the force of the pulse very much—of producing great exhaustion, and an ac~ cumulation of blood in the extreme vessels. But the effects of a reduced temperature on the hu- man system are still better illustrated in the tend to sleep, produced by a cold atmosphere in eertain si- tuations. Those who have ascended to the summits of high mountains, have, by the exposure to cold, felt an almost irresistible propensity to lie down and sleep. Dr Solander, while exploring Terra del Fuego, though perfectly aware of the inevitable destruction attending the giving way to this inclination ; nay, though he had even cautioned his companions 5 indulging it, could not himself overcome the desire. When this feeling is gratified, sleep succeeds, the becomes benumbed, and death speedily arrives. ow long this sleep might continue without ending in death, were the body defended from the increasing cold and the action of the air, will probably never be determi- ned by satisfactory experiments. Partial has often been experienced in the hands and feet, which is easily removed by a gradual increase of temperature. We may add, that in the case of persons exposed to great cold in elevated situations on mountains or in bal« loons, there are other causes in operation which may have a tend to produce sleep, The previous exer tions have reduced the body to a very exhausted state —the pressure of the atmosphere on the body is great« ly diminished, and the air inhaled by the lungs is ra- refied. When these torpid animals, kept in a confined state, are regularly supplied with food, and in a uni- form temperature, it has been observed that they do not fall into their wonted lethargy, but continue lively and active during the winter season. This experiment has often been repeated with the marmot and other ani« mals. But when in this state they are peculiarly sen- sible to cold. Dr Reeves, in some experiments which he performed, says, “ When I was in Switzerland I procured two young marmots in September 1805, and kept them with the view of determining the question whether their torpidity could be prevented by an abun-« dant supply of food and moderate heat. I carried them with me to Vienna, and kept them the whole of the winter 1805-6. The months of October and Novem- ber were very mild. My marmots ate every day tur- nips, cabbages, and brown bread, and were very active and lively: they were kept in a box filled with hay in a cellar, and afterwards in a room without a fire, and did not shew any symptoms. of growing torpid. De- cember the 18th, the weather. was cold, and the wind very sharp ; Fahrenheit’s thermometer stood at 18° and 20°. Two hedgehogs died which were kept in the same room with the a 3; anda ra died also in a room where a fire was constantly , though these animals had’ plenty of hay and food. The mar- mots became more torpid than I ever saw them before ; yet they continued to come out of their nest, and en< deavoured to eseape: the food given them in the even- ing was always consumed by the next morning. In January the weather was. unusually mild and warm ; my marmots ate voraciously, and were jumping about in the morning ; but at four o’clock in the afternoon I examined them several times, and found them not : . become Torpid. 5 “ye which — n They roe. tea HYBERNATION. id, and quite cold to the in this state of semi touch during the da: ceiceninel b } '” ly tore Pid, that it awoke: at might and. ate @ little, and fell asleep:again in the morning. He shews also that dor- anice kept in a situation more resembling their wild state became torpid in the month of November, and ined tili the middle of March without eating the ane sag A o 'y necessary production sataeuniaenl Somnde beocnetes is ani not become tor- pid though to a.cold sufficient to freeze water, unless from the action of theair. Even when shut up in a cage filled with earth and straw, and expo- sed to cold, he still continues awake ; but when the cage is sunk four or five feet under and free access to the external air in eight or ten days he be- torpid as if he had been in his own burrow. If utility of the precaution setisinig'te: plaseswhere thin oie is still, and where they may enjoy a confined atmo- Taflaence of * ‘appears also in some cases to on wonstitu- a the constitution. Thus, in the same cham- Mon. bers, one marmot shal! continue awake and active while the others are in a effects of ~ Smangitt touk ee the _ =a a , on rpleced ie ine of 8 of Reau- tur. * It first rolled itself up ; a lifted its bead and tried to escape. ‘Its respiration became frequent : ful: At the end of the first hour, had be- ome feeble ; at the end of 'an hour anda oreo P and twenty minutes after, it was frozen to Rip Ne: erat th hy was found white, the veins of the neck were much _ gwollen, and @ small of extravasated blood was observed in the brain andthe lungs, It appears oo Faagens Siegunateny sloop, ‘ which bere hares recruited, and it toe comes better able to the effects of those ordinary agents with which it has to contend.’ ‘There are some circutmstarices in of these torpid animals which ‘seem to indicatey that they pos- VOL, Zt. PART fs) * . . 401 sess the power of becoming-torpid at pleasure, even in yoo of those di ag rehad- oe which we have enumerated. S i has seen bats in a tor- pid-state even during summer, and su , that as these animals appear to possess some voluntary power over respiration, this topic may be nay instinc- \tive propensity to preserve life. Mangili, in spring, when the Cricetus is was awake, and when ia tea. of the air was between 66° and 68°, placed. it in a vase with nuts and other food. ani- mal to and refused to eat, It then be- came torpid. In this state the number of its respirations diminished. Instead of rolling itself up as usual before becomi wi it lay all the while upon its back, and remained in state until the 37th of July. By some. it has been supposed, that the fat accumu. Influence of Jaton ina hempid enieaala strict Ne er those causes which produce this lethargy. The cir. cumstance is certainly very common, but no direct ex» periments have hitherto been performed to warrant the conclusion, Spallanzani hasi asserted, that among the dormice which he caught for his experiments, some were very fat, while others were lean, and yet they were apps of torpidity from the action of cold. All this may be the case; but there is certainly reason to believe, that these animals stand in need. of some epee aera ce pr a ere tema. that gradual waste which takes place during the period of their slumbers. Before concluding our account of torpid quadru peds, Revivis- it may ety a ee ranma tees on their re- cence of viviscence. Whenthe hamster passes from his torpid state, torpid ani- he exhibits several curious omnes Cae Re eS His legs begin to move ; His passage from a torpid to an active state is more or less quick according to the temperature. It is proba- bis thee thin cheng’ de im ibly when the animal remains in his hole, and he feels none of those inconveniences which attend a foreed and sud. den reviviscence. It perenne: See ee wnowaa animals occupy, must experience, in the course of their lethargy, senstdenble changes of temperature. It would form a very parry, ta habe to as« er and inferior pee torpid state with respect to temperature, e Cricetus. glis has been observed dormant from 34° to 48°; the ee It is certainly very difficult to account for the: torpi- dity of those animals, which, like the marmot and hamster, congregate and burrow in the earth. Previous to their becoming torpid, a considerable degree of heat must be ted, from their mumbers, in their hole ; and besi are | so'deep in the-earth, as to be beyond the reach of of the temperature of the jeciiigeash bats wpisiacking 0 season, must preserve a vof he: aching to the mean annual temperature of the climate. If this is Se ces. He first loses the ™#+ Animals which become Torpid. Torpidity of birds. 402 the case, how is reviviscence produced in the spring ? It cannot be owing to any change of temperativre, for their situation prevents them , experiencin such vicissitudes. Is’ it not owing to a change which takes place in their constitution? and, is not awa- kening from torpidity, similar to awakening from sleep ? A similar remark may be made with’ regard to bats in their winter quarters. ‘The caves to which they re- sort, approach at all times the mean annual temperature. -A few individuals, not sufficiently: cautious in choosing proper retreats, are sometimes prematurely called: into action, ata season when there is no food, .so that they fall a prey to owls, and the cold of the evening. But what indications of returning spring have those who are attached to the roofs of the deeper caves? . Surely no increase of temperature? | Perhaps’ an: internal change is’the cause which again excites to action. ; There is another very curious circumstance attending the reviviscence of quadrupeds from their torpid’ state, which deserves to be mentioned. As soon as they have recovered from their slumbers, they prepare for the great business of propagation, This is a proof;. that torpidity, instead of exhausting the energies of nature, increases their vigour. It also indicates a peculiarity of constitution, to the preservation and health of which, a brumal lethargy is indispensibly requisite. It appears to be the general practice of modern natu- ralists, to treat with ridicule those accounts which have been left us of Birps having been found in a: torpid state during winter. These accounts, it is true, have in many instances been accompanied with the most ab- surd stories, and have compelled us to pity the credu- lity of our ancestors, and withhold our assent to the truth of many of their statements. But are there no authenticated instances of torpidity among birds? In treating of the torpidity of quadrupeds, we were unable to detect the cause of torpidity, as existing:in any circumstances connected with structure or with circula- tion, respiration, or animaltemperature; nor in the places which they frequent, nor the food by which they are sup- orted. Hence we cannot expectmuchhelpfromaknow- ledge of the anatomy, physiology, or even habits of birds, in the resolution of the present question.. It.has indeed been said, that as birds can readily transport themselves from one country to’ another, and in. this manner shun the extremes of temperature,:and reach a supply of food, the power of becoming torpid would be useless if bestowed on them, although hig ly beneficial to quadrupeds, that are impatient of cold, and cannot migrate to places where there is a supply of food. This mode of reasoning, however, is faulty, since we employ our pretended knowledge of final causes, to ascertain the limits of the operations of nature, and cannot be to- lerated in a science depending entirely on fact and ob- servations. Besides, there are many animals, as we have seen in the class Mammalia, which become torpid, and a similar state obtains among the reptiles. As birds, in the scale of being, hold a middle ioe between these, ' two classes, being superior to the reptiles, and inferior to the mammalia, we have some reason to expect in- stances of torpidity to occur among the feathered. tribes, These remarks have for their object, to prepare the mind for discussing the merits of the question, by the removal of presumptions and prejudices, as we fear pre- conceived opinions have stents exercised too much in- fluence. ‘In treating of the migrations of the swallow, we en- deavoured to point out their winter residence, and even, traced them into Africa. We are not however prepared to assert, that in every season all these birds leave this HYBERNATION. If they remain, in what condition are they —- country. found? . Many naturalists, such as Klein, Linneus, and others, have: believed: in the submersion of swallows: during re Torpid. _ ‘winter in lakes and rivers. \ They have supposed, that submersion _ they descend to. the bottom, and continue there ‘until of Swal- the following spring. Many of the — produced in lows. support of this opinion may be found by consulting the ‘article Binns, vol. iii. p. 514. On this subject we ,wil- lingly quote the judicious note in the. introduction to Bewick’s Land Birds. ‘There are various instances on record, which bear the strongest marks of veracity, of swallows having been taken out of water, and of their having been so far recovered by warmth as to ex~ hibit evident signs of life, so. as.even to fly about for a ‘short space of time. But, whilst we admit the fact, we are not inclined to allow the.conclusion generally drawn from it, viz. that swallows, at the time of their disappears ance, frequently immerse themselves in seas, lakes, and rivers, and, at the proper season, emerge and reassume the ordinary functions of life and animation ; for it should be observed, that in those instances which have been the best authenticated, it appears, that the swal-° lows so taken up were generally found oo amongst reeds and rushes, by the sides, or in the shal< lowest parts of the lakes or rivers where they happened to be discovered, and that having been brought th life so far as to fly about, they all of them died in a few hours after. From the facts thus stated we would infer, that at the time of the disappearance of swallows, the reedy grounds by the sides of rivers and_standing waters are generally dry, and that these birds, especially the later hatchings, which frequent such places for the sake of food, retire to them at the proper season, and lodge themselves among the roots, or in the thickest parts of the rank grass which grows there; that during their state of torpidity they are liable to be covered with was. ter from the rains which follow, and are sometimes. washed into the deeper parts of the lake or river, where: they have accidentally been taken up ; and that proba« bly the transient signs of life which they have discover: ed on such occasions, have given rise,to a. variety of vague and improbable accounts of their immersion,””— We may add, that- whoever denies that swallows have been found in such situations, let-his reasonings be what they may, tramples under his feet the laws of evidence, and cherishes a scepticism as unphilosophical as the most unthinking credulity. far-9 ; - But, independent of these instances of submersion, as it is termed, which we regard as ‘purely. accidental, there have been many instances of actual torpidity oy served. Swallows, if we may credit the testimony many who have been eye-witnesses of the fact, are ofs ten found during the winter season in a torpid state in theit old nests, and in the crevices of old buildings. The belief of this kind of torpidity is very common m many parts of Scotland, and can scarcely. be rp to lave originated from any other cause than the currence, of the fact. But besides the occurrence of the torpidity of the swallow, Bewick relates an instance of the same condi- tion being observed in the cuckoo. “A few years a young cuckoo was found in the thickest part of a close whin-bush. _ When taken up, it presently disco« vered signs of life, but was quite destitute of feathers. Being kept warm, and carefully fed, it grew and reco~ vered its coat of feathers. In the spring following it made its escape, and in flying across the river Tyne it gave its usual call.” —Brit. Birds, 1. Introd, xvii. There is a still more decided example of torpidity in ; eretat °° HYBERNATION. weather gives about thirty beats in the same period. anol: birds recorded by Mr Neill, in his Tour t Shetland, been observed in land-rail, or «| made,” says he, *« frequent in quiry, * crakes had ‘been seen to migrate from Orkney, but : ah i i i ray 1 ge i h 8 F 8 i § [ - 4 i aE ze Be i been considering i blooded animals observe a si mode of hyberna- H 4038 Dr Reeves made some interesting ments on . the circulation of the sad and frog. “ Tebserved,” he says, “ that the number of pulsations in toads and frogs was thirty in a minute, whilst they were left to them- selves in the ai here of which the temperature was 53°; when placed in a medium cooled to 40°, the num- ber of pulsations was reduced to twelve, within the same period of time ; and when exposed to a freezing mixture; at 26°, the action of the heart ceased alto- The of digestion are equally feeble durin torpidity as these of respiration dati ion. Mr Jae Hunter conveyed pieces of worms and meat down the throats of lizards when'they were going to their winter quarters, and, keeping them afterwards in a cool per, on opening them at different periods, he always found the substances, he had introduced, entire, and without any alteration ; bear wees were in the stomach, at other times they had passed into the intestines, and some of the li that were allowed to live, voided them toward the spring entire, and with very little al- teration in their aa ‘ ye seas The immediate cause o idity in reptiles n ascertained with more ra than in the animals belonging to the higher classes with warm blood. This eonilition with therm, does not d d on the state of the heart, the Jungs, or the brain; for these different organs have been removed by Spallanzani, and still the animals became torpid, and recovered according to cit- cumstances. Even after the blood had been withdrawn from frogs and salamanders, a ae the same if the body had been entire, of action. Cold, with these animals, is evidently the chief cause of their torpidity, acting on a frame extremely sensible to its impressions. During the continuance of a high temperature, these animals remain active and lively ; but when the temperature is reduced towards 40°, they become torpid, and in this condition, if placed in a si- tuation when the tem ure cae low, will re- main torpid for an unknown peri time. Spallan- zani kept ‘ aster tind snakes, in eae state in an i , where they remained three’ years and a half, and readily revived when again ex tothe influence ofa warm atmosphere, These experiments give countenance to those reports in daily circulation of toads being found enclosed in stones. These animals may have entered a deep crevice of the rock, and during their torpidity, been covered with sand, which has after- wards concreted around them. Thus removed from the influence of the heat of spring or summer, and in a place where the re continued below the point at which they revive, it is impossible to fix limits to the period during which they may remain in this dormant state. Since reptiles are easily acted upon by a cold at- mosphere, we find but few of those animals distribu« ted in the cold countries of the globe; while in those countries whose temperature is always high, these ani-« mals are found of vast size, and of many different kinds, and in numbers. great The torpidity of the Mollusca has not been studied Mollusca. with care. Those which are naked and reside on the land, retire to holes in the earth, under the roots of 404 Kiedis crevices” of ‘rocks ‘and other ‘hiding places, but they ‘which become Mollusca. Insecta, form an mor lid for the mouth of :the shell, ‘by which they adhere to the rock, and at the same time closeup ever all. access to the air. If they be brought into a warm temperature, and a little moisture be added, they edily revive, In’ the case of the Helix nemoralis, the operculum falls off when the animal revives, and a new'one is formed when it returns:again to its slum- bers. The first formed opercula contain a considerable portion of carbonat of lime, which \is' found. in «smaller quantity in the later formed ones, If the animal has ‘revived frequently during the winter, the last formed ‘opercula consist entirely of animal matter, and are very thin. The winter lid of the Helix pomatia resembles a jiece of card. All the land testacea appear to haye the power of be- coming torpid at pleasure, and independent of any al- terations of temperature. Thus, even in midsummer, if we'place in a box, specimens‘of the Helix hortensis, nemoralis ox arbustorum, without food, in a day or two they form for themselves a thin operculum, attach them- ‘selves tothe side of the, box, and remain in this dors mant state. They may be kept in this state for several years. No ordinary change of temperature’ produces ‘ - any effect upon them, ‘but they speedily revive if'plun- in water. | Even in their natural haunts, they are often found inthis state during’ the ‘summer season, when there: is'a: continued drought, With the’ first shower, however, they recover, and move about, and at this time the conchologist ought to be on the alert. The Spipers pass the winter season in.'a dormant state, enclosed in their own webs, and placed in some concealed ‘corner. Like’ the* torpid: mammalia, ‘they speedily revive when exposed to intense cold, and strive to obtain a more sheltered spot. : ~ Many Insects which are destined to survive the winter months, become regularly torpid by a cold ex- ‘ceeding 40°." The common honey’ bee, inva small hive, when reduced to this temperature, loses all power of motion, but may. be easily: revived by an ‘increase of temperature. When the-hive is large, there is always as much heat generated, as to protect them against this lethargic disposition. |The house fly. may always be fount! in the winter season torpid, in some retired cor= mer; but exposure for a few.minutes to the influence of ‘a five recalls it to: activity. Even:some of the lepi- idopterous insects; which have been hatched) too late in the season to:enable them to perform the business ‘of ‘procreation; ess the faculty of becoming torpid during the winter, and thus -have’their life »prolong- ed beyond the ordinary period. These ‘insects ‘can all be preserved from: becoming torpid by being pla- ‘ced in an agreeable rature, as the followin ‘experiments’ of Mr Gough’s ‘( Nicholson’s Tomah vol, xix.) abundantly: testify. | In speaking of the Hearth Cricket, (Gryllus domesticus,) he says, “ Those who have:attended'to the manners of this familiar in- séct will know that it passes the hottest se the summer in sunny situations, concealed inthe ‘crevices of walls and heaps ‘of rubbish. It quits: its “summer abode about the end of August, and fixes'its residence by the fireside of the kitchen'or cottage; where it / multiplies its species, and: is as ye Christmas as other insects ‘are in the dog-days, us do the ‘coms forts of. a warm hearth afford the cricket a’ safe refuge, not from death; but from temporary torpidity;> which’ it‘can support for a'leng time, when deprived: acci~ dent of artificial warmth. «I came to the knowledge of this fact,” he says," by: planting Mee titan ton HYBERNATION. sects in a kitchen, wherea constant fire is:k the'summer, but which is discontinued from: to June, with the exception of a day, once in six or eight weeks, The crickets were brought from a distance, and let go in this room in the beginning of September 1806: here they increased considerably in the-course ‘of two months, but were: not'.heard or seen after the fire was removed. Their di ance led:me to conclude that the cold had killed them: but inthis: I»was mis- taken ; for, a brisk fire'being kept up for: a whole day in the winter, the warmth of it invited my-colony from their hiding place, ‘but not before ‘the evening; .after which they continued to skip about ‘and chirp the greater part of the following day, when they again dis- appeared ; being compelled: by ‘the ‘returning cold to take refuge in their.former retreats. They left:the chimney corner on the'28th of May 1807; after a fit of very hot weather, and revisited: their winter residence on the 3ist°of August. |. Here they. t: the summer merely, and lie torpid at present (Jan: 1808). in: the erevices of the chimney, with the exception ‘of those days on which they are’ recalled to a temporary ‘exist: ence by the comforts of a fire.” * : Nothing is known ‘with’ of the Inrnstina, Those which inhabit: the bodies of torpid ‘quadrupeds, in all probability, like them; expe+ rience a winter lethargy. Ifthey remain active, they must possess the faculty of resisting great/alterations of temperature.’ Among the é#fusory animals, numerous instances ‘of suspended animation have ‘been. observed, continued not for a few months, but during the period of twenty-seven years, © But’such instances of. donot belong to our: present subject. ° Besides, ‘they have been fully discussed under the article ANIMALGULA, in Vol. II. Part I. of this work. through There is another kind of -hybernation, notice of in this place, and which merits the appella~ tion of Quiescence. |The animals which observe this condition; remain during the winter'months in an inac- tive: state, requiring but little food, without however ‘experiencing the change to torpidity. H0A-ol »' Of these quiescent animals, the common bear (Ursus arctos) isthe most remarkable example. « Loaded with fat, he retires in the: month of November tovhis den, which: he ‘has: rendered’ comfortable by a lining ‘of soft mossy and seldom 8 wtitil the month of March following.” During: this“ period’ he ‘sleeps: muchy and when awake almost constantly’ licks: with his tongue the soles’of his feet, AOR MET ROTI Ie 38 which are without hair, and full of smallglands. From this source it is supposed that he draws hisnourish« ment during the period of his retirement. This quiescence appears to. differin) its kind from torpidity, ‘This animal is always: in-season ‘before he retires to his winter quarters, and’ the female brings forth her young, before the active period of the spring returns, and before she comes forth from her hiding lace. bel ‘ The cofamon badger is supposed to pass’ the: winter in the’ same manner as the bear,. with which; ‘in-struc< ture’and habit, he isso nearly related. * It is alsoypro- *bable, that-many species of the genus*Arvicola become quiescent, particularly the amphidia or common water rat, which always leaves its ordinary haunts during ‘the winter. alae bell Dele : » It is in this state of hybernation’ that many of our river’ fishes subsist at the season of the year when.asup~- + % ry ——— — animals mmbioh become Torpid, — —\~_ ‘to the hybernation Intestina.. in-some Te- Quiescefiée | spects resembling torpidity, which deserves to be taken of animals. st Hybene- et _—y— HYDERABAD Boundariet, 1 is situated between the 16th and 19th latitude, and HYD the fresh water usca, a accurate observations: on this branch of the subject are still wanting. _ In concluding uF, DES. . See Meoicre. sis a province of the Decean, in India. state asadi sovereignty, ee Tee rivers Godavery and and of which the capital. was Waran- gol. It was reduced medan invasion, and 405 H ¥ D da; the. first sovereign of which, Kooli Kuttub Shah, Hyderabad. established the Kuttub Shahy dynasty in 1512. One of his successors, Abdullah Kuttub Shah, who ascended the throne in 1586, became tributary to the Mogul Emperor Shah Jehan ; and, in this state, the kingdoni remained till 1687, when the reigning sovereign, Abou Houssein, was deprived of his capital Golconda by the Emperor Aurungzebe, and imprisoned for life in the fortress ef chee gr It was not till ogg? a — ed siege, and only, at length, through the treachery one.of the king’s sirdars, that the Mogul Emperor ob- tained of the place; and it is related that, when some of the assailants had fought their way into the t, ee Abou —— was seated at supper, he requested them, with much composure, to sit down led os with him, and that they quietly ‘ac- the invitation. On the destruction of the Mo- gl empire, after the death of Aurungzebe, Nizam ul oolk obtained possession of the Mahommedan con- quests in the Deccan, about the year 1717. Under his successors, the limits of the state experienced much fluctuation ; but its power was wally declining, and would have been totally annihilated by the Mahrattas, had not the British government interposed for its sup- port. In 1800, a treaty of ual alliance was con- cluded with Nizam Ali by Major Kirkpatrick on the sear enra ; and by this arrangement a British of 8000 yegular infantry, and 1000 regular caval- m with their proper complement of artillery and war- hike stores, is stationed pak ~ seighiboe territories, for their protection against e neighbours or turbulent subjects. For the ment of these troops, the Nizam ceded to the India Company all the territo- vies which he had acquired by the treaty of Seringapa- tam in 1792, and by that of Mysore in 1799, »In the event of a war taking place, the Nizam engaged to join the British with 6000 infantry, and.9000 cavalry of his own army, with the train of artil and stores, By thie treaty it was also ‘that all the external political relations of the parties should be exclusively by the British, who undertook to protect his highness’s dominions from every. annoy- ance, and particularly to procure a total exenrption from all claims of Choute on the part of the Mahrattas. In 1802, a commercial treaty was negociated, by which the free use of the port of Masulipatam was granted to the Nizam, with a promise of protection to his flag on the high seas; and an ity of duties on the mutual im and exports was stipulated, the amount of which Id not exceed 5 per cent. Im 1804, a considerable part of the territories of Dowlet Row Sin- dia was transferred to the Nizam; by which the Hy- derabal sovereignty acquired a great increase of terri- tory, and for the first time a well-defined boundary. At present, the Nizam’s dominions,. be- sides the whole of Hyderabad, comprehend Nandere and Beeder, the greater part of Berar, and a portion of Aurungabad and Begapoor, being divided from the Nagpoor territories by the Warda river, and from’ the British by the Krishna and Toombuddra, Hydera- bad, which gives the 1! name to the sovereign- ty, is about 180 miles in Je’ and 150 at its average breadth, The surface of the province is hilly, but not mountainous ; and it is an elevated table land, much colder in its tem re than the of latitade would indicate. In the city of Hyderabad, and the country to the north of it, the , during three months of the year, is frequently so low as 45°, 40°, and 35° of Fahrenheit. The soil is fertile and to- —\~o Treaty with East India Govern- ment. Extent. Climate. 406 Hyderabad. Jerably well watered, but indifferently cultivated and “~~ thinly inhabited. The cultivators are wretchedly poor, and much oppressed by their: Mahommedan superiors, who are subject'to little restraint from their nominal sovereign. From the same cause, they are almost desti- tute of the benefits of commerce; and the average im- port of European goods into the whole of the Nizam'’s dominions, prior to 1809, never exceeded £25,000 per annum. « The principal towns in the province ‘are Hyderabad, Golconda, Warangol, Meduck, and Nie- cundah ; and the whole population of the district is -estimated not to exceed two millions and a half. The reigning prince, Mirza Secunda Jah, ascended the throne in 1803, and has never been more than a few miles from the city of Hyderabad since the com- mencement of his reign. | His government is absolute- ly despotic in theory ; but, in point of fact; his power is much limited by circumstances. He takes little di- rect interest in the minutie of the executive, which is managed almost entirely by one or other of his minis- ters, according as their factions prevail, or as they may be able to carry along with them the support of the Company’s resident. The influence of the: East India Company’s government is paramount in the councils of that of their ally, and all great political points are car ried with considerable facility ; yet, on some late trifling occasions, a lively jealousy has been manifested. While the officer, who had been appointed to conduct the and trigonometrical survey, was approaching Hyde- rabad, he had fixed small flags on some points for di- recting his observations.. This gave rise to repeated complaints ; as if; in taking a few triangles, he had been taking possession of the country: The political intercourse is carried on by means of a resident, who has a superb mansion on the north-east side of the ca- pital across the river. His suite consists of first and second assistants, a surgeon, and the officers of an es- cort of two companies of Bengal native infantry. The present Nizam was entertained at the residency on the occasion of paying him his army’s share of the Serin- gapatam prize money, which had been laid out in splendid specimens of English and Chinese manufac- tures. His Highness was a little alarmed on this oc- casion, by the accidental firing of a few thousand rock- ets which happened to lie pointing towards the spec- tators, but by which fortunately no person near him- self was wounded. The entertainment was concluded by laying before him a superbly mounted sabre, which had been sent by Louis XVI. to Tippoo Sultan. ’ It is difficult to say what is, and what is not, to be reckoned revenue under so irregular a government. Although a very large proportion :of the whole produce of the soil be claimed as its share ; yet so much of this is stopped for the expences of collection and payment of sebundee, or local troops, and so much is diverted into bye channels, that the sum which finally reaches the treasury isin many cases very small.. The’ pro- duce of the estates.granted for military service should be reckoned as part of the revenue, were-it not that the service. is seldom performed. When lands are not granted toJaghiredars fer specific purposes, the common mode of collection is by Tahood, a farm, in which case any person may make an offer for a lease of a district ; and that person is generally preferred who proposes the largest advance of ready money to the minister. Little inquiry is made into the methods which he may use to reimburse himself; and he may do nearly as he Commerce. Court and govern. ment, Revenue, Mode of collecting, HYDERABAD. : pleases, provided he. keeps a good understanding at court. Sometimes, however, complaints are listened to if there exist a hope of squeezing a further sum from the fears of the contractor ; or, if there be a wish to get rid of him to make way for some other who may, ' sas Hyderabad. have offered a sum of ready money, or a larger por’ tion of his expected profits. The other mode is by Amaunee, and is seldom resorted to unless when a dis- trict is in such a rebellious state that. no person can be found to farm it. Some military chief is then turned, into it to collect what he can, and to account to go-, vernment for the amount. This, however, is a last:re- source, as all Indians, whether mussulmans or Hin- doos, are adepts at making up accounts'so as to suit their own interests. f The army of the Nizam; in consequence of the pro- tection afforded by the British troops against the inva«. sions of the Mahrattas, is now on a very inefficient foot- ing. A list of its great officers and their troops, would be merely an enumeration of persons. holding estates and emoluments under a riominal agreement to perform. services, which they are scarcely expected to fulfil. This is quite true as far as regards the great military. jaheridars and risaldars, er cavalry officers; who hold valuable districts in their immediate possession ; but: there are many corps of mutinous and ill-paid imfantry, who have hard service in the collection of the revenue, which the oppressive nature of the government, and the. ‘consequent bad faith and turbulence of the zemindars. render extremely difficult.. These troops are distributed to the different collectorships as occasion may require, With the exception of a few corps patronised by the Company’s resident, none of them are either regularly paid, or decently equipped ; and many battalions have not one-tenth of their arms in a serviceable state. _ By a supplementary article inthe treaty between the Nizam and the Company’s government, it was agreed, that all the forts in the Hyderabad dominions should, in time of a joint war, be opentothe British. Of these fortresses, the most important are that of Dowlatabad * Military force. and of Golconda.. The former, particularly, the most peviae singular perhaps in the world, is situated on a high’ cos nical hill,, which has its sidés pared away perpendicu- larly in such a manner, »that ‘it would: now. be repre sented by a whipping-top set upon its head... There is a fortified tower on the plain, through which a, passage lies to a tunnel in'the bowels of the mountain, afford~ ing an ascent to the conical surface above, and opening to the day near the edge of the precipitous side.. This “upper opening is covered by an iron gratitig, on which a fire is kept burning when any danger is apprehended. Even after overcoming this obstacle, an enemy would still be required to advance in a path’ exposed to the ‘whole fire of the fort on the summit. | In this’ fort are lodgments cut in the solid rock for the garrison and their provisions. The fort of Golconda, about five miles west from Hyderabad, though very strong in some places, is, by a strange arrangement, ‘most assail- able on the side which at the same time commands all the others. In a piece of broken ground, on the north- west side of. the fort, are situated, in an irregular man« ner, the tombs of the Kootub Shahy kings, which are of such solid masonry, that they would afford bomb- proof lodgment for several battalions, though some of them are within battering-distance of the walls. In the lifetime of the late Nizam ul Moolk, the garrison used to make a great show of watchfulness and jealousy * Doulut-abad, ** wealth’s abode.” ? > } ; Forts, j A Pe } 7 a | Golconda, — HYD yJerabad. of any armed party their walls; and, on —\y— one occasion, actually on some ladies and _gentle- men, who were amusing themselves in looking at the tombs. Some ago, a detachment of Com- pany’s ea, of provisions having halted nearthem, the Killidar, orcommandant, sent out amessage tothe officer in charge, desiring him to'remove his en- campment to a greater distance, and threatening that the guns on the works would be used to enforce com- pliance. The officer replied verbally, that he would not decamp until the next comer f and, pointing to a irit carts, added, that, if a fired at him from the fort, he was iene ss and battering guns, and inimediately : yced a more conciliatory tone, with quiet posses- gé “o> ‘407 H YD ing, with bales of woollens, cases of glass, 9g Hyderabad, china-ware, clocks, watches, and other articles of Eu- Hydroce- ropean manufacture, - which always continue locked up & perl? in the magazines. The houses and gardens of the Y Company’s civil and military officers, and of a few other European gentlemen resident in_the gulece, form the principal ornament of the environs. Hyderabad, hav- mg long been the principal Mahommedan station in the Deccan, contains a considerable number of mosques, and exhibits more of ‘the old forms end ceremonies of the Mogul government than any other metropolis in Hindostan. The noblemen of the place have been bred either as ‘soldiers or courtiér$; and, as hoarded _trea- sures would expose them to the avaricious machinations of their superiors, generally spend their fortunes Manners of freely, in keeping up large retinues, or in’ the fashion the inbabi- able profligacy of their court. When any property is “"‘ laid up, it is commonly in the form of ornaments: for their females and children, which are always more re- markable for their weight than workmanship. A ‘few of the wealthier Mahommedans, yng | the Nizam’s ministers, are fond of furnishing. their houses richly with articles of European and Chinese manufacture, such as porcelain, crystal, lustres, chintz sofia covers, and some articles of plate. A favourite piece of lux- ury among them is to have an Acena Khana, a room of which the roof and sides are entirely covered with mirror- plates. His Highness’s ministers frequently entertain the re« sident his suite at their palaces. The amusements at these parties are troops of dancing girls (Kunchi- nees,) wrestlers (puhlwauns,) mimics (bhans,) and mu- sicians of various kinds, who afford some diversion toa of fxshionable luxury; newly-arrived European, but soon become tiresome, _as the troops of the. and often d ing. - A dinner, partly in the English are dressed in British red cloth. style, and a i display of fireworks, commonly close the day's entertainments. Some of the Mahom- medan chiefs sit at table, and e of the same fare with the Europeans, from which pork in every shape, it may be supposed, is carefully excluded. The inh bitants of the city, both Mahommedans and Hindoos, ' though’ very polished in their manners, are both igno- rant and igate. Crimés are here committed ev day with impunity, and even without-notice, wh would strike with wonder and h the inhabitants of any countryin Europe, A father, who'liad murdered his wife for not quiet! uiescing in his preference of his ter, observed, that “ no orte’ hada better right to the fruit than the planter of the tree.” The government we derives a current revenue from licences to carry on the most horrid practices. Amongst such a people, and with such a government, truth and morality, as it may be su , are very rare qualities. The present num- inhabitants, including those of the suburbs, is es- timated at 120,000. The of the city from Cal- cutta is 900 miles; from Madras, 391 ; from’ Bombay, 480 ; from Seri tam, 406; from Delhi, 923. See Orme’s History of Military Transactions in India; Asiatic Annual isters; Sir John Malcolm’s Political History of India; Ferishta’s History of the Deccan, trans by J. Scott, Esq. ; Rennel’s Memoir ofa Map of Hindostan ; and Hamilton's East India Gazetteer: HYDRAULICS. See Hypropynamics: @ HYDROCELE, See Sungery. HYDROCEPHALUS. See Menicine. oe indebted for much important information to John Robison, Esq. F.R.S.E. De 5 408 pe HYDRODYNAMICS. Hydrody- Hynnopvwamtcs, from the Greek ‘rdwe, water, and namics. Av*apels, power or force, is that branch of natural philo- ——— sophy which embraces the phenomena exhibited by water and other fluids, whether ‘they are at rest or in motion. It treats of the pressure, the equilibrium; the eohesion, the motion, and the resistance of fluids; and of the construction of the machines by which water is raised, and in which it is the first mover, or the pri- mary agent. This science.is generally divided into Hydrostaties and Hydraulics, the former of which con-~ siders the pressure, equilibrium, and cohesion of flu- ids ; and the latter, their motion, the resistance which they op to moving bodies, and the various machines in which they are the principal agent, HISTORY. } Artuovucnu Hydrodynamics is but a modern science, History: and was studied by the ancients only in its most ge- The general neral principles, yet many of the leading doctrines and principles of phenomena upon which it is founded are familiar to Hydrody- the rudest nations, and must have been well-known in namics 4 known in the very earliest ages of society. - Even at that remote the earliest period when man first trusted himself to the waves, ages, the pressure of fluids, and the phenomena of floating bodies, were undoubtedly known to him; and in the more advanced ‘stage of navigation, when the Pheni- cians were able to colonise the most distant regions of the globe, the directing power/of the helm, the force and management of the oars, the action of the wind upon the sail, and the resistance opposed to the motion of the vessel, were well known facts, which implied ractical acquaintance with some of the most important No irioel of Hydrodynamics. __ The motion of fluids, as affected by the size of the aper~ ture from which they issued, and by the height of the superincumbent column, formed the fundamental prin- ciple of the Clepsydre (from xAgxza, to steal, and. due, water) or water clocks, which were employed’in tlie ear« liest ages, before the invention of sun dials, to measure time. The simplest, and probably the earliest. form in which the Clepsydre appeared, is that of two inverted cones, as represented in Plate CCCXIII. Fig: 1. This species of Clepsydra consisted of a hollow cone A, perfo- rated at its vertex, and of a solid cone B, which was made to fill A with the greatest exactness. The aperture of A wwas so adjusted to the size of the cone, that,’ when filled with water, it emptied itself in the course of the short est day in winter, The length ‘of the cone was divided into 12 equal parts, which indicated’ the hours) by the descent’of the fluid, or the same result was obtained by divisions upon the vessel into which the water flowed: When the days lengthened, and the hours be- » came longer, the solid cone B was introduced into the hollow cone A, and; according to the depth of its pene- tration, the water flowed from the aperture with less facility. A graduated index BC enabled the observer to accommodate the position’ of ‘the “solid cone to the varying length of the day. a Another Clepsydra, of a more’ ingenious) construc- tion, is represented in Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 2. The water is first received into the reservoir A, which is al- Invention of Clepsy- dre. PLATE CCCXIIE. Fig. 1. PLATE CCCXIIL Fig. 2. _vented in the Alexandrian school, which flourished un- ways kept full, and des¢ends by the pipe Bintoahole 4; a in the great drum MN.- This hole corresponds to:one ae of the sperangs in the groove round the circumference’ Clepsydra. of the small drum LO, which is drawn out in the fi- gure for the purpose of showing it; but when the machine J is in use; it 1s fitted into the drum: MN. The apertures wv of the groove in LO.are of different sizes, so.as to admit 4 -different quantities of water, according to the length of the day, and the proper aperture for the given day is found by placing the index L opposite the sun's placein the zodiac shewn at N, the index O being-used:for the night hours. ene binant which descends through ‘the openings in the drum is conveyed by the pipe F, and falls through the aperture at G toenenopat, As the water rises in the reservoir, the inverted vessel _ I, suspended by a chain which passes over ‘the «axis R, and balanced by a counterweight P, ascends, and»conse- quently the hour land, X; fixed upon the-extremity-of the axis, is made to revolve, and indicate the hours upon the dial plate. a” Sor . Notwithstanding’ the ingenuity of ‘these inventions;' >; and the hydrodynamical: knowledge’ which; they indi- o¢ 4 cated,.the doctrine of fluids may still’ be considered as'medes, _ deriving its-origin: from the discoveries of Archimedes, A.C. The history of these discoveries has beén rendered ri« diculous by vulgar’ fables,-which have ‘long been: dis~’ credited ; but it appears unquestionable, that they ori- ginated in the detection of a fraud) committed by the jeweller of Hiero, king of Syracuse.) Archimedes was: applied ‘to by the king to ascertain, without injurir its workmanship, whether or nota néw crown, whi had been made for him, consisted’ of pure: gold: The method of solving the’ problem is‘said to have occurs red to him when in-the ‘bath, -— he applied it suc~ cessfully in detecting the -fraud..+ The ‘hydrostati- cal doctrines to which Archimedes was thus conduct« ed, were illustrated in a work: consisting of two-books, and entitled; wigs oxeysvwv, de instdentibus im Fluido. He maintained, that every particle of a fluid mass in equi librio is pressed equally in every direction: He exa- mined the conditions in:consequence:of ‘which a float- ing. body assumes and preserves its position of equili< brium, and he applied it to ‘bodies that have a triangu- lar,’a conical, and a paraboloidal form. He'shewed that every body plunged in a fluid loses as much of its own weight as the weightiof the quantity: of water which it displaces ; and upon this beautiful ‘principle is founded the process which he employed ‘for ascertaining ‘the impurity of Hiero’s.crown.” When theresult was' coms raunicated to the king, he) exclaimed, Nihil non‘dicénté Archimede; credam! « The-screw of Archimedes, which is still used in modern times for raising water, is said to have been invented by! hiny when in Baye tose wedi purpose of enabling the inhabitants to free themselves of the! stagnant water which was left in the low grounds after the inundations of the Nile; and Athéneus ins forms ‘us, that navigators held «the memory of Archi- medes; in the highest: honour, for having furnished them..with the means of carrying: off the water in°the holds of :thein vessels. : j teat epee Hydraulic machinery appears to have been first in- HYDRODYNAMICS. 409 History. der the patronage of the Ptolemies. Hi who ——— was the first that constructed tables of the sun’s Seep con aaa of to a hi ion ; it was probably in bis time that the Anaphorical Clepsydre used them for many purposes at a mucli earlier ree of perfection by Ctesibign, who flourished lo- ius, Ww a. age ring the reign of Ptolemy Physcus, near the begin- ning of the second century before the era. When he was one day amusing himself in the shop of Sc Tay: Win wrin u bestoor ba Aandi ae obenr ee) por oe papa 2 lparberwra: , which was coun- by a weight contained in a cylindrical frame, a musical sound was emitted from the narrow space between the roller and its frame. Hence he was en led to conceive the idea of a hydraulic organ, which toothed should operate by means of air and water. Havi i +H Mi ; f i E ; H s Hi ve Hi 5 all f Z i “F yepeiste ml prena aE f peiller Hel ib FES: aeé A! i Ht fey ERs af FF GF i ir 74 bet oH i ed H fs i i i i with 61 tooth, which, by ts axis OL, turns the pillar w ts Daationd ie 906 aes. en tains an account of the Forcing Pump, and of the Foun- ly called Hero's Fountain, * See Heronis Spirit 4 The works p- 1630-178. A new VOL. XI, PART U. in which water was raised above its level by the elas- History ticity of the air, which had been condensed by the wa- ter. The idea of the forcing pump ie ager 4p by the Noria, or Egyptian w which con- sisted of a number of earthen pots carried round upon the circumference of a wheel. | . Although it has been believed, on the authority of Wer were invented in the reign of Augustus, yet there is reason to think that to a much earlier pe- riod; for Vitruvius, who flourished under Augustus, and who has given a description of these mills, does not speak of as a recent invention. The Clepsy~ dra of Ctesibius indeed, which we have already descri- bed, contains all the machinery of an overshot water mill. The wheel K is put in motion by the water, which is de livered into its Sabine and the force of the wheel is employed through the intervention of wheels and pi- nions, to give a rotatory motion to the vertical pillar. The first experiments on the motion of fluids seem Julius viri Consularis de Aqueductibus Urbis Roma Commen- tarius. It contains a full account of the different wa- ters which flowed into Rome, of the nature and form of the aqueducts by which they were conveyed, of the times when they were erected, of the quarters of the city which they supplied, the number of public and private fountains from which were distributed, pei Lamenaing ry wqahrt yn ase mie the management of ic fountains. i ype tempers Kiss oy eam pg yy pg ining the quantity of water which flowed from diffe- rent adjutages, he shews, that the water which flows in a given time from a given orifice does not depend sxtidly igen tha Songaieedo-an au ies of the orifice itself, but also upon the t of the fluid in the con- taining vessel ; and that a portion of the water of an h to cireumstances! have a position more or less oblique to the direction of the current. A h Frontinus Wes SnerEene SES Se Oa een Lrvipe fed runni waters, as depending upon the height siadedos outiabe tom consider the foundation of the peerage cy yer le our. Ppa bn experiments. As the civil engineer wil) naturally stu- dy with a deep interest the first account which has been given of one of the most im it branches of his profession, we would recommend, as an accompa- niment to the work of Frontinus, the three learned dissertations of Raphael Fabrettus De Aquis et Aque- ductibus veteris Roma, which were por ee in 1679, and are illustrated by copious engravings. t Although the rt the of Hydrod ics is so inti- mately connected with the wants comforts of man, even In a state of considerable barbarity ; yet, during the dark , it seems to have been treated with the same indi ce as the more abstract sciences; and when physics revived under the Ser few ore the 17th century, the doctrine of fluids was in the same state in which it had been left by Julius Frontinus. The attention of Galileo was in no respects particu- italia coos Piel, Commmenliod 1375, tte. ond 1647 cure N. Alioth in rontinus aphael Pabrettus will be found in G Thesaurus A. if anorum, tom. iv. cdidea of Voectinns was polled by the Marques Polaivinesion es . gr History. Si ae Galileo. Born 1564. Died 1641. Toricelli. Born 1608. Died 1647. 410 larly directed to the doctrine of fluids ; but/his disco- very of the uniform: accelerationoof gravity paved the way for the rapid’ progress of this branch of science: In the Systema Cosmicum of this great astronomer, we find some: oceasional observations on the oscillation of fluids, which are marked with his. usual sagacity; and in the first dialogue of his Mechanics, Sagredo enters in- to a very interesting inquiry respecting the ascent of water in pumps. Galileo had studied ‘the operation of a’sucking pamp, which had been erected to raise wa~ ter out of a cistern. He describes the pump as having its‘ piston raised high above the surface of the fluid, an he remarks, that in this case the water ascends by the attraction of the piston, whereas in pumps where the piston is in the lower part of the tube, the water rises by the impulse of the piston. He was surprised, how- ever, to find, that, when the water descended to a cer~ tain point, the pump ceased to act, and continued to lose its power, by any further subsidence of the fluid. Being quite satisfied that the pump was broken, he im- mediately sent for the pump-maker, who, after exa- mining ‘the machine, assured him, “ that the water would not suffer itself to rise to a greater height than 18 cubits, whatever were the dimensions of the pump.” After reflecting upon this singular fact, Galileo satisfies himself with the following explanation. When a rod of any solid substance whatever is suspended by one end, it may be made of such a length as to break by its own weight; and, in like manner, if arod or column of water is raised ina pump to the height of 18 cu- bits, its weight overpowers the attraction of the piston and the mutual cohesion of the fluid particles. * This extraordinary a of the ascent of water in pumps attracted, no doubt, the attention of his pupil Evangelista Toricelli, by whom the fact was afterwards completely explained; and having learned from’ his master that the air possessed weight like all other bo- dies, + he entered upon the study of this branch of Hy- drodynamics' with very singular advantages. In the year 1643, the year after the death of his master, Tori- celli being desirous of making an experiment on a small scale in the vacuum left between the piston of a pump, and the column of water which it raised, it occurred to him, that, if he substituted in place of the wa- ter a denser fluid, such as mercury, the same cause which supported the water would support a’ column of mercury of the same height. He communicated this idea to his friend Viviani, who performed the expe- riment with success, and ‘Toricelli afterwards repeated it with considerable modifications. He accordingly vided a’ glass tube about three feet Jong, and her- metieally sealed at one end, and having filled it with *- Asa very different account of this interesting anecdote is given in all the Histories of Hydrostatics and Pneumatics, we have subjoined the account of it given by Galileo himself in his Discursus et Demonstrati HYDRODYNAMICS. mercury; heclosed it at the open end «with; his fin- ger, and inverted it in: a basin of mercury. Upon withdrawing his finger, the column of mercury de- scended, and settled at the height of about 29 inches in the tube. Toricelli was not immediately aware of the cause of this singular result; but a little reflection con- vinced him that it was owing to the pressure of the ex- ternal air, and that the weight of the atmospherical co- lumn was balanced by:the 29 inches of mercury in ‘the tube, and by the 33 feet of water in the bore of the sucking pump, When this explanation was fully im- pressed upon his mind, Toricelli is said to have regret- ted, with a feeling of generosity of which there is no other example, that it had not fallen to the lot of his master to complete a discovery of which he had the me- rit of laying the foundation. The itor of Toricelli were not confined to Hydro- statics. Having observed, that when a jet d’eau was formed by the ascent of water through a small adju- tage, it rose nearly to the same height as the reservoir from which it came, he sagaciously conjectured, that it ought to move with the velocity which it would have acquired by falling through the same height. Hence he deduced the fundamental proposition, that, abstract ing all resistances, the velocities of fluids in motion are in the subduplicate ratio of the pressures. This result was published in 1643 at the end of his treatise De Motu Gravium naturaliter accelerato, and though true only in small orifices, it was confirmed by the experi- ments of Raphael Magiotti, and paved the way for the discovery of the more complex law, which regulates the motion of fluids, when the area of the orifice has a considerable magnitude compared with the horizon- tal section of the vessel. The subject of running water had been previously studied by Benedict Castelli, the disciple of Galileo, and the first’ master of Toricelli. Pope Urban VIII. had requested him to devote his attention to this inte- resting subject, when he was employed in teaching ma- — thematics at Rome ; and in order to disch the duty which was thus im upon him, he made numerous experiments, of which he published a full account in a small treatise Della Mesura dell’ acque correnti, which appeared in 1628. In this work he explains several enomena relative to the motion of fluids in rivers and‘ canals of any shape, and he shews, that when the water has come toa state of permanent motion, the velocities at different sections of the river or canal are inversely as their areas. He applies these general propositions to the course of some rivers, and he ex» plaims several phenomena in a manner tolerably satis- factory. The conclusions which he draws are gene« Mathemati Dial. vol. i. p. 15. “SaGr. tego hujus discursus ope causam invenio cujusdam effectus, qui diutissime mentem meam admiratione plenam, intellectu vero, yacuam reliquit. Observavi Cisternam, in qua.ad extrahendam aquam constructa erat Antlia cujus ope minori cum labore eandem aut ma-~ jorem aqua quantitatem, quam urnis communibus, forsan (sed frustra) attolli posse credebam: Habetque hee Antlia suum Epistomium et lingulam in alto positam, ita ut per attractionem non vero per inrpulsum adscendat aqua, sicut iste Antlie faciunt, que a parte inferior sum opus exercent. Hee autem magna copia aquam attrahit, donec ea’ in cisterna ad determinatam quandam constiterit altitudinem ; ultra quam si subsederit inutilis est Antlia. Ego, cum prima vice accidens istud observarem, instrumentum fractum,esse credens, Fabrum accersivi, ut illud repararet ; qui nnlli rei istum, detectum adscribendum. esse. mihi respondebat, preterquam ipsi aque, que nimis depres ad tantam altitudinem attolli se non patiebatur ; subjungens nec Antlia nec quavis allia machina, que aquam per attractionem elevat, eam nequidem pili latitudine altius attolli quam octodecim cubitos ; et sive largior sive angustior sit Antlia, hanc maxime detinitam ejus esse altitudinem. “Et ego, licet jam pernoscam, chordam, massam ligneam et vitgam ferream eousque prolongari posse, ut in’ altumerecta pro- prio diffringatur pondere, ejus imprudentie hucusque reum me feci, ut idem in chorda aut virga aque multo facilius evenire non meminerim : et quid illud quod per Antliam attrahitur, est aliud, quam Cylindrus aqueus qui superne affixus cum magis magisque pro- longetur, ad eum tandem attingit terminum ultra quem elevata, a pondere suo excessivo ad instar chordw disrumpitur.” Bt Sa eg oe is demonstrated by Galileo from two experiments, which he describes in his Discursus et Demonst, Matkemat. ial. vol. i. p. 715 72 saat : History. Toricellis ohne Saw: re oo Castelli. Born 1 | Died 1644, HYDRODYNAMICS. 411 ‘vileteeys rally cuirteck; Tut he bialesibinaithed'a thistake in maki —— te declene va z F s 4 g, F 7 HS 2 1 4° il i i : : see : 2 i i tf : ut i : z t i ir 523 if 33 i i i : 2 | ! | FF E i : d ] 4 7 : iit g : f sie FF 4 i if z H 4 zi rem its ingenious author to the differen of the equilibrium and of fluids, which These fine results w published the life of Pascal, but were found after his death in a MS. entitled Sur f Eqwilibre de Li- ef Labours of Although’ Descartes is not entitled to be considered Descartes. a8 the discoverer of the of the atmosphere, yet Born 1596. it is obvious from one of his letters, which is dated in Died 1650. 1631, Ee tie mercury the Nuova Rececolta, tom. iv air rarefied by heat adheres to the Jof the -hand History. by a palm when it is quickly inverted upon it. In another of escartes’ letters, of a date only a little posterior to the publication of Galileo's Mechanics, he criticises this pater retertetn Ag dom etme Peer vacuum as entertained by Galileo, he ascribes the ad- hesion of two polished surfaces to the pressure of the and attributes to the same cause the ele« vation of water in the sucking pump ; and in another letter he maintains, that, in reservoirs — —s of wa- ter by the superior aperture being shut, id is not suspended bythe read of acne, Duty the weight the air.t M. Mariotte, who was the first person that introduced )fariotte. experimental ee Died 1684, ly to the progress practical Hydrodynamics, Pos- sessing the rare talent of contriving and performing experiments, he embraced the opportunity which cir- cumstances to him of executing a great num- ber of ents on fluids at the splendid water-works of Versailles and Chantilly. An account of the results which he obtained was published in 1684 after his death in his Traité du mowvement des Eaux. In this work por ceyaen et tate hamte e of Toricelli; and treated some important points very superfi- cially, and committed considerable errors in the dis- cussion of others, yet it contains many valuable mate- pon rials, He was unacquainted with the diminution of sapebigerts erparhusnins toravuhae @itee pba —= jutage is a perforation in a thin plate ; but he me a Se gh at een a i ween eory ——_ t to the effect of friction. Having observed water suffered consi- derable retardation even when moving in the smvoth- est glass tubes, he supposed the retardation” to arise from the friction of the particles upon the sides of the tube, in the same way as the velocity of solid bodies is The motion of rivers, or of water in open pipes and p : canals, is perhaps one of the most interesting subjects in hydranlics which science can lend her aid to relieve the wants and in Italy. necessities of man. In Italy, where the fertility of the soil is not more owing to tee genial climate than to the numerous canals and rivers with which it is tra- versed, the attention of her philosophers was impe- riously called to the study of moving water. To pro- tect Ives from the inundations with which were often threatened, it became necessary to divert their rivers into new channels; and the ravages which were thus accidentally made on the territories of their neighbours gave rise to those fierce contentions: whieh never fail to spring from contending interests. The de- mentee ene properties, and the necessity of adjusti opposing interests of neighbouring states, the cultivation of Hydrodynamics a but relating principally to Castelli's opinions, have been published in “4 Dae en Fate tah, Demonte See sacks % p. 908 5 tom Ui, late 91. L'can me demeure pas dans les vaisseaux par la dw wuide, mais @ cause de la pesanteur de Cair, tom. ii, + History. ——— Gugliel- mini. Born 1655. ; Died 1710. / ‘Newton. 412 matter of indispensable necessity among the different states of Italy, and hence a t number of valuable works were produced by the Italian engineers. The most eminent of thesé engineers was Dominic Guglielmini, who was inspector of the rivers and canals in the Milanese, and who obtained such eminence in his profession, that a new chair on Hydrometry was erected for him in the university of Bologna. In his eerie = work, entitled La Misura dell’ acque Correnti; e adopts the theorem of Toricelli, and founds upon it a system of Hydraulics sufficiently beautiful in theory, but utterly repugnant to experiment. | He regards eve- ry point in a mass of fluid as an orifice in the side of a vessel, and as tending to move with the same velocit with which it would issue from the orifice. Hence it: follows, that, since the velocities are as the square roots of the depths of the orifices, the velocity iat be greatest at the bottom of a stream, and least at its surface; and that the velocity of a river must continually increase as it moves. These results were so hostile to established facts, that Guglielmini himself attempted to reconcile them. He had applied his theory to cases which occurred in the Milanese, and to the motion of the Danube, and he had seen, that the regular progress of the current was often opposed: by transverse motions, and by a sort of boiling or tumbling motion which arises from ascending masses of fluid. Hence he supposed that these causes were sufficient to account for the errors of the parabo- lic theory.. Guglielmini had now become acquainted with the labours of Mariotte, and in his work entitled Della natura dell’ Fiumi, the first part of which appeared in 1697,* and acquired great celebrity to its author, he takes into account the retardation produced by friction and other causes, This work consists of 14 chapters, the three firstof which contain definitionsand general notions respecting the equilibrium of fluids, and the origin of springs and fountains. In the 4th chapter he treats of the motion of water falling vertically, or descending along an inclined plane ; wah he examines the various causes, such as friction, the resistance of the air; &c. which extinguish a part of its velocity, and render the theory inconsistent with experiment. The 5th chapter treats of the beds of rivers, their depth, their width, and their declivity. The 6th chapter is an application of the a laid down in the 5th to the directions which are n by the beds of rivers, In the 7th chapter he examines the various motions which are observed under different circumstances in the waters of rivers, and he thus follows the current from its source to its embouchure. In chapter 8. he treats of the embou- chure of rivers, either when they fall into one another, or into the sea. In chapter 9. he considers the union of several rivers, and the effects which result from it. Chapter 10. treats of the increase or diminution of ri- vers. ,Chapter 11. relates to the formation of tempo- rary currents in times of rain. Chapter 12. treats of regular canals, and the methods of deriving them from rivers or reservoirs of water. Chapter 13. treats of the drainage of wet land; and chapter 14. of the precau- tions which are necessary in changing the bed of a river. In order to demonstrate the inconsistency of the Car- Born 1642, tesian system of vortices with the laws of Hydraulics, Died 1727. Sir Isaac Newton directed his particular attention to the investigation of the manner in which the fluid vor- tices coujd he produced and preserved, and he has given the results of his inquiries in the 9th section of the se- it would acquire by falling through HYDRODYNAMICS. cond book of the Principia, entitled, De Mote Circulari History: Fluidorum. that the resistance which arises from the want of per- fect lubricity in fluids is ceteris paribus proportional to the velocity with which the parts of the fluid are sepa- © rated from each other ; and he demonstrates, that if a solid cylinder of infinite length revolves, with an uni- form motion, round a fixed axis in an uniform and in- finite fluid, the periodical times of the parts of the fluid, thus put into an uniform motion, will be proportional to their distances from the axis of the cylinder ; where- as, if a solid sphere is made to revolve in a similar man- ner, the iodical times of the fluid particles will be pro- portional to the squares of their distances from the cen- tre of the sphere.’ Hence it follows, from the equality of action and reaction; that the velocity of any stratum of the circulating fluid is a mean between the velocities of the strata by which it is bounded. In considering, therefore, the velocity of water in a pipe, as affected by viscidity and friction, it is obvious that the filaments im- mediately adjoining to the pipe will be greatly re- tarded. The contiguous filaments will be kept back by their adhesion to the others, and the velocity will thus increase towards the centre of the pipe, according to a law which is easily deducible from the principle, . that the velocity of any filament is a mean between the velocities of the filaments which surround it. M. Pitot was the first person who took advantage of this impor+ tant principle, and, in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1728, he shewed, that the total diminution of velocity in pipes of different kinds is inyersely as the diameters of the pipes, In the second book of the Principia, (See Prop. 36.) Newton's Newton has investigated the motion of fluids when is- Cateract. suing from an orifice made in the bottom of a vessel, without limiting himself to the hypothesis of an infi- nitely small orifice. Supposing the water ‘to be al- ways kept at the same height in the vessel, he consi- ders the cylindrical mass of ftuid as divided into two parts, one of which is in the centre of the vessel, and moveable ; while the other, which is immoveable, is formed by the part of the fluid in contact with the sides of the vessel. The central portion, which New- ton calls the Cataract, is supposed to have the form of a hyperboloid, formed by the revolution of ah aof the 4th degree round the axis of the cylinder. The ho- rizontal strata of the cataract are always in a state of dual descent ; while all the rest of the fluid is absolutely at rest, as if it had been converted into ice. From this manner of considering-the wullject it followed, that the water ought to issue with a velocity equal to that which e height of the fluid ; but when Newton came to investigate the sub- ject experimentally, he concluded, that the velocity of efflux was only that which was due to half the height’ of the fluid. This result, however, was in direct oppo-? sition to the knewn fact, that jets of water rise tonear- ly the same height as their reservoirs, and the error arose from his not having attended to the contrac. tion of. the fluid vein, (or vena eontracta) which he af= terwards found to take place in such a manner, that, at the distance of nearly a diameter of the orifice from the orifice itself, the section of the vein of issuing fluid is reduced or contracted in the ratio of 1 to the square root of 2, or of 1 to 1.4142. He accordingly corrected * The second part of this work did nct appear till after his death in 1712, The whole was published with notes by Manfredi in the» Nuova raceolta di autori che trattano del moto dell’ acque, tom. iis a | sie mu Ya e & In these elegant propositions, which are “~~~ the 51st, 52d, and 53d, he lays down the hypothesis, Labours of HYDRODYNAMICS.) 413 is error in the edition of the Principia which appear- certain number of oscillations, the fluid will return to. History. oli a denen of the sooo a state of rest. In order to determine the time in which “~Y—” as the vena contracta as the true area of the orifice from these oscillations are performed, Newton considered ~ “which the water should be conceived to flow, he made the water as in the same state with a pendulum vibra- the velocity. to that of the height of the fluid, and ting in a cycloid, and he shews, by a very simple de-, obtained. more agreeable to experience. Not- monstration, that a pendulum, whose length is eq) ithstanding this additional to which Newton. to half the length of the column of water in the s had brought hi heory, it was still Hable te the very 2eri- will perform its oscillations in the same time with the ous objections, which have been urged against it by suc- fluid. Hence it follows, that all the oscillations of the ceeding authors, Giannini has written a dissertation fluid will be isochronous, whatever be the intensity of. spon, it in his Opuseula, and John Bernoulli, in the the motions of the fluid ; and that the velocity of waves volume of his works, has demonstrated, that, if such will vary as the sgoemnseatent thee breadth, 2 calaract existed, the part of the fluid without the ca- | The motion of fluids was treated, both experimentally Labours of taract would be stagnant, and consequently would ex- and theoretically, by Michelotti, a celebrated Italian Michelotti, ert a pressure, in virtue of its gravity, against the cata- physician, in his work entitled, De Separatione Fluido- 4- D, 1720 ract itself in which the fluid rye to experience no rum in Corpore Animali, published in 1719 or 1720. pressure. But, i of thi of argu- He rejects Newton's idea of a cataract, and considers ment, it may be shewn, as Bossut has by direct the water in a vessel as all frozen, excepting a small experiment, that when a vessel of water empties itself part of it immediately above the orifice. This thin by an orifice in the bottom, every fluid particle descends plate of water is pressed by the superincumbent solid, vertically, whether it is situated near the axis or the side which is su to melt ga ly_as the water is of the vessel ; and that this vertical motion is not chan- discharged. In this work Michelotti criticises, with ged into a lateral one till the particles are very near the rather too much severity, a paper “ On the Motion of ifice itself. pla as Water,” published by Dr Jurin in the Philo- The subject of the resistance of fluids, one of the sophical Transactions for 1718. Jurin replied to this most important and difficult in Hydrodynamics, was criticism in the Phil. Trans. for 1722, successfully ise investi defended Sir Isaac Newton against the charge of in- considers the fluid as a rare medium, composed of equal consistency which was rashly brought against his doc- parts, situated at equa! distances from each other, and trine of effluent water by the Italian phi her. ; in g ' rei ate E afitt Hone Hie ea fEEScE SS EP FEE alk Hit ie oh z2F 33 Hit a #5 -=2 8 Te Fer aad HH z. absolutely in- /es (uyauz de conduite. The which he has found- elasticity, he shews, that ed upon his experiments, and that which M. Be- . is to the force by which its lidor has substituted in its place, are not deserving of uced or destroyed in the time notice. ‘ : ibe two-thirds of its diameter by _ Italy produced about this time several authors on: Guido 5 Fe F of 3 z if EF : i 5 3 if F : 4 ; i | H £ i a | i in in dif , as water, mercury, oil, Sc. he advances another theory ricelli. He invented also a method of measu the < in whi does not velocity ofa river at different depths by a tin i the fluid, piped, which had an aperture that could be opened ing particles a and shut by a moveable plate. The box was sonk to . h the rest. From the required and the orifice opened. After a pan ay ey Son. Be pecetney of n.gieba | certain time had elapsed, the orifice was again shut, is water in the box. Grandi was also au veral dissertations on the river Aira, and on other small Italian rivers, All these works are pu i Nuovo Raccolia, already referred to. Eustachio Man- P fredi, another Italian author, contributed to the prow Ma*reti gress of Hydrodynamics. He added valuable notes to Guglielmini’s work on rivers. He published a dis-, sertation in conjunction with Zendrini, on the means of preventing inundations of the Ronco and the first person who ed, by decisive experiments made on several of the aot bikings of Ravenna in 1731, that the bottom of the Adriatic Sea was continually ri- sing. The names of Zendrini, and Frisi, deserve to be mentioned the Italian writers on Hydrody- namics. Bernard Zendrini, a Venetian mathematician, Zendrivi. 414 History. wrote a very ample work, both theoretical and practi- cal, entitled De Motu Aquarum, which eontains many excellent practical observations, Frisi composed a work on the method of regulating rivers and torrents, in which he has endeavoured to prove that gravel and sand are original productions, and not the detritus of pre-existing materials, A selection of practical ob- servations from the work of Zendrini will be found in the 5th volume of the Nuova Raccolia, and the whole of Frisi’s work in the 7th volume of the same collec- tion, One of the most celebrated writers on Hydraulics that Italy produced, was the Marquis Poleni, professor In the year 1695 he pub- lished a treatise in 4to, entitled, De Motu Aqua mizto, which, though it contains nothing that possesses much novelty, yet the reader will find in it many observa- tions botli of local and general utility. He supposes, that the bed of a river is a rectangular canal, and re- garding any perpendicular section of it as an orifice, he gives the name of dead water to that which is compre- hended between the surface, and a point in relation to which all the fluid molecules would have equal momen- ta, and would therefore be in equilibrium, according to the laws which are observed in the equilibrium of solid bodies: The rest of the water which is comprehended between this centre of equilibrium and the of the canal or orifice, he calls the living water. He then considers the motion of the water that flows through the orifice as partly produced by the action which the a water derives naturally from its fall, and partly by the pressure which the dead water exerts upon the living water. Hence arises the title of Poleni’s work, De motu mixto Aque. After detailing a number of ex- periments, and comparing the results with the theory, he applies the same principles to the motion of rivers, and to the Jakes of Venice. His principal work, how- ever, appeared at Padua in 1718, under the title of De Castellis per que derivantur fluviorum aque. This work contains many important observations and expe- riments. From an extensive series of experiments on the quantity of water Spain HY by an orifice in the bottom of a vessel, he concluded, that, instead of being proportional to 2AH, A being the area of the orifice, and H the height of the reservoir in the vessel, it was 0.571 1.000° more than one-half of what is discharged, upon the su position that the water issues with a velocity due to the altitude H. Poleni was the first person who observed, that a greater quantity of water issued from a small cylindrical, tube; fitted into the orifice in the bottom or sides of a vessel, than from a simple orifice of the same diameter. This remarkable fact may be explain- ed by supposing that the fluid vein, instead of suffering a contraction, flows out in a column of the same dia- meter as the orifice, from the viscidity of the water, and its capillary adhesion to the sides of the tube. We are indebted also to Poleni for a new edition of the works of Julius Frontinus, which he enriched with ama ple notes. Poleni is likewise the author of a dissertation on dikes, and of another on the measure of running wa- ders, both of which, along with his first work, are repub- lished in the 3d volume of the Nuova Raccolta. Hitherto the science of Hydrodynamics was founded upon. vague and uncertain principles ; but it was now destined 'to receive a more scientific form from the la- bours of Daniel Bernoulli. So early as the year 1726, he communicated to the Academy of St Petersburgh a Frisi. Experi- ments of a the Marquis of mathematics at Padua. Poleni. Born 1685. Died 1761, proportional to 2AH x which is only a. little Daniel Bernoulli. / HYDRODYNAMICS. memoir entitled, Theoria Nova de Motu Aquarum per History. Canales quoscunque fuentes. In this memoir he ins =~ F forms us, that his father having shewn, that the prin- pen ae ciple of the vires vine was of great use in the resolution’ theory of — of problems incapable of being solved by more direct’ the motion methods, it had occurred to him to employ this prin of fluids. ciple in discovering a true theory of the motion of run- Born 1700, ning waters, and that he had found it to answer his ut. Died 176% most expectations. After the publication of this me- moir, Which contains merely the germ of his theory, he made a great number of experiments at St Petersburgh in order to illustrate his theoretical views, and was thus enabled to produce his great work, entitled, Hydrodyna= mica seu de viribus et motibus fluidorum Ci it, which was published at Strasburg in 1738. In consi * dering the efflux of water from an orifice in the’ bottom of a vessel, he conceives the fluid to be divided into an infinite number of horizontal strata, which are s sed to move in such a manner, that the upper auintace of the fluid always preserves its horizontality ; that the fluid forms a continuous mass; that the velocities vary by insensible gradations, like those of heavy bodies ; and that every point of the same stratum descends vertically with the same velocity, which is inversely tional to the area of the base of the’ stratum. By the aid of 4 these assumptions, which are conformable to ience, 4 Bernoulli obtains an equation from the principle that there is always an cegunlity between the actual descent of the fluid in the vessel, and its vertical’ ascension, which is the principle of the conservation of living forces. In those cases, where sudden irregularities in the shape of the vessel, or other causes, produce rapid changes in the velocity of the fluid strata, he then con- siders that there is a loss of living force, and therefore the equations founded on the entire conservation of this force require to be modified. In the whole of this investigation, Bernoulli displays the greatest sagacity and originality of thought, though he has taken it for granted, without sufficient evidence, that the law of the conservation of living forces is really applicable to the motion of fluids (a point which it was reserved for D’Alembert to demonstrate) ; yet his work will be lon regarded as one of the finest specimens of raithewiideal enius, . The important subject of the resistance of fluids was Daniel likewise indebted to the genius of Daniel Bernoulli. In noulli on the Commentaria Petropolitana ‘for 1727, he modestly the a ; proposed a new method of ee ee Ra resistance fluids, i of fluids, founded upon principles different from those z of Sir Isaac Newton ; but having found that it gave results quite hostile to experiment, he afterwards called his determination in question in his treatise on Hydro- dynamics, and in the year 1741, in the eighth volume of the Commentaries of St soe he proposed a very ingenious and elegant method of determining the impulse of a column of fluid falling ndicularly up on a plain surface infinitely extended. He considers the curve described by every filament of fluid as a ca< nal in which a body moves, which experiences at each point the action of a centrifugal force, and which he su -also to be subjected to the action of a a am tial force, varying according toa given law. He tl calculates all these forces, and fin i, ig impulsion 7 inst the horizontal plane is to the weight of a ‘cleans of fluid whose base ‘a cep to the s of the fluid vein, and whose altitude is twice the height - the fall due to the velocity of the rae eae h there are cases in which this proposition may be safely ‘and advantageously used in "practice, yet it ieee not easily apply either to oblique impulses, or to impulses x = > eee HYDRODYNAMICS. “History. against curved surfaces, and it is of no service whatever —— in determining the resistance of mn apenrt 04 pr peace the:test of expecience, Daniel Bernoulli, and his pupil Professor Krafit, instituted a series of ex- periments on the impulse of a stream of water against pb anne om Tchly-waluable, de published int the are are in Sth and hasievslomenat the Commentaries of St Pe- tersburgh. The stream of water was received on a plain surface fixed on the arm of a balance, which had scale suspended at the extremity. The Scietnnterhonabiotenn samt ax! talesaprabe sexist: 40s M63 1486 lfol LoS 1021 Bom 1667. early as the year 1726, he was in possession of the chief Die 1TH pre of his theory of running water. The work which upon this subject remained in MS. till when it im 1742 im the fourth vo- published in the Memebe-of Petersburgh for 1737 and 1738. Bernoulli is founded upon an as- the Newtonian cataract ; THE d z u i i i i i ef | i ra hiee i I i i rey wae science of hydraulics was now destined to re- the most accessions from the genius of ‘stdsmah bohiaiberts Whee te on coniagst HE oS, Wale ; each other. He considers the velocity with which each body tends to move, as com- 1701 1720 1631 1602 1520 1072 they 415 of two other velocities, one of which is destroy- ed, nha Rega Siar a the ie x e jacent bodies. In i is principle to hydrau- ri he first Se nideaseked. ooat to be the motion of the particles of a fluid, in order that they may not ob- struct one another’s movements. He shews, both from —7 and experiment, that when a fluid issues from a its w surface always es its horizon- tality, from which he concludes the velocity of all the points. of any horizontal stratum, when estimated in a vertical direction, is the same, and that this velo- city, which is that of the stratum, ought to be in the inverse ratio of the area of the base of the stratum it- , in order that it may not obstruct the motions of other strata. By combining this principle with the general one, D’Alembert has reduced all the problems relative to the motion of fluids to the ordinary laws of hydrostatics. The problems which relate to the pres- sure of fluids against the sides of vessels in which they run, and to the motion of a fluid which escapes from a vessel moveable and carried by a weight, though had formerly been solved =p | hy indirect me- thod, flow “s ray oa o— ap pour general inciples. is theo so the t advan E duailiags us ey ce Now hy dint the dactzine of the conservation of living forces applies to the motion of fluids as well as to that of solids ; ees od the theory are applicable to elastic as well as inelastic fluids, and to the determination of the motion of fluids in flexible pi a case which applies to the me- chanism of the human frame. These fine views were Dynamics in History. bes yor cate nds | 1744. After ee a ae laws of the equilibrium D*alembert and motion of fluids, D’Alembert next directed his at- 0» the re- tention to the resistance which they oppose to the mo. **'a"< of progress of disco in this branch of hydrodynamics to those unphilosophical investiga- tions, in which a greater fondness was shewn for the calculus than for the physical principles on which it is founded ; and he does not scruple to say, that the choice of these principles was made, more from etches quloaios; Siem fms se us, than their having a real founda- in atenitliphed toe to ilies error, D’'Alem- investi principles u which he was to proceed before he tof the analyaia which | ee eS Wea rey ilo- mode of enquiry, he bas established a no arbi itions. He merel € nly is changed, he considers this mo- that which the body will have in he reduces to the laws of equilibrium between the fluid and the solid body. He supposes at first, that a body is by some externa) means at rest in the middle of a fluid which is about to strike it. When the filaments of the fluid strike the solid, they bend themselves round it im different directions, and that part of the fluid HYDRODYNAMICS. In the year 1765, a very complete work on the the- History. ory and practice of hydrodynamics was published at ot 416 History. which covers the anterior part of the body is, to a cer- —_~ tain extent, ‘stagnant. The pressure experienced by Labours of Born 1707. Died 1783, the solid, or the resistance which it opposes to the mo- tion of the fluid particles, is occasioned by the loss of velocity which each of these particles sustains. The problem is then reduced to this, to find the velocity of the fluid which slides immediately over the surface of the body, which D’Alembert has ee by two different methods, and he then obtains a formula exhibiting the pressure exerted upon the solid. By a little modifica- tion of the general method, D’Alembert determines the ‘action of a vein of fluid which strikes a plain surface, and he finds it to be a little less than the weight of a cylin- ‘der of fluid, the area of whose base is equal to that of the section of the vein, and whose altitude is double of that which is due to the velocity of the fluid; a re- ‘sult which agrees most wonderfully with the experi- ments of \Bossut, who found that it was always a Tittle ‘less than that which was due to twice the height which produces the velocity.* The results of this enquiry ‘were published in 1752, in D’Alembert’s Essai d’une nouvelle theorie sur la resistance des Fluides, and the theory was afterwards extended in his Opuscules Ma- themaliques. The celebrated Euler, to whom every branch of sci- ence owes such deep obligations, did not fail to exhi« bit the wonderful resources of his genius on a subject of such difficult investigation as the theory of running water. In the Memoirs of the Academy of St Peters- burgh, for 1768, 1769, 1770, and 1771, he has published anew and complete theory of the motion of fluids, which is founded on the laws of mechanics and hydrosta- tics, and occupies no less than 513 a pages. The first of these memoirs is entitled Statu Equilibrit Fluidorum, and is divided into four sections: 1. De Na- tura et varietate Fluidorum. 2. De Equilibrio Fluido- rum, remota gravitate aliisque similibus viribus. 3. De Equilibrio Fluidorum a viribus quibuscunque ‘sollicita- torum; and, 4. De Equilibrio Fluidorum a sola gravitate sollicitatorum, in which he applies his reasonings both to compressible and incompressible fluids. The second memoir is entitled, De Principiis Motus Fluidorum; the third, De Motu fluidorum lineart a aque, and the fourth, De Motu aeris'in Tubis. In the third me- moir, he deduces, from: his general theory, explained in the preceding memoir, the solution of a great num- -ber of oansitulgeobieins upon a particular species of the motion of fluids, which he calls dinear.. The same general theory is applied in his memoir De Mo- tu Aeris, to the linear motion of air. In these me- -moirs, he reduces the whole theory of the motion of fluids to two differential equations of the second or- der, and he applies the general principles to the. dis- of water from orifices in vessels, to its motion in conduit pipes, whether their diameters be constant or variable. In extending his investigation to elastic fluids, and particularly to air, he obtains very simple formule respecting the pageene of sound, and its formation in flutes and in the pipes of an organ. It is much to be lamented, that in all these researches, Euler has proceeded on the hypothesis of a mathemati- cal fluidity, which has no existence in nature. Had he only treated the subject in reference to those resist- ances, such as cohesion and friction, which modify the action of gravity, the solutions which he has given * might have been advantageously applied to the motion of water in pipes and canals, * See Bossut’s Hydrodynamigue, Chap. xiv, Exp. 5, 6, 7, 8 Milan; by P. Lecchi, a celebrated Milanese engineer. It was entitled, Idrostatica esaminata ne’ suoi principi, e stabilita nelle sue regole della mesura delle acque cor- renti, and contains a complete examination of all the different theories which have been pro} to explain the phenomena of effluent water, the doctrine of the resistance of fluids. The author treats of the ve- locity and the quantity of water, whether absolute or relative, which issues from orifices in vessels or reser- ‘Voirs, according to their different altitudes, and he after- -wards enquires if this law is applicable to large masses -of water, which flow in canals and in rivers, and he de- monstrates the rules which have been found most use~ ful in practice for tne division and the mensuration of running water. This work contains several pieces by the celebrated Italian geometer Father Boscovich, by whom the work was. revised and corrected. . The ex- tensive and successful ice of Lecchi as an engineer, has stamped a high value upon his work. A very extensive series of experiments on the mo- tion of water in pipesiand canals, was made at Turin by Professor Michelotti, and at the expence of the ‘King of Sardinia, These experiments were perforined upon a splendid scale, and with every attention to ac- curacy. The water issued from orifices and tubes of various shapes and sizes, from a tower of the finest ma- sonry twenty feet high and three feet square, supplied by a canal two feet wide, and under pressures, which varied from five to twenty-two feet. A huge reservoir, whose area was 289 feet square, built of masonry, and Jined with stucco, received the effluent waters, which were conveyed in canals of brickwork, lined with stucco, and having various forms and declivities.. Michelotti’s experiments op the motion of water im pipes, are the most numerous and exact that have yet been 4 The trials which he made in open canals are still more numerous, but they are complicated, with man, unnecessary circumstances, and seem to have been pre | more with the view of examining some ie ia points in hydraulics, than of furnishing us with rules for cases which are likely to occur in practice. A full account of these experiments was published at Turin in 1774, in Michelotti’s Sperienze Idrauliche. Michelotti pie lished also a memoir on the impulse of a vein of fluid, in which he describes some experiments which do not agree with the common theory. It ed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Turin for 1778. One of the most zealous and enlightened cultivators of hydrodynamics, was the late Abbé Bossut, who has published a full account of his theoretical and experi mental investigations, in his Trailé Theorique et rimental d' Hydrodynamique, in 2 vols. 8vo. The first edition was published in 1771; the second edition appeared in 1786, considerably enlarged ; and a third edition, with very considerable alterations, was pub- lished in 1796. The experiments of Bossut, though made on a much less scale than those of Michelotti, have, in as far as they coincide, afforded similar results ; and while they have the merit of equal accuracy, they are much more applicable than those of the Italian _ philosopher to cases which are likely to occur in prac- tice. In order to determine the motion of ee ae ticles of a fluid which was in the act of being di - ged from an orifice, Bossut employed a glass cylinder about eight inches high, and six inches diameter, to a 7 £ a \— the effiux of HYDRODYNAMICS. the bottom of which he fitted different adjutages for water. Whether this vessel was a constantly full, or emptied itself without any supply, nrg zee quantity of water di VOL XI, PART i, 417 have been expected from theory. M. Bossut has shewn, that when the height of the reservoir is increased, the diminution in the discharge of the water is less sensi- ble. He points out the law, according to which the i diminishes as the pipe becomes longer, or as the number ofits bendings is‘increased. In con- sidering the motion of water in open canals, he first examines the law, according to which the friction di- minishes the velocity of the*stream in rectangular ca- nals ;;and- he shews, that in an open canal, with the same height of reservoir, the same quantity of water is always , whatever be its declivity and. its length ; whereas in’ pipes there is a very remarkable variation, ‘by.a variation in its declivity and its length: He found, that the velocities in a canal are not as the square roots of the declivities ; and that at an equal-de- elivity and an equal depth of the canal, the velotities are not as the quantities of water discharged. The sub- oe rivers next occupies the attention of our author. e considers the variations which take place in the ve- the mouths of rivers,or at the junction of two rivers ; he points out the means which may be successfully employed, either in«removing wholly or in part-these banks ; and he concludes this’ part of ‘his of width of its bed, as happens from the construction i? if Le = j i F ry or History. —— of executing a new set of A-D. 1775. experiments on the SGceinee ,ohiel fluids oppose to the motion of bodies of various forms. These-experi- ments were ‘made almost solely by Bossut, within the of the Ecole Militaire at Paris, in a bason of water 100-feet long, 53 feet wide, and 64 feet deep; and the results which they obtained were published in 1777, ina ae work, entitled Experiences sur le resistance des. Fluides. According to theory, the impulse upon a plane surface is equal to the area of the surface multi by the square of the velocity of the fluid, and the square of the sine of the angle of incidence. mae found onesneee of the aes was sen- sibly, correct, w uid impinged perpendicular] cuomthasurdied'y.tkes the deviation from ‘the chins increased with the angle of incidence; but that the theory might still be employed when this angle-was not less than 50°. » As the funds intrusted to the com. mission had been with the-utmost economy, Bossut ed the surplus in determining the re- sistance ienced by all kinds of. prows, whether plane, angular, or curvilineal. . These e iments were performed in 1778, and were published in the Memoirs of the Academy for that year. He next made a num- ber of experiments on the effects of undershot and overshot water wheels.. The former he found to give 4 maximnumyeffect when the velocity of the stream was to that of the wheel as five to two, while the effect of Se 418 HYDRODYNAMICS. History. the latter increased with the’slowness of their motion. History. The valuable labours of Bossut were recompensed by have the same velocity ; whereas Newton made their ves “—"Y~" J Labours of La Place. Born 1749. M. Turgot, who established for him in the Louvre a professorship of Hydrodynamics, to which he was ap- pointed in 1775. We have already seen, that Newton was the first philosopher who investigated the laws of the motion of waves. His theory was, however, only an approxima- tion to the truth, and, as he himself was aware, was suited only to the hypothesis, that the particles of the fluid ascended and descended vertically in the course of their vibrations. When the ascent and descent is made in curve lines, the velocity of the waves cannot: be ac- curately determined by Newton’s method. It is only by means of the general laws of the motion of fluids that this subject can be properly treated. M. De La Place was the first who applied this mode of investiga- tion to rectilineal undulations, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1776. This investigation is contained in a separate section, Sur les ondes, publish- ed in his paper entitled Suite des Recherches sur plu- sieurs points du Systeme du Monde. He supposes the water to be shut up in a canal infinitely narrow, and of an indefinite length, but of .a constant depth and breadth. He imagines that the wave is produced by. immersing a curve in ‘the fluid to a very small depth. The curve being kept in its place till the water has re- covered its equilibrium, it is then drawn out, and waves are formed by the water while it recovers its equilibrium. When the curve is plunged more or less deep into the fluid, the time of the propagation of the waves to a given distance will be at the same, as the oscillations of a pendulum are constant, whatever be the length of the arcs which they describe, provided they are very small. If the depth of the canal is very great, in proportion to the radius of curvature of the curve at its lowest point, the times of the propagation of waves generated by different curves, or by the same curves in, different situations, are reciprocally as the square roots of the radii of curvature ; and the veloci- the conclusion, that all waves, whether great: or sive locity proportional to the square roots of their breadth. In order to examine this result, our author made the following experiment on a branch of the Rhone, shut up at one end to make the water stagnant, Having measured a distance or base of thirty feet, he threw into the water small stones at the end of this base, and he found that the waves which they produced, whe-« ther they were great or small, occupi — twen« ty-one seconds in moving over the space of thirty feet. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for 1781 La Grange. and 1786, and also in his Mecanique Analytique, M. Dé Bom 1756, — La Grange, one of the most distinguished mathemati-+ Died 1813. cians of the last century, has endeavoured to determine the oscillation of waves in a canal. He found that it is the same as that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through a height equal to half the depth of the water in the canal. Hence, if the depth of the canal is 1 foot, the velocity of the wave will be 5.495 feet, and, at greater or less depths, the velocity will .be as the square roots of the depth, provided it is not very great, If it is admitted, that when waves are formed, the wa<« ter is affected only to a small depth, the theory of La Grange will give tolerably correct results whatever be the depth of the water in the canal, and the figure of its bottom; but although this supposition is countes nanced by experience, and derives probability from the viscidity of water, yet La —— theory:does not har- monize with experiment. Dr Wollaston observed, that in a place where the depth of the water was said to be 50 fathoms, a bore, or large wave, moved at the rate of one mile in a minute; whereas La Grange’s theory gives only 40 fathoms as the depth which. nds- with the velocity. Dr Thomas Young has also obser~ ved, that the waves,or oscillations of water in a-cistern, always move with a velocity smaller than that of a body falling through half the depth, but nearly in the same proportion. The first engineer who examined experimentally the’ Experi * | motion of water in canals, in reference to the resist- ments and ances arising from the cohesion of water, and to that formule of | kind of friction of which fluids are capable, was M./Ch¢27- ties of the waves are directly as the same roots. Hence La Place concludes, that the velocity of waves is not like that of sound, independent of the primitive agita- tion of the air. The subject of the oscillation of waves was now ex-~ op? Taig Flaugergues | on Waves. amined experimentally by M. Flaugergues, who endea~ A.D. 1789. voured to overturn the opinions of Sir Issac Newton. Ina memoir on the motion and figure of waves, of which an abstract is given in the Journal des Sgavans for Octo- ber 1789, Flaugergues gives an account of a series of ex- eriments which he made upon this subject. He com- bats the opinion of Newton, that waves arise from a mo~ tion of the particles of the fluid, in virtue of which they ascend and descend alternately in a serpentine line, while they move from their common centre; and he attempts to prove, that they are a kind of intumescence raised round the common centre, by the depression which the impulse has occasioned; and that this intu- mescence is afterwards propagated circularly from the centre of impulse. A portion of the intumescence, or elevated water, flows, as he conceives, from all sides into the cavity formed at the centre of impulse; and this water being, as it were, heaped up, produces an- other paiencehes, wait occasions a new wave, that is propagated circularly. as before. M. Flaugergues proceeds to determine the figure of a wave, andigiaas the equation of it, and also the equation of the curve which the centre of gravity of ‘a vessel describes from the motion of waves. From this theory he deduces 4 Chezy, the predecessor of M. Prony, in the direction the School of Roads and Bridges. Towards the year 1775, when he was working with Perronet on the sub- ject of the canal of Yvette, he was anxious to deter- mine from observation and calculation, the relation which subsisted between the deelivity and. length of a canal, the width and figure of its transverse section, and the velocity of the water which it conveyed. In the course of this investigation, he obtained a very. sim- ple expression of the velocity, involving these dif- ferent variable quantities, and ca ble, by means of a single experiment, of being applied to all currents what- ever. He assimilates the resistance of the sides and bottom of the canal to known resistances, which follow the law of the square of the velocity, and he obtains the following very simple formula, 4 Ves ,/ gd where g is =16.087 feet, the velocity acqui« As red by a heavy body after falling one second; d, the iehealis eo depth, which is equal to the area of the section divided by the perimeter of the part of the canal in contact with the water ; s, the slope or declivi- ty of the pipe; and 4, an abstract number to be deter. mined: by experiment. sam , > HYDRODYNAMICS. The attention of the Chevalier Buat, Lieutenant Co- the following general formula, which’ represents, in a History. i was called to most surprising manner, the great variety of facts which ““—" he has collected ; namely, Wang (“Wd—0.1) 419 plane. But asthe velocity of a river is not uniformity, and i afterwards. cause, it some from pressing upon the water new 2 ey must therefore be the’ viscidity of ‘water, which gives rise to two kinds of resistance, v= —0.3(“d—0.1) in which Ws —Log. 5416 V is the mean velocity in inches per second. _ d the hydraulic mean depth, or the quotient which arises from dividing the area of the section of the ca- nal in square inches by the perimeter of the part in con- tact with the water in linear inches, s the slope or declivity of the pipe, or of the surface of the water. , . ' = 16.087, the velocity in inches per second which a heavy body acquires by falling in one second. one, ly; which from the intestine mos — n An abstract némber which was found by experi- tion of an imperfect fluid, and the other fromthe natu- ment to be = 248.7. ral adhesion of its to the channel in which it flows. In 1783, when M. Buat’s iments were finished, Our author, , found: it to be a general princi- they were submitted to the A y of Sciences throu the minister of war, and were afterwards published in 1786, under the title x Principes haere bashes un grand nombre d’experiences faites par ordre yar oat A third volume of this work was me ished in 1816, under the title of item a ntete raulique et Pyrod. amique. . Tt relates chiefly to phenomena ot heat ana elastic fluids. . In the ding M. L’Espi- published two nasse, ple, “ that when water runs uniformly in any channel, the ing force which obliges it to run, is equal to the sum of: all the resistances which it i epersfhantiee iscidé poo em En iple,: rn : Pe ne ces rts rmmethet to M. Buat, that the motion of water in a conduit pipe had # great analogy 1784, M. L’Espinasse, to the uniform motion of a river, and upon this idea member of the Academy of Thoulouse, memoirs in the Transactions of that society, which con- 4. D. 1784. tain very interesting observations on motion of water through large orifices, and on the junction and ion of rivers. The experiments which are con« tamed in thése two memoirs were made in ‘the Fres- os and Aude, two rivers in the department of the Garonne, and on of the Canal du Midi, w is below the lock of Fresquel, towards the point where it meets with the bed of that river. Don George Juan D’Ulloa, an eminent mathematician, Don George and inspector of the naval academies of Spain, Juan D’Ul- sed a new physico-mathematical theory of collision, in !°% fiir . A Born 1713. his Examen Maritimo, a work which was published Died 1773. HIE Hil F3 hl i Z at Madrid in 1771, in 2 vols, 4to. This theory in« cludes all the circurmstances of motion, both during the continuance of the shock and after the shock, em- Some aitor Deer oe of hard aree nd soft o ies ly or imperfectly ‘elastic, whether they are reper virtue of anes Velocities and accelerating forces, or by both of these causes com- bined. This theory is however not applicable, as oe at first sight have been ex , to the impulse of fluicts ; but the same author has favoured us with a new theory of the resistance of fluids, which has been adopted by Prony and several other French writers. This theory has, in Prony’s oe been confirmed by very good experiments, and also by its conformity with the Frcay hs temerked, Ch advantage of -prosenahig’ i » t van diecuaias of the question with different ohecieal circumstances which it involves, an advantage which is not possessed by the ordi . Inorder to con- firm his theory, Don George Juan made the following — iments: He a plane surface of the form of # parallelogram a foot wide, to the action of a current of water which moved with the velocity of two feet per second. When it was immersed just one foot un- der the water, it su a weight of 154 pounds (English measure), When the same plane was sunk two feet in a current of water moving with the velo- Histony. eer Researches of Venturi. A.D. 1798. 420 city of one foot four inches in a’second, it supported a weight of 26} pounds. The following Table shews the theoretical and practical results, Velocity of Depthof Observed Calculated Water. Submersion. Resistance. Resistance. Exp. 1. 2—0 feet. -1 foot. 153 pounds, - 204 pounds. Exp. 2. 1—4 2 204 ia The ratio of the observed resistance is as 154: 264, while that of the calculated results is as 15 to28. Don George Juan has printed two appendices at the end of his first volume, in one of which he applies his theory to the resistance of elastic fluids; and in the other he examines the experiments of our countryman Smeaton on the maximum effect of water mills. He shews, from this theory, that the velocity of the floatboards ought to be a little less than one half the velocity of the water, in order to produce a maximum effect ; a result which is almost exactly the same which Smea- ton found from experiment. It is a singular cir- cumstance, that the experiments of. Don George Juan give resistances much greater than those of Bossut; D’Alembert, and Condorcet, which were made under great pressures; so that his theory will differ very wide« ly from the best experiments which have been made on the resistance of fluids. Dr Robison has remarked, {see his System of Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii. art. Resistance of Fluids, which contains an examination of this new theory), that Don George Juan’s equation ex- hibits no resistance in the case of a fluid without weight. A new edition of the Examen Maritimo, with copious notes and additions, was published at Paris in 1783, by M. L’Eveque, entitled, Examen Maritime, Theorique et Pratique, ou Traité de Mecaniqué, applique a la Construc- tion et a la Maneeuvre des vaisseaux et autres batimens. In the year 1798, M. J. B. Venturi, Professor of Na- tural Philosophy at Modena, published his experiments and observations on fluids, in a work entitled Sur la communication laterale du Mouvement dans les Fluides, which was some time afterwards translated into Eng- lish by Mr Nicholson. This work contains many new and valuable results, of which the following are the most important, He found, that in any fluid, the parts which are in motion carry along with them the lateral parts which are at rest. This proposition he established by introducing a current of water, with a certain velocity, into a vessel filled with stagnant water. The current, after passing through a portion of the fluid, was recei- ved in a curvilineal channel, the bottom of which gra- dually rose till it passed over the rim of the vessel ; and in a short time there remained in the vessel only that portion of the fluid which was originally below the aperture at which the current was introduced. By the aid of this principle, which he calls the lateral commu- nication of motion in fluids, and which he thinks is not sufficiently accounted for by the cohesion of the fluid particles, he explains many facts in hydraulics. In ex- amining the effect of additional tubes, Venturi found, that if the part of an additional tube, near.the orifice, has the form of the vena contracta, the quantity of wa- ter discharged will be the same as if there was no contraction ; that atmospherical pressure increases the ‘expenditure through a simple cylindrical tube, compa- red with that which is seen through an orifice in a thin plate ; that in descending cylindrical tubes, whose up= per ends have the form of the vera contracta, the ex- HYDRODYNAMICS. penditure cortesponds with ‘the height of the fluid -History. 7 o above the lower end of the tube; that, with additional conical tubes, the expenditure is increased by the press ja ae s] sure of the atmosphere, in the ratio of the exterior sec- ‘tion of the tube to the section of the contracted vein ;.. that cylindrical pipes discharge less water than conical pipes which have the same exterior diameter, and di-~ verge from the place of the contracted vein ; that, by suitable adjutages applied ‘to a horizontal cylindrical tube, the expenditure may be increased in the ratio of ~ 24 to 10, the head of water remaining invariable ; that the expenditure by a’ straight tube, a quadrantal are, and a rectangular tube, each of which is placed hori« zontally, is nearly as the numbers 70, 50, and 45 ; and that the expenditure is diminished by the internal roughness of a 2 effect which he conceives is not produced by the friction of the water against the . asperities themselves. . Although, as M. Prony has remarked, ‘ the Fesalts Experi- . : : 5 Sar soln obtained by the Chevalier Du Buat, and his sagacious Conlon : on the re mode of classifying the different kinds of resistances which appear in the motion of fluids, might have con- ,; Of ducted him to express the sum of these g rsreerte by fiuids, A.Dy a rational function. of the velocity com three terms only, yet the slay of this discovery was reserved for M. Coulomb.” This eminent philosopher, who had applied the doctrine of torsion with such dis- tinguished success in investigating the phenomena of electricity and magnetism, entertained the idea of exa- mining in a similar manner the resistance of fluids ; and in the year 1800 he laid before the National In- stitute of France his memoir upon this subject, entitled Des Experiences destinées a determiner la coherence des. Fluides, et les lois de leurs resistances, dans mouvemens tres lenis, which was published in the third volume of the Memoires de l'Institut. In determining the resistance of the air to the oscillations of a globe, Sir Isaac New- ton employed a formula of three terms, one of which varied as the square of the velocity ; the second, as the 3 power of the velocity ; and the third, as the sim~ ple velocity: and in another part of the Principia he reduces his formula to two terms, one of which is constant, while the other is as the square of the velo- city. Daniel Bernoulli* has employed a formula si- milar to this of Newton’s; and M. S’Gravesende+ makes. the pressure of a fluid in motion against a body at rest, mas proportional to the simple velocity, and partly to the square of the velocity ; while, when the body moves in a fluid, he makes the resistance in proportion to a constant quantity, and to the second power of the velocity.- M. Coulomb, however, has proved, by many fine experiments, that there is no constant quantity of sufficient magnitude to be detected, and that the pres« sure sustained by. the moving body is represented by- two terms, one of which varies with the simple velo- city, and the other with its square. The apparatus by which these results were obtained, consisted of discs. of various sizes, which were fixed to the lower extre= mity of a brass wire, and. were made to oscillate under a fluid by the force of torsion of the wire. By obser= ving the successive diminution: of the oscillations, the’ law of the resistance was easily. found. The oscillations’ which Coulomb found to be best suited for this kind of experiments, continued for twenty or thirty seconds ; and the amplitude of the oscillations that gave the most regular results, was between 480, the entire division * Comment. Petropol, tom, iii, and v. + Physices Elementa Mathematica, tom: i: § 1911. — posed of two or 13800. hy History. of the dise, and 8 or 10-divisions, reckoned from the sults which Coulomb has : eee the resistance in clarified oil, at the temper- of 66° of Fahrenheit, is to that in water as 17.5 to 1 ; which expresses the ratio of the mutual : cohesion of the particles of oil to the mutual cohe- sion of the particles of water. M. Coulomb concludes his experiments, by ascer+ more very slowly and perpendicular to their axes ; but for an account of the results which he obtained, we must refer the reader to the memoir itself, or to the article. uantity, from twelve ex ‘Buat, obtains a formula much more simple than that of Du Buat, but represent- aya a oa Concideri that i the wetted sides of the 58 < ae a = experiments ; fluid section in contact with same with, of the fluid par- it the resistance due to HYDRODYNAMICS. 421 the two adhesions were equal, the asperities would have no more tendency to unite to the wetted sides than to the mass of fluid in motion. Ae Such was the state of hydrodynamics, when M. Prony published, in 1804, his Recherclies Physico-Ma- thematiques sur la Theorie des Eaux Cotrantes.' In or~ der to establish the theory of running waters on a pro- foundation, this eminent mathematician collected the experiments that had been published on the mo- tion of water in conduit pipes, and in natural and ar- tificial channels. Out of this collection he seletted 82 of the best, viz. 51 on conduit pipes, and $1 on carials ; and he endeavoured to combine these data with the principles of physics and mechanics, so as to deduce from thenr general formule, from which the velocity might in every case be obtained by calcu+ lation. By these, means he has been able to express the velocity of water, whether it flows in pipes or open canals, by a simple formula, free of logarithms, and re- bates fhe the extraction of a square root, The formula, w in is applicable both to pipes and canals, V=—0,0469734 4 0,0022065 + 5041,47 x G, which gives the velocity in metres ; or, when reduced to English feet, V = —O.1541131 4 0,023751 + 32806,6 x G. When this forntula is applied to pipes, we must take . @ = {DK, which is deduced from the equation. When it is applied to canals, we must take G= RI, which is deduced from the equation I= +, R being equal ‘Suen ee otal or the hydraulic mean as i » M. Prony has drawn up extensive tables, in which he has com the observed velocities with those which are calculated from the preceding formule, and from those of Du Buat and Girard; and it is sur- prising to observe’ their t with the obser- ved results, and their d superiority to those of Du Buat and Girard. The of hydrodynamics has likewise been greatly indebted to the Nouvelle Ar- chiteclure Hydraulique of M. Prony, which ared in the year 1790, This able work is divided into two ; the first of which is a treatise on mechanics, in which the author has. explained the general principles of equilibrium and motion, which are necessary for en- ineers. The second part is divided into four sections : he first section treats of statics, the second of dynamics, the third of hydrodynamics, and the fourth of machines and first movers, considered under the different physi- cal circumstances, which have an influence u their equilibrium and motion. In the chapter on hydrody- namics, he resolves the —— problem of the efflux of water through an orifice in one of the sides of:a vessel, upon the supposition that the fluid strata pre~ serve their parallelism, and that their particles descend with the same velocity ; and from this he deduces; as « corollary, al) the ordinary theory of the motion of fluids. He next gives an account of the experiments of Bossut on the efflux of water, and deduces formule by which the results may be expressed with all the accuracy that practice requires.. In. treating of the impulse and re- sistance of fluids, he adopts and explains the theory of Don George Juan, and afterwards gives an account of History. Labours of M. Prony. A. D. 1804. 422 ‘History. the ordinary theory of resistance, with the experiments sy" by which it has been corrected and rendered applica- ble to practice. M. Prony then proceeds to give an ac- count of the general and rigorous theory of the motion of fluids, and he applies the equations to the motion of fluids in narrow pi In the 5th section, which con- tains much valuable practical information, the author has treated at great length the subjects of friction and of the strength of men, and has given a detailed ac- count of the history and construction of the steam en- ine, from the rude form in which it came from the ands of the Marquis of Worcester to the almost per- fect state to which it has been brought by our celebra- ted countryman Mr Watt. Experi- In the year 1795, Mr Vince of Cambridge publish- ments of | ed in the Philosophical Transactions his Obsernations Mr Vince, on the Theory of the motion and resistance of Fluids, A.D. 1795 qith a Description of the Construction of Experi- and 1798. - ments in order to,oblain some fundamental principle; and in the year 1798, he published, in the Transactions of that year, another paper, entitled, Experiments on the Resistance of Bodies moving in Fluids. The experi- ments contained in the first of these papers, were made chiefly with the view of ascertaining how far the theory of the motion of fluids-could be applied to the discharge of water from vessels. Mr Vince has concluded, frorn the results of this inquiry, that the great difference between the experimental and theoretical results, in most of thé cases which respect the times in which vessels empty themselves through pipes, leads us to suspect the truth of the theory of the action of fluids under all other circumstances. In the second memoir, he gives an account of a variety of experiments on the resistance of fluids, when the resisted body is immersed at some depth in the fluid made with a particular ap- paratus which he contrived for this purpose. _ The re- sults which he obtained differ widely from those ob-« tained by Bossut with bodies floating on the fluid, which Mr Vince explains, by supposing, that at the surface, the fluid from the end of the! body may esca more easily than when the body is immersed below the surface. The late Dr Matthew Young, Bishop of Clonfert, \ i asent ee of made a number of experiments on the efflux of fluids S$: Mat- from orifices of different kinds, of which he has pub- cp lished an account in the 7th volume ofthe Transactions Young. of the Royal Irish Academy. In order to explain the increase in the discharge by inserting an additional tube inan orifice in the bottom of a vessel, he filled a cylindrical vessel with mercury to the height: of 6 in- ches, and inserted in its bottom a tube 7.8 inches long. Having closed the orifice of the pipe, he placed the ap- paratus under the receiver of an air pump, when the barometer was at 30 inches, and the gauge at 284, the time of the efflux was in this case 26 seconds ; but when the experiment was repeated in the open air, without any variation, the time of the efflux was only 19 seconds. Unless the gauge stood higher than 223 inches, no difference was observed in the times of the efflux in the open air and in the receiver. When the efflux was made in vacuo, the pipe was not filled during the efflux, as it was when the discharge was made in the open air. Hence Dr Young concludes, that the plate of fluid at the orifice, where the additional tube is inserted, has its perpendicular par og increased. by the weight of _ the column of fluid in the additional pipe, without any increase of’ its lateral pressure ; and, consequently, the quantity of water discharged by a pipe of this: kind HYDRODYNAMICS. must exceed that which is dis by a’simple oris History. fice. The results of experiments, therefore, made with f additional tubes, will be more consonant to theory e than when they are made with a simple orifice, unless 5 when the tube has such a length that a sensible effect a is produced by the friction of the fluid against the sides of the tube, or when the additional tube is so short as not to be capable of giving a vertical direction to the particles of water. r M, Young found, that this view of the subject agreed remarkably well with the SaRceiment of Mr. Vince. 4 n the year 1801, M. Eytelwein, of Berlin, who pesearches was known to the public as the translator of Du of M. Ey- Buat’s works into German, and who was honoured telwein. with several employments and titles relative to the public architecture of the Prussian dominions, publish- ed a work entitled, Handbuch der Mechanik und der . Hydraulik; which contains not merely an exposition of the labours of preceding writers, but an account of many new and valuable experiments made by the author himself, \ The second part of this work, which treats of hydrau- lics, is divided into 24 chapters. Chap. 1. Treats of the efflux of water from reservoirs, and of the contrac- tion of the fluid vein. Chap. 2. Of the discharge of wa- ter from horizontal and lateral orifices in a vessel con» stantly full. Chap. 3. Of the discharge of rectangular orifices in the ‘side of a reservoir extending to. the surs face. Chap. 4, Of the discharge: from reservoirs with lateral orifices of considerable magnitude, the head of water béing constant.| Chap. 5. Treats of the efflux from reservoirs which receive no supply of water. Chap. 6. Of the discharge from compound or divided reservoirs. Chap.’7.° Of the motion of water in rivers. In this chapter, M. Eytelwein has shewn that the mean velocity of water in a second in a canal, or river, flow« ing in an equable channel, is }¢ths of a mean propor tional between the fall in two English miles, and the hydraulic mean depth ; and that the superficial veloci« ' ty of a river is nearly a mean proportional between r the hydraulic mean depth and the fall in two English miles. Chap. 8. Treats of the discharge and the swellin ‘ the case of falls, weres, and contractions in rivers and Cy BOR. OE tse canals. In Chap. 9. On the motion of water in pipes, our author expresses the velocity in English feet by the following simple formula: »=50 where J is 14-50d’ the length of the pipe, d the hydraulic mean depth, and h the height of the reservoir. If the pipe is bent into angles or sinuosities, the value of v must be corrected by taking the product of its square mul« tiplied by the sum of the sines of the several angles of inflection, and then by 0.0038. This will give the degree of pressure employed in overcoming the re~ sistance occasioned by the angles, and by subtract~ ing this height from that which is due to the velo~ city, we may thence find the corrected velocity. Chap. 10. Treats of jets of water. Chap. 11. Of the impulse or hydraulic pressure of water. Chap. 12. Of overshot water-wheels. Chap. 13. Of undershot water-wheels. Chap. 14. Of the properties of air, in so far as they are’ connected with hydraulic machines. ters 15. Of sy= X phons. Chap. 16. Of sucking pumps. Chap. 17. forcing pumps. Chap. 18. Of mixed pumps, or the combination of sucking or forcing pumps. Chap. 19+ Of acting columns of water. Chap. 20. Of the spiral. pump. Chap. 21. Of the screw of Archimedes. ap. 92, Of bucket wheels or throwing wheels, Chap. 23: Of cellular pumps and Paternoster works: Chap. 24. Nitya a nee | ] During the year 1814, a extensive series of ex- M. Gi on the motion of tubes. We have already seen, that given a common co-efficient to the ie nt Fe Hi i LG Hut ie aE Ecol cia HE Shee fH M. Prony deduced the value of these co- from a great number of experiments; but as formula gives only the mean therto made, have a value ly inferior to what they of the fluid contiguous to velocity of the central filament in conduit pipes Se tara dele one diameter of the tube is dimmished ; and that the theory of the linear motion of fluids, which was first given by Euler in FEA Aes: Boas cemy to the case where the water flows in very tubes. Hence the expe- results obtained with tubes of a small diame- ter, ought to accord best with the formula deduced from . In order to make a correct series of experiments kind, M. Girard constructed two sets of tubes made of , and of uniform calibre, and drawn Upeia deems Of steel. The first series was compo- sed of tubes 2.96 millimetres in diameter, and 2 decime- tres long. ‘These tubes were made to screw on to one another, and form as many tubes of different lengths, from 20 to 222 centimetres. The second series was com- contrivances ; and the water discharged by the tabe sub- to trial, was received into a » and whose i been accurately The filling of the vessel was indicated by instant when the water which it contained had wet- a plate of glass which covered almost the whole of its surface, the time employed to fill this vessel was measured with accuracy. The tem- water was also carefully noted. The temperature HYDRODYNAMICS. gers for 1815, which is not fiuid of an indefinite 423 amounts to 85°, When the length of the capillary tube — History: is below the above mentioned limit, a variation of tem- “~~” perature exercises but a slight influence upon the velo- city of the issuing fluid. Ifthe length of theadjutage, for , is 55 millimetres, and if the velocity is repre- sented by 10 at 5° of the centigrade thermometer, it will ted only by 12 at a temperature of 87°. In uces almost no the veloci arefl. oe Fed sabes - uanti water ie capi tubes, vari wot uly idk the Gaiden i Pavers f but with the nature of the solid substance of which the tubes were composed. A full account of these valuable experi- ments will be found in the Memoires des Scavans Eira- yet published. In the year 1815, the National Institute of France fnvestiga- P as the subject of one of its annual prizes for tions of M. 1816, the theory of waves at the surface of a heavy Possou. depth. The prize-was gained by !*!% M. Augustin Louis Cauchy, a young mathematician of pew promise. The differential — which he iven apply rigorously only to case, where the of the fluid is infinite ; and he has treated only of that species of waves which are propagated with ve- locities uniformly accelerated. The same subject had occupied the attention of M. Poisson, who, before he had seen the Metooir of M. Cauchy, had laid before the Institute formule similar to his for the case of infinite M. Poisson has himself studied the subject un- der a more extended and has laid before the In- stitute other memoirs, which we have no doubt, will throw much light upon this difficult branch of hydrau- lies, He supposes that the water has not received any percussion at the commencement of its motion, and that the waves have been produced in the following manner. A piston of an poe ab a pare teta os. eg in the water to a small depth, is left there till the equili- brium of the fluid is restored. The piston is then sud- denly withdrawn, and waves are formed round the place which it occupied. In determining the propagations of these waves, whether at the surface, or in the interior of the fluid mass, M. Poisson considers only the case where the agitations of the water are so 1, that the second and the higher powers of the velocities, and of the i ents of the molecules, may be neglected ; for, plicated, that no cletion of ff could bs expected. Hl i , that no solution of it cou ex . He supposes the of the water constant throughout its whole extent, so that the bottom is a fixed horizon- tal plane, situated at a given distance below. its natural level. He then treats successively in his memoir, the case of a fluid contained in a vertical canal of an invari- able width, and of an indefinite length: and that of a fluid, whose surface is indefinitely extended in every di- rection. This valuable memoir will, we trust, be pub- lished in the Memoirs of the Institute for 1815. Having thus given a 1 view of the hi and progress of hydrodynamics, we shall conclude this part of the article, by a list of the best works and most import- ant memoirs which have been written on the su Archimedes De Ivisidentibus in Fluido. Wd. De iis works in humido vehuntur, Heronis Spiritalia. Edit, on hydro- Commandini, 1575; Sexti Julii Frontini, De Aque- dysanics, ductibus Urbis Roma Commentarius (Poleni’s edit.) ; Stevini Hydrostatica ; Schotti Mechanica Hydraulico- * This abridged account of M. Eytelwein’s work, is taken from an eacellent abstract of it, érawn up by Dr Thomas Young, and published in the Journals of the Royal J ‘History. Works on hydro- dynamics. 424 Pneumatica, 1657 ; Baliani De Motu: Gravium, Geneva, 1646; Toricelli De Motu Gravium naturaliter accele- rato, 1643; Castelli Della Mesura dell’ acque correnti, 1628; Pascal Sur L’ Equilibre des Liqueurs ; Descartes Recueil des Lettres de M. Descartes, tom. iii,; Mariotte Traité.du mouvement des eaux, Par. 1686, and Mem. Acad. Par. 1, 69..11.; Guglielmini La, Mesura dell’ ac: que correnti; Guglielmini Della.nalura dell’ Fiumi, Bo- logn, 1697; Polenus De Motu aque mixto Patav. 1697, 1718, 1723; Parent Mem. Acad. Par.1700 ; Varignon Mem, Acad. Par, Il. p. 162; Jd. 703, p..288 ; Picard De aquis effluentibus, Mem. Acad. Par.,V11. $23; News toni, Principia, lib. ii. ; Raccolta Di Autori che trallano dell moto dell acque, 3 vols. 4to. Flor. 1723. This collec- {ion contains the works of Archimedes, Albici, Galileo, Castelli, Michelini, Borelli, Montanari, Viviani, Cassini, Guglielmini, Grandi, Manfredi, Picard, and Narducci. Polenus De Castellis per que derivantur fluviorum aque, Patav. 1718; Michelotts De separalione filuidorum in corpore animali, 1719 ; Jurin, Phil. Trans. 1718, 1722; Couplet, Mem. Acad. Par. 1732, p..113; Daniell Ber- noulli Hydrodynamica seu de viribus et motibus fluido- rum commentarii, Strasb. 1738 ; Id. Comment. Petrop. 1727, 1741; Pitot, Mem, Acad. 1727, p. 49; 1730, p. 506 ; 1732, 1738; John Bernoulli, Opera, tom. iv. ; and Comment. Petrop. 1737, 1738; .Cotes. Hydrostatical and Pneumatical Lectures, 1747; S. Grayesende Physices Elementa Mathematica, Leid. 1719, 1742 ;.Maclaurin’s Fluxions, vol. ii. book ii. chap. xii.. § 5837-550, Edin, 1742; D’Alembert T'raite de L’ Equilibre et du mouve- ment des Fluides, Par. 1744; D’Alembert. Essai d'une Nouvelle Theorie sur la resistance des. Fluides, and also his Opuscules Mathematiques, tom, vi; Switzer’s Hydro- statics; Euler, Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1752, p..111; 1755, p. 217; Id. Nov. Comment. Petrop- 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771; Id. Theorie complette de la construction et Ma- naeuvre des vaisseau ; Bouguer, Mem. Acad. Par. 1755, p- 481 ; Lecchi Idrostatica esaminata ne suoi principi e stabilita nelle sue regole della mesura delle acque corren- ti, 1765: Borda, Mem. Acad. Par. 1763, p. 358 ; 1766, p: 579; 176%, p. 595; Kaestner Anfangsgrunde der Hydrodynamik, Gotting. 1769, and Nov. di ay Got- ting. 1769, I. 45.; Nuova Raccolla di aulort che trat- tano del moto dell’ acgue, 7 vols. Parma, 1766. . The.1st vol. of this excéllent collection contains, 1. Castelli’s treatise Della Mesura, &c. 2. Several letters of Castel. li and other authors. 3. A paper by Montanari on the Adriatic Sea and its currents. 3. A discourse by Vivia- nion the method of preventing the filling up and.the corrosion of rivers applied to the river Arno. 5. Several papers by, J. D. Cassini, on the regulation of the cour. ses of rivers; and, 6. Guglielmini’s, treatise, entitled, La Mesura, &c, ,The 2d yolume contains Guglielmi-, ni on rivers, illustrated with the notes of E. Manfredi. The 3d volume contains, 1. Guido Grandi’s geometri-. cal treatise on the motion of water; 2. Several disser- tations, by the same author, on the River Era and the streams in Italy; 3. The Marquis Poleni’s treatise de motu aque.mixto; 4. A treatise, by the same author,. on dikes, &c,;_5. A letter, by Poleni; on the measure ofrunning waters; 6.A paper, by J. Buteon, on the same subject. .Tom. IV. contains, 1. Several hydrau- lic dissertations by -Castelli; 2. Several letters from Galileo to Castelli; 3. A paper, by E.-Manfredi, on the construction of a dike upon the River Era; 4. A res. ply, by Manfredi, to a criticism by Ceva and Moscatelli ; 5. A reply, by the inhabitants of Bologna, to those of Ferrara on the course of the Reno; 6. An examination of a book entitled, The Injurious Effects of the Reno, 5 HYDRODYNAMICS: ’ 7. A refutation of another work, published at Modena,on HU the same subject. Tom. V. contains, 1. A rt, b 'y Cardinals Adda and Barberini, on the state of the wa- peer. . ters in the countries of Romagna, Ferrara, and Bologna; dynamics. _ 2. A report, by Riviera, on the state of the Reno, the Panaro, and the Po; 3. A selection of practical. in- formation from the work of Zendrini on running wa- ters; and, 4. A memoir on preventing the inundations of the Ronco and the Montone, by Zendrini and Man- fredi. Tom. VI. contains, 1. A translation of Picard’s book on levelling ; 2. A translation of Gennete’s expe- riments on the course of rivers ; 3. Experiments of Bo- nati in opposition to those of Gennete; 4. Gennete’s reply ; 5. Remarks, by Manfredi, on the constant ele- vation of the bottom of the sea; 6. A discourse, by Za~ notti, on the beds_of rivers near their embouchure ; 7. A memoir, by Bolognini, on the ancient and present state of the Pontine Marshes, and on the means of draining them; 8. A comparison of canals, by Narducci; 9, A r, by Perelli, on a torrent called the Maroggia. Vol. VIL. contains, 1. A discourse on the ancient and present state of the Valdichiana ; 2. A memoir, by Lecchi, on the Tradate, the Gardaluso, and the Boz- zenti; 3. A paper on the inundations of the Adige, by Lorgna; and, 5. A paper, by Frisi, on the manage- ment of rivers and torrents. Bossut et Viallet, Recher- ches sur la Construction des digues, 1764. - Silbers Theorie des Fleuves, avec Vart de batir dans leur eaua: et de prevenir leur ravages, 1769; translated from the German, Michelotti, Sperienze Hydrauliche, Turin, 1774; and Mem. Taurinens, 1788. Bossut, Traité Thea orique et Experimental d’Hydrodynamique, 2 vols. 8yo. 1771, 1786, and 1796. Fontana, Dissertazione Idrodi= namica, Mant. 1775. Chevalier Buat’s Traité d Hys draulique et Pyrodynamique, 2 vols, 8vo. 1786, and yol. iii, 1816. La Grange, Mecanique Analylique ; and Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1781, p. 151, and 1786, p. 192. Ximenes, Nuove Sperienze Idrauliche fatie ne canali_e né Jiumi_per verificare le princpale leggi e fenomeni delle acque correnti, Siena, 1780. d. Act. Sten. iii. 16, iv. 31, vii. 1, Lorgna, Memorie intorno all’ acque correnti, Veron. 1777... Lorgna, Ricerche intorno alla distributio« - ne delle velocita nella sectione de Fiumi. 1d. Soc. Italian, iv. p. 369, v. 313, vi. 218. - Lambert, Sur les Fluides considerées relativement a ? Hydrodynamique, Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1784, 99. _Langsdorf, Theorie der Hydro-~ dynamischen grundlehren, Frankf. 1787. Langsdorf, Hy= draulik, Altenb. 1794. Cousin Mem. Acad. Par. 1783,. p. 665. Parkinson’s Hydrostatics, 1789. Dr Mathew’ Young, Jrish Transactions, 1788, vol, ii. p. 81, and vol. vii. p. 53. Bernhard, Nouveau Principes d'Hydraulique,. 1787. ‘This work contains a historical and critical dis« course upon the different works which have been ara edon this subject. Prony, Nouvelle Architeclure Hydrau= lique, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790. Prony, Recherches Phy« sico- Mathematiques sur la Theorie des Eaux Courantes, 4to, Paris, 1804. Burja, Grundlehren der Hydrostatik,. 1790. Vince, Phil. Trans, 1795, p. 24, 1798, p. 1. Ate, wood, Phil. Trans.1796, p.46, On the Stability of Vessels, 1798, p. 301. Don George Juan, Examen Maritimo, Madrid 1771. This work was translated into French by M.l'Evesque in 1783. La Place, Mem. Acad. Par. 1776. and Mecanique Celeste, liv. i. chap. iv. viii, liv. iii. chap. iii. iv. Flaugergues, Journal des Sgavans, Oct. 1789. Venturi, Recherches experimentales syr la communication, lateral du mouvement dans les Fluides, Paris, 1797. This. work was translated by Nicholson, and published sepa- rately in 1798. It appeared also in his Philosophicat Journal, 4to, vol, ii. p. 172 Fabre, Sur les Torrens eb. ' HYDRODYNAMICS. 425 History. Rivieres, Paris, 1797. Mazzuchelli, Idrodinamico, 25. and 79. Gregory’s Mechanics, vol.i. Lond. 1806, History. . = 7. , pag g Dr arqors oske'e aa genes —_ Peacatt sana terminer la coherence des Fluides et i resistance sophy, 2 v . 1807. Mollet’s Hydrauli dans wtp cot tee tres ee in the Me- sigue, Lyons, 1810. Girard, Memoires des Syavase - moires de U Institut, tom. iii. p. Eytelwein's Hand- trangers for 1815, and Journal des Mines. Poisson, buch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik. Berlin, 1801. Mem. de l'Institut, 1815. Robison’s System of Mechani« An excellent abstract of this’ work, Dr. Thomas. Pryce set , vol. ii. and iii, Art. Resistance of Fluids,- ¥ will be found in the Journals of the Royal In-. Rivers, Weter-works. ditaiin, No. 1. and in: Nicholson's lournal, vol, iii, PartI. HYDROSTATICS. ydrostae ‘Dnostati¢s, from the Greek i3ue, water, and ierme:, second class possess this property in such a small de- Hydrosts-- Pom pyaar laerlger pay nig me atm , that the diminution of their bulk by mechanical __ tics. mics which treats of the properties of fluids at rest. It poe is scarcely susceptible ef accurate mensuration. ““\—" oe the pressure and equilibriam of non-elas- The science of Pyeumatics considers the mechanical tic finids, the doctrine of specific gravities, the pheno- properties of the first class, and that of HypropyNa- mena of cohesion and capillary attraction, and the wucs those of the second class. equilibrium of floating bodies. Till within the last-fifty years, it was considered as Water for- an established fact, that the. class of incompressible merly "Definitions and Preliminary Observations. fluids could not be reduced in bulk by the application thought in- of the most powerful forces. This mencinsion, os 7 a —" Definition _ A fluid is a collection. of minute material parti« duced from an experiment by Lord Bacon, who afafuid. cles, ( of a pare Pir form,) which cohere so a leaden globe with water, and attempted to compress 1r! Bs Tghasl to exch another, that they yield to the euallan it by a great external force. The fluid, however, made 0 PS" force, and are easily moved among one another in eve- its way through‘the pores of the metal, and stood like direction. » dew upon the surfuce of the globe. The Florentine piorentine The phenomena exhibited by fluids, whether they academicians the same experiment with a sil- experiment. are at rest or in’ motion, afford us no reason to believe, ver globe, and, by violent ay oda succeeded that the particles of which they are composed in altering its form, and expelling water any polarity, or any tendency to arrange vesin the of the silver. These trials seem to have esta- one particular manner more than another. When a bli the doctrine of the incom ibility of fluids mass of water isin a state of perfect equilibrium, acer- in its most strict acceptation ; but Bacon deduced tain point of one particle is in ph, ical contact witha from them the very opposite conclusion, for, after giv- certain point of another particle ; but if the equilibrium ing an account of the experiment which we have men- is destroyed by violent agitation, there is no tioned, he tells us, that he afterwards computed into even Seo centectorng, feat fe sane peinte.ot par- how much space the water was driven by this violent icles i equilibrium is + recent discoveries, however, which have. re. Although the experiment of the Florentine Academy Experi- of Del Cimento was considered as decisive of this point, mts of © yet it occurred to Mr Canton, about the year 1761, that ©*°'"- it was not hostile to the idea of a small degree of com- pressibility ; for the academicians were unable to de- termine whether or not the water forced into the pores, and through the gold, was exactly equal tothe dimi- i nution of the internal space by pressure. He accord- vessel, od gppenss uniformly ect a certain arrange- ingly set about a series of experiments on this subject. ment, whi Pee nena 4 indicated by their action Having procured a small glass tube abuut two feet long, Bb peaks oat See Optics and Potantsarion. and 14 inch in diameter, and with a ball at one end of pile wt ncomprenite tide" The camo clanc ry, rowpht the whole tthe temperate of i i i i ; t w to temperature of 50° of: i atmospherical air, Fahrenbeit, and observed that Gi inercery stood at a and the various gaseous or aériform bodies with which. point exactly inches above the ball. The mercury chemists have made us acquainted ; while the class of was then by heat to the top of the tube, and the inelastic or incompressible fluids coroprehends water, tube was hermetically sealed. The mercury was then - mercury, alcohol, and the various oils and liquid acids. brought to the same degree of heat as before, and it The first class, in virtue of their elasticity, are capable’ now stood in the tube ,'3, of an inch higher than it did. of éxpanding themselves when they are unconfined, so before. By ing the same experiment with wa- as to fill any eee ae Polk gres- ter exha' of air, instead of mercury, he found that- ly diminished by mechanical compression ;* while the the water stood in the tube ,4, of an inch above the. * Air is said to have been reduced to _ 1-5 of its bulk in Hales's experiments. + See Bacon's Works, by Shaw, vol. ti. p. 521, or the Nowwm Organum, Part II. Sect. ii. Aphorism 45, § 222. Bacon seems to have considered all bodies as in some measure elastic; for, after having explained what he calls the mdtion of liberty, and applied” it to the phenomens of tension, he says, “* that this motion was unscientifically called by the schools the motion of the elementary forms : for it does not only apply to air, water, and Game, but to all the diversities of consistent bodies, as wood, iron, lead, cloth, skins, Ac. each body its own measure of extent or dimension, from whence it is with difficulty stretched to any considerable distance.” ~ Bacon's Works, vol. ii. p 527. Aph. 48. § 245.. VOL. XI. PART U. Su 426 Hydrosta- mark, Hence it is obvidus,'thatithe weight of: the at- tics. Canton's mosphere, or 73 pounds» avoixdupois, sfessing’ on the outside of the ball, and'not on'theliniside) id had squeezed experiments it into less compass, and'tHat, by this “compression of on the com- the ball; the mercury andthe water would ° pressibility raised.in'the tube)’ But the ‘water'tose of water. weer re of ‘an. im more than the mercury, and consequently:the water must have expanded so much morethaty ‘the "mereury. by removing the weight of the atmosphere. In order to determine how much compression was produced, ei- ther by the weight of the atmosphere, or by a greater weight, he took a glass ball about 1.6 inchin'diameter, joined to a cylindrical tube 4.2 inches long, and x35 of an inch in diameter, and, by weighing the quantity of mercury that exactly filled the ‘ball, and ‘also the quan- tity that exactly filled the whole length of the tube, he found that the mercury in 333, of an inch of the tube ‘was the 100,000th part of that’ contained in the ball, and he divided the tube accordingly with the edge of a file. When the ball and part of the tube was filled’ with water exhausted of air, he placed it in the receiver of an air pump, and also in the receiver of a condensing’ engine, and he observed the degree of expansion of the water that corresponded with any degree of rarefac- tion, and the degree of compression that corresponded. with any degree of condensation. In'this way he found, from repeated trials, that, when the mercury was at a mean height, and the temperature of the air 50° of Fahrenheit, the water rose four ‘divisions and 6-10ths, or one part in 21740, by removing the weight’ of the atmosphere ; conséquently the’ compression of water, under twice'the weight’ of the’ atmosphere; is one part in 10870 of its own bulk. In combining thése experiments, Mr Canton found, that water was more’ compressible’ in’ winter than’ in summer, while, on the'contrary, alcohol'and oil of olives were more compressible when expanded’ by heat, and less so when contractéd by cold. The results were, as’ expressed in the following’ Tablé, ‘suited to the mean weight of the atmosphere. Temperature in Compression in millionth Fahrenheit’s scale. parts of their own bulk. Water. Alcohol. 34° 49 60 64° 44 71 The following Table contains all the results which Mr Canton obtained. It is suited to a temperature of 50° of Fahrenheit, and to’ 293 inches of the barome-« ter. Compression in millionth Specific Names of parts of their own bulk gravities at fluids, by the weight of 294 the same tem- inches of mercury perature, Alcohol 0.846 Oil of olives 48 0.918 Rain water 46 1.000 Sea water 40 1.028 Mercury _3 13.595 From these results it appears, that the compressions: ure not, as might have been imagined, in the” inverse ratios of the specific gravities. sion in water is the same as that in air, it would fol« low, that, at a depth of 100 miles, the density of the water would be doubled, and at the depth of 200 qua- drupled. ‘ In the year 1774, the Ex-Jesuit Herbert published If the law of compres-) HYDRODYNAMICS! at Vienna’a treatise entitled De Aquae Elasticitate, ia Hydroste which he confirmed the general result’ of Canton’s' ex+ nents; andin'1779 M. Zimmerman published an ac~ count of similar ex ents at Leipsic, under the title of Traité de U Elasticité deVeau et dautres fluidess He found, that sea water, when inclosed ‘im the cavity of a strong’ iron cylinder, and ‘pressed’ by'a force equal to a column of sea water 1000 ‘feet high ‘was compressed sisth part of its-own bulk,'a result:much greater than we should have expected from the experiments of Can ton. A number Of 1 results similar to these were ob-« tained by ‘the Albé Mongez, who has printed an ac« count of them in the 9th volume of Rozier’s Journal. As the doctrine of the compressibility of water has long’ been considered as a fact rigorously established, we were surprised to find its incompressibility stated by the Abbé Hauy, without the slightest reference to any of the preceding experiments. ‘“ One of the expe«) riments,” he observes, “ which has served to shew the’ incompressibility of water, consists in charging that li« quid with a column of mercury, by employing a bent tube in the form of a syphon, the shortest branch of which is closed at its superior patt; and ins: water, at the same time that the longest branch is occupied by the mercury, which presses the ‘surface of the water. The column formed by this latter fluid was not shorts) ened by the smallest perceptible quantity, even when that of the mercury was 227 centimétres, orabout seven feet high, in whic case it exerted upon the water an effect triple of that of a column of water $3 feet high.”* In this experiment, which’ must have been’ carelessly made, the compression ought to have been thrice as great’ as in the experiments of Canton. ‘ Fluids have also been divided into perfect and imper= portoct and fect; but this division is quite arbitrary, as there is no imperfect _ body which possesses the character of perfect fluidity. fluids. i Boiling water approaches nearer to a state of perfect flu» idity than water in any other state, As its temperature" diminishes, its viscidity increases, andits fluidity becomes » less perfect. In many of the oils, varnishes, and’ in melted glass, the pero is extremely imperfect ; where=" as it may be considered as nearly perfect in water, ‘al~ cohol, mercury, &c, CHAP. I. On THE Pressure AND Equiurprium or Fiuips. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE. When a mass of fluid, in a state of equilibrium, is subjected to the action of any forces, every particle 9 ‘the Suid mass is pressed equally in. every direction, and vice versa if every particle of the fluid mass is pressed equally in eve. y direction, the whole mass will be in equilibrio. Tuis principle, which has been adopted as the foun« dation: of hydrostatics by Euler, D’Alembert, Bossut, and Prony, is a necessary consequence of the definition which we have already given of fluidity ; for, since the parts. of a fluid yield to the smallest pressure, any pars ticle which is more pressed in one direction than ano-. ther, would move to the side where the pressure was: least, and consequently the equilibrium would be de- stroyed. If the particles are ae pressed in every direction, it is equally evident, that the mass of which they are composed must be in equilibrium. * Hauy’s Elementury Treatise on Natural Philosophy, translated by DrO, Gregory, vol. ie § 174 8 : ve ~ f, Fig. 2 Fig, 3. ADY DRODYNAMICS. PEATE aires of perfect fluids, yet in the case of water, alcohol, Sere heen esaanes ure E, and the sum of anaes pegs by - tional to the area of the aperture | consequently ther ig pres- sures, when E: F=area of E: area of F. same is ‘true of any number of apertures." Secr. I. On the Pressure and Equilibrium of Fluids Daiform Denely. od 4 Paopr. I. When any fluid, influenced by the force of gravity, is in equilibrio in any vessel, its surface is horizontal, or at right angles to the direction of gravity. Let the surface of the fluid have the curvilineal form Ap'B, Fig. 2, and let the force of gravity with which particle pis inuenced be represented by the ver- 3 427 axis, or if they are put into a glass globe, and turned when the axis of ..rotation is vertical. ScHo.rum. The depression of the surface of a fluid or D beneath 2 horizontal straight line for any given length L, may be found from the following simple formula: D=*"*, Prop. II. If a isi “inflaenced by the force, of gravity is in- closed in a syphon, or in any number of communica- vessels, the surface of the fluid in each branch “Will be in the same horizontal plane. Pressure by the whirling table, their separating surfaces always #4 Equili- assume the form of parabolic conoids, : brium of Fluids. —\— Let ABCD, Fig. 4, be asyphon with three branches, Katte. Dik emanniention with sock other st.B.. If coon. water is. aaa Chard g(t gaya armory mapas branches, so that ADC is a horizontal line perpendicu- dap to. sha gapection of gravity, {ah Sie aTpbor be.20- moved, and let the water which it contained form part ore joa “Up, pay pblpapoareg holy aca zontal surface aA At is to su ta por- tion of the water, of the aaat hon aay Giicinens os the syphon, may be converted into ice, without _ing its,place or its volume. The equilibrium of the wa- ter.is obviously not affected by such a change ; and, -therefore, the water will stand at the same height ADC ina of ice ; and, consequently, the same will happen whatever be the substance of which the syphon is composed. The same conclusion would have H obtained, iy eppering 2 he wees Som, excepting that portion which was at first included in the syphon. Scnouium. The arts of levelling and of conducting water are founded upon the preceding proposition. As wa- ter will always rise to the same level as the spring from which it flows, it may be conveyed in pipes through the deepest vallies, and over the highest emi- nences, provided the pipe never rises to a greater testcase hi cts pine Sy gt wi simple princi might hevnanneld the sanstanetion of e > ive aqueducts i i a ciple con- ith’s mo level article Leveutine. ‘ Paop. IIT. If a mass of fluid contained in a vessel is in equi- librio, any one particle of the fluid is in every di- rection, with a force to a weight of the column equal to that particle, and icle below the into this vessel till it rises to A in one Fig. 4 Let p, Fig. 5, be the particle of fluid whose depth in Fig. 5. the vessel of fluid ABCD is ep. We may suppose, as for- of this article, our readers will perceive that we have been under great which we must refer those who wish to obtain a more profound and eaten- 428 ‘Pressure merly, that a portion of the water is ‘frozen, so as'to form send Equili- a tube of ice ep, whose diameter is equal to that of the fluids, Particle p, without any change taking placein the pres- —~— sure sustained by p. In this case, the particle p is ob- PLate viously pressed downwards with the weight of the CCCXIT. column ep; and, consequently, the measure of this Vig. 5. pressure is the absolute weight of the column ep.. But as the particle is in equilibrio, it must be pressed with this force in every direction. - The proposition is also true of a particle situated at m, for drawing the horizontal line mg; and supposing a syphon of ice /ghm to be formed, it is obvious that the column of fluid in the branch mh is in equilibrio with, or balanced by, the column in gh; consequently the particle of water at m is pressed with the same force as the particle at g, that is, with a column of wa- ter whose height is fg. Cor.. Hence it follows, that every particle of a ves« sel containing fluid is pressed with a force equal to a column of fluid, whose tea is the particle, and whose height is the depth of the particle below the surface ; for, since the particle of fluid adjacent to this particle of the vessel is pressed in every direction with this force, it must exert the same force against that particle of the vessel. Prop. IV. The pressure exerted by a fluid upon any given por- tion of the vessel which contains it, is equal to a co- .lumn of the fluid whose base is the area of the given portion, and whose altitude is the depth of the centre of gravity of the portion below the fluid surface. Let mn be the given portion. of the vessel ABCD filled with fluid, and let us conceive this portion to be occupied by any number of particles m, 0, p, n, &c. then the pressure sustained by each, of these particles, by Prop. ITE. will. be -m xm U+OoXOr-+ pX py-+-n X nz, &¢.; but, by the property of the centre of gravity or inertia, (See Mecuanics,) the sum of these products is equal to the distance EF of the centre of gravity E, from the surface at F, multiplied into the number of particles. m, n, 0, p; that is, mx mu+oxXoxr-+px py +nxXnz=EF Xm,n,0,p; consequently, since m,n,0,p represents the area or the number of particles in the given portion mn, the pressure upon mm=EF x mn. Cor. 1, It follows from this proposition, that the pressure sustained by the bottom of the vessel is not the same as the weight of the fluid contained in the vessel. In the cylindrical vessel shewn in Fig. 7, or in any vessel, whatever be its shape, in which the sides are perpendicular to its bottom, the pressure upon the bottom is accurately measured by the weight of the water which it contains ; but in vessels of all other shapes, such as Fig. 8, 9, the pressure on the bottom is measured by mn Xm x, which jn Fig. 8 ismuch less than the weight of water in the vessel, and in Fig. 9 much greater. Cor. 2. The truth of what is called the Hydrostatic Paradox, is easily deduced from the preceding proposi- tion, Let ABCDEFGH, Fig. 10, be a vessel filled with water, then, by the proposition, the pressure upon GF = GF x G1, however narrow be the column ABCD, thatis, the pressure exerted upon the bottoms of vessels filled with JSluid does not depend upon the quantity of the fluid which they contain, but solely upon its altitude. In like man- ner, it is obvious from Prop. II. that the water will stand at the same level ab AB, Fig. 11, in the two com- municating vessels abed, ABCD, consequently, any pors Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8, 9. Hydrostatic _ paradox. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. HYDRODYNAMICS. uid abcd, however small, will balance any pors Pressure’ of fluid in the vessel. . tion 0 tion of fluid ABCD, however. great. t Cor. 8. The pressure exerted upon the ‘sides of a vessel, perpendicular to its base, is equal to the weight and E brium of Fluids. -of a rectangular prism of the fluid, whose height is -equal to that of the fluid, and whose base_is a parallel. -ogram, one side of which is equal to the height of the fluid, and the other to half the perimeter of the vessel. Cor.4. The pressure against one side of a cubical vessel is equal to half the pressure against the bottom; andthe “pressure against the sides and bottom together, is equal ‘to three times the pressure against the. bottom alone. Hence, by Cor. 1. the pressure against both the sides and bottom together, is equal to three times the weight Cor..5. The pressure exerted upon the surface of a hemisphere full of fluid, is equal to the product of that surface multiplied by its radius, . = - 2 Cor. 6. The pressure sustained by different parts of the sides of a vessel, are as the squares of their depths below the surface. Hence, these pressures will be re- presented by the ordinates of a parabola, when the depths are represented by its abscissee. ‘DEFINITION. The centre of pressure is that point of a surface ex- Centre of posed to the action of a fluid, to which, if a forceequal pressure. to the whole pressure upon the surface were applied, the effect angst be the same as it is when the pressure is distributed over the whole surface. Prop. V. To find the centre of pressure. Let it be required to find the centre of pressure P, Fig. Prats 11, on the side of a’ cubical vessel ABCD. Let G be CCCXILE, the centre of gravity of the surface, then the pressure Fig: !1. exerted against this surface will be BC x BC xGB, or a since in the case of a cube or rectangle, GB=> > and since the pressure must be equal to the sum of all the eke oo upon the elementary portions — F f, we have == x PB=/BCxF f x FB x FB, or ica fe FX FB* But the sum of the elementary pressures F.fx FD? compose a pyramid whose base is =BC:2, and whose altitude is BC, consequently, by the property of the centre of inertia (See Mecuanics) 3 Pi Tax a a and pB=* 2°, that is the centre of pressure, is two-thirds of the depth of fluid in the vessel. : Cor. The centre of pressure coincides with the cen- tre of percussion, as the centre of percussion is also two-thirds of the height of the body. city Secr. II, On the Pressure and Equilibrium of Fluids of Variable Density. : DEFINITION. jars Leia : Tne absolute weights of different bodies that have the same bulk are called their specific gravities or den- silies, and any body that, under the same bulk, is hea- - vier than another, is said to be specifically heavier, i } “HYDRODYNAMICS. (499 ‘Prop. I. of the strata are perpendicular to the direction of gra- See vity. —— PLATE If the lower stratum of k/c D (Fig. 13.) were placed ec¢cxii1. alone in the veseel, its surface Kl would be horizontal. Fig. 15, ; int of the surface kl o fat pA Ai : 1 cue : t i i : i F 7 z 5 Ti anit i F i ; 4 : ~- : : zg Ff : t ry f i | i ii i : 3 F : : g 7 iE | Ff 3 as ce wate it iy ELE 3 BEE i itt ip i cee E 4 z e ! 4 83 : x s% F i ; “the columns ABpo, CD vf of different densities, as ‘SuStains the weight of all the columns q p, i Gu tckinrey, ¥6 In this case, ~s< We may therefore /f #*= /-S=* = Jat and since, in the case of a column Ss _ 5 substitute a ane tatine fertovier pressure upon the bottom, z= a, we have ES Sa SB + SH) De x (Sx H45'x H+ ey ee ite a's eee es ee” llth! ae which is the truth announced va chorea Saual to tho Wuahi of Up Welt Gipicet. Puop. Let EF 14.) bea floating in the vessel Fig. 14. 2 ABCD. thes Prop. IIL I, any point or par- If a fluid contained in a vessel consists of an infinite ticle n is number of strata whose densities vary toany lumn i law, the fluid will be in equilibrio, when the surfaces true of every part of the surface En Specific Gravities. PLATE CccxXIIL, Fig. 15, Fig. 14 » ‘it which is immersed ; then since-B xs is the al ~wards' with a columw: of fluid whose hei 430 -part of the solidimmersed is made up of these elementa- ry columns, it follows that the sum of all the pressures exerted upon EnF is equal toa quantity of fluid of the same size as'the;/immersed part, which is the same as the quantity of fluid displaced. When the body EF is wholly immersed,vas' in Fig. 15, it is. obvious, that any part o is: down- is mo, oe any-part 7 is) upwards with acolumn of flui whose height is mn; consequently the point m is pressed upwards with a column xo=mn—mo. But the sum all the elementary columns no, make up a quantity of fluid:equal to that which is displaced by the body. Cor. When a‘solid floats on a fluid, the quantity of fluid which it displaces is equal to the weight of the bo- dy. Since the whole weight of the solid pressing wpon the surface of water E ~ F is in equilibrio with the fluid mass, it must be equal in weight to the quantity of fluid ExF, which is also in piney acre with the same fluid mass, but this quantity of fluid is the quantity which is displaced. - Prop. II. When»a body floats upon a fluid, the centre. of gravi- ty of the, body and.of the fluid displaced are in the same vertical line. For since.the upward pressure which supports the floating body is'the same‘as if it were applied.to the centre of gravity of the part immersed, or of the quan- tity. of fluid displaced, then since the whole floating bo- dy is in equilibrio, its centre of gravity must be sup- ported by’ this upward pressure ;: that is, the centres of gravity of the: fluid displaced and of the floating body must be in the same vertical line. Prop. iI. The specific gravity of any floating body is to that of the fluid, as the volume of the mit, be ahi is to the whole volume of the body. Calling S the specific gravity of the) fluid; and s that of the solid;:we have-by Cor. Prop. I. Sx EnF = sxEpFn, and therefores: S=EnF:EpF 2; that is, ba the part immersed ‘is to the whole volume of the body. Si Prop. IV. If a solid is weighed in-a fluid, it will lose as’ much of its weight as is equal to the quantity of fluid dis- placed. It appears from Prop. I. that the body is pressed up- wards with a force equal to the weight of the fluid dis- placed ; and as this force acts in opposition to the na- tural gravity oreabsolute weight of the body, its abso- lute weight must be diminished by a quantity equal to the weight of the fluid'displaced. The weight which the body in this case loses is not destroyed, but is sus- tained by:an equal and opposite force. If we calls the apecific gravity of the solid, S that of the fluid, B the bulk of the solid, and mB the part of lute weight of the solid, and m B x S the absolute weight of the quantity of fluid displaced, in order that an equili- brium, may take place, we must have Bx S=mBxS, and S: Sm B.: B. . Hence if s=S, we have mB=B ; that is, if the specific gravity of the solid is equal to that in whi HY DRODYNAMICS. | of the fluid, the part immersed is equal to the whole body; ott or, in other words, the solid will be completely immersed, ‘and will remain wherever it is placed. If s>>~S, then mB=>B ; that is, when the specify gravily of the solid is greater than that of the fluid, the body will sink to the bottom : and if the uid mB.=.B ; that is, a the specific gravity of the fluid is greater than that: of the id then the part immersed is less‘than that of the whole ‘solid, or the body will float. Prop. V. If a body is held beneath the-surface of a fluid, the force with which it will ascend, if it is lighter than the “fluid, or with which it will descend if it is heavier, is “equal to the difference between its own weight and the weight of an equal quantity of the fluid. ‘ The body held beneath the water obviously descends with its own weight =B xs, while it is pressed up- wards with the weight of the quantity of fluid displaced =B xS; consequently the force with which it ascends must be Bx S—B xs, and the force with which it de- scends =B x s—-B-x S, which are the differences between -the. weight of the body and the weight of the fluid dis- placed. Scuorium. On the truth contained in this proposition is found- ed the construction of the Camel for raising sunk ves- sels, or for lifting ships over high.sand banks. (See our article Came.) A similar effect is exhibited in some of the American rivers, where the ice is formed upon the stones at their bottom. Ice is specifically lighter than water, and therefore, when it accumulates to a certain degree round the stones, the pea pres« sure upon the stones exceeds their pressure downwards, and they are brought to the surface, having some-~ times torn up with great force. Huge masses of stones ap in many cases to have been floated by the ice adhering to them, and carried to a great distance from the place of their formation. Prop. VI. The specificigravity of a solid isto: that of the fluid chit is weighed, as the-absolute: weight of the solid is to the loss of weight which it sustains. In the equation Bx s=m B x S, we have B=mB when -the body is weighed in a fluid, and of course wholly immersed ; consequently if W be the weight of the bo- dy in the fluid, or the weight necessary’ to: keep it in equilibrio with the fluid, then | Bxs=BxS+W, (and transposing and multiplying by s,) we have sxBxs—W=s x BS, and (Euclid, Book VI. 16. s:S=Bxs:Bxs—W; consequently since B x s— is the loss of weight which it sustains, the specific gra- vity of the solid is to that of the fluid, as the weight of the solid is to its loss of weight. ! This Proposition may also be demonstrated, by. consi- dering that.the weight lost; or Bx s—W, is the weight of a bulk of fluid equal to the grtes the al whose weight is B.x's 5 atid therefore as the specific'gravities . one another, by the definitiony as the weight of equal bulks, we have s: S=Bxs:Bxs—W. Prop. VII. If the same solid body is weighed in two fluids, the specific gravities of the fluids are to one another as the tS ote oy —T OO ee Ma F » I, Making B the bulk of the body as before, S, S’ the P oo the two fnids, and W, fluid, then ‘will be in ‘have an real the body. : BxS4W=B Xs and Bx S’4+0w=B xs. Hence we have the two equations, BxS=B x s—W and Bx S=B xX s—w; SxB:S’xB=B xs—W:Bx ly, (Eucl. B. V. 16.) S:V=BxKs— is, the specific gravities, or as the losses sustained by the soli equal to the difference the weights W, w in the fluid. Cor. Hence, if two solid bodies their weights in the same fluid, they have equal vo~- the heavier fluid is to the difference of the specific vities of the solid and the lighter fluid. a2 and fluid, whose spe- cific gravity is poche in the heavier fluid, howe spetie gravity 4 ppg Sa specific of rF is very small when to S’, as in air and water, then we may, for ordinary purposes, take the —t:8. Pror. IX. Paos. To detect the adulteration of the precious metals. Let us as in the case of Hiero’s crown, that a mass of is adulterated by the admixture of silver. If we a quantity of pure of the same t as the adulterated mass, it will have less as its specific gravity is greater than that of the NAMICS.. rated'mass. Hence it follows, that we have-only to Specific mass, and 4 mass of pure gold of Gravities ) fore’ less bulk than the mass ; the , 2438 =BxS4H x8, and by we 481 we the suspected io teee weight ; and if'there is any difference in their ight, we must conclude that the mass is adulterated. ‘| bo a es pa i Dh a ay mass, it rs) Mee jost ‘weight, an “there. , the adul-" ing mixture has a’ less specific’ gravity than gold. If, on contrary, the ‘loses’ more weight ‘than the mass, it will have'a mrt oe and therefore the higher speci gravity between the the sum of the a Fa FF Hiflited Paor. XI. Pros. To determine accurately the specific gravity of seous or aeriform bodies. aed ae As the of bodies are mea- sured in ion to that of air; we must first determine the weight of a given volume of this gas. In order to or w—wW’, vessel when empty as formerly, and al- required to measure the speci vity of another Wei eat = sa. mbes fi tema oo. 2." greet calaediadarl will be its i i ‘with that of the air, which is taken at 1,000. £ san boa that which with the state of ‘atmo. sphere at the time when the experiment was made, Specific 432 HYDROD It is obvious, however, that all these measures are Gravitiess affected by a variation in the density, the temperature, and the humidity, of the external atm ere. The weight, too, of the gases, when they are introduced | into the receiver, is affected by the temperature and pressure of the air. The contraction and dilatation of the glass vessel requires also to be computed ; and the weight of the gas itself is affected by the tempera- ture and the degree of drying which it has experienced. These various sources of error likewise affect the results, in so, far as they affect the external atmospherical air in which both the ‘air itself and the gas must be weighed. Some allowance must also be ah for the imperfect exhaustion of the glass vessel, which is always visible by its effect upon the barometer. i . It will readily be seen, that it must require no small degree of trouble to. calculate the combined influence YNAMICS. of these different causes, though, in order to obtain accu Specific rate results, such a calculation becomes absolutely ne- Gravities, cessary. As it would be impracticable in the present article to'enter into any lengthened examination of the subject, we must refer such of our readers as wish to. study it profoundly, to the 19th, 20th, and 21st chap- ters of M. Biot’s valuable work entitled, Trarté de Phy=. sigue, which not only contain the method of deducing. the necessary formule, but also many excellent remarks and suggestions which could only have been given by one who had investigated the subject both theoretically and practically. The following are his principal formule, which are suited to a temperature of 32° of Fahren-. heit, or that of melting ice, and to.a state of the at« mosphere when the barometer stands at 0,76 metres, or 29.94 English inches. ; In these formule, X = the absolute weight of atmospheric air contained in the glass vessel at a tempe- rature of 32°, and under a pressure of 29.94 inches of mercury, as calculated from the formule. ° Y = the absolute weight of any. gas under the same circumstances. At, the time when the h = the atmospheri glass vessel is weigh- ed empty, ay. : pump. At the time oftheintro-(p = }! = temperature of the gas. p’ = its hygrometric state. duction of the gas into the glass vessel. glass is weighed full of gas. When the glass vessel is weighed empty’a se- cond time, after it has-been weighed full of gas. p"” = atmospherieal pressure.. ?’” = temperature; V_ = the interior volume of the glass vessel at the same temperature. ; K = the cubical dilatation’ of glass for met. § degree of, the-centigrade thermometer. P = the absolute weight of the glass vessel, which never changes. pressure; £ = the temperature of the air. p = the state of the hygrometer. @° = the-tension inthe interior of ‘the glass vessel, after a yacuum is made by the air external pressure exerted upon the gas. « ” = the weight of the glass vessel filled with gas. Ap the eter, Pee te Di = the atmospherical: pressure. t’’ = the temperature of the external air. “h" = the state ofthe hygrometer. P” = the weight of the glass vessel empty observed in ait 1. Formula suited to the case where the Gases are perfectly dry. ~- P”—P0".76 — C+Ka)p 4 (14 KV )p + Ke")p" (No. 1) 1+-#.0,00875.' 1+4-2'.0,003875 14 2".0,00375 @P=P=P) @X(14Ki")p”_ XG4Ki)p _ X14Ke")p"” eY= aac mals dle hale 142”.0,00375. —_ 14t.0,00875 —_1++#’”.0,00875 (No. 2.) (14K?1)p 1+4-1'.0,00375 : In the ordinary state of the atmosphere, the barome- ter and thermometer indicate only very small and pro- gressive changes, so that in the short time which can elapse between the different weighings of the gas, we may safely suppose the stihoxpbdrieat ressure p’’, and.the temperature ¢’, ontempabeiiie to the interme- diate weighing of the- glass vessel, as arithmetical’ (P im et) (14 means between the extreme pressures p, p’’’, and the extreme temperatures #, ¢’”. In proportion, therefore, as the variations in these elements have been inconsi- derable, we may consider them as compensating them-. selves in the terms of X: These terms will consequent] disappear, and the formula will be reduced. to. the fol- lowing simple. form ; #’ .0,00875) .0"",76" ae (1+ Ki’) p’ (No. 3.) This formula will be found sufficiently exact when has«a-very considerable influence upon the weight at the gases and the atmospherical air are perfect] ; but as this is never the case, and as the Prcsiet hs a temperature above 50° of Fahrenheit, it is necessary’ to.compute its effect. Ae i HYDRODYNAMICS. 433 ‘Specific 1 Ta een ; ; 4 ore, ©, Formulae suited to the case where the Gases are perfectly saturated with Water. In the following formule, X is the of a volume of dry atmospherical air contained in the vessel, at the temperature of 32°, and the etric: pressure of 0.76 metres br 29.906 English mcbes, eet T =the real tension of aqueous vapour at the weighing of the vessel empty. T’ = the tension at the introduction of the gas. ox T” = the tension at the weighing of the glass vessel full of gas. x= PP 0m76 . e i+ r—s thE —+t SX(14K¢)T) | X(14Ke") (p'—3T" X(14K4) (p—3T) , Yy (Pr—P)=0.76— 274 *0,0037. of 1 +?" .0,00875 ers re (No. 5.) . ~ EEA =I) 1+? .0,00375 in which the air the gas are weighed, are not sa- nots, Memaair, by weighing 4 time turated with moisture. In this case, T’ and T” will. the vessel empty, i it has been express the tension of the aqueous vapour really sus- full of the Then, if {” is the tempera- , pended in this air. ture at which this is 2” the stmoepherical The preceding results may be rendered independent sure, T’” the tension of aqueous vapour, s ; of the quantity of aqueous vapour contained in the at- the weight observed, the resulting formula will be +3 —eero 5X(1+Kr)T’ i Y (P" 2 16 — ST 4 £.0,0087 = (No. 6.) . Try 1 + f .0,00875 This formula becomes exactly the same as No. 8, when T’ = .0; that is, when the gases are perfectly dry. 3. Formule suited to the Case when the Gases are perfectly dry, but the exhaustion not complete. , The above formule will be sufficiently correct, if the exhaustion of the glass vessel is made with a very fine air ; but as this is not be mi ae nea: 2 t whe Siashs Gis ipa i dames aye oct hy brn oregano (P’— Pr) on76 4. XO ze) (P47) —X(1 + ae (pt) You , (i+ Kr) Gay (No. 7.) 1+? .0,003875 which, by the means formerly described, may be reduced to (Pr —FEP'Y) (1 4 1.000975) 00:76 : + Kk?) @—*) M. Biot has the use of theformula No.5. The saturated “age wy iepistusanahans ts dete oo Gah oo ay vate meter Med a state of the Lt appealing of Rensentaing toe gravity of to extreme tis al te flowing ace" Weigh ofthe atmosphere At the of the Fn ORIN g mined pear vintet cee oats = At the introduction of the 21° 4 centigrade. Cubical dilatation paced 5 4 gas into the glass vessel = 0.7630 metres, se date of the centigrade K 0.0000262716 = _ Mecreeingg mele Sane VOR. XI. PART 1. pond 7 gy Ue K = 5104865 Gravities. 434 HYDRODYNAMICS, Specific Elastic forces of the aqueous Fahrenheit, by subtracting from each of them the cor- Graviticess — yapour at the temperatures | T =,0.0185 metres. responding dilatation of mercury. _ Hence we shall t, v', U’, calculated from a for- > T’ = 0.0190 mula given by Biot, vol..i..|°T’ = 0.0182. Conse« e C7; ° pe $T =0.0069. 3T’ =0.0068. Hence pom} T= 07547 metres ; p’ —iT’ =0.7440; pl —iT"=0.7554, But as the pressures p, p’, p’’, or the altitude of the mercury in the barometer, were obsérved at different have ; © | 0.7547, 20°.9 ah | Taam 7 ta 0,0029 metres, 0.7440 . 2194. p _ Tin gagmon ae = 0.0029. » _. 0-7554 . 20°.6 PF nape 5412 = 0.0029; so that the temperatures, they must be reduced to that of 32° of barometrical columns thus reduced will be : p—iT =0.7518; p’—3T = 0.7411; p” —3T” = 0.7525. We havealso . . . « 14K#t = 1.000549; 1 +4 -0,00375 = 1.078375 14+K# = 1.000562; 1 -|- #’ .0,00375 = 1.080250 14+Ki’= 1.000541; 1 +4 2”.0,00375 = 1.077250. With these elements, and with X, which has been found, we have X(L + Kz") (p"—4T) 1 + ¢7 .0,00875 (+ Kt) (p—3T) = 5.088985 grammes. _ 1 +-40.003875 Difference . Hence we have the difference of these two terms, or X(14+ Ke’) (p”—$T") XG4 Kd (p—#T) = 5.078947 . . 0.009988 i 1 + ?” 0.00875 By adding to this (P’”’ —P) .0.76 metres. MAGAVO.e,--\5,°e 20.) oe MIN ine pea ee ile . ° . I + K#.0,00375 = 0.009988 grammes. = 0.43016 0.440145 which is the stim of all the positive’ terms of the numerator. By subtracting the negative term, or Tid tiitetente 1a. ee ee ne ee which is the value of the numerator of the formula. 5X(14K?r)T 8 (1-47.0.00375) °° (14Kv) (p'—T) 2 = 0.0797783 0.360370 | The denominator, of 1 + #.0.00375 0:36037 we have Y= 0.6891163 . “« ='0.6891163 . a « == 0.522945 grammes, . which is the weight of the volume of hydrogen gas contained in the glass vessel at 32° of Fahrenheit, and-0.76 metres, or 29.994 inches of the barometer. Hence we have the specific’ gravity of hydrogen gas, or Y _ 0.522945 X ~ 7.25323 Pror. XII. Pros. "fo determine accurately the specific gravity of lie quids, . The accurate determination of the specific gravity of liquids is like that of gaseous bodies, attended with con siderable difficulty.. As the specific gravities of the gases are referred to that of atmospheric air, so in liquid and solid bodies the specific gravities are referred to that of water, when at the temperature of + 3°.42 of the centigrade scale, or 38°.15 of Fahrenheit, which cor« responds to the maximum density of that fluid. In measuring the specific gravities of liquids, a glass vessel with a narrow neck, after having been accurately weighed when empty, is successively weighed when filled with distilled water, and with the liquid whose kL = 0.720982. specific gravity is required, and the temperature and daciecbanineh simarenisen carefully. marked. The volume. of water and of. fluid may then. be —_ 2 the following formule which have been given by M, Biot. . In these formule, aa V = the interior capacity or volume of the glass vessel in cubic centimetres, at the temperature of 32° . of Fahrenheit, or that of melting ice. L = the ri rt weight of the liquid when it is est 3 aia “ Ww fo ‘ a = dilasationat the liquid at 32° of Fahrenheit, taking its volume at this temperature for unity. 3 = the dilatation of water from its maximum density to the temperature 7’. ; F =the apparent weight of the water at the tempera- ture i’. Gravities. HYDRODYNAMICS. © “Fahrent « ee nee Ot eon eighoe arn eee oer, at the temperature T pir tere Sd alates = =the it of a centimetre of the liquid at the temperature of 32° of i Then we have VaRqbe'¢ SOC Eee Ee) ree KE) Nas, ot Bn $KO 37) oes (L+4+a)(1+4a oe Hence «’K ¢ = 0.0000006369, «/ 4 No, 5. 435 The use of these formule will be est ¢ seen by ap- plying them, as M. Biot has done, to the ne iments on mereury and water by him and M. Avago, ae A ‘Temperature | H: of the weight of air in degrees of pasos in Liquids. in centigrade,ithe barometer, ar ins of Elon alone or values of p. Metres, 7 Mercury 1342,989 1s 0.7439 2.°Mercury} 1 20... 0.7580 3. Water 98,721 20.1 0.7600 4. Water 98,716 20.9 0.7589 arson ata from the formula No. 3, we have and a 1137902, : ey ey eset pry oe oe 7 = meh at apy since?” =20°.1—3°.42— 16°.68 3 =0.0018654 ’=20 .9—S .42=17 .48 Be Selene erence) colens =f being re- duced to the temperature of 8 of Fahrenheit, we atte —ogaga aia Ee = — 0: 4 Witt! these . % v’ observed pig ee celine by thi beans ” «’ = 0.001206079 : a = 0.001192953 Now K ¢ = 0.0005281 Exp. 3. K # = 0.0005491 Exp, 4. 2K r—K ¢=10,00067861 Exp. 3. « Kf =0,0000006551, «' 4+ « Kt’ —K¢ = 0.00064451 Exp. 4, By substituting these values in the formula No.3. we have, in cubic centimetres, V = 98.721 +. 0.1679985 4 0.0671518 = 98.9561453 Exp &. V = 98.716 4 0.1841649 + 0.0687819 = 98.9689268 Exp. 4. arithmetical mean between these results is to calculate the value of a, we have The In_ order del sti teapeneee teat Poon pI ope ana Mp. pent Aa The absolute of weighed in the same gla ene, - i tndemg be popes hom the Gemaiette: 8. 5. in applying the formula to Eaprinet and 2, on mercury. tompee of $2° of Fahrenheit, and 0*.76 or 29.994 inches of at- we shall have by the formula No. 4. a=0,12004 Exp. 1. and a=0.11872. Exp. 2. Hence L=1342,989 grammes, — L=180,93 grammes ae sietd a= 0,12004 } sana. 4 a= 0,11872 L4a 1343,1090% L+a 1341,01172 weights contain a number of grammes, it is to calculate the corrections with regard tok 1ma8. toereameag had eaia would otherwise have been necessary. We have — L+a _ (L+a) Ke 14Ke— ait 14+K¢é The second of these terms, which is.always very small, is the correction sought. Now T= IS T0901—0,440919=1542,66818 Exp. 1. iF HHA <215961,01172—0,725363:=1940,286857 Exp. 2 436 HYDRODYNAMICS. Pa By adding to each of these results its product by the dilatation =e in mercury, we have —_—— C40 Ct?) —1542,66812-45,10115=1345,7692 Exp. 1. fans CO it = 1910,28656 + 5,10160=1945,5860 Exp. 2. The arithmetical mean between these resylts is P . : : } 1345,5786 grammes, which, being divided by V, al- —q» 49 %# has really displaced the quantity of water a., ready found to be 98,960036, we have But, in order to know the specific gravity of the solid __1844,6786 _ —13,597190 ae of the body which do not it water, such as- 7=~98,960036 he real fibrous part of sponges, then we must con- which is the weight of a cubic centimetre of mercury sider, that the quantity of ert displaced is not merely in grammes, at the temperature of melting ice. a, but a—P’, and therefore-—— i : it we wish to compare this weight with that of wa- “ chee MONT AH, bn “ee mah ageeitie gree ter, we have only to calculate the last for the tempe- vity, neglecting the necessary reductions. rature of melting ice, or for —3°.42 of the centigrade In order to explain the formule given by M. Biot for thermometer. But if dis the dilatation of water from solid bodies, let us. take its maximum density to its freezing pei or for be Senapeestare at which the solid is weighed. “ 5 1) - d = the volume of the solid body in cubic centimetres 39.42, the weight of water required will be Thy an poh shige: ” the relation between the weights of mercury and water (s) = the absolute weight of a cubic centimetre of its. at the temperature of melting ice willbe x (1+). substance at the temperature of melting ice. But, by substituting —3°42 in the formula of dilata- K = the cubical dilatation of ,the solid for one degree tion, No. 1. we shall have 3=0,0000748. Hence act the centigeadle thermometer. e)= the weight of a cubical centimetre of water at = (1-4+3)=13,6971904-0,001017=18,598207,. the tens erature OFmelting ice, which is the exact ratio between the weights of equal 2? = the dilatation of water from 32° to ¢. ‘ volumes of mercury and water at the temperature of ~ == the ratio of the weight of air to that of water in wielting ice. the circumstances under which the experiment 7 made. , a = the dilatation of any other liquid y in- Prop. XIII. Pros. Sautine stots ee ee ‘ f = ee ae = the weight of a cubical centimetre of another li< _ To determine accurately the specific gravities of so- (=) _ quid a the temperature of melting ice. 1 lid bodies. S = the weight of the solid in air. In determining the specific gravities of solid bodies, oy Se iy fs 5 _ lit tee we may adopt two methods. 1. Wemay weighthem _ Case 1, When the body is weighed successively jn successively in air and in some other fluid, which is ait and water, the ordinary method ;.and then, if P is the apparent . Sir) S’(e)a\. weight of the solid in air,and p the weight of the volume (s)=+K?) hes we) A 5% < » of water which it displaces, we have As for the specific BR mcs tah s ead . s mri ? gravity of the body, neglecting the necessary. reduc- and in air at the same temperature, then (2)=(c) al tions ; or, 2. After having weighed the solid in air, we 4) consequently ® en may place the solid in a glass vessel, and weigh them “~~ ” ; »conjointly, and then weigh the same glass vessel when “ae )G+K 4) (S—S'«) No. 2 filled only with water. If then D is the weight of the (i+d) (S—S’) Sion solid in air, p the weight of the vessel containing the Case 2. When there are three weighings, Ist of the water and the solid, and p’ the weight of the vessel cof- solid body, 2d of the glass in.a vessel filled with a liquid, taining “water alone; "Wien pp’ ie the welgntat the and 3d of the same vessel. containing the solid and the quantity of water displaced, and ;———— will be the liquid ; . m at fap te S(e)_ (P—L) (©) specific gravity required. ; Then (s)=(1+4K n( — 5 ) When the —_If the substance is soluble in water, like many of the 14a 1+ No. 3, body is so- salts, it is necessary to use alcohol, or some other fluid, S—P+L luble in : such as the essential or fat oils, which are not capable water. of dissolving it. The specific gravity of the oil being known, that of the salt will be immediately found, When the _‘_If the solid imbibes water, without either dissolving body im- or decomposing it, it is necessary first to weigh the bibes wa- body when perfectly dry, which weight we may call P, “og and then weigh it when it has imbibed as much water as possible. Let this weight be P’. We must next find how much water the body displaces, which we may call a, then the apparent specific gravity of the body is If the body has been weighed successively in water and in air, then (+)=(e) and a=3, and the formula is reduced to _ (s)= Ol 14+K1)[S—(P—L)z#] (1-+3)(S— P-L) Case 3. When there are only two weighings, Ist of the solid in air, and 2d of ‘the solid in liquid in the same vessel : In this case let M be the weight of the so- lid and liquid, ~K No. 4. | — so. , Sees ! HYDRODYNAMICS. 437 Wye Kp)ts—(P—M4+S - The results obtained with this hydrometer, may be Hydrome ters. (= Ti+ —P+M— No.5. pace to bow h ae of ~s oF Fahrenheit, and ee <. foetiula differs from : p allowance -for the effects of heat, both u li- dues hc Pages age fA ot a iil ind the bydrometer ite The following firmp. TEAzE ia So . la, given by M. Biot, includes these effects. Fig. 1. —- S CHAP. Il. (wal pF DfE 2) Ow Tne Turory axp Construction or AREOMETERS, — fy this formula, aacaiaks aaae in grammes of a on Hypnometers, ror measunine Sreciric Grav cubic centimetre of the liquid subjected to experiment; TIES. a is the dilatation of this liquid from $32 to the tempe- Sect. IV. On the Construction i of different Hydrometers. wien ‘eae a seraleny OF it weight in aire hminiched Zia sams evr, ec, eric, me Be eine ow ah hich are hen very = adem’ to tet > part immersed in the liquid ; (P) is the absolute required i specific gravities = weight of the immersed at 32° of Fahrenheit ; Telees gems, and otlee elds aes —— saci’ che-eubis dilatation of the sabsténce of the eres: : ‘ : i F ! d i ments, we shall first explain the general principles of 2. Clarkes Hyd i ‘ R Ce , ( The hydrometer invented by Mr Clarke, and dea Clarke's 1. Fahrenheit’s Hydrometer. scribed in the Philosophical Transactions by Dr Desa- bydrometer i F i represented ‘4 acy seneud constructed either of ball was made hollow and of copper, and the Z ihcmadeaal eaflieteiah sams B, in ean wire of about jth of an inch thick, was soldered into Eboxry, nected with two hollow ballsC, D. A small quantity of it. Upon the stem a mark is made, to which the in~ upon its stem. Fahrenheit the first of these liquors that differ more than y,th from proof, so as to 3 methods. He made a mark w upon the stem AB, and give the specific gravities of all the mixtures of ap. - - how surface of the light fluid stood at the mark w. The mre Ac gmercaar pe ccm La waer separ | 3. Desagulitrs’ Hydrometer. ment w in a nice pair of scales. ape Fa pe s. : obviously be the weight of the quantity of flaid which = The lao a Anat Nias to stcertalti the Dosage. it displaces. When the instrument was placed in a ‘specific gravities of different kinds of water ; and jn liers’ hy- denser fluid, such as water, he placed weights inthe order to give it a high of sensibility, Dr De~ erometer. small box at A, till the hydrometer sunk to the same Saguliers made the hollow glass ball less than three mark w. By weighing the hydrometer with the inches in diameter, while the stem to which it was at- naditional weights, he the weight of a quanti. tached was a long slender wire, w was ty of the denser fluid which was displaced ; but as the Seen geen Peas of at Inala and whens length was 10 part immersed was the same in both cases, the two Under the great ball is placed a small ball, w which he had obtained were the absolute *bout one inch in diameter, to contain shot for floatin of equal quantities of two fluids, and were, the instrument in a vertical position. Suviver or sok Spears, Ss betes of thels specibo gravitien Thus if water, the hydrometer sinks to a fixed point in W be the weight of the instrament in distilled middle of its stem. If a si grain weight is 7 i te Rawite the t, in order to make the instrument sink to the same Weigh 4000—50=3950 50 grains correspondi Poul Wl leetias baat, tak Bs votnoee: toe ree to half the length of the stem. But Guiantity of watee immersed, then S, s, ing the specific gravities, displaced must w 4000 grains, equal to the whole we have W=S xB, and =-w=:xB. Hence weight of the hydrometer ; consequently the instru. Ww pW" ona Y=” w ment will serve to-compare her the different bulks B= and 4 = gr and by re- of 4000 grains of water; and sinée one tenth of an Sx Wty ' . inch in the scale corresponds to one tenth of « grain, it duction s=-——;——j or since S=1.00 in water; will obviously distinguish the strength of a grain in ads : Sar ee be oe ts dpe denies ge 1" In the ts wat . By altering the quan im the ballast Ww thermometer of Fahrenheit which this h vometer: isay be fitted for Comparing any we have described, the stem AB is made very short, and other two that have nearly the same ific Sgaly. one-third of the length of tube-which he ity. See Dr y Ee a between the balls C and D, Fi places any, Widtieee of Experimental “a asf Hydrome- ters. —— Depar- cieux’s hy- drometer. PLATE CUCXIV. Fig. 2. Jones's hy- clrometer, Fig. 3. 438 HY DRODYNAMICS. ‘ 4. Deparcieux’s Hydrometer, This instrument, which was intended by its author for measuring the specific gravities of different kinds of water, is represented in Plate CCCXIV. Fig. 2. where AB is a glass phial about seven or eight inches long, and two inches in diameter. It is loaded with shot at the bottom to prevent it from overturning, and its lower part is rounded to prevent the air from lodging below. A brass wire AC, about 30 inches long, and +, of an inch in diameter, is fixed in the cork of the phial, which is well varnished to prevent the penetration of the wa- ter. The length of the wire ought to be such, that, when the phial is loaded and immersed in spring: wa- ter at a medium temperature, the whole phial, and about an inch of ‘the wire, should be below the scale, while; when it is plunged in very light river water, the ‘wire should be immersed about 20 inches. To the sum- mit of the wire is fixed a cup C, which contains the small weights with which it may be found necessary to load the instrument in order to make it sink to a fixed point in different kinds of water. A tube of white iron DEFG, about 3 feet long, and 3 inches in diame- ter, is used to hold the water whose specific gravity is to be determined, and there is attached to it’ a scale EH, divided into inches and parts of an inch, for the purpose of measuring the different depths to which the instrument-sinks. This instrument is so sensible, that, if a smal] quantity of spirits of wine, or a pinch of su- gar or salt, are added to the water in the tin tube, the phial will ascend or descend a very sensible quantity, M. Deparcieux made use of ahydrometer which weighed 23 ounces, 2 gros, and 26 grains (French). A weight of 38 grains made it descend: through a height of 19 inches, 6 lines, which was equal to 6,3; lines for every grain, or the y3,,th part of the volume of’ water dis- placed. The results given» in our general- Table. of specific gravities, p. 455, for different waters in France, were obtained by means of this:instrument. See Prony’s Architecture Hydraulique, tom. i. § 614—627. 5. Jones's Hydrometer. This hydrometer, which was invented by Mr’ Wil- liam Jones of Holborn, is constructed so.as to apply the correction which is necessary from a change: of tempes rature. ‘This correction had hitherto been applied only. in a rough manner ; but upon considering that 32 gal< lons of spirits in winter will expand to nearly 33 gal- lons in summer, Mr Jones fixed a thermometer to his instrument, and by adjusting the divisions experimen- tally, he has obtained it pretty correctly, “Mr Jones has also taken into account the diminution: of bulk» which takes place in mixing alcohol and water, which is so great as to produce’a loss of four gallons in the 100. Thus, if to 100 gallonsof spirit of wine, which are 66 gallons in the 100 over proof, 66 gallons of water are added to reduce it to proof spirit; the compound of water and alcohol will consist only. of 162 gallons in« stead of 166, four gallons having beew lost by the mu- tual penetration of the two fluids, MrJones’ hydrometer is represented in PlateCCCXIV. Fig. 3.._ It consists of a stem AC of the-form of a pa« rallelopiped, on the five sides of which the different strength of spirits are marked, One of these sides is shewn in Fig, 3. and the other three’ separately. » This’ stem is fixed to the oval ball CD, which is made of hard brass, and has. its conjugate diameter about one’ and, a half inches. A thermometer DE is attached to the stem DB. below the ball, and the whole length AB of Hydrome the instrament is about 94 inches. Three weights _ ‘™® W, W’, W” are suited to the three sides of the stem : shewn separately. Let us now suppose that the in, Jones's hy. strument is plunged in a spirituous linucr ; then, if it drometer. — floats, so that the surface of the liquor is somewhere be- py.are tween A and C, the division on the side of the stem CCCXIV. . marked 0 (viz. the side of the stem attached.to the in; Fiz: 5 strument) will indicate the strength of the liquor if it is between 74 gallons in the 100, and 47 in the 100 above proof. But if the surface of the fluid stands be- low. the extremity C of the scale, it must be loaded with any of the weights W, W’, W”, till the surface of the liquor rises above C ; then, if the weight W, or No. 1. is required to produce this effect, the side of the stem marked No. 1. will shew the.strength of the spirituous liquor from 46 gallons in the 100 to 13 in the 100 above poet. If the weight No. 2. is required to raise the sur~ ‘ace of the spirits above C, the divisions on the side marked. No. 2. will shew the’ strength from 13 gallons in the 100 above proof to 29 gallons in the 100 under ~ proof; and if the weight No. 3. is required, the divi+ sion on the side marked No. 3. will shew the strength of the spirits from 29 under proof down to water, which is marked W at the bottom of the'scale No.3. The thermometer DE has four scales engraven upon it, marked. No. 1, 2, 3, corresponding with the: similarly numbered scales on the stem. Two of these scales only are seen in the figure:' The zero or 0 of each scale is at the middle of each column, ‘and. corresponds with a temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit ; then whatever num- ber of divisions the mercury in the thermometer stands above the zero, so many in the 100 must the liquor be reckoned weaker the hydrometer indi- cates; and whatever number of divisions the mercury in the thermometer stands below the zero, so many gallons in the 100 must the spirits be reckoned strenger - than the hydrometer indicates; © © . The diminution of bulk occasioned by the mutual etration of the two fluids, is marked by the small res on the different scales of the stem. ‘Thus the figures 24 at 48, $3 at 61, and 4 at 66, indicate, that if the spirit be 48 gallons in the 100 over proof, the bulk of the compound will be 23 gallons less than the sums of the two ingredients, that is, instead. of being 148 it will be 1453. This instrument is adjusted, like other hydrometers, to the temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit, and requires only three different weights to determine the strength of spirituous liquors from alcohol to water. 6. Dicas’s Hydrometer. The hydrometer constructed by Mr Dicas of Liver nicas’s hy- 1, possesses all the advantages of Jones’ hydrometer, drometer. Bat exhibits, with more accuracy, the correction which itis necessary to apply fora change of temperature. It is constructed of metal, with a stem and ball of the or dinary form. It has 36 different weights, which are valued from 0 te 370, including the divisions on the stem; but the chief improvement which distinguishes this hydrometer is its ivory sliding scale, which adjusts it to different temperatures, and indicates the diminu- tion of bulk arising from the mutual penetration of the combined fluids. ; 7. Quin’s Universal Hydrometer. . The object of this hydrometer is to ascertain with Quin’s uni«| the greatest expedition the strength of any — from: versal hy- aloctol to water, the diminution of bulk, and the spe- drometer. cific gravity of each different ‘strength, and) also: the HYDRODYNAMICS. 489 Hydmme- specific i worts. In appearance, low, for ing it i ical position. The total Hydrome. 0 ppaoen iced peat a er, shewn in Saynats tetas the tiliptical tlb is 1 inches in | *t : -—~— ~ B.. The stem has four sides, one of which indi- diameter and 2 inches long, and the square stem is jth : a ; UHHH rele au FF 4 He Lietatldy Serre aE vk 4553 | g Fe ae 5 : 3 Ss, 8. Nicholson's Hydrometer. The hydrometer invented by the late Mr Nicholson, bo ra caret Bred instruments, both ip its ge- construction stem. In order to find the specific of a fluid, im. merse the instrument St ed tink weighs th the dish AB till it sinks to the point m; then, since the ity of fluid di is the same, we shall have W+4-1000: Wot w=S:s; W being the weight instrument, w to make it Atking’ hy- _ This instrument, which is of brass, consists of an el- trometer, Jiptical bulb and stem, with a small loaded bulb be- of an inch wide. One of the faces of the scale is used ters, thus—0, A, B, C, D, &c. Z, 0. respectively 20, 40, 61, and 84 aré placed on the instrument, below the elliptical bulb, as occasion requires. These weights are adjusted in such a manner, that when with one of them, such as No. 2, the instrument emerges to the lower division 0, it will, upon changing the weight for the next heavier one, No. 3, sink exactly to the other division 0, at the of the stem. Hence the stem is virtually extend. to five times its real length, and the number of di- whose division 0-in iquor whose specific gravity is .843, the intermediate specifi vities being Ceased by inter- mediate divisioris on She i No. 1, we obtain all the specific gravities .843 to -880 ; No. 2. gives them from .880 to .918 ; No. 3. from 918 to 958; and No. 4. from .950 to 1.000. When the last weight is used in water, the instrument sinks to the lower 0 at 65° of Fahrenheit. Each of the divisions on the stem will be found to nd to considerably less than an unit in the third place of the ee eorey and to indicate a difference of per cent. or two quarts in a hundred . The correction for temperature is obtained a sli rule, by ar ingenious ication of two scales of parts to each other ; and the diminution of bulk, or penetration as it is called, is obtained by the same rule. The specific gravities, corresponding to the divisions on the stem, are likewise pointed out by the sliding rule. Mr Atkins afterwards made considerable chan, ware, trian eens oe ae, Oe revent = mistake being committed ; ul de eee upon the sliding rule, t opposite to every letter in the series to which it He has also made the form of the t bulb cylindrical, and rounded off at the upper lower sides ; and instead of the i scale, he has engraven the real 7 cific gravities on the stem of the instrument, ‘A fall account of this instrument will be found in Mr Atkins” pam on the elation between the Specific Gravities and the Strength of Spirituous Liquors, dl. 1808 ; and in Nich 's Journal, 8vo, vol. ii. p. 276, and vol. iii. p. 50. 10. Guyton’s Gravimeler. This instrument, which was invented by the late ce- Guyton’s. lebrated chemist M. Guyton Morveau, is made of glass, gravimeter. and carries two basins like the hydrometer of Nichol- son. The bulb is cylindrical, and is connected with the upper basin by a er stem, in the middle of which is the fixed point of immersion. The lower basin, which terminates in a point, contains the ballast, and is Hydrome- ters. er Guyton’s gravimeter. Speer’s hy- drometer. ‘440 attached to the cylinder by two branches. The cylinder is 6.85 inches long, and 0.71 in diameter. The upper basin carries an additional constant weight of 115 grains. To this apparatus, M. Guyton has added another piece, which he calls the Plongeur, or plunger, which is a ball of glass loaded with mercury, till its total weight may be equal to the additional weight of 115:grains, added to the weight of the volume of water displaced by the b plunger.. The plunger is .always placed: in the lovee basin when, it is used ; and it will readily be seen, that the gravimeter will sink-to the same! mark on the. stem whether it is loaded with the constant weight of 115 grains in the upper basin,: or with the plunger in the lower basin. The object of this instrument is to ascertain, Ist, The specific gravities of solids, whose absolute weight is less than 115 grains ; 2d, Of liquids inferior to wa ter in specific gravity ; 3d, Of liquids of greater speci- fic gravity than water ; 4th, The absolute weight of bo- dies below 115 grains; and, 5th, The degree of rare- faction and condensation of water in proportion to its bulk, the purity ofthe water being previously known. In-order to find the specific gravity of any solid by this instrament, place the solid in the upper basin, and add weights till the instrument sink to the fixed point of immersion, Subtract these weights from the con- stant weight of 115 grains, and the remainder is the _absolute weight of the-solid. Multiply this by the spe- cific gravity of the fluid, and reserve the product, place the solid.in the lower basin, and add weights in the up- er basin till the instrument sinks to a fixed peint of immersion.; and subtracting these additional weights from the additional weights when the body was in the upper basin, the remainder will be the loss of weight by immersion. Divide the reserved product by this loss of weight, and the quotient will be the specific gravity of the solid with regard to distilled water at the stan- dard temperature and pressure. In order to find the specific gravity of a fluid, immerse the gravimeter in the fluid, and having-observed the weight which is necessary to sink it to the fixed point of immersion, add this weight to. that of ‘the gravimeter. To the weight required to.sink it in distilled water, add also the weight of the gravimeter. Divide the first sum by the second, and the quotient will be the specific gra- vity of the fluid. See the Annales de Chimie, vol. xxi. p. 3; and Nicholson’s Journal, ato, vol. i, p. 110, 11. Speer’s Hydrometer. ‘This instrument consists of a ball and stem, with a counterpoise underneath. The stem is cut into an oc- tagonal form ; and upon each of the eight faces of the octagon is engraved a scale of per centages, by the in- spection of which the strength of the spirit may. be found. The scale upon each of the faces is suited to the temperatures of 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, 60°, 65°, and 70°. . When the temperature of the spirits is found by the thermometer, their strength must be sought om that face of the ottagon which corresponds with the temper ature. As the temperature is indicated only to eve five degrees, there is .an index which performs the of fice of a weight, for pointing out the effect for inter- mediate temperatures. The precision of a single de- gree of the thermometer may also be obtained by four: small pins, which are inserted in holes in the counter- poise below, where they operate as weights of adjust- ment, and produce the same effect as a variation of tem- perature. For a full account of this hydrometer, see 6 HYDRODYNAMICS. ‘pertory of Arts, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 81. Speer’s Enquiry into the Causes ofthe Errors and Trree Hyar. gularities which take place in ascertaining the Strength of Spirituous Liquors by the Hydrometer. Lond. 1802 ; Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 151; and the Re« 12. Mr Adie’s Statical Hydrometer. This hydrometer, which is one of the neatest and most Adie’s sta. correct instruments that we have seen, was first con- tical hyd structed about the year 1799 by Mr Adie, optical in- @°™ strument maker in Edinburgh. — It is made entirely of o¢oxqy, brass, and consists of a lever AB 103 inches long, restii a upon'a fulcrum C, ‘so that the shorter arm AC is 2 inches, and the longer one CB 8 imches long. At the extremity A of the shorter arm is suspended a brass ball, whose solid content is +2, 0f a gallon. This ball is immersed in the fluid which is held in the cylindri- cal brass jar FG. T'wo moveable weights m, n, slide along each arm of the balance. When the temperature of the spirits is found by the thermometer, the weight m is'set to the corresponding degree upon the thermo- metric scale AC. The weight n is then moved along the other arm CB, till the ball E is in equilibrium in the fluid, which is indicated by the coincidence of the arm CB with the horizontal index 9, fixed to the bar 6. The whole of this instrument is nicely packed into a maho-« gany box 11 inches long and 24 square, which serves asa stand for the balance. 13. Mr Adie’s Sliding Hydrometer. as The sliding hydrometer, invented by Mr Adie, dif+ Adie’s sli. fers from all other hydrometers, in requiring no weights ding hy’ whatever for its adjustment. It is a floating hydrome- ™¢ter- ter, of the usual form; but instead of being adjusted by weights, the volume of the instrument is increased by drawing out a tube, while its weight is: invariable, Ifthe instrument sinks to the fixed point of immersion in distilled water, before the tube is drawn out, it is obvious that in spirituous liquors, it may be made to sink to the same point, merely by drawing out a tube below the principal bulb; for the same effect is thus produced by increasing the volume of the instrument, as if its weight were diminished. 14. Charles's Thermometrical Hydrometer. . This instrument, which, we believe, has been descri« Charles’s bed for the first time by M. Biot in his Tratté de Phy- th sigue, tom. i. p. 414, ras oaamed by M. srg to pepe whom experimental philosophy is under t obli tions. eis called a thermometrical ee ne rea its being employed to measure the densities of water at different temperatures, In order to give a very high degree of sensibility to the instrument, M. Charles Sane the ball very large, and the stem very small; the augmentation of the ball rendering the absolute ef-. fects of the dilatation more considerable, and the small- ness of the stem enabling us to measure these dilata- tiens upon a‘ greater scale. The whole instrument, with the basin for holding the weights, weighed in air. 90.303 grammes, or.90.4209 when reduced toa vacuum. An account of the results obtained with this instrument will be found in M. Biot’s work. ee ’ 15. Charles’s Balance Areometer. Charles’s This hydrometer, which is intended to measure the pbalance ar ometer. . es 1 SEs. 8 doa ié a, ig * § g8.6 {= #8 ; : “ Eze Ele rn ges es Ay TUL Pee a ily i eal 7 ¥ 25s 233 acPattti22§ c=“ S12 E 4° ee es a5 poapede Rik HEE Sita ie Pet an i eee neal ‘er aL Bl HE 43.8 di sleiiiat aGix8 ak =I re at eee Bas. iy ie i s fenaesd 3 8 ie units i id it 7.3 syaie 49% pa ° 3 He z| halide ie GLE ai at ths, GePtti «fe aie plete lun bad, Hi it, baa yut ede He tem Pale bs ari it a —~ alli 2 ans) HEE ae 2 gene HIN H ie ahhe THe eae at aati taliale, Lanett ae i Hip tT ati sil Fe al) aes as tie Lif ia ie ue nel stn Hil | aie 7 SS ties e S35 Te a ea i i a ii ail ae ii sheild | 3% 23 a ane ay jo a if Hydrome- ters, Dr Brews- ter’s capil- lary hydro- “meter. PLATE CCCXIV. Fig. 6. 442 In this manner Mr Hutton has calculated a series of tables for giving the quantity of spirits by inspection. At the top, in the centre, is the specific gravity of the spirits, commencing at 906, and ending with 934, and embracing the different specific gravities at which spi- rits are usually met with in commerce. On the right of the number denoting the specific gravity, and on the same line with it, is the approximate weight of one gal- lon of spirits of that specific gravity, expressed’ in pounds and ounces. The tables consist of two sets of columns ; one contains the number of gallons, and the other their weight: they begin with 30 gallons, being the smallest quantity it is considered necessary to weigh, and increasing by single gallons, they extend to 185 gallons, being the contents of the largest cask used in le. 18. Dr Brewster's Capillary Hydrometer. This instrument is founded upon a principle which was never before employed in hydrometrical measure- ments. It is well known that alcohol is a much more erfect fluid than water, possessing much. less viscidity, in consequence of the small ferce of cohesion which ex- ists between its particles. Hence it follows, that if a vessel containing alcohol is emptied through a capillary tube, so as to discharge the fluid, only. by drops, the drops will be much smaller, and consequently much more numerous, than when the same vessel is filled with water and emptied through the same tube. The capillary hydrometer, which is founded on this princi- ple, is represented in Fig. 6. where ABC is a glass ves- sel three, or four, or five inches long, having a hollow bulb B about half an inch or an inch in diameter, This instrument is filled by suction at the lower end C, and the water is discharged at C till it stands nearly at the point m, the zero of the scale. By removing the finger from the lower end C, the water is discharged by drops, and the number of drops which fall till the fluid de- scends to another fixed point m are accurately counted. This experiment is carefully repeated at different tem~ peratures, so that the number of drops of distilled wa- ter contained in the vessel between the points m and n is known for various temperatures. Hence, if N is the number of drops of water whose specific gravity is S, and n the number of drops of alcohol whose specific gravity is s, and d the number of drops given by any other mixture of alcohol and water, then n—N : S—s= pee ft sual Sana] aad Ay aT 2d geod, seed, n—N n—N will be the specific gravity of the mixture required. The same experiment is made with the purest alcohol, and the number of drops carefully marked. With an instrument of this kind, the number of drops necessary to empty it when filled with water was 724, whereas when it was filled with’ordinary proof spirits, the num- ber of drops amounted to 2117. This experiment, which was performed rudely, for the purpose of obtaining a general idea of the magnitude of the scale, was made nearly at a temperature of 60°. Now as the specific gravity of the spirit was about .920, and that of water 1.000, we have in the present case no less than a scale of 1393 drops for measuring specific gravities between -920 and 1,000; that is, a variation in the fifth figure, or in the fourth place of decimals of the specific gravity, nearly corresponds with a variation of two drops. With another instrument made on a very small scale, the number of drops amounted to 47 with water and ‘and is then allowed to rise and settle at HYDRODYNAMICS: 122 with spirit, whose specific gravity was 928. As this instrument was too large, I was obliged to incline it, in order to prevent the fluid from: issuing in a con- tinued stream. In the first experiment, N=724, n= 2117, S=1.000, s=920. Hence if d=1500, we have (d—N) (S—s) _ 1.000— 776 x 0.080, a= a = .9555. The bulk of a drop of water will be about 2.93 times as large as the bulk of a drop of the spirit used in the first experiment. In the 2d experiment, the drop of wa- ter was 2.6 times greater than the drop of the spirit. See Chapter V. p. 473 of this article. s 19. Sikes’ Hydrometer. - As this hydrometer is now universally used in the sikes’ hy- doms, we shal] drometer. collection of the revenue in both ki lay before our readers a drawing and description of it, although it does not differ much in principle from the ordinary hydrometers. CCCXIV. Fig. 7. : long, which is divided on both: sides into 11 equal parts, each of which is subdivided into 2, the scale being numbered from 0 to 11. This stem is soldered into a brass ball 1.6 inch in diameter, into which is fixed a small conical stem CD, 1.18 inch long, at the end of which is a pear-shaped loaded bulb DE, half an inch in diameter. The whole instrument, which is made of brass, is 6.7 inches long. The instrument is accompa- nied with 8 circular weights, numbered 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and another weight of the form of a pa- rallelopiped. Each of the circular.weights are cut in to their centre, so that they can be d on the coni« cal stem C, and slide down to D; but in co uence of the enlargement of the cone they cannot sli at D, but must be brought up to C for this purpose. The square weight, of the form of a parallelopiped, has a square notch in one of its sides, by which it can be placed upon the Hydrom It is represented in Plate Prate where AB is a flat stem’ 3.4 inches CCCXIV. Fig. 7. summit A of the stem. In using this instrument, it is ~_ immersed in the spirit, and pressed down by the hand to 0, till the whole divided part of the stem be wet. The force of the hand required to sink it will be a guide in selecting the proper weight. Having taken one of the circular weights which is necessary for this purpose, it is slipped on the conical stem at C. The instrument isagain immersed and pressed down as before to 0, any point of the scale, The eye is then brought to the level of the sur face of the spirit, and the part of the stem cut by the surface; as seen from below, is marked. The number ‘thus indicated by the stem is added to the number of the weight employed, and with this sum at the side, ‘and the temperature of the spirits at the top, the “strength P cent. is found in a ‘Table of six quarto s. ‘ The strength is expressed in numbers den the excess or deficiency per cent. of f spirit in any sample ; and the number itself (having its Pian’ <2 removed two places to the left) becomes a factor where- by the gauged content of a cask or vessel of such spiri being multiplied, and the product being added to the uged content if overproof, or deducted from it if un- oer proof, the result will be the actual: quantity of proof spirit contained in such cask or vessel.” The instrument is also accompanied with three slid- ing rules made of boxwood, which may be used instead of the Table. « The officers of excise are directed to estimate the temperature by the nearest degree above -* =i be a HYDRODYNAMICS. H the surface of the mercury, when it stands between any Prate Fig» 5, 9. of the thermometer, and the indication (or the nearest division below the its level cuts ‘the stem of the hydrometer between one division and another, thus i i of the trader in both cases. The square weight or cap shews the difference Sees See of poet ae ane eee ee ever, 2 described in the first clause of the hydrometer act, and being one-twelfth part weight of the hy- drometer and weight 60. If this wei eel on the top of the stem at A, and if the hy is loaded with weight No. ¥ S it will Pry a nes ter at the temperature of 51° to the point P, at that temperature, as marked on the narrow edge of the stem.” two 20. On the Hydrostatic Balance. Although the hydrostatic balance can scarcely be called a hydrometer, yet as it is employed for measu- ring gravities when great accuracy is required, we shall give a description of it in this place. The hy ic balance, of which we have given a front and a side view in Figs. 8. and 9, of Plate CCCXIV, is no- . thing more. than a good balance, with some additional far enabling it to measure specific gravities into a stand or base CD. By string P pe, Fig. 9, attached toa screw S, - rr on mee cyiyt ld : i | r rie fet HE ul t z f tf g> : M i : - 443 in the water in the vessel X, it will become half'a grain lighter, and for every inch that it rises out of the water it will become half a grain heavier ; consequently sinks -if it sinks 2 inches below its middle point 2, or rises two inches above it, the wire will become one grain lighter or heavier. Let the middle point 2, therefore, be brought to the surface of the water, and the index NO set to the middle of the scale K f, and let the distances OK, OF be each divided into 100 parts, then if it is required to weigh bodies to the accuracy of the 100th part of a grain, it may be done in the following manner. Let the body to be weighed be placed in the scale c, and let its weight be between 52 and 53 grains as determi- ned by the weights in the opposite scale, then if we move the balance gently up and down by the screw S, till the tongue of the balance ¢/ indicates a perfect equilibriam, the distance of the index NO from &, as measured upon the scale, will indicate the number of hundredth parts of a grain which the real weight of the bady is above 52, or below 53, according as either of these weights is placed in the sealed. If 52 be the weight in the scale d, then since the weight of the body in scale c exceeds 52, the oulen ai te, and the balance being let down until the equilibrium is restored by the loss of weight sustained by the immer- sed wite £/, the index NO will rise as it were from the middle of Kk Hence if it points to 12 divisions above the middle of K &, the weight of the tiody will be 52.12% grains. Had the weight 53 been placed in the scale, it would have been necessary to raise the balance, so that the scale c might acquire an equilibrium with 58 grains, by an addition to the weight of the wire k/ in ence of its ascent from the water. In this case, the index NO would have pointed to division 88 below the middle point of the scale, and the weight of Hae body would have been 53.00-=0.88 = 52.12 ‘as ‘ore. - d The weight of the body in air being’ thus obtained sili Soha tieneet eccuracy, # to vext to bo tn ed to the hook g by means of the horse hair, weighed when immersed in the water in the jar Y, The differ. ence between these two weights, when have been corrected by cag methods roger? described,* will lead to an accurate determination of the specific ity of the . The wire £/ should always be oiled, and the oil wiped off, so that a thin film may adhere to it, in or- der to prevent the adhesion of the water. Sect. IL. On the Table of Specific Gravilies. The determination of the specific gravities of bodies On the lower of the wire moves another tube W, is of the use, not only in many of the sciences, carrying an NO, which can be moved either ho- but also in most of the practical arts of life, Hence it tally by turning round the tube, or vertically by has been the object of philosophers to determine, with pushing it up or down ; so that the index MN can be all the accuracy in their power, the specific gravities of made to to. any division on the seale K‘, A the various solid and fluid substances which occur in weight £ is suspended to the wire K 4, to which is fixed nature. The following Table, which we have collected the wire £4, (of such a size that one inch of it will with great labour from the tables of Brisson and other En ee en 1 about sources, contains the most im t specific gravities Emons ' pata. are c-ey ape isin that have been determined. All the measures are related reer met emer it to the wire dg. to that of water, whose speciffc gravity is 1.000, except- peers oe wires is such, thatthe ball /, and ting the gases or aériform bodies, whose specific gravi- the Ay about the middle of the cylindrical ties are determined in relation to that of atmospheric vessels X, Y, in eee mn be- air, which is taken at yf dep: parm afranged _Since brass is nearly eight times heavier in an alphabetical order for the sake of more easy refe- water, it is evident, that for every inch that the wire4/ rence. . ‘ 7” ® See Prop. Xil..and XIIL p. 484, 435, Hydrome- ters. —_—o HYDRODYNAMICS. Table of Specific Gravities. 444, A c Specific peer inspissated juice of, . . ravities. Acid, nitri 4 ‘ ° itric nitric, highly concentrated, eve muriatic, . : 3 red acetous, a : 2 F white acetous, . . “ . distilled acetous, acetic, . > - . é sulphuric, 2 su : highly concentrated, . fluoric, 5 a phosphoric, liquid, . solid, dents citric, - 3 arsenic, : . : of oranges, fe whiz . of gooseberries, : ‘ of grapes, . ° . prince, . ° boracic, in écales, é 3 do. melted, . E ° molybdic, : ° . benzoic, ° ° . . formic, 4 < ‘ : Actinolite, glassy, . . Adularia, See Felspar. Agalmatolite, ° : . A gate, oriental, ‘ g 3 onyx, ‘ ‘ é speckled, ° 3 F udy, stained, of Havre, * F ; 29.85 Thermom. 54°.5 Alabaster of Valencia, ; 3 veined, s ; of Piedmont, — F 3 of Malta, : if yellow, . : Spanish saline, ‘ t oriental white, 3 ditto, semi-transparent, . stained brown, . oO a, pink, . 7 of Dake . ; ‘ Alcohol, absolute, M . highly rectified, . commercial, 3 15 parts, Water i part . 14 ‘ 1.5153 1.2715 1.583 0.00122 Apophyllite, See Fish Eye Stone. Specifie Alcohol 13 parts, Water 3 parts 3 0.8815 12 Ae bn's ‘ 0.8947. Gravities, 11 5 ; , 0.9075. —Y—"_ 10 iG . ° 0.9199 9 7 i : 0.9317 8 8: ’ ° 0.9427. 7 9 - é 0.9519 6 10 ° ‘ 0.9594 5 lL x 0.9674 4: 12 2 0.9783 8 13 ‘ ‘ 0.9791 2 Te -. © 0.9852 1 15 . ‘ 0.9919 Alder-wood, ‘ + Muschenbroek. 0.8000 Allanite, A ° « Bournon. sae Thomson. 3.533 Jardine. 3.665 Aloes, hepatic, 4 a y j ; 1.3586 socotrine, sey é 5 4 1.3795 Alouchi, an odoriferous gum, 1.0604 Aieniies sulphate of, - . _Muschenbroek. 1.7140 saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Watson. 1.033 Amber, yellow transparent, 9... 1.0780 opaque, . : 1.0855. red, > . . 5 ‘ 1.083% green, : . . . 1.0829 Ambergris, 2 ; . a soean Amethyst, common. See Rock ade 0k B50 Amianthus, long, + 0.9088 penetrated with water, 1.5662 short, Z i 2.8134 penetrated with water, =» 3.8803 4 Asnianthinite from. Raschau, 2 f «2.584 Bayreuth, ‘ +. 2.916 Ammonia, liquid, - 00) yen aE reno BORO muriate of, . Muschenbroek. 1.4530 saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Watson. 1.072 Amphibole. See Hornblende basaltic Amphigene. See Leucite. Analcime, < " . “ - os Andalusite, or hardspar § « Haiiy. 3.165 Anhydrite, or Muriacite, ¢ ; 2.95 Anime, oriental, F : ‘ 1.0284 occidental, 3 P 1.0426 Anthophyllite, ° . . . 3.20... Antimony, glass of, — . : : - 4.9464 in a metallic state, fused, — native, ‘ . Klaproth. 6.720 grey, . . . . 4.3 sulphur of, + 4.0648 ore, grey and foliated, | Kirwan. 4.368 radiated, Kirwan, 4.440 red, . La Metherie. 3.750 Klaproth.. 4.090 Apatite. See Phosphorite. Aplome ‘ 3.45 HYDRODYNAMICS. 445 Apple-tree, wood of the, Muschentrock. 0.7930 Basaltes, from the Giant's Causeway, 2.864 CRNA pe rade ge ae 1.0857 DP Eeaeaee ne eu a's anos ‘Areca, inspissated juice of, . |... 1.4573 Baras, & juice of the pine, 1.0441 Arctizite, or Wernerite, Dandrada. 3.606 i Muschenbroek. ae . 0.5956 Beer, red, 3.0038 Haiiy, 2.946 Hy . 1 0231 Thenard and Biot. 2.9267 , 1.0924 Malus. 2.94686 Beryl, oriental, 5.5491 Arsenic bloom, Pharmacolite, 2.640 . stp fused, e e 8.310 native, ° 3 eee 5.670 or aquamarine, Werner { 759 La Metherie. 5.600 schorlous, or shorlite. See Pycnite. oR Brisson. oe Bezoar oriental, . - © + wos bye arsenic shops), - 2 ' occidental, * . » Ss or Mispickel, a «65 Bismuth, native, Kirwan. 9.570 ery sulphuretted, Kirwan. 6.131 Kirman, $3200 ochre, Brisson, 4.371 “° ane. in a metallic state, fused, . {9.799 Asbestos, mountain cork, Bergman. 0.9933 Seakag 3 _ Brisson. 9.070 penetrated with § 1.2492 Bitumen of Judea, * « ~ 1104 water, 1.3492 pitch coal, =. Wiedemann. — ripe, teh : 2.008 slate coal, English, . Kirwan. ‘10 "penetrated with water, 3.0808 Bidichowits, Rite 1,382 unripe, a t, é — cannel coal, La Metherie. 1.270 penetrated water, . 0343 4.044 ney . Muschenbrock. 0.8450 Blende, yellow, Gellert, (se * ; . Turia. 0.800 . 3.770 4 brown, foliated, . Gellert. 1.450 : 4.048 Asphaltum, cohesive, , 2.060 black, ©. Gellert. ~ 3.930 Sdiepaat, 1.070 Brisson. 4.166 a f 1.165 auriferous from Nagyag, e 1.8275 Van Muller; 5.898 Aventurine, semitransparent, . - 2.6667 Blood, human, . é Jurin, 1.054 opaque, . 2.6426 crassamentum of, . Jurin. 1.126 Augite, or Pyroxene, : Hiuy. 3.226 serum of . Jurin. 1,030 Werner. yi Blood Stone. See Heliotrope. safe Automalite, Gahnite, or Fahlunite, . #200 Boles, . Kirwan. {i000 y . ‘ Bone of an ox, P 1.656 Girard. “3.250 ” saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Wal 1010 - . i A 42°, Watson. 1.010 Azure stone, or lapis lazuli, . Brisson. 2.7675 Bournonite, . > % 2 or” BITE 2: Kirwan. 2.896 Boxwood, French, F Muschenbroek. 0.9120 oriental, «6 , - 774 Duteh, ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.3280 of Siberia, . 2.9454 dry, ‘ Jurin, 1.030 B ryray hore meg Her Barolite, or Witherite. See Baryles, Carbonate of. cast, not hammered, ? Brisson. 8.895 Batyies, or Barcsclenite, _—_ Brazil wood, red, Muschenbrock. 1.0310 ° . 4.865 Bronzite, 3.20 white, » . . . 44300 Brick, 2.000 7 . . . 4.4909 Butter, . . 0.9423 Fromboidal, é - 44434 Cc rape 2 - « 4712 Cacao butter, : ° ‘ 0.8916 in Sah ee 42984 Cachibou, gum, : P — sulphate of, native, Kirwan. 41 465 ” La Metherie, 4.100 Malus. 448141 Calcareous spar. See Spar. carbonate 4.300 1.700 GC meG, {ise Calculi urinary, , pie y {240 ‘ e Py ° Kirwan. 2.979 1.454 Bergman. 3.000 Campeachy wood, or logwood, Muschenbroek, 0.9130 Specific Gravities. — 446 HYDRODYNAMICS" Camphor,* : } 0.9887 Cacoawood, . + « Muschénbroek, 10403 Cobtichéac, elastic gum, or India rubber 0.9335 Coceolite, ; . ; ‘ Dandrada. 3.316 Caragna, resin of the Mexican tree panes 1.1244 Columbium, ‘ Haichet.. 5.918 Carbon of compact earth, . ‘ 1.3292 Copal,opaque,. . .. 4 = Z 1.1398 Carnelian, stalactite, ; 2 2.5977 transparent, : : 4 1.0452 speckled : 2.6137 Mipdniraccat,.) wie ie, eee 1.0600 veined, 4 b 3 2.6234 Chinese, . . ies onyx - a 4 2.6227 ‘ i ls s phe . . 2.6301 Copper. native, oi ge - Kirwan. pect pointed, . ‘ F 2.6120 © from Siberia, 3 Hauy, 8.5084 arborized, "3 2. a Hungary, oe 7.728 ore, compact vitreous, irwan, 4.129 Cat’s eye, - M M Klaproth. i. 2.635 pan ‘ : Kineoust SAS8 grey, ; . 2.5675 purple, from Bannat, Kirwan. 4.956 yellow, 2 3 r 2.6573 from Lorraine, La Metherie. 4.300 blackish, ; pr 3.2593 Kirwan. 4.983 Catchew, juice of an Indian tree, 1.3980 Wiedemann, 5.467 Caustic ammoniac, solution of, or fluid volatile glance, : J 3 : | 5.6 alkali, 3 r 0.897 © pyrites, : : Kirwan. 4.080 Cedar tree, American, | "Muschenbroek. 0.5608 ; Brisson. 4,844 wild, 3 ‘ ‘ Raseheniroe 0. pve ore, white, ° La Metherie. 4.500 Palestine, 5 Z Muschenbroek. 0. 4.865 Indian, ; 4 ~ Muschenbroek.. ‘1.3150 grey, : : Hauy. hs Celestine. See tec ae sulphate of. yellow, : ‘. $ 4.3 Cerite, . : < . 4.500 | 3.2 ss * 3.765 blue, r 34 Ceylanite, or Pleonaste, =. MY 13.793 foliated, florid, red, Wiedemann. 3.950 Chabasie, 7 S 2.718 azure, radiated, Wiedemann. 3.231 Chaleedony, bluish, : 2.5867 Brisson. 3.608 onyx, + < . 2.6151 emerald, .. La Metherie. 2.850 vemed, . : - _«» 26059 Hauy. 3.300 transparent, E ¢ 2.6640 muriate of, s A ~ 44 reddish, 4 5 ; : pti * berate . 2.549 ; 2. arseniate of, ~ octahedr; « 2.88 > common, ° fs Kirwan. 2.655 ian “ 4.2 Chalk, : ¥ ‘ Muschenbroek. 2.252 prismatic, ed nt. Watson. 2.657 partial arseniate, : 34 Chiastolite. See Macle. sulphate of, saturated solution of tags Cherry-tree, A . Muschenbroek. 0.7150 _. temp. 42°, 3 Watson. 1.150 Chrysaberyl. See Cymophane. : drawn into wire, = - . 8.878 Chrysolite of the jewellers, .. . Brisson. 2.782 5 : 2 1188 of Brasil, t 3 a of oo Hatchet. 8.895 340 Copper sand, muriate : etherie, 3.750 Werner. 9 3.410 = ai Herrgen, 4.431 . e 2.489 ! ° ots * Muschenbroek. 0.2400 Chrysoprase,'a variety of Chalcedony, - 359 CorundumofIndia, . . Klaproth. 3.710 Chrystal. See Rock Crystal. es Bournon. 3.875 Chirystalline Jens, f : “é 1.100 ‘of China, + . + 8981 Cimolite, .. 2.0 Cross stone. See Harmotome. Cinnabar, dark red, Sodiin. Deux-Ponts, Kirwan. 7.786 Cryolite, a 2 Karsten. 2.957 , from Almaden, Brisson. 6.902 Cube iron ore, é * Bournon. 3.000 crystallized, Brisson. 10.218 spar, : Hauy. 2.964 hepatic, ~ ates mena 7 | Cubizite. See Analcime. Cinnamon, volatile oil of, . . 4 1.044 Cyanite, Sappare, or Disthene, Saussure, jun. 3.517 Cinnamon-stone, rs ‘ § 2.6 Hermann. 3.622 Citron-tree, ry Muschenbroek. 0:7263 Cyder, ok - tie 1.0181 Clinkstone, . ‘ ° Klaproth. oni Cymophane, or Kirke - Werner, on Cloves, volatile oil of, ‘ ¢ * 1.036 ‘ : - Hauy. 3.796 Cobalt, in a metallic state, fused, : Ue Cypress wood, Spanish, ‘ Muschenbrock. 0.6440 one, gréy, . -« Hauy. pn . Deaaibe, i Ts mere -* ‘2 * 4 Dipyre, - . ar" . . . Kirwan. 5.309 ORS, ais i 2.84 . 2019 — . mare te. _earthy, black, indurated, Gellert. 13428 Diamond, oriental, i ial . 8.5212 vitreous oxide of, : é - 24405 rose-coloured,. . - $.5310 ®'M. en fiz Wat When smngon van deprinidcsnadis whicy anand to it, oy flatag i walle thi YosttOP of sa alt-peanp, wes heavier than water deprived of its air by the same air-pump. See Memoires presentée a U’Institut.'tom. . p. 125, Paris, 1805, HYDRODYNAMICS. 447 orange-coloured, . . 3.5500 Gahnite. See Automalite. é - 3.5238 Galbanum, e . - - 1.2120 . « $5254 Galena. See Lead glance. ; . «+ «4 9% $4444 Galipot, a juice of the pine, . 1.0819 : . ? $.5185 . : . 1.2220 Hawy. 3565 Garnet, precious, of Bohemia, Klaproth pee Werner. 4.230 S 2.800 | Kastner. 4.352 emt 1.2045 volcanic, ° ~" - 2.468 from § 0.716 24 faces. : 0.745 of Syria, : 4.000 . 0.9088 in dodecahedral crystals, + 4.0637 - 0.7296 common, . Werner, 3.576 - 0.8664 rial Kastner. $.688 Muschenbroek. 1.2090 Gas, * or common air, : 1.000 Muschenbroek: 1.3310 : ee nen Patient 3.3888 Muschenbroek. 0.6950 nitrous acid gas, calculated, Gey Lussac. 8.176 1.0182 Sir H. Davy. 2427 Muschenbroek. 0.6710 — * vapour of sulphuret of carbon, 2.683 Mee teagehaarete Gay Lussac. 2.5860 Werner, 2.600 calculated, Gay Lussac. 8.6195 Hauy. 2.723 hydriodic ether, Gay Lussac. 5.4749 3.1555 oil of turpentine, Gay Lussae. 5.0130 Gahn and Berzelius. 2.701 ee jay Lussac. 4.4430 uosilicic acid , Davy: 3.5737 3.0625 chlorine, - Lussac and Thenard. 2.470 1.1244 euchlorine, - - Sir H. Davy. 2.409 A y Lussac. 2.3144 fluoboracic gas, — ° J. Davy: 2.3709 . 0.9252 perpen ont ether. Thenard. 2.219 ° 0.9342 cyanic vapour, Lussae, 2.111 E - 0.9235 sulphurous acid, . Sir 2.193 ‘ 0.9368 e Gay Lussac and Thenard. 2.120+ Hany. 2438 vapour of alcohol, : 21 .” Bireve. ro absolute alcohol, Gay Lussac. Lats » . . 806 B. 2.607 nitrous oxide, or prolixite of azote, 2.704 a 1.614 2.518 at 1.5204 “ee * eae carbonicacid, .. .. Saussure, 1,518 Borkowski. 2563 — Allan and Pepys, 1.524 . om 2.614 : ; Biot and Arago. 1.51961 . 0.6000 eee Muschenbrock. 0.5500 Sir H. Davy. 1.278 . . _Muschenbroek. 0.4980 Biot and Arago, 1.2474 Ichthyophthalmite, or Apopby!~ sulphuretted hydrogen, Gay Lussac F 2.5782 and Thenard. 1.1912 Hei. 2.467 Sir H. Davy. 1.777 2.594 oxygen, mean, : - 1.10 ‘ . 2.6057 Saussure. 1.114 . 2.5867 Kirwan and Lavoisier, 1.103 5 - 2.664% Biot and Arago. 1.0359 « + 2.6588 Allan and Pepys, 1.127 . 2.6087 nitrous gas, or deutoxide of azote, . 2.2431 Berard. 1,0388 . 2.6122 Sir H. Davy. 1.09% , 2.5648 olefiant gas, Theodore, Saussure, 0.97804 : 2.582 Biot and Arago. 0.96913 carbonic oxide; . Cruickshank. 0.9569 ; anic , Lussac. 0.9476 2.94 Dhoepiaretted Sir . 0.870 00 mre 8 oy = 4.20 Gay Lussac. 0.62349 are taken from Biot's Trraité de tom. i. p. 383; from Luseac's Table 85 and from Thomson's danals of voli 118 weston Gay Specific Gravities. —_——_ 448 HYDRODYNAMICS. Gas, ammoniacal Sir H. Davy. 0.590 Granite, radiated, of Dauj ? ip 2.6678 Biot and Arago. —_ 0.59669 red of Semur, bhiny j 2.6384 carburetted hydrogen, Thomson. 0.555 grey of Bretagne, ‘ $ 2.7378 . Sir H. Davy. 0.491 yellowish, 4 9! 7 2.6186 Cruickshant, 0.678 of Carinthia, blue, ‘i Kirwan. 2.9564 Dalton. 0.600 Granitelle, x $463 3.0626 arsenical hydrogen, T: rommsdorf, 0.529 of Dauphiny, . r 2.8465 Dalton. Graphic ore. , Muller. 5.723 phosphuretted hydrogen, Haiiy. 0.852 Graphite. See Plumbogo. ir H. Davy. 0.435 Grenatite. See Stauratide. . hydrogen, : Thomson. 0.073 Gum Arabic, é . 1.4523 : Sir H. Davy. 0.074 tragacanth, . ¢ . 1.3161 y Dict and drago. 0.072098 : seraphic, : ; A a: 1.201 Gehlenite, Z ¥ Fuchs. 2.78 cherry tree. béye Mens his 1.4817 Girasol, 4 Brisson, 4.000 Bassora, .. ™~ >. wees 1.4346 Glarice-coal, slaty, r . Metherie, 1.300 Acajou, . i pal gitar is 1! 1.4456 Klaproth. 1.530 Monbain, ‘ <5 ereitd 1.4206 Glass, crown of St Louis, Couslion: Biot. 2.487 Gutte, mt. FA S © pepe deb flint of M. Dartigues § Cauchoix, Biot. 3.20 ‘ammoniac, . ; e ‘ 1.2071 ; _ ¢3.192 Gayae, . taker ~ flint used by Mr Tully for his achromatic } 3.334 liquid, from Botany Bay Thomson, _ 1.196 telescopes, . Z - )3.854 lac, - - ' 7.4390 3.437 anime, Eastern : ; y 1.0284 white flint, b 3.00 Western > : - 1.0426 crown, P . 2.520. Gunpowder in a loose heap, om : 0.836 common plate, . > ° 2.760 shaken, . . 0.932 yellow plate, : . : 2.520 solid, J . : 1.745 white or French crystal, , + 2.8922 Gypsum, opaque, , 2.1679 St Gobins, . . SM 2.4882 compact, specimen in the Leskean col- gall m5) : ° 2.8548 lection, F 4 2.939 ttle, . ‘J ° . 2.73825 1.872 Leith crystal, 2 4 ; 3.189 eater seas YS ee ae 2.288 green, ‘ 3 s . 2.6423 impure, . 2.473 borax, 4 ° . 2.6070 . foliated, mixed with, ‘granular lime- fluid, : « z 5 : 3.329 stone, = _ -% + _ Kirwan, 2.725 of Bohemia, js - - . - 2.3959 semitransparent, .. .. “ 2.3062 ef Cherbourg, oly sulosdse\. 2.5596 fine ditto. ‘ : oa, 2QT4 of St Cloud, ; é ‘ i « 8.2549 opaque, ~ .° “ 2 2.2642 animal, ’ é © 10,0 . 2.5647 rhomboidal, - é oh le 2.3114 mineral, % 2.2694 ditto, 10 faces, . % 2.3117 tears, or Rupert's drops ‘of flint glass cuniform, crystallised, »_» 23060 Glauberite, . a 59272700 striated of ses ‘ 7B - 2.8057 17.00 ‘of China, é * ° 2.3088 Gold, native, . : ? 19.00 flowered, ; ; ; 2.3059 pure, of 24 carats, pom sei but not sparry opaque 2 . F 2.2746 hammered, § 3 Haiiy. 19.2587 semitransparent, 3.3108 the same hammered, : 19.342. Gypsum, qraninny foliated, in the Leskean English standard, 22 carats, fine, fue collection, Kirnan. 2.900 sed, but not hammered, : 18,888 mixed with marl, of a slaty form, 2.473 guinea of George II... ° 17.150 H inea of George III. m 17.629 Harmotome, or Cross Stone, | . 3 Parisian standard 22 carats, not ham. Hazel, : : Muschenbrock, 06 mered, ° : 17.486 | Hauyne, or Latialite, . 3.20 oe same hammered, ‘ : 17.589 | Heavyspar. See Barytes, sulphate of, SSR d — ee : Me Vote Heliotrope, or Blood Stone, Kirwan. god trinket standard, 20 carats, not ham- 'Blumenbach, 2.633 mered, >. i 15.709 Hematites. See Ironstone. ~ the same hammered, : 5 15.775 Hollow spar, Chiastolite, “Sear » ~ 2.944 Portuguese coin, 17.9664 Hone, razor, white, _ ‘ «+ 2.8763 Serecscncet? 212 carats fused, 17.4022 penetrated with water, 2.8839 , coined, 17.6474 razor, white ~ back, is : 8.1271 i Ereneby in the reign ‘of Louis XII. eos Honey, ° ; ‘ i ¢ oa ranite, re tian, : A . 2.6541 aiiy. $1.5 grey 5 Fxyptan, a * 2.7819 iaeeemone, oF Melt, Abich. 1665 utiful r : ‘ ¢ a7 . 3. of f Girard, P i : 2.7163 Hornblende, common, _. % Kiresat, 13.830 violet of Gyrom , 2 2.6852 cay ieee OOO red of A ath E e 2.6431 resplendent, Labrador, Kirwan. 3.434 green, —— . . 2.6836 Schiller spar, Kirwan, 2.882 BI RPOTR eS 449 a . , 2.909 © Spa fsrmeate of, feos the Ucalian eemtaine, Specific “basaltic ss | Reus. F3'90 ipa of . nines v.87 | Sek Tick dk Macioareds. os hea , 2.530 not i Hornstone, or petrosilex, 2.653 5 7.600 tow : 2 r {ess forged into bars, . 7.788 os aa : ; < QTST pyrites, Hatchet. 4.830 grey, . 2.654 from ba tet Gellert. 4,682 | Fisckish rm, Ape erie . 2.744 Cornw: Kirwan. 4,789 | : - par een tl sae 2688 radiated, Hatchet. > g775 greenish white, with reddish: spots, magnetic, : Hauy, 4,518 Ieebet, bapeeks ni eaeietie sand, magnetic sand, from Vi 4.600 ish, grey inside 2.813 - r ease. 7.800 Hyalite, tae Kirwan. 2.110 moguaties iA 4.200 "4 Klaproth. — ore > Kirwan. 5.139 See Wavellite. B 4.939 Ht See Hornblende, Labrador. - ore specular, | 3 no ’ . - 1.5263 > 4.7 'ypocist, micaceous, ° Kirwan. 5.070 be I Ironstone, red, ochry, igi cay po Jade, ephrite, white, 2.9592 s . irwan, 3, oa x . . . pp Siberia, Kérwan, 3.760 ca . . 9829 . 3.573 from the East Indies, Kirwan. —_ Lancashire, eno 3.863 10 compact, brow Bayreuth, Jasmin, |. Muschenbroek*\ 0.7700 cubic, Brians. {ear7 Jasper, . y é Ps red hematites, ‘ Kirwan. . 5.005 RRR art Res yellow, ao 2.7101 Gellert. 3.789 ma . 2.7640 Moessicreat yy 74 * . * * 2, : Senly, aaa 2.7354 sperrycat calegaeoes, | Kirwsn. {3810 ae ° . e ae Brisson. 3.672 deep sen, Er eo 2.6258 decomposed, ae 8.600 < green, *. . . black, com pact, iedemann.. 4.07 te ae eee 2.6719 clay reddle, . Brisson. 3.139 S Sieve “Aan T N60 clay, lenticular Kirwen. 2.673 onyx, - ots é ¥ x ‘ 2.673 Rewered, 20] ed whibnwn Lo 6898 clay, common, from Cathina at Ras« red and Aer. 2.7500 7 Kirwan, 2.936 - \ green and yellow, . Fe from Rescommon in ; ' pert + Le =— : eet oe ieee SATL win ©. *. 2.5690 5 ue “Sealand, § Baer Asser Lan eA Tee .- . . . 2.6608 . , reniform iron ore, iedemann. 2. Idocrase. Vesuvian, cla rm «Al “S207 Jenite, « . a 3.80 - Bree gs (Cenc mas} 6,723 bituminous substance, . . pn leerine, o aahaentedoe: from the [ser in Vy) . . . . . . 7690. : Bohemia, . . . . “* 400 “penetrated with water, 1.0095 Juniper eek i Muschenbroek, 0.5560 i “4 by Teen brows the hedera terrestris, . ; . « . 1 Iridium, ore of, discovered by Mr Tennant, Kouites K wre Wollaston. 19.500 Keffekil, or Meerschaum, 1.6000 meteoric, . - » 6.48 Kinkina, . 0.7840 450 | ileal 0 ana ifi L Linden, wood, . ‘ Muschenbroek, 0.604. Speci Ceettien Labdanum, resin, | . a. Nast 1.1862 Lithomarge, 250 S&S in lorlis,.% 6+ | hat pg Logos, or Campeachy 1 wood, Muschenbroek. 0.9130 hriti : ; TA enostiion 7 ee aaa ste M judaicus, as = 4 2.500 Mazcle, : ee ext? € 2.9444 manatis, - : aero Madder root, : Musehenbroek. hes ticus, : fos 2.666 Mah Ls Bet Bee Azure stone. ' Magienin’’ Salphaie of, ‘saturated solation, Legere A 2.20 temp. 42°, ‘ Watson. 1.282 Lard; . 0.9478 native, hydrate of, : f 2.330 Latialite. See Hauyne. Magnesite, or carbonate of magnesia, +. 2,200 Lazulite, See Azure stone. a new species, from Baumgarten Lead glance, or galena, common, Gellert. re ime See Fron Haussmann. 2.95 from Derbyshire, Watson. 4 7796 Mibenige “! © >) Brisson. 9.572 ; 6.886 com ¢ Brisson. 3.641 ae es Gellert. 9 7 444 olizs "Muschenbrock. 5.994 . ; 4.319 Manganese, ==. - . - man, 6.850 _ Kirwan > 5'o59 ge ielm. '7.000 cli "La Methoris "6.500 “grey ore of, striated, Brisson. } {758 ra | igs 8 r 14. from the Hartz, Kirwan. 7.448 : Rinmann. 4.181 Kautenbach Vauquelin. 6.140 ey, foliated, P Hagen. 3.742 ’ q gr Py ‘ Kirschwalder, fre ae red.from Kapnick, - Kirwan. « bio : ore, cormeous, ~. °. nevix. ‘ey, § 20000 isa reniform, . . Bindheim. 3.920 black, : : Dolomieu 3.0000 of black lead, ‘ 3 6.745 Brisson. 3.7076 - blue, : sie) 4 Gellert. 5,461 penetrated with water, 8.9039 brown, a " + fmt peti he rm ; . EYE > 4 = from Huguelgoet, = Se sulphuret o: ¥ ‘ f atiy. 6.909 white : . . . 2.8 . black, Gellert. 5.770 phosphate of Geass te 2.6 white, from Leadhills, Cheneviz. 7.236 Maple wood, §. Muschenbroek. 0.7550 Haiiy. 6.559 Marble Carrara, ~ Brisson. 2.716 sg phosphorated, from Mid ams ? ee bie «hat 2 : a . § iproth. a iscayan, . anaes ce me Zschoppau, Klaproth. 6.270 Brocatelle, . . eet ren Brisgaw, i Haiiy. 6.941 Castilian,. . .- pt 3 : red, or red lead spar, a aie Valencian, ; hte, : : “ i visson. 6. ‘Grena' white, - ee ; . ao molybdenated, > 5.092 Siennian, ; ota sat ‘ » np Lead, 4 Fischer, Wollaston. 11.352 Roman vio! on ¢ a “755 Gellert. 11.445 African, fi eng af yen 3 ' 5,00 Italian, violet, $ = ¥ ‘ J arseniate of, 6.40 Norwe “ 2 : t 2.728 6.00 Sei pemeye : 4 2.728 ‘carbonatepf *<. : : 7.20 French, -. . . 2.649 muriate of, : 6.00 Switzerland, P . = 2.714 sulphate of, Fs 6.3 Siler of lower 3 ‘. - 2.668 chromate of, rad 6.00 ow of Florence, 1 93 2.516 -acetate.of, 3 ' Muschenbroek. 2.3953 Mastic, = ; e 1.0742 vitriol, from Anglesea, Klaproth. 6.300 tree, »/ emaltay ‘Muschenbroek. 0.8490 Lemon tree, 3 : Muschenbroek. 0.7033 Medlar‘tree, ¢ Muschenbroek. 0.9440 Lenticular ore (arseniate of copper) Bournon. 2.882 Meerschaum. See Kessel Lepidolite, lilalite, * : Klaproth. Pie esc bell Hy ets sh rise ay. 2. elanite, or garn ‘ en. 3. Leucolite. See Dipyre. . ; dine) wont Gas Werner. - 3.800 é Leucite, or Amphigene, Klaproth. 49°49 Menachanite, oat '. Lampadius. 4.270 Lignum vite, : . Muschenbroek, 1.3330. Gregor. sane Limestone, compact, ate iss oe Mercurial hepatic ore, compact, © Kirwan. 7.352 ° ek: 2.710 | ‘ ‘Gellert. 7.937 a ie 4 7 12.837 | Moana at 320 of heat, « » Sigil era ta 2.700 at60° yuo, Je se 1eueO" granular, * 28007 97 i at:2120)\\0''\, ‘ 13.375 ( BRED les 3.182 | at 3°42, centigrade, "Fischers '18.58597 """*_" arenaceous 4 * m 2,742 ina solid state, 40" below 0 Fuhr. muy white fluor, See Calcareous spar, ' Biddle, 15.612 | | } ; ew > 452 HYDRODYNAMICS. “Specific ‘Petrosilex. See Hornstone. Potassium \at+15° centigrade,. Lussae,ii Specific -Gravities. _Pharmacolite, or arseniate of lime, —_. 2.6 : Gays Thenard, Neer Gre —Y—" Phosphorite, or Spargel stone, whitish, from: P, 2.80 Spain, before absorbing water, . . 2.8249 Sotstone, 8 . " ; 3.00 after ih a bor . ‘! tg Prasium, : ‘ . yf nish, from . 4 3. Prehnite of the Ca , » .) Haiiys 2. ae beers y 3.218 Pe ; Bisson 2.9423 ‘Phosphorus, - F ; p 1.714 of F Haiiy, 2.610 Pierre de vols ey ; ; 2.320 Proof spirit, according to the English excise Pinite, Kirwan. 2.980 . ws, - 0.916- . Pitch ore, or sulphuretted. uranitey: ae , 6.378 nate stone, Ae 0.9145 » 6.530 > Pyenite, or shorlous beryl, : Haity 8.5145 Klaproth. 7.500 jena See’ Ni and Iron. Pitch-stone, black, 5 * Brisson. 2.0499 ; f SP ee 3.7185 yellow, . « Brisson. 2.0860 . Werners: 3.941 red, ° - Brisson. 2.6695 . - Pyrophysalite, A , 3.450 brick red, from: Misnia, Kirwan. 2.720 ene. See Augite. : : leek green, inclining:to olive, Kirwan. 2.298 Q arl » «+ Kirwan, 1.970 Quartz crystallized, brown, red, +. se, 2.6468 fackihe sd ‘ Brisson. 2.3191 - ; brea, a - 2.6404 olive, . > Brisson. 2.3145 crystallized, . 3 ; 2.6546 . dark green, - Brisson. 2.3149 milky, ei Beets : +!) 2652 Pitchy, i iron ore, - 3 3.956 elastic, ‘3 é Gerhards. 3.750. Plasma, us P 3 2.04 Kirwan. © 2:6240 ‘Platina, . : : Klaproth. 20.722 Quicksilvers See Mercury.. drawn into wire, . : 21.0417 Quince tree; oa, F Muschenbroek. 0.7050 aw of, sent by» Admiral Gravina to ugar sa 2 5 5 20.663 } Rime” Ji poitt a bar of, sent by the king:of»Spain to URealgar,:or-redorpiment. we Bergmany: 3.225' the king of Poland, Z "1 20.722 i Brisson: 31388: in grains gona by: a nitrous (17.500 Resin, or Guiacum,d1 . : oo 1.2289 acid, % rey of jalap, “ “ 12185 7 Rock crystal, from M: scar, P A 2.6530 mative, rah a ‘ * 117.200 aa brown, aden Karsten. 2.605 fused, , . 14.626 snow white from Marmerosch, Karsten., 2.888, purified and forg ys SVN at 20.836 ©» © erystal, European, pure; gelatinous, “2.6548 milled and purified, as Zao 120.98)» ong. 2.63717 compressed or a flatting mill; » 2 22.069 of Brasil, sted: » 2,6526 Pleonaste. See Ronee iridescent, a 2.6497 Plum tree, : Mauschenbroek..-.0.7850 barging seo 5 26701 ia 1.987 ellow Bohemian, 2 2.6542 Plumbago, or graphite, . Hrevean. 2.267 blue, 5 F 2.5818 Pomegranate tree, ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.3540 violet, or amethyst, ; 2.6535 Poplar wood, |. . Muschenbroek. 0.3830 violet purple, or’ Carthaginian” ; joleitio Spanishy:. ene 0.5294 ' amethyst, 2.6570 Porcelain from China, . 2.3847 eae pale: violet;.white:amethst; oy) 26518 . Seves, hard, A vr 2.1457 _ brown, ; J 4 2.6534 ; tender, . 2664 _oiexecblack, fs: fs 3 2.6536 Saxony; modern;: \ . ~ 24982 Roucou, Pi : i é 0.5956 Pamoges, “1. Ww. + Qa penetrated with watery: 1.1450 of, Vierina; - ont 9295191 — = ea ‘ F 42833 ay called Petite Janne, toca BPSD 4 yazilian, or occidental,. 8.5811 Fn < aed 3 A ae, ele ‘ a = 3 Vy - 3:7600 ; yry, green, : ‘ AMAT ‘26 ‘ oth. 3.5700 ae red, bI ‘27661 25» dallas ‘ ne 3.6458 red of Dauphiny, ¢ - 2.7983 Rutile. .See-Zitanite, Haiiy. 4.102 red ire big ; 2.7542 » La Metherie. 4:246- - om ditto, =... tt B78%B copie eet $.1 harnblende, or orphites;) » . | 2.9722 Rutiite yr Sphene, ; 8.5 pitch-stone, < IP ren il ma . . : . 2. 5 va IG Sono! Gable 6. es ay sand-stone, 7 2.564 Sal gem, , “ Potash, carbonate of, ; z * 1.4594 Salt-of vitriol, muriate of, uschenbroek: 1/8866 ~ sedative of 12 _ tartrite of, ‘sides, Muschenbrock. 1.9000 .~ polychrest, ~ . antimonial, 2:2460 de Prunelle, - . sulphate of, ‘ o2 2:2980 ~~ volatile of hartshorn, HYDRODYNAMECS. 453 wy pe oe) 90920 © Silver, sooty, - \ a4 & in. ~ 5,592 \ Muschenbroek 1.0410 native, common, ~ dae. 10.000 Muschenbroek: 0.8090 ° , Selb. 10.333 Muschenbroek. 1.1280 antimonial, | _ 9.4406 1.2008 10.000 ‘ ’ auriferous, Kirwan. 10.600 ‘ 4 3.991 ~~ oreydark'red; .Gelllert. 5.684 : » onan’ sors . ; Brisson, » seen oriental, é r ve. 1S arseniated, ferruginous, | | Brazilian, or occidental, ‘ 3.1307 penetrated wa- | Haig. 4.283 ore, corneous, or horn ore, Hatchet.” § 4.000 Brisson. 4.7488 - Greville, ] 4.088 Gellert. — 4.804 . 3 1.2684 12 deniers, fine, not - Brisson: 2.6025 . 10.474 Brisson. 2.6060 12 deniers, , 10.510 Brisson. 2.6215 Paris standard, 11 de- Brisson. 2.5951 niers, 10 grains, Brisson. 2.5949 fused, > - (10,175 Brisson. 2.5988 : ‘hammered, . 10.876 Muschenbroek. aan shilling of George Tt tpg 3.260 eT ; : 10.586 1.2354 French money, 10 deniers, ‘21 grains, . tL 1.2743 fused, in ania 10.048 3.6800 French money, deniers, 21 grains, “ Dandrada.. 3.7000 ; coined, * 4 = " r os black; hexahedral, 3636 ron ray 671 . 3. common, . . 2.6718 . > os = or schistus, common, ‘iinitiieed : 2.6718 3.3852 water, + 2.6905 ancient basaltes, — whet, or novaculite; . Kirwan hn é $.2956 Isabella, yellow, ©. Kirwan. 2.955 3.4529 stone, «y. 3 2.1861 . Brisson. , 8.092 fresh polished, . 2.7664 Gerhard. 3,150 adhesive, J Klaproth, 2.080 Telian, * 1 . 2.4295 siliceous, — * s . Kirwan, l penvinsed wih wine; 59799 gp te aati meats Eos black and olive, . glass of cobalt, . < : 2440 grained, ‘Eons se a0. - * 9997 Soda, sulphate »Muschenbrock. 2.2 kted lack and. whitey 2.8767 etn iere wa black and grey, 2.2645 ture 42°, "WWkteon, 1.198 red and 2.6885 tartrite of, saturated'solution of, Watson. 1.114 from 2.6849 ; — Sf. 2.1430 esaut eaten: 2.7097 saturated solution of, tempe- f , 2.9339 rature’42°, Watson. 2.054 Dauphiny, . oa 2.9883 Sodalite, ; . . Thomson 2.378 aloe? sn, te eee . ae 2.6424 ‘Sommite. See Nepheline ti 7 . ya Spar, brown. See Sidero-Calcite. . . i 9! 2.837 red ditto, cere glance, Brisson. 6.910 a 2.7045 La 7.200 ditto, P 2.6925 Gellert. 7.208 green and white ditto, ‘ 3.1051 . » &8 transparent ditto, 2.5644 Brisson. 5.56% adamantine. See Corundum. - 3.873 Brisson. 5.5886 schiller. See Horn-blende Labrador Specific Gravilies. ———/ ASS Spar, fluor, red, or false rub $ 8.1911 oa it Ss BS ar RISE woe BT yellow, or false topaz, ; 3.0967 green, or false emerald, ; 3.1817 octahedral, ; - 8.1838 blue, or false sapphire, : 8.1688 greenish blue, or false aquamarine, 3.1820 J rinet, or false amethyst, 8.1757 violet le, y . . 3.1857 Engin - 5 3.1796 ‘ of Auvergne, — * : 3.0943 in stalactites, 3.1668 pearl, or bitter, (carb. of lime and mee nesia,) 2.8378 calcareous rhomboidal, ‘ 2.7151 in tubes, e 2.71409 | of France, - 9.7146 prismatic, 2.7182 and pyramidal, 2.7115 pyramidal, 2.7141 ‘(puant gris, ) ° - 2.7121 peat noir, ) a * + 2.6207 or flos ferri, . a 2.6747 Spargel stone. See Phot Spermaceti, 2 *s -- 0.9483 Spinelle. See Ruby. Sphene. See Rutilite. Spirit of wine. See Alcohol. Spodumene, or triphane, fn - Hauy. - 3.1923 Dandra 3.218 Stalactite transparent, : . « 2.3239 apagu, . + 2.4783 penetrated with water, - 2.5462 . Stanrotid! staurolite, or grenatite, Hay, 3.286 Steatites of Bareight, ‘ 2.6149 poe with water, 2.6657 indurated, 2.5834 . penetrated with ebtets., _, 2.6322 Steel; ° , ~ Muschenbrock. 7.767 soft, 2 - Ae 7.8331. ‘hammered, s < ‘ - 7.8404 hardened in water, 7.8163 hammered, and then hardened i in water, 1h Stilbite, : 2.50 St John’s wort, inspissated j juice of, y « 1.5263 Strontian, sulphate of, . |. Hauy. {ei carbonate a a Hauy. wee am sand, paving, - . : + 2.4158 grinding, . ° 2.1429 cutlers, 2.1113 Fountainbleau, glittering, - 2.5616 crystallized, 2.6111 scythe of Auvergne, mean grained, 2.5638 fine grained, ‘2.6090 coarse © grained, 2.5686 Lorraine, é 2.5298 Liege, - . ? 2.6356 mill, ‘ " > » 24835 Bristol, + mE a ; / - « 2510 Burford; “ : r 2.049 Portland, - £ : : 2.496 rag, : é é : ‘ 2.470 rotten, : - . q 1.981 St Cloud, 5 * ‘ : ‘ 2.201 St Maur, . . . ‘ 2 2.084 Notre Dame, : * 4 2,378 HYDRODYNAMICS. Stone, Clicard from Brachet, : oo 6 8887 Pi of Chatillon, os erage Spr é 6.343 Sylvan, native, ° Jacquin, oe 4.107 Mu 5.723 Klaproth. 6.115 ore, yellow, +... Muller. 10.678 gra Jacquin, jun. 6.157 Muller. 8.919 Syringa, 5 Muschenbroek. 1.0989 ‘ . T Tacamahaca, resin, , 3 F 2 o.° 1.0468 . 2.8534 io cy = fe 8729 Talc, black crayon, cont She ies > 2.080 ditto German, a en 2.246 yellow, ne ‘ 2.655 white, . 2.704 of mi * rs 5 = 2.7917 black, . . . 2.9004: earthy, “ 2.6325. slaty, . Gahn and Berzelius. ves 18 ; 700 common Venetian, . é 2.800 indurated, F " 2.90 Tallow, 'o is . 0.9419 Tantalite, . ; Eleberg. 7.953, Tantalium metal, 2 Berzelius. 5.61 in large masses, Gahn and Berzelius. 6.291 in small pieces, *t ey, 6.208 Tartar, P. Muschenbroek. 1.8490 Telesie, See Sapphire. ; Terra Japonica, ° apa at bk mee 1.8980 Tellurium, native, 3 i 4 ed ‘aphie, fe ‘ Ps tt Solow ‘ é 10.6 black, P ‘ « 8.9 Thumerstone. See Azinite. toott Tin, pure, from Cornwall, fused, Watson. 5 a / fused and hammered, 7.291 of Malacea, fused ‘ 7.296 fused and. hammered, > 7.306 of Gallicia, ‘ 3 Gellert. 7.063 - of Ehrenfriedensdorf in Sener Soren i ites, ° * ol ‘ Shi La Maheris. 4. stone, . : . . Gellert. aes ; Res 6.750 black, Brisson. 6.901 HYDRODYNAMICS. Tin stone, red, Suge « _» Brisson. 6.9848 = 5.845 ee ey Rupr {6.70 fibrous, . * . erner. 7.000 ~ edt woe Brunich. 5.800 * - Blumenbach. 6.450 new, fused, + . . 7.3013 fused and hammered, é 7.3115 fe; fused, . wi nye - | 74789 . fused and hammered, wi fg 7.5194 called Claire-etoffe, ; $4869 ore, Commish, « * Brunich.. 5.800 from Fahlun, Gahn and Berselius, 6.55 Ww. .* * . * 6.008 Titanite, Rutilite,orSphene, . Haiiy. 4.102 Zz oriental, 4.0106 ‘opaz, ori ¢ b “ 1 oriental pistachio,’ 9 4.0615 2 blue, ° Hauy. 3.5489 > . Hany. 9.5311 Tourmaline, ~ Brisson. 3.086 © — y = Hauy, 3.362 ‘ Werner. 3.155 Tungsten, * ‘ e Leysser. 4.355 pa st an " 5 8.235 Tope, pt of ; F wae —_ by the blue eabx of ro fie ‘ Desormes and Clement. 2.360 ie ienionilin tate * Klaproth. aseo a ° See Pitch ore. Uranitic indurated, La Metherie. 3.150 om wel Hi Uranium, Pass ; ; 5 mr i ar 2 - / 1.026 =o Henry. + o40 Vermailie; skkind of oriental ruby, . y walt et memes pyths ’ 420 Saki’ RTI liked, aso Vinegar, red, t ‘ Muschenbroek. 1.0251 a white, $ y ‘< Fy Vitriol, Dantaic, =. . L715 455 Walnut-tree of France, Muschenbroek.. 0.6710 Water distilled at 32° of Fahr. Fac ear 1.0000 sea, . 4 “ 1.0263 of Dead sea, d 1.2403 wells, 3 : 1.0017 © of ot 1.000387 . -of the Seine filtered, 1.00015 of: Spa, sais >> « ' 1.0009 of Armeil, 2 4 5 1.00046 Avray, . , ‘ 1.00043 < Seltzery . - : Reuse : avellite, hydrargillite, Davy. .7000 - Wax, heed argh ee 5 : ~~» 0.9648 . white, “ $ ’ 0.9686 . Whey. } 1.019. , cows, : . i Willow, : Muschenbrock. 0.5850 Witherite. See Barolite. t Wine of Torrins, red, 3 ‘ 0.9930 white, } pes Pakaret, 0.9997 Malmsey Madeira, 1.0382 Burgundy, 0.9915 Jurancon, ° 0.9982 eae "4.0891 Constance, , : 1.0819. Con Persie + 3 lL, Port; eo) ee 0997 Wolfram, rs - ‘Gmelin... 5.705 Leonherdi. 7,000- Hatchet. 6.955 Hany. 7.333 Wolf's eye (name of a mineral) mr wie: Woodstone, ~ a 2.675 Yenite. See Jenite. Yew tree, Dutch, Muschenbroek. . 0.7880 Spanish, é Muschenbrock. 0.8070 Yttrotantalite, Ekeberg. 5.130,» Yttrocerite, Gahan and Berzelius. 3447 Zeolite from Edelfors, red, scintillant, 2.4868 white scintillant, . 2.0739 Perv gy 2.1344. See Chabasie. rege 2.515 Zine, compressed, : 7.1908 tn its usual state, oe 6.862 formed by sublimation and full of cavi- ties, - Kirwan. 5.918 - sulphate of, a ere 1.9000 , Watson, 1 “See solution of, temp. 386 Zircon, or Jargon, Klaproth. 4.615 Karsten. 4.666 Wiedemann. 4.700 4.3858 ; Bow, dane 3. 7 - Klaproth. 131 Pyuidlidtis umand 456 CHAP. IV. HY DRODYNAMICS:. | mogeneous ‘sphere, or in a homogeneous cylinderyfloat-: Eqi phrgathot , me ing with its,axis horizontal.» : Stan * On THE Equinisrium om ke Seager”, or Froatine 5 Ph solid floats permanently on a fluid surface, and § Bodies. i if it is moved from its. position of equilibrium by We have already seen, (Chap. II. Prop. I. p.429;) that when a'body is in equilibrium in a fluid, its weight is always equal to that of the fluid displaced; and that the centre of gravity of the floating: body» when ho- any external*force, the resistance which the solid op- poses to’this inclination is called the stability of floating ; and the horizontal line round which it moves, iis eall< ed the azis of motion. my eous, must be.situated in the same vertical line ‘It would be impossible in a work like this, to:enter with ‘the centre of gravity of the part submersed, or at great length into a subject so difficult and profound of the fluid displaced, Prop. II. p..430... From the pdllisipicccert . We shall, therefore, content ourselves equality between the weight of the. body and that of the displaced flaid, the upward. pressure of the fluid is exactly capable of balancing .the downward tendency ofthe body ; but unless these two forces are directly opposed to each other by passing through: the same polats the solid body wil have a Ber gacagraroc in- stead of'a position of perfect equilibrium. In order, therefore, to determine the positions»in which a: body will float permanently on the surface of afluid, weshave ' only, after the specific gravity of the body has been as- certained, to discover in what’ positions the:solid can be placed, in order that the centre of gravity of the solid and of the part immersed may be in the same vertical line. The solid, however, will not ‘float: permanently in every case, when these centres of gravity are situated with stating the general principles relative’to the stabi« lity of floating’ bodies, and with investigating the differ- ‘ ent positions ofistability and instability which they as« sume; and in doing this shall freely: avail:ourselves of the labours of Mr Atwood, whose papers:on the:stability of floating bodies are remarkable fortheir.perspicuity.. Tn arranging, abridging, and sometimes simplifying his demonstrations, we trust we shall .do an important: ser=. vice to the reader. . ; *dPaor, Ei To determine the stability of bodies floating on a fluid at.any angle of inclination from a given position of equilibrium. in the same vertical line; for there. are examples, in which the body cannot remain in this position of equi- librium, ~but will actually, assume another, in which Let-EDHF be a vertical section through the centre prars of gravity-G, ofa homogeneous solid, -whose figure is CCCXY. symmetrical with regard to the axis of motion, and let it Fig. 1. Definition. it will’ continue to float permanently. Mr Atwood has illustrated this by the case of a cylinder, whose specific gravity is to that of the fluid on’ which it floats as 3 to/4, and whose axis is to the diameter of its base as 2 to 1.. When the .cylinder which we suppose to be 2 feet long, and its base 1 foot in diameter, is held in the fluid, with its axis in a vertical line, it will sink toia depth of 13 feet ; but as soon as it ceases to be supported, .it instantly oversets, and remains float- ing with its axis horizontal. -If the cylinder, instead of being 2 feet long is only 6 inches, or one-half the dia-, meter of its base, it will sink to the depth of 3ths of its diameter, or 43 inches, and will float permanently in that position. In this last case, if the axis of the cylin- der is not exactly inva vertical line, but:a)little,inclined to it, the cylinder will still settle permanently with its axis in.a vertical line. Hence it is obvious, that there are different kinds of equilibrium. lst, The hibited ‘in the short cylinder 6 inches long; which floats rmanently in a given position. 2d, The equilibrium of instability, orthat which is ex- hibited'in the cylinder 2 feet long, which-oversets, al- though the centre of gravity. of the ‘solid, sand ‘that’ of the part immersed, are in the same-vertical line. In this case, the:equilibrium «is:as: perfect ‘as: im:the first case ;|.for while the centres of gravity are inthe same vertical line,»the solid must continue. erect:;“but the slightest deviation. of:the:centresiof ity from: that line creates a rotatory motion, from which the*solid ne- cessarily oversets. . 8d, Thevequilibrium of indifference, or the insensible equilibrium ‘in'which the solid floats indifferent to mo- tion, and without any tendency to recover its position when inclined from it, or to incline itself farther. The equilibrium of. indifference takes place, when,the:pro- to 1, This kind of equilibrium is exhibited in a ho- equilibrium of stability, or that which is ex-. float on the surface HABL of the fluid, O being the centre of gravity of the part»immersed. The line GOC will-therefore be perpendicular to AB. -If-by an- external force the solid is inclined through an angle KGS, the solid will take the position IRLMN, and the part immersed will now be WRMNP. Hence, as the patt XW1I is raised out of the water, and the corre- sponding and) equal | on XNP immersed, the centre of gravity which would otherwise have béemat:E: (taken so\that GO = GE) will now be ‘transferred: to:some. other point Q. Having drawn QS parallel to GO, and EY and ZGz icular to SQ, it'is obviox upward pressure of the fluid will be exerted in:theli Qs, swith a force equal to the weight of the body, or that of the fluid displaced, and this force will have the same tendency to turn:the body round its axis of mo-=: tion, as if it were applied at the:point Z, “Incdetermin~: ing, therefore, the position whichsbodies;assume.on.a: fluid surface, and the stability--with which; they float, it is necessary-only to find the perpendicular distances. GZ between the two vertical lines which pass through the centre of gravity of the solid and the part icuiguinhs J Since ‘the weight of the body continues the same, the portion IXW, elevated from the fluid in consequence of'the inclination, must always be equal to the portion PXNwhich is immersed. Hence, supposing a to be the centre of gravity of IXW, and f that of NXP, then the centre of gravity Q will be at a creceen from E, corres sponding to the change produced, by:removing the fluid 1WX.to thesposition NXP. In order to determine, by -a geometrical ‘construction, the line GZ, let fall the: ndiculars,ab, fc, and in the line EY drawn parle to AB, take ET, ‘so that ET:dc = volume WX volume WRMP. Through T draw FTS paral- lel to.GO, then:the-centre of gravity required will/be somewhere in’ FS, and because ER: EG = . svad..the line GO= EG being supposed given, the portion between the axis of the cylinder and the dia~ meter. of its base is greater than I to 2, and less than 2° line ER will be determined, and bei taken from ET already found, will leave RT or GZ the: perpendicular distance required. : ard its place, the AY DRODYNAMLICS. when one badly of a tothe motion of the is |] d thi a sndilain bin poved.an bom imadenen toXP, whose ity is f, we shall have volume WRMP or of one body, the moti ey spebbl se ar one . motion centre the Calling, therefore, alla the part of the floating body im- ag & = sine of the angle of inclination KGS, AEM ache iyrtvingthgicdbnnes Then, by the proposition b: ET=V:A, and ET = A But ER: EG or GO = s: 1, we have ER = hay consequently, RT=ET —ER, or GZ = oe ay 4 hs. If the floating solid should be of an irregular form, the same demonstration will hold good ; but we must, 4 : fa ie IF z E FF i sured ‘general, VOL. XI. PART I. the whole volume immersed 457 external force to revolve round its axis of motion, and Equilibrie through different positions of equilibrium, the Fiona of arnt instability out alternate, Le no position of either species can follow a position of the In determin ii In ining, therefore, the position which a solid will assume-after it has been overset from any situa- tion of instable ibrium, we must ascertain the of inclination which the solid must re- volve, so that the. distance GZ may become evanes- cent, and we must also determine whether any position of equilibrium originally given is stable or instable. This iy bpd be done from the value of GZ already given; if we take an int ¢ in the line ER, and Shrough t draw qf parallel to GO, then it is obvious, 1. That while 5* = ET is greater than he = vity ER, the part Z and the line of cm will be between the axis and the parts of id immersed in consequence of the inclination, which gives a stable 2. That while Sp = ET is les. than his = ER; the and the line of su z will be on the paste il of the ai, and wll give am inable eu ium. Hence we can always determine, from the va- lue of GZ, what is the kind of equilibrium Body will float when the angle of in- clination, and consequently its sine, are assumed to be evanescent. Paor., III. To find an cmmreusion Ser the stability or instability of when ee eee gure and dimensions with respect to its axis of motion. us su in Fig. dara pols these planes; now, since the sine s of , and since WXP=IXW, angle [XW, the t X will AB, and the points P, B, N will be co- incident. Hence, the evanescent area NXP= aE xe 2 AB'XS, and if we represent by = a line drawn the middle of the solid, on a level with the axis, the pendicular distance of the centre of gravity of this evanescent solid from the point X is 22. In order to find the distance from X of the centre of gravity of by the inclination, or the common centre of gravity of the elementary solids ——— corresponding to the length =, we must multiply each elementary solid the distance of its centre of gravity fear tor tented Wns X, and divide the sum of these products by the sum of the solids. Hence, in the pres sent case, since the distance from X of the centre of gravity of the elementary solid is “°, the product Su um. and Stability of Floating . Bodies. 1. that another section of the PLate to ADHB, and very. near cccxv. of the solid will be comprehend. Vig. 1. 458 — arising from multiplying the distance by the solid it- um @ By : ABS xsd SPloutiag self will be ee » and the sum of the products Bodies. corresponding to the whole line 2 will be fluent of —y— AB xsdz vm in part immersed by inclination, and also of the part ele- vated by inclination, the distance of the centre of gra- vity, of the immersed part or c X, also of the part ele- AB® x sd vated, orb X, will be fluent of —z,"—*, and the dis tance between the twe centres of gravity in the line 5 bc will be twice this quantity, or fluent of AE aes, Substituting this value for 4 in the general equation, ; AB® x sdz hy we have GZ = fluent of ae hs, which is and since A represents the volume of the the general expression required. Application | Now it follows, 1. That if the first member of this e- of the for- : a AB3 xsdz . mula to the quation, viz. fluent of ——-_-—, is greater than the case of uni- * : 12V formity of ‘second hs, the line of support QZ will be between figure. the axis of motion and the part immersed by inclination, and the solid will float permanently ; and, 2. That if the first member is less than the second, the line of sup- port qz will be on the contrary side of the axis, and the body will overset. Hence it is obvious, that be- tween these limits, we must have the equilibrium of in- AB3 xsdz difference which takes place when fluent of aw tA. If the solid has anuniform figure and dimensions, then putting D for the area of any of the sections immer- sed under the fluid, the solid contents cf the volume immersed will be Dz, hence V=Dz; and since AB is now a constant quantity, we have fluent of AD * POM ds E 12Dz _ ABs xsz_ AB xs AB3 xs ~J2Dz-— 12D’ 12D —hs. consequently GZ = Prov. IV. Pros. To determine the limits of stability and instability in a parallelopiped depending on the dimensions and specific gravity of the solid. Case of a floating pa- In applying the preceding expressions to a parallelo- rallelopiped piped, let EF DC be its vertical section, with its flat with one of Surface EF upwards, and IK the surface of the fluid. its flat sur- Through its centre of gravity G draw SGL parallel to faces ups CE, and let us take awards, * BCH PLate = @=CD . ek n= specific gravity of the solid, or n:1 = SN:SL. Then if O be the centre of gravity of the part immer- sed, and since 2: 1 = SN: SL, or CL, we have SN= ac; GO= $ —_ =~, and ABCD=aecn. Substituting these values in the general expression already found, we have GZ = pa ea l2acn quilibrium ‘is one of indifference, when the first mem- ber of the expression is equal to the second, or when as sXe—ne iWacn— 2 ; and since the e-« » we have, by the resolution of HYDRODYNAMICS. s P quilibri this quadratic equation, n?—n=— ce and a% Pepi. : ioe Got" Bodics. Cor. 1. From this proposition, we may infer, that ° 2 whenever ia is less than 1, or when the height c of the solid has a greater proportion to the base than that of ./ 2 to ./3, two values may be assigned to the specific gravity of the solid, which will cause it to float in the equilibrium of indifference. If, for example, c=a, we have n=}--/i_—1, which gives n= 4 + 0.28868 = 0.78868 n = 4} — 0.28868 = 0.21132. Cor. 2. If the specific gravity of the solid is very 3 small compared with that of the fluid, the term sce ‘ n naj pe nonnady and the solid arith float permanently with the line EF parallel to the horizon. Cor. 3. If the specific gravity of the solid is ineréa- sed beyond .21132, then, since this is the limit at which it ceases to float with stability, if it is placed ‘with its flat surface upward, its equilibrium will be instable, ‘and it will therefore assume a position of permanent equilibrium. By increasing the specific gravity from 21132 to .78868, the instability increases at first, and must be greater than . . 1 2 slat bin reaches its maximum when z= 6? it then diminish- es and vanishes at the second limit when mn = .78868. When n is between .78868 and 1. the body will float permanently with its flat surface EF horizontal. The maximum of instability is found by putting the least 3 increment of the quantity i aa —— x > =0, ‘considering n as variable, and making a=c. Cor. 4. If the height SL of the parallelopiped is in a less proportion to its base CD than that of /2 to 4/3, there is no value of x at which the stability will vanish ; for in this case the quantity Vi- 45 become im- possible. The solid will therefore always float perma nently with its surface EF horizontal. Pror. V. To determine the limits of stability and instability of a square parallelopiped when one of its diagonals is in a vertical position. : Let EDCF be a vertical section of the parallelopi- . ped floating on the surface AB of the fluid, and let G, oe as formerly, be the centre of gravity of the solid O, Fig. 3, _ that of the part immersed, and 7 the specific gravity of ‘ the solid. Then if DC=a, we shall have GC => er Me But since HB=HC, we have ABC=HB?; and since ABC: DEFC = :1, we have ABC = a*n, HB*= Lan ¢ an, HO =axi/y 3 AB=2a/n3 oC=—_— a 2a/ nH -aX3—V/8n- Tr VQ) 8. Pigeons and GO= HYDRODYNAMICS. 459 If we now apply the general expression GZ = By, inserting these. values in: the general formula Fqiiliv . ~- ae - of = ree to the present case, we shall obtain GZ= iD —A s, we have ABS=8 a3 X Imai ; D = Stability of : D Woarmea M1 —_———_—_— ow n Floating ax 3—V5n Bodies. 7 _ nese fools ot 5 : AB=8a)n¥; Data; ha and conse- a*n, and since GO=d we obtain GZ=55 XI — Sy = ie - ~ > U ee Saints axS—W8n @X3—3n—V 15 x l—at 4-2 KX 1—nd oh — -- . In order, —"*. This value of WE tae Sexe -™ Siaxe Aatrans therefore; to obtnin the limit between the tabilty nd GZ. being put =0 to obtain the lit, and the whol instability of Coating, we must make \™%* — hy, as being multiplied by >"* 2 we:shall have J. Ae Rake *? | in Prop. 1V: we tasking 8a° nt _@x $—V8n we 2M 2 XVI—aaES-SV EF XVI GEV TX Vin 4 — an lS v¥2x3 o Vimar and 1—n= 9 andn=25, the limit shall have ¢ Vn Fac 8 ee, the repeien. ' > x ‘or. Hence from this, and the preceding proposi- specific gravity at which the equilibrium of indifference ,: ae a acs: Share nae . ae tions, we have the four limiting values of the specific w the slid wit Moat with stabiy and instability, St2¥ities, via. L—o/]—3 5 yes $4 and 4444/3, o pernnst; for the first tera of the value of necessarily be less than the secon i. er than . Cor. 2. Uf m = 1 = 9 = 92 the solid will float with the bas one 1 equilibrium of in tifferense; and therofore if n:1inaless ‘8 less than .281, it lowly TO the ‘solid will overset ; but Ta ee Sort Pemenentls wi siete 7 that limit, then the zolid will float perma- UPWard; but if the specific gravity .718, it will Side Sin wees Kee ¥ _ Overset when placed in the uid with an angle upward, : : af F i A ; y F b c F i =. F i : : ‘| ! e me 3 I : i I i Es ef if ¥ he the centre of gravity of the area AEB, the of the centre of GH x area = area ABDC FA xO ap ; : 7 AEB x HP, or a x V2—/i—n =a x OH — 5 ef a fi ul d 4 ¥< : ; oe Be n taking and Xf=} Xn, fil triangles PXZ, and QX AR Oe peice 4 5, ie Mbon, Ho Nae AR, Jn ae ¢ applying the general equation GZ=\" —/- te the Hot XS VIB x VTS +o x V 2x mat case, we have QXR=A ; ZHVR or ACDB=V ; TTT Vie c=b; OG=/f; sine of UGO=s. Makes the Subtracting from this expression the value of HG = oe cau ange UGO. Then fom the aaa 4x V8 Visa = eV io x Vis ig Slax, and VU oe KGa" ten ita an : ‘ — id at fa? oe 3 —— > Pe | Vis x m Qna Fi Xa) at ee yipe, Now, since er GO 2X 3— ie V18 ¢ ep ee Toat BNO: Xnsssin, m XR; Rn, we have": x“ ix * Eb 2, ¥ W138 XR Vv4+4 = sin. » XR: sin. XR x, consequently iy 460 HYDRODYNAMICS. 1 Sin. n RX x ¢ peed ts fi _ The preceding proposition is applicable only tothe case Equi sin. RXR = Wea” and subétituting in place of where ie fate of the water intersects the parallel sides + i YH, WV. In order to obtain the angle of inclination from * sin. n RX its value ——-—, we obtain sin. n XR= 2 position of equilibrium, with the flat surface horizon- ‘3 Vite tal, and the specific gravity of the solid, when the fluid ——— t ET cok a Sh 24-4? surface passes through one non porad vs <— base, let PLaTE aX Vi ae OF Saas, === AECD, Fig. 6, be a vertical section of the square pa- ©. Vibe KV St 7440 x VIC Jallelopiped, and let the water line TK pass through D. Fig, 6. 2 Th tting CD=a, and ‘=tangent o e an and since X an2 3" axV/4+t >. we have Xc= sa = ing me Bn at ewe aad 3 wl gle required, we have KC=a #, and area KcD=~,- ; axVatOxX2tl 2%) =F" But Xb=Xe Sn 4EXV 142 3 - Vi+e " but area KCD : area AECD=n:1, we have n= Sub- by similar triangles, and therefore bc = 2Xe= 2aKX2+0 8xVI+LE 2acn=V, and the volume QXR =o =A. Substitu- ting, therefore, these values in. the equation GZ ott = }.. Now the immersed part ACDB= 2 2 2; a SNE NE OE cy Petes am heads FO SxVi pe teen 2 2 ot, 224 2 Exeter —hs;but sinceh =" aH, =f ine ek, ConxX Ie 2 Gon/1 42 — By substituting for ¢* its equal s? a@sX2—s* a ° the formula becomes GZ = Geax c—cnxXs As it may be more convenient to make a express the whole breadth AB or PQ, instead of the ‘half breadth, the equation will, by this change, become _ &sX2—8 c—cnXs Cocaine in cm 2a" — 12 cH412c7n* “12 ci n?— 12 c7n + a” es 12 cn — 12 c? n? — 2a* 12 cm— 12c*n*— a?” In the case of a square parallelopiped, we have a=c, Se a Sn cadens there 12n — 120? —1 oak fore, to ascertain from this equation the angle through which the solid revolves, let us take n=.24, which being between .211 and .789, will place the solid with a flat surface upward and horizontal, and in an instable equi- -1888 alee -1888 1.1888? °°" Tigse— By making this value =0, we obtain s? es and therefore s? = librium, consequently s? = the sine of 23° 29’, the angle of revolution, after which — ‘the solid will settle in a position of stable equilibrium. The preceding equation determines also the specific gravity x, which will make the solid float at the angle 3; for, by resolving that equation, we obtain 2 = , ig 1—2s2 =) lap ‘ 3 Se and applying‘this to the particular angle of 28° 29’, we have n=0.5 =& 0.26 = 0.76 and 0.24, the two specific gravities, which will cause it to float in stable equilibrium at the angle of 23° 29’. Prop. VIII. “To ascertain the position of equilibrium, &c. as in Prop. VII. when the surface of the fluid passes through one of the extremities of the base of the floating solid. stituting this valueof n in the formula, or value of s? inthe . See : 6i'—32—2 preceding proposition, we obtain °= ay ae but i? 2 6—3r—2 2 = a § =P consequently T4P 3 or 6 3—2—6t — 3/2? — 24-613 — 3/4 — 20, or 4° = 6t — 2, which gives ‘(=$=+1, that is¢=4,and‘=1. The first of these values corresponds to an angle of 26° 33’ 51”, and the second to an-angle of 45°, as shewn in Fig. 7. In the first of these cases, KCD : ABCD, = 1: 4, and therefore n=4+, and the equilibrium is that of stability ; in the second case = 3, and the position of equilibri- um is also one of stability. . Prop. IX. To find the position of equilibrium as in Prop. VIII. when the fluid surface intersects one of the extremities of the upper side, as shewn in Fig. 8. ; , ok Putting ABK =i, we have areas ABK=", and KcDB="*—™, consequently = ; which, being substituted for # in the equation of Prop. VIIT. gives Fyn 'S t—3 V-—2 1407 6t—30—1’ A 2—t since i=$=+1, we have n= =3, the same as formerly. Hence orn}. Prop: X. To determine the position in which the parallelopi- ped will float permanently with a plane angle obliquely upward, when the specific gravity is between 4, and x5 or between 34 and F4. : It follows from Prop. VI. that when 7 is between fr and 4%,, or between 33 and 34, the solid will float rmanently with the diagonal inclined to a vertical ine. In order to find the angle, let TVCF represent the square parallelopiped floating with its angle I placed obliquely, and let its inclination to a vertical line be OGT. Let DE be the surface of the fluid, and taking CB a mean poe between EC and CD, draw B. parallel to FV, and-cutting IC in, H, CH will be the depth to which the solid sinks when IV is vertical, and - therefore area BKE = area XDA, Make CO = 3.CH, and,-O. will‘be the centre ‘of gravity ‘of the volume ABC. Bisect EBinK and AD in R, and draw KX, RX, and take XM = 2 XR and XL = 3. XK, and M, L will respectively be the-centres of gravity of the triangles XAD, BXE. Let fall the perpendiculare MP, QL upon cccXvV. Fig. 7. ve S vid; t= JS, co=ycu= /2, «eva 1? 9 MCeEESy- eT : ‘area CDE or ABC: area BKE = PQ; OT or “: w= 2b hy Fae and OG = jaz5- Adding CO to CG, ; a* we obtain CG = 24" 4 0/4", and since GC: CV= 1:3, we have CV = GC x “2 and CV = /f8x bu ttt V2 x bat 4s Oa ta*s + 9 a Stats . But since 1 ; n = area CAHB: IFCV, or as CH*:CV®*, wehaven = Cy and Vn= /!* x 30 ats = 0 SOPs ebupover o's : : . aT) te He uy is cE ? @ | F it FF H Ee i $ i et pe anFt 745 24 —g 3 4 8 g uf? HYDRODYNAMICS. _ a = * : eee Kes and BC=e, we have Siac fee Putting area BXE = w, wehave - 461 ing to .718 to 18° 20’ ing to .75, three Equiltbri- the solid being i - um and 6. If nis between .718 or 34 and .789 (as in Figs.19, Stspility of 20, 21), the solid will float with a flat surface upward pogies, itions of stable have, by Euclid, B. 111, Prop. 35. WH=/7A—Z, KH=2x /7—=, and KH%ds=8 x P— 2"! x dz, the fluent of which quantity, when < increases from 0 to r, is fluent of KH? x d Se r4; and since PQ=/», and the soe dibaaeele : . rt, wehave Voart/in, But 462 HYDRODYNAMICS. Equilibri- l tare & l—in — tacentre S, the solid will always float with stability, Equi “im end GP==->, and OP=, consequently GO=-—" = asthe measure of that stability W x SG>a tends a Ce ef ways to turn the body in a direction contrary to that 5 fluent KH3 x dz_ 3x r4 h3,vandl seinee 12V = 1aertln’ fluent KH® x dz by making =h, we shall obtain the limits be- 12V tween the stable and instable equilibriums. Thus 3x1? é—in te 3 SS *—n==—s.. But since 2r Westby tear to al = b, or the diameter of the base, we have n?—2= pt ease) ae BE’ and naga Utena Hence, if the diameter of the base bears a greater proportion to the length of the axis than that of / 2 to 1, there is no value of the specific gravity x, which will cause the solid to float.in the equilibrium of indif- ference : It follows, therefore, from the preceding inyes- tigations, that in this case it will always float perma- nently with its axis in a vertical line. If the diameter of the base bears a less proportion to the length of the axis than 7 2 to 1, then there are al- ways two values of n, which will be the limits of sta< bility and instability. In order to determine the ratio between the length and diameter of the cylinder which limits the case of stability and instability. when the spe- cific gravity is given, we obtain from the equation n—n? 2 a = oR the equation T= W8n—812, from which it follows, that since is given, the diameter of the base should be to the length of the axis of the cylinder in a greater proportion than that of 8 —8 x? to 1, in order that the solid may float permanently with its axis upwards ; but if the diameter of the base should be to the length of the axis in a less proportion to that, the solid will overset.. For example, if n= 43, then /8n— 8 n? = Wi = 1.2247 ; that is, the diameter of the base should be in a greater proportion to the length of the axis than 1.2247 to 1, in order that it may float permanently. If the proportion is less than this, it will overset. We shall now conclude this Section by following Mr Atwood in his application of the preceding principles to the stability of ships. We have already seen that the force of stability of a ship or any other body is represented by Wx GZ, W being the weight of the vessel and its lading. When the angle of inclination is so small as to be considered evanescent, we have 5 seen that GZ = Preeti ed ht SAME but since 12V the first member of this equation is equal to ET, and : ‘eal fluent AB3 dz since L=>OG=EG, it follows that ~~ 1aV ES, nd fluent AB> dz * 12V quantity, whatever be the inclination of the floating body, provided it is very small ; that is, the point S is immoveable with respect to G. This point S is called the Metacenire or centre of equilibrium ; for if the cen- tre of gravity G coincides with the point S, the stabili- ty, or GZ x W=W xSG xs, will be =0, or the solid will float in all positions alike, without any effort to restore itself if it is inclined, or to incline itself farther. If the centre of gravity G is situated beneath the me« —h=GS, which is an invariable in which it is inclined. If the centre of gravity is pla- ced above the metacentre, the force WxSGxs ha- x . ving passed through 0, tends to turn the vessel in. the same direction as that in which if is inclined, and it will therefore float with an instable equilibrium. When the angles of inclination, however, are large, the stability of the vessel will, as has already been shewn, be measured by WX cz= 44 —dsXW: In the application of this formula to practice, b A is the only quantity which requires to’ be determined ; for all the other values can be easily_ascertained from the na- ture of the case. In ‘order to find d A, the following observations must be attended te. Ifa line parallel to the horizon passes from the head tothe stern of the vessel when the ship floats upriglitly, this line is called the longer axis, to distin ich it from the shorler axis, which passes through the same centre, but in a direc- tion perpendicular, to the former. If we conceive a — vertical plane to pass through the longer axis when the ship floats mpciebtne it will divide the vessel into two parts perfectly similar and equal. A ship in equili- brium, may also be conceived to be divided into two parts by the horizontal plane which passes through the surface of the water, aiid this section is called the prin- cipal section of the water, represented in section by AB, Fig. 1, which will be transferred to IN when.the vessel is made to hecl or revolve through the angle SGK. The real section of the water will now be AB, which may be called the secondary section of the water. .These two planes inclined at the angle of heeling SGK, inter-. sect each other in X, and this line of intersection will obviously be parallel to the longer axis. : The position of the point X clearly depends on the shape of the sides of the vessel. In a _parallelopiped,. with two plane angles immersed, as in Fig. 5, the point. X bisects the lines ZR, PQ, corresponding to AB, IN in Fig. 1; but, when the same solid floats with only one plane angle immersed, as in Fig. 10, the point X. no longer bisects these lines, but is removed towards the parts immersed by the inclination. As the breadth of vessels, therefore, has no regular Rrapectian from, the head to the stern, the position of X, which is ne- cessary to the determination of 6 A, must obviously C¢ be determined practically by approximation. We must “ therefore conceive the equal volumes NXP, LXW, Fig. 1 and 25, one of which is immersed, and the other raised by the heeling ef the ship, to be divided into segments by vertical lines, perpendicular to the longer» | axis, and at distances of two or three feet. These seg- ments will therefore have the form of wedges, as shewn in Fig. 25, NXP being the inclination of the planes on the faces of the wedges. The solid contents of the immersed wedges NXD must now be found by approximation ; aud making XI = AB—NX, and XW = AB—PX, the solid contents of all the wedges, IX W raised by heeling, must also be ob- tained. If the size of the immersed wedges is not equal to the size of the elevated wedges, the position of the point X must be altered, till this equality is obtained. ‘o find 4 A, therefore, let the area PX NT P, and its cen- tre of gravity f, be determined by approximation. Draw dc perpendicular to PX, and X c will be the distance of the centre of gravity from the point X, estimated in the horizontal direction PX ; and ex being found in 2 si- HYDRODYNAMICS. 463 could not have been composed more than a few years On Capillary before his death in 1662; and he mentions it as if it —” were a fact well known, that the ascent of water in nar- ¢, brencnenn - row tubes was first discovered by M. Rohault, acele- pyuids. brated Cartesian philosopher, who taught mathematics and natural philosophy at Paris. In 1671, Rohault pub- Experi- - lished in'4to his Traité de Physique, which was trans- earn lated into Latin by Dr Clark. ‘This work contains an 2°") 38) account of the ordinary experiments on capillary attrac- pied 1675. ty of the solid segment XPNxpn Aer, tatimated in the horizontal direction measure of the vessel's stability W x 5% as for an angle whose sine is s, is obtained. Sach of our readers as wish to te this subject farther, are referred to the following works: Archime- des De iis vehuntur in ido. P. Paul Hoste Theorie de la Construction des Vaisseaux, Lyon. 1696. Parent; Mem. Acad. Par. 1700. Pitot, Theorie de la Maneeuore des Vaisseaux, Mem. Acad. Par. 1731. D. Bernoulli Comment. Petropol. 1739, vol. x. p. 147 ; xi. p- 100. D'Alembert’s Essai sur la resistance des Fluicles, and his Mathematiques, tom. 1. Bouguer's Traite de la Mancenvre des Vaisseaur. 1d. Mem. Acad. Par. 1754, p. 342; 1755, p.481; 1757, Hist. p. 165. Clairant, Mem. Acad. Par. 1760, p. 171. Juan Ex- CHAP. V. On Capituany AtTractiow, anv Tie Coagston oF ' Fiorps. Tx our articles on Apueston and Caritnany Arrrac- ject, of discovery in this interesting branch of phy- sies, to lay before our readers an nica of Pi ji which have either been made since tracts of Pascal informs us, that capillary attraction was not known in France when Pascal wrote his post- humous treatise Sur fEquilibre des Liqueurs, which * This is stated on the authority of Fabri. - + See Rohaultih Physica, edit. 1TL0, § 69, 70, T1, $0, 81, &e. tion, which Rohault ascribes to the unequal pressure of the air within and without the tube. He states distinct- ly, that water rises between all bodies which are capa- ble of being wetted with it, whereas it is depressed be- tween substances that are not ares of beg wetted. He observed the ascent of water between two plates of glass, and the spherical concavity of the = surface In ca\ spaces ; but he nowhere gives the least hint, that he was the discoverer of these phenomena. t In the year 1660, our celebrated countryman, Robert Fsper- iments Phy- vr Boyle, published at Oxford his New sico-Mechanical touching the Spring of the Air, &c. » in which he has treated pillary tubes. He ascribes the discovery to some men of science in France, on the authority of a celebra- = a from pt seatines eae it; and repea experiment with a tube small bore, drawn out by ‘cause of the tahoe, this tube, the waters said to have sprung instantaneously to the height of five inches, to the great surprise of se- veral icians that were present. When the tube was inclined, the water occupied a greater part of it, and it always rose higher in the tube when the inside of it was wetted before hand. These expe- riments succeeded equally well, when the tubes were placed in an exhausted receiver. Mr le observed also the —_ — u surface ~ t fmm the convex surface of mercury, and its depression in capillar tubes. See the above work, p. 262. Dr Hooke seems to have been one of said to have i a tract published in 1660, and entitled, «An Attempt for the explication of the Phenomena observable in an experiment published by the Right Hon. Rebert Boyle, in the 35th experiment of his Epistolical Discourse touching the Air, in confirmation of a former conjec- ih Sei water in capi tubes, eu sure of the = on the —— of aid within and without e tu € supposes t is a greater incongrui between air and glass than between water and glass, ya that, on this account, the air is admitted with more diffi- culty into the tube than the water, the difficulty al- ways increasing as the diameter of the tube diminish- es. This hypothesis Dr Hooke endeavours to sup- port, a act which he has determined experimen- tally, that a much greater force is necessary to force a bubble of water into a narrow tube than into a wide one; and he has illustrated it at great length, in Zin 1662, Seaeriees into Latin, and published at Amsterdam, by M. Bohem, entitled, Conatus ad explicanda Phe- > Kpsnag og ars ab Honorabili Viro Roberto Bayle. § ** In the year " says De Hooke in bis Microgrophia, “ 1 printed a little tract, entitled Am Attempt, &c. and being unwilling thee to publish this theory, as supposing imight be prejudicial to my design of watches, which I was then procuring a patent for, I hinted the principle which I supposed to be the cate of these phenomena of in the Slst page thereof in the English and in 38th of the Latin edition, Amst. 1662; but referred the further explication thereof till some other opportunity." — Hovke on Springs, to, 1678. 5 oy of the ascent of water in ca~¢j0. who was Hooke's present at the exhibition of this experiment ; and he is °*P*"- the phenomenon by affinity. In Tyco, 162. ' 464 OnCapillary the VIth Observation of his..Micrographia, which Attractioty appeared in 1667. This observation is. entitled, On comment Small Glass Canes; and contains his most: mature opi- ~ Kiuiés. Dions.on the subject. He states that the water, when it enters small capillary tubes, rises rapidly to the Hooke’s —_ height of 6 or 7 inches ; that when the tube is extreme- ps key ly fine; it ascends slowly to a much greater height; 67, and that he had never patience to wait till it rose high- er than 21 inches, which must have been in a pipe, whose internal diameter was about the y7;,th part of aninch. He defines the term Congruity, which may be considered the same as affinity, as that “ property of a fluid body, whereby any part of it is readily united with any other part, either of itself, or of any other simi- lar fluid or solid body ; and Incongruity, to be that pro- perty of a fluid, by which it is hindered from uniting with any dissimilar fluid or solid body.” Dr Robison, and some other authors, are therefore mistaken in claim- ing for Dr Hooke the merit of explaining the pheno- mena of capillary attraction by affinity, by which they meant the affinity of water to glass. Dr Hooke indeed, employs a term the same as) this in his explanation of these phenomena ; but it is employed for a quite dif- ferent purpose ; for he supposes that the water rises in the tube, not because it is attracted by the glass, but be- cause there is.a greater affinity between water and glass than between air and glass, in consequence of which, the column of air within the tube is not capable of balan- cing the corresponding atmospherical column without. « For since the pressure,” says he, “ of the air every way is found to be equal, that is, as much as is able to press up and sustain a cylinder of quicksilver of 24 feet high or thereabouts ; and since of the pressure so many more degrees are required, to force the air into a smaller than into a greater hole that is full of a more congruous fluid; and, lastly, since these degrees that are requisite to press it in, are thereby taken off from the air within, and the air within left with so many degrees of pres- sure less than the air without; it will follow, that the air in the less tube or pipe will have less pressure against the superficies of the water therein, than the air in the big- er. The conclusion, therefore, will necessarily follow, viz. that this unequal pressure of the air, caused by its in- gress into unequal holes, is a cause sufficient to produce the effect, without the effect of any other concurrent ; and therefore is probably the principal (if not the on- ly) cause of these phenomena. This, therefore, being thus explained, there will be divers phenomena expli- eable thereby : as, the rising of liquors in a filtre ; the rising of spirit of wine, oil, melted tallow, &c. in the _ wick of a lamp, though made of small wire, threads of asbestos, strings of glass, or the like; and the rising of liquors in asponge, pieces of bread, sand, &c. ; perhaps also the ascending of the sap in trees. and plants, through theirsmall and some of them imperceptible pores, at least the passing of it out of the earth into their roots.”* This hypothesis of Dr Hooke’s, which was received at the time with great applause, was afterwards shewn to be unsatisfactory and inconsistent with experiments by Roger Cotes.+ Investiga In the year 1666, the learned Isaac Vossius publish- tions of | ed at the Hague his work entitled, De Nili et Aliorum Vossius. Fluminum Origine, in the second chapter of which he 1666. “describes the phenomena of capillary attraction, and endeavours to account for them by a theory which ap- proachesmorenearly thanany other which had been given to the true theory of the action of capillary tubes, Since * Hooke’s Micrographia, p. 21. HYDRODYNAMICS. + See Cotes’ Hydrostatieal Lectures, Lect, XL, Lond. 1738, water, say he, is by its very nature viscid, it adheres to On Capi every thing which it touches, so that itadheres to glass, Attract and is sustained by the glass. But since the water is sus- ¢ on the tained by the action of the glass, it does not press upon “ jrjuide, the water below it, as the same weight cannot press in wee twoplaces, and as no bocly can be heavier than itself. The — portion of water therefore which enters the tube, loads the glass tube, to the sides of which it adheres, and is 5 destitute of weight in respect of the subjacent water. b Hence it follows, that if capillary tubes are immersed \ in water, and then taken out of it, the water which i has entered them will not all flow out of the tube, but : as much will remain.as the surface of the tube can sus- | tain. From this hypothesis Vossius concludes, that water will rise higher in narrow than in wide tubes, because the narrow tubes, in proportion to their capaci- ty, present more points of contact of adherence to the water, and that mercury being destitute of viscidity, will not adhere to glass, and will therefore sink below its natural level in capillary tubes. 7 The first person in France who repeated these experi. Experi- ments, and attempted to investigate their cause, was ments of M. Honoré Fabri, a learned Jesuit, who was born as at Bellay near Lyons, in the year 1607. In the p)'\¢ year 1669, he published| a work entitled, Dialogi Physici, the fourth chapter of which is entitled, humoris elevatione Canaliculum, In this chapter, he observes that water, whether hot or cold, ascends above the level of the water in the vessel; that it ri- ses to a greater height in narrow than in wide capillary tubes ; and that the water ascends highest in tubes of the same diameter when the tubes extend farthest above the surface of the water; that the, water raised by capillary attraction will never flow out of the top of the tubes, however short ; that the water will rise higher in a wet tube than in adry one; that the wa- ter will not rise in a tube if the finger is placed upon the upper end of its bore previous.to immersion ; and that in two concentric tubes, the water will rise ~ sometimes higher and sometimes lower in the widest of the two tubes, according as the difference oftheir diameters is less or greater than the diameter of the in- ner tube. In explaining these. phenomena, he main- tains, that the external air, aeting as a compressed body, has free access to press upon the surface of the water exterior to the tube, whereas it does not act so freely upon the surface of the water in the tube, and therefore the fluid will rise with a force proportional to the difference of these pressures. The cause of this unequal pressure of the air Fabri supposes to be, that - only an inverted cone of air touching the fluid in the tube with its vertex, and having the upper orifice of the tube for its base, can press upon the surface contiguous to its vertex. ka % +5. 10.508 0.3835 0.819467 0.026 M., Hallstrom.* The results of experiments 1 and 2, when reduced to - 0.033 Dr Brewster, with a tube 0.0561 of an inch English inches, give 01798 and .01840 for the value of in diameter. the constant quantity. The constant quantity for Al- M. Hallstrom found that water rose 11.7 Swedish lines in a tube 0.7 of a line in diameter. + This is « mean of 5 experiments. 472 OnCapillary cohol found by Dr Brewster is almost the same as this, Avemeion namely .0178. Benjamin Martin makes the constant Cohesion of (antity 18, and Muschenbroek 10. i Fluids. M. Gay Lussac obtained ‘the following result for oil —\~—"’ of turpentine. ‘Om or Turpentine. ‘Diameter of Tube in ‘Millimetres, Altitude, Density. 1.29441 9.95159 0.869458 a a ; «The following are the) experiments which were arag Hauy Made at the desire of La:Place, by Messrs Hauy and and Treme- Lremery : re Diameter of Height of the Wa- Constant Quantity Tube in ter in Millimetres. or Height fora Millimetres. ’ Tube 1 millimetre R in Diameter, Wira Waren. 2.0800 . <7 13.500 1.3833 10.00 13.833 0.7500 18.50 31.875 ‘Mean 13.5693 Wir Ow or Oranegs. 2.0000 3.400 6.8 1.3383 5.000 6.6667 0.7500 9.00 6.75 ‘Experi. ‘The following experiments were made by Dr Robi- Ds Reto, 2 with-a tube of'a very slender bore. Oil ofturpentine . . .. «'. . « 1.35 inches. Spitite-of- wine: ays oi.) el ohne He ew sp 1S Wiaténit Sit te. sexys ‘be, cade an motion “ay, ro ‘Caustic volatile alkali . 25... 6.25 Solution of sahammoniac ... . . 8.07 2. On the Ascent of Fluids between Trio Plates of Glas. Parallel ‘It appears from the experiments mentioned by New- Plates. ton in his Optics, (p. 366. edit. 3d, 1721,) that water ewton rose one inch between two plates of glass, whose dis- tance was zi, of an inch, and that water rose to the same height in.a‘capillary tube, the semi-diameter of whose bore was equal to the distance of the plates, which gives .010 as the constant quantity for the glass ‘plates, and .020.as.the constant quantity for capiltaey tubes. Experi- The following experiments were made by M. Monge, ‘ments of -on the rise of water between two plates of glass. The Monge, with caustic alkali, vplates of glass were first clean -and catchally washed, and, when separated to different distances, by the interposition of silver wires of diffe~ rent thicknesses, they were plunged in the water of the Seine, which had been previously filtered. The diame- ters of the silver wires, from which the distance of the plates was inferred, were obtained by rolling the wire round)a tube of glass, and finding the number of thick. nesses which occupied an exact number of lines. By dividing the number of lines by the number of revolu« tions, he obtained the exact diameter of the wire, and consequently the distance of the plates. The follow~ ‘ing are the results which he obtained. Distance between the ‘Height of the wa- i { splates of glass in. parts tar ahove it level, Cost quan ‘of a line, in lines. sae fy or 0.1212 inch 15.5 lines. 18.786 0.0802 33.5 26.80 sty 0.08571 74 26.427. HYDRODYNAMICS. -mn or st, and their distance ato isoporgr. But ms Messrs Hauy and Tremery likewise obsérved ‘thé On¢ ‘height to which water ascended between-two parallel. I mil- — glass placed vertically, at the distance imetre, ‘and obtained the following result : Distance between the ‘Height,of aseent Consterit quantity Experi- Plates, Millimetre. in Millimetres, in Millimetres. ments of 1 6.5 $68 iq M. Gay Lussac meastired with great care the rise of Experie water between two plates of glass ground perfectly flat, ments of and placed ‘exactly parallel to each other. In order to Gay L do this with accuracy, he kept the plates s te on the by four ‘very fine ‘iron ‘wires ‘cut’ consecutively the'same piece, ‘so as to have their diameters as - as possible ; and in order to find ‘the thickness of the piates, wire, he placed a great number of them together, and measured the ‘sum oftheir diameters. ‘The following was the result of his observations. ° ‘Distance of the Plates “Height of the Water © Temperature “of Glass in Millime- to the lowest point in the Cen- tres. of the Concavity in - tigrade ' _Millimetres. Scale, 1.069 ‘13.574 16° The constant’ quantity is here 14.51, or 0.02251, when reduced to English inches, for a distance of +2,th of an inch. It is obvious‘from these experiments, that water as- cends to twice the height in_capillary tubes that it does between two plates whose distance is equal to the dia- meter of the tube. , We have already seen, under Capitrary ATrTrRac- TION, that if the two plates of glass are inclined to each other at a‘small angle, the water will rise between them in such a manner that its surface is a hyperbola. Thus, in Plate CCCXVI. Fig. 4. let ABEF, CDEF be the two lates of glass, and DE the surface of the water, then np D, EmoB will be we wer meee rk which Mr Hawksbee found to be’ bolic, by ‘measuring the ordinates of abscisse sinks eves, R The hyperbolic form of the surface may be deduced from the observed fact, that the altitudes of the fluid-in capillary tubes, or between parallel glass plates, are in- versely as the diameters ofthe tubes, or the distance of the plates. ‘The distance of the plates at m is obviously Inclined plates. PLaTE cccx Fig. 4. and oq, being the-altitudes of the fluid at m and o, we havems:0q=o0p:mn, but Ft: Fr=stormn:qr, or op. Hence Fi:F r=mn:op. But in the Apollo- nian hyperbola, the ordinates are inversely proportion- ed to their respective. abscisse, and therefore E mo B is the Apollonian hyperbola. Mr Hawksbee’s experiments have already been given in p. 467. : 3. On ‘the Depression of Mercury and Melted Lead in Capillary Tubes, ' If a capillary tube of: is immersed in mercury, Depression or an Pe mis -metals ane fluid state, the mekalfte of mercury. 4 fluid, instead of being elevated like water, stands consi- Lord | derably lower in the tube than in its natural surface. Charles Ca | The most correct experiments on the d ion of mer- base s cury were made by Lord Charles Cavendish. The fol- &P\ lowing are the results which he obtained : ——————— ee THES aur i ik HA ie; ba ‘ nese ee ee ey ia 13 ? A suid} ua if eee at (i le neat ein if Hei udwetiie anit ji ee BH ane siete fe ne Al ul HEE ESE 32 thie f aii: nib z 8 pts Late at: Hi nh i Hin aI Hi ya Bn ali ini ae He Saige se ay ea svn 2A Ha test | i aa ggusa ff aia iE ir ii esas ee | 5 iH 32823833 33 ai 4 i : nits : . ae ifs | } at ini - : i (ae rate ears ry) ihe Ly tS a Wins A he i 3 test Ee uy i ay at mH 3. me i a Hap 8 i seas HH LE a ime iat He re He + tee UES ty 2 , peti Pa? Bip He 474 equation of the surface of a drop of water: aaat -aayy = xyy x, when z = 0, or yr atatz 42ate yx + (at — xt?) y —2yry= 0. In order to shew that two drops of water do not attract each other when at a distance, M. Monge put some spirit of wine into a cup, and having taken a ca- pillary tube containing some of the same fluid, he allow- ed it to fall from a height of a few lines, drop by drop, into the cup; the drops did not immediately mix with the rest of the fluid, but preserved their form, which was nearly spherical; rolled over the surface with great freedom, like balls over a billiard table, impinged against each other; changed their form by the force of im- pact; and, after being reflected from each other, con- tinued to move upon the surface till they were again mixed with the general mass. This experiment does not succeed so well when the spirit of wine is warm. M. Monge explains this phenomenon by supposing that a thin film of air adheres to the drop; and, by dimin- ishing its specific gravity, causes it to float upon the fluid surface ; and hence he concludes that the experi- ment will succeed best with those liquids which are most evaporable, or which have the greatest affinity for the surrounding air. A similar phenomenon, as M. Monge observes, is seen in the drops of water which fall from: the oars during the rowing of a boat, and in the drops produced by the condensation of the steam of any warm fluid, such as coffee, &c. These drops are real spheres of fluid, and not spherical vesicles like those formed on the surface of water with heavy rains. These re- sults are hostile to the idea of M. Saussure, who, in his Essays on Hygrometry, has stated that drops of the same liquid cannot be pushed against one another, nor remain simply in contact without instantly uniting ; and that only hollow vesicular globules are capable of floating upon the surface of the same fluid with them- selves. In repeating the experiments of Monge, Dr Brewster found that the apneeennens were most beautiful when the capillary tube discharged the drops upon the inclined plane of fluid, which is elevated by the attraction of the edge ofthe cup. They ran down the inclined plane with great velocity, and sometimes even ascended the similar plane on the opposite side of the vessel, When thedrop was discharged at the distance of one or two-tenths of an inch from the surface of the water, they had always the same magnitude when the tube was held in the same position ; but when the peat of the tube was brought within a tenth of an inch of the surface of the spirit of wine, this surface, instead of attracting the drop to it instantly, as Saussure would have predicted, actually resisted the gravity or weight of drop, and allowed it to attain a diameter nearly twice as great as it would have had, if it had been discharged in the ordinary manner. This swoln globule floated upon the surface in the same ‘ manner asthe smaller drops, surrounded with a depres. sion of the fluid surface similar to what is produced by a glass globule floating on mercury, or by the feet of parti- cular insects, that have the power of running upon the surface of water. (See Fig. 5.) The floating globules are often produced even when they are discharged from a height of three or four inches; and by letting them fall upon the inclined plane of fluid formerly mentioned, they will often rebound from the surface, and fall over the sides of the oe When a drop of mercury is laid upon glass, it assumes ‘ HYDRODYNAMICS. @nCapillary weights Dr Young: has given the following as the _ nomenon, which is the very reverse of the formation openingin a flat spheroidal form, in consequence of its weight. On The section of its surface, as M. La Place observed, by Attracti r a vertical plane drawn through its centre, is very mu andthe curved at its summit. The curvature increases on re- eae 7" ceding from that point, till the tangent to the'curve is 2... vertical. At this point, the curvature and the width of Form ef the section will be a maximum. Below that point it drop of will approach its axis, and will at last coincide with the ™ertcury. plane of the glass, and form with it an acute angle. M. Gay Lussac observed-at the temperature of 12°.8 of the centigrade thermometer, the thickness of a large drop of mercury, circular, and a-decimeter in diameter, rest- ing spon a plane surface of white glass perfectly hori- zontal. By a very accurate micrometer, he found its thickness to be 3.378 millimetres. -M.Segner had long before obtained nearly the same result, viz. 3.40674 millimetres. The cohesion of fluids is beautifully shewn in a phe- pony of of a drop, and which was first observed by Dr Brewster. film of flui If we take a phial, with a wide mouth, half filled with Canada balsam, and allow the balsam to flow to the mouth of the phial and fill it up, then when the phial is’ placed on its bottom, a fine transparent film of balsam’ will be seen extending over the mouth of the phial. If we now take a piece of slender wire, and touch the film: near the middle, so as to tear away a little part of it, the remaining part of the film which has been ele- vated by this force will descend to its level position, and the ragged aperture from which the balsam has been torn will be seen to assume a form perfectly cir- cular, having its edge in a slight degree thickened, like a circle with a raised margin turned out of a piece of wood, . This fine circular aperture grows wider and wider, and continues to preserve its circular form till the mouth of the phial is again epened. The following curious experiment, which was perform- ., ed by Dr Brewster, is intimately connected with the sub- s,m a2 a ject of capillary attraction. Above a vessel MNOP, Fig. pi te 6. nearly filled with water, a convex lens LL was placed traction. at the distance of the 10th of an inch, andrays R,R,R, ppaye were incident upon its upper surface. The focus of these ccCX VI. rays was at F, a little beyond the bottom of the vessel, Fig. 6. so that a circular image of the luminous object was. seen on the bottom of the vessel, having AB for its di- ameter. If the lens is now made to descend gradually towards the surface of the water, and the eye kept stea~ dily upon the luminous image AB, a dark spot will be seen at @ in the centre of AB, a little while before the lens attracts and elevates the water MN. Sometimes this spot may be seen playing back and forwards by the slight motion of the hand, so that the lens‘can even be withdrawn from the fluid surface without having actual- ly touched it. In general, however, the sudden rise of water to the lens follows the appearance of the black spot, When the water is in contact with the glass, the focus of the rays R, R is now transferred to f, and the circular image on the bottom is now a 4, and the inten- sity of the light in this circle is to that in the circle AB, as AB?: a 5%. Now it is obvious, that the darkish spot at'@ is just the commencement of the transference of the focus from F to f/; or when the dark spot is pro« duced, the progress of the ae is the same as if the fo« cus were transferred tof This remarkable effect may arise from two causes. 1. The approach of the lens to the surface MN, may occasion a ion mo n in the surface of the fluid of the same curvatureas L/L, which would have the effect of transferring the focus from F tof. This depression may be produced by a film of air CCCXVL. taking place ata greater distance from the lens than the tion if it is solid, we may, without disturbing the equi- od distance at which the attraction commences. librium, conceive the fluid in AB frozen. 2. The *)<';, ean s attse conte ditmemcos ures fluid in the lower part of AB is attracted by the inte- vised. the rays of light as if they were one surface, then it is rior fluid of the tube BE, but as the latter is attracted Piatre Sees Sint a Seah suet ovat pes: s6-¢. if this ee eee ae eer see eer distance is than that at which capillary attraction neglected as balanci other. Phe fluid in — begins. - ihe lower part of BE, is attracted by the fluid which pore tn freak gpm tome cong he hone Account Place’s Theory zs attraction is a vertical force acting downwards, whi 6 wating = sails oS Capillary we may call —Q’, the contrary sign being applied, as the force is re peers So On ooo orce Q. As published E it is hi probab t the attractive forces exercised La Pee, hie ncdlod ef « ideri phenomena bby the glass and the water vary accordin to the same Cicelcamiriind men. function of the distance, so as to differ only in their in- enon Ae ogra and on the conditions of equilibrium tensities, we ma, employ the constant co-efficients ¢, ¢/ of this in an infinitely narrow canal, resting by as measures of t : of its extremities upon this surface, and by the —Q’ will be proportional to ¢, ¢’ ; for the interior surface on the horizontal surfaces of an indefinite fluid, of the fluid which surrounds tube BE, is the same in which the capillary tube was immersed. In his se- as the interior surface of the tube AB. C ently, has examined the subject in a the two masses, viz. the glass in AB, and the fluid Sony evan been & Yew, by idering dis round BE, differ only in their thickness; but as the rectly the forces which elevate and depress the fluid in attraction of both these masses is inzensible at sensible this space. this means, he is conducted easily to distances, the difference of their thicknesses, provided resul ich it would have been dif. their thicknesses are sensible, will uce no differs method we shall endeavour to give as clear a view as is also acted upon by mother force, namely, by the josed. we possible. sides of the tabe AB in which it is incl ~ Let AB, Pig. 7. be a vertical tabe whose sides are conceive the column FB divided into an infinite number ee ne ne eS eet a id of elementary vertical columns, and if at the upper ex- rises in the interior of the tube above its natu- tremity of one of these columns we draw a horizontal in ral level. A thin film of fluid is first raised by the ac- plane, the ion of the tube comprehended be- tion of the sides of the tube; this film raises a second the plane the level surface BC of the fluid, will not i i i i seonies any vertical force wpen the column ; conse of the volume of fluid raised exactly balances all the quently, the only native vertical foree is that which is it is actuated. Hence it is obvious, uced by the ring of the tube immediately above the i i plane. Now, the vertical attraction of this attraction part of the tube upon BE, will be equal to that of the i the inner entire tube upon the column BE, which is equal in eee eee a ane olor diameter, and similarly . ‘This new force will bending itself horizontally im the direction ED, that it therefore be represented Lt Q. In combining these i ; us suppose different forces, it is manifest that the fluid column BF of this tube to be so extremely thin, or to’ is attracted upwards by the two forces + Q, + Q, and id of a film of ice, so as tohave no action on the downwards by the force — Q’; consequently the force whieh it contains, and not to prevent the recipro- with which it is raised upwards will be 2Q—Q’. If eerie ran of we represent by V the volume of the column BE, D Now, its density, and g the force of gravity, then g DV will tubes AE, CD lowe semen represent the weight of the elevated column; but as fluid in this weight is in equilibrio with the forces by which the vertical attraction of the tube _ it is elevated, we have the following equation : i in AB. In DV =2Q—Q Place en* : which take place under the tube AB. If the force 2 Q is less than Q’, then V will be negae , . by itself; 2. by tive, and the fluid will sink in the tube; but as long as the fluid surrounding the tube BE. But these two at. 2Q is ter than Q’, V will be positive, and the tractions yee pe A similar attractions expe- fluict will rixé above its natural level ; as was long be- det they a contained in ns i fore shewn by M. ees ite may be entirely neglected. id in Since the attractive forces, both and the is also attracted seats ee fluid in AB; bat this fluid, are insensible at sensible distances, surface of , ich i . the tube AB will act sensibly only on the column of io the copes divestion apes to Guid in so fluid immediately in contact with it. We may there- attractions may likewise benegleet- fore neglect the consideration of the curvature, and ope consider the inner surface as developed upon a plane. upwards by the tube AB, with a force which we shall The force Q will therefore be gropertionsl (> the 4 HYDRODYNAMMTCS: 476 po cal. widthwof this plane, or what is the same thing, to the tion and 22terior circumference of the tube. Calling c, there- the Cohe. fore, the circumference of the tube, we shall have sion of Q=ec; ¢ being a constant quantity, representing the Fluids. intensity of the attraction of the tube AB upon the ; fluid, in the case where the attractions of different. bo- dies are expressed by the same function of the «listance. In every case, however, ¢ expresses a quantity de- pendent on the attraction of the matter of the tube, and independent of its figure and magnitude. — In like manner we shall have Q’= ¢’ c; ¢' expressing the same thing with regard to the attraction of the: fluid for it- self, that ¢ expressed with regard to the attraction of the tube for the fluid. By substituting these values of Q, Q’, in the preceding equation, we have gDV=c(2e—¢’). If we now substitute, in this general formula, the value of c in terms of the radius if it is a capillary tube; or in terms of the sides if the section is a rect- angle, and the value of V in terms of the radius and al- titude of the fluid column, we shall obtain an equation by which the heights of ascent may be calculated for tubes of all diameters, after the height, belonging to any given diameter, has been ascertained by direct experi- ment. In the case of a cylindrical tube, let » represent the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, 4 the height of the doid @élumn reckoned from the lower point of the meniscus, g the mean height to which the fluid rises, or the height at which the fluid would stand if the meniscus were to fall down and assume a level sur- face, then we have x7 for the solid contents of a cy- linder of the same height and radius as the meniscus, and as the meniscus, added to the solid contents of the hemisphere of the same radius, must be equal to x 77, we 3 3 = > or a for-therSolid contents of the Application of the for- mula to cy- lindrical tubes. have #73 — A re rt ¢ meniscus. But since >= ar? X = it follows that a ; : the meniscus = is equal to a cylinder whose base r z Hence, we have. is wr?, and altitude: a qah+ >; er what is the same thing, the mean altitude ¢ in a cy« linder is always equal to the altitude A of the lower oint of the concavity of the meniscus increased by one third of the radius, or one sixth of the diameter. of the capillary tube. Now, since the contour c of the tube- = 2-e, and since the volume V of water raised is. equal to ¢ X x7r*, we have, by substituting these values, in the general formula, gDqzrr=2ar(2e—e’), and dividing by wr and g D,. we have, . ; 2e—e’ eure 4 “gD x re (No. 2) (No. 1.) : rg=2 Application of the for- mula to Gay Lus- sac’s expe- riments on water, “In applying this formula to Gay Lussac’s experi- raents, we have the constant quantity aa trt a rq = 647205 x 23,1034 + 0,215735 = 15,1311 for Gay Lussac’s 1st experiment. In order to find the ‘\ requisite. _ between two glass plates, the side a is very great com- itis obvious, that water will rise to the same t. . or half the diameter of the tube. height of the fluid in his 2d tabe’by miealis of this con- On Capi ; 1.90381. lary stant quantity, we have r= 9 = 0.951905, and & 2e—-e' bow = 15,1311 3 1= 9.951905 if we subtract one sixth of the diameter, or 03173; we have 15.5783 for the altitude’ h’ of the lower point of the concavity of the meniscus, which differs only * 0.0078 from 15.861 the observed altitude. . If we apply the same formula to Gay Lussac’s ex- App periments on alcohol, we shall find the constant quan. of the for- mula toG 4 = 6.0825 as deduced from the Ist ex- pow . = 15.8956, from which, U tity 2 ited D x , perim periment, and k = 6.0725, which differs only 0/0100 on alcoho from 6.08397, the altitude observed. From these comparisons, it is obvious, that the mean altitudes, or the values of g, are very nearly reciprocal ly proportional to the diameters of the tubes; for, in the experiments on water, the value of g deduced from this ratio is 15.895, which differs little from 15.9034, the value found from experiment ; and that in accurate experiments, the correction made by the addition of the sixth part of the diameter of the tube is indispensibly f the section of the pipe in which the fluid ascends is a rectangle, whose greater side is.a, and its lesser side of the fox d, then the base of the elevated column will be = ad, mulato — and its perimeter c= 2a 42d. Hence, the value of rectangu the meniscuswill be“ — fee = Aes i =), spaces z that ia. g =A +4 1 —=). Hence, if in the ge- neral equation No. 1. we substitute for c its equal 2a+2d, and for V its equal ad q, we have EDqad=2¢—¢' K 2a+2d, and dividing by a and by gD, we have a pas Seat bss ie ag he Xt d. In applying this formula to the elevation of water 2e—e! q=2 3) pared with d, and therefore the quantity f: being al- most insensible, may be safely neglected. Hence the fors. mula becomes , 2e t i g=2. D x 7 By comparing this formula with the formula No. 2.. between plates’ of glass as in a. tube, provided the dis: tance d between the two. plates of glass is equal to r,. ; This result was ob= tained by Newton, and has been. confirmed by the ex,” periments of sueceeding writers. : : : er ae ot se ison ‘As the constant quantity 2 22€ ig the same as al- Comparison | ssa < ye, ula with ready found for capillary:tubes, we may: take its value, G. viz. 15,1311, and substitute it, in the preceding equa- sac’s expetie tion, we then have Sate se ments, | a % 3 q =" poo tei and since It will be seen from the formula No. 2. that of all that have a prismatic form, the hollow. cylinder is the one in which tlie volume of fluid raised is the least possible, as it has the smallest lines of the sim: whose sections are polygons inscri in the same cle, the fluid will rise to the same mean height. If one .. of the two bases is, for example, a square, and the other an i the altitudes will be as 2:33; = eFFES! F Hy FEr | H Pe ovya AMICS. . » plane. Beyond this the fluid being subj tuated in the interior of the. canal, and ee ae to its sides, at any sensible distance from this base being taken for unity. He then shews that ' this action is smaller when the surface is concave than when it is plane, and greater when the surface is con- vex. The analytical expression of this action is compo- sed of two terms: the first of these terms, which is much than the second; expresses the action of the mass terminated by a plane surface,* and the se- cond term expresses the part of the action due to the sphericity of the surface, or, in other words, the action of the meniscus comprehended between this surface and the plane which touches it. This action is either ad- ditive to the preceding, or subtractive from it, accor- ding as the surface is convex or concave. It is reci- | soe proportional to the radius of the spherical sur- » fer the smaller that this radius is, the meniscus is the nearer to the point of contact. From these results relative to bodies terminated by sensible ents of a ical surface, La Place de- the action of a body terminated poy ercpsen fe er ean this surface in any point, is equal to half sum of the actions upon the same canal of two which have for their radii the greatest and the, of the at this mass of fluid tt to take when acted upon by gra~ manpages. upg on ber aparaes . The nature of the surface is expressed by an equation of by any known method. If the figure of the faceis one of revolution, the equation isreduced to one of ordinary differences, and is capable-of being integra- ted by approximation, when the surface is very small. La Place next shews, that a very narrow tube a proaches the more to that of a ical ent asthe diameter of the tube becomes smaller. If these seg- ments are similar in different tubes of the same sub- stance, the radii of their surfaces will be inversely as the diameter of the tubes. This similarity of the sphe- rical segments will evident, if we consider that the distance at which the action of the tube ceases to be sensible, is imperceptible ; so that if, by means of a very powerful microscope, this distance should be found equal to a millimetre, it is probable that the same mag- nifying power would give to the diameter of the tube an apparent diameter of several metres. The surface of the tube may therefore be considered as very nearly , in a radius to that of the sphere of sensi- activity ; the fluid in this interval will therefore de- scend, or rise from this surface, very nearly as if-it — only to the action of gravity, and the mutual action of its we particles, the surface will be very nant Sapa rical segment, of which the extreme planes being. of the fluid surface, at the limits of the sphere of the sensible activity of the tube, will be very nearly in different tubes equally inclined to their sides. Hence it follows that all the segments will be similar. Fluids. —Y~ 478 OnCapillary The approximation of these results gives the true Attraction eayse of the ascent or descent of fluids in capillary gd the ; tubes in the inverse ratio of their diameter. If in the Fluids. xis of a glass tube we conceive a canal infinitely nar- = row, which bends round like the tube ABEDC in Fig. PLaTEe 7. the action of the water in the tube in this narrow CCCXVI. anal, will be less on account of the concavity of its Fig. 7. surface, than the action of the water in the vessel on the same canal. The fluid will therefore rise in the tube to compensate for this difference of action; and as the concavity is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube, the height of the fluid will be also inversely portional to that diameter. If the surface of the interior fluid is convex, which is the case with mercury in a glass tube, the action of this fluid on the canal will greater than that of the fluid in the vessel, and therefore the fluid will descend in the tube in the ratio of their difference, and consequently in the in- verse ratio of the diameter of the tube. In this manner of viewing the‘subject, the attraction of capillary tubes has no influence upon the ascent or depression of the fluids which they contain, but in de- termining the inclination of the first planes of the sur« face of the interior fluid extremely near the sides of the tube, and upon this inclination ds the concavity or convexity of the surface, and the length of its radius. The friction of the fluid against the sides of the tube may au r diminish a little the curvature of its surface, of which we see frequent examples in the ba- rometer. In this case the capillary effects will increase or diminish in the same ratio. The differential equation of the surfaces of fluids in« elosed in capillary spaces of revolution, conducts La Place to the following general result ; that if into a cy- lindrical tube we introduce a cylinder which has same axis as that of the tube, and which is such that the space comprehended between its surface and the inte- rior surface of the tube has very little width, the fluid will rise in this space to the same height as in a tube whose radius is equal to this width. If we su . the radii of the tube and of the cylinder infinite, we have the case of a tube included between two par- allel and vertical planes, very near each other. This result has been confirmed, as we have already seen, by: the experiments of Newton, Hauy, and Gay Lussac. La Place then applies his theory. to the phenomena pre« sented by a drop of fluid, either in motion or suspend- ed in equilibrium, either in a conical capillary tube, or between two plates, and inclined to each: other, as dis« eovered by Mr Hawksbee ;—to the mutual approxima- tion of two parallel and vertical discs immersed in a fluid’ ;—to the phenomena which take place when two plates of glass are inclined to each other at a smalt angle ;—and to the determination of the figure of a large drop of mercury laid upon a horizontal plate of glass. In the application of his theory to the experimental results obtained by Hawksbee respecting the-angles re- quired for sus’ ing a drop of oil of oranges at diffe- rent stations between two inclined planes of glass. * _ Place obtained the results écabatane in the following ‘able. Column Ist contains the number of the first column of Hawksbee’s table, subtracted’ from 20:inches; and co- lumn2d contains Hawksbee’s 2d column, diminished by 5’ 22", These results are given in p. 467, top of col, l. , HYDRODYNAMICS, Distance in inch- es from the mid-|Angles of Ele- | Angles of Eleva- Differences in| dle of the drop to} vation obser- |tion calculate@ by} aliquot parts |the intersection ved, La Place’s for- | of the calcu- the plane. mula. lated angles. 18 O° 9'38" | 0°17'44” tx 16 0 19 38 0 22 27 > Aa 14 0 29 38 0 29 20 ds 12 0 29 38 0 39 55 xo 10 O 54 38 0 57 29 ay 8 1 39 38 1 29 53 ie 6 239 38 | 2 39 45 wer 5 3 54 38 & 50 6 pe 4 5 54 38 5 59 58 as 3 9 54 88 | 10 42 31 ater 2 21 54 38 | 24 42 49 nin Seer. II. On the Approximation and Recession of Boa dies floating near euch other in a Fluid. Ir was long ago observed Ye that when On the bodies pening A the surface of’ a fluid approached ei- proximati ther one another or the sides of the vessel, they mo- 2nd reces: ved rapidly into contact, as if they had been two float- $0 of ing magnets, This phenomenon, which was in ral ascribed to the mutual attraction of the floating bo- each ot} dies, was tolerably well explained by M. Marriotte in in a fluid, his Zraité du Mouvement des Eaux. It was reserved, however, for M. Monge to describe and explain these henomena with accuracy, which he has done in his ire sur quelques @attraction ou de repulsion apparent et te Mo. Ped de Matiere. e following are the princi riments uw this subject : 3 eee ate 1. If two light bodies, capable of being wetted with water, are placed one inch distant on the surface of water perfectly at rest, they will float at rest, and exe perience no motion but what is derived from the agitas tion of the air; but if the distance at which they are placed is only a few lines, they will approach each other with an accelerated motion, If the vessel which contains the water is capable of being wetted by it, such as glass, and if the floating body is placed within a few lines of the edge of’ the vessel, it will move to« wards the edge with an accelerated motion. 2. If the two floating bodies are not susceptible of being wetted with fluid, such as two balls of iron in a vessel of quicksilver, and if they are placed at the diss tance of a few lines, they will move towards each other with an accelerated motion ; and if the vessel is made of glass, in which the surface of the mercury is always eonvex, the bodies will move towards the sides whi they are placed within a few lines of it. : 3. If one of the bodies is susceptible of being wetted. © with water, and the other not, such as two globules of cork, one of which has been carbonised by the flame of a taper, then if we attempt, by means of a wire or. any other substance, to make the bodies approach, they will fly from each other as if they were ee repelled. If the vessel is of glass, and if’ the mn ised pire of cork is placed in it, it will be found im« i bdiges Ayebncels contact with the sides.of vessel. ‘ In these experiments, it is obvious that the approxi« HYDRODYNAMICS: 479 mation and the recession of the floating bodies are not joerg garttndiepebagrseer SrA ged mere ley oh OuCapillary produced by any attraction or repulsion between the _pulsive. Place also concludes, that when the planes a. two; for if the bodies, instead of floating on the fluid, are very near each other, the elevation of the fluid be- Cohesion of are by long and slender threads, it will be’ tween them is in the inverse ratio of their mutual dis- ~ pyuids, found they have not the slightest tendency either tance, and is equal to half the sum of the elevation ~-~— to approach or recede when they are brought extremely’ which would have taken place, if we suppose the first J near each other. From these experiments the following plane of the same matter as the second, and the second laws are deducible: of the same matter as the first. 1. If two bodies, ing on the surface of a fluid, and. _—It follows from these theorems, that the repulsive en y the fluid, are placed near force of floating planes is much more feeble than the other, they will approach as if they were mutu-. attractive force w is de when the planes are ally attracted. : very near each other, and which occasions them to ap- 2. If the two bodies are not susceptible of being proach each other with an accelerated motion. - In this wetted by the fluid, they will still approach each other case, the elevation of the fluid between the planes is when brought nearly into contact, as if they were mu- very great, relative to its elevation on the outside of tually attracted. the same plane. In neglecting, therefore, the P er 2 cage lind ier rag en J of this last elevation in relation to the square of the first, the fluid prism, Meets on gr hm toned wn other as if they.were mutually repelled. tual tendency of the planes, in virtue of the first of the enn oe ‘st lam.—If two plates of glass. two preceding theorems, will be equal to the product D, Fig. 8. are Ae en ae of the elevation of the interior fluid, by » where the two curves of elevated flui "half the horizontal distance of the planes. This eleva- meet, is on a level with the rest of the water, they will tion being, by the second theorem, reci y pro- remain in equilibrium. Iftheyare brought near- portional to the mutual distance of the planes, the er each , however, as in Fig. 9. the water will rise poe yt be proportional to their horizontal distance between them to the height G. The mass of water divided by the square of that distance. The tendency of which is thus raised attracts the sides of the glass the twop' to each other will consequently be in the lange apne them to approximate in a horizontal inverse ratio of the square of their distance ; and there- i mass of water having always the same fore, like the ferces of electricity and magnetism, it effect as a curved chain bu tothe tans paanie, The will follow the law of universal attraction. same tie ah:tne testing ‘bellay rohan dap When the two planes are of such a nature that the come such a distance that the fluid is elevated ome is capable of being wetted with the fluid, while the i 1 e . 10, where other is not capable of being wetted, then, in conse- ev Catiesieenal theeuhutencee of shiche che dcoting of - Selopiped of . wae ott totes as er a i ivory, so one of its faces was planes are made, the tendency of each of them to one ano- 1 me he of tale. The ivory was made to oe eee aciagtion of Said oheceinighy advance pained i ph pe is the elevation of the between the planes, measured and was stopped at short intervals, in to shew " , } moving 7 of these elevations, and whose width is the horizontal very nearly to the talc, the latter moved om between the planes. The elevation must be denly into contact with the ivory. iii Sipianatinng the a two bodies, the ivory was wetted to a certain height mercury. If the product of the three preceding dimen- aivove thie ordi; ‘thd ta repeating the experiment £80 ‘OnCapilary fore wiping the ivory, ‘the attraction commenced soon- ae er, and sometimes exhibited itself at the very first, with- on ee out being preceded by any sensible repulsion. This -Cohesion . “ of Rluids, @Xperiment was ‘repeated several times with the same ——— result, Another series of phenomena, which indicate apparent attraction and repulsion, are seen in the motion of small lighted wicks when swimming in a bason of oil, and in the motion of camphor upon the surface of water. Although these phenomena are’ not preduced by ca- pillary attraction, yet we shall give a short account of them at present, on account of their general-simila~ rity. Dr Wilson’s The phenomena of lighted wicks were carefully ob- experiments served, and minutely described, by Professor Wilson on the mo- of Glasgow in the Transactions of the Royal Society of a8 a Edinburgh. His Hydrostatical Lamp, as he calls it, ignte consists ofa small circular disc of common writing pa- icks swim- : z ° ’ ing His per, about 3 of an inch in diameter, having about a bason of oil quarter of an inch of soft cotton thread rising up; through a puncture in.the middle of the dise to answer the purpose ef a wick, If this wick is lighted, and the disc placed in.a shallow glass vessel filled with pure salad oil, it will immediately sail briskly forward in one direction till it meets the side of the vessel, and will afterwards take a circular course, always bearing up to the sides, and will thus perform many revolu- tions. The circulation is sometimes from right to left, and sometimes from left.to right. When the wick is pla- ced out of the centre of the disc, it will sail to that part of the dise which is farthest from the wick, and if the dise is made of an oval form, and the wick placed in one of its foci, the disc will sail in the direction of the nearest ex« tremity of the transverse axis. Dr Wilson observed avery active repulsion between the stem of the disc and the oil of the surface contiguous to it. When fine.charcoal dust was scattered around the dise, it left behind it a diverging wake clear of all dust. Other fluids, such as oil of turpentine, ether, alcohol, or any of the in- flammable fluids possessing much tenuity, also double rum, melted tallow, bees wax, and rosin, exhibit the same effects when the discs float upon their surface. Dr Wilson accounts for these phenomena in the fol- lowing manner: When the oil has an.uniform tempera- ture, all its parts are in equilibrio; but -when the lam is lighted, the oil below the disc. being, most ‘heated, will expand itself, and will be raised above the general level, from the diminution of its specific gravity, and the unbalanced upward pressure of the fluid. The weight of the disc will therefore press down the oil, or even the weight of the oil itself will cause it to rise as it were from below the wick in a thin superfi- cial stream. Hence Dr Wilson conceives, that this constant stream will flow most readily and copiously towards that side of the base of the lamp where the re- sistance is least, or where it has the shortest way to press forwards, that is from under the wick or flame, or the edge of the disc, which is the nearest. The reaction of the stream of -rarefied oil rising most rapidly and most Sapiously from.one side of the disc, will therefore-im- the lamp in the .contrary direction. When the iscs are soaked with oil, or when they are made of.a thin plate of talc, they always sink to the bottom as soon as the flame is extinguished. If a wafer much heated is thrown upon any of the fluids, above: men- * See the Hdinburgh Transactions, vol. iv. p. 144, &e.. : é HYDRODYNAMICS. tioned, it will immediately glide away, and continue in OnCapi motion till it cools, * ' a _ The-singular motions of pieces of camphor floating upon the surface of ‘water, have been long observed ; ride. but they were never completely described and explain- ~ ved till M. Venturi published inthe Memoirs presented to Venturi’s the Institute of France his -ingenious:‘memoir, entitled &xPerimen Precis de quelques experiences sur la section que des stn ad cylindres de camphre eprowvent a la surface de Penn et snotion 4 reflexions sur les: mouvemens qui accompagment celle sec- camphor lion, ’ floating Having cut some pieces of camphor into the shape’ W®™ of small cylinders, a line in diameter, and an inch high, he fixed-each of them to a base of lead, and placed’ them vertically in plates. He then poured water into the plates, till it reached about half way up each cy~ linder. After two or three hours the cylinders began todiminish at the place where they were cut by the surface of the water, and after about twenty-four hours they were entirely cut through into two parts, none of hich had suffered any sensible diminution. - He next took three pieces of camphor, each of which weighed twenty-four grains, and he placed one of them in dry air, another in water, and the third on the surface of water. After four days‘the piece on the sur- face of the water was entirely dissipated, while each of the other two had lost only four or five grains. M. Venturi next placed some of his camphor cylin- ders on the surface of water, in vesséls of different sizes, and he always found that the cylinder was cut through soonest in those vessels that presented the greatest surface. This singular fact arises from the’ camphor being dissolved by the water, and extending itself over all the fluid surface, when it is the more readily evaporated by its coming into contact with a greater quantity of air. The dissolution of the cam- hor may be seen detaching itself from the cylinder in the form ofa very transparent liquid oil, and spread. . ing itself over the whole surface'of the water. When in the contour of the cylinder, there is some place which furnishes this oil more abundantly ; if’ small light subs stances are thrown upon the surface, they are repelled ° from this place with great briskness, and then turning round, they come back to the same place, and again enter the current, where they continue to circulate in this manner. Ifa small piece of camphor previously wetted at its extremity approaches the ‘margin of the vessel, and then touches the vessel itself, it deposits a fluid visible to the eye. This fluid is -oily ; and on at- taching itself to the vessel, it destroys its capillary at- traction for the water, and the water retires from it and becomes convex at this place.» When the piece of cam- phor is taken away, the water does not return to its lace till the oily liquor is evaporated. When the cy- inders of camphor are half immersed in water, the oily liquor which issues from it destroys the cohesion between. the water and the cylinder, and a small de« pression takes place round ‘the cylinder. The dissolu- tion stops fora moment till the oily liquor expanded over the water has evaporated. The water then re« turns to its elevated state round the cylinder ; the cam- phor is dissolved and diffused; and the same opera- tions are repeated. ' q: The motions of small pieces of camphor observed by M. Romieu are produced by the mechanical reac- tion of’ the jet of dissolution against the camphor ; and HYDRODYNAMICS. 481 if the centre of percussion of all the jets do not coincide and sometimes advance to free themselves from the On Capil- with the centre of gravity, a San ay and progressive pencil when they are interlaced. These appearances pr calves ane As the jets are generated only are explained by Venturi on the supposition that the cohesion of i of the section of the piece of cam- water which it absorbs is decomposed by the assistance Fluids. it ought to revolve round an axis perpendicular to of light, and that the ee out the oxygen inadi- —-\— horizon; and the smallest pieces will obviously rection always opposite to the light. Hence it will fol- turn round with more velocity than ones. low that the plant must always move towards the quar- _ MM. Lichtenberg and Volta this rotation to ter from which the light is admitted. an emanation from the camphor, and also from the ben- ; and succinic acids, which have the same property. __In addition to the works quoted under the article li di that the bark of aromatic plants Capmtary Arrraction, vol. v. p. 412, the reader is when thrown upon water, moved round like camphor; referred to the following: Pascal, Traifez de L’ Equi- and Venturi remarked a similar motion in the saw-dust libre de Liqueurs et de la pesanteur de la Masse de L’ Air, of different woods, that had imbibed either a fixed or a Avertissement, 2d edit. Paris, 1664. Rohault, Traité volatile ei]. Romieu ascribed these motions to electri- de Physique, or Dr Clarke’s translation of it, under the that the camphor sometimes refused to title of Rohaulti Physica, Lond. 1710, Part I. chap. turn, and at other times its movements were suddenly xxii. § 69, 70, 71, 80, 81. Boyle’s New Experiments stopped, by touching the water with particular bodies. Physico-Mechanical, touching the spring of the air, and The cause of these irregularities, whi sy oo reer its Effects, made for the most part in a New Pneumati- was discovered by Venturi. He found, cal Engine, exp. 35. p. 262. Oxford, 1660. Boyle, Phil. Trans. 1676, vol. xi. p. 775. Hooke’s Attempt which was fat or oily, or which diffused a small portion for the explicdtion a} the phenomena observable in an or a great portion of volatile oilover the sur- experi ished by the Right Hon. Robert Boyle, face, the dissolution and the motion ofthe camphor were in the 35th experiment of his Epistolical Discourse, i touching the air, in confirmation of a former conjecture eee, 2 Raavios and se. made by R. H. Lond. 1660. Hooke On Springs, 4to. i i 1678. Vossius De Nili et aliorum fluminum origine, Hag. 1666. Fabri, Dialogi Physici, Lyons, 1669. : Borelli, De motionibus a Gravitate naturalé lenté, or matter, and the motions of the camphor Lyons, 1670. Sinclair's Ars nova et magna Gravitatis never in the slightest affected. Whenthe ef Levilatis. Rotterdam, 1669. Joh, Christophorus was efterw greased with a smal] Sturmius, Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, pars oil of olives, and again brought into contact i. tentamen viii. p. 44. et auctorium tentam. viii. p. 77. Norimberge, 1676. The second part of this work was the small bits of published at Norimberg in 1685. James Bernoulli, , stroke, deprived them of Dissertatio de Gravitate Etheris, 1683. De La Hire, vitality. Venturi repeated this experi- Mem. Acad. Par. tom. ix. p. 157. Carré, Experiences diameter, The sur les tuyaux Capillaires in the Mem. Acad. Par. 1705, i p- 241, Daniel Bernoulli in the Comment. Petropol, i 1727, p. 246. Mariotte Traité du Mouvement des Eaux, the motions of the camphor were speedily stop. vol. ii. p. 105. Par. 1700. Cotes, Hydrostatical Lec« tures, sect. xi. Lond, 1738. Cigna, Journal de P, sique, tom, iii. p. 109. Lord Charles Cavendish in wor Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 382. Monge, Mem. Acad, Par. i i the 1787, p. 506. Beste, Journal de Physique, vol. xxviii. prt sed retarded or on ley tahoe un- p. 171 ; xxix. p. 287, 399; xxx. p. 125. Wilson, Edine liquor forms itself into a thin film upon the Transactions, vol. iv. p.144. Venturi, Memoires surface of the water. In like manner, the particles of a a L’ Institut, tom. i, 125. Paris, 1805, ri M. Hauy and Tremery in La Place’s Suppl. au Diz. ee a but their motions do not con- Liv. de la Mecanique Celeste. La Place, , because the film of oil which they spread over a la Theorie de Caction Capillaire, Par. 1807. Gay Lus- the water is not dissipated. sac, Id, Biot’s Traité de Physique, tom. is chap. xxii. er yee and is exposed to a heat Paris, 1816. 80 the motions of the camphor are not prevented. On CHAP. VI. : ; i gz : E i : : Hi ‘ 8 i if : BE z HL i : & F : FLgt] ges ‘ fe : ec ‘ ii Hl aff ri! 28 23 : i aE : : g ; : 3 F tion of this heat. Description oF InstruMENTS, AND Experiments vor M. Venturi apices the oes principles tothe rLusTRATING THE DocTRINES oF Hypaostatics. uatic plant rises to the 1."Description of the Mechanic or Hydrostatic Parados. pin a box — I appears from Cor. 2. of Prop. iv. p. 428, that the : cil of light is ad- pressure exerted upon the bottoms of vessels filled with ey one of its sides, the tre- fluid, does not depend upon the quantity of fluid which few hours, and advances they contain, but solely upon its altitude. This propo- sition has been called the mechanic or hydrostatic pa- rodox, and the instrument for illustrating it has received Poors ich they oye the same name. « hem ; CCCXVIL bg sometimes oscillate one side to another, This instrument is shewn in Fig. 1.where AB isa box, Fig. 1. Sr i I | : A ai i i re i if it | i Ul 482 liydrostati- which contains abouta pound of water, and. abcde aglass cal Insta tube, fixed to the end C of the beam of a balance, and the "Experi. Other end to a moveable bottom, by which the water in ments. the box is supported, the bottom and wire being equal in “=~ ~weight to an empty scale suspended at the other extre- PiaTe mity of the balance. If a pound weight is put into the en empty scale, it will cause the bottom to rise a little, and mon the water will appear at the lower end of the tube a; The water will therefore press with a force of one pound upon the bottom. If another pound is put into the scale, the water will ascend to 6, twice as high as the point a, above the bottom of the vessel. Ifa third, a fourth, and a fifth pound be put successively into the scale, the water will rise at each time to c, d, and e, the distances a b, bc, cd, de, being equal to one another, This result will be obtained, however small be the bore of the glass tube ; and since when the water is at b, c, d, e, the pressures upon the bottom are successively twice, thrice, four times and five times as great as when the water. was contained within the box, it follows that the pressure upon the bottom of the vessel depends wholly on the height of the water in the glass tube, and not upon the quantity which it contains. Ifa long narrow tube, therefore, be fixed in the top of a eask, and if both the cask and the tube be filled with water; then though the tube be so small as not to hold a pound of the fluid, the pressure of the water in the tube will be in danger of bursting the cask in pieces, for the pressure is the same as if the cask was continued u in its full size to the height of the tube, and filled wit water : (See Chap.I. Sect.1. Prop. IV. Cor.2.) It follows therefore, from this principle, that any quantity of water, however small, may be made to exert a force of any as- ~ signable magnitude, by increasing the height of the co- lumn, and diminishing the base on which it presses. This, however, has its limits ; for when the tube becomes capillary, the attraction of the glass will support a great quantity of the included water, and will therefore dimi- nish the pressure upon its base. The preceding machine should be so constructed, that the moveable bottom may have no friction against the inside of the box, and that no water may get between it and the box. The method of effecting this will be manifest from Fig. 2. where ABCD is a section of the box, and abcd its lid, which is made very tight. The moveable bottom E, with a groeve round its edges, is put into a bladder fg, which is tied close round it in the grooye by a strong waxed thread. The upper part of the bladder is put over the top of the box, at a and d, all around, and is kept firm by the lida 4ed, so that if water be poured into the box through the aperture // in its lid, it will be con- tained in the space fE gh, and the bottom may be raised by pulling the wire ¢ fixed to it at the point E of the moveable bottom. See Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. p- 100. Edit, Edin. 1806. Fig. 2, 2. Description of the Hydrostatic Press. Bescription ef the hy- drostatic press. This ingenious and powerful machine, which has been recently brought into notice by the late Mr Bra- mah, is founded on the doctrine contained in the corol- lary to the fundamental principle of the equilibrium of fluids, (see p. 427,)namely, that if any number of pistons are applied to apertures of different sizes in the sides of a vessel full of water, the forces with which the pistons are spelies will be in equilibrio, if they are proportional to. the apertures to which they are applied. Thus ifa piston G (Fig. 1.) is applied to an aperture at G, having an area of two square inches, it will be’ in equilibrio with another piston applied to the whole aperture AB of 2000 square inches, if the force with which the piston PLATE SccXitt, Fig. 1. HYDRODYNAMICS. G is applied, is to the foree with which AB is applied Hydrostati- as 2 to 2000, er as 1 to 1000. Hence it follows, that a “! ! force of one pound applied at G will raise 1000 pounds “pase placed upon the piston AB. The same result will be ments. obtained if the vessel has the form shewn in Fig. 11. y one piston being applied at a6, and the other at Prate 2 CccXIIL, Fhe hydrostatic press founded on this principle was Ue first proposed as a new machine by Faaaky in his Trai= tex de L’ Equilibre des Liqueurs, et de la Pesanteur, de la Masse de L’air, Chap. Il. Edit. 2d. Paris, 1664. He de- seribes it as a new sort of machine for multiplying for- ees, (Nouvelle sorte de machine pour multiplier les for- ces,) and he considers it as a new mechanical Basile ugh equal in value to the lever or the screw. . Al Pascal speaks so highly of his new machine, it is not a little singular, that no attempt appears to have been made for more than a century aad 5) half to apply it to the useful purposes of life. Mr Bramah had the very great merit, not only of re-inventing the machine, (for we believe he was not aware of its having been propo- sed by any other person,) but of pointing out its appli- cation to a great variety of useful purposes, such as working cranes, pulling up the roots of trees, packing goods of all kinds, &c. In‘our article Crane, (see Vol. VII. pp. 315, 316, &c.) we have given a full de- scription of the hydrostatic press, as applied to a crane; and by studying that of the article, our readers will have no difficulty in understanding the construc- tion of the instrument. The hydrostatic press is represented by the parts Prate GHEFFL of Fig. 1. Plate CCXV. In the Figure, FF CCXV- pes ne the wooden frame which supports the iron Fig: | eylinder L. This cylinder communicates with a small copper pi h, terminating in a common forcing- pum at h, which stands in an iron cistern H_ contain« ing the water. The power is applied to the handle G of the pump, and the piston, pressing on the surface of the water in the pipe at h, communicates its force, through the intervention of the water, to the piston of the cylinder L, to the top of which the work to be per- formed is applied. See also our article Jack in thi volume, page 599. 8. Hydrostatic Bellows improved by Ferguson. The common hydrostatic bellows consisted of a tube common of glass or any other substance, about three feet high, hya ; communicating with a cylindrical vessel, whose sides bellows. were made of leather like a pair of bellows, while its } upper and lower surfaces were formed of circular or oval s about 15 inches in diameter. When water is poured into the tube, it flows into the bellows, and separates the boards a little. Heavy weights to the amount of 300 pounds, are then placed a the upper board, and by pouring water into the tube till it reach- es the top, the moveable board with all. its load will be raised and kept in equilibrio by the column of fluid, al- though the fluid itself does not weigh more than a quar- ter of a pound. In order to shew the experiment with more effect, a man may place himself upon the up) board instead of the weights, and raise himself merely by pouring water into the small pipe. sia The following very ingenious machine has been pro- Improved = by Mr Ferguson as a substitute for the common by Fergu- ydrostatical bellows: ABCD, Fig. 3.is an oblong square a box, into one of whose sides is fixed the ‘glass’ cox vind tube aI, which is bent into a right angle at the lower Fi, 3, 4, / end, at i, Fig. 4. To this bent extremity is tied the 5. i neck of a large bladder K, which lies -in'the bottom of the box ABCD. Over this bladder is placed the moveable guson’s Lectures, vol. ii. for illustrating the ¢ re If we take a commion wine glass AB, and, in a vertical , bring its mouth in the surface of water in the vessel M, it will pe Ee cnt Serer fs 4. Experi im : i! rant al | A " z. | Hee pigtaeies i HYDRODYNAMICS. weeia tre 483 will force up the mercury, and the height to Hydrostati- which it rises will shew the magnitude of the pressure “t! Mnstru- - d at different depths. “experi. the PLATE of a man made CCCXVIL. of glass or enamel, is so constructed that it has the same F's: 7 specific gravity as water, and is therefore suspended in a mass of fluid. A bubble of air, (similar to the air in the glass of Exp. 1.) communicating with the water, is of the fi , Sometimes in a small again rises, so that it may be made to oscillate or dance in the vessel without any visible cause. Fishes made of glass are sometimes substituted in place of the human figure, and when a common jar is used for the experi- pe aed ae dehy oe fitemede oovthe tet at A. The construction of the apparatus shewn in Fig. 6. is obviously the best, as the spectator does not ob- means*which are employed to alter the speci- nn Bese figure. ree . 5. pressure of fluids at great depths is finely illustrated by an epariment Shieh has often been made at sea, of making an empty bottle well cork- to a great . The pressure of the wa- in the cork, and the bottle when brought up is always filled with water. Mr , the respec. Travels in the South of Africa, tried this t on his voyage home from the Cape of Good He drove very tight into an empty bottle a , Which was so large half of it remained above A cord was then tied round the cork, and of the bottle, and a poy of was put over the whole. When it was let down to 50 fathoms, the captain felt, by the additional weight, that it had instantaneously filled ; and, upon drawing it up, the cork was fi in the bottle, which was of course filled with in a similar manner ; re the cork, a sail needle was -- = it had filled with water; but, upon same tion, no part itch a to be S, although the bottle was completely filled with water. The water had in this case obviously insinuated cork, and pores of through away the — im ity of this explanation. — See Campbell’s Tresds, pr OOF Make Lond, 1815. Experi- ments for & iment Tor i the q the . illustrating waa", ret ig yea equality of PPES- he eauality of the pres- If a soft or frangible substance is exposed to an — force in one directior more than anotlier, it. will on” 1 ill direction. 484 Hydrostati- either lose its, shape, or be broken to pieces; but. if cal aap the force with which the body is pressed is applied “tape, tovevery part of the body, it will preserve its form if ments. it: is- soft, and will not be broken if it is frangible, =~» Hence it follows, that if any body is exposed to a pressure sufficiently powerful to change its shape or crush it to, pieces, and if it preserve its form and its integrity under this pressure, we are entitled to infer that the pressure is equal in every direction. Let a piece of very soft wax, of an irregular shape,and an egg, be placed in a bladder filled with water. Let the bladder be then laid in a brass box, and a cover of brass put upon the bladder, so as to be entirely sup< ported by it. Ifa hundred or a hundred and fifty pounds weight be laid upon this cover, so as to press upon the bladder, this enormous force, though propagat- ed through the fluid, and acting upon the soft wax and egg, will produce no effect. The egg will not be bro-~ ken, nor will the wax change its figure. 6. Apparatus for Illustrating the Doctrine of Specific Gravities. : Apparatus Tn order ta shew that when a solid body is immersed in for flustra- ting the 2 fluid, the loss of weight which it sustains is equal to. doctrine of the weight of the water which it displaces, or of a specific gra- Quantity of water of the same bulk with the body, vities. the following very simple apparatus has been em- ployed. PLATE A cylindrical or cubieal body of any kind, either en- CUCXVILE tirely solid, or made hollow and loaded within, so as: Fig. 8. to sink in the fluid, is exactly fitted to a hollow cylinder or cubical vessel, so that the solid contents of the bollow cylinder or cubical vessel is exactly equal to the solid con- tents of the cylindrical or cubical solid. The cylindrical or cubical vessel is then suspended to the hook of a hy-. drostatic balance, or any other balance, and the solid cy~ linder or cube is suspended to a hook in the bottom of the cylindrical or cubical vessel. Weights are now put into the opposite scale of the balance till an equilibri-« um is produced in air. Every thing remaining in this situation, the solid cylinder or cube is completely im- mersed under water, and consequently the equilibrium is destroyed ; that is, the scale of the balance to which the apparatus is suspended will require to have added to it a weight equal to the loss of weight ig ay the solid, in order to restore this equilibrium. By fill- ing with water; therefore, the cylindrical or cubical vessel, it will be found that the equilibrium is exactly restored. Hence it is obvious to the eye, that the loss, of weight sustained by the solid is exactly equal to the weight of water displaced. = 7. Lo make a Body lighter than Water lie at the bottom of a Vessel filled with Water. We have seen in Prop. IV. p. 430, that when a body has a less specific gravity than a fluid, it will float upon To make a body light- er than wa- ter lie atthe *he surface of the fluid, as it is pressed upwards. with bottom of a a force greater than its own weight. If by any means, vessel filled however, we can prevent the upward pressure from with water. acting upon the i body, it is manifest that it must remain at the bottom of the vessel in the. same manner as it would rest upon any other body in the open air, for the body is not only pressed down by its own weight but by the ne of the superincumbent fluid. In order to shew how to prevent the upward pres- sure from acting upon the solid, let us take two pieces ef wood planed perfectly flat and smooth, so that no wa- HYDRODYNAMICS. ter can get in between them when their smooth surfaces, Hy are put together. If one of the pieces of wood is ce- mented to the bottom of a glass vessel, so as to have its smooth side uppermost, and if the other piece is pla-. ced above it, and held in that situation till the vessel is filled with water, it will be found to lie as quietly and. firmly as if it were a plate of lead or stone. If the: edge of the upper plate, however, is raised in the. * slightest degree, so as to allow the water to insinuate. itself between the plates, the wood will instantly spring to the surface. __ ; This experiment is sometimes made in a different manner. A flat and smooth brass plate is fixed at. the bottom of the vessel, and a large mass of cork has a thin smooth brass plate fixed to its bottom, so that. the specific gravity of the cork and its brass base may be: much less than that of water. The brass plate on which. the cork rests is then placed on the fixed brass e and when water is poured into the vessel, the cork will remain at the bottom. The.two brass plates should be oiled a little on their touching surfaces, and should be ground upon one another, but not very accurately, for in this case the force of cohesion would prevent their separation, independent of the weight of the superincum- bent pressure of the fluid ; as it is well known that one brass plate can lift another in the open air, even when - it is two or three pounds weight, The experiment as * made with the brass plates is therefore not so satisfac. . tory as the one with pieces.of wood, forthe reason which - we have now assigned ; and though we are satisfied that. the cork and the brass. plate are together lighter than. water, yet the result appears less Sakon as we are al« ways in the habit of seeing brass sink to the bottom. _ A similar result may also be obtained by pa ie glass plate at the bottom of a glass vessel, using a p of ivory instead of wood, and pouring mercury into the. vessel in place of water. ments a . Experi- © ments, 8, Experiment for illustrating the parabolic form of @ sit Sea id surface influenced by. a centrifugal force. In order to shew that a horizontal surface of water Experiment assumes a parabolic form when it is acted upon by a for illust centrifugal force, along with the force of gravity, we ting the pa-/ have only to take a bucket containing water, whose ope a surface c d is of course horizontal when the bucket is slot at rest. If by means of a rope R, however, fastened to quenced by the handle AB, we give the bucket a rotatory motion a centrifugal round a epee line, the surface will dont its etary angel | form, and the water becoming concave in the centre, | rise round the sides. of the vessel, and have its. surface re of the form of a parabolic conoid, whose section m no isa parabola. See Chap. I. Prop, 1. cor. p. 427. . 9. Description of Dr Hooke’s Semicylindrical Counters. The principal object of this ingenious contrivance Hooke’s se- was to keep a vessel always full of water, or any other micylindri. | fluid, but as it is not only of use in hydrostatical experi. ©! counter) ments, but also illustrative of the principles of the equi- ' librium of fluids, we have thought it necessary to give @.ccex vit. drawing and description of it in this place. In Fig. 9. Rig. 9, ABG is a vessel of any form. Upon a horizontal axis C, a semicylinder or a hemisphere, whose section is. DEF, is made to revolve, and the weight of the semi- cylinder is so adjusted that it is exactly equal to the weight of a portion of the fluid of half its magnitude. When the yessel is filled with water, the semicylinder HYDRODYNAMICS 485 Mytresait- is half immersed, andsince it has half the specific grs- and therefore it will rise to a greater height than the Hydrostati- al fnstru- the semicylinder is in the same cir- reservoir from which it flows. ne —-. cumstance as if it were floating, and therefore exerts no _In the hydreole by pressure, the air is driven by force apes pressure on the horizontal axis C. As: the vessel is a number of small holes, so as to mix itself ments. either by evaporation, or by discharge from an with the water in a number of minute bubbles. In or- —-—” pers sehr: A of the semicylinder immersed will derto form a proper idea of this machine, let us sup- Hydreole en be diminished, and the equilibriam of consequence pose that ABCD, Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 11. isa reservoir by pressure. red; and it will therefore move round the axis filled with water, and that the bent tube a bcd is join- Seer, C till half of it is again immersed, and the equilibrium ed to it at D. The water will obviously rise to the same fyi. 11, restored. In this way the semicylinder will always de- level ab, AB in both vessels. Let us suppose, that a scend as the water runs out, and consequently the fluid pair of bellows M is applied to an opening N in the must necessarily stand at the same height AB in the tube, closed with a plate of iron, perforated with a great vessel. number of eatell holes; the air discharged from the bel- lows will enter the water in the oe ee minute 10. Experiments illustrative of the Pressure of the Supe- ubbles, which will be kept separate from each other by r 7 Taferi rata. the mutual adhesion of the icles of water. The wa- rior Strata of Fluids upon the Inferior ter above N will thus be rendered specifically lighter, and a Exp. 1. If we pour coloured water into a glass ves- will therefore rise in the tube abcd. Instead of using "* sel, and put a tube of glass, with a bore exceeding ,3, a pair of bellows, M. Mannoury Dectot obtains a current of an inch, ai edbdindl einid Galan Mn thatele at air in the following manner. Between the opening N the supe- the same height as it does in the vessel. Let oil of and the reservoir ABCD, he places a close vessel, com- of turpentine be now poured above the water, and its municating by one pipe with the reservoir, and by ano- pressure upon the surface of the water will cause the ther with the opening at N. A column of water from coloured fluid to ascend in the tube, but always to a the reservoir runs into the close chamber, compresses height less than that of the surface of the oil of turpen- the included air, and thiscompressed air rushing through tine ; the column of the coloured fluid raised, beingtothe the other tube, enters through the holes in the aperture pow gether tee —aeeoting ewer henner nt amar gt eg em asthe \ specific gravities. same experiment may be made e have not able to obtain any account of the ver in place of the coloured preceding machine, but the very enesal one contained ; winds pene seine te omens __ in the report of MM. Prony, Perier, and Carnot, which nyt Ifa contains any fluid, a heavier fluid was of by the Institute of France, on the 28th may be introduced below the hter one, without any December 1812. An account of M. Mannoury Dectot’s ety lace, and their separating surface will new hydraulic machines, will be found in Part ILI. of be horizontal. a vessel for example contains water, this article on Hypraviic Macuinery. let a quantity of milk be drawn up into a glass tube by . Se ne Serene a nants 12. Description of the Common Syphon. vessel, The syphon is a tube of glass or metal, bent in such Description eae ne: rn pans gine og ay : invent the other, It is represented in Fig. 10. by ABCD. 31.) Description of the Hiytrecles iauented ty Mi, Mam. vy. ctor log AB ie immersed in the Gaid im the ves. FuA7%,,, sel MNOP, and by applying the mouth to the orifice Fig, 10, In I. of Chap. I. Sect. II, it has been demon. D, and sucking out the air in the syphon, the water as- strated, when two fluids are placed in the ite cends, and will continue to be discharged at D till the branches of a bent tube or syphon, the altitudes vessel is completely emptied. i ion will be in the inverse ratio § Let us suppose that the had legs of equal fight in one of the branches 1 pe ee ene to a greater height in one branches up by suction till it extremity C ; it 5g Poe teal hoon has employed this principle eee ena tae needs ‘- is princi water is to the pressure of the air at the extre« very ingeniously in a ae above its natural mityC, and as the columns AB, BC of the fluid are equal, level, by mixing air with water, so as to diminish there is no force which could enable the water to dis- its specific gravity, and thus cause it to rise to a econ- Sea ees Or hes Soe Cy bentipensiarendee i . , So as to be equal to BD, then the water is dis- intimate mixture of water and air, charged at D by the pressure of the additional column minute ba CD, and the ity with which it is discharged will birsy Aon Snes Ce A prem alaal ne s be in proportion to the difference between the legs of being kept separate each other, they are retained by the syphon. each other and 13, Description of an Improved Syphow improved PE he genes at the extremity of its longer branch ° 4° im- SERS Sil ti Ry deeeln by enttion, AB. A small bent tebe ED lying’ sheng outside Proved #y- of same branch, communicates with the cavity Fig. ib water passes through a mass of air, of the branch AB, above the stop-cock. When the part of it, and becomes in some measure gaseous, aperture C is in the fluid to be drawn off, the Hydrosta- tical In- struments and Expe- riments. ——— Description of a syphon acting by ca- of water, and wi! pillary at- traction. 486 mouth of the stdp-cock D is closed, and the air is drawn out of the longer branch by suction at E. Instead of a k at B, the finger may be applied till the air is sucked out at E. 14. Description of a Syphon acting by Capillary At- traction. If a bunch of cotton or worsted threads, or any ab- sorbing fibres, is placed with one extremity in a vessel th the other hanging over the edge of it, the: fluid will rise among the threads by the force ef capillary attraction, and the water will be discharged from the longer branch in suiccessive drops: _ Mr Leslie has _ ingeniously employed this syphon for keeping moist the bulb of his hygrometer. 15. Explanation of intermitling or reciprocating Springs upon the principle of the Syphon. Explana- A reciprocating spring, is a spring which alternately tion of ine flows and ceases to flow. .The name is also given to those termitting springs which havea periodical swell, or which discharge — a great quantity of water at one time, and a'smali quan- springs up- tity at another, after regular intervals. The first of on the prin- these kinds of springs is easily accounted ‘for, by sup- ciple of the posing that the channel which carries off the water from syphon. —_a cavern has the form of a syphon. In this case, the wa- ter will only flow when it rises in the cavern to a height equal to that of the syphon, and the flow will stop till the cavern is again filled tothe same height. The following explanation of the second kind of intermitting springs was suggested about a century ago to Dr Atwell of Ox- ford, by the phenomena of LaywellSpringat Brixam, near Prater Torbay, in Devonshire. Let AA bea large cavern near CCCRVIL the top of a hill, which derives its supply of water from Pig. 12. rains or melted snow percolating through the-chinks of the mountain, and let CC be the small channel which convey the waters of the cavern to the dpening G inthe hill, where they are discharged in the form of a small spring. From the cavern AA let there bé a'small channel D, which carries water into another B, and let the water of the second cavern be carried off by a bent channel EeF wider than D, and joining the first channel CC at f, be- fore it issues from the mountain, the point of junction JS being below the level of the bottom of both the ca- verns. »As the cavern B fills with water, the fluid will ascend to the same height in the channel EeF, but it will not be discharged. by this channel till the surface in B is on a level with e, the highest part of the chan- nel. -The water will then be carried off by the natural EeFG, till the whole is discharged, and conse- uently there will be a great swell in the spring at G, This swell will now cease, as the channel D does not convey the water into B_ so fast as the syphon EeF carries it off ; and it will again commence as soon as the water in B rises to a level with the summite. Mr Fer guson has illustrated this. operation by a simple machine, a description of which will be found in his Lectures, vol. ii. p- 106, 107. : To con- : ; : prepretstn 16. To construct a Vessel, from which the Water will which the “escape when it reaches a certain height. water will ‘This vessel, which is called Tantalus’s cup, consists when it Of a metallic vessel, ABCD, divided into two com- reaches a partments by the partition EF. A glass tube HA, open certain —_—_at_ both ends, is inserted in the opening H, in the parti« height. —_ tion EF, the lower end being allowed to reach a little bes Fig. 13. HYDRODYNAMICS. low EF. The tube Hh must then be covered by a Hydrost small glass receiver a bc, or a wide tube hermetically tical In- sealed above, a small aperture being left at the bottem = el of this tube to admit the water. This mechanism is ‘yiments, = covered by the figure of a man representing 7 antalus, as shewn in the drawing. If water is now Prats q poured into the vessel, it will admittance into the CCCXVIT, receiver or wide tube, and will always stand at the Fig- 1 same height in this tube that it does in the vessel, The water will therefore be retained in tlie vessel as long as it does not enter the tube Hh, but as soon as the water rises in the vessel to the same level as the int h, it will flow down the tube Hh; which acting ike a syphon, will discharge the whole flyid in the ves- sel. » If water is poured slowly in with the intention of making it rise to the lips of Tantalus, it will never reach them provided the syphon carries off the water faster than it is poured in. In. the lower compartment of the vessel, there ought to be a small air-hole near the top, to allow the air to eseape when the water takes its place. 17. To construct a vessel which retains water when it is upright, but discharges it when it is inclined. Let ABCD be the vessel divided as formerly irito two To con- compartments by the partition EF. Into this partition struct a insert the longer branch be of a syphon abc, whose vessel shorter branch 6 a@ reaches nearly to the bottom of the Which re- vessel. If water is now poured into the vessel till it 405 "a stands a little below the lower side of the bent part of the nis, phon, it is obvious that no water will descend thr. aoc e syphon, as it has not risen high enough through the it when shorter branch to enable it to pass through the bent por- is inclir tion. Ifthe vessel, however, is inclined to one side, as it is in the act of drinking, the water will rise higher __ in the short branch ab, pass over the bent part of Fis: 1 the syphon, descend in the longer branch, and carry off all the water into the lower compartment of the vessel. In order that this experiment may succeed, the sides of the vessel ought not to be symmetrical round the point a at the summit of the syphon ; for. in this case no in- clination of the vessel, however great, will cause the water to flow over the point @, The syphon should therefore be placed towards one side of the vessel, and the vessel inclined to the same side. aan A similar effect may be produced much more eles gantly by using the double cup shewn in Fig. 15. where Fig. 15. abe represents the on, The person who tries to drink, must apply his lips to the side 4 of the syphon, otherwise the experiment will not succeed. a —a— es 18. To construct a machine in which all the water pros Speen a basin from a jet @eau appears to be drank a bi ar This ingenious and elegant machine is shewn in Fig. To con: 16..where ABCD is.a vessel divided into three yart= structa ments by the partitions EF and GH. In the partition mach 2 in EF insert two tubes, one of which LM, forms a com- Which all — munication between the bottom of the compartment te wee BG and the bottom of EC; while the other tube IK forms Pr" a communication between the upper part of EC and the froma upper of HF. A third tube NO is fixed in the jet ea cover B emnonding from near the bottom of HF, and t rising with a tapering bore to the point O, through middle of the vessel SR, inte to receive the wa- ter which falls from the pipe NO. The figure of a bird with its bill immersed in the water in the basin SR, z 3 a en HE RITE isiciai pece a Pee: < eee itis Te 1 J Hsyuseientti iti ) ily acl He “Hea te nupeetley ree Hi Priel Perec ae is aH AEE ae athe Seu Hat iby Pandit pile Hy sie Caw 48 3 ede. S23 Peet y fe eRe : aie - :} da el eth Halt il ERE Haauilnhi | iain i HP = at Nth & rai RM Ha fu hy cima 3.f Ht i] ih iu A Hla 7 Ht Sadia Heel | Cue ite = att eet US ae : jag &@ ve ibs Fi TAF PH Hea fai teal iil mat z ees Hl ze GH He i eu LE aul ii a ae lea ai : | AFL allied 42 i 488 HYDRODYNAMICS. Discharge with which the lamine descend must be infinitely small. Disch E fiuics Definitions. Now it is obvious that the lowest film of fluidmnis Seiten : rl wa? pressed out by the weight of the column mnupo. wH—- _,1. A vertical orifice is an orifice placed in a vertical (See Chap. I. Sect. I. Prop. IV.) Let M be the mass Definitions. direction, so to allow the water to issue in a horizontal P cc TE coxVE the water always stands at AB, and let m n be the very 1, stream, 2. A horizontal orifice is an orifice placed in a hori- zontal direction, so as to allow the fluid to escape in a vertical direction. S. An ajutage is a name given to any orifice, or cy linder, or cone from which water issues. 4, An additional tube is a tube of any form, insert- ed in a simple orifice made in the sides or bottom of a vessel, 5. A head of water is aterm used to denote the height of the fluid above the orifice, or in general the height. of a spring or source of water above the lowest point where it can be employed to exert a mechanical force, either by its impulse or by its weight. 6. If water issues with a velocity V, equal to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through a height H, the velocity is ‘said to be the welecinr due to the height H, and the height is said to be due io the velocity V. Pror. I. If a fluid moves in an open canal, or through a tube, kept constantly full, whose diameter gradually varies, and if the fluid has the. same velocity in every point of the same section, the velocities in different sec- tions will be in the inverse ratio of the areas of the sections, Since the canal and tube are always full, the same uantity of fluid must pass through every section in the same time. But as the quantity of fluid which passes through any section, whose area is A, is proper: tional to that area, and also to the velocity V with which it flows, it must be preportional to A and V jointly, or A x V. In like manner the quantity of fluid which runs through the area a of any other sec tion in which v is the velocity, will be proportional to axv.. HenceViv=a:A, . ScHorium. The case stated in the proposition is one which is purely theoretical, and can never occur in practice. In every canal the velocity of the surface is always. greatest, and in every tube the particles in its axis al- ways. move most rapidly. Prop. II. _ Ifa fluid is discharged from a vertical or horizontal orifice infinitely small, in a vessel where the fluid is kept constantly at the same height, the velocity with which the fluid issues, is equal to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through a height to the height of the fluid above the orifice. _ Let ABDC, Fig. 1. be a vessel in which the surface of small orifice through which, the fluid is discharged. . Let us suppose the fluid divided by horizontal planes into an infinite number of laminz, then since the area of the ori- fice mn is infinitely small compared with the area of the lamine, it will follow, from Prop, I. that the velocity of the column of fluid mnhg, which is discharged at every instant by the pressure of mn po, or by the force mn X m 0, and let m be the mass of a lesser co« lumn of fluid me fn, which would have been dis« charged in the same time, solely by its own gravity, which may be represented by the line Em. Then if V be the velocity of the column m g hn, and w the ve-~ locity of the column m e fn, the quantity of motion of the column m g hn will be V x M, and the quantity of motion of the column mefnwill be u x m. But the moving forces are mn X mo, and mn X Em; and as they must be proportional to the quantities of motion which they produce, (see Dynamics, p. 286,) we have mnxXmoz:mnX Em=VXM:uxX mor VxM:uxm=mo:Em But the masses M, m discharged in the same time are as the area of the orifice multiplied by the velocity ; that is, M:m=mn xX Vimn X u, or M: m= V? 4, and as magnitudes have the same ratio as their equimulti« les have, (Euclid, V. 15,) we have V:Mu= V*:u?*; butit has already been shewn that MV:Mu=mo:Em, hence V?_:U* =mo:Em. Now if » is the velocity which a heavy body would acquire by falling through the height mo, we have, by Dynamics, p. 292, Case 4, 2: w=mo: mE, consequently ; V?: woo? : vu, and Y=? and V = », that is, the velocity V, with which the fluid issues from the orifice mm, under the pressure of the column m2 po, is equal to the velocity v, which a heavy body would acquire by falling through the height mn. : It is obvious, that the preceding reasoning is appli- cable to a vertical orifice, or to an orifice in any posi-~ tion, provided its depth is pe to mn, for the pressure’ of the fluid is the same in all directions. i Cor. 1. If the vessel ABDC, instead of being kept constantly full, is allowed to empty itself by the orifice mn, the velocity will always diminish ; and when the surface has assumed a lower level GH, the velocity will be that which is due to hm. Cor. 2. As the velocities of heavy bodies, descend ing by the force of gravity are as the square roots of the spaces or heights torongh which they fall, (see Dyna- Mics, p. 292, Case 4,) the velocity of the issuing fluid will be as the square roots of the altitude of the surface of the fluid above the orifice. That is, if the water stands successively at the heights om, hm, the veloci~ ties will be as “mo: 7 mh. Cor. 3. As the quantities of fluid discharged are pro-« portional to the velocities when the orifices remain the same, they will also be proportional by Cor. 2. to the square roots of the height of the fluid in the vessel. » Cor. 4, If the orifice is horizontal, but opening up- wards, so as to discharge the fluid in a vertical direc« tion, the water will rise in a jet to the same height as. the surface of the fluid in the reservoir. As all heavy bodies acquire in falling a velocity which would a them upward to the same height from which they fe the same must be true of fluids. In practice, however, the resistance of the air, and the friction of the fluid upon the sides of the orifice, prevent this from being true, 3 - ee. aay th $ ig BHLSHET) 3 Pala! 44 aii; foie 3 FR j + HE rte Te x Sai aid HEU GBE LL! oe ei yre = gs ated ee ae Te ST | q ° hit BA % at fy i Ay te ute eee Pare met eee elie ‘ad ej] unaHpE baal “ap Which « HEE eae dae JPR ie He terete aa tn iil Het ih eet ae Gh H Hh na? la i 7g tom PLATE CCCXVIL. so5 io §2 Gaal: iy Re ae Ae ase vi Hie at i He 238 Fle Hi eine i 4 : He Hh Ah ULE 12 Seo8ee 32 3 He VOL. XI. PART It, Discharge of Fluids from Orifices. Sy, PLATE €CCXVIII. Fig. 3. 490 may be supposed to be divided, and therefore the sum of all these elementary terms, which may be obtained either by fluxions or by a geometrical construction, will be the time required in the ition. — In order to find the time geometrically, draw EF equal and parallel to BC, and construct upon EF as an axis a parabola FTG, with a given eter p. Prolong the lines AB, MN, « », and RS ib they meet the pres bola in G, c,d, and T, ‘Construct a second curve XZY, so that each of the ordinates Ha, K 6, LZ, may be equal to the corresponding sections MN, « », RS, divided b: their corresponding ordinates in the parabola Hc, K d, LT. Now, since H a = He? Md MN = Ha x He, and since by the property of the parabola, (See Co- nic Sections, Prop. XIII. p. 157.). He? = HF x p, and /HF = fP m= as we have, by substituting, in the above value of #, the preceding values of MN. Hax Hex HK x 4/p ‘ and /P m, t= QAxVexHe ” and dividing by 4/p and H¢ ’ _ WP t= oAV x HK x Ha, which consists of the constant factor vp multi- ! 2 AeA plied into the variable curvilineal areaHabK. But as the same may be shewn for every other element of the time, it follows that the time of descent from AB to . ‘to VP RS will be equal to 2A Je x ELZX. Cor. It follows from this proposition, that the times in which the surface AB will descend through the heights o P, os, will be proportional to the correspond~ ing areas EH a X, ELZX, and that the time of descent through any of these heights is to the time in which the vessel is completely emptied, as the corresponding area EHa X or ELZX, is to the whole area EF YX. Prop. VII. To determine the time in which the surface of water in a prismatic or cylindrical vessel will descend through 2 given height, viz. from AB to RS in Fig. 3. This problem, as Bossut has remarked, may be ve easily resolved by the method of fluxions ; but we sha follow this excellent mathematician in the elementary demonstration which he has given of it. Let us.su pose that a body, not heavy, ascends through the height mo, Fig. 3. and describes that space in the very same way as a heavy body would descend through the height om. ‘Then it is obvious that the different velocities of the ascending and descending body may be expressed by the ordinates of a parabola GTF. When the ascend- ing body has arrived in z, it will describe the small a P or KH, with a velocity represented by the ordinate Hc; butthe time‘of describing m o is oft: and if the final velocity of the ascending body were continued uni- form, the body would describe a space=2 m o in the time HYDRODYNAMICS. > ™0_ But in uniform motions, the spaces divided by the velocities are as the times of description. Hence “Fa: t= ee: Time HK, (or the time of de- scribing GV.) Consequently : HK x EG Time HK = Py eon ny and substituting for 4/mo its value a p being the parameter of the parabola, we have ; PRT a Spa 2M Time HK = g* 2H? but by Prop. VI. the time in which the water descends through the same space P z, or HK, is VP _ Vp. MN gAgg e Xx MR aT 7” He M If we now substitute in place of H a its equal are and multiply the first of these expressions by MN, and the second by A, the products will be equal, or MN./p.HK_ MN.Av+/p. HK 2/eHe ~ 2Arv/g.He * Hence, by Euclid, (VI. 16.) the time of the body’s as- cending through m 0, is to the time in which the sur- face descends through P =, as the area A of the orifice is to the area MN of the base of the cylindrical or pris- matic vessel ; and as the same is true of all the other elementary times which the ascending body and the de- scending surface employ in describing small equal spaces, it follows that the whole time in which the as- cending body will describe the height mo, is to the time in which the vessel will be completely emptied, as the area A of the orifice is to the area of the base of the vessel. The time, therefore, in which the vessel will empty itself will be /™2 x 3 B being the! area of the base. If RDSC is the vessel, then the time in which it will be entirely emptied will be rad B X > consequent» ly the differences of these times, or the time in which the surface AB will descend into the position RS, will be - pivmo—vms) ~_ AWs Prop. VIII. To construct a clepsydra, or water clock, of a cylins drical form. The equation in the preceding to do this in a very simple manner. Time ms = sition enables us “lag 6 us suppose that it is required to measure 12 hours, and that the height AD ip ducted into 144 equal parts; then the height of the surface of the water at the commencement of the time will be 144 parts. At the end of one hour the height will be 121; at the end of the second hour it will be 100, as in the following Table: Hours torun........, og ne Ae AR WD De 48: 12. Ge aden Dey Ape Hours from commencement . Mi raed Oot as 4 6 6 YY. 8 9, 16) cee Height of the surface from the bottom 144 12] 100 81 64 49 36 25 16 9,41 0 Length ofeach hour in parts..... 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 8 1 of Fluids f from © Orifices. PLATE ~ : CCCXVIIE Fig. 5. yr Hig Bub ih Ae 53 Hae nt incite Hy Mi ij ue Bu ity aati Hit, trae iH ThHeec g hi a uy Hi: : SEG ee igh ul tH HABA ates ;! n age x xe é FL it a } Pe a S ale is S38 mi exe ie Banat i i Pe Bia Tk i ala it tel i a nag snacks ani : Hi eet ee ee il i ea oe ie git aueg a igite ae 4 tual; E ill Ee ti in Bish i ii af ut 33 na Be i 13) 4 pi V3 i : ip gals iu fg ied rs sis | Oe as rs ae Hee na unalne bi it iF HE: ( inn bs i ghsss lila; ie. 28s He ee) i ee Hae ie i ainsi fh: é, 4b t/g(HYH—he/h) 3 g is always =16.087. ie Q= the fui Sect. V, in Chap Tike Discharge of Fluids from Orifices. 492 Prop. XII. —\~ Fo determine the horizontal distance to which water PLATE CCCXVIII. Fig. 5, will be projected from orifices in the side of a vessel, and the nature of the curve which it will describe. Let ABCD, Fig. 5. be a vessel of water, which is discharged at O through the bent tube GEO, in the direction OP. If the water were influenced by no other force but that with which it is projected, it would move uniformly in the direction mo P, with a velocity equal to that which a heavy body would acquire in falling through the height QO. But as it is acted: upon by gravity, as soon as it escapes from the orifice O it will ob- viously describe some curve line O np. Make the ele- mentary space O m=mo, and OP=20Q. Draw PM parallel to ON, and join QM. Let fall from the points m, 0, P, the vertical lines mn, op, PV, which will be parallel to OM, and complete the parallelograms OmnR, OopS, OPVT. Let us now suppose, that in the time in which the water would have described the space’ Om, the force of gravity would have caused it to: fall through the height OR; and that in the time in which it would have described the space Oo, it would have descended through OS by the force of gravity alone. Now, since the fluid at O is solicited by two forces, one of which, viz. the force of projection, would. carry it through the space Om in a certain time, while the other, viz. the force of gravity, would carry it through the space OR in the same time, the fluid will at the end of the given time be found at n. In like manner it may be shewn, that at the end of the time in which the water would have described O o uni- formly, it will be found in the point p. But since Om, O o represent the times in which the water reaches the points m, p of its path, and since in these times the force of gravity has caused the water to fall through the spaces. mn; op, then. as the apace are proportional to. the squares of the times, we have m n, 0 p=O m*: O o’, that is on account of OmnR, Oo pS, being parallelograms OR: OS=R n?: S p?, whichis the relation between the abscisse and the tr divians of the Apollonian hyperbola, (See Conic Sections; Sect. IV. Prop, XII. Cor.) It would be unneces to proceed’ any farther in. explaining and demonstrating the geometrical construc- tion whieh is usually given for finding the amplitude either of oblique or horizontal jets, as the construc- tion and the demonstration of it are exactly the same as that which we have given in our article Gunnery, Vol.. X. p. 572, &e. for the parabolic path of projectiles. The two classes of phenomena, and the mathema- tical laws by which they are regulated, are exactly the HYDRODYNAMICS. height 4, the velocity Prop. XIII. To determine the pressure exerted on the interior of conduit pipes by the water which they convey. ‘Let the fluid column, Plate CCCXVIII. Fig. 5. No.2) prare be divided into an infinite number of equal and verti- cccxvimt, cal lamine GF gf Then if we abstract friction, it is Fig. 5. obvious that all the points of the same lamina have the: No. 2 same velocity, and that this velocity is the same in all the lamine. Ifqr represent the section of the con« tracted vein at the orifice pm, the velocity of the la« mine is to the velocity in qr, as the area of the orifice: qr is to the area of the section GF ; for at every instant there passes out of g7 a small prism of water equal to GF g f, and therefore these prisms have velocities reci<- procally proportional to their bases. . (See Prop. I. p, 488.) It we therefore call 4 the constant height of wa- ter in the reservoir, D the diameter of the tube, d that of the orifice qr, and if we consider that the velocity in qr is that due to the height h, and may be expressed by Wh, then D? > d? =/h: ro the velocity of the wae. ter in the pipe. But as the velocity 4/h is due to the x vill toe die to the altitade Db 4 “ < . But since each particle of fluid that reaches the extremity PN of the pipe tends to move with the velo« da? Sh every point of P por Nx upon which it rests must be pressed with a force equal to the difference of the pres- bine is, every: sure due to the velocities 4/h, and if ; part of the pipe will be pressed with a force equal to dh . 3 quia h city 4/h, while it moves only with the velocity DF. pi ee Oe Cor. 1. If an aperture very small in relation to each of the orifices PN, pn is made in’ the side of the' pipe, the water will issue with a velocity due to the ‘heiglit’ 4 nfs) This height. will. vanish when d= D, or when the whole aperture: PN is opened. © 9 9)” See Bossut’s. Traité D’ Hydrodynamique, Tom. I. chap. xi. p. 197, &c. from which the preceding proposi- tion is taken. Z ; _ . Scuorrum. ‘i In page 513, 514, of the present article, will be found, a.set.of valuable experiments. by Bossut, in which he: has measured the quantity of water discharged by aper- tures in the side of the pipe... The‘agreement, between; the formula and. the observed results, is very, striking. * Inia seriés of very recent and interesting experiments on the discharge of liquids through small orifices, made by M. Hachette, of which some account will’be found in the following Chapter, he has discovered that the quantity of fluid discharged by orifices va- ries by placing an obstacle at some distance from the orifice. Daniel Bernoullimade an experiment on this subject, and concluded _ from it, that an obstacle does not alter the quantity of fluid discharged. In his experiment, however, the time of the flow was , short for obtaining correct results. M. Hachette employed a circular orifice, 20 millimetres in diameter, which discharged water from a large vessel into a vessel pla- ced at a great distance from the orifice. _ The surface of the water in the vessel sank about six decimetres in 10’ 21", ~The plane face of an obstacle was presented at different distances from the orifice, and the jet fell perpendicularly on'this planee The follow- ing were the results : 128 Correspon Pia) Cael rae ' Distance of the Obstacle in Millimetres. 80 , 60 24 ii we 4 ‘Times in Which the Susface of the Water sunk Six Decimetres. 10’ 26” ; Hence it follows, that at the distance of 128 millirnetres (5.039 inches), the obstacle produces no effect; but that; at ‘our millimetres 0,157 of an inch, the time is increased rather more than.one-half.. AEDES 11/13" 15! 64 . aren of mop ¢ one, from Orifices. Som? HYDRODYNAMICS. 493 tyre ie ete mities of which have the form of the contracted vein, Lateral CHAP. IL the ity of the effluent water is that which corre. Communi- a. + ahaha ee? : sponds with the height of the fluid above the inferior hope ob “y ~os ; extremity of the tube. an Fluids Ow rue Larerat Communication or MoTION IN 2 Fluids. 4 Seren Let ne rt pr mcm: ae coer the Prate ; 4 inci virtual ascension, i wi e pres- CCCXVIIT. BY fea y pat gee Lasse er fare of the atmosphere, in the following manner Let Fig: 6. ipa ode A werhihod on natural philo- BLKO, Plate CCCXVIIL. Fig. 6, be a conical tube, Laer cy in 1798. Sir Isaac Newton was acquainted wi the fact that such a lateral communi- ox | be Marin from it the gation of rotatory motion interior to ex- terior strata of a whirlpool; but M. Venturi has the sole merit of explaining the different ena which it produces, and of i explanation of at egak open at the top Si Sa tovinc’ Ge tached ‘baths z fn a fj : i ‘38 wa wo - ; R ee having the form of the vena contracta, and let — to LM, it tends to detach it- self from the stratum which lies immediately above it ; or, which is the same thing, it tends to produce a va- MN, and the same effect is } mi vara A pen ure at A increases the velocity of the fluid whi es at CQ, —— the atmospherical eq same time T, and during this time it will lose all the ac- eeleration which bon. ag in its descent from L to C. The of the column ED, continued during the i , is therefore the force necessary to the successive acceleration from L toC, and to it the Scuoiium. The theory of Venturi has been recently controvert- , that the principal cause of the increased expenditure by tubes is the ad~ hesion of the fluid to the sides of the tubes arising from capillary attraction. ayn acit eeerent Ha- chette’s experiments, taken . Poisson's Report, will enable the reader to determine which of the two theories is the most plausible. We conceive, that new experiments are to decide the question. _Exp. L The fluid in motion was mercury, and the was made of iron. When the mereury was per- y pure, it had no affinity for the iron, and flowed out as it would have done from a small orifice equal to the diameter of the But when the mercury was. © Paor.. re can, wane phan Sage ons oo and. wed other metals, this cov the inside of the pipe, In. descending cylindrical tubes, the upper extres and the mercury then flowed with a full stream. eas Lateral Communi- cation of Motion in Fluids. 494 Exp. II. The fluid next used was water, and the pipe was coated within with wax. The water flowed as if through.a small orifice, without filling the tube. But whenever the water was made to moisten the wax, —\~— the pipe was instantly filled, owing to the wax being PLATE CCCXVIIL replaced by the first coat of water which covers it. Hence the reason why a disc of glass at last adheres to water with the same. force whether it is covered or not with a coating of wax ; for as soon as the wax is wetted, it is merely the action of water.on water which deter- mines the phenomena, as M. Laplace has explained in his. Theory of Capillary Action. Another important fact determined by M. Hachette is, that in a vacuum, or in air rarefied to a certain de- ree, the phenomena of pipes ceases to take place. Thus, if water is made to run in a full stream through a tube under the receiver of an air pump, then, upon rarifying the air in the receiver, the fluid vein was ob- served to detach itself from the sides of the pipe, when the internal pressure was reduced from 0.76 of a metre to 23 centimetres of mercury. By thus diminishing the internal pressure, the effect of the external. pressure is increased, which is transmitted to the pipe by means of the fluid contained in the vessel, and to which is added the pressure of the fluid. But there is a point at which these two pressures are sufficiently powerful to detach the fluid vein from the sides of the pipe, in the same manner as a disc of glass or metal may be de tached from the surface of a fluid to.which it adheres by the application of a sufficient force. The phenome- na, therefore, exhibited in a vacuum, or in rarified air; agrees perfectly with the a egy of M. Hachette, and does not prove, as might be supposed, that the phenomena of es are produced by the pressure of the air in which the fluid is discharged; an’ opinion which is inconsistent with the two preceding experi- ments, for in these experiments the action of the air was the same, and yet the phenomena were different, according to the nature of the fluid, and the matter of which the pipe was composed. When the fluid vein has been detached by rarefying the air, M. Hachette observed, that the water does not again begin to flow in a full stream when the air is re« admitted. This contraction of the vein, which ‘took place in the rarefied air, continues to subsist though the pressure of the atmosphere is restored. Hence he con- cludes, that the-adhesion of the water to the sides of the pipe takes place only at the commencement of the motion, before the fluid has acquired a sensible velocity in a direction which separates it from the sides. In or- der to verify this conjecture, M. Hachette made the fol- lowing experiment :—The water flowed ina full stream through a pipe without the receiver of an nag ap? A small hole was made in this pipe very near the orifice, The external air then’entered into the pipe, as ought to have happened according to the theory of D. Bernoulli. It interposed itself between the water and the sides of the pipe. The contraction of the vein takes place in the inside of the tube, and the water ceases to flow in a full stream. This being the case, the small hole was exactly shut. The adhesion of the water to the pipe was not again produced, and the flowing of the water continued as if the pipe had not existed, so that it might have been removed or replaced without any change in the flow of the water. This experiment succeeded equally well whatever was the direction of the jet; but care must be taken not to agitate the apparatus, for a very small lateral motion of the fluid causes it to ad- here again to the moist sides of the pipe. It was pro- HYDRODYNAMICS. bably from having neglected this precaution, that M. Venturi obtained a result apparently different from the preceding. See Thornson’s Annals of Philosophy, July 1817, vol. x. p. 34, Prop. III. If water is discharged from a short tube of a coni- cal form, the pressure of the ai here will increase the expenditure in the ratio of the exterior section of the tube to the section of the contracted vein, what- ever be the position of the tube, provided that its in- ternal figure be adapted throughout to the lateral com- munication of motion. Having already shewn that the atmospherical pres- sure increases the expenditure through additional tubes whatever be their position, Venturi next proceeds to examnine the mode of action by which the ohere produces this augmentation, and he begins with the case best adapted to favour the action of the atmosphere, which is that of conical diverging tubes. Let AB, Plate CCCXVIII. Fig. 14, the extremity prarc of the tube ABEPF, be applied to an orifice in a thin cccxvirr! plate, and let the part ABCD have the form nearly of the Fig. 14. contracted vein, which is found by experiment to make no perceptible alteration upon the expenditure by the simple orifice AB. The water which issues through CD is disposed to continue its course in a cylindrical form CGHD; but if the lateral parts CFGDFH con- tinue, the cylindrical stream CGHD will communicate its motion to the lateral parts successively from part to part, as shewn in Prop. I. Hence, if the divergence of the sides CE, DF be such as is best adapted to the speedy and complete lateral communication of motion, the water contained in the truncated conical tube CDEF will at last acquire the same velocity as that of the stream which continues to issue through CD. Upon this supposition, while the fluid stratum CDQR, pre- serving its velocity and thickness, would into RQTS, a vacuum would be. formed in the solid zone RmrSQuoT. Or if it should be supposed that the stratum CDQR, proms ying its progressive velocity, should enlarge in RQTS ; this cannot happen without its becoming thinner and detaching i from the stratum which succeeds it, and by that means leavi a vacuum equal to the zone R mr SQnoT. A similar effect would obviously take place throughout the whole of the tube CE, and if the quantity C m is supposed in« variable, the sum of all these empty spaces will be equal to the solid zone VEx Gz YFH, ‘ From this reasoning it follows, that the lateral com-« munication of motion produces the same effect in a co« nical tube, whether horizontal or vertical, as is produ ced by the action of gravity ina descending cylindrical tube, as described in Prop. II. In this case, also, a part of the pressure of the ere is active on the reservoir, and at the outer extremity EF... If the ac« tion of the atmosphere upon the surface of water in the reservoir increases the velocity at the section CD, this velocity will likewise communicate itself to the whole fluid CDFE, and the tendency to a vacuum will . take as before; but since the a erical action is as powerful at EF, it will take away at EF all the velocity which it added at CD ; so that being deduct-' ed from the same mass, and in the same time at EF, the fluid will not cease to be continuous in the pipe. It is found by computation, that this will when the velocity of CD is increased in the ratio of CD to EF’. ~ Deehey— q cation | Motion in| HYDRODYNAMICS. 3 s . rf sae if au + Be Fr [ Ht i * zg = & Hy & Es ite Ht sections ; for this direction can depend ou the impulse re- ceived within the reservoir, eee aos cases. In Fig. 12. the fluid. particles, after having i y through the curve L xz, they arrive at the place of contraction, which they assume at DF, Fig. 11. and which they in a thin plate. likewise assume when the orifice is made Pirate If we suppose a tube of glass yK, cccxvitr. Fig. 12. to have one of its extremities applied at K, Fig: !. the other opening into the reservoir, it will be seen that the pressure of the here which is exerted uponthe coloured fluid T, (see p. 503. Table XII. exp. 7.) must act likewise upon the surface of the reservoir, and aid the ere tees tage a Nagao ing the water into the tube y K, as it presses co- pa liquor into TS. In like manner, the of the moust increase the im oe fluid particles which arrive at KL, consequently must increase the iture. Asa of the active force of the fluid must always be destroyed by the ed- dies in an additional cylindric tube, it follows that the effluent column can never have the velocity which is due to the real head, and which is observed nearly en- tire in orifices in a thin plate ; and the diminution of velocity corresponds with the increase of the time be- yond that indicated: by the theory. Scnrorium. The theory of the lateral communication of motion in fluids must apply in a similar manner to ascending and ing tubes, whenever the form admits of this lateral communication. In descending tubes, the - of ; - ; of , and which has been estimated in Prop. II. apd ing tubes, we must subtract this effect 'y from that which is produced by gravity. Prop. V. By means of proper adjutages applied to a given cy- lindrical tube, it is patsiale Ay ianvense the enegniinere of water that tube in the proportion of 2% to 10, the head or the altitude of water in the reservoir remaining the same. The truth contained in this proposition is deduced from the experiments which we have given in Table XIL. p. 503 and 504 of this article, and the form of the adjutages ix ined in p. 50%, and represented in Plate CCCXVIIL. Fig. 16." Scnouium. says Venturi, “ the inhabitants pur- i - = public w prohibits them than Pig. 16. Lateral Communi- if cation of Motion in Fluids. Fig. 16. PLATE CCCXVIII. Pig. 5. No. 4. Fig. 5. No. 5. 696 large in the apartments; but that it will be sufficient ey be enlarged at their upper terminations, accord- ing to the form CD, Fig. 16. This divergency of the upper part will carry off the: smoke very well, even when it is not practicable to afford chimnies of suffi- cient length to the upper apartments. The same cb- ew is applicable to chemical furnaces for strong re.” : Pror. VI. The eddies of the water in currents and rivers are produced by motion, communicated from the more ra- pid parts of the stream to the lateral parts, which are more at rest. ‘The water which moves in the channel MNH, Fig. 5. No. 4. meets the obstacle BA, which impedes its course, and causes it to rise and discharge itself in the direction AC, with an increased velocity. Suppose the water in BDCA to be dormant, the current AC.communicates its motion to the lateral particles E, (Prop. 1.) and conveys them forward; the surface of the dormant water be- comes depressed at E, and the most remote particles towards D are urged, according to the laws of the equi- librium of fluids, to fill the depression. The current AC continues to carry them off, and the space BDCA continues to be exhausted. The water of the current AC, by virtue of the same laws, is acted upon by a constant foree which urges it towards the cavity’ E, while its natural course or projection carries it towards AC... Under the agency of these two forces, the water AC acquires a curve-lined motion in CD, and descends as it were through an inclined plane, becoming retro- grade in DE, whence it would proceed to strike the ob- stacle BA, and the current AC, after which it would undergo several oscillations previous to acquiring a state of equilibrium and repose. tut the current AC con- tinues its lateral action ; a second time it draws away the water through CD into E, and forces it to renew its motion through the curve CDE ; in which manner the eddy continues without ceasing. If the river should pass through a contraction of its bed at N, it will produce eddies at both sides, at P and at Q, similar to those we have considered at DC. Suppose the stream of water, after having struck the bank GH, to be reflected into a new direction HS, the lateral communication ef motion will excite eddies in the angle of reflection R. When two currents of unequal velocity meet ob- liquely in the middle of. the river, the most rapid cur- rent will produce eddies in that which is the least ra- id. F Suppose a stream of water to flow over a bed of un- equal depth. If the longitudinal section of the inequa- lities of the bottom exhibit a gentle slope, as at ABC; Fig. 5. No. 5. the superior water will impress its mo- tion by lateral communication upon the inferior water which is near the bottom, beneath the line AC, and a current will take place through the whole. depth of the section MB. The current, which is formed near the bottom at B, is turned out of its course by the slope BC, and proceeds to rise above the surface at Q, some-: times in the form of a curling wave, or vertical whirl-: pool. If the extremities of the hollow place form an abrupt angle, as DEFG, eddies will be produced. even at the bottom, in the vertical direction at D, and some- times also at G. ‘These phenomena may be observed in an artificial channel with glass sides. Every eddy destroys a part of the moving force of the HYDRODYNAMICS. _ of its bed unequal, the water continues more elevated than ‘tards the expenditure wvonen the tube with enlarged _ velocity increases the depth, and enlarges the width of current of the river. For the water which descends by a retrograde motion in the inclined plane CDE, Fig: 5. ©o™™ No, 4, cannot be restored in the direction of the current ,j 7 of the river but by a new impulse. It is ‘as it were a 4 ball, which is forced to rise on an inclined plane, whence it continually falls back again to receive new PLATE — ted : CCCXVE Hence we deduce, as a primary consequence, that in Fis: 5. a river, of which the course is permanent, and the sections Nes i, at would have done, if the whole river had been equally contracted to the dimensions of its smallest section. The cause of this phenomenon is the same as that which re= parts. (Prop. 7. No. 4.) The water which descends from the elevation above the contracted part N into the bason PQ, Fig. 5. No, 4. loses nearly the whole of the velocity it acquired by descending from it ; because the narrow part has a curved slope towards the lower part of the river, which directs the velocity of the stream in an horizontal direction. Guglielmini has well remarked, that a fall does not influence*the velocity of the lower stream, because the eddies of the water in the bason PQ destroy the velocity produced by the fall. * This the channel at PQ. Eddies are formed on each side, at the bottom, and at the surface, both in the horizontal and vertical directions. It would be to no purpose to attempt to prevent this hollowing out and enlargement of the channel by such a fall by adopting the means of close walls, for the bason would then obtain its enlarge« ment where these constructions might end. If the channel have a number of successive contracé tions and dilatations MN, without cascade or dam, there will still be formed, at each dilatation, eddies which will diminish the velocity more than if the channel had an uniform section equal to that in M or N. It will therefore follow, that the surface of the water, after each dilatation, must rise, in order to recover the velocity it lost by the eddies. If we call the height to which the water must rise, above the elevation necessary to have overcome the retardations of a bed of uniform section, = a, and the number of equal and ‘successive alter- nate dilatations and contractions be =m, the height of the rise in the stream thus alternately dilated d that of the same river uniformly contracted, will be =am. We here su the bottom of the river to be’ uniform. If this bottom be of such a nature to be at« tacked by the current, the contracted parts will be hol~ lowed out, and the matter will be deposited in the en« larged parts. - The second consequence which we draw from the principle here established, respecting the loss'of force caused by the eddies, is of considerable importance in the theory of rivers, and appears to have been neglect- ed by those who have treated on this subject. The friction of the water along the wet banks, and over the bottom of rivers, is very far from being the only cause of the retardation of their course, which consequently requires a continued descent to maintain its velocity. One of the principal and most frequent causes of re- tardation in a river, is also produced by the eddies, which are incessantly formed in the dilatations of the bed, the cavities of the bottom, the inequalities of the banks, the flexures or windings of its cuurse, the cur-’ rents which cross each other, and the streams which strike each other with different velocities, A consider- able part of the force of the current is thus employed to restore an equilibrium of motion, which that current itself does continually derange.” . — Account or Exprnments on Tae Discuance or ——_~ Water prom Vessels THROUGH smMPLE OniFices Z _ AND aDpITioNaL Tupes. ~~" Sscr. I. On the Vena Contracta, the I the first Chapter of Hydraulics we have explained con- the cause of the contraction of the ftaid vein, or vena vA a. Sir Isaac Newton, : é . 141 100 we: i By F ‘ . 140 100 ighest found ° - 250 100 Mean of six i by Boseut, 150.6 100 “ese eee 7 : i Fur verte sae for seraming the quant of wa- ter which it contained when it was fu ~ Bossut Lentunadaiincenanen aie ce ae barrel containing exactly a cubic or eight times shes eenssinok® Uiniedsiaih eeetllrtiaibdhe weer wes a barrel containing eight cubic feet. Each of these bar- tels had two tubes rising from their upper end, through one of which the water was poured, and upon VOL. Xi. PART I. HYDRODYNAMICS. 497 which was the mark to shew when it contained exact- Discharge ly the number of cubic feet. The second tube allowed a. included air to escape as the water was poured in. “ fices. x y IL th of Wi ABLE T. Shewing Fic ater discharged in one Minute by Orifices differing in form and position. Constant No. of Height of the} In. Fluid above | Form and position of the ec the centre of Orifice. the Orifice. | ged in a the Orifice. Minute. Ft. In. Lin, Lines. ; 11° 8 10 |Circularand Horizontal, 6 2311 ircular and Horizontal,| 12 9281 ircular and Horizontal,| 24 372038 Rectangular and Hori- . + + » | 12by3| 2933 lorizontal and Square, | 12 side | 11817 Horizontal and sm 24 side | 47361 9 O 0 |Vertical and s 6 2018 an, éftical and Circular, | 12 8135 4 0 0 [Vertical and Circular, 6 1358 eftical and Circular, | 12 5436 5 0 7 |Vertieal and Circular, | 12 628 From these results we may conclude, _ 1. That the quantities of water di in equal results. of If we call Q, q the ities of water di in the same time from the two orifices A,A’ under the pa mpeg te pi eg uantities of water di uri same time same A, under the di heidle of wee. ter h, A’, we have by the first of the above results, Q:q=A:A’; and by the second, g:Q’ = /h: s/h’ ; from which we obtain g =“ * & 8, ana g=2 4 then since *_* = 7, we have by Euclid, B, V. OTe gums” of wer dacharged de 3. The quantities of water di during the of water in the ratio of the areas of the apertures, and of the square roots of the heights in the reservoirs. ease dalameny paaginen; ta, trent! toabeant & correct inary purposes ; but, in to obtain a great of , Bossut recommends an at+ 2 phere lee noe he en a fices, the smallest discharges water i thanthodowhieh ‘ere gretiay, unrlar Sebisunisiahisces of water in the reservoir. S : 2. Of several orifices of equal surface, that which has the smallest perimeter ought, on account of the friction, pat tee tint ore b-aen oreripemeenal le 3. That, in i augmentation which the ee of the oo = undergoes, in proportion as height of fluid in the reservoir in- creases, the expence ought tobe a little diminished. . Sr 498 Discharge of Water from Ori- fices. Comparison of the theo- retic with the real dis- charges. In the following Table, given by» the Abbé Bos- sut, he has compared the theoretical with the real dis- charges from an orifice one inch in diameter, and the different altitudes of the fluid in the reservoir. The real discharges in column 3d were not determined by direct experiment, but were ascertained with, the precaution indicated in the three preceding rules, and may be considered to be as accurate as if they had been ob- tained from direct experiment. The fourth column was computed by M. Prony.* Taste I. Comparison of the Theoretic with the Real discharges from an Orifice one inch in diameter. hese | eight of the’ Theoretical Waterinthe discharges Real dis- Reservoir | through a cir-| charges in the| Ratio of the theoretical above the | cular Orifice | same time | to the real discharges. centre of the) one inch in | through the Orifice. diameter. | same: Orifice. Paris Feet. | Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches. I 4381 2722 1 to 0.62133 2 6196 3846 1 to 0.62073 3 7589 4710 1 to 0.62064 A 8763 5436 1 to 0.62034 5 9797 6075 1 to 0.62010 6 10732 665% 1 to 0.62000 7 11592 7183 1 to 0:61965 8 12392 7672 1 to 0.61911 9 13144 8135 1 to 0.61892" 0 13855 8574 1 to 0.61883 1 14530 8990 1 to 0.61873 2 15180 9384 1 to 0.61819 13 15797 9764 1 to 0.61810 14 16393 10130 1 to 0.61795 15 16968 10472 1 to 0.61716 1 2 3 4 It appears from this Table, that the real as well as the theoretical arm are nearly proportional to the square roots of the heights of the fluid in the reser. voir. Thus for the heights 1 and 4, whose square roots are as 1 to 2 feet, the real: discharges are 2722 and 5436, which are to one another as 1 to 1.997, very nearly as 1 to 2. : ; By means of the formula in the preceding page, we may easily apply the above Table to the determina- tion of the quantities discharged under different alti- tudes. of water in the reservoir, and from orifices of different sizes. Let it be required, for instance, to determine the quantity of water discharged from an orifice of 3 inches in. diameter, under an altitude of 30 feet. Then, since the real. quantities discharged are in the compound ratio of the orifices, and the square roots.of the altitudes of the water, and since the theore- tical discharge by an orifice 1 inch in diameter, under an altitude of 15 feet is 16968 cubical inches in a mi- nute, we have 1,4/15:94/ 30 = 16968: 215961, the theoretical discharge. But since the theoretical is to the veal discharge as 1 to .62; the above value being dimi- nished in that ratio, gives 133309 cubie inches for the real quantity of water discharged by the orifice. The following formul have been given by.M. Prony, * See his Architecture Hydraulique, tom. i. p. 369. : shat ‘+ The measures.are in French feet, which are to English feet as.1066 is to 1000. HYDRODYNAMITICS. ‘accuracy, We must ‘not use thé meah co-efficient 0.6194, as deduced from the preceding experiments of Bossut, + Q=0.61988 AT 4/2 g H, A being the area of the orifice in square feet, H the ale titude of the fluid in feet, T the time, g the force of gra~ vity at the end of a second, and Q the quantity of water in cubic feet. As 4/2 g is a constant quantity, and is equal to 7.77125, we have “ Q=4.818 AT4/H for orifices of any form. If the orifices are circular, and if d represents their dia~ meter, then Q = 3.7842 d? T,/H. From. the second of these equations we obtain. — Q “ A= 7ei8T/H T=— Q ™ 4.818 A/H to parieita N= sisaTy / These formule will be found to give vefy accurate re« sults ; but if we wish to‘obtain a still higher degree of & of but the one in the Table which comes nearest to the cireumstances of the case. Thus if the head of water happens to be small, such as 1 foot, then we must take the co-efficient 0.62133, and if it happens to be great, we must use the least co-efficient 0.61716. . In order to determine the velocity with which the To deter- fluid is discharged, we must first obtain the theoretical mine the © velocity, whichis V = 4/32.174,/H=8.016 4/H in Eng. }, city of lish inches. That is, the velocity acquired by falling guia, through any height H, is found by multiplying the square root of the height by 8.016. But as the real ve- locity of the issuing fluid is to its theoretical velocity as 0.6194. to 10, we have 4.965 H as the measure of the real velocity, or in round numbers 5H; that is the ve-. locity in a second of time in English feet is five times the square root of the height of the fluid in the reser« voir ; or, if we prefer expressing these values in inches, then since 32.2 feet = 772 inches, and 4/772 = 27.78, we have V = 27.78 4/H for the theoretical velocity, . and V = 17.206 4/H for the velocity at asimple orifice. . In order, however; to obtain the velocity more accu- rately, we should deduce the co-efficient of 4/H, not from the medium, co-efficient in the preceding Table, but from the co-efficient in the Table which approaches nearest to the circumstances of the experiment... The following Table contains a series of experiments Michelo by M. Michelotti, which were made on a most i. ti’s exper ficent scale, and with the utmost accuracy. As meaty a extend to- apertures of three inches both square and circular, and to altitudes twice as great as those em« loyed by Bossut, they form an excellent supplement to es experiments. We consider them.indeed as much more valuable than those of Bossut, as-the quantities of water discharged in each experiment were prodigiously greater than his. The reservoir employed was 20 feet high, and three feet square within, and had openings at different distances from the top. The water flowed into a cistern whose area was 289 square feet, and whose was uniform, and the quantity of it was ascertain« ed.in French feet, by measuring its height in the cistern. ub Liaiis +h i § aageans iis Spaetin iy 2 8 ; i fo hen 2 liu quite is then i é Re dae Ee Seid bP ie = 4 i i SRLRARARE i LAR ze i ai att iy ie | sh a4 3 PEL tr % g23ais pete: a les de li eb 1 ah une Taal ze u ey iii HLA lia ‘ tid i hast micill gE te SH a sleeps oii Wess one [ros [seh [ree iid ay Phy oa Sg. | 2i[deezess ees lees gee wen jone| oo Feet Win g Seeyes apt i | oars ™ eae preg ire by i i bite } et + —| 8 bi it fier Hy lt, HEF ee 5 z $3. ii! % — 5 7 8 $ Pe aia ga Et at syd : tice: bees exe [ooo |coe loco a J i i Sap i H rs : \e deanont ons |~0~|e-+|oee fexa Hi Le ag iL f at : : §| Ss 3 pt PR Rach Pai He Eile|---ofl SR THT (Bigs ecco eit ME 0 AB Discharge of Water from large Openings, —— Table cal- culated for weirs, by Dr Robison, Experi- ments of Michelotti, 500 It appeared indeed that AF depended on: the form of the wasteboard, as might have been expected. When _the board was very thin and had a considerable depth, AF was much greater than when the board was thick or narrow, and placed on the top of a broad damhead, as in Fig. 8. Du Buat’s general formula, viz. D=Fl/2G (1 a @) Ht may be accommo- dated to any ratio between AF and AL, in: place of the ratio of 4 adopted in the formula. Thus, if AF = m xX AL, m being a fractional co-efficient less-than 1, the formula becomes. mt ; 3 D = 314/2G (1—m*)H* Dr Robison has calculated the following Table from Du Buat’s formula, which is suited to English inches. Tasre VI. vane the quantity of Water dischara ged over a Weir. Depth of the up-j .Cubic feet of water |- Cubic.feet of water dis- per edge of: the | discharged in a minute} charged in a minute by. wasteboard below| by every inch of the || every inch of the waste- the surface in | wasteboard, according |board, according to expe- English inches, | to Du Buat’s formula, |riments made in Scotland. 1 0,403 0,428 2 1,140 1,211 3 2,095 2,226 4 3,225 3,427 5 4,507 4,789 6 5,925 6,295 vi 7,466 7,933 8 9,122 9,692 9 10,884 11,564 © 10 12,748 13,535 il 14,707 15,632 12 16,758 17,805 13 18,895 20,076 14 21,117 225437 15 23,419 24,883 16 25,800 27,413 17 28,258 30,024: 18 30,786 $2,710 We have added to this Table a third column contain- ing the quantities of water discharged, as inferred from experiments made in this country, and examined by Dr Robison, who found that they in general gave a dis- charge ¥', greater than that which 1s deduced from Du Buat’s formula. We would recommend it therefore to the engineer to employ the third column in his prac« tice. E The preceding Tables and formula suppose that the water from which the discharge is made is perfectly s t; but if it should happen to reach the opening with any velocity, we have only to multiply the area of the section by the velocity of the stream. When the quantity of water discharged over a weir is known, the depth of the edge of the wasteboard, or H, may be found from the following formula, D 2 = (nba) 11.4172 / The experiments of Michelotti give 0.2703,/H for the number of cubical inches discharged in a second HYDRODYNAMICS. ’ experiments of Du Buat alread \ ing Table of co-efficients given by that engineer, the over a weir when the height H is one inch, and the Dischar real discharge to the theoretical discharge as 9536 to of 1000. These numbers, however, suppose the length 9° of the weir to be infinite, or to be so great that the con- _! traction at its two ends produces no perceptible effect in diminishing the discharge. The formula, therefore, of Michelotti includes only the contractions produced by the upper edge of the wasteboard. In- order to calculate the discharge of rectangular Experi- _ orifices reaching to the surface, M. Eytelwein repre- mentsof My sents the velocity, which varies as the square root of “)‘*¥% the height, by the ordinates of a parabola and the quan- tity of water discharged by the area of a parabola } of that of the circumscribing rectangle: Hence the quan- tity of water discharged may be found by taking 3 of the velocity due to the mean height, and allowing for the contraction of the vein. This mode of calculation M. Eytelwein has found to agree wonderfully with the given, as well as with several accurate experiments of his own. , M. Eytelwein takes the case of a lake, in which a rectangular opening,is made without any lateral walls, three feet wide, and reaching two feet below the surface of the water. -In this case, as appears from the follow- co-efficient for finding the velocity as . corre for contraction, is 5.1. ence H being the. height, we have 3,/H x 5.1; and since H = 2 feet in the present instance, we have the corrected mean yelocity = 4.8 feet; and as the area is 3 x 2=6, the qens y of water discharged in a second is 28.8 cubic feet, Put- ting C for the co-efficient corrected for contraction, W the width of the eperture and H_ its depth below the surface, we have the general formula, ‘ Q=3VHxXCxHxXW for the quantity of water in cubic feet according to Eytelwein. As the same co-efficient answers for a, weir of con- siderable extent, we may. deduce from the preceding formula the depth or breadth necessary for the dis«— charge of a ae quantity of water. Thus let it be required in a lake with a weir three feet broad, and in which the water stands five feet above the weir, to know how much the weir must be widened in order that the water may stand a foot lower, we have: the velocity = 34/5 x 5.1, and the quantity of water =}/5 X 5.1-%-3 % 5; but as it is required that the height H shall be reduced one foot, or from 5 to 4, we have the velocity suited to this = } 4/4 x 5.1, and conse- quently the section will be + 275 X5IKXSXS V5K3BXS 7/tx5l = WF and the height is 4, the breadth must be “*4/5= 4,19 feet. : If the surface of water always stands at the same On the dis. height AB in the vessel ABCD, Fig. 9. and if the la- charge from teral orifice, of considerable magnitude, ism nop, then abo me | | we have only to determine by the preceding methods giderable the quantities of water discharged by the open orifices magnity | rpos,rmns, and the difference between these quan- with acon- | tities will give the discharge for the orifice mnop. The ot wala same result may be obtained with nearly the same ac- ; | curacy, by taking the velar due to the centre of gra- PLaTe vity of the orifice below AD, and correcting it by its Pata q proper co-efficient. ; ‘ ® = 7.5 / 5, additional ‘Tubes. —— 501 Fytelwein's efficients. ing | Table of co- the veloci- Co-efficients| for find! em ' heights 8.04, and the diminished velocity arising from Discharge contraction is shewn in the last column. - of Water belong ’ HYDRODYNAMICS. * $e Tanre VII. Containing Eytelwein’s Co-efficients for Orifices of different kinds. Table contains Eytelwein's i. following ‘for different eases connected with those which The to the present section, The whole velocity due to the > jties in Eng. Ratio between ine’ - and rea! dis charges, Nature of the Oritices empleyed. due to the height hottom is on a level with that of the "js on a level with that of the reservoir peste - . . . . . of bridges = ‘with wall Ma's line with the orifice openi scdddugcesd Lan | ll pa ‘ee Ss iF 2. } = }t2 Ey TE REEL he Hy j nef) Latta Gl upped pater aL Pa. i Aah aa idee at CLatet H ie eee tn Sle i Hila Hie: aE deta rs Pe aa Hig ij f ae is ‘i ata ia i Ha zt Hep oe bee Hh] sia ilentehl Pe Usenet eedit tite bei siti! es ney “ah Reino sé . 7 ; . aa et ad cursum aqua si oppositus et supinus, nec ad haustum pronus; segniter exiguumque xta fin. » § 49. im rectum et ad libram collocatus est; modum servat; aque conversus » fib. i, ct du mouvement des momentum, si Jatus autem Discharge of Water through additional Tubes. —\—_ General results, 502 of the altitudes of the fluid above the interior orifice of the vertical tube. It follows also from the above measurement, that when the height of the reservoir and the orifice are the same, the theoretical discharge, the or by an ad- ditional tube, andthe discharge by a simple orifice, are nearly as the numbers 16, 13,10. Hence Bossut con- cludes that the effect of contraction is not wholly de- stroyed by the tube, as the difference between the theoretical and the real discharges is too great to be ascribed to friction. : The following Table contains the effects produced by tubes of different diameters, and under different alti- - tudes-of fluid in the reservoir. Tasre IX. Containing the Quantities of Water dis- charged by Cylindrical Tubes two inches long, with dif- JSerent Diameters and under different heads of Water. No. of cubic Constant altitude ‘ ‘ : inches dis- oft the water he Diameter of the ‘tube. charged in a the orifice. minute. Feet. Inches. |Lines. 6) 1689 10 4703 B, 10 ube, 1293 10 { The tube not filled 3598" ‘6 { with the issuing fluid.} 1222 2 0 110 / 8402 : 6 935 10) 2603 ‘From these results we may conclude, 1, That the discharges by different additional tubes under the same head of water, are nearly preportional to the areas of the orifices, or to the squares of the dia« meters of the orifices. 2. That the discharges by additional tubes of the same diameter under different heads of water are nearly roportional to the square roots of the heads of water. . It follows, from the two preceding corollaries, in genc« ral, that the discharges during the same lime, by diffe rent additional tubes, and under different heads of water in the reservoir, are to one another nearly in the coms pound ratio of the squares of the diameters of the tubes, and the square roots of the heads of water. M. Bossut has deduced from the above experiments the following Table, which contains a comparative view of the theoretical discharges from a tube one inch in diameter, with the real discharges by an additional tube of the same diameter, under different heads of wa- ter. The last column, containing the ratio between HYDRODYNAMICS. Tasie X. Comparison of the Theoretical with the Real Discharg Discharges from an additional Tube of a a sets Jorm, one Inch in Diameter and two Inches ‘ge Constant alti-| Theoretical | Real Discharges tude of the | Discharges |inthe same time Ratio of the Water in the |through a cir-| by a cylindrical | theoretical to Reservoir | cular Orifice [Tube one Inch in} the real Dis- above the | one Inch in | {Diameter and charges. Centre of the} Diameter. | two Inches long. Orifice. , Paris Feet. | Cubic Inches,| Cubic Inches, : oe | 4381 8539 1 to 0.81781 2 6196 5002 1 to 0.80729 | 3 7589 6126 1 to 0.80724 4 8763 7070 1 to 0.80681 5 9797 7900 1 to 0.80638 6 10732 8654 1 to 0.80638 af 11592 9340 1 to 0.80573 8 12392 9975 1 to 0.80496 9 13144 10579 1 to 0.80485 10 13855 11151 1 to 0.80483 1l 14530 11693 1 to 0.80477 12 15180 12205 1 to 0.80403 13 15797 12699 1 to 0.80390 © 14 16393 13177 1 to 0.80382 15 16968 13620 1 to 0.80270 1 whahy 8 4 Hence it follows, that the velocity in English inches will be V = 22.47 4/H for additional tubes. See p. 498. col. 2. M. Prony has given the following formule, as dedu« ced from the preceding Table. The letters have the same values as in p. 498. Q=0.81 AT / 2 ¢H; but since 2g is constant, and is = 7.77125, we have . Q = 4.9438 d?T 4/ H, From which we obtain " d= tous TV Diniesaeten ded = 7.9458 d?4/ ‘xray H= Goss @ 1 . When the interior surface of the additional tube is on the dis of a conical form, the quantities of water discharged charge undergo considerable variations. M. Bossut made no water by experiments whatever with tubes of this kind, but the conical defect is fortunately supplied by those of the Marquis Poleni, which are published in his work De Castellis these two discharges, was computed by M. Prony. per que derivantur Fluvium Aque. TasLe XI. Containing the Experiments of the Marquis Poleni, on the Quantities of Water discharged by Conical Lubes of different Diameters. bs ls “Diameter | Quantity discharged | Time in which Length of Nature of the Orifices | Diameter | ofthe | ina Minute in Cubic| 73035 Cubic Head of Water. the Tube. employed. of theInner] Outer | Feet, as calculated by| Inches were _ Orifice. | Orifice. Bossut. discharged. Constant height|Length of Orifice in a thin plate, | 26 lines 15877 4! 36" jof the water injeach tube Cylindrical tube, 26 23434 37 the reservoir, 256) 92 lines, ‘1st Conical tube, 33 26 lines | 24758 2 57 lines, or 1 foot Qlor 7 inches2d Conical tube, 42 26 24619 . 2 58 inches and 4 lines.) 8 lines. (3d Conical tube, 60 26 24345 Opa 8D French. { French. ‘4th Conical tube, 118 26 23687 53 -HYDRODYNAMICS. 503 i of fluid, and thus to make the circumstances of the Discharge ease the same as in simple orifices, in which the dis. of Water ears to arise from his having used a measure are the least possible. — ic inch of water, which errs in excess. From the conical tube is placed with its smallest ori- Tubes, Hi e i i i fi i 3 il i 7 : : 2 885. Teas Fr The best i on additional tubes, have been 3% iid Oy WE Cama, Wea folly fesctibed ta bis vain. | =7°C", degree the dia- able on the lateral communication of motion in M. Venturi also augmented; but that, HO ed Ta cat ties a ed he —— of water expended is ; into the following ve compu’ num. Various SE anneaberaie Wipasbed toe $65 Gigis « ton: bers in the last column. pea nk i se i Hf : : 1! r j | Tavue XII. Containing the Experiments of Venturi on additional Tubes of various forms. Time in which|Number of cu- 9 Nature snd Dimensions of the Tubes and Orifices._ Biever ae] tage © charged. minute. Inches. ¢| 1. Circular orifice, 18 lines in diameter, d . : ‘ ‘ . +i" 10115 2, tube, 18 lines in diameter, and 54 lines long, . ‘ > |. $l 18378 3. fale PG 2). ee Be ee DF = ol 14.5; AB=T1; = 10; GM = $7; AM = 58; the conical por- t tion having the form of the Sider’ 31 13378 4. Conical tube AC DF, Fig. 11. with the rest . re | 5. A pipe, 18 lines in diameter, and 54 lines long, having 12 made in its circumference, at the distance of 9 lines from its , } orifice, . * . . * . . * . 41 10115 $2.5 < oars the holes, and the stream did not fill tube. same Py my syraw ante stare ng as when any namber of them is shut, one Tied eoann pipe th all the halos cian with Set chin’. The ceretes nov seid he * * * * * * . . $1 15878 7. Cylindrical Fig. 12. 18 lines in diameter, and 57 lines long. glass tube QRS was joi to the additional tube, and immersed pineal hated coloured liquid rose to S, 24 inches . T, and the in which 4 cubic feet was was 3 13878 .| 8. The compound tube of No. 3, or Fig. 11. in the same circumstances as No. 7 $1 13378 ns { POS eee eee Serves epee water . ? upwards, liquor rose 20 inches, . . . * : 34 121 10. Simple orifice, 18 lines in diameter, « eee Fieri, ey Pate 45 on16 ;|11. Simple orifice, 18 lines in diameter, 38 10915 . oe eae thee ieee ae Oe ne gt Ge SE UANE Kepetta: pied tein ic} Gono ay * . . . . . 48 8640 40.0 Simple orifice, 11.2 lines in diameter, é 4232 5 ube of No, poe horizontally, had AC of the form of the contract-; t P ed vein, and the diameter A, 11.2 lines in diameter, . A ‘ 130 8190 Au Varicl tabe BORG dina iy” aed © ; 129 $213 RE ertical tube diameter 18, length BC, 3 inches, 3 a4 10115 r Ditto, b= 4 : . ; 33 10915 Ditto, , . 35 11828 | 20. Horizontal tube BOCQ, 18, 3 7 42.5 9758 on Ps Sees 45 9216 . * 48 , 8640 Compound tube, Fig. 14. where AB = EF = 18 lines; AC=11; CO AB&F ES a re reas 27.5 | 15080 ) 92.5 A tube, of a cylindrical tube 3 inches long and 15.5 lines diameter, interposed between the two conical tubes of the preceding sat @ . “ . . . ° ° : ° 28.5 14551 The tube of Fig. ABCD had the same form as before, but CDEF ; a tetiinn aie e. Three oo were , as in immersed in mercury. mercury rose lines in DX, 20.5in NP,and.7inOZ 2 wg 25 16560 . (26. The same tube with the portion PNFE cut off E 31 19878 504 HYDRODYNAMICS. Discharge F ‘Time in which} Number of | Discharge or Wats | Hague | etn i Din te ‘Tbe Ob, rope sdee ale additional minute. ore | ene Pog tr Inches. (27, The tube, Fig. 15. 148 lines long, and 27 in diameter at EF ; the rest CEtaEEEL, es In the Jast experimerit jw 2)%0 *\/.e “Gilgie sabe «pe. o-inee fale 21" 19748 Fig. 15. 28. When the last tube is prolonged to any length beyond 148 lines . =| 21 19748 29. Same tube 204 lines long, by fixing a prominence within the tube at O, so as to make the fluid fill the tube ; 19 21830 39.5 2 |80- Horizontal tube, Fig. 15. being made more divergent, 117 lines and oe 86 in diameter, the rest remaining as before. The stream di not fill the whole section . - + Joe, Soe san ey er Eve 28 14811 31. By cutting off successive portions of the pipe until CE was only. 20 Sai long, and the external diameter 18 lines, the time always was. 28 14811 32. When CE was 20 lines, and EF 20, the stream was detached from th L sides of the tube, and the time was . i ‘ cs ileal 42 9874 Height above lower extremity. 41.5 |33. The tube, Fig, 15. was applied in place of BCQO of Fig.C . . 22 18850 23.0 |34, The same tube, Fig. 15. applied to form an ascending jet . .- 30 13824 Time in which Above up- one cubical per extre- a ; ; foot of water mity. 2 i Mie nshe Reky 5° rom ute wasdischarged 317 35. Simple orifice, 4.5 lines in diameter from vertical jet . . . 161 644 _°*" 1136. Ditto with an additional cylindrical tube of the same diameter, and ten lines long . 5 ° : : . : = eons . : 121 856 56. |87. The orifice of No. 35. with a vertical jet ‘ Sue! hue ee . 123 843 38. Ditto with an additional eylindrical.tube of § 36. . =. - 91 1139 Conclusions . Lhe: preceding.Table contains.a general abstract of . produce its effect when the angle of the sides of the from Ven- the numerous experiments of' Venturi, which were made | tube exceeds 16°. Experiment 23d nearly determines _ turi’s expe» publicly in the Theatre of Natural Philosophy at Mo- the maximum effect when the same angle 1s about 30°. riments, dena. The following are the conclusions which he has 5. The quantity of water discharged is less through deduced from them. f : cylindrical tubes than through conical tubes which die 1. If the part of the additional tube nearest the re-. verge from the commencement of the contracted vein, servoir has the form of the contracted vein, the ex- and have the same exterior diameter. penditure will be the same as if the tube were not con~ This is established by experiments 35, 36, 37, 38. tracted at all. 6. By applying proper adjutages toa given cylindric This proposition is deduced from experiments 1,2, tube, the expenditure of water through that tube may 5 : be increased in the ratio of 25 to 10, the head of water 2. The pressure of the atmosphere increases the remaining the same. expence of water through a simple cylindrical tube In order to produce this singular effect, the inner ex- Pol when compared with that which flows through a sim- . tremity of the tube AD must be filled with a conical (7cy. ple orifice, whatever be the direction of the tube. _ piece of the form of the contracted vein, which will ins 75, 44 This proposition is deduced from experiments 5,6, crease the expenditure from the ratio of 12.1 to10.° ~~ 7,:8, 9, 10. ; : At the other extremity of the pipe BC apply a trunca- ‘ 8. In descending cylindrical tubes, the upper ends . ted conical tube CD, of whichthe length must be nears of which have the form of the contracted vein,.the quan- . ly nine times the diameter at C, and its external dias tity of water discharged is that which corresponds with meter D must be 1.8 C. This additional tube will in- ‘the height of the fluid above the inferior extremity of crease the expenditure in the ratio of 24 to 12.1, by ‘the tube. experiment 27. Hence the expenditure will be ins« This propesitast which ae been established theo- creased by the two pieces in the ratio of 24 to 20. retically in the preceding Chapter, is likewise deducible : ; from experiments 11, 12, 13,14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Experiments on the Expenditure of Bent Tubes. 21, 22. ‘ In order to ascertain the effects of bent tubes, M. vent | 4, In additional conical tubes, the pressure of the Venturi employed two tubes ABC, DEF, 15 inches experiment) ,atmosphere increases the expenditure in the proportion long, and 14.5 lines in diameter. The portions A, D on of the area of the external section of the tube to the have the form of: the vena contracta, and. were applied area of the section of the contracted vein,.whatever be to the orifice of a reservoir, which was 18 lines in dia- Fig. 7 the position of the tube, provided that its internal fi- meter, and in which the water was $2.5 inches high. gure is adapted throughout to the lateral ecommunica- » The elbows or flexures BC, EF were made in the plane tion of motion. . .,. of the horizon. The tubes were made of copper sol- _ This proposition is established by experiments 23— dered with silver, and the curvature BC was produced 33. These experiments also shew,. that, by varying. by filling the tube with melted lead, in order that the the divergence of the sides of the tube, the lateral com- ‘tube might preserve its diameter during the act of bend- munication of motion has a maximum and a.minimum | ing. The elbow DEF was rectangular. A rectilineal _ effect. The minimum is seen in experiment 32. The tube of similar dimensions was also tried, and the fol lateral communication of motion appears to cease to lowing were the results, 1 es [ili HIE ais HY ay Ws rae z ne eae te ‘aa : i i ty eal ella) ae im i 2 4 8 88 nue Hatha Heth it Pie ts oe site Burpee ne ih HES BEAR: i ab ie qs i So S25h8". aa! ef, 2 eS ie wi ee He Heud tine | in ils ee e ihn eile 7 : ir anh sli FH i Z aa i ih Coe i i ‘ Bes “eye ibid |isseazas® a uesa ll ui er, ure tlhe tHe austsatts ie get ge one i vaie 14122 5 U2 a eet Hap a, bit a a Bry Hit fie: i ae oosscoss | : . ‘ ° iile Meer ae A i in i pull 4 al? ari he 506 Exhaustion Michelotti made many experiments for determining of Vessels. the real form of the vena contracta. He constructed a ; ,, great variety of ajutages resembling it, till he found peo one which gave the greatest discharge, This ajutage nuaiae was formed by the revolution of a trochoid round the axis of the jet. The diameter of the outer orifice was 386, that of the inner orifice 46, and the length of the axis was 96. This ajutage gave .9831 to 1000 as the ratio of the real to the theoretical discharge. The fol- lowing are Michelotti’s results : Theoretical discharge . + + « 1.0000 Trochoidal ajutage sh) Sy hes whe > 98AL Tube 2 diameterslong . . eb 8125 For a tube projecting into the reser- voir, and flowing full . . . . 6814 For do, when the vein was contracted 5134 Secr. V. Experiments on the Exhaustion of Vessels. Onthe exe We have already seen, in stating the general princi« haustion of ples of hydraulics, that a funnel-shaped cavity is form- vessels, ed in the surface of a fluid, when, in the course of its descent, it has nearly reached the orifice from which the fluid is discharged. This circumstance renders it impossible to determine the exact time in which a ves- * comply emptied. The superincumbent pres- of the head of water being removed by the for- mation of the funnel-shaped cavity above the orifice, the water is at last discharged in successive drops. M. Bos- sut therefore abandoned the idea of a ing to mea- sure the time of emptying vessels, and confined his ex- periments to the determination of the time in which the upper surface of the fluid descends through a cer- tain vertical height in prismatic vessels, in which the area of the horizontal section is constant. The follow- ing Table contains the results of his experiments. Taste XII. Shewing the times in which Prismatic Ves« sels are partly exhausted. Altitude of the water in the reservoir 11.6666 Paris feet. Constant area of a horizontal section of the vessel in square feet. s 5 er 'Time in which} Diame- } of the up- |the depression} Time of the |Difference be- ter of the] per surface|takes place, ac-| depression tween the circular | of the Sein cr ot eet orifice. | fluid. periment. {by the formula.| experiments. Inches.} Feet. | Min. Sec. | Min. Sec. Seconds. 1 4 7 253 7 22.36 3.14 2 4 1 »52 1 50.59) (1.41 1 9 20 243 | 20 16 8.50 2 9 5.6 5 4 2.00 The first column of the Table contains the diameter of the circular orifice ; the second the depression of the pe surface of the fluid in feet ; the third the time in which the surfaces descend through this height, ac- cording to experiment ; the fourth contains the time as calculated from the formula in Chapter I. corrected 4 substituting 0.62 A instead of A, in order to make jowance for the effect of contraction. The numbers in column fourth always err in defect, probably from 0.62 base taken too great. If the orifices are vertical, the altitude of the fluid must. be measured from. their centre of gravity, HYDRODYNAMICS. A few experiments on the partial exhaustion of ves. Exh: sels were made by M. Venturi. An orifice, 4.5 lines in diameter, was made near, the bottom .of a cylindrical vessel 4.5 inches in diameter. The altitude of the wa~ experi. ter in the vessel was 8.3 inches above the centre of the ments. ~ orifice. . The Surface of the water was then depressed ~~ 7 inches in 274 seconds. A.cylindrical tube, of the same diameter as the orifice, and 11 lines in length, ‘was applied to the same orifice. . The vessel was filled to the same height as formerly, and its surface descend. ed 7 inches in 21 seconds.of time. These experiments were afterwards repeated under the receiver of an air ay , in which the mercurial gauge stocd only at the ight of 10 lines, and the surface of the fluid .was de« pressed 7 inches, whether the water flowed through the simple orifice, or the cylindrical tube.» Seer. VI. Experiments of Bossut onthe discharge of Waa ter into a submerged Vessel. Tn order to examine the discharge of water into sub- Op the merged vessels, M. Bossut exnloyed a vessel ABCD, charge of Fig. 1. two feet in diameter, in which a white-iron cy- water linder VMNT,.1 foot high, and 20 lines in diameter, woul was immersed. This cylinder is supported on a tripod, py are so that it can be set in a vertical line, and is furnished c¢cc with graduated scales for measuring the water which it Fig. 1. receives, The orifice in the cylinder VMNT being shut, water is poured into the vessel till it reaches a cer- tain height, and when the orifice is opened, the water rushes in and fills the cylinder. The following are the results of Bossut’s experiments. ) Depth of } Diameter | Time in which the water immersion | of the | rises to'H on a level with | Calculated or HM. orifice. the water in the vessel. time. li inches} 1 line 119 seconds. 155.97 ll = 15 17.33. The fourth column contains the time, as calculated from theory, which differs very considerably in the first experiment from the observed time. M. Bossut ac- counts for this, by saying, that at the first entrance of the water, a jet is formed which penetrates the plate of water in the cylinder VMNT, till it stands at.a cer« tain height, when the surface of the water becomes le« vel. Now as this jet will continue longer with small than with large orifices, a greater quantity of water, in proportion, ought to be discharged. Bossut also made the lege ge Nie ne cae . Exp. 1. When the water entered the cylinder by an orifice one inch in diameter, it was to im- merse the cylinder 8 inches and 11 lines in the water of the vessel, in order that the water might raise itself to the upper margin VT of the vessel. Exp. 2. The bottom MN — wholly removed, the cylinder required to be immersed 7 inches and 7 lines, in order that the water might rise to the upper margin VT. Exp. 3. When a large plate of white-iron was round MN, it was necessary to sink the cylinder 6 inches 114 lines, in order that the water might rise to the upper margin VT. Seer. VII. Bossut’s Experiments on the Motion of Wa- Motion of ier in a Vessel crossed with Diaphragms. ber! The experiments of Bossut on this subject were made diaphragms tls, es : Faq f ei fEnyn anette eemennas ee — 14 ‘hall dani | eo F : it i il i Fait ag] a | ae : aan eaiat €| | | Habits hats 3 et RHEE Tee yaa 3 1, ij i a JF i HEE randy || | | eal Ba iui ates TRH id High liee’ ee if ay HH MMMnERiar pW iss Lit |e Padi arate Mi RMT pes ee oH THE aT TRB ttl rity 1B eet ite Mie g ueeeest 22 a Se ra URE aay ebigei=¢ a “s 3 si | di | see peipkhs i ai ohe Ai iH es a aay it Fie Hai aa irl it |i HUN 4 AN aii, Hgts BATE GER Rely do Gli... 2 so iis: Experi- ments on Jets d’eau, — “the ajutage. 508 large ones having a greater momentum, are more able to overcome the obstacles which are to them. This, however, is true only of high jets. For when they do not exceed two or three feet, in monet and when the ajutages are not below one line in diameter, small jets rise-to the: same;height as large-ones. This conclusion-must also be limited to the .case-where the conduit pipe-OE affords a sufficient supply of water ; for it aj from.the three last experiments, when the conduit tube OE is very narrow, that the small jets rise to a greater height than large ones. Hence there is ob- viously a eertain ratio which must exist between ‘the diameter of the horizontal tube and that-of the ajutage, to produce a maximum height in the jet. In order to find this ratio, Bossut. has given the fol- lowing method. Let D be the diameter of the tube, d that of the orifice, -v the velocity.of the water in the tube, and / the altitude of the fluid in the reservoir. Now /h may be taken as the constant velocity at But by Hyprautics, Chap. I. Prop. 1. /h:v= D2: d?, and v = * Wh, In like manner, in any other tube, in which D’ @’,:h’ and v’ represent the if 2 ; same quantities as before, we have v’ = a Vi. But, upon the hypothesis, which is conformable to experi- ‘ment, that two jets will each rise to'the greatest possi- ‘ble height when the velocities of the water in the two «conduit tubes are equal, we have vy =v’ and = Vh= d? De is, the squares of the diameters of the horizontal tubes ought ta be to each other in the compound ratio of the squares of the diameters of the ajutages, and the square roots of the heights of water in the reservoir. Hewes if we know from one direct experiment the diameter which a tube ought to have to supply a given ajutage under a ohana height of fluid in the reservoir, ‘we may find the diameter of every other tube which is Wh’; consequently, D*: D!? = d*,/h: d/h’; that necessary to supply any other ajutage under a given | height of fluid in the reservoir. . With this view, M. Bossut made the following expe- riments. He applied a tin tube one inch in diameter to areservoir. ‘The point of the, tube, bent upwards in order to project the water vertically, was made of lead, and was a little more than an inch long, ‘and to the extremity of it seven different orifices were succes- sively applied. The following were the results. Taste XIV. Containing the Experiments of Bossut on the Height of Jets with different Orifices, Diameter of the Ajutage. Height of the Jet. Lines. Feet. inches. lines. eo ak Nera Me Ae Me. BD 2. Pear Me i. 1 8 BA PRUs Ste sresGatt2 oO 4. aa ee a RL Ht S*; rary sta BS 1 5 ert Chel ele spare ae? ey 1. i CRITE SE ss | cae From these results it follows, that for a height.of wa- ter in the reservoir of 3 feet 2 inches and 11 lines, and a conduit tube which has a diameter of 1 inch, the dia- meter of the orifice should be about 32 lines. Now Mariotte found from experiment, that for a head .of water of 52 feet, and an ajutage 6 lines in diameter, HYDRODYNAMICS. the diameter of the conduit tube should be 36 lines; | & whereas the preceding rule will give 38, agreeing v: nearly with bre pana Dean tey ean ipo be _ It appears, from a comparison of the experiments of Bossut and Mariotte, that the differences between the height of vertical jets and the height of the reservoir are nearly as the square of the heights of the jets them- selves. Hence, if we know this difference in once case, the difference in any other will be found by simple proportion. If the height of the reservoir of the second jet is given, and if it is required to determine the height of the jet, we must resolve a quadratic equation. Thus, let a be the height of the reservoir of the ex- perimental jet, b the height of the same jet, c the height of the reservoir of the proposed jet, 2 the height of the proposed jet; then by the rulea—6:c—a= 0: 22, we obtain 4 _ +B 4b V(4ac—4be40%) 2(a— b) In order to facilitate the application of the preceding principles to practice, Bossut has computed the follow« ing Table: Taste XV. Containing the Allitudes of Reservoirs, the Diameters of different heights. : i Quantity of wa- |Diameters of the |) ter discharged in | horizontal tubes Altitude of. | Altitude of |a minute from anjsuited to the two the jet. . |the reservoir. | ajutage 6 lines | preceding co- in diameter, lumns. Paris Feet. Feet. Inch.| Paris Pints. Lines. 5 5 1 32 21 10 10 4 | 45 26 15 15 9 56 28 20 21 4 65 31 25 hee: 78 33 30 33° 6 81 34 35 39 1 88 36 40 45 4 95 37 45 51.9 101 38 - 50 58 4 108 89 55 65 1 114 40 60 72 O .120 41 65 79 1 *125 42 70 86 4 131 43 75 93 9 136 44 80 | 101 4 142 45. 85 109 1 147 46 90 117 O 152 47 95 125 1 158 48 100 133 4 163 49 _ » The two first columns, containing the heights of the jets and the corresponding altitudles of the resere voirs, are taken from Mariotte. The heights of the jets and of the reservoirs not included in the Table, may be found from the preceding formula. The third column contains, in Paris pints, of which 36 form a cus bic foot, the water discharged in a minute by an ajutage six lines in diameter ; and the fourth column contains the diameter which ought to be given to the conduit tubes for an ajutage of six lines relatively to the alti« tudes in column 2. This column is computed on the hypothesis, that for an ajutage six lines in diameter, diameter, the Horizontal. Tubes, Se+ for Jets of and an altitude of-16 feet of water in the ge i aa " 2 upon ’ conduit tube must be 283 lines in a: 4 be - 52 $2 ; “aes : 22933 £§ : baa? Py 5535 g¢242 35 SiH] ffi a Haddd § a abe ase ipa ar 3532 4:32 a. er a3 all F : He vies Hite eg lel fT lag ges HEE aia HAG | a gh Me ade Ste ane OF ae ite i gH GE ae i Bate caitan ae giigetsgs Eisiice tik T ai; hk Siti. Heflin Welle SATE dai 2 HE uh Hi! ~ Pied 9 28 $% § rt sit i ise naa ra Q fas. 33 gis E a = 28 : 5 aa : at aul ee Ht cual (ti na tt thi i ul Heyl al ie a itt Tei ibid it Beilin = Pe ce lek ial nie Hie | a Huh ee vals - sae aE ahailt at gil; ek HE 510 HYDRODYNAMICS. Motion of town, the engineer has next to consider what diameter Sect. I. Account of the Experiments o Bossut and Cou- Motion, Waterin of pipe is necessary to convey the quantity of water re- t on the Motion of Water in Conduit Pipes and Wate eS Lens quired. The quantity of water (dleticiged will ob- aes Canals. v =) Pipes am —_—— viously depend upon the diameter of the conduit pipe, and on the velocity with which the water issues from it. Hence, if we can find the velocity of the water, the diameter will be easily ascertained. - The experiments of which we have already giyen a full account, enable us to determine, with very great accuracy, the velocity with which water will issue from an orifice of any form, or from short cylindrical or co- nical tubes, either simple or compound ; and hence we can easily ascertain the velocity with which the water will enter the pipe, or its initial velocity ; but these ex- periments afford us no assistance in ascertaining the va- rious obstructions which the water suffers in its pas« sage. so as to determine the velocity with which it issues from a pipe of a giveA length and diameter. In order to obtain practical rules relative to this in- teresting subject, many veluable and laborious experi« ments have been made. The most celebrated indivi- duals who have devoted their attention to this branch of hydrodynamics, are Bossut, Du Buat, M. Prony, and M. Girard, by whose labours the art of conducting wa- ter has been brought to a very high degree of perfec- tion. It shall therefore be cur principal object in the present Chapter to give an account of the experiments of these eminent individuals, Tue experiments of Bossut were made upon an emi- Experi. nence near the springs by which the town of Mezieres ments of is supplied with water. ted, one of which furnishes water to the second, in which it stood at a constant height. The first of these reservoirs contained from 25 to 30 cubic toises of wa- ter, and the second was considerably less in magnitude, so as to contain only about six cubic toises of water when it stood at its greatest height, which was about 44 feet. A horizontal tube of white iron, about eight or nine inches in diameter, communicated with the bottom of the small reservoir, and terminated in a cubical box of white iron, about one foot broad, and shut up on all sides. To one of the vertical ig of fg ti! fit- ted ndicularly two straight pi white iron, one Of which had ee ame fence diameter, and the other twenty-four lines. Various lengths of these Pipes were employed, between 30 and 180 feet. At ifferent distances, small holes were perforated, in or- der to facilitate the exit of the included air. These apertures were afterwards stopped up by a little wax. n this way, M, Bossut obtained the results contained in the following Table. Taste I. Containing ihe Quantities of Water discharged by Conduit Pipes of different lengths and diameters, come pared with the Quantities discharged from additional tubes inserled in the same Reservoir. Two reservoirs were excava- Bosstt Constant Quantity of | Quantity of Quantity of | Quantity of altitude of water di water dis- Ratio between | water dis- water dis- | Ratio between the water charged ina | charged by | the quantities of } charged by | charged by | the quantities of in. the reser-| of | minute by an| the conduit | water furnished | an additional | the conduit | water furnished voir above |the conduit] additional | pipe in a mi- | by the tube and | tube in a mi- | pipe in a mi-} by the tube and the axis of | Pipes. tube. nute. the pipe of 16 nute, nute. © the pipe of 24 the tube. lines diameter. lines di 5 Tube and Pipe 16 lines diam. Tube and Pipe 24 lines diam. Feet. Feet. | Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches. | Cubic Inches. 1 30 6330 778 100 to 43.89 14243 7680 100 to 53.92 1 60 6330 1957 100 to 30.91 14243 5564 100 to 39.06 1 ~ 90 6330 1587 100 to 25.07 |. 14243 4534 100 to 31.83 7 1 120 6330 1351 100 to 21.34 | 14243 3944 100 to 27.69 1 150 6330 1178 100 to 18.61 14243 8486 100 to 24.48 1 180 6330 1052 100 to 16.62 14243 3119 100 to 21.90 2 30 8939 4066 100 to 45.48 | 20112 11219 100 to 55.78 4 2 60 8939 2888 100 to 32,31 20112 8190 100 to 40.72 2 90 8939 2352 100 to 26.31 20112 6812 100 to 33.87 y 2 120 8959 2011 100 to 24.50 | 20112 5885 100 to 29.26 4 2 150 8939 1762 100 to 19.71 20112 5232 100 to 26.01 2 180 8939 1583 100 to 17.70 | 20112 4710 100 to 23.41 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 Even at the short length of 30 feet, the velocity with. - Explanation This Table contains two sets of experiments, one set which the water issues from the pipe is nearly one half — of theTable. on the relative quantities of water discharged by an ad- 3 ditional tube 16 lines in diameter, and a pipe of various lengths of the same diameter ; and Beat set on the relatiye quantities discharged by an additional-tube 24 lines in diameter, and a pipe of various length and of the-same diameter. The fifth and eighth columns con- tain the ratios of these discharges, which are also the ratios of the velocities with which the water issues from the additional tube and the extremities of the pipes. of that with which it issues from the tube, and when the pipe is 180 feet long, and its diameter 16 lines, the ratio of.the velocities is only 100 to 16.6, so that the water has lost 5-6ths of its initial velocity by its fric« tion on the sides of the pipe. It is obvious from a comparison of columns 5 and 8; that the diminution of the velocity is pipes; a result which arises from the ® Motion of mnch HYDRODYNAMICS. ter effect on the flaid in the axis of the small ~ Weerie tube, then oa the fluid in the axis of the great one. H H , ? : By comparing the six first experiments with the six Sea hast cx ents, it will be seen that as the height of ~ ¥ the fuid in the reservoir is increased, the diminution of di and tly of velocity, is also in- the friction of solid bodies, which in increases with the velocity. P. however, it may yet be HE ie iH tH i # tL E i z i u i i F J i ts zt 24 Pa if F i e 1 i 4 ; Hi with a 63 yey . right ' a , of a ri elon the altitude was 16 ees Tante Il. On the ity of Water dischar, i a aes eager yell Diaanster of of the wy hae in inches. pipe. —-— ‘| in» minute. 10 16 lines. 59 feet. $808 10 16 118 5801 10. |16 177 5795 ‘end of each 5il pea cubic inches in a pyres which is less ag that which is discharged by the preceding pipes. By dimi- nishing, however, the inchinetion of Fe pipes, they would be brought to give the same di as the additional tube. This equality of discharge will take place when the inclination of the pipe is 6° $1’, or vhen the depression of the lower extremity of the pipe is one-eighth or one-ninth of its length. “In this case the velocity, arising from the relative gravity of the wa- ter, is exactly counterbalanced by the resistance which the water experiences in the pipe. On the Motion of Water in Bent Pipes. In order to determine the effects of flexures or bendings in conduit pipes, M. Bossut made the fol- lowing experiments. pipes were perforated with small holes to facilitate the ascent of the air. At the was a tube M; about two inches in diameter, which communicated with the smallest of thé reservoirs already mentioned. ‘This ad- ditional tube is furnished with a stopcock R, perforated with an aperture of more than 18 lines in diameter. Taste IIT. Shewing the quantities of Water discharged by rectilineal and curvilineal leaden Pipes, 50 feet long, inch in diameter, and 1 line thick. Now, an additional tube of the same diameter, and with the same head of water, would have discharged Quantities of Water The rectilineal tube MN, p horizontally, Fig. 6. . . The same tube similarly placed, The same tube, bent into the cur-| vilineal form ABC, Fig. 7. eac flexure lying flat on a horizon- tal plane, ABC being a horizor- rhe same tube similarly placed same similar! F The same tabe pleced as in Fig. 8. where ABCD is a vertical section, the parts A, B, C, D, ising above a horizontal plane, and parts a, b, c, lying up- 1030 — *o on it, . . 3 ‘ 520 ‘The same tube similarly placed, | 1028 Wy. It from this Table, that a curvilineal pipe, which the fexures lie horizontally, Glicharget teas ili ipe of the same } h, and the in water than a rectilineal Motion of Water in and Canals. A 9" — | PLaTEe CCCXIX. Figs. 6, 7, 8. 512 Motion of w Wsater in Pipes and Canals. = Tapre IV. Containing the results of the Experiments of Couplet HYDRODYNAMICS. and Bossut on Conduit Pipes differing in form, length, diameter, and in the materials of which they are composed,—under different Altitudes of mater in the Rea servoir. Ratio between the} quantities which rae Diame- - pata emia Altitude of the | <8) ter of he anak topes beter yates rt ip re-| onduit ar enh Nature, Position, and Form of the Conduit Pipes, quantities actually 4 pipes. | ischarged ;—or t pipes. st between the |. initial and the finalf velocities of the fluid. Feet, inch. lines.| Feet. | Lines . 0 40 50 | 12 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipes made of lead . . . 100 to 3.55 1.4.0. 0 50 | 12 | The same pipe similarly p - ee ts oie aL ORY tee 0 40 50 | 12 | The same pipe with several horizontal flexures 7 100 to 3.78 rv. 0 50] 12 |Samepipe . . E ° . . A 100 to 3.43 0 4 0 50 |. 12 | The-same pipe with several vertical flexures . 100 to 3.93 1 00 50 | 12 | Same pipe . "ety, ° . F ° 100 to 3.44 1 0 O | 180} 16 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron 100 to 6.01. 2 00 180 | 16 | Same pipe . . od aaa Sacer aitas 100 to 5.69 f 1-—-0--0 180 | 24 | Rectilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron . 100 to 4.57 2.0 0 180| 24 |Samepipe . .. < Re apr tity wenetar Geary be 100 to 4.27 20 11 O 177 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined so that its length is to the depression as 2124isto241. . . 100 to 5. 13 4 8 118 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last | 100 to 4, k 6 8 4 159 | 16 | Rectilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the last | 100 to 2.82 | 0 9 O | 1782] 48 | Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both horizontal and vertical ° . F $ 5 . 100 to 2.85 1 9 O | 1782} 48 | Same pipe rele Cah aed NY GPR phe Si oe 100 to 26.53 | 2 7 O | 1782| 48 | Same pipe . . ‘ . : : . ° : 100 to 25.79 0 8 0 |1710] 72 | Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both horizontal and vertical < . ; “ 4 fs “ eaten 100 to 10.11 |. 20 $3 O. |14040| 144 | Conduit pipe made of iron, with several flexures both horizon- j tal and vertical ote alleen pol: ape aii o> 100 to 17.37 The application: of the preceding Table.is very sim- ple. Let it be required, for example, to find the dia- meter of: a pipe capable of discharging 40,000 cubic inches of water in a minute, at a point four feet. be- low the. level. of: the spring, and by a pipe 2400 feet long. Now, a short cylindrical tube, one inch in dia- meter, will furnish 7070 cubic inches in a minute, when the head of water is four feet. Hence, to. find the.diameter which will discharge 40,000 cubic inches, we have the analogy 4/70720: 4/40,000 = 12: lines: 28.54 lines, the diameter required. But it appears from the preceding Table, that when the length of the pipe is about 2400 feet, it will discharge only about one« eighth of the water, or 5000 cubic inches. Hence, in order that it may discharge the whole 40,000 cubic inches, its diameter must be increased. . This new diae meter will be found thus, 4/5000 : 4/40,000 = 28.54 lines to 80.72, or 6 inches 8,4 lines, the diameter of the pipe which will, discharge 40,000 cubic inches of water in a minute. nyo ob The following Table contains the remaining experi« ments made by M, Bossut, . HYDRODYNAMICS. 513 Taste V. ining Bossut’s i on the Quantities of Water discha aa Sifu Pines af cornet Lengthagad aihdiferes Ajtege, “Canal Ratio of the Heigh WR | SR come PB ose” ad Feet. In. | Feet. Lines. Lines. 24 7 161 12 7 0.045 0.002 242 23 9 192 12 0.075 0.006 230 19 3 193 12 0.068 0.005 222 19 9 188 12 0.061 0.004 237 19 10 146 12 7 by 7 0.089 0.008 168 29 1 187 16 74 by 54 0.105 0.011 588 Two ajuta- 8 0} 1069 18 | bmg i 0.435 0.189 1686 2% 7 | 278 15 3} 0.396 0.157 458 se 7] s4| 15 alee i 0.227 0.052 1282 . } Lac 5 lines 30 5] 46 | 18 2 by 6} 0.087 0.001 636 26 3 506 18 4 0.447 0.200 696 27. 0| 668 | 18 54 0.301 0.091 900 30.0 812 18 il 0.048 0.002 600 10 5 194 12 5 0.377 * 0.139 576 1011}. 462 | 12 54 0.382 0.109 576 ;' 10 0 420 15 7 0.163 0.028 483 The preceding experiments were made at Mezieres,on to bear. But if the water is through a small] the 8th and 9th October 1779, the water dischar- the of the water in the pipe is dimi- ged from the public and private of that city. and hence results a pressure against the sides. In order to measure this pressure, Bossut's on the Pressure exerted upon Pipes forated the at different lengths or distances by the Water which they convey. Tate VI. Containing the Quantities discharged ~ Oke Sider of Pipe, aceording to Theory God Eapertment Altitude of thel 7 cach of the| Quantities of Water dis-| Quantities of Water dis- ‘Water in the int in1 cies | es BS yew Peet. Feet. Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches. 1 30 171 176 . 1 60 186 186 ’ I go 190 190 1 120 191 191 1 150 193 192 I 180 19% 193 2 80 240 244 2 60 256 259 2 90 261 264 2. | 120 204 267 2. 180 / 266 > ~——. VOL. XI. PART Ul. 8r by a Lateral Orifice, or the Pressures on Motion of Water in Pipes and Canals. —_——— ‘ stituting « in place of 514 The fourth column in the preceding Table is calcula- W (Dt—d*) _.... ted from the formula g = Q xX » which is D: thus obtained. We have already seen in Chap. I. of Part II. that the pressure of the fluid on the pipe is 4 ah Then, if Q is the quantity of DT water which would have been discharged’ in a given time under the head or pressure h, the quantity of wa- ter q discharged in the same time under the head 4 measured by k— or pressure har will be thus found Q:g= 4: J-$}) ja0 x VOmad 2 Db? 3 The agreement of the formula with the experiments is very striking. From this method of considering the subject, M. Bossut deduces a very simple method of determining the discharge from a long tube subject to friction from the expenditure of an orifice perforated in its sides. Let « denote the ratio of the expenditure of the proposed pipe having regard to friction, to the expenditure upon the supposition that there is no fric-° tion; or, which is the same thing, let «= pa in the preceding formula, By sub« Db? we have q=Q4/(1—2"), and«= wie), Let us now suppose that the tube has 2 inches diameter, that the Q head of water is 3 feet, that the lateral orifice is 6 lines, and that it discharges at the orifice 1000 cubic inches in a minute. This orifice, as appears from former experiments, would give 1178 cubic inches in a minute, if the extremity of the pipe were stopped, that is, Q= 1178 cubic inches, whilst g is only 1000 cubic inches. By putting these values in the equa- tion «= vO, we have a= 0.5289. But by Table II. p. 498, this additional tube would give 24504 cubic inches in a minute, abstracting the effects of fric- tion ; hence the effects of friction being included, it will discharge 0.5289 x 24504= 12952 cubic inches in a mi-« nute. The ing observations are also applicable to inclined tubes, whether straight or curved. In the formation of pipes, it is necessary to give them a much greater thickness than that which is necessary to resist the pressure indicated by the preceding Table, for the pipes are exposed to several forces hick are not Taste VII. Containing the Velocity of Water in different parts HYDRODYNAMICS. taken into consideration, The following Table con- tains the thickness of leaden and iron pipes, which were used in France in the time of Bossut. Leaden Pipes. Tron Pipes. Diameter in| ‘Thickness {Diameter in] Thickness inches. in lines. inches. in lines. 1 24 1 1 14 8 2 3 2 4 4 4 3 5 6 5 4} 6 8 6 6 7 10 7 7 8 12°: & The thickness of pipes ought to increase with the head of water, and the strain should always be calcula« ted from the whole height of the reservoir, and upon the supposition that the pipe is stopped at one end. Bossut’s Experiments on the Motion of Water in Canals. The experiments of Bossut on this subject were made poscut’s upon an open canal, the bottom of which was on a level periments with the bottom of the reservoir from which the water on the flowed. The orifice by which the water issued into the os : nals, canal from the reservoir had constantly a horizontal ‘width of 5 inches, but the height of the orifice was made to vary by raising or bad ae a-slider, so as to obtain a rectangular opening of various heights. In order to measure the velocity of the water in the canal, Bossut tried various ways ; but he ultimately preferred the me« thod of finding it by by le, | the time which ela; between the opening of the orifice, and the arrival of the water at different parts of the canal. The velocity thus found is obviously less than the velocity of the water when the current is perfectly established. But there is a con« stant ratio between these two velocities, in consequence of which the one may be safely inferred from the other. The canal was 105 feet long, and was divided into five equal parts, and also into three equal parts; so that each of the fifth parts was 21 feet, and each of the third parts 35 feet long. In order to ascertain the arrival of the water at these ewer Eki of the canal, small wheels like those used by children were placed at each point of division; and the commencement of their mo-« tion, which indicated the arrival of the water at that point, was instantly pre by the person who count ed the oscillations of the pendulum. When the canal was horizontal, the following were the results, of a Rectangular Horizontal Canal 105 feet long, under different Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir. jAltitude of the water in { Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. || Space run through the reservoir. 11 8 7 8 3 8 {11 8 7 8 3 8 by the water. onal as oe i 4an inch an inch43 an inch.| 1 inch. | 1 inch. | 1 inch. Feet. Time in which the num- a" Yam) gla Ya a4] Se 21 ber of feet in column b— 7 9 4 5 6+ > 7th are run through by 10— 13— 17+ 7 9 114 the water. 16— | 20— | 274 | 11 14 184 84 234 | 284 | 38+ 16} 20 26 105 Pipes ani HYDRODYNAMICS. 5I5 of egheadencrss onder + and — indicate the times for the last line of the Table, or for the whole Motion of , i that the number of seconds is a little too small length of 105 feet. These times are, = : ; Cana. — - It | re OO Table, that the time suc. Calculat- aw employed by the water in running through ed bythe } 6".350,7".834, 11”.830,6".350, 7”.184, 11.380 spaces of 21 fee formula, 28 38 16} 20 9% Taste VIII. Containing the Ws Wier do =, Retgiion naboed_< 105 Feet long, and under dif- THE RESERVOIR. .« lL 8 7 8 $ 8 Ik 8 Fi. In. | Fe. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Fi ey Feet. Autitupe or warentn § Ft. Jn. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In, | Ft. In. | Ft. In, run through ; 8 | &8 = ppnow %. In Inclination of the canal 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 6 Oo 6 . 4’ 6" 3 4 6 35 Height of the orifice } 114 Ss 164° 1} 4° 18— 70 = ae 0 22 26 S44 | 21 254 | 314 105 Fi. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. o6 106 | 3 0 10/10 3” os — — — — 35 pte tewner Pibdes ? 1s 9a . r. 4 ey tay 15 19— 23— 1t 16 3 | 105 Fi. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. Inclination of the canal 2 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 40 4 0 j . . 2" + “— 4’ 2” 4 3’ + 44 35 — of the orifice a 7 9— 104 6} 8 94 70 ma” fas 13 — 15— 17 12 13 154 105 Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In, | Ft. In. Inclination of the canal 6 0 60 60 9 0 9 0 9 0 + s” a" 2" + 34. "— $5 Height of the et H I Sere ES en 5 inch. es 10 12 1b— 9 10 12-- 105 Feet. Feet. Feet, Feet. Feet. Feet. Inclination of the canal il 11 11 i 11 1 Half sec. way ogg Half sec.' Half sec.| Half sec.| Half sec. In. the three first co- + + ef 2 + 5 oe 21 Jamns the of} 7 84+ | 10 5 7 8 42 the orifice was So 12 134 16 9 il 13 63 inch, and in the 17 184 | 22 13 15 18— 84 last 1 inch, 214 234 28 17 19 22. 105 ' Feet. | Feet Feet i Inclination of the canal 11 ll il “ a=. Half sec.\ Halfse c. 5 6 7 ' a Height of the orifice 14 rs 1w— | 114 63 OR 12 134 | 15 } 8t 16+ 17 20 105 Motion of Water in Pipes and Canals. —\— Account of Du Buat’s zesearches, 516 In the preceding experiments, Bossut only observed the velocity of the first portion of the water that issued from the reservoir. In order to compare this velocity with that of the current after it is completely establish- ed, he made the experiments in the following Table ; the time in which the first portion of the water moved through the spaces in col..6, was measured by means of the small wheels already mentioned; and the time in Tasie IX, prea y a HYDRODYNAMICS. which the established current moved through the same | spaces, was ascertained by placing gently upon the Water water four pieces of cork, which followed exactly the current. _ The first portion of the canal was always run through in less time than any of the other divisions, and velocity did not become sensibly uniform till the declivity was about the 10th part of the length of the canal. a Comparison between the Velocity of the First Por: tion of Water, and that of the Established Current, Vertical breadth of the Orifice Vertical breadth of the Onited 1 inch. 2 inches, ; Altitude of the/Time in which|Time in pi in which|Time in which| Space run water in the | the space in | the space in | the space in | the space in |through by thei reservoir. col. 6. was runjcol. 6, was 6. was col. 6. was water. through by the} h by the|through by thejthrough by Ist portion of | established | Ist portion of | established water. current. water. current. ‘Feet. Inch. Seconds. Seconds. Seconds. Seconds. Feet. f} 10 8 8 7 100 20+ 17 17 142 200 4 0 4 3l— 26 26 22 300 42— 85 35— 294 400 524 4354 434 37— 500 q 624 52 52— 444 600 é 11 10 9 8— 100 23 20 19 16 200 2 0 - 35 30 29 24 300 46+ 49 39 32 400 58 49 49 40 500 q 69 58 58 48 600 124 12 15 13 100 1 0 253 23 4- 31 oa 200 39 33 AT 39 300 1l— 9 133 113 100 0 6 22 18— 262 23 200 324 27 393 334 300 Tt will be seen from these results, that the velocity of the first portion of water is always less than that of the -established current, and that the one has to the other a ratio which is nearly constant. The difference between these two velocities is obviously owing to friction, and to the viscidity of the fluid. The velocity of the water in contact with the bottom of the canal is not only re- tarded by friction, but the weight of the superincum- bent fluid; and the fluid must obviously have the greatest velocity at the surface at a point equidistant from the sides. Sect. II. Account of the Researches and Experiments of the Chevalier Du Buat. _ Iw the preceding investigations of Bossut, no attempt is made to deduce any very general principle or formula from which the quantity of water discharged by pipes and canals could be obtained in cases, which are not comprehended in the limits of his tables, His experi- ments, indeed, were neither sufficiently numerous nor varied to lay the foundation of any very general rule; and it is perhaps too much to expect that the same person should have the honour both of laying the foun- dation, and of bringing to perfection one of the most difficult branches of physico-mathematical science. In the historical part of this article, we have given a full account of the origin of the labours of the Chevalier Du Buat, and have stated the general formula which he obtained for expressing in all cases the velocity of water, whether it is conveyed in a pipe or canal, or rolls in the beds of rivers. We shall now proceed to give as succinct and perspicuous a view as possible of the principal steps by which this formula was obtained, and shall then point out the method of applying the formula in practice, by means of copious Tables, which have never before been published. I Considering an inch as the unity of length, and a yyoge of second as the unity of time, we may express the decli- expressing vity of a canal by = on the supposition that upon the length of the pipe or canal s there is a fall of linch. But, in order to find the slope of a conduit pipe when the height of the reservoir and the place of discharge are known, we must subtract from the height the slope a pipe or HYDRODYNAMICS. 517 “1 ofp Jie an at ae creaits increase to the quantity m must be proportion. - V=22.47 / H. Hene H= Sy = Bos" The alto d; and consequently +/mg must be proportional o j a whe: . considered as a declivity to be distributed over the to ¥/d for different channels; and a should in In ‘7 pg . : reir In by | if this was actuall sistances will experience by an increase of velocity, it o Da Be Kind set ug ws “tl sel S for while the impulses on all the little aspe- portional te 4/d, nor to any power of d, but that it 4 8, | 4 ‘ : 4 ag % F | r i =. eg “ttl 4. aE ae : 2, et i z > resistances equal to ——, m being a constant quantity Sas salocnty aogned tra heap Wamyrah Gietn 2 Se * i e te TY . Af SSE “£ a fe : i f is always a constant quantity, which Du n that is in the i the of the — 0.152 = 282 (6/g-—-0.1)— 70.1)" is hay peer ee eae Fe epee (Ve 01 = Se Vd. oyaes.7 (Veo) is a constant 3 and the leading formula for all (or making n= 243.7) =» (~d—0.1)*. But the re- the uniform velocities is V = “7S. sistances were expressed by ~, consequently they will otc atctall mee Dba heer ao e. by ve . equation experimentally, in order to ascertain s now be expressed by ——~-—_—.. is actually a constant quantity. cea agen, &. 8 a(7d— 0.1)? ee n We have also 4/mg = Wng (Wd—0.1), and since the values of V4/s, taken in the same pipe /ng( d—0.1) or canal, are not but that they increasea VX =4/mg, we obtain v= = little in proportion as the velocities increase ; and hence 10:1 x he that the resistances are in a less ratio than oq7 (/d— | which is an expression.of the weloci- ty V for any channel, which, X being a variable quan- "Vira do'met think, thet saadtern wil ba ch i pv 6 hyperbolic e our much in« ao 1h Seiseat this Traction "once wo atta structed in our author in his experimental de- Re Soe o/- mk en pune pine of coal termination of X. Upon the supposition that the va- obvious that they fe esi howe pipes aca series of ae — sent pe rae’ mo pak must velocity is i ; a ) des wat M. Du Buat found, that these conditions would Contact water ; that is, the resistance je fulfilled i aletitad! VEE. ‘permet o the bc, thd ivesly ratio of os = aT (doth Hyp. Log. Vs + 1.6 e reservoir, the height or head of water H due to tion of the channel, This line, which may be called Motion of phate in additional tubes, is H= 4, has been named the Mean radius by Du Buat, and Water in vz Motion of Water in Pipes and —— 518 as we did upon the real velocity, its value will be om 6 (Ve OL) Saameihy aI ninak sway te /S—Log.a/ 8” q ty must always subtracted from the velocity already determined. Hence the value of V will be Vez "8 (W201) __ / s— Log. v5 4+ 1.6 Ving . /s—Log. Vs-41.6 PES fife 0 ( VS — Log. 4/8 te Feat Ant _ vag /S — Log. 4/5 /S—Log./S is composed of constant quantities, it may be expressed in a single number, The value of it was determined by many experiments to be 0.3 inches, By substitu« ting, therefore, this value, we obtain ). But since the term d—0.1 v= ~~ es Ti ; 2—0.8(y/s—0.1 ), or in numbers, 297 (,/d—0.1) - v= = —0.3(4/d—0.1) in Fr. measur: /s—Log. V5 4-1.6 ( aires » ya _307 (4/d—0.1) ~ /s—Log. Vs41.6 In these expressions the following are the values of the letters employed. VY represents the mean velocity in inches per second of any current moving in a channel of indefinite length, of which the sections of the declivity are constant, dis the mean radius or hydraulic mean depth, or a quantity which, when multiplied by the perimeter of the section of the channel, gives an area equal to the area of the section. In circular pipes d is equal to half the radius. 2 is an abstract and constant number, which is found by experiment to be equal to 243.7 g is the velocity in inches, acquired by a falling body at the end of a second of time, being always equal to 32.174. s is the denominator of a fraction which expresses the slope of the channel, the numerator being supposed unity. Log. denotes the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity to which it is prefixed, and may be obtained by multiplying the common logarithm by 2.302581. 0.3(/d—0.1)inEng. measure. _In order to shew the agreement of the preceding formula with experiment, M. Du Buat drew up the } following Table, which contains the observed velocities as deduced from the experiments of Bossut, and from many new experiments made by Du Buat himself, and also the velocities calculated from the formula. In the first set of experiments on pipes, col. 1. con- tains the number of the experiment; col. 2. the length of the pipe; col. 3. the height of the reservoir; col. 4, the values of s as deduced from col. 2. and 3; col. 5. the observed velocities; and col. 6. the compu« ted velocities. In the second set of experiments on canals and ri- vers; col, 2. shows the area of the section of the chan- nel; col. 3. the perimeter of the channel in contact - with the water; col. 4. the square roots of d, or the mean radius or hydraulic mean depth; col. 5. the de- nominator s of the slope; col. 6. the mean velocities ebserved ; and col, 7. the mean velocities calculated, HYDRODYNAMICS. Tasie X. Containing calculated by Du Buat’s Formula, with the oa ties observed in the Experiments of Couplet, Bos- sut, and Du Buat, on Pipes, Canals, and Rivers.. Set I. Experiments on Pires. Experiments by the Chevalier Du Buar. Pipe 3 of a Line in Diameter, placed Vertically, and Vv d= 0.417851, Length! Height of Observed | Calculated satel 3 Pipe. kata warteebey RS Velocities. ‘ Inches.}; Inches. ‘Inches. Inches. Inches. 1] 12 | 16.166 | 0.75636{ 11.704 | 12.006 2 12 13.125 | 0.9307 9.753 10.576 Pipe.13 Line Diameter, placed Vertically, and W d=0.176776 Inch. 46.210 a Comparison of the Velocities "Canals 10 | Do. 3 |34.166| 42.166 |0.9062 | 45.468 4 | Do. 38.383 |0.9951 | 43.156 | 43.721 | 5 | Do. 36.666 |1.0396 | 42.885 | 42.612 | 6 | Do. 85.333 |1.07805| 41.614 | 41.714 } ‘The same Pipe Horizontal. 7 |34.166| 14.583 | 2.5838 | 26.202 | 25.523 8 | Do. | 9.292 | 4.0367 | 21.064 | 19.882 | 9 | Do. 5.292 | 7.03597] 14.642 | 14.447 2.083 |17.6378 7.320 2.351 Pipe 2 Lines Diameter, placed Vertically, a V d= 0.204124 . 11 |36.25 | 51.250 |0854509| 67.373 | 64.945 } 12 | Do. 45.250 |0.963382| 59.605 | 60.428 13 | Do. 41.916 }1.038080| 57.220 | 57.838 14 Do. 38.750 | 4.120473] 54.186 | 55.321 Pipe with nits Same Pipe a slope of 30a" 15 | 96.25 | 98.500 | 1.291741| 51.151 | 50.988 | Same Pipe Horizontal. 16 | 36.25 | 15.292 | 2.79005 | 33.378 | 83.167 17 | Do. 8.875 | 4.76076 | 25.430 | 24.553 18 | Do. 5.292 | 7.89587 | 19.940 | 18.313 19 | Do. 2.042 |20.016366| 10.620 | 10.492 | HYDRODYNAMICS, 519 E Pipe 2), Lines Diameter, a. Experiments of the Abbé Bossurt. Vd =0.2457 Horizontal Pipe 1 Inch Diameter Vd = 0.5. : of Observed | Calculated Length | Height of |; Observ Calculated No. | Tr ipe. Henceoie, (Values of a] Vomeinies. [Veioctics. | | %™ lor Pioe-| eosin. | Values of «| Oerernee | Gacuieiee Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 20 | 36.25 | 53.250 | 0.952348) 85.769 | 85.201 57 | 600 12 54.5966 | 22.282 | 21.975 21 | Do. | 50.250 |1.006424/ 82471 | 82.461 58 | 600 4 161.3120 | 12.223 | 11.756 22} Do. 48.333 | 1.044400/ SI 80.698 +Erpe 47.916 1052982 Ran 80.31 Va 24 : : 318 Horizontal Pipe 1} Inch Diameter = 0.57735. 25 | Do. | 44.750 | 1.124052! 76.079 | 77.318 * 26 | Do. | 41.250 |1.215688| 73.811 | 73.904 59) 800] 28 190781 | 48534 ) 49.515 60} 720| 24 33.6166 | $4.473 | 35.130 61} 360] 12 87.0828 | 33.160 | 33.106 62 | 1080| 24 48.35416| 28.075 | 28.211 63 | 1440| 24 64.1806 | 24.004 | 24.023 64} 720] 12 66.3020 | 23.360 | 23.345 651 1800| 24 78.05318| 21.082 | 21.182 66 | 2160| 24 92.9474 | 18.896 | 19.096 67 | 1080} 12 95.87567| 18.943 | 18.749 68} 1440] I2 125.6007 | 16.128 | 15.991 69| 1800} 12 155.4015 | 14.066 | 14.119 70} 2160! 12 185.2487 | 12.560 | 19.750 Horizontal Pipe 2.01 Inch Diameter Wd =0.7089458. a 71 360 | 2% 72| 720| 2 73| 360] 12 74 | 1080| 2% 75|1440| 24 S2eusia é i 117 | 36.000 jens|.ongeo 117 -| 18,000 Courret’s Experiments at Versailles. an a Pipe 5 Inches Diameter / d = 1.118084. Do. | 14.600 . Do. | 13.700 88 25 $378.26 | 5.923 | 5.287 Do. | 12.920 84 | Do. 24 3518.98 | 5.213 5.168 Do. | 8.96 85 | Do. | 21,083 | 4005.66 | 4.806 | 4887 Do. nse 86| Do. | 16.750| 5061.61 | 4127 | 4225 Do. | 7. 101.0809 |15.112° | 15.232 87 | Do. | 11.383 | 7450.42] 3.154 | 3.388 - Reso 132.1617 try 13.005 88 | Do. 5.583 |15119.96 | 2.0107 | 2.254 0.671 9 to} 186.0087 I19. 441 ¢ | 10.656 138.5} 0: 257.8663 | 8.689" | 8.894 Pipe 18 Inches Diameter Wd = 2.12132, 737 | 0.500 [1540.76 | 3.623 | 3.218 787 | 0.150 [113.42 | 1.589 | 1.647 | [sq 149.900] 146.089 [9049784] 99.159 | 40.510 esc ne xperimenta marked with an seterisk, the pipe discharged itself inte water, In all the other experiments it discharged 520 HYDRODYNAMICS. Motion of Midas hain rege! ie precoder Tate will on ; show the reader how much the science o! rodyna- Wate: Pipesand Set. II. Experiments witn A Woopen CanaL. roice IsYindlsbted? Go the “lebone of Mi; Bask: The, c0- Pipe an Canals. ere Fs ae - incidence of the calculated with the observed velocities pains ae Trapextum Canal. is extremely striking. Area | Perimeter Wa. | Mean Mean opantiae fie of the Jof Canal in| Values of -e | Weloci- New Tables for Facilitating the Application of No- | Section Fen with} 4/d. ape pn closity ty cal- . - Du Buat’s Formula, — of Canal.| the Water. ° culated. Inches.| Inches. Inches. |Inch.| Inches. | Inches. ® In order ad ar the eyenenr A the urls 90| 18.84| 13.06 | 1.20107 | 219) 97.51 | 27.19 | Practice, Ur Kobison in Issertation on Water. 91| 50.60| 29.50 | 1.3096 | 2191 28.92 | 29.88 works, published in his System of Mechanical Philoso- 92| 83.43| 96. | 1.7913~ | 4121 27.14 | 28.55 phy, has pn AG two tables, one of which contains 93} 27.20] 15.31 | 1.83290 | 427] 18.28 | 20.39 | & culated v. oes Ot rae ehe aia a fractional 94| 39.36| 18.13 | 1.47342 | 427|20.30 | 92.71 | formula, Dy PBS wa ah ob alee oe 95| 50.44| 20.97 | 1.57359 | 427| 22.97 | 24.97 | antity 0.5 (/ d—-0.1) corresponding to the di¥jeren 061 56.48| 21.50. 1°3.62007'| 4271 93.54 |-25.14 | Zaes_% C trom 0.1 10 ty; ee 97| 98.74] 28.25 | 1.86955 | 439] 98.29 | 29.06 the value of the denominator of the formula for diffe- 98 |100.74| 28.53 | 1.87910 | 492/ 98.52 | 29.03 | "nt velees 4 Aas 1.0 te FAO ‘a 99|119.58| $1.06 | 1.96219 | 432] 30.16 | 30.60 s these Tables were neither sufficiently correct, nor 101 |126.20| 31.91 1.98868 | 432] 31.58 | 31.03 extensive, we have inserted the following tables, which 100|130.71| 32.47 | 1.00637 | 4321 31.89 | 3292 | Were calculated with Sree re pe moele Pa ae 102 1135.32} 33.03 | 1.02407 | 432] 32.32 | 31.61 sbli h fn fa the i v 2 Ps 103| 20.83] 13.62 | 1.23667 |1728] 8.94] 8.58 Pi The — _ nal wad h dded i 104} 34.37] 17. 1.42188 |1728] 9.71 | 9.98 The column of natural numbers has been a be 105| 36.77} 17.56 | 1.44708 |1728111.45 | 10.17 | this Table, which will enable the engineer to calculate 106| 42.01! 18.69 | 1.49924 |1728|12.34 | 10.53 | the velocity V_ without having recourse to logarithms. The logarithmic differences are likewise added. Rectangular Canal, Explanation of the Tables. ; ry 1.27418 | 458]20.24 | 18.66 Table I. contains values of the denominator of the Ex, ibs teas Sias T7908 458| 28.29 | 26.69 | fractional formula. Col. 1. contains the values of s or of the t 109| 34.50| 21.25 | 1.27418 | 929|13.56 | 11.53 | the length of the pipe; and col. 2, $ 4, the natural bles 110] 35.22| 21.33 | 1.28499 |1412| 9.20 | 10,01 | numbers, the hyperbolic logarithm, and the logarithmic 111] 51.75| 23.25 | 1.49191 |1419|12.10 | 11.76 | difference from the denominator 307 (W~d—0.1), all 112| 76.19] 26.08 | 1.70921 |1412/14.17 | 13.59 | of which are computed from 1.0 to 2400. 113|105.78| 29.17 1.90427 |1412115.55 | 15.24 114} 69. 25.25 | 1.65308 {9288} 4.59 |. 4.56 Table II. which has not been calculated in any 115|155.25| 35.25 | 2.09868 19288] 5.70 | 5.86 | shape by Dr Robison, has been computed by Mr Lou« rie, and contains the values of the numerator 307 Ser III, Experiments on THe Cana or Jarp, (Yd—0.1), and the age baad 0.8 (Wd—0.1) suited to conduit pipes of eters, from } of an zi : inch to 18 inches in diameter. Area Ee Values of Va- etocty 9 ocity |» eg No.| Cotion leontact with) 7d, | 18° [ge Sue-|etls-| Table TIT. contains the values of the numerator of the lof Canal.| the Water. face. fractional formula, and also the values of the negative uantity 0.3 (4/d—0.1.) The first column contains 116|16252 | 402 6.3583 | 8919) 17.42 | 18.77 the values of d, the mean radius or the hydraulic mean 117|11905 | 366 5.7032 |11520| 12.17 | 14.52 | depth; col. 2 and 3. contain the natural numbers, and 118 {10475 | 360 5.3942 |15360) 15.74 | 11.61 | also the hyperbolic logarithms, and the logarithmic 119| 7858 | 340 | | 4.8074 21827| 9.61 8.38 | difference for the numerator 307 (“d—0.1); and 200} 7376 | 337 4.6784 27648) 7.79 | 7.07 | col. 5. contains the values of the negative quantity 0.3 211] 6125 | 324 _ 4.8475 27648) 7.27 | 6.55 (/d—0.1), all of which are computed from 0.1 to 100. Experiments on the River Hayne. Area | Perimeter j ‘Stas of the | of River in} Values of lvalues (mean) ' Section |contact with] 4/d. Of & | free, | caleula- ' _. jofRiver.| the Water. ¥ ted. Velocity Velocity at Sur- 122}31498| 569 7.43974 | 6048} 35.11 | 27.62 123} 38838} 601 8.03879 | 6413) 31.77. | 28.76 | .. iinepace amet 124) 30905] 568 7.37632 |32951| 13.61 | 10.08 te teh co) ah si 125} 39639| 604 8.10108 |35728| 15.96 | 10.53 HYDRODYNAMICS. 521 ey a % x TABLE I. 807(4/d—0.1) Coming Vibe g al bigs Lag 55 18, the Denemenalan af the Brae a Tog spit Sor every Value of the Slope s. Ree eesaaa Pt Eee Pd Ea ee es or * & Numbers. [Logarithms Numbers, [Logarithms s. | Numbers. 1.0 | 0.52224 | 9.71787 6.0 | 143542} 0.15698 | 422 | 20 | 2.93519 | 0.46772 | 1345 1.1 | 0.55218 | 9.74208 | 2491 | 6.1 | 1.44921 | 0.16113 | 415] 21 0.48052 | 1280 1.2 | 0.58063 | 9.76890 | 2182 | 62 | 1.462992 | 0.16522 | 409} 22 | 3.10979 | 0.49273 | 1221 1.3 | 0.60782 | 9.78878 | 1988 | 6.3 | 1.47655 | 0.16925 | 403 | 23 | 3.19446 | 0.50440 | 1167 1.4 | 0.63391 | 9.80203 | 1825 | 64 | 1.49008 | 0.17321 | 396} 24- | 3.27768 | 0.51557 | 1117 1.5 | 0.65904 | 9.81891 | 1688 |} 6.5 | 1.50358 | 0.17713 | 392 | 25 | 3.85954 | 0.52628 | 1071 ‘16 | 0.68334 | 9.88463 | 1572 | 6.6 | 1.51698 | 0.18098 | 385 | 26 | 3.44011 | 0.53657 | 1029 1.7 | 0.70688 | 9.94985 | 1472 | 6.7 | 1.53031 | 0.18478 | 380 | 27 | 3.51945 | 0.54647 | 990 1.8 | 0.72975 | 9.86318 | 1383 | 6.8 | 1.54356 | 0.18852 | $74] 28 62 | 0.55601 | 954 19 | 0.75202 | 9.87623 | 1305 | 69 | 1.55675 | 0.19222) 370) 29 | 3.67466 | 0.56522 921 20 | 077875 ‘| 1287 | 7.0 | 1.56987 | 0.19586 | 3644 30 | 3.75064 | 0.57411 | 889 2.1 | 0: M 1175 | 7.1 | 1.58292 | 0.19946 | 360] $1 | 3.82561 | 0.58270 | 859 é 22 | 081 155 | 1120] 7.2 | 1.59591 | 0.20802 | $56 32 | 3.89959 | 0.59102 | 832 ‘2.3 | 0.83609 | 9.92225 | 1070 3 | 1.60883 | 0.90651 | 349} 33 | 3.97263 | 0.59908 | 806 : ‘2.4 | 0.85605 | 9.99250 | 1025 |] 74 | 1.62168 | 020997 | 346] 34 | 4.04478 | 0.60689 | 781 = ‘25 | 0.87565 | 9.94233 | 983} 7.5 | 1.68448 $41 | 35 | 411606 | 0.61448 | 759 : 26 bes 9.95178 | 945) 7.6 | 1.64721 | 0.21675 | 397 | 36 | 4.18650 | 0.62185 | 737 4 = 0.9 freed 910} 7.7 | 1.65988 | 0.22008 | $33 | 37 | 4.25614 | 0.62902 | 717 > 0.98252 | 9,96 878 | 7.8 | 1.67250 | 0.22336 | 328 | 38 | 4.32500 | 0.63599 2 9.97813 | 847] 7.9 | 1.68505 | 0.22661 | 325 39 | 4.39311 | 0.64277) 678 9.98683 | 820 1.69755 | 0.22082 | 321 | 40 | 4.46050 | 0.64938 | 661 Ss. ‘pgeeT ad 8.1 | 1.70999 | 0. 317 | 41 | 4.52720 | 0.65583 | 645 $2 | 1. peel ' 8.2 | 1.72237 | 0.23613 | 314] 42 | 4.59921 | 0.66212 | 629 3.3 | 1.021 | 7471 83 | 1.73470 | 023923 310) 43 | 465857 | 0.66825 | 613 $4 \1 9 | 0.01669 | 725) 84 | 1.74699 | O.242299| 906 || 44 | 4.72330 | 0.67424] 599 $5 \1 0.02975 | 706} 8.5 | 1.75921 | 6.24582 |. 203 | 45 | 4.78740 | 0.68010 | 586 36 | 1.07804} 0.03061 | 686) 86 | 1.77139 | 0.24831 | 299} 46 | 4.85091 | 0.68582 | 572 3.7 | 1.08968 | 0.08780 | 669} 8.7 | 1.78953 | 025128 | 297} 47 | 4.91384 | 0.69142 | 560 38 | 1.10616 | 0.04962 | 652] 8.8 | 1.79558 | 0.25120 | 292} 48 | 4.97621 548 39 | 1.12247 | 0.05017 | 655} 8&9 | 1.80760 | 0.25710| 290] 49 | 5.09802 | 0.70226 | 536 “#0 | 1.18862 | 0.05638 | 621 | 9.0 | 1.81957 | 0. 287 | 50 | 5.09931 | 0.70751 | 525 #1 | 1.15461 | 0.06244 GOG | 9.1 | 1.83150 | 026281 | 284] 51 | 5.16007 | 0.71266) 515 42 | 1.17046 | 0.06836 | 592) 92 | 1.84598 | 0.296561 | 280] 52 | 5.22033 | 0.71770| 504 43 | 118617 | 0.07415 | 579) 9.3 | 1.85521 278 | 53 | 5.28009 | 0. 494 44 | 1.20174) 0.07981 | 566) 94 | 1.86699 | 0.27114| 275] 56 | 5.33938 | 0.72749 | 485 45 | 1.21718 | 0.08585 | 554) 9.5 | 1.87873 | 0.27987 | 273 | 55 | 5.99820 | 0.73225 | 467 46 | 123249 | 0.09078 | 543) 9.6 | 1.89045 | 027656 | 260) 56 | 5.45655 | 0.73692 | 467 4.7 | 1.24767 | 0.09610 | 592) 9.7 | 1.90208 | 0.27923 | 267] 57 | 5.51145 | 0.74150| 458 48 \1 #| 0.10131 | 521 | 9.8 | 1.91369 | 0.28187 | 264) 58 | 5.57194 | 0.74601 | 451 = 1 0.10648 | 512 1.92525 262 | 59 | 5.62900 | 0.75043 | 442 1.29255 | 0.11144 | 501 | 10.0 | 1.93677 | 0.28708 | 259] 60 | 5.68564 | 0.75478 | 435 5.1 | 1.30726 | 0.11696 | 492} 11.0 | 2.04078 | 0.91171 | 2463 | Gl | 5.74187 | 0.75905 | 427 62 }1 0.12120 | 484] 12.0 | 2.15907 | 0.99427 | 2256 | 62 | 5.79970 | 0.76326 | 421 5.3 | 1.33641 | 0.12504) 474 | 18.0 | 2.26504 | 0.35508 | 2081 | 63 | 5.85315 | 0: 413 5.4 | 1.35084 | 0.19060 | 466 | 14.0 | 2.36802 | 0.37489 | 1931 } 64 | 5.90821 | 0.771 407 5.5 | 1.96516) 0.18518 | 458 | 15.0 | 2.46828 | 0.99239 | 1800) 65 aoe 0.77546 | 400 56 )1 0.1 451 | 16.0 | 2.56605 | 0.40927 | 1688 | 66 pi 0.77940 | 394 5.7 | 1 O.1 448 | 17.0 | 266152 | 0.42513 | 1586 | 67 120 | 0.78327 | 387 5.8 | 140758 | 0, | 435 | 18.0 | 2.75488 | 0.44010 | 1497] 68 | 6.12483 | 0.78709 | 382 59 | 1.42154) 01 429 | 19.0 | 2.84625 | 0.45427 | 1417 || 69 | 6.17811 | 0.79086 | 377 522 HYDRODYNAMICS. Tables for the ealeula TABLE I. continued.—Values as /s—Hyp. Log. 4/s + 1.6, the Denominator of the Fraction 801/03) == eu /s—Hyp. Log.W/ 84 16 tn Da tion from = pa 2 for every Value of the Slope s. —— * Slope —— Slope --— Slope MY orthe |(We—Hyp Logs +16 yop || or the |\We—HypLoe/eF1O) 10. | ofthe WV s—Hyp.Log./ef 1.6 fe Pipe, o| Differ, || Pipe, or Differ. || Pipe, or iffer. 8. Numbers. |Logarithms & Numbers. |Logarithms. 5. Numbers. Peicenstehcoa. 70 | 6:23105|.0.79456 | 370 || 410 |17.23843) 1.23650 | 599 || 1200 | $1.09531]} 1.49269 | 2046 71 | 628367] 0.79821 | 365 || 420 |17.47187 | 1.24234 | 584 || 1300 | 32.46984 | 1.51148 | 1879 _ 72 | 6.33595] 0.80181 | 360 || 430 |17.70269} 1.24804 | 570 || 1400 | 3S.79388 | 1.52884| 1736 73 | 6.88791| 0.805386 | 355 |) 440 |17.93097| 1.25360 | 556 || 1500 | 35.07269| 1.54497 | 1613. 74° | 6.43963] 0.80886 | 350'|| 450 |18.15680} 1.25904 | 544° || 1600 | 36.31062| 1.56003 | 1506, 75 | 6.49096|'0.81231 | 345 || 460 |18.38026| 1.26435 | 531. || 1700 |37.51139] 1.57416 | 1413 76 | 665420] 0.81571 | 340 |) 470 |18.60142] 1.26955 | 520 |} 1800 | 38.67820] 1.58747 | 1331 77 | 6.59270] 0.81907.] 336 || 480 |18.82034) 1.27463 | 508 || 1900 | 39.81376} 1.60004 | 1257 | 78 | 6.64325] 0.82238 | 3381 || 490 |19.03711]| 1.27960 | 497 || 2000 |40.92165] 1.61195 | 1191 79 | 6.69345) 0.82565 | 327 || 500 |19.25178| 1.28447 | 487 |] 2100 |42.00052] 1.62325 | 1130 } 80 | 6.74336] 0.82888 | 323 || 510 |19.46441| 1.28924 | 477 || 2200 |43.05569] 1.63403 | 1078 81 | 6.79294] 0.83206.| 318 || 520 | 19.67506| 1.29392 | 468 |) 2300 | 4408763} 1.64432 | 1029 82 | 6.84327] 0.83521 | 315 || 530 |19.88378] 1.29850 | 458 || 2400 | 45.09784| 1.65416 | 984 83, | 6.89147] 0.83831 | 310 || 540 |20.09064| 1.30299 | 449 || 2500 |46,08761] 1.66358 | 942 | 84 | 6.94031] 0.84188 | 307 || 550 |20.29567| 1.30740 | 441 || 2600 | 47:05826] 1.67264] 906 85 | 6.98889] 0.84441 | 303 |! 560 |20.498921»1.31173 | 433 || 2700 |48.01072| 1.68134] 870 86 | 7.03723] 0.84740 | 299 || 570 |20.70045] 1.31598 | 425 | 2800 |48.94605] 1.68972\} 8388 87 | 7.08531] 0.85036 | 296 || 580 |20.90030] 1.82015 | 417 || 2900 | 49.86514| 1.69780} 808 88 | 7.13315] 0.85328 | 292 || 590 |21.09858| 1.32425 | 410 |} 3000 | 50.76880| 4.70560 | 780 89. | 7.18075] 0.85617 | 289 || 600 |21.29510| 1.32828 | 403 }) 3100. |51.65781| 1.71313 | 753 90. | 7.22812] 0.85903 | 286 || 610 |21.49014] 1.33224 | 396. || 3200 | 52.53284| 1.72043)| 730 91 | 7.27525) 0.86185 | 282 || 620 |21.68365) 1.33613 | 389 |) 3300 | 53.39454| 1.72750} 707 92 | 7.32215] 0.86464 | 279 || 630 |21.87567| 1.33996] 383. || $400 | 54.24352] 1.78435 | 685 93. | 7.36882] 0.86740 | 276 || 640 |22.06634| 1.34373 | 377 || 3500 |55.08031} 1.74100.| 665 94 | 7.41527] 0.87013 | 273 || 650 |22.25528] 1.34743 | 370 || 8600 | 55.90543| 1.74745 | 645 95 | 7.46150} 0.87283 | 270 || 660 |22.44313| 1.35108 | 365 || 3700 | 56.71937) 1,75373.| 628 96 | 7.50752] 0.87550.| 267 || 670 |22.62953| 1.35467 | 359 || $800 | 57.52267) 1.75984 | 611 97 | 7.55332| 0.87814 | 9264 || 680 |22.81459] 1.35821 | 354 || $900 |58.31540| 1.76578 | 594 98 | 7.59891] 0.88075,! 261 || 690 | 22.99835] 1.36170 | 349 || 4000 } 59.09832| 1.77157.| 579 99 | 7.64480] 0.88334] 259 || 700 |23.18083| 1.86513 | 343 || 4100 | 59.87168) 1.77722 | 565 100 | 7.68948|'0.88590 | 256 || 710 |23.36207) 1.36851 | 338 || 4200 | 60.63580| 1.78273 | 551 110 | 8.18063] 0.91012 | 2422 || 720 |23.54208| 1.87184 | 333 || 4300 |61.89103| 1.78810 | 537 120 | 8.55408] 0.93217 | 2205 || 730 |23,72089| 1.87513.| $29 || 4400 | 62.138754| 1.79835 | 525 130 | 8.96187} 0.95240. | 2023 || 740 |23.89854| 1.87837 | 324 || 4500 | 62.87595} 1.79848 | 513 140 | 9.35566| 0.97107,| 1867 || 750. |24.07502] 1.38157 | 320 || 4600 | 63.60622| 1.80350 | 502 150 | 9.73683! 0.98842 | 1735 || 760 |24.25038| 1.88472 | 315 || 4700 |64.32872] 1.80840 | 490 160 |10.10655| 1.00460 | 1618 |} 770 |24.42464| 1.38783 | 311 || 4800 | 65.04368| 1.81320 | 480 170. | 10.46582| 1.01977 | 1517 || 780 |24,59781] 1.89090-| 307 || 4900 | 65.75134| 1.81790 | 470 180 }10.81550} 1.08405 | 1428 || 790 |24.76991) 1.39392-| 302 || 5000 |66.45192| 1.82251 | 461 190 |[11.15634} 1.04752 | 1347 || 800 |24.94097] 1.39691 | 299 || 5100 |67.14563] 1.82702 | 451 200 |11.48899}| 1.06028 | 1276 || 810 |25.11099| 1.89986 | 295 || 5200 | 67.83267| 1.83144 | 442 210 |11.81403| 1.07240 | 1212 || 820 |25.28001] 1.40278.| 292 | 5300 | 68,51323} 1.83577 | 433 220 |12.13196} 1.08393.| 1153 || 830 |25.44804| 1.40565 | 287, || 5400 |69,.18747| 1.84003 | 426 230 | 12.44324| 1.09493. | 1100 || 840 |25.61510| 1.40849.| 284 || 5500 | 69.85560} 1.84420 | 417 240 | 12.74829| 1.10545 | 1052 || 850 |25.78120| 1.41130 | 281. || 5600 | '70.51773| 1.84830 | 410 250 |13.04747| 1.11553 | 1008 || 860 | 25.94636| 1.41408 | 278 || 5700 |'71.17412}] 1.85232°| 402 260 |13.34111} 1.12519 | 966 || 870 |26.11060| 1.41682 | 274 || 5800 |'71.82479]| 1.85627 | 395 270 |18.62951| 1.13448 | 929 || 880 | 26.27392] 1.41952 | 270 || 5900 | 72.46996| 1.86016 | 389 280 |13.91296| 1.14342 | 894 || $90 | 26.43636| 1.42220 | 268 || 6000 |'73.10978} 1.86398 | 382 290 |14.19169| 1.15203 | 861 || 900 |26.59791| 1.42485 | 265 || 6100 |'73.74484] 1.86773 | 375 | 300 |14.46596] 1.16085 | 832 || 910 | 26.75859] 1.42746 | 261 |} 6200 | 74.3738] 1.87142 | 369 310 |1473596| 1.16838 | 803 |] 920. | 26.91845] 1.43005.| 259 || 6300 | '74.99826| 1.87505 | 363 320 |15.00189| 1.17615 | 777 || 930 :|27.07745| 1.43261 | 256 || 6400 | 75.61785| 1.87862 | 357 $30 | 1526394] 1.18367 | 752 || 940 |27.23563| 1.43514.| 253 || 6500 | 76.23267| 1.88214 | 352 | $40 |15.52227| 1.19096 | 729 || 950 |27.39301| 1.43764} 250 || 6600 | 76.84286] 1.83560 | 346 350° |15.77704! 1.19803 | 707 |] 960 |27.54957| 144011 | 247 || 6700 | 77.44847,| 1.88901 | 341 360 |16.02840| 1.20489 | 686 || 970 |27.70535| 1.44256 | 245 || 6800 | 78.04966| 1.89237 | 336 370 |16.27647| 1.21156 | 667 || 980 |27.86036)}\1.44499 | 243 || 6900 |'78.64650; 1.89568 | 331 380 |16.52146| 1.21805 | 649 || 990 | 28.01460] 1.44738 | 236 || 7000 | 79.23905| 1.89894 | 326 390 |16.76330| 1.22436 |- 631 || 1000 | 28.16180| 1.44976 | 238 || 7100 | 79.82746} 1.90215 | 321 400 |17.00227| 1.23051 | 615 ||/1100 | 29.66399)| 1.47223 |2247 || 7200 | 80.41179| 1.90532 | 317 HYDRODYNAMICS. 523 es é 5 La aa for ; ——— atin, ala- TABLE I. continued.—Values of /s—Hyp.Log.4/s + 1.6 the Denominator of the Fraction < ETE the vl ; - s — tion from ¥ for every Value of the Slope s. “ie Du Bute by ad of s—Hyp.Log. o/s tae = J Hyp. Loge F18) Tie. enpe cis id Lat —— hed Numbers. |Logarithms, ‘ - Numbers. |Logarithms. = : 7300 3} 1.90844 | 312} 8700 | 88.73817| 1.94811 | 261 7400 |81.56887} 1.91152 | 308 | 8800 | 89.26698)| 1.95069 | 253 7500 |82.14112| 1.91456 | 304 || 8900 | 89.79281| 1.95924 | 255 7600 | 82.70992| 1.91756 | 300 || 9000 | 90.31576| 1.95576 | 252 7700 | 83:27505 | 1.92051 | 295 | 9100 | 90.83582| 1.95826 | 250 '} 7800 83.83658| 1.92343 | 292 || 9200 | 91.35306| 1.96072 | 246 7900 |84.39455| 1.92631 | 288 || 9800 | 91.86753| 1.96316 | 244 8000 | 4.94902] 1.92916 | 285 || 9400 | 92.37930| 1.96557 | 241 8100 | 85.50009| 1.93197 | 281 || 9500 | 92.88831]| 1.96796 | 239 8200 | 86.04784| 1.93474 | 277 || 9600 | 93.39476] 1.97082 | 286 8300 | 86.59226| 1.93748 | 274 || 9700 | 93.89858] 1.97266 | 234 $400 | 87.13343| 1.94018 | 270 || 9800 | 94.89982) 1.97497 | 231 8500 | 87.67144| 1.94286 | 268 | 9900 | 94.8 1.97726 | 229 46. 8600 | 88.20645| 1.94550 | 264 [10000 | 95.39475) 1.97952 | 226 149,.87637| 2.17573 TABLE Il. Values pasha. 807(,/d—0.1) for every Value of the Hydraulic Mean Depth d, calculated for Pipes, _ from 4 of an inch to 18 Inches Diameter ; also the Value of the Factor 0.3(4/d—0.1). 40.1 , : BOTS ) - Myra B74 /d—O.1) as mie Members. |Logachbans ole. VEa1 br 2! ee Nambers. i L Viol 0.0625 | 46.050 | 1.66323 0.045 2.3125 | 436.152 | 2.68964 637 | o, 0.125 | 77.841 | 1.89121 22798 | 0.076 2.3875 | 442419 | 2.64583 619 esas 0.1875 | 102.235 | 2.00960 |11839 | 0.100 24875 | 448.604 | 2.65186 0.438 025 | 122800 | 2.08920 | 7960| 0.120} 10 | 25 454.710 | 2.65773 | 587 | 0.444 0.3125 | 140.918 | 2.14897 | 5977 | 0.188 || 10} | 2.5625 | 460.740 | 2.66346 | 573 | 0.450 0.375 | 157.298 | 2.19672 | 4775 | 0.154 | 1 2.625 | 466.697 | 2.66903 | 557 | 0.456 04375 | 172.961 | 2.29644 | 3972 | 0.168 |) 1 2.6875 | 472.583 | 2.67448 | 545 | 0.462 0.5 186.882 | 2.27040 | $396 | 0.182 | 11 | 2.75 | 478.402 | 2.67979 | 531 | 0.467 0.5625 | 199.550 | 2.30005 | 2965 | 0.195 || 1 2.8125 | 484.155 | 2.68498 | 519 | 0473 0.625 | 212.005 | 2.92635 | 2630 | 0.207 || 11 2875 | 489.844 | 2.69006 | 508 | 0.479 0.6875 | 223.851 | 2.34996 | 2361 | 0.219 | 11} | 2.9375 | 495.471 | 2.69502 | 496 | 0.484 0.75 | 235.170 | 2.37138 | 2142] 0.230 || 12 | 3. 501.040 | 2.69987 | 485 | 0.490 0.8125 | 246.026 1960 | 0.240 || 124 | 3.0625 | 506.550 | 2.70462 | 475 | 0.495 0.875 PY 2.40904 | 1806 | 0.251 || 1 8.125 | 512.004 | 2.70927 | 465 | 0.500 0.9375 | 26 242578 | 1674 | 0.260 |) 1 3.1875 | 517.405 | 2.71383 | 456 | 0.506 1. 276,300 | 244138 | 1560 | 0.270 | 13 $.25 522.752 | 2.71830 | 447 | 0.511 285.748 | 245598 | 1460 | 0.979 [1 3.3125 | 528.049 | 2.72267 | 437 | 0.516 294,923.) 2.46971 | 1373 | 0.288 | 1 3.375 | 533.295 | 2.72697 | 430 | 0.521 1.1875 | 303,846 1294 | 0.297 | 1 8.4375 | 538.493 | 2.73118 | 421 | 0.596 1.25 312.536 | 2.49490 | 1225 | 0.305 | 14 8.5 543.644 | 2.73581 | 413 | 0.531 PLLPPORIPW SLPS LSPS SLL SLY MEET“ SLs HY | REPEETY | 524 HYDRODYNAMICS, Tables for facilitating the calcula- ion fi Du Buat's TABLE. Ill. Formula; - Values of the Numerator $07 (4/d—0.1) for, every value of the Hydraulic Mean. Depth = also the values of the Factor 0.3(4/d—0.1). ifean Ra-} ~ mae a Ra- cant Rn 307 (4/ d—0.1) 0.3 Hydraulic 307 (4/d—0.1) 0.3 mean ke x depth or : . Log. x oF pA ¥i oe Numbers. | Logarithms. Difter, |/a—0.1 vale Numbers. | Logarithms. ee Wi d—0.1 0.1 66.382 | 1.82205 0.065 || 5.5 | 689.279 | 2.83839 | 416 | 0.674 0.2 | 106.595 | 2.02774 |20569 | 0.104 || 5.6 | 695.795 | 2.84248 | 409 | 0.680 0.3 | 187.451 | 2.13815 |11041 | 0.134 || 5.7 | 702.253 | 2.84649} 401 | 0.686 0.4 | 163.464] 2.21342 | 7527 | 0.160 || 6.8 | 708.654! 2.85043 | 394 | 0.692 0.5 | 186.382] 2.27040 | 5698 | 0.182 || 5.9 | 715.000} 2.85431 | 388 | 0,699 0.6 | 207.101 | 2.31618 | 4578 | 0.202 ||. 6.0 | 721.293 | 2.85811 | 380 | 0.705 0.7 | 226.155 | 2.35441 | 3823 | 0.221 || 6.1 | 727.584 | 2.86185 | 374] 0.711 0.8 | 243.889 | 2,38719 | 3278 | 0.288 || 6.2 | 733.724 | 286553 | 368 | 0.717 0.9 | 260.458 | 2.41588 | 2869 | 0.255 || 6.3 | 739.864 | 2.86915 | 362 | 0,723 1.0 | 276.300] 2.44138 | 2550} 0.270 || 6.4 | 745.955 | 2.87271 | 356 | 0.729 1.1 | 291.285 | 2.46432 | 2294 | 0,285 ||. 6.5 | 752.000 | 2.87622 | $51 | 0.735 1.2 | 305.602 | 2.48516 | 2084 | 0.299 |} 6.6 | 757.997 | 2.87967 | 345 | 0.741 1.3 | 319.334] 2.50425 | 1909 | 0.312 || 6.7 | 763.950 | 2.88306 | 339 | 0,747 1.4 | 332.548 | 2.52185 | 1760 | 0.325 || 6.8 | 769.858 | 2.88641 | 335 | 0,752 1.5 | 345.297 | 2.53819} 1634 | 0.337 ||. 6.9 | 775.723 | 2.88971 | 330 | 0.758 1.6 | 357.628 | 2.55343 ) 1524 | 0.349 || 7.0 | 781.545 | 2.89295 | 324 | 0.764 1.7 | 369.579 | 2.56771 | 1428 | 0.361 || 71 | 787.327 | 2.89615 | 320 | 0,769. 1.8 | 381.184 | 2.58113 | 1842 | 0.372 || 7.2 | 793.068 | 2.89931 | 316 } 0.775 1.9 | 392.470] 2.59381 | 1268 | 0.384 || 7.3 | 798.768 | 2.90242-) 311 | 0.781 2.0 | 403.464} 2.60580 | 1199 | 0.394 || 7.4 | 804.430 | 290549 | 307 | 0.786 2.r } 414.185 | 2.61719 | 1139 | 0.405 || 7.5 | 810.054 | 2.90851 | 302 | 0,792 2.2 | 424.655 | 2.62804 | 1085 | 0.415 7.6 | 815,641 | 2.91150 | 299 | 0.797 2.3 | 484.888 | 2.63838 | 1034 | 9.425 || 7.7 | 821.190] 2.91444 | 294 | 0.802 2.4 | 444.902 | 2.64826 | 988 | 0.435 || 7.8 | 826.704 | 2.91735 | 291 | 0.808 2.5 | 454.710 | 2.65773 | 947 | 0.444 || 7.9 | 832.183 | 2.92022 | 287 | 0.813 2.6 | 464,323 | 2.66681 | 908 | 0.454 || 8.0 | 837.627 '| 2.92305 | 283 | 0.819 2.7 | 473.753 | 2.67555 | 874 | 0.463 || 8.1 | 843.037 | 2.92585 | 280 | 0.824 | 2.8 | 483.003 | 2.68395 | 840 | 0.472 || 8.2 | 848.414 | 2.92861 | 276 | 0,829 2.9 | 492.102 | 2.69205 | 810] 0.481 || 83 | 853.758 | 2.93133 | 272 | 0.834 3.0 | 501.040 | 2.69987 | 782 | 0.490 || 8.4 | 859.070 | 2.93403 | 270 | 0.839 3.1 | 509.829 | 2.70743 | 756 | 0.498 || 8.5 | 864.351 | 2.93669 | 266 | 0.845 $.2 | 518.478 | 2.71473 | 730 | 0.507 || 8.6 | 869.601 | 2.93932 | 263 | 0.850 3.8 | 526.993 | 2.72180 | 707} 0.515 || 8.7 | 874.820 | 2.94192 | 260 | 0.855 3.4 | 535.380 | 2.72866 | 686 | 0.523 || 8.8 | 880,009] 2.94449 | 257 | 0.860 3.5 | 543.644 | 2.73531 | 665 | 0.531 || 8.9 | 885.169} 2.94703 | 254 | 0.865 3.6 | 551,792 | 2.74177 | 646 | 0.539 || 9:0 | 890.300 | 2.94954 | 251 | 0.870 3.7 | 559.826 | 2.74805 | 628 | 0.547 || 9.1 | 895.403 | 2.95202 | 248 | 0.875 3.8 | 567.753 | 2.75416 | 611] 0.555 |} 9.2 | 900.477 | 2.95447 | 245 | 0.880 8.9 | 575.576 | 2.76010 | 594 | 0,562'|| 9.3 | 905.424 | 2.95690 | 243 | 0.885. 4.0 | 583.300 | 2.76589 | 579 | 0.570|| 9.4 | 910.544 | 2.95930 | 240°} 0.890 _ 4,1 | 590.928 | 2.77153 |, 564 | 0.577 9.5 | 915.537 | 2.96168 | 238 | 0.895 | 4.2 | 598.463] 2.77704 | 551 | 0.585 9.6 | 920.505 | 2.96408 | 235 ) 0.900 4.3 | 605.909 | 2.78241 | 537 | 0.592 9.7 | 925.446 | 2.96635 | 232'| 0.904 4.4 | 613.269°| 2.78765 | 524 | 0.599 9.8 | 930.362 | 2.96865 | 280 | 0.909 4.5 | 620.545 | 2.79277 || 512 |-0.606 || 9.9 | 935.253 | 2.97098 | 228 | 0.914 ' 4.6 | 627.742] 2.79778 || 501 | 0.613 || 10.0 } 940.119 | 2.97318 | 225 | 0.919 1 4.7 | 634,860} 2.80268 | 490 | 0.620 i ' 4.8 | 641.903 | 2.80747 | 479-| 0627 |] 11 987.504 | 2.99454 | 2136 | 0.965 ' 4.9 | 648.873 | 2.81216 | 469 | 0.634 12 |'1039:779 | 3.01401 | 1947 | 1.009 ' 5.0 | 655.773 | 2.81675 | 459 | 0.641 || 13 |1076.204 | 3.03189 | 1788 | 1.051 5.1 | 662.604 | 2.82125 | 450 | 0.647 || 14 |1117.989 | 3.04844 | 1655 | 1.092 | 6.2 | 669.368 | 2.82566 | 441 | 0,654 || 15 |1158.306 | 3.06382 | 1538 | 1.131 ' §.8 | 676.067 | 2.89999 | 433 | 0,661 16 |1197.300 | 3.07820 | 1438 | 1.170 5:4 | 682.704! 2:839493'| 494 “0.667 | 17 | 1235.093' | 3.09170 | 1350 | 1.207 = HY DRODYNAMICS. Soin TABLE III. Continued. ~~ f the Numerator 307 (./d—0.1) Value of the Hydraulic Mi hd aaare. iawn ee or 80T4/ d—0.1) 03 ||,¢uscr 307(4/d—0.1). os x mean x ts Numbers. | Logarithins. Ditte, [20.1 who Numbers. casa ae n/d—0.1 18 | 1271.791 | 3.10442 | 1272 | 1.243 || 60 |2347.312 | 3.87057 | 870 | 2.904 19 | 1807482 | 3.11644 | 1202 | 1.278 || 61 8.87421 | 364 | 2.913 20 | 1342.246 | 3.12783 | 1139 | 1.312 || 6g | 2386.621 | 3.37778 | 357 | 2332 21 |1376.150 | 3.13866 | 1083 | 1.345 || 63 |2406.037 | 3.38190 | 352 | 2.351 22 | 1409.258 | 3.14899 | 1083 | 1.377 || 64 |2425.300 | 3.88477 | 387 | 2.370 23 |1441.620 | 3.15885 | 986 | 1409 || 65 |2444.413 | 3.38817 | 340 | 2 24 |1478.286 | 3.16829 | 944| 1.440 || 66 |2#63.380 | 3.39153 | 336 | 2. 26 |1504.300 | 3.17733 | 904| 1.470 || 67 |2#82203 | 3.39484 | 331 | 2426 | 26 |1534.699 | 3.18602 | 869} 1.500|| 6g |2500.887 3.89809 | $25 | 244+ 27 | 1564.519 | 3.19438 | 836 | 1.529 || 69 |2519.454 | 340180 | 821 | 2.462 28 |1593.791 | 3.20243 | 805 | 1.557 || 70 846 | 3.40446 | 316 | 2.480 a9 |1622.546 | 3.21020} 777 | 1.586 || 71 128 | 3. $12 | 2.408 30 |1650,808 | 3$21770| 750| 1.613 || 72 |2674.282 | 3: 308 | 2.516 31 | 1678.60¢ | 3.22496 | 726 | 1.640 || 73 |2592.310 | 3.41969 | 3903 } 2.533 | 82 | 1705.954 | 2.23197 | 701 | 1.667 || 74 |2610.224 /°3.41668 | 299 | 2.551 $3 | 1732.881 | 323877 | 680/| 1.693 || 75 | 2627.998 | 341962 | 294 ' 2.568 $4 |1759.402 | 3.24536 | 659 | 1.719 || 76 | 2645.664 | 3.42253 | 291 | 2.585 35 |1785.536 | 3.25177 | 641 | 1.745 || 77 |2663.214| 3.42541 | 298 ' 2.602 36 |1811.300 | 3.25799 | 622 | 1.770 || 73 | 2680651 | 342824 | 283 | 2619 87 |1836.708 | 3.26408 | 605 | 1.795.|| 79 |2697.976 | 3.43108 | 280 | 2.636 33 |} 1861775 | 326993 | 589 | 1.819 || 80 |2715.191 | 3.48980 | 276 | 2.653 $9 | 1886.514 | 3.27566 | 573 | 1.843 || 81 |2792.900 | 349653 | 273 | 2.670 40 {1910-938 | 3.28125 | 559 | 1.867 || s2 |2749.906| 9.439922 | 269 | 2.687 — 41 |1935.059 | 3.28669 | 544| 1.891 |} 83 | 2766208) 3.44188 | 266 | 2.703 42 |1958.887 | 3.29201 | 532/ 1.914 || se |2783.002 | 3.44451 | 263 | 2.720 43 |1982.494 | 3.29720] 519 | 1.937 {| 85 | 2799.700 | 3.44711 | 260 | 2.736 44 |2005.708 | 3.30227 507 | 1.960 || 86 | 2816.301 | | 257 | 2.752 45 | 2028.719 | 3.90722} 495 | 1.982 |} 987 |2832.906 | 9.45223 | 255 | 2.768 46 |2051.475 | 3.31207 | 485 2.005 |} ss | 2849.215 | 3.46473 | 250 | 2.784 47 |2073.986 | 3.31681 | 474 | 2.027 || 89 | 2865.582 | 3.45721 | 248 $8 |2096.258 | 3.92144 463 | 2.048 || 90 | 2881.758 | 3.49966 | 245 | 2.816 9 2118.300 | 3.82599 | 455 | 2.070 || 91 | 2897.893 | 3.46208 | 242 | 2.832 2140.118 | 3.330% | 445 | 2. 92 |2913.980 | 3.46448 | 240 | 2.847 51 |2161.718 | 3.33480 | 436 | 2112 || 93 3.46085 | 237 | 2.863 62 |2183.109 | 3.89908 | 428 | 2.133 || 94 [2945.776 | 3.46020 | 235 | 2.879 53 |2904.20%| 3.94828 | 420/ 2154 || 95 [2061.565 ay Hh 232 | 2.808 | © 54 5.34798 | 4190/2175 || 96 | 2077.274 | 3.4 230 | 9.909 55 |2246.073 | 3.35142 | 404/| 2195 || g7 | 2992900 | 3.47609 | 227 | 2.925 56 935539 | 397 | 2215 || 98 |3008.445 | 3.47834 | 225 | 2.940 a7 -100 | 9.85928 | 389 | 2.235 || 99 | 9029.912 | 3.48057 | 223 | 2.955 58 |2307.343 | 3.36311 | 383 | 2.255 || 100 | 3039.900 220 | 2.970 59 |\2327411 | 3.96687} 376 | 2274 Motion of Water in Pipes and Canals. — Method of using the preceding Tables. 526 Method of Using the preceding Tables. Exampue I. Water is brought into Edinburgh by several pipes, one of which is 5 inches in diameter. This pipe is 14,367 * feet long, and the reservoir at Comiston is 44 feet higher than the. reservoir on the Castle-hill into which the water is delivered. It is re« uired to know how many Scots pints the pipe should deliver in a minute. 1. In this case we have d= <= 1.25 inches. 2. We have s = = = = 326.36. Now, by entering Table III. with 1.25 as the value of d, and Table I. with 326 as the value of s, we obtain 2.49490 as the logarithm for the numerator, and 1.18065 as the logarithm corresponding to 826.36. __——_ the difference of which logarithms is 1.31425 the logarithm of 20,618, or the value of 307(/d — 01) fs — Hyp. Log. 4/5 4+ 1.6 ‘In order to find the value of the negative quantity 0.3 (/ d—0.1) enter Table II. col. 1. swith 1.25, and in col. 5. will befound, by taking proportional parts, 0.305 ; hence we have the velocity V=20.618—0.305=20.313, the velocity, of the water in inches per second. The whole.of the preceding operation ma be saved by Table II.; for, by entering col. 1. of this ‘able with 5 inches as the diameter of the.pipe, we obtain at once ” and 0.305 as the values of the numerator and In order to ebtain the number each of which contains 103.4 ly the velocity by 60”, and then by 0.7854, the area 2.49490, the negative quantity. of Scotch pints per, minute, cubic inches, we must multi this product by 5* or 25, ani ofa circle whose diameter is 1, and then divide by 103.4, “Thus, Log. of 20.313 1.807774 Log.of 60" 1.7781513 Log. of 5? or 25 1.3979400 Log. of 0.7854 9.8950909 From 4,3789563 -Subtract Log..of 103.4 2.0145205 Remains Log. of 231.44 _ 2.3644358 Scots pints, which should be delivered by the ipe. Now, the pipe, when in its best order, yie ded 250 pints in a minute, a= we have learned from a MS. note of Dr Robison. Since the logarithm of 60, of .7854, and of 103.4 is constant, we may take 1.7781513 +4 9.8950909 — rs 45205 == 9.6587217, and the operation will stand thus: ‘ Log. of 20.313 *1.3077741 Log. of 5? 1.3979400 Log. for reducing to Scotch pints 9.6587217 Log. of 231.44 as before. 2.3644358 Hence we have the following Rule: Add together the logarithm of the velocity in inches per second, as found by the formula, the logarithm of the square of the diameter of the pipe, and the constant logarithm HYDRODYNAMICS. 9.6687213, and the sum is the logarithm of the Seotch Mo ig ay tg ta a a e facts in the preceding example respecting the supply of Edinburgh ~ - : Robison’s article on Waterworks already quoted. We are informed, however, by James Jardine, Esq. civil engineer, that the facts are wholly erroneous, and” we have been indebted to the kindness of this gentleman for the following state of the Edi water pipes, to which we shall apply the formula of Du 'Buat, Exampre II. An excellent cast leaden pipe was laid from the fountain head at Comiston to the reservoir on the Castlehill of Edinburgh in the year 1720. The in- terior diameter of the pipe was 44 inches, the foun- tainhead was 51 feet above the point of delivery, and the length of the pipe was 14,930 feet. Its maximum discharge during the years 1738, 1739, 1740, 1741, and, 1742, was 11} cubic feet, or 189.4 Scotch pints per minute. Jn this example we have d = - == 15126 14930 61 . of numerator pain barman tee te © Log. of denominator . + + + + s= == 292.745 2.46971 1.15431 of A) a) Su 20078 Log. 1.81540 Subtract negative quantity .288 Remains Hence Log. of 20.885 + + + + + + + + Log. of 437 or 20.25 + + se es Log. for reducing to Scotch pints. . Log. of 188.13 Scotch pints . . + + 2.2744574 ‘A result which agrees in a very wonderful manner with 189.4, the quantity actually delivered by the 20,385 the velocity per second, 1.3093107 1.3064250 9.6587217 pipe. x FE AMPLE III. A flanch cast iron pipe is laid from Swanston cistern to the reservoir on the Castlehill, E= dinburgh. Its diameter is seven inches ; the cistern at Swanston is 222 feet higher than the point of delivery, the length of the pipe is 21,350 feet, and in its best state it delivers 34 cubic feet, or 593.3 Scotch pints in a minute, In-this case we have d= _ 1.75 21350 Pr 239 = 96.17. Log. of numerator SRey Dah Mess | OTEDS Log. of denominator - - + + 0.87595 Log. of Se ie hee'A he 49.964 1.69857 : Subtractnegative quantity .367 Remains 49.597 the velocity per second. Log. of . - + + 49.597 .« 1.695447 Log.of . +--+ 7Tor4g .. 1.690196 Log. for reducing to Scotch pints . - 9.658721 3.044364 Log. of 1107.5 wis: [Oe teen * Dr Robison, who applied his tables to this example, makes the Jength of the pipe 14,637 by mistake, and has corrected it to 14,367 in his MS, notes. with water were taken from Dr Qo. to 4 feet deep, and "*—7 — 54 of projection, is 6.8 feet, we have for the perimeter of the section in con- tact with the water, 6.8 + 7 4+ 6.8— 20.6. The area feet. Hence d= 77 = 2.4272, or 29.196. The to this in Table ITl. is $ 20117, in col. 5. is 1.589. And there remsins 1.12837 = Log. of 13.439 inches Subtract the negative quantity 1.589 11.850 inches, which most correct in small canals where it is most needed, such as in mill courses and other deri working ma- tion, he proposes to substitute in place of the expression V4.6 the expression 2} Com. Log. Instead of the part of the Hyp. Log, part numerator Hyp. vs + 18, Aner Ln apeebs herve cic :, by Which is nearly the same a ae iz: . proposes also V = 907 (/4—1).(F, + 7; —.001) and since s°-*"* may be substituted without much inac. curacy in place of 5 °-**, the term —2-°, will become - Pca en which may be determined without logarithars. Hence the whole formula will become ie ho ys V=153( vd—02)./ (53) + 1.6(F5q)"—001 # being the length of the pipe, A the height of the whole head o€ water, and d the diameter of the pipe. In this Bo HYDRODYNAMICS. “mee OF more simply, 4+4-1.6, which he considers both as more simple and - 527 Motion of Water in _ bq 45d formula s = +. The formula may be applied to pond rivers, by taking + as the sine of their inclination. = —y— M. has to substitute 482 in place of the number 478- used by Du Buat in his formula‘ V*=4/478h in French inches, which gives V=4/509h ish inch the ef- ing into one is bent in one or more fect of the may be found by sum ¢ the squares of the sines thus, by gsdorf. 509dh ; VEV\Ty al + 010de) which is Langsdorf's formula reduced to English mea- sure. M. Eytelwein conceives the head of water to be di- Formule vided mto two parts, one of which is ed in Fano war t wombat en 0 EA coming the-resistances to which itis exposed. He cons: siders the height employed in overcoming the resist- pe Ae re einen socio = Caden 2 circumference of the section, or as the di of the pipe, and inversely as the area of the section, or as the square of the diameter ; thatis, on the whole, inversely as the diameter.. This height too, must, like the resist- ance arising from friction, vary as the of the ve- locity. Hence if f denote the hei to the fric- tion, 3 the diameter of the pipe, and @ a constant quan- tity, we shall have fave, and veal? and V= Or, what is considered more accurate, 528 HYDRODYNAMICS. Motion of = 14930, hence we shall obtain 1.7196 for the velocit, = Waterin jn feet per second, or 20.5692 for the velocity in inchee, Vato. de ies and’ which, by the rule already explained, gives 189.77 In applying this formula to Example II. in p. 526, te+” Scotch pints per minute. lative to the velocity ina canal as measured by Mr Watt, Quantity of water delivered] 189.4 Scotch pints per We haye d =29:126 and f=8 inches. or bythe pipe, » + + > minute. —_—_—.. } Ditto poh wie ire yi sp0.77 Hence V=0.91V 8X 29.120=0.91 X 15.264 =13.890, wein’s formula, . + + ‘ a result which agrees nearly with th Ditto by Du Buat’s formula, 188.15 leit as ascertained by Mr Watt. 4 errata we From which it appears, that in this case Eytelwein’s The preceding formula is a plicable only to a canal, © formula is the most correct of the two, the error being or toa straight river flowing through an equable chan« only 0.37, while in Du Buat’s it is 1.27 Scotch pints. nel, M, Eytelwein has shewn that the velocity is in _, The accuracy of both the formule is very remarkable. general a little greater, when the bottom is horizontal gp ss s In order to obtain a rule for determining, the veloci- than-when it is parallel to the surface, and that the 3 mle fe o ty of water in canals and rivers, M. Eytelwein con- velocity in curved channels is always greater on the vie siders the friction as nearly proportional to the square convex than on the concave side. It is not easy to of the velocity, not because a number of particles pro- give a rule for the decrease of the velocity from the portional to the velocity is torn asunder in a time pro- surface to the bottom ‘of a stream of water, as it is portionally short, but because, when a body is moving sometimes found to be a maximum below the surface. in lines of a given curvature, the deflecting forces are ; as the squares of the velocities ; for it is obvious, that. _ The following are the velocities. in the Arno and the particles of water which touch the sides and bottom the Rhine: of the canal must be deflected, in consequence of the ele- vations and depressions on the surface upon which they ARNO. Rurve. slide nearly into the same curvilineal path, whatever Depth in ‘Velocity in inches | Depth in Velocity in inches be the velocity with which they move. We may there- feet. sper second, feet. per second. fore consider the friction as nearly proportional to the Zireeees 394 5 Pere 58 square of the velocity, and as nearly the same at. all Ae ew. B85 5s, checeuoiahan ae depths. It will, however, vary according to. the surface 8B wee ST 10, ale + oyna be ofthe fluid which isin contact with the solid, in propor- 16.2... 833 Livin 0's annie, 48 tion to the whole quantity of fluid ; that is, the friction 1; (atmyets ra Sh for a given quantity of water will be directly as the sur- face of the bottom and sides of a canal, oras the perime- M. Eytelwein considers that an approximate value ter of the'section in contact with the water; or supposing of the mean velocity may be obtained by deducting the whole quantity of water to be spread upenahorizon- +30 for every foot-of the whole depth. tal plane equal to the bottom and sides, the friction. will be inversely as the height at which the water would poe which is dienes in Te sean depth. Secr. III. Account of the Investigations of M. Prony, re ut in a river flowing uniformly, and neither acce- tine the velocity © a + Pi lerated nor retarded by gravity, the whole weight of the poy Canale. ae roe > Conduit Pipes, ant water must be employed in overcoming this friction ; and if the inclination of the plane varies, the relative In our history of Hydrod namics, we have alread. ‘Tn weight, or the force that urges the particles along the given a general view of the lubonck of Chezy, Girard, tions inclined plane, will vary as the height of the plane and Prony, in the composition of formula. for deter- a when its length is given, or as the fall in any givendis« mining the velocity of water in conduit pipes and open ral tance. Hence it follows, that: the friction, which is canals. As the formule obtained by these eminent en- 7 equal to the relative weight, must-vary as the fall; and gineers have all the same character, both from their ex the velocity, whieh is as the square root of the friction, treme simplicity, and from their containing only alge- must be as the square root of the fall; and. supposing braical quantities, we have thought it proper to give an the hydraulic mean depth. to increase or diminish while account of them in the same ‘Section. In doing this, the inclination remains the same, the friction would be we shall adopt the notation of M. Prony, and retain the diminished or increased in the same ratio; and therefore, coefficients_as he has given them in French metres. in order to preserve its equality with the relative weight, it must be proportionally increased or diminished, by The following are the symbols which he employs : increasing the square of the velocity, in theratioofthe = the length of the pipe or ) hydraulic mean depth, or the velocity in the ratio of its 2 = the difference of level between the two extremi- square root. We may expect, therefore, that the velo-« ties of the pipe. cities will be conjointly as the ane root of the hy- «=the area of the section of the pipe or canal. . yi draulic mean depth, and of the fi l in a given distance, x, = the perimeter of the section in contact with the ¥; or as amean proportional between thesetwo lines. If we water. take two English miles for a-given length, we must find = the accelerating force of gravity, or 32.174. a mean proportional between the hydraulic mean depth, D =the diameter of the tube. a and the fall in two English miles ; and having ascertain- # th di the. hudeedla ed the rélation-whieh this bears to the velocity in a par~ R=“= the mean radius, or the hydraule meat ticular case, we may easily determine it in all other cases. ¥ depth. According to M. Eytelwein’s formula, this mean prow T= the sine of the inclination of the pipe or ca- jonal is 43 of the velocity, or 0,91 times the velocity nal. bi : in a second. Making @ the hydraulic mean depth in =U =the mean velocit in the section #. inches, f the fall in two English miles in inches, /fd §V=the velocity of rt surface ] In eat ec being the mean proportional, we have W =the velocity at the bottom 7" . oe Pome. = f HYDRODYNAMICS. 529 . notation, the formula of Du Buat, _ In order to obtain a formula for the mean velocity of Motion of Mein cehcemien © Sei » . fluids, M. Prony found, that an expression of the mean Poet iiss and Ra velocity, deduced from the theory of fluids, and com- Pipes —— fT /=—) of terms relative to gravity, to the dimensions or _ x Seige! /a figure af the ipe or canal, ought to be equal to a cer- ndiost” © . Oe; (/2—01) function of this mean velocity ; and in detertaining : Sf Hyp. Log.,/ > +16 % this function, he observed, that in all the h re- $ ing the unknown function of the velocity to which ; Or when reduced to French metres, is . nal that snakes iiation ‘ A uniform, it ways be loped in a series, arran- i U= — —>= 0.049359) ged according to the whole powers of the mean veloci- “(immer /2418 ty, or the variable quantity. That is, te oe 2 .UEsU $y US, &e. (. / = 1016888) Ax Shee bh * hick * fi ti * t of “ w . 4 Me per Ne haps st Ley Ch sd ~—— along with the co-efficients ie Be must be deter- * ie of the volatile meat simple than the aes apres, as more . - . preceding. He assimilates the resistance of the sides ae term c of this series, is related on the one of the pipe or canal to known resistances, which follow have, may the law of the square of the velocity; and he supposes mence ; and on the other hand, to the form and dimen- . the of water in canals, In the execution of this task, M. Prony has availed himself of the fine methods for the correction of ano- eS Re nD ON ique Celeste, determining re as accurately as the more Tivos ben ghee ne 2 c than three of. thee metho cohesion b U . RP’ het which Prony considers as pone ert scat Bat ded the adh. If we have obtained, for example, a series of experi- that the adhesion to the paroi mouiliée, or film ™ental values of any variable wantity, these values ee aie of Ce ripe, of tho cape may be connected together by a law, by applying small which are there disseminated, is the same as that "rections to each of the « results, The which retains the fluid molecales to one another, he 1¥4tion which expresses this law, may be put under the makes the resistance due to these asperities equal to frm BR’ Us, so that the sum of the two resistances is Z=«+6X, = pring Tas expen dheerienihoeda da hes Walang to or making ~ => =I, and — = R, the formula be- the article ; but in some part of our work, pro- a x y under the article Putysics, we shall lay them be- comes U = —0.5 + 4/ (0.25 4 8052.54 RI). for our readers. * See Mecanique Celeste, Part I. Lib, iii. Sect, $9, and 40, VOL. XI. PART IIL Sx Motion of Water in Pipes and Canals. ——— 9*| Canal of Jard. 530 If we divide by U both sides of the equation, ge C rs . . ge & os oe ==« U+<64 U2, we obtain Ue a-+¢ U, and pute ting £5 = y; we have an’ equation of the first order y=«+ 8 U,in which all the quantities are linear ex~ cept 4, which is an abstract number. By calculating as many values of y corresponding to the determined values of U, as we have experiments on the velocity observed in canals, where Z, a, #, and x, have been measured, and by finding « and by the methods already mentioned, we obtain an expression of the velocity. M. Prony has applied these methods to the twelve experiments, from which Girard deduced the value of fhe co-efficient R in his formula, chiefly with the view of comparing the results obtained’ by Du’ Buat’s for- mula, Girard’s formula, and his own formula, Two of HYDRODYNAMICS. these twelve experiments were made by M. Chezy u the Rigole of Courpalet, and upon the Seine. The other ten are taken from Du Buat’s work, andarethose Pipes! nd which Girard employed. From these experiments, Prony finds «= 0.00093, and 6=0.00266. Hence we obtain M e28 = 0.00093 U 4.0.00266 U2, which, when reduced, gives i 0,174812 4 4/(0.0905592 4 RL e) % The particulars of the twelve experiments are given in the following Table, in columns 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6. Co- lumn 7 is calculated from Du Buat’s formula already given, column 8 from Girard’s, and column 9 from. the preceding formula of Prony’s, The four experiments marked with an asterisk are rejected as anomalous. TABLE IL. Containing the mean Velocities of Currents of Water deduced from eight Experiments, compared with the Velocities as calculated by the Formule of Du Buat, Girard, and Prony. Canal of Jard. 0,260143 | 0,189760| 467,769 0329414 | 0,248518) 467,769 Ea DIAG S oo River Hayne. Canal of Jard. River Hayne. 0,426081 0,432036 | 0,3837349] 359,272 1 2 3 “4 5 6 7 8 y ae aie) | : | fared g Velocities observed, Total Total Area of | Perimeter Mean Velocities calculated, feo} directly deduced’from } length of | declivity |the Section} of the or values of U. Names of the Ob ervation. the on the of the Section, |” By the By the By the 5 Currents. Current or] length 2, | Current, or Formula | Formula | Formula 3 Superficial| Mean values of jor values ofjor values of] values of of * of of is Velocity. | Velocity. | A @ x Du Buat. | Girard. Prony. fer Rigoleof Courpalet. (0,142659 | 0,094051| 31379,5 | 1,11438 |0,674492 | 2,83863 |0,130759 |0,076449 ),086587 2 ‘.¢10,196799 | 0,137345| 467,769 | 0,016355)4,4883 8,77066 |0,177309 |0,131695 10,135891 0,0214.30/5,7582 0,040605|8,72377 0,368423 | 0,282091| 359,272 | 0,010896/22,6466 ° 0,332219| 467,769 | 0,03045417,675: 0,010061/29,0468 0,461532 | 0,372087| 467,769 | 0,052448|11,9092 isan 0,148857]| 467,769 | 0,016919)5,4050 '10% River Seine. 0,785029 | 0,652790| 2592,22 | 0,2977701284,9 | 103,299 |0,824497 |1,17367 |0,92010 LU") River FH 0,860012 | 0,720968) 359,272 | 0,056012)28,4598 | 16,269 |0,778532|1,0541 0,843152 12 iver *ayNE- 4 10,950426 | 0803563] 359,272 | 0,059396)23,0812 | 15,4082 |0,747672 10,9941 62 \0,796834 9,12257 |0,191385 |0,071647 |0,156218 9,20378 |0,226847 |0,1934 —|0,194314 9,9076 |0,893055 |0,429232 |0,384124 15,3757 |0,272865 |0,280515 |0,267086 9,74518 |0,314282 |0,428938 0,293862 16,3503 |0,285046 |0,317697 |0,287803 10,8821 |0,508103 |0,661230 |0,520199 In the preceding Table, the mean velocities in co- lumn 2 were not directly observed, but were deduced from the superficial velocities by a formula of Du Buat, viz. U=(./V— 0.08227 )* 4.0.0067675. In this formula, which is reduced to metres, U is the mean velocity, and V the superficial velocity. Girard also calculated his mean velocities by an equivalent for- mula. The relative accuracies of the three formule will be seen from the following Table of differences. Absolute differences between the calculated and observed mean velocity. . Positive Negative difference, difference, Formula of Du Buat ..... 0.0338 0.0391 Formula of Girard ..... 0.0288 0.0970 Formula of Prony ..... 0.0198 0.0060 In Du Buat’s formula, the errors are between xin and +9; of the observed results; in Girard’s they are between +. and 44; and in Prony’s between yZ5 and 74,5. The great superiority of Prony’s formula is therefore manifest. As the preceding formula of Prony was drawn on ly from a few observations, for the purpose of compa- ring it with the other formula, he has deduced more correct values of «and ¢ from 31 experiments, including the eight experiments of Du Buat in Table I. The 23 new experiments were performed with very great accu- racy upon artificial canals, and have the advantage of giving the mean velocity from direct observation. These experiments, which are contained in Table II. give the following values of «and 8, viz. - a= 0.000436, 6=0:003034, from which we obtain U=+0.0718528-+ ¥/(0,005162754 Paes es 2), Or more simply, ; U=—0.074 v (0.0054 =S"*), which will be suf- ficiently exact. With the first of these formule, the numbers in column 8 of Table II. were calculated. ‘ ; i 7 ‘ ’ j «= 0.00017, 2 = 0,008416, ; HYDRODYNAMICS. o3h , Motion o7, 1 : ey Water in ; TABLE I. bs cob ‘Containing the Velocities of Water in Canals, as observed in thirty-one Experiments, compared with wae are es the Welocities calculated by Prony's Formula. 1 ar wae 3 + 3 6 7 8 Perimeters Areas Inclination Values © Mean Velocities, or values of Velocities, Number} of the the Sections, eager Bo of Sections, ‘or ‘] Of values ‘unctions - : : values o! Experi-| or values of | values of z gel hd hacthontinn u — % e ra azxU Experiment. | Velocity. calculated. . Metres... Metres. Metres. "Metres. Metres. Metres. Metres. 1 | 2,33863. | 0,674492 ‘| 0,00003551 | 0,0008623 0,116509 |} 0,125798 2 | 0,683516} 0,050562 | 0,0001077 0,0006287 |, 0,124251 0,103964 3 | 0,954216} 0,0113764} Id. 0,0008160° | 0,154299 0,144)61 4 | 8,77066 | 4,4883 0,00008496 | 0,0010922 0,160679 O,17916L , 5 | 9,12257 | 5.4050 0,00003617 | 0,0012213 ‘ 0,172109 0,200992 6 | 9,20878 | 5,7582. _| 0,00004581 | 0,0013239 0;212861 0,240924 7 | 0,368693| 0,0152639} 0,0005787. | 0,00097107|: 0,242005 0,215583 8 | 0,577402] 0,0258071| 0,0007082 | 0,0012481 0,248773 0,256018 9 | 0,460189] 0,0251857| 0,0005787 | 0,0011819 | 0,262849 0,256107 10 | 15,8757 Re 0,00003033 | 0,0014567 0,800783 0,314806 11 | 0,629377| 0,0379215} 0,0007082 | 0,0012779 | 0,327546 0,306459 12 0,0005787 | 0,0010339 | 033,4043 0,273113 13 | 9,74518 | 7,6759 0,00006510 | 0,0014458 “4 0;347893 0.341608 14 | 16,3503 0,00002800 | 0,0013832 0,352792 0,33558 15 | 0.575287} 0,025281 | 0,0010764 | 0,0012641 | 0,367069 0,325775 16 | 0,705984| 0,0007082 | 0,0014321 | 0,38358! ~ 0,359686 17 | 0,789630) 0,0753154| = Ia. 0,0015741 | 0,420938 0,400958 18 | 0,414442] 0,0199817| 0,0023419 | 0, 0,494839 0,535840 19 | 0,575237| 0,025281 | 0,0021834 | 0,0017179 | 0,547896 0,489747 20 | 0,490778) 00288423) 0,0023419 | 0,0024567 | 0,549520 0,599057 21 | 0,551415| 0,0369616 Id. 0,0025427 | 0,605555 0,644159 . 22 | 0,582004| 0,0413509 Td. 0,0025612 | 0,637227 0,665101 23 | 0,703819} 0,061136 | 0,002 0,0028149 | 0,734678 0,756869 24 | 0,353534) 0,0138056| 0.0047170 | 0,0024262 | 0,744694 0,703180 25 | 0,737656| 0,0632025| 0,0021834 | 0,0023961 | 0,765809 0,709152 26 | 0,772306| 0,0738205| 0,0023148 | 0,0028111 | 0,772035 0,776964 27 | 15,4028 23,0812 0,00016532 | 0,0031313 0,776043 0,825972 28 798563 | 0,0370788 | 0,004717 0,0027442 | 0,782863 |~ 0,772683 29 | 0,840793| 0,0876261| 0,0023148 | 0,0028084 | 0,816430 0,814208 30 0,878961 | 0,095782 Id, 0,0028662 0,863261 0,834059 31 | 0,894121} 0,0991601 Id. 0,0028604 | 0,880815 0,841999 In the calculated with the observed re- SS ae k are ne- — j2 diferences 0.0260, which shews thatthe anoma Brn AONE D rf 0.008819 0", caleulated results hold 's just medium Between thang Which, after reduction, gives U = —0,0248829 + 4/(0.000619159 4. TAs By means of this formula, the numbers in column. § OO nee eT naenee calneies welenng ee pak Pte a ; i resul z r sath ie ae remarkable, as the im were made by different observers, and with t tus, Oe EE ns Be toe 114 feet to 7020, and their diameters 1 inch to 18 i She Cowenees prem ana eoeeenn a0) Observed results amount only to 54 or .. The i (ted ok. EE present state the velocities are very small; but when the ose oy oo pele we may in ordi-« nary eases use the following very, any le formula, v= 2679/2. 532 Motion of From which it ap Water in Pipes and Canals, HYDRODYNAMICS. 3 that the velocity is directly in the compound ratio of the square roots of the diameter of the pipe and the head of water, and inversely as the =~ ‘Square roots of the length of the pipe agrees with that which the Abbé ut obtained from his experiments ; that is, for any given head of water 3 a result which is inversely as the See page 511, col. 1. ipe, Motion o square root of the length of the pipe. coal In Table IV. we have given the observed measures in French inches, for the sake of those who may wish to compare them with the other experiments of Du Bu- and diameter of pipe, the velocity in a horizontal pipe at or Bossut. TABLE IIf. Comparison of Prony’s Formula, with the Results of Fifty-one Experiments by different Observers. No. of Waniee oF Head of water Values of Velocities, or values of U. Experi- Pieces: above the lower | Diameter of the | Length of the gDZ, ments. end of the Pipe. Pipe. Pipe. 4x0 Observed velo- | Calculated velo- cities. Cities, Metres. Metres. Metres, Metres. Metres. Metres. J Du Buat. 0,0040605 | 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00031409 | 0,0430142 | 0,04275 2 Couplet. 0,151132 0,135350 2280,37 0,00040412 | 0,0544296 | 0,059132 3 Couplet. 0,306784 Id. Id. 0,00052299. | 0,0853786 | 0,092124 4 Du Buat. 0,013535 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00045929 | 0,0980744 | 0,092602 5 Couplet. 0453422 0,135350. 2280,37 0,00059072 | 0,111718 0,126321 6 Id. 0,570716 Id. \ Id. 0,00063849, | 0,130098 0,133029 7 Id. 0,649678 Id. Id. + 0,00167009 | 0,141116 0,143345 S Id. 0,676749. Id. Id. 0,00168358 | 0,144093 0,146739 9 | Du Buat, 0,0189489 | 0,0270699 | 3,74919 | 0,00142651 | 0,235211 0,289495 10 Id. 0,113694 Id. Id. | 0,00133843 | 0,282637 0,308824 11 Ia. Td. Id. Id. 0,00130958 | 0,288863 Id. 12 | Bossut. 0,1082800 Id. 16,2419. | 0,00133748 | 0,380876 0,335905 13 Id. 0,324839 0,0360983 58,47108 | 0,00144598 | 0,340053 0,355330 14 | Du Buat. 0,160525 *| 0,0270699. | 19,9506 | 0,00148184 | 0,360437 0,371316 15 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0360933 |. “48,7258 |. 0,00154965 | 0,380766 0,391471 16 | Du Buat. 0,210604 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00171296 | 0,409081 0,428717 17 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0360933 38,98072 |. 0,00168746 | 0,436584 0,440183 18 Du Buat. 0,242547 0,0270699 19,9506 ‘|. 0,0018308 0,440807 0,461806 19. | Bossut. 0,324839. 0,0544106 | 58,47108 | 0,00167204 | 0,443325 0,441608 20 | Du Buat. 0,242547 | 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,0017932 0,450038 0,461806 21 Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 | 48,7258 Q,00179521 | 0,495488 0,486011 22 Td. 0,649678 0,0360983 58,47108 | 0,00192257 | 0,511514 0,512245 23 Id. 0,324839 Id. 29,2355 | 0,00191780 | 0,512786 Ia. 2 | Du Buat. | 0,333502 0,0270699 19,9506 | 0,00205052 | 0,541155 0,545006 25 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 38,98072 | 0,001981315| 0,560537 0,545851 26 Du Buat. 0,370858. 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00217375 | 0,567657 0,576653 27 | Bossut. 0,649678 | 0,0360933 48,7258 0,00207278 | 0,569335 0,563405 28 Du Buat. 0,395221 0,0270699 19,9506 0,00222265 | 0,591641 0,596064 29 | Bossut. 0,324839 Td. 16,2419 | 0,00220106 | 0,603173 0,599029 30 Id. Taj 0,0360933 19,49036. | 0,00233276 | 0,6382354 0,632726 31 Id. Td. 0,0544106 | 29,2355 | 0,002300502| 0,644427 0,634365 82 Id. 0,64.9678 0,0360933 38,98072 | 0,00226756 | 0,649787 0,632347 33 Id. Id. 0,0544106 | 58,47108 | 0,00221446. | 0,669467 0,634366 34 Id. Fa. Td. 48,7258 0,00239239 | 0,743612 0,697201 35 Id. ol 0,0360933 29,2355. | 0,00258798. | 0,759989 |, 0,734322 36 Du Buat. 0,641558 0,0270699 19,9506 0,0027506 0,776068 | 0,766011 37 | Bossut. _ 0,824839 0,0544106 19,49036 | 0,0028119 0,790849 0,7823836 38 Du Buat. 0,162419 0,0270699 3,74919 0,0036206 0,794259 0,892970 89 | Bossut. 0,649678 0,0544106 | 38,98072 | 0,0026558 0,836353 0,781872 40 Td. 0,324339 0,0360933 | 9,74518 | 0,0032867 0,897639 0,904784 . 41 Ta. 0,649678 Ta. 19,49036 | 0,0031615 0,933183 Id. \ 42 Ta. Td. 0,0544106 | 29,2355 | 0,0030625 0,968157 0,907108 43 Couplet. 3,92739 0,487259 1169,42 0,0037855 1,06003 1,059247 44 | Bossut. 0,324839 0,0544106 | 9,74518 | 0,0040737 1,09151 1,116427 45 Fd. 0,649678 Td. 19,49034 | 0,0038209 1,16401 Id. 46 Id. Id. 0,0360933 | 9,74518 | 0,0044911 1,31381 1,289627 47 | Du Buat. 0,487259 0,0270699 | 3,16718 0,0064.699 1,57845 1,704337 48 Id. 0,567116 Td. 3,74919 | 0,0063075 1,59193 1,689767 49 Bossut. 0,649678 0,0544106 9,74518 0,0055786 1,5945 1,588977 50 | Du Buat. 0,721864 0,0270699 | 3,16718 | 0,0078386 | 1,93011 2,079787 51 Id, 0,974518 Ta. Ta. 0,0088825 2,29946 2,420487 a a ae HYDRODYNAMICS. TABLE IV. Containing the observed Measures in Taste III. in French Inches. Pee Head of Diame- = Mhuthors, [abore the [oF el pin ee pe seg or ment end} PIP | of U. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SSS SESPSTSSSSSSSSSESSSSSRNSLLSE Ta ta 5 le RES z j . [odealpemsTil = . which is deduced from the equation : Es EH gre serve feel = —0.0469754 +. 4/ (0,0022065 4 9041.47G). both for 533 When this formula is applied to canals, we must take Bain of G=RI; 1=4; and R=. Pips wd | WAMEIEIs 6 be applied to pipes, we must take —— G=sDJ, D=diameter of pipe, and J=+8—F .... es itself in air ; as in this case, Bisse t of Du Buat for ing the mean Relation ity was, when reduced to the. between the superficial * U = (/V — 0.08227)" 4. 0.067675, Lary on C=WV—Vtwy+iw, velocity = 0.0270699 = 1 inch measure, and 4/ W = 0.16453. « = 4.036; A = 1.280, from which we have @ = 237187; b = 3.15812, and Ua V(V + 2.97187) ~ W48.15812 ” a formula which is not only more commodious, and more easily calculated, but more conformable with experiments than that of Du Buat. This formula nfhy be put under the form 2.46338 OSV ONOIRS + es ssie” from which we obtain, V=4(U 2.871874. (U0 —2,37187)*4 3.15312) 534 HYDRODYNAMICS. Motion ‘of The numbers in. column 5. of the following Table which gives a precision of between x and 3;, and is Water in have been computed from the formula ; a simplification of the preceding formula, Pipes and U = 0,816458 V, Canals. ——— TABLE V. Containing the observed mean Velocities of Water, compared with those deduced Jrom the superficial Velocities by the Formule of Du Buat and Prony. 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 Velocities. Number Observed. Calculated er of irre Wr es of Experi- i vow Prony’s best mene: bya: “smay of the | Wrean velocities, | By Du Buat’s By Prony’s Formula. bye aes iv. or values of U. Formula. ‘ormula. 1 0,1638 051242 0,11124 _ 0,13374 4,1363 0,12522 2 0,2954 0,2421 0,21951 0,24118 |. 55422) | 0.22848 3 0,3118 032487 0,23346 0,25457 49414 0,24151 4 0,4331 0,3275. 0,33837 0,35361 © 4,1014 -. 0,83876 5 0,4640 0,3836 0,32526 0,37884 5,7711 0,86379 6 0,5197 0,4210 0,41462 0,42431 5,265% 0,40916 7 0,6186 0,4949 ' 0,50273 § | 0,50506 5,0008 | 0,49047 “8 0,6719 0,5479 0,55057 0,54857 5,4185 0,53467 9 0,7797 0,7447 0,64795 0,63660 , 22,2770 0,61060 | > 5 10 ~ 0,8121 0,6055 0,67737 0,66305 3,9308 0,65210 11 0,8473 0,6372 0,70939 0,69179 4,0328 0,68184 12 0,9280 0,7720 0,78304 0,75767 5,9488 0,75036 13 0,9745 0,7658 0,82562 0,79564 4,6694 0,79006 14 1,0257 0,8633 0,87246 0,83744 6,3158 0,83395 15 1,1461 1,0893 0,99346 0,93574 20,1780 0,93784 16 1,2994 1,0555 1,12538 1,0609 5,3264 1,0714 17 1,2994 1,1099 1,12538 1,0609 6,8569 1,0714 The agreement of the numbers in column 7, with 46Q -gjD’_.., 1. 6a 6428 Formul those in pam 3, is very striking ; and it is rertiarke “+= 16Q aenaer ne =2',and =F hal for fi able that the numbers in column 5, calculated from the qu Prony’s simple formula, big ah Koc V, aremore gives ccordant with experiment than those in column 4, com- 4 i! P C pnted from Du Buat’s formula. This formula may jD> —«'QD?—@’ Q’ = 0, or since be reduced to a’ = 0.000088268 and 4’ 0.002258305, we have ‘U= 0.82 V, or evenU = 0.8 V, Jj D° —0.000088268 Q D* — 0.00225830 Q* = 0, ar ws .. which expresses the relation between the diameter of a fem ith alos nt he men tte Br ein eee mae Formula In order to introduce into the equation which ex- pera » Ae. i length, a prelvity, and t “Toaae 5 of for finding presses the velocity, the value of the volume of water Water above I Upper ANclgwer Grapes are. kno Wwis the quanti- . = = " sic H Yess EI? F which flows through any section in a given time, ‘ . . H+¢€—H Gudea. Prony calls Q the volume of water, and 3.1416 =, In this equation j = ix S 4Q 348 : oaf ited i ——~, and these be troduced into Im order to facilitate the application of this formula, ape Pee eee ee Prony has computed the following Table, which gives 4 the equation 1 gj D= «U +'@U* wherea= 0.00017, the relations between D, Q andj, as deduced from the < and 6 = 0,003416, gives above equation. and hence U= HYDRODYNAMICS. 535 TABLE VI. Containing the Declivity of the Pipe and its Diameter for different Quantities of Water . Sotherpte in a Second. fret e : Pine Pipe ‘Quantities of Water discharged in a Second in ten thousand parts of a Cubic Metre. ‘|in hundred : partsofa | Q = 0,0001 Q = 0,002 Q =0,0008 Q=0,0004 Q =0,0005 Values of j. Values of j. Values of Values of j. Values of j. 0,01 0,2346568 0,9209736 2,0. 3.6485872 5,6898840 0,02 0,0081604 0,0304354 0,0668247 0,117328% 0,1819463 0,03 0,0012563 | 0,0043712 0,0093445 0,0161763 0,0248665 0,0% 0,0003585 0,0011580 0,0023986 0,0040803 0,0062031 0,05 0,0001429 0,0008622 0,0014387 0,0021597 0,06 0,0000699 0,0001979 0,0003840 1 0,0009304 —— Quantities of Water discharged in a Second in thousand parts of a Cubic Metre. of a Q =0,001 Q = 0,002 Q = 0,003 Q=0,004 Q = 0,005 0,10 0,0081410 0,0107986 0, 0,0396636 0,0608709 0,11 0,0146096 0,025088+ 0,0383716 0,12 0,0014184 0, 19 0,0165642 0,0252431 0,13 0,0010100 0,0066793 0,0118387 0,0172145 0,14 0,0007416 0,0047441 0,0080051 0,0121058 0,0005589 0,0017126 0,0034611, 0,0058044 0,0087424 0,16 0,0004309 0,0012925 0,0025848 0,0043079 0,17 0,0003387 0,0019705 0,00326386 0,0048748 0,1 . 8.4 36 2 | 19092°| — 2.12 “~ 1s Jack Gange 1 92.58 ae 5.14 ioe 3 Inch Gauge. 2 | 130.92 a 14.10 rn eI 11,63 }) 2 |) — 0.16 - s | 16092 | — | 2578 -— 7.2 .08 24.8 13.71 | 5846 7 0.24 - 4 | 185.16 — | 3944 12.0 -20 21.8 15.32 k 19.8 1 | }.| 75.60 _ 0.67 -- 6 | 226.80 — | 71.40 pin 4.6 13 18,1 17.90 3 | 80.16 se 0.80 _ 7 | 264.94 — | 89.30 — : 124 A3 16.9 18.76 1 92.58 — 1.23 os 8 261.84 _ 108.06 ’ 20.8 1.00 15.9 19.24 1} | 113.40 = 2.23 -- 9 | 277.73 127.30 — _ 17.5 1.4 15.0 19.07 2 190.2 — 3.87 _ 10 292.74 - 146.37 -~ 15.6 1.20 14.3 20.43 23 146.40 — 4.57 — Il 807.05 166.80 _ . 13.9 1.27 13.7 20.30 2 3 160.82 —- 5.84 _ 12 320.70 — 187.10 _ 542 HYDROD Resistance of Fluids. Some Oa 18 Inch Gauge. Thickness} Mean Velo- of | city per Mi- | Difference. Exxpence Per | Tyifference. Water. nute, Inches. Feet. Cubic Feet. 1 92.58 _ 7.71 ane 38.3 13,43 2 130.92 — | 9114 =< 29.4 17.69 3 160,32 _ 38.83 _ 24.8 20.60 4 185.16 _ 59.43 —_ 21.8 23.23 5 207.00 _ 82.66 Sas, 19.8 26.01 6 226.80 — 108.67 oa 18.1 27.41 ” 244.94 — | 136.08 —— 16.9 28.78 8 261.84 — || 16486 —ae 15.9 31.86 9 277.73 —.|196.72 ) — 15.0 31.98 10 ‘292.74 — 228.70 wr . 14.3 32.66 11 307.05 — 261.36 - 13.6 36.44 12 320.70 _ 297.80 -_ 25.7 65.93 14 346.41 —_ 363.78 _ 23.9 75.17 16 370,32 _ 438,90 —_ 22.5 76.64 18 392.79 _ 515.54 —_ Compari- It will be seen from a comparison of this Table with son of the Du Buat’s formula in p. 500, that there is a consider sina Le able agreement between them. For great depths of the formula, Wasteboard, Du Buat’s formula gives a much greater discharge than ‘Smeaton’s Table. At small depths of the wasteboard, Du Buat’s formula gives results less than -those of Smeaton’s Table, while for intermedi- ate depths the results approach. very near each other. The 18 inch gauge, for example, with a depth of .18 inches, discharges, according to Smeaton, 515.54 cubic feet in aminute; whereas, according to Buat, it should discharge 554.15 cubic feet. The same gauge, at a depth of only one foot, discharges 7.71 cubic.feet ; where= as, according to Du Buat, it should discharge only 7.254 cubic feet. The same notch, with a depth of § inches, discharges 164.86 cubic feet; and, according toDu Buat, it should discharge 164.20 cubic feet, saich ds very nearly the same result, CHAP. V. {On THE Percussion AND RESISTANCE OF FLurps. On the ren. As the laws of the resistance of fluids can be deters sistance of mined-only from experiment, we shall not occupy our fluids, pages with theoretical discussions, which are of no prac- tical utility. It will be necessary, however, to make the reader acquainted with the ordinary theory of the resistance of fluids, which may be comprehended in a few propositions, . moved by the force of water. ‘ YNAMICS. Secr. I. Onthe Theory of the Resistance of Fluids. of Ir a body is moved through afluid medium, it expe- riences an obstruction in its motion, which is ied the resistance of the fluid; butif the fluid is in motion, and strikes the: body at rest; the force sustained by the body is called the pecorses of the fluid. The force exerted upon the body is ones the same in ‘both these cases ; and the percussion and the resistance of fluids follow the same laws. The ordinary theory which we are about to explain, may be used without much risk of error in all cases where the angles of im~ pulse is not below 60°, which is’ the case in whee Prop. I. If a fluid, whose particles have all the same veloci strikes a plane surface, the resistance will be as the roduct of the squares of the velocity of the fluid, the vonsity. of the fluid, and the area of the plane, The resistance must obviously be equal to the force with which each particle strikes the plane, multiplied by the number of particles which strike it in a given time. But the force of each one is as its velocity, and the number of particles which strike the plane in any given time, must also be as the velocity. Hence the resistance will be as the square of the velocity. It is obvious also that the resistance will be proportional to the density of the ‘fluid, as the number of particles which ‘strike the plane in the same time must be pro- portional to the -density; the number of particles which strike the plane must likewise increase with the area of the plane ;‘and therefore the whole resistance must be proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid, the density of the fluid, and-the area of the -surface .of the plane. ‘Prop. II. Ifa fluid in motion strikes a plane surface at rest, | inclined to the direction in which the fluid moves, the resistance perpendicular to the plane is proportional to the square of the sine of the angle of iriditnacion, Let AB be the plane surface, inclined at an angle Prare ABC to the direction DE, or CB of the motion of the'CCCXI fluid. Draw AC perpendicular to DE. Then it is Fis-% obvious that the number of particles which strike against the surface AB is proportional to AC, for none of these which are beyond A and C can have any ef-= fect upon the plane. Likewise, if we take EF to re« esent the velocity of the fluid, and resolve this ve« locity into the two velocities FG, perpendicular to the surface-of the plane, and GE pasalbel to the same sur- face, it is manifest that the part GE has no effect in acting against the plane. Hence the part of the “force, which acts perpendicular to the plane is FG, or the -sine of the angle: GEF = ABC, the inclination of the plane. That is the force which acts perpendicular to, ‘the plane is proportional to sin. ABC; and'the num’ of particles which strike the plane is also_p ional, to sin. ABC, ey the resistarice must be pro portional to sin. ABC x sin. ABC = sin.2 ABC, or the square of the sine of the angle of inclination. ” Cor. The:resistance which the plane e: iences in the direction of its motion, is pr jonal to the cube coat . of the sine of the angle of inclination. For as the res ° : 3 | li 4 33 | li any 3] a Ht i + SEE FE 3 ai at il Hh tr Ee i ifn ie Hl nit idiat! fl te HE alt au ul a HE Ban cee | a on zien “li di ie La past “Hitige ae Hi : vi lf fata gaye itr bil um ia ae sain if rate ‘ : 32 ag iy b “te 28- Hae < ESD be HG ie sant al ie aH sl fue ell ue ae sali anes htathale bs inet He iB at x ie i : sali 233 cha baaFe ue aay. os di Z S233 a at ee iat 3 ai » siti § HG a fis iH Hain oe ie daar i Bey ae Bet ne an Ha eae Se Bag 2 iis see an! ah as i: 25 232 B23 uu , HE be is FE G 2 H 28 an Resistance of Fluids. Resistances im a narrow canal. ‘Gn the re- sistances of PaaTe ©CCcxix, Pig. 10. 544 HYDRODYNAMICS. a greater resistance when the waters of the canal were low ; but no precise measure of this increase of resist~ ance, nor any explanation of its cause, were given till Bossut published his experiments. The following were the general results which he obtained. 1. That in narrow canals the resistances are propor- tional to the squares of the: velocities, following the same law as in a fluid of indefinite extent. 2. That the resistances in narrow canals, and canals which have little depth, is greater than in fluids of indefinite extent. The cause of this is obvious. When the velocity of the body is considerable, the fluid which that body pushes before it has not liberty to expand itself on every side, but forms a current more or less rapid as the ve- locity of the body is more or less great. If the body entirely filled the canal, it would push all the water before it like the piston of a pump; but as, in narrow canals, there is always some room for the water to run both below the boat and at its sides, a part of the fluid escapes in this way, while another part is driven back ; and in this way a variety of contrary currents are form- ed, by which the resistance is increased. This aug- mentation of resistance is produced, not only by the heaping up of the fluid on its anterior part, but also by the want of hydrostatical support behind. The preceding results furnish an excellent lesson to the engineer, in so far as they point out the advantage of making all canals of navigation as wide and deep as is consistent with a proper economy. In 1778, M. Bossut undertook,’ in conjunction with Condorcet, a series of experiments, the object of which was to determine the law according to which the resist- ance varied in an indefinite fluid like the sea, by vary- ing the angle of the prow of a vessel from a straight line, or 180°, to an angle of 12°. These experiments were made in the great reservoir, now destroyed, which formerly existed on the north side of the Boulevards of Paris. This reservoir was 200 long, 100 wide, and 83 deep. The form of the apparatus employed is shewn in Plate CCCXIX. Fig. 10.. where MQNOP is the small vessel. -The prow, MQN, had various angles, from 180° to 12°, The vessel was drawn along by a cord C attached to its centre of gravity, which passing below a pulley on the same level with c, rises nearly in a vertical line, and passing again over a pul- ley descends and is attached to the weights, by the descent of which the motion of the vessel is produ- ced. A rope QR stretching across the whole length of the reservoir, serves to regulate the motion of the vessel. The vessel was then brought, by another rope fixed at 0, to one end of the reservoir, and the time in which it described 96 feet uniformly by dif- ferent weights suspended to the end of the rope, was carefully measuted by an excellent seconds watch. Each experiment was repeated five times, and the mean of these times was adopted as the true measure. The general results of these experiments are given in the following Table, and compared with those given by the ordinary theory. The Table contains the resistances for fifteen different kinds. of prows. The base MN Fig. 10. remains always the same, while the angle MQN of the prow, formed into an isosceles triangle, is made variable. Comparative Table of the Resistances experienced by 15 Angular Prows, as deduced by Bossut from his Ex- periments. Calculated Re- be-| Angles of the |sistances according’ tween the ob- Prow, or va- | to the common |Observed Resist- jserved and cal- lues of theory, or values ances. culated Re- MQN = 2. of Cos.® x, , . sistances. 180° 10000 . 10000 0 168 9893 9890 $ 156 9578 9568 10 144 9084 9045 39 | 132 8446 8346 100 120 7710 7500 210 . 108 6925 6545 380 96 6148 5523 625 84 5433. . 4478 955 | 72 4800 3455 1345 60 4404 2500 1904 48 4240 1654 2586 1 36 4142 955 3187 24 4062 432 3631 12 3999 109 8890 ry theory, are calculated by the formula 1000 Cos. ? a, x being the angle of the prow. In order to obtain a formula which will express the law of the experimen tal resistances, Bossut observes, that when the angle x undergoes a variation of 12°, each of the angles at the base of the isosceles prow will vary 6°. Calling this va« riation g, Bossut finds that the experimental resistance may be expressed by the formula a“ 5-25, 10000 % Cos.2x 4 3158 (4) This formula, however, though it answers well for prows with large angles, yet when the angle is small, it errs considerably in excess. In a prow of 12°, for > a \ 5-25 ‘ example, the term 3.153 (5) becomes 4766 ins t ‘The results in column third, as given by the ordina« | ! stead of 3631. 2. Account of Du Buat’s Experimenis. ‘ The attention of Du Buat was first directed to the de- 1), pus termination of the resistance experienced by an immove- ex able surface, when struck by an insulated vein of fluid, on t whose area is either greater than, or equal to, the area pulse of the surface. In order to measure this resistance, he Y°™ balanced it by a column of fluid, the height of which measured the height due to the impulse. A tube of glass, about 14 lines of interior diameter, was bent into aright angle at its lower extremity. Into this bent part were fitted different surfaces for receiving the im- pulse of the fluid vein, which was to be balanced by the weight of column which ascended in the tube. The result of these experiments was, that the height due to the impulse is the same as the height due to the velocity of the vein ; whereas Bossut e it equal to the height due to twice the velocity. Du Buat accounts for this difference with great success. The vertical vein of fluid in Bossut’s experiments, . ed itself in striking the surface upon the balance ; and the fluid fila« ments took a horizontal direction, after they had given the shock to the surface. The resistance, therefore, measured by Bossut was not merely the impulse of a vein whose diameter was that of the orifice, but also the additional pressure of a ring of fluid of a certain extent, 6 al HYDRODYNAMICS. around the circular base of the vein in contact with Seiad Dahave Lowe ‘nagetiend the resisted surface. the resistance experienced M. Du Buat next proceeds to ascertain the amount fiuid in motion, was exactly equal to the resistance of Or ine wes i when an immoveable surface is placed the same surface when it moved in stagnant water, with cistance to i a tak Raion -enpeuts The instrument a velocity equal to that of the current. M. Du Buat bodies mo- 545 all authors, that Resistance y a surface at rest from a of Fluids. which be used for this purpose was a box of white iron, a a surface of one square foot. It had a thickness of nearly four lines, and was shut on all sides a opening in its ior surface, into which was soldered the hori branch of a rectangu- Jar tin tube 16 lines in diameter, which received a float edge, and the third in the same horizontal line, but only 10 lines distant from the +; the fourth was quite the in the lower angle of . the box was fixed, and the current of water was allowed to enter one or more of these holes, the tin tube to a height u ve very - sf tana ds to the e I efit pressure was not the centre of the pon tee mht athe tn Poon conan negative at margin oer height in the abov ight tin tube e This hei i hole é : edge or inar- : if apegeery : i t ‘ i i! u ¢ i ie he HEE F : Fs r the body to its centre; and, , That the diminution of pressure is to area of the surface that is sn “ VOL, XJ. PART 11. . & inches “oscillating in water resolved to ooo this from a variety of experimen Hayne, between Mons and Condé, he concluded, 1st, That the a are by no means the same when the body is at rest as when it isin motion. 2d, That in the latter case, the pressure does not diminish so sensibly from the centre to the circumference, and in- stead of a negative pressure towards the sides, that the ressure is then so great, as to be measured by the third of the height due to the velocity, which shews that the water runs along the anterior surface with less velocity, or with more uniformity. 3d, That the pres- sures diminish in a less ratio the square of the velocity, when the velocities are less than or fovr feet persecond, 4th, That the mean res are mea- sured by the exact height due to the velocity, instead of 1,186 times the height, as before: And, 5tily, That the diminution of pressure diminishes little from the centre to the circumference in the same order as the The next object of M. Du Buat is to determine the —— of fluid which globes and plane surfaces drag ong with them, when oscillating in a fluid. The lobes were of wood, lead and glass. They oscillated in a vessel 51 inches long, 17 inches wide, and 14 inch- deep: They were entirely immersed about three below the surface, the wire which suspend- te we as ao as their weight Nh permit. general result of these experiments is, that a globe along with it, both before and behind, a portion of fluid whose volume exceeds a little its own volume, or nearly 7000 Similar iments were made with yarious planc surfaces of white iron, cylinders oscillating in the plane of their axes, q I prisms ing in the plane of their axes, triangular prisms oscillating in the plane of their axes, cubes oscillating directly, cubes oscillating by the common section of two of their bounding ps es, cubes oscillating by 8 i quadrangu risms oscillating by common sec- tion of two oblique faces, cylinders oscillating in the direction of thet diameters, and cones, pyramids and mixed bodies oscillating in the plane of their axes ; but our limits will not permit us to give any account of these experiments, which will be found in Part III. sect. 1. viii. of Du Buat’s Principes D' Hydrau- lique, tom. ii. The attention of Du Buat is next directed to the im- 585 ; —— of its own volume, int experimentally, and ving in coals made on the river #35" water. Resistance to globes oscillating in fluids. Resistance portant subject of the resistance opposed to vessels in of vessels in narrow canals. From a comparison of several experi. ®4rrow ¢a- ments, he has deduced the allowing formula : nals, K 8.46 R=> = Cc ¢ +2 ete in whieh C is the area of the section of the canal, 4 the area of the section of the vessel, and R the resistance ; the resistance in a fluid of indefinite extent being = 1. In order to compare this formula with experiments, Du Buat employed five kinds of prismatic boats, se- veral feet in Tenath, and terminated both before and behind by a plane surface. The boat Sz 546 Resistance No. }, had the immersed part = a rectangle of 1 foot phos of base upon 1 foot of height. y Resistance No. 2, had 2 feet of base upon 1 foot of height im- of vessels mersed. innarrow No. 4, and 5, had 19 inches 8 lines u canals, 54 lines immersed, and diffe: lengths. No. 6, had its section like the great section of a vessel, andthe area of the part immersed was 190 square inches. The following Table shews the results of the experi- ment: ; LS tee m 12 inches only in their Tasie Shewing the Resistance of Boats in Narrow Canals. Canal 283 Inches Wide, and 15 Inches 2 Lines Deep. Ratio of the IN Sections or Va- |Observed Resist- | Resistances cal- umbers of] Jues of ances, or Values| culated by the the Boats. of R. . Formula. bo 1 3.00 1.66 1.69 2 1.50 2.50 2.41 4&5 1.76 2.25 2.25 6 2.275 1.94 1.97 Canal 40 Inches Wide, and 15 Inches 2 Lines Deep. 1 4.212 1.33 1.86 2 2.106 211 2:05 4&5 2.476 1.90 ° 1.89 6 3.192 1.62 1.62 From these experiments Du Buat has concluded, that a canal eannot be considered as of indefinite width, unless its width is 4.46, or 44 times that of the vessel; or what is the same thing, that when this is the ratio between the width of the vessel and the canal, the ves- sel experiences the same’ resistance as if it moved in the open sea. ‘In order to confirm this result, the fol- lowing experiments were made, in which 5 and R in the last column are calculated by reducing the canal to 44 times that of the vessel, Canal'75 Inches Wide, and 154 Deep. "Ratio of the Sections or Va- |Observed Resist-| Resistances cal- \Numbers of| lues of ances, or Values| culated by the- the Boats. Cc of R, Formula. 6 1 5.81 1.053 1.08 2 4.036 °. 1.384 , 1.40 Canal of Indefinite Width, and 15.Inches 4 Lines Deep. 2 5.75 1.125 1,09 5 5.53 1,143 1,12 Canal-of Indefinite Width, and‘27 Inches 3. Lines Sugpuelaphaigt 8°75 1 Seale 2 |. . 4.46 | 1.1 | 1.00 HYDRODYNAMICS. The law of oblique resistances dees not tesist the same in a narrow canal as in a fluid of indefinite of Flui extent, and an angular prow added to a prismatic ves- , 77/7 sel produces a less diminution of the resistance as the of canal becomes more narrow. M. Du Buat expresses narrow the resistance of an angular prow in a narrow canal by ‘nals. the following formula: A ys * =r—(r—=)($—1), inwnich r=R—( salt i 5 Ap» in whi «5 AG . Se R is the resistance of a plane prow in a narrow canal. r the resistance of an angular prow of the same base. q the ratio between the resistances of these two prows in an indefinite fluid; and = the ratio of the section as formerly. When the boat No. 2. had an Angular prow. of 45°, and moved in a canal 283 inches wide, and 154 deep, the resistance was 4.42; whereas, the formula gives 7 = 4.444. : ‘ ; When the same boat had an angular prow of 14° 3’, the resistance was = 3.2; whereas, the formula gives rez. 3.25. When these experiments . ‘ vba » ' were repeated in a canal : shut at both ends, the resistance .o » 1. «was sensibly the same as when it was open; but when No, 2, | was used, the resistance was considerably augmented. , The effects in this case become very complicated, par- 4 ’ : : ticularly for a canal which is short... When the sluices in canals are three or four miles distant, the of the canal may be considered as of indefinite length, and if approaching one of its extremities, the boats ought to experience more resistance from this cause, yet the heaping up and the driving back of the water obliges the boats to rise, and thus allows the fluid to escape more easily behind. 3. Account of the Experiments of Vince on the Resist= ss wie of Fluids. i The experiments of Mr Vince on the resistance of Account oi fluids, were published in 1798, in the Transactions 0 Vince’s e the Royal Society of London. They were made wi periment bodies moving at a considerable depth below the sur- j face of water, and the resistance was mi both R when the body moved in the fluid, and when the body was struck by the fluid in motion. The results of his experiments on the resistance of a plane surface moving in a fluid, are given in the following Table: - Tasin shewing the Resistance of a Plane Surface mov- Resistance ing in a Fluid with a Velocity of 0.66 of a Foot ina when the Second, and inclined at different Angles to the Line of a a its Motion. : = : Inclination of dos, Oy Power of the Sine the Plane to | posta ‘Resistances cal- jof-the Inclination the Line of ; fe a! to which the re- its Motion. Observed: eory. peers ist epi Degrees. {Ounces Troy. | Ounces: Troy. i 10., vit 0.0112 0.0012 1.73 . 20. 0.0364 0.0098 > LTS a 80. 0.0769 0.0290 “HSL 6 fF 40. 0.1174 0.0616: 1.54 — 50. 0.1552 0.1043 : KOE 60 0.1902 0.1476: bP. 1.88: shes Pan! Os 0.2125 0.1926 fp. » 142 80 0.2237 0.2217, 2.41 90 0.2321 0.2921... sfoi we: 1 ' 2 3 4 : | HYDRODYNAMICS. 54 ments of Bossut and Du Buat, yet none of these au- Resistance thers succeeded in determining the true law of the of #luids. resistance of fluids. This honour .was reserved for oot op the late.M. Coulomb, who first, entertained the happy Coulomb's idea of ascertaining the laws of the resistance of fluids experiments t in slow motions, by the oscillation of horizental discs on the re- in consequence of the torsion, or the twisting and un- sistance of of twisting of the wire by which they, were suspended. which: the resistance is . Inthe t Section we shall endeavour to: lay before This column was computed in the fallowing man- pp on as Prenat ara yore age of the in~ ner: Calling s the sine of the inclination, rthe vestigations of thi i ’ es thchoneaie ikes a fluid at rest, it ex- ing resistance; then, if r is proportional to the mth pewer of s, or to.s™, we have sin. 90°, or 1™ s* — 0.2321 rand” = oo: and, consequently, ? Ul. Cor. from the Table, that it varies in the plane bei ance, w but * to be really a part of the force which acts upon the w i two kinds of resistance. One of these arises Freon thaicehssion ‘oft the fluid particles, which are se-~ parated from each other by the moving body; and as the number of molecules thus is.p ional to the velocity of the body, this of the resistance Fy. yi ya or likewise be propor tienal to the simple velocity. The other of the resistance arises from the in- ertia of the fluid particles, which being struck by the body, acquire pag ge ional to the velocity of the ly; but as the number of these parts is proportional to the velocity, there t to mien pnepenenes SROpeePRSS 30 Sin epee ot ve- locity. Hence the theory seems to inform us, that the resistance of fluids should be led by the sum two quantities, one of which is proportional to the sim- pe wy, and the other to the square of the velocily. his theoretical result was completely verified by Coulomb’s experiments, to In order to submit these views to the test of experi- ence, the ordinary methods of measuring the resist- ance of fluids are of no ayail.. When the moving bod 0 eeneT eight or nine a wigs pstasenn resistance is always proportional. to the square the velocity ; but a at velocity does not exceed four-tenths of an inch per second, the r~ tional to the simple velocity becomes sensible ; but as the velocity is extremely small, the resistance is also very small, and therefore the ordinary means cannot be used either in i [eR GE ON BER, So se. dente. ifferent terms of the formula. When the surface was struck by the fluidin mo- tion, Mr Vince obtained the results contained in the following Table. Taste shewing the Resi t of a Plane Surface struck by a Fluid in Motion, and inclined at different Angles ’ to its Motion. Bel F { Resistances observed. ; ; A seseszset CCOOFr RR eee - — > COO See He: - i) of the resistance so small it be safely sas; exiaibe Wiie-$e mene. tbe ms oft proportional square veloci moped objects were completel ined, b the Syemeualia CCC X. Fig.11. “na “eg where ABC is a stand, having a horizontal arm BC, to P7 °°" ele a Ean nel erento pemeee aie Pare centre for the of admitting cylindrical pin CCCXIx. 6a. Into a slit in the extremity of this pin is Fig, Lt ; i i al ing Apparatus | E i B = fg ag tened, by means of a screw, the brass wire.a g, whose force of torsion is to be compared with the resistance of the fluid ; and its lower extremity is fixed in the same way into a cylinder of d, whose diameter is about four-tenths of Slee Cie aplindan sy 2 2 poo. pendicular to the disc DS, whose circumference is di- vided into 480 parts. When this horizontal disc is at rest, whi when the torsion of the brass wire is nothing, the index RS is placed upon Resistance of Fluids. —_—— Account of Coulomb's experiments tal disc. on the re- sistance of fluids, General re- sults. 548 the point 0, the zero of the circular seale. The srnall rule Rm may be elevated or depressed at pleasure round its axis m; and the stand GH which su it may be brought into any position round the horizon- The lower extremity of the cylinder g d is immersed about two inches in the vessel of water MNOP, and to the extremity d is attached the dises, or the bodies, whose resistance is to be determined when they oscillate in the fluid by the torsion of the brass wire, ’ In order to -produce these oscillations, the disc DS, supported by both hands, must be turned gently round to a certain distance from the index, without deranging the vertical position of the suspended wire. The disc being then left to itself, the force of torsion causes it to oscillate, and the successive diminution of these oscillations is carefully observed. A simple formula gives in weights the force of torsion that produces the oscillations ; and another formula well known to geo- meters, determines (by an approximation ‘sufficiently accurate in practice) by means of the successive dimi- nution ef the oscillations, compared with their ampli- tude, what is the law of the resistance, relative to the velocity which produces these diminutions. The method employed by Coulomb in reducing his experiments, is nearly the same as that by which Newton and others determined the resistance of fluids from the successive diminution of the oscillations of a pen- dulum vibrating in‘a fluid; but Coulomb’s apparatus is not liable to any of the objections which attach to the use of the pendulum. It would be impossible, with- out a previous explanation of the principles of torsion, and a discussion too long and minute for the limits of our. work, to make our readers acquainted with the various steps of Coulomb’s investigation. All that we can pretend to do, is to give an account of the different physical results which he obtained. Having attached to the lower extremity of the cy- linder gid a circular white iron plate, about’ 6.677 inches in diameter, he found that when its oscilla. tions. were so slow, that the part of the resistance proportional to the square of the velocity was great! inferior ‘to the other part, the resistance which rif minished the ‘oscillations of the horizontal ‘plate ‘was uniformly proportional to the simple vélocity, and that the other part) produced no sensible effect upon ‘the motion of the disc, He likewise found, in conformity with theory, that the momenta of resistance in different circular oscillating in a fluid, are as the ‘fourth power of the diameters of these circles, when the re- sistance is proportional to the siniple velocity ; and that when a. circle, 6.677 ‘inches in diameter, éscil- lated with ‘the veloéity of 5.512 inches per ‘second ‘in its circumference, the momentum of resistance Which the fluid opposed ‘to its circular motion, was équal to vo of a gramme, eran by a lever 143 millimetres long, or 1.544 English Troy grains, at the end of a lime 5.63 English inches long. the resistance of the two circular surfaces of the disc, is equal to a weight of 0.587 grammes. : — Ifthe plane or dise had only a velocity of ten milli- metres, or one centimetre, the resistance would 'be' only 0.042 grammes. In like manner ‘it follows, ‘that the resistance experienced by.a surface of one square metre,” moving with a velocity of one centimetre per ‘second, is 0.703 grammies. In order to determine comparatively with water the cohesion of different fluids, he filled a large ‘vessel with HYDRODYNAMIES. Hence'it ‘follows,’ that’ clarified oil, such’as is used in commerce for the’ called Quinguet ; and he found its temperature to 16° of Reaumur’s scale, which he marked, because the ‘acco cohesion of oil varies with the temperature, though this’ coulomb’s variation is not sensible in water by small changes of experimen temperature. By causing discs of different diameters to on the re- — oscillate in the oil, he found that the momenta of ‘ree’ sistance of sistance for two circles, moving round their centre in “““* the plane of their superficies, varies as the fourth er of the diameter, a result which is also conforma- f with theory. The agreement of these results, Cou- lomb considers as leaving no doubt respecting the certainty of the term ‘proportional to the velocity in the resistance of fluids, ! From these experiments, Coulomb likewise conclu Ratio of the ded that the difficulty which the same disc moving with cohesion of the’same degree of velocity ienced in Ce the particles of oil, was to the difficulty which it expe. rienced in separating the particles of water as 17.5 to 1, which will therefore express the ratio between the mutual cohesion of the particles of oil, and the mutual. cohesion of the particles of water. The next object of our author was to determine two On .the ef- important points, Ist, If the resistance of a body was fect produ- influenced by the nature of its surface; and, 2d, if it ced by the was influenced by the pressure of the superincumbent jh. swctuce,_ fluid. In order to settle the first of these points, he, . covered the surface of a circle of white iron with a film ; of tallow, and wiped it slightly away, that the thick. ness of the plate might not be sensibly increased. He then caused this circle to oscillate as before; and he ob« served that the successive diminution of the oscilla~. tions was exactly the same as before the application of, the tallow. Upon the coat of tallow he next scattered, by means of a sieve, a quantity of sand, which adhered to the surface; and he found that the resistance to the oscillations of the plate was not sensibly increased, Hence he concludes, that the part of the resistance pre-. portional to the simple velocity arises from the mutual’ cohesion of the fluid particles, and not from. the adhe- sion of these particles to the surface of the body, =What- j ever, indeed, was the nature‘of the surface, there was t an infinite number of inequalities where the fluid par~ ticles were permanently lodged. In order to determine the second point, M. Coulomb On the ef- — caused the bodies to oscillate at two ‘different ‘depths ; fect produ- one at a depth of .787 inches, and another at a depth °d byp of 19.6855 inches, and he found no diffetence in the re. °™* sistances; but as the surface of the water supported the whole weight of the atmosphere, it was scarcely to be expected that a pressure of 19 inches of fluid would ; produce a very sensible increase of resistance. In ors. i der to decide the question, therefore; M. Coulomb em« f ployed another method. . - : Having placed a vessel full of water under the recei- ver of an. air-pump, the receiver. being furnished with a rod and collar of leather at its top, he fixed to the hook atthe-end of the rod’a harpsichord wire number ed ¥ in commerce, and suspended to it .a cylinder of copper like gd, Fig. 11. which plunged in the water of. the vessel, and under this cylinder-he fixed. a circular, plane, whose diameter was 103 millimetres (3.975 Eng-- lish inches). When the escillations were finished, and, consequently the force of torsion nothing, the zero of torsion was marked by the aid of an index fixed to the . cylinder. The ‘rod was ‘then made to ‘tur quickly. round through a complete circle, which gave to the wire a complete circle of torsion, and the successive HYDRODYNAMICS. diminution of the oscillations were carefully observed. Fluids ~The diminution for a circle of torsion was a and 10 millimetres broad (0.3937 English inch- es mee Ss wor 03 ~ ternal omar foonished a similar result. e may therefore conclude, spect be compared with the friction of solid bodies, which is always proportional to the - ’ These were twice in the cabi- net of the Institute, in the presence of M. Charles and M. Lassuze. The attention of M. Coulomb was next directed to of the determination of the resistance experienced by cy- linders that moved slowly, and perpendicular to their axes. Whies k cilthier, hovevel weal be 1eaitie’ to trial, ha cylinders were fixed by their middle under the cy g d, so that they formed two horizontal radii, the length of exch ofwhich wes ont +9015 tindhes. The dlaees: ters ofthe cylinders were determined frown their weight. theory im After making the necessary iments with cyli wine eens ene 0.87 adtendares, 11-2 iaillime tres, and 21.1 millimetres, he found, ‘from a compari- poorer ed be joka Red —— : j i to i velocity, which we shall r, Pry different cylinders in the same ratio as the cir- eumference of these cylinders, the ratio of thcit circum- ferences being as 24 to 1, while the values of + were a8 $to1. In order to éxplain this result, Coulomb su eeen deen which immediately touch the linder, take the same velocity as the cylinder ; that the particles a little farther distant take a smaller velo- city ; and that at the distance of about one-tenth of an inch, the a entirely. Hence it is at this last point that the cohesion ceases to have an influence on the resistance. Upon these suppositions, which Coulomb thinks require confirmation, he proposes to augment, by a constant quantity, the circumferences of all the eyli before g them with their re. sistance. This constant quantity to be added to the circumferences, he found to be 9.68 millimetres, or an addition of three millimetres to their diameter ; which shews that the portion of the fluid molecules de- tached from one another by the moving cylinder extends aver Adda pi of 1.5 millimetres from their cir- anion In i tL mem Rie te eager to the square of the , which we R, with quantities in small cylinders are much greater than SgieWrte Sa relainns w'teaie dintennet ten 549° The ang-' Resistance ji 1.77 vf Bluids. millimetres, which is scarcely one-fifth of the former ~~ Yor augmentation. Coulomb explains this difference from ¢oulomb's the theory in the following manner. All the fluid par- experiments ticles, when they are detached from one another, op-~ on the re- pose the same resistance, whatever be the velocity og which they take ; so that as the quantity r nds only # on the cohesion, the resistance due to their cohesion on ge re- j i sistance of will extend — to the point ee of the ilsters. of the quantities R, all the particles are mo nore to i it as it E take this velocity, it follows that the aug- mentation of the diameter in determining the value of ; e roe is ae that of the cylinder, to the point where the ion ren- ders the velocity nothing, ought to follow laws which new observations may soon determine, and which may throw great light upon this interesting branch of phy- sics. In determining by experiment the part of the mo- of resistance proportional to the velocity in two cylinders of the same diameter but of different 1 , Coulomb found that the momentum of resist- ance was rtional to the cubes of their diameters. The same result is obtained from theory ; for supposing each cylinder to be divided into same a of the | of each will be proportional to sider tenet, The ‘velocity of the corresponding parts will be as the same , and also as the dis- tance of these parts from the centre of rotation. The likewise indicates that the part of the momen- tum of resistance depending on the square of the velo- city, in two cylinders of the same diameter, but of dif- ferent lengths, is proportional to the fourth power of the length of the 7 ‘Coulomb now to detetmine'the real ‘resist~ Real resist- ance due to the simple velocity which a cylinder expe- ance of a riences while oscillating ] to itself, and oo eylin- dicular to its axis. When the cylinder 9.803 inches long, ““* and 0.04409 inches in circum , was made to os- cillate with a velocity of 5.512 inches per second, the part of the resistance r was equal to $8 milligrammes, or .8952'troy grains ; and when the velocity was 0.3937 inches per second, the resistance was 0.00414 grammes, or 0.637 troy grains. Hence we may conclude, that the resistance of a cyli of the same diameter, but . metre in , or 39.37 inches, will be about 17 milli ’ The ing iments were repeated in the same oil which was formerly used, and at the same temperature ; and he found as formerly that the cohe- pote oil was to that of — 17 to 1. - oil as preferable to water for determining 7; for in the case of small velocities, the part R disappears al- most entirely. iments Coulomb observed an effect hie rhe ood have anticipated. Although th which he not. have i the cohesion of the vil is 17 times greater than that of wa- ter, yet the augmentation of the diameters of the cylin- ders, which it was necessary to apply. was only $ mil- limetres, the same as for water. He observed also ano- ther curious fact, which is more easily understood, viz. 550 Resistance that the part of the tesistance R is almost the samie in of Fluids. i] as in water; for since this part arises merely from Experi- ments of the Society of Naval Architec- ture, Oscillation of fluids, the inertia of the particles, it ought in’ different fluids to be proportional to their density. Coulomb intended, in a second memoir, to determine numerically the value of the part of the resistance pros portional to the square of the velocity ; and to ascertain the resistance of globes, of pallets, of convex and con< cave surfaces; and also the difference between the re« sistance of a floating body and one entirely submerged; in consequence. of his having found, that in slow mo- tions the submerged body suffered a much less degree of resistance. We have to regret, however, that Cou- lomb did not live to complete these valuable researches. He died on the 3d August 1806, in the 70th year of his age; and left behind him the reputation of being one of the most able and original natural philosophers of the age in which he lived. 5. Account of the Experiments of the Society for the Advancement-of Naval Architecture. WE regret that our limits will only permit us to lay before our readers some of the results of these excellent experiments. ; | The following experiments were made with a sur- face of 40 square feet, moving in its own direction with different velocities. Velocities in Nautical Miles per hour, Friction in Pounds. 0.563 1.992 6.642 12.839 | 19.856 CORD Re HYDRODYNAMICS. When the same body had prows differently ‘inclined, Resist the following results were obtained. of Flu Inclination of the f ' Prows. Friction, : 9? 44" 10" 30.67 a 14 28 40 85.34 ‘ 19 28°15 41.71 30,0 0 51.44 90 0 0O 148.25 ; The Society likewise found, that the diréct resistance varied in a ratio a little greater than that of the square of the velocity, bein rtional:'to V2106, A which has the form of a fish, appeared to move with the least resistance; and soaked lace suffered a greater resistance than those which were not soaked. 6. Comparison of the Results of different Formule and Experiments, _Dr Thomas Young has drawn, up the following va- Com luable Table, containing a comparison of different for- of the mule with the experiments of E telwein, Bossut, and pair? those of the Society for the Aivaiinanientt of Naval mule Architecture. In these formule, a is the angle of experi- inclination, and R the resistance. _ ments, Formula A deduced by Dr Young, is R= cos,? a 4- yo tang. a, Formula B deduced by Dr Young from theory is R= +ré, tang. a +288 cos.2a :360--a°. _ Formula C deduced by Dr Young from iments, is R=cos.?a + .0000004217 a*!8 in which the last term is a little less than the millionth of the cube of the angle of incidence expressed in des ees, Eytelwein’s formula is cos.?a@ + +, versed sin. a. TABLE containing Dr Thomas Young’s Comparison of different Formule and Experiments. — : Experiments Angles of In- ; Eytelwein’s Bossut’s | of the Society clination or | Cos.? a. Tang. a. | Formula A. | Formula B. | Formula C. | Formula. | Experiments.| for Naval values of a. . i Architecture. 0 1.0000 -000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 6 -9890 105 -9995 -9824 -9891 -9950 -9893 12 .9568 912 -9780 9492 -9580 9656 -9578 18 9045 825 +9370 -9022 -9086 -9241 .9084 24 +8346 . 445 8791 -8438 -8449 -8690 8446 : 30 -7500 -577 .8077 -7769 -7710 -8036 -7710 36 6544 -726 -7270 -7049 «6919 7308 6925 42 5523 +900 6423 6317 6135 6551 6148 48 4478 1.111 5589 5606 5414 -5802 25433 54 +3455 1.376. 4831 4985 4816 -5103 .4800 60 +2500 1.732 4232 4407 4403 -4500 4404 B47 66 1654 2.346 -4000 +3924 4231 4026 4240 72 0955 3.078 4033 -3869 A344 .38719 4142 -269 78 0432 4.705 5137 4166 4816 -3600 4063 -222 84 0109 9.514 (.9623) 5875,- 5658 -8693 3999 We have purposely omitted giving any account of the experiments of Hutton, Schober, and Colonel Beaufoy, on the resistance of air, as they do not belong to the present article. CHAP. Vi. . On THE OsciLLaTion or Fiurps, anp THE UNDULA= TION oF WaAvEs, Prop. I. Tue oscillations ofa fluid in a syphon are isochroe nous, and are performed in the same time as those of a pendulum, whose length is equal to half the length of the oscillating columns, Let MNOP, Plate CCCXIX. Fig}? be a syphon, On the consisting of two vertical branches MN, OP, connected cillation, together by a horizontal branch NO, and having the a same internal diameter throughout its whole If cocxn water is poured into the syphon till it stands at AB in fig. 42, one leg, it will stand at CD in the other, ABCD being a horizontal line, Let a piston be now introduced at P, | . HYDRODYNAMICS. 551 cause the water to descend the space ¢ Undulation Fluids. Cg, it wil of comapition in the other branch to the 2 iy P'- : of Waves. A rmang Oo Ae=Cg. Upon withdrawing the — The undulations of waves are ed in the same “Y—" piston, the elevated fluid in MN will descend in order timeas the vibrations of a ulum, whose length Hydraulic : *n — iteaeimiind RS e i HA H ‘ F : f EF i : : | Epi Tce | lf re . Let It is obvious ABCDE represent the section of two waves. dhatithe emi twice, it follows that the waves oscillations in the same time as a ulum, whose length is equal té AC or BD, the breadth of a wave. Hence a wave 334 feet broad, will have a velocity of 35% feet in a second; and a wave 18 inches broad will have a velocity of 26.538 inches per second. ee i & j s i M. La Place, in the of Sciences’ for 1776, has ap~ particularly to rectilineal waves, ws of the motion of fluids, and obtained poe ei nay et ee eee 8 ee ae ob ms em L subject Memoirs for 1786, and y have more recently written upor ne le reader will find a general account of their in the rem ae Hypnopynamics, p. 418, 423. The same subject nas likewise been treated by Dr Thomas Young, with his usual ability, in his Lectures: on Natural Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 63.. = z a ro z Hl , Part Ill. ON HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.. Tas tom HirsaatucMacinwsay, is, in strict propri- to those machines which Machinery , US neeiatte by ase -- teen wheter ie decree 80 as to include machines, by which water is force. animals. as iy power machinery, 4 will be fuliy discussed under wantes, and the im- Fngi er he seperste aril of Susan ogne As ~“ Pump.. CHAP: F. On Water Wueeus. Tue usual method of ing power of machinery, is to # suena ohediantin axis or ns ‘eheannemnd and fire i are pneumatical machines, Hydrauli Pill be under the articles Pwgusatics Machinery. water ea: the mov> wate y it to the circumfe« Wheels: 552 Overshot’ power is conveyed to the other parts of the machine. Wheels. «When the water is introduced into buckets placed round "the circumference of a wheel moving in a vertical-plane, so as to put the wheel in motion merely by its weight ‘in the buckets, the wheel is called an overshot wheel, from the water being introduced over or near the sum- mit of the wheel. When the water, after having ac- quired a considerable velocity by its descent along an inclined plarie, is made to strike plane surfaces, or float- boards, arranged round the wheel’s circumference, so as to put the wheel in motion merely by its impulsive force, it is called an wndershot wheel, from the water being in- troduced at or near the under part of its circumference. “When the water is introduced neither at the upper nor the lower point of the wheel, but at a point between them, so as to fall upon float boards fixed in the wheel’s circumference, and to act both by its weight and by its impulse, it is called a breast wheel. When the water is ‘made to issue from an aperture in the circumference of a wheel in the direction of the tangent, the wheel is said to be driven by the re-action or counter-pressure of the water. We shall now proceed to consider, in se- yparate Sections, the best mode of constructing water «wheels of these four different forms. ‘Sect. I. On the Construction of Overshot Wheels. An overshot wheel of the common kind, is represent- edin Plate CCCXIX. Fig. 15, where ABCD is the Pirate ‘Yim of the wheel, having a number of buckets a,b,c, d, CCCXIX. arranged round its circumference. When the wheel is Fig. 15. in a state of rest upon its axis O, and water is introdu- ced into the bucket ¢ from the horizontal mill course -or canal EF, the weight of the water in the bucket, -acting at the end of a lever equal to m O, puts the wheel in motion in the direction ed. When the su ent bucket 6 comes into the position c, it is also filled with water, and so on with all the rest. When the bucket c reaches the situation of d, its mechanical effect to turn the wheel is increased, being now equal to the weight of water acting at the end of a lever n O, equal to the distance of its centre of gravity d from a vertical line passing through the axis O, so that the -mechanieal effect of the water in the bucket increases all the way to B, and of course diminishes while the buckets are moving from B to C. The buckets, however, between B and C, have not “the same power upon the wheel as those between A and B; for the water begins to fall out of the buckets be- fore they approach to B, and are almost completes ly empty when they reach the point H. The con- struction of the buckets, therefore, as shewn in the Fi- gure, is very improper, as it not only allows the water to escape before it has reached the point B, where its me- chanical effect is.a maximum ; but also to escape com- pletely, long before they have reached the lowest point C of the wheel. The power, therefore, of an overshot ‘wheel must depend principally upon the ferm which is given to the buckets, which should always be fullest when they are at the point B, and should retain the -water as long as possible. If the buckets were to con- sist of a single partition in the direction of the radii of the wheel, all the water would escape from the buckets ‘before they passed the point B on a level. with the axis O. The form of a bucket, which has been r ed as the best, is represented in Fig. 16, by the line DCBAGIKL, where it is represented as composed of three partitions, viz. AB and @ Overshot wheels, Fig. 16, HYDRODYNAMICS. I, called the start or shoulder, which lies ~ 5 in the direction of the radius; BC and: EK, called. the arm, and inclined at an obtuse angle to the radius; and CD, KL, called the wrest, and inclined at an less Plane than 180° tothe arm BC or IK, The depth AG of each coewix bucket is about 1} of GH; AB is 4 of AM; and the Fig. angle ABC is such, that BC and GI prolonged would perce: the same point H. It ends, however, in 3; sothat FC is of GH; and CD is so, that HD is nearly }th of HM. Hence it follows, that the arc FABC is nearly equal to DABC ; so that the quans tity of water FABC will still continue in the bucket when AD is a horizontal line, which happens when AB forms an angle of about 35° with a vertical line. The preceding construction of the buckets is obviously too complicated, and very little additional power is gained by the angle BCD. Hence the general ice is to continue BC to H, and AB is generally only 4d of GH. Such is the general view of the construction of buc- New form kets, which is given by Dr Robison; but we cannot of the bue/ agree with him in thinking that this form is the best. kets It must be obvious, upon the sli t consideration, that the power of the wheel would be a maximum, if the whole of its semi-circumference were loaded with war ter. This effect would be produced, if the buckets had the shape shewn in Fig. 17, where ABC is the form of Fig, 1 the bucket, AB being in the direction of the radius, and BC part of the circumference of the wheel, and nearly equal to AD. This construction is, however, im - cable, as the aperture EC is not large enough either for the admission or the escape of the water, and when the last portion of the water flows out along BC, it would strike against the bottom DE of the bucket im- mediately above it. We must therefore consider what modification this form should receive, in order to give a free passage to the water at EC. This may be effect- ed, by making BC (Fig. 18.) a little larger than BE, and diminishing AB, so as to make the angle ABC a little greater than 90°. In this way an aperture dE will be obtained, of sufficient itude both for the introduction and the discharge of the fluid; and the last yo of water will nolo strike against the bottom d of the upper bucket. en the water is proper!, introduced by the methods afterwards to be descri this construction will be found to give t additional power to the wheel. Hence we see reason why the inclination of DC, in Fig. 16, is adv , as it is an approximation to the preceding construction. The late Mr Robert Burns of Cartside in Renfrewshire, a most ingenious millwright and mechanic, proposed what appeared to be a very oo improvement u form of the buckets in overshot wheels. using a double bucket, as shewn in Fig. 19, where LM isa partition almost concentric with the rim, and placed so as to make the inner and outer portions of the bucket hold equal quantities of water. When these buckets are filled 4d, they retain the whole water at 18° from the bottom of the arch, and they retain 3 of the water at 11°. Another great advantage of this construction eet is, that when there is little water to drive the wheel, it ay may be directed, by a slight adjustment of the iia into the outer bucket, so as to make up, by the addi- tional of lever, for the small quantity of wa- ter which is in use. These advantages, however, are found in practice to be counterbalanced by disadvan- tages which cannot be got the better of. The water is found never to fill the inner buckets, and on this ac- ¢punt we believe Mr Burns did not put the construc- tion in practice. 21. in (ey It has in general been assumed by writers on water Fig, 18, | Fig. that the diameter of overshot wheels should al- _ leas than the height of the pllel mesa by which can be obtained from no other, namely, that by raising the wheel B, and taking out two or three of the buckets, it may be made to work when there is such a quantity of back-water as would otherwise pre- vent it moving. Dr Robison, in tis Dissertation on Water Works, published in the second volume of his of Me-« chanical Philosophy, has described a machine of this kind, in which p or horizontal floatboards, are fixed to a chain. So. se: & Siew gia bre through a tube, a little greater in diameter that of the floats, and the water acting by its pressure upon these floats, as it does in the case of a breast wheel, gives motion to the wheels A and B, The double overshot wheel is the best and the most . economical which can be adopted for a small supply of water falling from a height ; but it is liable to out of order, unless the chain which carries the bucket is made with care and nicety. For farther information on overshot wheels, the read- Reference er is referred to Belidor’s' Architecture Hydraulique, vol. — ii, p. 254. Desagulier’s Course of Experimental Philo- ° ovr" iy, edit. 3d, vol. ii, p. 455. , Mem. Acad. Par. 1754, p. 608, 671. Smeaton On Mills, p. 33. Albert Euler, Comment. Soc. Gotting. 1754. Kestner, Toeweoes Lambert, Mem. Acad. Berl. 1755. Borda, Mem. Acad. Par. 1767, p. 286. Bossut, Traité 556 HYDRODYNAMICS. Overshot d’ Hydrodynamique, edit. 1796, tom. i. . xvii. p. course, That no water may’escape between the bots Undershe Wheels. 588; and tom. ii. chap. xviii. p.425. Fenwick’s Four tom of the course KH and the extremities of ‘the float- _ Wheels. Essays on Practical Mechanics. Robison, System of boards, KL should be about three inches, and the ex- Consttial Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii; and Ferguson’s Lec- tremity o of the floatboard no should be beneath the Sion Pr ures on Mechanics, &c. vol. ii, Appendix. line HKX, sufficient room being left between o and M mill for the play of the wheel, or KLM may be formed into Piatx the ofa circle KM concentric with the wheel, ©CC*%. Scr. If. On Undershot Water Wheels. He: LR Up te Oe The line LMV, called by M. Fabre, the course of im: F'S * Undershot wheels. PLATE CCCXX, Fig. 7. Construe- tion of the mill-course, Fig. 8. \ wheel from an inclined canal. ‘H. For this purpose make An undershot water wheel is a wheel with a number of floatboards, or plane surfaces arranged round its cir- ‘cumference for the purpose of receiving the impulse of the water, which is conveyed to the under part of the A wheel of this kind of the ordinary construction, is shewn in Plate CCCXX. Fig. 7. where AB is the wheel with 24 floatboards, cd a floatboard receiving the impulse of the water, which moves with great velocity in consequence of having fallen. from a considerable height down the inclined mill course MN. The principal points to be attended to in the construction of undershot wheels, are the con- struction of the mill course, the number, form, and po- sition of the floatboards, and the velocity of the wheel in relation to. that of the water when the effect is a maximum. | The following rales for the construction of mill courses are given im the Appendix to Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. / * As it is of the highest importance to have the height of the fall as t as possible, the bottom of the canal, or dam, which conducts the water from the river, should have a very small declivity} for the height of the water-fall will diminish in proportion as the declivity of the canal is increased. On this ac- count, it will be sufficient to make AB slope about one inch in 200 yards, taking care to make the declivity about half an inch for the first 48 yards, in order that the water may have a velocity sufficient to prevent it from flowing back into the river. The inclination of the fall, represented by the angle GCR, should be 25° 50’; or CR, the radius, should be to GR, the tan- gent of this angle, as 100 to 48, or as 25to 12; and since the surface of the water Sé is bent from a@é into ac, before it is precipitated down the fall, it will be necessary to incurvate the upper part BCD of the course into BD, that the water at the bottom may move parallel to the water at the top of the stream. For this purpose, take the points B, D, about 12 inches distant from C, and raise the perpendiculars BE, DE: the point of intersection E will be the centre from which the arch BD is to be described; the radius being about 10% inches, Now, in order that the water may act more advantageously upon the floatboards of the wheel WW, it must assume a horizontal direction HK, with the same velocity which it would have acquired when it came to the point G: But, in falling from C to G, the water will dash upon the horizontal part HG, and thus lose a great part of its velocity ; it will be proper, tained, that the greatest ible number of floatboards therefore, to make it move along FH an arch of acircle, should be’ used, provided the wheel is not too much to which DF and KH are tangents in the points F and loaded by them. el F and GH each equal to pulsion (le coursier d’impulsion) should be prolonged, 8o as to support the water as long as it can act upon the floatboards, and’ should be about 9 inches distant from OP, a horizontal line passing thr O, the lowest point of the fall ; for if OL were much less than 9 inches, the water havi t the ter of its foree in impelling the floatboards, wena mms below the wheel and retard its motion. For the same reason, another course, which is called by M. Fabre, the course of mero (le coursier de decharge) should be connected with LMV_ by the curve VN, to preserve remaining velocit, ens water, which would otherwise be destroyed by falling perpendicularly from Vto N. The course of rot is r peek by VZ, sloping from the point O. It should be about 16 yards long, having an inch of declivity in every two ryards. The canal which reconducts the water from the course of discharge to the river, should slope about 4 inches in the first 200 yards, 3 inches in the second 200 yards, decreasing ly till-it terminates in the river. But if the river to which the water is con- veyed, should, when swollen by the rains, force the water back upon the wheel, the canal must have a greater declivity, in order to prevent this from taking rr Hence it will be evident, that very accurate evelling is necessary for the proper formation of the mill course,’’ The general ideas contained in the Larne ean “by ‘structions appear to have been first Buat, and afterwards fully:explained by M. Fabre: in his Traité sur les Machines oi meee ‘The diameters of ‘undershot wheels must in general be accommodated to the ro of the machinery which they are to put in motion. If a great velocity is necessary, the wheel thould for this puipeul be made of a less diameter than would otherwise be advisable; but if a great velocity is not required, the diameter of the wheel rap oo to be considerable. ‘ . Pitot, one of the earliest writers who attended to Number this subject, recommended that the number of float- floatbo boards should be equal to 360° divided by the arch of the circle plunged in the canal, and that their depth should be equal to the versed sine of that arch. The slightest consideration, however, is sufficient to con< vince us that the number of floatboards obtained by this rule is greatly too small. M. Du Petit Vandin, and afterwards M. Fabre, have, on the other hand, main 2B three feet, and raise the perpendiculars HI, Fl, which will intersect one another in the point I distant about 4 feet 9 inches and 4ths from the points F, and H, and the centre of the arch FH will be determined, The distance HK, through which the water runs be- fore it acts upon the wheel, should not be less than two or three feet, in order that the different portions of the fluid may haye obtained a horizontal! direction: and if HK be much larger, the velocity of the stream would be diminished by its friction on the bottom of the ng adapted thereto of such a length that one float entered the curve-before the preceding as ex. ments of Bossut with the no more than 254 turns velocity of the water in the canal, 04 feet in 50, was 300 feet in have a different number of the number, M. Bossut used a different wheel, in which the floatboards were so that he could set them at any inclination to the radius, and employ any number pleasure. The exterior diameter was 3 feet, of the floatboards 5 inches, and their height This wheel was made to move im a current 2 to 13 feet wide, and in a depth of water of i The floatboards were plunged four in the water, so that the circumstances were the in an i When 2% floatboards were load of 40 pounds was raised with a velocity of i ; whereas when 12 floatboards ity with which the same load was was only 13}{ turns in the same time. When 48 floatboards were put on, 24 pounds were raised, with a velocity of 2714 turns in a minute ; and 24 floatboards raised the weight with a velocity of 27,7, the difference ef one ram” Hence 24 floatboards at least be in cases of this kind. A smaller num- arch of the wheel & ; at 8s i them, and act by its weight as This opinion has been amply confirmed by the experi- tinaation of the radius, a weight of 34 pounds was rais- ed with a velocity of 204 turns in 40 seconds. When their inclination was 8°, same load was raised with a velocity of 1934 in 40 seconds. When the inclination was 12°, the ity was 1942 in 40” ; and when the inclination was 16”, the velocity was 2034 turns in 40 se- conds, nearly the same, but still a little less than when the floatboards were a continuation of the radius. Hence it follows, that a wheel placed upon canals which have ee ety ‘escape easily impulse, floatboards ought to be a continuation of the radius. ¢ 5 HYDRODYNAMICS. 557 . The same wheel being placed in the current already mentioned, viz. from 12 to 1S feet wide, and from 7 to 8 inches deep, floatboards which were a continuation of the radius, raised 40 pounds with a velocity of 1843 turns in 40 seconds. With those inclined 1 5°, the num- ber of turns in the same time was 143; with those in- clined 30°, the number was 1433; and with those in- clined 87°, the number was 1433. Hence it follows, that the most advantageous obliquity is, in this case, about 15 or 30 degrees. The difference of effect, how- ever, to be very trifling, particularly beyond 15°. M. Fabre is of opinion, that when the velocity of the stream is 11 feet per second or greater, the inclination should never be less than $0° ; that, as the velocity di- minishes, the number of floatboards should diminish in pote oe of and that when the velocity is 4 feet or un- ler, the floatboards shouldbe a continuation of the radius. The experiment of inclining the floatboards a little in the opposite direction, has not been tried by any of the authors whom we have quoted, but we think it worth trying, as it might increase the effect, by allowing the water to escape more readily from below the float- Undershot heels. —_—— In order to determine the ratio between the velocity On the pro- of the wheel and that of the water which drives it, Pa- per velocity rent and Pitot considered only the action of the fluid up- of under- on one floatboard, and consequently they made the force of impulsion proporti to the square of the relative velocity, or to the of the difference between the velocity of the stream and that ofthe floatboard. Desa- liers, Maclaurin, Lambert, Atwood, Du Buat, and Robison, have gone u the same principle, and have therefore fallen into the same error, of soaking the velocity of the wheel } of the velocity of the current when the effect is a maximum. The Chevalier de Borda, whose valuable Memoirs haye been too much overlooked by later writers, has however, correct- ed this errror. He has shewn, that the supposi- tion is perfectly correct when the water impels a single floatboard; for as the number of particles which strike the floatboard in a given time, and also the momentum of these, are each as the relative ve- locity of the floatboards, the momentum must be as the square of the relative velocity, that is, M = R*, M being the momentum, and R the relative velocity. But as the water acts on more than one floatboard at once, the number acted upon in a given time. will.be.as the velocity of the wheel, or inversely as the relative velo- city ; for if we increase the relative velocity, the velo- city of the water remaining the same, we nuist dimi- nish the velocity of the wheel. Consequently, we shall have M = for M =R;; that is, the momentum of the = acting upon the wheel, varies as the relative ve- oeity. Now, let V be the velocity of the stream, F the force with which it would strike the floatboard at rest, aux » the velocity of the wheel. Then the relative ve- locity will be V — v ; and since the velocity of the wa- ter will be to its momentum, or the force with which it would strike the floatboard at rest, as the relative ve- locity isto the real foree which the water exerts against the moving floatboards, we shall have V: V—v— F:Fx he oxV—». But the effect of the wheel is measured by the product of the momentum of the water and the ity of the wheel, consequently the effect of the undershot wheel will be shot wheels. 558 Undershot \ Te Wheels. vx vx V—v= 7 xV—e%, Now this effect is to be a maximum, and therefore its differential must be equal to 0, that is, v being the va- riable quantity, Vdvu —2udvu=0, or2udv =Vdv. Dividing by dv, we have 2v=V, and y= nfs that is, the velocity of the wheel will be one-half the velo- city of the fluid when the effect is a maximum. This has been amply confirmed by the experiments of Mr Smeaton. “The velocity of the stream (says he, p. 77,) varies at the maximum between one-third and one-half that of the water; but in all the cases in which most work is performed in proportion to the wa- ter expended, and which approa e nearest to the circumstances of great works, when properly execut- ed, the maximum lies much nearer to one-half than one-third, one half seeming to be the true maximum, if nothing were lost by the resistance of the air, the scatter- ing of the water carried up by the wheel, &c. all which tend to diminish the effect more at what would be the maximum if these did not take place than they do when the motion is a little slower.” Smeaton con- siders 5 to 2 as the best general proportion. A result, nearly similar to this, was deduced from e experiments of Bossut. He employed a wheel whose diameter was three feet. The number of float- boards was at one time 48, and at another 24, their width being five inches, and their depth six. The ri- ments with the wheel, when it had 48 floatboards, were made in the inclined canal, in which the velocit was 300 feet in 27 seconds. The experiments with the wheel, when it had 24 floatboards, were made in a canal, contained between two vertical walls, 12 or 13 feet distant. The depth of the water was about seven or eight inches, and its mean velocity about 2740 inches in 40 seconds. The floatboards of the wheel were im- mersed about four inches in the stream. Smeaton’s experi- ments. Bossut’s ex- periments. 4}, INumber of Time in Number of which | Weight |turns made} Weight /turns made theweight| raised. by the raised. by the is raised. wheel. wheel. Seconds. 48 Floatboards, 24 Floatboards. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 40 303 :F 30 1733 40 $1 22.4 35 162 40 313 2133 40 154 40 32 2132 45 1435 40 823 2132 50 1334 40 33 : 213 55 1232 40 | 333 | 208% | 56 | 1938 40 34 2032 57 1232 40 344 2054 58 1234 40 35 1944 59 1275 40 354 | 1935 60 114¢ 40 36 1 B3t 61 1139 40 62 1132 63 lL, 64 | 108s 65 1035 66 | 108 As the effect of the machine is measured by the pro« duct of the load raised, and the time employed, it will HYDRODYNAMICS. appear, by multiplying the second and third columns, Under: the effect was a maximum when the load was Wheels, pounds, the wheel performing 20}; revolutions in 40 : seconds, By comparing the velocity of the centre of . ~ impression computed from the diameter of the wheel, the number of turns which it makes in 40 seconds, with the velocity of the current, it will be found that the velocity of the wheel, when its effect is the great« est possible, is nearly two-fifths that of the stream; the very same ratio which Smeaton has given. From the two last columns of the Table, where the effect isa maximum when the load is 60 pounds, the same con- clusion may be deduced. The following are the other results which Mr Smeae gyeaton’g. ton deduced from his experiments. He found, that in results, undershot wheels, the power employed to turn the wheel is to the effect produced as 3 to 1; and that the load which the wheel will carry at its maximum, is to the load which will totally stop it as 3 to 4. The same experiments inform us, that the impulse of the water on the wheel, in the case of a maximum, is more than double of what is assigned by theory, that is, instead of four-sevenths of the column, it is nearly equal to the whole column. In order to account for this, Mr Smea- ton observes, that the wheel was not, in this case, plae ced in an open river, where the natural current, after it had communicated its impulse to the float, has room on all sides to escape, as the theory supposes; but in a conduit or race, to which the float being adapted, the water could not otherwise escape than by moving along with the wheel. He likewise remarks, that when a wheel works in this manner, the water, as soon as it meets the float, receives a sudden check, and rises up against it like a wave against a fixed object ; insomuch, that when the sheet of water is not a quarter of an inch thick before it meets the float, yet this sheet will act upon the whole surface of a float, whose height is three inches. Were the float, therefore, no higher than the thickness of the sheet of water, as the theory supposes, a great part of the force would be lost by the water dashing over it. Mr Smeaton likewise deduced, from his experiments, the following maxims. 1. That the virtual or effective head being the same, gmeaton’s the effect will be nearly as the quantity of water eX- maxims ended. ' . 2. That the expense of water being the same, the effect wil] be nearly as the height of virtual or ef« the fective head. 3. That the quantity of water expended being same, the effect is nearly as the square of the velocity. 4, That the aperture being the same, the effect will } be nearly as the cube of the velocity of the water. . Undershot Wheel moving at Right Angles to the Stream. i Undershot wheels have sometimes been constructed yng like windmills, having large inclined floatboards, and wheel at being driven in a plane dicular to the direction right of the current. Albert Euler, who has examined theos t° the retically this species of water wheel, concludes that the effect will be twice as tas in common under« shot wheels, and that in order to produce this effect, the j velocity of the wheel, computed from the centre of im-« } pression, should be to the velocity of the water as ra« : | dius is to thrice the sine of the inclination of the float~ boards to the plane of the wheel. When the inclina« tion is 60°, the ratio will be as 5 to 13 nearly, and when it is 30°, it will be nearly as 2 to 3. In this kind of wheel, a considerable advan may also be gained by inclining the floatboards to the radius, In this case, ought to be much greater section of the current, and before one float- leaves the current, the other ought to have fairl entered it. This construction may be employed wi advantage in deep rivers that have but a small velocity. _ Besant's Undershot Wheel. ee er area constructed in the form a hollow drum, to resist the admission of water ; but its principal peculiarity con- a floatboards in pairs on the periphery of the wheel. Each floatboard is set obliquely to the plane of the wheel's motion, and the ing floatboard is inclined at the same angle, but in an opposite direction, the plane of the wheel bi- secting tig hee sry the two floatboards. The acute angle w teeth -@ correla responding one is open at the vertex ; but one of the floatboards extends beyond the other. By this construc- tion, the resistance the tail water is diminished ; but so far as we know, the machine has never come | the nature of the work to be performed, without lessenin the maximum effect, which cannot be duit ia, vation wheels where a determinate velocity is n produce the possible effect. See Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. fh A i In the of France, the float- southern departments boards are made of a curvilineal form, so as to present a concave surface to the stream. This construction is shewn in 10, 11, where AB is the wheel, CD the vertical and m, mn the concave floatboards. The Chevalier Borda remarks, that in theory a double effect a omy floatboards Leyes this gall om advan’ not so great ice, e tee nt lente difficulty of making the fluid enter nde the og ina manner. They , however, to be de- i i to those fa which the Soathoards are plane, as the water acts by its weight as well as by its HYDRODYNAMICS. 559 impulsive force. The ratio of the effects in the two Horizontal cases, with five or six feet of fall, is nearly as 3 to 2. An EF, are made to open and shut, as shewn by the dotted lines. When the tide moves in the direction OE, the part GO shuts into the position GH, and admits the water the wheel ; but when the tide returns, GH assumes the position GO, and EF shuts into the dotted position E f, and admits the water to the wheel. The axis EF, Fig. 12, stands vertically, and has the vanes m, n fitted upon it like those of 2 smoke jack. The wa- ter enters at O, and at F f when the tide returns, de- scends in the direction of the arrows, acts by its im- a ore PRS we SBR Ther a9 lp ter turning the wheel about its.vertical axis EF, escapes at the aperture P, or P’ when the tide returns. Wheels with Spiral Floatboards. In some of the southern provinces of France a coni- Wheels cal horizontal wheel with spiral floatboards is frequent- With spiral ly used. It has the form of an inverted cone, arth a Homtbourds number of spiral floatboards windi so as to be nearer one another at round its surface, smaller or lower the water has acted upon these by its im- pulse, it descends the spirals, and continues to drive the machine by its weight. A of this ma- boards, which was moved by a screw. “ It was,” he says, * a long cylindrical frame, having a plate stand- ing out from it about a foot broad, and surrounding it with a ys ears m9 like a cork screw. This was plunged }th of its diameter (which was about 12 feet), having its axis in the direction of the stream. By the work which it was performing, it seemed more powerful than a common wheel, which occupied the same breadth of the river.” For farther information on the subject of undershot Deane _ Pitot, Mem. wr Par. 1729, 8vo. p. 359 ; ier’s Experimental Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 424; Du Petit Vandin, Mem. des Scavans Ei ers, at i. ; Deparcieux, Mem. Acad. 1754, p. 614; Fabre Sur les Machines meee p- 55; t's Traile D' Hy- drodynamique, vol. 1. chap. xiv. xv. p. 482 ; vol. ii. chap. xviii. edit. 1796 ; Maclaurin’s Flurions, § 907, p. 728 ; Lambert, Nouv. Mem. de ? Acad. Berlin, 1775, p. 68 ; Smeaton’s 7 on Mills; Borda, Mem. Acad, Par. ; Leopold's Theatrum Machin. General, ; Reperto- ry of Arts, vol. i. p. 385 ; Ferguson's Lectures, vol. ii. pp.; and Dr Robison’s System of Mech. Philosophy. Secr. LL. On Breast Wheels. A breast water wheel is a wheel in which the water is delivered at a point intermediate between the upper and under point of a wheel with floatboards, It is ge- nerally delivered at a point below the level of the axis, as in Fig. 1, but sometimes at a point higher than the level of the axis, as in Fig. 2, On breast Breas! wheels, Reference to works oa undershot wheels, 560 Breast wheels, buckets are never employed, but the floatboards Wheels. are fitted accurately, with as little play as possible, to whose the mill course, so that the water, after acting upon cccxxt, the floatboards by its impulse, is retained between the Figs. 1, 2. floatboards and the mill-course, and acts by its weight till it reaches the lowest part of the wheel. A breast wheel, as constructed by Mr Smeaton, is —— in Fig. 1, where AB is a portion of the wheel, MN the canal which conveys the water to the wheel, MOP the curvilineal mill course accurately fitted to the extremities of the floatboards, and cd the shuttle moved by a pinion a, for the purpose of regu- lating the admission of water upon the wheel. An improved breast wheel is shewn in Fig. 2. The water is alivered on the wheel through an iron gra- ting a6, and its admission is regulated by two shuttles e, d, the lowermost of which, d, is adjusted till a suffi- cient quantity of water passes over it; while the other, ce, which is generally moved by machinery, is.made to descend upon d, so as to stop the wheel. According to Mr Smeaton, “ the effect of a breast wheel is to the effect of an undershot wheel, whose head of water is equal to the difference of level between the surface of water in the reservoir, and the part where it strikes the wheel, added to that of an overshot whose height is equal to the difference of level between the part where it strikes the wheel, and the ‘level of the tail water. M. Lambert observes, that when the fall of water is between 4 and 10 feet, a breast water wheel should be erected, provided there is enough of water ; that an un- dershot wheel should be used when the fall is below 4 feet, and an overshot wheel when the fall exceeds 10 feet. He recommends also that when the fall exceeds 10 feet, it should be divided into two, and two breast wheels erected upon it. These rules are not of great value. The other results of Lambert’s investigation, will be found either in his Memoir, or in Ferguson’s Leciures, Appendix, vol. ii. Comparative effects of Water Wheels. M. Belidor very strangely maintained that overshot wheels were inferior to undershot ones. It appears, however, from Smeaton’s experiments, that in overshot wheels the ratio. of the power to the effect is nearly as 3 to 2, or as 5 to 4, whereas in undershot wheels the ratio is only as 3 to 1; from which it follows, that the effect of overshot wheels is nearly double of the effect of un- dershot wheels. The.Chevalier.de Borda has concluded that overshot wheels will raise through the height of the fall a quantity of water equal to that by which they are driven ; that undershot wheels moving vertically will produce iths of this effect ; that horizontal wheels will produce alittle less than £ of it when the floatboards are plain, and a little more than 3 when they are curvilineal. Smeaton’s breast- wheel, Tmproved breast- wheel. Effect of breast- wheels. Comparison of water wheels. ‘Sect. LV. On Wheels Driven by the Reaction or Coun- terpressure of Water. Dr Barker’s 4 ‘The first mills which were driven by the reaction of muL water were called Barker’s mill, and sometimes Parent’s mill. We are not acquainted with the nature of M. Parent’s claim to the invention ; nor can we determine whether the priority is due te him or to Dr Barker. Dr Desaguliers, who seems to have been the first per- -son who published an account of the machine, describes it as having been invented by Dr Barker. “ Sir George Savile says, he had a mill in Lincolnshire to grind corn, which took up so much water to work it, that it sunk HYDRODYNAMICS. his ponds visibly, for which reason he could not have Ww constant work ; but now, by Dr Barker’s improvement, Wheels. the waste water only from Sir George’s ponds keeps it “"Y¥ constantly to work.” Bt Dr Barker’s mill is shewn in Fig. 3. where CD is a Pirate — vertical axis, moving on a pivot at D, and carrying the CCC upper millstone m, after passing through an opening Fi-3 in the fixed millstone C. Upon this axis is fixed a vertical tube TT communicating with a horizontal tube AB, at the extremities of which A, B are two apertures in opposite directions. When water from the mill- course MN is introduced into the tube TT, it flows out of the apertures A, B, and by the reaction or coun; terpressure of the issuing water the arm AB, and conse- quently the whole machine, is put in motion. The bridge- tree a 4 is elevated or depressed by turning the nut ¢ at the end of the lever c 4. In order to understand how this motion is produced, let us suppose both the res shut, and the tube TT filled with water up to T. The apertures A, B which are shut up, will be pressed out- wards by a force equal to the weight of a column of wa- ter whose height is IT, and whose area is the area of the apertures. Every part of the tube AB sustains a similar pressure ; but as these pressures are balanced by equal and opposite pressures, the arm AB is at rest. By opening the aperture at A, however, the pressure at that place is removed, and consequently the arm is 7 carried round by a pressure equal to that of acolumn.~ TT, acting upon an area equal to that of the aperture A. The same thing happens on the arm TB; and these two pressures drive the arm AB round in the same direction. This machine may evidently be applied to drive any kind of machinery, by fixing a wheel upon the vertical axis CD. , In the preceding form of Barker’s mill, the length Improve of the axis CD must always exceed the height of the ™*nto fall ND, and therefore when the fall is very high, the iT" difficulty of erecting such a machine would be great. athon de In order to remove this difficulty, M. Mathon de la Cour 1a Cour. proposes to introduce the water from the millcourse, into the horizontal arms A, B, which are fixed to an upright spindle CT, but without any tube TT. The water will obviously issue from the apertures A,B,in the same manner as if it had been introduced at the to _ of a tube TT as high as the fall. Hence the spin { CD may be made as short as we please. The practi- cal difficulty which attends this form of the machine, is to give the arms A, B a motion round the mouth of the feeding pipe, which enters the arm at D, without an at friction, or any considerable loss of water. This form of the mill is shewn in Plate CCCXXI. Fig. 4. where F is the reservoir, K the millstones, KD Fig. 4 — the vertical axis, FEC the feeding pipe, the mouth of which enters the horizontal arm at C. In a ma- chine of this kind which M. Mathon de la Cour saw at Bourg Argental, AB was 92 inches, and its diameter three inches ; the diameter of each orifice was 1% inch, FG was 21 feet; the internal diameter of D was two inches, and it was fitted into C by grinding. This ma- chine made 115 turns in a minute when it was unload-. ed, and emitted water by one hole only. The machine, when empty, weighed 80 pounds, and it was half sup- ported by the upward pressure ofthe water. This im- . tee which was published in Rozier’s Journal de : f hysique for January and August 1775, appeared about 20 years afterwards as a new invention Miata in the Transactions of the American Philosophical So- ‘ ciety of Philadelphia, who was ; not aware of the Ja ars of M. Mathon de Ia ; ; a HYDRODYNAMICS. 561 Water In the year 1747, Professor of Gottingen Jan. and Aug. 1775; Krafft, Nov. Comment. Petropol. _Sluict _- Wheels published, in his Ezercitationes Hi iew, an account 1792, vol. x. p. 137 ; Robison’s System of Mechanical Governor. of a machine which differs only in form from Dr Bar- Philosophy, Bossut’s Hydrodynamique, tom. i. chap. xviii; ker’s mill. It consisted of a number of tubes arranged Ferguson's Lectures, vol. il. p. 97, and Appendix, p, machine as it were in the circumference of a truncated cone; 205; Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 106. by Profes- the water was introduced into the upper ends of these sor Segner- tubes, and flowing out at the lower ends, produced, in virtue of its reaction, a motion round the axis of the cone. Secr. V. On Machines for Raising Water, and various Hydraulic purposes. Pome poaines Gaete aftiinneenine Sees ed by ym to Albert Euler. He proposes to introduce water 1. Description of a Sluice Governor regulating the machine by from the mill course into an annular cavity ina fixed — Jntroduction of Wi Wat eas kends ag vessel of the nearly of a pe eg The bot- x pod wl hat ihe r “tom of this vessel has several inclined apertures for Ass thereis.a particular velocity at which water wheels Sluice ge. the of making the water flow out with a pro- uce a maximum effect, as the work to be per- Vernet. obliquity into the inferior and moveable vessel. formed is often injured by an irregularity in the velocity of a cone, moves about an axis passing up the centre of the fixed vessel, and has a variety of tubes arranged round its cirumference. These tubes do not reach to the very top of the vessel, and are bent into right angles at their lowerends. The water from of the machinery, it is o' tt importance to late thdiedealhoieivel dheweatesenen to ae panies of velocity when there is too much water in the mill- course. In corn mills, the meal becomes heated and injured by too great a velocity, and in cotton mills, the threads are broken from the same cause. The machine for this , which is minutely re- Plate in Plate CCCXXI. Figures 5, 6,7, and 8, CCCXXL was actually constructed by the late Mr Burns for: Cart- = 5, 6, side cotton mill, who considered it of such advantage as "’ “* the os in aren vessel being delivered into the tubes of the lower vessel, descends in the tubes, and is- ing from their horizontal extremities, gives motion to the conical drum by its reaction. The excellence of this method of ing the re- action of water, was first slightly poi out by Dr Desaguliers, and no further notice seems to have been taken of the invention till the appearance of 'sma- chine in 1747. The attention of Leonhard Euler, John Bernoulli, and Albert Euler, was then directed to the ing water as a moving power. sablched ie theney of thie Setchtns in the Memoirs of in Academy, vol. vi. p. 311; and the application of the machine to all cere ep aN era a subsequent paper in seventh volume same work, for 1752, p. 271. John Bernoulli's investiga. tions will be found at the end of his Hydraulics. Albert Euler concluded, that when i the form given to it b , the effect was equal to pnp gem yar gm ome arene chen the FEE 5 & FF : & 3 4 EF | 3 H i c FF ‘itl i : i & e i Desagu , Vol. ii, p. 453; 4 » ing. 1747; L. Euler, Mem. Acad. Berl 1751, vol. vi. i. VOL, XI. PART 11. to produce a saving of more than £100 annum. The motion gf the water wheel is communicated: by a belt or rope going round the pulley I to the axis EF, which carries the balls G, H, Fig. 5. This motion is conveyed to the upright shaft T by the wheels and pi- nions Q, R, S, T’, and the wheel N at the bottom of shaft drives the wheels O, P, Fig. 6 and 7, in i directions. When the velocity of the wheel is such as is required, the wheels O, P move loosely about the axis, and : agnor eA career eo a the velo- ity o! w is too t, the balls G, H, separated was increase of centrifugal force, raise the box au shaft EF. An iron cross 4c, see Fig. 8, is fitted into the box’a. This cross works in the four prongs of the fork ¢ b c, Fig. 6, at the end of the lever U ¢ f'¢; which moves horizontally round f as its centre of motion. When the box a is stationary, which is when the wheel has its velocity, the iron cross works within two of the prongs so as not to affect the lever df ¢, but to allow the clutch q q, fixed at the end of the lever, to be di from the wheels. When the cross 4 crises, it strikes in turning round the ig 3, see Fig. 8. which drives aside the lever ¢ fd, and throws the clutch q into the arms of the wheel P, Figs. 6,7. This causes it to drive round the shaft DC in one direction. When the iron cross 4c, on the contrary, is depressed by any diminution in the velocity of the wheel, it strikes, in turning round, the prong 4, which pushes aside the lever e fd, and throws clutch ¢ into the wheel O. This causes the wheel O to drive the shaft in an opposite direction to that in which it was driven by P. Now the shaft DC, which is thus put in motion, drives, by means of the pinion C and wheel B, the inclined shaft BW, which, by an endless screw X working in the tooth- ed quadrant Z, elevates or depresses the sluice KL, and admits a greater or a less quantity of water, according as the motion is given to the shaft by the wheel P or O. This change in the ure is pro- duced very gradually, as the train of wheelwork is made so as to reduce the motion at the sluice. - The centre in which the sluice turns should be } of its height from the bottom, in order that the pressure of the water on the part above the centre may balance the pressure on the part ee the centre. 8 Archime- des’s Screw. Archime- des’s screw. PLATE CCCXXIL Fig. 1, Weter screw. 562 2. Description of Archimedes’s Screw. The screw engine for raising water invented by Ar- chimedes, was formerly constructed so as to consist of a cylinder with a flexible pipe, wrapped round its cir- cumference like a screw ; but it is now more frequently constructed in the manner shewn in Plate CCCXXII. Fig. 1. where AB is a cylindrical axis, having a flat plate of wood or thin iron, coiled as it were round it like the threads of a screw. The plane of this plate is pendicular to the surface of the cylindrical axis AB, But inclined to this axis at an angle, which must always exceed the inclination of the cylindrical axis AB to the horizon. This last angle is commonly between 45° and 60°. This wooden screw, with a very deep thread, is fix- ed in a cylindrical box CDEF, so that we have a spiral hollow groove as it were running up the tube from B to A, which will have the same effect as if a pipe of lead or leather had been coiled round the cylindrical axis. The lower end B of the screw is plunged in the wa- ter of the vessel E, which is to be raised to the upper vessel F, and when the screw is turned round its axis, either by a handle or winch placed at A, or by any other power acting upon the pinion at A, the water at E will fall into the hollow spiral groove, and as the screw turns round, the water will necessarily remain in the lower part of the spiral, and will at last reach the top of the spiral pipe, where it is discharged as seen at F. In this engine, therefore, the water rises by a constant descent in the spiral tube. The operation of this en- gine, which appears at first sight to be paradoxical, will be best understood by wrapping a cord spirally round a bottle containing a little water, and inclining the bot- tle at a less angle to the horizon than the inclination of the cord to the axis. It will then be seen, that if wa- ter falls into the lowest part of the spiral when it is at rest, the motion of the bottle about its axis will remove as it were the spiral out from below the water, which must therefore occupy the part of the spiral immediate- ly above it, and so on till the water reaches the top of it. When the outer case CDEF is fixed, and the screw revolves within it, the engine is called a waler screw, which should be inclined only about 30° to the horizon. As we conceive this engine to be entitled to more notice than it has generally received from practical me- chanics, we have given a drawing of a very excellent screw engine, which was erected in 1816 at the Hurlet Alum works, upon the Water of Levern, near Paisley ; for which we have been indebted to the kindness of John Wilson, Esq. one of the proprietors. The wa- ter-wheel A, constructed of iron, with wooden buckets, (see Plate CCCXXII. Fig. 2.) is 12 feet diameter, and conveys its motion to the screw by the bevel wheels C, C, and the shafts B, B, 126 feet long, and 54 inches diameter. At the end of the shaft B is fixed another bevel wheel D, which works in a similar wheel D’, fixed on the circumference of the screw which rests upon an inclined plane of solid masonry, and is inclined 37° 30’ to the horizon. The axis KK of the screw, which is Yepresented without its covering in Fig. 2. No. 2. is oc- tagonal, and 8 inches in diameter. The diameter of the spiral is 22 inches, and the thickness of the covering 2 inches, so that the whole diameter is 26 inches. The distance of the threads is 9 inches, and their num- ber 168. The thickness of the spiral is 2 inches, so that the spiral tube in which the uid is to be raised is 7 inches wide, and 7 inches deep. The screw is sup- ported on five sets of friction rollers, constructed as shewn at L in No. 3; two rollers having been found 3. HYDRODYNAMICS. preferable to a greater number, which were at first em- Archime- ployed. The well or stone cistern in which the foot ¢es’s Screw. of the screw is immersed, and from which the alum liquors are raised, is shewn at O; and at M there is an ingenious contrivance for supplying the pivot regularly with oil. The foot of the screw N is sup rted by a step of bell metal, inserted into a piece of wood, the t for which is of cast iron wedged in the foot of the screw, and well lapped in woollen cloth dipped in rosin and tallow, to prevent the liquor from acting upon it. The fall of water which drives the wheel is 9 feet, and the water strikes the wheel 3 feet above the hori- zontal axle ; the width of the mill course is 44 feet, the depth of water 14 inches, and the aperture of the sluice 24 inches. The water wheel revolves 12 times in a minute, and the screw performs two revolutions for one of the wheel, and consequently 24 revolutions ina minute. The quantity of liquor discharged is 70 wine gallons; but as the specific gravity of the fluid raised is 1.065, the weight of the quantity discharged in an hour is 17 tons. The pump is wholly built of tim- ber, as the alum liquor acts upon the iron. — Its total length is 127 feet, and the height to which the liquor is raised is = sin. 37° 30’ x 127 feet = 76 feet 9 inches. The water wheel, besides driving the screw, moves two pumps for lifting liquor to the height of 30 feet. The pumps make each 24 strokes for one turn of the wheel, and the bore is 54 inches in diameter. A very ingenious double screw engine has recently Pattu’s been invented by M. Pattu, engineer of roads and brid- double ges in the PTA of Calvados. in section in Fig. 3, and consists of two o: concentric screws, one of which, AB, is lon row, and serves for the nucleus of the other, € is much wider and shorter. These two screws turn round the axis in opposite directions, so that when one of them appears to be moving upwards, the other ap- pears to be moving downwards, The screw is inclined 35° to the horizon. The water from the stream MN is introduced into the larger screw, and puts the whole in motion, and the water, after its fall into OP, enters the smaller screw, in which it is raised to the cistern at B. When it is used for draining, and when the movin power of the water can be applied at A, the sm screw serves to drive the larger one, which raises the water to a height sufficient to carry it off, as shewn in Fig. 4. Figures 5 and 6, shew other modes of applying and nar- this screw. Fig. 5 is the form used for raising water § to irrigate high grounds, to fill the reservoirs of baths, gardens, and manufactories. The large screw is here the moving power. Fig. 6 is the form used for keep- ing dry those places where foundations are building. The large screw is here the mover. M., Eytelwein has shewn that the screw should al- ways be placed so that only one half of a convolution may be filled at each turn. When the height of the water is so variable that this precaution is impractica- ble, he prefers the water serew, although nearly one third of the water in this case generally runs back, and though it is easily clogged by accidental impurities in the water. : Fig. 7. shews the form of Archimedes’s serew, as recommended by D. Bernoulli. . These machines are particularly useful when the wa- ter to be raised is not pure, but is mixed with gravel, weeds, or sand, which could not be elevated by ordina« ry pumps. For farther information on this subject, See Vitruvius. Pitot, Mem, Acad. Par. 1736, p. 173. Bernoulli, Hydrodynamica. Hennert Dissertation sux It is represented *Te¥ &- ad gine. PLATE « OCCXRIL D, which Riz. 3. Fig. 7. Spiral to = chine. HYDRODYNAMICS. Spiral Ia vis d’ Archimede, Berl. 1767. Euler, Nov. Comment. Pump. p, tom. vy. p. 259. Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. —— p. ll Pattu, Journal des Mines, Nov. 1815, vol. Xxxviii. p. 321. Eytelwein’s Handbuch der Mechanik, ‘Berl. 1805, chap. xxi. Gregory's Mechunics, vol. ii. p. 348. 3. On the Spiral Pump, or Zurich Machine. This machine, ted in Plate CCCXXIII. Fig. 1, was invented about 1746 by Andrew Wirtz, a in Zurich, who erected it for a dye-house on the river Limmat. It consists of a spiral pipe ABCDEF, either coiled round in one plane, as shewn in * the Figure,or arranged round the circumference of a cone ora cylinder. The interior end of the spiral G, or the re- mote end of it, is connected by a watertight joint to an as- cending pipe GH, in which the water 1s to be raised. When this spiral, immersed in the water MN, which is to be raised, is put in motion in the direction ABCD, the scoop BA, which begins to widen from C, takes in a portion of water. As the scoop emerges, this water passes the spiral, driving the air before it into the pipe GH, where it escapes. Air is again admitted into the scoop after it emerges, and when the scoop has performed one revolution, it again takes up another ion of water, which is driven along the spiral as » snd a = the first ion by a co- lumn of air of near length. continuing to turn the spiral, a pati pa en oh winerand of air will be introduced, and so on. Now, the water, iral, will have both its ends ho- air will have its natural den sity. But as the diameter of the spirals diminish to- wards the centre, the column of water, which occupied a semicircle in the outer spiral, will occupy more and more of the inner spirals as they approach to the centre G,, till there will be a certain spiral, of which it will oc- cupy a complete turn. Hence it will occupy more than the entire spiral within this spiral, and consequently be ed based side against each other by hydrostatic pres- sure, and the intervening column of air. They must the air between them, and the water and air columns will now be unequal, This will have a ge- neral tendency to the whole water back, and cause it to be higher on the left or rising side of each spire, than eo brig Cae. gags ¥. €. Pd excess of just such as produces ges eRe hareen ot al the rec umn of water. This will go on increasing as the water mounts in the rising pipe ; for the air next to the rising pi is at its inner end with the weight ot the whole column in the main. It must be as much com- pressed at its outer end. This must be done by the water column without it; and this column exerts this re, partly by reason that its outer end is higher than its inner column beyond or within it, which transmits this pres- sure to the air beyond it, adding to it the pressure ari- sing from its own want of level at the ends. There- fore, the greatest compression, viz. that of the air next the main, is produced by the sum of all the i res, and these are the sum of all the differences ore the elevation of the inner ends of the water columns abeve their outer ends; and the height to which the water will rise in the main will be just equal to this sum.” The spiral pumps seem to have remained long un- 563 Spiral Pump. PLate CCCXXLE. Fig. L. History of noticed. They were erected, however, at Florence in the spirx 1778, with the improvement suggested by Bernoulli, of P&™P- having the spiral coiled on the circumference of a cy- linder, as represented in Fig. 2, In 1784, a spiral pump was erected at Archangelsky, near Moscow, which raised a hogshead of water in a minute to the height of 74 feet, and through a = 760 feet long. It has not yet been ascertained whether the plane, the cylindrical, or the co- nical spiral is best. The only practical difficulty consists in ing the joint perfectly water-tight. The ma- chine erected at Florence had its spiral cylindrical. Its diameter was 10 feet, and that of the pipe 6 inches. The enlarged part occupied 3 of the circumference, and was 7,%, inches wide at the outer end. The enlar; part contained 6844 English cubic inches. The spiral revolved six times in a minute, and raised 22 cubic feet of water 10 feet high in a minute. Eytelwein considers this as a very a machine, and well deserving the attention of the engineer. The length of the pi becomes extremely cumbersome when the water is to os raised through a great height. Dr Young found that 100 feet of pipe 2 of an inch in diameter was necessary for a height of 140 feet; and he considers that the machine would succeed better if the pipes were entirely of wood, or of tinned copper, or even of earthen-ware. See Sulzer’s Sammlungen Vermischlen Schriflen, 1754 ; Daniel Bernoulli, Nov. Comment. Petrop. 1772, tom. xvii. p. 249; Bailey’s Machines approved of by the So- ciety of Arts, vol. i. p.151 ; Dr Robison’s System of Me- chanical Philosophy ; Fytelwein Handbuch der Mecha- nik, &c; and Dr Thomas Young’s Natural Philoso- py, vol. i. p. 330, &e. 4. Description of Pilot's Bent Tube for measuring the Velocity of Water. One of the most ingenious instruments for measuring the velocity of water, is the tube recourbé, or bent tube, invented by M. Pitot, and described in the Me- moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1732. It is re- ted in Plate CCCXXIIL. Fig 3, and consists of a ism of wood ABCDEF, one of the angles of which is presented to the current. On the hinder face BCFE are fixed two tubes of glass parallel to each other, and having a uated between them ; one of them, viz. MNO, being bent into a right angle at O, so that the part MN may pass through the prism horizontally. When this instrument is plu in a running stream, the general level of the current is shewn by the rise of the water in the straight tube PQ, while the height of the water in the bent tube MNO becomes a measure of the force of the stream. The difference between these heights will therefore be the height due to the veloci- ty. In the practical use of this instrument, it is how- ever difficult to fix it sufficiently steady, to prevent the water from oscillating in the tubes. Fig. 2. Pitot's beut tube, Fig. 3. M. Du Buat having examined the instrument experi- Improved mentally, found that it could be trusted no farther than to by Du give the ratio of different velocities. He therefore sup- pressed the tube PQ altogether, and substituted, in place Bua, 564 HYDRODYNAMICS. Hydraulic of the bent tube of glass MNO, a simple tube of white ties counterwéeights W, W. ‘As the waterin'thevessel Floatiig Quadrant, jyon, sufficiently large to admit a float for pointing out MNOP sinks by being discharged at D, the syphon Syphon. ~ &c. the height of the water in the tube. The lower end of descends and the counterweights rise, and an uniform the white iron tube is bent back as.at MN, and is ter- stream is obtained till the end A reaches the bottom of minated by a plane surface, perforated at its centre the vessel. ; with a small orifice, which will greatly diminish the Another very ingenious contrivance for the same pur: Floating oscillations of the elevated column. If we then take se is shewn in Fig. 7. A cone AB. attached to a cone. two thirds of the height of the water in the tube above lenticular float C, and fixed upon the axis ¢ f, rises and P!ATE the level of the stream, we shall have very exactly the falls in the aperture mn, by which the water of the CCCX*IU- height due to the velocity of the current forthe depth vessel MNOP is to be discharged. It iskeptinanup- “'* , Hydraulic Quadrant. PLATE CCCXXIII, Fig. 4; Floating * tube. Fig. 5. to which ‘the orifice is immersed. See Pitot, Mem. Acad, Par. 1730, 1772, p. 868; Du Buat’s Principes d’ Hydraulique, tom. ii. p. 332, edit. 1786; Bossut’s Trauté d’ Hydrodynamique, tom. ii. p. 267, 268, edit. 1796. 5. Description of the Hydraulic Quadrant for measuring the Velooity of Water; The hydraulic quadrant which has beenrecommend- ed by several authors for measuring the velocity of wa- ter, is shewn in Plate CCCXXIII. Fig. 4. It:consists of a quadrant ABC, with a divided arch AB, and ‘havin two threads ‘moving round its centre. ‘One of these C is short, and carries a weight P, which always hangs in air, while the other CH or CM is longer, and carries a weight whose specific gravity is greater than that of water, and which plunges more or less deep in the current as the thread is lengthened. The instrument is then held as in the figure, ‘so that the plummet CP passes through 0° ; and the angle ACD, or the angular distance of the other thread from a vertical line, will be a measure of the force, and consequently of the velocity of the current. Bossut has shewn that the force is as the tangent of the angle ACD, and that if u be the ve- locity when the thread has the position CH, and V the velocity when it has the position CM, we shall have sin. XCR sin. XCS uv= J (Gene) '6/ (Gexse ). Te we there. fore know u, we alsoknow V. We have therefore only to determine u, when H is at the surface, for any given angle ACD, and V will be had for any other velocity, either at the surface or at any depth below it. See Bossut’s T'raité a’ Hydrodynamique, tom. ii. p. 265, 266. Eytelwein’s experiments with the hydraulic qua- drant will be found in the Samml. zur Bauk. 1799. 6. Machines for discharging a uniform Quantity of Water. Tn Plate CCCXXIII. Figs. 5, 6,7, we have represent- ed three ingenious contrivances for discharging ‘equal quantities of water from a vessel which is constant- ly emptying itself, or where there is a variable head of water. The contrivance in Fig. 5. where MNOP is a vessel nearly full of water, consists of a'tube BA mo- ving round a joint at B, and having its upper end B connected with a hollow floating ball C. The velocity with which the water enters the extremity B is that which is due to the height BC, or the depth of B be- right (position by the horizontal axes op, 7s. the vessel is full of water, and the head therefore great, the velocity at m willalso be ~ ste ; but as the float C rises with the surface MN, the aperture m2 will be partly. filled by a thicker part.of the cone AB; wheres as, when the surface MN has descended, the float AB will also descend, and the aperture at mn will be widen« ed, in consequence of a smaller part of the cone being included in it. In this way, the varying diameter of the cone always adjusts the a mn to the varias ble chead of water, so that the quantity discharged through the tube m no p is nearly always the same. 7. Water-blowing Machine, or Shower-Bellows. The water-blowing machine, ‘called trombe by the French, seems to have been first introduced in Italy blast of air by the descent of water. It is repre- sented in Figs. 8 and 9, where MN is a reservoir of water, in the bottom of which is inserted a long tube AB, consisting of a conical part a6, seen upon an enlarged scale in Fig. 9, .communicating with a cylindrical tube dB, which enters the vessel CDEF,. A number of openings c,d, &c. are made at the top of - the tube dB, so that when the water is discharged at the conical aperture 4, it drags along with it the adja- cent air. This mixture of air and water falls upon a stone oan G, so as to separate the air from the wa~ ter. The water descends to the bottom of the vessel, while the air escapes through thepipe CIK to supply the furnace. Another form of the machine is shewn in Fig. 9. where «8 is the conical pipe, and the water Fig. 9° is supplied with air from the pipes xB, dp. In the water-blowing machines used in Dauphiny, in the neighbourhood of the town of Alvar, the diame- ter of ab is 12 inches at a and 5 at 6; the diameter of dB is 10 inches. Only four holes are used at c, d, and the end B enters 14 feet into the vessel CDEF, which is 4 feet high and 4 feet broad. The water is dischar- ged at an aperture above F, a foot in diameter; and sometimes the admission of the water and its discharge are regulated by sluices m and, A strong, equal, and continued blast is obtained by this machine ; but it is. thought to be too moist and too cold. We have seen in Switzerland one of these machines working with eat effect at the lead works of M. Lenay, in the yal- ey of Servoz near Chamouni. ow, when ~ about the year 1672, for the purpose of ——_ a ie 6 low the surface. As the surface MN descends the float C also descends, so that whatever be the height of the water in the vessel, it will always enter B with the same velocity. The discharge at the other end A will not be quite uniform, as the water will acquire greater velocity in descending the tube BA when it is much inclined than when it is nearly horizontal. _ A floating syphon, which produces the same effect in a more correct manner, is shewn in Fig. 6, where ABD isasyphon with a hollow floating ball at its shorter end. This syphon is suspended by the chains ‘ EP, EP, which pass over two palleys P, P upon a ho-~ rizontal axle PP, and suspend at ‘their other extremis 4 Kircher appears to have been the first who explained Venturi’s the production of wind by a fall of water. es theory of long afterwards gave another theory, and Dietrich and ("er Fabri tested the wind “to ‘the decomposition of the piochines, water. In 1791, the Academy of Thoulouse invited philosophers to investigate this phenomenon, and it f was probably in consequence of this that Venturi di- rected his attention to the subject. This ingenious phi- “losopher has proved, that the air is dre down upon bi ha iple of the lateral communication of motion in ’ fluids; and he has pointed out the best mode of construct- ‘ing the machine, so-as to produce the aye reid ‘of air, “The diameter of the tube dB should be at least — Water- ‘Machine. —— * Buckinghamshire. The HYDRODYNAMICS. double of the aperture atb. To'a height about 14 feet above CD, the tube shouldbe completely air-tight, as well as the vessel CDEF, butabove’ ‘the tube dB may be in’ part'with holes. “M. Ven- turi has calculated, that the quantity of air which passes in one second into the tube is =6.1 a* 4/(a4-5—1.4) — 0.4.a*,/(a X 0.1), where u is the diameter of the aperture at 5, and 5 the diameter of the tube d B. From this quan- tity about one-fourth should be deducted in’practice, on account of the dashing of the scattered water against the lower part ofthe tubes. If the pipe CIK does not i all the air which is , the surface of the water in the vessel will d, and part of the air will issue out of the lower of the tube dB. Phenomena similar to those aced by the water- blowing machine have been in nature. At the foot of the cascades which fall from the glacier of Roche Melon, on the naked rock of La Novalese to- wards Mount mo lyon found om ~ oe of the wind arising from air dragged wn water, could scarcely be withstood. The ventaroli or natural blasts, which are most ——— found to issue from volcanic mountains, arise the air carried down the falls of water ; and what are called the rain winds have the same origin. See Kircher’s Mundus Subterraneus, lib. xiv. cap. 5. edit. 1663, Bar- thes, Mem. des Szavans Etrangers, tom. iii. p. $78. Dietrich, Gites de Minerai des Pyreneés, p- 48, 49. Fabri, Physic. Tract. lib. ii- 243. Belidor, Arch. Hydraul. tom ii. 1. Mariotte, Traité des Mouv. des Eaux, Part i. Disc. 3. Arts et Metiers, Art. des F p. 88. Venturi in Nicholson's Journal, tom. ii. p 47 Nicholson's Journal, vol. i. ‘4to, p. 2229, and vol. xii, Svo, p. 48, Wolfius, Opera Mathematica, tom. i. 830. Lewlés Comtiaves of arth Journal des Mines, o. 91. 8. Description of the Gaining and Losing Buckets. This very ingenious machine seems to have been first by Schottus, but was afterwards greatly improved and actually constructed by George Gerves, for Sir John Chester, Bart. at his seat at Chichley in i object of this machine is to raise water from a well or spring A, Fig. 10, to a re- servoir R. In order to effect this, a wheel WW, 6 feet in diameter, is fixed above R, and on the same axis another wheel ww, 2 feet in diameter, To the circum- ference of W is fixed a chain W e pipe ABR full » the water will lift the valve D, and escape with a ve- locity dae to the height of the reservoir. In a short time, the water having acquired am additional velocity, raises the valve G, which shuts the passage, and pre- vents the of the water. The consequence of this is, that all the included water exerts suddenly a . 2 hydrostatical pressure on every part of the pipe, com- p ing at the same time the air in the annu ee — ee shock. This hydrostatical pressure opens ves at E, and a porti Sat Gee water Setiatince the'ehe tense’ P, and the air which it contains. The valves at E now close, preventing the return of the water into the pipe, and the water recoils a little in the tube with a t motion from B to A, in consequence of the reac- pry prea Ane air in ii, and also of the metal of the pipe, which must have yielded a little to the force exerted it in ev irection. The recoil of the water towards A produces a slight as- piration within the head R of the ram, which causes the valve D to descend by its own weight, and prevent the water X which covers it from descending into the tube. The air, however, passes through the pipe /%, opens the valve #, and a small quantity is sucked into the annular space ii; but the quantity is small, as the valve & closes as soon as the current of air becomes ra- pid. During the recoil towards A, the valve C, being unsw , falls by its own weight ; and when the force of recoil is expended by acting on the water in the reservoir PQ, the water begins again to flow along ABR, and the v ennat opentia hick we have de- scribed is without end, a portion of water be- om, Fata otha 2 th ascent of the ec. ar aokaaraan pny ort at eres , will exert a ue to its u eaeeerihe water in the vessel F, nd’ wil Yoree it the pipe M to a height which is sufficient to balance the elasticity of the included air. The small quantity of air which is drawn into the annular space i# through the air tube /£ at each aspi- ; i of recoil takes place, a small quantity of air passes from ii, and proceeds along the pipe till it arrives beneath the valves at E, and lodging m the small space beneath the valves, it is forced into the air vessel at the next stroke, and thus affords a con- stant supply of air to the vessel. The valves make in I trom 50 to 70 pulsations in a minute. When the fall of water, or PQ, is five feet, and the pipe AB six inches in diameter and 14 feet long, a ma- chine with its parts proportioned as in the figure will 567 raise about 2+ cubic feet per minute to the height of 100 feet. Mr Millington observes, that one of these machines is said to have raised 100 hogsheads of water in 24 hours to the height of 134 feet by a fall of 43 feet. The form of the ram represented in Fig. 10. is suit- Form of the ed to the case where a current of foul ‘eae AB, is em- ™™ for to raise clean water from the well WW. This effect is produced by a bent pipe OPQ, containing a yith foul column of air from O to Q, and by another pipe T, water: with a suction valve ¢: The mode of action is pre- Fig. 10. cisely the same as in Fig. 8.. When the valve C shuts, the sudden hydrostatical pressure forces the water up the bent tube at O, laekataen the bpie of ~ of. which again , by its elasticity, on the surface o water a Q, Kant Kecth the attr Hep up through the valves into the air-vessel FF. The recoil of the water from B to A will produce a rarefaction in the co- lumn of air QO, in consequence of which, the atmo- herical upon the water in the well will raise e valve ¢, till as much water is admitted as was driven into the air-vessel. Montgolfier proposes to substitute a straight pipe in place of OQ, and to oe a piston, moving freely in the pipe, which will transmit the ressure from the foul water to the clean water, with- out allowing them to mix. We conceive that the same effect might be obtained more simply and with much less friction, by a very loose diaphragm fixed in the tube. When the ram is employed to mass of water rushing into the air-chamber W, by the shutting of the valve C. The water in W is prevented from following the air by a hollow ball of copper n, which floats on the water, and shits up the lower end of the pipe, when the water dashes into W. When things are in the state shewn in ‘the figure, and all the air expelled from the chamber W, the air compressed in the annular space p p, (which serves the same pur- waa Fig. 8.) produces a recoil of the water, e valve 'D shuts, C opens, the water quits the cham. ber W, and the valve w shuts, and prevents the admis. sion of air. At the same time the valve r , and admits a fresh supply of air into the chamber; but when the water has descended below the float e, this float de- scends, and by its rod ed shuts the air-valve d. When the force of recoil is spent, the water flows again from A to B, and the operation which we have described is in repeated, so that there is a constant current of air in the pipe wm, which may be equalized by a water lator, or any other contrivance. See the ory Arts, Dee. 1816; Fer, "s Lectures, vol. ii. App. ; and Brande’s Journal, vol. i. p. 211, Lond. 1816. 16. Description of the Chemnitz Fountain, or Hungarian Machine. The Chemnitz fountain is represented in Plate Chemnitz CCCXXIV. Fig. 12. where C is a collection of water, fountain. required to raise "i8- 2. either in a mine or in a well, which it is to the reservoir B by means of a smal! head of water at A. In order to effect this, a pipe AFT, 4 inches in diame- ter, having a cock at M, enters the top of the copper vessel TD, 84 feet high, 5 feet in diameter, and 2 inch- es thick, containing about 170 cubic feet, and extends to D within 4 inches of the bottom. The vessel TD has a cock at N, and bate one at P, and from its top proceeds a pipe TOG, 2 inches in diameter, with a cock at O, entering the top of the vessel KE, which is 64 feet high, 4 feet in diameter, 2 inches produce a current of Form of the air, it has'the form shewn in Fig. 11. The air is’ ex- machine pelled through the air-pipe w m, in consequence of the f" predu- _ Pig. 11. 568 Hydraulie thick, and containing about 83 cubic feet. Another Ram. Maanoury Dectot’s da- pl ate, naide. ipe EKHB, 4inches in diameter, rises from E, with- in 4 inches of the bottom of the vessel KE, is soldered into its top at K, and rises into the reservoir B. Thecy- linder KE communicates by a tube with a cock at R, with the water C to be raised, and has a cock Q at-its top. Let us now suppose that the cock M is.shut, and all the other cocks open. . The cylinder TD will contain air, and KE will contain water standing as high as the level-of the water in the cistern C. Shut the cocks‘N, P, Q, and, R, and open the cock M. The water from A will descend into the vessel TD, and after it rises above the mouth D of the pipe, it will compress the air in the vessel TD, in the pipe TOG, and in the, upper part of the vessel KE. The action, of this air upon the water in KE will force it, up the pipe KH, till it is discharged into the reservoir B, This. discharge. into B goes on till the upper vessel TD is filled with water. As soon as this happens, the water is prevented. from running into the pipe TO by a cork ball, or, double cone, which hangs in the pipe TO by a brass wire, which is. guided by holes into two cross pieces in the pipe. The ascent of the water into the mouth of the pipe at T pushes in this plug, and closes the pipe. influx. of water now stops; but the water still flows into. B till the. elasticity of the air inthe lower vessel KE is no lenger able to balance a column, which reaches to H in the pipe KH. This. cessation of, the efflux into B generally ceases when KE is half full of water, ‘When this takes, place, the workman, shuts the cock M, and opens the cock P, from which the water rushes with great velocity. -Whenever 3ths of the water in the vessel TD is discharged at P, which is:measured in the vessel. which receives it, the work- man opens the cock. R with a long rod, so as to fill the vessel KE with water. This drives the air out of KE through the pipe GO into the vessel TD,.and conse- uently drives out, all the remaining water. Eve thing is now in the, state in which it was at first, whic is known to be the case when no. more water flows out at P. The workman, therefore, shuts the cocks P and Q, and opens M, and the same operation is repeated. If the cock N be opened when the efflux has ceased at B, the water and air rush out together with prodigious violence, accompanied, with hail and pieces of ice pro- duced by the cold which attends the sudden expansion of air. It is usual to shew this sight to strangers, whose hats, when held opposite N, are sometimes pier- ced with the pieces of ice which are projected from. it. A considerable improvement upon this engine has been made by Mr John Whitley Boswell, who has added to it an apparatus which enables it to operate with~’ out any attending workmen. An account.of this ims provement will be found in Nicholson’s Journal, 4to, vol. i. and 8vo, No. 5. 17. Description of the Danaide invented by M. Mannoury * Dectot. This machine consists of a cylindrical trough of tins nearly as high as it is broad, and having a hole in the centre of its bottom, _ It is fixed to a vertical axis of iron, which passes through the middle of the. hole in the bottom, a vacant space being left all round to pers mit the water to escape, The axis turns with the trough upon a pivot, and is fixed above to a collar. A drum of tin-plate, close above and below, is fixed upon the axis of the trough, and placed within. the trough, so as to be concentric with it, and to leave, only. between the outer circumference of the drum and the inner circumference of the trough, an annular space HYDRODYNAMICS. not exceeding 1} inches.. This annularspace communi- Mannou cates with a space less than 14 inches, left between the bottom of the drum and the bottom of the trough, and divided into compartments by diaphragms fixed upon the bottom of the trough, and proceeding from the circums ference to the central hole in the bottom of the trough. The water comes from a reservoir above by one or two pipes, and, makes its way into this aries space between the trough anddrum. The bottom of pipes, corresponds with the level of the water in the trough, and they are directed horizontally, and as tan= gents to the mean circumference between that of the trough and of the drum. The velocity which the wa ter has acquired by its fall along these pipes, makes the machine move ‘round. its axis, and this motion accele« rates by degrees, till the velocity of the water. in the space between the trough and drum equals that of the water from the reservoir ; so that no sensible shock is perceived of the affluent water upon that which is con< tained in the machine, . This circular motion communicates to, the,water bee tween the trough and drum a centrifugal force, in con« sequence of which it. presses against the’ sides of the trough, This centrifugal. force .acts equally. upon the water contained in the compartments at the, bottom of the trough, but it acts less and less. as.this water ap= proaches the centre, The. whole water then is animated by two ite forces, viz. gravity, and the centrifugal force. The first tends to make the water run out at the hole at the bot- tom of the trough; the second, to. drive the water from that hole, To these two forces are joined a third, viz. friction, which acts here an important and. singular part, as it promotes the efficacy of the machine, while in other machines it always diminishes.that efficacy. Here, on the contrary, the effect would be. nothing were-it not for the friction, which acts as a tangent |to the sides of the trough and drum. By the combination of these three forces, there ought to result a more or less rapid flow from the hole at the bottom of the trough: and the less force the water has as it issues out, the more it will have employed in mo-« ving the machine, and of course in producing the uses ful effect for which it is destined. The moving power is the weight of the water run ning in, multiplied by the height of thesreservoir from which it flows. above the bottom of the h; and the useful effect is the same product, diminished by half the force which the water retains when it issues out of the orifice below. gals ones. fo, aacesselt, GBs Snrchi £ i t,. the magnitude of this effect, MM. Prony and Carnot fixed a cord to the axis of the machine, which, passing over a pulley, raised a weight by the motion of the machine, By this means, the effect was found tobe +; of the power, and often approached +75, without. reckonin the friction of the ies, which has nothing to do wi the machine. This effect exceeds that. of the best overshot wheels. See the Report of the Institute, 23d August 1813; or Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 412. For r information on Hydrodynamics, see ADs Heston, Bartey Mill, Carittany ATTRACTION, PNEU« matics, Pumps, Rivers, and WaTeRWORKS. . HYDROMETER. See Hypropynamics, p.437. HYDROPHOBIA. See Municine. © . HYDROPHTHALMIA. . See Surcery. HYDROSTATICS. See HypropyNamics, p. 425, HYDRUS, See Ornioioey. / Hygrome- try. Object of hygrometry. And hygro- meters. Imperfee- tions of the first hygro- meters. as 569 HYGROMETRY. 1. Unoer the article Evaroration, we explained the marmer in which water is supposed to be elevated, and in the : we Now propose to take a wot tee ter oe tar ie been em- for detect presence jueous vapour in that fluid, and ascertaining, not ap the relative: but the absolute ity of moisture, which exists at different times in given ions of air. 2. The foundation almost all the contrivances which have hitherto been for that purpose, is the affinity for moisture possessed by a variety of sub- stances. is affinity is exerted more or less by a con- siderable number of bodies ; but it is displayed, in the most eminent d , by sulphuric acid; the fixed al- kalies, several of ; bop ten wate deli- quescent, more. especially the muriate and nitrate of lime ; as well as by man ——— of animal or ye- getable origin, icu ir, membrane, horn, ivory, whalebone, feather the’ bears of corn, wood, peor age, paper, &c. All these substances the pro- renty of abstracting moisture from B preedicret oi : bot the union which they form with it isso very slight, that they readily yield it up again to the air when that fluid bas’ by any means become drier, either by an in- crease of , or the deposition of the water which existed in it in a vaporous state. Hence the condition of these bodies with respect to humidity, be‘employed as an indication of the quantity of cSebotere contained in a iven volume of the air by which they are su The epithet Hygroscopic has been applied to substances used for this purpose ; anil the various instruments which have been formed of them, are called , OF measurers of mois- ture. "8. The alternations of dryness and humidity to which all hygroscopic bodies are subject, are accompanied with corresponding changes in their weight and dimensions ; and, therefore, all are constructed so as to ir indications, either to though foe ng wer The latter of these ugh uently less appreciable in its ex- howe. = 7 ob weig t, is however more readily, estimated ; and hence the consist of some animal * 9% . icate changes of hamidity in the medium to which they are exposed, by changes of weight, arising from the or extrication of moisture ; and one of these instruments, invented by Mr Leslie, perhaps the most acturate’of them all, is formed upon a principle which Se ee ee WEE Oct Y= 4. It is only of late that hygrometers have been con- structed with any degree of accuracy. The earlier in- struments which bear that name, were extremely im- perfect: the mechanical part was executed in a very rude matmer, and ‘no attention was paid to the gradu- ation of the scale which marked enlargement or poreaiepate tb tig toni further than to make it point out mere differences in the state of the VOL. XI. PART It. air with respect to moisture. No attempt was made to Hygrome- determine two fixed points, as in the case of the ther- mometer, by which the various scales might be reduced to a common standard ; and still less to ascertain the absolute quantity of moisture in a given volume of air, ries yar to the different points of the scale em- ployed. - In short, nothing higher was aimed at in the construction of a hy, eter, than to obtain some sub- stance which suffered considerable variations of bulk, by the absorption of moisture, without the smallest re- gard to the regularity of its dilatations. Almost all of them were very unwieldy ; and none of them could be applied to nice researches into the hygrometric state of small portions of air. To describe the construction of them, with much minateness, would therefore be as useless as inconsistent with the limits of this article. try. 5. Both animal and vegetable substances of a fibrous Conier's structure, possess the property of being dilated by mois- hygrometer. ture, in a direction transverse to the fibres; and, ac- cordingly, the lateral expansion of these bodies fur- nishes the principle upon which a considerable number of hygrometers are constructed. One of the earliest hygrometers of this kind was p by Mr Coniers in 1676. ‘The whole contrivance is of the rudest kind ; and though it is scarcely worthy of notice, we shall give a ee description of it, in a a some idea may be formed of the imperfect state of hygrom at that period. AAAA oun aeaesuPoend ro play freely at top and bottom. placed so as to have their fibres in a vertical position, are fastened to the frame at each side, and a sufficient interval is left between them, to allow full for the wood to dilate itself in a lateral direction. The axis of the index, which is at C, by receding from F, or a ching nearer to it, gives a circular motion to the index itself, by means of a slender metallic chain, which round the axis, and is fastened to one of the pannels at F. W is a weight or counterpoise connect- ed with the axis by means of a string passing over the pulley D, and attached to the arm CG, and which causes the index to descend, as the pannels ex by moisture. Several other contrivances of a similar kind are described in the Philosophical Transactions for that period, but they are all equally rade and imperfect. 6, te most aad hy principle of a ex substance he employs whalebone cut transversely into thin slips. Such isthe tenacity of this substance, that, ing to De Luc, these slips may be a foot long, and a line in breadth, without weighing above one-fourth of a grain, and yet be capable of supporting a weight of about 160 grains. The instrument is fi up in various forms by diffe- rent artists; but the general principles of its construc- tion are nearly the same in all. Mr Adie, Edinburgh, ved Prater in the inside for admitting two pannels of deal B, B to CCCXXI, pannels, which are "is- }- , constracted on the Whalebone ion, is that of De Luc. The hygrometer in preference to all others, is & De Luc. constructs it in the following manner. ABCD repre- Fig. 2. sents the frame-work of the instrament, to the upper part of which is attached the graduated circle EF, ca- pable of being elevated or lowered at gots to suit the length of the of whalebone ab. The whale- bone, which is about 10 inches in length, is fas- tened at a between two slips of brass by means of a 4c 570 Hygrome- screw, and in a similar manner at 4, where it is con- try nected with a slender silk band which moves over the axis, to the extremity of which the index is fixed ; and it is kept in a state of uniform distension, by a silk thread passing round the axis, (to which it is fixed,) in a direction contrary to that of the silk band, and fasten- ed at the lower extremity to a spiral gilt silver wire de. This spiral spring forms, by its reaction, an excellent counterpoise to the whalebone, as it acts with the small- est energy when the latter is most weakened by dilata- tion. 7. The extreme points of the scale, by which the in- termediate divisions are graduated, are determined in the following manner: To obtain the point of extreme humidity, or complete saturation with moisture, De Luc is not satisfied with exposing the instrument to a por- tion of air perfectly saturated with the vapour of water, but he actually immerses it in that fluid, and allows it to remain in it, till it ceases to suffer any farther dilata- tion. The point on the circular scale, to which the in- dex reaches, is then marked as extreme moisture. ‘The opposite point, namely that of eatreme dryness, is ob- tained by inclosing the instrument under a receiver with a quantity of a quicklime, and allowing it to re- main exposed to its action, till the whalebone attains its greatest degree of contraction, which is generally in about three weeks. ‘The quicklime, by its attraction for moisture, gradually absorbs the watery vapour con- tained in the air, which, in its turn, abstracts moisture from the whalebone, till an equilibrium is established between the attraction of the two substances for vapour. As the whalebone becomes drier, its fibres continuall approach towards each other; and at last, when it ceases to yield any moisture, it also ceases to suffer contraction, and the index points to extreme dryness. The length of the slip of whalebone is so proportioned to the diameter of the axis, or arbor to which the index is fixed, that the interval between the points of extreme moisture and dryness embraces a range which is some- what less than a complete revolution ; and this interval is then divided into 100 equal parts. The zero of the scale is usually marked at extreme dryness, and the di- visions are in that case numbered upwards to extreme moisture, which is marked 100. Some artists, however, reverse this order, and place the zero at extreme mois- ture,—a practice, which cannot fail to lead to mistakes in recording the indications of the instrument. Objections 7. Saussure, to whom we are indebted for many.use- to the use of fy] and ‘interesting observations on hygrometry, has ae stated several objections against this instrument, appli- poses of hy. cable both to the substance of which it is formed, and grometry, the manner of determining the extreme points of the scale. He affirms, that whalebone, being a substance of a muscular or gelatinous nature, would admit of an in- definite relaxation by moisture, were it not for certain PLATE cccexxlL Fig. 2. Method of obtaining the extreme points of the scale, filaments, which connect the fibres with each other, but , do not prevent them from separating beyond the limits, to ahi their hygroscopical affinity for moisture in the vaporous state would dilate them. He maintains, there- fore, and we think with justice, that to immerse sucha | substance in water, in order to obtain the greatest relax- ation of which it is susceptible, is to reduce it to a condi- tion which it can never afterwards arrive at by the influ- ence of vapour ; and consequently, that all the divisions _ of the scale, which are included between the perfect hu- midity of the whalebone, and the point corresponding to the complete saturation of air with moisture, are en- tirely useless, He adds, that if whalebone is to be used at all in the construction of hygrometers, the point of HYGROMETRY. extreme moisture should bé marked probably where 80° Hygtome- stands in De Luc’s scale. ty. ae 8. With respect to the use of dry quicklime as a de- neato siceative, Saussure seems to suspect that this substance je substan. _ produces a degree of dryness less perfect, than the fixed ces employ- alkalies in a caustic state ; and that at any rate, the slow-/ed to obtain ness with which it attracts moisture, renders it -less fit.the point of t for the purpose. Strongly concentrated sulphuric acid, *"°@* or paper soaked in muriate. of lime, and then well. “7m dried, absorb moisture more rapidly than either : the former, in particular, when inclosed under a receiver with a given volume of air, causes the. index of a hy-' ‘grometer to advance as many degrees towards extreme 'yness, in a few hours, as dry quicklime would doin as many days. As the attraction of sulphuric acid for moisture varies, however, with its degree of concentra« tion, it is proper to employ it always of the same spe- cific gravity, otherwise the point of extreme dryness. will not be the same in all hygrometers.. An unifor- mity of scale would thus be obtained, whether the point of extreme dryness were absolute, or merely re« - lative. 9. For examining the hygroscopic state of small De Luc's quantities of air, De Luc gives the instrument a form, hygtometer which renders it more commodious for being intro- en duced under a receiver. Fig. 3. represents a front caatione of view of the instrument constructed for that purpose, of air. its actual size. aaaa is a frame of brass, which is p, oe connected with a similar frame behind. The dotted ¢¢cxx, line.cb 4 6d represents the slip of whale bone fixed at Fig, s. c to an adjusting screw, passing over the pullies bd 6 4, and joined at d to a slender metallic plate of annealed . silver. This metallic plate def moves over a pulley e, and is joined at ¢ to the moveable part g of the vernier hhhh. From the top of the moveable vernier 7 pro-. ceeds another slender metallic plate of the same pliant + material, the opposite extremity of which is fixed ‘to the pulley &. This pulley is supported on the same axis with a smaller pulley /, which is connected, by means of a slender metallic plate, with the upper ex- . tremity of the bent. lever m, n, the shorter ries a9 n is pressed by a spring. It is easy to see from the, figure of the instrument, that when the whale-bone is dilated by absorbing moisture, the vernier will ascend by the action of the spring upon the lever; and vice, versa, ; 10. The instrument may be fitted up in the form of -Pocket hy. a watch, by fixing the whale-bone to the circumference .grometers. of a wheel, and distending it gently by a weak spring. The contraction and enlargement of the whale-bone, { might then be indicated by a hand fixed to the arbor of , another wheel, and moving along the circular gradua- tion of a dial-plate. Other contrivances of a similar. kind will readily suggest themselves to the ingenious , stances, which seem to suffer a dilatation in all direc. ivory bygre- tions, by moisture. On this principle, De Luc con- ™* structed some time ago a hygrometer of ivory, by gi-. ving a portion of that substance intended to be affec! by moisture, the form of a thin slender tube, and then inserting into it, at one extremity, a capillary tube of glass, about 14 inches long, and ;% inch in, diameter. -. The ivory is recommended to be taken from an ele-, phant’s tooth of considerable size, a few inches from ’ the top, and as near the surface as possible, in order - : that it may be of an uniform grain in different instru- ments. This hygrometer is represented in Fig. 4. Pig. 4 Plate CCCXXI. where 6g 6 represents the ivory tube artist. : ! 11. Hygrometers have also been constructed of sub- De Lue’s ' ? ne mE Gr HYGROMETRY. : open at shut at g. This tube, which is 2 inches 8 lines in length, and 2} lines in diameter, in- ternally, is bored in the direction of its fibres, and re- turning it on a lath, till its thickness is about ay a line, except at the two extremities, where it is left somewhat thicker, to give it er strength. The piece aad d, which is made of brass, connects the wy tube bebe, is protected from the moisture of the air by a brass verrel, which prevents it from splitting. Before being fitted up, the ivory tube is usually moist- ened om the outside, which may be done very conve- niently, and to a proper degree, by surrounding it with wet cambric, and allowing it to remain till the mois- to pass completely through ink beyond its lower extremity, into the ivory tube. ke is then wrapt rou tle agitation, and by means of the horse i ee ctalantcen nits ontidawuveante ee ee a w proper quanti mercury. is ing done, sunge of sho-eenls Sn ailjenen tn ae i LIE Hi Fy : if LE 2 ingly. For this pu De Luc employed a tube | had cere aeprem vatarted om os the divisions of which he knew, and the bulb of which so trical scale to the tube and the ivory bulb. a rary oe aap met ye inal thermometer, D the i m the weight of the mercary in the ivory tube, and d py i pn mame naan oar ba dently, M:m::D:d. tube was arr 8 9 di- - : of temperature, and thus, by means of an attached ther- mometer, the effect due to dryness or moisture may be separated from the rising and sinking of the 571 mereury ‘in the glass tube, by means of heat and cold. Hygrome- The excess of the hy trical degrees above the de- grees indicated in similar circumstances by an ordinary thermometer, is to be considered as the sole efféct of dryness in contracting the ivory; while a difference of a con kind is to be ascribed to an opposite cause. try: —\— 13. Mr Leslie, who has devoted some attention to Mr Leslie's this instrument, has p as he himself remarks, scope thus formed to as high a state of improvement as such an imperfect instrument admits. The shell of ivory is turned, in his construction, into an elongated spheroid, about an inch and a quarter in length, and reduced so thin as to weigh only eight or ten grains. At its greatest expansion it contains about 300 grains of mercury. The upper end, which is adapted to the body by means of a delicate screw, has a slender glass tube inserted into it, six or eight inches long, and a bore nearly ¥;th of an inch in diameter. The point of extreme humidity is determined, as in the case of De Lue’s instrument, by immersing the bulb in wa- ter, or surrounding it with a wet bit of cambric. The divisions of the scale, however, are determined some- what differently: Mr Leslie distinguishes the tube into spaces, which d to the thousandth part of the entire cavity, and each of which contains about ths of a grain of mercury. The ordinary range of the scale includes gbout 70 of these divisions. The upper extremity of the tube is covered with a small ivory cap, which admits the air, but prevents the escape of the mereury, thus tere tee! instrument ble. Mr Leslie remarks, that contraction the mercury corresponding to equal increase in the dryness of the air, is six times greater at the beginning of the scale than at the 70th division ; and that ae Kop to be in general inversely as the number of hygrometric de- grees, reckoning from 20° below. He therefore places another scale, on the opposite side of the tube, pen et ae te ing divided into 100°, and corresponding to un number 20 to 129 in a logarithmic line, (see ‘Plate CCCXXL. Fig. 5. By extending the | visions farther, in conformity with the base of the scale, $20 of its degrees the equable divisions, or a contraction of 108 a thousand, with respect to the et ad of the bulb. At the dryness, however, of 300 of his own hygrome- ter, Mr Leslie never forind the contraction of the ivory to exceed 105. It would have been more satisfactory, if the temperature at which the observations were made had been given, as we shall afterwards shew, that 300 on Mr Leslie's hy, eter may correspond to very dif- ferent portions of moisture in the medium to which it is ex : s in portions, from the © a modification of which, ivory hy- s perhaps carried the hygro- grometer. ithmic di. Pate CccXXI. would correspond to 108 of Fig. 5. 14. The instrument we have described, though very Coses in unfit for delicate observations, may nevertheless in certain cases with advan indications, when its scale once been eom used which ivory The slowness of its bygrometers red ™ay be used with that of a more accurate instrament, is well fitted vee sine. to = out general results, corresponding to consider- “®* able in tervals of time between the observations. Mr Leslie has su: ed that, on this account, it may be usefully employed to ascertain the degree of humidity which prevails in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and to determine the hy, state of certain kinds of goods, such as grain, wool, cotton, &c. For the lat- ee ee ment among the substances, w condition, with re- spect to moisture, we wish to determine, and to observe Hygrome- try. _— Quill hy- grometer of Chiminella. Reason why. birds can foresee ap- proaching 572 the degree which it indicates after it has been allowed to remain a suitable le of time. 15. Under hygroscopic instruments constructed on the pencple of a general dilatation by moisture, we may briefly notice the hygrometer of Chiminello, to whom the prize athear in 1783 by the Academy of Sciences at Manheim for the best comparable hygro- meter was adjudged. The substance he employed was the barrel of a quill, fitted up in the same manner as the ivory hygrometers, already described. The gra- duation of the scale was determined by means of two fixed points. The point of extreme moisture was ob- tained by immersion in water; that of extreme dry- ness, by exposing the instrument, for the space of four hours, before a moderate fire, at a temperature equal to 25° of Reaumur, or 884° of Fahrenheit. The quill, by exposure to heat, becomes somewhat contracted ; and though the contraction is not so great as would be pro- duced by extreme dryness, Chiminello considered it sufficiently uniform in different quills to serve as a fixed point in his scale. It is obvious, however, that an in- strument graduated in so vague a manner is totally un- fit for any philosophical purpose, . 16, Having alluded to this instrument, it may be worthy of remark, that it is probably owing to the hy- groscopic property of their feathers that birds are ena- rain, or fair bled to judge of approaching rain or fair weather. For Weather. Rat's blad- der hygro- meter of Mr Wilson. it is easy to conceive, that an animal having a thousand hygrometers intimately connected with its body, must be liable to be powerfully affected, with regard to the tone of its organs, by very slight changes in the dry- ness or humidity of the air; particularly when it is considered, that many of the feathers contain a large quantity of blood which must thus be alternately pro- lled into the system, or withdrawn from it, accord- ing to their contraction or dilatation by dryness or moisture. This view of the subject seems to afford a satisfactory explanation of the extreme sensibility which birds in general shew to coming changes in the wea- ther. ; Haud equidem credo, quia sit divinitus illis Ingenium, aut rerum fato prudentia major ; Verum, ubi tempestas, et cceli mobilis humor Mutavere vias; et Jupiter humidis Austris Densat, erant que rara modo, et que densa, relaxat; Vertuntur species animorum, et pectora motus Nunc alios, alios, dum nubila ventus agebat, Concipiunt. Vinert, Geor. lib, i. 415, 17. An hygrometer constructed upon similar princi- ples, but much more delicate in its indications, has lately been proposed by Mr Wilson of Dublin. The substance he employs is rat’s bladder; which, besides having an extensive range of dilatation, -is affected by very slight changes in the hygroscopic state of the air. The scale is graduated by exposing the instrument to air saturated with moisture for the point of extreme humidity ; and by afterwards inclosing it in a receiver, over mercury, with a quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, for the point of extreme dryness. The interval between the range of these two points is then divided into 100 equal parts. These points, however, must ob- viously vary with the temperature of the mercury ; and though this objection, which is applicable to all these mercirial hygrometers, may be obviated to a cer- tain extent by enlarging the diameter of the tube, it cannot be entirely removed without diminishing the delicacy of the instrument, unless the precautions, a- dopted by De Luc, be observed in the construction of HYGROMETRY. the scale. The rat’s bladder hygronieter is liable to Hygrome. another objection, which, on account of the difficulty attending the construction of the instrument, is of con- siderable force: the elevation of the mercury in the tube, by the contraction of the membranous :substance, must occasion a pressure in the bladder, which, in some cases, may amount to nine or ten pounds on the square inch, according to the range of the scale. The disten- sion occasioned by such a pressure cannot fail to affect the accuracy of the instrument, and even to expose it to destruction. According to the observations of Lord Gray, this instrument co ds pretty nearly in its =e, with the whale-bone hygrometer of De uc. general expansion by moisture, same manner as the hygrometer of De Luc just alluded to, has been strongly recommended. by Jean Baptiste, a Capuchin friar of St Martin at Vicenza. The hygro- scopic substance used in the construction of this instru- ment, is a narrow slip of the allantois of a calf, the thin membrane which envelopes the foetus of animals before birth. The point of extreme moisture was fixed by exposing the instrument to air saturated with aqueous vapour. Another point was. determined by heating to the temperature of 50° of Reaumur, or 1443° of Fahren-~ heit, a small stove, which was kept open, and preserved for some time as nearly as possible at the same tempe- rature, and then introducing the instrument into it, where it was allowed to remain so long as:the allantois: suffered contraction. According to Jean Baptiste, the degree of dryness obtained by this process is fixed and invariable. The intermediate space: on the: scale, be- tween the extreme points thus determined, was divided as usual into 100 equal parts. In a subsequent part of this article we shall demonstrate, that no. fixed point. can be obtained for the graduation of an hygrometer, by a mere exposure of the instrument to an. elevated temperature ; and, consequently, the scale of this hy- grometer can no more be relied upon than that of Chi- minello. The substance itself, however, we have reason to think, from the experiments we have made with it, | is exceedingly fit for hygrometric purposes. 19, Bat of all the hygroscopic instruments which we have hitherto described, and which are constructed on § the principle of a general, or at least of a longitudinal expansion, the hygrometer of Saussure is by far the most delicate, as well as the most accurate and uni- form, in its indications. The substance which he se- lected, in preference to every other, was a human hair, the elongations and contractions of which by moisture and dryness, though less extensive than some of the substances already mentioned, may be rendered suffi- ciently sensible by mechanical contrivances. As the value of this instrument has been greatly enhanced by the late researches of Gay Lussac, a particular deserip- tion of it is the more-necessary: we shall therefore give an account of the different parts of it in detail. 18, An hygrometer depending on the principle of a Allantois me and fitted up in athe bygrometer Baptiste. try. aussure, 20. The general appearance of the instrument is Prats nearly the same as that of the whalebone hygrometer C{CXXL of De Luc, which seems indeed to have been borrowed "i 6, from it, the priority of invention being due to Saussure. The upright pillars aaaa, which support the dial- plate, are fixed to the rectangular frame 446 6, at each corner of which is a screw for fixing the instrument to the bottom of its case, when it is exposed to the exter- nal air. The dial-plate is made to slide along the pil- lars a a, and is thus capable of being raised to any par- ticular altitude, in order to snit:the lengthiof -the hair, ets oe ee? the extreme sper Advantages of Saus- wure’s hy- Grometer. HYGROMETRY. m, 8, only one of which is visible in the re- of the instrument, are intended to fix the zEqF | g, . pinions c thin slip of silver, ed to it. $23 225 Hee w same The hair is kept by means of a small = li - a9 ef ; $ : if re “ place, the weight g¢ is prevented vibra- ing it in crayon ?, which is intended to in which it is securely fixed by means k. The crayon i is moveable along hh, and may be fixed in any position by the screw /. The index 00 is fized $0 the sxtremi of the Chere AE band meets bs tat ications on the graduated arch of the dial plate, the hygrome- tric state of the hair. a quantity to remain till the hair ceased to suffer The point of extreme d of dress hi is perfectly fixed and unifi is ly and uniform. The point of extreme moisture is obtained, by placing the instrament over water in the inside of a receiver, the sides of which are kept constantly bedewed with moisture, The included air being thus surrounded on all sides with water, becomes completely saturated with moisture; the hair in its turn is wally reduced to the same state, and soon attains its pomaets Seanes of scale is ob- si z i elongation, so that another fixed point in the tained. If the space described by the index between these two points is greater than a com revolution, the hair may be shortened till its length is ly ace comimodated to the range of the scale. The tempera- ture of the air at the time the two extreme points are determined is of no importance : it may i affect the hair thermometrically, in the same manner as it af- fects other substances, but it produces no change in the indications. The reason of this will appear when we come to take a ical view of the eee Wréay = raed be — to re- mark, in this respect, grometer ussure has a decided advantage over the whalebone hygrome- ter of De Luc, which, according to the temperature, ranges from 80° to 100* in air saturated with moisture, where of course it should remain stationary. Saussure divides his scale sometimes into 960°, and sometimes into 100°, the divisions being reckoned, in both cases, from extreme dryness, which is assumed for the zero ptr ova towards extreme ae which is mark- ed , or 100°, according to the division adopted. 22. The principal advantages of Saussure’s hygro- meter are derived, 1st. From the unchangeable nature of the material of which it is formed, by means of which it retains its hy ¢ power longer than any other organic aastnce ; 2 Prom the extreme tenity ofthe substance itself, which enables it to assume very quick- ly the state of the surrounding medium ; and, 3d, From 573 the little effect which, in consequence of this tenuity, it produces on the hygroscopic state of the medium to which it is exposed. De Luc has endeavoured, more it would appear from a desire to recommend his own instrument than to ote the cause of science, to “shew that hair is totally unfit for hygrometric purpo- ses; and having very uitously assumed the con- tractions and Walken whalebone as a standard of reference for other hygroscopic substances, he has taken it for granted, that the indications of Saussure’s hygro- meter must be incorrect, because in certain circumstances they do not coincide with those of his own. He main- tains also, that hair, after it attains its greatest degree of elongation, begins to suffer a contraction, particular- ly if it be allowed to remain beyond a certain time in air saturated with moisture; but this objection, which is enly applicable to hairs of a peculiar structure, may be obvieted by attending to the directions of Saussure, who was aware of the fact, and particularly enjoined, that such hairs as ed more — “ should be rejected as unfit for the construction of hygrometers. On the whole, we have no hesitation in saying, that of all the hygroscopic instruments which have hitherto been formed of organic substances, the hygrometer of Saussure seems the most regular in its elongations and contractions ; the least liable to be affected by exposure to the weather; and the best for ascertaining the hygrometric state of small portions of air. The ex- iments of Gay Lussac, poss te general results he deduced from them, have given additional value to this mstrument, by dem that its expansions are subject to a regular law which admits of analytical ee We give an account of these af- . In the meantime, we shall conclude our re- marks on the instrument with a general statement of its indications, with those of the whalebone hy- grometer of De Luc. Saussure. De Luc. Saussure. De Lue. 15.6 correspond to 5 88.8 correspond to 55 94.56.05 . 10 se ns . . 60 a09 Ft o'er 15 98.8 Cs ene . 65 ORS Se Se - 20 Wavavews ac .t0 59.2. oe. 25 97.2. oe - 75 688. ; re OB. sue - 80 See St 85 100. . ore te ol Oe i’ RE ss aor e 40 so Soe -.+. 90 yee et 45 GS... ss". ¢s OO Wakes eertsns « 50 Se ss via 6 . 100 This comparative Table of the indications of the two instruments was drawn up by De Luc himself: its va- lue, however, is greatly diminished by the temperature being omitted, at which the observations were made. The same remark is applicable to the following obser- vations of Béckman, which differ somewhat from those of De Luc. Saussure. De Luc, 33 correspond to 10 54. wae eos 20 G5... -- 30 OO. scspeen w 86. 11a es we 45 Hygrome- try- —— grometers of De Luc and Saussure. 22. Some a! tancgae are constructed of organic Mat-beard substances of a fibrous structure, cially or spontaneously during their the earliest hygrometers of this description was propo- twisted either artifi- hygrometer wth, One of of Hooke. 574 Hygrome- sed by the celebrated Hooke, and formed of the beard uy- of the wild oat, which twists and untwists itself accord- "vr" ing to the state of the air with respect to moisture. The beard is fixed at one extremity, and an index being ap- plied at the other in a transverse position, its motions along the graduated circumference of a circle point out the ie escopic state of the air. Cat-gut hy-. 23. Upon‘a similar principle, Mr Benes propo- grometer of sed, in 1685, to construct an hygrometer of whip cord or Molyneux ¢at-gut, by suspending it from a hook, with a small and Coven- weight at the lower extremity to give it a proper degree aha of tension, and carry at the same time an index over a PuaTE graduated circle described on a fixed board below. We Fig oo shall give a description of the instrument in a modified form, recommended by Mr Coventry of Southwark, AB represents the cat-gut, which may be of any conve- nient length. It is suspended from the bracket AD, and stretched by the weight F at its lower extremity. At Bisa circular card of pasteboard attached to a round bit of cork, through which the cord is made to pass. The circumference of the card is graduated into 100 equal parts. Another card, connected with the cat-gut in a similar manner, and intended to record the revolu- tions of the other, is placed at C, at one-tenth of the ength of AB from the fixed point A, and divided into 10 equal parts. DE is a vertical line along the frame, which supports the cat-gut, and serves to point out the indications of the circular cards. In adjusting the in- strument to extreme moisture, the cord is completely moistened with water, and when it ceases to untwist itself, both the circular cards are turned round till the zero upon each points to the vertical line DE. It is more difficult to obtain another fixed point ; and indeed this is not very necessary, as the instrument, though it possesses great sensibility, can searcely be used for any purpose but to point out general differences with respect to moisture, Balance hy. 24 The increase of weight, which all hygroscopic grometers, Substances acquire by the absorption of moisture, fur- nishes another general principle for the construction of hygrometers. But as the accuracy of these instruments is liable to be gradually affected by changes in the hy- grometric property of the substances themselves, as well as by the deposition of dust and other light bodies on their'surfaces, few hygrometers have been constructed en this principle. The substances usually employed for the purpose are sulphurie acid, the deliquescent salts, and paper. The first of these substances was re- Sulphuric Commended by Mr Gould so early as 1684, who obser- acid recom- ved that sulphuric acid, after absorbing a certain por- mended by tion of water from the atmosphere, continued to retain Gould. it till the air became drier, when it again yielded up a portion of the moisture it had previously acquired ; and these alternations of the absorption and extrication of moisture always corresponded to the hygroscopic state of the air. He therefore placed a quantity of the acid in a cup in one scale of a balance, and a counter- poise in the other ; and ascertained the relative state of the air with respect to moisture or dryness, according as either arm of the balance preponderated. A contri- vance of this kind answers well enough for pointing out general results, but it is totally unfit for discover- ing the hygroscopic state of the air at any particular in- Paper soak-Stant of time. We have found, however, that paper, ed in muri- soaked in a weak solution of the muriate of lime, and ate of lime. then dried, is very rapid in its indications, and capable of being affected by very minute changes ; and indeed we have reason to think, from the observations we have made with a small slip of paper prepared in that man« HYGROMETRY. we might be obtained, possessing the utmost sensi- bili ner, and suspended from one of the arms of a delicate balance, that an hygrometer constructed upon this prin- ity. Other hygrometers of a similar construction have been employed, but they are totally unworthy of notice. . Pra he 25. Mr Leslie has proposed an hygrometer, totally et lie! different in principle from any of those we have consi. "/8*°™ dered, but perhaps superior to all of them, both in point of accuracy and delicacy. Hygrometers formed of organic substances are liable to be affected by the partial decompositions, which, by exposure to air and moisture, such bodies continually undergo; and though some of them are composed of materials which resist the action of the weather better than others, none of them can be said to be indestructible, and all of them, in the course of time, lose in a great degree their hy-~ groscopic properties. Their scales, therefore, however accurately constructed at first, are subject to.a gradual derangement, and require occasional adjustments to render their indications at all correct, ~ This is certain- , ly a great objection to the use of these instruments ; but it is an objection from which the hygrometer of Mr Leslie is entirely free, and as we have derived a formula by which the absolute quantity of moisture contained in a given volume of air may be accurately determined, in terms of the degrees of its scale, we must now consider it as by far the most accurate hy- oun grometer that has yet been proposed. The instrument pyare consists of two spheres of glass A, B, connected with cccxX each other by a bent tube CDEF, which is fixed to the Fig. 8. stand GH, and contains inclosed a small portion of sul- phuric acid, tinged with carmine to render it more dis. tinctly-visible. When the spheres, hoth of which are filled with air, are at the same temperature, the liquor in the recurved tube remains stationary ; but if one of the balls, as A, be colder than the other B, the air in the latter, by its greater elasticity, immediately de- presses the liquor in the limb FE, and raises it in an equal degree in the limb CD. One of the balls is ac~ cordingly covered with a coating of cambric, or tissue paper, and kept continually moist with pure water, con- veyed to it by filaments of floss silk from an adjoini vessel. The evaporation of the water quickly coo! the surface of the ball, in a degree proportioned to the rapidity with which the process is carried on, which will depend partly upon the temperature, and parey upon the dryness of the ambient medium; and hence the depression of the liquor in the limb FE becomes an indication of the relative dryness of the surroundi air. The caloric abstracted from the moistened ball by evaporation, is incessantly supplied by the air and the contiguous bodies, and in the course of two minutes the maximum of effect is produced. Were it not for this continual influx of temperature, no limits could be as- signed to the degree of cold that might be induced. ? The scale is formed by dividing the interval between Graduation the boiling and freezing points into 1000 equal parts, ofthe scale, so that 10° correspond to 1° of the centigrade thermo-~ imeter, and 50° to 9° of Fahrenheit. This hy, eter acts equally well when the moisture on the balls isin a frozen state ; but the heat required for the melting of ice being about a seventh part of what is necessary for ~ the conversion of water into vapour, the temperature of the coated ball will, in like circumstances of the air with respect to moisture, sink a seventh part more than ~ before ; and therefore the degrees indicated by the in- strument must, in that case, be reduced 1° in 7°, to adapt the scale to the actual state of things. “26. When the instrument is intended to be portable, Mr Leslie the form delineated in Fig. 9. .The two balls, being in the same perpendicular line, are protected from by a case of wood or ivory ; and itis the ieiramess may thes be Vanspatied Sam -onc to another with perfect safety. We shall conclude our /pemtable. iption of this simple but ingenious instrument, by ga aS trans pr ape wom: epee covered with paper, gives the same in- dications, if its temperature be subtracted from the tem- perature of the air determined by a naked thermome- ter, placed in similar circumstances with the other. Relation between the Indications of Hygrometers, and the absolute Quantities of Moisture in Vapour. different temperatures ; and, secondly, of the quantity of it which can exist, in The experiments of Mr sults of his admirable experiments on the force of steam for degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, from zero to , from which Biot has deduced the following Table, adapted to the centigrade scale. Tempore | Pores YS | term tothe ture. one which of Mercury. i 0. -200 6.25 297 1485 12.50 A435 1.465 18.75 .630 1.450 25. 910 1.440 $1.25 1.290 1.430 $7.6 1.820 1410 43.75 2.540 1.400 50. 3.500 1.38 56.25 4.760 1.36 62.5 6.450 1.35 68.75 8.550 1.33 75. 11.250 1.32 81.25 14,600 1.30 87.5 18.800 1.29 93.75 | 24. 1.27 100. 30. 1.25 perature, in degrees scale, at the in- wren in Boalt Geeta esd Lael Bay a mn 3 4 in which each term of the elastic force stands to the one i above it. It is obvious, that if the same relation between the terms, in successive or- =” numbers in the third column would form a | progression, the first HYGROMETRY. _ Hence, Log..F ,= Log. 30 + n Log. 4. The supposition, on which this expression is founded, though not rigidly true, will lead to results sufficiently Serene tae Ermey bees us in adopting it. The ity n, k, be exhibited by a succes- sieal 8 cores othe hem ethrereny td &e. and the expression then becomes, Log. F,,= Log. 304+ an+5n'+cn'+ &e. the co-efficients a, 5, c being constant, and determina- jeder = Seon 9 i aries. eae St oe nm. It 1s unnecessary to take more three terms of the as the co-efficients of the of n will be found to dimi much faster than powers themselves increase. To determine the co-efficients a, 6, and ¢, Biot s the elastic force of vapour for the temperatures 25, 50 and 75, reckoned downwards from the boiling point ; thus, we have, a=25 F,2211.25,... a= F,o= 3.45, a= 75 F,,= 91. And, Log. F, 90-2504 6256+ 156256, Lae = Loe 30.4 504 4 25008 +. 1250000 Log. F , ,= Log. 30 + 75a + 56256 4 421875 c. Substituting the values of Log. F, and Log. 30, and transposing, 25a+4+ 62564 15625c=— .4259637, 50 a + 25006 4-125000e=— .9330519, 75 a + 5625 6 4 421875 e= —1.5180799. The solution of these equations gives, a= —.013741955, 6 = — .000067 427, c= + .0000000338. $0. The values of a, b, and c, thus determined, being substituted for these quantities, in the uation, we obtain the following formula for the elastic of steam at the temperature 100 —n. . Log. F,,= Log. 30 — 019741955 n — .000067427 n* +. .0000000338 $1. If nbe in degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale, Formula the elastic force of vapour for the temperature 212 — n for the becomes, force of pour adapt- Log. F , = Log. 30—.00854122 n—00002081 n*?4 ed to the .0000000058 n3. : of stats An this formala, we have calculated the follow- ing T. va- of the elastic force of steam, from zero to 100° of Fahrenheit, whieh includes the ordinary range of natural tem We have also annexed a co- lumn, exhibiting the elastic force of , for the same range of Genpetsietin, on determined by Mr Dal- 576 Hygrome-. ton. The difference between. the » ding num try. bers in the two columns.seldom exceeds bin 1000th of an inch, except between 75° and 90°, where Mr Dal- ton’s table seems to be a little faulty. Force of Vapour, in Inches. of Mercury, from 0° to 100° Fahrenheit. Force of va- ~ pour in ¢ Force of Vapour in 3 Force of Vapour in inches of 3 Inches of Mercury. 5 Inches of Mercury. mercury. # 3 & According Accordin & According ‘Aceotdin & , ba A to Dakine 5 Rode os to Dalton 0} .06121 -064 51 | .38640 .388 1 | .06359 .066 §2 |..39977 401 21 06605 .068 53-| .41856 A415 3} .06861 071 54-|..42779 -429 4] .07126 O74 55.| 44249 443 5 | .07401 076 56| A5764 A458 6 | .07685 .079 57 | .47328 AT4 7 | .07980 082 58 | 48940]. .490- 8 | .08286 085 59 | .50604 .507 9 | .08603 -087 60.| .52320 |. .524- 10} .08931 -090 61.) .54089 542 11} .09270 .093 62 | .55913 .560 12 | .09622 .096 63°) .57795-| . .578 13} .09987 -100 64.| .59735 «597 14] .10364 -104 65 | 61734 616 15 | .10755 -108 66.} 63795 .635 16 | .11160 112 67 | .65919 655 17 | .11579 -116 68 68108 .676 18 | .12013 .120° |} 69 70364 698 19 | .12462 124 70 72683 -¥21 20. | .12997 129° ||-71:|> .75083.) 7450 21 |: .18408 134 72) 77551 -770 22 | .13906 -139 73| .80092. -796 23) .14421 144 74) .82710 823 24 | 14954 -150 75 | 85407 -851 25} .15506 156 76 | .88184 .880 26 | .16076 | ~ .162 || 77 | .91042 910 27 | .16667 168 78 | .93987 -940 28 | .17277 +174 79 | .97017 -971 29 | .17908 .180 80. | 1.00137 | 1.00 30 } .18561 .186 81 | 1.08350 | 1.04 31 | .19237 .193 82°} 1.06656 | 1.07 382 | .19934 -200 83 |1.10058 | 1.10 33 | .20658 -207 84} 1.13559 | 1.14 34 | .21404 214 85°] 1.17161}. 1.17 35.| .22175 221 86 | 1.20867.| 1.21. 386 | .22972 229. 87 | 1.24680] 1,24 37 | .23796 237. 88 | 1.28602 | 1,28 38 | .24647 +245 89 | 1.32636 | 1.32- 39 |. .25527 | .254 || 90°] 1.36785 | 1.36° 40 | .26436 | .263 |} 91 [1.41059 | 1.40 41 | .27376 273 92 | 1.45438.| 1.44 42 | .28346 -283 93 | 1.49948 | 1.48 43 | .29348 294 94 |1.54585 | 1.53 441 .80384 805 95 | 1.59352] 1.58 A5 |} .81453 .316 96 | 1.64251 | 1.63 46 | .82557 328 97 | 1.69286 | 1.68 47 | .33684 | .839. || 98 11.74461 | 1.74 48.) .34875 351 99 | 1.79778} 1.80 49 | .36090 -363 ||100 | 1.85241 | 1.86 50 | 37345 | .375 HYGROMETRY-. $2. Having thus:deduced a general expression “for Hyg the'elasticity “ tension of vapour at different tem) try, tures; we shall now to investigate its density or |" absolute weight. ‘I'he riments of Gay Lussac; sion of: which were conducted je hae — par weight of accuracy, have established, beyond the possibility of doubt, that vapours, when they are subjected to pres- diferent sure, suffer. within certain limits, that is, so long as t™Pet™- they retain the elastic form, the same reduction of bulk “"* as'permanently elastic fluids. Hence if P be the weight of the liquid redaced to vapour in grammes; N the number of divisions’ of the receiver, which it: occupies in the vaporous,state at the temperature of 100° centi- grade; v the capacity of one of these divisions in litres at the freezing point: then since Nv would be the vo- lume of the vapour; if the receiver itself'suffered no ex- pansion by the increase of temperature, its real volume will be N v(1+41004), the quantity / being the cubical dilatation of glass for each degree of the centigrade scale: Also if) p be the pressure of the a here-at the time of the experiment, and / the height of the mers cury in the receiver above its external level, both bei expressed in metres, then the volume of vapour in lis” tres, produced: by the quantity of liquid whose weight is P, will be Biegs +1001"), and that of a sin- gle gramme N o(1 4 100%)(p—2) -76P op ed 33. Now in one of his experiments, Gay Lussac Import found, that 4%, grammes of water being introduced **Per™ under a receiver, and the temperature raised to 100°, gave a volume of vapour which occupied 220 divisions, each of which was equal in capacity to .00499316 li« tres ; the column of mercury in the inside of the recei- ver was .052 metres above the external level, and the barometer at the time of the experiment stood at .7555 metres. As mercury is expanded ;49°, of its bulk from the freezing tothe boiling point; or -2rx for each degree of the centigrade scale, and the temperature of the mercury in the barometer at the time of the expe« riment was 15°, the height of the column of mercury in the receiver reduced to what it would be at the freez- ing point, ises x 052, or .051056 metres , and rz the height of the mercury in the barometer, corrected in like manner, is i -7-X-+7555, or .75341 metres. 1+ 41 Hence P = .6; N=220; »=.00499316;. p=.75341 ; h=.051056 ; and since the cubical dilatation of glass is .0000262716 for each degree ofthe centigrade scale rec- koned from the freezing point, 1 + 100 4==1.00262716. And N v(1 + 100%) p —A) — 76 P is 220 x .00499316 x 1.00262716 x .75541 — 051056 al, 76 X.6 i 1.69641 litres. Therefore a volume of vapour equal to 1.69641 litres, would contain at the boiling point, un- der a pressure of .76 metres of mercury, a uantity of moisture equal in weight toa gramme; or a litre va- pour in the same circumstances would weigh .589481 at 29.92196 inches, weighs’ 149176 A ‘ consequently a cubic foot of vapour in the same circum- yi! HYGROMETRY. | STT stances weighs 257.776 grains.* But, according to to .0037528, must, to make it applicable to the degrees Hygrome- the accurate € of Biot and Arago, a : Wi MPF OO, ; try. litre of dry air at the boili int, and under a pres. f Fahrenheit, be multiplied by ==>", which makes “\— sure of .76 metres, 6’ grammes, and jt ,002086. therefore the of vapour at the temperature 100° "7, By these corrections, our formula becomes CSS EE rae SH Oe or as 5 to 8 nearly. Now as “Lussac has proved § =30(1 4.002086, i—32°) experiment, that vapours, so long as they remain in G being the weight in grains of a cubic inch of vapour increase , aad @ hiesiatd axpreuend la the aeriform state, expand, by permanently el at the hoiling point, i the same manner elastic same denomination of volum a P's : -76(1 .003751) tiled by 5 a5 to correct it for pressure, and then P=—_—_ ; PO | - § 35. If we substitute for P its value, viz. 589481 aru Thee. 4g ay Ls 528 GF, 1.37528 x .1495204F u Ow ey STS 5 = 30( 1 +.002086 /—82) ~ 30(1 4.002086, —32) — gireicireine ies 2, ttt ee er nme The 96. The valoe- of Pr in English grains, d =a = ara: corresponding to a cab ich of at the To illustrate tis formula, let it be require to find tof i i See Newel venen ee of Fahren- f 7 heit, a pressure of 30 inches of mercury. ; hide §ee Fabrenheit’s scale, or taken from the pn SOE, _ 82800 Fa the co-efficients 1.375, and .00375, must be WMiA+E M74 +66 not only to the graduation of that And if we introduce the value of Fee which Will be cater cote d are at which the found i of to be bem — Saaee oe ee eee vapour raise the point 1° 30 stances, would contain 7.055 grains of moisture. t Taisen’ betnge eqiaal to 99 metres, the point . 39, The following Table, calculated from the fore or : .0068544 F 7 r . the of centigrade above the int of the centi- ge an exhibits the quantity ; moisture contained in a cubic inch of vapour, from ze- after being reduced in like manner ro to 100° of Fahrenheit, under a pressure of 30°. of Hygrome. 578 try. } ; cS —~" Table of the Quantity of Moisture, in Grains, contained an a Cubic Inch of Vapour, from 0° to 100° of Fah- renheit, £ Weight . g Weight in grains of the ains of the 5 heed water in a 5 Fotee of ooaer ina 2 Yapour. | cubic inch of g | ‘Pour | cubic inch of | vapotir. x vapour. O |.06121 |.00044957 || 51 -88640 | .00254.757 1 |.06359 |.00046601 | 52 | .89977|.00263044 2 |.06605 |.00048296 | 53 | .41356].00271574 3 |.06861 |.00050056 | 54 -42779 | .00280358 4 |.07126|.00051874 | 55 | .44249}.00289415 5 |:07401 |.00053757 | 56 | .45764!.00298729 6 1.07685 |.00055697 | 57 | .47328|.00308325 7 |.07980|00057708 | 58 | .48940].00318197 } 8 |.08286|.00059789 || 59 | .50604}.00328366 9 |.08603 |.00061921 || 60 -52320 | .00338832 10 |.06931 |.00064161 |} 61 -54089 | .00349599 11 |.09270|.00066451 || 62 -55913 | .00360679 12 |.09622 |.00068825 || 63 -57795 | .00372089 13 |.09987 |.00071280 || 64 | .59735|.00383826 14 |.10364|.00073810 || 65 | .61734|.00895897 15 |.10755 :00076429 66 :63795 |.00408317 16 |.11160}-00079136 || 67 -65919 | .00421091 17 |.11579|.00081931 || 68 -68108 00434230 18 |.12013}.00084819 || 69 | .70364|.00447745 19 |.124.62|.00087801 || 70 | .72688].00461639 20 |.12927|.00090882 || 71 | .75083|.00475930 21 |.13408 |.00094051 || 72 | .77551|.00490628 22 |.13906|.00097337 | 73 | .80092|.00505729 | 23 |.14421|.00100732 || 744) .82710}.00521259 24 |.14954|.00104235 | 75 | .85407).00537226 25 |.15506|.00107851 || 76 | .88184|.00553634 26 |.16076|-00111588 || 77 | .91042|.00570487 27 |.16667}-00115446 ||.78 | .93987]|.00587810 28 |.17277}-00119420 || 79 -97017 |.00605617 29 |.17908|.00123522 || 80 | 1.00137 }|.00623919 30 |.18561]-00127758 || 81 | 1.03350|.00642708 81 |.19237|.00132134 || 82 | 1.06656 |.00662015 | 82 |.19934 00136636 || 83 | 1.10058) .00681843 33 |.20658|.001413038 || 84 | 1.13559!.00702209 34 |.21404)|.00146102 | 85 | 1.17161|.00723121 35 |.22175|.00151051 || 86 | 1.20867) .00744597 86 |.22972|.00156156 || 87 | 1.24680]|.00766648 37 |.23796|.00161424 |} 88 | 1.28602] .00789288 38 |.24647 |.00166852 || 89 | 1.32636] :00812529 39 |.25527 |.00172454 || 90 | 1.36785] .00836386 40 |.26436|.00178229 || 91 | 1.41059|.00860918 41 |.27376|.00184188 || 92 | 1.45438 |.00885999 42 |.28346'.00190325 || 93 | 1.49948 |.00911783 ° 43 |,29348|.00196651 || 94.] 1.54585 | .00938243 44 |.30384|.00203178. || 95 | 1.59352 | .00965392 45 |.31458|.00209899_ || 96 | 1.64251 | .00998240 46 |.32557|.00216827 || 97 | 1.60286 |.01021807 47. |.33684 |.00223878 || 98-| 1.74461 |.01051113 48 |.34875 |.00281326 || 99 | 1.79778! .01081165 49 |.36090 |.00238903 }100 | 1.85241 ).01111983 50 |.37345 |.00246714 40, The formula, by which the above Table was cal- culated, being adapted to a pressure of 30 inches of culation the volume which both ought to mercury, if the pressure of the atmosphere be different, 4 corresponding correction must be applied: if the _ mercury allowed to make its esca . HYGROMETRY. elehe of the barometer in inches:be represented by @, en ‘ 4 0068544 F; ( + .002086, ¢— aw): _ .109588F, 109538 F; ~ 479.4 4t—32~ 447.4% If the value of g be taken from the Table, it must be multiplied by 41, The formule which we have deduced, for the elastic force of steam, and the weight of the water con- tained in a given volume of y rature and pressure are of ascertaining, under similar circumstances, the force and smn) of vapour which exist, in combination or mixture with atmospheric air. The experiments of Gay Lussac have decidedly proved, that vapours, so long as" they exist in the aériform state, not only undergo the same change of mechanical condition by change of tem- perature and pressure, but that the same thing holds true, when they are mixed with vapours of a different kind, or even with permanently elastic fluids. The apparatus which Gay Lussac employed for demonstra-< ting this important fact, is delineated in Fig. 1. Plate CCCXXVI. rately graduated ; R and R’ are two stop-cocks of iron ; TT’ is a bent tube of glass, communicating with AB at T. The whole fe having been well dried, the tube AB was filled with dry mercury, recently boiled ; a balloon, furnished with a stop-cock r, and filled with dry air, was then firmly connected with the tube AB, after which the stop-cocks r and R’ were opened, thus making a communication between them.’ The stop-cock R was next opened, and a quantity of by the recurved tubeab. The gas was thus allowed to dilate itself, till it was reduced to some purticular state of rarefaction. The stop-cocks R and R’ were then shut. The inclo« sed gas in the cylinder -AB being rarefied, by its in- crease of volume, the level of the mercury in it is found to stand higher than that of the mercury in the bent tube TT’; but the gas is easily reduced to the pressure of the atmosphere, at the time of the experi- ment, by pouring mercury into the tube TT’, till H- and / have'the same level. The liquid to be reduced into vapour is introduced into AB, by removing the balloon, and applying another stop-cock Rv, the tube connected with which is surmounted by a small fun« nel V. The, stop-cock R” has a small cavity on one side of it, capable of containing a single drop of the liquid to be subjected to experiment, and by means of, wtih any given portion of it may be introduced into AB. The liquid being thus brought in contact with the dry gas, is gradually conv into vapour; and when the addition of it ceases to increase the volume of the gas, a sufficient quantity is introduced, to exist in the vaporous state, at the ee and pressure at which the experiment is made. The elasticity of, the gas being augmented by the vapour, the mercury is elevated in the tube TT’ above its former level, and the gas, together with the vapour with which it is mixed, thus sustains a greater pressure than that.of the atmosphere. It would be easy to make an allow~ ance for the difference of level, and determine by cal- occupy under that pressure ; but the apparatus itself Setntees the means of obtaining the proper correction, by allowing exe &= 30 or, g ur, when the tempe- Gay Lus- ven, furnish also the means *@¢ 0n va- AB represents a cylindrical tube, accu- oc - Hygromes <= Experi- ments of pour in mixture with air. PLATE : Fig. 1, ; : | | HYGROMETRY. Deremeny tn Oees eee, otk > telin AB ond tiplied, in order to reduce it to its real volume, if it Hygrome- TT’ i “579 ‘is the same. If N be the number of divisions oc- ived entirely of water. Its value in pneuma- __*Y- cupied originally by the gas, N’ the number of divi- tic researches will be duly estimated by the philosophi- “~Y~~ sions occupied by the mixture, and p the pressure of cal chemist. same during the experiment ; the elastic force of the : gas, in consequence of its increase of volume, will now | Increased : Increased | N . volume, ; volume, , | p, and if f be the elastic force of the vapour, & | the original (Multipliers. the original Multipliers. be (x7)? f ie bulk being |B | bulk being the joint elasticity of both will bef +P. But this | © |_“' 8 ere . ; $2 | 1.0064 | .99336 || 67 | 1.0225 . .97803 iaioa Serene ayer Settee pressure, we —_ | '33 | 1.0068 |-.99311 |} 68 | 1.0282. | .97730 $4 | 1.0071 | .99986 || G9 | 1.0240 | .97654 oh p 35 | 1.0074 | .99261 |} 70 | 1.0248 | .97577 } pal tyr 36 | 1.0077 | .99234 || 71 | 1.0257 | 97497 N N—N ra ‘99 | a.oe7s sie bs heres soon} 38 | 1.0083 178 | 73 | 1. Hence f= p—~xy or p ( N’ ) 39 | 1.0086 | 99149 || 74 | 1.0283 | 97243 - 40 | 1.0089 | .99119 | 75 | 1.0293 | .97153 42. It the of Lussac, Moke aN Nand p ore Gay me 41 | 1.0092 | .99087 || 76 | 1.0803 | .97060 age E ragtime 42 | 1.0095 | .99055 || 77 | 1.0313 | .96998 gy a page - Paes ay Peep 43 | 1.0099 | .99022 || 78 | 1.0323 | .96867 he Ly yn obtained ah 44 | 1.0102 | .98987 || 79 | 1.0334 | .96766 no Sree vaponr aan Fa. 45 | 1.0106 | .98952 || 80 | 1.0345 | .96662 we eee formula ant the in 46 | 1.0109 | .98915 || 81 | 1.0357 | .96555 ao sangha £2. pe emegqentr io postin, ooo 47 | 1.0113 | .98877 | 82} 1.0369 | .96445 union — =< saaienestt phqueant 48 | 1.0117 | .98837 | 83 | 1.0381 | .96331 secant. ‘Thia resale faynishes by far the strongest 49 | 1.0122 | 98897 | 84 | 1.0393 | 96215 present. etary tanya FL Te, 50 | 1.0126 | .98755 || 85 | 1.0406 | .96094 fea err po Ne grave of 51 | 1.0130 | .98712 || 86 | 1.0420 | .95971 a pes wey ee memornae Fort wr de 52 | 1.0135 | .98667 | 87 | 1.0434 | .95844 } ee Leaneten wivtenine 58 | 1.0140 | .98621 | 88 | 1.0448 | .95713 to determine the precise volume which amixture of va- | 54 | 1.0145 | .98574 |) 89 | 1.0403 | .95579 | and dry air would at a given temperature, 55 | 10160 | 90685. | 90 }.1.0878. | 95440 | pee Senn: Aik Chek Jn aneoenday in bo 56 | 1.0154 | 98478 || 91 | 1.0493, | .95298 ey ea ak aaa sien ~ tin ete - yy Sante i to substitute it for that quantity in the expression 60 1.0178 98206 95 | 1.0561. | .94688 No 01 98197 || 96} 1.0579 | .94525 S=pP we} We should thus obtain 62 | 1.0190 | .98136 || 97 | 1.0598 | .94357 N 63 | 1.0196 | .98074 || 98 | 1.0617 | .94185 }, ny 64 | 1.0203 | .98009 || 99 | 1.0637 | .94007 p—s 65 | 1.0210 | .97942 [100 | 1.0658 | 93835 To illustrate this formula by example, let it be 66 | 1.0817 _| 9787S To illustrate the use of the above Tablet by example, : i determine ty pn tae is 70°, barometrical 29.25 inches, and the level of the water inthe inside of the receiver 9.5 inches. nd rede en the ‘0° i for the temperature 70° being 1.0248, the enlarged bulk of the | air, onder a to the result: in first place, a column of water of the height of 9.5 inches is toa column of mercury of the height of .098 , the heights being, * Saussure found by bis that dry air at the tem of 13°. . Scheiny whieh ly wiblurtiny Gadd CEM Sedboring the satteer toetcn ft wr ee oe eee wee nee + As the Table can only be applied with perfect accuracy, when the level of the water, in the outside and inside of the receiver, be considered merely as near approximations, 580 » ‘Hygrowe- inversely as their specific gravities ; and, therefore, the try: actual pressure sustained by the’ airand the vapour, in the supposed circumstances, is equal to 29.25 — .098, or 29.152 inches of mercury ; and, lastly, the expand~ ed volume 1770.85 must be multiplied by Srive to obtain its augmentation by the diminished pressure, which reduces it to 1822.86 cubic inches. To propose an example of an opposite description, Jet it be required to find the actual volume of air con- ‘tained in a receiver standing over water at the tempe- rature of 60°, when the barometrical pressure is 30.45 inches, and the level of the water in the inside of the receiver eight inches above its level on the outside ; sj at also the apparent quantity of air to be 850 cubie inches. The multiplier in the table for’ the temperature 60° being .98256 the reduced yoltime, under a pressure of 30 inches, is 850 x .98256 or 835.176 cubic inches ; and this result corrected for the pressure becomes 835.176 x a or 846.061 cubic inches. 44, By means of the apparatus formerly described, orisay Lus, C2Y, Lussac examined the tension of vapour when a ae ae smaller quantity of moisture was introduced into the elasticity of cylinder AB, than was sufficient to saturate complete- vapour ly the space previously occupied by the air which it mixed with contained; and in all cases he found, that the elastic fons férce of the vapour, in its attenuated state, was affected i, by variations of pressure, re, in the same man- ner as permanently elastic fluids, the reduction of bulk which it sustained being always inversely proportional to the pressure, Thus, if N represent the bulk of the air, on introducing a single drop of water, the volume N was gradually enlarged to N’ 3_and allowing a part of the mercury to flow out, until its surface in AB, and the bent tube TT’ was the same, the included air in mixture with the vapour was brought to the same pressure as at the beginning of the experiment.’ If an additional portion of mercury be now allowed to “escape; the surface of the mercury in the bent tube de- scends below the surface of the mercury in the cylin- der AB; so} that if the difference ‘of level be repre- sented by h, the elastic force of the mixture of air and vapour will be p—h, the quantity p denoting, as be- fore, the barometrical pressure at the'time of the expe- riment. If the change of volume resulting from the change of pressure be now examined, it is found, in all cases, to be the same, as would be obtained with dry air; so that if N” be the space occupied by the mix-~ - ture in its new state of dilatation, we have, invari- ably, N’ p—h Nr = Lidice & 45) To determine what)change this result:implies in Tet J be the force which the mixture exerted when it occupied the space N’, and J' the force which it exerts under the volume N’’; then since p is the pressure of the atmosphere, the°elastic force of the air in the receiver, when; together: with the vapour it eceupied the space N’, must have been p—J; is now, on account of the enlargement of vo- Additional -experiments The elastic c force of va- the elastic force of the:vapour, pour in- versely pro- portional to ~ the reduc- tion of vo- lume by mechanical pressure. N f ‘ lume, reduced to (p —/) Wr If to this elastic force of the air we add the elastic force of the vapour, we : , obtain for the elasticity of the. mixture,’ 4.(p—) HYGROMETRY. ye and, corisequently, fe S' + (2S) Ki Ph But it is found by experiment, that N’. p—h N’ <= 4 or p—h=p (<3) Therefore, N’ N’ J’ + (PS) Ri = PR And, f’ =f (we): | This result, which has been deduced by Biot from the experiments of Gay Lussac, demonstrates what had been formerly stated by Dalton, that the elastic force of vae pour, however attenuated the latter may be, changes in all cases with the volume, precisely in the same manner as that‘of the gases. Hence it may be concluded, that, so long as vapour retains the aériform state, the quan- tity of it which can exist in mixture with air, is exactly the same as in. a vacuum’ of equal extent, when the pressure and temperature are the same; and, therefore, the Table ($39.) which expresses the weight in grains of a cubic inch of vapour, from zero to 100° of Fahren« heit, may be applied with perfect accuracy to deters mine the weight of the moisture contained in a cubic inch of air, when the tensions or elasticities of both are thesame, Theonly circumstance necessary for. this ap+ lication of the Table, so important to the purposes’ of by metry, is some means of ascertaining the elasticity of the vapour in admixture with the’ air. Mr Dalton has suggested one method of doing this, which is ex- tremely simple, as well as susceptible of the gréatest accuracy. 46. The method to which we have alluded, is foiind- Method of ed on the principle, that if vapour, in an attentiated determining state, (that is, in a state such that the epace which it oc- the ery cupies is capable nee anadditional portionof mois- 17,9," ture in the vaporous_condition,) be: cooled down till it mixture just begin to deposit itself in the form of dew, the vo- with air. lume to which it is then reduced’ must be completely saturated with moisture ; and consequently the vapour in this reduced state must possess the same elasticity as unmixed vapour at the same temperature. In the case of the atmosphere, we can determine the temperature at which this deposition takes*place, by presenting to it a body cooled down continuously from the tempera= ture of the air, until its surface begins to be bedewed with moisture; and for this purpose, no contrivance seems more convenient than that proposed by Mr Dal- ton, which we shall now briefly describe. 47. Having taken a cylindrical glass vessel, Mr Da ton poured cold water into it, the temperature of whica was gradually reduced by cooling mixtures when ne- cessary. - He then-carefully watched, till he observed an incipient deposition of moisture on the surface of the jar.; after which he, examined: the temperature the water, and assumed it as the temperature at which the moisture in the atmosphere would just be retained in.a state of vapour, . If a deposition of dew took place immediately, he allowed the jar to stand for some mi- nutes to receive an. increase of temperature, wiping it from, time to time on the outside with a dry Jinen towel, till it entirely ceased to exhibit the appearance of moisture on its surface, and then examined the tem- perature of the water as before. If due precautions be employed, the temperature, at which the dew is formed on the surface of the jar, may be»determined ‘to the Let the tempera- s, and let 9, be mam of 3 also let /’ be the elastic force of the , in the state of attenuation in which it actually in the ae Danes since nothing more is necessary but to vapour from the 7 to the t, in order to reduce it from the force ¢ to the S's 1 -002086 t — ™ 447441 on f= 0, poses) = * Cart) = t—r (1 +% jas) since the number of grains contained ina vapour at the temperature +, and under a Pe Fo and - or E=5(fi-f") , Hence f’=f-— 5 These formule may be applied to the solution of -HYGROMETRY. it amounts to a ; 581 2 ay mean seutgratiinn, ead annual evaporation __ "Y-. of a place are known, the formula f’= fi—z will enable us to determine the mean state of the air of that Mean point i to moisture. Let us take for ex- of i ion of Great Britain, #” for _ is reckoned about 24 inches ; this in a minute ST B#- w be 00004563 inches, and applied to a cylindrical vessel 6 inches in diameter, correspond to -32587 temperature 50°, stitute for f; the corresponding elastic force of 4 Gden Sed-toe tate i$ 91) ve Obi inches. $.2859 f" _ 3.2859 x *308276 = = 00203652 ~ 447.440 4474450 — : - $ z i if F is it E i f= f= fans M1 14979—173798-=-968992 By proceeding : foa , cubic inch of vapour, int of deposition i 52.6 | ea oc t 1s 5°. t seems probable, below the mean temperature. t of deposition, fi Sisce, fs about 6° bel th int ition, for , t 6° below the snean emipentune we admit, observations are * Dr Dobson found by observation, that the mean temperature of deposition, at Liverpool, was T° below the temperature of that place. — 582 Hygrome- still wanting to warrant so general a conclusion. Mr try. Dalton affirms, =\¥ from 1° to 10° Mean an- that the point of deposition is generally below the mean~heat of the 24 hours ; we have usually found it to be from 6° to 7°. * 51. The following formula, which we have deduced nual evapo- on the supposition that the mean point of deposition is ration in different la- titades, 6° below the mean temperature, seems to agree pretty well with observation. Let ¢ be the mean temperature ; Ji the entire force of vapour corresponding to ¢; and ?, the entire force of vapour corresponding to the tem- perature +, or é—6; then if A be the mean annual evaporation in inches, ’ t—v+r The mean daily evaporation, for any place, according to this formula, is fj — 9, (i + S; i «2 Let it be required to find, by it, the mean annual evaporation, at a place in Lat, 45°, the mean tempera- ture of which is 57°. A=365 (fi —9 (I+ pects Ak ) or nearl. M744<)" y t—+ Bt) 447.4 4 -)) a a FE 57—51 .\ | = 865 (,-%, (1 tame = inches. = 365 (.47328 — 3864 x 1.012) = 30.02. For the purposes of calculation, the expression may ~ be reduced to the’ approximated, but more commodi- ous form, A= 365 (4 _ a5 %-8 ). By means of this formula, we have deduced the fol- lowing Table, which expresses the mean annual and daily evaporation, from-the equator to either pole, for the different parallels of latitude, at the interval of 5°. The mean annual temperature: corresponding to each latitude, was derived from Meyer's forniula. Mean Evaporation if i Latitude. A nrg in inches. oe eS ham P ; 50 diffs lat. Daily. Yearly. 0 85 -18938 69.10 5 84.6 -18717 68.32 78 10 83.4 -18085 66.01 2.31 15 81.4 -17073 62.32 3.69 20 78.7 15786 57.62 4.70 25, 75.4 -14133 52.32 5.30 30 71.8 -12769 46.61 5.71 35 67.2: -41222 40.96 5.65 40 62.7 -09785 35.72 5.24 AS 58. 08463 30.89 4.83 50 53.3 -07312 26.71 4,18 55 48.8 06327 23.09. 3.62 60 44.5 | .05517 20.14 2.95 65 40.6 -04860 17.74 2.40 70 37.3 -04362 15.92 1.82 75 34.6 -03990 14.56 1.36 80 32.6 -03732 |* 13.62 -94 85 31.4 -03584 13.09 53 90 31. 08537 12.91 18 The last column contains the differences of the mean 4 The mean point of deposition might also, be ascertained, it the diminution of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere. HYGROMETRY. | given day. © na general way, by the mean height ef the clouds, and the rate of annual evaporation corresponding to every 5° of differs Hygro ence of latitude. These appear to increase, according “Y- to some regular law, from the pole to the parallel of 30° ; after which they begin to diminish, and continue to decrease to the equator. The greatest differences take place near the limits of the trade winds. Hence it might be inferred, that the most copious depositions of moisture should occur a few degrees on either side of the tropics. 52. As the temperature of every place, for the whole ‘The point ear, ranges between two extreme points correspond. of deposi- ing to the alternations of summer and winter ; so it ex- tion coin- — hibits every 24 hours, a corresponding difference with a th th respect to the vicissitudes of day and night. In the 7:00) case of the daily change of temperature there is some tempera. interval between the maximum and the minimum, which ture for | may be regarded as the temperature belonging to the season. season of the year ; and, though this point will not al- ways be a mean between these extremes, it will in neral approach very near it. If this mean temperature were to rise and sink regularly, as the season advanced and declined, without being subject to daily fluctuation, the quantity of moisture which could exist in the at- mosphere, at any given time, might be determined with the utmost precision ; since nothing more would be ne- cessary for that purpose, than to calculate the maximum quantity of vapour for the temperature, by the formula in § 39. A variety of causes, however, which are too complicated in their nature to admit of being reduced under any general law, (but of which the vicissitude of day and night is the principal,) continually‘ conspire to raise and depress, by turns, the temperature of every place above or below its mean level for the season ; and ' hence the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere will generally be less than the quantity corresponding to the mean temperature, but at all times nearly equal to that belonging to the miiimum temperature. If it be less than the Jatter quantity, the process of evaporation will gradually supply the deficiency ; if it be greater, the excess will quickly be precipitated in the form of dew, rain, or snow, according to the temperature, and the extent of its depression, below the minimum temper= ature, ‘ In short, the mean point of deposition, which we for= merly represented by +, and for which 9, is the corre- sponding elastic force of vapour, must be nearly the same as the minimum temperature of any place on any It appears by the following observations, extract. ed from the meteorological journal for 1815 kept by the Rev. Mr Gordon of Kinfauns, that the minimum temperature of Perth, and consequently the mean point of deposition for that place, is about 6° below the mean temperature, thus coinciding very nearly with the re= sult formerly deduced from theory, as the mean point ni deposition for Great Britain and the globe in gene« ral. ! In the following Table, the depression of the minimum temperature below the mean temperature for each month, has evidently some relation to the indications of Les« lie’s hygrometer. This relation will be better under- stood, after we have explained more particularly the manner in which that instrument is affected by the elasticity of the vapour existing in the atmosphere ; at present we shall only remark, that as observations made with any hygrometer are of very little value, unless the i ae ed Srecc ss fe Temperature. 45.730 | 5.797 53. From what we have stated i J i i t tare of the air; and /’ the force of the vapour actual- ly ph ran leg we evidently have an equation of the form, D=m(f,—/”), in which m is a constant co-efficient to be determined by experi ee elena en an ee? pac evaporating surface. _— means of a di . Let AC, therefore, resent the vd of Che air, e 583 try. —_——_ E ture is a to it; let the line AT represent the time manner in proportional quantity of heat which flows into the co- in a ther- eed ball in th mol the bulb of the thermc meter would cool uniformly, and puib. to’an indefinite flux of caloric, which being always the same propor- tional part of the excess of the temperature of the air above that of the covered ball, gradually increases until BH (which is the same of BG that D d is of DE,) becomes equal to DE. The diminution of temperature by eva ion being now exactly counterbalanced by the influx of heat from the contiguous air, the cooling process attains its utmost limits; and GH represents the difference between the temperature of the air and that of the covered thermometer, which henceforth con« tinues stati ° 56. It must be evident, however, from the view we have taken of the cooling process, that a thermometer with a moistened bulb ought to be reduced through the same number of in equal times, and thus reach the maximum of effect in a sudden and abrupt manner, —a supposition which is neither consistent with the law of continuity, nor conformable to observation: for, though the diminution of ay “ese is at first nearly uniform, the effect ually diminishes as the advances, and the differences, ing every instant smaller and smaller, are at last al er evanescent. The cause of this deviation from the state of thi at first supposed, is to be ascribed to the diminished. onsen arising from the cooling of the moistened ; so that the reduction of temperature in the first interval of time, instead of bei ted by ed, the lilrence beteaes VE tat ly ¢, the minute quantity Ee being so pete gop aped Es the diminished Bee ncepalonedl the reduction of tem ire already induced. In like manner, the total instead of being accurate- ly represented by HG, will be ted by H g; and the curve Ag wit thus, exhibit march of the ther- mometer from the beginning to the end of the process. The intervals Ad,’ dd’, &c. will still represent equal of time ; and the perpendiculars de, de’, &c. the reduction of temperature at the end of those times, A to the curve at g will be parallel to AH,— a ion which is necessary to prevent a violation of the law of continuity. 57. It may be inferred from this graphical delinea« tion, that since the extent of the e tion, together with the reduction of temperature which it occasions, is diminished by the cooling of the evaporating surface, the expression D = m (f,—,f’) will require some cor- rection; and as this correction must have a direct re- Jation to D, the simplest way of applying it, is to give the equation the form, D—Pam(fi—S), Hence ("=") D =f,—-S- , were it not for the incessant in- PLaTE cCCXXVI. Fig. 2. we 58k Hygrome- The co-efficients m.and n being two, constant quantities try: _ to be determined by experiment, the equation will re- sume the simplicity of its original form, by supposing m™" — p; we thus have, D =p (f,—/’). This equa n—1 tion, however, will only express the value of D by a near approximation. To render the expression con- sistent with ‘the properties of the curve, whose ordi- nates represent the progressive reductions of tempera- ture by evaporation from the moistened bulbs, it seems necessary to give it the form, D D= (p—=) A—f). 58. The co-efficients p and r, particularly the former, being important elements in any equation which should formula for €Xpress the quantity of moisture contained in the at- Leslie’shy- mosphere, in terms of f,, f’ and D, we instituted a grometer. series of the most laborious experiments to, determine their values with accuracy. For this purpose we had recourse to Mr Dalton’s method of finding the point of deposition, whose elastic force we formerly denoted by e; ; and, from the precautions we observed, we have yeason to think, that our experiments were calculated to determine that point within the fifth part of a degree of Fahrenheit. We generally employed two jars of a cylindrical shape, one of glass, and the other of tin- plate. Each of them was about eight inches deep, and six inches in diameter ; it being convenient to have them of a considerable size, that their temperature, when they are filled with cold water, may not be raised too quickly by the superior temperature of the surrounding bodies. We also used occasionally, for the same pur- pose, a vessel of silver, which, on account of its resplen- dent surface, is admirably fitted to shew the slightest deposition of moisture on it. These vessels were filled with water, cooled down several degrees below the point of deposition, and placed near one another on a table, at a sufficient distance from the thermometers employed to indicate the temperature of the air ¢, and the point of depression of the moistened bulb produced by oreporine: The experiments were generally pers formed in a large octagonal apartment, about 50 feet in diameter, and 30 feet high; and in order that the smallest deposition of moisture might be perceptible, the jars were observed at the distance of 15 feet with a owerful telescope. By this means, when no sensible pase appeared to the naked eye however closel the jars were examined, the drops of moisture, whic formed on their surfaces, were so much magnified, as to be seen increasing gradually in size. The jars were wiped from time to time with a clean dry towel ; but unless this operation was performed with the utmost care, the telescope discovered large tracts of moisture, which could not be discerned without its assistance. The state of the thermometers was accurately observed at the same time, and a rotatory motion frequently given tothe water. When the deposition of moisture on the surface of the jars was no longer perceptible, the temperature of the different thermometers was care« fully noted. Sometimes the temperature of the water in the jars was again reduced, by stirring bits of ice in it till it was lowered a degree or two below the point of deposition, to remove all chance of error, and ascertain the limits within which it might range. The difference in the result seldom exceeded the fourth part of a de- Investiga- tion of a HYGROMETRY. gree. It is proper also to remark, that the point of de- Hygrom position, as etermined by the different jars, was always the same. 59. The temperature of the air at the time of these experiments was observed with two excellent mercurial thermometers, one of which was made by Jones, and the other by Adie; and the temperature of the water in . the jars was determined by a good thermometer of Crichton. The reduction of temperature produced by evaporation was ascertained by two mercurial thermo meters ; two thermometers filled with spirit of wine, and covered with moistened tissue paper ; and two hy-« grometers of Mr Leslie. One of the mercurial thermo meters possessed the utmost delicacy, and had a range of scale, which easily gave the 10th part of a degree. The largest of the spirit of wine thermometers had a bulb 25 inches in diameter ; and its tube, which was two feet long, included a range of scale from 32° to 60°. This instrument, on account of its size, and the great capacity of alcohol for caloric, was more. slowly reduced in its temperature than the other thermometers with covered bulbs ; but, after a certain lapse of time, all of them became stationary nearly at the same point, the difference never pai a small fraction ofa degree. It is easy to perceive, indeed, that whether the thermo« metrical ball be large or small, the inclosed fluid, what« ever it may be, must ultimately reach the same tempe- rature; for since the quantity f; —/’, which regulates the evaporation, is constant, the evaporation must al-« ways cool down the moistened surface to the same pitch, and thus gradually abstract heat from the thers mometrical fluid, precisely in the same manner as if the bulb consisted entirely of water, (due allowance being made for the difference of capacity for caloric,) until the reduction of temperature is counterbalanced by the in« flux of heat from the air. If the specific heat of the inclosed fluid be great, the process will be longer in producing its maximum of effect; but the diminution of temperature by evaporation, and the influx of heat by communication, being in all cases to each other in the same constant ratio, the reduction of temperature. must be always the same. Hence the diminution of tempe« rature indicated by Leslie’s hygrometer invariably cor« responds to that of the most sluggish thermometer, with a moistened bulb. ’ 60. To determine what influence the atmospherical Jpguence pressure might have on these results, Leslie’s hygrome- of atmo. ter, having its bulb duly moistened, was placed with a spherical quantity of sulphuric acid in a cup, under a large re~ Pressure on ceiver, on. the plate of an air-pump, and allowed to re. ’*Portte main till it became stationary. In a few minutes it sunk down to 26°; the temperature at the time being 483°, and the atmospherical pressure 29.6. The air was then exhausted till the gauge stood successively at 6, 12, 18, and 24 inches, when the following results were obtained : Height of the” Degrees of gauge ininchesof} Pressure. Leslie’s P| “mercury. hygrometer. ¥ 0 29.6 27 4 6 93.6 34 - 12 17.6 44 4 18 11.6 62 2 24 5.6 91 « From these experiments it may be safely inferred, + 3 HYGROMETRY. Hence we have by substitution, as before, 69= (r—*2) (.46421 — 26895) 585 _Hygrome- try. —_—— ’ 6.9 61. In one of the ig agg sage Oye made to ascertain data, w! barometer stood at 29.75, Leslies == = = = we we = OSL - - - - - * * fod § 31. =2eg + ~~ + + § 47. _D = 672 — 52 = 15.2 by the covered thermometers, orD = 85 x 2 = 15.5 by Leslie's hygrometer § 25. D= 224159 _ 159.95, using the mean. The values of f; , f’, and D being substituted in the general equation D=(e—— (i—S'), we ob- tain 15.25 = sors (P?— =) (.66357 —.22728) + s'=0(Ga ts D = 56.42—49.51=6.91, by the covered thermometers. D=383 x a 689, by Leslie's hygrometer. 6.91 + 6.89 __ Using the mean D = ——+ 6.9. VOL, XI, PART it. a dg ree aepereres, Ooms 2 equation, p is the more i t cients, and thet the value of D'can be but slight! ly af- fected by any in the value of r, We cannot err greatly, therefore, if we take 36 for the value of p, and 10 for that of r. The formula D=°(p—2) (i 1’) will thus become PS é D=>F(%8—Z)ii-s’) £p 36—D tea sD Orf’ =fi —-p This formula will enable us to find, by means of the moisture con- And f’ =f; — rahe gpa PB = 61734 — .38116 = .23618 « And by § 50, 61734 : 23618 i: 00395897 : 0015146 mall comer $2, math pit of depen, The deposition ation was 35°45 ; and De Luc’s hygrometer stood, at * the time, at 27°. 63. If we substitute the value of f’ for F, in the for- -10953 2 F, mir f= "Ta obtain (as laid down in § 40.) we 586 This expression will accordingly give the weight in grains, of the moisture in a cubic inch of air; when Sis the entire force of vapour for the temperature of the air t; D, the difference of the temperature between a na- ked thermometer, and one with a moistened bulb co- vered with tissue paper; and 8, the height of the baro- meter, are known. The value of f, is obtained by the Table in § 31; and that of D and @ by observation. 64. The manner in which the formula is ex ressed, of the for- ‘renders it capable of being easily reduced to the diffe- mulato rent graduations of the thermometrical scale. Thus if Leslie’shy- DP) be expressed in degrees of Leslie’s hygrometer, since grometets the interval between the freezing and boiling points in that instrument is divided into 1000 equal parts, if L denote the number of degrees which it indicates, Tiygrome- try. Application z z4L Laeeite (i— 1000 —4 r)é 447.46 And in the centigrade scale, r B D and the 1.066495 (i ny) centigrade Pp — oeT00 = 4D ‘ scale; I + .00375¢ P’ being the weight in grammes of the moisture in a litre of air, and ¢ the height of the barometer in metres. Methods 65. As the conclusions which Mr Leslie has deduced employed from his experiments, lead to results differing in some by Mr Les- respects from those we have obtained, it may be proper lie to find to give a brief account of the mode of investigation he the quanti- adopted. This is the more necessary, as he expressly : a mentions that two different methods led to the same re- air. i, © sults. * One of these methods,” to use his own words, terms of “ Was in a large close room, to bring an hygrometer, the degrees conjoined with a thermometer, successively nearer to a of his hy- stove intensely heated, and to note the simultaneous grometer’ indications of both instruments; or to employ two nice thermometers placed beside each other, and having their bulbs covered respectively with dry and with wet cambric, By taking he mean of numerous observa- tions, and interpolating the intermediate quantities, the law of aqueous solution in air was laboriously traced. But the other method of investigation appeared better adapted for the higher temperatures. A thin hollow ball of tin, four inches in diameter, and having a very small neck, was neatly covered with linen, and being filled with water nearly boiling, and a thermometer in- serted, it was ‘hung likewise in a spacious close room, and the rate of its cooling carefully marked. The ex- periment was next repeated, by suspending it to the end of a fine beam, and wetting with a hair pencil the sur- ‘face of linen, till brought in exact equipoise to some given weight in the opposite scale. ‘l'en.grains being now taken out, the humid ball was allowed to rest against the point of a tapered glass tube, and the inter- val of time, with the corresponding diminution of tem- perature, observed when it rose again'to the position of equilibrium, The same operation was successively re- newed ; but as the rapidity of the evaporation declined, five, and afterwards two grains only, were, at each trial, withdrawn from the scale. From such a series of facts, it was easy to estimate the quantities of moisture which the same air would dissolve at different temperatures, * Mr Leslie does not describe how this number is obtained; but it is obviously, atcording to his views, the tenth term ofa geometrical series, of which the first term is 200, the last term 400, and number of terms 28. 2 ea aS / HYGROMETRY. and also the corresponding measures of heat expended Hygrome- in the process of solution. By connecting the range of __*Y- observations,” continues Mr Leslie, “ it would appear, that air has its dryness doubled at each rise of temper- ature, answering to 15 centesimal degrees. Thus at the freezing point, air is capable of holding a portion of moisture represented by 100 degrees of the hygrome- ter; atthe temperature of 15 centigrade, it could con tain 200 such parts; at that of 30°, it might dissolve 400; and at 45° in the same scale 800. Or, if we rec« kon by Fahrenheit’s divisions, air absolutely humid, holds at the limit of congelation the hundred and six- tieth t of its weight of moisture ; at the tempera< ture of 59° the eightieth part; at that of 86° the for- tieth part ; at that of 113° the twentieth part ; and at that of 140° the tenth part. While the temperature, therefore, advances uniformly in arithmetical progres sion, the dissolving power which this communicates to the air mounts with the accelerating rapidity of a geo- metrical series.” . 66. Before we examine the results of these experi- Discrepan ments, which we have no doubt were conducted with ¢y between every attention to accuracy, we may state, that, the pares: conclusion which has been drawn from them respect- and the ing the law of aqueous solution, is totally irreconcile- of aqueous sac. This will appear, by comparing the weight cubic irtch of vapour for the various temperatures, in sgelas Table § 31, deduced from their experiments; and ac- 8" cording to which, the solving power follows a different law from that stated by Leslie, though chiefly, we be- lieve, on account of its simplicity, it is the one generally admitted. It will be seen by the following Table, that if the temperatures be taken: in an arithmetical progres- sion, the quantities of moisture held in solution, form a succession of quantities, the terms of which increase in a faster ratio than the terms constituting a geome- trical series. Quantity of [Successive Temperatures at which a | Moisture in ‘ solving Power is doubled. Solution. |According to Leslie. By our Table. 100 32 $2, 200 59 . 53.2 400 . 86 75.6 800 113 99.4 According to the experiments of Leslie, the solving pate at power ‘is doubled every 27 degrees; whereas, aceord- which the ing to our Table, this takes place at different inter- solving ny which increase slowly with the temperature, the Power in- ‘mean being 23.4 from the freezing point to 100° of Tease ag 6 be 67. We shall now com e result’ s y OUr Com formula, with that derived by Mr Leslie from his mode tive pers of determining the point of deposition ; and we shall as ded take the example from his Treatise on the Relations of by Mr Air to Heat and Moisture. ‘‘ Suppose,” says he, “ the on dpe hygrometer to mark 52°, while its wet ball has a tem- jyuyjs, erature of 20 centesimal degrees, or 68° by Fahren- heit; the dissolving power of air at this tem ure being 252," its distance from absolute humidity will therefore be 200, which is the measure of solution-an- swering to 15 centesimal degrees, or 59° by Fahren- ie ee a | L i 55 1 ; P | Pate e 2% HYGROMETRY. 5% 52 10983 (Fs seo — Te, x30 s Wasa 4) : : oft) } 3 7 : aliit lil i he pleted! i B ° it 587 corresponding share of moisture. Wherefore, he con- Hygrome- cludes, at the temperature of the wet ball, atmospheric __"Y: air would take up moisture amounting to the 16,000th ot part of its weight, for each degree marked by the hy- 69. This view of paced acme, between the Onion evaporating e reduction of temperature t¢ Mr Les- which it induces, is somewhat different from the one a we haye taken in § 54. According to the explana- 4,0 nature tion we have there given of that relation, the heat ne- of the eva- ; for converting the moisture applied to the bulb, porating state of vapour, is derived immediately from Process. the water itself, at the moment the vapour is disenga- ged from its surface. The water having thus lost a ion of its heat, instantly abstracts caloric from the and the bulb, in its turn, from the inclosed ther- mometrical fluid, until an equilibrium is established by oe influx of + from the air, ppmntar elancing the ispersion of it by ev: tion. of the air is therefore imparted to the ball, merely by absorption ; and sets limits to the of refrigeration, by the increasing rate at which it flows into the cooling surface, as the tem of that surface recedes from site ty 2 the air. This ast ius is a to vaporization, whether the process be pone iam the air, or under an cahenaanh receiver; and it is finely illustrated by the result of an iment which we have described under the article Evaporation, p. 220, and which demonstrates that the caloric necessary for the formation of vapout is derived almost entirely from the water itself, and scarcely at all from the conti bodies. In short, we cannot perceive how Mr sh esis can afford an ex- planation of the great reduction of temperature which is produced by ev ion under an exhausted recei- ver, where, aay | his opinion, there is no solyent present to convert water into vapour. He speaks, indeed, of air having its scale of watery solution ex- tended by rarefaction ; but this is merely a gratuitous accommodation of fact to theory, and does not at all explain why the solution takes place, when the supposed solvent is most deficient in quantity, or entirely excluded, At the same time, it must be ad- mitted, that the results which he has deduced from the theoretical view he has taken of his hy, eter, accord remarkably well with the quantity of moisture in the air, as determined by 70. Ina — part deavoured to shew the point of deposition for any tion of the place must, in general, coincide nearly with the mini- coincidence mum temperature for the season. The truth of this rs uted tes nion is amply confirmed by applying our formula, for position and Leslie's hygrometer, to the very accurate observations the mini- cuncle with that instrument by Mr Gordon, to which we mum tem- formerly adverted. The point of deposition assi by perature. the formula, will be found in the followi able to prin coy wep as apeont 4 with the mean minimum tem- The indi- cations of hygrome- Gunde, not abso- lute. Ne- cessity of attending to tempera- ture and pressure. Applica- tion of hy- grometry to small portions of gaseous fluids, Researches ef Saussure. 588 HYGROMETRY. Degrees of bn Siam Leslie’s ‘emper. al Mean Height] Mean Point of | Grains of 1815. Hygrom. time of | of Barom. by | Minimum ||Deposition | moisture in a} Rain, by 3 daily | observa- | two daily temp. |jby formula-| cubic inch of | in inches. observ. tions. observ. air. January 4.9 33 29.808 28.5 29.1 -001238 0.945 February 8.1 42 29.552 35.7 36.8 .001612 2.007 March 14.7 43 29.407 34.9 33.8 001451 1.990 oao. 23.1 47 29.834 86.9 33.9 -001458 0.999 ay 23.0 54 29.741 45.5 44.3 -002050 2.334 June 29.7 59 29.794 48.9 47.9 -002304 0.871 July $2.0 61 29.977 50.3 49.7 -0024.44 1.743 August 27.7 60 29.707 50.9 49.9 -002463 1.324 September] 20.3 55 29.793 46.9 46.7 .002214 2.193 October 12.2 49 29.701 42.6 42.9 .001967 8.362 November 7.8 38 29.788 31.4 32.6 .001396 1.643 December 6.5 33 29.599 27.8 27.9 .001177 1.343 Rota tl 075 of bof 40 39.6 | .0018i4 | 20.754 Results 29.725 9. . 20.75 The difference between the point of deposition de- termined by the formula, and the mean minimum tem- perature for each month, of the particular year in which these observations were made, scarcely ever exceeds half a degree, except in April. The great difference in that month seems to be owing, pi to the copious discharge of moisture from the atmosphere, during the two preceding months, the rain for February and March amounting, by Mr Gordon’s meteorological journal, to 3.997 or nearly 4 inches; and partly to the unusual depression of temperature, for the season, dur ing the last of these months. 71. It may be proper to remark, in reference to the above results, that the indications of an hygrometer, of whatever kind, even when they are numerically the same, may imply very different portions of moisture in the air. Thus the hygrometer in April and May stood at 23, though the absolute quantities of moisture in the atmosphere, during these two months, were extremely different ;—a proof that the reports of hygrometrical ob« servations only tend to mislead, when the temperature and pressure of the air at the time they were made, are omitted. Hence also we can perceive the reason why no hygrometer can have its scale accurately graduated by exposing it to a particular temperature, in order to obtain the point of extreme dryness. 72. If the researches of hygrometry were confined to the atmosphere, the methods which we have already de- scribed for detecting the quantity of moisture contain- ed in a given portion of it, would be sufficient for all the purposes of meteorology ; but these methods are scarcely applicable to small quantities of aerial fluids, the hygroscopic state of which it is often necessary to determine, in order to conduct with accuracy their che- mical analysis. This branch of the subject is of consi« derable importance to the chemist ; and indeed, with- out some knowledge of it, he cannot investigate with success the properties of aerial fluids, which demand much delicacy of research. : 73. Saussure was perhaps the first person who en- deavoured to ascertain, in a systematic and philosophi- manner, the relation between the degrees of the hy« grometer, and the fuaptity of moisture in determinate perrne of air, at different temperatures; but though - e prosecuted his inquiries with much ingenuity and care, the methods he employed to obtain a solution of the problem did not admit of the same degree of accu< racy as those which were afterwards employed by Gay Lussac. The instrument, however, which he invented for these researches, was admirably adapted for the pur pose, as the extreme tenuity of the substance used in the construction of it, rendered it peculiarly fit for being introduced into small portions of air, without affecting, in any sensible degree, the hygroscopic state of the sur« roundi ng medium, by the moisture it absorbed. 74. Having inclosed his hygrometer in a vessel con« taining air previously dried by caustic alkali, Saussure introduced under the receiver, at successive intervals, small quantities of water, by means of bits of moisten« ed linen ; and after allowing these to remain a sufficient length of time, he again withdrew them, and determi ned the loss they had sustained by Ais ea obser ving at the same time the progress of the hygrometer, for each additional portion of moisture. He performed this experiment at various temperatures, and found that at the same temperature the index uniformly stood at the same point, when the quantity of moisture evapo-~ rated was the same. Among other results, he found that a French cubic foot of air at 15°.16 Reaumur took up, in the form of vapour, 11.069 grains French of moisture, expanding at the same time ;4, of its original volume ; ga that Sekine quantity of air, at the tem- perature 6°.18 Reaumur, was able to hold in the vapo-< rous state 5.65 grains French. If we reduce these re« sults to English measures, the former would be .0043391, and the latter .0022123 grains in a cubic inch, for the respective temperatures 66°.11 and 45°.91 Fahrenheit ; differing little from the results given by our formula in § 39, as is easily ascertained by comparing them with the quantities of moisture for the corresponding tempe« ratures in the Table. In both cases, the hygrometer stood at 98°. The quantity of moisture answering to other divisions on the scale of the instrument were pro« portional to the numbers in the following Table, in which complete saturation for each temperature is ex« pressed by unity. : HYGROMETRY. as SSSSssssss Fils THE saturated with moisture, whatever be its tempe- pes fe tng ey arrives at a fixed a og in the vapour pet aay hae 3m the medium in which the hygro- meter is placed is pow yng eed ogee ler ture to the actual i moisture in the medium. The poi ie Which an aoe ise is esta- blished between these forces, d upon the law by which the of the hair for moisture is modified by temperature, and the quantity of water al- 589 Teady absorbed. Saussure attempted to discover this law by iment ; but, though his researches were con- UE SEIN very great cast :ttsbneentte he das gbven can scarcely be regarded sufficiently accurate to autho- rise our ication of them to circumstances y different those in which they were i he problem, however, has been solved by Gay Lussac in a manner so general and satisfactory, as to raise this branch of hygrometry from an empirical collection of facts to a subject of the most precise and rigid ana- lysis.* 77. Having anh of which he could sufficiently rely, it in a receiver with a t ee na thane ping | oewtheeat ed degree mar instrument, corresponding to Sie Cetentien ab the opate Wi ie ariel ss , on the accu cured as many terms of the Lee raat deemed necessary. He obtained in this manner, at the temperature of 10° ra ore (50° Fahrenheit), the re- sults laid down in the following Table,in which the tensions are expressed in decimal of the tension of water, the latter being denoted by unity : apc “ee ewe Se and the latter by of abscissae, x = 0, (AB) #=100, and of the instrument the tension denoted by 100. BC) y= (BC) y Spe parts, the te ’ . By laying down a scale of equal shekod it antintian ba i te, the salermartie results, Gay Lussac found that the line connecting the extremities of the ordinates was an hyperbola, concave towards the line of the abscissa, and having its axis BV inclined to the same line at an angle of 45°. The axis cuts the line of the abscisse at the point where - is * The account in the text of the method of investigation employed by Gay Lussac, is extracted from the admirable work of M. Biot, lately published, entitled, ee Hygrome. try. —— Researches racy Gay Lussac inclosed of Gay Lus- of water, or.a solution ** te deter- mine a for- mula for Saussure’s hygrome- 590 HYGROMETRY. Hygrome- equal to 100; and as y is equal to 100 at the same , try. east, the curve is syemnbiaicellp disposed, with regard Primitive Co-ondinates./ New Co-orilinates. —Y~" to these two values of x and y. re Fe . 79. To render the calculation more single, ae MBs y ordinates x andy are transformed into 2’ y’, whie' . are also at fight angles to each other, but immediately pee re Ba heed pert 4 related to the axis of the hyperbola, and having their saul “Sigh Ae 7 Sis origin in some ‘assumed point of it. Hence the new ‘ : :000000 |—.007 7 line of abscisse will form an angle of — 45° with AB ; and if X.and Y be taken to represent the primitive co- ordinates of that line, corresponding to the point of new ~ origin, we shall have c= X4 a (a 4-9’) or X 4 Cos. 45° (24s y') : y=¥ +a (y'—#’) oF ¥ + Cos. 45° (y—2") Before reducing these equations, it will be convenient, for the sake of operating with small numbers, to.repre- sent by unity, the abscissze x corresponding to, the ten= sion 100; then, from the inclination of the axis of the hyperbola, the equation for the axis, in terms of # and y, willbe y= 1— 2; and since the primitive co-ordi- nates X and Y must be similarly related, Y = 1— X. The general expressions for ~ and: y, thus restricted; become 1 w=X+ ve +4) J=1-X4+ Ze —). By adding together both sides of these equations, the quantity X is exterminated, and the following values of y andy! are obtained, ~ y=1—a2+y7V/2 fey! =e iat: 80. If the values of x and y be substituted for these quantities, as determined by experiment, (taking for example the muriate of lime, whose specific. gravity is 1397 ;) then « = 876; y= 613; 376 + .613—1 72 = — .00777818. The value of 7’ thus determined is so small, that the point in the curve to which its extremity refers, nearly coincides with the axis, and might be taken, without any t error, for the vertex of the hyperbola ; but to avoid the introduction of any unnecessary inaccuracy, it will be better to assume the origin of the abscisse of w’, at that point of the axis where the latter is in- tersected by y’, and then X will be determined by ad- ding to .876 the projection of y’ on the axis, along which the abscisse of x are reckoned, that is, Cos, 45° x .0077718 or .0055. We thus obtain X = .3815, and 2/= (a—.3815) 4/2—y’. When «and y are given, we obtain the value of 7’ by the equation y’= rae a = and that value being substituted for y’, in the equation a= (w—.3815) /2—y’, the value of 2’ is also deter- mined. In this manner were found the following va- lues of 2’ and y/, from the corresponding values of and ¥, a8 ascertained by observation, And y'= 81, These data are sufficient to determine completely the nature of the hyperbola; for since its axis. coin- cides with the line of the abscisse 2’, it must necessa- rily have an equation of the form, y2aa+2b2" 4 c2’ in which a, b, and c.are three constant coefficients, the values of which may be determined by the several va- lues of w’ and y’, given above. The solution of the re- sulting equations gives the following values : a= _ .0000605 b = 1.149338 c = 4.08683 82. Ifthe value of (2.3815) 4/2 be represented by pare — Pay, mdy ene is value of y' being substituted for that quantity in the general egpation of the hyperbola, we Haden ratnaty (s—2’)*=a42b2' 4c2" The solution of this quadratic gives, ‘ eo OED AV C=C N+ CED? c—l1 ote3, Fes ie ? kun shown Vv (s aXe 1) + (s+ bf 83. The value of y' being determined by the last for mula, and substituted for it in the equation, y=l—a+yV2 will give the value of y in terms of'z. By means of this formula, Biot calculated the following Table, which he found to accord almost exactly with actual observa~ tion: . Degrees |Tension of Vapour,|| Degrees |Tension of Vapour, of the tension of of the tension of Saussure’s |complete saturation| Saussure’s |complete saturation| Hygrom. being unity. Hygrom. being unity. 0 -0000 — 19° 0895 lig .0045 20 0945 2 .0090 21 0997 «4 0135 22 .1049 4 .0180 23 1101 5 0225 24 1153 6 .0271 25 1205 v .0318 26 .1259 8 0364 27 -1314 9 -0410 28 .1869° 10 -0457 29 .1423 11 .0505 30. 1478 12 0552 31 1536 | 13 .0600 $2 1594 14 0648 33 1652 | 15 .0696 34 1710 16 0746 35 -1768 17 -0795 86 -1830 a 18 .0845 87 +1892 591 HYGROMETRY. ae sjsd gbgsgasepentagaarareaageiardt) a220ipsiss 1 te atte ERIE i We oo eins ear ias| : i i Srignerd, iild|BERE292 q ELE Uses ate hale iis al ; i i] eaEE [at nbn nna | bi HP U Hegre need laa quilts EHD He HEF : it I: nud Heit HUF HELL in a fil) seazens WeiernGHHAilaL Hidnehlaalh il i, sata] ain (iil leeauase c|i egusguuganeaagegeeneeenenageied [2b» 8 684 ay ey ae eae. 662 136 i and timber * . . . . . 753,588 9,501,734 . . . . *. . 208,225 17,621,756 shine . 246,760 12,395,732 the lumber and isions for- _rituous liquors themselves, seldom take more thax ito, Jamaica from the United Stats, 5000 puncheons. woe return w ee ae The following Table exhibits the importation and ex- former, they used to take annually ipepttien afsferres for Sony peel. penne fo ie, Hee puncheons ; but since they began to distil spi- _lition of the slave trade. ‘Veers. = ‘Tonnege | Crow. hipateds Gigante Seni. tals alas ath adie 32 10069 | 1004 8933 2712 ea ee N= Sa 21 6799 476 6391 2092 till sth July .. 8 2258 245 2034 1665 wo womec Oates Hh ay Lan soe Of which, 160 were ‘to the Danish colonies, Britain, and the exports to the island, were, in 270 to the Spanish and 85 to Honduras; in Imports. Exports. all 515. 1809 £4,068,897 . . . £3,033,234 Commerce, The official value of the imports from Jamaicainto 1810 . . . 4,303,887 .. . -2,803,179 ’ ee eee te ee aneee ae oteey eos See pete me Satie Be > : ' Hhds. Tierces, Barrels.| Puncheons, Hbds. | Casks. Casks. Bags. Hhds. 1793 | 77,575 6,722 G12| $4,755 879] 62 8.005 420 9,108 | 18,029 | 3,983,576 179% | 80,592 11,158 1,22%| 39,843. 1,570| 121 10,3905 | 554 22.153 | 16,842 | 4,911,549 1795 | 88,851 9,587 1,225 | 37,684 1,475 | 426 14,861 | 957 20,451 | 17,766 | 6,318,812 1796 $9,219 10,700 858) 40,810 1,364 | 690 20,275 136 9,820 7,203,539 1797 | 78,373 9,963 753| 28,014 1,463 | 259 29,098| 828 2,935| —— | 7,931,621 1798 | 87,896 11,725 1,163| 40,82% 2,254] 119 18,454 1,181 8,961 | 2,859 x 101,457 13,588 1,321 | $7,022 1,981 | 221 10,358 | 1,766 28,273 | 30,693 | 11,745,425 96,347 18,549 1,631| 37,166 1,350) 444 3,580| 610 12,759| —— | 11,116,474 1801 | 129,251 18,704 2,692 | 48,879 1,514| 12 239] 648 14,084| —— | 13,401,468 1802 | 129,544 15,405 2,403 2,073 | 23 2,079] 591 7,793| —— | 17,961,923 The principal articles of export were, in Coffee. "ay Years) Cort, ji «a Ibs. | diane hres ee anes ro be 4,415,1,104,61 19,367|1,886,7 1813, 8,768,281. Sugar in the year ending 181 ,611 428, ,708,1 5th January 1813, 1, ewt. Jamaica. I x pmsenay ex! tation slaves, 608 JAMAICA. Jamaica : this parish, the increase of slaves in 1809 was, males Jam —— Ships belonging to Jamaica. 18t, females 174—total 355 ; and the decrease, males Shipping 226, females 195—total 421 ; making the actual dimi- Years. Ports. Ships. Tonnage nution of males 45, and of females 21—total 66. In * the year 1810, the actual diminution was, males 28, 1792 Antonio. 4 431 females 16—total 44. 1805 | Ditto. 2 58 In the parish of St Thomas, the number of white 1792 Kingston, 125 6109 males was 369, females 49, children 16; of slaves 1805 | Ditto, 44 3952 26,341, The births of slaves in the December quarter 1792 | Montego Bay. 48 3602 of 1807 was 176, the deaths 543. The number of free 1805 | Ditto. 44 1343 persons in 1812 was, males 207, females 142, children 1792 St Lucca. 3 808 114; the number of acres 143,475. 1805 | Ditto. 4 131 In the parish of St George, the number of slaves was 1792 | Savannah le Mar. 7 221 13,238 ; their increase by births above deaths from 1800 1805 | Ditto. 3 78 to 1807, both years inclusive, was 196. Of free per- sons of colour, there were, in 1812, adult males 63, fe- . In the year 1807, the number of vessels that cleared male 97; male children 103, female 80; in all 343. out from the island, was— ~~ Free blacks, males 4, females 28. The number of acres in this parish is 92,9272. . The number of n re- Véasate.| 7. " turned in the parish of St Anne, was 23,261. In Port- esse’ Oanase |_Seamen: | Jand parish there were 7651, of — 3949 were males, ae and 3702 females, The white population amounted to ad Get & FPA ie oo8 nee et BINS 415, of which there were males 917, females 96; boys Pes British Amesida 2 66| 6133 449 | 53,and girls 49. Thé free persons of colour amount to For th U ited States Z.* 133 13.041 493 | 180, of which there were, males 73, females 58; boys For fhe Forel n West) : 23, and girls 26. The extent of this parish is nearly 20 In dics 8 } 22| 1,903 155 | ‘miles. In 1810, the births of slaves were 94, the deaths TAPER ee | 89; increase 5. - ahamster AR Nn ck ogee: 8 | “in the parish of. St. David's, the white population Total «. 474 | 85,888 | 9,344 -amounted to 131, of which there were, males 116, fe- timer Reisages |° 3 z males 10, and children 5, The free persons amounted to 29, of which there were, males 5, females 11, and ; ; : children 18. The number of slaves’ was 7203. The Progressive Population of Jamaica. births of slaves in the December quarter of 1806 were 58, the deaths 56; increase 2. The number of acres Population. ‘ Free People J in this parish is 46,619. Yeors, Whites. | of Gelour| Slaves. The following Table exhibits the number of slaves, Slaves, stock, and cultivated acres in all the parishes of Jamai- stock, and 1658 « . 4,500 = 1,400 | ca, in the year 1812, according to the return laid be-'cultivated — 1670... 7,500 _ §,000 | fore parliament. The reader will observe that there if i912 2 1784... 7,644 _ 86,146 || some difference, with respect to acres, between this Ta ~ 1746. . «+f 10,000 — . |. 112,428 | ble and the previous statements, though both are taken FBR a eas taxon 17,947 a 176,914 | from the same parliamentary papers. keg .| 18,500 | 3,700 | 190,914 ; 1 787 eee ee oe 30,000 10,000 250,000 Parishes. Slaves. Stock. Acres. 1805... — _ 280,000 St Andrew’s .... 16,570 5,181 83,427 : . ‘3 . 230,224 Official re. _ In the papers relative to the West Indies, ordered b St Amne). +0.» sod net bad : posne for the Hane tt Commons to be printed, 12th July 1813, = ig aires rT bts onk eee viedo 1812. there is much important information respecting the S ‘Da id eT ede r "203 oo aco . statistics of several of the ee of Jamaica, in the a Doroth 7 ee ee re ite 2.958 36. 43 year 1812, the substance of which we shall give, as we St Elisabech TLS) eeiase 23.937 | 2 Base shall thus exhibit the latest .official statement on this ve G. var: ge "Lee 13. 400 3.710 ae subi t. ‘ _ 6.09 6.4 6 2 > > fe Regie parish, the number of slaves assessed eu k Oa: jibe edt Maoh eves was 6840; but it was pupponed there were considerably St Tohn Th hei 6.690 | 1.133 65,71 more: the free blacks of colour amounted to 8000: the Ki ote spre een rasa hrs Goa | a 4 extent of the city and parish from east to west is six St} poe tah 4 8 25,781 | 16,010 138s miles ; from north to south one and a.half. Me mm Aandi ea | 7 440 1.640 ae In Vere parish, the number of whites was 359; of Pucca ce Bret 7,980 998 29,1 pt we athe Seer en ee St Thomas in the East| 26291 | 5,374 | 14847 number of acres 597. ee rf ; 4 In Westmoreland parish, the number of white men Dice es Vale... seuo ei gt ive was 432, Mn a 129, eae girls omy all 688 : Year” vy eth 14,359 4.691 109, persons of colour, men 158, women 266, boys 175, aaa re 2 761. Bho gm ot all 9 free blacks, men 47, went 65, het cpr seatbelt cso ic ons «0 Pv dd 1, girls in all 119, be , ys 1, girls 6— 9. The number of slaves was 319,912 | 143,419 |2;254,987 21,019; of stock 20,575 ; and of acres 185,118%. In E JAM Jamaica. . As the whole island is calculated to contain upwards "rr" of 4,000,000 acres, it appears from this Table that there little more than half of it cultivated. Of the acres in pore my aR RR marl lands, and nearl same quantity In pasture. : The governor of Jamaica is appointed by the king and can be recalled at pleasure ; there is besides a coun- and a house of assembly. The former is generally by the crown from amongst the most respect- inhabitants ; the members are twelve; they are officio justices of the and form a privy coun- governor. The house of assembly consists of -three members, who are chosen by the freehold- every parish sends two members, except Spanish i 28 er : . E 4 E S = 8 : i of the island niente num im any part e » ora estate £3000. Te supreme court of judiature, alld the grand court, combining the jurisdiction of the courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and exchequer ea |e NLA ete gay A ap day of February, May, and November. Assize courts are held every three months in Kingston for the county ae in Savannah la Mar for the county of The revenues of the island are and annual. taxes consist of a duty on negroes im 3 an excise cssdeneaigameitesendtb ad tondsl onhrone on rents and wheel carri The revenue generally amounts to about £300,000 Jamaica currency. There are nineteen beneficed from the age of fifteen to sixty, are obliged by law Siete themselves with their own accoutrements, to enlist either in the cavalry or in- fantry of the militia. Besides the Spanish and Portuguese coins, which are current in the i there is a small silver coin called a bit, of the value of 74d. currency. One hundred pounds sterling amounts to one hundred and forty Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494; in 1509, it received a Spanish colony from > except uered by 7 cs oe = ary Fee were ago ega. This year it was the lish under Penn and Venables. Tha first Bri- tish | ists were 3000 soldiers, disbanded from the army. These were soon followed by 1500 royalists. Till the Restoration, the government the island was entirely military. On the surrender ssths Maglichy.thes slaves of the Spaniards fled to the mountains ; their — , called Maroons, com- mitted great depredations till 1738, when a treaty was conchided with them, by-which their Reotemcwesett cured, and 1500 acres of land tothem. They remained till the year 1795, when a new Ma- Foon war out; at first were rather success- ful, but at last, by a more vigorous system of hostili- FOL. XI, PART 11, 609 DAN * ties, and the introduction of bloodhounds from Cuba, with which they were threatened, though not actually attacked, they were driven to the mountains, and ulti- J Seilan- mately obliged to submit on condition that their lives were Soon afterwards, 600 of them were con- veyed to Nova Scotia, where lands were granted to See Beckford’s Descriplive Account of Jamaica; Ed- wards’ History of the West Indies, 2d edit. vol. i. ; Dal- las’ History. of the Maroon War ; Renny’s History of Jamaica ; Tuckey’s Maritime Geography, vol. iv.; and Parliamentary ris and Papers on the West Indies, 1807. and 1815. (3: s.) AMBIC Verse. See Prosopy. JAMES I. IL IIL IV. V. VI. See the History of ScoTLanp. y JANIZARIES. | See Turkey. JAN Sean, or Junx Ceyton, isan island of Asia in the Bay of Bengal, situated on the west side of the Ma- lay peninsula. _ It is separated from the continent by a narrow sandy isthmus, about a mile long and half a mile in breadth, which is covered at higt water, and whereon spring tides rise 9 or 10 feet. This island is between 40 and 50 miles in length, about 15 in breadth, with good anchorage around its whole circuit, and it has an excellent harbour on the north called Popra, be- sides others. Its name, Jan Seilan, is of uncertain ety- mology, and it is frequently called Junk Ceylon by Eu- The climate here is particularly heat is moderate. Rains begin to fall gently in July, and continue until November, with frequent intermis- sions of fine weather, attended with cool north-east winds at night. There is no considerable river in the island, both from its size, and the hills being low ; but several streams run through flat marshes of mangroves into the sea, A quantity of tin is obtained in this island, of which about 500 tons are exported yearly. The pro- duce was greater formerly ; but it seems to have been reduced by restrictions on the miner, who was obliged to carry all his ore to a Chinese smelter farming this pri- vilege from the government. Besides s paying 12 per cent. for smelting, the miner could only i having delivered.a certain quantity of ore, though the extract exceeded what he received, and after all a duty of 25 per cent. was payable previous to exportation. The interior of the island contains large plains of rice well cultivated, and hither the inhabitants can come up the creeks in their small vessels; but the skirts are kept in a state of nature, for the purpose, it is supposed, of obstructing the access of an enemy. Rice is the staple product; and of other vegetables there are oranges, limes, and most of the tropical fruits and roots. The wild animals are deer and hogs: the domesticated ones are elephants, and a few goats ; but the islanders have neither horses, sheep, dogs, nor cats, and their common poultry is not numerous. The population of the whole island has been calcu- lated at 12,000. This number, however, must be de- pou on a state of peace or warfare, and during the ter it is probably lower. The features of the people resemble those of the Malays, intermixed with a good deal of the Chinese aspect. They are well.made, but rather slender: they. speak the Siamese. lan , and in general understand the Malay to : and, like Eu-« Unrestrained i they write from left to right. L polygamy is practised, as every man marries as many, 4n° ble, for the: n the metal on | Jan Seilan. —_—\yo = * JAN women as he can afford to maintain; but it is the privi- lege of the first wife to rule the household. No wo- man is permitted to leave the country. The habitants are distributed in towns and villages, of which 1 Gare named, but all of them are inconsiderable. Terowa, the chief town, situated on a creek, where a strong current runs, consists only of about 80 houses. A wooden pagoda, covered with palm leaves, stands here, which is served by about 20 talapoins or monks, who live ina state of celibacy, and dwell in small apart- ments adjoining to it. Their heads are shaved and un- covered : they wear a yellow garment, and carry a white rod in their hands, but it appears that they can resign their monastic vocation at pleasure. The governor of Jan Seilan has also a dwelling at Terowa, and another eight miles inland. Tin is the principal export of the island, which for- merly carried on considerable commerce’ with several Asiatie ports ; but this has greatly decreased since the establishment-of a British colony on Penang. Its ex- ports, besides that metal, are elephants ‘teeth, biche demer, and sayhan. The imports are principally opium, a contraband article, for which there was a great de- mand about the middle of the preceding century ; and after being carried in British vessels Fess Bengal, it was sold to the Malays and Buggess prows for the tin of the island. Hindostan piece goods, brass utensils of Java, European cloth and cutlery, were likewise among the imports. Commerce is injured, from a practice not unusual in the East, of the government or its’ officers being the principal dealers. Hence the king’s mer- chant sometimes purchases a whole cargo on the arrival of a vessel, and immediately upon its being landed, retails it at a great profit. This impolitic talerfekénce restrains the competition and consequent advantages of unfet- tered commerce. The currency of the island consists -of conic frustums of tin, of two or three pounds weight, with correspondent halves and quarters, which cannot be exported without payment of duty. Spanish dollars _are the most acceptable money, but all kinds of Indian coinage pass current. When the French had much interest at the court’ of Siam, one of the most powerful and brilliant of the East . towards the latter part of the seventeenth century, they Japane Japanese islands, si- tuation of, Empire of Japan, ex- tent of, \proposed to make a settlement in Jan Seilan. It is pro~ JAPAN. Tur Japanese islands lie near the coast of Corea on the eastern side of Asia, in the North Pacific Ocean, between 31° and 41° of N. Lat. and 129° and 1429 E. Long. The Empire of Japan is composed.of an extensive cluster of islands, by much the largest and most im- portant of which is called Niphon or Jepuen. This island is of a triangular form, and is upwards of '700 iniles long, but does not exceed 80 miles in breadth, Adjoining to the south-west point of Niphon are Kiu- siu or Saikoff, 140 miles long by 90 broad, and Sikoff, 95 miles long by 45 in breadth. The island of Jesso or Matzumay, on the north of Niphon, from which it is separated by the straits of Sangar, about nine miles in breadth, was conquered from its original inhabitants the Ainos, and is now also included in the Japanese 610 bable, that the benefit which would result from the Jan JAN sence of a commercial nation could be appreciated by a native of the Ionian islands, then prime minister of Siam, who was well acquainted with the trade and ma nufactures of wees But the history of this settles ment, which we believe commenced in 1688, is not pre- served ; and it most probably terminated soon after the fall of that minister in 1689. As this island is too small to maintain: its indepen« dence, it must necessarily be controlled by:the con+ tinental powers. It was long in the possession of the kingdom of Siam, and when visited by Captain Fors rest in 1784, it was governed by a viceroy from that country, who had three associates or counsellors. Each of these officers had about sixty military retainers arm~ ed with a musquet and bayonet, sword and dagger, who, receiving little pay, lived in some respect on the community. The i itants being then dissatisfied to shake: off eee of Siam; but it is oo that , any active proceedings. ' the following aa 1785, dhe Birmans, who had for some time been extending their dominions, had gained so much territory on the continent, that, with the pos session of Jan Seilan, they could have prevented the Siamese from any other channel of communication with India than the gulf of Siam. In order, there- fore, to effect its conquest, they fitted out eleven'ships of war‘at Rangoon for the conveyance. of a warlike stores, while an army of 8000 men to Mergui, a port on the peninsula, for the of con operation. Having a movement against the island in March, they attacked and carried the fort, which is situated. on the east side, and found in it much valu. able booty. But the governor, who had retired to the interior, rallied his forces, and compelled the enemy to retreat, after sustaining great loss, The Birmans, nevertheless, did not abandon their object, and after a long interval returned in 1810, when they effected the total conquest of Jan Seilan, and i the whole inhabitants to slavery in Pegu: At a still later period it continued to be the subject of contest between them and the Siamese. East Long. 94°18’. North. Lat. from 7° 46’ to 8° 9’. (c) dominions ; but though larger than the two last, its di- mensions are not mentioned by peony: These are environed by other islands of inconsiderable size and note. . The discovery of this extensive insular power, abound. p; ing in natural and artificial resources, and of an overs of, flowing population, does not reach farther back than the middle of the 16th century. It appears that we are in~ debted to the travellers Rubruquis and Marco Polo for the first mention of the existence of this country. Fernando Mendez Pinto, sailing ina Chinese junk from Macao to the Likeo islands, was wrecked on the Ja- coast in 1542, and he accordingly has the merit of being the first European discoverer of Japan. Three other Portuguese dispute with Pinto china, pre- tending that they touched on the coast of Satzuma the 2 e i iu 3 s : : was sent wil remiss en or aad to Acapulco. An embassy, with rich ts Spaniards to the emperor, followed in 1611. hristians: bei P Sdeulidninione, Spaniards and Portuguese were excluded ; nor has Beres Ae vite it ik ie ih He Hu ehrt t } i iu bs : i Hs i I F have contrived to retain favour of the J 3 ee inthan te imi t0-the-diapstch ‘of two small i ee Nearly about i if | “too strong a li Notwithstanding this ibition of intelli ive have boon fornished wi full and pretty accurate details concerning the state of the Ja- Accounts ~Panese islands. In addition to the corrected accoun of Japan, transmitted us by Kempfer and Thunberg, Captain Although it appears that Ja has been visited for Harbour of ~ - 2 ‘angusaky. Upwards of two centuries t European nations, 7 “and the harbour of N ~ , one of the best in the world, has been anni frequented, yet no plan of it has been taken, nor have even the latitude and longi- tude been correctly ascertained, until it was explored Description by Krusenstern in 1804. The entrance of the harbour of. of Nangasaky is in 32° 43’ 45” N. Lat. and 230° 15’ me, Leng, inde midenet, eo. he af, Kissin, which is by Cape Nomo to the south, and Cape Seu- rote to the north. entrance bears 51 miles E. by Japan. JAPAN. Wow N. from Cape Gotto in 32° 34’ 50”. It is necessary to ascertain correctly the true entrance ; for, by steering on Cape Nomo, there is danger of being becalmed, or driven by the tides on the rocks, and of mistaking ano-« ther entrance in Lat. 32° 40’, which has not been ex- plored. The safest course is to keep midway between the Gotto islands and Kiusiu, steering N. E. until the el of the entrance, and then, due east. The har- r contains three roads, all perfectly secure. The outermost is to the west of the island of Papenberg, the second in the middle to the eastward of the same, and the inner road at the bottom of the harbour in front of the city. The outer road is well defended from every wind but the N. W. and W. N. W. which, how- ever, never blow very strong. The anchorage is ex- cellent, over a bottom of fine grey sand, in depths va- rying from 33 to 18 fathoms. The middle road is sur- rounded on all ~nase, the land, and has better an- choring ground inner, but not so good as the outer road. From the middle to the inner road the course lies N. E. 40°, and the distance is about two miles and one-third, the depth of water decreasing gra- dually from 18 to 5 fathoms. About half way, where the el ——— to 400 fathoms, are p' the im- perial batteries or peror’s guard, as they are styled, a number of buildings without a single aauins rom the narrowness of the approach, the city of Nangasaky, if well fortified, could defy any assault ; in its present state it would fall before a single ship of force. The anchorage here is not equal to either of the other roads, the bottom being a thin clay, and the S. W. channel open to the sea, Krusenstern was the only person, ex- cept La Perouse, who navigated the western coast be- tween Niphon and the Corea; and although the state of the weather was unfavourable to his asking obser- vations, yet he appears to have reached the northern point of Jesso, the extreme limit of the Japanese em- pire, without much difficulty. Of the Japanese coasts Japanese it may be observed generally, that they are in most } 8 rocky and re vote presenting a chain of ld promontories, deep bays, and eaet peninsulas, bac abounding with shoals and islets, the whole invested with a turbulent sea; whence the navigation is intri- cate and The climate of Japan. is variable throughout the year. Climate. The heat of summer would be insupportable, were it not moderated by the sea breezes. ‘The rainy months begin at midsummer, when abundance of rain falls, and to which is to be ascribed the fertility of the coun- try. In winter, the wind blowing from the Arctic Ocean, makes the cold severe. Snow falls in quanti- ties, and is followed by intense frost. Hurricanes and earthquakes are not uncommon, and thunder storms also frequently occur. At Nangasaky, the thermometer State of was never in August higher than 98°, nor in Janu- mene ary lower tha n 35°. As the geography of Japan has not been ns rag Rivers. trated, we can give but an imperfect account ri- vers, lakes, and mountains of this country. The lar- gest river is said to be the Jodo or Yodo, which rises rom the great central lake of Oitz, and pursues a south- west course. The Ujin, Aska, and Oomi, figure in Ja- panese history. This last is said to have burst from the ground in one night. Over the Nogofa and Jedogawa are projected cedar bridges from 300 to 360 feet long. There are various other rivers, of which we know lit- tle except the name. The above mentioned lake of al Japan. Qitz sends forth two rivers, and G8 said to be 50 — —\—" nese leagues'in length, but of inconsiderable breadth. ‘Mountains, Among the mountains are volcanoes, and in the pro- , ees, vince of Figo one constantly emits flame. The princi- ae” pal mountain is Fusi, which is covered with snow the test part of the year. _ But the courses of the dif- : ferent ranges have not been traced. Near the lake of Oitz is the sacred mountain of Jesan, said to be deco- rated with 3000 temples! Division The Japanese islands are divided into provinces and into pro- — districts, like other civilized countries. The face of vinees, &. the country of Japan is agreeably diversified by mouns Aspect of tains, hills, and vallies, and is well watered with the country. rivers and lakes, the general aspect presenting a soil cultivated with industry and freedom. Even’ moun tains and hills form né obstacle to cultivation. - Agri- Agriculture, Culture being in high estimation in Japan, it meets with the greatest encouragement from the govern- ment.*~ The chief produce is rice, barley and wheat Crops. being little used. A kind of potatoe is common, and several sorts of beans and peas, turnips and cabbage, abound. The rice is sown in April, and gathered in No- Mode of | vember. The sides of the hills present a singular spectacle cultivating to the stranger, from the mode of cultivation which is the hills adopted. Stone walls support level platforms sown with rice or roots ; and thousands of these are scattered over the mountains, affording a favourable picture of the in- genuity and industry of the inhabitants. Though the space should not exceed two square feet, a stone wall is raised at the bottom, the inclosure filled with earth, and carefully sown with rice, or planted with esculent roots. As may be easily supposed from this state of general cultivation, few forests are suffered to grow: these are confined to the sides of such mountains, pro- bably, as can be subdued by neither agricultural labour nor skill. There are no fences used in dividing the cultivated grounds in this country ; and the fields often resemble kitchen gardens divided into narrow beds, which aresepa= ° rated from each other by a deep trench, nearly as broad as the divisions which are under crop. After a certain interval the trenches are filled up with earth, so as to be converted in their turn into beds, and give the soil a rest from constant bearing. In these beds the corn is sown sometimes lengthwise, but more. commonly across ; and after the crop is cut down, another ind. of grain is sown in the same season, between the stubble of the old crop, so as to make the same field produce twice in one year. The greatest care is bestowed upon manur- ing and cleaning the ground. Every kind of substance ‘which can be converted into manure is carefully col« lected; and, together with urine and foul water from the kitchen, is mixed up in a liquid state. It is then carried in large pails to the fields, and, by means of a jadle, itis poured upon the plant after it is about six inches in height. Irrigation also is much practised, wherever “water can be procured in the vicinity of the fields, The weeds are so completely cleared away, that ‘ the most quick-sighted botanist,” says Thunberg, ‘* would scarce- ly be able to discover a single plant of another species among the corn.” The grain is frequently separated from the straw merely by beating the sheaves against a post or barrel; but is commonly threshed on straw mats in the open air by means of flails with three swin-’ gles. There are no pasture grounds among the cultiva- * The farmer pays a considerable part of the produce as rent to his feudal chief, and is restricted only to one condition, viz. tohave all his land in cultivation. Should he leave any part of his fields untilled, he forfeits the possession of that portion, which is occu- pied by another busbandman. JAPAN. . the two countries, they are mutually indebted: to each ted tracts ; and thf eat used in the country are all fed in the farm-yards. Thunberg affirms, that the soil fr ai Japan is naturally barren, and has been ren- remarkably productive only by the labour and skill of the husbandman. : «. Japan abounds in rare and beautiful plants ; andias Vegetable there is a great similarity in the vegetable productions of productio China and this kingdom, no doubt from the vicinity of other for an interchange of useful vegetables. :The ginger, soy bean, black pepper, sugar, the cotton and indigo plant, though not indigenous, are cultivated with ° success, and in abundance, in Japan. Two sorts of mulberry grow ; one which feeds the silk worm, and the other is manufactured into paper. It is said that the beautifui black varnish is produced from a gum which exudes from the bark of the rhus —o he citrus japonica, a species of iar to this country, 1 found in wild state. But as the botany of cw has been treated at length by Kempfer and Thunberg, our botanical readers are referred to them for particulars on this subject. Gold, silver, and especially copper, are found in Mines. abundance in Japan, large quantities of which have been exported at various times " the Portuguese and Dutch. No mine can be opened without the permis- sion of the emperor, who claims two thirds of the pro« duce, leaving only one third to the proprietor for his _ expences. Iron is scarcer than other metals, and the Japanese will not allow it to be exported. Ligina Sulphur is found in sufficient abundance,, particular« ly in a certain island near Satsuma ; and pit-coal is not uncommon in the northern provinces. Red agate, as« bestos, porcelain clay, flesh-coloured steatite, pumice stone and white marble are also found in Japan ; and there are several warm mineral waters, cially at Obamma and the mountain of Omfen, which are used by the natives in the cure of various diseases. It is singular that neither sheep nor goats are pre gated in the Japanese dominions. The latter, and swine, are deemed destructive of cultivation. Horses are rare, and cattle still more so, these last being re~ served solely for agricultural purposes. Buffaloes with a bunch on their backs are sometimes seen employed in drawing carts. The cows are very small in size, and are used rather for draught than for their milk or their flesh. Dogs are common in the domestic state, and are said to be kept from superstitious motives. Cats of various colours are to be seen in every house, and are said to be the general favourites of the ladies. The wolf is found in the northern parts, and foxes in dif- ferent districts, but are regarded with peculiar detes« _ tation, as demons incarnate, Hares of a grey colour, © and rats as in other countries, have been seen by tra< vellers in Japan; and, in the least inhabited tracts, bears, monkeys, deer, &c. are reported to be found. The common kinds of poultry are reared in considerable abundance ; and great numbers of wild geese frequent the waters between the islands, and other places at a distance from the towns or villages. Herons are seen following the ploughman in the fields ; and the Chinese teal, the quail, the crow, pigeon, and. bulfinch, were — all observed by Thunberg. Serpents are said by the natives to be occasionally seen ; but few of the amphi« bia are met with in the country. Fish, which are an Animale. Natives. el it i : i a 5 it A ya ee f ; H +h H u = 5 2° 3 shape, are collected by the Japanese, fixed carded cotton, and sold to the origi ion of J has been little il- abs pmupiepedoceeas to be a kindred with the Chinese, having at the same time, accord- a language radically distinct. Per- the earlier stages of society, as is observ- Japanese may have emigrated their compl insular separation may to a language peculiar by istinct civilization. The people active, free and easy in their motions, and stout limbed, though yielding in strength to the north- ern inhabitants of Europe.. The men are middle sized, and in general not corpulent, all over of a yellowish colour ; in some brown, in others white predominates. The lower classes, from éxposure to the sun, are brown, but ladies of distinction, who seldom go abroad unco- vered, are ly white. The discriminating mark of the Japanese, as of the Chinese, is the eye. This or- gan wants its characteristic rotundity, being oblong, and peo- iv at A: =f : AE he | ®.O% a aes e 4 + 4 5 i : j S$ e small, wm deep in the head, ue ape aa have the appearance of bei ink-eyed. co- of their eyes, however, is HF brown, or rather friendly and courteous, frank and good ly and honest, brave and unyielding, capable ing and controuling their feelings in an ex- pear te 25 ; but distrustful, proud, unforgiving, rev: The usual dress of the J; is a short wu arment with wide sleeves, ppt lete sown am . concern fastened round the neck, quite down to the feet; the dress much resembling that of females, except in being more confin- ed from the hips downwards, which produces embarrassment nee. But this exercise is seldom resorted to a ese, from compulsion. ee aS is black, the un- is of mixed colours. Ev vane Sea hie te. about the size of a dollar, wrought in different places, a practice com Thus persons of a aaa family easily recognized. A young lady wears her fa- vernor can confer, is to present a cloak with his arms upon it; and the person who is thus honoured puts his own arms upon some under part of his dress. In win- ter they wear five or six dresses over each other; but though the weather ie bad in January and February, they have soles merely of straw, fastened Seen eee tee by oihap, aa ae ae ep a whee peti? if. tr iH : i i 4 E : f “eis 5 a room. Although they have their heads Japan, shorn, they are regardless of a burning sun, or pemag cold, They do not use parasols in sunshine, nor umbrellas in rainy weather; but in travelling, co- nical caps, fans, umbrellas, and cloaks of oiled paper, arevery commonly used. The toilets of theJa occupy a considerable share of attention, as they are v particular in anointing and dressing their hair, which is collected in a tufton the crown of thehead. Small pincers are employed to pluck out the hairs.on their chin, and these, with a small metal looking mirror, are found in emust Toilet. * the possession of every Japanese. They cannot be denied, Remarkable Krusenstern observes, to study great cleanliness of per- cleanliness son, although they make no use of linen ; and this ap- of person. pears a governing propensity of the Japanese.of every rank. ence, in almost every house, a bath forms an essential part of domestic arrangement and comfort. Bat in one respect their customs are extremely offen- sive. The privies, which are also indispensible in every house, are all built towards the street or road, and open outwards, exhibiting large jars sunk in the earth, to receive every kind of ordure and refuse. . Hence the stench is insupportable, and the putrid exhalations, as Thunberg sfiee, injurious to the eyes of the na-~ tives. In Japan the houses are of wood, never exceeding two Houses, stories, the upper one consisting chiefly of garrets and construction lumber rooms. Though the house is commodious, it %* consists in general of one room, capable, by moveable partitions, and screens, of being divided into apart- ments. Neither tables nor chairs are used, the people eitting i <4 on straw mats,.in which position they eat The diet of the J. riety of articles than that of any other people in the world. Net contented with the numerous kinds of wholesome and nutritive food supplied by the produce of their lands and waters, they contrive, by their modes Senin their victuals, to render the less valuable even the poisoneus my of animal and vegetable substances useful, or at least harmless articles of sub« sistence. Their meats are cut into small pieces, tho- roughly stewed or boiled, and always highly seasoned with strong spices and sauces. At their meals, the company are seated on the floor-mats, with a small square table before each person, whose portion is served in neat vessels of porcelain, or of japanned wood, which are tolerably large basons, always furnished with lids. The guests salute each other with a low bow be- fore begin to eat; and, like the Chinese, take 4 the food by means of two small pieces of wood, hel between the fingers of the right hand, and used with great dexterity, so as to pick up the smallest grain of rice. Between each dish they drink warm sacki, or rice beer, out of shallow saucers, and at the same time oc- casionally take a bit of a hard boiled egg. Some of the most common dishes are fish boiled with onions and a kind of small beans, or dressed with oil ; fowls, stewed and prepared in numerous modes ; and boiled rice, which supplies the place of bread for all their provisions, Oils, mushrooms, carrots, and various bulbous roots are used in making up their dishes. Tea and rice beer are the only liquors used by the Japanese ; and it is with diffi- culty that they can be persuaded to taste wines or spi- rits. The sacki, or rice beer, heats and inebriates when taken to any extent, but the intoxication which it pro- duces passes off speedily. Tea, which is always ready, is the usual beverage for quenching thirst. It is cuse tomary to eat three times a day ; at eight o'clock in the apanese is composed of a greater va- Diet. Polygamy permitted. Funeral obsequies. . ‘the earth which covers it. 614 morning, two in the afternoon, and eight in the evening. The women eat by themselves, apart from the men. The ractice of smoking tobacco, which is supposed to have Some introduced into Japan by the Portuguese, is very common with both sexes. Their pipes are very short, seldom more than six inches in length, and scarcely contain half a thimble full of tobacco. The stem 1s made of lackered bamboo, and the mouth-piece and bowl of copper. They are smoked out by a very few whiffs, and require to be repeatedly filled. The appa- ratus used by persons of distinction consists of an ob- long box, about eighteen inches in length and a foot in breadth, of a brown or black colour, which contains, be- sides pipes and tobacco, three cups; one, which is lined with brass, for holding a live coal to light the pipe, another to receive the ashes of the tobacco, and a third to serve as a spit-box. At visits, this apparatus is the first thing that is placed before the guests, and is some- times carried by a servant te places where tobacco is not expected to be presented. The poorer classes have their tobacco pouch and pipe slung to their girdle by a silken cord. Polygamy is allowed in Japan, as in other. Asiatic countries ; though, in general, all but one female, who is acknowledged a wife, are merely regarded as concu- bines. This, of course, applies ‘to the higher classes ; the poor can only maintain one woman. The husband here, as in all eastern countries, exerts a complete des- potism, but the wives are not so closely shut up as in China. Married women distinguish themselves in some places by’ painting their teeth black, and in others by pulling out the hair of their eye-brows. They are known also by wearing the knot of their girdle before, while others have it behind. Marriages are solemnized in the open air, in the presence of the priests and rela- tions of the parties, without much pomp or solemnity. The bridegroom and bride advance together to an altar, erected for the purpose, with a torch in their hands, and, while the priest reads a form of prayer, the latter, having lighted her torch at a burning lamp, holds it out to the bridegroom, who lights his torch from hers, The guests then congratulate the new married couple, and the ceremony is concluded. The suitor makes a present to the father-in-law before obtaining his daugh- ter; so that the more daughters a man has, ,and the handsomer their persons, so much the richer is he es- teemed. The women often paint their lips with a violet colour ; and are described by Thunberg as not remark. able for modesty. ' Nor are they the less esteemed for having served in the public brothels, establishments which are found in every town and village. The bodies of persons of distinction are burned, while others are interred. The funeral pile is erected in a small house of stone fitted for the purpose, and provided with a chimney. The body is brought thither accompanied .by men and women, and attended by a numerous train of priests, who are continually occupied in singing. Upon reaching the place for burning, one of the priests sings the eulogy of the deceased, and having thrice waved a lighted torch over the body, throws it away. Its then picked up by one of the childven, or other relatives of the deceased, and applied to the funeral pile. . The ashes are carried away in a costly vessel, and preserved for some time in the house, but afterwards are buried in the earth. Those who:are not burned, are inclosed in’ a wooden: chest, and let down into a grave in the customary manner. Fragrant spices are cast into the grave, and flewers planted on The surviving relatives vi- 5 JA PAN. sit the tombs of friends for many years after their Japan. death, and some during the whole of their lives, “~Y—~ besides observing, as in China, the feast of lanthorns in honilie of the dead. In every superstitious country, we find the celebra- Festivals. tion of festivals attended by a relaxation of public mo- rals, but in Japan a salutary check is imposed upon an abandonment to licentiousness by a wise regulation, prenutee the celebration of national feasts for days successively. In conformity with this law, the feast called Kermes is held on the 11th, 13th, and 15th days of October. Krusenstern mentions a feast celebrated on the ist of April called Mussume Matzury, on which occasion parents present dolls to their children. _Trif+ ling as the object of this festival appears, the Japanese seem to regard it otherwise, as. they gravely requested the suspension of the work of the ship ters ashore during its celebration, which consists in ces, drama~- tic representations, and magnificent processions. The usual holidays in Japan are the first day of every month, when they rise early, dress in their, best clothes, and visit their superiors or friends to wish them joy of the new moon ; the fifteenth day, when the moon is at the full; and the twenty-eighth day, or the day before the new month. Besides these monthly festivals, they ce« lebrate five others which happen only once in the year, namely, the first day of the new year; the third day of the third month; the fifth day of the fifth month ; the seventh day of the seventh month ; and the ninth day of the ninth month, These, which are all uneven numbers, are regarded by the Japanese as unlucky days; and, therefore, laying aside all business, they are des dicated to mirth and mutual congratulations. On some of these days, in preference to ordinary days, they choose to celebrate their nuptials, and to give their en- tertainments. Their amusements on these occasions consist chiefly in dramatic representations and dances, In their theatres, the spectators sit on benches fronti the stage, which is a little elevated, but so. small narrow as seldom to allow room for more than one or two actors at a time. They generally represent some great exploit or love story of their divinities and heroes, which are frequently composed in verse, and sometimes accompanied with music. No machinery or decorations are brought forward ; but the chief part of the amuse- ment seems to consist in the frightful,dresses and un- couth contortions of the actors... The dances at private entertainments. are performed. by young women -and boys hired for-the purpose, who exhibit. a variety of pantomimical gestures and evolutions, expressive of some heroic action or love, intrigue, regulating their steps at the same time by the music. The most prevalent religious sects in Japan, are those Religion .of Sinto and Budsdo. That of Sinto, which is the most and mode ancient, though its adherents are now least numerous, of wersh is conceived to have originated.from Babylonian emi- grants, and to have been originally very simple and pure in its tenets. Its followers acknowledge.a Supreme Being, who inhabits the highest heavens, and who.is far too great to require their worship ; but they admit a multitude of inferior divinities, who exercise domi-~ nion over the earth, water, air, &c. and have great power in promoting the happiness or misery of the hu- aman race, They have some conception of the soul's immortality, and believe, that a happy abode imme- diately under heaven is assigned to the spirits of the virtuous, while those of the wicked shall be doomed to wander to and fro under the firmament. Their practi- cal precepts are directed to inculcate a virtuous life, and yAP a. . “es obedience to the laws of the soveign. They abstain in ce, or remission of sins for a whole year, Japan. i tant to shed blood, or There are also in Japan orders of monks or nuns; one “~—— even to touch a dead body. Their churches contain no of which consists of blind persons, a kind of beggars Religion, visible nor any representation of the e oes over the empire, and another called monks and modes Being, but sometimes a small image is kept in a box, of the mountain, are a species of fortune tellers and ° Worship. to t some inferior age f de whom the temple quack-doctors, who are bound to live on roots and ' is on’ is frequent-. herbs, to practise constant ablutions, and to traverse de- a large mirror, made of w i cast serts and mountains once in the year. There are like- metal, which is designed to remind the worshippers, wise several philosophical sects in the country who dis- as their personal blemishes are claim all external worship ; one of the most celebrated ed, so are their secret evil thoughts ex- of which adopts the tenets of the Chinese Confucius, Soomtine onal the immortal gods, and resembles in its general principles the ancient temples with great de- school of Epicurus, Its followers acknowledge a kind WhacienlowicLemummenpe ddvotey yoomedaecotmanioas Gagne pudienct me, tion to cleanliness of person vanci present life ; inculcate practice of vir- oo:the Sauer. then bar tnadetines. 0. the tue, but allow and even ns the commission of their prayers, present their offerings, suicide, Almost immediately after the discovery of Ja- and then repair to their amusements. The Kubo pro- pan by the Portuguese, the Christian religion was in- fesses himself to belong to this sect, and is bound to troduced into the country by the Jesuit missionaries in make a visit annually in person, or by an ambassador, the year 1549; and made such rapid progress that se- to one of their temples, to perform his devotion, and veral princes of the empire were soon ranked among present gi its converts, and about the year 1582, a public embas- B ‘s doctrine pen rent ised iy from the sy was sent from the Japanese court with letters and coast of Malabar, and is i the same with that valuable presents to the Roman pontiff. But the Por- of Budha-in Hindostan. Passing from China into Ja- tuguese who had settled in numbers in Japan, in- re es blended with that of Sinto, and gave toxicated the extent their commerce, and the irth to a monstrous mixture of superstitions. Its pe- success of their religion, became so obnoxious to the culiar tenets are, that the souls of men and of beasts natives by thejr avaricious and domineering conduct, are equally immortal, and that the souls of the wicked that the representations of the heathen priests became are condemned to wodnee pevahaint and puri at length sufficiently powerful to procure a prohibition tion, by passing after into the bodies of the lower from the emperor against the new religion, which animals, There are many other sects, very opposite in threatened to overturn all the ancient institutions of the their tenets and observances; but they are said to live country. A violent persecution was commenced against together in great harmony, or rather to share in all the Christians, of whom 20,000 are said to have been i iri, or ecclesiasti- put to death in the year 1590, Still did the number head of all of proselytes continue to increase, and in 159] and incipal priests 1592, twelve thousand were converted and baptized. sect has its respective One of the emperors, named Kubo Fide Jori, with his " peculiar i re- whole court and army, embraced the Christian name; markable for their uncouth and hideous form, un- and had the P ese settlers in the country acted i i ich mea- with ordi pru and gentleness, their cause sures ten yards across the shoulders, and affords room must have triumphed; but the insolence of some of for six men to sit upon its wrist. The inferior divini- their prelates to some prince of the blood, became so i ery trade has its tu- insupportable, that a new persecution arose in the year than 33,333 are 1596, which was carried on without intermission for said to be around the supreme deity. Thetemples the space of 40 years, and ended in the year 1638 with i town, onthe _ the total extermination of the Christians, and the banish- most and suitable spots, to which are frequent- ment of the Portuguese from the country. The Ja- ly attached beautiful avenues of trees, with panese government, considering the unwarrantable handsome gates, The idols are ly exhibited conduct of these settlers to be inseparable from their an altar surrounded with flowers, incense, and principles as Christians, haye persevered in the enforce- They with er or secular ment of the most efficacious measures to prevent their who attend to keep them clean, to light the re-introduction inte the country ; and in order to de- Lp and fires, to present the flowers and i and to ven E Y tect any concealed adherent of these proscribed senti- i ornate ah Soe $6 ments, all S$ are uired to prove their freedom strangers are allowed to enter, and sometimes to from such NDF. culdiely. trenolive, at the festi- in the temples. To some of the more noted churches val of the new year, upon the images of the Catholic images, : saints. ! temple of Tsie, the most ancient in the empire, and al- _ The form of government at present in Japan is pure Sanat most completely decayed with age, notwithstanding despotism, to the exclusion of pgntifical interference in govern. the utmost care to preserve its ruins. Its sole orna- the executive But as the Dairis, or BY gr esa mo- ment. ments are a mirror, i Sanating that nothing can be hid narchs, rei through a long period of hereditary from the supreme being, slips of white paper hung succession, we can only account for the ascendancy of round the walls, to ify that os ee Ns C5 SONNE OPGDR SREOENS The Hoe Ree, ror pure should approach his presence. To this place igning themselyes to more congenial and plea- emperor must send an ambassador on the first day of poo Se at walights bathdiie, sells. of qoremnet every month, and every individual must make a visit, with a feeble hand. This change was effected not at least once in the course of his life. Such a pilgri- without bloodshed and commotion. The veneration mage, besides its general merit, is rewarded with an with which the Dairi are still regarded resembles the Japan. Form of govern- ment. Lawe. Arts and seiences, 616 honours paid 'to the gods themselves. His person is considered as ‘too sacred to be’exposed to the air and sun, and still less to the view of any human creature. He never passes beyond the precincts of his court ; and if he is at any time under an absolute necessity of going out of his palace, he is pooenily borne on men’s shoulders that he may not touch the earth. His hair, nails, and beard are never suffered to be cut or cleaned, unless by stealth, and while he is asleep. He never eats twice from the same plate, and all the vessels once used in his meals, which are purposely of an inferior kind of porcelain, are usually broken to pieces, that they may not be profaned by unhallowed hands. His attendants are with for exceptions selected from his own kindred ; and beyond the precincts of his court few persons know even his name till long after his death. Since the re- trenchment of his power he derives his revenues from the town and district of Miaco, from an allowance out of the Kubo’s treasury, and from the large sums which he acquires by conferring titles ofhonour. This eccle- siastical court is likewise the principal seat of litera- ture, and may be considered as the only university in the empire. The students are maintained and instruct- ed at his expence in the history of the country, mathe matics, poetry, music, &c. The Kubos, or secular em- perors, now reign in hereditary succession, Each pro- vince of the empire is governed by a prince, who is responsible to the emperor for his administration. He enjoys the revenues of his government, keeps his court, and defrays ‘all the civil expences. Such an order of things appears to us only safe against turbulence and faction by powerful checks. Perhaps it is secured in Japan, by mutual jealousy, and the impressions of un- limited submission to the emperor, a feature of cha- racter peculiarly Asiatic. Thunberg informs us, that the laws of Japan are few, but rigidly enforced, without regard to persons. We have little acquaintance, however, with the Japanese code. We are told that most crimes are punished with death, and that none may incur this from ignorance, a brief code in large characters is posted up in every town and village, and regularly read in the temples. This, however, respects rather the crimes pees than the penalties annexed, which are said to be in some eases purposely kept unknown, and this uncertainty they affirm to have a salutary effect in deterring of- fenders. The Japanese have been celebrated for their profi- ciency in the arts and sciences.- Perhaps the safest standard of comparison, in this respect, will be their neighbours the Chinese. They excel in manufactures of silk and cotton. Their swords are of curious work- manship. ‘Their varnish is well known as inimitable, but for this they are chiefly indebted to the vegetable, from which it is made. The Japanese cultivate mu- sic, painting, drawing, geography, astronomy, and his« tory. They are totally unacquainted with anatomy ; and have no farther knowledge of natural philossahy and chemistry than a few notions gathered from Euro~ pean physicians. Their surgery consists almost en« tirely in burning pellets of moxa (or the leaves of mug- wort rubbed soft like cotton) upon the place which is supposed to be the seat of disease; and thus forming an issue, which is kept open for-some time.. They also neture: with a-silver needle where pains are felt. April was for his je ience. The a and consisting ve persons, a serjeant to standard of Russia, were conveyed in a without his sword or his suite, ussul Trapp. On an occasion, for which such and expectation raised, mere- ef compliments took place, and a few questions were put. The second audience nature, and here ended the matter. was yc to the oe prohibiting i again visiting Japan. The sents, and even the letters from the mspecer of Resa, with flags and curtains, and landed at a place 619 were refused. It was enjoined that any Japanese cast Japan. upon the coast of Russia, should be delivered over to the Dutch, who would send them by way of Batavia Account of to Nangasaky. Finally, the Russians were prohibited Russian from offering presents and making purchases, and from ®™*¥- visiting or receiving the visits of the Dutch factor. The repair of the ship, and the supply of provisions, were declared to be taken into the imperial account. And it was notified, that the A yc of Japan had sent 2000 sacks of salt, and 100 of rice, besides 2000 pieces of cassock or silk wadding, the former as a pre« sent for the crew, and the latter for the officers. The reason assigned for refusing the presents was, that the Emperor of Japan would be obliged to make a suitable return to the Em of Russia, and to send an am- bassador to St Petersburgh : and that it was contrary to the laws of the empire for any Japanese to quit his country. Such was the result of an embassy, of which such sanguine hopes had been formed in Russia. Not only were no new advan ined, but the writ- ten ission granted to the Hessian s to visit Nan- y was revoked. All communication is now sus- pended between Russia and Japan, nor is it expected that it will be again opened until some great change takes place in the Japanese government. Nor, per- haps, is such a change very remote. At the very mo- ment of our writing this article, we find it mention- ed, among conjinental intelligence, that the Dairi of Japan has been intriguing in secular affairs, and endea- vouring, by means of his priests and adherents, to gain the people to his cause. Whence the supremacy of the Kubo is threatened, and a popular insurrection appre= Latest ace coul ints from Japan. We shall conclude this article, by offering to our The Ainos readers a description, from Krusenstern, of the Ainos, “described by arace of people but little known in Europe. author’s account has simplicity of narrative, and the appearance of truth to recommend it, we shall make no .apology to our readers for presenting it in his own words. We shall only premise, that the island of Jes- so was wrested from the Ainos, its original inhabitants, by the Japanese; the former are now confined to a small space, which alone retains the name of Jesso, the rest of the island being called Matzumary, from the principal Japanese settlement here. ‘The Japanese dis- cipline exists in full force in the most northerly part the island, the farthest limit of their empire. “ The Ainos,” Krusenstern observes, “ are rather below the middle stature, being at the most five feet two or four inches high, of a dark, nearly black, complex- ion, with a thick bushy beard, black rough hair hang- ing straight down, and excepting in the beard, they have the appearance of the Kamtchadales, only that their countenance is much more regular. The women are sufficiently ugly: their colour, which is equally dark, their coal b! hair combed over their faces, blue painted lips, and tattooed hands, added to no remark. able cleanliness in their clothing, do not give them any great ions to loveliness ; this at least was the case with those we had an opportunity of seeing on the north side of Jesso. We perceived, indeed, in Ani- wa bay, some who were younger, whose eyes had not lost their brightness, and who on this account were not uite so ugly: but I confess that the i ion even , made upon me was equally enfevoursble. They are modest however in the highest degree, and in this point form the completest contrast with the women of Nuka~ hiwa and of ite. Their even amounted to bashfulness, occasioned perhaps by the jealousy of their As this Krusen- stern. Isla nd of $0. Jesso. JAPAN. ready said, probably newly built, and served only for their summer residence. In Romanzoff bay they ap- peared to be their constant abode both in winter and. summer. The two we visited, and near to which were. 620 Japan. husbands, and the watchfulness of their parents: they “—y~" never quitted for a moment, while we were on shore, Account of the huts in which they had assembled, and were ex- the Ainos. tremely distressed when Dr Telesius made drawings of Japan, thern. The characteristic quality of an Aino is goodness of heart, which is expressed in the strongest manner in his countenance; and so far as we were enabled to observe their actions, they fully answered this. expres- sion. These, as wellas their looks, evinced eociathdngp simple, but noble. Avarice, or rather rapacity, the common fault of all the wild inhabitants of the south- ern islands in the eastern ocean, they are entirely stran, to: in Romanzoff bay they brought fish on board, which they immediately left to us, without de- manding the least thing in return; and much as they were delighted with the presents made to them, they would not admit them as their property, until they had been frequently assured by signs of their being in- tended for them. ** The dress of the Ainos consists chiefly of the skins of tame dogs and seals ; but I have seen some in a very different: attire, which resembled the parkis of the Kamtschadales, and is; properly speaking, a white-shirt worn over their other clothes. In Aniwa bay they were all clad in furs; their boots were made of seal skins, and in. these likewise the: women were invariably: clothed. In Romanzoff bay, on the contrary, we saw: only two fur dresses, one of which was a bear’s skin,. the other made of dogs’ skins ; and the rest of the peo- ple were dressed in a coarse yellow stuff, made of the bark of a tree, (as we ascertained in their houses,). which a few wore, bordered with blue cloth. .Under this dress they had another of a fine ‘cotten stuff, that they probably purchase of the Japanese. Here we saw: no boots such as were worn by every one in Aniwa bay ; but, instead of them, they used Japanese straw slippers.. A few of them covered their legs with a kind of half stockings stitched together, of the same coarse stuff as their upper garments. This difference in the dress of the Ainos of Jesso and Sachalin seems to prove a much greater degree of wealth in the latter island, and the men here appeared to-wear a more cheerful aspect ; but whether this is owing to their superior wealth in fish and furs, which find a:certain market with the Japanese, or to their little dependence on these latter, I cannot pre« tend to decide, though I am inclined to. believe the for- mer. The greatest part of them went with their heads un- eovered ; others wore a straw hat, pointed in the middie, I fancy it is not the custom of the country to shave the hair, though I saw several of them with their heads half shorn, probably only in imitation of the Japanese. The women, even the youngest, use no ornaments on their heads ; but, as I have already mentioned, they invaria- bly paint their lips blue,—a practice which, to an Eu- vopean accustomed to the rose colour, appears extreme- ly ugly. On the contrary, many of the male sex wore ear-rings, which were commonly merely a brass ring. I purchased a pair off a young man, made of silver, wit large false pearls suspended from them. The possessor seemed to set great value on these ornaments, being very unwilling to part with them ; and twice he repent- ed of his bargain, took them back again, and demanded a higher price. An old coat, two cotton cloths, and a piece of flat white metal, were the treasures for which he at last exchanged them. Buttons and old clothes were the articles the Ainos most sought after, and for which they gave their pipes and other trifles, « The huts we saw in Aniwa bay were, as I have al~ balagans for drying fish, consisted of a single large vies which, with chiar division at one a yn the whole interior of the house. Their construction, did not seem to me to be very solid, and, unless the, houses are entirely covered with snow, asin Kamtschat- ka, I cannot conceive how they are able to bear the cold, which must be intense here in the winter; since, even in the month of May, the thermometer only shew-: ed three degrees of warmth. In the middle of the room was a large hearth, around which the whole family,, consisting of eight or ten persons, was seated. The. furniture consisted of a large bed, over which a Ja ese mat was spread, and several boxes and barrels. All, their utensils were of Japanese manufacture, and most-. ly lacquered. It appeared, from the interior of the house, that the inhabitants possessed a degree of afflu- ence such as is not found among the Kamtschadales,) still less among the Aleuti, and the unfortunate inha- bitants of Kodiack. The great provision of dried fish: bore indeed rather'a disgusting appearance ; but no ob-, jection can be taken to this when we reflect, that their existence depends upon them, fish being prabably their only nourishment, and their kouses on this account be- ing chiefly scattered along the shore. We perceived no symptoms of cultivation, not even any plantations of vegetables ; nor did we see any tame fowls or do-= mestic animals except dogs, which they had in great abundance; and: Lieutenant Golowatscheff found in Mordwinoff bay, on the west coast of Patience bay, above fifty in one place. In all probability they use them for their journeys in the winter; for we saw. im Aniwa bay a sledge which. bore a. perfect resemblance to a Kamtschadale narte. Dog skins, also, are here.an important article of dress.. We were struck on perceiy« ing, that snow-water was the common beverage of the people on the northside of Jesso, although that of the river, which flowed into the bay, was extremely good. Perhaps the fear of cold in the winter, as they would have to fetch their water from the river, which is not very near to their houses, has so accustomed them to snow-water, that they prefer it to that of the river so long as they are able to procure it. It seemed also the custom here, (at least, it was so in all the houses which either I or any of my officers visited,) to bring up,a young bear in the house, to which a. place was assigned in one of the corners of the room; and which was deci+ dedly the most restless of any of its inhabitants. One of our officers was desirous of purchasing one of these bears, and offered his great-coat in exchange for it; but he could not persuade the proprietor, although cloth is of great value in the eyes of the Ainos, as the Japanese are unable to supply them with it, to part: with his young eléve. : a « It would be presuming too much to enter into any. detail upon the form of government and the religion of the Ainos, as our stay here was much too circumscribed for us to have instituted any inquiries into these sub- jects; but, with their limited population, it is not easy to imagine any other than a patriarchal constitution. During our visit to one of their houses in Romanzoff bay, we observed in the family, which consisted of ten persons, the paneest state of harmony, or rather a per= fect equality. e continued there some hours, and were scarcely able to distinguish the head of the fami- ly, so little assuming were even the oldest towards its GA 1 JAPAN. ! 621 = - ae “ee “aed : . ae __ Jepas. youngest members. Accordingly, in dividing a few that, except their bushy beard and the hair on their Japam _— ts among them, I preserved a most perfect equa- faces, there was not the least thing to give probability —“v—” Account of lity, which they all pleased with, no one, not to such a'story. In Aniwa I got several of them to un- Account of ‘the Amos. even the oldest, ing, that I had given him too cover their breasts, arms, and legs, and we Were’ here the Ainos. , little in proportion to the others; onthe contrary, they convinced to a certainty that the greater part of the called my attention to a little girl, about eight years old, whom I had overlooked, and who- now obtained her share. This yeni Th vee ee reigns among them, aw: most favourable feelings towards them. Here was no loud talking, no immode- rate langhter, and still less any disputing. The satis- faction appeared in all their countenances as they spread the mats round the hearth for us; their readi- ness, when we were going away, to launch their canoes and carry us across the shallows toour boat, when they ene ipping themselves they differ very much from the inhabitants of the west of Sachalin, whose diffidence La Perouse could not speak of with praise; all these uncommon Pree for Ainos have no more hair upon their bodies than is to be found upon those of many Europeans. Lieut. Go- lo found indeed in Mordwinoff Bay a child of eight years old, whose body was entirely covered with hair; but he immediately examined its parents and se- veral other grown up s, and found them all iz that like Eu ns. I will not flatly contra< dict the report of older and modern navigators, whose credibility I do not argue against; but I believe that they have exaggerated this story ing the Ainos, or, what is the same thing, the natives of the southern is purpose: but still more than is, their mo- Kuriles> at least it is not equally true with regard to § desty never to demand any thing, and even to all.» Perhaps the impression which the Dutch received with hesitation whatever was to them, wherein from their bushy beard, hairy face, and lank locks, add- ed to the uncleanliness of their persons, left an idea that their bodies must be as much covered as their fa~ ces; and as they did’ not wait to examime whether this which they are not indebted to any pol education, were really the case, this gave rise to'a story whiclr but which are merely the marks of their natural cha- has been ever since as a fact.” A, racter, make me consider the Ainos as the best of all = The following notices respecting Japan, communica- the le that I have hitherto been acquainted with. “1 have already mentioned their inconsiderable num- —_ ing- mit ten as the num of each tamil , this makes that ted in a discourse to the Literary and Scientific Society at Java by the Honourable Governor Raffles, and drawn from the information of Dr Ainslie, who had resided four months in Nangasaki, may be considered as the most recent intelli on the subject of this article. of the inhabitants of this district eighty. Farther | Every information obtained by that gentleman tends Recent ac- inland they probably have no ishments; for as to pb the accuracy, ability, and impartiality of cout of the their whole nouri consists of fish, they only set- Kempfer, whose account of Japan is represented as one J*Pne* tle on the sea shores. In Salmon Bay, and T. of the most complete works of the kind that was ever vinslic. Aniwa, the Ainos probably amount to three Siecleall? produced in the same circumstances. The Japanese but we were there at the time of the fishery, and it is acknowledge that from this book know their own chiefly from hence that the Japanese procure this arti- country; and their first enquiry to the English com- cle, for which they are obliged to have recourse to the missioners was for a copy of Kempfer. In expressing imhabitants of the neighbouring bays, who settle here the estimation in which his writings were held among at such times, in order to so large a quantity. ae papa tere the vicinity apanese factory is a proof of this, but also the number of houses provided with furniture but destitute of inhabitants in Mordwinof Bay, where Lieut. Golowatscheff, who visited that part, found but a few berg in 1739, confirmed this description. Al Many concurring accounts seem to. testify the fact of the natives of Jesso being overgrown with hair, never- I am disposed, from our experience, to de- clare this report to be fabulous. The Jesuit Hierony- de Angelis, the first Eu who, in 1620, vi- Jesto, mierely mentions their bushy besrds, but not a word of their hairy bodies; and.as he resi- for some time ee mee te certainly had a opportunity of examini ir personal qualities could be found in the chet visite of the Dutch, Russians, or the Chinese. and he would not have to make known ¢o striking a circumstance. On north of .Jesso we examined some people, but found ePEreiae them, they literally observed, that “ he had drawn out their heart from , and laid it palpitating before us, with all the movements of their government, and the actions of their men!” The natives are represented’ by Dr Ainslie as a nervous, vigorous people, whose bo+ dily and mental powers iacioallate much nearer to those of Europe, than what are usually attributed to Asia- — tics ; as possessed of masculine features y Euro- pean, except the small lengthened Tartar eye, which almost universally prevails ; as perfectly fair and everr blooming in their complexion ; and actually exhibiting among females of the higher class more of the hue of health than is usually found in Europe. He describes their proficiency in the sciences, ially in metaphy~ sics and judicial astrology, as sufficient to evince a vi- gorous intellect ; and their skill in the arts as by no means resembling the stati ‘mediocrity of the Chi+ nese, but as the effect of an ardent and progressive principle of improvement. Nothing, he tells us, is so offensive to the feelings of a Japanese, as to be compared, in any one respect, with the Chimese; and the only occasion on which he ever saw the habitual politeness of a wative surprised into a burst of pas- sion, was when, upon a similarity between the two nations being unguardedly poem the latter laid‘ his hand upon his sword. They have at least none of that uniformity of character which the artificial systenr of government has produced in China; and their wo- men particularly, associate among themselves like the ladies of Europe. Dr Ainslie was present at frequent JAP entertainments among the natives ; and on one of these occasions particularly, a Jady from the court of Jeddo performed the honours of the table with an ease, ele- gance, and address, that would have graced a Parisian. The usual dress of the Japanese women, even. of the middle rank, is remarkably costly ; and its value might supply the wardrobe of an European lady of the same rank for twenty years. The Japanese, with an appa- rent coldness, derived from that system of espionage and principle of disunion dictated by the government, are eager for novelty, and warm in their attachments, strongly inclined to foreign intercourse, notwithstand- ing the prohibitory political institutions of their country, and apparently ready to throw themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelligence ; but at the same time full of contempt for every thing below their own standard of morals and habits. The failure of the embassy from Russia in 1814, which might seem to contradict this remark, Dr Ainslie considers as attri- butable to particular circumstances, which however are not sufficiently detailed, but are intimated as originating in the influence of the interested competitor at the head of the Dutch establishment. The warehouse in which the Russian mission had been lodged was pointed out to Dr Ainslie, who observes, .that, “ as the rats were let out, the count and his suite were let in, where they remained for six long months with scarce room to turn ; the mark of obloquy to the Japanese, and the laughing stock of the European factory.” So lively was the im- pression of the occurrence, that the chief Japanese offi- cer asked the English commissioner, “ if he too would -condescend:to play the part of the Russian count?”— the officer answering to his own question, “ No, I trust not.” Even the illiberality of the Japanese on the sub- ject of religion, is affirmed by no means to correspond with the representations hitherto made of their charac- ter ; and the annual test of trampling on crucifixes and other Catholic images, is said to be denied and derided as a foolish story by the native priests. Upon visiting the great temple on the hills of Nangasaky, the English commissioner was received with marked respect, and sumptuously entertained by the patriarch of the north- -ern provinces, a man eighty years of age; and when one of the English officers present heedlessly exclaimed in surprise, Jasus Christus! the patriarch, turning half round with a placid smile, bowed significantly, expres- sive of a hint to avoid that subject in that place, and took leave with a hearty shake of the hand. It is men- tioned as an extraordinary fact, that, for seven years past, since the visit of Captain Pellew, notwithstanding the determination of the court not te enter into foreign commerce, the English language has, in obedience to an edict of the Emperor, been cultivated with consi- derable success by the younger members of the college of interpreters, who were found very eager in their in- quiries after English books. While the commissioner was at Nangasaky, there arrived a large detachment of officers of rank, who had been employed nearly four yeats in making an actual survey of every foot of the empire and the dependent isles, one fourth part of which they had not yet completed. The survey ap- peared to be conducted on a scientific principle, to be most minute and accurate in its execution, and to have for its object the completion of a regular geographical and statistical description of the country. The Ja- panese, in short, are wonderfully inquisitive in all points of science, and are anxious to receive information, without inquiring from what quarter it comes ; and, in the opinion of Dr Ainslie, are a people with whom the 622 JAP European’world might hold intercourse without com- promise of character. The result of all that the com- Japanning. missioners observed, is said to be an impression on the minds of those who are most competent both to judge and act in the matter, that a commercial intercourse between Great Britain and Japan might easily be opened. See Kempfer’s History of Japan ; Thunberg’s Travels, vols. iii. and iv; Krusenstern’s Voyage round the World; and the Transactions of the Literary and ‘Scientific Society at Java. JAPANNING, is a mode of ornamenting various -articles with a hard varnish, which bears a good polish, and can be made of brilliant colours and ornaments. ‘The natives of Japan and China oreo this art in great perfection. They have a decided advantage over the European japanner in their materials. They use a kind of resin called lac, which is the sap or juice of a tree. The Japanese make incisions in the lower part of the trunk, and receive the lac, which flows in pots set beneath the incisions; this lac is at first of the colour and consist- ence of cream, but it becomes black on the surface when it is exposed to the air. The whole mass is required to become black before it is used, and for this it is put into very shallow bowls, and continually stirred with an iron rod during twenty-four hours, so as to ex- pose every part to the action of the air; this makes it thicker than before, and of a fine black colour, which they heighten by adding powdered charcoal. When this lac is taid on the work, and dried, it is polished with a stone and water, and the polished sur- face is ornamented by gilding or painting, which is secured by an external coat of varnish, made of oil and turpentine, boiled to a proper consistence. The japanning among Europeans is differently per- formed, but the work bears a near resemblance to that of the Japanese when finished ; it is sa yn to wood, pa- pier-maché, leather and iron, or tinned iron, When the articles are of that nature, that they will not bear heat- ing in a stove to dry and harden the japan, they must be done with lac similar to the real japan; but as the lac is only brought to Europe in a solid form, it must first be reduced to a fluid state, by dissolving it in al- cohol, or some essential oil; and this varnish being spread on the work, the alcohol or oil will evaporate, and leave a hard superficial coat of lac. The varnish may be mixed with the requisite colours, or the colours may be painted upon the surface of the varnish, be- tween the successive coats which are applied; and in the latter case admit of painting according to a design. For such goods as will admit of sufficient heat in a stove, a more economical method is pursued, the prin- cipal coats of japan being made of boiled lin oil, with proper colouring matters. These are dried and hardened in the stove, and the painting or gilding is laid on; a thin lac varnish is lastly applied, to give the external surface ; but it assimilates so well with the first coats of japan, that the whole wears as well as if it was done with solid lac in the Japanese method, Japanning with lac. This is principally used for or- J#panning — ‘acmaadions nak leather, and paper, but the latter can Wit? ae be japanned by heat like the metals. he following receipts are given in the Handmaid to the Arts, for the varnishes which are to form the ds or surfaces on which the painting or gilding are to be laid. Dissolve two ounces of coarse seed lac, and two ounces of resin, in one pint of rectified spirits of wine. This varnish must be laid on in a warm - place ; and the work will be better done if the substance to be japanned can be warmed also, but all moisture ; JAPANNING. 628 and dampness must be carefully avoided. Two or three beth mineral and Prussian blue; and ‘a common kind Japanning. be made of verdigris, mixed with either of the =“ = coats of this coarse varnish must be applied, p : ¢ colour, to laying the which contain th and which ay as follows. For a while ground, prepare flake white, or white lead, by = with water, and then by grinding it pir ixth of its be of starch; when this is dried, temper it properly for spreading, with mas- tic varnish, which i re by dissolving mastic in spirits of turpentine, by a gentle heat in a water bath ; or the colour may be compounded with gum anime, reduced to , and ground first with turpentine, and then ground with the colours, adding as much of the mastic varnish as is n to make it work with the pencil. When this white japan is laid on, the external varnish which is applied upon it after the painting or ber oe teen | must be of the most transparent nature, it may not injure the whiteness of the colour. For this por select the clearest and whitest grains from a large parcel of seed lac, reserving the coarser grains for other varnishes ; take two ounces of this chosen lac, and three ounces of gum anime, reduce them to a gross powder, and dis- solve them in a quart of spirits of wine; five or six coats of this varnish must be laid on over the white colour. The seed-lac will give a slight tinge to the colour, bat the hardest varnish cannot be made with- out it; when hardness is not so essential, a less pro- pecan may be used, and to take away the i of the gum anime, a small ity of crude pm = eed = endgame Another varnish, either for ss the white colours, or for covering them when lai Mm Bet nen anime, mney ved in old nut or poppy oil, i , and puttin: into it as much or ike ee ill take up. This i ted with cil of turpentine Sor use : polishing, and must therefore be applied very carefully to lay it smooth. meme a te oy use a bright Prussian blue, or smalt, or verditer, glazed over Prussian blue ; brought to a polish mixed Sinners Gaeniionn t to a polishing state by five or six coats of lac varnish. If the blue ground is bright, and the shell lac varnish is laid on, it will give a green hue, ~ hoger ee An he inne oho or japan vermilion may be used to a scarlet round, but it has a glaring effect alone. ‘I’his will be in some measure correct- | alasing it over _ carmine, or fine lake, or rose-pink. For a bright crimson, in- i ‘with ‘cies’, Leadlen lake should be may be dissolved in the spirit of which posed, and a coat of this being laid lac varnish may be used to produce the v= on eed: will very well transmit the tinge e. grounds, for bright yellow, king’s mineral should by annloyeds citer or mixed with fine Dutch pink. The effect may heightened by yori | powdered turmeric root in , which ‘or making the external var- alcohol should be stramed off from the the turmeric, before the seed lac is put in to if 2 z 8% e E 2. ® fr HE ne IZ Fa L i i E 2 above yellows, or with Dutch pink. For a very bright green, the crystals of verdigris, called the distilled ver- digris, should be emporen: and to heighten the ef* fect, the colour-should be laid on eigronsiet of leaf-gold, which renders it’very brilliant. For orange japan grounds, mix’vermilion or red lead For orange witli king's’ y aio, or Dutch pink, or orange lake used J#p4" alone is a best annotto four ounces, and of pearl ashes one pound ; put them hy aay into a gallon of water; and boil them for half an ; then strain the solution through pa-- per. Make also another solution of a d and a half of alum, in a gallon of water, and mix this gradually with the solution of pearl ashes-and annotto; a preci- one of the colouring matter will be formed, which ing dried in cakes or lozenges, is the orange lake. For purple sian blue may be for a Seah : le: . For a mn nd. black are the aa ther e colour. To prepare this, take of the grounds. japan grounds, a mixture of lake and Prus- For parple * used, or vermilion and Prussian: blue ~ a rounds. Ivory black and lamp For a black~ materials for this purpose. They japan should be laid on with shell lac varnish, and the exter. ground. nal varnish may be of seed lac; as-the tinge of it can do no injury. , For a ground of gold. Gold leaf may be laid on For over the whole surface. See Japanners Gitpine. Or ground of the imitative gold or silver tee may be used with gold. en the size there described. the desired ground is obtained, the ornamental painting is next performed. The colours for painting are mixed up with varnish of shell or seed lac, dissolved in spirits of wine, or other- wise by varnish of mastic, dissolved in oil of t tine; to which gum anime may be added, as before di- rected, for mixing up the colours of the white ground, and which applies to all the other grounds. ere is, in fact, no di ce between the manner of preparing the colours for laying the grounds, or for painting upon the ground. The pencils must be moistened either with the spirits of wine or oil of turpentine, so as to make the colours work, In some very nice works, the colours may be tempered in oil, for the more free use of the pencil, and to obtain greater dispatch, ‘The oil should previously have one-fourth part of its weight of gum anime dissolved in it, or gum sandarac or mastic. When this oil is used, it should be diluted with spirit of turpentine, that the colours may lie more even and thin, When the painting is to be on a ground of gold, wa- ter colours may be used for the ornamental painting. They are prepared with isinglass size, corrected with honey or su dy. The ornamental gilding Tor jas panners wel isenphidia in the article Gitpcno. External varnish. The hardest varnish is made of seed lac, as before mentioned, but has a yellow tinge. To make this, wash the seed lac in water to clean it from impurities; dry it, and eee it coarsely ; then put three ounces of it into a bottle with a pint of rec- tified spirits o@@ wine. The bottle should not be above two-thirds filled, and must be gently heated, aud sha- ken frequently, until as much of the lac is dissolved as can be, and the varnish is Se eee bottle, and kept stopped very close. The more high! rectified the spirit is, the snore lac it will dissolve. This varnish must be laid on in a dry warm place, and the work previously made perfectly dry: no part should be crossed or passed twice over in laying the same coat, For green japan grounds, king’s yellow and bright if it can be avoided. Pression bins may be mixed to stake a gree, or tare When the outer varnish has been as often repeated External Varnizh. 624 Japanning- as is necessary, the work is polished with a rag dipped “>” in fine powdered pumice stone, or rotten stone; and avhen a good surface is thus obtained, it is finished by subbing it with the hand-alone, or with butter or oil. About the middle of the last century, almost all ele- gant furniture was japanned by these means ; but it is now disused, except, for coaches, and for some small ar- ticles. The japanning of such articles as will bear the heat of a stove, to harden the varnish, is now brought to a very high perfection, and is very cheap compared with, the lac japan. Japanning _ Japanning of tin.and paper wares by the stove. This of tinand js distinguished into two kinds; clear work, in which paper wares the japan is required to be transparent; and black ja- bythestove. Dan, which is opake. The varnish for clear work is Clear japan composed of raw linseed il, umber, and a little am- varnish. ber, with a small portion of white rosin, These ma- terials are boiled for several hours in a cast-iron pot, which is set in brickwork over a furnace, and _ the mouth of the pot surrounded by a funnel or chimney ef brickwork, with only one opening to obtain access to it; and this opening is provided with an iron door to shut close in case the materials should take fire. The boiling evaporates the most fluid parts of the oil, and the varnish becomes thick. It is known to be suffi- ciently. boiled by letting fall a drop on a piece of tin- plate; and,if it does not spread upon the surface, but keeps in a circumscribed spot, the varnish is esteemed sufficiently boiled, and may be taken out of the boiler. This varnish is to be mixed up to a proper consistence for working with spirit of turpentine, the varnish being a little warm. Black japan. The black japan varnish is made by the same pro- varnish. —_ cess, but asphaltum is used instead of amber; and it is thinned for use with tar spirit instead of spirit of turpentine ; also lamp black is added to the varnish. . Hither of these varnishes are to be laid upon the work by a soft hog’s hair brush, such as is known by the name of a painter’s tool, and it must be prepared by drawing out all the hairs which are thicker than the others, or all those which have the flesh end downwards. The work must be carefully cleaned from dirt, resin, &c. and with this brush it is thinly coated over with the varnish. It is left for a few minutes to set, and it is then put into the drying stove, the heat of which at first makes the varnish more fluid, and it flows with great evenness over all the surface; but when the spi- rits evaporate, the varnish becomes.solid, and in thirty or forty minutes may be taken out, and suffered to cool previous to varnishing again. The proper time for the ‘second application, is known by applying the finger on the varnished surface with a moderate pressure; if the adhesion of the varnish is such that the finger will not slide over the surface, at the same time that there is no actual.sticking to the, finger, it is then in the right state to receive another coat of varnish. The work should not be suffered to dry beyond this state, otherwise the.successive coats will, not adhere so firmly. A second varnish being applied, the article is dried again; then a third coat is applied, and the work is left in the stove five or six hours, or all night, to harden and dry off the varnish, If it is the clear varnish which is thus treated, this time will be suffi- cient ; but it will eer darker in proportion as it is longer exposed to the heat, or as the heat is increased. For black work the heat is raised as high as possible, without melting the soldering, or charring the varnish ; and this is continued three or four days, This process ‘ JAPANNING. makes the hardest and most durable of all varnishes, Japenning and of a most brilliant jet black colour. | To obtain a smooth surface, it is rubbed with wool« len rag with pumice stone powder and water, and it is polished by rottenstone powder, and finished by the i friction of the bare hand with a little butter. j Mottled japan in imitation of tortoise shell. This Mottled ja. is done by covering the tin with one coat of varnish as pan, in imi- above, mixed with Venetian red, and then it is coated tion of with black varnish. The fingers are drawn over the a varnished surface. in a waving direction, to distribute the varnish unequally, and thus cause the red colour to be shewn through in spots or clouds, imitating tortoise shell, Otherwise the tin is painted in spots with ver~ milion mixed in shell lac varnish; and this is coated with the clear varnish, which is afterwards stoved till it becomes deeply coloured, and is rather opake, sothat . it shews the vermilion spots and the surface of the tin beneath in an imperfect manner, and much resembles the clouds of tortoise shell. Some simple articles in wood may be treated in this way, provided they are not put together in pieces with glue, and are not liable to be split by the heat; for in- stance, walking canes are most beautifully ornamented at Birmingham. These processes of japanning by heat are to be found in some receipts b unkel, but do not appear to have been practised till the Birmingham manufacture was begun. When ornamental painting or gilding is required, it is done upon a clear japan ground when the same is set. A layer of gold size being spread over the sur- face, (see GitpiNnG,) the leaf gold or gold powder is applied, and also the required painting, the colours be« ing mixed as before directed for lac japanning. Sten- cils are sometimes used to lay the gold powder in pars ticular patterns: they are pieces of paper with openings cut out in particular forms; and being applied upon the surface of the work, if the powder is applied by a , piece of rag it will be laid according to the pattern cnt out. A variety of different coloured metallic bronze hh powders are used in the Birmingham ware ; and for the smaller parts they lay them on with stump brushes. Transparent or Pont-y-pool Japan.—The articles ja« Transpa anned in this way are prep i hn, good ground of rent or Black varnish made very smooth; a layer of gold size is Pont-y- then laid on, and the whole surface is covered with silver J#P8"- ‘ powder ; upon this is laid a coat of thin varnish mixed with the desired colour, such as Prussian blue, or lake t mixed with spirit of turpentine, to make it spread. When $ this is dry, it is sized over, and painted or ornamented rf with gilding in silver leaf or powder. The whole is coated with an external varnish of a gold colour, which changes the colour of the silver leaf to that of gold. The use of the first coat of silver powder is to give a resplendency to the colour, which is very beautiful. The French have a mode of producing flowered stains of colour of the most brilliant hues, which are waved / very much like the flowers which are found in a frosty ( morning upon the windows of an aparHDethy We are informed that it is done by means of an acid applied to the surface of the tin before it is japanned. The stoves for j ing are built of brick or stone, , generally three stories high, with three stoves upon each floor. The fire is at the bottom, and is covered over with a strong iron plate. The flues are carried up at : the sides and ends of the stoves, and are made to af= ford three different degrees of heat, for drying off the : clear varnish, or for darkening it, or for darkening the black rarpish, (4, F.) td n ; nf * 7 —— Sen ah ea tre roe -Sinaation 105° and 115° of east longitude from Greenwi t ex- : tends, nearly in the direction of east and west, about 650 miles, fh ne, tty aby On the north lies the island of ; on the north-east, Ce- lebes ; on the east, the islands of Bali and Madura ; on the south and west, the Indian ocean ; and on the north- west, the island of Sumatra, from which it is separated by the Straits of Sunda, which, at the narrowest point, are about 20 miles broad. On ing these straits a to the view. The low coast of Su- covered with trees, behind which its ma- jestic mountains rise in gradual ascent; while the op- ite coast of Java, not inferior in beauty, indicates the fertility of its soil, by its numerous rice fields, and es of cocoa-nut and palm trees. - Bescription. this side are several bays, where there is during the good or south-east monsoon ; monsoon, when the north-west wind $s to anchor near the coast. nown than the northern, and almost inaccessible. A chain of commencing at the eastern extremity, ince of Balambouang, running to the west- , and gradually decreasing in height, divides the island longitudinally into two parts, of which the north. ern section is the largest and best. In several mountains of this great chain are observa- ble the craters of volcanoes, which were formerly vio- lent in their eruptions, and many of which still emit various virtues and temperatures, are found in their vi- inity. An account of a very curious natural e- non in the plains of , about 50 miles N. E. of cture of salt. ing, they went to the bludugs, as the Javanese them, and found them to be on an elevated plain of mud, about two miles in circumference, in the centre of Mud vole which immense bodies of salt mud were thrown up to _— ight of from ten to fifteen feet, in the form of which, bursting, emitted volumes of dense bes or bubbles, of which wing up and bursting oo in a minute by the watch. At two or three tons of mud. The smoke, and found it to ty noise, occasioned by the falling of the mud upon that which surrounded it, and of which the plain riosity. VOL. XI, PART It. an. _Jawss* the soothernmost of the Sunda islands, is situa« i smoke after heavy rains. Numerous mineral springs of tid posed. It was difficult and dangerous to approach the or Mo rem. as the nites wae all a quagmire, ex where the surface of the mud had be« come Savaacied by the sun. Upon this they approach. ed cautiously to within fifty yards of the largest bubble, or mud pudding, as it might very properly be called ; for it was of the consistency of a custard pudding, and of very considerable diameter. They also got close to a small globe or bubble, (the plain was full of them of different sizes,) and observed it closely for some time. It commerce, sides its own productions, it used to be the general de- pot of all the spices of the Moluccas. It “8 ogee speaking, however, merely an exchange trade, as all exportation of cash or bullion is expressly prohibited ; and even the dollars which a merchantman may bring to the ports, are not allowed to be taken away again, but must all be expended on goods. All traders were generally farther restricted by the Dutch Company as to the nature of the cargo which they wish to export, and were required to take one-third or fourth of it in spices. - , in consequence of a tradition Buffaloes.’ The great boa Boa The coasts of the island abound with excel« fish, Java. Commerce. Money. 630. The trade in certain articles, Such ce opium, camphor, benzoin; calin:(a sort-of Indian metal, ) pewter, iron, salt- petre, gunpowder, &c. was, vinder the Dutch, reserved exclusively for the company, and the: (segue of gain by private trade have been gradually decreasing since the middle of last century. . The principal exports from Java have been already noticed under the head of its productions ;, but the greater portion of the articles imported from other eastern countries, may be con- -sidered as intended more’ for future exportation, than for the use of the island. From Bengal are brought atnas, blue cloths, «and other stuffs, drugs and opium} from different in Sumatra, camphor of the best quality, benzoin, calin, elephants teeth, and birds- nests ;* from Borneo,, gold-dust, diamonds, and birds- nests; from Europe, kersymeres, cloths, hats, gold- wire, silver, galloon, stationery, wine, beer, dollars ; from Muscat, dollars and gum-arabic ; from the Isle of France, olive-oil, wine, vinegar, hams, cheese, soap, trinkets, ebony, mercery; from the Cape of Good Hope, garden-seeds, butter, Madeira, and Constantia wines ; from China, immense quantities of porcelain; and silks of every kind; from Japan, camphor, fans, articles of furniture, sabres‘of an excellent temper, and ingots of fine copper’ for common coinage to pay the troops. Money, especially of gold, is very scarce at Java; and the current coins are a mixture of Dutch and In- dian pieces, of which the following Table gives the value in sterling money, at the par exchange of eleven frances per pound, . Francs. = ng 3 A The old Japan gold coupan 24 0 : Pay The new ditto EY 4 , “ . - 4 8 16 ai The milled Dutch ducat . of SGISS 1 02250 The silver-milled ducatoon . “ano OF 3} The unmilled ditto oo S28 O° Trg The Spanish dollar or piastre from 3 3 0 5 8? to3 6 0 6 0 The rix dollar . : = ; 2.6 0 4 “ The Batavia rupee . : » 110 0 2 82 Other rupees about . . «. 1 7 0 2 Bi There are likewise half-rupees, quarter rupees, and fanams, equal to one-twelfth of a rupee. There are copper coins issued by the Company, particularly the stiver, of which eighty-eight are equal to a rupee; two« ' penny pieces, equal to two stivers; and doits or far« Weights and mea- seures, things. The rix-dollar, equal to 48 stivers, is the mo- ney chiefly used in ao trade; and the milled silver ducatoon, equal to’ 66 stivers, was the current coin of the Company through their Indian possessions. A pa« er currency, ianneal by General Daendels during the ate war, and termed Porbolingo paper, was common in the island at the time of its capture by the British, but was by them tended to be gradually called in and abolished. Most merchants goods are calculated by the picol of one hundred and twenty-five pounds Amsterdam weight, which is subdivided into a hundred cattis, each weigh- ing one pound and a quarter. “Sugar is taken in canas- sers.of three picols, or 375 pounds each ; coffee, in bags of 252 pounds; and cinnamon, in bales of eighty. Rice and other grain is measured by coyangs, which must weigh, when oop purchased by the Company, 3500 pounds; but which, by deductions for dust, drying, perquisites to the warehouse keepers, and other hands -men of Lord Macartney’s JAVA, through which they pass, are finally reduced,when the Java, article reaches the consumer, to 3000 pounds: ‘There is also a small rice measure of 13} Ibs. called/ganting. The general ol fee of Java has been variously I estimated ; by Valentyn at 3,300,000; by the gentle. embassy in 1792, at 2,300,000; by a census, said to have been taken by General Daens -dels, in 1808, the returns, exclusive of the south coast, exceeded 3,000,000; and by the latest’ surveys of the ‘British, there are supposed to be 5,000,000 of persons on the island. The inhabitants, especially around Ba« tavia, are composed of various tribes; but principally of'native Javanese, Malays, Chinese, and slaves. ° The Javanese live in a state of absolute slavery tothe Javan native princes, except that they are not transferred by sale from one master to another. “The form of govern- ment among them is perfectly despotic, and the powe of the prince in every sense uncontrouled, His will is literally the law, and is restricted by no insti- tutions, either civil or religious. There are no heredi« tary distinctions or ranks among the people; but, by the mere authority of the monarch, the humblest may be raised to the chief dignities, and the highest degrad« ed to the state of the meanest subject. ey have no security in their’ property, or power to dispose of it, farther than the sovereign may permit. © The land, par- ticularly, is his exclusive property ; and, in place of sa« laries to the officers of government, portions of ground are allotted and reeked at pleasure. Neither grant nor occupation can convey to a subject the remotest claim to permanent possession ; but large tracts of territory are frequently given one day, and resumed the next; and scarcely an instance. occurs of lands being held by the heirs of those who occupied them 80 years ago. The poorest peasant is not even at liberty to dispose of the fruits of his own industry at his own pleasure ; but is bound to carry the whole, or a part, either to the company or the prince, at a regulated, and frequently most inadequate price. Though the unbounded prero- gatives of the sovereign, and this fluctuating state of pro- perty, cannot admit a hereditary nobility, there arenever~ . theless a privileged class, who receive titles and exten- sive powers at-the pleasure of their despot; and who are proportionally revered by the superstitions le as re- presentatives of royalty. Thedistinction between the ~ and these privileged orders is extremely marked and umiliating, and extends even to the language, of which the men of rank speak one dialect, and the plebeians ano- ther. The language is even adapted to the different gradations of rank ; and the sovereign particularly often makes use of one dialect, which no subject dare use, and is spoken ‘to in another, which can be addressed only to himself. When a Javanese, in short, approaches the presence of his prince, his great object is to express the immeasurable inequality between his condition and that - of the sovereign. He assumes, therefore, the most ab« ject position of body, rather crawling than walking ; shews his respect not by decency of attire, but anxious- ly displays his relative meanness by studied raggedness - “or partigl nakedness; and instead of recommending himself by the elegance of his language, selects the dia- lect of the most ignorant slave, or mimics the barbarous idiom of a despised ‘stranger. Fe is the rear €X= press respect, not by standing, but by orp in the pre= sence of a superior y and pr the slaves who a as menials, squat at the feet of their master or mistress, in- stead of placing themselves behind their back. The * See Cutna, Vol. VE. p. 300—Note +. Jave _—natives of Java J. AV. A. generally about the middle size of scupieenbasighoaeasrelh media; steed and upright in their gait, i ox cage, Pane xearepoays . bitants. Their eyes.are and prominent, the fore- head heehee oer-weem ya rma curving at the point, the upper lip rather projecting She joints of thei’ hantla and feet remark- small, and especially in the female. sex remark- iant, so as easily to of their skin is a deep brown, their hair black, constantly smooth and shining with cocoa-nut is also the favourite colour of the teeth, hich are all stained of the deepest hue, in the front, which are covered with gold leaf. dren of both sexes go entirely naked till their eighth or ninth year; or, at most, the young females wear ia belt sna iiciaiiieeniicataentoniel sa PEEEEEE Hi = upon the head. Persons of a higher class Ma oT coat of flowered cotton or other stuff, and ly turbans instead of era- dicate from of the body except the head ; the face, and other not covered by women nearly resembles that of the men. It consists of a piece of cotton or chintz called saron, constructed of bamboo, plastered with mud, and thatched with leaves of the cocoa-nut tree. There is sel- ede ing the rice, and a few cocoa-nut shells as are sufficiently temperate in point of in consequence of their extreme poverty, yet altogether even voracious, as to or or salt, and the fruit of the cocoa-nut ; but pat onc i ice i i inary, or mew: a paste, and rolled w in a green leat of betel pepper, which communicates to i red colour, afterwards turn- and asmall portion will intoxicate those who are to it. They are fond of opium, and in intoxicating liquors at their religious 631 ceremonies ; but the greater of the people stupify themselves with the ae crueaiee articles, of tobacco and bangue. Though subject to few diseases, they are not long lived; ma a exceeding the. of 50, and very few attaining threescore years. Their physicians; who are frequently females, though ignorant of anato- my, are said to produce surprising cures by their know~ of medicinal herbs, and by the use of friction with oil. The. Javanese are polygamists, and marry as many wives as they can maintain ; besides keeping a retinue of female slaves as concubines, but the lower classes have seldom more. than one wife. They are said to be extremely indifferent with regard to the chastity of their.females, and to be in this respect the most de« praved people in the world, Their women are: more pm than the men, but become extremely ugly as e and. vanese person of rank spends most of his private hours in the society of his women, smoking his hooka in pla- cid apathy, while they are dancing before him, or lis- tening to their narrations of traditionary stories, or the adventures recorded in the sacred books. The princi- pal amusement’ of a more active nature, isa kind of tennis-play, at which they are remarkably dexterous, striking the ball (which is about the size of a man’s? head) with their feet, knees, or elbows, and keeping it: Java. Medicine, Marriages, wold. They are much attached to Europeans, z atally jealous of losing their affections. A Ja- “osoemg in continual motion like a shuttle-cock. They are also ° extremely fond of cock-fighting, for which they keep a: particular breed of a prodigious size, nearly as large as’ the Norfolk bustard. Instead of spurs, they fix to the’ bottom of the foot a piece of iron shaped like a , and about the size of the blade of a large knife; with a single stroke of which, the bird will sometimes completely lay open the body of his an nist. The principal weapon they always — with them, is a kind of dagger called ° a creese, resembling a small hunting knife, with a blade of hardened steel, of a tine shape, and ca-- pable, from its form, of inflicting a | and wide wound: Its point also is frequently stained with a mortal poison touching the forehead with the right hand, accompa- or scribed as proud and cowardly, extremely arrogant in which light th of who are their inferiors, in which light regard all foreigners ; but not less cringing siwarde' their superiors, ow those from whom they have any favours to expect. They are remarkably indolent in their habits, and are with great difficulty excited to labour ; a disposition, which, considering the industry of the Chinese who reside among them, may be ascribed not so much to the influence of their cli- mate, as to the ive nature of their government, which renders them so uncertain of being suffered to possess the property which they may acquire, and thus takes away every motive to active exertion. of the Javanese, which Weapons. . Their mode of salutation consists in salutations. a slight inclination of the body. They are de- character. The Chinese inhabitants of the island are very nu- Chinese. merous, jally around Batavia, where the poll tax paid only by the men yields 40,000 rix-dollars, where they are calculated to amount to 100,000 souls. Their appearance, dress, and character is every where the same, as in the empire of China; but in Java their ex- traordinary ind forms a striking contrast with the laziness of the inhabitants. Though severely taxed by the Dutch, = generally found means to ac- cumulate wealth. In all the towns they are the great holders of capital, and carry on a considerable trade wth their native country, and the several islands in. Java, ——\~— Java. They are Malays. Slaves. 632 the Eastern Archipelago, as well as around the coast of e principal shop-keepers, the most skilful gardeners, the most ingenious artificers, on the island.. They are free masters of whatever they can earn by trade or agriculture, beyond the assessments levied by the Company’s government ; and in the ra« tional hope of obtaining the reward of their exertions, they readily undertake the most toilsome occupations, which the oppressed and plundered Javanese would regard and would probably experience to be lost la~ bour. But, with all these industrious habits, they are extremely addicted to gaming; and the houses licensed for the purpose in their quarter of Batavia, are so nu- merous as to yield an annual tax of £8000. Though sufficiently pusillanimous and effeminate, they are ex- tremely €arbulent, and apt to break out into open in- _surrections, for which they were otten punished by the Dutch in the most sanguinary and summary manner, _(See Batavia) ; but, of late years, it has been the more humane policy of the Company’s government to divert their attention by perpetual amusements, and to keep them in subordination by officers of their own nation. The Malays are also a numerous class of the inhabi- tants of Java, but are a most worthless and ferocious race of people. They are sufficiently active, bold, and enterprising in the pursuit of plunder, and passionately addicted to every kind of gaming. They will fre- quently stake upon the issue of a cock-fight their last morsel of bread, their whole bodily clothing, and even their wives and children. They are treacherous in their dealings, remorseless in their enmities, and ca- pricious in there friendships. Their rage is of the most ungovernable description, resembling a kind of mental frenzy ; and their revenge is inflexible in its aim, how- ever fatal its consequences to themselves. A blow, especially, is an indignity which they neyer forgive, and which makes them lose all consideration. for their own existence. Under the influence of revenge or dis- appointment, a Malay sometimes adopts the desperate resolution of running a muck (as it is vulgarly called, from the word amock. to kill) ; and, arming himself with a dagger, he sallies forth after swallowing a large dose of opium, attempting to kill every person who comes in his way. He is of consequence soon knocked on the head like a mad dog, or sometimes secured alive by means of a long pole armed with iroy hooks; and, in this, case, was. usually put to death by torture, to deter others from imitating the example. But, since the abolition of the gambling houses by order of Lord Minto, not a single instance of these frantic bursts of despair has occurred at Batavia. The last class of inhabitants are the slaves, who are imported chiefly from Malabar, Celebes, Timor, Mada- gevens and Mosambique. They are distinguished in e towns by having their legs and feet uncovered ; and are employed thes in domestic services, or trained to.useful trades, by which they generally earn for the use of their masters a higher interest for the money ex- pended in their purchase and subsistence, than could be procured by employing it in any other way. The most numerous and useful are Malays, from the. diffe- rent islands of the Eastern Archipelago, who. are ex- tremely prompt at imitation, and expert in all. handi- craft trades, Those from Malabar are mild and pas- sive, willing to be instructed, but slow of apprehen- sion, ill adapted for hard labour, and generally used as ersonal attendants on their proprietors. Those from, Madagascar and Mosambique are also a harmless and. pliant race, tall, and athletic, but remarkable for their 1 JAVA. simplicity, and devoid of all ingenuity. The poses part of a female slaves are bactaght fs Pulo Nias, a small island on the western side of Sumatra, and are greatly esteemed for their smooth skins, elegant shape, and lively dispositions, sometimes selling at the rate of a thousand dollars. The slaves of both sexes are well fed and lightly worked ; but frequently treated with great severity. In consequence of the excess in the proportion of females, and the little care taken of their offspring, who are seldom the fruit of a connubial tie, there is required a large annual importation to keep up their number ; and it is estimated, that more than a thousand are imported every year for the citizens of Batavia alone. Phere is little occasion, indeed, for this class of beings in a place where thousands of free Chi+ nese, the best and most handy servants in the world, are ready to serve in every department, on the most moderate terms. Their treatment at least will now be greatly ameliorated, by the abolition of all farther trade in slaves in the British settlements, of which the g effects have already extended to the island of Java. The Jawa or Javanese language, though now sup- planted by that of the Malays, on the coast, is admitted to be the most ancient, and seems to have at onetime been current throughout the whole extent of the island. In the interior, not one native among ten thousand can speak the Malay language; and the two people are not in the least intelligible to each other in their speech,” The Jawa is sufficiently copious, and overflows with words of pure Sanscrit. The Hindoo names for the days of the week, though now obsolete, are universally known to the learned Javanese. The alphabet of Ja« va is nevertheless peculiar ; and has no resemblance, in~ the order of the characters, to the Deva Nagari. . The simple letters are twenty in number, besides compound characters. Each letter has an inherent vowel, as in the Bengalee, which is always pronounced like @ in the English word ample, and is always sounded in read ing, unless when a mark indicates its suppression. The other vowels are always joined to the consonants, and have generally one determinate sound. . The com« pound characters are commonly placed beneath the simple letters; and then the inherent vowel of the upper letter is suppressed, while that of the compound one is sounded. ‘The plural is formed, as in the Ma- lay, by merely repeating the word; and there is no variation on account of number or person in the verbs. The orthography is extremely simple, and the con- struction not unlike that of the Malay. _ There is satisfactory evidence, that the Javanese once Religi . professed the Hindoo religion in some form ; but as there is no appearance of the grand Brahminical dis- tinction of casts having ever prevailed among them, it is conjectured that the most prevailing system was that of Buddha. The traditions, however,. of -their ancient belief, the superstitious observances still extant, and the temples and idols peculiar to the Hindoo wor- ship, with inscriptions in the sacred language of that faith, found in various parts of the island, furnish suffi« cient evidence, that the tenets of Brahma had also ob- tained a footing. Many of the penances inculcated in the Hindoo ritual are occasionally practised by the Ja- vanese; and all who are descended of the royal blood, scrupulously abstain from using the. flesh: of the cow. Many idols of Brahma, Vishnu, Mahadeva, and Bhavani, both of stone and metal, have been found in the island ; and that of Ganesa with his e t head, was frequently recognised by the British officers, _ during their late campaigns in Java. More than 100 JAVA. Jays —_ stones were discovered in the interior, covered with in- Yr seri i which Mr Marsden ascertained to be writ- Square Pali, a sacred character of the Bir- most extensive remains of these Hindoo found at districts rth ke ers ing island ¥ igi it angen Set aaa Saieribe Sead ba eastern mountains of Java; but the prevailing re- ion at present is that of Mahommed, adulterated by iti i ient systems. The faith was introduced in 1406, by Sheikh ibn Molana, or Ben Israel, an Arabian, who soon be- eame a powerful sovereign, as well as a venerated mits to terms. | : ell ai heal Thus, after a short but brilliant campaign, the island ' of Java was wrested from the dominion of France, and © annexed to the number of: British colonies. Lord Min- ~ to, the governor-general of India, who. had accompa- nied the expedition, having witnessed the triumph ‘of through an intricate country, Colonel Gillespie,-on ap- roaching the works, learnt that the rear of his co- umn had not arrived, Relying on the prompt and able assistance ef Colonel. Gibbs, as soon as the fire of the main attack should point out its direction, Colonel Gillespie resolved to advance. Twice he was challenged by the enemy’s sentries, and answer- ing “ patrole,” passed on. An officer’s .piquet next challenging,, the .word “ forward” was given, and so rapidly was the command obeyed, that the -piquet was demolished in an instant. The redoubt was next assaulted and carried with the bayonet, with such celerity, that not a man escaped. Passing for- award to secure the passage over the bridge, the at- Java. = ZAVA. the British arms, and having given publicity to the me- nel dhalemndadinnae of government, returned to Calcutta, @ monument, at his own ex- pence, to the officers who fell in the service of their . Sir Samuel Achmuty, having left a force poe pr a a jon of the new con- een Sesame Rime ne Soy em Dutch colo- We shall now call the attention of our readers from Account of EE 4 Pa ares, | 4 ? 1 5 ? | 5s r : &, | ! if gE i : t Fae i ul ei ir i z ‘ i re 2 prows, , the river, at the mouth of which they dered. They were pytto death under the most hor. rible cruelties,. and. the, 8s which contained them were afterwards set on and consumed. The un- fortunate victims, it is said, amounted and 63 native soldiers. But the instigator of E | Lite ie §* : : F . 2 4 F 635 voured me amuse the British commander ‘with declara- tions of respect, and messages requesting to be in- formed of the object of deca chame. ‘Appivpriots an- swers were returned, with the assurance that the views of the British government’ would only be confided by the commander of the forces to the royal ear.. But the insidious policy of the sultan began fully to develope itself. A e arrived,. importin that the sul- tan would be happy to see his friend British com+ mander at-Palimbang, with a few attendants only,’ as the presence-of so large a force might occasion serious alarm to his ——— Formidable batteries in appear= ance, though badly constructed, were placed at Borang, 40 miles from the sea, to- guard the approach to the capital... Unmolested passage up the river being de« manded of the messenger by Colonel Gillespie, this Java, was granted, and also the occupation of the batteries, Batteries at which was promised asa pledge of sincerity, a person Borang styled their commandant being left British tothe spot. The next day, the British ad- vance, with its guns, err a ce within the: batteries which the sultan had or= his troops to» defend were abandoned by the enemy. Their cannon, amounting to 102 pieces, ready loaded and primed, were taken ion of. A scene of desultory and savage hostility soon spread. around. Fires in all directions were kindled, and burning rafts were prepared,for the destruction of the shipping ; happily the incendiary Malays were dispersed by shot froma the boats of the Cornelia, before a con ion en« to conduct the seized. sued... On the morning.of the 23d of April, informas coprusion tion was received-that the sultan had from Palims at Palim- bang on scemnlng that the batteries of were bang. utmost’ confusion prevailed in the capital, many parts.of which were a prey to rapine and assassination. Toyput a stop to this horrible state of things, and to prevent the massacre of the wealthy Chinese, which it was ee ae the sultan’s ory bened meant to perpetrate on ensuing night, and w a Gilleop! to become the prize of the assassins, Co- i jie meant to interpose a prompt relief. For this object, a resolute een isting of 17 grenadiers by Captain Bowen and Lieutenant Monday of the navy, Major Butler, Major Thorn, and Lieutenant Forrest, At their head was Colonel Gillespie.’ The rest of the troops was ordered to follow with all expe- dition. It was night before they reached old ‘Palim- bang. ‘The canoe which contained its leader outstript in sailing the other two boats, and the report of a signal gun, fired by the enemy, increased the anxiety for thei coming up, as the apprehension of some treacherous ee Horrid yells and shrieks in all directions broke around, while'a conflagration illu- minated a tract of country, stretching for upwards of miles on both sides of the river. the exertions crews, the other two boats were brought up to the support of their friends: A scene of horror now 3 own words, “ Romance never described any thing half 80 hideous, nor has the invention of the imagination ever giver representations ly ling with what here struck us in reality.” Undaunted by Baste of armed men, Colonel Gillespie boldly ped on shore, at the head of his dev band, and marched with a firm step, through a multitude of Arabs and ferocious Malays, guard was selected, con- A small the 59th regiment, accom- band select- for its re- f, Java. ya Critieal si- tuation of the party. €on flagta- tion. Fort and batteries secured, Deposition of the sul- tan. 636 whose weapons steeped in poison, gleamed by the light ot the torches. Huge battlements with massy gates, leading from one area to another, received the 5 presenting the frightful spectacle of human blood still flowing and reeking on the pavement. The gates closed on its rear, and the blood-stained court-yards through which it was conducted, appeared as the pas- sage to a slaughter-house. A Malay who approached the colonel through the crowd, while walking by his side, had a large double-edged knife secretly conveyed to him by one of his countrymen. At the-moment, a flash of lightning darting through ‘the tempest’of the | night, disclosed the weapon, while the assassin’ was endeavouring to conceal .it in-his sleeve. ‘The colonel’s eye caught:the object, and regardless of the crowd, he ordered the Malay to be:seized, and thus frustrated by his firmness of mind the murderous design. The wea- pon was found, but the Malay escaped. “On arriving at the palace, a more dreadful picture of devastation and outrage was displayed. Here ‘rapine and murder had gone hand in hand. Vivid flashes of lightning and peals of thunder conspired with the glaresof the conflagra- tion to give.a peculiar character of awe to the seenes which caught the sight. ‘The flames, which. devoured every thing around, in spite of the rain which fell in torrents, threatened the spot» where the band had sought a temporary shelter. The crackling of bam- boos, the falling in of burning: roofs with tremendous crashes, and the near approach-of the flames amidst a hostile multitude and’ desperate: assassins, gave to the situation of the party a most appalling prospect.. An arduous task yet remained, to secure possession of the fort; and to perform this, the party was prepared to sell their lives as dear as possible, should an attack be made before the arrival:ot a reinforcement. ': The inte rior of the palace being carefully examined ‘by torch light, all the entrances but one-were barricaded. «At this the grenadiers were stationed; and the strictest watch maintained, Soon after midnight, the party had the satisfaction of hailing the: arrival of Major Trench with 60 men of the 89th regiment; and the remain- der of the force under Colonel Macleod joined the little garrison early the next morning» Thus, ‘by an act of unparalleled intrepidity, 17 British grenadiers, and the crews of two boats, with the officers above mentioned; were put in possession of a fort and batteries, mounting 242 pieces of cannon, without: the loss of aman: A —- which, by any sother:species of attack, must ve risked ‘the safety of the armamenti' The celerity of the mevement, and the sudden) arrival of the few British, whose numbers the ic of the enemy had magnified, caused the dis .of ‘the: sultan’s: adhe- rents, the ene of their.murderous project, and the relief of the town from. the horrors’of pillage. An American, in charge/of' a Chinese junk at ‘Palimbang; gave a dismal-recital of the storm» about: to burst that night, and which the. interpositiom of ‘the British had averted. This junk was marked as:the first victim» of its fury. The solemn deposition ‘ofthe guilty sultan; by Colonel Gillespie, took place,to'the great joy of the people, and his brother was prislsdaiade in hes stead: JA VA. while the erystals which were soupe within the st The object of the expedition being thus happily termi- nated, the force, with the exception’ of a son lett “—y— behind, repaired ‘to Samarang, where a fresh field for British» valour was open in the heart of Java\ ©’ The'sultan of Mataram or Djoejoecarta, who had’been intriguing the downfal of his last masters, still continu- -ed disposed ‘to dispute the oe of Java with the British. The new Lieut.-Governor Raffles, and Colo- nel Gillespie, now commander ‘of the forees in Java, re- — to: Djoejoecarta, the sultan’s preci after’ Sultan of | ‘trying in vain'to settle matters amicably, ‘prepared for Djoejoccar- hostilities The residence of the sultan, or Crattan, tin anns.’ ‘as it is called; is about three miles in circumference, sur- rounded by a broad wet ditch, with draw bridges, a strong highs rampart with ‘bastions, and defended by 100 pieces of cannon. © In the interior are numerous squatés and courts all strong ‘and) defensible’; 17,000 regula‘ troops manned the works, and’an’ armed ‘pi 1 of 100,000 men occupied the country for many miles round, The Dutch fort, within 800 yards of the Crat- tan, was’ calculated’ for little’ else than’ a military de- pot, and the fire from it ‘was’ only intended to amuse the enemy while the ‘force was concentrating: ‘At length the troops having arrived, formidable from their intrepidity, not from their numbers, they were ‘order- ed into the fort, preparatory to the attack of the enes = strong-hold. It was determined to carry ‘the fors ifications by assault, as the most prompt way ‘of redi- cing the place, andof giving security to the colonies, threatened by the irruption of armed thousands at Bans tam, Cheribon; “Sourabaya, and other places, on the first signal. ‘The different attacks being arranged by Co- lonel Gillespie, the works were escaladed; and carried with irresistible’ impetuosity. The troops were anima- ted to heroic exertion by the ery of «death ors resounding’ through''the ranks. ° In’ many places“ enemy were dispersed by their'own guns turned upon them. nee was i938 a ‘to surrender himself page a a prisoner, the:cav. horse artillery being ed y eines ioral fugitives,’ "Howtilities having ““ now ceased, the island of Java was restored'to tranqui lity and order, and has, we believe, been recently given over to the king of the Netherlands, See Sketches of Java; Sir George Stavmton’s Account of the Embassy to China; Barrow’s Vi e to Cochin 3 Thunberg’s Z'ravels ; Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer : Baptist. Missionary’ Periodical Accounts; No. xxvi. ; Thorn’s Account ofthe Capture of Java; and Brande’s Journal of the Arts and Seiences. ine ‘ICEvis a transparent crystallised ‘substance formed by the:congelation of water when reduced toa ture below 32° of Fahrenheit.” As ice is generally Crystale duced bya very rapid congelation; it commonly Ciikeie ice. in an aggregated mass of , the axes of Ki which are turned in different directions. Under fas vourable circumstances, however, where the process of congelation has ‘been slow, ‘and the water exposed tono agitation, perfect crystals of ice are sometimes formed: M. Hassentratz, Mi Hericaut de Thury,* and Mr Seores- by, have observed crystals of ice that had the form of regular hexahedral prisms’; and Romé de Lisle, M. - +of which the w stalactitical ated on the terminal faces, and . NT ee ICE. 637 toa. DAntie, and Mr Scoresby, have sometimes found them dered smooth. The continued sheet now formed is Ice. “—Y~" in the state of octohedrons, composed of two four-sided soon broken into fragments of about three°inches in “—“\— pyramids. ia Er ae i Se ee et form a continued . Imwexamining the optical properties of ice, Dr Brew- texture of a stronger kind, which, in its turn, is bro- erie ete ieal, that even large masses two or three inch- ken into masses of much size. These are round- E es thick, formed upon the surface of standing water, ed at the edges by mu attrition, and receive the was as perfectly crystallized as rock crystal or caleare- name of pancake ice. ous spar, all the axes of the elementary crystals, corre. _‘In sheltered situations and im still weather the conge- ing with the axes of the hexahedral prisms, being lation goes on more regularly, and to appearance more exactly parallel to each other, and quvtaticlar tothe rapidly. The thin sheet formed in the first instance, horizontal surface. receives accessions to its thickness from beneath. In This a result was obtained by transmitting twenty-four hours of keen frost it often acquires a poe ee through the plate in a direction perpen- thickness of two or three inches ; and in less than two i tovits surface. A series of beautiful concentric days is strong enough to ‘bear the weight of a man. coloured rings with a dark rectangular cross passing This is termed day ice, from being formed in sheltered through their centre, were thus exhibited. These bays. That which is of older formation is distinguish- of the same nature as those seen along ed into two kinds, according to its thickness, being call« Zircon; for when they were combined ed light ice when from a foot to a yard thick, and when with the rings produced by this substance, a system above a yard heavy ice. pre oy ee aw ar that which was pro- Some fields of ice are so smooth in their surface, so by either singly; w had they been of the transparent in their texture, and so exactly similar to opposite character, the rings produced by the combij- the ice formed on fresh lakes, that it has been believed nation would have been greater than one of the sys- scarcely possible that they should be produced by the tems produced separately. Hence, ice belongs to the freezing of the ocean, and they have been considered The —— force of ice as owing their origin, at least in part, to the freezing of i ing +}-- Its refractive rain or melted snow, which had settled on a flat surface power is 1.307 less than that of water, and its specific of young ice, encircled by a ledge of older ice, which gravity is also less than that of water. For an account retained the water like a cup. , of the chemical laws on which the congelation of water Loosened pieces, which are smaller than fields, but — see Cuemisrry. still of vi dimensions, are’ called floes. Pieves Floes. nder the article Coin, and alsounder Greentanp, much smaller, detached from the angles of larger ones, polar some of the phenomena which accompany the forma- and floating in a congregated state, are called brash Brash ice. ice. history, however, is sufficiently im t to require a Ice of any form or size, soaing in a state sufficiently Drift ice. minute description, on account of the great scale on loose to allow a vessel to sail freely among it, is called which congelation is effected, the variety of the ap. louse, open, or drift ice. pearances presented, the striking grandeur of some,and § A number of large pieces in ‘close contact, forming Packs and i i a ies which cannot be seen over from a mast Patches. which some known circumstances concerning it afford head, are called a pack. A similar congeries, which for the prosecution of interesting objects. can be seen over, is called 'a patch. ‘When a congeries The appearances ‘which the ice presents in its out- of either kind is of an oblong shape, it is called a stream line, ially when existing in a detached state, are of ice. di ; and, being of great interest to mariners A protuberance, considerably elevated above the Hummocks, i ey are designated by common surface of flat ice, is called a lummock. Hum distinct terms with as much familiarity as the varieties mocks often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards. of form which occur on land. They aré sometimes ft by fields of ice crushing each Fields of A continued sheet of ice, so extensive that its ulterior other, so that large pieces, separated from the margin, boundary cannot be seen from the mast-head of a ship, are raised on edge, or a numerous wreck is accumula~ i ted on the top of a field. Hummocks are ey ice which is in the first in- poten but sometimes they extend to the i to a process of middle of a ld, showing that their origin is some- on surface of the ocean, to which the times different from that now described. They coms of land is not, as some have supposed, neces- municate to the ice a variety of fanciful shapes, and i a rough and in fender the whole ap of it highly picturesque, oe is When porte vate ore rere of pieces of moderaté sufficiently low. It requires a temperature corisidera- size is to accumulate such masses above a comparative- bly inferior to the freezing point of fresh water, as the ly thin floe, that the surface of the Jatter is depressed force must be sufficient to surmount the attraction of beneath that of the water, this 98 called a calf. vatves. i it in solution, for Some of these calves are sufficiently deep ‘to allow a’ more or less separation always takes place: the ice vessel to sail over them. But it is dangerous to ap~ toqaapaiaks circumstances, a affords water pep Sere. beg avs v being ome te and ait ¥ . i jon as iginal water of and when rub freely against th incumbent pro ame Aen coma Tal ieces, Shy thos become so far detached that their Progres of On a rough surface, this process begins with the for- Peoyancy raises them to the surface, and their momen- songelsion. mation of detached crystals, called by the sailors siudge, tum during a change of situation is sufficient to stave which y meaaeens tae, in water without un- ScunAEnk Urea quis Gari ubsie LC as Dork i 3 by the union of the crystals, etimes even a le i is sort, actin as tagardis ditace i seat by raising ome end of a vessel, immerses the other end, = Bs 23 Ice. Effects of a ground swell, 633 to the imminent danger of precipitating it in that di- rection to the bottom. Concave sinuosities in the border of a large mass of flat ice are called bights. They often afford a conve- nient refuge to ships, but sometimes they. give occasion to detentions. of the most inconvenient and dangerous kind. : We have now to notice some changes of a grander and more terrific description, to which the ice is sub- jected. That powerful tendency to undulation of the surface, communicated by the agitation of the adjoining liquid surface of the ocean during a continued storm, which is denominated a ground swell, sometimes pro- duces a sudden disruption of extensive fields, The ice, when thin, accommodates itself to the surface by bending ; but, when several yards in thickness, it re- fuses to yield beyond a certain extent, and is broken Le £.. not without great difficulty.. Scarcely had. reacli- ed it, when that part of the ice from which they had just escaped burst asunder, and the water rushing up from beneath instantly precipitated it- into the ocean. In a moment, as if by a signal, the whole mass of ice for several miles along the coast, and extending as far as the eye could reach, began to break, and to be over- whelmed with the waves, The spectacle was awfully grand. The immense fields. of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one another, and a ea into the deep with a violence which no > can describe, and a noise like the discharge of a thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the most unreflecting mind with solemn awe. The Brethren were overwhelmed with amazement at their miraculous escape, and even the pagan. Esquimaux expressed. gra- titude to God for their deliverance.” ‘ Ice in that elevated form which is.called the iceberg, Icebergs demands particular attention... This term. is applied to described. such elevations as exist in the vallies of the frigid zones; - into pieces with dreadful explosions, The best account that we know of the appearances presented on such oc- casions is. given by a party.of Moravian missionaries, who were eee in a coasting expedition on the ice along the northern shore of Labradore, with sledges drawn by dogs. They narrowly escaped destruction from one of these occurrences, and were near enough to wit- ness all its grandeur. We extract it from the recent interesting compilation of the Rev. Dr Brown, on the History of the Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 51, “‘ The missionaries met a sledge with Esquimaux turn- ing in fromthe sea, who. threw outsome hints thatitmight be as well for them.to return., After some time, their own Esquimauxhinted that there was a ground swell un- der the ice... It was then scarcely, perceptible, except on lying down and applying the ear close to the ice, when a hollow disagreeable grating noise. was heard: ascend- ing from the abyss. ike the motion of the sea under the ice had grown more perceptible, they became alarmed, and began to think. it prudent to keep. close to the shore. The ice also had fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or two feet; but, as these are not.uncommon,even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap over them, they are frightful onl to strangers. As the wind rose to a storm, the swell had now increased, so much that its. effects on the ice were extraordinary and really alarming. The sledges, instead of gliding. smoothly along as on an.even surface, sometimes ran with violence after the dogs, and some- times seemed with difficulty to ascend arising hill. Noises, too, were now, distinctly heard in many direc. tions like the report of cannon, from, the, bursting of the ice at a distance. Alarmed by these frightful phe- nomena, our travellers.drove with all haste towards the shore; and, as.they approached it, the prospect, before them was tremendous. .The ice having burst. loose from the rocks, was tessed.to.and fro, and broken in a thousand. pieces against. the precipices with a dreadful noise ; which, added to the raging of the sea, the roar- ing of. the wind, and. the driving of the snow, so com- pletely overpowered them, as almost to deprive them.of the use both of their eyes and ears... To. make the land ‘was now the only resource that remained, but it: was, with the utmost difficulty that, the frightened dogs could be driven forward; sf as. the whole body. of the ice frequently sunk below. the summits of the rocks, and. then rose above them, the only. time for landing was the moment it gained the level of, the coast,—a circum-. stance-which rendered the attempt extremely nice and, hazardous. » Both sledges, however, succeeded in gain- ing the shore, and were drawn up, on the beach, though 3 to those which are found on the surface of fixed ice.; and also, to. ice: of enormous thickness and st 1 height in a floating state. The vallies of West Green-~ land are filled with icebergs to an extent never yet .ex~ plored. The seven icebergs in the vallies on the west coast of Spitzbergen, were supposed by Mr Scoresby, when seen by him, to, present a perpendicular front $00 feet high. Their green hue, and. glistening splen- dour, exhibited a pleasing variety, and added a richness to the prospect by the contrast which they presented with, the magnificence of the neighbouring snow-co- yered mountains. . From ,these,icebergs enormous overhanging masses are sometimes detached . by their own weight, as from the glaciers.of the Alps... This separation is aided by a softness of cohesion which they acquire in the thawing season; and. it is also. believed that quantities of water pent.up within them exert, in the act of freezing, an expansive force, which produces disruption. Masses of this kind, in a floating state, are most plentiful.in Baffin’s Bay, where they are sometimes two miles long,.and two-thirds ofa mile. broad, bristled with. varied spires, rising more than 100 feet above the surface, while the base extends 150 yards beneath it, Icebergs.of an even surface, elevated. 30. yards above the sea, and five or six.square miles in, area, are very common. Those of East Greenland are of inferior size, The largest that Mr. Scoresby ever saw was 1000 yards in circumference, flat on the summit, and nearly 20 feet above the level of the sea. This difference proba= bly arises from the more sheltered. situation of the large bays of West.Greenland, : We have reason to believe that many, icebergs. are formed at a distance from any land. This appears from the account which Muller gives of an sxpetaebaieies in the year 1714, by. Markoff a Cossack, after-he had been foiled by drift ice in. an. attempt to explore the ocean,to the north of Russia... This adventurous person set off with a.party from. the coast of Siberia at. the mouth of the. river Yani, in, North. Lat..71°, in the month of March,, to. travel. on the-surface of the ice to. the north pole in sledges drawn.by dogs. ,.He pro=. ceeded for seven days till he reached the 78th degree,. when his progress was impeded by ice elevated into: prodigious mountains, from the summits'of which he | could discern nothing but mountainous ice to the north- ward. He therefore returned, and, after.some herdabion and losses, reached the coast of Siberia on the 3d of / pril, having in 19 days travelled 800 miles. To what, Tee.” _—— ekxtent these masses may be detached during summer in regions nearer the pole than any that have hitherto been - _ we cannot deterinine ; but it is not i that ‘from this source many of the loose i are derived which are found to the west of the islands of Spitzbergen. It is p e that many are also formed on the eastern coasts of these islands, which are more favourable to such a process. But the numbers of these enormous masses that come by Davis's Straits are by far the greatest, and the coast of ‘Newfoundland is often crowded with them. They “gradually dissolve as they move to the southward ; but some have been found in Lat. 40°, 2100 miles from their source. These lofty masses are formed by the accu- 'y mulation of drifted snow first “softened by the summer heat, acquiring an augmented soli- dity ion. It is a subsequent process of congelati be hat their high oy the falling moisture, which is more readily con- than that which lies lower, the temperature be- at the highest elevations. We mentioned the article Corp an i ious conjecture of Pro- Leslie, ’ they their great height by i hygrometric water from the air as- peace = Nepal aby went ising peaks of ice which are formed in the congelations in the ingenious process for its own tion, of which that inventor. ut we may be allowed i i ce in this opinion our entire to evaporate taneously in a glass. the same kind are Bae as the latter moves more quickly, requiring a shorter duration of the wind in one direction to attain its utmost velocity. The ships are sometimes moored to the icebergs for se- ; but this situation is not without its dangers, nicely balanced as to be | B& F sometimes lost by the vast they occasion, which over- within a considerable dis- the rolling mountain. | often prove supplying the ships with water, which tes wells on the surface, and is a cylindrical piece of can- outline of the fixed — ice, and the ich it is subjected in the course of years, A i if i = ‘i ih E E i s 1C-E. 689 are highly interesting. -Before the 15th century, the _ Ice. eastern coast of West Greenland was free from ice in ~~" summer, and could be freely approached: by ships, After a considerable trade had for 400 years been car- ried on between Iceland and that country, which was inhabited by a large and flourishing colony, ‘the polar ice suddenly exceeded its former limits, launched down in a direction nearly parallel to the coast as far as the southern Cape, and barricadoed the whole coast in such a manner as to render it ever since inaccessible. The fate of the colony is unknown. If the increased seve- of the climate was insufficient to destroy it, this effect was inevitable from the destruction of all the re- sources on which it ded. The mass of ice ly- ing between Old or West Greenland and the northern part of Russia on the east, though varying in different Seasons, presents a striking uniformity in its general outline. After doubling the southern promontory of Greenland, it advances in a north-eastern direction, half enveloping Iceland in close seasons, till it reaches the small mand called John Mayne’s Island, which it frequently encloses. It then trends a little more to the eastward, and intersects the meridian of London in the 71st or 72d degree of latitude. ‘Having reached the longitude of 6, 8, or 10 degrees east in the 73d or T4th degree of latitude, it suddenly stretches to the north; sometimes ing on one meridian to the latitude of 80°, at others forming a deep sinuosity,-extending only two or three northward, then south-easterly to Cherry Island ; it then assumes a straight course a little south of east, till it forms a junction with the coast of Nova Zembla. : On the whole, the tendency to a fixed state of the ice is greatest on the eastern sides of land. These are rendered peculiarly cold, from the westerly winds ha- ving had their temperature reduced by blowing over the eternal snow and ice of the continents. ‘These winds are in their origin warmer than the-east, as they gene- rally originate in southerly situations ; whereas the east winds, originating in the north, are Jess lial/le to a re- duction of vag mel in passing over a frozen conti- nent. Thus the eastern shores are ex to all the original coldness of the east winds. when they blow, and to an additional coldness acquired by the west winds; while the western shores are wafted by the be winds in their mild — in Rh na keep pup a'liqu , a qu w ose crete tae lace It is well known, tf south-west and n winds are more common in the northern hemisphere than the north-west or the south-east, Winds that blow directly from the west tend to pro- duce a extension of the ice; but the south- west winds give that form to its boundary which we find it to possess, i. e, a line stretching to the north-east. But why, at one period, the coast should for centuries be free from ice, and at another period be perenially lined with it, is one of those phenomena in the changes of climate, for which, like many others in meteorology, we cannot account. For an illustration of the circumstances now stated, we referto the mete- orological Essays of Mr Dalton. See also our article Mergorotoay. The form of the outline of the ice va- ries however according to the direction and force of storms and currents. . The deep bay formed by the boundary - ead AP ageing 8 ig seas Oo} the west of Spitzbergen, is the onl track for proveed- : ing to the faking ‘latitudes in the pbs In close sea- 5Pitzber- sons, the ice at the extremity of this bay is so close, that Tee. 640 the vessels cannot advance beyond the 75th or 76th de- gree; but in open seasons, they have an uninterrupted navigation along the western coast of Spitzbergen to Hackluyt’s Headland, the north-western angle. An open channel] extends in such seasons from 20 to 50 leagues in breadth, to the latitude of 79° or 80°, gradually ap- proaching the coast, till it effects a junction with its northern extremity by a curvilinear head, Itis only in this opeh part, that they can proceed sufficiently far to the north to find the whales. These animals, of stupendous size, but timid in disposition, prefer these places, as affording the most secure retreats, enabling them to dive beneath the ice out of the reach of danger, and to return to the open part to respire. It is in the 78th and 79th degrees of latitude that they occur in greatest number. At the southern part of Spitzbergen, there is, at the bottom of the bay called the whale jfish- er’s bight, a barrier of compact drift ice, mixed with bay ice, stretching from the fixed ice on the west to that on the east, and from 20 to 40 leagues in breadth. This always exists in the early part even of open sea- sons, and to find their way across this barrier, is with ma- riners one principal object of anxiety and exertion. For this purpose, every advantage is taken of those openings in the ice, which are expressively called veins of water. When the. wind is fair, they set all possible sail in order to accomplish it speedily, and yet find it necessary to be on their guard against the dangers which surround them from pieces of floating ice, dangers which of course are augmented in proportion to the velocity of a ship’s mo- tion, These difficulties occur in the month of April ; but by the end of June the ice is dispersed, and a safe return afforded, which could scarcely be obtained if it conti- nued equally prevalent, as the fogs, which obstruct the ; view at the end of the season, would prevent them from seeing their way through similar obstructions. In sailing to the north, it is of importance to anticipate the separation of the ice, in order to catch the best season for the fishery. Great and unexpected changes often take place in the manner in which the drift ice is collected. It frequently happens, that a ship is completely beset, and unable to. move in one direction or another, , and next day, without apparent cause, the ice is com-., pletely dispersed, and an open sea presented on every side. A tendency to separation always takes place in the drift ice during a calm. The changes to which the local situation of a ship is on such occasions sub« jected, are not less surprising. Two ships surround- ed with close ice a few furlongs apart, have sometimes been in a few days separated to a distance; of \several leagues, though no apparent change, took place in the continuity of the pack. Bay ice sometimes, proves be- neficial to the whaler, by 5 Bs the ship, and avert- ing that danger which arises fromthe unequal. shock produced by the brunt of the heavy ice. But it is in other respects extremely troublesome, as it is often the means of besetment, and thus the primary cause of the greatest calamities. A sheet of it a few inches in thick- ness, is. sufficient.to render a ship immoveable. If, un- der these circumstances, it, is_ too strong to be broken by a boat, recourse is, had to the laborious operation of sawing it. ¢ The general tendency of the loose ice in the neigh- bourhood of Spitzbergen, is to drift to the south-west, towards Iceland and Cape Farewell in West Greenland. When we consider the obstacles encountered in the na- vigation of the northern seas, which are not more exs 5 IC E. empt than others {rom stormy weather, and find that. these fishing voyages are attended with so much ayer- age security, we have a striking exemplification of the adventurous spirit of man, and of the power of art in sur- mounting difficulties of the most threatening kind... A combination of thick weather, a stormy gale of wind, and a tempestuous sea, crowded with detached pieces of ice, each of which is enveloped in a thick spray raised by the dashing of the waves, presents one of the most ter- rific navigations that can be conceived. “ Tee. The phenomenon called the ice-blink is worthy of The ice our attention. It is a lengthened stripe of lucid white. blink. ness in the sky, bordering the visible horizon, which often affords a beautiful and perfect map of the ice, 20. or 30 miles beyond 'the limit of direct vision. This even serves to'shew tothe experienced observer the ex. act kind of ice, whether field or packed, which occurs in that direction. : . Mr Scoresby has projected a plan for surmiounting Plan for the obstacles opposed by the ice in a visit to the north travelling pole, by travelling over the surface of it in the manner 0V¢" the po= already mentioned as haying been put in practice by Markoff. This is detailed in an intelligent and inge- nious paper, read before the Wernerian Society, which contains much information relative to'the polar ice, and to which on this subject we have been principally in- debted. Access to it previously to publication has been most obligingly furnished to us by Professor Jameson, . the president of that Society. Of that plan it would be out of place to give any particular account. It will, be inferred from the circumstances already mentioned as having occurred. to Markoff, that, though not im- practicable, it must be extremely precarious, and that. those who engage in it, must be prepared for. total: disappointment after the most Herculean exertions. Yet it is worthy of remark that, if no obstruction arose. from the form of the surface of the ice, an ‘expedition . undertaken from the northern coast of Spitzbergen to . _ the north pole and back, would exceed that actually. performed by Markoff only, by 250 miles. Some ims. portant information, in reply to a series of queries dis rected to the elucidation of this subject, is given by. Colonel Beaufey, in Dr Thomson’s Annals of Philoso-. phy for May 1817. It was obtained from Russian fishermen who had wintered at Spitzbergen. The ten- dency of the accounts given by them, is to impress us. with the difficulty of such an undertaking, as ari-« sing from the great inequality of the surface of the ice, in so far as could be infe from observations made . in that part of the world, and from the storms of wind . and snow, which are represented as extremely frequent. An answer to.an additional query, however, is still. wanted:, Is there any period of the.winter at which a few weeks of fair and calm. weather may in general be depended on? Or.are there any meteorological appear- ances from which such.a track, of weather may be occa- . sionally predicted? One interesting practical inquiry is suggested by the degree of success obtained by Markoff, Might not an attempt be made to- explore. by, similar _ means the site of the ancient colony of West Greenland ?- Of the ice of the southern hemisphere we have less particular accounts, But we know that ice extends toa Antarctic much greater distance from the south pole than from '* the north. The 80° of north latitude is almost annual- ly accessible at one part to navigators, and has occa= sionally been exceeded. The 73° or 74° may be at- tained in the closest summers.’ But the ne plus wlira of the antarctic hemisphere is the 72°, 2. ¢. 600 miles short: 1c. — ee po Fle | tcl a as 2 my ICE. mm to those found in the northern. We shall now take notice of one circumstance in the history of ice which is seldom i described, viz. - that it is found forming at the bottom of water, even on ar peter ter ona rat ey rapa contrary to w i expected e order i So davenctaldvoteiaanan of tonpe: » as occurring that is formed at the beginning of a severe frost, and immediatel oe to the surface in small grains, similar to hail. other, from paar er situation longer, is more commonly observed and better known. This a _ * iv e. grown.” Men of science, not having attended to these phenomena, have considered them, when accidentally met with, as extraordinary. It has gore when were in quest of something else, that they have found at the bottom of a river a sandy ance ang 9 great surprise on finding el, earth, or mud, mixed with ice on the surface. Kae such are familiar to the fish- | ! i able by the ice et and then brings up with it not only earth and el, but stones of size. We are told, on authority, that in the Elbe the stones to which buoys had been fixed as marks of the shallows, have been brought grund.eis, and removed to a diffe- rent part of the river. On the ins of lakes nume- rous new they the same time delivers his opinion of their physical = layen Wfensueeh she wodcaaune-obine tee bomen of the water in the river Teme, which passes near my re~ YOU. XI. PART it, _ large-stones near the shore, of whi 641 sidence in Herefordshire, in the last winter. In a Tce, morning which succeeded an intensely cold night, the ““Y¥——™” stones in the rocky bed of the river appeared to be co- vered over with frozen matter, which reflected a kind of silvery whiteness, and which, upon examination, I found to consist of numerous frozen spicula crossing each other in every direction as in snow; but not having any where, except very near the shore, assumed the state of firm compact ice. The river was not at. this time frozen over in any part; but the temperature of the water was obviously at the freezing point, for small pieces of ice had every where formed upon it on its moré stagnant parts near the shore; and upon a mill- just above the shallow streams, in the bottom of which I had observed the ice, I noticed millions of little frozen spicula floating. At the end of this mill- pond numerous eddies gyrations were occasioned, which ap tly drew the spicula under water, and I found the frozen matter to accumulate more abun- dantly on such parts of the stones as were opposed to the current where that was not very rapid. On some parts were out of the water, the ice beneath the water had acquired a firmer texture, but appeared from its whiteness to have been first formed of congregated spicula, and to have subsequently frozen into a firm mass, owing to the lower temperature of the stone or rock.” The theory Kere given by Mr Knight falls short in ac- Theories on counting for the facts which he himself observed ; for, the subject. by supposing the spicula to have been formed at the sur- face, and afterwards preciptited by the tumbling mo- cnplunacheit dat ongultion hich saat go om at te tion of that ion which must go on at the bottom itself before thes sadn obi ndinandiex tho stalin. On other occasions it is formed in places where the mo- tion is far from being sufficient to send the floatin crystals to the bottom. It is also to be remem that, instead of such spicula as Mr Knight describes, smooth and compact ice is found in these situations, We would therefore observe, that water, when reduced to 32°, and then deprived of an additional portion of caloric, though it has a tendency to freeze, yet experi« ences in this different degrees of facility accord. ing to certain circumstances. One of these is the pre- sence of certain solid points or rough surfaces. Hence water reduced to OM without freezing, immediately freezes when a crystal is dropt into it, and the ice forms first upon the crystal itself. Agitation also seems to in- fluence it. Water, when left quite stagnant, may re- main liquid, and be immediately frozen by a gentle shaking. But a great degree ot agitation while it is cooling seems to retard congelation, and always prevents Some it from proceeding with regularity. Now it appears to us, that in whirls and eddies, the water at the surface | ses a certain portion of caloric, and receives.a tendency to ation, which however is resisted by the motion to w it is subjected, and may be promoted in ano« ther place by a slight additional aid from an external cause. The motion, indeed, while it prevents the freez- a ee ee hing the reduction of the whole body of wa~ ter to the freezing temperature. It is << known that the temperatare of greatest contraction and specific gra- vity of water is somewhere above the freezing point, about the 40° of Fahrenheit. While higher than 40°, a reduction of the temperature at the surface,by in the specific gravity, produces a sinking of the - cial portion, and an intermixture with that which is be- au ‘tee, bat eel Fceland. History. 642 neath. But, after it has reached the 40th degree, a far- ther reduction of temperature, instead of contraction, produces an expansion; andthe water retains its situa- tion, unless operated on by some other force. While it is perfectly still, therefore, it remains at 40° at the bot- tom, while at the surface it is at 32°, and in that part the process of congelation goes on, the mere conducting power of water requiring a long time te effect an equali- zation of temperature. The difference of specific gravi- ty, however, between water at 40° and at the freezing point is not great, and a very slight motion is adequate to produce a thorough intermixture, and consequent ex- tension of the freezing temperature through the whole. When this is effected, and at the same time the congela- tion resisted by the motions of the surface, it is promo- ted by the nature ofthe substances at the bottom. The varieties in the qualities of different substances in this respect, as ascertained by experiment, are curious. Hair, especially boiled horse hair, wool, chaff, moss, and the bark of trees covered with lichens, are found to promote the formation of ice in a higher degree than any ymetals. Of the latter, copper, brass, steel, and above all.tin, have ice formed on them sooner and more abun- IC E. dantly than iron. Polished stone and earthen-ware at. tract very little. On wax,’ resins, pitch, silk, leas ther, and wood deprived of its bark, it is seldom or ne« ver found. On the bottoms of boats, however, incrus- tations have been found, which have been evidently formed of the sic/il-cis. . This process requires a powerful frost. Hence it appears comparatively seldom in the more temperate countries, . Yet it is described by M. Desmarest as ha- ving occurred in the Rhone and the Seine. The laws by which it is regulated are worthy of a more minute experimental investigation than they have hitherto res ceived. ; See Romé de Lisle’s Crystallographie, tom. i. p. 4 Hassenfratz Journal de Physique, Jan. 1785. D’Antic, dd. 1788, vol. xxiii. p, 57. Hericaut de Thury, Jour- nal des Mines, 1813, vol. xxxiii, p. 157.. The Memoir of Mr Scoresby in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, vol.ii. part 2. Col. Beau- foy in Thomson’s Annals, May 1817. Desmarest, Journal de Physique, Jan.1783; and,M, Jules- Henri Pott, Jd. July 1788. See also the articlesCotp, GLaciers, GREENLAND, Hupson’s Bay, Orzics, and Pouarisation, (H. D.) ICELAND. Tcezann, is a large island situate on the verge of the Arctic'Ocean, between the 63° and 67° of north lati- tude, and the 12° and 25° of longitude west from Green- wich. .. This island was discovered about the year 860 by a Norwegian pirate, named Naddodr, who was acciden- tally driven upon the coast while on a voyage to the Faroe islands. A few years afterwards a Swede, Gar- dar, succeeded in circumnavigating the island, and gave it the name of Gardarsholm. Its present name was given to it by Floke,'a famous pirate of those times, who remained two years, during which he-ex- plored most of the southern and western coasts. The country was colonized in the year 874, from Norway; the subjugation of which, by Harotp the fair-haired, had produced much discontent among the petty states which he reduced. The leader.of the emigration from Norway was named Ingolf, who, with his kinsman Hiorletf, went to Iceland in the year 870, and made arrangements for the settlement. It is asserted by zome of the Icelandic historians, that there were actual settlements in the island before this period ; but this seems improbable. The first of the Norwegian visitors found, on some parts of the coast, wooden crosses, and implements, from which it is inferred that those who had preceded them were Christians. In the Landrama Bok, which is among the earliest of the Icelandic his- torical records, it is stated, that, among other things, writings in the Irish language were found. The state« ments on this subject are so various, that it is impos- sible to form any probable conjecture on the point in question. wt . The colony first settled in the south-western of the island; and the spot,where the town of Reikiavik now stands was chosen, on account of the result of a super- stitious observance, which guided many of the settlers in the choice of their future places of abode. When Ingolf approached the shores of Iceland, he threw into the sea the door of his former habitation in Norway, ; 4 and having found it cast on the beach at Reikiavik, he there fixed his station. In the course of half a century, the coasts of this remote country were well tera $ and in the Landnama Bok, already mentioned, which contains minute details of the spreading of the colonies, we find several names of Scotch and Irish families who came over and settled. iP At first, every body of emigrants remained under the influence of a leader, who parcelled out the land to his followers. But this feudal arrangement was soon found inconvenient, from the contests which arose for pos- sessions claimed by the various petty chieftains. By common consent, a new system of government, which included the whole country, was settled in the year 928. The island was divided into four provinces, su- perintended by an hereditary governor. The southern and western provinces were subdivided into three fectures, the northern one into four, and the eastern into two. The authorities over these were also heredi- tary. There were still more subdivisions, called Hrep= par, in each of which five officers were appointed, men of property and respectability, whose care it was to keep peace and good order, and to manage the concerns of the poor in their respective districts. The proceedings of the superintendants. of districts were under the cognizance of the prefect and his de~ puties, who met oncea year; from whom there was an appeal to the provincial court ; and finally, to the su- preme assembly of Iceland. : This t assembly was held annually on the shores of the ST oun Thingvalla, from the name of the as- sembly althing, which is derived from al, all, and thing, a court of justice, A president was chosen, with the title Laugman, or administrator of the laws, and was invested with all the symbols of dignity and power. It was his province to interpert the laws, . nounce sentence ; and his authority, though | lent on the will of the states, was often continued for life. Such is an outline of a constitution settled without ee —< Hbtory. ICELAND. any contention, to which may be referred the arrange- ments in the _ mayan eMEN SE in Europe. 4 ve same jurisdiction mB Lat ma with our eeees of sheriffs. provincial assemblies resemble our quarter sessions, and the su assembly our parliament. For a minute account of the Icelandic commonwealth, the of this Cer crackle enmmed the Benin ibed to this pay aps must refer to the w enumerated at vith respect to the criminal laws, corporal i t was inflicted ; the atonement for al~ most every offence being a fine, extended ing to circumstances, even to the confiscation of the whole cases. « The constitution thus adopted by the Icelanders, eps De Relea iciae Introduction to Sir George w su z it allowed to apply the term to a desolate island on the confines of the Arctic circle, this might be called the Golden Age of Iceland. ical ci stances from ; refinements of poe- » flourished among them : like the aurora bo- tieal realis of their native sky, the poets and historians of Ice- land not only illumined their own country, but flashed the lights of their genius through the night which then over the rest of E Cormmerce was pursued reap: Sp rete Sisk mole and success ; and they partook in the maritime adventures of discovery and colonization which gave so much merited celebrity the N ians of this period. Many of their chiefs and men visited the courts of other countries, formed connections with the most eminent to there among the Icelanders of this peri ee en wk ainonann ‘f if colonization of Iceland having been undertaken y men of rank and education, literature was carefully them ; and their , the Go- its utmost purity. e@ ancient Scandinavia ‘afforded ample scope for and ornament ; and the desolate region of of which was only interru most awful and tremen ° Ff i re He Hl by the inhabi t ity ; and to this day it is no small part of the 643 amusement of the people, during the darkness of win- Teeland! ter, to recite the legends of former times. Nor wasthe —~—”" fame of the Icelandic Skalds* confined to their own country. Foreign potentates cherished them in their courts, and munificently rewarded them for singing their praises. . The character of the Scandinavian poetry of this age was stamped by metaphorical obscurity. Resemblance could not be too distant, nor too fanciful, for a northern poet ; and the habitual use of metaphor occasioned the adoption of phrases as familiar, which, to those unac- customed to the style, appear extravagant and unnatu- ral. This obscurity does not however extend through the whole of Icelandic composition, which, particularly in the relation of common events, is often exceedingly simple. Rhyme was rarely employed; and the har- mony of the versification seems to have depended on alliteration, and the ent of icular sounds adapted to the nature of the e. Thus there was opened a broad field for the exercise of skill, as well as imagination ; and the frequent contests in ver- sification brought the Scandinavian poetry to be an art. of the most refined nature. Having more leisure, the Icelandic excelled ; and, from catalogues still pre« served, we find, that of the Skalds who flourished in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the majority of the whole number were Icelanders. The most celebrated and valuable remnant of north- ern poetry is the Edda, a work designed as a common means of education in the favourite pursuit of this ex- traordinary le. The Edda appears to have been com at different times, and by different writers, about whom there has been much controversy. There are two different works which bear this title, the Edda of Semund, and that which bears the name of Snorro Sturlesen, to whom it is ascribed. The first or ancient Edda consists of a number of odes, of which the Vo- luspa, or prophetess of Vola, and the Haévamal, are the most aon. The former is a short and obscure digest of the Scandinavian mythology ; and the latter consists of moral precepts, su to have been deli- yered by the god Odin. They are attributed to Sc- mund Sigfuson, an Icelander, who was born in the year 1056; and so eminent, as to have acquired the deno- mination Frode, or learned. The other Edda is more ‘ect, and better to the object of instruction in the art of poetry. The first part contains a view of mythology in the form of a dialogue, in which the at- tributes and wo of the deities, ~~ other — are explained. second part is a collection of sy nonymes, epithets, and ical rules, in which he errors of style, and the varieties of metre, are carefully. pointed out. _ The historical writings perhaps, to Iceland, than the cultivation of 4 these, the Sagas, which are of a mixed character, blend« ing, to a certain extent, fiction with authentic narrative, are exceedingly valuable. They possess great variety, some detailing particular events relating to politics or religion, some the history of a i family, and others the biography of eminent individuals. As might be expected, many of these narratives are tedious ; but in many are to be found examples of simplicity, which carry the reader back to the times in which the actors lived, and insensibly.lead him.to consider himself not an indifferent spectator, The Sagas have elucidated the history and antiqui-- ties of the north in an eminent degree ; but the regu«. * The word skaldr, or skalds, signifying bards, is probably derived from skiael, wisdom ; whence the English word skill. History. of this age do more honour, Sagas. of 644 lar historical writings which have come to us from the Icelanders are yet more valuable. The Annales Od- denses of Seemund Frode; the Landnama Bok; the Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, by Snorro Sturle- son; and numerous other works, testify the abilities and correctness of the writers. Besides. poetry and history, mathematics and mechanics were cultivated ; and jurisprudence formed an important study. Tra vellers penetrated into Asia and Africa ; and the mari- time adventures of the Icelanders prove that attention was paid to astronomy and geography. Philology was not neglected, and the most celebrated Roman authors were familiar to all the learned men. The Greek lan- guage was not much cultivated. Before the establishment of Christianity, which took place in the year 1000, the Runic was the only charac~ ter in use ; but more‘seems to have been trusted to mes mory than to writing. With Christianity, the Roman characters were introduced, and a new incitement was thus given to education, and every literary pursuit. The first school was established by Isleif, the first bishop of Skalholt, about the middle of the 11th century ; and soon after three others were formed in different parts of the island. In these the youth were taught to read, write, and compose in their own language, and initia- ted in the classics and in theology, to which last par- ticular attention was given. Christianity » The establishment: of Christianity ‘was not the least established. remarkable event in the early history ‘of Iceland, since it was effected in a manner which displayed, in a stri« king manner, the genius and government of the peo ple. Frederic, a bishop from Saxony, began to preach the Christian doctrines in the year 081 ; and the num- ber of converts gradually increased. The propagation of the new faith met with every species of opposition ; but at length the contests became so frequent, while those who adopted Christianity greatly increased in number, that the national assembly, which met in the year 1000, took the matter into consideration. While the question for the establishment of the new religion was debated, a messenger hurried’ into the assembly, and announced that’ fire had burst from the earth in the southern part of the country, and was carrying destruc- tion before it. The heathen party instantly exclaimed, that this was the vengeance of the gods against their presumption. But Snorro, who was a zealous advo- cate for the Christian cause, called out to them, “ For what reason did your gods display their wrath, when the rock on which we stand was burning?” The place of assembly is in the midst of frightful proofs of the power of voleanic fire ; and this exclamation of Snorro turned the scale in favour of the Christian faith: The decision of the assembly was solemnly pronounced by ‘Thorgeir, the Laugman ; and all religious disputes were immediately suspended. \A church establishment was soon afterwards arranged, and the first bishop of Skal- holt, Isleif, was ordained in the year 1057. From this period, during nearly two centuries, a pure religion was exercised by the’ Icelanders, undisturbed by the errors and superstitions of the Romish church. Iceland. History. Greenland The. discovery of Greenland, about the i " ( year 972, is and Ameri~ snother feature of’ this early age; and one still more ed by Icee Yemarkable was the discovery of the north-east coast of landers. © America in the year 1001 by Biorn Heriolfson, who was driven to‘the south while on a voyage to Green- _ land. A colony was established” in Greenland, which subsisted till the beginning of the 15th century, when all traces of it he About the same time, a ma- terial change for the worse appears to have occurred in the climate of Iceland, where; it is’ said, corn fore ICELAND. merly grew. The loss of Greenland was o¢casioned by _ Iceland. an unusual accumulation of ice, which has bound up Hi the coasts ever since, and frustrated every attempt to meee a the place where the once flourishing colony ex. isted, The part of America first seen was probably some part of the coast of Labrador. Leif, the son of Eric, the discoverer of Greenland, on hearing the report of this discovery, set out to pursue it ; and passing by the coast first observed by Biorn, he came to a strait sepa- rating a large island from the mainland, probably of Newfoundland. Thorvald, brother: to Leif, went over to this new country, which, from finding wild vines growing in it, was called Vinland ; after remains ing two years, he was killed in a skirmish with the na- tives, who had not been seen till this time. A colony appears to have been afterwards established in Vinland. But after the early part of the 12th century, scarcely a vestige of this colony can be found, and the situation of Vinland is destined to perpetual obscurity. The moral character of the Icelanders, during this Moral cha- period of their history, seems’ to have kept pace with racter at their intellectual endowments, and to have stood high. this pet Previous, however, to the introduction of the Christian religion, some unnaturalcustoms and superstitious usages obtained. The exposure of children, though not pro- hibited, was soon relinquished, after ‘the morality: in- culcated by the New Testament came to be fully un- derstood ; and ceased more than a hundred years be- fore the practice was abolished in Norway. The most singular superstition was the Beserkine. From the Kristni Saga, and the Ecclesiastical History of Ice« land, we learn that the Beserkin were professed war- riors, who, by means of magic, had rendered their bo- dies invulnerable. Rousing themselves by incantations into frenzy, these men committed every kind of vio- lence, and rushed naked into battle. There is every probability that some of these were miserable and in- fatuated wretches, while others adopted the profession with the view of imposture. a The independent and happy state of Iceland was not destined to be uninterrupted. ‘The love of power pro- duced intestine evils, which the ambition of Norway carefully fomented. The civil contests were not al« ways trifling ; for instances are recorded, in which fleets of twenty sail, and bodies of 1200 men, fought on one side. The desire of peace, and the promises of the Nor wegians, now become jealous of the prosperity of Ice- land, at length produced a formal proposal in the na- tional council, that the country should be governed by a single potentate; and in the year 1261, the whole, except elie eastern province, submitted to Haco, king of Norway. A few years afterwards, the submission of Iceland was completed, but under’ conditions which still maintained their rights and their commerce. In 1280, Magnus, the successor of Haco, gave to the island the code of laws well known by the title Jonsbok, which was no more than a revised copy of the ancient’ laws. The last political change which occurs in the his- Transfer- tory of Iceland, was its transference with Norway to oe 2 k. the crown of Denmark in the year 1380, A period of “°°™™* tranquillity, during which rank and property became more equalized, and trade was almost wholly trans- ferred to other nations, succeeded; and a feeling of dependence checked enterprise, while vigour and acti- vity were gradually lost. In the year 1482, a pesti- Calamities lence carried off nearly two-thirds of the ae ogre 3 at this pee and another broke out towards the’ close of the cen. tid. tury. In addition to these calamities, the Icelanders were at this period exposed to the incursions of pirates, 1 : | | Submision to Norway ICELAND. ee , xs me pe andvewrying of tie inhabitants = Thexe events,” says Dr Holland, « which concurred with the destroying the strength and ity of the country, are recorded in he eamabe a lestond “ithe sre mae to exe ef mr oe i te. yield to the recital ceased ; that ius and literature diseppeared ; and that the eroded ran brity and dour of his country ; but he no far- ther; and all ond is left to the feelings and imagts nation of the reader.” But the decline of literature, and of the national cha- racter of the Icelanders, may be traced to more remote causes. E began to emerge from darkness and barbarity, and the continental nations ‘gradually rose into equality in learning. The poets and historians of. Iceland were therefore segeene with ree me z perstitions, tyranny of the church of broke in upon the and peaceful worship of I about the end of the 12th century. The levy- ing of P , and raisi ind ing of Peter's raising mo oe pe mo The errors, su iti were not off by the poverty were oppressed even by the native bishops. 13th to the 16th century, the annals of Iceland present: nothing of interest; being filled with records only of the depression of all mental exertion, and of calamities. The reformation of religion, and the introduction of. printing, by the establishment of a press at Hoolum about mA ear 1530, seemed to be the dawn of renewed life to Iceland. The reformation was not effected without violence. John Areson, bi of Hoolum, was the most strenu- ous and violent opposer of the intreduction of the Lu- theran doctrines. He assembled a body of armed men, and marching southward, attacked and seized Einarson, of Skalholt. He was arrested himself, however, the following year, by the order of Christian I11.in whose ed. Areson, and his two natural sons, were be- headed at Skatholt; and in 1551 the new doctrines were legally established and universally received. The schools were re-established ; but so great had been the depression of learning, that it was found difficult at first to procure men of sufficient knowledge to superin- tend them. Now that science began to illuminate the rest of Eu- rope, We cannot expect to find the former condition of Iceland restored, nor even the progress of knowledge keeping pace with that of other countrics. The phy- sical evils to which Iceland is exposed operated with greater effect than before ; and nw mks can enume- rate several eminent individuals’ writings are creditable and useful, — their literary fame has sel- dom stepped beyond their native island. To the zeal of i of Hoolam, who ushered many useful works into world from the i superi himself, the le Icelandic perintended Cet Wehabeed far he Oth ion of the Bible into physical 645 their own la . It first appeared in 1584. The friend of Thorlakson, Arngrim Jonas, published twen- ix different works in divinity, history, jurispru- ence, and philology, all of which exhibited very ex- tensive acquirements. Another eminent historical wri- ter was Biorn de Skardsaa, who published Annals of — from the year 1400 to 1645, and several other: wor : The 17th century is destitute of any important events. ' At its commencement piratical incursions of the French, English, and Algerines; were not unfrequent. Of the latter, a large body landed on various parts of the south- ern coast, and on the Westman islands; and besides plundering their effects, murdered nearly fifty of the inhabitants, and carried 400 of both sexes into capti- vity. ‘This happened in the year 1627 ; and nine years afterwards, when the king of Denmark had paid a ran- som, only thirty-seven survivors were found. This century also disgraces Iceland by the superstitious enor- ' mities which were practised. A belief in necromancy was so prevalent, and held in such horror, that, within the period of sixty years, twenty persons perished in the flames. The commencement of the 18th century was marked by the destruction of 16,000 persons by the small-pox. From 1753 to 1759, the seasons were so inclement, that famine carried off 10,000 people, besides vast numbers of cattle. In 1783, the most terrible volcanic eruption on record broke out from the neighbourhood of the mountain of Ska and for more than a year shower- ed ashes on the island, and enveloped it in a thick cloud of smoke. Cattle, , and horses were destroyed, and a famine ensued. e small pox again appeared ; » and in a few years above 11,000 people perished. Notwithstanding the calamities incident to their si- tuation, the Icelanders have still -preserved literature from decline. In later times we have the names of Torfeus, Arnas Magneus, and Finnur Jonson, who have greatly adorned the modern literature of their country. Arnas M us was the son of an obscure priest, and by his talents he raised himself in 1694, when only -one years of age, to the situation of professor of philosophy in the university of Copenha- gen; and soon afterwards he was appointed professor of northern antiquities. He made a splendid collection of books and manuscripts in the Icelandic language, which was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1728. His pupil and friend Finnur Jonson has eminently con- tributed to preserve the li character of his coun- try. He was made bishop of Skalholt in 1754, and devoted a long life to the improvement and happiness of his countrymen. His Ecclesiastical History of Ice- land is an admirable work, though somewhat minute in its details ; and presents a d of patient and ac- curate research which has seldom been equalled. The well known exertions of Professor Thorkelin, in behalf of Iceland, are happily yet continued ; but the state of war in which Barope has so long been immersed, has brought Iceland into a state of suffering from which she cannot soon be relieved. In the present times, individuals are not wanting, who exhibit, though less successfully, all the zeal of their ancestors in the pursuit of learning. Their ac- quirements are such as would grace any society ; and when the remoteness of their situation and the multi- tude of ‘their privations are considered, the picture which Iceland at the ee es of oe 19th century, is truly worthy of admiration. e school So ut sow a Solider 4a‘ used to be; but education is systematically carried on amongst all ranks; Iceland. History. Attacks of foreigners. Ravages of the small- pox. Modern au- thors. Tceland. History. Schools. Poetry. Societies. 646 and the degree of information poe by the lower orders is far from being inconsiderable. Two schools were founded in the 16th century, one at Hoolum, in the northern quarter ef the island, and the other at Skalholt. These were united and trans« ferred to Reikiavik, towards the end of last century ; and a few years ago, it was moved to Bessestadt, the former seat of the governors of Iceland. The arrange- ments for conducting this school have met with a severe interruption in the war between England and Den- mark, and every thing has the appearance of disrepair and approaching ruin. The establishment consists of three masters and twenty-four scholars; the funds not admitting a greater number. The head master, who has the title of Lector Theologie, has a salary of 600 xixdollars. He superintends all the concerns of the school ; the study of theology being his particular de~ partment. One of the most accomplished men in Ice- land, Steingrim Jonson, was lately removed from this situation to one of the most valuable livings in the country, that of Oddé. This, it was understood, was preparatory to his becoming Bishop of Iceland, on the demise of the present bishop. His successor in the school is of the same name, and is reputed .a man of great learning and talent. The second master teaches Latin, history, geography, and arithmetic; and the third, the Greek, Danish, and Icelandic languages. The bishop examines the scholars once a-year, according to a prescribed form of proceeding. After studying at this school, some of the young men go to finish their studies at Copenhagen; but by far the greatest num~ ber return to their homes, where, secluded from the society even of their own countrymen, and while the darkness of a long winter gives them leisure, they of- ten pursue their studies, and acquire no inconsiderable extent of knowledge. Poetry is still cultivated with. surprising eagerness ; and the number of manuscripts of unpublished works is very great. History is not so much cultivated ; and science, strictly so called, scarcely at all. In the year 1779, a society was instituted at Copenhagen for aiding the literature of Iceland, and bettering the condition of its inhabitants. This society, which comprehended among its members, not only eminent Icelanders and Danes, but many foreigners of note, published fourteen volumes of transactions, containing essays on history, poetry, agriculture, the fisheries, and the natural histo- ry of Iceland. In 1790, a project was made for trans ferring the society to Iceland, which occasioned such dissensions as suspended all the proceedings, and the name only of the society now exists. A second Icelandic society was established in the island in the year 1794, by the present chief justice: Stephenson, whose exertions in behalf of the literature. and general improvement of his country have been in- defatigable. The number of members in this society was originally 1200, and each contributed a dollar an- nually, The printing establishments at Hoolum and Hrapsey. haying fallen into decline, were purchased by the new society, and an establishment erected at Lei- ra. From thence have issued a considerable number of works printed for the use of the society. Various occurrences, among which the war between Denmark and Great Britain fad the chief influence, have ecca- sioned the almost total extinction of this society. It is to be wished that, as war has ceased to.disturb the na- tions of Europe, the Icelanders will be enabled again to enjoy, the only recreation which their situation ad- mits ; and that their history, political and literary, of which we have given an outline, will not cease to be ICELAND. interesting. A new society was established in 1816, Iceland. by the exertions of a very able young man, Mr Raske, under librarian in the reyal library at Copenhagen; and. History. there can be no doubt of Icelandic literature reviving under his care in disseminating, with the assistance of this Seciety, the means by which the Icelanders may overtake learning in the rapid progress she has made. The circumstances of Iceland have required little or Govern- no alteration either in the laws, or in the form of go- Mint laws vernment which was established 600 years ago. The ctsplich. ouprane authority is entrusted to an officer, with the ments. title of Stiftamtmand, who has a general superintend.« ence of every department. Under the Stiftamtmand, each of the four provinces into which the island is di- vided, is governed by an Amtmand, or Bailiff, whose duties are the same as those of their superior within their respective jurisdictions. Each province is divided into syssels or shires, over which the sysselmen preside. These officers collect the taxes, and are paid by a rate out of the amount collected. They hold courts of law ;. and on the whole their duty is in almost every respect the same as that of sheriffs in Scotland. In each parish there is an officer called Hreppstiore, whose chief business is to attend to the concerns of the- poor, and to assist the sysselman in the preservation of: the public peace. For the decision of petty disputes among the people, there are a certain number of per- sons in each parish, denominated Forlikunarmen, who. may be called official arbiters. All cases, whether civil or criminal, are first brought before the sysselman, who holds a court once a-year, or. oftener if necessary. In criminal cases, and in public suits, the amptmand orders the trial; after previous ex- aminations, on behalf of the crown. From the infes rior court there is an appeal’to the high court of juse tice, which sits six times in the year at Reikiavik. This. court was established in the year 1800; at which time the assemblies at Thiugvalla were ,abolished. The. Stiftamtmand presides, but has no-yoice in the proceed ings. There are three judges, the first is called Justi- tiarius, and the other two Assessors. Evidence and pleadings being heard, the causes are determined by a majority of the three judges. From this court there is an spa to the superior courts at Copenhagen. The punishment of petty offences is fine and whips pyyj.,. ping. Sheep-stealing, which is the: most. common of- ments. fence, is puni by imprisonment and labour, for a term of three or five years, according to circumstances. A repetition of crimes: brings ma offender trans« yortation to Denmark, where he is confined at hard la« ad in the work-house, for the remainder of his life. The infliction of such severe punishment is, however, very seldom required. Murder is exceedingly rare ;. and except in cases which subject:the criminal to capi- tal punishment, he is not confined before the time of tria ‘ With regard to property, no entail of land is allowed. Property, When-a proprietor dies, his lands are valued and divid- ed into mbit of which the eldest son has the choice. The daughters receive an equivalent to half the portion of a son. A wife surviving her husband, possesses half of his estate. The rights of tenants are such as would essentially contribute to the improvement of the soil, were sufficient. inducements held out to encourage it. A tenant cannot be removed, unless the. proprie< tor can bring proof that the farm has been neg Oy 4 that the farmer has not behaved well. Leases are not common ; but letting land from year to. year is.a fre~ quent practice, six months notice to quit being neces sary. Although a tenant cannot be removed while he ICELAND. uation. es are so inconsiderable, that they are sufficient to defray the expences of the civil esta- lander is said to possess a hundred w: horses, a cow, ‘—_ gy Saga a boat and fishing materials, in ie. ; sides Gnas ive banahds he ps 8, over and above the stated tax, twelve dried fish. This ees 90 ee en eee we ni there a VF i i i i Ha i i 7 i | ie ; i StF E fi; L ; i E 647 dollars. The glebes add considerabiy, however, to their allowances ; and as every farmer is obliged to furnish the age with a day’s work, and to keep a lamb for him, his farm costs him but little labour. He also receives occasional small offerings, and perquisites for officiating at marri re ee and burials. The churches are in general neat but plain buildings, con- structed of wood and turf. Some of them indeed are little better than hovels, while others are large and comfortable. At Reikiavik, there is a large church built of lava, and roofed with tiles. A more elegant one of this kind is to be seen at Bessestad. The church in the Westmann islands is reckoned the most elegant. Young men destined for the church, after they have left the school, and been admitted as probationers, earn their livelihood by fishing and other labour, and after a certain term are examined, and received into orders, after which they await a settlement, the prospect of which is . often very distant, and when obtained does not yield ease and pens by The habitations of the priests are seldom better than those of the farmers, and are not better fur- nished ; a bed, a table, and a few chairs, and those very indifferent, being the whole stock, in addition to a few boxes and chests, in which the clothes and chattels of the family are Here, however, learning and nius are to be found; and an attention to the duties of their station is displayed by the Icelandic priests, which may well excité feelings of shame among those of other dhe prope pecrmamuve ct et daty. The following ce ir duty. The followin description of a Sabbath betine tur Tabled iis dhe where elegant and ing than it is correct. It is from the of Dr Holland, and we quote it from Sir George ackenzie's Travels. ‘ The Sabbath scene at an Ice- landic church is indeed one of the most singular and ieomenting kind. The little edifice, constructed of wood turf, is situated, perhaps, amid the rugged ruins of a stream of lava, or beneath mountains which are covered with never-melting snows ; in a spot where the mind almost sinks under the silence and desolation of surrounding nature. Here the Icelanders assemble oo the duties of their religion. A group of and female peasants may be. seen gathered about the church, waiting the arrival of their pastor ; and all habited in their best attire, after the manner of the country; their children with them; and the horses which them from their respective homes gra- zing quietly around the little assembly. The arrival of a new comer is welcomed by every one with a kiss of salutation ; and the pleasures of social intercourse, so rarely enjoyed by the Icelanders, are happily connect- ed with the occasion which summons them to the dis- charge of their religious duties. The priest makes his appearance them as a friend ; he salutes indivi- dually each member of his flock, and stoops down to give his almost parental kiss to the little ones, who are i These offices of to grow up under h a charge. kindness performed, ey all go together into the house of prayer. Teeland. History. Sabbath scene. trade of Iceland has never been managed in Commerce. such a way as to be of im t benefit to the natives, of whom a small es = en in co The following Tables, taken tephenson’s History of Teeland during the 18th Century, will serve 10 give a correct idea of the state of commerce. * Whence, perhaps, is derived our Scottish term Teinds. fo 6 | °°* | 068s] *** | O SL} 0 166 | 0 Ols | #966 | ts0e| 81a} si gs °° o L6|% or] sis} -::] 29 ) °° ner “Sa eee oe SS ore ee eee LEI 0 ez POST ee eee OL 02 eee eee eee oI eee L9 eee LI I 6 owe GIPPS) ee oo. 6 » ee 19 O 184 ¥Ss ee ea ¢ see “ee ve. ee 8§ fe O1& “* * e601 uy ST 9 | ShIL | ILS] S 6L| % Le| far os 61€ | F 006 | slg | og LSC | O 86% & $8) SI 8h] 8196} GE | fog sg FOL | eso, 0 6 {8 |oe9s| €¢ 0}8¢0]08 OIL | #1 18 | sos | 1 v SI th] SIT G52 PDS 4° g {6 | psoyrsy 1 0 4°°*| 206 | gt Tt |} Ort LL& SI SL& | 6r9 | 2 s9 6 tb] OLS | st9 | 4-6 SI | iE LI & | paoyedy S56 GS E*) £8 2} Seek 6 Ie |b & | $e | I 9% | $ 6] 9 © | 0 OL] OLF i Coe eS I [proyoysy 8 % | SIL | 41IL| 9 LE] O L6| fe 98} GSE | st OL1 | 348 | OF 69 | 6196] HI ¢t| LL] SESt|] or | 4 S G pyrAvryley AT PAHS] seoarg | $2 papa ys|"a1T ‘pd ys] «wg sys] | “spoueg arpa 3g ‘speared | SUITE | ‘Sway far T*pd-yslqu't pd ys) qr’ T pd ysl at" T pays] ‘spoxeg. | “spoaeg | ‘suse | “spyy “peppeyun| ‘peppey vourmy, | “31980 Srank i Wet ‘109 wy, ‘woxy | ares | “duo | aodeg | -eoowqoy, | vapeary, | swing | “sagopa | aera | -x00g | -peopy |ueSouralstoraasig shape : : pue ofy IL De GPa RR O9LL : a sob | 986 5 mh salisitn nile ieee te ken ee LOS. | -S8I 86 -| SSIL | GLb | SQ90IIBLLI too eee For Daf ool one $89 6EzI eee eee ne © eee ee SSI oS eee owe o2re 8808 SELL ter x oere . ce 2 arel.a 69S ae 86 oS fe ee >! & eee > s © 68 LI oe 7 “re 10S OS9L uy mag) * ‘spueg | “sjueg fos | tle | tei} foes | 69¢ | ot og} or ols} 2 188 lr i} 2 os} too| tr | Feze | fss0r| ezos | ss | oe 9099 | OFI9 | TOL a | ¢ os | fe Ost Ste |¢ 6 |9 69 et o1|stos| ra fog fI9l | 9st 6 |96 | 10L | LtoL | proyesy f9 | fer | tz ra] SOL S10 | AT 6L | FEE l¢ solo tl te | Fe 08 o6t | 9gs 9 |&68 | $968] 916 | paoyrtg 8 ¥ 9 86 6g 2 be RS. TSI AG |} ee ow ees - te 601 SFL OIg 7 ** "1 Gig | 9g [paoyeysy 09 86 | 6FI SF S$6 b Lb| ’ 92% | ST 06 jo. 99] oO $s 8 L 831 tsg | LLL 6L | Le | 99% | cogs pARHyeY SPUR [SPA | spareg|) spueg | spuvg far pdys/aT pd ys/at"t PA shqrpdsry| qrpdsry| -sjauvg| -spueg | ‘spueg | spueg | “spueg | -spoueg| -spuvg ‘spaxiug | -sjateg vadeig | "youerg “ysrueqy . “prog “peaig, | *Inoyy7 ‘story | *y *syeoisy *hayang P at “our Tony aed Sw pf qinosig oF Etre *201NT a oa ieod PF “svag ‘sw | fopeg | hy pre. SLOTULSIG 648 Iceland, "9081 wag ayz un pumjaoy ozur sroduy fo 90,7, 049° ICELAND. 5. 09 Jo Aqranqioddo uw pry 300 sav aM ING {FELT 0} FOLT Wosy puLjs0] Jo syodx7y oy Jo sazquy, suTeyUOD suMMOA oY pur £ oT Fite dpe aus 3 swam sty, “punjooy fo worm heoy pun 2po4y ayn pies save we nteang 2 dm fq pew Aas ad 38 ‘LeLt 200 cae ite oa ‘proyapoy sv Luq sures oy) UO ayeNyS sr proyaysy 4 "mayy Surkd 6 ¢|o09]°*::| 86 | gor sel‘os|13¢ | seo'ost| #98 [esses + * LEE ; 9l8 Los'Orr| tists ree SPLt z Zt0F #00'SI see* Temes eeeee oOsgt = . 1seZll SSs'sI eee em eee Pool aeak ay uy , 1a sor | te | etgs|forg | ott | go | get| soct|sos‘es! zoe | 11 | oto‘eec| eseg |----- mo, 49° - I al FL g eee a cs SSSt 9 029 cee SEsltr li ee erereoe eee eene paoyesy $91 eee eeee 61 0 Stl ee cae ee 1606 $ale see S6L‘L¢ O6Le ee paogedg : 610 eee *#e os one 9Is‘sa at9 8 LeL‘9 ons ee Paoyays yy ¥ Sl PL it easy eg $9 $83 | 061 Shee s $o0a‘ll ry ee dha Re eo YAvryiey “‘syoregy | ArT 4S | "GI" T “AAS 2g} “itd surg | “SUryS *sus0 Hy ss0WT *UMOTT “says | SUMS “say4S “your “sper wwog uyog] pavjooe | PE) sopra reas woo] oo xog | Mans | poms | omer | peas | MP | 20 exposg ‘saoreaenql —— = 1 em 0 $3 for g 609 "Ff "ef "ee. + “9060 1 0 &I > 6s ob 6 wa 6LLI 0 989% $ 9 Slt ** ee ee lf “ete 899 | 0 0 366 eee ee eee SPLI “ar “QUAS| ” : S fest eee see **. oer eee StI 0 0 106 “ee eeeee osol fg Ls¢ eee eae se os6 eee fete rt) Lt 0 Fs “ese eee eee S91 awed ayy uy glo‘tst| 8 63/1 sst}s 69| f93. | 616] at | #8 | Peoot] Pos} 1 on| oct | st ces go woom--::- mo, | 820'99 ats {¢ 26] **?+ le 6 wt | 816) Go| ets | os |orsee|s sop} scrr ttt t tte: paoyesy | 2 006'6L I % ¢ ur Lt 991 9 LB “a. 1o¢ Lt ee 9g *e*ee 8I Os “eer ee eee seer paoyway a 198 g FF. + o¢ al 86 0" 8 or ST bry ne f6L 98 2% No “eee m=eeeptitseeeeeeeeeee » Paoyeysy | ‘61 | 6 O | tse | et Leg] Fes. | ct ovr) ot | ot | om} foor| 8 & | 99 |B Gostls gogtl sss sss ttt ttt sawed ONO GT AUNS | GED GINS | AUT AIS) Mee | -qrry “AAs | Sete | “HessHR) “HOE | -spouaH | QI] “OES | eesaeg) qe"T “ait | qi" “GEIS : “pox oOnUM eS |S | “POD | =Paeg ssFuyyoorg ees “aouyeg | . “sayy 71nq UY wa uayl00 4 700M pouss | “MU | ong 10 pen pens esis ™ iene ‘9081 unag oyp ut pumpoy worl sjrodxgy fo aiev J, Farm houses, 650 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES USED IN THE ISLAND. Liquid Measure. 1 pipe come -».+,» Same... or. 120 gallons, 1 oxho ved (hogshead)........... 60 lame .... - 4ankers . or. 40 1tonde . .....-.. Sankers'. or. 30 lanker ....:....65kutting.or. 10 1 kutting ........4kander.or. . 2 1 kande.........-2potter .or. - 04 -4pele ..or. 2 pints. « pele evens eet ei O's OL ping oerne lpot.. I pele... > Corn Measure. 1 tonde (barrel) = 8 skepper, or 4 English bushels. 1 skepper (4 bushel) contains 18 potter or quarts. Cloth Measure. 1 alen or yard = 25 English inches, or two-thirds of a yard, and is divided into quarters. | Weights. 1 skippund = 20 lisepund, or 3 cwt..22 lb, English. 1 lisepund = 16 pund, or 17 Ib. 1 pund = 16 onzer, or IIb. The Danish pound is 12 per cent. heavier than the English. We have already mentioned the laws respecting pro- perty, and the conditions in which a tenant holds a farm. A farm house in Iceland has the appearance of a small village ; the dwelling house, all the out-houses, and the hay yard, being within a general inclosure of turf, four or five feet high, and seldom less than five or six feet thick. The doors to the different aeons are generally arranged on the south side, and each has a sort of pediment above it, surmounted by a vane. The access to the dwelling house is by a long narrow passage, into which the different rooms open. Each room is separated from the next by a thick partition of ICELAND. turf, and has also a separate roof, through which the _ Iceland. light is admitted by bits of glass or skin. The princi- pal rooms of the better sort of people have small ‘000 * zed windows in front. Ventilation is not attended to, warmth being the chief object in the construction of the houses ; and the consequence is, that the smell is to a stranger almost insupportable. The houses are ge« nerally built on a rising ground, and in the middle, or as near as possible to the land devoted to the hay crop. On this land, which is in general much broken into little knolls or hillocks, the manure is spread in the month of May ; and about the end of July the grass is cut, when it is scarcely more than six inches long. In this operation a very short scythe is used, and the Ice- landers cut with it very neatly and expeditiously. The hay is kept chiefly for the cows, though in very severe weather the sheep and horses get a small share. As soon as the crop near the house is secured, the farmer gives a feast ; and when the whole is safe in the hay yard, a fat sheep is killed, and another feast takes place. The cows are very like the. Scotch Highland sort, Cows. known in England by the name of Kyloes. No at~ tention is paid to breeding stock ; and in general we find the best stock on farms where the winter food is in greatest plenty. During the summer there is great abundance of pasturage. The sheep appear to be a mixed breed, carrying long gheey, and coarse wool.’ The wool is removed by pulling it when it appears loose. A great quantity of mutton is: salted for exportation in the northern districts. Very little cheese is made, butter being the chief ob= Gheoce ang ject in the dairy. It is barrelled without salt, and is putter. thus kept several years. The older it is the more it is, prized. In this state it reaches a certain e of ran- cidity, beyond which it does not pass; and it is won~ derful how long it keeps. The horses are of a small breed, but stout, and very: porses, hardy. Those used for riding are trained to what is called pacing ; and, where the ground is tolerably smooth, they go very swiftly, the motion being very easy and pleasant to the rider. The statistical infor~ mation contained in the following Tables, was partly furnished to the writer of this article by Bishop Vida- lin, and is partly taken from Stephenson’s Iceland in the \8th Century. ICELAND. | 651 28224 bat Dene, S z3 Hey emg 13 NEAL Es gs fey], qggeiedat" | il alii geist ite Je a HERE qeistisras ; 23 y | Hil sesee seater “gegmee|y Ly | 4 | 85888 #209983 aeazee|e| 2 3 aes j | i | sebiesseessenaagnea|i}g 7 pete | 3 ee 9080 OF et et Ione i e Sind ; i sar GRSRAS 1s i Sokche usiy “2325 °BtaRR1 «6Segres|s if ree 2 lars RRSQR> RZARM A> Soem~gE ls i ii : i lag | 58888 fiannae eeeeea|il 1 3} iy | 838822 agaeaes asasee|s| | i f | 826388 S€see22 eszese|s) 2 G se co i ee REEL | Fas: ay (en da qn Pa Pein ah ins | ie : fil “uh ile He Be GRADE HH |e . Teeland. ‘payeraSSexa aq 03 savadde apqey siyy ut SSof ay} ING £ a]3;¥0 Jo saquinu yearT ev pakonsep jnyxof, *paystiad a[33¥0 jo Sars qseA pue “QV0‘OL JO partes ouruiey “GCL. pue sol uaa * aog ‘2 eydeyg uioxy uondnis yworS oy ‘gg)1 xe0k op uy 4 {doad Q00‘91 peAoysap xod-yeus ay3 ‘L011 seek ayy uz y Hess] SIs‘Sls — - | 8860 — |6rs'9t ‘°° * FO8T j - 2 968'8 |""""#SLI |eba‘or °°" PLT | 986'64|" PSLT T99F | L08‘L%| °° * * 10ST 3?) St [aaa LN Lig 8OF‘9E}"*" SSL |608'SIT!'*'OLLE | Loh Ia “a‘v LOSS | L8e‘Lb °° * * SBT jesoqe ay} 0} Surpr090 W/F08T 689%s|"**"OLLE | FS6I6H|***O9LT | 960°0S L¥96 | 1089] °° * * OLLT ‘av 606'9Z} “a'v |zIs6lz}- “av | ogs‘es 680h | FPP0S| °° * * SOLT # T0y, 698‘t | OS9 | TIS 80% [OLLI - : aod ial eee ew | ‘tons |: er paulo , ee gtseos : *suapies LT pue ‘sauo [[eus 6 ‘azis atpprur ¥ Jo 9z ‘syeoq aSavy g ‘sass0y Z6 ‘deays % ‘smoo og aca ak a19y3 Ua py} 03 Sursuojag cot Suryiom a19M FEL Iequinu siy3jO- ‘gpy sea (sunfFy-yySoy, ayy ur ssoUvostad Jz Surpnpur) gost rvad ay} ul yLAeryIey Jo uoyepndod ay 7 $68 | 188 | 890°L| 808 |z¥0° | 6ors ezs'00096'90 ¥oL‘8s| so8‘OI Loe‘e01 #10 | ast't| 9e9‘t \eos‘st | 658° | B6Lt9 lore "oo" [OL o| 8 so |g¢ | —.|64 |26 | s99 l6utr | o16s | eeor lies |ss |6e |1¢ lose jes feos T fo * empy uzeyyn 6 It |. 0% I .|.sL |-1h | s6L 6699 | gezg | ortt |6sos |s4 | eo |8o ele jos |¢se cesT | ° * emmy UsZeypI0 Z| = | $$ [89 |G .|.26 |86 | o"6 |LIze | gots | 919 |stootr | 7, | se jes to |r lore |goes |**** * * *az0pioN «oa 35. Zeus. extremitate ee bi bythe ip ot 36. Cheetodon. 4, Capite et cauda rostratus 26. Amphisilien. ree i . 37. Gasterosteus. c. Notabiliter plani et oculata. vat a. Branchiis gsseis destitutis. « §27. Solea. 38. Balistes. 1. In dextro latere oculati 28. Passer. iosteo] J 09: Ostracion. 2. In sinistro latere oculatus 29. Rhombus. Branchiostegi + 45, Cyclopterus. 30. Rhombotides. 41. Lophius, 8. Utrinque oculati $1, Tetragonopterus. B. Pinnarum radiis cartilagineis vix a membrana dis« $2. Platiglossus. tinctis, - ¥ a 33. Cataphractus. 42, Petromyzon. d. Smet notabiliter ar- 3 A octets - .. } 43, Acipenser, 35. Centriscus. Chondropterigil 44 Squalus. e. Vel sterno vel capite notati - 45. Raja. instar ricini omnibus cor- } 36. Ocontion. PiscEs CAUDA HORIZONTALI, including the whales, . cea Bibi aRe CN Ae Sh TEE : Klein. Klein made an attempt to classify fishes in his His« ~Corporeteretiusculo anguil- toria Piscium Naturalis. It was published in five parts, vf lz adspectum habentes ba aes gt the first coreg in the year 1740, and the last in aes 1749. As this naturalist appeared as the rival of Lin- B, Series II. Corpore spisso vel lati, vel carinati et eas- neus, he has too often been condemned by the admi- tigati. ‘i rers of the professor of Upsal without sufficient exami- gq, Tripterus . . .. 39. Callarias, nation. It is true that in the construction of his gene- 4, Pseudotripterus 40, Pelamys. ric and specific characters, he falls short of the excel- _¢, Dipterus. He lence of Artedi or Linneeus, but in the formation of the 1, Pinna secunda cutacea { 41. Trutta. higher divisions of his system, he exhibits an intimate vel adiposa Ser acquaintance with the external characters of ‘fishes. - (42. Mullus. The following synoptical view will convey an idea of 43. Cestreus. the principles of his system. We have omitted his _ | 44, Labrax. first division, which contains the cetaceous animals, 2. Pinnis ambabus radiatis 4 45. Sphyrena. System of II. Piscss Brancuus occuntis. on Kepéralos; ui he — A. Ad latera, | 48. Trichidion. a. Pinnata, - d. Pseudodipterus. pane 5. Cynocephalus. 1, Pro prima pinna i { My 1. Spiraculis quinque. 2 & Galeus. aculeis discretes’ hae eanHA eP i 7. Cestracion, 2. Preeter pinnam longam, {| 8. Rhina. processibusin capite qua- 2 50. Blennus. 9. Batrachus. si cristatus 10. Crayracion. 11. Capriscus, . 12. Conger. . 2. Spiraculo unico, b. Apennia. 1. Spiraculo unico. 2. Spiraculis septem. B. In Thorace. ~ * 13. Murena. 14. Petrontyzon. 15. Narcacion. 16. Rhinobatus, 17. Legobatus, 1. Spiraculis constanter quinque. ; 18, Dasybatus. e. Monopterus. 1. Pinna longa unica, * Interrupta’ so. . ** Sinuosa .o. *** Cozquata. 2. Dentibus acutis o 8. Dentibus latis et obtusis 51. Peroa. 52. Percis. 53. Maenas. 54, Cicla, 55. Synagris. ° 56, Hippurus, { 27. Sargus. ICHTHYOLOGY.. z 661 - y-Edentuli, . . {ia Pree Caput antice truncatum $4. Teutthis. History. Corpus ca um =... »'s_—) -85: Loricaria, © 9) SO” 2, Pinna brevi. Pinta doris potce edifon 36. Salmo, ; fytemof * Ad medium dorsi. Rostrum cylindricum operculo clau- 6 heathens «. Corpore lato spisso 60. Brama. sile - «+ «+ .« 8% Fistularias . £. Corpore castigato. Mandibula inferior longior, punc- y i , exteriore mi- aif Th imbirbes 63. Harengus. nore . eT De 89% Elops. ** Caude proxima . 64. Lucius. Anus caude vicinus - + 40. Argentina. J Pseumonopterus . . . 65, Pseudopterus. Fascia lateralis longitudinalis ar- gentea! 9.5). . . 41.°Atherina. . We come now to consider the system of the celebra- Man¢ibula inferior jntus carinata 42. Mugil. ted Linnwus. At first this eminent naturalist adopted is absque ‘nt : the views and arrangements of his friend Artedi. By _ operculis ee + #43 Mormyrus. h degrees, however, he unfolded the principles of a new Pinne pectorales longitudine corpo- ; j pcre Ae cr me a Keay ES Fimsin! ci J - + 44, Exoceetus. . 12th edition of the Systema Nature, 1766, as follows. . Digiti distincti juxta pinnas L i 7 ‘ 45, Polynemus. Pinne ventrales nulla. - ’ ; Membrana branchiostega triradiata 47, Cyprinus. . Apertura branchiarum ad latera tho. prise {1 ; 3 wecig= 5 2) a eo) oe Mirena. “ane cee canons which beens { Dorsum apterygium ° : a. i , is remo cétacei and cartilagi- > Cauda aptera 9. 6 8) oe se 3. Teichiurus _ nei of Ray from the class of fishes. The former he tes Dentes rotundati . «. ~. +» 4 Anarhichas, Se eee ee laced ; Caput corpore angustius . . 5. Ammodytes. latter phibia, under the order Nantes. Corpus ensiforme . . .+ 6, Ophidium. He was to assign to these last such a position Corpus ovatum +. 77, Stromateus. in his system, in of trusting to the inac- Rostrum ensiferum . . . §&. Xiphias. - . curate observations of Dr Garden of South Carolina, ; J . who, from a dissection of the fish called diodon, conclu- DOYRAAES, _ ded that it possessed both lungs and branchiw. Subse- i Apertura branchiarum ad nucham —9. Callionymus, quent writers have in general restored them y Os sharma eS 99 FF G0 ons 10. Uranoscopus. to their true place among fishes. j Anus prope pectus . 11. Trachinus. The i ists who preceded Linneus, invaria- : Pinne inacumen 12. Gadus, bly endeavoured to employ those characters in the for- Pinne ventrales didactyle matice 13. Blennius. mation —_— primary divisions, which oe some wate igation, i heed IIT. Tuonactct. sae Th dther qroeds, attempted to discover Os simum, corpus 14. Cepola. a natural method in ichthy 3 planum transversim as the foundation of his system, the relation of the ven- sulcatum + - 15. Echeneis, . tral to the pectoral fins, without ing to point Caput antice truncato-obtusum 16. Coryphena, . out the influence exercised on the animal economy, by Pinna ventrales coadunate a change of position in these Hence his Orders ovatam Sow Pe a ae ee are all arbitrary and artificial. the construction of an eee ° 18, Cottus. his Genera, he was singularly happy in the choice eres adspersum . 19. Scorpewna. which he made of characters. T which are essen- superius membrana tial have been given in the Table ; the na(ural character versa . 20. Zeus. was employed in the system itself. He introduced the es ae Ge 2: Plomronectes. use of trivial names, and corrected the specific charac- Dentes setacei confertissimi, 22. Chetodon. ters. His terms were classical and expressive, and the Dentes validi incisores s. molares’ 23. Sparus. whalé wyieainayee tien Of & Wighty genie His Pinna dorsalis ramento post spinas genera, it is true, have been divided, in to notata ag Splhee JechleKigings: new ones ; but how few have equalled this naturalist Pinna dorsalis in fussula recondenda 25. Sciewna, in the luminous brevity of his characters. Opercula branchiarum serrata 26. Perca. ar pig tag att Anas friend of Linnzus, Gronovius. Cauda lateribus carinata; spine lished his Museum ichthyologicum, in 2 vols. folio, dorsales distinctse : 27. Gasterosteus.. in the year 1754-6. In this work he attempted the Squami, Lr capitis, axe rm bea cata I. Caupa Horizontati. System of Digit distinctd juste planes pecto- Whales. es al Al ae a II. Caupa Pervenpicutant. A. Radiis Cape sl cae dau Cob Cees Ct, Apres ee eee $2. Amia. a. Pinnis ventralibus pre. _) 6. Callorynchus. 1. pinnee dorsalis pectora- sentibus 7. Squalus, liumque dentatus - « $3, Silurus, — 662 ICHTHYOLOGY. 4. Pinnis ventralibus nullis 9. Petromyzon. 1. Branchiarum aperturis, foramine exiguo tantum *** Pinnis dorsalibus veris seu radiatis ( 67, Callichthys. 68. Plecostomus. 69. Centriscus, } 70. Mugil. History. yates of B. Radiis pinnarum osseis. Sronovius, ; apertis. BRANCHIOSTEGT. 10. Mureeha. ‘a. Pinnis ventralibus nul- J 11. Gymnotus. lis 4, Pinnis ventralibus spu- 12. Syngnathus. 13, Ostracion, 14. Balistes. 15. Cyclopterus. Ji Cyclogaster. 17. Gonorynchus, c. Pinnis ventralibus veris } 18. Cobitis. preesentibus 19. Uranoscopus 20. Lophius. 2. Branchiarum aperturis subter atque in lateribus laxe apertis. BRrancuia.s. @ Pinnis ventralibus in pectore sub*pectorali- bus. (21. Scieena. | 22. Cynéedus. | 23. Sparus. | 24, Holocentrus: 25. Coracinus. 26. Scarus. 27. Cheetodon, _® Pinna dorsi-solitaria ¢ 28. Labrus. =* Pinna dorsi una j pluribus 29, Callyodon. | 30. Pleuronectes, 4 31. Echeneis. | 32. ean 1 33. Erichelyopus. | 34. Pholis. his 35. Cottus. 37. Trachinus. 38. Gobius. 39. Eleotris. 40. Trig 41. Mullus. 42. Perca. 43, Scomber. 44. Zeus. 45, Gadus. @ Pinnis ventralibus inter pinnas es et 7 ral Pp pectorales-e sitis, r 46. Clarius, 47. Silurus, 48. Aspredo. 49. Albula. 50. Cyprinus, 51. Clupea. - 52. Argentina. 58. Synodus. * Pinna dorsi solitaria 4 54. Hepatus. ** Pinnis dorsalibus duobus, posteriore spuria seu adiposa 3 55. Erythrinus, 56. Umbra. 57. Cataphractus. "158. Exoceetus. 59, Anableps. 60. Esox. 61. Solenostomus. 63. Salmo. 64, Anostomes. 65. Charax. 66. Mystus. 71. Polynemus. 72. Atherina. 78. Anarhichas. 74, Ophidion,. 75. Mastacembalus. ; 76. Ammodytes. ‘¢ Pinnis ventralibus ve- }77. Gasterostetis. ris nullis, +78. Channa. 81. Leptocephalus, | 82. Gynogaster. In this system Gronovius has brought the cetas ceous and cartilaginous divisions of Ray. His primary characters are‘similar to those employed by that illus« trious zoologist. Those of a subordinate rank are in part derived from the same souree, and from Artedi and Linmeus. As a system, it is inferior to that of ‘Linneeus, since the subordinate characters are liable to exceptions, Like that naturalist, he employs the nums ber of the fins, as a character subordinate to those fur nished by their position. , , Brunich attempted another system-of fishes, which he published in his Zoologia Fundamenta, (Hatnie, 1771). It is an attempt to.unite the natural method of Ray-and his numerous followers, with the artificial system of Linnzus. It appeared at the time when the professor of Upsal was in the meridian of his glory, and was treated with neglect by the admirers of that great man. To us, whose opinions on, the merits of these systems are not likely to be influenced by party feelings, the method of Brunich appears equally simple as that of Linnzus, and, in the first tribes, is certainly superior. We.add it here, that the reader may judge for himself. : Triszvs I. 79; Gasteropelecus. Brunich. Branchiis incompletis. Spiraculis thoracis laterali- System of bus. Aurium foraminibus pone oculos. Pinnis carti« Brunich, lagineis, —CHONDROPTERIGH. 1. Petromyzon. { 2. Raja. 3. Squalus. | 4. Chimera. 5. Acipenser, Trisus. II. Branchiis incompletis. Apertura thoracis linearis. Pinnis ‘membranaceis radiatis. Corpore sepius cata- phracto vel muricato. BRraNncuiosTEct. 6. Syngnathus. 7. Ostracion, 8. Balistes. ; 9. Tetrodon. 10. Diodon. 1}. Lophius. 12. Cyel 13. Centriscus. 14, Pegasus. A. Pinnis ventralibus nullis. B. Pinnis ventralibus presentibus. Trisus III. . me Branchiis completis. Apertura thoracis hianite, Pin- nis membranaceis radiatis ; ventralibus mullis ; conpore sepius alepedoto,—Apepgs. ICHTHYOLOGY, 15. Xi ias, 16. as Trisvs IV. Branchiis completis. A thoracis hiante ;, pin- nis membranaceis radiatis ; ventralibus sub jugulo ; cor- pore squamis minutis tecto vel nudo. Juaurares. eee: B. Acanthopterigii. 4 ir GaNeeeessenss B. Acanthopterigii- S88 a _ : 668 The four last tribes of this are obviously those of Linneeus, with the introduction of a subordinate cha- racter from Ray. We must, however, observe, <9 — fishes whose ~ a soft articulated species have been pitted wate were e entitled toa place among those wh spinous bg termed Acan ious. many species e genus Pleuronectes (but not all of then) fave a spine in front of the anal fin ; and in the genus inus, both the carpio and barbus have one serrated EW Wan ortined ume The heir proee situation, without destroying the na- links of the species. Such inconsistencies will be found in all systems, where characters are employed which exercise but a feeble influence on the animal Professor Gouan of Montpellier, made another attempt Teisemmataliy the mager in his Histoire des Poissons. the patie of tas stmt 2 ew soocbee yen: systems, were never work of Bloch on in German and French. that of O-ldaheon with addi- = th searches of the author. ‘The pier -aiat: Feann ares, of the Barrer soe Bowe ete istory of the is given in de- Walbaum with propriety styles this work, Opus t of the Encyclopedie Bonnaterre, and pub- lished i the year 1788. This author, in the systema- tic part of the subject, followed the method of Linnzus. His i tage ay pe ohare eerie the systematic e collected with care, the incips ferme erent ane hes Pend has a defined the characters History. _—_——_ Gouan. Bloch. Bonnaterre, Seured of flies’ chiefy has added a number of good figures of fishes, chiefly from other works. In the year 1800, the “ on Comparative A-~ Cuvier, natomy,” by Cuvier made their ce. Indepen- dent of the i contributions to the physiology of fishes, this author has attempted a classification of those animals, which merits the consideration of natu- ralists, The fo outline, in which the genera pet cs sna Bevo room, may be acceptable to the systematic enquirer. History. — System of Cuvier, De la Ce- pede, System of De la Ce- pede, 664 ICHTHYOLOGY. ‘ . tr " 3 ts Round mouth at the end of the nose or snout. History. Fined, ears, Pare ee: Transverse mouth under the snout. ’ rea Transverse mouth under the snout ; teeth. Cuvier, =? CARTILAGINOUS . no teeth. \ FisHes ... Free Branchie, Branchiostegi . . « Mouth at the end of the nose ; pei teeth. | The bones of the jaws answering instead of teeth. é Mouth very wide ; a number of small teeth. j Ver Mouth at the end of the nose. P sos ee se ess ss '* UMouth under the nose. 4 ¢ Head unarmed. Jugulares 2... ieee eer eee Feel daeioll: f Dorsal fins partly spinous; head armed. Dorsal fins partly spinous ; head § Two dorsal fins. unarmed .......-.04.% One dorsal fin. Thoracici . 2... 6.4... 4¢ Bones of the jaws naked, and answering instead of teeth. Osszous Fisnes < Two eyes on the same side. The body very long. | A furrowed discus on the head. ( No operculum to the branchiz. a 2) teeth. * Ss teeth ; no cirri. Abdominales......-. 2-225 ¢ Fens depuiaeid; rar Spines free on the back. 4 | Mouth at the end of the nose. Several natural families are formed by this author, and we hope he will add to the number in the second edi-« tion of his work. . ‘ In the year 1803, De la Cepede completed his Histoire formed from the spoils of the collections of those coun« Naturelle des Poissons, in five volumes. The opportu- tries which France had subjugated. Before giving our nities of investigating the ste of ichthyology enjoy- opinion of the execution of the systematic part of the ed by this author were valuable, and he has availed him- author’s plan, we shall lay a sketch of it before our self of these with very great diligence and success. He readers. had access to the best furnished museum in Europe, Le sang rouge, des vertébres, des branchies au lieu de poumons. grap ; ee Souvs-CassEs. Divisions. Onrpres. pede. r Z 1, | 1. Apodes. 1. | 1. Point d’opercule, ne de mem- J) 2. | 2. Jugulaires. 0 brane branchiale ..... 8. | 3. Thoracins. 0 4. | 4, Abdominaux. x j 5. i Apodes,. 0 Porssons CARTILAGINEAUX. Ps 2. Roint tones: PR IRE & - Tioracine 1. L’épine dorsale composée de vertébres J . ng Fire ig cartilagineuses . Porssons OssEvux. 6. 2. L’épine dorsale composée de vertébres osseuses . . . 8. | 3 Un opercule, point de mem- brane branchiale .... .- branchiale ... . 5. |. 1, Un opercule, et une membrane 13. 4. | 4, Un opercule, et une carers branchiale setecanee 2. Un opercule, point de mem- brane branchiale ....- 7. | 3. Point d’opercule, une mem- brane branchiale ..... brane branchiale .... - > 29. 8. | 4. Point d’opercule, ni de mem- ‘3 PPO PWD ROPE Rt eo tem . Apod . Jugulaires. 0 . Thoracins. 0 . Abdominaux. 0 . Jugulaires. 0 Thoracins, 0 . Abdominaux. Apodes. Jugulaires, 0 Thoracins. Abdominaux, Apodes. Jugulaires, Thoracins. Abdominaux. Apodes. Jugulaires. 0 Thoracins. 0 Abdominaux, 0 es. Apodes. 2, Jugulaires. 0 3. 4. Thoracins. 0 Abdominavux. 0 et mpalcenie immed hc System of La Cepede. ¢ ICHTHYOLOGY. canthus, Callionymus and Calliomorus, Acanthurus and History. The reader will perceive, that the pri characters are Ray. The secondary poe depend~ ing on the structure of the appendages of the gills, may be considered as in a measure his own; while those of a third rank be! Deciubeacderte bein It perhaps surprise an i r to be informed, of the thirty orders which are here constituted, ly seventeen can be employed at present, the remain- having no examples in nature. To these st orders, I have added a cypher in the synoptical view. Every ichthyologist will allow that many fishes must exist in nature which have never come under the ins ! tion of the naturalist ; many links in the chain are still wanting ; so that our systems, for the present, must be imperfect. But ee in thus constructing orders which have no ascertained exist- ence, than a desire to anticipate discovery, and to ex- hibit a confident reliance on the perfection of the sys- The which he uses in the construction of his genera, are derived from various sources. Thus, his genus Prionotus, is separated from that of Trigla, by the serrated spines between the dorsal fins of the former. Serrasalmus, is separated from Salmo, in con- sequence of a serrated abdomen. The number of the dorsal fins Lutanus from us. The size of the fins forms the distinction between Bodianus and Tenianotus. It is rather singular that seen aed ansutle deuntion whdle'ths' pf in the asa generic character, whi presence of that organ furnishes him with one of his primary cha- erred cage yer cob mea ee nate tees ex. ceptionable, appear to have constructed in violation of the acknowledged rules of the science zoology. The following maxim of Artedi, Nomina ica, ex tno nomine generico fracto et allero integro a sen g is overlooked in the — ing ex+ am ybrid names, many which might be Oe : Gobiesox, Sesuibention, he Murenoblen- roprie omina habent.” has the following genera : Mugil Mugiloides, Gobius Gobioides, Cory- i Scomber Scomberoides, Murena Mure. noides. There isa third rule given by Artedi, and entitled to the attention of the ic i which La Cepede likewise overlooks.‘ Nomina gene- rica, quae non sunt originis Latine vel Grace proscri- — Thus we have the following barbarous names, tsgurnus , formed from Misgurne, the Bavarian vincial name of Cobitis fossils of Linneus, ak the only known species of the genus Makaira, the name of a fish known at Rochelle. There is likewise a ge- nas , & name attached to a dried fish in the Dutch collection, and provincial. The similarity in the sound, between many of the genera of this author, will i lead to confusion. Thus we have Ho- locentrus Holocanthus, Pomacentrus and Poma- VOL. ZI. PART I. : 665 Acanthopodus, and a host of other genera with names so nearly alike, that we might be led to suppose the author formed them purposely to perplex. We cannot close our observations on the genera of this author, without adding, that all generic names taken from ob- jects in the other classes of nature, ought to have been rejected ; such, for example, as Eques, Gallus, Hy- drargirus. In the construction of his species, there is perhaps too strong a desire to increase their number, in the ab- sence ofall prominent characters. This, we fear, has been the case in the genus Salmo, Labrus, and some others, where the limits of the species are ill defined. He has been too liberal in employing the names of in- dividuals, as trivial names to his species, Thus we have three different species in the system named in honour of his wife, who does not appear to have been rromn attached to any branch of natural history. ye can have no objections to an author dedicating his work to his wife, as La Cepede has done; but we ob- ject to the naming of species, ascertained by the la- urs of others, in honour of any female friend. In France, an author may gain credit for his sensibility and love, by so doing, but to our colder temperament, it seems to be affectation. In many instances, our au- thor changes the received trivial names, bestowing upon them new ones of his own, without even assigning any reason for doing so. This takes place in almost every extensive genus of the system, and merits the se- verest censure. The French naturalists, it is trne, have not scrupled to violate established maxims in sci- ence, in order to form a French system. This seems to have been the reason why LaCepede abandoned the prin- ciples of Artedi in the construction of his genera, and dis- regarded the as of the Linnean school. But the French systems, like all others, must submit to the test of sound principles ; and when tried by these, whoever. shall attempt to restore to its Linnean purity this de- partment of zoology, must cancel multitudes of the names of La Cepede. We may add, that the descriptions are often swelled by vague analogies, and are in too many instances destitute of precision. These remarks have extended perhaps too far; but as the system is at present the most popular in Europe, we have judged it expedient to state our undisguised sentiments as to its merits. It abounds in faults, but it is not destitute of excellence. A vast mass of facts is collected, many species are for the first time described, many new characters are unfolded, and the work upon the whole is the most complete view of ichthyology ex- tant. Figures of the new or rarer species are given. These, however, are inferior in every respect to those of Bloch. The ichthyological part of the General Zoology by shaw. Dr Shaw, appeared in two volumes, in the years 1803-4. We sincerely regret that it is not in our er to bestow any praise on this work. The text is a very meagre compilation, chiefly from the writings of Bloch and La Cepede; and the figures which accom- pany the work, are principally copied from the same “in the preceding historical f ichthyological In the ing historical review of i ologica writers, in whieh ~ have endeavoured to sal they 0- gress of the science, the reader must have perceived the ep difference of opinion, with respect to the value of e characters hoy in classification: The organs of motion are regarded by some as holding the first rank, while those of respiration are preferred by others. 4P History. _—— Writers on British ich- thyology. 666 These circumstances indicate the infant state of the science, and point out the propriety of an anatomical investigation of the whole tribe. We are still in want of accurate representations ef many species of fishes. The figures which we meet with, often bear but a remote resemblance to the objects themselves, _When a painter, ignorant of natural history, is employed to delineate a fish, (or any other animal), he is apt to overlook the most important characters, unless these are very obvious. He rests satisfied if he produces a general resem- blance. Hence the peculiar shape of the fins is often sacrificed to the desire of avoiding sharp angles, and spots, punctures, or streaks, are omitted as useless, or as spoiling the beauty of the drawing.. These figures, in passing afterwards through the hands of the engra- ver, are still farther-altered to suit professional taste, so that the figures in works on natural. history are of- ten imperfect representations, Hence naturalists should study the art of drawing, and carefully inspect the strokes of the engraver, if fidelity in representation-be the object in view. Before closing these: short notices of the: principal writers on fishes, we propose to add a few observations on the labours of those who have contributed to the advancement of British ichthyology. This branch of natural history has never been very popular in Britain, and at present is in a great measure neglected. Mer- ret, in his Pinax rerum Naturalium. Britannicarum, London, 1667, is the first who arranged systematically our native fishes. He distributed them into the fol- lowing classes: I. Pisces. pelagii squamosi.» IJ. Pela- giileves. ILI. Marini saxatiles. IV. Squamosi in ma- rietin fluminibus. V. Fluviatiles squamosi. VI. Flu- viatiles leaves. He has enumerated about 76 species. He acknowledges the assistance which he derived from Turner in his letter to.Gesner, His references are chiefly to.the works of Gesner and Aldrovandus; and he has added a number of provincial names. Taking all circumstances into consideration, this little work de- serves great praise. The labours of Willoughby and Ray, which we have already mentioned with respect, contributed to advance the science of ichthyology in this country, by the in- troduction of a more determinate nomenclature, and a more accurate definition of species. From the days of Ray until the appearance of Pen- nant, no systematic British ichthyologist had appeared. In the year 1776, that naturalist published his British Zoology. The third volume of this work treats of our native fishes, amounting to one hundred and. fifty-two species, exclusive of the-cetacea, The-system which he follows is the Linnzan, with the addition of the car- tilaginei of Ray. He does not confine himself to mere descriptions ; he notices the habits and. uses of the par- ticular species. The figures are upon the whole re- spectable. This work contributed to diffuse a taste for the study of zoology in this country, and still conti- nues to maintain that reputation which its general ac- curacy, and pleasing style, deservedly procured. A second edition made its appearance two years ago, edit- ed by a son of the author’s. It contains a few addi- tions, compiled from authentic sources. The Sanopes of the Natural History of Great Bri- tain and. Ireland, by Berkenhout, merits a place in this catalogue, The first edition appeared in the year 1769, and the second in the year 1795. In the first volume the British fishes are enumerated, amounting to. ICHTHYOLOGY. 157 species, and arranged according to’ the Linnean — History: method. The specific characters are short, but judici+ ously selected. Inthe year 1802, Mr Stewart of Edinburgh pub+ lished his Elements. of Natural History, in which he’ enumerates the British species of fishes: This worl: has lately been revised by the author, and several new species have been added to his list. Mr Donovan completed, in 1808, five volumes of his Natural History of British Fishes. This work con- tains coloured representations of 119 species. The figures are faithful representations, and the descrip- tions abound in sound criticisms and important illus« trations.. He is perhaps deficient in his account of the external characters of the species. This production is a valuable book of reference, and ought to be frequent- ly consulted by the student, We may add that he has swelled the list of British fishes by. the discovery of many new and curious species, The British Fauna, by Turton, was published in 1807, previous to the completion of the preceding work. In this small volume 168 species are described. It is a very useful compilation, chiefly on account of its convenient size for the pocket. Besides these systematic writers. on British ichthyo-« logy, several naturalists, by describing the fishes of par- ticular districts, have rendered important service to the science. Inthe work of T. Caius De Canibus Britannicis, (Lond. 1570,) contains notices respecting a few s cies of British fishes, such as the xiphias, the trachu« rus, the acus, and.a few others. In 1684, Sir Robert Sibbald published his Prodro« mus Historie Naturalis, sive Scotia Illustrata. In this work the fishes of Scotland: are described and enume- rated; and, considering the state-of the science at the time, the catalogue is an extensive one. The same au~« thor enlarges on the fishes of the Frith of Forth in his ‘History of Fife and Kinross. The topographical labours of Plott merit ful mention ; and in his Histories of Oxfordshire and Staf= Jordshire, he has not overlooked the fishes of these dis« tricts. The history of the former county appeared in 1676, and that of the latter in 1686. In 1698, Martin published his Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, in which he notices the ichthyological productions of those seas, but in a very cursory manner. Wallace, in 1700, published his Account of the Ork-« ney Islands, in which he noticed a. few of. the more common fishes of that country. The British student of zoology must be familiar with the name of Borlase. His Natural: History of Cornwall, published. in 1758, is generally quoted as a book of reference, and contributed to~ Aveies our knowledge of British fishes, Several new species were ublished for the first time frem the drawings of the Rev. Mr Iago, minister of Loo, Several remarks, illustrative of Irish ichthyology, appear in Rutty’s Natural History of the County of Dublin, 1772. Smith, in his county histories of Ker« ry, Waterford, Cork, and Down, had communicated previously a few. imperfect notices regarding the fishes of those districts. In the year 1811, the first volume of the Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh appeared before the public, containing two i coal il- lustrative of British ichthyology. The first is: E. duction of the late eminent zoologist Montagu, in which ICHTHYOLOGY. in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, been observed by the author. The species amount The last author whom we shall mention as having ‘contributed to extend our knowledge of the distribution -of British fishes, is the late Rev. George Low, minister of Birsa and Hara. The Fauna Orcadensis, which he left behind him in MS. was published in the year 1813, and contains an extensive list of the fishes which the author observed in the seas around the islands of Ork- § CHAP. II. Srructure anv Functions oF Fisues. the ‘fanstitene ‘which: thely- pestorme, By the = in this manner, papa. tea hak coe Saanay af thio tunportent. class of sniseted. balnge. Sect. I. Organs of Support. sabe aosiueg tants qed, The — enn ay oS Rane sisal j little attended to naturalists. voiding i saeohtdetalia, ten to the skeleton, as consisting of a cranium, spine, and ribs. As the cranium of fishes is covered with skin only, its form is easily ascertained, and it exhibits ies it is large in proportion to the size of the body. Thncnaiont Tesunes tubes consists of a great num- end. It consists of concentric rings, are by some to increase in number with of the animal. The vertebra: are destitute of all the vertebr are consolidated 667 one so that the spinous can only be distinguished. The oars be divided inite the cervical, dor- sal, and caudal. [n osseous fishes, the cervical vertebra are in general wanting, although in some cases they ex~ ist, as in the herring, to the number of four. In the cartilaginous kinds, they are ossified into one piece. The dorsal vertebre are easily recognised, by wanting processes on the inferior part. These have generally on the sides transverse processes, to which the ribs are attached, The caudal vertebre are possessed of spinous rocesses, both on the superior and inferior surfaces. n those fish which are flat these are very long, as in the flounders. The first caudal vertebra is in general of a peculiar shape. The cavity of the trunk is termi- ete its inferior process. In the flounders it is large, round in the fore part, and terminated below by a sort of spine. The last caudal vertebra is however more remarkable than the first. It is almost always of a triangular ferm, flat, and placed vertically. Upon its posterior extremity it bears articular impressions, which ne to'the small and delicate bones ef the fin of the _ The number of the bones of the vertebral column in t spesies being exceedingly various, suggested to Artedi the use of this character in the separation of nearly allied species. Among the species of the us Cyprinus, for example, a difference in the bert eer ‘vertebra: has been observed to the amount of fourteen. In ascertaining this character, Artedi recommends the greatest ci i The fish should be boiled, the yaaa ee separated, and the vertebra detached from one , and these counted two or three times in succession to prevent mistakes. This character is of great use, as it is not liable to variation, individuals of the same ies exhibiting the same number of verte- bre in all the stages of their growth. The number and size of the ribs are likewise extreme- ly various. - The cartilaginous fishes may be considered as destitute of true ribs. Where they exist, as in the osseous fishes, they are articulated to the body of the vertebra, or to the spinous processes.. They are forked in some fishes, and in others double ; that is, two ribs from each side of every vertebra. In the genus 'yprinus they are of a compressed s 3; in'the cod — round ; and in the herring like bristles. number of the ribs likewise furnishes a charac- ter in the discrimination of species, which may be safe- ly relied on in the absence of more obvious characters. Besides these bones which we have enumerated, there are many more osseous spicula, which serve to sup the fins, and to en the muscles. Indeed the ex- istence of numerous bones, unconnected with the skele- ton, is a distinguishing character of the osteology of fishes, and these we s. afterwards consider in our account of the different purposes to which they are sub- servient, The composition of the bones of fishes has never been investi with sufficient care. It is = known, that never acquire so a degree of hardness and slg tates the mammalia or birds: hence we may safely conclude from the facts connected with the ossification in other animals, that the bones abound in i and cartilaginous matter, while the portion of earthy or saline matter is small. The earthy salts. are phosphate and carbonate of lime, and the phosphate of magnesia, the former predomina- Structure and Functions © of Kis! es. —_—~_ Structure and Functions of Fishes. —\— Organs of protection. 668 ting in quantity. In one division of fishes, termed the cartilaginous, the proportion of earthy matter is so small, that the bones never become indurated, but continue in all the periods of the life of the fish soft and flexible. These animals are therefore supposed to grow during the whole course of their existence. When the bones of some fishes are boiled in water, they undergo a change of colour. This circumstance is well illustrated in the case of the gar-fish, or sea pike, (Esox belone,) whose bones by boiling become of'a grass green colour; and in the bones of the viviparous blenny, which experience a similar change. This alteration of colour has fostered some of the prejudices of the vulgar, but has failed to arrest the attention of the chemist. The bones of fishes when reduced to powder, are mixed up with farinaceous substances, and used instead of bread by some of the northern nations. In.Norway, and even in some of the remote districts of our own country, fish bones are given as food for cows, and are greedily devoured by them. Sect. II. Unner this head, it is our intention to consider the skin, the scales, and the spines of fishes. The shin of fishes consists, as in the. other vertebral animals, of a true skin, a rete mucosum, and a cuticle. The cutis, or true skin of fishes, is remarkably thick in those spe- cies which have small scales; while in those which have large scales, it frequently assumes the appearance of a thin membrane. It is much more closely attached to the muscles in this tribe than in any of the other ver- tebral animals. This organ in the gadi, for example, consists almost entirely of gelatine, and hence is much esteemed as an article of food, and is used also in fining, as a substitute for isinglass. Eel skins are likewise used in the manufacture of size, in consequence of the gelatine which they contain. In the higher classes of vertebral animals, there is an organ termed the corpus papillare, or the villous sur- face of the skin, in which the sense of touch is supposed more particularly to reside. Fishes, however, are des- titute of this organ; and hence anatomists have con- cluded, that these animals are possessed of this sense in a very imperfect degree. Intermediate between the true skin and the cuticle, is situated the refe mucosum. It consists of a mucous layer, in which the colouring matter of the skin resides. In the animals which we are now considering, this layer is remarkable for the brilliant tints which it exhibits, communicating to the scales all their metallic lustre. The’ cuficle, or external layer of the skin, appears in fishes in a soft state, and, in many instances, is a simple mucous substance enveloping the body. It is detached at certain seasons of the year in large pieces. The scales are implanted in the cuticle, and in their position and use resemble the hairs on the bodies of quadrupeds. They cover the body of fishes like tiles on the roof of a house, pointing backwards. The pos- terior edge, which in general is free, is usually crescent- shaped, fringed in some species, and smooth in others. By means of a lens, longitudinal ribs may be perceived finely decussated by transverse striee. These ribs some- times radiate from the centre, and the crossing striz are concentric. _When macerated in weak acids, they are found to consist of alternate layers of membrane and phosphate of lime, and hence are supposed to increase in every direction by the addition of new layers. Instead of imbricated scales, some fishes are protects Organs of Protection. ~ ICHTHYOLOGY. ed by osseous plates, covered, like the scales, by the cu- ticle, and presenting an even surface. Among some of the sharks, as the Squalus acanthias, instead of scales there are flat bent bristly Jaminz; and in the remora there are hard rough tubercles. These osseous plates in the sturgeon, resemble in shape the shell of a limpet. These scales may be considered as the ordinary ar- mature of fishes. They guard their bodies from ex~ ternal injury, and, when rubbed off by accident, they are reproduced, , The naturalist employs the appearances exhibited by the scales, as a character in the discrimination of nearly allied species. The form, the surface, and the size of the scales, are chiefly used for this purpose, although the disposition of the longitudinal and the transverse rays, together with the condition of the margin, would furnish more permanent marks. The scales in the de- scription of a fish, are likewise considered in regard to their adhesion to the skin. Thus some scales, which adhere but slightly, are said to be deciduous ; while others, which cannot be rubbed off but with difficulty, are termed tenacious or adhesive. SEES Besides the scales, many fishes are furnished with spinous processes. These sometimes accompany. the fins ; while in other instances they appear as the arma ture of the head and cheeks. They appear to be of the same consistence and composition as horn, Those found on the head are in general fixed ; but those connected with the fins are moved by peculiar muscles. These organs may be considered as defensive weapons, and act, in some instances, not merely by their form and consistence, but by some venomous secretion by which they are covered. Thus the common weever ( Trachi-< nus draco) inflicts a wound with the spines of the first dorsal fin, often followed by violent burning pains, in- flammation, and swellings; so that the ermen are in the practice of cutting off the offensive organ before they bring the fish to market. The spines of the Squalus acanihias, or piked dog-fish, is likewise considered by fishermen as capable of inflicting a dangerous wound. The fishes furnished with spinous rays in the fins, were, at a very early period, separated from those with soft rays. They were termed Acanthoplerygit by Arte- di. The fishes furnished with spines on the head or cheeks, have been subdivided by La Cepede into several genera, from the characters furnished by these organs. Secr. III. Organs of Sensation. In attending to the organs of sensation in fishes, the condition of the brain demands our first consideration. We have already stated, that the head is large in pro- portion to the size of the body ; but with regard to the brain, the reverse of this appears to be the case. It does not completely fill the cavity of the cranium des- tined for its reception, the surrounding space being oc- cupied by a salt fluid. It bears a much smaller pro- rtion to the size of the body, than we. find in the igher classes of animals, The following Table of these proportions in a few fishes'is given by Cuvier. White shark (Squalus carcharias) 25> Great dog-fish (Squalus canicula) zy Pike . mi iecrs #5] eens oneness —— Silurus glanis . . «.. - +» 9 xgyT The brain of fishes is of'a less compact texture than that of the superior animals, and in some species is al- Structure and Functions © of. Fishes, Organs of sensation. » ee _?s Structure most fluid. Ini structure, however, it is nearly the same, id although characterised by a few constant marks. The Wfane. Subdivisions of the brain and cerebellum, or their tu- = bercles and lobes, are more numerous than in the mam- ~ malia and birds, In one [merece the Gadus, Dr Monroe (Structure and i of Fishes, Edin. 1785, p. 44.) found spheroidal bodies between the dura and pia mater, and covering the greater part of their through the space formed by the processes of vertebra. the other nerves of fishes, the size of the spinal marrow is in ion to the size of the aT EF : Fe att FL rif ui i HE ue lar fibres, tractile motion. This motion, however, in living fishes, can seldom be perceived. Proceeding to the examination of the inside of the nostril, we may observe, that in the sharks and skates the nasal lamine are placed lel to each other on both sides of a lamina, which extends from one end of the fossa to the other, and consist of folds of the 4 ICHTHYOLOGY. 669 nerve is surrounded by a fine membrane only, which appears to be the same as that which contains the fat or oily humour that covers the brain. In the haddock, and some other fishes, the olfactory nerve, in its course from the brain to the nose, passes through a cineritious ball, which resembles the cineritious. matter connected in our body to the olfactory nerve within the cranium. . When the olfactory nerve arrives behind the folded membrane which we have described, it is dilated to be applied to the whole of its internal and convex surface. In some fishes no previous enlargement takes place, while in others the nerve swells into a real ganglion. When expanded, it has been compared to the retina, but the -filaments of which it is composed are more dis- tinct. The sense of smell in fishes is supposed by many to furnish them with the most delicate tests, for searching after and distinguishing their food. Dr Shaw (Genera/ Zoology, vol. iii. p. 9.) states, that “ if you throw a fresh worm into the water, a fish shall distinguish it at a con- siderable distance; and that this is not done by the eye is plain from observing, that after the same worm has been a considerable time in the water, and lost its smell, no fishes will come near it; but if you take out the bait, and make: several little incisions into it, so as to let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, it shall have the same effect as formerly. Now it is certain, that had the animals distovered this bait with their eyes, they would have come equally to it in both cases.. In con- sequence of their smell being the principal means they - have of discovering their food, we may frequently ob- serve them allowing themselves to be carried rt with the stream, that they may ascend again leisurely against the current of the water; thus the odoriferous particles swimming in that medium, being applied more forcibly to their organs of smell, produce a strong- er sensation.” We do not presume to dispute the ac- of these observations, but we may observe, that the well known voraciousness of fishes, the ea- gerness with which they will seize a metal button, or any glittering object, the whole art of artificial bait and fly-fishing, all seem to point out the or- of sight as the principal instrument by which they ver their food. Besides, the organs of smelling are by no means favourably situated for receiving quickly the impressions new objects are calculated to produce, In the chondropterygit the nares communicate by a with the angles of the: mouth, but in general organs of smell have no communication with those of mastication or respiration ; and as the external open- ings are narrow, and but ill supplied with muscles, we are at a loss toconceive in what manner the water im- with odoriferous particles is thus rapidly ied to the extremities of the olfactory nerve. Al- ternate —— and ejection of the water have never been observed. The same water we know must pass through the mouth, and be spread over the extended surface of the gills ; so that we may presume, until far- ther light be thrown on the subject, that these latter or- gans may likewise contribute to warn the fish of the presence or absence of salutary or noxious impregna- tions. The or, of smell furnish the ichthyologist with some Gsipertant characters in the description of the species. These have hitherto been too much neglected, Structure d an Fanctions of Fishes. —— as have the a of sige. ent. 2. Organs of sight. eyes shes, like all ad Seeing. red-blooded animals, are two in number. They greatly in position, both being, in some species, on the ICHTHYOLOGY. The outer layer of the choroid coat is either white, sil- St 670 Structure game side of the head, as in flounders, while in others and Functions of Fishes. —_—— they are nearly vertical. In general, however, they are placed one‘on each side of the head, The eyes of fishes are larger in proportion ‘to the size of their ‘bodies than in quadrupeds, as we find the -eye of the cod-fish equal in size to that of an-ox. Fishes in general are destitute of eye-lids, and are sel- dom even furnished with projections in place of eye- brows. In the moon-fish, (Tetraodon mola) however, the eye may be entirely covered with an eye-lid, per- forated circularly. In the greater number of fishes, the skin passes directly over the eye without forming any fold, and in some cases it does not adhere very -closely to the eye. Thus the common eel may be skinned without producing any hole in the situation of ‘the eye, ‘the skin only exhibits at ‘that -place a round transparent spot. In the trunk-fish, (Ostracion,) the conjunctiva, or external covering of the eye, is so si- milar to the rest of the skin, that we observelines upon it, which form the same compartments as‘on the body of the fish. Some fishes may be considered as blind, as the Gastrobranchus ceecus, in consequence of the uni- form opacity of the skin in passing over the eye. The form of the eye in this tribe of animals is nearly that of a hemisphere, the plane part of which is directed forward, and ‘the convex backward. superior part is also flattened, so that the vertical dia- meter is to the transverse as 1to 2. This flatness of the anterior part of ‘the eye is compensated by the spheri- cal form of the crystalline lens. This body is more dense in fishes than in land animals. Monro found the crystalline lens of an ox to be 1104, while that of a cod was 1165, water being reckoned at 1000. The crys- talline lens projects through the pupil, and leaves scarce any space for the aqueous humour. The vitreous hu- mour is proportionally small. _The portion of the axis occupied by each of the three humours of the eye, in the herring, for instance, may be expressed in fractions as follows: aqueous humour 3, crystalline lens 3, and the vitreous humour. The spherical form of the crystalline lens has been already stated ; but the follow- ing Table, from the observations of Petit and Cuvier, will exhibit more clearly the proportion between the axis and the diameter in a few species. The axis is to the diameter in the In the Ray, the> very, or ae, and is very thin and ‘little vas- cular. The inrier coat, to which the term membrana Ruyschiana has been applied, is in general black, and covered everywhere by mucous substance. In the ray, however, it is yaar esar Between these two membranes of the choroid coat there is a body of a brilliant red colour. Its form is usually that of a thin cylinder, formed like a ring round the optic nerve ; the ring, however, is not-complete,.a segment of a certain length being always wanting. Sometimes, as in the Perca labraz,.it.consists of two pieces, one on each side - the optic nerve. It is considered by some as mus~ cular, and enabling the eye to accommodate its figure to the distance of the objects; while others regard it as glandular, and destined to secrete some of the humours of the eye. This gland, we-may add, does not exist in the Chondropterygit, as the rays and sharks. The iris is in general distinguished by its golden and silvery brilliancy. This arises from its transparency, allowing the natural colour of the choroid coat to be discerned. The pupil is different in form in the differ« ent species, but in general it approaches to circular or oval ; in some genera, as the salmon, it projects into an acute angle at the anterior part. In the Gobitis anae bleps of Linneus, the cornea is divided into two tions, and there is a double pupil with a single lens. In the ray, the superior edge of its pupil is a se into several narrow stripes disposed in radii, gilded exter- nally, and black internally. In their ordinary state they are folded between the superior edge of the pupil and the vitreous humours: but when we press the su-« perior part of the eye with the finger, they unfold them. selves, and cover the pupil like a window-blind. In the torpedo, the pupil can be completely closed by means of this veil. No other fishes possess any thing similar to this conformation, although in most osseous fishes, there is at each corner of the orbit a vertical veil which covers a small part of the-eye.. ; In general, the eyes of fishes are placed in a conical cup, and repose on a mass of gelatinous matter contain- ed in a loose cellular substance. This trembling elastic mass affords the eye a point of support in all its mo- tions. In the Chondropterygii, however, as the rays and sharks, the eye is joined to the extremity of a cartilaginous stalk, which is itself articulated in the Salmon: aeeers tier sgu” ens! hie ora ode eel auto 10 bottom of the orbit. In this manner the muscles act on Sword-fish ....... o's gull 25 : 26 a long lever, and have therefore great power in moving Shad . cisne% Ws atest aaeh Sua APR ve « 40) 2-11 the eye, : Pike, os ete 060 bie vies oat ee's 14:15 The optic nerves arise under the cerebrum, and are Barbel . S psehahehe - 11:12 very large. They are composed either of distinct fila« Carp cay a) siesta She) iasamas tale » 14:15 ments, or of a single flat band, which is sometimes fold« Mackrel . Oe soa Seg, 6 ~ jes Ae AS ed longitudinally on itself, and contracted into the fi-« Whiting . ee fe Peddie Bip 14:15 gure ofa cord. They cross each other without being SHRP cars: a0 tetris She shy Diaigts nPulse confounded, and we plainly see that the nerve of the Raye ese e veer eeees 21: 22 left side proceeds te the right eye, and that of the right Herring eerie Uebel tain’ ae SPage 10: 11 side to the left eye. This crossing is less apparent in Tene soe 0 igus Aihe> Sa rier we hades 7: 8 the cartilaginous fishes, although in the ray the right Boel ans, 25' eh dpa: fomeahan sy cpa ananatee 4 isk nerve passes through an opening in the left. These CON BED + sje sips ear bi eye0s0 ata Loy ao The sclerotic ccat of the eye of fishes is more firm and dense than in the higher animals. It is here car- tilaginous, semitransparent, and elastic, and sufficientl: solid to preserve its form of itself. In the salmon it is of the thickness of a line posteriorly, and of an almost bony hardness before. This is frequently the case in other fishes, especially near its junction with the cor- wnea, where it sometimes appears like an osseous ring. nerves pass directly through the membranes of the eye by a round hole. Internally they form a cahenee which is papillated in the ray, sharks, and carps. The radiating fibres which arise from the edges of these tu- bercles to form the retina, are very obvious. In, other genera the retina is formed from the edges of two long white caudez, in the same manner as it arises in birds from the single white line. The eye is one of the most important organs which fishes are known to possess, It enables them to per~ a | and ICHTHYOLOGY. ive the approach of their foes, and it is the principal it by which they obtain their food. The ama- in artificial fly-fishing often tempts the fish with i ut in vain ; and upon substituting ano- its of a different form or colour, he suc- in the capture. These motions of the fish are all by the eye; hence some fish will bite as rea- it of red cloth as at a piece of flesh. organ exercises a vi werful influence on its of fishes, it should be carefully attended to systematic ichthyologist. The characters which furnished by its form and position are not liable to variations, and they kre sufficiently obvious. Those furnished by the alanes of the different parts hold a se- condary rank. They are not very liable to vary, but Spemeneprcicnen grat: Dongen after death, and should be with very great caution. 3. Organs of hearing. It was long known to na- turalists, that fishes possessed some means of distinguish- ing the vibrations of sonorous bodies. Trouts and carp have been taught to come to a particular place of the pond for food upon a bell being rung ; a drum has sometimes been employed to drive fishes into a net. In general, however, it was supposed that the vibrations communicated to the water, became sensible to-the fish, the medium of the organs of touch. The Abbé Nollet (in the Hist. def Acad. R. des Scien- ces, 1743, p. 26.) ascertained by conclusive experi- ments, that the human ear was susceptible to the im- ions of sound, even when immersed in water. This Hu ¥e ata e ce asf e i 7; Naapaabe ay a of anatomists to the structure of the organs ing, and Camper, Geof- froi, and Vicq d’Azyr, at in aeledens out the nature of the different parts. Our illustrious country- man Dr Monro, in his work on the structure and phy- siology of fishes, contributed to enlarge our knowledge of the organs of hearing by numerous accurate dissec. tions. In the osseous fishes, no external ear has hitherto been deteeted, and the same remark is applicable to those cartilagi fishes which have free branchie. But in the ns i fishes with fixed branchi, small apertures have been disco cna to audi or- gans. These were first observed by aaiatie die cod Sara ek i Saas occur in part occiput, near joining of the head with the spine. 7, a A ag Hm per rote ory to mapa pray Sad ang are found at the distance of an inch from each other. In fishes that have free branchi, the internal of leasing a0 situated. in.tho tides of the envity,of the cranium, and fixed there by a cellular tissue, consisting of vessels, and osseous or ilaginous frena, In the fishes with fixed branchia, those are inclosed in a parti cavity formed in the tance of the cra~ nium. This cavity is situated on the side and posterior of that which contains the brain, with which it not communicate, Wi poten muons 2g passages for the nerves. The sac exhibits many differ- ences as to size and form in the different species. Be- sides the ordinary viscid fluid, there are some small cre« taceous bodies suspended by a beautiful plexus of nerves. These, in the osseous fishes, are three in num- in general fewer in number, and of a softer consistence, seldom harder than moistened starch. It is su: that these bodies ashlee in comnnamlanting to the nerves the vibrations produced in the water by sound, 67T With the sac are connected three semicireular canals, filled with a viscid fluid similar to that in the large sac. The audilory nerves arise so near to the origin of the fifth pair, that they have been considered as the same. In the genus Raja these pass into the cavity of the ear by a particular foramen ; in the osseous fishes, they are distributed directly into that organ. As the ear of fishes is much less complicated in its structure than in the higher orders of animals, we may conclude that the sense of hearing is weak in propor- tion. Indeed the difficulty of detecting any natural movements of fishes, occasioned by sound, led the an- cients to conclude that they did not enjoy this sense. We have, however, demonstrated its existence, but we are unable to ascertain the advantages which these ani- mals derive from it, or the influence which it exerts on their habits and economy. In systematic ichthyo- logy, the characters of the organs of hearing are too minute and difficult of detection, ever to be employed. They vary in different species, it is true, and may be resorted to in cases of difficulty; but for their investiga- tion they require a dexterous hand and an experienced. eye, ; organ in which the sense of taste resides in the higher o of animals) is but imperfectly developed, natu- ralists are in general disposed to conclude, that the sense of taste cari scarcely be said to belong to this class of beings. It presents no visible distinct papille, and its skin is analogous to the common integuments of the mouth. The nerves which supply it, are branches of the same nerves which enone to the branchie, In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible for us to assign the ise influence which the sense of taste exercises on the economy of fishes.. If noxious in- gredients exist in the water, it appears probable, that some warning will be given the animal of their pre- sence, either by the nerves of: the mouth during the passage of the water-to the gills, or by the latter or- . It does not appear that this sense is ever. used in the discrimination of food, and does not furnish any characters, as such, to the systematic ichthyologist. 5. Organs of Touch. We have already observed that the skin of fishes is destitute of the corpus papil- lare, and hence anatomists- have concluded, that they the sense of touch in a very limited degree. Besides, few nerves have hitherto been traced to the skin ; and as its surface is in general coated with scales, it appears but ill adapted for receiving very delicate impressions. In some ies, such as the common trout, (Salmo fario,) the sense of touch is well dis- played, if, under a stone or bank, the hand be mo- Vv tly towards it, and its sides titillated. It will exhibit pleasure it derives by leaning on the hand, and if the operation be performed with care, every es of the body may be gently stroked, and the fears fish in part raised above the water. From these observations on the organs of sensation; the reader will readil ive that fishes hold a much lower place in the of being than quadrupeds or birds. The of smell sight,. appear: to be more completely developed than those of hearing, taste, or touch, and therefore claim the attentive considera- tion of the student in his enquiries after a natural me- thod.in ichthyology. Fishes possess no voice by which they can commu ' nicate their sensations to others. Some species utter sounds when raised above the water, by expelling the air through the gill opening when the flap is nearly closed, - Suucture and Functions of Fishes. 4. Organs of Taste. As the tongue of fishes (the Tasting: q 672 ICHTHYOLOGY. Structure While others, even under water, as the salmon, utter made up of a single bony piece, enveloped like the for= ~‘Strnctur and certain sounds while in the act of depositing their mer by acommon membrane. Some fishes have one _ 2n4 phe ma spawn; but for what purpose these sounds are uttered, or more fins consisting entirely of these bony rays. ‘¢ pish vcs or by what organs they are produced, ‘we are still ig- Fishes with such rays are termed acanthopterygti. “In : norant. a few genera the posterior dorsal fin is destitute of rays, . and has obtained the name of pinna adiposa or flesh« ; Iv ; fin. eae wa As these rays serve to support’ the fins, and are : Organs of Tr we attend to the vast variety of forms, exhibited wer of approaching or separating like the sticks.of motion. by different kinds of fish, we shall be disposed to con- a fan, we may conclude that they move upon some clude that shape exercises but little influence on their more solid body as a fulerum. Accordingly we find in movements, While some are cylindrical and lengthen- the sharks, for example, that the rays of the pectoral ed, others are nearly globular: some are depressed, fins are connected by a cartilage to the spine. In the while others are compressed. The general form, how- osseous fishes the pectoral fins are attached to an osseous 7 ever, approaches to ovate, the body being thickest at girdle which surrounds the body behind the branchie, the thorax, and tapering a little towards the head and and which supports the posterior edge of their aperture. tail. This osseous girdle is formed of one bone from each The fins of fishes, correspond with the wings of birds, side,’ articulated at the posterior superior angle of the the former being calculated to give the motion to the cranium, and descending under the neck, where it unites body in the water, the latter in the air. These organs with the corresponding bone. Between the rays of the vary in number, size, situation, and structure, in dif- fin and this bone, which resembles the scapula, there is ferent species. . a range of small flat bones separated by cartilaginous The number of fins varies according to the genera, intervals, which may be compared to the bones of the and even according to the species. It is difficult to fix carpus. The rays of the ventral fins are articulated to on those fins which exercise the greatest influence on bones which correspond to the pelvis in the higher the habits of the animal, as there is not any one fin classes of animals. The pelvis is never articulated with common to all fishes, although all fishes have at least the spine, nor does it ever form an osseous girdle round one of these organs. The size of the fins is equally va- the abdomen. In the jugular and thoracic fishes it is rious in the different species, as it bears no constant articulated to the base of the osseous girdle which su proportion to the figure or magnitude of the fish, nor to ports the pectoral fins. In the abdominal fishes, the its habits or instincts. bones of the pelvis are never articulated to the osseous The situation of the fins furnishes the ichthyologist girdle, and are seldom connected with each other. with some of the most obvious and useful characters. They are preserved in their situation by: means of ‘cer- Those fins which are situated on the ‘back are termed tain ligaments. The rays of the caudal fin are articu- dorsal, and vary greatly in number and shape. The lated with the Jast of the caudal vertebra, which is in fin which surrounds the extremity of the tail, istermed general of a triangular form and flat. The rays of the the caudal fin, and is always placed perpendicularly. dorsal fin are supported by little bones, which have the It is forked in some, even, or rounded in others. Be- same direction as the spinous processes, and to which tween the caudal fin and the anus are situated the anal they are attached by ligaments. fins, which vary in number and shape according to the As connected with the fins, we may here take notice species. Between the anus and throat are placed the of those organs which are termed cirri or tentacula, ac- ventral fins. When they do exist, they never exceed cording as they are placed about the-mouth, or on the two in number, and are parallel to each other. The upper part of the head. They are in general soft, but pectoral fins are usually two in number, and are placed often contain one jointed ray. They do not differ in on each side, a short way behind the gill opening. By structure from the fins, and are so closely connected Linneus and others, the ventral fins are considered as with them, that it is difficult to point out their use. It ¥ analogous to the feet of quadrupeds, and the characters is not probable that they are organs of touch, but ra- furnished by their position are employed as the basis ther peculiar modifications of fins. of his classification. Those fishes which are destitute The muscles which move the fins, and all the other of ventral fins, are termed, in his system, apodal;;those organs of the body, are of a paler colour than in the ani- which have the ventral fins placed nearer to the ante- mals of'a higher order. They are also more uniform in rior extremity than the pectoral fins, are termed jugu- their substance, being in general destitute of tendinous lar ; those having the ventral fins beneath the pectoral, fibres. In the greater number of fishes there are no he calls thoracic, and when the ventral fins ‘are placed muscles peculiar to the head. The sides are furhish- behind the pectoral fins they are termed abdominal. ed with the most powerful ones, to execute the lateral These distinctions are of great importance in an artifi- movements of the animal, These muscles are dispe -cial system, and may be employed with success in the in layers or arches, with the convexity towards the inferior divisions of a natural one. head. The different muscles are strengthened by small ‘The structure of the fins of fishes has long occupied detached spines, imbedded among the fibres of the the attention of naturalists. In general these organs muscle, and giving them additional strength. Between consist of numerous jointed rays, which are subdivided the layers there is in general a quantity of viscid albu- _at their extremities. These are covered on each side minous matter interposed. After death this fluid speed- by the common integuments, which form in some in- ily undergoes a change, and can seldom be observed in stances soft fibres projecting beyond the rays. These fishes which have been kept a few days. But in re- ‘fins, with articulated rays, were considered by the older cent fish, when boiled, the albumen appears coagulated ichthyologists as furnishing characters for arrangement in the form of white curd between the layers of the of great importance. Fishes possessing these were lateral muscles. ak. termed malacopterygii. Besides these articulated rays, | The motions of a fish are performed by means of its :there-exist in the fins of some fishes, one or more rays fins. The caudal fin is the principal organ of progres« 5 ee pee I ICHTHYOLOGY. sive motion. By means of its various flexures and ex~ tensions, it strikes the water in different directions, but all having a tendency to push the fish forward ; the ac- i ing, in its manner and effects, the well known ion of the sailor termed skulling. The ventral and pectoral fins assist the fish in correcting the errors of its progressive motions, and in maintain- ing the body steady in its position. Borelli cut off with a pair of scissars both the and ventral fins of and found, in ence, that all its motions were unsteady, that it reeled from right to up and down, in a very i lar manner. and anal fins serve to maintain the body in its vertical position. But from the circumstance of fins being wanting, and others evidently to produce the desired effects, those fins which do exist appear to be capable of executing all the movements for which the others, when present, are igned. prevent us from ; The medium in which fishes reside making remeron eat tems. a heir motion. Mackrel, and some other marine . will seize a bait moving at the rate of six or eight miles an hour; and some of the voracious sharks will keep with a vessel in her voyage across the Atlantic. FF = Pry if ii E [ 4 i e i i 4 fii = se Se: ss? i ? fi eS EER sere 673 of this fish has not been ascertained, nor has even a conjecture been offered on the subject. organs of motion, we have already hinted, are Structure and Functions of Fishes. extensively employed by the systematic ichthyologist in —— the formation of his divisions. ‘It does not appear, how- ever, that naturalists have determined the exact value of the characters which they furnish, either for generic or specific distinctions. La Cepede, in some instances, has formed the dorsal fins ; while into the genus Gadus, species with one, two, and even three fins, are admitted. As the number of the fins is invariably the same in the same ies, and as these organs may be supposed to exer~ cise considerable influence on the habits of fishes, the character thus exhibited may be safely employed in generic distinctions. The characters furnished by the structure of the fins have not been overlooked, especial- ly the rays. The circumstance of being bony or joint« ed, is noticed in specific distinctions, although well entitled to divisions of a higher kind, as the character furnished is permanent. Those charac« ters furnished by the fins, which are employed exclu- sively in the construction of species, are derived from their form, and the number of their rays. But as these characters are liable to vary in different individuals of the same 5 anyon they should be employed with great caution. In many fishes there are numerous rays on each side the different fins so concealed under the skin, that it is. inmpossible to count them, while others do not reach the extremity of the organ. Hence the number of rays must vary with the mode of. enumerating, and perhaps with the age of the animal. The extent of va« riation occasioned by. the last cause has not been sa< tisfactorily determined. Sect. V. Organ of Adhesion. Tue organ here referred to, generally termed sucker, is only found on a few fishes. situated on the upper part of the head, while in others it is placed on the thorax. In the celebrated fish call- ed the Remora, it is of an. oval form, and consists of transverse rows of cartilaginous plates, connected by one pe So secsene of, She bene, and in the other by y i A. longitudinal tition divides the Sabotneke middle of the head. st the spaces between the plates, and on each side of the partition, a row of fleshy tubercles may be observed. In the cyclopteri this organ is of a circular form, and con- sists of numerous. soft papilla, It is situated on the thorax. Instead of a separate organ of adhesion, the ventral fins in the goby are united, and are capable of adhering to rocks and stones, while in the lampry the: mouth contracts and acts as a sucker, The existence of a sucker is equally common to some’ eeengeaen men anenee Pen. Its use to the fish is. difficult to ascertain. When, by means of this organ, the fish attaches itself to the sides of other fishes, or to- the bottom of ships, it is carried forward without any exertion of its own ; and, during storms, adhesion to: rocks by means of it, may save a weak fish from being. tossed about by the fury of the waves; but there may perhaps be other purposes to which it is subservient,. which still remain to.be discovered. Bis! The sucker furnishes to the ichthyologist characters: for the discrimination of the ies which are obvious- and permanent; but these have seldom been described: with accutacy or minuteness, 44. from a difference in the number of ~ of” n some of these it is adhesion. Structure and Functions of Fishes. Organs of respiration. Gill-lid. Gill-flap. -Gill-open- ing. 674 Sect. VI. Organs of Respiration. As the organs of ‘respiration appear in fishes under a new form, very different from the lungs of the higher order of animals, they demand our attentive considera- tion. Many quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, reside in water, but are obliged to come to the surface frequent- ly in order to respire. But as fishes live immersed in the water, they are furnished with certain organs called Gills, instead of lungs, to enable them to exercise the functions of respiration in the fluid in which they re- side. In many of the inferior animals, respiration is performed by the same apparatus ; but as it appears in its most perfect form in fishes, its examination will be the more interesting. “ These organs of respiration in fishes consist of four parts, a gill-lid, a gill-flap, the gill-opening, and the gills themselves. The two last are always present, but one, and sometimes both, of the two first are wanting. We propose to examine these parts in succession, be- ginning with those which are exterior. 1. Gill-lid. The gill-lid, or as it is also termed, oper culum, is situated behind the eye on each side. It is scaly, membranaceous, or bony, and is articulated to the bones of the head.’ It consists sometimes of one piece, or of two or more, and is therefore termed monophyl- lous, diphyllous, or triphyllous. The surface in some is smooth, in others rough, or tuberculated, or striated, or spinous. Its use is to give support to the gill-flap, ‘and act as a cover to the opening of the gills. It is ab« sent in fishes which have fixed branchie, and in a few with free branchie. “When it does exist, the characters which it exhibits in its structure are subject to little variation, and have been employed by La Cepede in the construction) of his orders. 2. Gill-fap. This is the membrana branchiostega of Linneus, and ‘was considered by him as a true fin. It consists of a’ definite number of curved bones or carti- lages, with a membrane. ‘Its posterior edge is general- ly free, and its anterior edge-or base is united with the It is capable of extension and contraction, and - gill-lid. when. at rest it is generally folded up under the gill-lid. “It is wanting in the chondropterygii, and likewise in a few genera of osseous fishes. When present, it ap- pears to assist the mouth in promoting the current of ‘water through the gills, or perhaps forms a current ‘over the gills when the mouth is oceupied in seizing prey. The gill-flap furnishes to the systematic ichthy ologist some of his most useful characters. He seldom pays attention to its form, but its rays are eagerly counted, as he finds that they are not subject to vary. Spe- cies of the same genus have, in general, the same num- ber of rays, and many of the Linnean genera depend on this circumstance for their character. Artedi, on this subject, draws the following conclusion : “* Quod numerus ossiculorum in membrana branchiostega pri- ‘mum et precipuum characterem in distinguendis ‘ge- neribus piscium ‘catheturorum et osteopterygiorum sup- peditet.” “But in counting their number,- care must be taken to ‘examine the structure of’ the gill-lid at the same time, as the student sometimes enumerates among ‘the rays of the gill-flap the’ posterior divisions of that organ, when present, and hence finds his‘observations at variance with the descriptions of authors. 8. Gill-opening. This division of ‘the organs of ‘re- “spiration presents many remarkable differences. In the osseous fishes, and among the branchiostegi, this open- 5 -four on each. »side of -so perfect. fishes, ‘There is an equal number of internal L ICHTHYOLOGY. ing is a simple ser behind the gills oneach. It is sometimes round, or semi-lunar, and in relative posi- tion it differs according to the species or genera. In the cartilaginous fishes, the opening on each side is subdivided into as many apertures as there are gills, the gills in this tribe being fixed to’ the membranes which act as partitions in the opening. In such fishes, these openings are on the summit, at sides, or under- neath, according to the genera, , Structure and ‘Functions of Fishes, —_—— 4, Gills, in the fishes with gills or branchie, these Gills. — are in general eight in number, four on each ide. Each gill consists of three parts, a cartilaginous or bony support, and its convex and concave sides. The support of each gill consists of 2 crooked bone or cartilage, in general furnished with a joint. At its base, it is united with the bones of the tongue, and above with those of the head. At both extremities it is moveable, and throughout is flexible like a rib. Its position is nearly vertical. From its exterior or con- vex side, issue a multitude of fleshy leaves, or fringed vascular fibrils, resembling plumes, and closely con- nected at the base. These are of a red colour in al- most all fishes in a healthy state. The internal or con- vex side of the support next the mouth exhibits many singular differences. It is always more or less furnish- ed with tubercles. These in the genus Cyprinus are smooth—in the Cottus rough. They are lengthened ‘into slender spines in the herring smelt, but in the former these are serrated, while in the latter they are smooth. This concave part of the gill is of a white colour, and forms a striking contrast with the colour of the convex side. ; In some osseous fishes, the number of gills exceeds In the herring, for example, there is'a small imperfect gill on each side attached to the inner e gill-lid, on which all its motions depend. It has no bony arch nor concave side. At the entrance -to the gullet, there is a cartilage on each side, studded — in appearance the concave with tubercles, resemblin side of the last gill. In the plaise, a similar gill may be observed on the inside of the gill-lid, but no distinct pearance of a sixth gill at the entrance to’ the ceso« agus, ; In the chondropterygii, the gills are far from being They are fixed to partitions which serve the purposes of the bony arches in’ the osseous fishes. These partitions extend from the ‘mouth ‘to the gill- opening, and vary in number according to the genera. They are destitute of the inner or concave white side, but the fleshy leaflets are of the same structure with those on ‘the convex part of the gills in’ osseous fishes. We are indebted to that acute anatomist, Sir Everard Home,’ for some important observations on the respi- ratory organs of the lamprey and myxine, ‘the api press Spe cr fishes, and the ‘least perfect inthe system. ‘In the lamprey, (he says), the organs of respiration have seven external openings on each ‘side a P -of the animal ; these lead into the same number of se- — oval bags, placed horizontally, the inner mem. rane of which is constructed like that of the gills in 1 openings leading into a tube, the lower‘end of which adodk, and the upper terminates by a fringed edge in the eso. phagus. These bags are contained in cavities, »and-enclosed in a thorax resembling that of land ani- ‘mals, only composed of cartilages instead of ribs, and “the “its lower extremity like a diaphragm.” ‘In the myxine, pericardium, which is also cartilaginous, is fitted to ICHTHYOLOGY. 675 ) the external openings are two in number, but there are from thence either passes into the other bags, or out at Structure six lateral bags on each side, placed ndicularly, which there are six tubes from each Uf the openings and close to the left external opening, there is one which foo the esophagus, (Phil. Trans, 1815, Pp. 256. . The characters furnished oa by Fnmensee of the first importance in arranging species, ey are easil examined, and the dietiogtigns mp pe But = some strange conceit, ichthyologists seldom look into the gills, or point out to us the peculiarities which they exhi the characters furnished by the of respiration should be. led as occupying highest rank. Without the aid of any other cha- fishes might be classified with ease, and even species might be determined with certainty. Seer. VII. Organs of Circulation, _ Tue organs of circulation are not so obvious as those sirculauon. which we have been considering, and are seldom at- tended to by the mere ichthyologist. Without entering into the minute details of comparative anatomy, we trust the following observations may not prove uninte- resting to the eral reader, The heart of fishes is situated in the forepart of the body, ina cavity between the gills and a little behind. The pericardium or mem- brane which lines this cavity, is similar to the covering the cavity of the abdomen, and like ity is often ry _ In the skate, paienrennd fen s pericardium lengthened into the s of a Sotion. Sate ETP psn Ties se part esophagus, and cavity of the abdomen. Into this cavity secreted a liquor, afterwards to be taken notice heart i is small in proportion to the body animal, and varies greatly in figure in the diffe- rent species.. It is quadrilateral in some, and semi- circular in others. It consists, as we have already men- tioned, of a single auricle and a single ventricle, cor- responding to the right side of the heart of warm- blooded animals, The auricle is in general larger than the ventricle, and of a thinner texture in its coats. It receives the blood from the body, and transmits it to the ventricle. This last division of the heart has walls of considerable thickness. It sends forth aaa which, at its separation from the heart, forms.a bulb in shape according to the species. This ar- directly to the gills, over whose leaves it is spread in the most minute ramifica- lioms. . The blood, in. through the gills of fishes, un- se h their | 65 9 y all . It is likewise now wi Peeblished, thet the pte air contained in the water furnishes to the blood those materials which are g 4 g Ff ry i E : é e BS “n necessary for its purification, and a continuance of the life of the ani The water for this purpose is taken in at the mouth, and sent to the where, after being in a great mea- sure deprived of the oxygen of its atmospheric air, the water is ejected through the gill opening. “ In the if. to Home, “ the water. is received by tera] ings of the animal into the which perform the office of gills, and passes out by the same opening ; the form of the cavities be- the upper end into the esophagus. There is a com- mon opinion that the water is thrown out of the nos- . tril: this, however, is unfounded, as the nostril has no communication with the mouth.”— In the myxine, and Functions of Fishes, _—— the elasticity of the two tubes, and the bags into which’ they. open, admits of the water being received ; and the pressure produced by the action of the external mus- cles forces it into the cesophagus, from whence it is x pe out by the opening at the lower end of that tu ” If the ejection of the water from the gills of a fish be prevented, by the gill cover being tied down with a string, it soon expires in convulsions, Similar fatal con- sequences follow, when fish are placed in water previ- ously deprived of its atmospheric air by boiling or freezing : and when fish are kept in a small pond, whose surface is frozen over, and where the water in that case cannot obtain a fresh supply of air, they speedily pe- rish. Ifa small i made in the ice, before it be too late, the will come near it for a fresh sup- ply. In this manner, fishes are frequently taken du- ring winter in and he extent of surface presented by the gills of a fish, to enable the blood to come in contact with the air in the water, is much greater than one would, without attentive consideration, be led to suppose. calculated, that the whole gills of a large skate present- . eda surface equal to 2250 square inches, or equal to the whole external surface of the human body. - The process of respiration for the supply of the gills is carried on even during sleep. The number of respira- tions in a minute is seldom above thirty, or below twenty. In the same individual it is liable to considerable varia- tion, de: ing on the will of the animal. The blood, after being renovated in the gills, is re- absorbed by a multitude of minute vessels, which unite together ; but, instead of returning the blood to the heart again, to be afterwards distributed through the body, this aorta exercises that function, and descends along the inferior side of the spine, in a canal fitted for its reception, giving off arteries, during its course, to the adjacent parts. The blood. is absorbed again by Dr Monro - veins, which have extremely thin coats.. These are - much in their course than in their termination ; and besides form, in different parts of their course, con- siderable receptacles for blood. . Any injury received by the gills of fishes is attended with oe pain, and a considerable effusion of blood. Some fishermen seem to be well aware of this last circum- stance, and cut the gills with a knife as soon as the fish is taken. A copious bleeding takes place; and they find that a fish so killed will keep much longer in a fresh state, than one on whom this operation of bleed- ing has not been performed. Secr. VIII. Organs of Nourishment. In attending to the organs of nutrition, it will be ne- cessary to consider the structure of the mouth, and af- terwards the gullet, stomach, and intestines. The mouth of ay pop many remarkable. dif- ferences, according to the species, in regard to position, figure, and ne general, it is situated at the ex- tremity of the head, and is then said to be terminal. In some species, and.even genera, it is placed beneath a snout, or on the under side of the head, _ Wherever situated, it is.always transverse with to the ho- Organs of nourish- ment, Mouth. dy, unless in the genus Pleuronectes, in which it oc-' Structure and Functions of Fishes. ——— Lips. Jaws. Teeth, Gullet. 676 cupies an oblique position. When the mouth is open- ed, it is in general of an oblong or oval shape. In some fishes, its capacity is less than the size of the head; but, in general, it is capable of opening to a great width, sometimes superior to the thickness of the body. The lips of fishes are seldom regularly formed. In a few species, however, these surround the mouth, and are of a firm, fleshy consistence. In other instances, the lips are of an osseous texture, divided into plates which fold over one another. Such kind of lips give to the mouth increased dimensions, as they are capable of being exserted or folded up at the pleasure of the animal. The jaws are moveable, and both are attached to the bones of the palate. They are seldom equal, the one exceeding the other in length. They furnish, by their position and mode of union, many important characters in the classification of fishes. These characters have been lately investigated by Cuvier with his usual suc- cess; and he is of opinion, that the maxillary and in- termaxillary bones will furnish characters not for gene- ra merely, but likewise for orders. The teeth of fishes exhibit remarkable differences, with regard to number, situation, and structure. In the higher orders of animals, the number of teeth in the mouth is almost always constant in the same gene- ra and species. But among fish, the teeth are often so numerous that it is difficult to count them, especially as they occupy so many different positions. The jaws are not exclusively employed to support these organs, as in quadrupeds ; the tongue, the palate, the throat, being often furnished with them. In the saw-fish, the teeth are inserted on each side of its flattened and pro- jecting snout. In the genus Sparus, the front teeth re- semble those of the human species. They are provided with fangs, which are contained in alveoli. In many fishes, the teeth are formed of processes of the jaw bones covered with enamel, Those of the shark tribe adhere merely to the gums, or at least to a firm cartila- inous substance which covers the jaw. They are not Fated: as in the mammalia, by the addition of new layers, one within the other, but apparently in a man- ner resembling the formation of bone. They are at first soft and cartilaginous, and pass, by successive gra- dations, into a state of hardness and density not inferior to that of ivory. In the skate, the teeth consist of an assemblage of tubes, covered externally by enamel, and caoneeed to the jaw by a softer substance, which pro- bably sends processes or vessels into those bony tubes. The teeth of fishes are in general bent inwards, to enable them to retain their prey. As few fishes masti- cate, they have seldom any teeth which resemble grind- ers, although those which live on the harder shell-fish have teeth fitted for triturating these. In the classification of fishes, the teeth furnish seve« ral important characters, which are little liable to vari« ation. In the genus Squalus, in particular, the teeth exhibit many remarkable differences in form, sufficient, in the absence of other characters, for the discrimina- tion of the species. The gullet or esophagus, on account of the absence of a neck, is in fishes remarkably short. In some, in- deed, the stomach seems to open directly into the mouth. Where it exists, it exhibits few peculiarities of structure. In some of the branchiostegi it is beset with tufts of hair resembling a fine net-work. It is in general capable of great dilation, and when the sto- mach is unable to hold the whole of the prey which ICHTHYOLOGY. has been seized, a part remains in the inferior portion gives way. The stomach of fishes is in general thin and membra- naceous, differing little in its structure and appearance gullet until the Structure. and © from the gullet. It frequently contains the remains of Stomach, crustaceous animals, still retaining their form, but great« ly altered in consistency. Hence naturalists have con« cluded, that the food is reduced by solution, and not b trituration. But in some fishes, particularly those whi subsist principally on shell-fish, the stomach has thick muscular coats. Its shape is considerably different in the different species, but the characters furnished by this organ are seldom regarded. The intestines exhibit many remarkable peculiarities. Sometimes they proceed directly from the stomach to the anus in nearly a straight line. In ether instances, they form in their course one or more flexures. In some instances, the gut is widest towards the stomach, and gradually becomes smaller as it approaches the anus, while in others the reverse of this is the case. It is furnished internally in some species with spiral valves, in others with lozen-shaped hollows, while in a few it has numerous fringed lamin. Between the great and small intestines, in the chondropterygii, there is a kind of coecum or appendix vermiformis; but in osseous fishes, there is no appearance of any such organ. In the last division, however, there are bodies which have been termed Appendices, or Intestinula-coeca. These are situated at the origin of the gut, in a double or sin« gle row. They vary in number, shape, or size, accord ing to the species ; but continue the same in all the in« dividuals of the same species. In place of these in the chondropterygii, there is a glandular body, which has been compared to the pancreas of warm-blooded ani« mals. The character for the discrimination of the spe cies furnished by the appendages is of importance, as being easily investigated and t. These intestines, and the rest of the viscera situated in the cavity of the abdomen, are contained in a mem< branaceous sac or peritoneum. This is silvery in some fishes, black or spotted in others. by Willoughby, that this sac opens externally near the anus by means of two small holes. These openings were afterwards examined by Monro, who found in each of these passages a semilunar membrane or valve, so placed as to allow liquors to get out from the abdo= men readily, but to resist somewhat their entry into it. The anus in fishes, occupies many different positions according to the species. This circumstance was seiz< ed upon by Scopoli, in the system which we have no« ticed above, and was raised to the dignity of a primary character in his system. This orifice is not merely the opening whence issue the feces, but in gen spawn also. Sect. IX. Organs of Absorption. Tur vessels of the absorbent system of fishes are ana- Organs of logous to those of quadrupeds. They are, however, des- absorptions titute of valves, unless at their termination in the red veins, and do not appear to possess conglobate glands, Dr Monro, to whom we are indebted for the first illus: tration of this class of vessels, of their arrangement in the c ives the following view and the salmon. ‘ The chief branches,” he says, ‘“ of the lacteal vessels of the great and small intestines, and which are smaller in. proportion to the blood vessels than in the nantes pine nati of Linnzus, run upwards in the mesentery, almost We are informed’ the 4 ‘ ICHTHYOLOGY. Soret to each other, and near the mesenteric arteries. their whole course, they communicate by a vast num- ber of small transverse canals. At the of the abdo- pte + apmertchege ae the stomach, and the spleen, liver, and intestinula cceca are added, ‘The chyle mixed with the lymph of the viscera, passes upw and to~ ees eee contiguous to the gall Jove neem gett lnm Arai gman rom The chyle, mien with the shdeaaell Iynaph, having above the bones, which resemble our clavicles, i situated chiefly : These may called the PE ecco se yew le and lymph. The right aceseiicnmgetosoagite tee tadh ep ace which pass chiefly behind the heart and ceso- rom each of these receptacles in the salmon, a canal runs downwards and inwards, and opens into the up- per end of its corresponding vena cava inferior, conti- to, and on the fore outer side of the internal quors in into them, are ~ ead iefly situated on the u of the bod orifices are placed at intervals. As Monro did not observe any appearance of extravasation in the cellular substance, he considered that these orifi- ces were the natural beginnings of the lymphatic veins. air, and mucous ducts. . 1. Liver. This organ in fishes, is remarkable on ac- count of its size in ion to the rest of the body. It commonly lies fmt wholly on the left side. Its colour exhibits various shades of brown frequently mix- 677 ed with yellow. It is entire in some fishes, as the lam- prey, flounder, and salmon; or divided into two or more lobes, as in the perch and carp. These varieties of form are constant in all the individuals of the same species, but frequently differ somewhat in the species of the same genus. The gall bladder is present in the greater number of fishes; but in sa a as the lamprey, its presence has not been d . The dile varies tly in co- lour according to the species. In the thornback and salmon it'is yellowish white, and, when evaporated, leaves a matter which has a very sweet and slightly acrid taste, containing no resin. The bile of the and eel is very green and very bitter, contains little or no albumen, but yields soda, resin, and a sweet acrid matter similar to that which may be obtained from sal- mon bile. The biliary ducts open separately into the intestine. The liver to be the only organ of the body of fishes which contains oil in abundance, or is sought after.on that account. This oil is lodged in cells, and cannot be completely obtained by the boiling of the li- ver. To accomplish the extraction of the whole oil, fishermen in general allow the livers to putrefy a little, and in this manner the cells are ruptured, and a greater quantity of oil obtained. But tinous matter and bile are likewise among the ucts, and as these af= terwards pu they communicate a fcetid smell to the oil. This i ble smell is common to all kinds of fish oi] thus prepared ; but it may be removed b various processes. Perhaps the best are those whi were communicated to the Society for the encourage- ment of arts, manufactures, and commerce in the year 1761, and published in the twentieth volume of their Transactions, to which we refer the reader. The liver of the cod, cut into small pieces, boiled in the stomach of the same animal, and eaten with vinegar and pepper, is a favourite dish in the northern islands of Scotland. 2. Pancreas. creas resembling that in the higher classes of animals, of an irregular form, and placed at the origin of the. intestines. The substance appears compact, but gela- - tinous when cut. In the osseous fishes. the intestinula coca already described, ap to serve instead of a pancreas, They send two canals into the intes« tines ; and when these are wanting, as is the case in the carp, the walls of the intestines discharge abun- dance of humour from glands placed upon their inner surface. In the sturgeon, an organ is found, in its in« ternal structure similar to these intestinula ; but in its outward form resembling the pancreas of the skate. It is inclosed in a muscle, evidently intended to pas, its contents. It into the intestine by three large orifices, and has internally a singular reticular appear- ance, as exhibited by Monro in the work on fishes so often referred to, 84. tab. ix. Structure and Functions of Fishes. —_—— In the chondropterygii, there is a pan- Pancreas, 8. Spleen. This organ varies greatly in its form and Spleen, position in the animals of this class. In some it is nearly triangular, while in others it approaches to a sphe~ rical . It is in general entire ; in some instances, however, it is divided into lobes, which adhere by very slender filaments. In the sturgeon, these lobes are se« ven in number. It is placed in some species on the stomach, or to the first part of the intestines ; in others between the stomach and liver; and in a great number it is under the air bag, and above the other bowels. It is always of a darker colour than the liver. 4. Kidneys. It was the others, that fishes were destitute of kidneys and the inion of Rondeletius and Kidneys. Structure and Functions of Fishes. —\ , Air-hag, 678 bladder of urine; but the observations of Willoughby and others have demonstrated their existence. The kidneys of fishes are uniform in their substance, and of a reddish brown colour. They are in general long and narrow, and apparently, united into ene mass, The peritoneum covers their under surface, and they are placed longitudinally under the spine, The ure- ters begin by numerous roots, and run along the under surface of the kidney. They terminate either in a ve- sica urinaria, or a cloaca; or unite together to forma dilation, which supplies the place ofa bladder of urine. In the chondropterygii, the ureters terminate in the cloaca, but,in the other cartilaginous fishes the bladder of urine is present, although very small and thin in its coats. The urethra in most fishes is short; and com- monly opens behind the anus by an orifice which also gives issue to the sexual evacuations. Renal glands are wanting in this class. 5. Air-bag. This organ is called by some the swim- ming bladder, by others the air bladder. It is the ves sica natatoria of Willoughby, and the vesica aerea of Artedi. In this country it is called the sound. When present, it is situated in the anterior part»of the abdo« minal eavity, and adheres to the spine. It is wanting in the chondropterygii, and even in some of the osseous fishes, as the flounder and mackrel. - It is very different in shape according to the species. In the herring and some other fishes it is oblong and pointed at both ends. In the salmon it is obtuse at both ends. In the burbot it is obtuse.in the lower end, and bifid at its superior extremity. In the carp: it. is divided transversely, and in the silurus longitudinally, into two lobes. In general there is a duct (ductus pneumaticus), by means of which this air bag communicates with the esophagus, or the stomach. In the sturgeon there is a round hole, nearly one inch in diameter, in the upper and back part of the stomach, communicating with the air bag. The hole is surrounded. by thin muscular fi- bres placed between the membranes of the stomach and air bag, which decussate at opposite sides of the hole. These are considered by Monro as having the effect of a sphincter muscle. In the salmon, the last quoted aus thor found a hole so large as to admit readily the largest sized goose quill, leading directly through the coats of the cesophagus into the air bag. The cesophagus in this fish has a thick muscular: coat, but the fibres of that coat do not seem to form a distinct sphincter around the hole. In other fishes the duct: of commus nication is of considerable length. In the common her- ring the under part of the stomach has the shape of a funnel ; and from the bottom of the funnel.a small duct is produced, which runs between the two milts, or the two roes, to its termination in the middle of the air bag. In some fishes, as the cod and. haddock, Monro: could not perceive any ductus pneumaticus, or opening into any of the abdominal viscera. The air bag was. not enlarged by blowing into the alimentary canal, nur could he empty the air bag: without bursting it. In the air bag of the cod and haddock, the same acute observer examined the red coloured organ noticed by Willoughby, and considered by him as a muscle, the ssurface-of which is very extensive, as it is composed of avast number of leaves or membranes doubled. In those fishes, however, in which the air bag communi- cates with the alimentary canal, this red body is either very small and simple in its structure, as in the conger eel, or entirely wanting, as in the sturgeon, salmon, herring, and carp. : ICHTHYOLOGY. Naturalists, in general, are disposed to regard the s air bag as accessory to the organs of motion. Having observed that flat fish, which reside always at the bot- tom, are in general destitute of this organ, they have assi, to it the office of accommodating the specific gravity of fishes to the density of the surrounding ele- ment, and thus enabling them to suspend. themselves at any depth. A very simple experiment has likewise countenanced the opinion, When the air bag of a fish is punctured, the animal immediately falls to the bot- tom, nor is it able, by any exertion of its fins, to elevate itself again. When in a sound state, the external skin of the air bag (regarded as possessing strong muscular power) is sup capable of contraction, so as to condense the air, and enable the animal to sink, or of extension, so as to allow the air to expand, and aid the animal in rising in the water. The air bag of none tows omnes its muscular wer, In consequence air being expanded by po action of he sun, when the fish oe remained. on long at the surface, In this situation the fish continues at. the surface. When some fish are suddenly brought up from deep water, the diminished pressure occasions the expansion of the air contained.in the bag. The or- gan sometimes bursts in such cases, and the contents, rushing into the abdomen, push the gullet sometimes out of the mouth of the fish, We have witnessed this effect produced in the cod fish, The above theory fails in explaining all the pheno- mena. The eel, which resides always at the bottom, is yet possessed of an air bag; while the sharks, which . ream about in all depths, and the mackrel, which pur- sues its prey at the surface, are destitute of this re« puted organ of equilibrium, Various opinions haye been advanced with regard to the manner in which this air bag is filled. By some it has, been supposed, that. a portion. of the air, which fishes are capable of abstracting from the water, is transmitted through the gullet and stomach. into the air bag when necessary, and expelled and renewed at the pleasure of the animal. Needham long ago considered that the air, or, as he termed it, a vaporous exhalation contained in the air bag, was ated in the blood, secreted into this organ, to be wards thrown into the stomach or intestines, to:promote the, digestion, ef the food. ’ The nature of hase aren the air-bag, was never investigated until pneumatic chemistry had opens ed up new fields‘of discovery. In 1774, Dr:Priestley turned his attention for a short time to the subject; and in the air-bag of the roach he found azote in one instance unmixed, and in another in company with oxy- gen. Fourcroy afterwards examined the gaseous con- tents of the air-bag of the carp, and found them to consist of almost: pure azote. The most accurate and extended experiments on this subject are those of M. Biot, published in the Mem. d’ Arcueil, i. 252..and ii..8.. He found the proportion between the oxygen and the azote (for. he was unable to detect the presence of hydrogen, or any sensible quantity of carbanic aad) to vary according to the spe- cies, as may be seen in the following table. Proportion of Oxygen. . . » quantity insensible. Names of the Fish. Mugil cephalus....... DE eee Sen +. « ditto. Murenophis helena ........ very little. Sparus annularis, female .... . 0.09 . Ditto, male... .. + . 0.08- - ang of Fishe = : ICHTHYOLOGY. 679 —"w Names of the Pish. Ae ‘Proportion of Oxygen. on cooling. a is much used in various manu- > a Sparus sar et tate 0.09 factures, and might be obtained in considerable quan- , *"4 we Ditto, aa A 0.20 tity at all the fishing stations in this country daha a jo Holocentrus marinus ........ 0.12 the materials abound, but which are at present left as —— Labrus turdus ............ 0.16 a nuisance on the adjoining beach. r ‘ melanurus .......... 0.20 6. Mucous Ducts. surface of the skin of yfucoys Labrus turdus var. Sr. TOs fishes is almost always covered with a slimy fluid, to ducts, Sciena nigra, female ..... « . 0.27 them from the penetrating influence of the males." 3% + 2 O25 surrounding element. This mucus is poured out from Labras turdus, female ... 2... 0.24 small pores, situated under the scales in every part of male ,.. . 0.28 - the body of some fishes, while in others these excretory ~ “pio ie > Se he 9 a Age et on -% »rials are boiled in water, Sparus dentex, female ....... 0.40 Sphyrana spet(Esox sphyrena, Lin.) 0.44 argenteus ..... ast OB “eee we wee Trigla | aie ee tS eel? OB The depth at which the fishes had been caught in- creases from the beginning to the end of the table, and the ion of oxygen observes the samerule. This last eo induced — and hisfriend De Laroche to endeavour to ascertain the proportion of oxygen con- tained in sea water at different depths. oy aie un- able to perceive any difference. M.Configliachi has more lately repeated these experiments, and found that ion of oxygen in sea water bore no relation from which the water had been obtained. These experiments lead to the conclusion, that the air contained in this sac is a secretion of the organ ; that in fishes which live near the surface azote is se- creted ; but in fishes which live at great depths, the to explained in a sati manner. The red or- gan which we have already taken notice of as existing in some fishes, is now generally considered as the part ‘which separates this air from the blood. But as this organ is not always tt when there is an air-bag, sho — left in meg tae dai su ~ vl ° systematic i ist, characters nished by the air-bag ade of Conaideable i ce, seldom sufficiently attended to. are “easily traced, and they are not subject to variation. To the economist, the air-bag or sound is considered as an article of value. ‘This organ in the cod or ling, when salted, forms a nourishing and i Mp sae et i pa oy er pt mt dna islands ? t it is chiefly inthe manufacture of the Gada called ee ne the a a of fishes are ee soun va- tious kinds of sturgeon are chiefly made use of for this The external membrane is removed, and the is cut lengthwise, and formed into rolls, and then in the open air. The sounds of cod and ting are frequently employed as a substitute for those of the sturgeon. They require some dexterity to them the back-bone. But when the are well scraped on both sides, fora few minutes in lime water to absorb the oil, and then washed in clean water and dried, they form an isinglass nA nee 2 re . i consists entirely of gelatine, and is Be ys rendre eet rent i rare liquors, 500 grains of it yielded to Hatchet by incineration 1.5 grains of of soda, mixed with a little eee of lime. An inferior kind is manufactured from the bones, fins, and useless of fishes. ‘These mate- fluid skimmed and filtered, and afterwards concentrated, until it readily gelatinizes uantity of oxygen is ionally increased. The an es remaining ~backw ducts are arranged in a determinate order. These ducts were first observed and described by Steno, in his works, “ De Musculis et Glandulis, p. 42. and Elementorum Myologie Specimen, 1669, 8vo. p. 72. The subject was afterwards investigated by Perrault, Lorenzini, and Revinus, and more recently by Monro. To this last author we are indebted for many excellent observations and sketches, ‘In the skate,”’ (he says, Struct. and Phys. p.21.) “ numerous orifices, placed pretty regularly over the surface, have been observed by Steno to discharge this slimy matter. With respect to these last, I have remarked some memorable circumstan~ ces. First, I have discovered one very elegant serpen- tine canal between the skin and muscles, at the sides of the five apertures into the gills. Farther forwards it surrounds the nostrils; then,yit passes from the under to the Dw so of the upper jaw, ‘where it runs sas far as the eyes. From the princi of this duct, in the under side or belly of the fish, there are not above six or eight outlets; but from the upper part near the eyes there are upwards of thirty small ducts sent off, which open upon the surface of the skin. The liquor dischar, from these has nearly the same d of viscidity as the synovia in man. But besides she very picturesque duct I have been de- scribing, I have remarked on each side of the fish, a little farther forwards than the five breathing holes, a central part from which a prodigious number of ducts issues, to terminate on almost the whole surface of the skin, excepting only the snout or upper jaw. At. these centres all the ducts are shut; and in their, course they have no communication with each other. In these two central parts, or on the beginning of the mucous ducts, a pair of nerves nearly as large as the optic, terminate ; and, which is a curious circumstance with respect to them, they are white and opake in their course, between the brain and their ducts; but when they divide, they become suddenly so pellucid, that it is impossible to trace them farther, or to distinguish them from the coats of the ducts.” In the osseous fishes, the openin ducts are chiefly observable in the fore part of the head, and in the /aeral line. This line extends from the head to the tail, along each side of the fish, and exhibits several striking peculiarities. It is not ob-« servable in the lampry; in general it is single, but in the sandeel it has the appearance of being double. It is usually of a different colour from that of the sides, ‘and varies according to the species in position and di- — rection. After death it sometimes. disappears, and hence some difficulties have arisen’with regard to the discriminating marks which it furnishes. The mucus which is poured out upon the skin by these ducts, in some cases 2 to be the liquid known by chemists under that name, while in other instances it a) to be of the nature of albumen. ‘Chemists, however, have not turned their attention to the subject. of the mucous Lateral line. 680 ICHTHYOLOGY. Stracture Besides this liquid, secreted on the external surface Fourcroy and Vauquelin. In all these examples, how- P snd of the body, many physiologists have detected liquors ever, the seminal fluid was mixed with the substance of smctons in the cavity of the brain, the pericardium, and the ab- the testes, of Fishes, ‘=~’ domen, which we may take notice of in this place. Dr Organs of | reproduc- tion, Sexes dis- Monro found the liquor surrounding the brain of a skate to be of a saltish taste; and his friend Dr Ru- therford found that it contained one sixty-fifth part of its weight of sea salt dissolved in it. The liquor in the cavity of the abdomen contained only oné seventy~ eighth part. Sect. XT. Organs of Reproduction. Tue reproduction of fishes is a subject involved in great obscurity. The element in which they reside conceals from us the actions which they perform, and hence we are unable to point out with certainty. the uses of the different organs, or the functions which they exercise. Even in the days of Aristotle the difference in the mode of reproduction between the cartilaginous and the osseous fishes had been observed ; and although many accurate observations have been made by modern zootomists, much still remains to be done both in the field of observation and dissection. In the general view which we propose to give of this subject, fishes may be divided into two classes, distin- guished by their reproductive ergans. Thus, some have the sexes distinct, while in others they are united. Those with the sexes distinct may be subdivided into the oviparous and. the false viviparous, or ovovivipa- rous. 1. Oviparous fishes, with the sexes distinct. The fishes tinct, Ovi- included under this division are by far the most nume- parous. rous, They have all free branchie. Some of them possess a cartilaginous skeleton, while others belong to the division termed osseous. In all, the egg is impreg- nated externally, and arrives at maturity without the aid of the mother, In the males of this division, the testes, known by the name of milts, are two in number, of a white colour, and lengthened form. The surface is usually irregular- ly tuberculated. They are situated on each side of the ‘abdomen, and consist of glandulous sacs destined for the préparation of the impregnating fluid. Through the middle of each milt-there passes a duetus deferens, uniting with each-other at the posterior part of the ab- domen, and forming a kind.of vesieula seminalis, The external opening for the issue of the semen is in some in the cloaca, while in others there is a small orifice si- tuated behind the anus, which gives vent to the sexual evacuations, : In ‘some of the oviparous abdominal fishes, there are two cartilaginous fins situated between the ventral fins, and supposed by La Cepede to be:the external openings of the sexual organs, They are termed by him Appen- dices genitals. In the females of this division, the ovary, usually termed the roe, is double in the greater number of fishes, but in a few it appears to be single. It occupies near« ly the same position as the milt in the males. It con« sists of a thin delicate membrane inclosing the ova. These are generally disposed in transverse layers, con- nected by means of blood vessels. There is no distinct oviduct. The external openings are similar to those in the male. Previous to the deposition or ejection of the roe or eggs by the female, a union has been formed with a male. But this connection is merely temporary, and is. dissolved immediately after the impregnation of the egg has taken place. In the Cyclopterus lumpus, how- ever, it is stated that this connection is of longer dura« tion, that they continue to watch over the eggs with ten-« der solicitude, and defend them from the rapacity of other fishes. The pleasure derived from the belief in this singular example of parental care, is in a measure destroyed by the hint which has been thrown out, that they defend the eggs from the attack of other fishes, that they may appropriate them as. a feast to: themselves. The ova are first deposited by the female, and then the male pours upon them the impregnating semen. In many instances, they form a hole in the sand, by their mutual assistance,. and place therein the roe; in other instances, the roe is deposited in the crevices of rocks, or on sea weeds or aquatic plants. But it would-be endless to detail the various ways (even were we better ac quainted with them than we profess to be) in which fishes perform this curious function of their nature. The eggs of fishes are very various with r te colour, but agree in being of a spherical form. The integument is more or less firm according to the species. The yolk, instead of occupying the centre, as in the eggs. of birds, is placed laterally, and is surrounded b the glaire or albuminous matter. Between. the yo and the glaire, is situated the germ or embyro. The germ becomes ready for exclusion at very different pe« riods, according to rls paiar Thus the egg of the is.said to be perf in the course of three weeks, while that of the salmon requires as many months, But in the eggs of the same secon: a great deal ior on the temperature to which they are d. Inthe same pond, those eggs are soonest hatched which have been deposited.in the shallowest water. As the embryo is developed, the heart first appears, afterwards the spine, eyes, and tail. The organs of motion are evolved in the following order. The pectoral fins first make their appearance, and afterwards those of the tail; the dorsal Pas follow, and then the ventral and anal fins. 2. Ovoviviparous fishes, with the sexes distinct. In Sexes dis- this division are included the chondropterygii, and like- tinet. Ove wise a. few. osseous fishes. Sexual intercourse takes “/P™S We possess few accurate experiments on the chemi- cal composition of the seminal fluid of fishes. Fourcroy published in the Annales.de Chim. vol. lxiv. p. 3. some experiments on the milt of the carp. It was neither acid nor alkaline. It appears to consist of albumen, gelatine, phosphorus, phosphat of lime, phosphat of magnesia, and muriat of ammonia. More recently, Dr John subjected the milt of a tench to a chemical analy- sis, and obtained the following ingredients: water, in- soluble albumen, gelatine, phosphat of ammonia, phos- phat of lime, phosphat of magnesia, and alkaline phos- phat. He could not detect the presence of any phos« phorus, which had been given as a constituent. by 1. * stomach and intestines. place, and the eggs are hatched in the uterus, and ex- cluded along with the fry. In the males of this-division, at least in those of the ehoridropterygii, the testes are two in number, flat, of great extent, and situated between the spine and the Each is divided into two por tions; the first resembles the soft milt of oviparous fishes, and the second consists of small spherical glan< dular bodies. From these an epididymis is produced, chiefly composed of convoluted tubes, which terminate - ee eg A Be rem eT and in a vas deferens; the underpart of which is greatly di- aod _ lated, and forms, as in birds, a considerable receptacle, or vesicula seminalis, Contiguous to the outer side of the dilated end of the vas deferens, there is a bag of considerable size, filled with a iquor, which is i into the same with the semen, and y at the same time with it. By some, this is considered as a vesicula seminalis, while by others it is ee ee the place of a te gland. funnel throngh which hc senna aati peated, aT ree n are cer- tain organs situated near the anus, ceiatings of bone, cartilage, and muscles. These were long regarded as the external otgans of reproduction. But Rondeletius was of opinion that these were only accessory organs, the males to retain the females more close- ly during coition. The celebrated ichthyologist Bloch, dissections, arrived at the same conclusion. tagu has observed some peculiari- ties in the sexes of the skate, which deserve to be no- ticed. These are enumerated in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society, vol. ii. p. 414. After ing of the at the base of the tail, he says, “ Accom i is truly masculine distinc- tion, are series of reclined hooked spines, never to be found on the other sex, and which begin to shew themselves early in all the species hitherto examined ; these are placed in four distinct series, one on each shoulder or fore-part of the wing, or pectoral fin, and calb Ut the wing: These spines are com- plete hooks resembling those used for fishing, and lie with their points reclined inwards in two or three, and sometimes four parallel lines, but the number of rows, me Lace artery Sg roa a for in very young specimens, I have noticed only four or five —_ in a single row. For what — this formi- armoury is given exclusively to the males, is not known, but as the hooks are extremely s , and lie partly concealed, with their points a trifle reflected, the fixed on as a specific character ; and as it does not ap- generally known that it is only a sexu: | istinction, it has been thought proper to notice it for the advantage of others who may be pursuing the same track. There is another circumstance, which perhaps, in the discrimination of species, requires more attention percep Raps is, oot oberon sexes of each species. necessity is is icularly evinced by the great difference octets tie teeth of the two sexes of the thornback, Raia clavata. «In search of both sexes of this species, I was natu- rally led by the usually described essential character of the teeth being blunt, and I was not a little surprised when, amongst several hundreds examined, not one male could be found ; but I noticed a ray, not unfre- quently taken with the thornback, that was in every other respect similar, except that the wings were gene- rally not so rough, and sometimes quite smooth about the middle. A variety also of this fish had an oblong dusky spot, surrounded with white, in the middle of each wing. The teeth of these fishes were not above half the size of those of the female thornback, and, ex- a few of the outer series on the lips, were sharp- ted. For a long time I was puzzled to discover to what species of Raia these belonged, till, after an exa- VOL. Xi. PART 11. ICHTHYOLOGY. ~ tincti: ion 681 mination of a great number, I began to be as much surprised at not finding a female amongst such a quan- tity of these, as I was at not finding a male amongst those with blunt teeth. These circumstances naturally induced me to conclude, that the sexes of clavata had not been accurately defined, and that the leading cha- racter of blunt teeth might have been drawn from the female only, The fishermen had not noticed the dis- the teeth in these fishes, and had considered all of them to be thornbacks. After much attention to the subject, and after having offered a premium for a male thornback with blunt teeth, an intelligent fish- erman assured me, he had examined a vast number since I pointed out the distinction of the teeth, and that he could not find one instance of a male with blunt teeth, nor a female with sharp teeth. It may therefore be fairly inferred, that the sexes of the thornback ac- tually differ in this particular, and that the male has Saas been described as a different species, but un er what title it is difficult to ascertain, unless it be Raja fullonica of some authors.” he male organs of the sharks and rays are such as we have now described ; but few accurate observations have been made on the male organs of those ovoviviparous fishes, which belong to the branchiostegous and osseous tribes, such as the syngnathus, blennius, and murzna. In the females of the sharks and rays, the ovaria, two in number,‘are situated at the sides of the spine, and contain ova of different sizes. From each of these proceeds an oviduct, the anterior extremities of which are united to the diaphragm and spine. Internally, these ducts are covered with glandular papille, and pass through a large glandular body. After passing this eg (come dilate into a large sac, which is the uterus. en the ova pass into the oviduct, they are carried to this glandular body, which is supposed to secrete the giaire or albuminous and afterwards conveyed to the uterus, where they receive the shell. At what pe- riod the egg becomes impregnated, or in what manner the operation is performed, are questions to which no satisfactory answers can be returned. The eggs are of a quadrangular form, with processes at the four corners. By some they are called sea-mice, but by our fishermen they are known by the name of skate or shark-purses. The shell has a: horny consist- Structure and Functions of Fishes. —_—o_ ence, and may often be observed, at certain seasons, ~ among the rejectamenta of the sea. When the young fish have been perfected in the ute- rus, where they derive: their nourishment exclusively from the egg, and not from the mother, they are eject- ed through the openings of each uterus, at the sides of the cloaca ; and upon escaping from the shell, enjoy immediately an ind dent existence, and begin to search after new nourishment. 3, Oviparous fishes which are hermaphrodite. In- stances of hermaphroditism among fishes, were for a long jod considered rare, and always as accidental. Bas- ter detected such an arrangement in the whiting, and Duhamel observed the same in;the carp. But it was re- gerved for that able anatomist, Sir Everard Home, to point out a particular tribe of fishes in which the organs of both sexes are-always present in the same individual. Having been unsuccessful in obtaining any male lam- prys, although he got what were considered as females in abundance, Sir Everard began to suspect that the _individuals of the species were hermaphrodites, and his observation on these fish at different periods justi« fied his conjectures, ' } 4n Herma- phrodites, Structure and Functions of Fishes. Castration. Hybrid fishes. 682 «J found, (says he, Phil. Trans. A.D. 1815, Part I. p. 266), upon examination, that the two glandular bo- dies projecting into the belly, one on each side of the ovarium, which have always been supposed to be the kidneys, varied very much in size and appearance at the beginning and end of the season. hen the ova are so small that the animal is. reputed to be a male, these glandular bodies, and the black substance upon which they lie, appear to form one mass, and the duct upon the anterior is thin and almost transparent, con~ taining a fluid equally so; but in the end of May, when the ova increase in size, these glandular bodies become larger, more turgid, and have a distinct line of separa- tion between them and the black substance behind ; their structure is more developed, being evidently composed of tubuli running in a transverse direction, and the ducts leading from them are thicker in their coats, and Jarger in size. «© On the 5th of June, the ova were found to be of the full size ; and a small transparent speck, not before to be observed, was seen in each; at this time the tu- bular structure had an increased breadth, and the duct going from it contained a ropy fluid, which, when exa- mined in the field of the microscope, was found to be composed of small globules in a transparent fluid. On the 9th of June, neither the ova nor the tubular struc- ture had undergone any change. On the 11th of June, the ova were of the same size, but the slightest force detached them from the ovarium ; the tubular struc- ture had increased still more in size, the fluid in the ducts was thicker, more ropy, and when water was ad- ded to it in the field of the microscope, it coagulated, and what was before made up of globules, had now the appearance of flakes. The ova do not pass out at an excretory duct as in fishes, but drop from the cells in the ovarium in which they were formed, into the cavi- ty of the abdomen, and escape by two small apertures at the lower part of that cavity, into a tube common to them and to the semen in which they are impregnated.” In the lampern or pride, and in the gastrobranchus coe- cus, a similar structure is observable.” Although these observations leave little room to doubt that the animals in question are hermaphrodites, still it remains to be determined at what precise period, or in what position, the eggs are impregnated. Although the sexual organs of fishes had been long known, it was not until the middle of the 18th cen- tury that any experiments were performed to ascertain the effect of their abstraction. Tully appears to have been the on pn who performed the operation, and an account of his experiments has been published in the Gent. Mag. vol. xxv. p. 416, and in Phil. Trans. vol. xlviii. hen the abdomen of the fish is laid open, and the milt or roe carefully separated, and the wound sewed up again, the fish appears to experience but lit- tle pain, and the wound heals in a few weeks. These experiments have frequently been performed on the carp, and they are attended with little risk. The fish grows toa larger size, and its flesh is said to have a more delicate flavour. But castration has never come into general use among the proprietors of fish ponds, being seldom cetoned but from motives of curiosity or seience. We have already stated, that the impregnation of the takes place without the body of the female, and the experiments which have been conducted to esta- blish this point, have likewise made us acquainted with the existence of hybrid fishes. Even in a common fish pond, where carp and trout are permitted to live in ICHTHYOLOGY. company, the carp sometimes impregnates the of the trout, or the trout those of the carp. The limits, however, within which this irregularity is confined, pire have never been investigated with care. Fishes exhibit very remarkable differences in regard to the number of eggs which they produce. The rays and sharks seem to prepare but a very limited number. Rondeletius states the number in the Squalus acanthias at six ; other observers have found in other ies 26 and even 30. But the number of eggs in other kinds of oviparous fish, exceeds almost our powers of rec- koning. The following Table (Phil. Trans. 1767), may convey to the general reader some idea of their prolific powers. ; , : Weight of |Number of Fish. Weight. sins an Season. Oz. Dr.| Grains. Carp .... (25 51] 2571 | 203109 jApril 4. Cod-fish ...]| 0 0O| 12540 |3686760 |Dec. 23, Flounder .. |24 4 | 2200 |1357400. |March 14, Herring ...}| 5 10 480 36960 |October 25. Mackrel ,.. |18 O| 12233 | 546681 \June 18, Perch 2.65.18, 9 765 28823 |April 5. Pike.....|56 4] 51003 | 49304 |—— 25, Roach .... {10 63! 361 | 81586 |May 2. Smelt ....}|2 0] 1493] $8278 |March 21. Sole ..... 14 8 5421 | 100362 |June 13. Tench ....|40 0 — 383252 |May 28, It appears evident, from this Table, that there is no regular proportion between the weight of the fish and the weight or number of eggs produced. Nor is there any estimated proportion between the number of eggs deposited, and the number of fish which arrive at ma« turity. The eggs are eagerly sought after by other fishes, by aquatic birds and reptiles. In the young state, they are pursued even by their own species, as well as by beings belonging to other classes. But for the numbers of eggs thus produced, the very race of fishes would soon be extinguished by enemies while young ; and we may add, that the diminution of the number of eggs would cut off a large supply of food, and destroy that dependence which we observe in the polity of nature, of the different races of animals on one another. Structure and Number 0 The season in which fish deposit their eggs varies according to the species, and even the habit of. the in- dividual. It is well known that among salmon, even in the same river, a difference of some months is ob« servable, and we believe that the same remark is ap< plicable to all other kinds of fish, In general, before spawning, fish forsake the deep water, and approach the shore, that the roe being placed in shallow wae ter, the influence of the solar rays may vivify it. At that season, some fish forsake the salt water, and as-« cend rivers, and after spawning, retreat again to the ocean. The eggs of various species of fish belonging to the oviparous order, with distinct sexes, are used as articles of food. Where circumstances permit, they are con« sumed while in a recent state. In other situations they are salted, and form the well-known article of trade caviar. she The characters which the organs of reproduction fur- nish, in the discrimination of species, have been hitherto 1 a . ICHTHYOLOGY. Secr. XII. Organs of Electricity. From the remotest periods, the benumbin ers of the have been the subject of L pt tae ration. In the days of Aristotle and Pliny, some of its curious properties were ascertained ; but it was not until the year 1772, that any accurate observations were made on the animal, conducted on scientific prin- Wn Welch, Esq. carnage ke ed of the ar which accom this action ani Nearly about the sae n Bo and in . furnished by Walsh, Mr Hun. peo ge Pape ame with pe the pearances of its electrical organs, and pointed out their relation to one another. Previous te ees observations of Walsh and Hunter, Borrelli, Lorenzini, and Reau- mur, had each of them examined the fish, and arrived conclusions. Since that time &5 Fe article, ion of the electricity which these organs ce saul edided come mew fists to thote which had J BE inh 3 g, lateral fins, as to be entirely the muscles, which are inserted , = the ~~ which the nerves have in acing phenomena, made an incision on pol. sper of the cranium and gills of a lively torpedo, undisturbed. This was performed in the morning, and when examined in the evening, it was impossible to 683 distinguish between the liveliness or activity of either. of other two of these animals, the nerves of the elec. trical organs of one of them were divided. Being pla- ced each in separate buckets of sea water, they were both irritated as nearly alike as possible. From the perfect animal, shocks were received ; after frequent re- petition, it became weak and incapable of discharging the shock, and soon died. The last shocks were not perceptible above the second joint of the thumb, and so weak as to require much attention to observe them. From the other, no shocks could be received ; it ap« peared as vivacious as before, and lived until the se- cond day. This experiment was frequently repeated with nearly the same results. The nerves of one elec. tric organ only being divided in a lively torpedo, from which shocks had been previously received, on irrita< ting the animal, it was still found capable of communi- eating the shock, Whether there was any difference in the degree of intensity could not be distinctly obser« ved. One electrical organ being al er removed, the animal still continued capable of discharging the electric shock, and the same circumstance took place when only one of the nerves of each electrical organ was divided. When a wire was introduced through the cra- nium of a torpedo, which had been communicating shocks very freely, all motion immediately ceased, an no irritation could excite the electrical shock. The shock is communicated through the same con« ductors as common electricity, arid intercepted by the same non-conductors. The sensation ah, commu« nicated to several persons at the same instant; and it is of no consequence whether the animal be insulated or not. The shock, however, is much stronger in air than in water; in summer than in winter ; when the animal is in vigour, than when im an exhausted state. The shocks generally follow simple contact or irritation ; but, in some instances, when caught by the hand, no shock is discharged until sisecar energy has been exerted in vain to extricate itself. This electrical discharge is in general accompanied an evident muscular action. There appears a swel« ling of the superior surface of the electrical organs, particularly towards the anterior part opposite to the cranium. The eyes also appear at the time somewhat retracted. If this action of the fish be too much ex cited, the animal becomes debilitated, and soon expires. Spallanzani, while prosecuting his experiments on this subject, ascertained, that the young fish as well as the old possessed this power; and, what appears still more surprizing, even those sti)l in the egg in the ute« rus were able to communicate a sensible shock. Besides the torpedo, there are other fish which pos- sess the same apparatus, and exhibit the same singular henomena. One of these, the gymnotus electricus, has se carefully examined by Hunter ; and the result of his observations, communicated in the 65th volume of the Phil. Trans. A third fish, the Silurus electricus, the same property ; and probably many more with which we are as yet unacquainted ; although to this list there can only be added at present the Trichturus Indicus and Tetraodon electricus. The use of this singular faculty has often been point- ed out both by ancient and modern naturalists. As an instrument of defence, the exercise of such a power will protect the fish from many of its foes ; and when used in the offensive, it will be equally formidable. Such animals may be able to benumb their smaller and defenceless prey, and employ their electrical energies in procuring food, Structure and Functions of Fishes. Structure and Functions of Fishes. Condition of fishes. Distribu- tion of fishes, Salt water fishes. 684 The characters furnished by the ous of electricity were for a long time overlooked, an ‘were not even permitted to constitute a generic distinction. The tor- pedo was long classed with the rays ; and in many sys- tems fishes with electrical organs, and such as are des- titute of them, still belong to the same genus. CHAP. IE. CONDITION oF FisuEs. Tue subjects which we propose to discuss in this Chapter are rather of a miscellaneous nature, and em- brace a variety of circumstances connected with the natural and economical history of fishes. _ We shall di- vide the whole into eight sections, and in these treat of the distribution, migrations, education, naturalization, dietetical uses, and diseases of fish ; and conclude with some observations on the geological data which they furnish, and the various methods which have been em-« ployed to. preserve them in a museum. Secr. I. Distribution of Fishes. We have already stated, that fishes naturally reside in the water ; but as this element is found te differ in its constitution and temperature according to its situa- tion, we may expect to find the finny tribes that dwell in it influenced by these circumstances, Ata very ear- ly period, the diversity in the distribution of fishes at- ‘tracted the attention of observers. Rondeletius at last attempted a division of this class of animals, from the different situations in-which they are found, into ma- rine, fluviatile, lake, and pond fish. It will be more suitable to our present purpose, to consider them as in- habitants of the sea or of fresh water. The salt-water fishes ave much more numetous than those which reside in fresh water, They can- not be distinguished from fresh water fishes by any peculiarity of structure, or external form. They are always found in the greatest numbers in tideways, and on those banks which are formed at the junce- tion of opposite currents. They in general resort to a certain kind of bottom, in which we may sup- pose they find a plentiful supply of food. Some are always found near rocky shores, while others prefer the sandy bays. Some are found only in the open ocean, and are termed pelagic ; others keep within a short dis. tance of the coast, and are termed liltoral. M. Risso, in the introduction to. his Ichthyologie de Nice, (8vo. Paris 1810, p. xiv.) has the following interesting noti- ces respecting the distribution of the fishes of the Me- diterranean, which we shall give in-his own words. “ Ces grandes profondeurs sont hérissées de rochers et ne sont fréquentées que par les Squales, les Balistes, les Chiméres, les Ziphias, les Gades; les Caranz, les Centronotes, les Lepidoléptres, les Frigles, les Cen- tropomes, les Holocenires, les Bodians, les Tetragonua res, les Pomatomes. A cent metres des profondeur, en avancant vers la terre, les fond de Ja mer est recou- vert de fange et de limon, séjour impur’ de Raies, des Lophies, des Cepoles, des Zees, des Pleuronectes, des Oligopodes, enfin de tous. les poissons a chair molle et baveuse. En continuant de s’élever 4 cent cinquante metres de profondeur, .a’ peu nifeste: les algues, les caulinies, les ulves, les confer. ves, les varecs, et les zoophytes qui tapissent ce séjour, y appellent les Ophidies, les Stromatées, les Murénes, pres, la végétation se ma- - ICHTHYOLOGY. les Uranoscopes, les Vives, les Scorpénes, les Peristea dions, les Labres, les Spares, les Lutjans, les les Murénophis, &c. vie rivage, ou les Syngnathes, les Centresques, les Blena nies, les Batrachoides, les Gobies, les Notoptéres font leur demure accoutomée. Enfin les belles plaines de a et de sable ou se nourrissent les Lépadogastéres, es Ammodyles, les Callionymes, les Lepidopes, les Gym. néetras, les Osméres, les Scombrésoces, les Argentines, les Atherines, les Stolephores, les Mugil, les Clupées, et les Serpes.” These different depths at which fishes reside in the sea, may be regulated by the presence of suitable food. in those places. When fishes live at a great depth, the air-bag secretes more oxygen than when residing near the surface ; but this is a circumstance over which the fish perhaps can exercise controul; and although the pressure upon the body must increase with the depth in the water, we are ignorant of the effect produced on the sensations of the animal by the change. Even many pelagic fish become littoral during the breeding season, and the littoral fish retreat to the deep on the approach: of a storm. The fresh-water fishes are not so important, in an- Fresh wae economical point of view, as those which inhabit the ter fishes. ; ocean. Some species frequent rivers, and seem to re- quire, for the preservation of their health, a continued. current of water. Others live in lakes, and seem con- tented to spend their days where the water is still, Like salt-water fishes, they appear to prefer particular altitudes; and in ascending mountains, we may ob- serve that the fish in the lakes and rivers have their boundaries, as well as the vegetables which cover their surface. Thus Wahlenberg found, that the pike and perch disappeared from the rivers of the Lapland Alps along with the spruce fir, and when 3200 feet below the line of perpetual snow. Ascending 200 feet higher, the gwiniad and the grayling are no longer to be found in the lakes. Higher up still, or about 2000 feet below the line of perpetual snow, the char disappears; and ‘ beyond this boundary all fishing ceases, - When a salt water fish is put into fresh water, its mo- tions speedily become irregular, its respiration appears to be affected, and unless released is tion dies. The same consequences follow when a fresh water fish is suddenly immersed in salt water. In what manner they are influenced by the change, has never been sa« tisfactorily determined. There are not a few fish which may be said to be ama phibious, or capable of living either in fresh or salt water at pleasure. Such fish, inan economical point of view, are extremely valuable, as they furnish to the inhabitants of this and other countries an immense sup ply of food, The salmon may be given as an instance in this country, where, from one river, (Tay) 50,000 head of full sized fish have been obtained. ‘To the Greenlanders, their Angmarset, or Salmo arcticus, is perhaps more valuable, as it is formed into bread, as well as consumed in a fresh or salted state. All these fishes seem to reside chiefly in the sea. | There they grow and fatten; but when the time of spawning approaches, they forsake the salt water, and return to rivers and lakes. But this desertion of the ocean is only temporary, and regulated by the circum. stances connected with reproduction. The instant the spawning is finished, they repair with equal rapidity to the ocean, to repair their exhausted strength, and fit them for obeying again the laws of their existence. Some of these fishes appear to be capable of living exe Condition of Fishes, jennent ensuite les rochers dy ““"Y"™ ——, -_™ clusively of Fishes. yer, ICHTHYOLOGY. in fresh water, when confined in a lake or ri« e are informed in the statistical account of the of Lismore, when ing of the fresh water distinction ectly clear to this day. They retain their shining silver scales, have no com- the yellow trouts.” circumstance of some fish being capable of living either in fresh or salt water, has the idea of ing to modify the constitution of salt water so as to enable them to subsist in fresh water. change is attem to be uced in young degrees, and rans spent experiment ma successful, especially with those fish that reside the sea shore. But in the case of fishes live in , a change not only in the re- ear 4 organs must be produced, but likewise in es as they must subsist on a new kind e such experiments as curious, but bring ourselves to believe, that they will et quid quaeque t few accurate observations on the i ion of fishes, with to ture. Living in an element subj "to late ee her wt the change of the seasons, like sea-weeds, have an extensive range of latitude as well as longitude ery species with to latitude. Thus the fresh water fishes of are much more numerous than those in Scot- In the sea at the south of England, the pilchard is found in abundance, while it is rare in Scotland. In the seas in the north of Scotland, the tusk (Gadus brome) abounds, in the south of Scotland it is very rare, and in land it is unknown. hes living in the northern seas, or in ine lakes, seem to cold water, there are fish which ee een oeees Se waters of tepid informs us that Desfontaines found the Sparus De ontaines in the warm waters of the two fountains whi apy the town of Cassa in the king- dom of Tunis. waters raised Reaumur’s thermo. meter 30° above the freezing point, or about 100° of Fah- renheit. The waters contained no mineral im tions, and when cooled, were used by the inhabitants, En Secr. II. Migration of Fishes. Tose fishes which enter rivers for the purpose of spawning, perform their migrations muti » but do not appear at any very precise period. Their motions appear to be regu by the condition of their gene- rative organs, and these are in their turn controuled by the temperature of the water in which the fishes remain, or the supply of food. In rivers where salmon spawn, it is observed that these fish continue entering the river for the space of seven or eight months. Those marine fishes, such as the herring, pilchard, and many others which leave the deep water, and approach the shores 685 for the with P pest Besides these movements, which depend on the ge- nerative impulse, many marine fishes appear to mi- grate from one shore to another, influenced by laws which have never been satisfactorily explained. © Thus haddocks have been known to visit a coast for many years in succession, and then suddenly to disappear, and at the same time all those predaceous fish which fed upon purposes of spawning, are equally ir respect to their periods of appearing and disap- them. Per! these movements may depend upon the supply of food, and be regulated by circumstances over which we can exercise no controul. Accurate observa- tions, however, would probably ascertain the limits of these migrations, and enable us to derive advantage from motions which at present we regard as calami- tous, In the summer season, all the fresh water fish are ac- tive and lively ; but during the winter, many species bury themselves in the mud, and, in a state of quies- cence similar to natural sleep, outlive the vicissitudes of that variable season. While active they require a copi- ous supply of food; but in this state of hybernation they continue fasting, and without inconvenience. Sect. III, Education of Fishes. Tue element in which fishes reside, removes them so far from our sibdence and observation, that it is diffi- cult to estimate the amount, or the qualities of the im- material principle which they possess. We witness them fly From ger, obey the impulse of appetite, and provide a suitable place for the eggs of their future off- spring. These, however, are in general regarded as e lowest marks of mind, or as mere blind instinctive motions. Fishes, we have seen, possess in a greater or less de- gree of perfection all those external senses, by means of which the other animals acquire a knowledge of ex- ternal objects. Hence we find that they speedily be- come acquainted with the hand that feeds them, and know the face of a stranger. They may be taught to come to the edge of a pond when called by their usual name, or to assemble at the sound of a bell. Baster even informs us of a trout, which had been kept four- teen years and seven months, which would come and repose on the hand of its master while he removed the water of the vessel in which it was kept. That they possess some powers of deliberation, ap. pears evident from the artifices which they employ to eecape from the nets in which they have been inclosed, or from the hook which they have incautiously swallowed. Salmon have been known to lie close on the ground in some hollow place, to permit the net to pass over them, or by a sudden spring to leap out of the net. The fishing frog, or angler, as it is also called, (Lophius piscatorius,) has two long tentacula on the head, resembling in ap~ pearance small worms. Having buried its body in the sand, leaving only these tentacula exposed, it moves them backwards and forwards, until the eye of some young fish is attracted by the deceitful appearance, and falls a prey to its lurking foe. =~ With regard to their social instincts, fishes present very remarkable differences. Some are gregarious at all seasons, while others are solitary unless during the breeding season. The sexual union is merely tempo- rary, and no feelings of affection subsist between the parent and the offspring. Indeed the life ofa fish is one continued scene of suspicion and fear, no leisure being left for the improvement of its faculties. Hence we are Condition of Fishes. —— Education of fishes, 686 Condition disposed to rank fish as the lowest link of the chain of of Fishes. yertebral animals,—to regard the powersof their immate-~ rial principle, as casterouted by the dangers to which they are exposed, and as almost exclusively occupied in supplying the wants which are connected with the first laws of existence. Secr. IV. Naturalization of Fishes. In tracing the history of those attempts which have been made to subject this portion of the creation to our controul, we trace at the same time the progress of civili- zation and luxury. In Egypt, they had their sluices and their fish ponds in the days of Isaiah, (chap.xix. 10,) and from this early seat of the arts and sciences the Romans probably acquired theknowledge of rearing and feedin fish. During the more prosperous days of that refin people, almost every wealthy citizen had his fish ponds. In modern times, the Chinese bestow more attention on the cultivation of fish than perhaps any other nation. And in Europe, the importance of the subject has been duly appreciated by the Swedes, Prussians, and Ger- mans. In the latter countries, a considerable :part of the revenue from property is derived from the carp onds, ; Fresh water : In general, the rearing of fresh water fish in artificial fish. onds has hitherto beem chiefly attempted, few trials Toke been made to rear the salt water fish in confine- ment. In the construction of a pond for fresh water fish, care should be taken to have a regular supply of water free from mineral impregnations, to cover the deepest parts of the pond at least six feet. The more exten- sive the shallow ground at the sides is, especially if it be covered with marsh plants, so much more abundant is the supply of those minute animals, on which many fish chiefly subsist. Care should likewise be taken to introduce those small fish, which, by multiplying, may furnish a constant supply of food. When fish ponds are formed, it is in general the wish of the proprietor to have a certain number of his stock in good condition, that he may have a regular supply for his table. For the accomplishment of this object, there is usually one pond set apart for the purpose, into which are introduced those full grown fish which he wishes to feed. During the winter season little food is required, but along with the heat of spring, fishes acquire a keen appetite, and at that period a constant supply of food should be given them. They should be fed morning and evening at a stated time, and always at the same place in the pond. The food should consist of any kind of corn, boiled or steeped in water for some time until it swells. Malt is esteem- ed a very fattening food, and the crumbs of bread steep- edin ale; but peas are considered as little inferior to either. Pikes must have an abundant supply of eels, otherwise they require a long time to fatten. Some re- commend the laying of dead carrion upon stakes in the middle of the water, that it may breed maggots, which falling into the water, furnish an abundant supply of very acceptable food. In the construction and management of fish ponds, there are many circumstances of a local nature which it is impossible to specify. The methods employed to stock these ponds are at present more deserving of our attention. The first, and certainly the most obvious’ method, is to obtain living fish from similar situations. In catching these, the utmost care should be taken not * to bruise them, or to rub off their scales, and to keep them as short a time out of the water as possible. The vessels in which they are to be carried should be full of Naturali- zation of Ashes. ICHTHYOLOGY. water, as when the barrel is not entirely full, the fish Condition are liable to be driven by the currents against the lid of Fishes. or sides. This transportation should take place only in “~¥"" cold weather, and in the winter season, (as fishes can bear cold better than heat,) and should be performed with as much expedition as circumstances will permit. - The second method of stocking fish ponds, is in some respects preferable to the preceding, especially when the waters are at a distance from which the supply is to be obtained. This consists in ascertaining those places in which the spawn of the wished for species is deposited, and conveying the cage eggs toa similar situa« tion in the new ponds. In this manner a vast number of individuals may be obtained at once, and with t certainty of success, provided they are supplied du« ring the journey with fresh water, and but little agita- ted. The impregnated eggs may be known by a’small aperture, which may be detected on one side by means of a good microscope, and which is scarcely perceptible evious to impregnation. By means of this method, wever, a much longer period must elapse ere fish are obtained for the table than by the former, although this objection is in a great measure obviated, by o taining from the eggs a race of fish with constitutions accommodated to your waters. The last method, which has been rather absurdly termed artificial fecundation, we owe to the ingenuity of M. Jacobi, (Mem. del’ Acad. de Berlin. 1764, p. 55.) It is founded on a knowledge of the mode of repro« duction in oviparous fishes, and.in its turn serves to’ illustrate the function of generation in fishes. In those places where the fish are easily procured, a fe« male is obtained, whose roe is nearly ready for exclusion: and having prepared a proper box with water, the fish” is held by the head, with its tail downwards, and gen« tly squeezed on the belly. The eggs which are per-. fect, readily run out into the vessel. A male fish i is next obtained, and being held in a similar situation, the milt is poured upon the eggs. The eggs thus im.! pregnated are conveyed to a proper situation as in the second method, and protected from those enemies- which we have already enumerated. The advantages which result from the translation: and feeding of fishes have been felt and appreciated in’ other countries, but in our kingdom they have been: in a great measure overlooked. In Scotland and Ire« land, and we may likewise include England, there are multitudes of pends and lakes, which are at present mere useless wastes, but which, if properly stocked: with fish, would greatly contribute to the prosperity of the country, by furnishing an additional supply.of food. To our forefathers we owe the introduction of’ two useful species of fish into the country, namely,: the carp, which was translated (probably from France or Spain) into England about the year 1496, and the: pike, which was naturalized about the beginning of the fifteenth century. The gold and silver fishes of China have likewise been naturalized in England, as objects of beauty. We wish this catalogue had been more ex~ tensive; we fondly hope that it will soon increase. The formation of ponds for salt water fish, has often Salt been the subject Bf apachiacion, but in few instances fish. has it ever been reduced to practice. Indeed the mos tives for constructing such a pond must originate’ chiefly in curiosity, as those who are situated on a sea< coast, where such ponds can only be constructed, have access to that great storehouse of life, and may at all seasons derive from it an inexhaustible supply. Be-« sides, there are few situations favourable for the con« ‘. 1 i i > ICHTHYOLOGY. 687 of @ pond, and even where most fa- pond. They kept chiefly, however, in the deep water, Condition mip i i and, after = i oes a circular weep, and Of Fishes. separate it from the sea, Some ponds of this kind making a snatch at the prey, descended out of sight to have been constructed in Scotland. These are well de- devour it. It has often been doubted, whether the red i 2. -warecodling of Scotland was the young merely of the «A good many years ago, a small fish into common cod, or a distinct species, Gadus callarias, which sea-water could be easily introduced, was con- Here one would think the a rei might easily be des ee nes eeepigs Wemhens, in cided. Upon describing this red ware codling, we Mr ). A few sea fish were were assured that it occurs on the coast of Galloway, kept in it; but it soon fell into disuse, and that it had sometimes been caught and placed in and it has of late been neglected. This however was, the pond; tiie thats aftacia one, ie bechina a large and as far as we know, the first attempt of the kind in this as ating ns Seer grey’ cod This accords country. 3 with our own observations, e in less favourable Since that time two sea-fish ponds, of greater di- circumstances. mensions, have been formed by private gentlemen in 2. Hadock (G. egiefinus)- These, contrary to ex | penser eR lying their fami- pectations, we to be the tamest fishes in the pond. lies. One of these is at Valleyfield, the seat of Sir Atebb tide, they come to the inner margin, and eat lim- Robert Preston, Bart. on the shore of the Frith of pets from the hand of a little , the son of the keep- Forth; the other is situated in Wigton-shire, in an in- er. They appeared white, and rather sickly. One let called Portnessock, on the peninsular ridge of coun- was diseased about the eyes. try called the Rins of Galloway, nine or ten miles _$. Coalfish (G. carbonarius). Some of these were of south from Portpatrick, and is the property of Mr a large size, exceeding in dimensions the largest cod Macdowall of Logan. in the pond. No fish has received so many different here it is formed, there had originally names as the coalfish. When young, it is called at been a small natural basin, communicating with the Edinburgh, podley ; in the northern islands, sillock ; i b sea by means of a narrow sinuous fissure, or in Galloway, When a year old, it is styled an empty vein in the rock. This basin has been en- cooth, or piltock, in the north; and glasson in the ee working away the solid rock, south-west of Scotland. When full grown, it is named is grey wacke At flood-tide, the water sethe in the north; and stenlock in the south-west. covers, to the depth of two or three feet, a ledge or Accordingly we were now told, that “ these stenlocks walk which passes round an interior or deeper pond, were mere blochans when they were put in.” They and) at this time, allows tolerably ample space for the were become of a fine dark le colour. They were a of the fish, bold and familiar, floating about slowly and majestical- ee ae ee keeper, _ ly, till some food was thrown to them: this they seized whose is hard by. In easy weather, this man voraciously, whether it consisted of shell-fish, or ship rows out in his fishing coble, to the mouth of Logan biscuit. e were informed, that they too occasionally , in which the imlet of Portnessock is situated. approach the margin, and take their food from the hand line, keeper's hand. the usual baits. He is with a wide tub, | 4, Whiting (G. merlangus). These were scarce in which he puts a convenient quantity of sea water: the pond, and very shy. ly commits sach of his 5. Pollack (G pollachna. This was pretty com- i the - He mon, and has found to answer very well as a pond finds it necessary, during summer, to cover the tub fish. It is generally called layde or lythe. with a in weather he experiences _ Besides these five — of gadus, we were told that ee fishes alive in the tub till he the ling (G. molva) occasionally been kept in the ascribed either to mere heat, orto the exhausting of | 6. Salmon (Salmo salar). This was the wildest the air contained in the water, by the respiration of the and the quickest in its motions of all the inhabitants. fishes. cee oh nee op lhe ee arse ge my ei When a mussel or limpet, freed from the shell, was uid of atmosphere. De la Cepede, thrown on the surface of the water, the salmon very in his essay on the culture of fresh-water fishes, parti- often darted forward and took the prey from all compe- cularly mentions the powerful effect of this fluid on titors, disa| ing with a sudden jerk and turn of the them, when confined in small portions of water, inthe body. I coaactal this to be the salmon-trout (S, trut- course of their transference from one place to another. a); but was assured that it was the real salmon, which As might naturally be supposed, the fisherman is occasionally taken in the bay. iNale 7. , or flounders, of two sorts, were also in size to those of large In selecting cod-fish, for the pond; but they naturally kept at the bottom, and i we Sia. not see them. From the description given by the people, we concluded that they were dab and young lb. plaise. alive till wan’ use, but, being ree The food given to the fishes consists chiefly of sand- eels and of shell-fish, particularly li and mussels, by the line and hook; and it In the herring-fishery season, they cut ngs in pieces is probable, that the in best condition will not al- for this purpose. first Wore codex kable, that all the kinds “fest abs; +4 pond were the follow- enumerated, seem to agree very well together. No fighting had ever been Sadieed by the keeper, and. sel« . They were lively, and dom any ryry Fed one species by another. caught greedily at , which we threw intothe None of the “rip sara indeed, no oppor= ie it 5 z F | : fs f z s =] 3 | E 5 , i Condition of Fishes. —_—\— Dietetical uses. 688 tunity of breeding is afforded to them. A warm and shallow retreat, laid with sand and gravel, would have to be prepared for some species ; and large stones, with sea-weed growing on them, would have to be transfer- red to the pond, and placed so as to be constantly im- mersed in the water for the use) of others. The di- mensions of the present pond, however, are too cir- cumscribed-to admit of its being used as a breeding place. An addition for this purpose might; without much difficulty, be formed, and here some curious ob« servations might be made. The spawn of various sea- fishes is frequently accidentally dredged up by fisher- men, and could: therefore no doubt be procured by using a dredge: its degree of transparency indicates whether it will prove prolific. “This might be placed in, a, protected corner of the breeding pond, and its progress watched. On this branch of the natural his« tory of sea fishes, little is known.” Sect. V. Dietetical Uses. F'1sn, considered as an article of food, is regarded as light, and easily digested, and therefore well suited for the young, the weak, and the sedentary. But for the same reason it is unsuitable food for those engaged in laborious occupations.. Among the Romans, he who fed on fish was regarded as effeminate, It has often been considered, though perhaps without cause, as promoting the fertility of the human species; and the immense population of China has been ascribed to the abundant use of this kind of nourishment. Its ten= dency to encourage diseases of the skin appear to be universally acknowledged, and is indeed very evident in the remote islands ef this country, of Faroe, of Ice« land, and of Norway, where fish forms so great a pro« portion of the food of the inhabitants. Previous to using fish as food, they have frequently to undergo some sort of preparation, varying according to the situation, the necessities, or the taste of the con- sumers. Where circumstances permit, they are in ge« neral used in a fresh state; and even in large cities, where the supply must be brought from a distance, various expedients are resorted to, to prevent the pro- gress of putrefaction. By far the best contrivance for this purpose is the well-boat, in which fish may be brought to the place of sale even in a living state. Placing the fish in boxes, and packing them with ice, is another method, and has been extensively em loyed, particularly in the supply of the capital with salmon. In many maritime districts, where fish can be got in abundance, .a species-of refinement in taste, at least a departure from the simplicity of nature, prevails, to gratify which, the fish are kept for some days, until they begin to putrefy. When used in this state, they are far from being disagreeable, unless to the organs of anes Such fish are termed by the Zetlanders dlawn- fish. Where fish axe to be found only at certain seasons of the year, various methods have been devised, in ors der to preserve them during the periods of scarcity. The simplest of these processes’ is to dry them in the sun. They are then used either raw or boiled, and not unfrequently in some of the poorer districts of the north of Europe, they are ground into powder, to be afterwards formed into bread. But by far the most successful method of preserving fish, and the one.in daily use, is by means of salt. For this purpose they are packed with salt in barrels, as (er. after being taken as possible. When boiling ICHTHYOLOGY. them for the table, if the water be repeatedly changed, Condi a great eae of the salt will be abstracted, and the of Fi fish ren ered more palatable. In this manner are pre- served herrings, pilchards, cod, salmon, and many other kinds of escule xt fish. In many instances, after the fish have been salted in vessels constructed for the purpose, they are exposed to the air on a gravelly beach, or in a house, and dried. Cod, ling, and tusk, so prepared, are termed in Scot- land salt-fish. Salmon in this state is called hipper, and haddocks are called by the name of the ace where they have been cured, : After being stee in salt, herrings are in many places hung up in houses made for the se, and dried with the smoke of wood. In this state they are sent to market, under the name of red-herrings. , Although salt is in general employed in the preser~ vation of fish, whether intended to be kept moist or to be dried, vinegar in certain cases is added. ‘This is practised in this country, at least chiefly with the sal« mon sent from the remote districts to the London market, It can only be employed in the preservation of those fish, to nth A aoe acid _ served as a sauce. - The flesh of fish is always in the highest owas F or in season as it is called, during the period of the ri« pening of the milt and the roe. After the fish have deposited their spawn, the flesh becomes soft, and loses a great deal of its peculiar flavour. This is ow< ing to the disappearance of the oil or fat from the flesh, it having been expended in the function of re« production. When in season, the thick muscular part of the back, as it contains the smallest quantity of oil, - is inferior in flavour, or richness, to the thinner parts - about the belly, which are esteemed by epicures as the most savoury morsels, : There are some kinds of fishes, especially those which inhabit the shores of warmer countries, which are re« puted poisonous. These are, the Tetraodon ocellatus, sceleratus, and lineatus, and the Sparus ‘Pagurus and a few more. It is generally supposed, with some probability, that the poisonous quality of these fish pro- ceeds from the food on which they have subsisted. This conjecture is supported by the history of the mus- sel and the oyster, which owe their occasional noxious qualities to the zoophytes on which they feed. Perhaps the poisonous apy of these fishes might be consider« ably diminished, if not entirely removed, were the in« testines carefully taken away, and the fish placed for a short time in salt brine. Secs. VI. Diseases of Fishes. os Fisnes, in a domesticated state, are subject to va- “Se aah rious diseases, the cause and cure of which are not sa- fishy tisfactorily ascertained. Trouts, carps, and perches, are subject to various cutaneous diseases. During se- vere winters, when the surface ‘of the ponds in which they are kept are frozen over, the various kind of fish seem to contract diseases, and, in such cases, great mor= tality often prevails. This seems to arise from want of air in the water, and can only be prevented by remo- ving the fish to a a pond, through which there is a constant current. In some rigorous seasons, the ex- tent of this mortality is most alarming, as, between 1788 and 1789, in some districts of France the inhabi- tants lost nearly all their stock of carp, pike, and tench. Journal de Physique, November 1789. | ; id In the very same year, an epidemic distemper affect. ICHTHYOLOGY. } which live in the sea, as the follow- ee, ae to burgh, in the i sixth volume of the Sta- icttoal Account of Scotland, satisfactorily‘proves: “ On sates Sots of by birds, and left, without being killed, on rocks or fields. This has given rise to many of the absurd sto- ries which have been told of showers of fishes. Ron- deletius observes with propriety, that those fishes whose branchia are protected by a gill-lid which shuts close, . or by a narrow opening, are most vivacious. The air soon dries the fine of mine the age of fishes. The element in which they re- side is to preserve them from the pernicious influence of sudden changes of temperature ; the slow- ness of the process of ossification ; the coldness of their blood; and the tardiness of all their primary move- ments, are considered as indicating a len ed ex- istence. A ingly we find, the age of the carp has been known to t0 200 years, and the pike to i ‘The marks by which the age of fishes may be deter- mined, have never been poi out in a sati manner. As the age of trees may be at by the number of concentric circles in wood, so it has been supposed that the age of fishes\may be ascertained by sushgen iowh saelngioc:seeecnngn. oe arte Z ical reasonings are hurtful to science, as occupy the place of observation. They have does of Bs tie aes tee It is seldom that a fish is permitted to die a natural pees yryceuee, wo During every period of its exist- ence it is surrow by foes; and when no longer able to exercise its wonted watchfulness, or exert its powers of detence, it falls an easy to its more powerfal ad- versaries. In a state, vious to death, the dorsal fins lose the power of maintaining the body in a vertical position, the levity of the belly, and the ex- traordinary jon of the air bag, reverse the natural position, so that the back becomes undermost, and the animal floats on the surface. Similar a re- sent themselves, when the waters are contaminated by noxious mineral or vegetable impregnations. Seer. VIL. Fossil Fish. Fouil fab. The investigation of those changes which have taken VOL, XI. PART It. quan- conclusions which have been drawn res 689 place in the race of fishes since the formation of the na globe, is attended with peculiar difficulty. The exter- nal form, on which in general the specific distinction is founded, is d ed by re. All distinct traces of the softer parts have disaj , and the Foy nag is left to draw his conclusions the form of the teeth, or the outline and structare of the skeleton. pode the pecting the par- ticular species should be received with bstition In the newer rock formations, which have been termed local, such as the strata at Eningen, the remains of fishes have been observed, belonging to existing races, and still na- tives of the neighbouring lakes. But in the rocks of those formations which are called universal, the skeletons of fishes which have been found, in all probability be- long to species now extinct, In examining the organic remains which we consider of this sort, it would appear that the teeth of unknown sharks are more numerous than {those of any other description of fish. They are found in all the floetz limestones of this country, in company with the ancient camerated shells. Vertebrae of osseous fishes are chiefly found in the strata con- nected with the chalk formation, seldom in those of an older date. Before concluding this chapter, it may not be unac- ceptable to the to be presented with a few ob- servations on the preservation of fishes for a museum. ——— The simplest method consists in dividing the fish Method of vertically and longitudinally, taking care to preserve attachiod pectape the wid eel, From this side the flesh is then to be scraped off, the bones of the head reduced in size, the base of the fins made thinner, and the i then stretched out on pasteboard and dried. By this means a lateral view of the fish is preserved, and if the fins and gill-flap are cautiously spread out, the specimen will furnish suffi- cient marks for recognising the species. A collection of such fishes may be kept in a portfolio, similar to an a te species ma well preserved, by extracting the cotcente df the body at as mouth, or skinning the fish with the skin entire from the mouth towards the tail, in the same way as eels are p for cooking. Let it then be restored to its former position, fill the whole with fine sand, and having spread out the fins, let it be dried with care. Almost all wide-mouthed cy- lindrical or tapering fishes may be preserved in this manner. Some recommend filling the skin with plaster of Paris, while others eraploy cotton. Preserved fishes are usually covered with a coat of varnish, to restore in part the original lustre. But no means of this sort can retain many of the brilliant colours which the animals of this class possess; and even the form of some of the pe arse rh Hence fishes are in neral preserved in bottles of spirits of wine. In this way, it is true, they take up much room, but they can be subjected to resmae se pemgeta and all their characters satisfactorily exhibi CHAP. IV. CLAssiFIcaTIon or Fisues. In the last and function of fishes, we endeavoured to relative value of those characters whi ichthyologists have hitherto employed. We 4s systematic e gave preserving fishes for a and caudal fins. juceum, , when treating of the structure Classitica- s tion of int out the fishes, Classifica- tion of Fishes. Cartilagi- nous fishes. Lamprey. Hag. 690 it as our opinion, that the organs of respiration furnish characters which are obvious, permanent, and natural. By means of these characters, fishes may be divided in- to two great classes, viz. those with, and those with free gills; and the inferior divisions might depend on circumstances connected with the number, position, and structure of the accessory organs. But instead of attempting, in this place, to give a new system of ich- thyology, we propose to lay before our readers a con- densed view of the genera according to the system of La Cepede, the outlines of which have been already given in the historical part of this article. We propose to add occasional observations on the characters of these genera, and on the histo of rare or useful species. In the account of species it is necessary to be concise, as an enumeration of all the known species of fishes, amounting to upwards of 1470, would swell the article to an inconvenient length. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. In the fishes belonging to this sub-class, the skeleton never becomes so much indurated as to, deserve the name of bone, but continues in the form of .cavtilage more or less compact. As this internal character can- not be discovered without, the use of the dissecting knife, its employment in the formation of the. pri- mary divisions of a systematic arrangement has been justly condemned by many naturalists, and ought to be relinquished.. The genera which are included under this division, exhibit great, differences in the structure of their organs of respiration and reproduction. Sun-Cuass I. Drviston I. Tue cartilaginous fishes of this division are destitute of a gill lid and gill flap... The gills are likewise fixed. Orver I. APODAL. No ventral Fins. The structure of the atimals of this very natural or- der has been ably investigated by Sir Everard Home, as we have already pointed out, while describing the organs of respiration and reproduction. . They consti- tute the last link in the chain of fishes, and form the - transition to the molluscous animals. Genus I. Perromyzon. Lamprey. Seven gill-openings on each side of the neck, and an aperture on the top of the:head. The species of this genus possess an organ of adhe- sion on the lips, by which they attach themselves to stones ; hence the name Petromyzon, from zerg0s, lapis, and pvgaw, sugo. Lac enumerates nine species, three of which are British. They are distinguished by characters drawn from» the form of the dorsal and cau- dal fins. All the species are vivacious, and may be kept in life for a considerable time when-out of the water. The P. Planeri, found in the rivulets of Thuringia, when plunged into diluted alcohol, will survive u wards of a quarter of an hour; but it indicates, by its convulsive movements, the painful effects produced by the fluid on its organs of respiration. Some of the spe- cies are used as food, but principally for baits, Hag. Gill-openings,two in number, situated under the belly. This, genus was formed by Blech from the Myxine Genus II. Gastrosprancuvs. glatinosa of Linneeus.. This last author placed it among © ICHTHYOLOGY. his Vermes intestina; and the former, upon restoring it to its proper place among fishes, bestowed upon it a new name. Only two species are known. Thed Orvrr IV. ABDOMINAL. . _ This is a very natural order. The species are ovovi- viparous, and are distributed by Lacepede into three genera. Genus III. Rasa. Ray. Classifica- tion of Fishes. —— Body depressed, five'gill-openings on each side’ placed Roy. iiendath - 7 P , mouth under the snout. This is a very extensive genus, including, i to La Cepede, thirty-six species, Some naturalists however, are disposed to regarda few of these as hy- brid animals. Several new genera have’ been separated from it, particularly the genus CepHaLoprerus, which in those species with a divided snout, and the torpedo, the characters of which we shall:shortly notice, The species have been divided into several sections, from the form of the teeth, and the spines on the body; but the observations of M appear to indicate these characters, as pointing out the differences of the sexes, not as sure marks by which the species may be distinguished. His remarks on this subject we have already stated under the head of reproduction. Many. of the animals of this genus grow to a large size. They furnish a wholesome and table food, and are used either when fresh, salted; or dried. The spines of some are considered by the fishermen as venomous. One species, the R. Sephen of La Cepede furnishes, accord« ing to this author, the well known article of commerce termed shark’s skin, or shagreen. This skin is covered with round hard tubercles, and, when dressed, is used to cover boxes or cases. The squalus canicula furnishes an inferior sort of skin, which is often used as a substi- tute, but the tubercles are smallerjand not so regular in shape. Genus IV. Torrepo.. Cramp-Fish. Body smooth, depressed, and obtuse before; five Cramp-fish. gill-openings on each side, placed beneath ; electrical organs single on each side. . This genus, which has been lately revived, contains at present four species according to Risso ; but the cha- racters which separate them are far from being deter minate. The best known no is the Raia torpedo of Linnzus, whose electrical organs have been already described under the article Execraicrry of this work, Genus V, Squatus.. Shark. Body round, tapering ; gill openings from five to Sharks. seven on each side of the neck. This genus contains upwards of thirty species, whose characters and: organs have not been described with sufficient attention. © They exhibit very obvious differ- ences in the structure ‘of their organs of respiration, and on that'account ought to be separated into several genera. The characters furnished by the organs of motion should be employed in forming the genera into sections. » ¥ The sharks ate voracious and formidable ; they sess great strength, and swim with considerable veloci- ty. The smaller species are salted and dried, and used as food. The liver yields a considerable quantity of oil, and the skin of. some speciesis used, on account of its roughness, to polish wood, brass, or ivory. It is likewise employed to make’ thongs and tackle for car- Pie ewes = ; I i} \ ICHTHY Ne a The teeth are employed by savages to point L f } means of its formidable snout, it attacks with success various kinds of whales, which it lacerates in a dreadful manner with its lateral teeth. Genus VII. Squatina. Angel-Fish. Body snout rounded, mouth terminal. This was recognised by naturalists. Lin- neus it to and recently it has been re- vived. It contains she species, the qualus squa- g to some naturalists, given rise to Genus VIII. Aopon. Gill-openings, five on each side ; mouth destitute of poe a= Two of these were observed by Porskael in the Red Sea, and the third was observed Marseilles. att cEeF ih fet i rh i 33 1 i : : agit ttf Faz gee HI gee af é OLOGY. gor Division I, Classifica tion of : inous fishes, destitute of a gill-lid, but fure PS" nished wih » gill far. gil! ptt ee Orver VI. JUGULAR. Genus IX. Lorurus. Angler. i | : : z another genus (Batrachus) of the wide-mouth- The L. histrio might i pa be Bh cy oon hep tree ge i ius) as the representative of é fot ot th) diferent ies is soft, used as an article of food. iny remarks common angler, “ that it puts forth slender it has beneath its eyes, enticing by that means the little fish to round, till come within reach, ra Raw nabeap aber al, transparent oil, is sometimes as a er Seas peat tered Leet ee aoe Orver VII. THORACIC. Genus X. Bauistes. File-Fish. ead and body compressed ; about eight teeth in File-fish. “ narrow In this La le enumerates twenty-nine species. Fey chicfy iuhabit the seas of warm coun. i vt Orver VIII, ABDOMINAL. Genus XI. Curmera, Sea-Monster. One gill-opening on each side-of the neck; tail Sen-mon- duced, and ending in a filament. Rr eee This genus consists of two a southern and a northern. The last of these has been repeatedly found in our seas. Division IIT, Cartilaginous fishes, with a gill lid, but destitute of a gill flap. Orxver XII. ABDOMINAL. Genus XII. Potyepon, Genus XIII. Acirensar. Sturgeon. Mouth bearded before, without teeth, retractile, and sturgeon. under the head. Classifica- tion of Fishes. Sun. fish. Globe-fish. 692 Division IV. , Cartilaginous fishes, furnished with a gill-lid and gill ap. Orper XIII. APODAL. Genus XIV. Osrracion. Body covered with an osseous coat of mail ; cutting teeth in each jaw. ; ‘This genus contains fifteen species. They are easily recognised by the body being covered with an osseous plate, somewhat resembling a tortoise. They are all natives of the seas of warm countries. They feed upon the crustaceous animals, and some of the testaceous mollusca, . The flesh is excellent, but small in quantity. La Cepede recommends the O. trigqueter as a fish which he thinks might easily be naturalized in-our seas. The O cubicus, a native-of the Indian seas and the Isle of France, is often kept in pools, where it soon becomes so familiar as to come to the surface and eat from the hand. Its flesh is esteemed a great delicacy. Sun-Fish. Jaws bony, extending, divided at the tip into two teeth ; gill-opening linear ; body round. The fishes of this genus, have obtained their present name from the double teeth with which their jaws are furnished. La Cepede describes nineteen species, some of which are natives with us. They have the singular power of inflating their abdominal cavity at pleasure. The inflation is produced by air sent from the gills, into a sac formed of a duplicature of the peritoneum, and from thence into the abdomen. The inflation aids the animal in rising in the water, and as the abdomen isin some species covered with spines, it brings these’organs of defence into a more favourable position for resist- ance. Genus XV. Terropon. Genus XVI. Ovorprs. Jaws bony, extended, divided at the tip into two teeth, destitute of dorsal, anal or caudal fins. The single species, for the reception of which Lace- pede formed this genus, was found described among the manuscripts of Commerson. It is an inhabitant of the Indian seas. Genus XVII. Diopon. Globe-Fish. Jaws bony, extended, undivided. The globe fish are but few in number, La Cepede having described only six species. They are natives of warmer seas. They are covered with long and formi- dable spines, like a hedgehog, and often exhibit a rich variety of colours. The D. alinga, a native of the tro- pical seas, is one of those fish considered by navigators as noxious. According to Pison, the gall is so virulent as to produce nearly instantaneous death in those that eat the parts of the fish where any of it has been spilt. The sound of the same fish, however, produces an isin- glass, equal in quality to that which is obtained from the Acipenser huso.. Genus XVIII.’ Spurrorpes. Body globular, four teeth or more in the upper jaw, no dorsal, anal or caudal fins. La Papate formed this genus for the reception of a species drawn by Plumier, and supposed to live in the sea on the east coast of America. ICHTHYOLOGY. Genus XIX. Synenatuus. Pipe. Fish. Head produced, mouth small and terminal, furnish- ed with a lid, no teeth ; gill-openings on the neck. The species of this gentwhavenever been deterinihed in a satisfactery manner. Even the British species are in confusion. There are eight species described, and some varieties ; but it is probable that the characters of the sexes have been hastily considered as marks of dis- tinct species. : It appears from the observations of naturalists, that the species of this genus belong to the ovovivipa- rous division of fishes, or those which hatch their eggs internally. Their bodies are covered with osseous plates like a coat of mail. Orver XV. THORACIC. Genus XX. Cyetoprerus. Sucker. Classifica’ tion of Fishes. ‘ipe- Mouth furnished with sharp teeth ; ventral fins uni« Sucker, ted ; between these there is an organ of adhesion. There are upwards of twelve species of this genus known. .They may be. distributed into sections from the union or separation of the caudal,- dorsal and. anal fins. They inhabit the sea, but are occasionally found in the mouths of large rivers. Their flesh is soft and oily, and eagerly sought after by seals." Some of the species, in a few hours after death, dissolve into a ho- mogeneous gelatinous mass. Genus XXI. LepanoGasTeER. Tentacula four before the eyes; organs of adhesion double. We are indebted to Gouan for a knowledge of the only species of the genus, which he found in the Medi- terranean. It has since been observed, in other seas, by many naturalists. Orver XVI. ‘Genus XXII. Snout produced ; jaws furnished with teeth ; scales on the body small. ‘ This genus was formed by La Cepede, and contains one species discovered by Osbeck in his voyage to China, and described by him. Genus XXIII. Prcasvs. Snout produced ; jaws furnished with teeth ; body covered with large osseous plates. The first notice of this genus was given by Ruyschius. It now contains three species. ‘These have the pectoral fins uncommonly large, and are capable of empress ey are ABDOMINAL. Macronincuus. themselves for some time in the atmosphere. all of a diminutive size, and live in seas of warm climates. Genus: XXIV. Cenrriscus. Trumpet-Fish. Jaws without teeth, snout sed; ventral fins united. La Cepede describes three species belonging to this genus, viz. C, scutatus, velitaris, and scolopax. Sus-Ciass II. OSSEOUS FISHES. produced; body compres vagueae All the osseous fishes have fvee branchiz. With a Osseous few exceptions, they are oviparous. They appear to fishes. ICHTHYOLOGY. 693 be the most numerous as well as the most perfect of were formerly included among the Gymnoti; but the those animals which breathe by means of gills. ; Drviston V. Osseous fishes furnished with a gill-lid and a gill- Oaver XVII. APODAL. Genus XXV. Cazcizia. No fins ; opening of the gills under the neck. ception of the Murana ceca of Gmelin. It is destitute acta) eg riven eabedirw is | dae has not satisfactorily determined. It is probab' that it has fixed branchie, and is nearly related to the Genus XXVI. Mownoprervs. A caudal fin, but destitute of all others; open- : onl ein of lien i ae La ly is genus, is Cepede from the unmucttign’ of Commerson. It isa native of the Indian seas. Genus XXVIII. Lerrocernatus. Anal and dorsal fins, but no pectoral or caudal ones ; if 1 i Fe z A i I : ample of the Blennius gunnellus. But the late additions which have been made to the history of the L. morrisii in the new edition of the British Zoology, and by Mon- tagu in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p- #37, have removed all doubts on the subject. M. Ris- wate lasined oth earmn ante Sa - Genus XXVIII. Gymworus. Genus XXX. Noroprervs. Pectoral, anal, and dorsal fins present, no caudal fin ; ee eh : two known species which constitute this genus, ee Pe ee obvious line of isti The first species, N. kapirat, of La Ce- pede, is a native of the seas at Amboyna. It is there named y, or Kapirat. This last has been em- ployed as the trivial name in the system, in defiance of the established maxims of the science. The second cies is the N. squamosus, a native likewise of the In- dian seas. Genus XXXI, Opuisurus. No caudal fin ; body and tail cylindrical, and long in ion to the thickness; head small; nostrils tu- The three species of this genus have been called by fishermen sea serpents, from their form and motions. They twist themselves in various directions with asto- i facility, and, when swimming, perform all their evolutions like the The O ophis is a native seas. The second, O. serpens, is found in greatest abundance in the Mediterranean. Genus XXXII. Trivavs. Snout extended like a tube ; one tooth in each jaw ; caudal fin very short. The only known species of this genus was found by sn de Beneeetiopes: Ta ia pesaiartinieas ane be v us. In its an’ esl Rieck pniesldanihe dommblened oy thteonmnen heaing same, eet nee See Ae Sa seheancbeee other of the genus Scomber, which he had open-' ed immediately upon being caught. We mention this peeling! ay gale h ing the inexperiened ich- thyologist, in euch situations he may often meet with some of the rarest objects of his pursuit, and ina 1 : 8 condition still fit for a minute examination. Genus XXXIII. Apreronorvus. Jaws fixed ; no dorsal fin ; possessing a caudal fin. La Cepede formed this genus for the reception of the Gymnotus albefrons of Gmelin, whose trivial name he has for that of Passan, by which it was desig- benton. It presents some iarities of structure, which merit an attentive examination. From poe eh wey Rrsaig me! Charette cepa the head, issues a fleshy filament, which, after di- minishing somewhat in size, and describing an arch, be- comes again united with the body near the organ of the caudal fn. The filament is convex above concave below, and is connected its whole length by twelve short oblique filaments to the subjacent furrow into which it is received. Genus XXXIV. Reocatecus. , dorsal, and pent no anal fin, There are two species ppg yg am The With Sy Classifica- tion of Fishes. Classifica- tion of Fishes. Eel. Launce, Sword-fish, 694 GENUS XXXV. ODONTAGNATHUS. On each side of the upper jaw a long curved jagged plate. This genus contains only one species, the O. mucronatus. It was obtained from Cayenne, where it is known under the name of Sardine, It lives in salt water, and is considered as good food. Genus XXXVI. Murana. Eek Body furnished with pectoral, dorsal, caudal, and anal fins ; nostrils tubular; eyes covered with the common integuments ; body serpentine and viscous. It is a matter of regret, that the history of the species of this genus should still be involved in obscurity. ‘The common eel is considered by some as oviparous, by others as ovoviviparous, and the opinion of ichthyologists is equally divided with regard to the reproductive or- gans of the conger. The species are very extensively distributed, being found in various parts of the new and old world. Their flesh is used as food, but is con« sidered as difficult to digest. The skins are employed in place of ropes, Genus XXXVII. -Ammopytes. « Launce. Head slender ; caudal fin distinct from the dorsal and anal ones; upper lip doubled in. This genus contains only one species, which is a na- tive of the European’seas. Its trivial name tobianus has been chdtige tt by La Cepede into allictens, from its being a tempting bait, we presume, to other fishes. We cannot censure too severely such unnecessary in- novations, as they perplex the student, and encumber the science with a load of useless synonymes. Genus XXXVIII. Opnipiwum. Head covered with large scales ; body and tail com- pressed and covered with small scales ; gill-flap very large; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united. According to La Cepede, there are three species be- longing to this genus, two of which are natives, and the third was found by Fabricius in Greenland. He distributes them into two sections. In the first is pla- ced the O. darbatum, having a beard ; and, in the se- cond, the O. imberbe and unernak, which are destitute of a beard. Risso, in his Ichthyologie de Nice, has de- scribed a fourth species which belongs to the first sec- tion, which he terms O. vassali. It differs from the oO. oe in the four filaments of the beard being equal. Genus XXXIX. Macroanaruus. Upper jaw produced; body and tail compressed ; caudal fin distinct from the dorsal and anal fins. La Cepede instituted this genus for the reception of the Pentophthalmus of Ray, and another fish which was found in the Dutch cellection. The name of Ra ought to have been employed from its claims to priori- ty. The M. aculeatus is found in the Indian seas, and its flesh is considered good. Genus XL. Zipuias. Sword-Fish. Upper jaw produced ; bladé-shaped ; equal at least to ie third of the length of the body. oi There are two species described by La Cepede as be- longing to this genus, viz. Z. gladius and ensis. Some circumstances appear to favour the supposition that a Species exists, which has been confounded with the gladius. ‘After having, however, examined the fi- gures and descriptions of several authors, in connection ‘ ICHTHYOLOGY. with this subject, we feel ourselves at a loss to offer a Classifier. decided opinion. The reader will find some judicious remarks on the subject in the Scots Magazine for July 1811, and in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol, it. p. 58, In the last work, there is a figure of what is con- sidered as the new species, which will, we hope, create the curiosity of naturalists to examine the subject. Genus XLI. Makaira. Snout produced ; two osseous lanceolate shields on each side of the extremity of the tail. La Cepede formed this genus for the reception of a fish thrown ashore at Rochelle. The fishermen called it Makaira, Genus XLII. Anarcuicas. Wolf-Fish. tion of Fis! Head rounded ; upwards of five conic fore-teeth in Wolf-fish. each jaw; grinders flat and round; one long dorsal fin. : Three species of this genus are known to naturalists. They inhabit chiefly the boreal regions, and furnish a palatable food to the inhabitants. Genus XLIII. Comepnorus. Body long and compressed ; head and mouth large ; rays of the second dorsal fin furnished with long fila- ments. The only known species of this genus was found by the celebrated Pallas in the Lake Baikal. Genus XLIV,. Srromareus. Body greatly compressed and oval. This genus contains five species, some of which are found in the Mediterranean, and others in the equatorial seas. The S, fiatola is the one which has been longest known, and is remarkable for the agreeable brilliancy of its colours. It inhabits the Mediterranean and Red Seas, The S. paru, which is frequent on the coast of Tran- quebar, is esteemed delicate food, its flesh being white and tender, Genus XLV. Ruomsvs. Body compressed and short; each side of the ani- mal appears like a rhomboid ; rays of the dorsal and anal fins not articulated. The only known species of this genus was brought to Linnzus from Carolina by Dr Garden, and by him inserted in the genus chetodon. The skin appears to the naked eye to be entirely destitute of scales, Orper XVIII. JUGULAR. Genus XLVI. Ventral fins consisting of one ray i gill-flap of three rays ; body lengthened and compressed. This genus. was formed by La Cepede for the recep- tion of the Blennius mureenoides of Gmelin. It forms a sort of connecting link between the apodal and the jugular fishes of this division. Genus XLVII. Caturonymus. Dragonet. Mur2no1pes. Head larger than the body ; eyes near each other ; Dragonets gill openings on the neck ; ventral fins distant ; scales minute. There are five species of dragonets described by na- turalists ; but it is probable that this number will be reduced when the sexual differences are ketter known. Mr Neill, to whose ichthyological labours we have al- ICHTHYOLOGY. Genus XLIX. Urnanoscopus. Star-Gazer. premade ay ym ya ty mei in ee c ts is w i Its bile was considered by the ancients as useful to heal Smavere, encowings ,and_ attended witha enaibie iaamen - Genus LI. Gapvus. Cod. Head smooth, compressed ; lid, of many pi eee eee Pein eee and ending in a point. This is the most genus, in an economical point of view, in the w stem. All the species are esculent and palatable, and to the human race 695 Genvs LII. Batrracuoibes. ° Head depressed and large; opening of the mouth wide ; srowpd. apd, eloes, th indies date pe This genus was formed by Lacepede recep- from the genera Gadus and Blen- nius. The is the Gadus tau of Gmelin. found in the Atlantic ocean, and was first accurately described by Bloch. The second is the Blennius rani< nus of Gnelin, the Gadus raninus of Muller. Genus LIII. Brennivs. Blenny. Classifica- tion of Fishes. —_— Body and tail lengthened and compressed ; head Blenny. blunt and steep: ventral fins consisting of from two to foarn yer rays. three skin. La Cepede distributes them into sections, accord- ing to the number of the dorsal fins and the condition of the head. Into his last section, or those with one dorsal fin and no tentacula, he has inserted the Gadus brorme under the title Blennius Torsk, although he had previously given the species under the cod genus. Genus LIV. Oxicoropus. Spotted Blenny. One dorsal fin extending from the head to the tail ; ~ se Vv. one ray in each ventral fin. This aenes contains the velifera of Gme- lin, a first described by It is a native of Genus LV. Kunrvs, Bod greatl com and carinated above and t is a native of the Indian seas, and feeds on crustaceous and testaceous animals. Genus LVI. Curysostromus. Onver XIX. THORACIC. Genus LVII.. Leriporvs, i bu the same Montagu, inattentive equally to the labours i Zi Classifica. tion of Fishes, Band.-fish, Goby. 696 tral fins. We are disposed to consider this genus as consisting, at present, of four species. The L. argen- teus of Gouan, termed Gouanianus by La Cepede—L. tetradens, the Ziphotheca tetradens of Montagu, and the Vandellius argenteus, caudafurcata of Shaw.—L. Pe- ronii and L. pellucidus of Risso. Genus LVIII, Hrarvta. No anal fin. The H. Gardeniana of La Cepede, and the only known species, is the Labrus hiatula of Linneus. It was observed by Dr Garden in South Carolina. Genus LIX. Cerota. Band-Fish. An anal fin ; more than one ray in each ventral fin; body long and blade-shaped ; belly scarcely the length of the head. _This genus was first characterised by Bloch. It con- tains three species, whose specific differences are far from being distinctly marked. The C. tenea and ru- bescens (whose trivial name La Cepede, with his usual fondness for innovation, has changed into serpenten- formis, ) are found in the Mediterranean, while the third species, trachyptera, has been hitherto observed only in the Adriatic gulf. Genus LX. T aniorpss. An anal fin ; pectoral. fins disc-shaped ; body long, blade-shaped ; belly scarcely the length of the head : eyes indistinct; no caudal fin. The genus contains one species, the T. Hermannii, of whose habits or station nothing is at present known. The trivial name which La Cepede has bestowed upon it, is in honour of Professor Hermann of Strasburgh. The eyes are so very small that they can scarcely be distinguished. They appear like black points. Genus LXI. Gosiwus. Goby. Ventral fins united ; two dorsal fins. La Cepede distributes the twenty-two species of which the genus consists into two sections, from cir- eumstances connected with the attachment of the pec- toral fins. All the species are diminutive in point of size, and have failed to attract the notice of the epicure. A few. species, however, are used as food. The G, lan« ceolatus is said to have a very pleasant taste. It lives in the rivers and streams in Martinique. Genus LXII. Gosiorpes. Ventral fins united; one dorsal fin; head small ; the gill-lid attached nearly throughout its margin. La Cepede has poeueraceen this genus from species which formerly belonged to the genus gobius. The first species which he describes is. the gobius anguilla. ris of Gmelin, a native of the Equatorial seas. Genus LXIII. Gosromorvus. Ventral fins distinct ; two dorsal fins; head small, eyes approaching ; gill-lid attached nearly throughout its margin. The genus contains four species. The firet has been long known to naturalists, and is the Gobius gronovii of Gmelin, Genus LXIV. Gosiomonorpzs. Ventral fins distinct ; one dorsal fin; head small; the gill-lid attached nearly throughout its margin. The Gobius Pisonis of Gmelin is the only known ICHTHYOLOGY. species of the gertus. It was first described his Natural History of Brasil. Genus LXV. Gopsizsox. Ventral fins distinct ; one dorsal fin, short, and placed on the tail near the caudal fin; head larger than the body, The G. cephalus, of which the genus consists, is a native of the American rivers, and was first described by Plumier. Genus LXVI. Mackrel. Two dorsal fins; spurious fins in front of the tail above and below ; sides of the tail carinated on the ends of the lateral line. This important genus contains fourteen species, two of which are natives of our seas. Many of the species exhibit the greatest variety and beauty of colour, and almost all furnish wholesome food. The flesh of the com- mon mackrel is somewhat greasy ; and from it the Ro- mans expressed a garum or pickle, which was esteemed not only as an agreeable seasoning, but as a valuable medicine. The Scomber germo of La Cepede, which is found in great abundance in the Pacific ocean, proves extremely palatable and wholesome to sailors. Commerson ob- served that the shoals of this’species did not approach indiscriminately all the vessels of the fleet, but chiefly those which had been long at sea, and whose bottoms were foul. The same observer supposes that fishes of ten approach ships in the equatorial seas, enticed by their shadow in the water, which screens them from the direct influence of the sun beams. Genus LXVIF. Scomperorpzs, One dorsal fin, with spines in front ; spurious fins above and below in front of the caudal fin. La Cepede, who formed this genus, has described three species. The S. Noelii has ten spurious fins above, and fourteen beneath. The S. Commersonianus has twelve spurieus fins above and beneath, while the S. saltator has only seven above and eight beneath. The second species is from the shores of Madagascar ; but the habitation of the others is unknown. Genus LXVIII. Caranx. Scad. ScoMBER. Fishes. Piso in Classifive by tion of —— Mackret, Two dorsal fins; no spurious fins; sides of the tail Sead. earinated. This was instituted by Commerson, and so named from x«g«, caput, in reference to the size, the power, and the lustre of that part of the body, and the domi- nion exercised by the species of this genus over their weaker neighbours. The genus contains twenty spe- cies, which La Cepede has distributed into two sec~ tions. In the first are placed those which have no spines between the dorsal fins ; and in the second, such as are furnished with spines in that place. Many of the species are from the Red sea, and present few par- ticulars worthy of being mentioned. Genus LXIX. Tracuinotus. Two dorsal fms, with spines concealed in the front of these under the skin. This genus was formed by La Cepede from rgaxsies, asper, in reference to its dorsal spines. It contains only one species, the T. falcatus, first described by Forskael in his Fauna Arabica. Commerson likewise observed it on the shores of Madagascar. ICHTHYOLOGY. 697 Genus LXX. Caranxomorus. - La Cepede instituted this genus. The name is from Classifi One dorsal fin ; no spurious fins ; upper lip fixed. maAaxreer, pecten, and juyxos, dale There is but one tion of This genus is nearly allied to the preceding, and con- species observed by him in the Dutch collection. __Fisties._ Classifien- tion of Fishes. —— tains 4 species, formerly included in the genus Scomber. Gexvus LXXI. Casto. One dorsal fin ; upper lip extensile. Oh ela yaelem this genus are two in num- ber ; might with propriety have been united with those in the i The first is termed C. pee a eeu Czsomorvs. sah dorsal fin ; no ; in odes eg ridge ; separate spines _ This os Nene ee eee , and con« taine 2 species deseribed ftom, the SS. of Commerson. Genus LXXIII. Conts. the two ies which com this us. termed C. ale ioed C amgelcias “ Genus LXXIV. Gompunosis. in form of a nail; head destitute of on the snout; two plates or side of the extremity of the tail; skin ‘ommerson formed this 3, which contains two one of which is Chetodon unicornis of in, found in the Red Sea by Forskael, and at the Isle of France by Commerson. Gewus LXXVI. Kypunosvs. peta peat yam Ventral fins, of or six rays, spinous, and the second terminated by a filament. Genus LXXVIII. Tarcnoropus. - Ventral fins with one ray longer than the body ; one dorsal fin. The genus contains two One of these is the Liles See , a native of the Indian seas. The is T. mentum, described from a draw- ing by Commerson. Genus LXXIX. Mownopactytus. VOL, XI. PART It, Genus LXXXI. -Poconias. One dorsal fin ; chin bearded. This genus, from eye, barta, was instituted by La le for the reception of one species, the P. fas« ciatus, in the collection of the Stadtholder at the Hague. Genus LXXXII. Bosrrycnts. Body long ; serpentine ; two dorsal fins; two tenta- cula on the upper jaw. . The two species of which the genus consists are but imperfectly known. They rest on the authority of Chi- nese drawings. ot, ans: ses cg te: te dorsal fin. In other respects like the preceding. A Chinese drawing of tha anky apecleg-el this gems was found in the Dutch collection. Genus LXXXIV. Ecuenets. Sucking Fish. Head depressed, and furnished with an The name of the genus is derived from sya, habeo, perchance" py yop the bee chen wees was su to have rty of sticking to ships, and ceedig Ute aatines di ta tha toecen of fhe oot, Géxus LXXXV. Macrovurvs, Lb gaescumpcey ler twee patie, grt iy an of the Caryphene ropetris of . i i » which is found on the coasts of Greenland and Iceland. To the inha- bitants of these countries it furnishes a plentiful supply of nourishing food. In some of the districts where it is found it is called berg-lax, or rock salmon, It is the ingminniset of the Greenlanders. Genus LXXXVI. Conypuaya. peel teat Se YEE ONS) Sas Sree Se ly as long as the body tail. This genus contains sixteen species, which La Cepede has distributed into sections, from the shape of the tail. The first ies which La Cepede describes is the C, » which is found both in the Atlantic and Paci- fic ocean. Its flesh is viewing similar in the expiring mullet, when brought to the table the feast began. Gesus LXXXVII. Hemiprenonotus. arabe ale one dorsal fin, about half the length genus Rm lucca isles, and other places in the Indian Archipelago. It is gregarious, ing in vast shoals, and is ly sought after as an article of food. It is dried or 5 and forms an article of trade in those countries similar to the cod fishery of our northern districts. Genus LXXXVIIIL. Corvrenenores. f Head truncated, or very obtuse ; one dorsal fin ; gill opening a simple transverse slit. ; This genus contains only one species, the C. branchio~ 47 ‘ of ad- Sucking hesion, consisting of an oval plate with transverse folds, fish. Classifica- tion of Fishes. —_—— Pogge. Bull-head, 698 stega. It inhabits the seas of Asia, and differs from the genus Coryphena principally in the form of the gill opening. Genus LXXXIX. Asprpopnorus. Pogge. Body and tail covered with a scaly coat of mail; two fins on the back. This genus was first instituted by Scopoli, and after- wards adopted hy La Cepede for the reception of two species included in the genus Cottus. The first is the Cottus cataphractus of Linnzeus, common in the Euro- pean seas ; and the second is the C. japonicus of Gme- lin, whieh was first described by Pallas as a native of the seas about the Kurile islands. It is destitute of the cirri or beard under the throat, and from that circum. stance ought perhaps to be referred to another genus. Genus XC. AspipornororpEs. Body and tail armed with a coat of mail ; one dorsal fin ; rays of the ventral fins fewer than four. This genus bears a very close resemblance to the pre- ceding, from which it is principally distinguished by the union of the two dorsal fins. The only species it contains is the Cottus monopterygius of Gmelin, a fish which inhabits the coast of Tranquebar. Genus XCI. Corrus. Bull head. Head larger than the body ; form approaching coni- cal ; two dorsal fins ; spines and tubercles on the head or gill lid ; ventral fins with more than three rays. La Cepede describes nine species, some of which are used as food, The grunting bull-head, Cottus gruniens, a native of the American and Indian seas, is considered as esculent food. The liver, however, is said to possess noxious qualities. When first taken from the water, this fish utters a sound, in some degree resembling the grunting of a pig, and produced by the sudden expulsion of air from the internal cavities through the gill covers and mouth. _ The Cottus insidiator, a native of the Arabian seas, is said to bury itself in the sand, and wait the approach of its prey. _When the small fish have approached suf- ficiently near, it then darts out upon them with consi- derable velocity. The C. scorpius, which in this coun- try is despised, is eagerly sought after as food by the inhabitants of Greenland. From the liver they likewise extract an oil. This animal is very vivacious. It can close the gill opening so closely, by means of the lid, as to prevent the atmosphere from drying the gills, and consequently obstructing respiration. Genus XCII,_. Scorpana. Head covered with spines or protuberances ; desti- tute of small scales; one dorsal fin. The species of this genus, sixteen in number, are dis- tributed into two sections from circumstances connected with the beard. They have all a very uncouth appear- ance, and they are armed with formidable spines,. The $. horrida, says Shaw, resembles rather some ima: inary monster of deformity than any regular production of nature. The head is very large, perfectly abrupt in front, and marked by numerous tubercles, depressions, and spines. On the top is a semilunar cavity; the mouth opens from the upper part, and is large, and of a shape resembling a horse shoe. It is a native of the Indian seas. The S. porcus is the most common Euro- pean species. It is found plentifully in the Mediter- ranean, where it lurks among the sea. weeds, and, as opportunity offers, darts upon its prey. When seized by any stronger animal, it twists itself violently, and, erecting its strong spines, makes a vigorous resistance, Wine, in which this fish was suffered to die, was esteem- ed by the ancients as a salutary medicine. The S. scrofa, ICHTHYOLOGY. which is found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, is said to prey not only on the smaller fishes, but. on the aquatic birds as they swim on the surface. The S. an- tennata, remarkable for two long tentacula, surrounded by several fibrous brown bars seated immediately above the eyes, is a native of Amboyna, and its flesh. is said to be exquisite. In the S, volitans, the pectoral fins are so large, that the fish can fly for a short distance. It is the Gasterosteus volitans of Linneus, Genus XCIII. Scomperomorus, One dorsal fin; spurious fins above and below, in front of the caudal fin; no separate spines in front of the dorsal fin. : The S. plumierii is the only species of the genus, and is a native of Martinique. pede from the drawings of Plumier. Genus XCIV. Gastrerostevs. Siichkle-back. One dorsal fin ;- separate spines in front of the dorsal fin ; tail carinated laterally ; one or more spinous rays to each ventral fin. The species of this genus are natives of Europe. The G. aculeatus is common in rivers. It is sometimes found in such plenty as to be employed as manure, an oil excellent for burning may be expressed from the body. The other species are natives of the seas. They are armed with sharp spines on the back, so that few fish venture to seize them. Genus XCV. Cenrropopus. Two dorsal fins ; ventral fins with one spine, and five or six small articulated rays. [ This genus, from Kevrgoy, aculeus, and wus, pes, was created by La Cepede for the reception of one i C. rhombeus, observed by Forskael in the Red Sea. Genus XCVI. Cenrrocaster. Ventral fins with four spines and six articulated rays. This genus contains two species which inhabit the sea of Japan. They were first described by Houttuyn in the Act. Haerl. vol. xx. 2. p. $34. No. 22, © Genus XCVII. Crnrronotus, One dorsal fin ; ventral fins with at least four rays ; a longitudinal crest on each side of the tail, and two spines in front of the anal fin. . . This genus, formed from Kevrge, aculeus, and yates, dorsum, contains eleven species, They are all of a small size. The most remarkable among these is the pilot fish of Willoughby, the C. conductor of La Cepede, which has often excited the astonishment of observers. It follows vessels to feed on the substances thrown overboard ; and is generally seen in company with the shark, which in the opinion of some it conducts toits prey. Genus XCVIII, Leptsacanruus. Scales of the back large, ciliated, and terminated by a spine ; the gill lid denticulated behind. ~ Pa Classifica- “ tion of Fishes, _—\o Tt was described by La Ce- Stickleback. Pilot fish, This genus, from Aewis, squama, and axavbe, spina, was . instituted by La Cepede. It contains only one species from Japan, first described by Houttuyn. Genus XCIX, CzrpuaLacanruus. Two long denticulated spines on each side of the head behind. ; This genus, formed from KeP«an, caput, and axavbee, spina, was instituted by La Cepede. one species, the Gasterosteus spinarella of other natu ists. It differs from the Sticklebacks in wanting the spines on the back. It is a small fish, and a native of India. © Genus C, Dacry.orrerus. ; One small fin, consisting of rays connected by a membrane near each pectoral fin, : BY. site whe’ It contains only ICHTHYOLOGY. , 699- Cepede formed this genus from dxxrvd0c, digitus, by this fine display, the fish was removed and dress- Classifica. erg oo erie sete le db oo ad eal for the feast. : por of fishes formerly included in genus oF Ay The D. Genus CVII. Arogon. ’ eer ing for é y short distance in the atmosphere. Hence it has been Seen erat ce sacasoamns Dee Dhomly rise ie near the tropics, he Baggese irr in the Me. __ Lhe generic name is from «xwyy, imberbis. The pally The oth das: Seviidada: wie 8 only known mtn Sabet of Ue amatles tbe - . rst -Mullus imberbis of Willoughby. It is found chiefl described by Houttuyn. It is the Trigla alata of Gmelin, Muu rocky woest of: Malin ied dimerg Croan the pad dua Genvs CI. archon noe in wanting the beard or ig on the lower : rays near each pectoral separate ; serrated lip. Tt is of a fine red colour; the opening of the between the dorsal fins. neuti te tage; endrchermeliha andjeus very roagil Genus CVIII. Loncuurus. Pectoral and caudal fins equal at least to a fourth of the whole length of the body: dorsal fin long and in- Se Genus CII. Tricta. Gurnard. dented. : ’ Gurnard. separate rays near each pectoral fin ; no spines Bloch instituted this genus for the ion of a fish in the interval between the dorsal fins. brought from Suarhaibe ie he termed L. barbatus. The name of the genus is from , terpariens,in La Cepede changed the trivial name into dianema, in- ¢ gy a of the re ae ene eee eee change. The nose or upper lip is produced into an air, when. the sea does not afford them a safe asy- obtuse short snout, so as to cause the mouth to appear lum. Their flesh is white and insipid; and is seldom as if placed somewhat beneath. The head is covered sought after when other fish can be obtained, with scales like those on the back, and the jaws are Genus CIIT. Peristrenrion. furnished ‘with small sharp teeth. Soft separate rays near each fin; one dorsal fin; Genus CIX. Macropopus. one or more bony plates on the under side of the body. _ Ventral fins the length of the body,. caudal fin fork- This genus was formed Lacepede, and contains ed, its length equal to a third part of the body; head two species, They are distinguished from the and gill lid covered with scales similar to the back ; Be een eee ee ae of the mouth very small. — oe aber: P. malar. This genus from 0s, Poe Hh ra Os al mat of Lacepede, Trigla cataphracta of Gmelin, tains one species, M. viridiauratus, an inhabitant Anemone 8 heen ee share It is sought of the theeh ates Tokens Chain but whose history is is said to be dry and in- little known. ~ pap Pb git na aig, idity, and is active : _Genus CX. Laprus. Wrasse. a sure, on the number of the size, swims with great velocity, and undaunted 31) temarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, the Ghanigie. Ywelten verter ke chantogekant veseila with cach size of their scales, and the of their teeth, and add, for their extensive distribution. In all — - : | d g - F Fae F | iF l 4 4 ay al t ; ! | aP | | F i 4 ej EY tL Classifica- tion of Fishes. ——~ Gilt-head. 700 them, that according to Appian, when one has taken the bait, another will come to its assistance, and bite the cord to enable it to escape. This fish was eagerly sought after by the luxurious Romans, who preferred the liver, and even the intestines without being emp- tied. Its food consists of marine plants. The second species is described by La Cepede from the manuscripts of Commerson, and is a native of the Indian seas. Genus CXII. CueEttopiprerus. Upper lip extensile, two dorsal fins; no cutting or grinding teeth : gill-lid destitute of spines or processes. This genus contains ten species, divided into two sections, from the form of the tail. Little more is known of their history than their systematic characters. They ‘were formerly included in the genera Sciena and Labrus, Genus CXIIL. Opnicepuatus. Scales of the head polygonal, larger than those of the back ; all the rays of the Ens Jointed. The, name of, this genus, from oss, serpens, and xiQarn, caput, is sufficiently expressive of the distin- guishing character of the species. These are two in number, which were described by Bloch, and come from the coast of Coromandel. The scales of these fishes, where exposed, are tuberculated, and feel rough to the touch. They inhabit fresh water lakes and ri- vers, and feed om aquatic plants, Their flesh is esteem ed agreeable and salubrious. Genus CXIV. Horocymnosus. Scales invisible; ventral fins resembling a fleshy beard ; tail as if formed of two truncated cones, united by their summits. La Cepede formed this genus, from oAe;, tolus, and yvevos, nudus, for the reception of the H. fasciatus, a native of the equatorial seas, where it was first obser~ ved by Commerson. Genus CXV. Scarvs. One dorsal fin ; jaws osseous, prominent, occupying the place of teeth. This genus was instituted by Forskael, and contains at present nineteen species. ‘They are remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, and the armature of their fins. The mouth in the species of this genus is con structed rather in imitation of some of the cartilagi- nous fishes, as the Diodon, than of any of the osseous fishes. The jaws are bony, entire in some species, and divided in others, and destitute of true teeth, but often tuberculated or crenulated. They feed on crustaceous and testaceous animals, and likewise on sea weeds, The flesh of the Scarus rivulatus is: pleasant to the taste, but the wounds made by the spines of its fins be- ing difficult to heal, it has been considered as venom- ous. It frequents the coasts of Arabia. Genus CXVI. Ostorincuvs. Two dorsal fins; osseous jaws prominent, and occu- pying the place of teeth. This genus was instituted by La Cepede, and the only species of which it consists (discovered by Com- oe) has been named by him in honour of M. Fleu- rieu. It is a native of the Equatorial seas, a: Genus My ban Sparus. Gilt-head. utting or grinding teeth in several rows ; the height Selb bushy nearly erga tots length, ya Forskael formed this genus, deriving the name from exaiguy, palpitare, on account of the rapid motions of the fish when taken from the water. It is a very nu- merous genus, About a hundred species have been de- scribed by ichthyologists. They are distributed into three sections, from characters furnished by the form ICHTHYOLOGY. of the tail. The lunulated gilt-head, Sparus aurata, was well known to the ancients, and by them dedicat- ed to the goddess Venus. In spring, this species fre- quents the shores, and even enters the mouths of ri- vers. Its flesh is said to improve in fresh water, and hence Duhamel and others have recommended its be- ing translated into Jakes and rivers. As food, it was much prized by the ancients, and valuable medical qua- lities were ascribed to it. Where common, as in the Mediterranean, it is often salted, and sent inland as an article of trade. Several species have a remarkable phos- phorescent property. Willoughby first observed this in the S. pagrus, but it is more remarkable in the S. chry- surus, This last fish inhabits the seas of Brazil, and when a few of them are swimming in company, they emit so much light, that in the darkest night a person might see to read by means of it. This property enables the fish to, pursue its prey with more certainty; but, on the other hand, it gives informationtto its foes, Its flesh is esteemed excellent, and much souglit after. Genus CXVIII. Dipreropon. Two dorsal fins ; mouth with several rows of teeth. This genus contains six species. The D. asper inha« bits the rivers of France and Germany; and, bein very vivacious, might easily be translated into this country, in the more temperate seasons of the year. Its flesh is esteemed excellent, and in our rivers and lakes would prove a valuable addition to our stock of food. As this fish searches for its food in the mud, in which there are occasionally small pieces:of gold, and as these have sometimes been found in its stomach, the fisher- men have concluded that its food was gold. The flesh of the D. zingel is equally white, firm, and palatable, and is found in the same situations. It is so bold and vigorous, and so well protected by means of scales, that few fishes will venture to at it. Hence it multi. plies very rapidly. Genus CXTX. Lursanus. One dorsal fin; a process to one or more of the pieces of the gill-lid ; no spines on these pieces. This genus contains, according to La Cepede, seven- ty-four species, The L. anthias is the étgos its of the Greeks, who fancied that no dangerous fish could re- side in the waters in which it lived, and ‘that divers might descend with safety, if they knew that this fish was an inhabitant of the place. . It feeds on small fishes, and is very common in the Mediterranean. The L. johnii, so named by Blech in honour of his missionary friend John, is found on the coast of Tranguebar. _ Its flesh is white and palatable. The L. plumierii of La Cepede, the Anthias striatus of Bloch, found in the Atantic ocean, is also esteemed safe and eeable food. The Lutjanus scandens, first described in the Linnean Transactions, vol. iii. is remarkable for its power of creeping up the stems of trees, by means of the spinous processes of its fins and gill-lid. Genus CXX. Cenrropomus. Basse, Classifica tion of Fishes. —— Two dorsal fins ; one or more processes to each piece Basse. of the gill-lid ; no spines on these parts. La Cepede instituted this genus, which contains twenty-one species. The name is derived from xsvzgov, aculeus, and xaue, operculum. The Centropomus san dat of La Cepede, the Perca lucioperca of Linne- us, inhabits the fresh waters of all the countries of the north of Euro It grows to a great size, and its flesh is white, tender, and pleasant to the taste. In the form of its head, and ‘the size of its teeth, it bears a near resemblance to the pike; while, in the structure of its gill-lid, the number and sitnation of its dorsal taf i ee I | Sa cell ICHTHYOLOGY. hardness of its scales, it approaches in perch. Hence, almost all naturalists have termed it luci It is a matter of regret that this fish dies ickly upon being taken out of the cannot be transported alive to any dis- Bat as it is one of those fishes which, if trans- lated into our lakes and rivers, would prove a valuable addition, the feeundated eggs might be employed with In this department of economy, how much to be - Sasa EEE Bote bas - ° on id; plates ill-li Jeers Se: zi The contains twenty-four species. The most le is the B. palpebratus, first accurate- ly described by Pallas. It has a moveable membrana- ceous plate above each eye, supposed to assist the ani- mal in regulating the admission of light to that , It is a native of Amboyna. The B. pentacanthus, whose a, kao theca e, with his wonted ek of isms, into j , is a native of the coast of the Brazils. It prefers the mouths of ri- vers, near which it grows very fat, and its flesh ac- an increased degree of delicacy and flavour. It © eee. caed or iad tthe eon ave fit iil 1 H i : F Hi: LP F e g e Genus CXXII. Tewtanorvs. te benno Sentral sas bm nsec Fame genus, from rama, tenia, and »wre;, dorsum, r sap remarkable for their length- ies, T. latovittatus, was ob- Commerson in Isle of France. He found its stomach the fragments of corals and of shells. Its pom vat ae ST a Ry epee Np yet the hardness of its jaws, the number of and the continuance of its efforts, enables it Its ha- ed in spirits in the Dutch collection, during its captivity in Paris. Genus CXXIII. Sciawa. Gill-lid furnished with spines, but destitute of pro- cesses ; Jrcnar Renee < i us contains eleven species, distributed into oro They differ from sections from the form of the tail. age genus Boclianus chiefly in the num! the dorsal The Sei coro is a native of the Brazils, and is taken at all seasons, al its flesh is said to be and insipid. The Sciena umbra, the — cg is the most important species e gem and been long known. It inhabits the Medi- and Adriatic seas, and is found liarly abundant in the Nile. It lives in troops, and feeds on erustaceous and testaceous animals. It is esteemed ex- cellent food when in season. Those which are found in fresh water are reckoned preferable to those taken in the sea, and the young are considered as more palatable than the old. ancients attributed. to this fish the 701 : Genus CXXIV. Microprerus. Rays of the second dorsal fin short. This genus contains one species, which La Cepede has named in honour of Dolomieu, We are ignorant of the discoverer and the locality of this species: it was found in the museum at Paris. Genus CXXV. Hotocentrus. One dorsal fin ; one or more spines, and a process on each gill-lid. Bloch formed this genus from species chiefly belong- ing to the Perca of Linnezus. At present, it contains sixty-five species, divided into sections from characters furnished by the caudal fin. The H. schratzer is found abundantly in the Danube and its tributary streams. Its flesh is white, firm, and nerges’ & and of a pleasant taste. It feeds on small insects and worms, and spawns in the spring. So valuable a fish ought to be translated to other countries. Although it soon dies when taken from the water, yet with care it may be conveyed to a” distance, or the spawn may be used as a substitute. Genus CXXVI. Perca. Perch. Two dorsal fins; one or more spines, and a process Perch. to the gill-lid; with or without a beard. This genus, as it now stands, contains fourteen spe- cies, The common perch of our lakes may be regard- ed as the most im t species of the genus in an eco- nomical point of view. The P. umbra, the umbra of the ancients, another valuable species, chiefly resides in the Mediterranean. Its head is compressed and co- vered with small scales, and it has a thick short cirrus on the lower jaw. Its flesh is firm, but easy to digest, and its head was esteemed a favourite morsel by the an- cient Romans. It feeds on sea weeds and worms. From the skins of some of the species an isinglass is pre- pared, little inferior to that which is obtained from the air-bag of the sturgeon, _ “ Genus Sn oon Piha any large strong teeth in jaw: intheu jaw small compressed teeth inthaintervalabbetween the lar er ones ; pe ae Romer Fear bere hay ar " i us was instituted by La Cepede, and con- tains only one species, H. cwruleo-aureus, of which little isknown. It is described from the drawings of Plumier. Geyus CXXVIII. Pimeveprenus. The whole, or a great part of the dorsal, anal, and one fins adi teas his genus, from. wistAn, pinque , pinna, pat yee species, viz. P. Bosquii, named in honour of M. Bose, the discoverer. It is found in the Atlantic Ocean, and follows. vessels, picking up the fragments of food thrown overboard. It keeps in the eddy at the rudder. It is very difficult to catch, as, with con- siderable dexterity, it bites off the bait without swal- lowing the hook. According to Bose, it is sought after as food by the French, but neglected by the English, In its manners it bears a near resemblance to the pilot fish. Genus CXXIX. Cueto. cmp Jey aed gill-lid destitute of — scales ; lid carved ; under jaw pendant ; dorsal fin low and long, ventral fins ke This genus, from y4+A0s, labrum, contains two species, first observed by Commerson at the Mauritius. The first is termed C. auratus, on account of its golden yel- low colour. The lateral. line. is with black ponte om be is white, and of a ploewn t faiths t disregarded, as it is common. The secon species is termed C, fascus, ‘Lhe colour is brown, hav- ing the ventral fins white, and the dorsal and anal fins spotted with white. Classifica- tiun of Fishes, —_—— ~ and is there called skibjack. 702 Genus CXXX. Pomaromus. Gill-lid notched at its upper posterior margin, and co- vered with scales like those on the back ; anal fin adipose. The P. skib of La Cepede is the only known species. It inhabits the bays and mouths of rivers in Carolina, It performs its motions in aremarkably rapid manner, ing suddenly toa considerable distance. Its flesh is reckoned good. , It was observed by Bosc during his residence in the Uni- ted States. Genus CXXXI. Lerostomus. Jaws without teeth, and entirely covered with the lips; the mouth under the snout. Bose is the discoverer of L.-xanthurus, the only known species, termed in Carolina yellon-tail. La Ce- ede formed the genus from Asis, levis, and crouse, os. t differs from the perches in the absence of a process to the gill-lid, and in wanting teeth. Genus CXXXIIL. Centrroioruus. A longitudinal crest, and row of distant spines, in part concealed in the skin, above the nape ; one dorsal fin. This genus was instituted by La Cepede to include a fish sent him from Fechamp by M. Noel of Rouen. It was called by the fishermen Le Negre, and hence he has termed the species C. niger. It is of a black colour. The eyes are large, and in front of the dorsal fin there are three spines placed vertically, or pointing forwards. Genus CXXXITI. Eguzs. Two dorsal fins ; the rays of the first ending in long filaments ; teeth numerous, rigid, and fixed. The E. Americanus is the only known species of the genus, and has hitherto been found only in the seas of the new continent. It is the Chzetodon lanceolatus of Gmelin. In point of brilliancy, and variety, and dispo- sition of colours, this fish has few rivals. The head is small and compressed ; the snout rounded. The ge- nus was formed by Bloch. Genus CXXXIV. . Leroenatuus. _Jaws without teeth ; a strong curved spine on both sides of each of the soft rays of the dorsal fin ; a long flattened scaly appendage near each ventral fin; gill. lid carved, and destitute of small scales. This genus (from Assos, levis, and yvates, mazilla) con- tains only one species, viz. L. argenteus, a native of Tran- quebar. It was first described by Bloch under the ti- tle Scomber edentulus, but it differs from the mack- rel in being destitate of teeth. The head, body, and tail are also compressed, and the opening of the mouth is very small. Its flesh is fat and agreeable to the taste ; and being found at all seasons, is of great use to the inhabitants of those shores which it frequents. Genus CXXXV. Cuztopon. One dorsal fin ; gill-lid destitute of processes ; teeth small, flexible, and moveable; opening of the mouth small, This genus has obtained its present name from ye«i- zn, seta, and odous, dens. La Cepede has enumerated forty-two species. They chiefly inhabit tropical seas. Their flesh is excellent food, and they are much sought after by sailors. They are remarkable for their form and the brilliancy and variety of their colours. The limits by which the different species are separated are ill defined, so that much confusion prevails in their no- menclature, They all inhabit the seas of tropical coun- tries, and were unknown or disregarded by the an- cients. The skeletons of some species have been found along with other ruins of the animal kingdom, in the strata at Mount Bolea. La Cepede particularly men- tions the remains of the Chetodon vespertilio and teira. ICHTHYOLOGY. The Ch. marginatus appears to prefer the mouths of rivers, is very common at the Antilles, and its flesh is good. The flesh of the Ch, macrolepidotus, a native of the East Indies, is said, in point of delicacy, to resem- ble the sole. But the most extraordinary species is the Ch. rostratus, a native of the fresh waters of India. Dr Shaw, after informing us that its prey consists of the smaller kinds of insects, says, ‘‘ When it observes one of these, either hovering over the water, or seated on some aquatic plant, it shoots against it from its tu- bular snout a drop of water, with so sure an aim as g¢ nerally to lay it dead, or at least stupified on the sur- face. In shooting ata sitting insect, it is commonly observed to approach within the distance of from six to four feet before it explodes the water. When kept in a state of confinement in a large vessel of water, it is said to afford high entertainment by its dexterity in this exercise ; since, if a fly, or other insect, be fasten- ed to the edge of the vessel, the fish immediately per- ceives it, and continues to shoot at it with such admi- rable skill as very rarely to miss the mark.” Genus CKXXVI. Acantutnion. One dorsal fin ; teeth small, flexible, and moveable’; two or more naked spines in front of the dorsal fins. The three species, of which this genus consists, were formerly included in the genus Chetodon; but the spines, placed behind the head, form a sufficient mark of’ distinction, and is expressed in the name of the ge= nus from axa, spina, and ive, occiput. The first species, A, rhomboides, is a native the American seas, as is also the A. glaucus. The flesh of the last species is white and nourishing, and sought after as food. It sometimes grows to the length of 18 inches, The third species inhabits the rocky shores of Arabia, where it was observed by Forskael. It has something of the habit of a flounder, and seldom exceeds a foot in length. Genus CXXXVII. Cuzropiprervs, Body and tail compressed ; two dorsal fins; teeth small, flexible and moveable ; gill-lid destitute of pro« cesses and spines, La Cepede instituted this genus for the reception of C. Plumierii. This species is nearly as deep as it is long, and its sides are lozenge shaped. The general colour is green, mixed with yellow, crossed by six nar- row bands of deep green. It was observed in the West Indies by Plumier ; and prefers a stony bottom. Genus CXXXVIII. Pomacenrrus. One dorsal fin; gill-lid furnished with a process, but destitute of long spines; teeth small, flexible and moveable, This genus contains seven ee r seas of warmer countries, and in general exhibit a fine display of colours. One species has indeed obtained the name of Peacock, (P. pavo,) from the variety and lustre of its colours. It is a native of the Indian seas, and was first described by Bloch. Genus CXXXIX. Pomapysis. Two dorsal fins ; teeth small, flexible and moveable ; gill-lid furnished with a process. Forskael discovered, in the Arabian sea, the only species of the genus termed P. argenteus, with whose habits we are still unacquainted. Genus CXL. Pomacantaus. One dorsal fin; teeth small, flexible, and moveable ; gill lid furnished with long spines, but no : : The seven species included under this head, were formerly arranged in the tiie Chetodon. The Pe- abia, 5 They snhaht the canescens, a native of Ari and first described by Classifica tion of Fishes. ——— lz i ICH THY OLOGY. | He 1 ator is not only remarkable on and distribution of its colours, adie oh is remarkably fit sod palate- its is equal in point of flavour and richness to It is considered as superior to any other fish known in that vast ocean. It grows to about a foot in and is of an oval shape. T i Gesus CXLIL Enoptosvs. maculatus of Bloch, a native of the fresh waters of Su- rinam and Coromandel, is so full of bones, that none but the negroes make use of it, . Genus CXLIV. Acayruurvs. One dorsal fin ; Mees aware mgs» pag one or contains the chetodon argenteus and 703 b) cone CXLVII. ie mets wo dorsal fins, with spines in the space between them. ‘This genus, from c:dxvz, luna, contains two speci Classifica tion of Fishes. natives of the West Indies and America. The first ¥ termed S. was described by La Cepede from the drawings of Plumier ; and from its shape is termed by the natives moonfish. The second S. quadrangula- — is the me marinus fere quadratus of Sloane, placed in the genus zeus by many naturalists. In shape it is almost square. a ‘ Genus CXLVIII. Arcynerosus. One dorsal fin, with spines in front. The zeus vomer of Linnzus is. the oy this genus. It is common to the coast of Norway and same beauty of colouring. It arrives at the same size in the seas of both continents, and in both its flesh is esteemed as excellent. The name of the genus is deri- > ved from «pyvptes, argenteus. Genus CXLIX. Zeus. Doree. minating in long This genus, as now restricted, contains only three i The first of these is the Z. ciliaris, so named a few of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins prs at ey Sg ay i nem brane, and even farther than the tail itself. La Cepede, of another species, the Z, insi- , which like the chetodon rostratus, ej water through its tubular mouth on flies that alight on aqua- tic ts, and thus stupifies and secures them ; but the is here very remote, as the points of resemblance Se a ne en agreeable ; a hook baited with a fly is employed in ta- king it, Both species are natives of the Indian seas. ird species is the Z. faber, or common dotee. It is a native of the Northern Atlantic and Mediterranean seas, and was well known to the ancients, : are so few. Mediterranean, South America, and the East and West Indies. Its flesh is esteemed good. It feeds on small worms and fishes, Genus CLI. Curysorosus. h. spection of drawings in the Museum at Paris, Lace- pede is disposed to consider that it likewise inhabits the Chinese seas. Dr Mortimer says, that the Prince of Anamaboe, on the coast of Africa, recognised, in an English imen, a fish which he said was common on his own and very good to eat. One dorsal fin, without spines in front, the rays ter- Doree. filaments. , Classifica. tion of Fishes. —\ Flounder, no mention made of 704 ‘Genus CLII. | Capnos. Body and tail compressed ; jaws destitute of teeth ; two dorsal fins. This genus, from x«wpes, aper, was instituted by La Cepede, and so named from the resemblance the only known species bears toa wild boar. It is the Zeus aper of Linnaeus, and has long been known as an in- habitant of the Mediterranean. It is scarcely three inches in length, and is of a reddish colour ; the snout is somewhat produced and sharpish, and protrudes in the act of opening like the common Doree. Its flesh is said to be very coarse, and of a rank flavour. Genus CLIII. Purvronecres. Flounder. With pectoral fins; both eyes on the same side of the head. This extensive and important genus, containing up- wards of forty species, derives its name from A¢vpoy, latus, and vx7n;, nalator. The genus is divided into two sections, from the position of the eyes, both of which are always placed on one side of the head. In the first division are ;placed those having the eyes on the right side, and in the second those having the eyes on the left. It sometimes happens, however, that a species with eyes in general on the right side, has been found having its eyes on the left, all the other characters of a species remaining fixed. This circum- stance points out the propriety of being cautious in re- lying on the character furnished by the position of the eyes. "The genus contains at present upwards of thirty species, but a more attentive examination of their cha- racters, than has hitherto taken place, would perhaps point out the propriety of as a few as varie~ ties, and some as hybrids. Their flesh is white, plea- sant, and easily digested; and as the species are of considerable size, they are much sought after as food. Several species delight to reside at the mouths of rivers, and even to live in the fresh water. By a little atten- tion these might be translated into lakes and ponds, and thus not only the quantity, but the variety of food furnished might be increased. All the species prefer a sandy bottom, and they are much more numerous in cold than in hot countries. Genus CLIV. Acnirus. E Both eyes on the same side of the head ; no pectoral ns. This genus, from «@ privative and yep, mantis, was formed for the reception of those species which have no pectoral fins, formerly included in the genus pleu- ronectes. There are six species known. ‘The A. marmoratus inhabits the sea at the Isle of France, where it was observed by Commerson. Its flesh is esteemed excellent. We may observe, that Commerson observed a row of pores at the base of the dorsal and anal fins, equal in number to the rays in those fins, which upon being pressed poured out a milky mucus. Orprr XX. ABDOMINAL. Genus CLV. Cirruitus. Gill-flap of seven rays, the last remote; beards mates by a membrane, and placed near the pectoral S. This lary contains only one species described from the MSS. of Commerson. It bears a close resemblance to the ies of the genus Holocentrus and Perca, The ‘seven ents.of the beard are long, and united by a membrane, resembling a second pectoral fin. There is place where it was found. 4 ICHTHYOLOGY. Genus CLVI. Curiopactyius. Body and tail compressed; upper lip double and ex- tensile; head abrupt. There is only one species belonging to this genus, from the East Indies; and described from a specimen in the Dutch collection. Genus CLVII. Costtis. Loche. Classifica. tion of Fishes. Head, body, and tail cylindrical; eyesnear the sum- Loche. mit of the head; no teeth; bearded; one dorsal fin ; scales minute. This genus contains three species, two of which have been long known to naturalists. The first, G. barba- tula, or common Loch, is. common in the waters of the southern and middle districts of Europe. It prefers rivers which have a gentle current, to those which are either rapid or dormant. Its flesh, during autumn and spring, is esteemed a great delicacy, superior indeed to all other fresh water fish, especially when it is killed in wine or in milk. It has been translated into some of the northern countries of Europe. It soon expires when removed from the water, and even when placed in water in a state of rest. The G. tenia differs in external character from the last, chiefly in having a double spine on-each side of the head, a little before the eyes. en taken from the water, it emits a grunt- ing sound like the gurnard, and is more vivacious than the last. Its flesh is dry and insipid, The G. Tricirrhata was observed by M. ‘Noel in the rivulets near Rouen. Its beard consists of three filaments. Genus CLVIII. Miscurnus. ‘Body and ‘tail cylindrical ; one short dorsal fin; jaws with teeth, The Cobitis fossilis of Linneus is the only known species of the genus. It inhabits marshes and lakes with a muddy bottom. It is remarkably vivacious, and is capable of surviving among mud, provided it be moist. This is a wise provision of nature, by which this animal is fitted for those situations in which it re< sides. When the pools or ditches in which it lives dry up, this animal buries itself in the mud, and lives se- curely until the rain replenishes its pond. As it is frequently dug up in this situation, it has been supposed to search for its fo It will remainalive under ice, provided there is a small portion of unfrozen water around it. It appears to be extremely sensible to the changes in the state of the atmosphere. During calm weather, it remains at rest on the mud in the bottom of the ditch; but, at the ap< proach of a storm, or change of weather, it rises to the surface of the water, and moves about with seeming uns easiness, Hence it is often kept in vessels within doors by the curious, for the purpose of predicting the chan- ges in the weather. In winter, it buries itself in the mud, and issues forth in spring when it spawns. It is found in the marshes and lakes of the midland parts of Europe. Its flesh is soft, and but little sought after. Genus CLIX. Anasiers. Pupil of the eye double. The A. surinamensis, the only known species, was the cobitis anableps of Linnzus. It is a native of the rivers of Surinam, near the sea coasts. We have al- ready adverted to the extraordi structure of the eyes in this fish, which appear as if furnished with two pupils. The anal fin in the male is com of nine rays, the last three or four only peng. istinct, The preceding ones, are in part united with a hollow coni- cal appendix covered with scales, and at the apex. This opening communicates with the milt and the blad- ood in the ground like an earth-worm. ° ICHTHYOLOGY. Lx. Founpvtvs. Body and tail nearly cylindrical; jaws with teeth ; Cepede into F.mud-fish! It in Carolina Dr Garden, and was thee ies inhabits J: > and. wan festidleieiibis op: Elentiagts tie Augh. Elan ace In species there are six the ventral fins; in the latter, eight —e Genus CLXI. Nee rane lengthened ; above covered with scales, like ee ee ee is genus constructed for the reception of ci rests on the authority of a the Dutch collection. La Head Satin’ dope Soll, aslo Pteridial bearded one short dorsal fin. : ; . This formerly very extensive, contains at pre- into pon Sia ton Sores’of the cal ‘The is, or 705 Its motions are all slow. It lurks under some root with Classifica- its body sunk in part in the mud; and, by moving the filaments of its Wandie'eaaites the sacalt etaeg toe. tion of Fishes. when it seizes them. The flesh is white, fat, F : proach, and pleasant to the taste, but very difficult to di The air. furnishes isinglass, which is consid eX~ cellent. skin dried and rubbed with oil, is some- times used as a substitute for glass. This species might be translated with ease into this country ; and there a _ to be several favourable situations for its growth. S. fossilis, which is a native of the East Indies, is sometimes dug out of the mud like the Misgurnus, which it appears to resemble in habit. Genus CLXVII. Macnroprsronorvs. Dorsal fin very long. Sy oe this genus, four in number, were se- — y La Cepede from the Siluri, from which the iffer in the greater length of the dorsal fin. If such a character be admitted as sufficient to constitute a nus, we fear that the science of ichthyology will ily revert to that state of confusion uncertainty which prevailed in the days of Aristotle and Pliny. The first species is the Silurus illaris of Linnzus, which La now names M. uth. Geofroy, accordi to La e, has discovered a cavity connected wit the gills, which the animal has the power of closing. In this cavity, there is a flat cartilaginous substance, di- vided into many branches, having the surface covered. with numerous ramifications of blood-vessels. 4 This t from native of Asia and Africa. The skin is so transparent on the sides, that the divisions of the muscles can be perceived like so many transverse lines. The remain- ing species of the genus, viz. M. fuscus and hexacicin- nus are described on the authority of Chinese drawings in the Library of the Museum at Paris, veg Ap cep aie ote. r Dorsal ipose, placed near ; furs siahind with diaieleat ingaiis , The Silurus.electricus of Linnzus is the only known of the genus. It has been known as pos- thore benumbing qualities wh are so re- in the Torpedo, It is found in many of the African rivers. See the article Erecraiciry. Genus CLXIX. Piwetopes. a earhet Mearhorage he. as " i us contains twenty- species, formerly sechaded' nr the potas Silutus! Thay sre divided inte two sections from the form of the tail. The P. bagre ee rivers on the American conti- nent. eee —— Eee beet two ori« fices to each of the nostrils, a lengthened cavity on the head. The flesh is held in little estimation whe P. ascita exhibits one of the most remarkable examples of reproduction in the whole system. still in the uterus, 0 is left, resting on the , and attached to it by a cord of vessels. When all the yolk is absorbed, the remains of the egg pass the 706 Classificae to enjoy an independent existence. Other -eggs-come tion of Fishes. forward to the same position ; and when all have been excluded, the edges of the opening meet, and speedily row together, when a fresh rupture takes place in the following season. This is a curious instance of the ovoviviparous mode of reproduction. This species is found both in the East and West Indies. Genus CLXX. Doras. Two dorsal fins; the second adipose ; longitudinal rows of large hard plates on the sides of the body. Two species; viz. D. carinatus and costatus belong to this genus. They were formerly considered as Siluri. The first of these is a native of Surinam ; the second is common to America and India. Its flesh is said to have a very unpleasant taste ; and the formidable spines with which it is armed, are consider- ed by the fishermen as venomous. For the purpose of curing the wounds which they receive by accident from this fish, they anoint them with the oil which they obtain from its liver, a balm which they frequently carry about with them. Genus CLXXI. Poconaruus. Dorsal fins two in number, supported by rays; body with lateral plates.. This genus differs from the former, in the second dorsal fin being radiated. It contains two species, first observed by Commerson. The first named P. cour- bina, a native of Plate river, has twenty-four filaments in the beard of the under jaw. It grows to the length of more than two feet, and weighs upwards of six pounds, but its flesh is soft and insipid. The P. auratus has only one filament in the beard on the under jaw. Genus CLXXII. Carapnractvs. Two dorsal fins ; the second with one ray ; body with lateral plates. We owe this genus to Bloch. It contains three spe- cies, The first-of these, named C. callichthys, is found both in the East and West Indies. It lives in limpid running fresh water, and is said to creep out of the wa- ter to a considerable distance from the rivers, and to dig holes in the ground, in which it conceals itself. It seldom exceeds a foot in length. Its flesh is said to be palatable. It has four filaments in the beard, and the tail isrounded. TheC. Americanus has six filaments in the beard, and has hitherto been observed only in Carolina. The C. punctatus has four filaments in the beard, and the. tail is in the form of a.crescent. It is found in the rivers of Surinam. Genus CLXXII.. Pxrorosus, Two dorsal fins ; the second of these, and the anal fin, united with the caudal. The P. anguillaris is the only known species, and is a native of the Indian seas. It was inserted by. Bloch in his genus Platystachus. Genus CLXXIV. Acenetosvus. : Two dorsal fins ; the second adipose; chin beard- less. The two species, A. armatus and inermis, are natives of the Indian and South American seas, and were for- merly included among the Siluri. The first of these has a remarkable long serrated bony process on each side ofthe head near the nostrils. Genus CLXXV, Macrompuosus. - Mouth beardless; first ray of the frst dorsal fin lengthened; strong and notched; second dorsal fin supported by rays. he Silurus a of Gmelin, is the only known ‘mouth at ICHTHYOLOGY. species of the genus, It: was first described by For- skael. The snout isabout half the length of the body, compressed, and a little recurved at the top. The first ray of the first dorsal fin is serrated beneath for about half its length, and extends nearly to the tail... This fin contains nine rays, the second dorsal fin contains only six. -Genus CLXXVI._ Cenrtanopon. ‘Head depressed, and. covered: with large-hard plates ; e extremity of the snout, without teeth or beard ; one or more spines on.each gill lid. This genus contains only.one species, formerly term« ed Silurus imberbis. It. was :first.described by Hout- tuyn, andis a native of Japan. The body and tail are lengthened, and covered) withdistinet scales. The eyes are large-and approaching. Genus CLXXVII. Lorrcarta. Body covered with a coat of mail; mouth inferior ; lips extensile ; one dorsal fin. The genus contains two species, viz. L. setifera, and maculata, natives of the American seas. The mouth of the first is surrounded by .a mumber of small fila- ments, which are not \observable on the latter. © These fish bear a very close resemblance to the sturgeon in the armature of the body, ‘the position of the mouth, and the great size ‘to which they. attain. : Genus CLXXVIII. Hypostromus. Body covered with a coat of mail; mouth inferior ; lips extensile ; two dorsal fins. The presence of the second dorsalefin, is the charac- ter by which.this.genus is distinguished from: the pre- ceding. The only.known species isothe:H. iof Lacepede, a native of the American rivers. It:is the Loricaria plecostomus of Linneus. The flesh is said to be good. Grnus CLXXIX. Coryporas. Body and tail covered on the sides with large plates ; mouth terminal ; no beard: two dorsal fins, with more than one ray in each. A specimen of the C. Geoffroy, the only known cies, was found in the Dutch collection. Its native country is unknown. In the first dorsal fin, there are pie ie and nine articulated rays. The tail is or. . : ’ Genus CLXXX. Tacuysurvs. Mouth terminal, bearded ; the first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins strong ; dorsal fins two, radiated. The existence of the T. sinensis, the only known spe- cies, rests on the authority of a Chinese drawing in the Dutch collection. Genus CLXXXI. Satmo. Salmon. Classificas - tion of Fishes. — et Mouth terminal; head, compressd ; second dorsal gatmon, fin adipose ; first dorsal fin as near the head as the ventral fins ; upwards of four rays in the gill-flap ; teeth strong and numerous. The characters of the twenty-nine species which com- pose this tand.extensive genus, have not been satisfactorily determined. Naturalists, in general, at- tending to the characters furnished by colour and by the number of rays in the fins, have, we fear, multi« plied the spe ies unnecessarily. At present, indeed, it is difficult et the characters in ordinary use, to de« termine the young animals as of the same species with the old. Recourse must be had to the characters fur- nished by the organs of respiration, and the intestines ; and under the guidance of the marks which wey furnish, the species may be satisfactorily determined. ICHTHYOLOGY. Genus CLXXXII. Osmervus. Smelt. to separate genus contains six species. O. eperlanus, or common smelt, is well known, other species are natives of warmer countries. Genus CLXXXIII. Coreconus, Teeth in the jaws i Beet f : : : : Genus CLXXXV. Sennasatuus. Under part of the belly carinated,and notched like a saw. The S. rhombeus is the known species. It isa ident uae nearapamnnesunmetudaaean is said to attain to a considerable size. \ ned by Bloch, no 707 and below by a strong spine, forming a first or spiny ray on each side of the tail. In dia apalnsacheupa- E — ray in the caudal fin could be perceived. Dr Shaw, however, observed it in a fine specimen preserved in the British Museum. large; gill is oft te MEGALops, es large ; gill-flap of at least twenty-four rays. The M. filamentosus, brought from a by Commerson, is the only species yet discovered. The rays in the gill-flap are singularly numerous. The last Ligh tad ‘mre a 7 a ed Uh ead ke ee en tai 3 nape raised, an - spines in = of a dorsal fin. The Acanthonotus of Bloch, is the only known spe- s to nearly three feet in | Itisa native of the East Indies, and is said to be remarkably active in all its motions, and exceedingly voracious. Genus CLXXXIX. Esox Pix. Opening of the mouth ; jaws with teeth snout jdiorest sd naa! fics dhowt, 2 ly equi- distant the This genus contains nine species, which are divided to the form of the tail into two sections. active voracious fish, ran to a shark. inpreye on young serpents, frogs, vere OF fapetie lirde se Rah ia eld or able eati- mation, Genus CXC. Synopus, Dorsal and ventral fins Sore equines from the head; body and tail lengthened This wok. contains five species, distributed into two sections, from the form of tail. The onl ies pfs dare gy an economical point of yaa the i It was inserted in the genus Esox by Bloch. It lives in the rivers on the coast of Malabar, Its flesh is white and palatable. Genus CXCI, Spuyrena, Two dorsal fins ; Genus CXCIT. Lepisostevs. Garfish. Body covered with osseous Classificn. tion of Fishes, See + Pike, > scales ; one dorsal fin, Garfish. Classifica- tion of Fishes. —_——_ Saury. _ and gradually tapering to a fine point. 708 The armature of the species of this genus resembles a coat of mail, so hard are the scales, and so closely attached to the body. The L. gavial of La Cepede is the Esox osseus of Linneus. It is a native of the lakes and rivers of Europe, Asia, and America, but in the former country it is rare. The flesh is firm, white, and well flavoured, and much sought after. Genus CXLIII. Potyerervs. Gill-flap of one ray ; two blow holes ; dorsal fins nu- merous. : The P. bichir, the only known species, exhibits many singular peculiarities of structure. It is found in the Nile, pas oe described for the first time by Geoffroy, in the Bulletin des Sciences, No. 61. The body is nearly cylin- drical, long, and serpentiniform ; in the anal fin are fifteen rays; the tail is rounded. It is known to the Egyp- tians by the name of bichir, and is considered as a very rare animal. It is ‘supposed in general to inhabit the depths of the Nile, remaining among the soft mud, which it is thought to quit only at some particular sea- sons, and is sometimes taken in the fishermen’s nets at the time of the decrease of the river. It is said to be one of the best of the Nilotic fishes, having a white or savoury flesh ; and as it is hardly possible to open the skin with a knife, the fish is first boiled, and the skin afterwards drawn off whole. Genus CXCIV. Scomperrsox. Saury. Jaws long ; dorsal fin immediately above the anal fin; between the caudal fin and the dorsal and anal fins a number of spurious fins, as in the mackrel. This genus, instituted by La Cepede, contains only one species, with whose history he seems to be very im- perfectly acquainted. It is the Saury pike of the Bri- tish Zoology. Genus CXCV. Fisturarta. Jaws long, tubular; mouth terminal; one dorsal fin. The F. petimba of La Cepede is the only known spe- cies. It is the F.tabacaria of Linnezus. It was first de- scribed: by Maregrave in his history: of the Brazils, un- der the name of Petimbuaba. The tail is perhaps of the most singular construction of any species in the sys- tem. It is Rais forked, and from the middle of the furcature springs a very long and thickish bristle or process of a substance resembling that of whalebone, A variety has been observed by Dr Bloch, in which this part was double, and the snout serrated on each side. This spe- cies inhabits the equatorial seas, lives chiefly on the smaller fishes, and’ its flesh is poor, and unpleasant to the taste. Genus CXCVI, ep mir eet ch Yedinyp sallalad ta 2000, and now amounts to 2827. Within the last forty In the 1773, the whole I youn, dx take lieve ea Selle Jess than three miles of the-town, of thenr immediately contiguous, A magnificent court- house was erected eight years ago in the middle of the town, and adds to the beauty of the streets.. An asylum is also provided. for. the- zeeeption of persons deranged. Persons convicted of crimes are also confined im it to hard labour... JED a Roxburgh, at St James’s fair in the vicinity of Kelso, Jejurry ——\ and enjoy the half of the customs; privileges which redound more to their honour than profit, as they are supposed to have been conferred as a reward for meritorious services during the period of the Border wars, but are not productive of any solid emolument. There are four fairs held annually in the town of Jed- ans The whole revenue of the town does not ex- ceed £500 per annum, of which a large part is expend- ed annually for the interest of debt. The mills were formerly included in the lordship of Jedburgh, confer- red on Sir Andrew Kerr ; but were afterwards transfer- red, either gratuitously or for a small sum, to the burgh, and confirmed by a charter of James the First. The poor of the town are maintained by an assess- ment, laid upon the inhabitants in proportion to the value of their houses and landed property within the royalty. The number of poor now in the list of supply amounts to 67, andthe assessment granted forthe last half year, (July 1817) to the sum of £135, The annual rent of the houses and gardens within the royalty is estimated at 14000. A parish bank was established July 1815 in the town of Jedburgh, in partnership with the country parish, and six neighbouring parishes, which has fully answered the hopes of its patrons; the small sums deposited now amounting, July 1817, to £1996. An auxiliary bible society was established two years ago, under the direc- tion of the most respectable, neighbouring gentlemen, and the ministers of the town. A branch of the Bri- tish Linen Company was established at Jedburgh in the year 1791, and carries on business to a great extent. There is a good butcher market in the town of Jed- burgh ; the bread has been long excellent ; and in the summer months, and in winter when the weather is mild, the town is well supplied with fish, brought from the distance of thirty miles. A e-coach runs from Jed- burgh three days in the week, and returns in the alter- nate days. A coach also runs from Hawick to Berwick, which passes through Jedburgh and returns the same day. The greatest grievanceto which the town and neigh- bourhood are subjected arises from the dearness of fuel, eonsisting chiefly of coals brought from Northumberland. The average price may be stated at 1s. 7d. per ewt. The diversity of surface, and the adjacent woods and brooks, afford a variety of beautiful picturesque scenes. The soil is deep and fertile even to the top of the hills, and peculiarly favourable to horticulture and orchards, for which Jedburgh has been long celebrated. Some of the pear-trees, which bear the marks of great anti- quity, are sup to have been planted by the hands of ecclesiastical proprietors before the Reformation.* JEDO. See Jippa. JEJURRY is the name of a pretty large Mahratta town in India in the province of mt sa It is prin- cipally celebrated for its temple, dedicated to an incar- nation of Mahadeva, or Siva. It is built of fine stone, and has a very majestic appearance and situation, on a high hill, m a beautiful country. The ascent to the temple is by a handsome flight of bread stone steps, arches being in many places thrown across over the stairs. The inner temple where the deity is placed is ancient and not very handsome. The establishment of dancing girls attached to it, amounted. in 1792 to 250. The revenues of the temple are derived from offerings, and. from houses and ide given by pious persons. The annual expenditure on account of the idol is £6000. The idol has horses and elephants kept for him, and along with his spouse, is bathed daily in rice and Ganges water, the last of which is brought from a distance of 724 JER 1000 miles. At the annual fair which is held in Janu- ary. no fewer than 100,000 persons visit Jejurry. East Long. 74° 17’, and North Lat. 30° 54’, See Moor’s Hindoo Pantheon. JELLY. See Cuemistry, Vol. VI. p. 130. JEROM, or Hieronymus, was born about the year 329 at Strido, a town on the confines of Pannonia and’ Dalmatia. His father, who was a person of rank and property, took great care of his education; and sent im at a proper age to study at Rome, under the best masters of those times. Under the celebrated Donatus, he made great progress in the belles lettres, and all the learned languages ; and was particularly careful to ac- complish himself in the art of oratory, that he might the better recommend the Christian tenets. Having fi- nished his education at Rome, he travelled into various countries in pursuit of knowledge, examining all the public libraries, and conversing with all the men of learning in his way. Upon his return to Rome, he re~ solved to devote his future life to study, and to with- draw himself entirely to some remote region, at a dis- tance from large towns and civilized life. Taking with him only his books, and money sufficient to defray the expense of his journey, he proceeded through Asia Mi- nor to Jerusalem ; thence to Antioch, where he had a dangerous illness; and finally settled in a frightful desert of Syria, where he entered upon a strict monastic course of life, in the 81st year of his age. He applied himself especially with the utmost assiduity to the study of the’ sacred scriptures, and of the oriental languages ; but, after four years of laborious application, his health be- came so much impaired, that he found it necessary to return to Antioch. By Paulinus, bishop of that city, he was ordained a priest in the year 378 ; but with the’ express stipulation on his part, that he should not be confined to any particular cure. In 381, he went to Constantinople, where he acknowledges himself to have received much valuable instruction relating to the Scrip- tures from Gregory Nazianzen ; and, in the following year, he accompanied Paulinus of Antioch to Rome, where he became secretary to Pope Damasus. After the death of that pontiff in 385, and in consequence of the vexations which he experienced from the followers of Origen, he again removed from the city of Rome, and took up his abode at Bethlehem in Judea.~_Thither he was. foll rious parts, who had resolved to embrace the monastic life, and who were attracted by his fame for learning and piety to put themselves under his superintendence. Here he enjoyed all that repose in which he so much delighted, and employed the remainder of his life in composing a variety of learned works, and in diligently’ attending to the religious instruction of those who had collected around him as their pastor. He was much engaged particularly in writing against the prevailing heresies of his time, especially against the errors of Ori- en, and those who supported the tenets of that rival’ ather. He lived to the age of 90 years, retaining his vigour of mind to the last; and died on the 30th of September, A. D. 420. He has been pronounced by Erasmus, “ the test scholar, the greatest orator, and the greatest divine, that Christianity had then produ- ced ;” but Le Clerc profezzes to shew, that his eloquence is often the most hyperbouical declamation, his acquaint ance with the learned languages far from accurate, and his reasonings generally obscure and inconsistent. His’ style as a writer, is nevertheless acknowledged to be in no small both elegant and animated ; and his judgment and learning to have been upon the whole ® The Editor is indebted for this article to Tuomas SomEnvii4E, D.D. F.R.S,E. owed by many persons of both sexes from va- _ Jerom. Jermm, Jersey. Mineralogy. y! JER jor to those of any of the fathers who preceded him. His talents were better than his temper ; and he made greater attainments in the know] than in the spi- rit of Christianity. He was aman of the most choleric disposition, and ready to burst into the most outrageous abuse upon the slightest provocation ; insatiably greedy of fame, and bitterly censorious of his most ble Tivals and ts. The first edition of his works was pabli by Erasmus at Basle in 1526, with an account of his life prefixed; but the latest and fullest wes published at Verona by Vallersius, in 11 vols. folio. They consist chiefly of his Latin version of the scrip- ture, distinguished by the name of the Vulgate, com: mentaries on different books of scripture, polemical trea- tises, letters, and biographical accounts of precedin, ecclesiastical authors. Of these, the commentaries ve | letters are accounted the most useful, and the chief ad- vantage of his writings consists in the information which afford respecting the opinions of the learned Jews in biblical literature, and the fragments which they conta of the ancient Greek translations of the Bible. See Mosheim’s Ci. Hist. vol. i.; Lardner’s Works, vol. ii.; Milner’s Ch. Hist. vol. iii. ; Cave’s Hist. Liter. vol. ii. ; Le Clere’s Questiones Hieronymiane ; and Jortin’s Remarks on Eccl. Hist. (q) JERSEY, is an island in the English Channel, sub- ject to the dominion of Great Britain, lying off the coast <= pee dee ayer ane pee - logram, the extreme length of which is 12 miles, the ex- treme breadth 7,and the ia) area 624 squaremiles, or 40,000 acres. The climate is so mild, that frost is rarely of any duration, and snow seldom lies above two or three days in winter. Shrubs requiring shelter in the south- land, sustain no injury here from ex- wz flowers blow in the open air of the season. Fogs are not ey acer we there are frequent gales, together with keen penetrating wiehetted darent, which are severe on delicate con- The surface of Jersey is an inclined plane, rising general 100, poy esse hore te deer indented b fine be of which shore is 1 y many ys, of w Brelade, de But they ports w water. cliffs are in a of St Helier and St Aubin are A chain of rocks runs out from to mariners, as are ; and the tides, which rise copiously, that it has been observed, there is scarcely-a house which has not a spring or a brook near it. All the mineral waters hitherto discovered are chalybeate ; but only two have attracted any notice on account of their medicinal i in the parish of St Ma- by veins also perpendicular running north and south. fi remarkable caverns have been formed in them by the action of the waves. What approaches nearest to granite is quarried at Mont Mado, of which ample use is made for architectural purposes. Varieties ly hard and compact are obtained at St. Brelade’s and Plemont. These of sienite appear in some 725 JER places to pass into porphyry, in others into a kind of Jersey. green stone in a state of partial or entire decomposi- tion. No metallic traces, except of iron and manga- nese, are seen in any part of Jersey. It has been said that copper ore is found. Ochre of different co- lours is obtained in various places, and there are some specimens of tripoli. The surface of the island is extremely irregular, Vegetable consisting of numerous small vallies running across produce. the island ; and the soil, which is principally a light and fertile earth, has been compared to that of Guern- sey. Considerable variety of vegetables is produced here. Madder grows wild, also the luteola, single chamomile, and a number of aromatic herbs. La« ver and samphire on the coast, and chiefly to the north, Fine fruits of the highest flavour come to maturity in the orchards, A kind of pear call- ed chaumentelle is particularly celebrated, some at~ taining a pound in weight. It sells for a high price at all times, and is sent in presents to England. From the profusion of apples a great quantity of cider is ob« tained yearly. There are no woods of forest trees throughout the island; but one of the most important vegetables is sea weed, or vraic, which grows all around the rocky shore, and is used, either in a recent state for manuring the land, or when dried, as fuel. Only two seasons in the year, which are proclaimed by order of the magistrates, being appointed for cutting it, whole families watch the period when it is torn off the rocks by tempests, to rake it er. The ordinary farina- ceous grain of England is cultivated: also bearded wheat, called froment tremais in Jersey, which is reaped in three months, and the various edible roots. Lucern and clover are in general cultivation, but hops have not succeeded. Instead of reserving a field for each kind of grain, it is common to sow several in patches , in those of very small size. The vegetable preduce of, the island is considerably less than its consumption ;> and there is sometimes a temporary scarcity in the town of St. Helier, extending both to bread and meat. Many species of fish frequent the shores, but the in- Animals. habitants do not seem to avail themselves of the advantage to be derived from them. Rays, turbot, plaise, soles, and mullet are caught, besides others. * But,” in the words of an old author, “the sea about Jersey may be stiled the kingdom of congers,” which are seen among the rocks at all seasons; some six feet long; and weighing 54 pounds. Oysters, lobsters, and crabs, are plentiful. Numbers of small snakes, all harmless, and also beautiful lizards, are seen on the island. It is infested by toads of er size, though none are found on Guernsey. The legged partridge was once common, but is now nearly extirpated. There are three species of field mice, one of which, in as far as we can learn,is the mus typhlus, or blind mole, hitherto ascribed to southern Russia. It es to the size of a rat,: and is of a colour, with long hair: the eyes are so small as to be scarcely discernible; and under the fut there are in the site of the ears two bare vesicles. The’ horses of the island are small, strong, and hardy; and the cows are of that breed known in England by the name of Alderney cows. Sheep are diminutive in size, and mostly black. Another species is alluded to by authors of the seventeenth century, as ‘ those famous sheep with six horns, three of side ; one whereof bent towards the nose, another backwards towards the neck, and the third stood erected upwards in the midst of the other two, mentioned by writers as one of the singularities of this island, are become very rare.” Some are bred ; and hares are scarce. The inhabitants are distinguished by few peculiari- Inhabitants. 726 Jersey. ties from those of the rest of the British dominions, ex- —_~—" cept in their language, which is French. This is the Towns, vernacular tongue ; divine service, pleadings in court, and the public acts, are all in good French, which is un- derstood, and occasionally spoken, 4 the upper ranks ; but, in compli with custom, they figecnatp converse in the provincial language, which is described as consist- ing of more dialects than those of ancient Greece. But English is becoming more prevalent daily, and, if it re- ceived greater enco ent, would soon be universal. In the year 1806, the total population of Jersey a- mounted to 4363 families, consisting of 10,284 males and 12,571 females, being 22,855 souls, which is at the rate of 365 persons to each square’ mile. These are dispersed in twelve parishes, containing two towns, se- veral villages, and several fortresses.. The town of St. Helier is the capital, situated on the east side of St. Aubin’s Bay, and consisting of about 1000 houses, wherein between a third and a fourth of the whole po- pulation, or above 6000 individuals, reside. In the year 1693, it seems to have consisted of only 210 houses. Their antique sy PM is now modernized ; many of the streets have footpaths, but they are liable to be overs flowed by the channels of a stream from the north, and the town isnot yet lighted; consequently, a great num- ber of small lanterns are seen in motion at night. There is a square, wherein stands a gilt statue of King Geor H. in Roman costume, surrounded by a neat iron rail- ing. The parish church, which is the most modern in the island, was built in 1341; but, since that time, it has undergone considerable alterations. It contains a neat organ, and some handsome mural monuments. There are also chapels for Presbyterians and Wesleyan Methodists, both of which are neat and spacious build~ ings of recent erection. The Roman Catholics perform divine worship in a private apartment, not being: suffi- ciently affluent to erect an edifice exclusively devoted to the exercise of their religion. There area workhouse and a public hospital here for the use of the whole island. The latter was rebuilt in 1783, in consequence of ano~ ther being damaged by an explosion of gunpowder. It has commonly about 100 patients, of whom not above two-thirds are natives of Jersey, and about a tenth part of the whole labour under mental derangement. On one side of the square is. the court-house, a plain but solid structure, wherein are held: the assembly of the states and the courts of judicature ; and the governor of the island has a house and garden belonging to the town. A new prison, situated at the west extremity-of St. Heliers, on the sea shore, was completed in 1815. The basement of this edifice has a squared front of sienite from Mont Mado, and is separated from the upper sto- ry by a fascia of ee granite from Sorel, a rocky promontory in the northern quarter of the island. Above this the sienite is resumed ; and the uniformity being relieved by pilasters between every window, the whole is conga with an elegant cornice of Portland stone. The front stands on an arcade extending 120. feet in length by 8 in width; and the intercolumnations are grated to the crown of the arches. The space within the arcade is for the accommodation of the male pri- soners, when they leave their dormitories. Water is raised to a capacious cistern in the roof, by means of a forcing pump, and the prisoners of every description have access to a constant and ample supply: The centre of the upper floor forms a chapel, divided by partitions of sufficient height, to prevent any communication what- ever, whither the prisoners of the several classes are conducted by different doors. An unfinished. house in the town was converted to a theatre, where some JERSEY. comedians occasionally ir from England to during a few months of the year, and there oi siaceni lias in winter. A public library was established by the Rev. Mr Falle in the 17th century, which since that time has received considerable accessions. There are three gazettes in French published here on Wednesday, and one in English on Saturday. A weekly market is held for fish and provisions, which is well supplied, espe- cially from the coast of France since the late peace; most of the flour is brought from that country and England. Several packets are established between St, Helier’s and Weymouth, and there are regular traders to Southamp- ton, whither the voyage is usually made in between 16 and 24 hours. The town of St. Aubin’s stands on the opposite side of the bay, to which it gives name, about four —— from St eo per's es asmali place, situated under a range of cliffs, consists principally of one street, well sheltered from the prevalent winds, and commanding a fine and interesti ct of the bay. Being distant from the church of St Brelade, to which Bars perereeaen a neat chapel has been erected by private subscription. This town is protected by a fort mounting 14 guns, which has been erected on a rock dry at low water, but insulated with the. rise of the tide. A strong pier projects from the fort, within which there are 30 feet water at new and full moon, and although this is merely a tide harbour, St Aubin’s, on account of it, enjoys some portion of foreign trade. Jersey, from its peculiar situation, has been ened by more than an ordinary Arar of military archi- tecture. Elizabeth Castle, which is the proper residence of the governor, is a strong fortress in St Aubin’s Bay, defending the approach to St Helier’s, from which it is distant 663 geometrical paces, and is accessible by a sandy beach during five or six hours while.the tide ebbs, but is insulated with its flow. A fortification, which was recently constructing on the town hill over« hanging St Helier’s, is designed to contain 2000 or 3000 men. Here a well has been sunk 233 feet through the solid rock, which has from, 80 to 100 feet of fine water. Besides these, may be named. other strong places, as Mont Orgueil, Fort Henry, La Rocco, Seymour Tower, a fort at Noirmont Point, and Ich-Ho; as also a chain of Martello towers, redoubts, and’ batteries in.every maritime part of the island. Barracks, for the accom~ modation of regulars are erected in various quarters. In the time of war there were, belonging to the island, a troop of cavalry, six battalions of militia, consist- i above 2000 men, and a company of artillery amounting to 600 or 700. Few manufactures are conducted on a large scale in Jersey. About 24,000 hogsheads of cider, however, which is the common beverage of the island, are made an- nually; and a plentiful year will yield $6,000, Tanning, soapmaking, candlemaking, and other works, are among the manufactures for supplying the inhabitants. Great quantities of worsted stockings are spun and knit in the island. The principal ex; are cider, of which 1800 hogsheads are sent to En ; fruit, potatoes, cattle,and worsted stockings, During the five years preceding 1813, the exports were.at an average 768 cows, 13 bulls, 900 pipes of cider, 1228 tons of a From land. are imported corn, flour, seeds, live and dead " cloth, linen, crockery and glass ware, paving stone, and. in general all articles necessary for subsistence, apparel, and furniture. Salt fish to a large extent is import- ed from Newfoundland. The commercial relations of Jersey were formerly restricted for the most to England and France, after which another was opened to that island, where about 80 fishing vessels Jersey. Fortifica-- tions. Manufae- tures, Com- merce. ns rk ports, JERSEY. employed during peace; and now it trades country in Eur and also with merica. During the year 1813, there entered inwards vessels, and 813 cleared outwards, of which 440 in Those constituting the difference, 79, from England for which make no ut clear outwards. Fifty-nine vessels, rden amounted to 6003 tons, and na- belonged to the island in the year the of the island was prin- French, with a small proportion of Spanish mo- ; and the amount of specie was about £80,000 Ster- After the French Revolution, the ve of England into more gradual use, until, b gradual rise and silver, almost the whole Ba of the island of five and ten ap ter gee Others soon 2 ee F il ili u & . bd gg aig % t of they were sendy aiken ;ibet of silver coinage by government, accompanied a prohibition issuing notes of lower value than one aoe: le r Colquhoun, in his work on the Wealth and of Great Britain, computes, that the to- tal worth of the island, as property, is £2,610,030. In this estimate are included the value of the soil, of the blic and private i farm stocking, shi 3 Kinga offset peasy te thar worth above £ ,000 at the highest calculation. governor, are com- of the States. The court of of a bailiff, who presides, and twelve jarats; together with an attorney and soli- citor-general, a high sheriff, two under sheriffs, six an usher, The bailiff is appointed by the we ge the jurats are chosen by masters of families: he keeps the public seal, which how- cannot use without the consent of three ju- The consist of eleven rectors and a dean, corresponding to the twelve parishes in the island, and forming a vagal spiritual court, of which the dean is the head. In the assembly of the States, the attorney- and high sheriff are admitted ex officio, but have no vote. No assembly can be held without the * permission, who has a negative voice. But by an order of James VI. in council, he must summon the States within 15 days if the bailiffs or jurats re- quire it. Likewise he is directed to abstain from using his ve voice, except in such points as shall con- cern rae AN ey interest. Seven of each class of jurats, clergy, and constables, must be present to consti- tute an assembly of the states, whose business is chiefly raising money for the public service. There are seve- ral rities in the laws of Jersey, of which a code was iled by the States in 1771, and sanctioned the king. timation by su ent marriage is as inode anal the cessio aoa ~ weep a, he punishment of death is seldom inflicted; but be are ised: A. criminal convicted of forgery, which is not a capital crime, was sentenced in 1814 to lose the tip of his right ear, 727 Falle, the historian of Jersey, observes, that there are “yet remaining in this island, some old monuments of ism. We call them poquelays: they are great flat stones, of vast bigness and weight, ‘some oval, some quadrangular, raised three or four feet from the wrerah 3s and supported by others of a less’ size. At ten or twelve feet distant is a smaller stone set up on end, in manner of a desk, where it is supposed the priest kneeled and performed some ceremonies while the sacrifice was burning on the altar’ The monu- ments here alluded to are cromlechs, which the author, from the quantity of ashes found around them, and their position on eminences near the sea, sup were dedicated to its divinities. Only four of a decided character now remain, one of which is broken down. Jersey had formerly an abbey, dedicated to St, Helier, four priories, above twenty c apels, and twelve parish iets All the last, which were consecrated een 1111 and 1341, are still preserved, and some of the chapels. Jersey is supposed to ‘be the island mentioned under the name of Cesarea, in the itinerary of Antoninus, and to have thence derived its present name. It is said to have been afterwards called Angia, in a grant by Chil- debert king of France in the sixth century. About the year 857, it is affirmed that acertain St. Helier suffered martyrdom here, but how, or for what cause, or where- in his sanctity consisted, we are not informed. Indeed these early notices are extremely obscure and indefinite, Having belonged to Normandy of old, Jersey became an appendage of the British isles, when William the Conqueror subdued England ; and it was annexed to the crown, along with Gsse in the neighbourhood, by Henry I. However, the French made frequent endea« vours to recover what they conceived pertained more naturally to their kingdom, from geographical posi- tion, and in the course of the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, they reduced ‘about one half of the island. In the year 1518, it was visited by the 2 , which became so destructive in the town of St elier, as to oceasion the removal of the courts of justice and the market. About this time the superficies was partitioned among a number of petty owners, whose oppressions and dissensions were such, that Henry VII. instead of himself applying the sword of justice, which might have produced extermination, obtained a papal bull, excommunicating those guilty of intestine com- motions. In the reign of Queen Mary, the island was surprised by a company of Flemings, who eae did not retain it long ; and it participated deeply in the civil wars of Charles [. and his son. From that period Jer- seems to have enjoyed profound repose until 1779, when an unsuccessful attempt to take it was made by a Po Fat aoe troops. In January 1781, the Baron De Rullecourt endeavoured to capture it by a coup-de- main, with 1200 men. But part of his force being wrecked, only 700 gained the shore, who surprised the town of St Helier, took the lieutenant governor prison« er, and compelled him to sign articles of capitulation, and likewise to direct the troops and fortresses to sur render. But the officers who held the fortresses, having leatned that these orders were given by the lieutenant governor while under restraint, refused obedience ; and a body of military, having collected under Major Pier- son, speedily expelled the enemy, though with the loss of their own brave commander. Distant 17 miles from Carteret and Bail on the coast of Normandy; 21 from Guernsey ; 75 from Weymouth ; and 120 from South~ ampton. Lat. of St, Aubin 49° 12’ 59” N, Long. 2° 10'44" W. (c) Sersey. Antiquities. History, Jersey, New. —y~" and 74° and 75° 29' of West Long. General as- pect. Soil and agriculture, Manufac- turese 728 JERSEY, New, one of the United States of North America, is situated between 39° and 41° of North Lat. Its length from north to south is 160 miles. Its least breadth in the centre 42 miles, Its greatest breadth in the north 70 miles, and in the south 75. It contains nearly 8320 square miles, and 5,324,000 acres. It is bounded on the north by New York, on the east and south-east by Hudson’s River, New York Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean ; and by Delaware Bay and River on the south- west and west, by which it isseparated from the states of Delaware and Pennsylvania. The state is divided into 13 counties, which contain 116 towns, viz. No. of Counties. Bae Population. Chief Towns. 1800. 1810. Cape Mary 3 3,066 3,632 |Bridgetown, Cumberland 8 9,529 | 12,670 Salem .. 9 11,371 | 12,761 |Salem. Gloucester. | 10 | 16,115 |. 19,744 bale aced Burlington| Burlington 12 21,521 | 24,979 {Borden ‘ - town. Hunterdon 10 21,261 | 24,553 |Trenton. Sussex... 15 22,534 | 25,549 |Newtown. Bergen .. 7 | 15,156 | 16,603 |Hackinsac. Newark. Essex... .] 10 22,269.| 25,984 [Ble town. Middlesex . 8 17,890 | 20,381 |Amboy. Monmouth 7 19,872 | 22,150 |Freehold. Somerset. . 7 12,815 | 14,728 |Boundbrook Morris. ..{ 10 17,750 | 21,828 |Modesttown Total. . 13 | 116 |211,149 | 245,562 The three northern counties. of this state are moun- tainous, and the next four are agreeably diversified with hills and. vallies. The south mountain, which is one great ridge of the Alleghany range, crosses the state in Lat. 41°, and the Kittatinny ridge es a little to the north of the south mountain. The highlands of Navesink, on the coast, near Sandyhook, are about 600 feet above the sea. The greater part of the six south- ern counties are occupied with that long range of flat land, which commences at Sandyhook, and lines the coast of the middle and southern states. Nearly four- fifths of the six southern counties, or two-fifths of the whole state, are entirely barren, producing only shrub oaks, and yellow pines; but the rest of the state contains good soil, and excellent pasturage. Great numbers of _cattle are raised in the mountainous parts for the mar- kets of New York and Philadelphia, and wheat, rye, maize, buckwheat, potatoes, oats and barley, are rais- ed for, home consumption. Large dairies are also kept, and great quantities of butter and cheese made. Great quantities of leather are manufactured at the va- luable tanneries of Trenton, Newark, and Elizabeth-town. There is a considerable shoe manufactory at Newurk, a glass house in Gloucester county, and paper mills and nail manufactories are erected and wrought to advan- tage in several. parts. of the state. The iron works, which are a great source of wealth, are erected in Glou- cester, Burlington, Sussex, Morris, and other counties. There are no fewer than seven rich iron mines in Mor- - ris.county, two furnaces, two.rolling and slitting mills, and about 30 forges, with from two to four fires each. The annual produce of these works is about 540 tons 1 JERSEY. of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs, besides large quantities of hollow ware, sheet iron, and nail rods. . In the whole state, the annual produce is computed at 1200 tons of bar iron, 1200 tons of pigs, and 80 tons of nails, exclu- sive of small articles. The annual amount of articles exported from the sea- pare of New Jersey, was, in 1810, 430,267 dollars. he aggregate tonnage of the state for 1807, was 22,958. The exports through New York and Philadelphia are very great. The exports are flour, wheat, horses, cat tle, hams, cider, lumber, flax seed, leather, and iron, The principal rivers in New Jersey, are the Delaware and Hudson rivers ; the Passaic, which is navigable for 10 miles, and has very interesting cataracts at Pat- terson ; the Hackinsac, which is navigable 15 miles ; the Great Egg Harbour river, which is navigable 20 miles for boats of 200 tons burthen ; the Maurice, which is navigable for 20 miles by sloops of 100 tons; and the Musconecunk, which runs into Delaware. The principal towns of the state are Newark, a flou- rishing well built town, with a population of 8008, in 1810; Trenton, the seat of government, with a popu- lation of 3002; Perth Amboy, so called from es Drummond, Earl of Perth and Ambo, with a, popula- tion of 815; Burlingion, with a population of 2419; New Brunswick, where there is a college, founded in 1770, and a population of 6312 ; Princetown, a, village with 80.houses, where there is a celebrated college called Nassau Hall, founded in 1738 ; and Elizabeth Town, with a population of 2977. Besides 15 incerporated academies, this state has two colleges, viz. the college at Princetown, and Queen’s College at New Brunswick. The college edifice at Princetown is of stone, and is 180 feet in length, 54 in breadth, and 4 stories high, and divided into 42 conve- nient chambers for the accommodation of the students, besides a chapel, dining hall, and room for the library. A theological seminary with two professors, has lately been added to this establishment. In winter, there are from 70 to 80 students in the five classes of the college, exclusive of the grammar school; and in the summer from 80 to 90. The college at New Brunswick was founded by ministers of the Dutch church for the edu- cation of their clergy, and was incorporated in 1770, There. are a number of different religious denomina- tions in New Jersey, The.Presbyterians, who are the most numerous, had, in 1811, 64 churches, and 42 cler- gymen ; the Dutch reformed churches 64, and 42 cler- gymen ; the Episcopal church 24. churches, and. 10 cler- gymen ; the Baptist church 30 churches, and 23 cler- gymen; the Congregational. churches 9 churches, and 5 clergymen... The Methodists are very numerous; the number of their communicants was about 6739.in 1811. The Quakers have 44 meeting houses in the state. This state was included, in 1664, in the patent of Charles II. to his brother the Duke of York and Alba- ny, who soon after conveyed it to Berkely and Carteret. In the same year, three inhabitants of Long Island pur- chased from the Indians a tract of land, and called it Elizabeth Town; and in the year following, the colony received its own governor Sir. G, Carteret, and became a distinct. province, - The inhabitants are.a collection of Low Dutch, Ger- Inhabitants, mans, English, Scotch, Irish, and New Englanders, or their descendants. In 1810, the population was, Males, .. ee es ee + 115,357, Females. ..... a Nags BM Total population in 1810, 226,868 The militia in 1810, amounted, to.33,710 men. Morse’s American Geography. See Jersey, New. Rivers, Towns, Literatures Religious. States History, 4 Population. ' F Ls t Jerusalem. —_——— Tnhabi- JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM, a city of Palestine, in the pachalic of and the a npiatra ent yg ingdom of the Jews. It occupies declivity of a barren basaltic: mountain, at the ity of an extensive plain, in a climate ively cold, from its ele situation, where much snow falls, with copious. rains. The plan of the city is irregular ; but excluding the ci- tadel at the west end, it approaches to a quadrangular form. It is surrounded by crenelated wills of reddish freestone of considerable height, strengthened by square. towers, and mounting a few old 24-pounders, on car- riages without wheels. The walls are modern, having been built by Soliman, the son of Selim, as appears from inscriptions upon them. They are too thin to Sao pace tet comean ao ba tiliabewten teed papi Ler ing commanded by neighbouring heights on all sides. There are six gates, whose cuales partly of Hebrew origin. The total circuit of the city does not exceed two miles and a half. Some authors ex- aggerate its ancient limits to a great extent, while others. conclude that it has scarcely ever exceeded its present boundaries. The streets are narrow, as-is in the east, but straight and well paved. Several of them have foot-paths, and they are kept cleaner than is common in Palestine. Vacant spaces, and some covered by ruins, are seen towards the west, but no.open square has been purposely left within the walls. In general, the houses are well built of free-stone, and for the most part two or three stories high, with a plain simple front, without = in the lower eye ee a passenger walking the streets of Jerusalem ma conceive himself in the corridor of a vast prison : the door, besides, is so low, that a person must bend almost double to gain admission. The roofs are either terraced, or rise in domes, — the a mity of the = is interru steeples @ mosques an churches, rd tops of a few trees, and tufts: of nopals. Some houses have lL gardens, The total population of Jerusalem amounts to $0,000; but from having been peopled by Jews originally, this ee ee mixture of other nations, whose appearance, habits, and sentiments, are at considerable variance. Of these it is computed that 20,000 are Christians of different sects denominations ; 7000. . listinguished j : of a disposition ; of a deadly. white of wearing a white veil or a fillet round their faces, makes them resemble so many walking corpses ; but the faces of the Christian females are exposed as in Europe. Much variety of costume is beheld in the streets ; every one, whether Jew, Arab, Syrian, or Turk, adopting what he The lower orders, however, usually wear a -shirtof white or black, or one of broad striped brown, as in Arabia. Christians and Jews wear a blue turban as a mark of distinction, though a few diversify the colour; and shepherds in the neighbourhood have theirs white or striped like the Mahometans, - It ought not to escape observation, that blue is in many parts of the East a characteristic of Christi = diene unlikely on eae er classes in some parts of Europe a similar origin, Persons in easy, circumstances adopt the Turkish costume, with a hig turban. Both the Turkish and Arabic languages are common in Jerusalem, VOL, XI. PART Ms. 729 The mode of life among the inhabitants is dull and mo- Jerusalem. notonous. They have little to interest them: no active pursuit of manufactures, arts, or sciences ; no general. bond of union ; no object of common interest in view. They labour under the oppression of a despotic govern- ment, which exercises incessant extortions, without en« couraging the means which would enable the people to- satisfy its avarice; and so obnoxious is the pasha, that en his approach the inhabitants desert the city. Al- most al] the Christians entertain a decided antipathy to each other, independent of which a. strong aversion subsists between them and the Mahometans. All the different sects reciprocally consider the rest as schisma- tics and infidels, Those of each persuasion believing that they alone possess the true light of heaven, and an exclusive right to enter paradise, consign the rest without distinction to the infernal regions. Never- theless, this apparently goes no farther than words ; for there is more unrestrained intercourse among the inhabitants of Jerusalem, than of any other place under the sway of Mahometans, which is supposed to arise from the predominant number of Christians. Some so- ciality is practised among them; and even Christians and-Mahometans mix indiscriminately together. All the former, of whatever sect or denomination, devoutly implore the downfal of the Turks; and certainly with sufficient reason, for one leading feature in the political economy of Mahometans is extortion from those who are incapable of resistance. . The sciences have entirely disappeared from Jerusa- lem. Formerly, there existed large schools belonging to a Mussulman temple, but at present hardly any tra- ces of them remain, and only a few subsist where chil- dren of every sect learn to read and write the tenets of their respective religion.. The grossest ignorance is found to prevail among persons of the highest rank, who, on the first interview, seem to have received a li- beral education. The arts are nearly ina state of equal degradation: a late traveller affirms that he did not see a single lock or key of iron during his abode in the- city. ere are some weaving looms, and very hand- some yellow slippers are made, but the other manufac-- tures are apparently inconsiderable. An immense quan- tity of relics was wont to be made for the convents, as it is not evident that these were fabricated within their walls; which was either for export to Catholic countries, or to supply those whose devotion led them hither in pilgrimages, The traffic is not yet abandon- ed. Jerusalem forms a kind of central point between- Arabia, E » and Syria, and is a rendezvous for the Arabs of three countries, who come for the pur- of commercial concerns. But the chief trade of all ‘alestine consists in exporting oi] and importing rice by. the way of Acre, However, little benefit seems to be de« rived from it by Jerusalem. Possibly those whohave con- templated its former. grandeur in history .draw a contrast with its. present state, which is- scarcely. warranted by the reality ; for the,activity required by the very. sup- ies. which a city, of 30,000 inhabitants demands, is inconsistent with the picture of desolation which some travellers, such as Chateaubriand,. give of the streets. ‘Enter the city; nothing will. console you for its sad exterior: you wander over-an unequal sur- face in narrow unpaved streets, walking amidst clouds of dust, or among rolling flints. The darkness of this labyrinth. is heightened by cloths stretched between the houses. . Vaulted bazars, replete with infection, de- prive the desolate. city. of the remaining light. Some : AZ 730 JERUSALEM. Jerusalem. mean shops display nothing but misery to the sight; to the Dutch and English, and abundance of liqueurs Jerusalem: —y—" and they are frequently shut up from the dread ofa may be obtained.” All pilgrims are received here: on “VY cadi passing near them. No one appears in the streets —no one stands at the gates of the city. Sometimes only a peasant glides along in the shade concealing the fruit of his labour under his vestments, in the ap- prehension that a soldier may despoil him of it. All the noise which is heard in the city is the galloping of a horse in the desert bearing a janisary out on his way to pillage, or carrying him home with the head of a Bedouin Arab.” Jerusalem is abundantly supplied with game: provisions of all kinds are cheap, and the wine is good, The shops and markets are, in the ordinary streets, not restricted to a separate bazar, as is usual their arrival, they undergo some ceremonies, and the feet of Europeans are washed by the superior of the convent. They are lodged and supplied with whatever they require, and conducted to every sanctified place ; but the duration of their residence is limited to a month. It is common for persons of condition to make a pre« sent to the convent on their departure, which, in Po« cocke’s time, amounted to about £6 sterling. At pre« sent, however, their table is apart from that of the fa- thers: they bear their own expences, and the con« vent derives no advantage from their residence. Onl the poor are gratuitously maintained. The funds of . elsewhere. the convent are ample, being the result of donations Pilgrims. Independent of the stationary inhabitants and the from Catholics of all ranks, and especially Catholic other subjects of the Turkish government, Jerusalem princes, either in money or in goods and merchandise, is a great resort of pilgrims, among whom were many But the monks were lately reduced to great distress from Europeans in former times.. But though the zeal for the interruption of their European supplies by the war; pilgrimage has greatly declined, yet it is still very consi- and they are also occasionally harassed by the exac~ derable. In 1806, the number amounted to 1500, which tions of the Turkish officers. In eight years of the was thought small; but there were only two Europe- present century, they were compelled to pay 40,000 ans, of whom one was a traveller. Ithas been believed piastres, or about £6000. Nevertheless, they have ob« that the visits of Catholic pilgrims were the source of tained the esteem of the people among whom they eat riches to the convents of Jerusalem—a point dis- dwell, by their excellent organization and the regula puted by Chateaubriand, who quotes various instances rity of their conduct. The Armenian convent is the to confute the assertion. The city swarms with men- largest in Jerusalem. It is maintained in a degree of dicants, allured thither in expectation of alms from the splendour, attended with neatness, cleanliness, and pilgrims. good order unexampled in Palestine. ‘ Every thing Publie Jerusalem has a governor, who lives in state, and re- pertaining to it is oriental. The patriarch appears in officers. ceives strangers in a dignified manner ; a cadi, or civil a flowing vest of silk instead of a monkish habit, and judge, who is sent annually from Constantinople; a all around him bears the character of eastern magni-« governor of the citadel ; a sheik el haram, or chief ofthe ficence. He receives his visitors in regal stateliness, Mabometan temple ; and a mufti, or chief of the law. _ sitting amidst clouds of incense, and regaling them Edifices, This city is particularly interesting to Europeans, in with all the luxuries of a Persian court.” having been the capital of a people from whom all their religious opinions are derived, and from being the thea- tre of some events, which not only excited great sen- sation at the time, but have been carefully transmitted to posterity. Its public edifices are still numerous: the spots which are mentioned in Scripture in the en- virons are yet pointed out with pious anxiety ; but it must not be disguised, that some recent travellers, leaning more to ancient history than the affirmation of the moderns, begin to question the identity of the lo- calities which have remained undisputed for ages. The The church of the Holy Sepulchre has been cele- Sepulchre brated for ages as containing within its precincts a o Christ. tomb believed to be that in which the body of Jesus Christ was deposited. This structure stood on Mount Calvary. It consisted of several churches united ; and, besides the tomb, covered about twelve places cons secrated as the scenes of remarkable transactions. The tomb itself, a white marble sarcophagus of erdinary di« mensions, occupies a subterraneous chamber highly de« corated. Its sanctity, however, is denied by Mahomea tans ; and the later travellers, though they rest their opi« Citadel. resent citadel, which is supposed to occupy the site of nions on very different principles, have called its iden« David's palace, is a Gothic edifice throughout, with inte- tity in question. The former deny its sanctity, be« rior courts, fosses, and covered ways. No cannon are cause Christ ascended to heaven after imparting his seen on its walls; and in one deserted apartment, full likeness to Judas, who was crucified in his stead; and of old helmets, lie numbers of weapons resembling mus- the latter doubt its identity, because there is no evi« ket barrels, of which the use isnow unknown. This dence that the tomb attracted any notice until cen structure is also called the Pisan’s Tower, having been turies subsequent tothe event. Nay, they are di built, according to Doubdan, by the republic of Pisa, to go much farther, and to question the identity of when the Christians were in possession of the Holy all the localities pointed out as those of scripture, Land. But the religious edifices are more important partly because the topography of the moderns is incon< Convents. and interesting. There are several convents of Chris« sistent with ancient descriptions, and partly from the tian monks, whose total number in 1807 amounted to 61 ; and of these no less than 43 were natives of Spain. The Franciscan convent of St Salvador is a spacious structure like a fortress, which, with all its convenien- ces in relation to the usual accommodations of Pales- tine, has been compared to “a sumptuous and well fur- nished hotel, open to all comers who may be attracted hither by curiosity or devotion. Meals are served up in an apartment called the Pilgrim’s Chamber, consist- ing of sufficient variety, and adapted to every national taste. Even the beverage of tea is copiously supplied eause above assigned, that such points were not de« termined until the age of the Empress Helena, who lived some centuries after the death of Christ. Under this impression, the real sepulchre has been sought for among the ce one nd catacombs of a hill facing Mount Sion. The empress now named is said to have founded the church of the Holy Sepulchre from the real cross on which Christ suffered being discovered on the spot; and the tomb was covered bya chart rotundaforms ing one end of that structure, which has been lately des stroyed by fire. This conflagration is ascribed to the Are JERUSALEM. 781 Jeunlem. menians, who sought, by these means, to gain possession in diameter, and is sustained by four arches, reposing Jerusalem. —"Y~" of the whole edilice, ehach was partitioned into churches on four square pillars, the “ifeent sides of which res! st earl Mahometan This and chapels belonging to various sects professing the Christian religion. The monks who siostenanaed the sepulchre were particularly the objects of Turkish op- pression, which the sincerity of their devotion alone could enable them rr support. Rs | not only suffered grievous exactions, but were repea exposed to - sonal insult and danger. The Nesatimen st Jeuinicnens Seepage revere the tombs of ne ab which af- a profitable speculation to individuals, either from the pious endowments annexed to them, or the collec- tion of alms. At present the Jewish synagogue is a miserable structure, consisting of three or four ts, with roofs so low that they may be reached by the hand ; the whole is covered with filth and cobwebs, and disgust- ingly dirty. The _ palin mor phy tne pest a certain quarter, and are represented as living in av snleeralite wnnaltion. ieee city is equally sanctified in the eyes of Maho- enlarged with handsome columns of brown marble. Each side of the nave which it crowns rests on seven arches slightly lars above two feet and a igh. The walls rise thirteen feet above the tops of the arches, and each contains two rows of windows, A frontispiece, inlaid with pieces of beautiful marble, ornaments the niche from whence the Imam directs the prayer, with six small columns of white and de- corating the entrance. In a vault at one side the Ca- liph Omar was accustomed to pray. A causeway, 284 feet long, fronts the principal gate of the temple, in the middle of which is a fine marble bason, with a foun- tain in form of a shell that formerly supplied the wa- ter; and at the end of the causeway is a fine staircase sont | to the other temple Sahara, which takes its name trom a rock greatly revered in the centre of the edifice. This temple is octagonal, 61 feet of a side, and 159 in diameter. Jt occupies a platform 460 feet inted, springing from cylindrical pil- lf in diameter, and pee el temple. metans as of Christians. They call it e/ Kods, or the long, 399 broad, raised 16 feet from the ground, which holy, and have a ificent temple here, whose inte- is ascended by eight staircases. The exterior is en« rior has been anxiously veiled from the latter. Their crusted to its height with various kinds of marble, pa nathtmanept edion were profanation ; and although ising tra- veller, who more recently traversed or Fey east The disgples of the i prophet two sane- that of Mecca, Jerusalem ; el Haram by way of distinction, and ey eaten all who do | HI rt | FRESHER Hie 2 g however, as it is a group of mosques erected ccess is RE be considered as two distinct oo Kp apa eee pe panting th ome is composed of seven naves su with atta pherical segm ith which is a su: 8 i ent, with two rows of large windows, and is supported by four large pillars, together with 12 magnificent columns ranged in a cir« cle. The rock of Sahara approaches the segment of a $3 feet in diameter ; it is of its natural shape ; surface rugged and uneven. Here the Mahome- tans exhibit the print of their ’s foot when he came to pray; and they believe, that, next to the tem- ple of Mecca, the prayers of mankind offered up at the rock of Sahara are most le to heaven. It ae gS“ high gilt railing, and the sacred impression i is by a cage of gilt wire, The Mahometans are taught that it a evr erm 2 mo ordinary guard of 70,000 angels, which is daily relieved, and that other invisible of angels and prophets resort hither to offer up om In the pave- ment near the rock is a piece of waved marble or j , fastened down by four or five gilt nails, which, our ta uninviting, affirm is the gate to i Some of the nails they relate to have been removed by the devil attempting to pass, but he was overheard in time, and beaten back for ever. In this temple there is preserved a koran of enormous size, being four feet long, and above two and a half broad, which was used by the Caliph Omar. Every night 180 lamps are light- ed up here, and 175 in mosque Aksa. Besides these two structures, there are several others, and also platforms for oratories, within the spacious limits of the Mahometan temple, on one of which the throne of Solomon is su to have stood, Not tar from the ee ee building called the hospital of St Helena, which is still dev to charita- ble purposes. Every Mahometan any himself at the gate formerly received a supply of food, but the extent of the charity has declined. Hospital, It must not be conceived, that the few edifices hi- gnyirons of therto named exhaust the curious and venerable remains Jerusalem, of the capital of the Jews, On the contrary, they are JER Jerusalem. so numerous, that authors divide them into six different inhabitants. It is si notice, that tives regarding the natives of Jesso, and those which the Japanese obtained somewhat more recently. (c) 735 rar! JES JESSOP, Wituiam. . This able mngourend excel« lent man was born January 12, O.S. 1745, at Ply- mouth dock, where he was educated. After making some in the classics, he aegenes a perfect knowledge of the French language, and a considerable share of mathematical science. He early discovered a propen-~ sity to bag past ei and possessing a dexteri of working in w and metals, he constructed wi facility such articles as juvenile projects occasionally required ; and his family are now in possession of a tolerably good violoncello of his workmanship when a early dispositions recommended him to the notice of Mr Smeaton, then employed in rebuilding the Eddystone light-house, who confirmed his desire of learning the profession of a civil engineer; and he ac cordingly entered regularly into Mr Smeaton’s service, under articles for seven years. This event not only afs forded unities of employing his talents in a way suited to his natural inclination, but was the means of uiring the friendship of an able and judicious man, who was well qualified to form his judgment and direct Mr Smeaton having, after the completion of the Ed. dystone light-house, full employment as a civil engi neer, his pupil of course benefited by the surveying, investigating, and executing the various works coms prehended in such extensive ice. The construction of mills, drainages, harbours, and bri and the ims ement of river navigations, (as may be seen in Mr eaton’s ) during his seven years ser= vice, afforded an ample for acquiring knows ledge and practical skill. Eyen in canal making, the re- peated surveys, discussions, and pi ive practical operations during the execution of the inland navigation between the rivers Forth and Clyde in Scotland, which was under Mr Smeaton’s direction, enabled him to obs tain, at an early period of life, competent information upon an important part of his profession, which was at that time almost new in Britis eigen a i The advantages which Mr Jessop thus derived from Mr Smeaton were certainly great; yet there is reason to believe, that his early ‘ate constant connection witk this eminent engi created a degree of timidity in the exercise of his own talents; for we have good au-~ thority for stating, that, for some years after the expi- ration of his articled service, he was almost unwilling to undertake business on his own account. He there- fore continued to live with Mr Smeaton, and to act un« der his immediate direction, and, even when occasionally engaged in business for himself, he took no step without ing hi . This conduct may, no doubt, be ly attributed to his having become necessary to Mr Smeaton, and to the uninterrupted mutual con- fidence and esteem which always subsisted between them. In 1773, he was appoin ted engineer to the Aire and Calder River navigation in Yorkshire, which, (accord~ ing to a memorandum in our ion) he states as having found with an income of only £5000 a year, whereas twenty-five years afterwards he left it in the receipt of £30,000 per annum. For several years the improvement of river navigations and drai consti« tuted his chief employment, though he was also on several occasions consulted in to bridges and harbours. In the year 1783 he was appointed engi« neer for directing the improvements upon the river Trent, in which capacity he continued to act during Jessop: Jessop. 736 JES the rest of his life. He made several surveys and reports for improving the rivers Severne, Mersey, and Irwell; and also the upper part of the Thames. After Mr Smeaton withdrew from business, Mr Jes- sop stood at the head of his. profession : In the prime of life, and with a sufficient fund of knowledge and expe- rience, his talents beeame eminently useful during the ra- pid progress which, at this time, inland navigation made in England, To enumerate the objects of his labours, from the year 1780 to 1800, would be to give a list of nearly .all the improvements, of this kind, which were projected and executed during that period: But as this would exceed our prescribed limits, we shall-here only observe that the map of the canals in the counties of Der- by, Nottingham, Leicester, and Lincoln, were planned and executed: under his direction, as was likewise the grand junction canal which connects the midland coun- ties with the metropolis. Besides these, he was occa- sionally consulted in regard to most of the other canals which were then carrying on in other parts of the king- dom. For several years, previous to his death, he acted jointly with Mr Telford in conducting the great Cale- donian canal in the north of Scotland, and that engi- neer embraced every opportunity of acknowledging, in the. warmest manner, the advantages and satisface tion which he derived from the able, upright, and liberal conduct of his enlightened colleague and friend. In consequence of Mr Jessop’s merited reputation, he was consulted respecting theinland navigation of thesis ter kingdom, which was for many years conducted solely under his direction, The-leading arrangements were then made, in order to.establish a water communication from the city of Dublin on-the east, to the river Shan- non in the interior, and by, it to Limerick on the west; besides various collateral branches to the southern and northern parts of that fine island. The Mest yyw most difficult operations required to accomplish these desirable objects, were performed under his direction, and the whole put into a state of progress, which afs terwards only required to be regulated by the finan- cial resources and growing demands of that rising country. In regard to harbours, besides many of compara- tively inferior importance, which we have not room to enumerate, the great canal-and magnificent West India docks. in the Isle of Dogs; the extensive improve- ments in.the ports.of Bristol, Hull, and:Dublin, were planned and executed under his direction. These un- dertakings, upon an unexampled scale of magnitude and perfection, afford unequivocal-evidence of his abili-« ties as.an engineer, and at the same time formed a va- juable school for others who had: occasion to. construct similar works. From being scarcely of sufficient importance to con- stitute a separate profession when he entered into it, works requiring the attention of a civil engineer, were, in a'shert time, so greatly increased, that Mr Jessop found that the most unremitting exertions were unequal to the demands upon his.services; he, there- fore, in the year. 1785, introduced»Mr Rennie as engi- neer to the Lancaster canal. This selection is a strikin evidence of his discernment of human character, an although as the demand about thattime became ur nt, such natural talents and.assiduity must ultimately have acquired distinction, yet: their progress was not a little. facilitated by the long continued aid of so experienced and enlightened a friend. The preceding narrative contains only a rapid sketch SOP. of the professional career of this valuable man, who des Jessop ih ale parted this life on the 18th Nov. 1814. It will be evident to the reader, that in the course of discussing the important article Inland Navication, we shall have frequent opportunities of stating more at length the share that Mr Jessop had in the public works which are here only slightly alluded to, and dec the pecu~ liarities in his mode of practice, as well as the particular benefits for which his profession was indebted to him. » His mind was comprehensive, inventive, and sin« cere. At the age of threescore his mental energies were unabated. Unshackled by prejudices, he retained a youthful ardour for professional improvements ; and he would even then not unfrequently display a degree of jealousy, lest a more perfect mode was possible. He constantly devoted his whole mind to the subject be« fore him, and from which all personal considerations seemed excluded. Under these impressions his uni« form aim was to accomplish his. purposes by the sim- plest and most economical means: these he sometimes carried to a length to which the average talents of mankind could not always do justice in the execution : but he invariably disdained to screen personal respon sibility by unnecessary expenditure, upon the grounds; that it was the business of an engineer, and what ought chiefly to distinguish him from the common workman, to effect his purposes rather by ingenuity. of construction, than quantity of materials : that it was an imperative duty rather to risk occasional partial failures from: imperfect workmanship, than uniform-. ly to persevere in an unpardonable waste of capital ; and that no. clamour of ignorance, or prejudice, or consideration of personal interest, should for a moment deter him-from this conduct, f His discerning and ingenious. mind led him to found. his practice upon observation and just principles rather. than precedent. In-the important articles of Locks, Wharfs, and Retaining Walls, he introduced:an entire= ly new form, com of nearly one half the quantity of materials employed by the French and cual Eng- -lish engineers ; he contrived an excellent method of draining morasses and boggy land, more especially for the Eerpie of conbleqetion navigable canal through it; he communicated very judicious views respecting. the management of flood waters; he seized with ea- gerness the idea of acquiring an expeditious mode of conveying heavy materials hy iron rail roads; and was particularly: zealous for the general use of cylin~ drical broad wheels upon roads. composed of gravel But all. these matters, as has been already: observed, will be discussed under their proper heads ; our inten tion in mentioning them at present being merely to ex hibit the general tenor of Mr Jessop’s mind and conduct: Besides these extensive pursuits in the British islands, his reputation as an-engineer led to his being consult- ed. respecting a pri canal in Spain. What the practical result was, in that distracted and feeble king dom, it is easy to conjecture. He was also applied to by the American states, to select a properly qualified person for investigating and arranging several propo- sed inland navigations in that extensive region. In consequence of this, Mr Weston, a very ingenious and well-informed person, was for several years employed in North America ; but we suspect that some centuries must’ yet elapse, before the introduction of this expen- sive improvement can, with propriety become general in that infant country. ‘ Like most men of truly great minds, his; manners Pounder. JES were simple; when disengaged from business, and in the company of intimate friends, he not nie, displayed a playfulness of disposition, and a fund of foe eae es a Totally free of all envy and professional rivalship, his proceedings in i were free from all p and mysticism, and persons of merit never failed in obtaining his friend- ship and encouragement. Although indefatigable in performing all the duties of an active life, the writer of this article, who for more than twenty years enjoy- ed his uninierrupted intimacy, has heard it said that he had a natural tendency to indolence ; no symptom of it, however, could ever be discovered in his conduct, but rather, as has already been noticed, a degree of anxiety to be of the utmost service to his employers, and to rentler as perfect as possible the works under his con- sideration. A mind thus constituted, and exercising the profes- sion of a civil engineer, was, as might be expected, never behind in regard to ge knowledge and ex- imental : His irements in these * ledge, nerd to his well-earned re- putation, to intimacy with eminent persons of si- milar characters, such as the celebrated Mr Watt and Dr Franklin. For an acquaintance with the latter he was indebted to an accidental discovery, made as early as the year 1772, with to the repelling property of oil on water, and w the Doctor mentions in his works as havi oo communicated to him by an in- genious pupil rt Smeaton. before the public in the Mr J has not a character of an author ; for although many of his were printed, yet as this was done at the expence of pri- vate companies, and as they were not ex to sale, are of course in the hands of few. Ashe was always perfectly master of the subject, his mode of treating it was i comprehensive, and laconic. we TS, or the Society or Jesus, one of the most celebrated monastic orders of the Romish church, was founded in the year 1540 by Ignatius Loyola. This was a native of Biscay ; and while serving as an officer in the army of Ferdinand V. of was cor ped er in ac — of Pampeluna in 1521. Durin progress of a lingeri cure, he happened to ave os other amusement than what he found in reading the lives of the saints. The perusal of their history inspired his enthusiastic and ambitious mind with an ardent desire of emulating their fabulous exploits. Forsaking the military for the ec- elesiastical profession, he engaged himself in the wildest and most extrav adventures, as the knight of the blessed V After performing a ee the t 1 number of associates ; and, by his fanatical spirit or the love of distinc- Seiten shqenaetes the ntchichaieased actets te gious order. He produced a plan of its constitutions and laws, which he affirmed to have been VOL. XL. PART I. 737 JES the scruples of the court of Rome. He proposed, that Jesuits. the members of his society, besides the usual vows of poverty, chastity, and monastic obedience, should take a fourth vow of subserviency to the Pope, binding themselves, without requiring reward or support, to wherever he should direct for the service of chivcncs and to obey his mandate in every of the globe. At a time when the papal authority had received so se- vere a shock from the progress of the Reformation, and was still exposed to the most powerful attacks in eve’ bm this was an offer too tempting to be veidel, he reigning pontiff, — naturally cautious, and though scarcely capable, without the spirit of prophe« cy, of mreD Se in the advantages to be derived Ny oe the services of this nascent order, yet clearly: perceivin the benefit of multiplying the number of his devo’ servants, instantly confirmed by his bull the institution of the Jesuits, granted the most ample privileges to the members of the society, and appointed Loyola te be the first general of the order. The simple and primary object of the society was to Object of establish a spiritual dominion over the minds of men, the Society. of which the Pope should —— as the ostensible head, while the real power should reside with themselves. To accomplish this object, the whole constitution and licy of the order were singularly adapted, and exhi- ited various peculiarities which distinguished it from all other mohastic orders. The immediate design of every other religious society was to te its mem- bers from the world ; that of the Jesuits to render them masters of the world. The inmate of the convent de« voted himself to work out his own salvation by extra< ordinary acts of devotion and self-denial ; the follower of Loyola considered himself as plunging into all the bustle of secular affairs, to maintain the interests of the Romish church. The monk was a retired devotee of heaven ; the Jesuit a chosen soldier of the Pope. . That the members of the new order might have full leisure for this active service, they were exempted from, the usual functions of other monks. They were not re« uired to spend their time in the long ceremonial of- ces and numberless mummeries of the Romish wor- ship. They attended no processions, and practised no austerities. They neither chaunted nor prayed. « They cannot sing,” said their enemies, “for birds of prey never do.” They were sent forth to watch every trans- action of the world which might appear to affect the in- terests of religion, and were ially enjoined to stu- dy the dispositions and cultivate the friendship of per- sons in the higher ranks. Nothing could be oye geen more open and liberal than the external aspect of the institution, yet nothing could be more strict and secret than its internal organization. The gates of the socie- ty were thrown open to the whole world, as if there were nothing in its nature to dread disclosure. Men of every description were invited to enter, and talents of every kind were drawn together. It was.a company, such as had never yet appeared, of which all mankind might be free at pleasure, but of which every member became in reality an irredeemable slave, Other reli- gious orders were in a manner voluntary. associations, of which the-executive authority might be vested in certain heads ; but whatever affected the whole body as an act of legislation, was by the common suf- of all its members. the government of the Jesuits should be absolutely mos 5a. f; ola, however, influenced Form and by the notions of implicit obedience which he constitution Bad derived from his military ere resolved that °f the order. — ae 738 JESUITS. Jesuits. narchical. A general, chosen for life by deputies from “"v~"_ the several provinces, possessed supreme and indepen- dent power, extending to every person, and applying to every case. By his sole authority he nominated or removed every officer employed in the government of the society. He administered at pleasure the revenues of the order; and disposed of every member by his uncontroulable mandate, assigning whatever service, and imposing whatever task he pleased. To his com- mands they were required not only to yield outward obedience, but to resign to his direction the inclinations of their wills, and the sentiments of -their understand- ings. Every member of the order, the instant that he entered its pale, surrendered all freedom of thought and action ; and every personal feeling was superseded by the interests of that body to which he had attached himself. He went wherever he was ordered; he per- formed whatever he was commanded; he suffered whatever he was cagetnerts he became a mere passive instrument, incapable of resistance. The gradation of ranks was only a gradation in slavery ; and so perfect a despotism over a large body of men, dispersed over the face of the earth, was never before realised. To render the subordination more complete, and to enable the general to avail himself to the utmost of his abso- lute dominion, he was provided with effectual means of perfectly ascertaining the characters and abilities of the agents under his controul. Every novice, who of- fered himself as a candidate for admission into the or- der, was-required to manifest his conscience to the supe- rior, or toa person of his appointment ; and not only to confess his defects and vices, but to discover the in- clinations, passions, and bent of his soul. This mani- festation was renewed every sixth month during the novitiate, whicli was of considerable length ; and ev: member was also constituted a spy upon the candi- -dates, whose words and actions, and every thing of im- portance concerning them, he was bound to disclose to ‘the superior. They were required, under this scrutiny, ‘to pass through several gradations of rank, and to have attained the full age of thirty-three years, before they were permitted to take the final vows, and to become professed members. The superiors, under whose im- mediate inspection they were placed, were thus tho-« roughly acquainted with their dispositions and talents; and the most minute details of every one’s character and capabilities were regularly transmitted to the head office at Rome. These reports were digested and en- tered into registers, where the general could survey at one view the state of the society in every quarter of the world ; the qualifications and talents of its mem- bers; and the kind of instruments awaiting his selec- tion for any department in the service. The number of these reports, from the whole thirty-seven provinces of the order, have been calculated at 6554 annually. Besides these, there may be “ extraordinary letters,” or such as are sent by the monitors or spies in each house ; and the provinces were farther bound to state the civil and political circumstances of the various countries where they had their residence. These state- ments, when relating to matters of importance, were conveyed by a particular cypher known only to the ge- neral, The situation and interests of every department were thus intimately known by the head of the whole body ; and the employment of every individual mem- ber was precisely adapted to his faculties.» The mean- est talents were in requisition ; and, according to their own expression, “ the Jesuits had missionaries for the villages, and martyrs for the Indians.” There was thus a peculiar energy imparted to the operations of this singular Jesuits. ich has been compared to a system of me. “Y=” society ; which chanism, containing the greatest possible quantity of power distributed to the greatest possible advantage, ‘“* The Jesuits,” it was said with justice, ‘ are a naked sword, whose hilt is at Rome.” The maxims of policy adopted by this celebrated so« tts maxims ciety were, like its constitution, remarkable for their and spirit. union of laxity and rigour. Nothing could divert them from their original object; and ne means were ever scrupled, which promised to aid its accoraplishment, They were in no degree shackled by prejudice, supers stition, or real religion. Expediency, in its most simple and licentious form, was the basis of their morals, and their principles and practices were uniformly accommo« dated te the circumstances in which they were placed; and even their bigotry, obdurate as it was, never appears to have interfered with their interests. The paramount and characteristic principle of the order, from which none of its members ever swerved, was simply. this, that its interests were to be promoted by all possible means, at all possible expences. In order to acquire more easily an ascendancy over persons of rank and power, they propagated a system of the most relax« ed morality, which accommodated itself to the pas« sions of men, justified their vices, tolerated their im perfections, and authorised almost every action, which the most audacious or crafty politician would wish to perpetrate. To persons of stricter principles they studied to recommend themselves by the "ey of their’ lives, and sometimes by the austerity of their doctrines. While sufficiently compliant in the treatment of ime moral. practices, they were generally rigidly severe in exacting a strict orthodoxy in opinions. ‘* They area sort of people,” said the Abbé Boileau, ‘* who lengthen the creed and shorten the decalogue.” | » They adopted the same spirit of accommodation in Missions. their missionary undertakings ; and their Christianity, cameleon-like, readily assumed the colour of every re« gion, where it happened to be introduced. They freely permitted their converts to retain a full i of the old superstitions, and suppressed without he-~ sitation any point in the new faith, which was likely to bear hard on their prejudices, or propensities. They proceeded to still greater lengths; and, besides sup~ pressing the truths of revelation, devised the most ab« surd falsehoods, to be used for attracting disciples, or even to be taught as parts of Christianity. One of them, in India, produced a pedigree to prove his own descent from Brama; and another in America assured a native chief that Christ had been a valiant and vic- torious warrior, who;in the space of three years, had scalped an incredible number of men, women, and chil- dren. It was in fact their own authority, not the autho- rity of true religion, which they wished to establish ; and Christianity was generally as little known, when they uitted the foreign scenes of their labours as when — them. ' But the most singular tions, which principal- ly contributed to extend the er of the Jesuits, and to form that enterprising and intriguing spirit by which they were distinguished, were long unknown to the rest of mankind, and were concealed with a degree of care, which might alone have excited the worst suspi« cions of their nature. It was their favourite maxim, from their first institution, never to lish even the ordinary rules and registers of the . These were preserved, as an impenetrable mystery, not only from strangers, but even from the greater part of their own Bise5 JESUITS. which a ee of the institute were un- veiled to world. But the “ Secreta Monita,’* or i eH f i : H 5 i 4 | Pat it : g, e i i y | ; i F pF e f i i | E =F ih i i i a ; fai ¥ s i z f TIT 1th it fl ‘2 F Bre i aH Fy i? i = A if : ro] ; He 1 p I 739 their salvation, and effectually escape the pains of pur- gatory.—That the widow may di of her property to the society, she must be told of those who have de- voted themselves to the service of God, and be led to expect canonization from the court of Rome. Confes- sors must also enquire of their penitents what family, relations, friends, and estates they possess, and what they have in ; as also their intentions, which they must endeavour to mould in favour of the society. Such members as sot Pra 3 of acquiring riches for the society must be dismissed ; and if they appeal to the proyincials, they must not be heard, but pressed with the statute, which commands implicit obedience from all.—Such as retain a love for other orders, for the poor, or their relations, must be dismissed, since they are likely to prove of little service.—All, before dismission, must be prevailed upon to subscribe and make an oath, that they will never, directly or indi- rectly, either write or speak any thing to the disadvan tage of the order; and the superiors soonest wires, in order to prevent their future advancement ife; and noblemen and prelates, with whom they may have credit, must be prevailed upon to deny them their protection.—All must be caressed, who are dis- See ase coe rnp: ve fri oithe eicietiy: or posstmed of fower ; such aust be sent to Raine, or provinces, professors inveigle into a surrender of their effects to the society, and the superiors must shew a regard to such as have ising youths into the society. The ise or keep in subjection young agreeable persons, and noble fa« milies, like their other pupils : er must be won by the i ce of ies peculiar to ; but on other occasions, ially in exhor- ust be terrified with samehags arched Jesuits. progress of intention of the new order, was to promote with une- the society. and unfettered zeal the ‘salvation of mankind. Its progress, nevertheless, was at first remarkably slow. Charles V. who is supposed, with his usual sagacity, to have discerned its dangerous , rather checked than encouraged its advancement ; and the universities of France resisted its introduction into that kingdom. Thus, roused by obstacles, and obliged to find resources within themselves, the Jesuits brought all their talents and devices into action, They applied themselves to every useful function and curious art ; and neither ne- glected nor despised any mode, however humble, of * These and other Institutions, which contributed most essentially to the power and permanence of the society, are attributed to the genius of Laignez and Aquaviva, the two generals who succeeded Loyola, the science of government and the knowledgeof human nature. and who were far’ superior to their fanatical master in Jesuits. Its power and wealth, its estas blishments in South America, 740 gaining employment or reputation. The satirist’s de- scription of the Greeks in Rome, has been aptly chosen to describe their indefatigable and universal industry. Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes, Augur, schenobates, medicus, magus, omnia novit Greculus. They laboured with the greatest assiduity to quality themselves as the instructors of youth ; and succeeded, at length, in supplanting their opponents in every Ca tholic kingdom. They aimed, in the next place, to be- come the spiritual directors of the higher ranks; and soon established themselves in most of the courts which were attached to the Papal faith, not only as the con- fessors, but frequently also as the guides and minis- ters of superstitious princes. The governors of the so- ciety, pursuing one uniform system with unwearied per- severance, became entirely successful ; and, in the space ef half.a century, had in a wonderful degree extended the reputation, the number, and influence of the order. When Loyola, in 1540, petitioned the Pope to author- ize the institution of the Jesuits, he had only ten disci- les ; but in 1608, the number amounted to. 10,581. efore the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had obtained the chief direction of the education of youth in every Catholic country in Europe, and had become the confessors of almost all its noblest monarchs. They thus formed the minds of men in their youth, and re- tained the ascendancy over them in their advanced years. They took part in every public measure, and possessed at different periods the direction of the prin- cipal courts in Europe. They preserved the highest degree of influence with the Roman pontiffs, as the most zealous champions of their authority ; and were equally celebrated by the friends, and dreaded by the adversaries of the Catholic faith, as the ablest and most enterprising order in the church. In 1710, they pos- sessed 24 professed houses, 59 houses of probation, 340 residences, 612 colleges, 200 missions, 150 seminaries, and 19,998 members. In spite of their vow of poverty, their wealth increa- sed with their power; and they soon rivalled, in the extent and value of their possessions, the most opulent monastic fraternities. Besides the sources of wealth common to.all the regular clergy, they possessed one peculiar to themselves. Under the specious pretext of facilitating the success and support of their mission, they obtained a special license from the court of Rome to trade with the nations whom they laboured to con- vert ; and though these mercantile schemes tended. ul- timately to accelerate their ruin, they proved, during a eentury and a half, a most lucrative source of property and influence. Besides carrying on an extensive com- merce both in the East and West Indies, and opening warehouses in different parts of Europe for the purpose of vending their commodities, they aimed at obtaining settlements, and reigning as sovereigns. It was in this latter capacity, unsuitable as it may seem to their whole character, that they exhibited the most wonderful dis- play of their abilities, and contributed most essentially to the benefit of the human species. About the begin- ning of the 17th century, they obtained from the court of Madrid the grant of the large and fertile province of Paraguay, which stretches across the southern conti- nent of America, from the mountains of Potosi to the banks of the river La Plata; and, after every deduc- tion which can reasonably be made from their own ac- counts of their establishment, enough will remain to ex- cite the astonishment and applause of mankind, They JESUITS. found the inhabitants in the first stage of society, igno« rant of the arts of life, and unacquainted with the firsts “"Y"""” principles of subordination. They applied themselves to instruct and civilize these savage tribes. They com- menced their labours, by collecting about fifty families of wandering Indians, whom they converted and settled in a small township. They taught them to build houses, to cultivate the ground, and to rear tame animals; trained them to arts and manufactures, and brought them to relish the blessings of security and order. By a wise and humane policy, they gradually attracted new subjects and converts; till at last they formed a powers ful and well organized state of 300,000 families. Over these they exercised a mild and patriarchal govern« ment, and their subjects, docile and grateful, revered their benefactors as divinities. The country was divi« ded into 47 districts, over each of which a Jesuit pre« sided. A few magistrates, chosen by the Indians them< selves, assisted in every town to secure obedience to the laws. In other respects all the members of the ‘coms munity were, as one family, on a footing of perfect equality, and possessed all things in common, » Every individual was obliged to labour for the public, and the fruits of their industry were deposited in commonsstore houses, from which every person received whatever was necessary for the supply of his wants. Punishments were rare, and always of the mildest description, such as an admonition from the Jesuit, a slight mark of dis« grace, or at most a few lashes with a whip. | Industry was universal, but wealth and want were equally un. known ; and most of those passions, which disturb the peace of society, were deprived of every opportunity to operate. Even the elegant arts began by degrees to appear, and full. protection was provided against every invader. An army of 60,000 men was, completely armed and regularly disciplined, a pete of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and well provided with magazines of all the implements of war. The Indians of Paraguay, in short, under the government of the Jesuits, were an innocent and happy people, civilized without being corrupted, and yielding with entire contentment the most perfect submission to an absolute but equitable government. Yet, even in this most meritorious effort for the welfare of mankind, the peculiar spirit of the order was sufficiently discernible. In order to preserve their influence, they found it necessary to keep their subjects in a state of comparative ignorance; and, be« sides prohibiting all intercourse with the adjacent set~ tlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, they endea-~ voured to inspire them with a hatred and contempt of those nations. They prevented their subjects from learn« ing any language, except a native dialect, (the Guas rani,) which they endeavoured to improve asa general standard, and plainly aimed at establishing an indepen< dent empire, subject only to their order, which could scarcely have failed, from its excellent constitution and police, to have extended its dominion over all the southern continent of America. : Jesuits. Though the power of the Jesuits had become so ex Reverses tensive, and though their interests generally prospered and over- during a period of more than two centuries, their pros throw of the gress was by no means uninterrupted ; and, by their sity. own misconduct, they soon excited the most formida- ble counteractions. Scarcely had they effected their establishment in France, in defiance of the parliaments and universities, when their existence was endangered by the fanaticism of their own members. John Chas- tel, one of their pupils, made an attempt upon the life of Henry IV.; and Father Guiscard, another of the or 4: JESUITS. Jemuits. der, was convicted of composing writings favourable to 1" regicide. The parliaments seized the moment of their 741 upon being indemnified from the funds of the order. t Jesuits. The claim was resisted, and a law suit commenced, — disgrace, and procured their banishment from every their flexible system of morality, became their patron, and selected one of their number as.his confessor. They were favoured by Louis XIII. and his minister Richelieu, on account of their literary exertions ; but it was in the succeeding reign of Louis XIV. that they reached the summit of their prosperity. The Fathers La Chaise and Le Teltier, were successively confessors to the king ; and did not fail to employ their influence for the interest of their order ; but the latter carried on i j with so blind and a zeal, that one of esuits is ted to have said of him, “ he drives at such a rate, ge ner ye Pg The Jan- senists were i objects of his machinations, wi herndenan ined eabomoplished the denoun. tion of their celebrated college and convent at. Port Royal. Before the fall, however, of this honoured se- minary, a shaft from its bow had reached the heart of a eh The “ Provincial Letters of Pascal” been published, in which the quibbling morality P retained in a considerable degree. But they soon revived the odium of the public by their intolerant ] 2 Reet, =: well matic im- ear attacking au Encyc: . oltaire directed them all i ers of his ri- gente iter Fé IE oe I : 2 that was wanted to put ceased to be either popu- “tt trade Martinico, bo weight oe which would have fallen in u society’s oats eo at Lyons and Marselles. These merchants, however, al- Jesuits in France were responsible for the debts of their missionaries in America, and insisted which the Jesuits, by virtue of their privilege, removed from the provincial. parliament to the great chamber at Paris. This measure rendered the dispute and their defeat mies of more general notoriety. They were, condemned to pay Jarge sums to the adverse party, and prohibited thenceforth from meddling in commercial concerns. The sources of their wealth were thus dimi- nished, and their enemies encouraged to renewed at- tacks. The questions at issue in the commercial dis- ute, had given the mpapairaes a plausible occasion for demanding to inspect the constitutions of the society ; and, in a luckless hour for themselves, they consented togendace their books. The parliament instantly saw seized the advantage which they had gained, and resolved to effect the destruction of the order. By an arret of the 11th August 1761, the Jesuits were requi« red to appear at the end of a year to receive judgment on their constitution, which, it was now discovered, had never been approved with the requisite forms. In the mean time the king of Po was assassinated; and Carvalho, the minister, who detested the Jesuits, found means to load them with the odium ofthe crime, Mala. grida, and a few more of these fathers, were charged with advising and absolving the assassins, and having been found guilty, were condemned to the stake. The rest were bayished with every brand of infamy, and were treated with the most iniquitous cruelty. Th were persecuted without discrimination, robbed of their property without pity, and embarked for Italy without previous preparation ; so that no provision having been made for their reception, they were literally left to pe« rish with hunger in their vessels. These incidents pre« pared the way fora similar catastrophe in France. Dus ing the year allotted for the investigation of their rules and records, the court evinced a disposition to protect them, and the bishops declared unanimously in their fa« vour; butan fro age pablic Sameny scar it ne« cessary to appease the nation by some acceptable mea- sure; and F 4 Jesuits, after all. are su to have been sacrificed more as a trick of state as an act of justice. In March 1762, the French court received intelli« ce of the capture of Martinico by the British ; and ing a storm of public indignation, resolved to divert the exasperated Ealing: of the nation, by yield- ing the Jesuits to their impending fate. On the 6th August 1762, their institute was condemned by the parliament, as contrary to the laws of the state, to the obedience due to the sovereign, and to the welfare of the kingdom. The order was dissolved, and their ef- fects alienated. But still the members, though no long- er dressed in their religious habit, continued to hover about the court; and, had they preserved their origi- nal cautious and patient policy, might have succeeded in recovering their privileges. But former successes inspired them witha fatal confidence. One of the arch- Subeps indignant that the parliament should presume to dispense with ecclesiastical vows, issued a mandate in favour of the Jesuits, and the fathers were accused of having employed themselves too industriously in the circulation of this pai The Ps jon ag took the alarm, and pronounced a decree, that every Jesuit, whe- ther professor or novice, should, within eight days, make oath that he renounced the institution, or quit the kingdom. In a body, whose moral principles were so * See also La Morale Pratique des Jesuits, per Arnauld. 742 relaxed, and whose members, while it existed, scrupled no subtilties in promoting its interests, it is a remark- JESUITS. mediately followed by Ferdinand VI. of Naples, and’ Jesuits. soon after by the Prince of Parma. They had been “= Jesuits. —_—— able circumstance, that, as secularized individuals, they acted in this instance with strict integrity, and refused the alternative of the oath. They were therefore or- dered to quit the kingdom, and this judgment was ex- ecuted with the utmost rigour. The poor, the aged, the sick, were included in the general prescription. But in certain quarters, where the provincial parlia- ments had not decided against them, Jesuits still sub- sisted; and a royal edict was afterwards promulgated, which formally abolished the society in France, but permitted its members to reside within the kingdom under certain restrictions. * In Spain, where they conceived their establishment to be perfectly secure, they experienced an overthrow equally complete, and much more unexpected. The necessary measures were concerted under the direction of De Choiseul, by the Marquis D’Ossun, the French ambassador at Madrid, with Charles III. King of Spain, and his prime minister the Count D’Aranda. The-ex- ecution of their purpose was as sudden as their plans had been secret. At midnight, (March 31st 1767), large bodies of military surrounded the six colleges of the Jesuits in Madrid, forced the gates, secured the bells, collected the fathers in the refectory, and read to them the king’s order for their instant transportation. They were immediately put into carriages, previously placed at proper stations; and were on their way to Carthagena before the inhabitants of the city had any intelligence of the transaction. Three days afterwards, the same measures were adopted with regard to every other college of the order in the kingdom, and ships having been provided at the different sea-ports, they were all embarked for the ecclesiastical states in Italy. All their property was ‘confiscated, and a small pension assigned to each individual 4s long as he should reside in a place appointed, and satisfy the Spanish court as to his peaceable demeanour. All correspondence with the Jesuits was prohibited, and the strictest silence on the subject of their expulsion was enjoined under pe- nalties of high treason. A similar seizure and depor- tation took place in the Indies, and an immense pro perty was acquired by the government. Many crimes and plots ‘were laid to the charge of the order; but whatever may have been their demerit, the punishment Was too summary to admit of justification ; and many innocent individuals were subjected to sufferings beyond the deserts even of the guilty. Pope Clement III. pro- hibited their landing in his dominions; and, after en- during ‘extreme miseries in crowded transports, the survivors, to the number of 2300, were put ashore ‘on Corsica. The example of the King of Spain was im- expeiled from England in 1604; from Venice in 1606; and from Portugal in 1759, upon the charge of hav-~ ing instigated the families of Tavora and D’Aveiro to assassinate King Joseph I. Frederick the Great of Prussia was the only monarch who shewed a disposi- tion to afford them protection ; but, in 1773, the order was entirely suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. who is supposed to have fallen a victim to their vengeance.+ In 1801, the society was restored in Russia by the Em- peror Paul ; and in 1804, by King Ferdinand in Sardi. nia. In August 1814, a bull was issued by the pre- sent Pope, Pius VII. restoring the order to all their for« mer privileges, and calling upon all Catholic princes to afford them protection and ‘encow ent, This act of their revival is expressed in all the solemnity of Pa- pal authority ; and even affirmed to be above the recal or revision of any judge with whatever power he may be clothed ; but to every enlightened mind it cannot fail to appear as a measure altogether incapable of jus« tification, from any thing either in the history of Jesuit« ism or in the character of the present times. It would be in vain to deny, that many considerable general mankind from the labours character of Their ardour in the study of ancient the Jesuits. advantages were derived by of the Jesuits. literature, and their labours in the instruction of youth, tly contributed to the progress of polite learning. They have produced a greater number of ingenious authors than all the other religious fraternities taken to« gether; and though there never was known among their order one person who could be said to ‘possess an enlarged philosophical mind, they can boast of many eminent masters in the separate branches of science, many distinguished mathematicians, antiquarians, cri- tics, and even some orators of high reputation. They were in general, also, as individuals, superior in de« cency, and even purity of manners, to any other class of regular clergy in ‘the church of Rome. Their ac tive and literary spirit furnished, likewise, a most be« néficial counteraction to the deadening influence of their contem monastic institutions, Even the debased species of Christianity, which wr introduced am the savage tribes of America, and the more civiliz nations of the East, was infinitely superior, both in its consolations and morals, ‘to the b and licentious rites of idolatry. But all these benefits by no means couriterbalanced the pernicious effects of their influence and ‘intrigues on the ‘best interests of society. The essential principles of the institution, viz. that their ‘orders is to be maintained at the expencelof ‘so« ciety at large, and that the end sanctifies the means, are utterly incompatible with the welfare of any com. * The Duke de Choiseul, the French minister, was a principal agent in procuring their final suppression, and the following origin has been assigned to be the hostility with which he pursued the whole order in every quarter of Europe. The Duke having no em- ployment in the government of France, happened one evening at supper to say Something very strong against the Jesuits. Some years afterwards, lie was sent ambassador to Rome, where, in the ustial routine of his visits in that situation, Ke called upon the Ge- neral of the Jesuits, for whose order he professed the highest Veneration. ** Your Excellence did ‘not always, 1 fear, think so well of us,” replied the General. The Duke, much surprised at this observation, begged to-know what reasons he had for thinking so, ds he was not conscious that he had ever mentioned the order but in terms of the highest respect. The General, to convince him of the contrary, shewed him an extract from a large register book belonging to the sogiety, in which the particular conversation alluded to, and the day and the year in which it happened, were minuted down. The ambassador blushed, and excused himself as well as he could, and soon went away, resolving within himself, whenever he should become prime minister, to destroy a society that kept up Such particular and detailed correspondences, of which it might make use to the detriment of administration and ‘government.”— Seward’s Biographiana. ‘+ It was long a current story at Rome, that this pontiff was accustomed to withdraw in the course of the grand mass to'take some refreshment ; that a young priest, on one of these occasions, brought chocolate to his Holiness, and immediately. withdrew; that the proper officiating priest soon after appeared with another cup, the pope shook his head, as conscious of having received a fatal potion ; that he pined from that day of a lingering disease, which reduced his body to the appearanee of a skeleton; and that he was known to have said, in allusion to the secret cause of his death, ‘** I am going to eternity, and I know for what.” Jesuits. a rality, ES stem of lax and pliant mo- Sir iilocs sad lenin roseges on bie A atrocity, an ing ray on ce world. Their set i ea the juris- diction of the court of Rome over every civil govern- ment, gave currency to tenets ing the duty of Po gy, Bc who were to the Catholic faith, which shook the basis of all political allegiance, and loosened the obligations of every human law. Their indefatigable ind , and countless artifices in resist- B munity of men: ir sy: : i é ; et oF 2, F f j g : ! ' : ii fi . i fb i i : : Lipit ilk : z 71; z. ? ie ae | I pt MISE Fee itl ia iri i a i z ++ | 7A3 JEW desting division—lay a train which is to explode in the citadel of truth, and overturn her sacred towers—we venture confidently to affirm that Jesuitism is that in- strument. But, as for any other adv: either to Protestantism or Popery, it is for the Pope, or any other infallible reasoner, to shew. Till some such superior being shall stoop down to instruct us on this point, and to establish a fact which the Jesuits themselves for two centuries, and by a whole regiment of folios, endea- voured to establish in vain, we must venture to con clude, with our forefathers, with the kings, and queens, and parliaments, and j , and churches of Europe, and with the infallible Pope Clement XIV. that Jesuit- ism is a public nuisance ; and that he who endeavours to let it loose upon society, is chargeable with high treason against the common prveraess ee iness of his ies.” See Robertson’s History o rles V. vol. ii. and the authorities there cited; D’Alembert’s Narrative of the destruction of the Jesuits ; A short View of the Polity of the Jesuits in Paraguay, attributed to the pen of Mr Burke, and to be found in the Ist vol. of The European Settlements in America ; Southey’s His- tory of Brazil; Adolphus’ History of land, vol. i.; Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv.; Christian Observer, vol. vi.; and A Brief Account of the Jesuits, $e. London, 1815. (q) JESUS. See Curistianity, Eccresiasticat His- Tory, vol, viii. p, 302, and TuzoLogy. JET. See Minerarocy- JET D'EAU. See Hypropynamics, vol. xi. page 507. JEWELS. See Gems and MineraLocy. and by directing their attention more to practice than to di ion, in renderi brave defenders of their independence. Still there existed sources of calamity and distress them; their country was na tha ems of subject to the kings of Persia. The Syrian governors, in order to secure and extend their influence , conferred the administration of affairs upon The bad effects of this measure soon t oe hoe a claim to this office. first ity befel the Jewish nation after their lon occurred in the of their having ded the king Jericho, and carried off all the inha- When Alexander invaded Persia, & = i P EF i iE to i : i | a ua F | t i if | 4 Z B * Christian Observer, vol. xiv. Sesuits ll Jewels. Jews. them austerely moral, and iD 5 cc in creating jealousies among those . $51 B.C, 32°! 8. ¢ Jews. ——— Jews fa- voured by Antiochus, 204 B.C. Civil dis. cords, 176 B.C. Judea ra- vaged by Antiochus, 168 B,C, ¢ 744 JEWS. on their Sabbath, assaulted the city on that day, and easily took it. When this monarch, five years after- wards, .was obliged to yield Judea to Antigonus, the latter behaved to the Jews in such a tyrannical manner, that great numbers of them fled into Egypt and Syria, and Judea seemed in danger of being entirely depopu- lated till it was recovered by Ptolemy in the year 292 B.C. In the reign of Ptolemy Philopater, a dreadful persecution was carried on against them, in conse- quence.of their attempting to prevent that monarch from profaning the temple, by entering into the sanc- tuary. On their ready submission, in the year 204 B. C. to Antiochus the Great, they gained such a strong hold on his favour, that he promised to restore Vercuslesn to its former splendour, to recall the Jews, and to replace them, as far as possible, in their ancient privileges. He actually granted an exemption of taxes to all the dispersed Jews that would come, within a limited time, to settle in Jerusalem ; and he ordered all who were slaves in his dominions to be set free. But the Jews were not long to enjoy this prosperity. About the year 176 B. C. a quarrel happened between the high-priest and the governor of the temple, which was attended with the most fatal consequences, a civil war ensuing, in which many fell on both sides. When Antiochus Epi- phanes ascended the throne of Syria, Jason, the high- priest’s brother, purchased from that monarch the high- priesthood; and afterwards introduced Grecian cus- toms, and the ceremonies of paganism among the Jews. From this time the service of the temple was neglected, and a general apostacy took place. The power of Ja- son, however, was not of long continuance; for his brother Menelaus having offered to the Syrian monarch a higher price than Jason gave for the priesthood, and having moreover promised to renounce Judaism, and embrace the religion of the Greeks in all respects, that monarch gave Menelaus a force sufficient to drive Ja- son out of Jerusalem, Menelaus conducted himself with great tyranny towards the Jews, who complained of him to Antiochus; but that monarch paid no atten- tion to their complaints so long as Menelaus could pro- eure money to bribe him. About the year 170 B. C. Antiochus marched against Jerusalem, in consequence of the Jews having rebelled, and made great rejoicings on the report that he had been killed at the siege of Alexandria. He soon made himself master of the city, where he behaved with such cruelty, that it is supposed, in the course of three days, 40,000 Jews were killed, and as many sold for slaves. Menelaus still retained the protection and favour of the Syrian monarch, and if possible exceeded his former acts of tyranny and cruelty. But the Jews were reserved for yet greater calamities; for, about the year 168 B.C. Antiochus, having been most severely mortified by the Romans, resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews. He ac- cordingly dispatched an army of 22,000 men to plun- der all their cities, to murder all the men, and to sell the women and children for slaves. The Jews, inca« pable of resistance, beheld their city taken, their temple profaned, and their religion abolished. About 10,000 of them, who escaped the slaughter, were carried awa captive, In order still more effectually to accomplis his purpose, the Syrian monarch ordered the temple to be dedicated to Jupiter Olympius, and his statue to be set up on the altar of burnt-offering. All who refused to come and worship were massacred, or tortured till they complied, Altars, groves, and statues were raised _ Jews. throughout Judea, at which the inhabitants were com. pelled to worship, while it was instant deeth to observe the Sabbath, circumcision, or any other of the rites and ceremonies instituted by Moses, The Jews now yielded to despair, when an eminent Jewsroused priest, named Mattathias, had the courage to oppose bY Matta- the orders of the king, and, by his eeiinte and exhor- er c tations, roused the spirits and the zeal oF his country- is men. In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias, finding that his followers daily increased in number, attacked the Syrians and apostate Jews, marching from city to city, overturning the idolatrous altars, and opening the syna- gogues. He was so successful, that in the space of a year he had extended his reformation throughout a con- siderable part of Judea, and he could probably have com jeted it had he not died. e was succeeded by the famous Judas Maccabeus, Judas Mac- who, at the head of 6000 men, made himself master of ¢beus, some of the strongest fortresses in Judea, and after de. 163 3. ©. feating the Syrians in five pitched battles, drove them entirely out of the country, except from a strong fort built over against the temple. In the year 163 B.C. after the death of Antiochus, a peace was concluded \upon terms very advantageous to the Jewish nation ; but it was not of long continuance. Judas was again successful in five engagements; in the sixth, however, having been abandoned by all his troops except 800, he, together with this gallant band, was slain in the year 161 B.C. Jonathan and Simon, his brothers, suc- ceeded him. The latter drove the Syrian garricon ‘from the fortress of Jerusalem, but was at last treacher- ously murdered by his son-in-law about 135 B. C. Simon was succeeded by his son Hyrcan, who made himself master of all Palestine, as well as of Samaria and Galilee. He was successful and happy till the last year of his life, when he became involved in a quarrel with the Pharisees, which is supposed to have shorten- ‘ed his days. The factious and turbulent spirit of this Alexander -sect also proved very troublesome to Alexander Jan- Jannaus, neus, who obtained the royal power in the year 105 105 B. C. B. C. and who seems to have been a monarch of great. : activity, enterprise, and talent. While he was engaged +64 in subduing his foreign enemies, the Pharisees raiseda =~ rebellion at home, but this he quashed in the year 86 . B. C.; and, by treating them with very great severity, not to say cruelty, he prevented them from again dis~ turbing his reign. Alexander having made several con uests in Syria, died about 79 B.C. He lefttwo sons, yreanus and Aristobulus, but bequeathed the govern- ment to his wife as long as she lived. The Pharisees Rebellion by this time had again put forth their power, and be- of the came so turbulent as to render the situation of the Ph#"sees queen very unpleasant: they even compelled her to rsecute the Sadducees in a most cruel manner. On er death, contests began between her sons: the Pha. risees supported Hyrcanus, but his army deserting to Aristobulus, the former was obli, to abandon all ti- tle both to the royal and ponti gnity. His a notwithstandi etal eaiated and were active arena having obtained the assistance of the King of Arabia, invaded Judea, defeated Aristobulus, and closely be- sieged him in Jerusalem. In this situation, the latter called in the Romans, and by their means drove the Arabians out of the country. After this, both the brothers agreed to constitute Pompey, at that time commander in chief of all the _—— JEWS. Jews. Roman forces in the east, the arbitrator of their differ- ences. Pompey had resolved to take the part of Hyr- foecin anus; and Aristobulus, ing this, to the affairs of defend himself against the Romans. On this, the Ro- man summoned him to appear before him, which he reluctantly did. Pom insisted that he should deliver “JAS tween Philip and Herod; the former of whom had Jews. Trachonitis, Batanea, and Auranitis, with a=" small part of Galilee; the latter had the:rest of Gali- lee, and the countries beyond the Jordan. x A few years after this division, Archelaus was sum- ‘— moned to Rome by the Emperor, in consequence of ah complaints against his tyranny. His effects were con- | fiscated, himself banished, and a Roman governor ap- | pointed over Judea, which was declared a Roman pro- Declared a vince. The Jews, dissatisfied at this arrangement, and Roman moreover, excited to tumult by the taxes imposed upon province. them by their new masters, were seldom quiet; their rest- 63 B.C. vot that — The Jews were still so scrupulous, w not do any thing on the Sabbath to ores the besiegers from carrying on their works. city was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C. Twelve thousand of the inhabitants were slaughtered, the dignity of high priest, with So uno ut geinen bea Gatadien codetionene taleat ? i i z 2. = : uf 1 rt fi tf iF it = gare ll : : : i t i i ik é t g Zealots, after havi lessness was increased by their expectation at this time of their Messiah; and, as they anticipated in him a temporal prince, they looked forward to his coming as the era of their emancipation from the Roman yoke, and their restoration to national independance and wer. The governors inted by the Romans were frequent changed, but seldom was the bene- to was one continued scene of rapine, tyranny, and cruel- ty. Seven years after his sebndeitiinbios of our Saviour, he was removed — ~ the grandson of Herod, was raised'to the royal dignity. His character and conduct coupe siialiansi0 tober 08 ilo grandfather, and his death was equally dreadful and» singular. On his death, Judea was again déMared a» Roman province. The governors appointed to rule over it were distingui for every species of vice; . and from them the Jews suffered so much, that many of the inhabitants emigrated. About this time it was computed that there were in Jerusalem between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000 Jews. : In the year 67 A. D. ‘that fatal war between the War be- Jews and the Romans commenced, which ended in the tween the destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersi mis pcs ae of this war was a dispute between Jews and the Syrians respecting the city of Cesa-. rea. Nero decided the question against xe former, who immediately took up arms. ul cruelties - were committed by both parties, but the Jews suffered. most: 20,000 of were massacred by the Syrians and Romans at Ceesarea; 50,000 at Alexandria; 2000 at Ptolemais, and 3500 at Jerusalem. Soon after these - massacres, the Jews obtained some partial and tempo- rary successes, in consequence of which Vespasian was sent into Judea with an army of 60,000 men. in the- year 68 A. D. His success was great and rapid, while - the Jews, instead of uniting to oppose him, and save their country, were divided into two parties: one were for submitting to the Romans, the other opposed all peaceable measures. This dissension was not confined to Jerusalem, but h all the cities, towns, and villages of Judea: even houses and families were divided against each other. Jerusalem was the scene of their contentions. The city was filled with butch- eries of the most horrid kind. Twelve thousand per- sons of noble extraction, and in the flower of their age, were put to death by the Zealots, for so that party who were for war with the Romans were called. The massacred or driven away the 4 posite party, t their arms against themselves, till, in the year 72 A. D. Titus advanced at the head of a Jews. About the 16th year of Christ, Pon- Pontius Pi- tius Pilate was — governor: his administration lateappoint- - ed gover- nor of Ju- dea. government, and Agrippa, a, D, 16. ion of the Jews. Jews and erful army against Jerusalem. This for a while Jerusalem Siapeuied thelr mutual animosities ; but they soon re- besieged by turned to them, and thus facilitated the triumph of th a +, Romans. 52 746 Jews. As Titus wished, if possible, to preserve the city, he "sent the besieged offers of peace, but they were reject- ed ; upon which he resolved to carry on the siege with vigour a fortnight after it commenced ; a breach was made in the outer wall, by which the Romans entered, ‘the Jews retiring behind the next inelosure. Five days after gaining this advantage, the Romans entered into the second inclosure. Famine and pestilence now ra« ged in the city to a dreadful degree ; and these scour- es were increased by intestine feuds. As soon as Titus learned their condition, he again offered them peace ; but his offer was rejected. Upon this, he cau- sed the city to be surrounded with a strong wall, which, though nearly five miles in circuit, was finished in three days. By means of it, the besieged could not es- cape, nor receive provisions or succour. Nothing could be more dreadful than the famished condition to which they were now reduced. It was at this juncture, ac- eording to Josephus, that a mother butchered and ate her own child. ‘When Titus heard of this horrid deed, he swore he would effect the total extirpation of the eity and people. About the end of July, the Romans gained possession of the fortress Antonia, which obli- ged the Jews to set fire to the galleries which joined it to the temple. the factious in the city, instead of mu- tually yielding and opposing the enemy, grew more embittered against each other ; and one of them actually plunde’ed the temple.» On the 8th of August, Titus ha- ving in vain endeavoured to save that edifice, ordered the gates of it to be set on fire ; but he afterwards caused the fire to be extinguished before the temple itself was de- stroyed. On the 10th of that month, he determined on a general assault ; but before this took place, the temple was set on fire, whether by the Jews or the Roman sol- diers is uncertain. Titus in vain endeavoured to ex- tinguish the flames: his soldiers would not obey his orders for that purpose. A dreadful massacre follow- ed soon afterwards, in which many thousands perished. In the meantime, great preparations were making for an attack on the palace, which took place on the 8th, when the city was entered by Titus. The whole num- ‘ber of Jews who perished during this war is computed at nearly 1,500,000. Three castles were still untaken, two of which soon capitulated; but the third, Massa- dor, made a desperate resistance. It was extremely strong ; and the Roman general, having in vain tried his engines and battering rams against it, ordered it to be surrounded with a high wall, and the gates to be then set on fire. In this dreadful situation, the commander per- suaded the Jews to kill their wives and children, and afterwards to choose ten men by lot which should kill all the rest, and, lastly, one out of these ten to dispatch them and himself, having previously to-his own de- struction set fire to the place. This was accordingly done. Two women, however, who had concealed ‘themselves, came out,.when the Romans were prepa< ring to scale the walls, and-acquainted them with the fate of their town’s people. Thus ended the Jewish na- tion and worship in their own country. we Temple burnt. Jerusalem taken. History of the Jews led in England. From the prefac in England, fions, it appears that Mr Richard Waller believed them to have settled here during the government of the Ro- mans. is\opinion was founded on the circumstance of a Roman brick having been found at London, having on one side a bas-relief, representing Sampson driving ~ the foxes into a field of corn. From the elegance of the sculpture, end other circumstances, it was inferred that to Leland’s Collec- J EW S. this brick could not be the work of later sand if Jews. Roman, of Roman Jews, from the subject. However this “=~ may be, it is certain that the Jews werenumerous in Eng~ 4“ 9- 7*¥ land, so early as the year 740, since the 24th paragraph of the Canonical Excerptions, published by Egbright, Archbishop of York, in that year, forbids any Chris- tians to be present at the Jewish feasts.. In a charter of Witglaff, King of Mercia, made to the monks of Fn 05 there are confirmed to them not only such lan s as had been given to the monastery by the kings of Mercia, but all their possessions whatever, whether they were originally bestowed on them by Christians or Jews, During the feudal ages, the Jews, from their aversion to war, and their love of gain, seem to have been the most opulent, as well as the most polished and enlightened portion of the laity... They were the only bankers of the period. They conducted foreign trade, and in the course of it often visited the countries of southern Europe. - Most of the gold and silver orna- ments for altars were wrought by them. William Ru- Favoured fus encouraged them to enter into selemn contests with by Williay his bishops concerning the true faith ; swearing by the Rufus. faith of St Luke, his favourite oath, that, if te Jews were victorious in the dispute, he would turn Jew him- self. . Accordingly during his reign there was a public meeting for this disputation, at which the Jews oppo- sed the Christians with so much vigour, promptitude, and acuteness, that the clergy felt considerable anxiety respecting the issue. : Henry II. in the 24th year of his reign; granted a Numbers burial-place to the Jews on the outside of every city and wealth where they dwelt. At this period, one Joshua, a Jew, in the reig. furnished the rebels in Ireland with great sums of mo. f Henry 11 ney; and another Jew of Bury St Edmunds took in pledge certain vessels Kina to the service of the altar. Such was the confidence they felt either in their numbers or their wealth, that at this time they under rated the highest dignitaries of the church. In the year 1188, the parliament of Northampton proposed to assess the Jews at £60,000, and the Christians at £70,000, towards carrying on a projected war. In the reign of Richard I. the prejudices of the people of Eng- land seem to have been for the first time generally and strongly excited against them. A crusade had been re- pjyndered iohead on ; the populace, roused by the declamations of jn the reign the clergy, easily turned their zeal against the Jews. of Richard t. In London, their houses were broken open and plun- dered. On this occasion, three persons only were pu- nished, who through mistake had damaged the houses of Christians, In the space of six months, the persecu« tion of the Jews became general throughout the king« dom. The most dreadful outrage against them was committed at Stamford fair. Here were collected an immense number of the populace, who were p ing to go with te be a: the eae” ies for this en« terprise they ready expen e little Property they possessed; they resolved to force the Jewsalsoto . ~ contribute their share. With this intention, they at« tacked them when assembled in great numbers at this : fair, and quickly made themselves masters both of their II. It is uncertain at what period the Jews first set-. . ns and fortunes ; the former of which they treated with all kinds of barbarity. A few of them were so for= tunate as to obtain shelter in the castle. The king did not endeavour to prevent this outrage, nor did he pu-« nish it.. At this period, it is sup by some writers that they invented bills of ex ge, since mention seems te be made of them by the name of Starra, Gon the Hebrew Shetar,) in certain Latin documents of this era, By an edict of Richard I. for. registering their JEWS. OA ark See uer the taxes, assessed u Many emi- on them. The Jews found their situation under Ri grate. ard so intolerable, that nearly all the wealthier of them and there was a ‘consequent defalcation of the revenue. . This was so considerable in the reign of ear 1199, used his ut- pl than ever. It has been remarked, that Magna Charta sanctions an injustice to this ill-used race, by enacting, that “if any persons have borrowed of the Jews, more or less, and die before they have paid the debt, the debt shall not money-lenders, and as they were the only alone are mentioned. . LK me, “tebe enry IIL. | them to he also liberated I if | Aue We tt F E hy iH if HE nul = & i rE if i t ; £ | ft i i Fret i iF F as ‘BE lt ES i i = & & F Hl 747 In the third year of Edward I. a law passed the Commons concerning Judaism, which seemed to pro- ort mise them some security, Nevertheless, in the year oir. thei- 1290, this monarch seized on all their real estates, and property, banished the whole of them from the kingdom. From A, D. 1290, 15,000 to 16,000 Jews were thus ruined, and then ex- and expels) pelled. They left behind them several valuable libra- te™. ries, particularly at Stamford and Oxford. The latter being sold among the students, most of the Hebrew books were bought by the famous Roger Bacon, who, in a short note written in one of them, declares they were of great service to him in his studies. The ex- pulsion of the Jews at this time was so complete, that no farther traces of them in England occur till long af- ter the Reformation. Oliver Cromwell made the first attempt to restore to Cromwell England the industry and wealth of the Jews: the in- testores tercourse between them was man by means of one ™*™- Henry Martin, who ed a deputation from the Jews at Amsterdam to wait upon the English ambas- sador there : from him they obtained permission to send a public envoy with proposals to London. Manasseh Ben Israel, who stiled himself a divine and doctor of hysic, but who was in reality a printer and booksel- er, was selected for this embassy, of which he publish- ed a particular account, On his arrival in England, he presented an address to Cromwell, ising his au- thority, and’ solicting his protection. On the 4th of — December on re summoned a ey pes] consisting of two lawyers, seven citizens, and 14 n Ereschess, to consult upon this: request of the Jews ; t he found so much prejudice and opposition, that, after a conference of four days, he dissolved the meet- ing. While this affair was pending, a Rabbi propagated the opinion that Cromwell was the ex Messiah. About this time a few appear to have settled in Lon. don, since, in the year 1663, their register of births contained twelve names; and during the whole reign Numbers of Charles II. who introduced the sale of patents of increase un- denization, their numbers increased. In 1684, James II, det Charles remitted the alien duty upon all goods exported in fa- sate vour of the Jews, This privilege was opposed by the English merchants, petitions from the Hamburgh com- Jews. Public pro- from the d company, and from 57 of the oq; : leading merchants of the city, being presented against seein it. After the Revolution, this privilege was taken away them, from the Jews. In the first year of Queen Anne, a ar statute was passed to encourage the conversion of oo IIL and 6th Jews, by emancipating such converts from all depen- o¢ George dance u their parents; and in the 6th year of 11, George II. it was that the Lord Mayor and Court of Aldermen of London, should apply to Parlia- ment for the suppression of Jew brokers; no public ing, however, ensued. In the 7th year of James I. an act was passed pre- venting all from being naturalized, unless they first are the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, ac- cording to the rites of the church of England. This act effectually excluded the Jews from being naturalized. In the year 1753; a bill was brought into the House of pin) for na. Lords, and there without ition, which pro- twralizing vided that professi e Jewish religion, them, 1753. who had. resided in Great Britain or Ireland for three years, might be naturalized without receiving the sa- crament of the Lerd’s supper. On the 16th of April this bill was sent down to the House of Commons, and, rguments on its second reading, a motion was made for its being in support committed. The bill was su by the petitions of of it. a few merchants, chiefly dissenters: In behalf of it, it 748 Jews. was argued, that it would increase the numbers and “_~"._ wealth of the people; that a great portion of the funds belonging to foreign Jews, it would be highly politic to induce them to follow their property ; that, connect- ed as the Jews were with the great bankers and monied interests of Europe, their residence in England would, in future wars, give the nation a great command of ca- pital, and facilitate loans ; that, even their prejudices as a sect would operate in our favour, and occasion our manufactures to be dispersed among the Jew-shopkeep- ers in Europe, who now had recourse to the Jew merchants of Holland and other tolerant countries ; and lastly, that Poland had never risen to so high a pitch of prosperity, as when her policy was most liberal to the Jews ; and that the sect itself had always aban- doned its offensive prejudices in proportion to its good Against it, usage. On the other side it was urged, that by natu- ralizing the Jews, we should import vagrants and cheats to burden our rates, and supplant the industry of our labouring classes ; that the rites of Jews would always. prevent them from incorporating with the nation, or becoming any real addition to its intrinsic strength ; while their early marriages and frequent divorces would occasion such a rapid increase of their numbers, that in the end they might become troublesome or even dan- gerous ; that. Jewish nationality would intrigue all the trade into their own hand; that they were enemies upon principle to all Christians ; and that it was endeavour- ing te oppose the plans, and to frustrate the prophecies of the Almighty, to gather together a sect of which the Bible foretold the dispersion. é The Jord mayor, aldermen, and livery of London, first presented a petition to parliament against the pro- posed naturalization, in which they expressed their a prehension that the bill, if passed into a law, would tend greatly to the dishonour of the Christian religion, and endanger the constitution. Alarm and prejudice spread rapidly and powerfully ; a zeal, the most furious, vociferated in the pulpits and the corporations against the bill ; and by the next sessions of parliament, instruc- tions were sent to almost all the members to solicit-a repeal of it; the minister yielded, and the bill was re- pealed by an act which received the royal assent the same session, By the 10th of George III. cap. 10, whenever any Jew shall present himself to take the oath of abjura« tion, the words “ upon the true faith of a Christian,” shall be omitted out of the oath. In courts of justice, they are sworn according to their peculiar rites. If Jewish parents refuse to allow their Protestant child- ren a suitable maintenance, the lord chancellor may -make such order as he may think proper. Society A few years since a society was formed in London for convert- for promoting Christianity among the Jews, and branch ing them. 5 of the society have been established in different parts of the kingdom. They have published several reports; but the utility.of this society has been questioned, and it has been alleged, we hope without reason, that they have not been sufficiently attentive to the investigation of the character and probable motives of their converts. Our limits will not permit us to dwell long on the history or present state of the Jews in other countries ; nor are we in possession of materials sufficient to ena- ble us to enter into detail on these points. In France, the prejudices of Voltaire against che Jewish religion, for a long time prevented the philosophic sect in that country from extending their liberal ideas of toleration towards the Jews. In 1788, however, the academy at Petitions against it. Repealed. Laws re- garding ‘them, JEWS. Metz proposed as a prize question, “ Arethere means of Jews. rendering the Jews in France usefuller and happier ?”. A Polish Jew, acounsellor of Nancy, and the celebrated: Jews in Abbé Gregoire, shared the prize. The work of the France. Abbé on the moral, physical, and political regeneration of the Jews, is an admirable performance, Inthe con- stituent assembly, Mirabeau, Clermont, Tourere, and Rabaud, advocated their:cause. The attention of the French government, however, does not seem to have been directed towards them: till the year 1806, when Bonaparte issued a decree regarding them, in which he appointed an assembly of deputies from them at Paris. in the month of July: when they met, they were at- tended by commissioners on the part of Bonaparte) After assurances of liberty and tion -on the one hand, and of gratitude and obedience on the other, it was agreed that a grand Sanhedrim should be opened at Paris, at which should be preserved as much as pos sible the ancient Jewish forms and usages. This was’ announced to the Jews in France and Italy, in an ad« dress, which advised them to choose men known for their wisdom, in order to give to the Sanhedrim a pro= per degree of weight and consideration. The Sanhe~ drim assembled on the 9th of February 1807: they drew up 27 articles for the re-organization of the Mosaic worship ; and passed several regulations’on the subjects of divorce, polygamy, marriage, moral, civil, and political relations ; useful professions, loans among: themselves, and loans between Israelites, and those who are not Israelites. At their second meeting in March, a law for the condemnation of usury was passed. Bo- naparte soon found, however, that he was‘not likely’to accomplish his object of constraining his Jewish sub- jects to assist in the cultivation of the land, and in fur nishing their quota of conscripts. In March 1808, he: issued another decree respecting them, in which he calls’ upon them to follow the pursuits of: honest industry, and to purchase landed property. This decree also an= nuls all obligations for loans made by Jews to minors, without the sanction of their guardians; to married women without the consent of their husbands ; or to’ military men without the authority of their officers. There were also severe regulations respecting usury.: At this period, the following return was made to Bona-: parte of the number of Jews in all the different parts’ of the habitable globe, viz. in the Turkish empire, 1,000,000; in Persia, China, and India, on the east and west of the Ganges, 300,000; and in the west of Europe, Africa, and America, 1,700,000, making an aggregate population of 3,000,000. It would appear, however, from subsequent a AT on this ea that this number is very far below the truth. Indeed; in Poland alone, recent and well-informed travellers reckon that there are 2,000,000 Jews. The Prince Pri mate of Frankfort, following the example of Bona- parte, put an end to every humiliating distinction be- tween the Jewish and Christian inhabitants of that city. Since the overthrow of Bonaparte, however, the inha~ bitants of Frankfort are said to have displayed great illiberality and intolerance against the Jews: and, in« deed, this feeling has manifested itself generally through- out Germany. In this part of the popular tn Germa- prejudice against Judaism was attacked some years ago ny, by paar in his plays of Nathan the Wise and the Monk:of Lebanon; and, at the same time, Meses Men-' delsolm published an excellent defence of general tole- ration, under the title of Jerusalem. C. W. Dohm, a Prussian, in the year 1781, published in‘'German, Ree JEWS. of which treat of the law of Moses; in the remainder In Holland, the condition of the Jews has long been favourable. In Italy, the first attempts were made to prepare the minds of the people for their Simone Lazzarato, of Venice, is mention- a pleader in their cause ; the friends of the Socini, to entertain sentiments favourable interference of the inquisition in fuse to communicate with the Mussulmans, or to bear arms. Cashmere also contains a large colony, su by Bernier to have settled there during the Babyloni captivity. IIL. The Jewish history is divided into two periods: the first eo ae to Christ ; i present time ; and the Jews in’ be of greater antiquity than the latter, and it of however, not being satisfied 749 Jews. of this article, we propose to confine ourselves to a “"\— ect the most important parts of modern The Jews divide the books of the Old Testament in- Their dive: to three classes: the law, the prophets, and the hagio« sion of the grapha, mae writings. They have counted not only Bible. small sections, the verses and the words, but even the letters in some of the books ; and they have likewise reckoned which is the middle letter of the Pentateuch, which is the middle clause of each book, and how often each letter of the alphabet occurs in the Hebrew scriptures. Besides the scriptures, the Jews pay great attention to the te dee or Chaldee > paraphrases of them: it seems probable that these were written either during the Babylonish captivity, or im- mediately afterwards, when the Jews had forgotten their own language, and acquired the Chaldee of the Tar- gums, at present received by the Jews; the most ancient are that of Onkelos on the Law, and that of Jonathan Ben Uzliel on the Prophets: the former is supposed to proaches in simplicity and purity of style to the Chaldee of Da- niel and Ezra. The Targum on the prophets is believed to have been written before the birth of Christ, and though inferior in respect of style to the Targum of Onkelos, is much superior to any other Targum. The Jews also regard, with is called the Talmud. This work consists of two parts; : the Mishna, which signifies a second law; and the Ges. mara, which means either a supplement or a commen- . The Jews suppose that God first dictated the text of the law to Moses, which he commanded to be. put in writing, and which exists in the Pentateuch, and then gave him an explication of every thing compre« hended in it, which he ordered to be committed to me« mory. Hence the former is called the written, and the: latter the oral law. These two laws were recited by .Moses to Aaron four times, to his sons three times, to the seventy elders twice, and to the rest of the people once ; after this the repetition was renewed by Aaron, his two sons, and the seventy elders. The last month of Moses’ life was spent, according to the Jews, in re- peating and ae the law to the people, and es« pecially to Joshua his successor. A prophet might suspend any law, or authorise the violation of any pre-« t, except those against idolatry. If there was any dierense of opinion respecting the meaning of any Taw or it was determined by the majority. When Joshua died, all the interpretations he had re- ceived from Moses, as well as those made in his time, were transmitted to the elders ; these conveyed them to the prophets, and by one prophet they were delivered to another. This law was only oral, till the days of Rabbi Jehuda, who perceiving that the students of the iaw were ually decreasing, and that the Jews were dis« keen dinkcnat e earth, collected all the tra« ditions, arranged them under distinct heads, and form- ed them into a methodical cede of traditional law ; thus the Mishna was formed. It is written in.a con- cise style, chiefly in the form of aphorisms, which ad~ mit v8 a variety of interpretations. On this account, a gemara or commentary was written by a president of a school in Palestine, which, with the mishna, forms the Jerusalem Talmud. The Jews in Chaldea, with this gemara, one of their Rabbis com’ another, which, together with the mishna, forms the Babylonian Talmud. argums, t veneration, what Talmud. Jews. —_—\—_ Cabala, Articles of faith. Customs respeating child-birth. Circumci- sion. 750 One of the principal branches of modern Judaism, is the Cabala, the study of which is regarded as the subli- mest of all sciences. By the Cabala, the Jews mean those mystical interpretations of the scripture, and me- taphysical speculations concerning the Deity, angels, &c. which they regard as having been handed down by a se- cret tradition from the earliest ages. The Cabala is of two kinds, theoretical and practical ; the former relates to subjects only adapted to speculation ; the latter is, in fact, a system of magic drawn from a mystical interpre- tation of the Scriptures. The Jews believe that Abra- ham, Moses, Solomon, &c. were adepts in this kind of magic. It was much cultivated in the middle ages ; but now the Jews have ina great measure discarded faith in the practical Cabala. - In the 11th century, the famous Rabbi Maimonides drew up a summary of the doctrines of Judaism, which every Jew is required to believe, on pain of excommu- nication in this world, and condemnation in the next. This summary consists of 13 articles, which he calls foundations or roots of the faith. The articles are as follow :—1. That God is the creator and active su porter of all things. 2. That God is one, and eternally unchangeable. 3. That God is incorporeal, and cannot have any material properties. 4. That God must eter- nally exist. 5. That God alone is to be worshipped. 6. That whatever has been taught by the prophets is true. 7. That Moses is the head and father of all con« temporary doctors, and of all those who lived before or shall live after him. 8. That the law was given by Moses. 9. That the law shall always exist, and never be altered. 10. That God knows all the thoughts and actions of men. 11. That God will reward the obser- vance, and punish the breach of the laws. 12. That the Messiah is to come, though he tarry a long time. 18, That there shall be a resurrection of the dead when God shall think fit. Before the delivery of a‘ Jewess, her husband, or some friend, describes with chalk a circle on each of the walls round the bed, and on the outside and inside of the door ; he also inscribes on these, in Hebrew cha- racters, the words, Adam, Chara, Chuts, Lilith; 4. e. Adam, Eve, rejoice; Lilith signifying a wish, that if the child be a boy he may be like fr he and blessed with a wife like Eve; but if a girl, that she may not, like Lilith, who, according to Jewish tradition, having been formed before Eve out of the ground, on that account deemed herself equal to Adam, and refused to be obe- dient to him. Lilith, also, is supposed to have the power of weakening and destroying young infants, and therefore the names of three angels are written on the inside of the chamber in which the pregnant woman lies. A Christian midwife must not be employed ex- cept in cases of most clear and urgent necessity, and then'she must be surrounded and watched by several Jewesses: In order to accelerate the birth, a rabbi re- eites the 20th, 38th, 92d, and 102d psalms. On the evening of the Sabbath after delivery, if a boy is born, a feast is held called Jeshua Haben, or the safety of the son. Preparations are‘next made for circumcision. The guests must. be at least ten in number, and must all have passed their 13th year. No woman or Christian is allowed to circumcise, except in cases of necessity. Where the latter performs the operation, some of the blood must be drawn afresh from the part by an Israel- ite. The regular circumcisers are distinguished by their very long and sharp nails; they are taught their business by operating on the sons of poor Jews, whose consent is obtained for money. Besides the circumciser, JE WS. a person named Baal Berith, or the master of the cove« nant, must assist. The operation ought not to take —— place before the eighth, or later than the» twelfth day Circumd- after the birth. Two chairs are provided, one for the %°- circumciser and the other for Ehjah, who is supposed to be present. As soon as the circumciser and his at- tendant have entered the room, some boys make their appearance bearing twelve wax tapers, bowls of wine, a knife, a plate of sand, and a platter with olive oil, in which the linen to be applied: to the wound is R The infant must be bathed before the ceremony. He is brought to the door by a woman, who is not allowed to enter the room. If a child die uncircumcised, he is circumcised in the burial ground, that the reproach of uncircumcision may be taken away. No prayers are said on this occasion, but a name is given him, that, at the resurrection, when every one will be called by his name, his parents “yr ——— him. The birth of a girl is attended with little feasting. ‘The rabbis haye abolished the distinction made by the Mosaic law be- tween the period of the purification of: a woman after the birth of a son and a daughter. They have also al- tered the law respecting the mode of redemption of the first born, if a son. According to them, the child can- Redemp- not be redeemed before the thirtieth day, nor after the tion of a thirty-first. On that day the priest asks the father, °° whether he would prefer his child, or the five shekels required for his redemption? to which the father re- plies, that he prefers his son, and that he wishes the riest to accept the money. The priest cannot ‘ee Tabs ; but he may return what he accepts. If the fa« ther dies before the thirty-first day, the mother is not bound to redeem the child; but a piece of parchment is suspended on the child’s neck, with an inscription, that he is a son not redeemed, to teach him, that he must redeem himself. The education of the female children of the, Jews is Education very much neglected. They are seldom taught more of females, than to pronounce the words of a Hebrew prayer-book, without understanding the meaning of a single sen- tence. The sons are taught to read the law, the mish- Of males. na, the , and the prayer-book. Very few of them learn the Hebrew grammatically. At the age of 13 years and one day, a Jewish youth receives the ap- pellation of Bar Mitsrah, a son of the commandment, and is required to observe the 613 precepts, which, ac- cording to the rabbis, comprehend the whole of the law. , ea this time he is deemed liable to punish- ment if he transgresses them; whereas the sins he commits before this age are ascribed to his father, who is liable to the punishment denounced against them. At this age the father, in the presence of several Jews, declares, that he is no longer chargeable for the sins of his son. Jewish girls are accounted of full age at 12 years and a day old. Marriage is reckoned the indispensible duty of eve- Marriages. ry Jew. Men who live in celibacy long after eighteen are considered by the rabbis as living in sin. Polyga-. my is sanctioned by the Talmud, but is not practised by the European Jews. The betrothing sometimes takes place six months or a year before the marriage. Ten men at least must be present at the marriage, other- wise it is null. A velvet canopy is brought into the room where the ceremony is to take place, and extend- ed on four poles. Under this canopy the bride, hav. her face covered with a veil, is led by two women, Y the bridegroom by two men; these: are always. their parents, or near relations. After a short prayer, the bride and bridegroom drink of the wine which is offer- JEWS. 751 Jews. we an fee A ring is used, as at Christian py pany At the place of interment, the Jews. marriages. contract is next read; and, is opened, and some earth, said to have been as soon as the reading is ended, the priest takes another brought from Jerusalem, is placed under the head in a glass of wine, and repeats seven benedictions ; then the » or strewed about the body. The relations married couple drink the wine ; after which the empty and friends of the deceased then take hold, one after glass is laid on the floor, and the bridegroom stamping the other, of his great toes, imploring him to pardon on it breaks it to pieces, indicating by this the frailty all their offences against him, and not to report evil of life. The company next shout, “ Good luck to against them in the other world. The nearest retations you!" The ceremony is concluded by a contribution rend their garments. When the coffin is placed in for the poor in the land of Canaan, and a nuptial feast. the grave, each of the relations throws some earth on A Jew is at liberty to Sanca hin aie Sap Aiea, it. soon as the grave is filled, all the attendants or for any cause ; but, in order to counteract the con- run away lest they should hear the knock of the angel, sequences of this liberty, the synagogue has ordered a who is supposed to come and knock on the coffin, and | sd, which allow time ask the deceased if he can repeat the passage in the parties to become cool, and to reconsider the i which has an allusion to his name: if he is ies are it, the angel beats. him with a hot his bones. _ When the relations re« neral, — all sit down on the. floor, hard boiled eggs, salt, and the fast which are sup- the moment of the decease of and evening, ten Jews who | . He a ai : ti MJ ig i i Ey i HE i : F F ; FE A 1 f E § 4 d divorce any time before she arrives at the age of twelve in other countries will be rolled thither through sub- aged at Liga. ik hao many before two witnes- terranean caverns; hence Jews in neighbouring coun ses, who write out her . she will not mar- tries, if rich, are removed into Canaan before ey die. ry the man ; this is called a divorcement of dislike. On the decease of a brother, sister, wife, daughter, or Singular In reading the Jewish prayers for the sick, it is cus- son, the u garment is cut on the right. side, and change of | tomary; pte lle a teiedbggeaaer eey Boo then rent about a hand-breadth in ; but on the naman, name i Fi ft i F i ? ; q ; to sit on the ground without shoes, and to give free access to every visitant: they must not shave their a a get mf NT ep dy ag There are very pertonbe ru wn e€ Garments. ne i = 5 ne a colours of garments to be worn ews; but in general they conform to the mode of dress in the country where they reside. It is, however, deemed unlawful to wear any garment made of linen and woollen woven together, or made with either of these and sewed with the other, E male is required to have a quadrangular garment, talleh. It consists of two pieces of woollen or silk joined together at the upper edge by ces hang down, one on the back, and the other over the breast. This is constantly worn as an inner garment. From each of the corners a fringe, consisting of ne pn ey pp 9 sight Siveain, pak Gad. ith ire kpee. Seely ip return to ev i ‘or a month, garment is supposed to depend upon t i which period. the thi S eer iapt: tn Onotee, The threads composing them must be of wool that water is every night. In cases where — been shorn, not pulled, and spun by a Jewess for the relations of the deceased are too poor to the express There are paper aan yy a expence of this ceremony, a subscription is by _ ticular ions regarding the colour and the folding tablished in London for this purpose—so sacred at night, nor is the wearing of it obligatory on women, and imperative is this ceremony esteemed. Jews servants, or young children. It is never to bent ew FF prepagqaire nate tr ee | HilEbiis Hite i uit Hata Hl hosts i | 2 F | i ; 5 z E E : 3 : i : e E : ; i Hi eat th Ete i lh do not make use of close coffins, but only four plain to a Christian. Other dages boards loosely joined A This is done in order wpb a ey wip oR ph and burials. that the worms may the sooner the body. The forthe arm, The former is made of skin or leather talleh, or square garment with fringes, is put over the stretched on a block, and sewed so as to form a leathern Sa 752 Jews, Syna- gogues. Religion, ceremonies, prayers, &c, box, divided into four compartments, having impressed on one side of it the letter Shin, and on the other a character resembling that letter, only with four points instead of three. In the compartments are inclosed four passages of the law, written on parchment, which is bound round with hair pulled from the tail of a cow, and well washed. The strap which fastens the a lactery to the head ought to be black on the outside, and any colour except red on the inside. — It is fasten- ed in such a manner, that the little box including the parchments rests on the forehead below the hair, so that the divine precepts may be fixed in the brain. The phylactery for the arm is nearly similar, except that it has only one cavity, and is without the impression of the letter Shin. It is fastened to the naked skin, on the inner part of the left arm, so as to be near the heart. It would be tiresome to enumerate the directions for tying on these phylacteries, which are excessively mi- nute and multifarious. Besides phylacteries, there are schedules for door-posts, which are generally placed on the right hand of the entrance, and touched or kissed by such of the Jews as wish to be deemed very de- vout, No synagogue can be instituted except there be at least ten men who have passed the age of thirteen. The highest ground is chosen, and no Jew is permitted to build a house of superior or even equal height. In pray- er, their faces are always turned towards the land of Canaan ; the door of the synagogue, therefore, is always placed at the opposite point of the compass. . A closet or chest called the Ark, in which the book of the law is deposited, is opposite to the entrance into the syna- gogue. Every copy of the pentateuch must be in ma- nuscript, The rabbis have laid down rules for transcri- bing it, which must on no account be omitted or infrin- ged. The ink employed is to be made of prescribed ingredients. The book itself is to be in the form of a roll. Near the middle of the synagogue is a desk or altar where the law is read, and sermons delivered. No seats are admitted between the altar and the ark. The women are not allowed to sit with the men, and they are even screened from their notice by a wooden lat~ tice. In each synagogue there is a reader or chanter, clerks for the management of pecuniary matters, be- sides inferior attendants. The general business of the congregation is superintended by wardens or elders. The privilege of folding and unfolding the law, and of erforming other public services, is accounted a high onour, and, as such, is put up to public auction. The money arising from these sales is paid into the general stock of the synagogue. In every country there is a chief, or presiding rabbi, who exercises not only a spiritual, but also a civil, ju- risdiction : his authority is kept up by ecclesiastical censures, excommunications, &c. The title of rabbi is little more than an honorary distinction, and is easily rien by any individual well versed in the Tal- mud. The Jewish religion is, perhaps, more a religion of rninute and trifling rites and ceremonies, than even the Catholic religion. The minutest circumstances in dress« ing and undressing, washing and wiping the face and hands, and other necessary actions of common and daily life, are enjoined by the rabbis to be performed exactly according to the prescribed regulations, Their prayers also are numerous, and some of them relate to the most trifling circumstances. Those esteemed the most so- lemn and important are called Shemoneh Esreh, or the Kighteen prayers, though they actually consist of nine« JEW S. teen, the last having been added against heretics. and Jews. apostates, They are enjoined to be said by all Jews y=” above the age of thirteen, wherever they may be, three times a-day. The members of the syna e are re- uired to repeat at least a hundred benedictions every y. A son who survives his father is enjoined to at~ tend the nocturnal service in the eynagogue every even- ing for a year, and to repeat the Kodesh, in order that his father may be delivered from hell. This service may be suspended by any person going up to the desk anil: closing the book. This is not unfrequently done in case of quarrels ; and the prayers cannot be renewed till a reconciliation takes place. Nothing is to be undertaken on a Friday which cans Sabbath, not be finished before the evening. In the afternoon they wash and clean themselves, trim their hair, and pare their nails. They begin with the left hand, but think it wrong to cut the nails on two ———- fingers in succession. Even the parings are directed by the Talmud to be disposed of in a particular manner ; for it says, ‘“ he that throws them on the ground is an im- pious man ; he that buries them is a just man; he that throws them into the fire is a pious and perfect man.” Every Jew, of whatever rank, must assist in the a ration for the Sabbath. Two leaves, baked on the Fri- day, are set on a table. This is done in memory of the manna, of which a double portion fell on the sixth day of the week. The table remains spread all the Sab- bath. Before the sun is set, the es are to be light~ ed; one at least with seven wicks. in allusion to the number of days in a week, is to be lighted in each house. The Talmudical directions re ing the wicks and oil form part of the Sabbath evening service ; they are most ridiculously and childishly minute. The les« son appointed for the Sabbath is divided into seven parts, and read to seven thr at the altar. The first called up to hear it, is a descendant of Aaron, the se- cond of Levi, the third an Israelite of any tribe; the same order is then repeated ; the seventh may be of any tribe. The portion read from the law is followed by a portion from the prophets. There are three services, morning, afternoon, and evening. On their. return from the last, a wax candle, or a lamp with two wicks, is lighted, and held by a child. The master then takes a glass of wine in his right hand, and a box of spices in his left. After a prayer, a little of the wine is spilled on the floor; and the wine being taken in the left, and the spices in the right hand, after another prayer, he and all the family smell to the spices, and taste the wine. This ceremony is called Habdala, or the sepa« ration, because it separates the Sabbath from other Pom e The works forbidden on the Sabbath, according to rabbis, may be reduced under thirty-nine general heads; of which writing, blotting out, ruling paper, kindling a fire or quenching it, form some. Other forbidden ac- tions are brought under these heads by a very forced ana- logy. Thus, curdling milk is included under the forbid. den head of building, because a whole is formed by the composition of different bodies. Filling ditches is deem- ed unlawful, and therefore some rabbis have forbidden the sweeping of a room on the Sabbath, lest any furrow or chink in the floor should be filled by the operation. Walking over new ploughed ground is also forbidden, lest a hole should thus be filled up. A tailor must not ‘© out of doors with a needle stuck in any of his clothes. he use of stilts is prohibited, because, though the stilts seem to carry the man, yet in fact the man carries the stilts, and to bear a burden on the Sabbath is un- lawful. Dirt on = coat, &c, may be scraped off with JEW in Egypt, of commencing the year at the autumnal equinox. The present Jewish calendar was settled by Rabbi Hittel, about the middle of the 4th century of the Christian era, and is constructed on ug inge- nuity and astronomical exactness, not equalled by Chris- tians till the improvement of the Julian calendar by ere feats vals of the Jews we can mention only a few, and those merely in a cursory manner. The princi are those of the new moon, of the Passover, pom cost, of the new year, the fast of atonement, and the feast of tabernacles. That the festival of the new moon celebrated as nearly as possible on the day of Bleeds creer sarcastic fase, twenty-nine ii 8; the new moon is held on ae r days of the month ; the wo- AOS allowed to ae the men may. Good i icularly distinguish this festi- The “sin iam Pct on the 15th the month Nisan, and continues among Jews seven days, and else- The Sabbath ing is called and is kept with most scru mode and materials for making the for the P. er, are most minutely ell as all the ceremonies ‘or every Jew to honour sumptuous furniture he feast is covered with a on which are placed several dishes ; one is the shank bone of a shoulder of lamb or kid, cakes, wrapped in two ce, parsley, celery, or herbs; these are their bitter herbs. Near the i and some salt and water. ing the bricks which their to make in Egyrt: this is late HL L yi ag float 2, AG 4% fz zi We i *s = ri t ! Hi strictness. Contracts of marriage may no marriage is to be solemnized durin, fetival. The feast of 4 ivan, contin hn harp Beal k ith icular ad o, are kept with parti Dy ih (re E =O e 7 ef : . 2 : received opinion of the Jews, that world was created on the day of their new year; they therefore celebrate the festival of the new by a discontinuance of all labour, and by repeat. nagogue. The fast of atonement is on the 10th day of Tiers the first ten days of the month are called days of penitence, during which the od examines the actions of man- kind, but he defers passing sentence till the tenth. On the eve of the fast, a ceremony, evidently designed as a substitute for their ancient sacrifices, is ormed ; i pee te Wiking 6 eek, wth groct Semallty. es 5 x cocks must on no account be red; white is the colour. Before the fast begins, they endea- afternoon they to settle all their disputes, In i. 753 JID make a hearty meal to prepare for the fast, which is of the most rigid kind. The ‘feast of tabernacles com- _mences on the 15th of Tisri, and is. kept nine days. Every Jew who has a court or garden is required to erect a tabernacle on this occasion, respecting the ma- terials and erection of which the rabbis have given spe« cial directions. The eighth and ninth are high days, particularly the last, which is called the day of the rejoicing of the land. The Jews are not permitted to taste the flesh of any Food, four-footed animals, except those which both chew the cud and part the hoof; nor any fish except such as have scales and fins ; they are not to eat the blood és an sa f Oey bird. Cattle for their use must be ughtered by a Jew, duly qualified, and. especiall inted for that purpose. If the carcase has the least blemish, it cannot be eaten; if it is perfectly sound, he affixes to it a leaden seal, with word casher, right, and the day of the week. If there be no Jew butcher, a Jew appointed by the synagogue is station- ed at the Christian butcher's to superintend the cutting up of the carcase, and to affix the seal. The hind quar- ters are not to be eaten unless the sinew of the thigh is taken out. A cow and her calf, an ewe and her lamb, a she goat and her kid, must not be killed in the same day. The knife used for slaughter must be very sharp and free frommotches. Meat and butter must not be eaten together, on account of the law, “ not to seethe a kid in his mother’s milk.” For this reason, also, they make their cheese without rennet. No knife, fork, spoon, or culinary vessel, used for meat, is to be used for milk. Such are the opinions, traditions, rites and ceremo- Caraites. nies, of the great majority of the modern Jews; but besides these, there is a small sect. denominated Ca- raites, that is textualists—persons attached to the text of the Scriptures. They reside chiefly in the Crimea, Lithuania, and Persia; and at Damascus, Constanti- baa and Cairo; their whole number is very incon- iderable. agree with other Jews in denying the advent of the Messiah. The principal difference be- tween them consists in their adherence to the letter of the Scripture, and in their rejection of all eaaeaion and in tations of the rabbis. They also differ from the rabbis in various particulars respecting the feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles. They observe the Sabbath with far greater strictness; they extend the d of affinity within which marriage is pro- hibited, but they are more strict in matters of di- vorce, See Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities, and his Own Life; Histoire de la Religion des Juifs pour servir de continu« ation a U Histoire de yesgits par Basnage; Tovey’s Anglia Judaica; Monthly Magazine, vol. i. for the year 1796; Gentleman’s Magazine for 1810 and 1811; Mos dern Judaism, by John Allen. _(w. s+) IGNATIUS Loyoua. See Loyoua. IGNIS Faruvs, commonly called Will ?'the Wisp, or Jack and the Lanthorn, is a meteor which is common- ly seen in dark nights, in marshy grounds and other pa laces. A full account of it will be given under the article Metrons. IGUANA. See Henrrrorocy. JHANSU-JEUNG. See Tuer. JIDDA, Jeppa, Joppa, Zirra, or Dscuepa, is a small trading town of Arabia Felix, situated in the dis« trict of Tahamah, about 40 miles distant from Mecca, north latitude 20° 28’ 1", and east longitude from 5c Fidda. —_—" surrounded by a ruinous wall, built in the year 1514. Its harbour is very extensive, formed by numberless JID Greenwich 389° 16’ 45”. It is defended by a fort, and reefs of Madrapore, extending about four miles from the shore, and full of small islands and sunken rocks. The entrance is sufficiently dangerous, but the pilots are expert, steering safely by the eye alone, and easily perceiving the rocks below the smooth surface, espe- cially when the sun is behind the vessel. Between these shoals and islands are deep channels, with a good bottom, where ships may lie at anchorage in six or twelve fathoms, and where the water is as smooth as glass, in the heaviest gales. The surrounding country is sandy, barren, and destitute of water, and the town is very ill supplied with provisions. A desert plain to the eastward is occupied by Bedouins, or country A- rabs, who live in huts made of long bundles of bent grass, or spartum, and who supply the inhabitants of Jidda with milk and butter. The situation is as un- wholesome as it is unproductive; and, besides several stagnant pools in the vicinity, the north-west wind which chiefly prevails, blowing along the direction of the gulf, brings a great dampness through the greater part of the year. The highest degree of the thermo- meter observed by Mr Bruce in July was 97°, and the lowest 78°. The barometer in June was between 26° 6’, and 25° 7’; wind north-west. The tewn of Jidda derives all its celebrity, and even its existence, from its vicinity to the city of Mecca, to which it is the nearest sea-port, and the great receptacle of the India trade, which arrives once a-year. The inhabitants of the place, indeed, derive little advantage from this rich traffic, which passes on to Mecca, and for which the payments return to the ships, without leaving much profit by the way to the townsmen. The influx of strangers, on the contrary, raises the price of provi- sions; and the native traders, after the market is over, which does not last above six weeks, retire to Yemen and the neighbouring countries, where every article of subsistence is found in abundance. Jidda, however, is . also the great depot of all merchandize intended to be carried to Suez for the demands of Egypt; and great multitudes of the inhabitants find employment in land- ing and reshipping these goods, in providing warehou- ses for their safe deposit, and in acting as factors in re- ceiving and disposing of them. The English traders, in 1777, made an attempt to carry their cargoes direct- ly to Suez, without passing them through Jidda into native vessels ; and this trade, which continued about three years, was encouraged by the Egyptian Beys, as the English merchants paid them twice as much impost as the Jidda importers. Butthe Sheriffe of Mecca, who draws the customs of the port of Jidda, procured an or« 754 ILA der from the Grand Seignior, that all vessels bound for Eeypt should stop at Jidda, and pay duty there; and obliged the merchants, when once in his harbour, to unship their goods, and send them forward to Suez in pr ie ; ie Sultan secured a’ share of these pro- , and regularly appointed a pasha, who resided i the citadel of J idday Goa divided the receipts of ie custom-house with the Sheriffe’s Vizier. During the convulsions of Egypt, and the insurrections of the Wa« chabees, the Sheriffe contrived to expel the representa« tive of the Sultan, and to appropriate the whole duties’ to himself. His extortions, however, in the name of presents to himself and his servants, have caused a great diminution of the trade formerly carried on by the Eng- lish with Jidda; and many of the richest merchants have retired from the place. The Sheriffe, made aware of his folly by the reduction of his revenues, has be« come more moderate in his demands. The duties re« cently proposed, amount to about eight per cent. and the presents to about half as much; but a merchant, when once in the harbour, from which he could scarce« ly escape without a native pilot, could never be secure against further demands. See Bruce’s Travels, vol. ii; Parson’s Travels; and Valentia’s Travels, vol. iii. ©) ILANTZ, in the Rhetian language Ilan or Ilon, a town of Switzerland, in the territory of the Grisons,. and the capital of the division of the G re . The town is situated in the widest part of the valley of the same name, at the foot of the mountain Mundaun, or Karlisberg. It is the first town that we meet with on the Rhine, and is the only town in the world where the Rhetian language is still spoken. It has two fauxbourgs, viz. that of St Nicholas, and that of Portasura. ie! bridge built over the Rhine is remarkable. The inha- bitants —— the reformed religion. The women in the neighbourhood are very much subject to the Goitre necks. The tribunal of the Grey League meets at Ilantz, Thousis, and Trons, in rotation; but it is at Ilantz that the archives of the League are preserved. A great fair for cattle is held at Ilantz. Excellent fish, about 22 pounds weight, are caught in the Rhine. At Rouvis, above Ilantz, on the left bank of the Rhine, a mine of galena, containing silver, has been wrought. The mineral is contained in nests in the gneiss, . The mine of Rouvis, and one of yellow copper at Ober-Sax, have been wrought since the year 1806 by M. Demengha. In descending the valley of Iantz, the rocks are composed of argillaceous schistus as far as Tamino. See Ebel’s Manuel d’une Voyageur en Suisse, tom. iii. p. 227. ILAY. See Isuay. Tlantz, Tay. ‘ ae . 5 r P é y t 7 ay 5: ‘ 1 ’ = ‘ i & - z “ ae 7 < Lj Ete . ( - ' ' _ . a H a U % . . ic a « ' b a ‘ ath 2 7 fi 4 - a . 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