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CONTENTS
OF THE
EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
No. V. ;
Page
ArT. I. Abstract of Experiments on the Consolidation of the Strata of the
_ Earth, made by Str JamEs HALL, Bart. F. R.S. Lond. and Edin., with
Notices of his former Writings on Geological Subjects, - - 1
II. Qn some Phenomena of Vertical and of Lateral Mirage, observed at King
George’s Bastion, Leith. An Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from
HENRY HoME BLACKADDER, Esq. Surgeon, Med. Staff, H.P. - 13
III. Account of the Circumstances connected with the Discovery of the Fossil
Elk in the Isle of Man, which prove that this Animal is not Antediluvian,
as many Naturalists and Antiquaries have supposed. By SamMuEL Hr1B-
BERT, M. D. F.R.S. E. and M.G.S. Secretary to the Society. of Scot-
tish Antiquaries, - - - = = = 15
IV. Observations relative to the Fossil Elk of the Isle of Mann; being the
Abstract of a Letter from H. R. Oswap, Esq. F.S.S. A. &c. addressed
to the Lorp BisHop oF SopOR AND Mann, in Reply to certain Queries
instituted by Professor BUCKLAND relative to the circumstances under
which the Fossil Elk is discovered, = - - - 28
V. An Account of the Frontier between Ava and the Part of Bengal adjacent
to the Karnaphuli River. By Francis Haminton, M. D. F.R.S. and
F. A. S. Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author, - 32
VI. Account of an Improvement on the ‘* Odometer,” which, without increas-
ing its size, multiplies its power upwards of One Hundred Fold. By
JamMEs HunTER, Esq. of Thurston, F.R.S. E. Communicated by the
Author, > 5 6d ‘ 3 ‘ 44
VII. On a Singular Detached Block of Stone occupying the summit of a Hill
at Dunkeld. By Joun MacCuxtocu, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. and
M. G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry
in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the Author, - 46
VIII. Notice of some of the Rarer Atmospherical Phenomena observed in 1824.
Communicated by the Author, - - - 49
IX. On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bodies By WILLIAM
HArpincER, Esq. F.R.S. Edin, Communicated by the Author.—
(Continued from Vol. II. p. 93.) 3 - - - 985)
il CONTENTS.
Page
X. Facts relating to the Formation of Dew. By GEORGE Harvey, Esq:
F.R.S. Lond. & Edin. Communicated by the Author, . 69
XI. Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Paramatta in 1824.
Communicated by his Excellency Sir THomas BrisBANE, K.C.B.
F.R.S. Lond. & Edin. - - - - - 72
XII. Account of a Stickleback that was found with a Leech alive in its Intes- —
tines, July 1818. By Mr Jonn RamaGE, Aberdeen. Communicated
by the Author, - - - - = - 74
XIII. Observations on the Temperature of Springs, Wells, and Mines in Corn-
wall. By Joun Davy,.M. D. F.R.S. Communicated by the Author, 75
XXIV. Observations on the Flints of Warwickshire. By EDWARD GRIMES,
Esq. R. N. Communicated by THomas ALLAN, Esq. - sa i
XV. Observations on the Habits of the Hyena. By Ropert Knox, M.D.
F. R.S. E. Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology, and Conservator of the
Museum of the Royal College of re a Communicated by the Au-
thor, - - 80
XVI. Account of the Eeplodien of Oil Gas which took place at ¢ Hainisarph) on
: the 23d March 1825, with Observations on the Safety of Gas, - 83
XVII. Description of a Machine applied to a Gig, for Measuring Distances.
By WiL11am EDGEWORTH, = C. E. and M. R. I. A. Communicat-
ed by the Author, - - ‘s 93
XVIII. A Description of Fan-Gate Sluices, Ewesitel and Candasien by Mr
J. BLANKEN, Jun. Counsellor of State, Inspector-General of Public
Works in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. By Dr G. Mout, Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the spar of Utrecht. Communicated sf
the Author, - - = 95
XIX. Table of the Rise of the Tide at Hobart Ronis; Van Diemen" s Land,
in April and May 1622, and January 1823. Communicated by his Ex-
cellency Sir THomas Brisbane, K.C. B. F. R.S. L. & E. &e. 100
XX. On the Application of the Expansive Power of Liquids to produce a Reci-
procating Rectilinear Motion. In a Letter to the Editor, - 101
X XI. Additional. Observations on Leslie’s Photometer, &c. By WILLIAM
RitcuiE, A. M. Rector of the Academy at Tain. In a Letter to Dr
BREWSTER, - - = 2, = = 104
XXII. Account of a Remarkable Explosion of Gas in a Well near Leith Fort
By Mz Joun CoLpsTREeAM. Ina Letter to Dr BREWSTER, - 108
XXIII. Notice of a Remarkable Variety of Boracite. By W1i~L1am Hat-
DINGER, Esq. F. R. S. E. Communicated by the Author, - 110
XXIV. On a Dike of Serpentine cutting through Sandstone in the County of
Forfar. By CHarites LYELL, Esq. Secretary to the Geological Society
of London, F.L.S. Communicated by the Author. With a Plate, 112
XXV. Notice of a Remarkable Occurrence of Serpentine at the Junction of
Sienite with the Dolomite of the Tyrol. By J. F. W. HERSCHEL, Sec.
R. S. Lond. and F. R. S. Edin. Communicated by the Author, 126
X XVI. Notice of the remains of an Animal resembling the Scandinavian Elk, re-
cently discovered in the Isle of Man; with Suggestions on the Importance
of distinguishing this Anima). from the Fossil Irish Elk. In a Letter to
Dr BrewsTER, from SAMUEL H1pBert, M. D. F.R.S. E. and M. G. S.
Secretary to the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, - - 129
CONTENTS. ill
Page
XXVII. Notice of Mr Christie’s Discoveries respecting the Effect of Rotation
on the Magnetic Forces, - - - - - 135
XXVIII. Analysis of a Mica from Cornwall. By EDwarD Turner, M. D,
F. R.S. E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author, - 137
XXIX. ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS, - - - 143
1. Conybeare on the Plesiosaurus. 2. Discovery of the Megalosaurus.
3. Gigantic Fossil Coral. 4. Enormous Orang-Outang found in Su-
matra. 5. Aranéa Domestica, possessed of a Natural Diving Bell to
assist it in Crossing Water. 6. Mode of Catching Fish by Diving, pe-
culiar to the Gulf of Patrasso. 7. Rapidity of the Effects of the Poison
of some of the New Holland Snakes. 8. On Changing the Residence
of Fishes. 9. Structure of the Hind-Foot of the Walrus, 143-—146
XXX. DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCo-
: VERIES, ° - - - 146
1. The Rediscovery of the Comet of Encke due to Mr Rumker, and not to
Mr Dunlop. 2. Fhe Composite Structure of the Bipyramidal Sulphate
of Potash not discovered by Mr Brooke. 3. The apparent Immobility
of Spectral Impressions ; their Singleness by Distorted Vision ; and the
Reference of the Phenomena of Vision to Voluntary Muscular Action,
first discovered and proposed by Dr Wells, and not by Mr Charles Bell.
4. Professor Leslie’s Hygrometer, invented by the late Dr James Hut-
ton, - - - - . - 146—149
XXXI. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO-
CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - : 149
1. British Invention and Discovery Association, - - ib.
2. Mr Bryce’s Stomach or Moveable Branch Syphon, - - ib.
3. Mr Shiells’ Triangle for Elevating the Jet of Fire Engines, - 150
4, Account of an improved Hydropneumatic Lamp, which can be con-
structed at a small expence. By Wit~1am Dyce, M.D. F.R.S. Ed. 151
5. On the Use of Granite for Railways. In a Letter from Jonn Gipp,
Esq. Civil Engineer, to JouN Roxison, Esq. F. R. S. E. : 152
6. Description of a Single Valve Sluice, invented by Ropert Tom,
Esq. Rothsay, - - - - - es Br
7. Description of a Chain Sluice, invented by RopERT THom, Esq.
Rothesay, “ = - = - - - 155
8. Description of a Breathing-Pump, invented by WitL1am Van Hov-
TEN, Junior, Rotterdam, - . - - 156
9. Professor Amici’s Improved Camera Lucidas, - = 157
XXXII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 159
1. The English Flora. By Sir James Epwarp Smiru, President of
the Linnean Society. 2 vols. 8vo. - - - - ib.
II; On the Effects of the Density of Air on the Rates of Chronometers.
By GEorGE Harvey, Esq. F. R.S.E., &c. From the Philosophical
Transactions for 1824, Part IT. - - - - 170
iY CONTENTS.
; Page
XXXIII. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - - - 175
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, - - ib
XXXIV. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - - 176
I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
AsTRONOoMY.—l. Pastorff on the Solar Spots and Clouds. 2. Comet seen
on the Sun’s Disk. 3. Singular Appearances in the Comet of 1824.
4. Encke’s Hyperbolical Elements of the Comet of 1824. 5. Comet of 1824
discovered at Paramatta. 6G. Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Catalogue of the Stars
in the Southern Hemisphere. 7. Mr Herschel and Mr South on Double
Stars. 8. Miss Caroline Herschel’s Catalogue of Stars. = 176—178
Optics.—9. Lateral refraction. 10. Mr Dunlop’s Reflecting Speculum, 178
Macnetism.—11. Effects of Temperature on the Magnetic Forces. 12. J)i-
urnal Variation of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity. 13. Influence of
Copper on the Oscillations of Magnetic Needles. 14. Effect of Copper in
Motion on a Magnetic Needle, | - - - - 178, 179
METEOROLOGY.—15. Daniell’s Improvement on the Barometer. 16. Hy-
grometric Properties of Insoluble Compounds. 17. Highest and Lowest
Temperature on the Earth’s Surface. 18. Remarkable Auroral Arch on the
19th March. 19. Bosson’s Observations on Waterspouts, - 179—181
Il. CHEMISTRY.
20. Cold Produced by the Combination of Metals. 21. Refrigerating Salt.
22. On the Pectic or Coagulating Acid. 23. Iodine in Mineral Waters, 181, 182
Ill. NATURAL HISTORY.
MINERALOGY.—24. Apatite in Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh. 25. Withamite.
26. School of Mines in Cornwall, = = - - 182, 183
Botany.—Codium tomentosum, and Targionia hypophylla. 28. Tricho-
manes elegans, - - - - - - - 183
ZooLocy.—29. Say’s American Entomology. 30. Annals of the Lyceum of
Natural History of New York. 31> American Fauna, - - 184
IV. GENERAL SCIENCE.
32. Remarkable Dissection of a Female Mummy. 33. Discoveries in Nova
Zembla. 34. Hazel Nuts found ina singular state at a great depth. 365.
The Menai Bridge, near Bangor, Carnarvonshire. 36. Number of Steam-
Engines in Glasgow and its neighbourhood in April 1825. 37. Number of
Steam Boats on the Clyde in 1825. 38. Poisonous Effects of White Bread
upon Dogs. 39. The Goitre cured by Subcarbonate of Soda. 40. Artificial
Production of Pearls, B me ; = s 185—187
XXXV. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in England from
October 7, 1824, to January 1, 1825, - - 188
XXXVI. List of Patents granted in Scotland since March 7, 1825, - 189
XXXVII. Celestial Phenomena, from July 1, to September 1, 1825, calculated
for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr GrorcE INNES, Aber-
deen, - - = 5 = : 190
XXXVIII. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept
at Canaan Cottage. By ALEx. ADIE, Esq. F.R.S.E. - 192
‘ 4
CONTENTS
OF THE
EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
No. VI.
Page
Art. I. On the Limits of the Retina in the Eye of the Sepia Loligo, one of
the Cephalopodous Mollusca. By Ropert Knox, M.D.F.R.S.E,4
Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology, and Conservator of the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons. Communicated by the Author, 193
II. An Account of the Frontier between the Southern part of Bengal and the
Kingdom of Ava. By FRANcIs HAMILTON, M.D. F.R.S. and F. A.S.
Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author, - - 201
III. On the Quartz District in the neighbourhood of Loch Ness. By GEORGE
ANDERSON, Esq. F. R.S. E, &c. Inverness, - - - 212
IV. On the Genus Calymperes of Swartz!and Syrrhopodon of Schwaegrichen,
of the Order Musci. By W. J. Hooker, LL. D.F.R.S. &c.&c. Regius
Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, and R. K. GREVILLE,
LL. D. F, R. S. E. &c. &c. Communicated by the Authors, 218
V. Some Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France, collected part-
ly from Observation, partly from a free Communication with the Inhabit-
ants of various ranks. Written during a Residence in that Country
for the use of a Friend in Britain. By HENRY Homer BLACKADDER,
Esq. Surgeon, - ~ - - - 227
VI. Account of the Specific Gravity of several Minerals. By Witt1am
HAIDINGER, Esq. F. R. S, E. Communicated by the Author.—(Con-
tinued from Vol. Il. p. 74.) = = 4 ,, 241
VII. Botanical Letters from J. J. Roussrau to M. Gowan, Professor of Bo-
tany at Montpellier. Communicated by Dr HooKER, - 246
VIII. On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments, so as to register their
Indications during the absence of the Observer at any given Instant, or
at successive intervals of Time, - - - - 251
1X. Observations on the Gulf-Stream, in crossing it from Halifax to Bermuda,
and from Bermuda to Halifax, in his Majesty’s Ship Jaseur, in 1821.
Communicated by J. D. Boswaxt, Esq. R. N. F.R.S. £. 256
X. On Lithion-Mica. By Epwanp Turner, M.D. B.R.S. E. Lecturer
on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
Communicated by the Author, - - : - 261
il CONTENTS.
Page
XI. Observations on the Presence of the Waters of the Gulf-Stream on the
Coasts of Europe, in January 1822. By EpwaRrD SaBInE, Esq. F. R.S.
Be L.S.. &e. &Co - - = = of Y 270
XII. On the Depression of the Horizon of the Sea over the Gulf-Stream. By
EpwWarpb SanInE, Esq. FR. S. F.L.S. &c. &e. “ - 274
XIII. On the Effects of Heat and Motion. Ina Letter to Dr BREWSTER
from M. SEGUIN, ainé “ - ~ e = 276
XIV. Observations on the apparent Distances and Positions of 389 Double and
Triple Stars. By J. F. W. HERSCHEL, Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and
F.R.S. Edin., and James Soutu, Esq. F.R.S. Lond. & Edina, . 281
XV. On some Remarkable Affections of the Retina, as exhibited in its insen-
"sibility to indirect Impressions, and to the Impressions of attenuated Light.
By Davip BrewsTen, LL.D. F.R. S. Lond., and Sec. R. $8. Edin. 288
XVI. On the Action of Poisons on the Vegetable Kingdom, By Mr F. Manr-
CET, - - - - - - - - 293
XVII. On Two Newly determined Species of the Genus Gypsum-haloide of
the System of Mohs. By Wittiam Hartpincer, Esq. ¥.R. 5. E.
Communicated by the Author, - - - 302
XVIIL. On the Composition of the Minerals described in the preceding Paper.
By Epwarp TuRNER, M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry,
and. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicat-
ed by the Author, - * . - - - 306
XX. On the Chemical Characters of Zinc Ores, examined in the manner of
Berzelins, by means of the Blow-Pipe, by M. Nits NORDENSKIOLD of
Abo, - : - - - - : 310
XX. Account of a Meteorological Phenomenon which was observed at the
Summit of Ben-Nevis on the 27th June last. By the Rev Mr JoHn
Macvicar, Dundee. Ina Letter to Dr Brewster, a - 312
XXI. Description of Edingtonite, a New Mineral Species. By WiLL1am
HaipincEr, Esq. F.R.S. E. With an Analysis by EpwarD TURNER,
M. D. F. R. S. E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author, 316
XXII. Description of a New Hygrometer, depending on the Affinity of Acids
. for Water. By Professor AUG. DE LA RIVE, = uJ 820
XXILL. On the Locality of Acmite. By N..B. MoLiEr, Esq. of Porsgrund,
Norway, . - - - - - - 326
XXIV. Account of Two newly-discovered Mineral Species. By Professor
J. J. Berzevius, M.D. F,R-S. Lond, and Edin., &c. &e. - 327
XXV. On some new Localities of rare Minerals. By Professor J. J. BER- -
ZELIUS, M.D, F. R.S. Lond. and Edin., &c. &c. - - 332
XXVI. ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS, - - - 334
1. Chlamyphorus truncatus, - - - - ib.
2. New and gigantic species of the genus Cephalopterus, of Dumeril, 337
3. Two new Genera of Reptiles proposed, - - - 339
4, Bilobites, . E “ rs s u 2 ib.
XXVIEL HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO-
CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - : 340
1, Method of giving the Epicycloidal Form to the Teeth of Wheels. By
Prrenr LEcouny’, Esq. Midshipman, R. N. in a Letter to the Editor, ib.
CONTENTS: ik
Page
2. Description of a Single Weather Sluice, invented by RopERT THom,
Esq. Rothesay, NETS - - - - - 343
3. On coarse Paint made with Potatoes, - : - 345
4. Method of preventing the Fracture of Glass Chimneys, - 346
5. Description of Griebel’s Portable Night Clock, - - ib.
6. Description of M. Allard’s Universal Bevel, = - - ib.
7. Method of consuming the Smoke of Steam-Boiler Furnaces. By Mr
G. CHAPMAN, ~ - - 7. = 347
8. Menstruum for biting in on Steel Plates for Fine Engravings. By
Mr EpmuND TURREL, < ~ ss y ib.
9. Description of Lenormand’s New Chronometer, - = we G45
10. On the Construction of Chimneys, - - - . 349
ll. M. Ventau’s Gigantic Meteorological Eolian Harp, - - ib.
12. Natural Lamp by Incandescence, - - - - 390
13. Oil for Chronometers, Clocks, and Delicate Wheel-work, - ib.
Cr
~
XXVIII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 2
1. On the Transverse Strain and Strength of Materials. By Mr Earon
HODGKINSON, - - - 5 = = ib.
II. On the Gold Mines of North Carolina. By DENIsoN OLMSTED,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of North Ca- :
rolina, . - - - - - - 358
XXIX. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED BOTANICAL
WORKS, - - - - 364
Great Britain.—Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. Prodromus
Flore Nepalensis. Botanical Magazine, No. 456, January 1825. No.
459, Aprils Botanical Register for December, No. 118. No. 119, Ja-
nuary 1825. Hooker’s Exotic Flora, Part 19, February 1825. Part
20, March. - - - - - - 365—367
™’
XXX. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - = 367
I, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
AsTRONOMy.—l. Comet of July and August 1824, discovered at Paramatta.
2. Comet of September 1824, discovered at Paramatta. 3. New Comet of
1825. 4. Longitude and Latitude of Paraniatta. 5. Action of the Moon
on the Earth’s Atmosphere. 6. Lunar Eclipse of 31st May, observed at
Bushy Heath, - - - - - - 367, 368
Oprics.—7. Light produced during the Crystallization of Benzoic Acid.
8. Iridescence of Clouds, - - - - - 368, 369
ELEcTRiciTy.—9. Remarkable Electricity of Oxalate of Lime. 10. Electricity
developed in Capillary Attraction. 11. Electricity developed in Solutions and
Mixtures. 12. Electrical Gale, 369—371.
Macnetism.—13. Mr Babbage and Mr Herschel on the Magnetism develop-
ed during Rotation. 14. On the Magnetism imparted to Iron Bodies by
Rotation. 15. Mr Christie’s New Experiments on the Magnetism produc-
ed by Rotation. - . = . = 371, 372
METEOROLOGY.—16. Remarkable Hailstones with Pyritic Nuclei. - 37%
iv CONTENTS.
+f
Il. CHEMISTRY.
17: On a Compound of Carbon of Hydrogen with remarkable properties. 373
Page
% Ill. NATURAL HISTORY.
BOTANY.—18. Overland Arctic Expedition. 19. Plantes rares du Jardin de
Genéve, par Aug. Pyramus de Candolle, &c. - - 374—377
IVs GENERAL SCIENCE.
20. Lieut. Kotzebue’s recent voyage of Discovery. 21. Steam-boat Enterpriee
for India, - - - . - 377
XXXI. List of Patents for New Inventions, sealed in England since
January 1, 1825. - - : ~ 378
XXXII. List of Patents granted in Sonttaita since June 16, 1825, ~ 379
XX XIII. Celestial Phenomena, from October 1, 1825 to January 1, 1826, cal-
culated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr GrorGE INNES,
Aberdeen, - - . - “ 380
XXXIV. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept
at Canaan Cottage. By ALEX. ADIE, Esq. F. R.S.E. 384
INDEX, - - - . - 385
Description of Phites in i Vol. it, 2 2 iF 2 é 388
This day is Published,
With Twenty-four Explanatory Engravings, 12mo. 7s. 6d.
THE CENTURY OF INVENTIONS
OF THE
MARQUIS OF WORCESTER,
From the Original MSS., with Historical and Explanatory Notes, and a
Biographical Memoir, by CHARLES F. PARTINGTON, of the Lon-
don Institution.
PRINTED FOR JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET,
LONDON.
THE
EDINBURGH
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Arr. 1.—Abstract of Experiments on the Consolidation of the
Strata of the Earth, made by Sir James Haut, Bart.
F.R.S. Lond. and Edin., with Notices of his former Writ-
- ings on Geological Subjects.
We have great pleasure in presenting mae readers with an ab-
stract of a paper lately read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh
by Sir James Hall, on the consolidation of the strata of the
earth; and we recommend their attention to this notice with the
more earnestness, because the volume in which the paper will be
published at length, may perhaps not appear for some time,
and is, moreover, by its nature, little calculated for that rapid
and extensive circulation which the ardour of modern curiosi-
ty demands.
Sir James Hall is well known to the scientific world as a
strenuous supporter of the Huttonian Theory, and as the
philosopher who has most successfully attempted to rest the
science of geology on the basis of experiment. As his disco-
veries, however, have been published at long intervals, and in
a form not very accessible to the generality of readers, we con-
ceive we shall be rendering a service to science, by giving a
brief sketch of the principal results to which those investi-
gations of our ingenious countryman have led.
Early in 1790, not long after Dr Hutton had announced
his Theory of the Earth, Sir James Hall, who had declared
VOL. 111. NO. 1. JULY 1825. A
2 Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata. ©
himself friendly to the new doctrines, came forward to grapple
with one of the most formidable difficulties which were urged
against them. In the History of the Royal Society, Vol. iu.
p. 8. Edinburgh Transactions, there is given a short abstract
of two papers on the formation of granite. _It is to be regret-
ted, that these papers should not have been given at length.
The abstract, however, is sufficiently curious, and well de-
serving of the attention of any experimentalist, who may be
engaged in attempts to imitate nature in the formation of crys-
tallised rocks. We have only room for a short extract :—
“In granites, which contain quartz and feldspar, it fre-
quently occurs, that the feldspar is seen with the form of its
crystals distinctly defined, whilst the quartz is a confused and
irregular mass, being almost universally moulded on the crys-
tals of feldspar. Now, were it true that all granite is for med
by fusion, the very contrary, it would seem, saaeet always to
take place, as feldspar is very easily melted, and quartz resists
the greatest efforts of heat that have hitherto been applied
to it.
‘© The difficulty is thus obviated: It is well known, that
when quartz and feldspar are pounded and mixed together,
the mixture may, with difficulty, be melted and run intoa
kind of glass,. the feldspar serving as a flux to the quartz.
The same may be stated in another way, by considering the
feldspar, when melted, as a fluid, in which, asa menstruum, the
quartz is dissolved ; and in this view we may expect, by ana-
logy, that phenomena, similar to those of the solution of salt
in water, should take place. Now it is certain, that when ex-
cessive cold is applied to the salt water, the water is frozen to
the exclusion of the salt, the ice obtained yielding fresh water
when melted, and the salt, when the experiment is pushed te
the utmost, separating from it in the form of sand. Why
should not the same thing happen in the solution of quartz in
liquid feldspar, when the mass is allowed to cool below the
point of congelation of the menstruum? The feldspar may
crystallise separately from the quartz, as we have seen pure
ice formed separately from the salt; in both cases, the conge-
lation of the solvent being simultancous to that of the dissolved
Sir James Hall on the Conzolidation of the Strata. 3
substance. Hence the crystals may mutually interfere with
each others forms, and we may as naturally expect to see quartz
moulded on crystals of feldspar, as the reverse.”
Sir James then discusses the question, as to the effects of
slow cooling, in preventing the return of the fused substance
to a state of glass—and then advances the following very in-
genious views, which are incapable of abridgement.
“If quartz, mica, feldspar, schorl, garnet, &c. happen to
be melted together, the most fusible substance of them all may
be considered as the menstruum in which all the rest are dis-
solved, and we may suppose, that these various dissolved: sub-
stances may differ amongst themselves im their properties of
solution, as salts differ from one another, so that some of them
may be more soluble, when very much heated, than when it
is comparatively cold, and others may be as soluble in it, when
little warmer than its point of congelation, as when raised to a
much higher temperature. If then we say, for example, that
the congealing point of thesolventis 1000 degrees of Fahrenheit,
and if the solution is at the temperature of 2000, we may con-
ceive one portion of the matter dissolved as held by the sim-
ple dissolving power of the menstruum, and another portion as
held by means of its elevated temperature. When, therefore,
a mass of this kind is allowed to cool very slowly, as we may
suppose must be the case with liquid granite in the bowels of
the earth, those substances held in solution by the heat of the
solvent, will first separate, and, being formed in a liquid, will
assume their crystalline forms with perfect regularity ; where-
asthose substances, which were held by the menstruum, simply
as a fluid, will not separate till the congelation of the solvent
itself takes place, when the crystals of the various substances
will intermix and confound the regularity of form, which each
would have assumed, if left to itself. In this manner, one of
the most common kinds of granite will be produced, consisting
of perfect crystals of schorl, mica, or garnet, inclosed ina
confused mass of quartz and schorl.”
These theoretical views, whether just or otherwise, it must be
admitted, are highly curious and philosophical, and are well de-
serving of being put to those experimental tests, which no man
knows better how to devise than Sir James himself: And as
4 Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata.
very slow cooling, or, which is the same thing, a perfect com-
mand of the nicest regulation of high heats, is indispensable to
their success, we are rejoiced to hear that he has invented an
instrument, which, we are told, accomplishes this great desi-
deratum completely. We look very anxiously, therefore, to
his publishing some account of it, even though he should not
have any very decisive results, as to its power of producing
imitations of crystallised rocks. Such an instrument, on many
other accounts, is a desideratum in practical chemistry, and the
scientific world are entitled to be put in possession of it forth-
with.
In the Edinburgh Transactions for 1798 (vol. v. p. 23.)
was given an account of a series of experiments, completely es-
tablishing the identity of whinstone and lava. By this ana-
logy the most important aid was afforded to the Huttonian
Theory.
It had been stated, that, whinstone, like the granite above
mentioned, when melted and allowed to cool again, always
became glass, and did not return to stone as Dr Hutton’s
Theory required. Sir James Hall, however, conceived that
nature would operate in this case by slow degrees, and that the
temperature of the melted stone, when occurringin vast quanti-
ties, would be gradually, and not suddenly reduced. He ima-
gined that the effect of this would be, to allow the fused mass
to remain for a sufficient length of time, during its descent
through the various stages of heat, in that particular pitch of
temperature required by its nature for its assuming a crystal-
line texture. His experiments fully proved the justice of these
ingenious ideas ; and we believe there is, in consequence, now
but one opinion as to the igneous origin of the whole of this
class of rocks.
The most formidable objection, however, to the Huttonian
Theory still remained, until Sir James Hall removed it by
the same philosophical line of inquiry. Dr Hutton had as-
serted, that calcareous rocks, like every other, .had been sub-
jected to the action of heat. But it was well known that
when heat was applied to this class of rocks, the carbonic
acid was driven off in the shape of gas, and the remaining
quicklime became infusible. Dr Hutton, indeed, had answer-
Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata. 5
ed this, by suggesting that the pressure of the superincumbent
ocean was sufficient to confine the carbonic acid, and to cause
it to act as a flux on the quicklime. This theory, however
ingenious, was so abundantly gratuitous, that it by no means
satisfied even his own disciples. During his lifetime he dis-
couraged the experimental investigation of the subject; but
no sooner was all delicacy on the subject at an end by Dr
Hutton’s death, than Sir James Hall ‘commenced a series of
experiments, which in the end set the question completely at
rest. He ascertained, by numerous experiments, that carbo-
nate of lime might readily be fused when exposed to heat, if it
were at the same time under a pressure not greater than Dr
Hutton’s Theory required, or about a mile and a half of sea.
These experiments, in which the subject is treated in a very
masterly way, will be found in the sixth volume of the Edin--
burgh Transactions. Inthe words of Mr Playfair, it may be
truly said of them, “that, independently of all theory, they have
narrowed the circle of prejudice and error.”
So far Sir James had confined himself to the illustration
of doctrines purely Huttonian; but we should be doing
injustice to his sagacity and originality, were we to omit
stating that he by no means followed Dr Hutton in all
his ideas. On the contrary, he always considered Dr Hut-
ton’s explanation of the formation of valleys, and of the pre-
sent appearance of the earth’s surface generally, as quite
incomplete. To account for these by the diwrnal action
of the elements, he thought altogether untenable. Sir
James’s theory, which is at once bold and original, is
published in the Edinburgh Transactions for 1812, vol. vii.
p- 139, 169, in two papers “‘ on the Revolutions of the Earth’s
Surface,” to which we call the attention of our readers. Val-
leys he conceives to have been formed at various times by a
succession of heaves from below, which could not fail-to rend
and dislocate the solid crust of the globe in a thousand
shapes, and to leave it as to the general features, m the rug-
ged and irregular form it at present retains, an appearance
totally inexplicable upon any view of diurnal action. But as
it must be admitted that most mountains, valleys, plains,
lakes, and other parts of the earth’s surface, are evidently
6 Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata.
no longer in the precise state which they would have been left
im by those violent heaves alluded to, he was led to inquire what
other causes could be supposed to have reduced them to their
present appearance. It was not long before he saw that a vast
and overwhelming torrent or debacle (perhaps many more than
one) must have passed over all those parts of the globe which
he had an opportunity of examining. A little further reflection
made it also evident to him, thatif the Huttonian Theory were
supposed to be true, such waves beeame a necessary conse-
quence. Forif great masses of strata be suddenly elevated to the
surface from the bottom of a deep sea, waves proportionate
in size must be produced, which, in their transient, but over-
whelming course, would produce all the well known pheno-
mena of a diluvian character. Professor Buckland’s recent
speculations on the same subject form a valuable addition to
this most interesting theory.
The consolidation of sandstone was another very knotty
point amongst the geologists—no theorist of either party, as
far as we know, having attempted to account for it by any ra-
tional hypothesis.. The present paper, which we shall now
proceed to analyse, goes far to supply this deficiency.
Sir James Hall commences by some general observations 6n
the nature of geological inquiries, and on the spirit in which
experiments should be conducted, which have for their object
to advance the boundaries of this science. These remarks we
recommend strongly to any one engaged in similar pursuits ;
and we must be permitted to say, that the time is now surely
come when it is incumbent on the supporters of the agucous
doctrine to show, experimentally, that their theory is equally
capable of representing artificially the rocks which we see in
nature, so many of which the Huttonians have successfully
imitated. .
Our author proceeds to say, it had often been urged,
and apparently with good reason, against this branch of
the Huttonian Theory, that no amount of heat applied
to loose sand, gravel, or shingle, would occasion the parts
to consolidate into a compact stone. And as all his ex-
perience led to the same conclusion, he saw that, unless,
along with heat, some flux were introduced amongst. the
Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata. 7
materials, no agglutination of the particles would take place.
A striking circumstance, which he describes as occurring near
Dunglass in East Lothian, having suggested to him the idea
that the salt of the ocean might possibly have been the agent
in causing the requisite degree of fusion, he instituted a se-
ries of experiments, the details of which he now brings before
the Society. By these he shows, that this material, under va-
rious modifications, is fully adequate to explain the consolida-
tion of the strata, and perhaps many other effects which we
see on the surface of the Earth.
His success, from the first, was such as to promise the most
satisfactory results ; but various circumstances occurred to re-
tard his progress.
*€ Whoever,” he judiciously remarks, “ has had any experience in the
prosecution of new subjects of experimental inquiry, knows that, owing
to his ignorance of the requisite adjustment of the proportions of the ingre-
dients, and of other similar arrangements, he must depend, in a great de-
gree, upon chance for the success of his first results, and that he must
often submit to spend much time and labour upon a subject, even after it
has been made out to his own satisfaction, before he has acquired sufficient
command over its details to answer for the result of any particular expe-
riment, so as to be able to produce it with confidence to the public.”—
pp. 5, 6.
The scene alluded to as having first excited Sir James’ at-
tention to this subject was on the borders of Lammermuir,
“¢ where
“© A set of horizontal beds occur, consisting of a loose assemblage of
rounded stones, intermixed with sand and gravel, which bear every ap-
pearance of having been deposited by water, and which, as to their general
history, seem to have undergone no change since the overwhelming,
though transient, agitations of water, of which I have frequently had
occasion to speak in this Society.
‘Tn the summer of 1812, as I was returning from visiting the granitic
range which occurs in the water of Fasnet, in the hills of Lammermuir,
and riding down the little valley of Aikengaw, which deeply indents this
loose collection of gravel and shingle, about two miles above the village of
Oldhamstocks, and at the distance of eight or ten miles from the sea, I was
struck with astonishment on seeing one of these gravel banks, formed, as
above described, of perfectly loose materials, traversed vertically by a dyke,
which, in its middle, consisted of whinstone, and was flanked by solid
conglomerate ; but this solidity abated gradually till the conglutination of
the rounded masses diminishing by degrees, the state of loose shingle and
‘8 Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata.
gravel was entirely restored on both sides. The agglutinated mass adja-
cent to the dyke bore no resemblance to the result of calcareous petrifac-
tion ; scarcely ever gave effervescence with acid; and, by its gradual ter-
mination, differed from any whinstone-dyke I have seen to penetrate the
strata ; for, in the ordinary case, the termination of the crystallite against
the adjoining aggregate through which it passes, is almost always quite
abrupt.
“ About a hundred yards higher up the valley of Aikengaw, there eccurs
an agglutination similar to the last, though without any whin-dyke, and
sufficiently strong to resist the elements, by which the surrounding mat-
ters had been washed away, leaving the pudding-stone, or agglutinated
shingle, to stand up by itself, in a manner remarkable enough to have at-
tracted the notice of the peasantry as something supernatural, since they
have bestowed upon it the name of the Fairy’s Castle.
‘* Farther up the stream, other agglutinations occur frequently, as we
could see in little narrow glens cutting through the mass ; and higher still,
they are so numerous as to meet and convert the whole into one unbroken
mass of pudding-stone, occupying all that is exposed to view.
«These very remarkable, and, to meat least, novel appearances, were the
first which suggested the idea, that the consolidation not only of this class
of conglomerates, but of sandstone in general, had been occasioned by the
influence of some substance in a gaseous or aériform state, driven by heat
into the interstices between the loose particles of sand and gravel, where it
had acted as a fiux on the contiguous parts. On considering what this
penetrating substance might be, and from whence it could have come, the
following circumstance presented itself to my recollection at the moment,
and promised to afford some assistance to these conjectures.
‘* A few miles lower down the valley in which the above facts were ob-
served, at the distance of more than a mile from the sea, and between two
and three hundred feet perpendicularly above it, there occurs a crag of
sandstone, in which a numerous succession of strata are distinctly visible.
Several of these beds have yielded much to the action of the air, and, in
dry weather, exhibit a considerable white efflorescence, which has com-
pletely the taste of common salt ; and so remarkable is this circumstance,
that the rock has acquired, in the country, the name of Salt-Heugh.
‘* Here, then, it immediately occurred to me, was probably the source of
an abundant supply of the elastic substance or fumigator, whose action as
a flux had been pointed out by the agglutinations in Aikengaw above de-
scribed.
“* T conceived, that, if there were at the bottom of the sea a bed of sand
and gravel, drenched with brine of full saturation, and that heat were ap-
plied to it from beneath, according to Dr Hutton’s hypothesis, the first ef-
fect would be, to drive the water from the lowest portion of the sand, and
to convert the salt which remained amongst it, together with the sand, in«
to a dry cake. During this operation, or until the cake became quite dry,
the absorption of latent heat would prevent the temperature from surpass~
Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata. 9
ing the:boiling point of brine. But no sooner was this dryness accom-
plished, than, I imagined, the temperature of the mass would begin to rise
above that pitch ; the portion of it next the fire would gradually acquire a
red-heat ; that then the salt, being made by the heat in part to assume an
elastic form, would be sent in fumes through the dry cake just described,
and thus, by partially melting the contiguous particles, produce an agglu-
tination.
** Such being my theoretical views, no time was lost in submitting
them to the test of experiment. Taking it for granted that a quantity of
sea-salt must frequently be formed and deposited, along with sand and
gravel, at the bottom of the ocean, (in the manner I shall have occasion to
describe at another stage of this paper), where the water has been collect-
ed by its superior specific gravity, in the form of brine, I proceeded to
make the following experiments :—
“« Dry salt was placed along with sand, sometimes in a separate layer,
at the bottom of the crucible, and sometimes mixed throughout the expe-
riment: the whole was then exposed to heat from below. I found that
the salt was invariably sent in fumes through the loose mass, and by its
action produced solid stone in a manner completely satisfactory, as illustra«
tive of the facts in Aikengaw; and so as to give a good explanation of the
production of sandstone in general.
“* These artificial stones are of various degrees of durability and hard-
ness ;—some of them do not stand exposure to the elements, and crumble
when immersed in water ;—some resist exposure for years ;—others are
so soft as not to preserve their form for any length of time ;—while some
bear to be dressed by the chisel ; and, it may be remarked generally, that,
as far as the results of my experiments have been compared with natural
sandstone, the same boundless variety exists in both cases. A striking in-
stance of this resemblance occurs in the case of the Salt-heugh, the sand-
stone of which, wheu immersed in water, crumbles down, exactly in the
same manner as those results of my experiments which taste much of
salt. ;
“ The fumes of the salt, no doubt, act, in all these cases, as a flux on the
siliceous matter, and thus cement the adjacent particles together. The So-
ciety are, doubtless, well aware of the power of salt fumes in glazing pot-
tery ; and the analogy, I conceive, is complete. It is the application alone
that is new.
** So far the results were satisfactory. But it next occurred, that it
might be plausibly objected, that the presence of the superincumbent cool
ocean would interfere with the process, on the principles of latent heat.
To put this to the test, I proceeded to expose a quantity of sand, covered
to the depth of several inches with common salt-water, to the heat of a
furnace, and, as the liquid boiled away, replenished it from time to time
by additions from the sea. Of course it gradually approached to a state of
brine. But this proved a very tedious operation, requiring a continued
ebullition, during three weeks, without ceasing, before it became suffi-
10 ~—- Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata.
ciently saturated with salt by the discharge of the fresh-water; and I
thought it much easier, and no less satisfactory, to employ brine from the
first, formed at once by loading the water with as much salt as it could
dissolve, amounting to about one-third of its weight.
« The vessels employed in these early experiments, were the. large black-
lead crucibles used by the brass-founders. I filled the vessel, which was
18 inches high and 10 broad, nearly to the brim with brine of full satura-
tion, the lower portion being occupied, to the depth of about 15 inches,
with loose sand from the sea-sbore, and thoroughly drenched with the
brine. In order to have a view of the progress of the experiment, I placed
an earthen-ware tube, about the size and shape of a gun-barrel, closed at
bottom, and open at the top, in a vertical position, having its lower extre-
mity immersed in the sand, and reaching to within about an inch of the
bottom of the pot, while the other end rese a foot above the eee of the
brine, and could be looked into without inconvenience.
‘* After a great number of experiments, furnishing an unbounded va-
riety of results, I at length obtained a confirmation of the main object in
view. I observed that the bottom of the porcelain barrel, and of course
the sand in which it rested, became red-hot, whilst the brine, which, dur-
ing the experiment, had been constantly replenished from a separate ves-
sel, continued merely in a state of ebullition: the upper portion of the
sand, drenched with the liquid, remained permanently quite loose, = the
lower portion of the sand had formed itself into a solid cake.
** On allowing the whole to cool, after it had been exposed to a high
heat for many hours, and breaking up the mass, I was delighted to find
the result, occupying the lower part of the pot, possessed of all the quali-
ties of a perfect sandstone, as may be seen in the specimens now presented
to the Society. Whenever the heat was not maintained so long, the sand-
stone which resulted was less perfect in its structure, tasted strongly of
salt, and sometimes erumbled to sand when placed in water.
“ Many of these early experiments were accomplished with tolerable
success. But still the result was somewhat precarious, and could not be
announced with the confidence that I felt in presenting my former experi-
ments to this Society.
“‘ The cause of this uncertainty I traced to the chemical operation of
the salt, acting as a flux upon the poreelain vessels employed. This very
action, I was well aware, was the main agent and cause of our success,
when kept within proper bounds ; but, on being allowed to pass these li-
mits, and to act on the containing vessel as well as on the experiment, it
destroyed the vessel, and converted the whole into a confused mass of slag.
«* After numberless unsuccessful attempts, and after returning again
and again to the charge, with an imterval sometimes of years, I at last met
with a quality in some of the materials to me altogether unlooked for, by
means of which may be obtained successful results, with scarcely any risk
of failure.
‘© F found that the action of the salt upon the substances of the eucibles
4
Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata. ll
of clay, did not exert itself in the same manner upon iron; but that a
large vessel of cast-iron, 18 inches deep by 10 wide, and a common gun-
barrel welded up at the breech, and open at the top, enabled me to work
with the heat of melting gold, without injuring the vessels, and at any
time to produce a perfect freestone ; thus satisfying our theoretical expec-
tations.
«© Similar results, in all respects, were produced by exposing pure pound-
ed quartz to the action of the salt fumes,—and also when gravel, or any
other mass of loose materials, was used instead of sand.” pp. 6—12.
Sir James next proceeds to show, that if this theory of
the consolidation of sandstone be admitted as sound, there is
an adequate supply of salt to be looked for in nature, or at
least of brine, which is nearly the same thing. He conceives,
that in the Mediterranean, and other similar seas, where there is
a greater evaporation from the surface than supply of fresh
water by the rivers, rains, &c., the sea, at the bottom, will
gradually approach to a state of brine. And even, without
entering into any such theoretical explanation of how this sup-
ply of salt is formed, he thinks it sufficient that there are known
‘to exist in the world many large districts of rock-salt, lakes
and rivers of salt water, and numerous brine-springs in this
and other countries.
It was objected, as Sir James tells us, to his Theory, by a mem-
ber of the Royal Society, that the influence of the superincum-
bent ocean would, in all cases, counteract, by its coolness, the
effect of the heat, and prevent the formation of stone: but these
experiments most distinctly prove, that this effect, however
probable it certainly was, would not take place, since it was easy,
by means of his device of the gun-barrel, to look into the heart
of the experiment, and discover the red-hot sand under the
water, while, at the same time, the temperature of the brine
on the top was so low that the hand could be plunged into it
without injury. But whenever the same experiment was tried
with fresh water instead of brine, no exertion of heat ever pro-
duced a red heat. Nothing, certainly, in the history of chemi-
cal experiment, is more satisfactory than this ; and the ex-
treme simplicity of the contrivance by which so important a
fact has been established, instead of diminishing, only adds to
our admiration of that ingenuity which seems always to
12 Sir James Hall on the Consolidation of the Strata.
come to the assistance of some men just at the moment of
need.
Sir James.concludes his Paper by adverting to some other
speculations which are not yet fully matured, but which he is
in hopes, ere long, to lay before the public. “ A simple al-
lusion to one or two of these,” he says, “ may perhaps be re-
ceived with indulgence.”
“ I conceive, that salt, in the state of fumes, and urged by a powerful
heat, possibly also modified by pressure, or perhaps combined with other
substances, may have penetrated a great variety of rocks, acting as a
flux on some, as in basalt, granite, &c. ; agglutinating others, as in the case
of sandstone, pudding-stone, &c. ; softening others, as in the case of contort-
ed strata of greywacke. In many cases, too, I conceive that these fumes
may have had the power of carrying along with them various other mate-
rials, such as metals in a sublimed state, which would in this way be in-
troduced into rents, veins, and cavities, or may even have entered into the
solid mass of the rocks, which I imagine these fumes may have had power
to penetrate. I have already tried some experiments in pursuit of these
ideas. Salt, for instance, has been mixed with oxide of iron, reduced to
fine powder, and then exposed to heat along with quartzose sand. The
iron, I found, was borne up along with the salt fumes. The sandstone,
formed in this way, was deeply stained with iron, and other most curious
appearances presented themselves.
‘* Every one who has seen a sandstone quarry, must have noticed evi-
dent traces of iron, the rock being stained in a great variety of ways ;
sometimes in parallel layers,—sometimes in concentric circles, or rather in
portions of concentric spheres, like the coats of an onion,—and, generally
speaking, disposed in a way not accountable by deposition from water.
All these appearances I would account for, by supposing the rock, either
at the moment of its agglutination into sandstone, or at some subsequent
period, to have been penetrated by the fumes of salt, charged with iron,
also in a state of vapour.
“*T may mention one very curious result of my experiments with salt
and iron, acting upon sand, namely, that, upon breaking up the specimen
of artificial sandstone, an appearance often presents itself of incipient ery-
stallisation, if I may use this term ; a number of large, shining, parallel
faces pervade the whole mass, and, by holding the specimen at the proper
angle to the light, this appearance becomes very obvious. What the na-
ture of these crystals is, I have not investigated ; but as they very much
resemble what we see in different kinds of sandstone, I am of opinion that
they hold out a fair expectation, of our being able to produce many of the
crystalline appearances with which we are familiar in nature.
** Common sea-salt, such as I have used, ‘as is well known, is not pure
muriate of soda; and, in my experiments, I have mixed various other
1
Mr Blackadder on Vertical and Lateral Mirage. 1%
substances with it. In Nature, we must suppose that various contaminat-
ing substances would in like manner occur, to diversify the phenomena ;
and, accordingly, we do find a boundless variety, in the aspect not only of
sandstone, but of almost every kind of rock ; and I am by no means with-
out expectation, that, in the course of time, we shall be able to imitate in
our laboratory as many of these varieties as we choose to exhibit.
T have long been engaged also in a series of experiments on the forma-
tion of Crystallites, the name by which, as I have before stated, every
erystallised rock might, perhaps, be usefully distinguished in contradis-
tinction to Aggregates, or those formed of fragments. This great object
in experimental geology, I hope to accomplish by means of an instrument
which I have long had in use, for the regulation of high heats, a descrip-
tion of which may probably soon be laid before the Society, together with
some further results in support of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth.” —
pp. 15, 16.
We again repeat our earnest solicitation to Sir James Hall
to make this inyention known to the public. There is, we be:
lieve, at this moment, more than one chemist on the Conti-
nent,* if not in this country, engaged in the formation of crys-
tals in imitation of nature; and as we know that the regula-
tion of high heats is by far the most difficult part of the pro-
cess, we trust that Sir James may be induced to lend the as-
sistance of this valuable instrument to a subject which, it
may be fairly presumed, he has as sincerely at heart as any man
in the field. “
Sir James Hall stands so high as an experimental geologist,
if we may be allowed the expression, and his authority is now
a-days so often quoted, that we think a reprint of all his pa-
“pers, in a separate form, would be gratefully received by the
scientific world.
Arr. [I.—On some Phenomena of Vertical and of La-
teral Mirage, observed at King George's Bastion, Leith.
An Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Henry Home
BuiackappeEr, Esq. Surgeon, Med. Staff, H. P.
Cross along the sea shore, to the north-east of the new Docks
at Leith, there is an extensive bulwark, the central part of
which is named King George’s Bastion. This bulwark is
* See this Journal, vol. i. p. 375, and vol. ii. p. 129.
14 Mr Blackadder on Vertical and Lateral Mirage.
formed of huge blocks of cut sand-stone, and was intended
both as a protection against the sea, and, if need should be,
against the attacks of an enemy. When the weather is favour-
able, this bulwark affords an opportunity of witnessing most
of the interesting phenomena, connected with what has been
termed unusual atmospheric refraction. Near the centre of
the range there is a solid stone tower, and from this to the
eastern extremity, the appearances are observed to most ad-
vantage.
From the tower eastward, the bulwark forms a sireiae
line to the distance of about 498 feet. It is eight feet in
height, on the side next to the land, and has a foot-way up-
wards of two feet in breadth, and about three feet from the
ground. At the top, the parapet is three feet wide, and has a
slight inclination towards the sea.
When the weather is favourable, and that is not of rare oc-
currence, the top of the parapet has the appearance of a mir-
ror, or rather of asheet of ice, and, if in this state, another
person stands or walks upon it, at a little distance, an mverted |
image is seen under him. If, while standing on the foot-way,
another person stands on it aiso, but at some distance, with his
face turned towards the sea, his image will appear oppo-
site to him, giving the appearance of two persons talking,
or saluting each other. If again, when standing on the foot-
‘way, and looking in a direction from the tower, another per-
son crosses the eastern extremity of the bulwark, passing
through the water-gate, either to or from the sea, there is pro-
duced the appearance of two persons moving in opposite di-
rections—constituting what has been termed a lateral mirage—
first one is seen moving past, and then the other in an oppo-
site direction, with some interval between them. In looking
over the parapet, distant objects are seen variously modified,
the mountains converted into immense bridges, &e.
On going to the eastern extremity of the bulwark, and di-
recting the eye towards the tower, the latter appears curious-
ly modified, part of it being as it were cut off, and brought
down, so as to form another small and elegant tower, in the
form of certain sepulchral monuments. See Plate I. Fig. 13:
a
4 K Balalough
The Ancient Lakes now obluterated of the Isle
| of Man as they subststed wm the vear 1656. ;
WwW
Published by W. Blackwoad 1825.
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 15
At other times, it bears an exact resemblance to un ancient al-
tar, the fire of which seems to burn with great intensity. At
some distance beyond the tower, there is seen the chimney-top
of a house for boiling pitch, or other purposes connected with
the docks. When smoke issues from that chimney, the ap-
pearance represented in Fig. 14 was produced. The black
waved lines under the ouplighad a rapid vibratery motion,
while the motion of that which represents the fire of the altar,
was exactly similar (excepting in colour) to the flame of a
. Strong fire. *
The accompanying outlines will render the above descrip-
tion sufficiently intelligible. Some hygrometrical and thermo-
metrical observations, connected with this subject, may be
brought forward on a future occasion.
Art. III.—Account of the Circumstances connected with the
Discovery of the Fossil Elkin the Isle of Man, which prove
that this Animal is not Antediluvian, as many Naturalists
and Antiquaries have cae By Samvet Hussert,
M. D. F. R. S. E. and M.G. 8. Secretary to the Society
of Scottish Antiquaries.
Ture are few subjects in Natural History more interesting
than the circumstances connected with the discovery of those
Fossil Animals, the several races of which are either foreign
to the country and climate in which they are at present found,
or have become wholly extinct. In reference to this curi-
ous investigation, the Irish Elk attracts no small share of atten-
tion. ‘lhe zoologist inquires, whether animals of the same
kind are still to be found on the surface of the globe, or have
‘completely disappeared :—if the latter supposition be enter-
tained, the antiquary proposes a question, at what era races of
them might have existed? while the geologist contents him-
self with a solution of the great difficulty, whether their ex-
* A full detail of the principles, on which the phenomena of Vertical
and Lateral Mirage depend, will be found in the Edinburgh Encyclopa-
dia, ArT1cLE Optics, vol. xv- p- 617.
16 Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
tinction is not referable to a period so long prior to all histo-
rical records, as to claim for them an antediluvian origin. The
last question is the one that I shall at present consider.
The first British naturalist who attracted the attention of
philosophers to the Fossil Elk, was Sir Thomas Molyneux,
who, in the year 1726, described it with far more accuracy
than had been done before. He pronounced it to be of the
genus Cervinum, or deer kind, and of the sort that carries
broad or palmed horns, bearing a greater affinity to the buck
or fallow-deer, than to the stag or rein-deer, which has round
horns, branched without a palm. * He also observed, that the
Trish elks were gregarious like the elks of Sweden, or the
rein-deer of the Northern countries of Europe ;—drawing this
conclusion from the statement of a Mr Osborne, who, while
he was trenching an orchard, found three heads and sets of
horns in the compass of one acre of land. The same philoso-
pher again remarked, that these animals were discovered from
five to ten feet under ground, im a sort of marl. .
These are the leading circumstances, with which we have
been long acquainted, relative to the discovery of the Fossil
Elk, and they are almost sufficient for any geologist to draw
from them the conclusion, that the -race of this animal, so far
from being antediluvian, has either been but recently extinct,
or even yet exists. + And, infact, this was the very conclusion
to which Sir Thomas Molyneux arrived, though he failed in
his task of endeavouring to identify the Irish elk with the
American moose-deer.
Still, there has not for a century been wanting geologists,
“ An accurate representation, by Mr Burman of Douglas, of a fine head
of the Elk, in his possession, was sent to Alexander Seton, Esq. an able
Antiquary, who has obligingly permitted it to be engraved. (See Plate II,
Fig. 1.) The dimensions to which the letters in the figure refer, are
stated as follows: “‘ From A to B, 6 feet 11 inches; from B to C, 5 feet
two inches; from D to E, 2 feet 6 inches; from F to G, 1 foot 2 inches ;
from H to I,1 foot 74 inches; from N to O, 5 feet. Circumference at
L K, 72 inches ; circumference at the root C, 11 inches.”
+ Dr Knox was led to entertain this opinion, from different sourees of
observation, namely, from the anatomical structure of the animal, and its
state of preservation.
—eEO
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 17
who, in opposition to this plain statement of facts, have sup-
posed that these Fossil remains were indicative of animals
which had been destroyed by the universal deluge. Hence
the transportation or drifting of their bones by an over-
. whelming torrent, into such insular tracts as Ireland and the
Isle of Man. And, since the discovery of the bones in the
Hyena Cave of Kirkdale, a similar conjecture has been hazard-
ed by Professor Buckland, * though, from some subsequent
cofiversation with Mr Weaver, he now seems inclined to re-
consider the subject.
After these remarks, I shall proceed to describe the geolo-
gical circumstances connected with the earthy deposits in which
the elk is found.
A southerly, and far most considerable, portion of the Isle
of Man is diversified by irregular mountainous ranges of clay
slate, and micaceous schist. In this extensive district it has
been affirmed that no remains of the elk are to be found ; but
that they only occur in the extensive flat on the north of the is-
land, named the Curragh, which is characterized by a thick
deposit of clay, marl, sand, and gravel. This is, however, a
mistake. About a mile to to the north-west of the Tynwald
Hill, at a short distance from the Peel River, there is a low
marshy piece of ground from which large quantities of shell
marl have been procured for the purposes of manure; and in
this marl numerous bones of the elk have been observed in an
imbedded state. But in the course of describing this site
more particularly, I shall advert, in a very general manner,
to the origin of the calcareous deposit in which these interest-
img relics have been found.
There are several evident indications in the vicinity of the
Tynwald Hill of some very ancient lakes having been formed
in the low sites of this westerly part of the island, the over-
flow from which was discharged into the sea by the channel
that now forms the bed of the Peel River. The tributary
torrents by which these lakes were supplied, had carried with
them the disintegrated materials of the rocks among whic!: they
* Reliquie Diluviane, page 180.
VOL. {1J. NO. 1. JULY 1825. B
18 Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
flowed, and, in the course of ages, had succeeded by this
accumulation of earthy matter in excluding the water from
these hollows, as well as in changing the course, or narrowing
the bed of the river by which these lakes communicated with
each other, and with the sea on the west. But another cause
besides this will be found in most instances to have assisted in
levelling the land, and as no one has more clearly explained
this cause than Dr MacCulloch,* it would be an injustice to him
not to giye it in his own words. ‘‘ Many fresh water shells,”
he observes, ‘* breed in lakes, and even in the shallowest and
smallest pools ; and as their death and reproduction is very
rapid in many cases, a considerable addition of solid matter is
made to that which is brought in from the rocks and soil
which the feeding waters act on in their courses. Such sheils,
therefore, produce calcareous beds, which are never, or rarely
at least, uch consolidated, but are known by the name of
marl. This marl also varies in character, as the shells may
have disappeared entirely, or it may be further intermixed
with the clay or the sand introduced by the rivers.”
The shell marl, which is accumulated in the low sites of
ground near the Peel River, is of a milk-white colour, also,
when dried, very light and porous. All the shelly parts are in
such a comminuted state, and so mixed up with clay or sand,
that I could not find a specimen in which the organic structure
of the animals to which the marl owes its origin was preserv-
ed. The bones of the elk are said to be found about six to
ten feet deep in this marl, and mixed along with them, particu-
larly in the more superficial strata, are the remains of nume-
rous aquatic plants, as of willows, ferns, reeds, &c. indicative
of the ancient marshes which succeeded to the levelling of the
land, and to which the elks appear to have resorted. In the
upper beds the calcareous matter gradually lessens, showing
that the gradual extinction of the race of fresh water shells
kept pace with the fillmg up of the lake. A stratum of sand,
the pure and nearly unmixed debris of the neighbouring hills,
* Article Organic Remarns in Dr Brewster's Encyclopedia, vol. xv-
p- 726 -
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 19
is superjacent to the shell marl, while a comparatively modern
bed of peat covers the whole.
But a question is now naturally suggested —To what cause
do the elks owe their nhumation in the marl ?
Dr MacCulloch on this subject observes, that ‘‘ these ani-
mals appear to be collected, as it were, into a herd; and gene-
rally the skeletons are entire, or, at least, if bones are wanting,
there is no dispersion of them. Farther, it has been remark-
ed, that they are generally in an erect position, and the com-
mon people of the country who have dug them out, and who
have no hypothesis to serve, assert that their noses, when thus
erect, are elevated as high as possible. The natural conclu-
sion from these facts is, that this has been a herd suddenly
surrounded by the materials in which the specimens now lie,
so as to have been inclosed and preserved in their living atti-
tudes. An inundation of water and gravel, or sand and mud,
would explain this, when favoured by peculiar circumstances
in the form of the land; while the preservation of the erect
posture, no less than the very singular position of the nose,
proves that the operation must have been gradual; the ani-
mal’s last efforts having been those of keeping its head as long
as possible above the flood.” *
Now, this opinion would not, I think, have been advanced,
if it were not for the misrepresentations of the labourers who
had been employed in the marl pits of the Isle of Man, and
who were consulted on the occasion. Nor does Dr MacCulloch
offer his hypothesis with any great confidence, being himself
doubtful how far the statements which he received were to be,
depended upon. For, how could the labourers affirm that the
elk is generally found in an erect position, when an entire ske-
leton of this animal ‘has never yet been discovered? I shall
take another occasion to explain, that the specimen in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, generally conceived to be entire, is prin-
cipally composed of dispersed bones. Again, in the vicinity
of the Peel River, near the 'Tynwald Hill, the elk is found
in a situation which is perfectly fatal to the notion that a herd
* See Article OnGanic Remains in Dr Brewster's Encyclopedia,
vol, xy. p. 727.
20 Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
of animals of this kind was destroyed by immersion, or caught
in a sudden and unexpected flood. For it is difficult to con-
ceive of any ordinary torrent, however rapid it might be, which
could have succeeded in preventing the elks on any such emer-
gency from securing their escape by repairing to the nume-
rous eminences, which are immediately contiguous to the marl
pit in which their bones are at present found.
The hypothesis, then, that I would myself propose, is sug-
gested by the circumstance remarked in Ireland, as well as in
the Isle of Man, that the remains of the elk are commonly
detected in’ marl,—or that they are comparatively rarein any
other description of alluvial matter. For, may net a reason-
able supposition be entertained, that this very general occur-
rence has a reference to some particular habits of the elk when
alive? Now, I have often had occasion to remark, that the
pools in which marl is apt to accumulate are often the very
spots that are selected by graminivorous animals, particularly
of the deer kind, as watering-places ; but, whether the predi-
lection which may be given to such pools, arises from calea-
reous matter being diffused through the water, or from some
other quality, I will not hazard a conjecture. Nor would I
build any hypothesis upon this result of my own experience,
the truth:of which remains to be determined by more expe-
rienced agriculturists than myself. I can only add, that much
countenance is given to my opinion by several facts which
have come to my knowledge. ‘Thus, in the vicinity of Al-
tringham, in Cheshire, remains of the common deer have been
found imbedded in ancient marl; and from the marl of Wal-
lisey Mere, the pool of which is in part filled up by a deposit
of this kind, bones of similar animals were lately extracted.
When, therefore, we reflect, that the remains of elks are
chiefly found in those ancient pools which have been gradually
filled up by marl, the direct question is,—are we entitled to
infer, from this general circumstance,. that these animals have
met with a natural rather than with a violent death? On this
subject some light may be obtained by analogical examples.
Ta my inquiries respecting the situations in which the red
deer of Dunkeld are generally found, when they meet with a
natural death, I have been assured that they are most fre-
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. Q1
quently discovered stuck in the soft ground of swamps or
shallow pools. An animal of this kind, languid from disease,
sinks deep 1 in the marsh to which it may athe been accustom-
ed to repair, and not possessing strength sufficient to extricate
itself, is usually left in this state to perish. Hence a very
plausible hypothesis may account for the circumstances under
which the elk is usually found. The animal, during sickness,
either in company with the- herd to which it is siuickintde or
apart from its companions, may have frequented a familar
watering-spot, in order to quench its thirst, and sinking in the
soft marly substance which has accumulated roundthe margin
of the lake, may have in vain exerted its limbs, enfeebled by dis-
_ ease, to disengage itself, and in this situation have actually died.
Some of its bones may have been dissipated by the action of
the atmosphere, and other naturai causes ; some may have been
borne away by carnivorous animals ; while the remaining num-
ber may have owed their preservation to rains, which had wash-
ed them deeper in the lake, where they would be gradually
enveloped by shell-marl in its process of filling up the basin.
Such a view of the case is, im fact, attended with much fewer
difficulties than if we resort to a cause so adventitious as that
of an overwhelming flood, or any other-expedient of this kind,
as that the animal had been’ drowned, while attempting to
elude the pursuit of its enemies; for Professor Buckland
has announced, that this last opinion is entertained by Mr
Weaver.
The next question suggested is purely speculative :—From
what cause has this animal become extinct in the British
islands ?
Sir Thomas Molyneux conceived, that a sort of distemper,
or pestilential murrain, might have cut off the Irish elks ;
and, connecting this view with the remains of many of them
being found in one place, he supposed, that, as these animals
had lived together in herds, they had died together in numbers.
Headduces, in support of this view, a passage from Scheffer
relative to the distemper which, at times, carries off whole
herds of the rein deer. All this may be fair reasoning enough.
It is, however, questionable, if the human race has not occa-
sionally proved as formidable as a pestilence in exterminating,
22. = Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
from various districts, whole races of wild animals; though
we are certainly short of historical evidence, when we would
prove that this has been the case with regard to the elks in the
Isle of Man and Ireland.
These are the various observations which occurred to me
after I had examined the situation in which the elks of the
Isle of Man are discovered near the Peel River; but, as I
was also informed, that they were still more abundantly found
in a northerly part of the country, to which geologists, from
its peculiar character, would now give the name of diluvial,
I was anxious to examine this district. But, before describ-
ing the result of my investigation, it may be expedient to ad-
vert very briefly to the general distinction that Professor
Buckland draws between diluviwm and alluvium.
In a paper which I published in the last number of this
Journal, it was stated, that ‘* Professor Buckland had proposed.
to separate two classes of phenomena which were previously
referred to one common cause. Of these, the first is, the ge-
neral dispersion of gravel and loam over hills and elevated
plains, as well as valleys, which he conceives to be the effect
of an universal and transient deluge. To the gravel and loam
thus said to be dispersed, the name of di/wviwm, in reference
to their alleged cause, has been given. The second class of
phenomena includes the partial collection of gravel at the foot
of torrents, and of mud.at the mouths and along the course
of rivers, this partial collection of gravel, mud, or sand, being
distinguished from the first class by the name of alluvium.
Thus, we are said to have deposits of dilwviwm or of alluvium,
the first of these being referable to the action of an universal de-
luge, the latter (or the alluvium) to that of existing causes.”
Into the reasonableness of this view I shall not at present in-
quire, my object being rather to show, that, as Professor
Buckland claims all animals which are discovered in diluvial
deposits, as antediluvian animals, the fossil elk is found under
circumstances that completely prevent it from boasting so re-
mote a date of origin.
The strata of clay slate and mica slate, which occupy an
area of the Isle of Man amounting to almost three-fourths of
it, have a line of direction that most frequently extends from
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 25
south-west to north-east. They assume the form of irregular
mountain ridges, which at Snaefell, the highest hill of the
place, attain an elevation of 2004 feet. Keeping, then, these
circumstances of the primary strata in view, if we trace a line
on the map nearly regular, commencing at the east of the
island at Ramsey, and continued across it in a course very
nearly west, we shall find on survey that, when the lofty moun-
tain ridges which I have described come yin contact with this
imaginary line, they abruptly terminate; the remaining fourth
part of the island to the north appearing as one vast and near-
ly dead flat. This expanse is popularly named the Curragh,
and it is on this site, as I have before remarked, that most of
the remains of the elk are to be found. But before I advert
to the circumstances connected with their inhumation, it will
be necessary to describe, with some degree of precision, the
deep deposit of clay, marl, sand, and gravel, which distin-
guishes this district.
The lofty ridges of primary strata which constitute the
chief part of the Isle of Man, must be considered as forming,
along their northerly line of termination, a part of the deep
boundary of an immense depression or basin that shelves ab-
ruptly to an unknown depth. The question then is, With
what materials has this depression of the Curragh been filled ?
An attentive examination of the nature of this deposit will
prove, that the basin contains transported fragments, the geo-
logical character of which is unlike that of any mountain
masses that occur in the Isle of Man. . Far distant hills,
perhaps of Scotland, which have been chiefly composed of
transition limestone, trap-rock, grauwacke, quartz, granite,
and porphyry, having yielded to the disintegrating effects of
atmospheric agents, an immense quantity of debris has, in the
course of ages, accumulated ; and if we adopt the most ready
theory which is suggested on the occasion, an immense wave
from the north (which, according to the hypothesis of Pro-
fessor Buckland, has passed. with an incredible velocity over
the surface of the earth, and has thus given rise to the Mosaic
deluge,) appears, in the course of its progress, to have forced
these disintegrated materials from their native site, and while
dispersing them in the direction of its current, to have at
24 Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
length obtained a secure lodgement for them in the deep basin
of the Curragh.
According, then, to the view of Professor Buckland, the
greatest portion of the clay, marl, sand, and gravel of the
Curragh would be diluvial. But I use this geological term
in a far more limited sense. I involve, in its meaning, no-
thing more than the agency of an immense wave which swept
the deposit, now under consideration, from far distant shores ;
—but it is a distinct proposition to maintain, that this very
wave, the origin of which is involved in the greatest mystery,
. can be the same which produced all the effects that are as-
cribed to the Mosaic Deluge.
After these remarks, I shall proceed to give a general de-
scription of the diluvium of the Curragh, in reference to the
circumstances under which the fossil elk is discovered. The
disintegrated materials, which contribute most to the diluvium,
are limestone, rocks of the trap series of formation, and next
in order, quartz, grauwacke, granite, and porphyry. Boul-
ders and pebbles of all these rocks may be detected in the de-
posit. Fragments of limestone are so abundant, that. it is
usual, for the purposes of agriculture, to carefully collect
them from the sea-shore, after they have been loosened by
the inroads which the ocean is constantly making upon the
cliffs. Calcareous matter is, in fact, found as a more or less
abundant ingredient in all the beds of clay, marl, sand, or
gravel, which, variously alternating with each other, charac-
terize this deposit. Mr Oswald of Douglas has detected in
the marl the fragment of a shell which appears to be a species
of Turritella.
Such is the diluvium of the Curragh, in which no remains
of the elk have ever yet been discovered; the antediluvian
origin, therefore, formerly ascribed to this animal by Profes-
sor Buckland was, upon his own views, destitute of proof.
I may next remark, that the debris, of which the diluvial
matter has been composed, is accumulated in the greatest
quantity on the coast. It is considerably worn away by the
action of the sea, and occasionally presents to the ocean an
abrupt face, where it attains an elevation varying from 70 to
100 feet. In other places, however, the height is far less.
,
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 25
* ‘
But as we recede from the sea, and approach towards the
range of hills which forms the southerly limits of the Curragh,
we find that the surface of the bank more or less gradually
slopes off, so as to form a depression or hollow of inconsider-
able depth, in which has formerly subsisted one or more in-
land lakes or marshes. Accordingly, the channels of several
small rivers, deriving their origin from lofty rocks of clay-
slate, may be detected, to which the ancient lakes of the Cur-
ragh have been indebted for their supply. These mountain-
streams have, in the course of ages, carried with them im-
mense quantities of the disintegrated materials of the hills
from which they have had their origin, and have deposited
them in the form of gravel, clay, or sand, by which means the
depression of the Curragh has been in some measure reduced.
A gain, the lakes in their overflow have formed for themselves
various narrow channels or outlets, by which they have com-
municated with the ocean. ‘These rivers have exerted a deep
corrosive action on the loose materials of the diluvium; and
while the lakes of the Curragh have become more shallow
from the filling up of their basins, a considerable drainage has
also conspired to prevent this low tract from being overflowed.
But to more particularly describe these effects would be fo-
reign to my present object. Suffice it to say, that the surface
of the diluvium has, from these causes, undergone very con-
siderable modifications. On the north-west of the Cur-
ragh a terrace of debris may be observed, such as is thrown up
by ariver, when it forces its way through earthy or stony mate-
rials loosely accumulated. 'This terrace consists of alternating
layers of gravel, marl, and sand, and (if I do not mistake tie
site, which has been pointed out by Mr Oswald) one or two
ribs of animals, said to be of the elk, which had probably
drifted thither from the neighbourhood, were, matiy years
ago, discovered imbedded in this mass.
I shall now advert to the most frequent circumstance con-
nected with the discovery of the fossil elk in the Curragh,
namely, its inhumation in alluvial marl. But there are, in
this case, two varieties of this substance to be distin-
guished. The first is that which had once subsisted as diluvial
clay-marl, but either from being exposed to the action of
26 Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk.
mountain torrents has become more or less mixed with sand
and gravel, or from forming the bed of ancient pools, or lakes
of water, has become mixed with the remains of shells, as well
as of vegetable substances. ‘‘ In the flats,” says Mr Oswald,
‘the common marl is loaded with sand, and possesses a laminar
structure. In Andreas it is of a reddish colour. The Jurby
marl is of an earthy grey, and of a compact texture. A spe-
cimen obtained twelve feet deep, contains roots of the fern,
and many thin fragments of shells.” To this description, I
would add, that in mar! of this kind no remains of the elk have
yet been discovered ; they scarcely appear to occur anywhere,
(at least in any quantity,) except in the shell marl—a_ circum-
stance which, as I have stated, must be considered as connect-
ed with some habits of the living animal which I have endea-
voured to explain.
The situation in the Curragh, where numerous remains of
the elk have been found, was pointed out to me by the Bishop
of Man, to whom I have been much obliged for some valuable
assistance which I received in the course of my researches.
The deposit from which they are obtained is in the parish of
Ballaugh; but as the excavation which had been made was then
nearly filled with water, I must refer to Mr Oswald’s account,
inserted in the present number of this Journal, for a more parti-
cular geological description. It would appear that, in a basin
shaped cavity, a bed of shell mar] reposes, which has been worked
from eleven to fourteen feet deep. Below this is the diluvial
deposit.* A layer of white sand three feet thick reposes upon
the marl, and above the whole a bed of peat four to six feet
thick. From this deposit the skeleton of the elk in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh was obtained. ‘This specimen, general-
ly conceived to be entire, was the ingenious compilation of a
blacksmith of Ballaugh ; it was principally got up from bones
that had been dispersed, and, as the osseous system of the pro-
posed antediluvian animal was still incomplete, a few odd
joints were necessarily borrowed from other animals.
* Mr Oswald has remarked, that “ throughout this district, where a
sufficient depth is attained, boulders of grey limestone of various sizes” (the
transported materials of the diluvium) ‘‘ are found.”
1
Dr Hibbert on the Discovery of the Fossil Elk. 27
But the apparent margin of another bed of shell-marl in
Ballaugh from which the elk has been taken, was notso much
concealed as the middle of it. This deposit appeared com-
paratively recent. The lowest stratum which was expos-
ed had a depth of three feet; it was considerably mixed with
sand and small pebbles of clay-slate and quartz, the debris of
the neighbouring hills; and in this mass several bones of the
elk have at various times been found imbedded. Above this
marl was a deposit, one foot thick, of the same substance,
though mixed with more sand, and containing some little ve-
getable matter. In a still higher bed, a layer of sand succeed-
ed, one foot thick, mixed with white quartz pebbles: then a
layer of drift peat, and another of black mould, each six inches
thick, and over the whole, a thinner coat of drift. peat.
This comparatively recent origin of the deposit in which the
elk is found, may be connected with another remarkable cir-
cumstance, yet remaining to be noticed. The limited district
named Ballaugh, from which the Isle of Man elks are most
abundantly obtained, is nothing more than a corruption of the
name Bala Lough. In fact, a lough or lake subsisted, of so re-
cent a date, as to be actually described in a map of the Isle of
Man, published in the year 1656, by James Chaloner. (See
Plate IT. Fig. 2, where part of it is copied.) And as the elk is
found imbedded at such a small depth below the surface of this
lake, which has been lately filled up, two important ques-
tions connected with the natural history of this animal, naturally
_ suggest themselves: first, Have we any evidence from histori-
cal records that this animal was well known at ‘a period com-
paratively recent ? and, secondly, Does any similar animal exist .
in Europe, or elsewhere, at the present day? These questions
I shall consider on another opportunity.
The foregoing investigation is one that I consider of no
small importance. If the elk can be thus shown to be decid-
edly postdilwvian, may not a just suspicion be attached to the
recently assigned antedilwvian origin of various other animals,
especially when, like those of the Curragh, they are found in
districts which may, at least in part, be proved to be diluvial ?
Geologists would do well to pause before they admit, as an es-
tablished fact, what yet remains to be confirmed ; and I do not
hesitate to add, that the circumstances under which the hyena
28 Mr Oswald’s Observations relative to the
and other animals have been found at Kirkdale and elsewhere,
are still open for a further and very rigid examination.*
5 Pi Having alluded to the researches of Mr Oswald on the
iihjet of the Sossil elk, the communication in which they are
contained is superadded to this paper. It will be found to give
a very interesting and minute detail of the shell-marl deposit of
the Curragh ; and the geologist is under considerable obligations
to the writer for the pains which he has taken on the subject.
Art. 1V.—Observations relative to the Fossil Elk of the Isle
of Mann ; being the Abstract of a'Letter from H. R. Oswatp,
Esq. F.S.S.A., &e. addressed to the Lorp Brsuor or Sopor
anp Many, in Reply to certain Queries instituted by Pro-
fessor BuckiLanp relative to the circumstances under which
the Fossil Elk is discovered.
My Lorp BrsHop,
In compliance with your Lordship’s note from Castle Mona,
I have drawn up the following answer to Professor Buck-
land’s queries respecting the be of a species of large elk
found in some of the mar! beds in this island.
In the extensive diluvial flat which constitutes the north
end of the island, the marl is of two kinds, first, white marl of
a fibrous and somewhat laminar structure; secondly, common
clay marl of a brownish grey colour, and compact consistence.
The white marl, in which the elk is found, occurs only in
small formations in the vicinity of Ballaugh Brewery, and
about a mile from the base of the mountains. Though flat at
this point, the ground is undulated, and somewhat uneven.
The formations of white marl occur in detached basins,
which vary from 50 to 150 yards in diameter. ‘The sites of
these are frequently, but not always, indicated by shallow hol-
lows and morasses on the surface. These deposits admit of
two varieties. The first of these contains white shell marl, or
rather delineations of shells in the marl; the other does not
‘exhibit the remains of shells, and is some shades darker in co-
lour, though in other respects similar to the shell variety.
* See Dr Knox’s Communication on the Hyena Bones in this Number,
p- 80.
Fossil Elk of the Isle of Man. 29
The skeleton of the large species of elk which is now in the
Museum of the University of Edinburgh, was found at the
farm of Balla Terson, in a basin of the shell variety of marl,
about 100 yards by 50 in extent, and situated in a wet hol-
low or morass, which is filled with aquatic plants, and sur-
rounded on all sides by fields of dry and fertile soil.
The superficial stratum is peat of excellent quality, light
and fibrous, and containing a few trees of bog-timber. It is
six feet thick in the middle parts of the morass, but passes out
thin; into a black peaty turf towards the margin. Between it
and the marl a layer of fine bluish white earthy sand is inter-
posed, from two to three feet in thickness. The marl lies at
a depth of from seven to ten feet at the middle parts of the
pit, but, like the peat, becomes thin at the margin, and passes
out when within a foot and ahalf of the black till which forms
the surface crust. Nearly one-half of this deposit has been
worked during dry seasons, but I have never seen the pit
completely drained. of its water. According to the calculation
of the workmen, the bed of marl in the middle parts of it
is from eleven to fourteen feet thick, independent of the layers
of turf and sand which I have noticed. A tranverse section
of the deposit may therefore be delineated thus:
: Bottom of Lake.
Peat, 4 to 6 fest.
White sand, 3 feet:
Manl, 11 to 14 feet.
When the workmen penetrate at any time through the
marl, the pit is suddenly inundated by water springing up
from below, from the sand and gravel which form the subsoil.
This marl is highly fibrous, and somewhat laminar in its
structure, and when dry, is as light, and nearly as white as
chalk. The shells are delineated white upon a darker ground,
and are seen by separating the fibrous layers, but are seldom,
if ever, found in their original state. I question much whether
shells exist in all parts of the basin, certainly not at its margin.
In this basin vast quantities of bones of the large species of
elk are found. The workmen have constantly met with them
30 Mr Oswald’s Observations relative to the
since the first opening of the pit, and therefore conclude that
an incalculable number still remains. These bones occur at .
all depths of the marl. At and towards the surface of it the
bones, like the shells, are merely delineations of what they
once were, with little or no difference in consistence from the
mass i which they are contained, and therefore will not bear
handling ; in the bed of sand above the marl all vestiges of
them disappear. The deeper these elks are in the marl, the
more fresh and perfect they seem; and near the bottom of the
bed complete heads are found. ‘They sometimes, though very
seldom, are observed imbedded partially in the gravel below.
Those in the marl are generally charged with calcareous mat-
ter, yet I have frequently seen the thick part of the stem of the
horns so unchanged, as to admit of being worked. The bog tim-
ber is in this instance solely confined to the peat on the surface.
The skeleton now in the Museum of the University of
Edinburgh, was found at the bottom of the marl, where the
bed was very thick. The different bones, though partly in
contact, lay irregularly, and possessed ‘little or no relative po-
sition to each other. ‘The head lay with its nose upwards,
and the other bones around it were in a state of confusion
which the workmen cannot describe. This specimen is the
only relic approximating to a complete skeleton which has
been met with. But it was not perfect when it was set up;
some bones were wanting, and I have reason to conclude that
Mr Kewish (the blacksmith who put the skeleton together)
availed himself of the relics of other animals. It is no uncom-
mon thing to meet with two heads and a number of other re-
lics lying in confusion together. One man assured me, that
on a late occasion he saw appearances of a perfect skeleton
lying on its side in the middle of the basin, all the bones ix
situ, but whether it would have borne handling was not as-
ascertained. To my knowledge two other very fine heads have
been raised, one of which, with brow antlers, measured eight
feet and a half from the tip at one horn to that of the other,
each horn being five feet eight inches in length; it had three
molar and three cutting teeth perfect on each side of the jaw.
Single horns, ribs, and fragments of these and of other bones
are often met with not only in this basin, but in the other pits
of white marl without shells.
Fossil Elk of the Isle of Man. 31
I shall, in the second place, notice the basins of white marl
in which no shells now appear. These lie lower down the
plain, nearer to the deposits of common clay-marl.
In one of these basins, distant upwards of a quarter of a
mile from that described, the marl lies at a depth of from four to
six feet only, being covered by a hard, sandy, blackish earth.
The field in which it is situated is crusted over with a wet
soil. Before the surface of this basin was broken up, it had a
thin layer of turf upon the middle or deepest part of it, but
there is none now to be seen. Between the alluvial covering
and the marl there is a bed of dark turfy fibrous earth, from
two to four inches thick, each horizontal layer showing differ-
ent degrees of shade. The marl itself is darkest near the top,
continuing thus to the depth of eighteen inches. In this up-
per part of the marl slight veins or rents occur.
This marl is also fibrous, and somewhat slaty, and exhibits
between its layers white delineations like grass. It likewise
contains bones, but they are few in number, and much decay-
ed; of these are pieces of ribs, condyles of bones, and stems of
large horns, &c.
This deposit of marl, though near the surface, and in a
field almost level, is basin shaped, like that last described, va-
rying in depth from seven to ten feet in the middle, and pass-
ing out to the thinness of a few inches at the margin. The
extent of it has not been determined. Excepting a rib and
some small fragments, I have not myself seen any of these
bones in situ. bc - a *
I have never heard of or seen any specimens of the head of
the beaver in this island, but have learned that large specimens
of the head and horns of the common deer have been occa-
sionally met with, and that fragments of ribs of a smaller
size than those of the elk usually are, have been sometimes
found. | * * ¥ * *
I have the honour to remain,
My Lorp Bisnop,
Your Lordship’s very obedient humble servant,
Dovcras, May 29, 1824.
To the Hon. and Right Rev. H. R. Oswaxp.
The Lord Bishop of Sodor and Mann.
32 Dr Hamilton's Account of the
Arr. V.—An Account of the Frontier between Ava dnd the
Part of Bengal adjacent to the Karnaphuli River. By
Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. and F.A.S. Lond. and
Edin. Communicated by the Author.
Tue river called Naaf by Europeans, which enters the sea in
about 20° 50/ north, for a short way forms the boundary be-
tween Ava and Bengal; and across it is the only communica-
tion known between the kingdom of Arakan subject to Ava,
and Chatigang subject to Britain. North from the forks of
this river, so far as I could Jearn in 1798, there was no dis-
tinct boundary ; but there extends north, along the whole of
the Chatigang district, a mountainous frontier occupied by se-
veral rude tribes. Through this region flow many rivers ;
some into the sea, either through Chatigang or Arakan, ahd
some into the Erawadi; and the high land at the sources of
such of these rivers as run through the district of Chatigang
was commonly supposed to be the actual boundary. The
rude tribes, indeed, which occupy the hilly countries on both
sides of the central height, claim independence, and support it,
so far as their slender means will admit. On this account, we
cannot depend on there being no passages through this coun-
try, because the inhabitants will naturally conceal them, as an
intercourse by these passages would inevitably lead to their
-more full subjection to either one or other of their more power-
ful neighbours.
In a map of the Empire of Ava by Mr Walker, the rivers
flowing through Chatigang are laid down as anastomosing
with teas which run through Arakan ; and this may be the
ease, although I heard not the most distant hint from the na-
tives of such a circumstance. Indeed none of those, with
whom I conversed, pretended to know any thing of the sour-
ces of the larger rivers, on the banks of which they dwelt, al-
leging that a fear of the independent tribes hindered them from
ever penetrating so far. Such an anastomosis, in a very hilly
country, is singular, and renders uncertain the above mention-
ed idea of the boundary. This.would increase the probabili-
ty of there being passages direct from the sources of the Kar-
rT
Frontier between Ava and Part of Bengal. 33
naphuli to Ava, through the country of the Jo; but I am not
acquainted with the authority on which Mr Walker has pro-
ceeded ; this, however, from the manner in which it is laid
down, would seem to be from an actual survey, and is there-
fore probably correct, so that the height of the land can only
be the boundary towards the northern extremity of the dis-
trict of Chatigang, concerning which, I am now about to treat.
The total width of the mountainous region, between the
Naaf on the side of Bengal, and Zhenbrugiun on the side of
Aya, is about 124 miles east and west; one-half of which pro-
bably is watered by rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal, and
the other by streams running towards the Erawadi.- The
whole of this space is occupied by rude tribes alone. As we
advance farther north, the width of these wilds increases by
low hills adjacent on the west to the Mugg mountains of Ren?
nell, and which, on the Karnaphuli, extend about twenty miles
west from these mountains, which, by the Bengalese, are there
called Barkal.
The Bengalese, and the rude inhabitants of these hills, have
an utter abhorrence at each other, and their manners, in al-
most every thing, are opposite, the rude tribes having more
resemblance to the people of Ava, and even of Europe, than
the Hindus have. Even their manner of cultivation is totally
different. The natives of Gangetic India, especially, altoge-
ther neglect land that is not level ; while the rude tribes con-
sider such as nearly useless, and cultivate the hills alone. Not-
withstanding their mutual abhorrence, this im some measure
prevents encroachment ; and the low hills, running north from
Islamabad (the abode of Faith) to the Phani, are allowed to
remain in possession of the rude tribes called Tripura, Jumea,
and Chakma. These people seem to have no dependence on
the chiefs of their respective nations. In their jooms they
rear cotton, rice, and ginger, and a great part of the first and
last they exchange with the Bengalese for salt, iron, earthen-
ware, and fish. They have no black-cattle ; but rear hogs,
goats, and poultry, and seem to be in easy circumstances.
‘They are subject to predatory attacks from the Kungkis, no-
minally dependent on Radun Manik.
'To the east of these hills is a fine valley watered by the
VOL. III. NO. I. JULY 1825,
B4 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the”
Havildar river, which falls into the Karnaphuli. This valley
is level, and cultivated for rice by the Bengalese. East from
this is a chain of low hills called Korilliya pahar, which ex-
tends far south beyond the Karnaphuli, on the southern bank
of which are two steep cliffs, that return the most distinct echo
which I have ever heard. hese hills are of inconsiderable
height ; but, like those north from Islamabad, are neglected by
the. Bengalese, and allowed to remain with the Muggs, who
cultivate after the joom fashion.
The Karnaphuli (Ear-ring) river, which Rennell calls Cur-
rumfullee, forms at its mouth a good harbour for ships of con-
siderable burthen, and would be of great importance, were it
not so deeply embayed, that in the S. W. monsoon, ships can-
not proceed to sea without danger. At Patarghat, the ferry.
from Islamabad towards the south, it is about a mile wide;
and at Korilliya pahar, it dimimishes to about 200 yards, but
the tide runs up strong.
East from Korilliya pahar, is a fine valley called Run-
ganiya, which extends north and south from the Karnaphuli,
on the banks of the Ishamati towards the former, and on those
of the Silun towards the latter. Although it contains some
small hills, it is well cultivated by Bengalese peasants ; and
some parts still belongs, as the whole did formerly, to the
hereditary chief of the tribe called Muggs at Calcutta, where
they are much employed by Christians as cooks, their habits
fitting them for preparing our impure diet, which neither:
Hindu nor Muhammedan can approach without disgust. Be-
yond the low hills, which bound the valley of Runganiya on
the north, east, and south, no Bengalese cultivators have set-
tled, but the hills are as fully occupied by rude tribes as the
nature of the joom cultivation will admit; and, in 1798,
when I visited the country, Taubbokha, the hereditary chief
of the Mugg people, retained among these hills a kind of in-
dependence, although in the parts of his estate, cultivated by
Bengalese, he was reduced to the same footing, as the other
proprietors of land (Zemindars) in Bengal. In the following
account, I shall confine myself to a description of the terri-
tory within the hills, which forms a part of the frontier, and,
at its southern end, is not above fifteen miles wide from east
ll
Frontier between Ava and Part of Bengal. 35
to west; but it increases much in width farther north, to-
wards the sources of the Chimay and Karnaphuli rivers, where
it is probably from thirty to forty miles from east to west. Its
length probably is about seventy miles; but of this a con-
siderable portion towards the north, has been occupied by the
Kungkis called Lusai, who are quite independent of the Mugg
chief.
Some miles within the western boundary of the low hills, a
chain of greater height runs northerly (about N. 40’ W.)
from the Sungkar, and crosses the Karnaphuli, the course of
which, from the Mugg mountains of Rennell, to beyond this
chain, is about N. E. by N. and S. W. by S. with most nu-
merous and great windings. This ridge of hills seems to be
about 500 feet in perpendicular height ; and, being of a good
soil, is well cultivated after the joom fashion. The portion
of it south from the Karnaphuli, is called Sita pahar or Sita
mura, and that north from thence, is called Ram pahar, and
the continuation of the same ridge is probably that called by
the Tripuras, Debta mura, or the Deities Head, the southern
portion being dedicated to the God Rama and his wife Sita:
At its northern end, Sita pahar descends to the Karnaphuh
with a shelving rock, called Sitaka ghat (the landing place of
Sita), which is highly venerated, and the Hindus, therefore,
offer grain, flowers, and eggs, to Sita and Rama, while the
Muggs worship Taung-mang, (Mountain-prince). Even the
Muhammedans of this province have adopted the supersti-
tion, having contrived some fable for almost every place held
sacred by the Pagans, thinking probably, that it would be
disgraceful for their religion, were they not provided with as
many ceremonies and holy places as their neighbours.
Above Sitaka ghat, the Karnaphuli is about 100 yards
wide, and of considerable depth. Although the tides flow
pretty strong, the water is quite fresh; but even in the dry
season, is rather muddy. The concave side of its reaches
have low banks, while, on the convex low hills come down to
the water-edge, as indeed is common in hilly countries and
small rivers. The soil seems in general to be good, and
rests on a rock consisting of thin horizontal strata of clay and
sand slightly indurated. The hills are cultivated for jooms,
36 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the
as much as the nature of the process will admit ; and on the
levels, there are Mugg-villages (para) surrounded by many
plantain-trees, and gardens or small plots, in which are reared
ginger, betle-leaf, sugar-cane, indigo, tobacco, and capsicum.
These are their permanent places of abode; but, at their
jooms, they have temporary villages called Kamar, which are
changed almost every year, and are only occupied by the la-
bourers in the season of cultivation.
Each para is under the authority of an officer, termed
Dewan, who communicates his name to the place; so that
the names of the paras undergo frequent changes. In the
paras, the huts are better than in the kamars, although each
has only one apartment ; but the stage, on which it is raised
about twelve feet from the ground, is about forty feet by
twenty, affording a platform before the door for air and do-
mestic work, The ascent to the house is by a notched stick,
which serves for a ladder, and is drawn up when the family
wishes to avoid intrusion. Except the houses of the chief
and of his brother, all the huts of the country seemed very
much alike; and the wealthy, as usual in India, rather oc-
cupy a greater number of huts, than build houses on a large
scale. On the whole, however, the huts in the Mugg paras
seem more comfortable than those of the Bengalese cultivators.
The people have abundance of poultry and hogs; and, as
there are many plains of some extent, which are not fitted for
the joom cultivation, the Muggs keep some oxen and. buffa-
loes, which pasture there, and are probably fattened for eat-
ing, although, to avoid offence, this is concealed from the
Hindus ; but they are not used in the plough. The country,
however, is in a poor unproductive state; and, if cultivated
like the West Indies, which its hills equal im soil, it might
become of great value. :
Every Mugg cultivates as much land as he pleases, and the
revenue of the chief arises from a poll-tax, and not from a
land-rent. ‘Each man pays in proportion to the strength of
his family. It is said, that a married pair, living without any
assistance from children or servants, pays annually five ru-
pees; and that other families, in proportion to their strength,
pay ten, or even fifteen rupees. If the cultivator disposes of
Frontier between Ava and Part of Bengai. 37
the produce of his farm, he pays the tax in money; but, if
he chooses, he may pay it in cotton at a fixed price, so that
in case of a bad market, the prince may not have it in his
power to exact too great a share of the produce. What part
of the revenue goes to the Dewan, for his trouble of manage-
ment, I did not learn; but it is probably small, as I saw no
appearance of affluence about the habitations of these officers.
The chief also receives money from the Bengalese, who cut
grass for thatch on the plains, which abound with this ma-
terial of an excellent quality; and he levies some duties on
boats ascending the Karnaphuli.
_ The people called Muggs, at Calcutta, are scarcely known
by that name in their native country. By the Bengalese,
they are commonly called Chakma or Sagma, or, in ridicule,
Dubadse, (two-languaged), because they have in general for-
gotten their original language, which is the same with that of
Arakan or Roang, as they call it, and have attained a very
imperfect knowledge of the Bengalese, although several of
them read and write this dialect. They all, however, retain
some words of the Roang language, especially their names;
and their priests use both the character and language of Ara-
kan, little different from that of Ava. They all follow the
“doctrines of the Boudhas, but have engrafted on these many
Hindu superstitions, and especially bloody sacrifices offered to
the Debtas, or deities of the woods, rivers, and mountains. In
spite of the admonitions of their priests, this superstition is
very prevalent among the Muggs. The Debtas are supposed
to dance and sing in the air; and, by their manner of doing
so, to render their will known to certain women, called Diyari.
On all occasions, when the Muggs are strongly influenced by
hope or fear, such as im sickness aud dearth, they apply to a
Diyari, who consults the Debta, and is informed by him what
sacrifice will be acceptable. This sacrifice is vowed ; and, if
the person obtains the object of his wishes, the animal is im-
molated at the place where the Diyari says that the Debta re-
sides. These Diyaris, by their influence with the Debtas,
and by their skill in drugs, are supposed to be also able to
render a joom inaccessible to tigers and wild elephants ;
38 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the
which, as the natives repose the utmost confidence in this
science, is perhaps a sign that these animals are not very de-
structive. ‘Uhe magical power, attributed to their Diyaris by
the Muggs, by the silly Bengalese, has been extended to the
whole tribe, and towards the Megna, a Mugg is beheld with
a mixture of abhorrence and fear, from his eating without the
observance of cast, and from his supposed power in the black
art; so that he is considered nearly as bad as a Christian.
The national religion of the Muggs, is the same with that
of Arakan, (Rakhain), that is to say, they follow the:sect of
Maha Muni among the Bouddhists. The chief priest assumes
the same title, Paun-do-gri, with the spiritual guide of the
king of Ava. He informed me that they have two orders of
priesthood, the Samana, and Moshang; the latter of whom
are superior in point of dignity, and by the Bengalese are
called Raulims. The priests, like those of Ava, use a yellow
dress, and seem very numerous m proportion to their follow-
ers; but do not appear to be so much respected by the laity,
as the priests of Ava are. Some of the laity assume the
yellow dress for a time, and give themselves up to study ;
but the books which I saw such using, were in the Bengalese
character, and except a few words, they understood no other
language. :
The name Chakma or Sagma, given to this people by the
Bengalese, is evidently a corruption from Saksah, the name
they give to themselves ; while, in the dialect of Ava, or Aree,
as they call it, they are termed Sak. They seem to be the
remains of the first colony from Arakan, that occupied Tri-
pura on the conquest of that country from the Muhamme-
dans. Many of them still remain in Arakan or Roang, havy-
ing probably retired there, when the Moslem power was re-
stored in Tripura, and these are distinguished from the con-
quered portion by the name Sak-mi, and speak the language
of Rakhain alone. ‘The Bengalese they call Koar. The men
have adopted the Bengalese dress ; but the women retain that
of Arakan and Ava ; and both entirely resemble in person and
features the natives of these cities. Like the other rude tribes
in the vicinity, they eat every thing, and have no objection to
Frontier between Ava and Part-of Bengal. 39
eat along with individuals of other nations; but they do not
intermarry with strangers. Although both their rivers and
‘marshes abound in fish, they have not the art of catching
these animals, and employ Bengalese fishermen for the pur-
‘pose. Their principal men have slaves, but these are chiefly
‘Tripuras ; nor is it allowable to hold a Saksah in bondage.
Several villages, however, both of Tripuras and Kungkis, in
-a state of personal freedom, live in the territory of the Saksah
chief, and subject to his authority.
From Sitakaghat to the hills, called the Mugg mountains
by Rennell, the course of the Karnaphuli, in a direct line, is
between thirty and forty miles; but I took almost four days
to ascend this length in a good boat, for which there was a
sufficient depth of water, and I reckoned the distance eighty
miles by the course of the river. For about two-thirds of the
way, I had at times a slight tide with me. Above this, the
river contracts to about fifty yards in width, and becomes
more rapid and clearer. Where it reaches the Mugg moun-
tains, at a place called Barkal, a ledge of rock running en-
tirely across the river, stops boats from passing ; and about a
mile farther up, there is a higher ledge, over which the river
falls in various beautiful cascades, about six feet high, which,
in the rainy season, unite in one great torrent, as appears
from evident marks on the banks. The river in May is
beautifully clear, and full of fish. The western face of the
hills near Barkal is cultivated in jooms; nor is the term
Mugg mountains known in the vicinity. The rock is sand-
stone.
I shall now give some account of the streams which fall
into the Karnaphuli between Sitakaghat and Barkal, and
which water the intermediate country, that is the proper seat
of the Saksah.
About ten miles above Sitakaghat, following the course of
the river, the Kapty enters, coming from hills at a consider-
able distance to the southward. Canoes can ascend this rivu-
let to a village named Kamsey. About the year 1795, a large
band of the Bonzhu tribe of Kungkis descended by this rivu-
let, and committed great devastation on the Bengalese of
Runganiya.
40 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the.
_ About eight miles above the Kapty, the Karnaphuli receives
the Rain-ghiaun, coming far from the south-east. About two
hours and a half rowing soem its mouth, lived a Saksah chief
of some note, who had several villages (para) under his au-
thority. Six days journey farther up this river brings the
traveller to the country of the Kungkis, called Bonzhu or
Bonjugies. If Mr Walker’s idea of these rivers be right, the
Rain-ghiaun must be the anastomosing branch, which con-
nects the Karnaphuli with the Sunkar and Peercally, which
last falls into the Arakan river. The Bonzhu, in this case,
will occupy the vicinity of the great peaks called the Blue
Mount and Pyramid Hill, along the Peercally and Koladyng
rivers. At any rate, they have the Saksah and the Longshue
or Lusai tribe of their own nation on the west, and the Jo on
the east, and extend, near the 93° of east longitude from
Greenwich, from about the 22d to the 24th degree of north
latitude.
In the course of the next four miles, the Karnaphuli re-
ceives from the south-east three small streams, the Duliya
cherra, the Tara cherra, and the Kuburiya cherra, which run
through a country in general level, and covered with long
grass and a few trees. On this account it is less populous than
the more hilly parts, being mostly unfit for the joom cultiva-
tion.
About twelve miles farther up enters from the north-west a
river of little importance, called Manik cherra. A little higher
up, on the opposite side, is the mouth of Mug-ban, which
comes from a marsh of the same name. ‘This and another
marsh, (jil) on the Duliya, are said to contain immense quan-
tities of fish, and to be common resorts of large herds of wild
elephants.
Above Manik cherra about ten miles, a little above the
mouth of the Ranggamati, is the principal residence of the
chief, who, by his people, is called Mang, their pronunciation
for what, according to the Alphabetum Barhianuiy should be
written Meen, one of the titles usually assumed by the sons of
the king of Ava, and therefore analogous to our word Prince.
This residence (Rajarbari) contained not only the house of the
Raja, but that of his brother, with all their families, except -
Frontier between Ava and part of Bengal. 41
some Bengalese servants, who had huts on the outside of a
fence made of bamboo mats, constituting what is called a fort
or castle. The whole habitations within were thatched huts,
so far as I could see by looking in at the gate; for I did not
enter, as the chiefs were absent, and as their women and pigs
were alarmed. The former, I was told, might, without of-
fence, be seen by strangers ; but their timidity, at the approach
of an European visitant, occasioned a general scream, on which
I retired. The same cause in general prevented the women
of a lower rank of Saksah from approaching me. ‘They seem
to be drudges, being darker coloured than the men, who,
compared with the Bengalese, are very fair.
From the chief’s residence there is a fine view of both the
ridges of mountains by which the territory of the Saksah are
in a great measure bounded. They appeared to me farther
distant than I could allow by computing the distances travel-
led. Since I was there, to judge from Mr Walker’s map, the
residence of the chief has been moved farther up the river.
About two miles above the chief’s residence, a considerable
river enters from the north. By the Bengalese it is called
Chingay, Singay, or Chimay, and is no doubt that called
Chingree by Rennell. My boatmen said, that canoes can as-
eend it for six days, which will give a direct course of between
thirty and forty miles. One of them, in proceeding to a resi-
dence of the chief’s, had gone up five days, during which time
the canoe was twice unloaded, and carried past water-falls. :
The Saksah say, that this river springs from hills near
Kundal, so that its total course, in a direct line, may be about
fifty miles, allowing Rennell to have placed its mouth cor-
rectly, which, so far as I can judge, is the case. They gave
me the following account of the rivulets that they pass, in pro-
ceeding up its channel, so far as canoes can go. Ist, Kanda
cherra on the left; 2d, Kausgurra on the right; 3d, Guy
cherra on the left; 4¢h, 'Tamarang on the left; 5th, Karik
khung, the first on the right; 6¢2, Khundy cherra on the
left ; ‘7th, Dungata on the right ; 8¢h, Kabutkia on the right ;
9th, Maha karung on the left; 10¢h, Nana karung on the
left ; 11th, Poli on the left ; 12th, Incha cherra on the right ;
13th, Toisakma on the left; 14¢h, Karik khung, the second,
1
42 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the
on the right; 15¢h, Bascherra on the left. The Raja had
formerly a house at Dungata; but he has been driven from
thence by fear for the Kungkis, called Lusai; and no Saksah
now reside beyond Kanda cherra, half a day’s journey from
the Karnaphuli. The country, however, between the Chingay,
and Rampahar, is occupied by ee subject more or less
to the Saksah chief.
Rather more than three miles above the mouth of the Chin-
gay, the Basunta enters from the south-east, and is navigable
a short way for canoes. Here, again, the country becomes
more hilly and more populous. About three miles above Ba-
sunta, on each side of the river, there are hills higher than
usual in this range; that on the south-east side, from a large
black rock, is called Hattiya, (the elephant,) and that oppo-
site is called Chela. The scenery here is very romantic.
The strata are horizontal, and of a schistose structure. A lit-
tle above the elephant rock; and beyond the hills on which it
stands, there enters from the same side a rivulet, called Sual-_
ung, up which canoes can proceed some way, and its banks
are » oceupied by those who cultivate jooms.
‘About six miles above the elephant rock, the river Kazaiung
enters from the north-west, and is said to spring from the same
vicinity with the Chingay. It is said to be a considerable
stream, and that boats, drawing twenty-seven inches, can ascend
it for a whole day, while canoes can go much farther. The
banks of this river, at a little distance from the Karnaphuli,
and those of its tributary streams, are occupied by the tribe
of Kungkis, called Lusai, Lushi, Langga, or Lingta, who ex-
tend from thence behind the Tripura territory, and are a ter-
ror to both Saksahs and Bengalese. ‘The tide extends up to
the mouth of the Kazalung.
About seven miles above the Kazalung, we experienced dif-
ficulty in passing shoals; and about five miles farther on, two
small rivulets enter from the south-east, with a narrow point
between them. From thence to the ledge of rocks, which
closes boat-navigation, is about two miles and a half; and the
waterfalls of Barkal are about a mile farther, nearly, I con-
jecture, in the 23° of north latitude. These waterfalls are
probably occasioned by the river passing through the ridge
Frontier between Ava and Part of Bengal. 43
that extends north-north-west from the Blue Mountain, the
name of which, if I understood, the natives right, is Mein-
daun among the Saksah, and Munipahar among the Bengal-
ese. This name, however, I suspect is rather applicable, in a
general manner, to all the lofty hills in the vicinity, the Blue
Mountain rising to between five and six thousand feet perpen-
dicular; but at the Karnaphuli the ridge is not above seven
hundred feet.
I shall now trace the course of the Karnaphuli to another
great mountain, from the report of a Muhammedan guide,
who had been in the country beyond Barkal three times—
twice to cut bamboos, and once to kill wild elephants. for their
teeth. During the four cold months, the former is a common
occupation among the Bengalese. They carry small canoes
past the waterfalls, and in these embark their provisions. In
the distance which’ the guide went there are three water-
falls. The first, named Utanchetri, is two days journey from
Barkal ;—the second, named Harinaka duar, (Deer-gate,) is
one day’s journey farther ;—the third is at Hattiyaka Mu,
(Elephant’s Mouth,) and is a day and a half’s journey above
the second. Beyond,this the guide went half a day’s journey,
and from some of the reaches could see the great Muin Mura,
which is probably a continuation of the mountains that sepa-
rate Arakan from Ava. At its bottom the Karnaphuli falls
from a high rock, beyond which the Bengalese canoes never
attempt to go. This part of the great Muin Mura the guide
estimates to be twice the distance from Barkal that the latter
is from Sitakaghat. The course of the river winds much ;
nor does the guide pretend to know its general direction.
* In this part of its course the Karnaphuli receives no great
branch ; but the largest is at Hattiaka Mu. Between the
falls the current is very gentle, and at Hattiaka Mu the body
of water is as considerable as at Barkal. The country is in
general level, with some hills, however, near Hattiaka Mu;
but during the rainy season a great proportion is inundated,
forming jils or temporary lakes. Around these lakes there
are immense herds of wild elephants, and the level country is
not inhabited, although well fitted for the cultivation of rice;
but the west face of the great Muin Mara is occupied by the
dd. Mr Hunter's Account of an Improvement on the Odometer.
tribe of Kungkis, named Bonzhu or Bonjugy. Their prince,
by the Bengalese, was named Taibiak ; but whether this was
a title, or a proper name, I did not learn. The Saksahs call-
ed this chief Taikoup, and said, that he lived on the bank of
a small river called Taishang; but into what great river this
falls I was not informed.
The composition repeated on all the homologous terminal
edges of the pyramid yields a form similar to Fig. 14. where a
central individual is surrounded by four others as in Tin-ore
and Titanium-ore, with this difference, that here the apices of
the pyramids can be more generally observed than in either of
the two preceding species. Generally the surrounding indi-
viduals are of a much smaller size than the central one, and
appear only sticking on the terminal edges, much in the man-
ner represented in Fig. 15; the occurrence of the same law on
all the terminal edges of the pyramid being of itself sufficient
to prove that the forms belong to the pyramidal system, as in
the compositions of the two preceding species.
The mineral species possessing hemi-pyramidal forms, which
have been observed in regularly composed. varieties, are the
pyramidal Scheelium-baryte and the pyramidal Copper-pyrites
of the system of Mohs. Also the Cyanide of Mercury belongs
to this class of forms, and in the last species, in particular, the
whole disposition of faces and the regular compositions are
highly interesting.
* Phill. 3d ed. p. 387.
+ Hoffm. Handb. hy Bretthaupt, iv. 1. sect. 149. Jameson's System.
Ed. I. vol. ii. p. 460. It is said here to occur in octahedral crystals hav-
ing a single cleavage. :
+ M. Sage ( Elém. de Min. ii. 136.) cite encore une manganaise noirdtre
octaéedre, dans un spath séléniteux blanc. Romé de (Isle, vol. iii. p: 101.
of Crystallized Bodies. — 65
The only kind of composition hitherto observed in pyramidal
Scheelium-baryte is the one represented in Fig. 16. The face of
composition is parallel, the axis of revolution perpendicular to
a face of the rectangular four-sided prism, which is in parallel
position with the pyramid of 107° 27/ and 113° 35’, that is of
P+. The individuals are continued beyond the face of
composition, so that the result assumes the appearance of a
crystal belonging to the prismatic system. We are prevent-
ed, however, from being led into error, by the observation of
the striz upon the fates of P, which are parallel to the
’ 3
edges of combination between this form and eine (0). They
terminate abruptly at a certain line upon faces which else
might be taken for such as belong to the same individual.
“This kind of composition is not unfrequently met with among
the large yellowish-white crystals from Schlaggenwald in So-
- hemia, and has been first mentioned by Mr Mohs.* A fine
specimen of this variety is in the cabinet of Mr Allan. The
form of each of the individtials taken separately is that of
Fig. 17, which, in regard to the general distribution of its
faces, much resembles the rhombohedral species of apatite.
The simple crystals of the Cyanide of Mercury which join
_in regular composition may be traced in general to the form
of Fig. 18. It may be conceived to arise from Fig. 19, the
same combination with the full number of its faces, by the en-
largement, first of the alternating faces contiguous to both the
apices, and secondly, of two of the remaining faces to the ex-
clusion of the rest. Two of these crystals now are joined in
one of the faces of [P+ ], in an inverse position, and com-
pressed between the two faces, so that the transverse section of
the compound crystal is again a square, or nearly so. The
result is Fig. 20, of which Fig. 21 is a projection upon a plane
perpendicular to the axis. The face of P—-o, which is like-
wise often found in the varieties of this species, is striated as
in the projection Fig. 22, parallel to its edges of intersection
with the plane in which the two individuals meet. The faces
8 belong to the isosceles four-sided pyramid P+ 1,a form which
* Treatise on Mineralogy, transl. vol. ii. p. 115.
VOL, 111. No. t. JULY 1825. E
66 Mr Haidinger on the Regular Composition
produces horizontal edges of combination with [P +-09 ], and is
frequently found in the crystals of Cyanide of Mercury. The
following are the dimensions of its forms: P=134° 36’, 66° 8’;
P+ 1=122 46’, 85° 17’.. The axis of P is =,/0.424, Cleavage
takes place pretty distinctly parallel to [P+]. Ihave been
indebted to Dr Turner for a great number of crystals in
which I observed this regular composition; they had been ob-
tained by the slow cooling of a solution concentrated at a pretty
high temperature, but their inside was opaque, only the exter-
nal coats, formed during the last stage of cooling, and the sub-
sequent process of spontaneous evaporation, were perfectly
transparent.
Pyramidal Copper-pyrites presents a _kind of regular com-
position, somewhat analogous to that of the preceding species.
The individuals, Rare. are here continued beyond the
face of composition, and the hemi-pyramidal character is ex-
pressed only in the alternating enlargement of the faces of P,
the fundamental pyramid. Fig. 23 represents the result. of
this law, if the form of the individuals contains nothing but
the faces of P, alternately larger and smaller. This is the
rarest among the regular compositions of the species. _ I have
observed it in some varieties from the mine of Kurprinz near
Freiberg, generally associated with composition in other. di-
rections.
By far the most frequent among them is the composition
parallel to one of the faces of P, the isosceles. pyramid of 109°
53’ and 108° 40’, which, if it takes place in crystals having the
form of this pyramid, produces an appearance very much re-
sembling the twins of the regular octahedron in Spinelle, in
octahedral Iron-ore, and other minerals, similar to ‘Fig. 24.
The hemi-pyramidal character of the combinations of this spe-
cies causes them, however, generally to assume'a shape some-
what different from this figure, which, nevertheless, also fre-
quently occurs, and, besides, supposes the individuals to ter-
minate at the face of composition. The 25th figure, which re-
presents a crystal in the cabinet of Mr Allan, is intended. to
, : ane vil pipes ae iis
eonvey an idea of this composition. The combination 5.—;.
[P+ ©] (Fig. 26.) is the form of the individuals, one of which
of Crystallized Bodies. 67
appears as if engaged in the centre of the other in a reversed
position, easily discovered at least in the present instance,
if we attend to the faces of the four-sided prism [P+ ©],
which are striated in a horizontal direction. Except the dif-
ference in the system of crystallization, we have here a case
extremely resembling the twins of Grey copper, represented
Vol. I. Plate III, Fig. 18, of this Journal, and also some of
Blende, a species whose crystallizations agree in general very
nearly with that of the Grey copper. This composition is of-
ten repeated, either in parallel plates, as in Fig. 27, which is
very frequent among almost all varieties of the species, and
may often be observed even in massive specimens, by the want
of continuity in the cleavage, or it takes place at the same time
parallel to two faces of the fundamental pyramid. A group,
resulting in the manner last mentioned, is represented. in Fig.
28. On account of the hemi-pyramidal character, the indivi-
duals in the composition possess a different appearance from
each other, so that it requires some attention to find out their
shape to be that of Fig. 33.,* a combination of P, P41, and
P+ @; particularly as the relative irregular enlargement of
the faces adds to the difficulty. Here, as in many other com-
* The specimen in Mr Allan’s cabinet, in which this variety was ob-
served, is peculiarly interesting on account of the distribution of the tar-
P
nished colours on the surface of its crystals. The tint of = (P) is gene-
rally the violet or purple, frequently inclining to the yellow colours of the
seale, while the tint of P+1 (c) is a distinct, and often very deep blue, that of
P+ (/) being a fine green. The lustre of / is not so bright as that of the
other faces i: (P’) generally agrees in colour with c. In some crystals
where the’ tint of P is a brownish-yellow, that ofc has not gone beyond the
purple. This difference is probably owing to a slight difference in hard-
ness upon the faces of crystallization belonging to different forms ; it is in
close connection with the physical quality of these faces themselves; and
corresponds in some respect to the phenomenon of cleavage, which often
takes place parallel to two forms at once, but with different degrees of fa-
cility. Lead-glance and the rhomboidal Iron-ore from Elba have been de-
scribed as presenting a difference in the tarnish of their faces of crystal+
lization. ‘The hexahedron in the former, and the face perpendicular to the
axis (R—) in the latter, retain their natural colour and brightness,
while the rest of the faces assume the tints of tempered steel.
68 Mr Haidinger on the Composition of Crystallized Bodies.
pound varieties of Copper-pyrites, the strize upon the faces of
crystallization yield the means of ascertaining the situation of
the individuals. Generally the number of ‘iaivid Wel} agegre-
gated according to this law, is not confined to three; but we
find, that to every one of those added to the central one, some
other individuals are attached.
Regular composition often also takes place in this species
parallel to a plane of P—1, or perpendicular to the terminal
edges of P; there are particularly two varieties of this case,
which, in the present place, deserve our attention. The in-
dividuals are either joined in pairs, or one central individual
is surrounded by four others, added in the direction of all the
edges of P. The product of the first, in the fundamental py-
ramid, would be Fig. 30. This has not yet been observed ;
but it will serve for explaining Fig. 31, a variety of the form,
P—o- P—2-P-: oe P- - P+1, from the mines inthe
district of Siegen in Prussia. This and several other inte-
resting varieties of forms from the same locality, I have de-
scribed, on another occasion,* from specimens in the posses-
sion of Mr Sack of Bonn.
If repeated in all the terminal edges of P ina form consist-
ing of P—o. P—1. P and P+1, the result is like Fig. 32, in
which the re-entering angles produced by the faces of P+1,
and the strize upon P, parallel with the edges of combination
with P+1, diverging in three directions from the centres of
the faces of P demonstrate, that we really observe a compound
erystal, while mineralogists have been long deceived by the
equal brightness of the faces of P— , in directions apparent-
ly corresponding to the hexahedron. When the hemi-pyra-
midal character of the combinations is more distinctly pro-
nounced, a figure is produced resembling a tetrahedron, com-
bined with various other forms, but consisting of six indiyi-
duals, the apices of which are contiguous to the edges of the
tetrahedron, or of five at least, if we conceive the central in-
dividual to be continued through the centre of the group.
Generally the individuals are much striated parallel to the
* Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iv. part i. p. 1.
Mr Harvey on the Formation of Dew. 69
edges of conibination between P and P+1, which, in a form
merely consisting of = and P +1, will produce Fig. 29, a va-
riety which has been found in Cornwall. 1 have lately ob-
served a composition of this kind, similar to Fig. 34, likewise
from Cornwall, in Mr Allan’s collection, the form of the indivi-
i) FE
duals contained in the group consisting of P—a».—3.P+l.
P+, and several other simple forms which it was impossi-
ble to determine with any degree of accuracy, on account of
the numerous and deep furrows upon the faces, parallel to
=e - : P
their intersections with = and P+-1, and the want of lustre of
the surface, which prevented the application of the reflective
goniometer. A simple crystal of the form represented Fig.
35, occurs upon the specimen which contains the compound.
varieties.
(To be continued. )
Arr. X.—Facts relating to the Formation of Dew. By
Georce Harvey, Esq. F. R.S. Lond. & Edin. Commu-
nicated by the Author.
Tue tower of St Andrew’s Church, Plymouth, is situated
about 500 yards to the east of the meadow, in which I have
usually performed my experiments on the interesting subject
of dew, and the elevation of its summit above the level of the
field, about 110 feet. For the purpose of tracing the law
which regulates the deposition of dew at different altitudes
above the surface of the earth, I frequently found it necessary,
in conjunction with Mr Pridham, to perform analogous expe-
riments, at the same time, on the top of the tower, and on the
surface of the meadow; and [I select, from many interesting
results; that obtained on the night of the 21st of May, on ac-
count of the remarkable states of equality which were ubserv-
ed, both in the temperature of the air, and in the quantities
of moisture deposited on bodies of the same kind, when placed
on substances having different radiating powers.
The night wassereneand tranquil, but the sky not remarkable
for its clearness. Thefirst observation wasmade at 10 e.m., when
_ the air, at the summit of the tower, and at three feet above the
70 Mr Harvey on the Formation of Dew.
ground, were found to beeach 51°; and it is remarkable, that no
alteration of temperature took place during the night, since a
register thermometer left on the tower, and another placed at
the above mentioned elevation in the meadow, indicated that
the quicksilver had not in either case been below 51°. At the
time tlie first observations of the temperature were made, that
of the grass indicated 494°, at which time there was laid on it
equal plates of glass and tin, and on them equal masses of wool,
«(12 grains each,) exposing equal radiating surfaces to the
heavens. On the summit of the tower, at the same time, simi-
‘lar parcels of wool were placed, similarly circumstanced. At
half- past six the next morning the masses of wool in the meadow
had gained equal increments of moisture amounting to 14 grains,
and those on the tower equal increments of 7% grains. Hence
it appears, that during the whole night the temperature of the
air, at the respective elevations of three and one hundred and
ten feet, remained stationary, and that the increments of mois-
ture obtained in the meadow, by equal masses of the same
substance, in contact with bodies possessing different radiat-
ing powers, were the same ; as likewise, equal but smaller in-
crements, by equal masses similarly placed on the summit of
the tower. In the whole course of my experiments on this
very interesting subject; I never before met with so many re-
markable states of equality as appeared during this mght.
Gersten remarks,* that an horizontal surface is more abun-
dantly dewed, than one perpendicular to the ground, a pheno-
menon arising from the latter radiating less copiously than the
former. 'To confirm experimentally the remark of Gersten,
an evening was selected, distinguished by its beautiful sereni-
ty, and for the clear and perfect transparency of the sky. A
six inch hollow cube of block-tin was placed in my meadow,
two inches above the herbage, with its vertical faces’ equally
exposed to the cloudless horizon. 'To these faces, and‘to the
upper surface of the cube, equal parcels of wool were attach-
ed, with equal radiating surfaces. The air was so perfectly
tranquil, that the flame of a candle remained entirely undis-
turbed. At five the next morning the wool on the upper sur-
face of the cube had gained 15 grains of moisture; and the
* Wells on Dew, p- 127, 2d edition,
Mr Harvey on the Formation of Dew. 71
parcels attached to its vertical surfaces, equal increments of
dew, amounting to five grains. Hence, if the quantities of
moisture deposited be regarded as measures of the radiating
powers of the respective surfaces, the former exceeds the lat-
ter, in the ratio of three to one ;—a difference arising entirely
from position.* All the exposed parts of the cube were co-
vered with particles of dew, those on the top being the great-
est; and it was most interesting to remark the gradual diminu-
tion of magnitude in the particles, from the upper part of the
vertical faces to the lower.
« Another evening was selected for repeating the same expe-
riment, when a gentle breeze was blowing from the east, one
surface of the cube being placed directly exposed to its influ-
ence. During the night the parcel of wool on the top gained
an increment of moisture, amounting to 10 grains, notwithstand-
ing the breeze swept freely over its surface. The wool, on the
eastern side, being exposed to the full influence of the wind,
gained only a grain and a half of dew; but that on the west-
ern side, from its being comparatively sheltered, obtainedan
addition of five grains and a half.+ The masses of wool on
the northern and southern surfaces of the cube being equally
exposed to the lateral action of the wind, gained equal incre-
ments of dew, amounting to two grains; an effect due to the
equally diminished radiation of the wool, by the equal action
of the wind on the two surfaces:
This experiment shows clearly the influence of wind in
checking the formation of dew. In the former experiment,
when the air was perfectly tranquil, all the parcels of wool at-
* Dr Wells very properly remarks, p. 59, 2d edition of his Essay, that
“‘ the same degree of cold in the precipitating body, may be attended with
much, with little, or with no dew, according to the existing state of the air
‘in regard to moisture ; and from which it appears, that the relation be-
tween the temperature of the body on which the dew is deposited, and the
quantity deposited at different periods; must be variable. But the quanti-
ties deposited at the same time, on surfaces of the same kind, differently
cireumstanced with respect to the aspect of the sky, may, without impro-
pricty, be regarded as comparative measures of the radiating powers of
those surfaces.
‘+ This result is in conformity with a remark of Dr Wells; ‘ A body
placed at the leeward end of the raised boards generally acquired more dew
than a similar body at the windward extremity.”
72 Sir Thomas Brisbane on Astronomical Observations
tached to the vertical surfaces of the cube, were equally in-
fluenced, their radiating powers being the same, and their ac-,
cessions of moisture equal; but in this last experiment, the
quantities deposited on the sheltered, and unsheltered surfaces,
- were in the ratio of eleven to three ; and it is remarkable also,
how very nearly the effect produced by the direct action of
the wind, on the eastern surface, approximates to its lateral
action on the northern and southern.
It is worthy of observation also, that although the western
surface of the cube was, from its position, much more sheltered
from the wind’s influence, than the upper surface, yet the in-
crement gained by the latter, exceeded, in a two-fold ratio, that
of the former. The upper surface, moreover, must have been
exposed just as much to the lateral influence of the wind as
the northern and southern surfaces, and the superior energy
of its radiating power, arising from positicn, is_ strikingly
shown by its increment of moisture, amounting to 10 grains,
when the additions to the last mentioned surfaces were only
two grains each.
Piymoutu, May 10, 1825.
Art. XI,—Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory
of Paramatta in 1824, Communicated by his’ Excellency
Sir Tuomas Briszayg, K. C. B. FR. S. Lond. and Edin. -
Tur following important observations have been just receiv-
ed by the Editor from Sir Thomas Brisbane :
1. Eclipse of the Moon of January 1st 1824, observed at Paramatta.
1824. HM S| —
Jan. 1. © Eclipsed, beginning at 1, 23, 59, 50, by sydereal clock.
rev. div.
Diameter of the sun near noon by micrometer = 30, 222
H. M. S. rey. diy.
At 1, 32, 17, dist. by micrometer = 22, 695
abr sae 4 Eee ot aS
PR) PO Pe * mi us 62094 B43
a SE os - 20, 008
»» 40.12, 5 = 19, 120
eal i =) oan hae Se
», 43 set among the trees.
q
HeM. Ss =
Beginning of eclipse at 6, 44, 26, 82, mean time.
Made at the Observatory at Paramatta. 73
2. Occultations of Stars by the Moon, observed at Paramatta.
-
H. M. Ss. —
July 5. Immersion of 4 Sagittarius (Bode) 15, 11, 21, 66, sydereal time.
6. Immersion 595 Mayer ——— 17, 29, 25, 15, sydereal time.
H. M. H.M. M-
Aug. 27. Immersion ofa star of the 8 mag. R13, 35, decl. 15,3 or 4 south
HM. Ss. —
at 18, 15, 58, 10, sydereal time.
H.,..M. S.\..-——
27. Immersion 85 Virgo (Bode) at 18, 57, 27, 40, sydereal time.
Sept. 30. Immersion o Sagittarius at 9, 3U, 40, 42, mean time.
Emersion 10, 12, 11, 12, mean time.
30. Immersion 7 Sagittarius 12, 15, 29, 84, mean time.
3.—Observations on the Planet Herschel near the Opposition, with the Mural
Circle, made at Puramatta, July 1824.
e Thermo. " Transitoverthe] Mean of the
1824. aro. er ates * |Meridian Wire.| 4 Microscopes.
uly 4,]29,956 |37,0 o Sagittarius 18, 54, 51 = |146, a8 18, 75|rather
Xvili 294 Piazzi Cat. 57, 6, > 13, 42) faint.
Bl Planet LOS 55, 145, Fed 27, 97
xix 12 Piazzi 3, 47, 3}145, 46, 29, 12
5,|29,932|48 | 55 |o Sagittarius j
Xviii 294 Piazzi
HI Planet
xix 12 Piazzi
6,|30,000 |41,2| 55 |o Sagittarius
xviii 294 Piazzi
HL Planet
xix 12 Piazzi Z - « « 1145, 46, 25, 98}: :
Cloudy and rain prevented the observations being continued.
4, Stars observed with the Moon near her parallel.
Ditterence in No. of
Sydereal Time. Wires.
ae
June 3. Moon’s first limb
4
Regulus + (6h) 5’ 04" 5
June 4. Regulus — 49 41 12 5
Moon’s first limb 5
Aug: 30. Moon’s first limb 5
¢ Scorpio +, 29.41 90 5
Antares + 58 23 50 5
Oct. 3. # Aquarius — 33 56 38 4
' Moon’s first limb 5
Oct. 25. Antares a ie A 78 3
Moon’s first limb 5
Noy. 2. y Poisson — 6 57 138 4:
Moon’s first limb 5
-
74 Mr Ramage’s Account of a Stickleback, ‘&e.
Ant. XII.—Account of a Stickleback that was a fell with a
Leech alive in its Intestines, July 1818.* By Mr Joun
Ramacer, Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author.
Wauew taking a walk in the evening, with some of my child-
ren, they observed, in a small rivulet, south side of King’s -
College, Old Aberdeen, a shoal of sticklebacks in the water,
which attracted their attention. I immediately put down my
hand and caught one of them which was skimming near the
surface, apparently as active and lively as the others, with
this difference only, that it was much distended, and appeared
full of roe. One of the children, to whom I had given the
stickleback, after keeping it in his hand for a few minutes,
told me that its gut was coming out ; and, upon looking at it,
I found about an inch of a white substance protruding from
the anus. At first I suspected the child had squeezed it, and
that it was part of the roe that appeared; but, upon examin-
ing it more minutely, I found the substance to be alive
and in motion; and, to my astonishment, in the course of
half a minute, a leech fully as large as the stickleback had
disengaged itself, and was crawling about on my hand. The
dtidkleback died almost immediately after giving birth to this
strange offspring, and the leech survived it only about twelve
hours. Its appearance and motion corresponded in every re-
spect with those of the common leech, excepting that the co-
lour was entirely white. (The present brown colour is owing
the solution of nitrate of silver in which they are preserved.)
Upon examining the stickleback minutely, it seemed to me
that the leech was lodged in the small gut, and most probably
had been swallowed by the stickleback for food when of a
small size, and had grown to its present dimensions in the
stickleback’s belly after having been swallowed.
* Mr Ramage, already well known to the public from the two magnifi-
cent reflecting telescopes which he has constructed, has transmitted the
stickleback and the leech to the museum of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.—Ep.
1
Mr Davy’s Observations on Springs, &c. in Cornwall. "15
Art. XITI.—Observations on the Temperature of Springs,
Wells, and Mines in Cornwall. By Joun Davy, M.D.
F.R.S.. Communicated by the Author.
Tue following very interesting observations, on the tempe-
rature of springs and mines in Cornwall, were made by Dr
Davy after his return from Ceylon. They formed an appen-
dix to the valuable Hydrographical Journal of his voyage,
which we have published in our preceding numbers. The la-
bour which is necessary in ascertaining temperatures under
such circumstances has deterred many persons from prosecut-
ing so important an inquiry; and the difficulty of making
them correctly throws a doubt upon all those observations
which have not been made by observers of known accuracy
and experience.
We therefore attach a high degree of value to the following
temperatures, because they were measured by the nicest in-
struments, and by a philosopher distinguished for his aecu-
racy.
We may safely conclude, for the reasons here given, that
the temperature of the earth in Cornwall is not far from 543°
of Fahrenheit, which is than that of the atmosphere.*
PENZANCE.
August, 10, 1820.—Temperature of the well at Alverton
55°, 5, that of the air being 70°, at 11 a.m.
Tue Boy Mine.
August 30, —It is many years since this mine was wrought.
The engine-shaft is now. full of water. Its temperature to-
day, at 6 P. M., was 55° at the surface.
Hover Ming, just by Huel Virgin.
It is many years since this mine was worked. The tem-
perature of the water, in what appeared to be the adit-shaft,
was, at 7 p.m., 55°. The water was about 30 fathoms from
the surface, and it may be assumed to be running from the
mine.
* See Dr Forbes’s Observations on the Climate of Penzance, and the Dis-
trict of the Land’s End in Cornwall. Penzance, 1824.
76 Dr Davy’s Observations on Springs, &¢. in Cornwall.
MaRraAZzion. y
The temperature of a pump-well about six fathoms deep,
a little after 7 P. M. was 54°.
Huet Fortune.
September 16.—This mine. has been stopped about three
years. There are now only three shafts open. The water In .
each is about 16 fathoms from the surface. At 11 o'clock
this morning I found the temperature of each
Temperature of water from old engine shaft, 55° 5!
From the Boy pipe shaft, - - 55 5
From Brandon shaft, = 4 a 56
The last shaft was more open than either of the others, and
its temperature consequently 4° higher. The depth of this
never exceeded, I believe, 100 fathoms.
VANFELL.
Within the last two months, a pump has been sunk at Van-
fell. It is five and a half fathoms deep, and contains pretty
much water. TI tried its temperature at 1) P. M. to-day, and
found it 53° 5’.. It is covered over.
ALVERTON WELL. ..
Temperature of its water, which is.now very scanty, 56°.
November 17.—At noon to-day I found the temperature of
this well 54°, The flow of water is very little creased.
November 18.—Found the temperature of the water in the
engine shaft of the Bay to-day 53°5/. The height of the
water the same as before. Captain Banden says the shaft was
46 fathoms deep.
Immediately after, I found the temperature of the old en-
gine shaft of the boiler, and of the Boy pipe shaft at Huel
Fortune, 54° 5/ each, the water being in both at 16 fathoms
from the surface. The depth of the first is 133, of the second
98, and of the third 78. ‘lhe temperature of the air was 50°:
Mr Grimes’ Observations on the Flints of Warwickshire. 'T'7
Arr: KIVi-+Observations onthe Flints of Warwickshire.* By
Epwarp Grimes, Esq., R. N. Communicated by Txo-
mas ALLAN, Esq.
I OBSERVED these flints first at Churchover in Warwickshire ;
but have since traced them from about ten miles north of Lei-
cester to the village of Brandon, about ten miles south of
Rugby, comprising a distance of about forty miles north and
south; also to about fourteen miles eastward of Churchover,
towards Northampton. In the direction of Coventry they do
not appear to extend beyond Brandon, where the style of the
gravel alters. They are the common chalk-flint, and are
found in the gravel, and in the ploughed fields. They appear
to have been broken by some convulsion, probably while in
the matrix, and the fracture has been flat, and not conchoidal.
It is also remarkable that many of them have lost an interme-
diate portion of their substance, as if they had undergone
considerable attrition ; and the two parts have been so exactly
adapted, and so firmly re-cemented to each other, that the
line of junction, on a transverse fracture, is sometimes hardly
perceptible, and is occasionally indicated by a white mark.
Most of these flints have lost the angles which they had ac-
quired by fracture, either from rolling or decomposition,
though some few still remain perfect. They do not appear to
have been separated in a soft state, for they bear no mark of
compression. —
The principal line of dislocation is generally longitudinal,
though they have often had many crooks besides, in all di-
rections, as is shown by a very perceptible ridge or line upon
the surface. (See specimen, letter A.)+ Such a fact would ke
exhibited in a piece of wax, if cut through with a hot knife,
and immediately reclosed.
They have no appearance of having been acted upon by
fire.
* Read before the Royal Society, December 2, 1823.
+ The specimens described in this paper are deposited in the Museum of
the Society. The references to them are left for the sake of those who
may wish to examine them.
78 Mr Grimes’ Observations on the Flints in Warwickshire;
We have three kinds of chalk-flints in this country, which,
like those.of all others, I believe, have some central part more
opaque than the rest, as though there had been a nucleus of
matter, (perhaps organic,) but without any distinct outline.
Parts of shells are often enveloped in them, which occasional-
ly retain their calcareous character, sometimes with a fibrous,
sometimes with a spathose structure. They are all mesh or
vesicular, but in different degrees.
The most compact is the black flint, which is also ted most
brittle, and the easiest of fracture. Those which appear to be
the most porous (if porous they be,) are -the translucent grey
flints; and the most cohesive are of a muddy-yellowish, reds
dish-grey, slightly, if at all translucent, and these, perhaps,
are the most vesicular, owing to their containing more remains
of shells, &e.
They all contain either water, or some other fluid, possibly
more volatile. On breaking the stone, it may be seen exuding
from the vesicles, by dpeyinis the eye paar ina oe re-
flected light. L109
TL eive found that sometimes a slight film is dopubiond by
this fluid, resembling the effect of gum+-water. » It is not»af-
fected by acids, but eal removed by the finger, and even by
the action of water poured upon it.
More frequently, however, are to be found upon the flaws
of the stone little stellular concretions, (see specimen letter B,)
evidently produced m the same way. These; when the exu:
dation has been sufficient, take a more decided character; bes
coming minute fibrous crystals, either cuneiform or gre: chat
and fsa like! (Specimen, letter C.) oved \ vous
This same substance is still more frequently to be Seomitii in
much larger quantities, circularly arranged round a centre,
which has the appearance of being a small orifice. It is oft
ten, at the outer edge, of the size and thickness of a wafer,
(see specimen, letter D:) these three latter adhere firmly to
the stone. The flakes generally split when the stone is sepa-
rated by a blow, one half adhering to each side ; and one may
often perceive: the same ragged stringy appearance, so often
exhibited, and more par pope visible in the common frac-
ture of a black flint.
Mr Grimes’ Observations on the Flints in Warwickshire. %
There is no stage between this and the absolute cementation
of the two parts by means of this exudation; and I suppose
that the whiteness of the substance may be occasioned by its
gveater liability to decompose, when not completely hardened ;
and where the white line is of any considerable thickness, as it
often is, to a quarter of an inch or more, it seems probable,
that the interstice has been partially filled up by the abraded
particles sigalg by friction, or by the chalk falling in be-
tween.
But how is this substance condensed without the aid of at-
mospherical air? Very compact flints of considerable size,
and agate-balls, are found to contain crystals of quartz and
chalcedony in the interior; and sometimes flints, which ap-
pear to have rent in the heart by the effect of contraction when
drying, have been filled up with siliceous matter, (see speci-
men, letter I’,) none of the rents reaching to the surface... Si-
milar effects of drying are to be observed in balls of lime and
ironstone, which sometimes remain vacant, and in others:are
filled up with calcareous matter, &c. probably by infiltration: »
The moisture above mentioned, as being found in flints, in
a great measure disappears when they are exposed to the at-
mosphere, though not entirely ; for I have found it in some
that have been exposed for a great length of time, and after
baking them too for some hours. Possibly the stones: may
partially crack, by exposure, in a manner imperceptible to the
_eye. They appear to contract, and ‘to be elastic to a certain
degree.
I never could induce them to re-imbibe any moisture by
soaking them in water. lyre
There is a common effect of the atmosphere upon abate
flints which is curious and interesting. It commences im lit-
tle white spots or rings, which appear upon the surface. After
a time, pieces break out in the form of a crescent, with three
angles, the lower angle being perpendicular to the plane of
the surface, so that a crescent-shaped hollow is left, the inner
side of which forms a half cone; these of course multiply ;
and the projecting parts falling into dust, if the stone exists
long enough in an exposed situation, they are succeeded. by
others.
80 Dr Knox on the. Habits of the Hycena.
When a flint, therefore, decomposes, what does it first part
with? It becomes white, opaque, and earthy, and at last it
would appear calcareous, yet in bulk it is the same; must it
not lose that principle to which it is indebted for its tenacity,
its compactness, and its transparency ?
Art. XV.—Observations on the Habits of the Hyena. By
- Rozert Knox, M. D. F. R. S. E. Lecturer on Anatomy
and Physiology, and Conservator of the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons. Communicated by the Author.
Asovut a year ago, the Wernerian Society of- Edinburgh did
me the honour to publish in their Transactions, a brief notice
by me of the habits of the hyzna, at present existing in Sou-
thern Africa, in which I endeavoured to show, Ist, That the
Rev. Mr Buckland, in his Geological Speculations, intended
not so much to advance science, as to fix the era of a uni-
versal deluge, had taken up inaccurate, or at least by far too
sweeping views of the natural habits of this ferocious animal :
and 2d, That it was of little moment to a geological theory,
what were the habits of modern or postdiluvian hyzenas, since
the antediluvian relics belonged to a different species ; which
latter circumstance Mr Buckland seems to have forgot, (or
perhaps was not acquainted with,) until reminded of it by Dr
Fleming. I shall now take the hberty of returning to the
subject, and of pointing out to Mr Buckland, (since he has
honoured my former brief notice with a short comment,) se-
veral facts in the history of these animals, which militate against
his “ Theory,” and render his mode of accounting for the ac-
cumulation of bones in the Cave of Kirkdale, absolutely un-
tenable.
1. In the immediate vicinity of the abodes of men, the hy-
zena usually drags his prey to a considerable distance, in order
that he may not be disturbed at his meal; but his enormous
voracity is a hindrance to his dragging the prey to any great
distance, much less to store up food in caves, with a foresight
exceeding most of the savage human tribes. Where the
country is thinly mhabited, they will eat the carcase of an
animal a few hundred yards from the houses; and where there
11
i
Dr Knox ow the Habits of the Hyena. ~~ 81
are no houses, they will eat until they are filled to the mouth
within thirty yards of a great number of armed men. I saw
this happen ;—a large striped hyena was killed, during the
night, by a sentinel, within thirty yards of an encampment of
nine hundred men ; on dissecting the animal, it was very evi-
dent that it had been engaged otherwise than dragging the
bones tc its den, (possibly twenty miles off,) for its stomach
was so enormously distended with the offal of the cattle which
had been felled alk round the camp for the use of the troops,
that it seemed, at first sight, to occupy the whole abdominal
cavity. Now this dissection was performed by me before
hundreds of persons.
_ 2. I feel surprised that Mr Buckland can have forgot the
account Bruce gives of a hyena which ate, during the night,
and close to his tent, more than would have sufficed half-a-
dozen dogs. It is true, that Mr Bruce’s reviewers made it
out, that the hyzena had ate more than his own weight ;_ but,
setting aside this part of the story, which, of course, is a di-
verting exaggeration, Mr Bruce might have told his review-
ers, that until they had examined the stomach of the hyzna,
they could not well imagine its vast capacity, commensurate
with the natural voraciousness of the animal. I could easily
multiply these instances from my own experience, for there
were killed sometimes four or five hyznas within eight days,
close to our habitations. Assuredly these animals were not
busied in carrying away bones to remote caverns for future
geologists to speculate upon.
3. It is not improbable that, in thickly inhabited countries,
the habits of the hyzena may be much altered, as we find to be
the case in all other wild animals.* When much harassed
they become timid, and fly far from the abodes of men. I
* My friend, Dr Versfeld, a native of the Cape, informs me, that he has,
on two occasions, observed cayes in the Table Mountain, in the imme-
diate vicinity of Cape Town, which contained a few bones, apparently of
some ruminating animal ; he ascribed the presence of these bones in the
caves to the agency of hyznas, with which opinion I entirely agree. When
we reflect on the proximity of so populous a town as the Cape to the 'Table
Mountain, it is quite surprising that large collections of bones have not
been found in its caves ; the number of hyenas inhabiting these moun-
tains must be very great.
VOL. III. NO. I. JuLY 1825. F
82 Dr Knox on the Habits of the Hyena.
should be glad to offer this explanation in support of the sup-
posed habits of the Kirkdale hyzenas, but, unfortunately, the
’ antediluvians had not discovered Britain, which, though a
fine country, and full of nature’s finest productions, did not
boast of them as tenants.
’ 4. Hyeenas do not congregate ; they are solitary. Conse-
quently, all that Mr Buckland has said about a den of hyenas,
is simply the work of the imagination heated by a false theory.
5. The young of the hyzna follow the dam early into the
field, so that the quantity of food required to be carried to
them must be small.
6. I do not believe that hyznas reside in caverns ; they are
too timid and distrustful of every thing. The almost inac-
cessible parts of the country to which they retire during the
day-time, must have been visited by very few travellers. I
cannot say that I have ever discovered hyzenas in dens, though
I have often been present when they were roused from their
lurking-places.
These are all the observations I intend offering on this sub-
ject. It probably did not merit even these, since, as IT former-
ly hinted*, the habits of modern and antediluvian hyznas
might be entirely different, as they belong to different species.
But however this may be, none who has inspected the Kirk-
dale bones, deposited in the Hunterian museum, can hesitate
for 2 moment in declaring, that these bones have never been
fractured by hyzenas ; they have been broken by great external
violence, and not by the agency of the teeth of living animals ;
and they do not differ in any respect from the bones found at
Oreston and elsewhere, which bear no such marks of violence.
It seems indeed strange that the agency of wild animals
should be resorted to in explaining the osteological collection
of the Kirkdale cave, when so many other collections are al-
lowed to have been formed in an entirely different manner.
But the truth is, that we have evidence in the nature of the
relics themselves, subversive of Mr Buckland’s speculations
on these subjects; 1. The bones found in the cave of Kirk-
dale do not bear the marks of having been broken by hyzenas,
but of having been dashed to pieces, and exposed to the ac-
tion of water ; 2. They belong to animals of a different species
* Werncrian Transactions, vol. v.
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Published by W. Blackwood 182,
Account of an Expiosion of Oil Gas, Sc. 83
from any which now exist; ke the mammoth, they have en-
tirely disappeared from the face of the earth; the very race
has been utterly destroyed. But the deluge which effected
this, was not the universal deluge described in Scripture, for
of all that then lived, and was liable to be destroyed by the
devouring element, individuals were. carefully preserved to ex-
‘tend the race of animals to the present day. Mr Buckland
will, I trust, see the propriety of in future avoiding all specu-
lations which have even a remote tendency to mingle up mat-
ters esteemed by most men as sacred, with short-sighted hu-
man theories, amongst which, I fear, must be ranked that
which he has brought forward, and defended with much inge-
nuity and labour.
‘
Art. XVI.—Account of the Explosion of Oil Gas which took
place at Edinburgh, on the 23d March 1825, with Obser-
vations on the Safety of Gas.
Amone the events of the physical world, which record at
distant intervals the fury of the elements, there are few which
occasion so great alarm as the explosion of those powerful
agents which we have, as it were, domesticated for our use.
The mind soon reconciles itself to dangers, however appal-
ling, which it can neither foresee nor control. The West
Indian breathes with tranquillity the same air which, but
a few hours before, has been agitated with a hurricane or
atornado. The South American treads fearlessly on the very
soil in which the earthquake has engulfed his friends and his
relations ; and the Catanian rebuilds his habitation, with that
very lava which, in torrents of liquid fire, had swept his former
__ dwelling into the sea. It is far otherwise, however, with those
calamities which spring from carelessness or miscalculation.
_ If, in augmenting our comforts, we have unthinkingly added
_ to our dangers ; or if, in availing ourselves of the wisdom of
the serpent, we have forgotten to protect ourself against its sting,
we must then submit to that self-reproach, to which our want
of judgment, or our want of caution, has so justly exposed us
During the last thirty year’s, science has been making vast
Beth ticks to the immediate comforts and wants of our
ce
¥
84 Account of an Explosion of Oil Gas
species. While the giant of mechanism has been thrusting
his brawny arm into the bowels of the earth, and stretching it
over the face of the deep, a more gentle spirit has been scat-
tering around us every species of refinement, and transferring
to the humblest dwelling, what were once the ornaments and
the luxuries of the palace. “
Numerous as these improvements are, there are none that
so eloquently bespeak the predominance of science, as the in-
troduction of gas-light into our cities, our manufactories, and
our dwellings. 'To convert the blackest coal, and the most
rancid oil, into an ethereal element almost capable of turning
night into day, was a step in practical discovery, which the
most sanguine speculator could scarcely expect to realize ;
but even after this step was taken, how much invention,
how much skill, how many combinations were requisite,
before the inflammable element could be made to flow in
currents beneath our streets, and circulate in safety between
our partitions ? All this, however, has been accomplished, and
we may safely affirm, that there is none of the powers of na-
ture, which Providence has made subservient to man, more
completely under his control, or less likely to break loose
from the bondage to which science has committed them, than
that gaseous element of which we are now treating. It has, ac-
cordingly, been introduced into all the principal cities of the
united kingdom, both for public and for private use; and in
our own northern metropolis, two extensive establishments have
already been completed for coal, and for oil gas; and a third
is in a state of forwardness, for supplying the public with
compressed oil gas in portable vessels. All these establish-
ments are placed under the management of able and respect-
able individuals, who have hitherto shown themselves more so-
licitous to promote the interests of the public, than to look
after their own individual advantage ; and we venture to say,
that there are no establishments conducted with more liber-
ality, more skill, and more attention to the public safety,
than the two gas establishments in our own city.
The oil gas establishment had just began its operations,
when that alarming and melancholy accident took place, of
which we propose to give some account ; but in order that our
im Edinburgh, on the 23d March 1825. 85
readers may fully comprehend the true cause of this explosion,
and may appreciate the real amount of the danger which is
supposed to attend the use of gas, we beg their attention to
the following observations.
As gas itself is not an explosive substance, and as it is not
compressed in any of the pipes by which a house is supplied,
it is impossible that any explosion can take place within the
pipes, even if the gas were by any accident set on fire. Even
if a room were filled with pure gas, the gas would not explode,
though a lighted candle, or a piece of red-hot iron were placed
in the middle of it. Gas becomes explosive, and consequently
dangerous, only when it is mixed with a certain proportion of
atmospheric air. It is then called an explosive mixture, and
may be exploded by carrying a lighted candle into the middle
of it. The proportion of atmospheric air necessary to render
gas explosive, depends on the nature and qualities of the gas,
and it may be said in round numbers to vary from three-fourths
to fourteenjifteenths, that is, there must be from 1-4th to
1-15th of gas in the mixture to render it explosive.
In order that an explosive mixture. of gas and air may be
formed, it is necessary that the stop-cocks which let. off the
gas should be left open for a great length of time; that there
should be no change of air in the apartment; and that a light-
ed candle should be brought into it after the mixture had
become explosive, and before it ceases to be so. All these
circumstances must be combined before an explosion takes
place. With regard to the first, we can conceive nothing
more unlikely to happen. We never hear of a servant leav-
ing open a water-cock and inundating the house, though
there is no personal danger to himself in committing the
fault. In the case of the gas, the servant knows that by
his carelessness he is exposing himself to the chance of an
accident ;—but admitting that his carelessness is such as to
overlook this consideration, and that he has left open the stop-
cock,* the gas flows slowly out, and must flow for very many
* The difficulty of leaving open a gas- cock, by mere carelessness, is very
considerable. As the lights are put out by shutting the gas-cock, it must
necessarily be shut before the flame disappear, and it is not to be supposed
that any servant will turn it back. Those who are so shamefully ignorant
86 Uccount of an Explosion of Oil Gas
hours, before it has discharged itself toa dangerous amount.
Is it at all probable, or even possible, that the carcless servant,
or the other domestics, shall wander about the house for a day
or more without being annoyed by the noxious smell of the
emitted gas?* Let this contingency, however, also take
place, and let the gas stream out unperceived for a whole day.
Even then it by no means follows that an explosive mixture is
to be generated. ‘The constant current which takes place
in every room, with a door, a widow, and a chimney, is per-
petually changing the air in the apartment, and even that
which lodges in its remotest corners. 'The gas will conse-
quently be carried off by the ventilation, and, in proof of this
assertion, we may state, that there ts no case on record’ where
an explosion of gas has taken place in an apartment with the
ordinary veniilation. But let this, too, be rendered proba-
ble, and let us suppose that the ventilation is somehow or
other suspended. In this case the gas must be issuing from
every crevice, and it is impossible, if a servant does ap-
proach the room with a lighted candle, that he should ever
reach the door without ate repelled by the odious smell of
the gas. Should the servant be suddenly deprived of the use of
one of his senses, he may carry the candle into the explosive
mixture, (if it happen at that time to be explosive,) and thus
fall a sacrifice to a miraculous combinationof circumstances; but
if he advances with the use of his olfactory nerves, he must be
considered in the same aspect as a madman, who should light
himself into a powder magazine with a pan of burning coals.
Tn this argument we have supposed, that the gas has been
of the nature of gas as to blow out the flame, or put it ont with an ex-
tinguisher, without turning the cock, should be sent to school before they
are admitted into rational society.
* We do not allude to small apartments or cellars without windows or
chimnies, (though even here it will be seen from facts that the argument
is applicable,) for we are of opinion that the engineer who fixes a gas light -
in such places ought to be indicted for a felonious ignorance of his profes-
sion. ,
‘+ This arises from what is called the lateral communication of motion in
fluids, and has been established by the numerous experiments of Venturi
and others. See the Article Hydrodynamics in the Edinburgh Encyclo-
paedia, vol. x1. p. 493-—497. where these experiments are fully detailed.
‘
in Edinburgh, on the 23d March 1825. 87
escaping during the precise interval when it has not been in
use in any other part of the house, for it is well known, and
will be proved in the subsequent part of this paper, that the
lights’ which are burning will indicate to the family that the
gas is discharging itself in some part of the house, and will,
therefore, induce them either to apply for help to the Gas
Company, or to send .a servant without a light to discover
the place of discharge, shut the cock, and ventilate the apart-
ment. If the escape happens during the day, when no lights
are burning in the house to give these indications, then there
is no danger whatever of an explosion, as there is no occasion
to carry a light about to discover the place of escape, or for any
other purposes.
Having thus pomted out the nature of the danger which
may be apprehended from excessive and palpable negligence
on the part of the engineer and the consumer, we shall pro-
ceed to give an account of the explosion which took place in
the house of Colin Mackenzie, Esq. on the 23d March 1825.
In the area, and immediately under the stair leading to the
front door of Mr Mackenzie’s house, there was a small out-
house B, Plate I. Fig. 1., about six feet high, and four feet
square, which was completely covered in, partly by the steps of
the stone stair above, and partly by a stone covering at the
back. It was plastered on the top inside, and had no outlet
whatever except a very small door D, with two small slits in
it, which opened into the area. The place was very close
and completely unventilated. Tt was used for cleaning shoes
and knives, and in it was placed the meter G, through which
the supply of gas for the whole house passed. A gas light 6,
was most unfortunately fixed in this’ very small out-house,
and supplied by a quarter inch branch pipe, which termi-
nated in a bent brass tube, called a knee, the aperture of
which was three-eights of an inch in diameter. Into this knee
was inserted a jet burner, which is put into the brass knee like
the stopper into a wine decanter, and can be removed like it
at pleasure, being neither screwed nor soldered.
On Saturday, the 19th of March, the inspector examined
the meter and the gas-fittings in the shoe-house, and. through
the house. He ascertained that they were perfectly tight and
88 Account of an Explosion of Oil Gas
correct, and found that there was not the smallest appearance
of leakage, or any symptom of smell in the place.
Without the knowledge of his master, or any member of
the family, the footboy, Robert Whitewright, between fifteen
and sixteen years of age, had been in the habit, since the in-
troduction of gas into the house, of trying various experiments
with the gas, and’ of removing the burners or jets from the
knees, and burning the gas from these knees at full flame ; and
he had done so not only at his master’s, but in the house of ano-
ther gentleman. He was also in the habit, it would appear, of
taking off paper bags full of gas and exploding them. The boy
had been strongly cautioned by different persons against con-
tinuing such practices, but without effect. Cleaning the knives
and shoes being his particular department, he had thus con-
stant access to the small shoe-house already mentioned, and to
the pipe and burner placed in it.
On the night of Wednesday, the 23d Mstchis about half-
past five selook; while Mr and Mrs Mackenzie were in the
country, the smell of gas was perceived by the family in the
dining-room, which is above (above M,) the area where the
shoe-house is situated, but after searching every where through
the house, they were unable to discover whence the gas issued.
The lustres in the dining-room were lighted at six o’clock, and
during the space of ten minutes the gas burned as brightly as
usual, but it afterwards became bluer, and at last went out.
Mr Mackenzie, jun. went down stairs to ascertain the cause
of this, and asked the boy if he had turned off the gas.
Having learned that he had not, he returned into the
dining-room, and again tried whether the gas would burn,
and on applying a match to it, it burned and lighted as usual.
At a quarter past seven the smell became so strong in the din-
ing-room, that the window was put up to penile it, and the
boy was then sent to the gas-office to give information there
of the smell; but the inspector had not time to arrive before
the explosion took place.
Besides the boy, there were two women servants in “Mr
Mackenzie’s house, a nursery'and a kitchen-maid. The nur-
sery-maid does not know, and the other is unable, from the
state in which she is at present, to say at what time the boy
in Edinburgh, on the 28d March 1825. 89
returned. It is certain, however, from the declaration of Lady
Ramsay’s butler, that the boy was in Mr Mackenzie’s house
at ten minutes past eight o’clock.
In the mean time the smell of gas continued to be perceiv-
ed in the house, and by passengers on the street, very strong-
ly. It was so strong in the dining-room of Lady Ramsay’s
house, (above N,) which is immediately adjoining Mr Mack-
-enzie’s, and the windows of which are very near that part of
~ Mr Mackeuzie’s area, in which the shoe-house is situated, that
the ladies complained of it. At ten minutes past eight o'clock,
Lady Ramsay’s butler accordingly went into Mr Mackenzie’s
area, and knocked at the door C for the purpose of informing
the footboy of the smell, and also that the gas was escaping.
The boy came to the door with a light in his hand, and told
the butler that he had been to the gas-office, and that a person
was to come to examine the house. While they were speak-
ing a woman servant came into the passage leading to the
door C. Without mentioning his intention, but, as Lady Ram-
say’s butler supposes, for the purpose of examining the state
of the shoe-house, the boy proceeded towards it with the light
in his hand, and had no sooner opened the door D than the but-
ler observed the gas issuing from it in a blaze, he heard an
explosion, and saw the wall of the shoe-house blown outwards.
This was all the work of an instant. He was at this time
about two paces behind the boy, and was instantly thrown
down, and remained insensible, but he neither saw what be-
came of the boy, nor of the woman that was in the passage at C.
Tn the course of a few minutes the boy was found extended in
the area quite lifeless at A, and the woman was found insensible
within the passage of the house at C. The butler has received
no material injury, except being scorched in the face; and. the
woman, though very severely injured, is considered not to be
in immediate danger. The windows of the house were shat-
tered by the explosion, as well as those of some of the neigh-
bouring houses. The walls and doors of the shoe-house were
driven out, and the cellar-doors at 1, 2, and 3, driven in and
broken, but, with the exception of the windows, no part of the
house, nor any thing within it, was injured.
Shortly after the accident, the shoe-house B was examined by
90 . Account of an Explosion of Oil Gas
Dr Brewster, Mr Hunter of Thurston, and others, when the
gas meter G, and the pipes leading to and from it, were found
quite entire and right... The knee, or pipe before mentioned at
b, Fig. 2, which supplied gas to the burner in the shoe-house,
was found, as it was before the accident, rivetted to the wall, but
without the jet burner belonging to it. ‘The fastenings of the
service pipes, and every part of the gas apparatus were exa-
mined, and appeared to be in the best order.
It is, of course, impossible to ascertain, by direct evidence,
how the shoe-house came to be filled with gas; but Mr
Milne’s workmen and the company’s inspector concur in opi-
nion, that it could not escape from the service pipes or the
meter; and that there was no other possible way in which it
could have escaped, except from the open pipe belonging to
the burner } in the shoe-house. Dr Brewster concurs in opi-
nion with the inspector, that this pipe would fill so small a
space as this unventilated shoe-house im little more than two j
hours, and he also concurs with him in the belief, that it was —
from this pipe that the escape took place. They are further
confirmed in this opinion, by the mode in which the gas burn- —
ed in the dining-room in the earlier part of the evening, for if the ©
end of this pipe were left without the burner during the day —
time, the atmospheric air would enter the service prpe through —
it, and displace the gas in the distributing pipes throughout the
house to a certain extent, so that, when the gas was first lighted
in the dining-room, the pure gas, propelled forward by the at-
mospheric air, would burn with its usual brightness, until it was
expended, and the flame came in contact first with the mixture
of gas and air, when it would burn blue, and next with pure at-
mospheric air, when the light would be extinguished ; but when
the gas was turned on by the stop-cock on the general service
pipe, the pressure on it would naturally force the atmos-
pheric air wholly out of the pipe and the lustres would light
again; while, at the same time, the gas would be driven out
with great velocity by the pressure from the ‘street through
the open pipe 2 im the shoe-house, so as to fill the place in a
very short period. Dy Brewster is of opinion, that the jet
burner could not be displaced from the mouth of the pipe by
the explosion, and he also stated, that had it been allowed to
1
it Edinburgh, on the 23d March 1825. 91
remain in its place, even under any circumstances of careless-
ness, gas could not have escaped from it, even in a considera-
ble space of time, sufficient to form an explosive mixture.
~ 'To those who read with attention the preceding statement,
for the minute accuracy of which we can pledge ourselves, it
is unnecessary to add, that the particulars which have been de-
tailed, point out, in a striking manner, the safety, and not the
danger of using gas. The gas made its escape, neither from
accident nor from carelessness ; but the jet which closed up the
end of the pipe was forcibly removed and carried off, and the
unfortunate boy, who had done the mischief, fell a victim
to the consequences which it produced. This accident must,
therefore, be ascribed to the following causes :
1. To the blunder of the engineer in placing a burner in an
unventilated cellar.
2. To the misconduct of the boy in having removed the
burner, so as to allow the gas to flow out of a large orifice ; and,
3. To the ignorance and carelessness of the same person in
using a lighted candle, when it was known to himself that gas
had been escaping for a considerable time from some of the
pipes.
Although these conclusions ite been drawn by all persons
of intelligence, yet, in a city like this, where the explosion
was heard at a great distance, and its effects witnessed by all,
it is not to be wondered at, that ignorance and timidity should
“have been induced by this accident to array themselves
against the introduction of gas into their houses. ‘The first of
these grounds of hostility has been already removed by the
accident itself, which, from being the subject of frequent con-
‘versation, has made the nature and advantages of gas very
‘generally understood. ‘The second ground of hostility has
also, in a great measure, disappeared ; though to a certain ex-
tent it will, perhaps, always maintain its influence over ti-
-morous minds.
All such apprehensions, however, whether they originate
‘im ignorance, or timidity; must soon be dissipated by the
lights of knowledge. Individuals may receive or reject be-
nefits which science has offered only to themselves; but those
92 Account of an Explosion of Oil Gas, &.
boons, which she has conferred upon the species, must be ac-
cepted alike by all. No vulgar fears, no intrigues of faction,
no exercise of power, can stem that tide already set in upon the
world, which is bearing on its wave to the remotest lands, the
treasures of intellectual wisdom. We do not allude to that vain
and speculative knowledge which raises practical men out of
their sphere, and which inflames the ambition, while it para-
lyses the hand of industry, but to that useful and applied wis-
dom, which ripens its fruit where it displays its foliage, and
ameliorates the condition of its possessor in his professional,
his domestic, his social, and his political relations.
This general principle is in no case more applicable than to
the great discovery of gas illumination. Those who are afraid
to avail themselves of its benefits, are placed in circumstances
of as great danger as those who enjoy them; and it is a sin-
gular fact, that the greater number of accidents have happen-
ed from the leakage of gas into houses where it was not used,
and where the inhabitants could not have taken any precau-
tions against its approach.
Although we cannot doubt that the dread of gas explosions.
will disappear as quickly as the dread of explosions on board
steam-vessels, yet it is right that those who patronize and re-
commend the use of this light, should strive to remove even un-
reasonable apprehensions, by providing securities against the
most mprobable contingencies. With this view, we shall con-
clude this article, by enumerating several safety contrivances,
some of which will, we think, go far to remove all suspicions
of danger even from the most timorous minds.
1. The safety, or self-closing, burner of Mr Jennings, de-
scribed in our last Number, p. 344., offers the most perfect
protection against the escape of gas. If the gas flame is
blown out, or put out with an extinguisher, or if the cock is
left entirely open, this burner closes itself, and prevents the
escape of gas. We are not aware to what extent this burner
has been used ; but whether it answers its purpose or not,
which, however, we do not doubt, it is very obvious, that a
self-closing burner may be constructed in various ways, and
made quite effective for all practical purposes.
2. Another protection against the escape of gas may be ob-
/
Mr Edgeworth on a Machine for Measuring Distances. 9%
tained by shutting the gas entirely off when it is not used,
by means of a stop-cock placed near the main door where the
pipe enters the house. This, we believe, is already adopted
in Edinburgh ; and as it is next to impossible that gas could
escape unperceived to any dangerous extent while it is burn-
ing from various apertures, this main stop-cock must be held
to be a great security. Lest the servant or the master of the
house should neglect to put out this stop-cock when the lights
are put out, various contrivances might be adopted for prevent-
ing any such negligence. A light, for example, issuing from
a small jet, might be so arranged that it could only be put out
by turning the main stop-cock ; a reflector might be so plac-
ed on the stop-cock as to indicate, during the day, that it had
been left open ; and various other simple contrivances might be
resorted to for reminding the master of the house of his duty.
3. The most important safeguard of all, and the only one
which we think really useful both to those who use, and to those
who do not use gas, is one of Sir Humphry Davy’s saféty
lamps, which should be lighted whenever there is any suspicion
that gas has been making its escape either from the pipes of
‘the house, or leaking into the cellars from the main pipes in
the streets. With this lamp we may advance with perfect se-
curity into rooms filled with the explosive mixture, and thus
protect ourselves against every possible risk.
“Art. XVII.—Description of a Machine applied to a Gig, for
Measuring Distances. By Wit11am Epcewortn, Esq.
C. E. and M. R. I. A. Communicated by the Author.
Tuere have been a variety of machines applied to carriages,
for counting the revolutions of the wheel, and thus measuring
the distance travelled over ; but all that I have ever heard of,
wear rapidly and get out of order, as the machinery is placed
on or near the axletree, on parts of the carriage that are sub-
ject to jar.
For this reason, I was determined to suspend on the body
of the carriage, which was on springs, all the machinery re-
quisite for registering the revolutions of the wheel. TI availed
94 Mr Edgeworth on a Machine for Measuring Distances.
myself of R. Gout’s patent pedometer, which is of little accus
rate use in the pocket, worn as a watch, for re aS
number of steps in walking.
I placed this pedometer horizontally in the elbow of the
gig: It was there secure, concealed by a little door covered
with cloth, so that the dial-plate was not easily discovered, ex-
cept by a person who knew the opening. The difficulty in
the machinery was to communicate motion to the pedometer, |
which being in the body of the gig, and of course on springs,
was' subject to constant alteration of distance from the wheel ;
but as the springs played in nearly a perpendicular direction, |
I passed through the side of the gig, an upright spindle,
which came some inches below the axletree. The lower end
was bent in a crank shape, and this crank came in contact with
a pin of about half an inch diameter, that was driven in to the
nave near its circumference.
Round the spindle there was a helical spring, which slight-
ly urged the cranked part against the axletree, but every time
the wheel revolved, the pin in the nave pushed the crank out
for a few inches from the axletree, and it returned to its place
by the action of the spring as the pin receded. On the top of ©
ihe spindle was placed a lever of about two inches long, a lit-
tle above the level of the pedometer; this acted against the
short perpendicular arm of a crooked lever, the long horizon- —
tal arm of which lifted up the handle of the pedometer, and
. by this means caused the hand to advance one division on the
dial-plate. Now, this horizontal arm was elastic, and allowed.
the motion, communicated from the nave, to be much more
than was necessary for raising the handle; the elastic lever |
was also bent by the motion, so that no jolting should cause
any variation in registering the number of revolutions. In
fact, this idea of allowing by elasticity an overplus of motion,
and of placing the whole machinery on springs, are the only
new principles in this little contrivance.
It will be best to have a mile measured accurately on a
straight road, then, by driving backwards and ferwards a few
times, and taking the mean of the number of revolutions which 7
the wheel perform s in the mile, a table can easily be formed |
for any carriage, whatever may be the size of the wheel,
i
T nim HIM
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Lubltished by WBlackwook 1825.
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(>
Professor Moll on Mr. Blanken’s Fan-Gate Sluices. 95
showing the value of the revolutions in miles, furlongs, and
+ perches.
When the roads are in good ‘order » there will not be found
a difference of one scenic in five hundred, or not one in
the distance of a mile. .
It is curious, that, in wet weather, it always shows a small-
er measure than the true, from this reason—that the tire of
the wheel becomes lined with mud, which, in fact, adds to
~ the size of the wheel. When the mud is ver y stiff and adhesive,
_ there is a difference of one in two hundred. Measuring with
the wheel of a carriage is more accurate than with the common
wheel odometer, the carriage wheel being larger, and the load
that it supports preventing the possibility of its slipping, and
_ also tending to prevent the jumping that takes place when an
See gh se,
unloaded wheel meets with any obstacle. The dial-plate of
this pedometer admits of travelling more than twenty miles
before the long hand makes a complete revolution, and the
distances can be seen by mere inspection without stopping
the gig.
I tried this machine during five years of constant travelling,
while I was employed on the survey of Roscommon: It remain-
-edin good order, and I found it saved me time in supplying any
little omissions in the maps of my surveyors.
~ This machine has also been used by a friend in London for
some years, and he has found it remain free from sensible wear,
Epcewortustown, March 25, 1825.
Arr. XVIII.—4/5 of its weight, its lustre being rather improv-
ed than diminished by the operation. 47.39 grains, reduced
to fine powder by continued friction in an agate mortar, were
intimately mixed with six times their weight of carbonate of
baryta, and exposed to a white heat for one hour. The mass
had shrunk greatly, had a semi-vitrified appearance, did not
adhere to the sides of the crucible, and was of a dark green,
near black, colour. By digestion in water, a pink solution
formed, and on adding a small quantity of muriatic acid,
brown flocculi of manganese separated. The ignited mass
was readily attacked by diluted muriatic acid, being wholly
dissolved, except a small quantity of what appeared to be
silica ina gelatinous state. The solution was coloured strongly
by iron. It was carefully evaporated to dryness, and the
silica separated in the usual manner. It rather exceeded 42
per cent., but was obviously impure, since it was coherent
instead of being a light powder. I therefore resolved to de-
vote the present analysis solely to the determination of the
alkalies, and to examine a separate portion for fluoric acid.
’The baryta was precipitated by sulphuric acid, the iron,
alumina, and manganese, by ammonia, and after concentrating
the solution, hydrosulphuret of ammonia was added to separ-
ate the last traces of manganese. ‘The salts were then heated
in a platinum crucible to expel the sulphate and muriate of
ammonia. After the addition of a little sulphuric acid, to de-
compose any muriate of potash, the alkaline sulphates were
fused. A colourless salt was obtained, a part of which was
of sparing solubility, and which, by the addition of oxalate
140° Dr Turner’s Analysis of a Mica from Cornwall.
of ammonia, proved to be sulphate of lime. The pure alka-
line. sulphates, when again fused, amounted to 4.8 grains,
which dissolved completely in water. Muriate of platinum
was then added, and the solution evaporated to dryness, to ‘se-
parate the muriate of platinum and potash as perfectly as
possible. The dry mass was digested in a little cold water,
and the soluble portion examined for lithia. After separating
the excess of platinum, I found that the residual salt was com-
posed almost entirely of potash, which had passed over with .
the washings, and that the quantity of lithia was too small to
be appreciated correctly. I have, in consequence, been unable
to ascertain its presence with absolute certamty, though the
following circumstance renders its existence highly probable.
The supposed sulphate of Lithia was decomposed by acetate
of lead, the excess of lead removed by sulphuretted hydrogen,
and the filtered solution brought to dryness. The acetate
thus obtained was decomposed on platinum foil, and an alka-
line carbonate procured, which, though potash could still be
detected in it, was far more fusible than the carbonates either
of soda or potash, and discoloured the surface of the metal.
To determine fluoric acid and the other constituents of the
mica, 28.11 grains were ignited with four times their weight of
sub-carbonate of soda, and the method recommended by Ber-
zelius in his analysis of the topaz was adopted. The alkaline
solution, when neutralized by muriatic acid, gave a white pre-
eipitate with muriate of lime, which yielded 2.73 grains of dry
fluate of lime, corresponding to 0.76 grains, or 2.706 per cent.
of fluoric acid. That it was fluate of lime, was proved by its
corroding glass when the acid was set free by concentrated
sulphuric acid.
The matter which was not soluble in water, together with a
small quantity of silica separated from the alkaline solution,
dissolved completely in dilute muriatic acid. The solution
was evaporated to dryness, and after due digestion in diluted
acid, the silica was collected, ignited, and weighed. It yielded
36.54 per cent. of pure silica.
The peroxide of iron and alumina were precipitated in the
cold by sub-carbonate of soda, and were separated from one
dt
Dr Turner’s Analysis of a Mica from Cornwall. 144
another in the usual way. ‘The peroxide, after ignition, weigh-
ed 7.607 grains, equivalent to 27.06 per cent., and was quite
pure. The alumina, after being strongly ignited, amounted
to 7.16 grains, or 25.47 per cent.
After separating the iron and alumina, sub-carbonate of so-
da was added to the solution at a boiling temperature, anda
precipitate subsided, from which I obtained 0.26 grains, or 0.93
per cent. of lime, and 0.54 grains, or 1.92 per cent. of the red
oxide of manganese.
The Mica is thus composed of—
Silica, - - - - 36.54
Peroxide of iron, - - - 27.06
Alumina, - - - 25.47
Fluorie acid, - - - 2.706
Lime, - - - - -93
Red oxide of manganese, - - 1.92
Potash, (calculated from 4.8 gr. sulphate of potash,) 5-475
100.101
I have examined this mica for titanium in the way recom-
mended by Vauquelin, without obtaining satisfactory evidence
of its existence; nor did the tluate of lime, when decomposed
by sulphuric acid, yield a trace of phosphoric acid.
I have been greatly assisted in the execution of this analy-
sis by my able and zealous pupil Mr William Gregory, and,
as I still enjoy his valuable assistance, 1 expect to give the
analysis of several species of lithion-mica in the ensuing num-
ber of this Journal. That they will form several distinct
species, when farther examined, seems highly probable from
the difference in their specific gravity, which, in the brown
variety from Cornwall, analysed above, is far beyond the li-
mits of any of the other varieties of mica. The regular
forms of it have not yet been ascertained. Mr Haidinger
has found that those of a Siberian variety of lithion-mica
belong to the hemi-prismatic system, being oblique-rhom-
bic prisms, with the terminal plane inclined to the obtuse
edge of the prism, at an angle of about 99°. The plane
angle of the terminal face is nearly =119° 30’, from which,
and the inclination of the axis, the transverse section of
142 Dr Turner’s Analysis of a Mica from Cornwall.
the prism follows, =120°'7’. The faces of this prism are
very rough, but those parallel to its short diagonal, which
change it into an hexagonal prism, are generally smooth, and
possess a distinct vitreous lustre. The plane of the resultant
axes of double refraction is parallel to this face. This variety
occurs along with crystals of topaz, quartz, and felspar. It
is deserving of notice, as Mr Haidinger remarks, that most
of the lithion-micas are attended by topaz and other mi-
nerals which generally accompany tin-ore. The lepido-
lite from Moravia is associated with white topaz; the dark
grey mica from Zinnwald includes Pycnite, which is a com-
pound variety of topaz; the Cornish variety, from St Mi-
chael’s Mount, is found along with topaz and tin-ore ; another
Cornish variety from Carclaze, of a greyish-white colour, con-
tains granular masses and small crystals of white topaz ; the
brown variety, which I have analysed, is mixed with quartz
and apatite. Topaz has also been discovered at Zinnwald, but
the mica of that place is commonly associated with tin-ore,
quartz, wolfram, and tungstate of lime. It occurs in fine crys-
tals, and’ was selected for analysis by Klaproth as being acha-
racteristic variety. My analysis of it is in progress, and I
have already obtained unequivocal proof of the existence of li-
thia in it. The solution of the mixed sulphates of lithia and
potash, after the addition of muriate of platinum, was brought
to perfect dryness, and the soluble parts taken up by a little
cold water. A white salt was procured, after removing the
excess of platinum, which fused readily when heated, and af-
terwards dissolved easily in cold water. It was decomposed
by acetate of lead, and an acetate of lithia was formed in the
way already described. When a particle of this salt was
brought into contact with the flame of a spirit-lamp, it instantly
communicated a fine red colour to it. When decomposed by-
heat a white carbonate was procured, which was characteriz-
ed by its singular fusibility, its sparing solubility in water, by
acting upon the surface of platinum when fused upon it, and
by causing a brown stain when placed on moistened turmeric
paper.
Zoological Collections. 143
Art. XXIX.—ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS.
1. Conybeare on the Plesiosaurus. ;
From an examination of detached bones, procured even from dis-
tant localities, the late Mr Conybeare had collected a number of facts
which induced him to publish in the Trans. of the Geolog. Soc. for
1821, an account of a new fossil genus of reptiles, which he named
Plesiosaurus. The accuracy of his views have been confirmed by the dis-
covery of an almost perfect skeleton, which has corroborated his opinions
in every essential particular. The most remarkable circumstance in the
osteology of this animal, is the number of cervical vertebre, amounting to
thirty-nine, or including the anterior dorsal, which are placed before the
humerus, forty-one. By the philosophical naturalist, this extraordinary
elongation of neck will be considered with great interest, as it assimilates
its structure less to fishes, in which the sternum is thrown forwards,
though destined to move in the same element with them, than to birds, in
which this part of the skeleton is brought forwards.
Mr Conybeare conjectures from the form of its paddles, that it may have
swam on the surface of the ocean, with its long neck arched backwards like
that of a swan, ready to dart at the prey that came within reach ; or it
may have lurked in shoal water, hidden from the attacks of its enemies,
and deriving, from the flexibility of its neck, a compensation for that want
of agility indicated by its organization.
2. Discovery of the Megalosaurus.
Fossil zoology has received a very interesting addition by the discov-
ery of an enormous nondescript animal at Stonesfield, near Oxford.
The remains are very imperfect, but Frofessor Buckland has been en-
abled to ascertain, that they have belonged, like the Plesiosaurus, to
an animal of the Saurian order of reptiles. The most important frag
ment that has yet been found, consists of a portion of the lower jaw-
bone, nearly one foot in length, which is interesting as developing its
mode of dentition, and from which it is obvious that this part must
have terminated in a flat, straight, and very narrow snout. From the pro-
portions of a thigh-bone, found at Cuckfield, Sussex, Professor Buckland
estimates the length of this reptile to have been upwards of sixty feet, and
its bulk to have equalled that of an elephant seven feet high. It, there-
fore, fully merits the name of Megalosaurus, which he has applied to it.
Geolog. Trans. Second Series, vol. i. part ii.
i
3. Gigantic Fossil Coral.
Tuts remarkable fossil, the Astrea dendroidea of Lamouroux, was de-
scribed by that author, from an irregular fragment a few centimetres in
height. M. Le Sauvage has, however, been so fortunate as to discover a
Magnificent specimen, several feet in height, imbedded in the coralloid
limestone of the Falaise of Bénnerville. The fine preservation of this spe-
cimen, has furnished M. Le Sauvage with characters sufficiently distinct
144 Zoological Collections.
to constitute a new genus, which, from its habit, he has named Thamnas-
teria. The generic characters are: Polyparium petrosum, ramosum ; su-
perficies ramorum stellis lamellosis, sessilibus, obtecta ; lamellis linearibus,
rotundatis. It consists of a considerable bundle of branchy stems, from ten
to fifteen lines in diameter, simply contiguous, and presenting to view from
one end to the other regular series of rounded dilatations and circular con-
tractions. The branches are terminated in rounded points of unequal
heights, and their entire surface is covered with lamellar, rounded, con-
tiguous and almost superficial stellac. The very perfect state of so prodi-
ious a fossil, would indicate that it has not undergone any displacement,
but that it has been enveloped in the limestone that surrounds it, in the
place of its growth.—Mém. de la Soc. d Hist. Nat. tom. i.
4. Enormous Orang-Outang found in Sumatra.*
We have been favoured by a correspondent in India with the following
particulars respecting this animal :—* The greatest curiosity at present is
the skin and the lower part of the face of an enormous monkey, stated to
have been seven feet high. Dr Abel is now drawing up an account of it
for the Asiatic Society. I endeavoured to obtain some particulars from
the officer of the ship in which the skin was brought here, but I could
not learn more than what has appeared in the public papers. The. fol-
lowing is an extract of a letter from Mr Burton of Tappanooly, in Su-
matra, to Mr H. Wood of Bencoolen:—‘ I must not omit to mention, that
Messrs Craygman and Fish, of the Mary Anne Sophia, have lately killed,
near Taruman, an immense orang-outang, measuring in height sia feet ;
its foot is 143 inches in length. T have seen its skin, which is covered with
bright shining brown hair, mostly resembling that of a horse’s mane, about
a foot long. Its face was quite human, with a long beard, beautifully
curled. You may imagine the size and power of the animal, when I tell
you, that I measured one of its eye-teeth, and found it three inches and a
fourth in length, and that it lived many hours after five balls were lodged
in its body, and a spear run through it. The body was well proportioned>
with no protuberance of the stomach.’ a
“Jn this account, it is stated to be six feet high only. Mr Fish who —
killed it, described it as being much taller than himself, and as hav-
ing mustachios as well as a beard. The head was given to the cook of the
ship to boil and clean off the flesh ; but, by some mismanagement, the
upper part was spoilt, and the lower jaw only preserved. The hands and —
feet, however, have been brought here—preserved in spirits ; and I hope
Dr Abel will give a full account of what remains of this extraordinary
animal. The place where it was killed lies between Tappanooly and
Acheen, on the north-west coast of Sumatra,”—Letter to the Editor from a
Friend in Calcutta.
* « "The specimens of this animal which have been brought into Europe, were
mostly young individuals, seldom exceeding three feet in height ; but it is alleged,
that when they have attained to maturity, they equal or even surpass man, both in
stature and strength.”—Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Mazonocy, vol. xiii. p-
398.
’
Zoological Collections. 145
5. Aranea domestica, possessed of a Natural Diving-Bell, to assist it in |
crossing Water. :
A house-spider was placed by Mr Bell on a small platform, in the mid-
dle of a rummer full of water, the platform being about halfan inch above
the surface. It presently made its escape, as was anticipated, by suffering
a thread to be wafted to the edge of the glass. Mr Bell, suspecting it might
have been assisted by the water being so nearly on the same level, poured
some of the water away, and placed the spider as before. It descended by
the stick that supported the platform, till it reached the water, but finding
no way to escape, it returned to the platform, and for some time, employed
itself in preparing a web, with which it loosely enveloped the abdomen, by
means of the hinder legs. It now descended, without hesitation, to the
bottom of the water, when Mr B. observed the whole of the abdomen to be
covered with a web containing a bubble of air, probably intended for re-
spiration, as it evidently included the spiracles. The spider enveloped in
this little diving-bell, endeavoured on every side to make its escape, but in
vain, on account of the slipperiness of the glass; and, after remaining at
the bottom for about thirteen minutes, it returned, apparently much ex-
shausted, as it coiled itself closely under the little platform, and remained
afterwards without motion.—Zoological Journal, vol. i. 283,
6. Mode of Catching Fish by Diving, peculiar to the Gulf of Patrasso.
The diver being provided with a rope, made of a species of long grass,
and which floats near the surface, has only to move his canoe where he
perceives there is a rocky bottom ; this done, he throws the rope out so as
to form a tolerably large circle ; and such is the timid nature of the fish,
that, instead of rushing out, it never attempts to pass this imaginary bar-
rier, which acts as a talisman, but instantly descends, and endeavours to
conceal itself under the rocks.
“Having waited a few moments till the charm has taken effect, the diver
‘plunges downwards, and not unfrequently returns with four or five fish,
weighing from two to six pounds each. As they seldom find more than
the heads concealed, there is the less difficulty in bringing forth their rich
prizes ; and when the harvest is good, the divers are so dexterous, that
they have a method of securing three or four fish under each arm, beside
what they can take in their hands. The fish greatly resembles the John
- Dory.—Blaquiere’s Second Visit to Greece. Lond. 1825, Part ii. p. 40.
4. Rapidity of the Effects of the Poison of some of the New Holland
Snakes.
In a letter which we have received from His Excellency Sir Thomas
Brisbane, he mentions that one of the snakes which he has at home bit
_ two of his pointers, one of which died in three minutes, and the other in
about thirty minutes. Sir Thomas observes, that the venom of these rep-
can be compared in its effects only to the prussic acid.
VOL. III. NO. 1. JULY 1825. K
146 Decisions on Disputed Inventions.
8. On Changing the Residence of Fishes.
Mr Nicholas Mill having caught with a fly some of the fry of the sal-
mon, as they were retreating to the sea, preserved them alive, in order to
transport them into a fish pond, which was about thirty yards square, with
a clay bottom, covered with mud. The depth of the water was from three
to four feet, and it was supplied with a running stream. When the sal-
mon fry were first caught they measured four inches from the tip of the
nose to the tip of the tail. About twelve months afterwards, the pond was
overflowed, when some of the fish, together with some trout, were left dry.
They now measured in length eight inches, and assumed the shape and ap-
pearance of a lean salmon. Mr Mill thence concludes, that the salmon
might attain its usual size in large ponds, and he suggests that the ova, or
spawn, might be removed from rivers, and be bred in the pond in as near-
ly as possible the same situation.— Ann. of Phil. vol. ix. p. 380.
9. Structure of the Hind-F oot of the Walrus.
Sir Everard Home has discovered that the hind-foot of the walrus has
an apparatus like that of the foot of the fly, by which it is enabled to car-
ry on a progressive motion against gravity. In its operation it resembles
that of a cupping-glass, or rather that of a sucker of leather, with which
boys amuse themselves in lifting stones. In its bony structure it has a
striking resemblance to the human hand.—See Phil. Trans. 1824. Part. II.
Art. XXX-—DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND
DISCOVERIES. r
1. The Rediscovery of the Comet of Encke due to Mr Rumker and not to
Mr Dunlop.
In a paper published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, (Vol. x. p. 112, 113,) by Sir Thomas Brisbane, the merit of
rediscovering the remarkable comet of Encke has been ascribed to Mr
Dunlop. On the authority of that paper, and of a private letter from
Sir Thomas Brisbane, we afterwards contradicted a statement of Baron
Von Zach, who attributed the discovery to Mr Rumker. Wehave re-
ceived, however, recent letters both from Sir Thomas and Mr Dunlop,
in which all the merit of the discovery is attributed to Mr Rumker.
Two comets had made their appearance at the same period in New South
Wales, one of which was discovered by Mr Dunlop, and the other by Mr
Rumker. It was, therefore, a natural mistake to attribute the discovery
of the comet of Encke to Mr Dunlop, and that of the other to Mr Rum-
ker, when it was exactly the reverse ; the other comet of September 1822
having been discovered by Mr Dunlop. We regret to learn, that the
health of that able and active astronomer, Mr Rumker, has been so much
impaired, as to deprive the obseryatory of Paramatta of his valuable
services.
The Apparent Immobility of Spectral Impressions, Gc. LAT
2. The Composite Structure of the Bipyramidal Sulphate of Potash not
discovered by Mr Brooke.
Our mineralogical readers are, no doubt, aware of the bipyramidal form
in which sulphate of potash often crystallizes. Count Bournon considered
this as the primitive form of the salt, In a paper in the Annals of Phi-
losophy, Mr Brooke has described this form of the salt, and shows that it
is a composite form, consisting of rhomboidal prisms, combined in the
manner which he has represented in a diagram.
This composite form of the bipyramidal dodecahedron of sulphate of
potash had been discovered long before by the agency of polarised light,
and the combination distinctly described in the first paper of the first num~
ber of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, a work to which Mr Brooke was
acontributor. As Mr Brooke has made no reference whatever to that pa=
per, it might have been presumed that he had not read it ; but we find that
he has actually read and quoted it in his lucubrations on the structure of
Apophyllite, with which he has favoured the public; and which have al-
ready shared the same fate as his rhombohedral speculations on the primi-
tive form of the sulphato-tri-carbonate of lead. _
3. The apparent immobility of Spectral Fmpressions ; their Singleness
by Distorted Vision ; and the Reference of the Phenomena of Vision to Vo-=
luntary Muscular Action, first discovered and proposed by Dr Wells, and
not hy Mr Charles Bell.
» In the observations which were some time ago made on spectral impress
sions in this Journal, the author conceived, from reading Mr Charles Bell’s
paper, that that gentleman had the sole merit of discovering the apparent
immobility of ocular spectra, and the fact of their remaining single by dis<
torted vision ; and that he had been the first who referred these and other
phenomena of vision to the voluntary actions of the muscles. This opinion
was founded on the circumstance of Mr Bell not having mentioned any
other author as having preceded him in these views; and upon looking
again at Mr Bell’s paper, it is obvious that every reader must consider him
as the discoverer of these facts, and the author of these views. We find,
however, that these facts and views are all contained in Dr Wells’ Essay
upon Single Vision with Two Eyes, Lond. 1792, p. 65, 66, 67, 70; and
are stated with a degree of philosophical precision very different from
that which they wear in their revived form. Our inference from these facts is,
that Mr Bell was not acquainted with the work of Dr Wells, otherwise he
would not have failed to do justice to the previous labours of that able and
ingenious philosopher. In a future number we shall discuss this subject
with Dr Wells, and give a full account of the experiments we have made
upon it. Having overthrown the doctrine of the involuntary motion of
the eye-ball by optical arguments, we shall leave the physiology of that
part of the subject to Dr Knox, who, in a paper lately read before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, has demonstrated the incorreetness of Mr
Bell’s reasonings, and the fallacy of his results.
148 Decisions on Disputed Inventions.
4. Professor Leslie's Hygrometer, invented by the late Dr James Hutton.
An account of Mr Leslie’s hygrometer was first published in Nicholson’s
Philosophical Journal, 4to, vol. iii. p. 461, and it appears from that de-
scription, that the principle of the instrument, as well as the construction
and application of it, are claimed as the sole discovery of the author, as the
following quotations will show :—
«« My attention was first directed to the subject of hygrometry by the
perusal of the late Dr Hutton’s very ingenious Theory of Rain.”—“ To
discover the dryness or humidity of the air, we have only to find the
change of temperature induced on a body of water insulated or exposed on
all sides to evaporation. This principle I first established in 1790.
“Two thermometers, therefore, filled with any expansible fluid, with
quicksilver, alcohol, or air, the hall of the one being wetted and the other
dry, will, by their difference, denote the state of the air in respect to humi-
dity. Nothing was wanted but to combine those instruments in euch a
manner as that they should indicate their differences of temperature.”
It appears, from these passages, that Mr Leslie considers himselfas having
discovered and established the principle of the hygrometer in 1790 ; and
yet he regards this principle as carried into effect by the use of two a
mometers, so contrived as to indicate merely their difference of tempera-~
ture.
It appears from Professor Playfair’s life of Dr Hutton, in the Edinburgh 3
Transactions, vol. y. pp. 67 and 106, that such an instrument had been
invented and used by Dr Hutton himself, though he had not described it”
in any of his publications. The following is the passage :—
“To one,” says Professor Playfair, ““ who considers meteorology with
attention, the want of an accurate hygrometer can never failto beasubject =~
of regret. ‘The way of supplying this deficiency, which Dr Hutton prac- .
tised, was by moistening the ball of a thermometer, and measuring the de-
gree of cold produced by the evaporation of the moisture. The degree of
cold, ceteris paribus, will be proportional to the dryness of the air, and
affords, of course, a measure of that dryness.”
It is very obvious that, by means of a double thermometer and a move-
able scale, the difference of the indication of the two thermometers may
be observed at once. Mr Leslie applied the same principle to Sturmius’s
differential thermometer; and, consequently, he has done nothing more
than use an air thermometer in place of a mercurial one, though it does
not appear from Mr Playfair’s account what kind of thermometer was em-
ployed by Dr Hutton.
We believe it is now universally admitted, that the hygrometer, as manu
factured by Mr Leslie, is not an accurate instrument, and we know that
it is not in repute in France, and has not been used by any of the emi-
nent French philosophers who have carried on hygrometrical researches.
They have invariably preferred the hair hygrometer of Saussure.
Those who prefer the employment of Dr Hutton’s principle ought to
use the two thermometers in place of the differential one, as the tempera-
History of Mechanical Inventions, &c. 149
ture of the air is obtained at the same instant with its dryness, and the
observation is less liable to be affected by errors of construction.
Although we have not used Mr Daniell’s very ingenious hygrometer,
yet we understand, from good authority, that it is an admirable instru-
ment. It has been employed, we observe, by Professor Moll and Dr Van
Beek, in their valuable experiments on the velocity of sound, printed in the
Phil. Trans. for 1824, p. 424.
Arr. XXXI.—HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND
PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS.
1. British Invention and Discovery Association.
Av a time when the improvement of the useful arts is an object of na-
tional importance, and when no security is held out by our patent laws to
inventors or discoverers, the establishment in London of a “ British In-
vention and Discovery Company for the assistance, encouragement, and
“protection of native genius,” must be considered as a great event in the
history of our country. The capital is L. 750,000, which is already sub-
scribed.
The business of the establishment will consist of three great branches :
1st, The taking out of patents, both at home and abroad, for original
‘inventions and discoveries, and the manufacture and sale, or granting of
licences for the manufacture and sale, of patent articles.
2d, The promotion of such new processes or arts as can be safely carried
on without patents. 4
3d, The sale, not only of those patent articles and exclusive manufac-
tures in the property of which the company may acquire a share, but ge-
nerally all patent and privileged commodities.
The company propose not only to make all the pecuniary advances ne-~
cessary in each case, but to promote, by an active and extensive agency, the
interests of those who may confide in them. The remuneration they will
look for will be-such an equitable proportion of the ultimate profits as may
previously be agreed upon ; and in no event, not even of the greatest ulti-
mate failure, will persons, contracting with them for the prosecution of any
supposed invention or discovery, be liable to the smallest share of the ex-
pences incurred.
We understand that there are already many valuable plans waiting the
acceptance of the Association.
2. Mr Bryce’s Stomach or Moveable Branch Syphon.*
One of the most valuable applications of the Syphon with which we are
acquainted, has been recently made by Mr Bryce, surgeon in Edinburgh.
The object of this invention is to throw fluids into the stomach, and to ex-
tract fluids from it, in cases where poison has been swallowed, &c. In order
* This Syphon is made and sold by Mr Macleod, surgeon’s instrument-maker
in Edinburgh.
150 History of Mechanical Inventions and
to apply the Syphon to this purpose, in place of syringes and pumps, Mr
Bryce conceived the idea of making the longer branch of the Syphon move-
able, so that, when the shorter leg was in the stomach, the moveable leg
could be raised above the mouth, or placed in the usual position below it.
To the common cesophagus tube, about 26 inches long, a tin tube of the
same calibre is accurately fitted, by making the one pass about an inch into
the other. This tin tube is about three feet long, or to be more portable,
it may consist of two pieces, each 18 inches long, to be accurately fitted to.
each other, as above mentioned, and the joinings made air tight, by being
neatly and firmly wrapped round with slips of wetted bladder. A bladder
holding about a quart of liquid is then to be firmly fixed to the extremity
of the tin tube, and this bladder fitted with a ring and stopper at the end
farthest from the tin tube, for the purpose of emptying or pouring liquids
intoit. In using this instrument, the cesophagus tube must be introduced
through the nose or mouth into the stomach, so as nearly to reach its bot-
tom. The extremity of the tin tube is then to be joined to the cesophagus
tube, and the joining made air tight. ‘The bladder being then filled with
tepid water, or any other fluid, the extremity of the tin tube, with the at-
tached bladder, is then raised towards a perpendicular over the patient’s
head, and the fluid instantly descends into the stomach; and in order to
extract it again, it is only necessary to depress the bladder and tin tube
below the level of the stomach so as to form a Syphon.
It will be obvious to our readers that a Syphon upon the same principle
may be conveniently used for any other purpose, and may be appropriate-
ly called a moveable branch Syphon. The two branches may in that case
be of metal, glass, or any substance joined by an air tight joint. In cases
of exigency two glass tubes, or pieces of any tube might be joined into a
Syphon, by making the joint of bladder as above described.
3. Mr Shiell’s Treangle for Elevating the Jet of Hire Engines.
Turs very ingenious contrivance, which was used with great success in
the late fires in this city, is shown in Plate I., Fig. 5., where ABC is the
triangle or tripod, consisting of beams of wood.
Ais 40 feet long, and 5 inches diameter at the middle,
B and C 30 feet, do. do.
D the Yard, 12 feet.
E the Swivel turning in the end of A.
F the Jet or Director moving in the Swivel E.
G the Lathe Hose connécted with the Engine.
H Three ropes attached to the end of the Director, one comes down direct
to the Frame J, and the other two pass through holes in the extremities of
the Yard, and thence to the Frame J. The first rope serves to give a ver-
tical motion to the Director, and the latter two serve to guide it to the right
or left, so that by these ropes any power may direct the Jet in any required
direction.
This sketch is not exactly Mr Shiell’s plan, (in which the legs of the
.
Processes in the Useful Arts. 151
triangle were of equal length,) but is taken from a triangle executed for the
police establishment of this city.
4. Account of an improved Hydropneumatic Lamp, which can be construct-
ed at a small expence. By Witt1am Dyce, M.D, F.R.S. Edin.
“This lamp consists of a cylindrical glass jar, open at the top, A B Plate I.
Fig. 6. ; into this jar is placed a bottle, C D, of the same kind of glass, which
nearly fills itin point of circumference. With respect to the inner,bottle, it is
to be cut in two, so that when placed again in the outer jar, it only occu-
pies one-half its space in altitude, which space, however, must be made up
by means of a piece of leaden pipe, EF, of such size as will easily grind
into the neck of the bottle, projecting, at the same time, about an inch
above the upper part of the outer jar, which passes through an opening
in the centre of a covering of mahogany, turned for that purpose. Into
the upper part of the leaden tube is ground a small brass cock F, which
can be procured from braziers at from 10d. to 14d., according to the size.
Now the upper part, or that from which a fluid would flow, is to be filed
or cut away, so as to admit of a piece of brass tube, about 2 of an inch in
diameter and 3 in length, being soldered to the nozle, into which is fitted
a piece of glass tube, drawn into a point, and bent downwards so as to be
parallel with the stem, and, of course, to blow downwards, whereby the
stream of hydrogen gas is directed upon the spongy platinum in a small
box, G, moveable up and down through the wooden cover, by a spring-
tube made fast to the cover; at the same time that this small box has a
cover or top fitted to it, and easily moveable by means of a joint, so as to
be accessible in darkness as well as light.
Every person knows, that rags on being burnt, so as to be ina com-
plete state of incandescence without flame, are fit for tinder, and that
this tinder may be inflamed by a spark, nearly as soon as gun-powder.
Now, if these rags, of which the tinder is to be made, be immersed in
the solution of platinum, dried and then burnt, the product will answer
quite as well as Dr Fyfe’s instrument for inflaming sulphur. On most oc-
easions, indeed, it will inflame the gas without any farther trouble, yets it
must be allowed, at a much greater expence of gas before the inflammation
takes place ; but if the tinder only is required to be set on fire, then a very
small portion of gas will be needful for that purpose, and a common brim-
stone match will produce the flame required. On certain occasions, I have
found this method preferable to the spongy platinum when the column of
water was not of sufficient altitude to force out the gas with sufficient ra-
pidity to be inflamed, and yet was quite equal to the inflammation of the
tinder, from which a match could be lighted, and that without any hurry,
as it keeps ignited for a very long time.
In like manner, common charcoal answers the same purpose. If any
quantity of powdered, fresh made, charcoal be moistened with the solution,
and then submitted to a red heat, or nearly so, it possesses the power of
inflaming the gas, if a jet be directed to it for a considerable length of
152 History of Mechanical Inventions and
time ; yet it must be allowed, that its power of inflammation is not equal
to the tinder, although it most readily takes fire, and, of course, is quite
equal to the purpose of igniting a match.
With regard to the tinder, I may mention that I once prepared a small
portion (by chance) that inflamed the gas as easily and quickly as the
spongy platinum ; but haying no time, at that period, to prosecute any
farther experiments on the subject, I must be content with merely men-
tioning the fact as it occurred. At the same time I may add, from recol-
lection, that this piece of rag was used in wiping the vessel in which the
ammoniacal precipitate had been prepared, and consequently may have
imbibed a portion of the precipitate that was unavoidably left in the bason.
I think the instrument, with this very cheap method of preparing the
substance, or tinder, will prove a most useful appendage to a bedroom,
seeing that it has elegance, cheapness, and compactness to recommend it.
When the impregnated tinder is employed, it may be proper to remark,
that a larger jet is required at first to ignite it, and then a continuance of
a very small stream is needful for the inflammation of the gas. The same
precaution is necessary with one that I forgot to mention, that is paper. If
the filtering paper, on which the precipitate is washed and dried, be burnt
to redness, and then covered so as to exclude the access of common air to
it, then it forms, when cold, as good an article for the inflammation of the
gas as that prepared from rags. But if the charcoal preparation be had
recourse to, a considerable waste of gas must be expected before inflamma-
tion takes place; yet if that is not required, ignition may be produced
with a small portion indeed. All these preparations have a great advantage
over the spongy platinum, for when they are once ignited, they continue
for a very long time to be so, whereby time is afforded to apply a match,
if a light is all that isrequired ; whereas the spongy mass goes out instant-
ly when the gas is stopt; and, on several occasions, when the gas was
nearly expended, or, in other words, the pressure was so small as not be
sufficient to produce flame by the platinum, on substituting the tinder it
was ignited instantly, and by it a match kindled, which may answer the
purpose for the time.
5. On the Use of Granite for Railways. In a Letter from Joun Gis,
Esq. Civil Engineer, to Jouw Rosison, Esq. F. B.S. E.
Sir,
I Trust you will excuse me for addressing you on the subject of railways.
But the unprecedented demand, and consequent high price of cast-iron,
occasioned, perhaps, partly by the vast quantity required for the distribu-
tion of gas, together with the increasing prosperity of the country ; having
created an extraordinary. demand for new manufacturing establishments,
will, I fear, greatly retard the progress, and increase the expence of the
numerous railroads now contemplated in various districts of Great Britain,
I haye, therefore, been induced to turn my attention to this subject, and I
beg to submit the annexed sketch, Plate I. Fig. 8, for your consideration,
which, according to my estimate, will have the advantage over the present
Processes in the Useful Arts. 158
plan of railroads in general, of 6s. per yard, or L. 528 cheaper per mile on
a single railroad, and 12s. per yard, or L. 1056 per mile of a double railroad
viz. calculating for the vicinity of London, and in many other districts still
cheaper, as I shall afterwards show.
Agreeable to the annexed sketch, I propose, for a simple railroad, to lay
two continuous lines of kirbing of granite, or other strong, hard, durable
stone, close jointed on the ends ; four to five inches broad on the top; ten
inches deep, and ten to twelve inches broad at bottom ; and on the top of
each row, to lay wrought-iron bars, in length about twelve feet, one inch
broad by one-half inch deep, with a cross T, welded on the under side at eve-
ry four feet, checked down a little, and fixed into the stone. The wheels of
the waggon to run on the top of the iron bar, in the usual way of common
iron rails. ‘Che stone kirbing will be kept in its place by the road-stuff on
_ each side, and the ironrail acting as a tie-bar, will make a perfectly smooth
railroad, not liable to derangement.
In situations, where railways had to pass public roads or streets, it
would perhaps be best to lay the space between the kirbing with small
paving-stone. As the iron bars would be very little raised, and lie per=
fectly close on the stone, no breakage could take place, as is the case with
cast-iron rails. As the stone kirbing would be more than sufficient to car-
ry any weight that could be brought upon them, the iron bar on the top
is only intended to give a smooth surface, and offer the least possible
friction.
With regard to branche, turnings, and passings, it is evident they can
be formed with the kirbing with the greatest facility. I have laid down
the width as five feet between the rails, which is greater than usual ; but
perhaps it would be better to make the rails still wider, which would allow
the body of the waggon a greater area, and less depth, and admit of higher
wheels, requiring less power to move them on the rails ; more accommoda-
tion would also be afforded, in the event of locomotive engines being ap-~
plied. Square bushes would be a great improvement for waggon axles,
which would only have to touch in four points, in place of embracing the
whole circumference, as they have to do by the present mode.
The labour of forming the railroad, embanking, metalling, &c. &c. be-
ing the same in both schemes, I shall not enter into the expence of that
department, but confine myself to a comparative estimate of what I pro-
pose to substitute.
Estimate by the present plan of Cast-Iron Railways, similar in weight
to the one on Dartmoor.
To 92 lbs of Cast-Iron in a yard of length of a common single railroad,
including 2 chairs, one for the end of each rail, which at the lowest quoted
prices at present is 18s. 8d. per cwt. or 2d. per lb - L.0 15 4
To 2 Stones for fixing do. including boring - - 0 '8"'0
To 4 Buts for Chairs, exclusive of Plugs - - 0 0 6
L.0 18 10
154 History -of Mechanical Inventions and
New Scheme by Kirbing of Stone.
To 12 lbs of Welsh Bar of Wrought-Iron .of dimensions as
per Sketch in a yard, or including both sides together, with
the cross T, and bolt at every four feet in length, which, al-
though it requires no labour, but only welding the 'T at every
four feet, and the quoted prices at present are only 14s., I
have here estimated at double that, viz. 28s. per cwt- or 3d.
per lb. - - - - - - 0 3 0
To Granite Kirbing, delivered in London, for both sides,
at 4s. 6d. per yard, - - = 2 09 0
To Boring and Setting, at 5d. per yard, “ " 0 010
0 12 10
Difference in favour of Kirbing per yard, - * 060
There are no doubt many districts, through which roads may have to
pass, where hard, strong, durable stone may be procured, which would
render this plan still cheaper, as the stones only require to be straighted
on the top, and one edge, with square joints, and the bottoms blocked work,
and may be in length one foot six inches to three or four feet.
In districts of the country where strong durable stone cannot be reason-
ably procured, it may be advisable to give a greater body of stone, and cut
a groove an inch deep for the flanch of the waggon-wheel, and fix the bar
of iron in the middle of the stone ; but this will not be necessary when
granite, or good whin-stone, or limestone can be procured, as they will
be sufficiently strong on the edges, agreeable to annexed sketch.
I am, Six, respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
ABERDEEN, 14th February 1825. Joun Gizz.
‘6. Description of a Single Valve Sluice, invented hy Ropert Tuom,
Ese. Rothesay.
The construction of this sluice (Plate I. Fig. 9;) is partly similar to
that described in our last Number; but it is applicable to cases where
the reservoir is on high grounds above the works requiring the water,
and where, of course, the water passes down a declivity. ,
AB, part of the tunnel of a reservoir.
B, a sluice that turns upon pivots a little above its centre ee pressure.
CD, The rivulet that carries the water from the reservoir down to FG,
part of a level canal or aqueduct.
EH; a hollow cylinder.
KL, a cylinder, water proof, of rather less specific gravity than water,
which moves freely up and down within cylinder EH.
M, a pulley. BMK, a chain, &e.
I, a small cistern, kept always full of water en the waste from the
sluice, or by a small hole in it.
HI, a small pipe, communicating between cistern I and eylinder EH,
Processes in the Useful Arts. 155
EN, a small pipe communicating under ground, between EH, and
N, a valve at the lower end of pipe EN, which, when open, is capable
of passing more water than the pipe HI can receive.
R, a float, placed within a small pool of water, on the same level as,
and communicating with, the canal.
The water in the canal is here represented at its greatest height, and the
valve N shut by the float R pressing up the spindle: the cylinder EH is
therefore filled by water from the cistern I, and the sluice B shut by the
pressure of the water in the reservoir, there being a little more pressure
below than above the pivots. When the surface of the water falls in the
canal, the float R falls with it, and then the valve N (falling by its own
weight) opens and empties the cylinder EH, when cylinder KL falls and
opens sluice B, and gives the supply required.
It is therefore of no consequence in regard to regulating the supply of
water, how far the reservoir is from, or how high above, the level of the
works requiring the water ; provided that the length of the pipe EN cor-
responds with the distance, and its strength with the height or pressure of
the water. It is necessary, however, that the bore of this pipe should be
small, particularly where its length is considerable, in order that sluice B
may open or shut very soon after valve N opens or shuts, and at the same
time require only a small supply of water. Suppose, therefore, the open-
ing into the pipe EN at I to be only a half inch bore, and that the valve
N is shut when that pipe is empty, it is evident that the sluice B will not
shut, till both that pipe and cylinder EH be filled with water ; and that
the smaller the diameter of that pipe be, the sooner will it be filled. The
time, therefore, that sluice B takes to shut after valve N shuts, will always
be the same as the time that pipe EN and cylinder EH take to fill when
valve N is shut; and to make sluice B take an equal length of time
to open after valve N opens, the aperture of that valve must be such as to
take an equal length of time to run off the water to the bottom of cylinder
EH, while the water is still flowing into the aperture at I, as that aperture
takes to fill both cylinder and pipe when valve N is shut.
7. Description of a Chain Sluice, invented by Rosert Tuom, Esq. Rothe=
say.
This apparatus (Plate I. Fig. 10,) answers exactly the same purpose as
the last, only the construction is different.
In this figure, the relative situations of the reservoir and canal are the
same as in Fig. 6 ; and the cylinder and valves the same as those in Fig.
4, with the addition of RS, a lever, SP, a chain, and U a weight.
One end of the lever RS is connected with the valve spindle NO, and
the other end with the chain SP. The other end of this chain is connected
with the float P on the canal XY below.
When the water in the canal XY rises, float P also rises and slackens
the chain SP; the weight U, then falling, shuts valve O and opens valve
N ; then the water, passing down tube KCLD, raises cylinder FG, and
the pressure of the water in the reservoir shuts sluice A. When the wa-
156 History of Mechanical Inventions and
ter in the canal falls, float P falling with it, lifts the weight U, and shuts
valve N, and opens valve O ; and then the cylinder FG, falling wens the
water in ED, opens sluice A, &c.
This construction may, perhaps, be adopted with advantage on account
of its cheapness, where the reservoir is very near the level canal, but a
considerable height above it ; for a brass wire, one-tenth of an inch dia-
meter, will be strong’ enough for the chain where the distance is short, it
having, in any case, little more to lift than twice its own weight. Figure 9,
however, seems better adapted to general purposes.
8. Description of a Breathing-Pump, invented by William Van Houten,
junior, Rotterdam.
Fig. 11, 12 of Plate I. show the interior of two pump cylinders, a and b,
joined together, so that they make one body ; in each of these cylinders is
placed a piston c, which are both by the piston-rod d, (passing through
the lid e,) attached to the handle jf, by means of the small screws ¢ ; h is
a discharging, 7 an introduction pipe, with an opening k ; lare two leather
elastic tubes, with a horn-band m, in which band is attached a small In-
dian-rubber pipe x; o is an injection-pipe, with a moveable shield p, and
g the screw to fix it; 7 a blade.
As soon as the body is taken out of the water the nose and mouth must
be properly examined, and, if necessary, cleaned of mud, &c ; meanwhile,
the two elastic tubes » are dipped for a moment in warm water, bent, as
may be found necessary, and then placed to such a depth in the nose, that
the horn-bands m are half in the nostrils, these bands being necessary to
prevent the circulation through the pipes being stopped, when the nostrils
are held close by the hand of the operator. The pipe o is then put into
the mouth, until the shield p is close to the lips; the latter is shifted ac-
cording to the size of the sufferer, and fastened by the screw gq, so that the
pipe may go the required depth into the mouth, with the blade r upon
the tongue.
As soon as the Breathing-Pump is placed in this position by the opera-
tor, who holdsit in the left hand, another person B must hold the nose and
mouth air-tight round the pipe and tubes; the handle of the piston is
drawn upwards by the right hand of the operator, and immediately both
pistons rise to the top of the cylinders ; upon this movement the valves s u
shut, and ¢v open ; and while the cylinder a is filled, through the nose,
with foul air from the lungs, the cylinder is filled with fresh or atmos-
pheric air through the introduction pipe z, the pistons being pressed down-
wards, the valves s x are opened, and ¢v shut, and while the foul air from
the cylinder a is discharged through the pipe h, the atmospheric air, by
which the cylinder / was filled, is pressed through the pipe o in the mouth,
and consequently into the lungs, and breathing will be immediately re-
stored. : j
The operator ought to make the strokes as regular as the breath is usual-
ly drawn, and proper care must be taken that the stomach and breast be
Auer es|"\y
<
Processes in the Useful Arts. 157
pressed eyery time the piston rises in the cylinder, in order to assist the
discharge of the foul air.
If, at the commencement of the operation, there is reason to believe
that the lungs are too heavily charged with foul air, the elastic Indian-
rubber tubes ought alone to be brought into the nose, and, while keeping
the mouth air-tight with the hand, a few strokes will immediately remove
and discharge it. This operation will give room immediately for the fresh
air to act with success by means of the pipe o, which must then be put into
the mouth. Should it be wished to make an experiment to draw the foul
air out by the mouth, and to introduce the fresh air through the nose, un-
serew the pipe o and the tubes /, then turn the pump, so that the cylinder
b is up, and a downwards, the pipes and tubes are then replaced, so that Z
is joined to the cylinder 4, and o to a.
_ The valves are placed in such a manner between the screws at the bot-
tom of the cylinder, that they may easily be taken out and turned an-
other way, as is shown in the drawing, so that they have different direc-
tions, and may act in either way, as is judged necessary. If it be wished.
to make a trial of purified air, the apparatus containing the air must be
screwed into the opening & of the introduction pipe 7, the gas will imme-
diately, by drawing the handle of the pumps upwards, float out of the ap-
paratus into the cylinder a, and in consequence, by the re-action of the
pistons downwards, be introduced into the lungs ; and should the room,
where the operation is performed, be too close, and filled by foul air, then
take a long tube, and place the funnel either out of the window, or into the
next room, where the air is cool and fresh.
9. Professor Amici’s Improved Camera Lucidas.
Tn using the ingenious camera lucida, invented by Dr Wollaston, and de-
scribed in seyeral English works,* a practical difficulty has been experienc-
ed arising from the alternate appearance and disappearance of the point of
the pencil by which the outline is traced. In order to understand this, says
Professor Amici, let ABCD, Plate I. Fig. 15, be Dr Wollaston’s quadrangu-
lar prism. The eye at O, perceives by ineans of two reflections from DC, CA,
the object Q, and refers it to P. The pencil held in the hand at P is seen by
one-half of the pupil, and the object by the other half, so that, by a slight
motion of the eye, the pencil, or the ray, is seen indistinctly, according
as the part of the pupil by which they are viewed becomes greater or
smaller. Inorder to avoid this evil, M. Amici adopted the construction in
Plate I. Fig. 16, where ABC is a metallic mirror, whose polished surface
AB, is inclined 135° to the plain surface BD, of a piece of glass DCFE,
with parallel faces. The eye at O, now sees the object R and Q, by the
rays RMPO, reflected at Mand P. As both the pencil and the rays are seen
with the whole pupil, the object may be drawn with the greatest facility.
When lenses are used in this construction, a concave one should be placed
before the mirror ABC, and when a convex one is used, it should be placed
~™ See the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. CAMERA Lucia.
158 History of Mechanical Inventions, &c.
below the glass towards the paper at Q. By these lenses, a copy larger
or smaller than the object may be drawn. The camera lucida used by
Professor Amici is fitted up as in Fig. 18, which is half its real size. In
order to get rid of the reflection from the second surface of the glass, as
shown in Fig. 17, by the ray CDFC, which enters the glass, M. Amici re-
moves the polish from the part DM, so that no light is reflected at D.*
In order to prevent a reverse image of the objects produced by the me-
tallic mirror from being seen, a small plate AB of blackened copper is
placed as in Fig. 18, which stops the upper rays which a single reflection
would bring to the eye. A rectangular aperture, to which the eye is ap-=
plied, is made in the copper, the smallest sides of the rectangle being lar-
ger than the pupil, and the other sufficient for seeing enough of the ob-
jects.
Another construction which M. Amici thinks better than that of Fig.
16, is shown in Fig. 19, where RMNO is the progress of the ray from the
object, being reflected at M from the polished surface FG, of the metallic
mirror EDFG inclined 45° to BD. In this combination, the second reflec=
tion from the glass plate cannot be removed by grinding the face AC, but
this image may always be prevented from reaching the pupil, by giving a
proper thickness to the glass.
In order to make the two faces of the glass perfectly parallel, in which
case distant objects will not appear double, M. Amici constructed a tri-
angular prism of glass, and having cut it in two, he united the parts ACD,
ADB, Fig. 19, so as to form a parallelopiped. By giving one of the prisms
a slight motion of rotation, a position was easily found in which the two
faces were parallel.
A third species + of camera lucida has been formed by Amici, with a small
metallic mirror inclined to the great one, at an angle of 45°. The small
mirror, which is elliptical, and smaller than the pupil, is supported and in-
sulated by a small steel wire. The Lacie is, in that case, seen by the outer
ring of the pupil.
A fourth kind of camera lucida is shown in Fig. 20, where ABC is an isos
celes right-angled prism of glass, having its face, BC, parallel to the metallic
mirror MN, with an aperture in it XY, Fig. 2, less than the pupil
RS ; the ray from Q, follows the progress of the dotted lines to the eye at
P, which sees the pencil throngh the opening XY, while the object is seen
in the circular segments at R and S.
The last and the best construction is shown in Fig. 22, where ABC is an
isosceles prism of glass, whose base, AB, forms an angle of 45° with MN. The
_* We have constructed these with plates of topaz, which often split with sure
faces perfectly polished, and always mathematically parallel. An inclined edge, as
at DE, Fig. 16, can always be got, and often a rough water-worn edge,
+ In place of a metallic mirror, we have found small and perfect crystals of ruby
silver, blende, specular iron, and oxide of tin, much better fitted for this purpose,
and much easier obtained. If the crystal used is extremely thin, a variation of the
position of the eye enables us to vary the relatiye illumination of the pencil of the
tinge. —ED. ;
UL
Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora. 159
ray then proceeds in the direction PQSO, to the eye at O. The angle at C
should be a little less than a right angle, in order that when the eye ad-
vances to B, it may not see objects directly reflected from. AB. A plate of
copper CN, pierced with a longitudinal aperture, as in Fig. 21, is then
placed from C to N. In this construction, and indeed in all, the prism
ABC, is greatly superior to a metallic mirror. M. Amici points out the
great utility of the camera lucida in lithography, as the drawing from na-
ture may be made at once upon the stone.
+
Art. XXXII—ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND
MEMOIRS.
1. The English Flora. By Sir James Epwarp Smiru, President of the
Linnean Society. 2 vols. 8vo. Vol. I. 370 pp. Vol. II. 470 pp.
Ir is now time that we should execute the agreeable task which We;
some time ago, promised to ourselves, of noticing more at large the two
first volumes of Smith’s English Flora, the appearance of which was an-
nounced in the first number of our Journal.
There are, perhaps, few countries of so limited extent that comprise
such a variety of plants as the British Islands ; particularly if we take in-
to account its marine productions ; although we must, at the same time,
confess that there are, comparatively, few vegetables that are peculiar to
these countries, few that are not found either in France, Germany, Den-
mark, Sweden, Norway, and Lapland. The variety of British produc.
tions to which we allude may, we think, be attributed to the extent of
the island from north to south, across 60° of latitude. Hence the plants
of the southern districts will be found to have many species in common
with France and Germany ; those of Scotland again, with the productions
of Sweden and Denmark ; whilst the great elevation of the hills in some
parts of the country induces a vegetation that may most aptly be compar-
ed with that of Norway and Lapland. Parallels of longitude seem to af=
fect, or to produce a difference in vegetation, much less than those of lati-
tude. Hence, the degree of elevation above the level of the sea being the
same, the plants of England and Scotland will equally be seen on the
continent of Europe in the same parallel of longitude : and Ireland again,
will be found to have a vegetation scarcely different from those parts of
‘England and Scotland opposite to which it lies. The exceptions to this
Tule are very few in number. The beautiful Menziesia polifolia, or St
‘Patrick's Heath, aud the Saxifraga Geum, with its numerous varieties,
‘are, we believe, only found truly wild in Ireland ; and the same may be
‘said of the Luphorbia Hibernica ; but the two former are principally con-
‘fined to the western extremity of that island. We cannot satisfy ourselves
‘that the A7butus is an aboriginal native of Killarney, where it grows with
Such luxuriance ; but are rather inclined to annex some credit to the tra-
ition of its having been introduced by the monks of Mucross Abbey,
160 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
from France or Spain. Few trees (for the Arbutus becomes a tree at Kil-
larney) are found to be so isolated as this is, in a state of nature.
Much as we owe to our insulated situation, in a political point of view,
we ure forced to allow, that, in another respect, in what concerns the ex~
tent and number of the species of its vegetable productions, Great Britain
must yield the palm to the continent; extent of country and elevation,
above the level of the sea, being the same. Plants cannot, or they can
but rarely, by means of their seeds, cross over the ocean, so as to become
naturalized in other countries. On the continent, they are continually
migrating and extending the circle of their stations. Thus, we find that
we no sooner pass the channel, and wander by the roadsides, or into the
corn-fields of France, than we see many plants to which our eyes have only
been accustomed as inhabitants of the garden. This is peculiarly the
case with the Eryngium campestre, (now, we believe, quite extinct in
Britain,) Cirsium oleraceum, Alyssum calycinum, Anemone pratensis,
Campanula speculum. It is the same in Germany and Holland, and a
slight glance at the figures in the Flora Danica will suffice to show how
many plants there are, even in those northern climates, which we cannot
call ours. The Alps of Switzerland, and the mountains of Norway, sepa
rated as they are by very great distances, have many plants in common,
which we do not include in the Flora of our alpine regions; while, on the
other hand, we can boast of very few plants which are peculiar to our
islands. Sir James Edward Smith is inclined to consider the Ligusticum
cornubiense as exclusively of British origin, though we must confess, that
our own observations have led us to a different conclusion. Brassica
monensis has not yet been found in any other part of the world than the
Western Isles, and upon the opposite shores of England and Scotland.
But the most interesting of our peculiarly British plants is the Eriocau-
lon septangulare, very nearly allied, indeed, to the E. pellucidum of Ame~
ricas In no other part of Europe is any one individual, even of the ge-
nus, to be found ; and what is very remarkable, although the greater num-
ber of the species are inhabitants of the tropics, or of warm climates —
bordering upon the tropics, yet our species is found in one of the most
northern of the Hebrides ; and in a lake so cold, that the bare recollection
of our wading into it, in pursuit of this rarity, seems to cast a chill over
our whole frame.
Amongst the Cryptogamia, rich as Britain has proved to be in that ex-
tensive family, very many of them have been long known to exist equal-
ly upon the continent of Europe, and in North America. Indeed, it is a
certain fact, that the lower we descend in the scale of vegetation, the
more universally are the individuals of those tribes dispersed over the sur-
face of the globe. We have received from North and South America,
and from New Holland, a Lichen which we cannot distinguish from the
Cenomyce rangiferina of our heaths and moors. Schweinitz, who has
collected and described, with much care, the Fungi of Upper Carolina, —
ee
Oe i te
Fe ee ee ee
ee) en 2 a? he
(where, let it be observed, there is scarcely a phenogamous plant common
to Europe,) has remarked that a very large proportion of them are the
1
Sit' J. E. Smith’s\Enelish Flora. 161
same with those of France and Germany: and we may add, that’ the
mosses which we have received from the higher parts of North America,
and from Kamtschatscka, are’ almost) identical with those of Europe ;
whilst, with regard to the Jungermannie of the two countries now''men=
tioned, although we have had the opportunity of examining many species,
there is not one that has not been also detected in England and Scotland.
Britain, nevertheless, from the very circumstance of its being an island;
and having its vegetation circumscribed within certain limits, must be al<
lowed to possess much that is interesting in what concerns its botany’
and it yields to no country in the successful manner in which its veges
table productions have been investigated.
Sir James Smith, in his preface to the English Flora, has given a gene-
ral and admirably written view of the works which have been published
on the Botany of Britain ; but which, (since the book is in the hands of
every one at all concerned ‘in the subject,) as' we have not space to copy
‘entire, so we shall not injure, by any attempts to curtail. Our principal
object,-in this place, will be to show how much Sir James Smith has hims
self effected during a long period of years, and witha constitution which
has, we fear, suffered by close application to his favourite pursuit ; and
what further accession may be expected to be made to the Flora by some
of the most zealous promoters of British Botany, whom we have, at this
time, the pleasure of numbering among our acquaintance.
» It was at an early period of his botanical career, that Sir James Smith
became possessed of the invaluable Linnean Collection, which alone would
have afforded him advantages over every other naturalist, in whatever Sys-
tematic work he might have undertaken. . Happily this, great as it might
_be, was not the only qualification possessed by our author. To his ex
tensive botanical acquirements are added the high attainments of an ele-
gant scholar, and a talent at composition which has rendered his writings °
universally popular, and has been the means of throwing a charm over
his’ botanical writings, scarcely known to the science before. - We could
here, were it necessary, appeal to almost every page of the English Botany
in confirmation of our assertion ; to the Introductory Discourse which was
read at the opening of the: Linnean Society, and which was printed in
_ the first volume of the Transactions of that body ; to the lives of the va-
rious botanists in Rees’ Cyclopedia, and the several botanical articles in
that’ work from the same pen ; and lastly, not to mention others, the pre-
face to the Introduction to the Study of Botany, and that of the work hbe-
fore us; every where displaying the science in its most amiable point of
_ view ; recommending it for the pleasure and delight it affords, whether in
the field or in the closet ; but above all, as a meaus “ of enlarging the un-
derstanding by a perpetual display of the power and wisdom of God, and
encouraging our best hopes by sure testimonies of his goodness :” whilst,
on the other hand, he tells us, that ‘‘ none but the most foolish or deprav-
ed could derive any thing from the pursuit but what is beautiful, or pol-
lute its lovely scenery with unamiable or unhallowed imagery.”
Possessing these qualifications then, and these feelings, the publication
VOL. III, No. 1. JuLY 1825. z:
162 = Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
of the English Botany could, to no person, with so much propriety, have
been confided asto Sir James Smith. It wascommenced by him in 1790,
with the figures, as is well known, ‘drawn and engraved by Sowerby ; and
the work extended to thirty-six volumes, with 2592 excellent plates.
This publication may safely be pronounced unique of its kind, and rarely
will there be found such an union of talents, both of writer and of artist,
as have combined to form this book. In other countries, something of —
the kind has been attempted, in France, we believe in America and in Ger-
many ; but all have failed, and the inferiority, both of the designs and de-
scriptions, is most striking.
It may easily be conceived, that such a work as English Botany must
have tended very materially to encourage the progress of this science, not
only by the valuable information which, for the space of twenty-three
years, it periodically imparted, the book being published in monthly num-
bers; but also, because it necessarily proved a sure receptacle for every
new botanical discovery that was made during its progress. The experi-
enced naturalist made his communications and his remarks, for which full
credit .was given him; while the more humble botanist, and the young
aspirant after fame, had his acquisitions, and his name, recorded in a man=
-ner that could not fail to urge him to renewed ardour in his pursuits.
We, ourselves, will not forget, while memory shall last, the sensations
excited by the first appearance of our name in print, when the Buzbaum-
ia aphylla was announced as having been detected in Britain, “ by a
young naturalist of great promise.” It gave a fresh stimulus to our exe
ertions, and, aided by other circumstances occasioned by that discovery,
induced that bias in our pursuits, which has now made botany the study
and the pleasure of our life.
There is scarcely a botanist of eminence of that period who did not com=
municate something to this valuable work. We may here enumerate,
amongst the most important contributors to the English Botany, the
-names of Sir Thomas Cullum, Mr Crowe, Mr Dawson Turner, Mr Borrer,
~Mr Dillwyn, Mr E. Forster, Mr G. Anderson, the Reverend G. R.
Leathes, Mr Griffith, Mr Templeton, Mrs Griffiths, and Miss Hutchins ;
—and, during the leng period of its publication, it was frequently the
painful task of the author to record, in his own feeling language, the loss
of some or other of his friends. The conclusion of the work, with the
36th volume, in 1814, when it included all the then known British plants,
with the exception of the Fungi,* left a void which every cultivator of in-
digenous botany must have felt throughout the kingdom ; but which, we
hope, will not long exist. Mr J. D. Sowerby, the son of the late Mr
Sowerby, who possesses the same excellent talents with his father as an
artist, has many subjects ready for a continuation of the work, and he has
written to us for some of the recently discovered Scottish plants.
It was not enough, however, that the Flora of our country should .be
“ Of these Mr Sowerby commenced a work, with most excellent figures, in small
folio, It extended only to three volumes. ebAS
Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora. 163
given in an English dress by the hands of such a master. Sir James
Smith undertook an arrangement of our native plants in Latin ; and there
‘is, we are sure, but one opinion of the excellency of the Flora Britannica,
which has been republished, verbatim, in Germany, and which, besides
the correct and extended descriptions made upon the plants themselves,
has the merit of settling a great deal of synonymy which was previously in
‘a state of utter confusion. This is a talent, requiring great patience as
wellas judgment, that Sir James Smith possesses in a very high degree.
Many authors, indeed, have benefitted their writings by his amend-
ments, although few have acknowledged the obligation which they owe to
‘him.
A systematic work, similar in its general plan to that of the Flora Bri-
fannica, was now required in the English language; and the eagerness
with which the various editions of Withering were bought up, notwith-
‘standing that none of them attempted to keep pace with the advanced
state of science, was a convincing proof how gratefully would an English
Flora be received from the pen of so eminent a writer. Want of neces-
‘sary leisure had, hitherto, we know, retarded its appearance: but, by this
delay, the public has been no sufferer ; for every useful improvement in
the science, down to the present period, has been adopted and combined
with the author’s own knowledge, and long experience on the subject, and
hence have arisen the two volumes under the title of the English Flora.
These extend as far as to the end of the class Icosandria. The artifi«
‘cial system of Linneus is adopted, the first object of the book being to
furnish the students with means for the easy and accurate determination
~of our species of native plants, “ so that any botanist, by reducing a plant
to its class and order, according to the perspicuous and easy rules of that
system, may next compare it with the, short essential characters of the
‘genera at the head of'each class, which genera are there artificially dispos-
ed according to those characters. Having determined the genus, he will
‘then find it, amongst its allies, in the body of the work, where its full
characters, with all needful observations, and references to figures of the
fructification, are given ; the natural order, according to Linneus, Jussieu,
‘or others, being indicated. For a history of the natural order, and a view
‘of the other genera belonging to it, the student may then turn to the
‘Grammar. Having become acquainted with what relates to the genus of
his plant, he will next compare his specimen with all the specific charac-
‘ters under that genus, till he ascertains its species, and confirms his deter-
‘Mtination of its name by reading the particular description, and consulting
‘as many of the synonyms, or authors quoted, as he may have within his
reach ; thus finally becoming acquainted with all that is recorded concern-
ing the plant he has gathered.” The author has likewise headed each
genus by the name of the natural order to which it belongs, and to each
genus he has annexed a compendious view of its natural habit, characters,
and qualities. The language of the present work is that which is recom~
mended in the same writer’s Introduction to, and his Grammar of, Bota~
ny ; and certainly, with a few very trifling exceptions, it is such as we shall
164 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
be anxious to adopt. Free from all vulgarism, he has used pure English
words whenever they were applicable ; and in other cases has, either by
giving the Latin appellation an English termination, or by adopting the
Latin itself, established a phraseology which is, perhaps, as classical as
Botanical English can be rendered.
We shall offer a few observations on the genera and species in the work.
Zostera is still retained in the class Monandria, as is Chara, which to
us would appear with more propriety to rank among the Cryptogamia,
The Salicornia fruticosa is considered by Smith as probably a variety of
S. radicans. We may observe that our specimen of S. fruticosa, given to
us by Professor De Candolle, and gathered on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, is quite different from the British plant so called ; and, as Linneus
quotes Sauv. Monspel., it is probable that he had the Mediterranean in-
dividual in view when he established the S. frudicosa.
Callitriche autumnalis of Linneus, which, in FI. Brit. and Engl. Bot.,
was considered but as a variety of C. aquatica, is now separated from it, and
its former old name is restored. Weare of opinion that the difference mere-
ly arises from locality. The specimens from which Sir James Smith ap-
pears to have drawn up his description grew a foot deep under water.
We have a new station for the exceedingly rare Veronica fruticulosa,
given at p. 18, Vol. I. ; it having been found upon Ben Lawers by Mr R.
Brown, whose accuracy, as the author observes, is beyond all doubt or
** supposition.” We feel quite provoked with ourselves, that after having,
as we had believed, scoured almost every rock upon Ben Lawers, and some-
times at the risk of a broken neck, we should not haye met with this plant ;
but we know from experience how very local are many of these alpine spe=
cies. We have gathered V. savatilis in plenty on Ben Lawers.
Sir James Smith observes of the V. serpyllifolia & humifusa, that it is
scarcely even a lasting variety. In the Botanic Garden of Glasgow, it has
been cultivated for seven or eight years, and it retains all its characters.
Nor do we, upon its native mountains, find any intermediate state of it, to
exist.
The genus Cladium is adopted for Schenus Mariscus.
Schenus albus and S, fuscus are referred to Rhynchospora, a genus of
which we have several species from North America. Isolepis of Brown
is united with Scirpus, as it differs only in the want of bristles around the
germen. Eleocharis is kept distinct.
A new species of Eriophorum is added to the British list, viz. E. pubes-
cens, the E. angustifolium of Poiteau and Turpin, Fl. Par., but not of
other authors. It belongs to the division of the genus with many spikes;
and it must be confessed that the species are very difficult to be discrimi-
nated from each other.
Under the head of Graminee are some excellent observations upon that
extensive and natural family. We shall quote one passage in illustration
of our author's style. ‘‘ Grasses (he observes) yield more sustenance to man
and to the larger animals, than all the rest of the vegetable kingdom to-
gether. Their herbage, so perpetually springing, and so tenacious of life,
11
ee ae
Sir JE, Smith's English Flora. 165
accommodated, in one instance or other, to almost every climate, soil, and
situation, affords to nature her most welcome clothing, and to the cultiva~
tor of the soil his chief riches. Nothing poisonous or injurious is found
among them, if we except the intoxicating quality attributed to the seeds of
Lolium ; but many are gratefully aromatic. Their farinaceous albumen sup=
plies man with the staff of life, in Wheat, Rye, Barley, Rice, and Maize,*
and makes a great part of the food ef many birds and small quadrupeds.
As man cannot live on tasteless unmixed flour alone, so neither can cate
tle, in general, be supported by mere grass, without the addition of various
plants, in themselves too acid, bitter, salt, or narcotic, to be eaten unmixed.
Spices, and a portion of animal food, supply us with the requisite stimulus
or additional nutriment ; as the Ranunculus tribe, and many others, sea-
son the pasturage and fodder of cattle.”
Several of the recently formed genera are adopted among the grasses.
An important division is also made of the genus Poa, by separating P.
aquatica, distans, maritima, procumbens, and rigida, and uniting them
with the Glyceria fluitans (the old Festuca or Poa of that name.) They
agree in the linear oblong spikelets, and the shape of the corolla, which is
cylindrical, not compressed, furrowed, ribbed, and not keeled. Mr Brown
founded his character of Glyceria principally upon the compound stigmata,
and the single fleshy, half-scutellate hypogynous scale. These marks do
not hold good with all the present Glyceriea. The Poa procumbens had been
removed to Sclerochloa by P. de Beauvois, and P. rigida to Megastachya,
__ by the same author.
Poa decumbens is made a Triodia, Br. ; Dactylis stricta is referred to
Spartina ; Avena planiculmis of Engl. Bot., is, we think, correctly deter-
mined to be different from the original A. planiculmis of Schrader, and
the name of alpina, which Smith had previously assigned to it in the
Linn. Trans. y. 10., is inserted.
. Under the genus Galium, G. Witheringii is preserved ;—G. diffusum of
Don, in Hooker’s Fl. Scot., is ascertained to be the G. cinereum of Allioni.
G. aristatum of Linn., Sp. Pl., is added, a species new to Britain, detected
in Scotland by the late Mr G. Don. "
Another Pofamogeton is introduced, the P. cuspidatum of Schrader.
Two new Myosotides are given ; M. cespitosa of Schultz, and M. intere
media of Link. Seven species of this genus are now enumerated.
Under Primula Scotica, Smith quotes, but with a mark of doubt, the P.
stricta of Fl. Dan. t. 1385. We are well acquainted with this species, hay=
ing received it from Professor Hornemann, and we can answer for its be-
ing ‘Zofally distinct. With regard to the specific names, which are derived
from particular countries, we must confess that we do not see the objection
to these which our excellent friend has expressed. It may be thought,
perhaps, that we are anxious to exonerate ourselves from blame for having
applied the name in question ; but really we have always considered that
appellations, taken from particular countries, had much to recommend
“To which we are authorized in adding Oats.
166 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
them, if they were not too hastily and indiscriminately appropriated. It:
is true, they are gencrally given from a presumption that the plant so de=
nominated belongs exclusively to that country ; to which the objection is,
that it may afterwards prove to be a native of others. Even when this is
the case, there is still an important fact recorded, namely, that it was first
discovered in the district from which it derives its name, or that there its
characteristic marks were originally detected.
A new Viola is given at p. 304, v. 1, V. flavicornis, found in Surry,
and about Norwich. It is said to be allied to V. canina, and to have been
neglected for it. ;
We have, under the genus Erythraa, a new species, E. latifolia ; dis-
covered by Mr Shepherd and Dr Bostock in sandy ground near the sea at
Liverpool. 7
Gentiana acaulis should have been omitted altogether. It has assured-
ly never been found wild in Britain.
If we were to point out one part in the present volumes, in which
the author has more successfully amended what has been done by former
writers than in another, we should fix upon what concerns the Umbellifere,
a family of plants the most natural, and, at the same time, the most diffi-
cult of investigation of any in nature. Much, indeed, had previously been
effected by Hoffman and Sprengel, particularly the latter, in laying the
foundation of a new arrangement. Our able friend has adopted all that
is worthy of being adopted, from the latter author especially, and he has,
in many instances, corrected and altered him for the better. We have al-
ready had occasion, with specimens in our hands, to make the comparison,
and we have no hesitation in giving the most decided preference to Smith’s
arrangement ; and in pronouncing it the most clear and simple that has
yet appeared: The bracteas are by him only considered as of secondary
importance, and he discards the term involucre, which, according to
Linneus, must properly be a part of the flower. The fruit, of course, af-
fords the most material points of distinction, but all the hard names which
Sprengel has applied to the ribs, furrows, and point of union of the double
fruit, (or naked seeds, ) are rejected as worse than useless. The base of the
style and the floral receptacle are taken into account, and thus the
genera of this great natural family are characterized, like other genera,
solely by their flowers and fruit, Nor are these changes made to rest only
upon examination of the British species, the author has held all the exotic
kinds in view, and carefully studied almost all that are known in other
countries.
We could have wished to have seen Ligusticum cornubiense kept distinct
from that genus. Wehave stated in the Flora Scotica, under the head of
L. scoticum, that the L. cornubiense of English Authors is the Danae aqui-
legifolia of De Candolle. We did so from an examination of a Piedmon-
tese specimen, given us by Professor Balbis of Turin. This individual
now lies before us, by the side of our Cornish plant ; and again we must
observe that we cannot detect the slightest mark of specific distinction be-
tween them. In both there are many barren flowers, sometimes entire
Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora. 167
partial umbels are so ; sometimes whole umbels, especially those low down
upon the stem. The young fruit is alike in both specimens. We have
had perfect fructification sent to us by our friend, the Rev. Mr Bree, which
was produced at his garden at Allesley, near Coventry, from Cornish
plants. These were consigned to our garden, without making any notes
upon their precise form and structure ; but we were struck with their re-
markably inflated appearance, and the scarcely prominent ribs, as being so
different from the fruit of the acknowledged Ligustica. The re-examina-
tion of our specimen has, if possible, more strongly confirmed their identi-
ty in our estimation-
Anethum Feniculum, though not much allied in habit, we find united
to Meum; nor do Bupleurum and Hydrocotyle rank naturally between
Cnidium au Selinum.
We are pleased to observe that Sir James Smith is doubtfal of the per-
manent distinction between Drosera anglica and longifolia: for we have
expressed the same opinion in a late number of the Flora Londinensis.
The Junci are described with great care ; and some valuable corrections
made in the species.
Luzula of De Candolle is kept distinct from Juncus, and altered to
Lueiola, for reasons which we will state in Smith’s own words. ‘“‘ The
establishment of this genus, so different in habit from Juncus, and now
so well determined by the character of its capsule, and the number, as well
as insertion of its seeds, can hardly be controverted. _I only beg leave to
make an indispensable correction in the orthography of the name. The
hairy heads of flowers, wet with dew, and sparkling by moon-light, gave
the elegant Italians an idea of their uccioli, or glow-worms ; sometimes
written Juzziole, but this is a provincial corruption. Hence, however,
John Bauhin got the name of Gramen luzula, or glow-worm-grass, for he
never called it Zuzula, which would have been the same as actually call=
ing it a glow-worm from a similar derivation (uces, to shine) a Latin
name, Luciola, has been given to the Adder’s-tongue, Ophioglossum ; whe=
ther from the shining hue of that plant, or rather perhaps from its re-
semblance in form to a lamp with its wick, is of no consequence. The
name so applied by Gesner and Dodoneus, extant in Ambrosinus and
even in Ainsworth, is now superfluous for the Ophioglossum, and is, in fact,
the Latin of Luzula, this latter being altogether corrupt,—neither Latin
nor good Italian.”
Luciola congesta; the L. campestris 8, with compact heads, is kept dis-
tinct: but we fear without sufficient grounds,
The Genus Oxyria is adopted, and some excellent remarks upon it are
introduced.
Calluna is separated from Erica.
Elatine Hydropiper is considered not to be the true Hydropiper of
Linneus, and is called EL. tripetala.
The Genus Savifraga has undergone a very considerable revision,
Fourteen species were enumerated in the Flora Britannica ; twenty in
the English Botany ; and here we find twenty-five. We are really sorry
168 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
to see the number of species so much increased ; for we feel, assured,
that, unless new species are made upon very Sothaten tak, grounds, the.
difficulty attending their study is made greater to the young Botanist.
We know from our own experience among the native mountains of
many of them, that they are exceedingly liable to vary. Our old friend
S. hypnoides, which we used to know well, and to find on almost every
hill in England, Ireland, and Scotland, is now hardly to be recognized
in any station. If we show a specimen to one friend, it is named
S. hirta, (which, except in the presence of its lateral shoots, borders very
closely upon S. cespitosa), to another it appears to be S. affinis, toa third
S. platypetala, to a fourth S. denudata, to a fifth S. elongella, to a sixth
S. leptophylia, to a seventh S. lete-virens. Indeed, the learned author
himself, in his concluding observations upon the genus says, ‘‘ I have
thus endeavoured * to furnish the British Botanist with materials, at least,
towards the History of this most difficult genus, correcting my own mis-
takes, but not presuming to reject, or to decide upon any thing I have not
examined. It cannot but be remarked that many of the specific characters
are two indefinite and not discriminative, the cause of which is that we
are not, as yet, well acquainted with what constitutes a species in Sazifra-
ga, nor how to define their differences.” In this latter opinion we most
cordially agree ; but then we differ as to what our mode of acting should
be on this confession. If the character of one presumed new species beso
slight as not to be capable of clear definition or discrimination, it is surely
better to include it under that already established species to which it bears
the closest affinity, and to notice it among its varieties. These, however,
are mere matters of opinion, and we have perhaps dwelt too much upon
them.” Haworth and Don have laboured greatly among the Saxifrages,
and the latter has well described many new and excellent Exotic species.
Sincerely do we wish that Count Sternberg might be induced to continue
* In our Flora Scotica, note, at p. 13. P. 1, a passage runs thus: ‘‘ Since the a-
‘bove remarks were written upon this most intricate family of the Saxifrages, it
was, with much satisfaction that I saw, in the article on Saxifraga in Rees’ Cyclopz-
dia, that Sir James Smith has, with that degree of candour which so often accom-
panies his writings,” &c. With much concern we learn that the words here printed
in italics were understood to imply that Sir James Smith was mot always candid in
his writings, an assertion which it was so far from being our intention to make,
that we really meant to pay a high compliment to our valued friend. We are, how-
ever, quite sensible of our mistake, and of the construction which may be put up-
on it, and can only say in our defence that the passage in question was, like too many
other parts of the Flora Scotica, written hastily, and overlooked in our own correction
of the press. If the erroneous idea is removed from the minds of our readers, no
harm will have ensued from this unintentional mistake. On our parts it has led to
a long-continued correspondence with Sir James Smith, which has but increased the
regard that we have always felt for him, which we believe to be mutual, and has
given us unquestionable proof that his public character is only equalled by his pri-
vate virtues.
Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora. 169
his admirable figures of Savifragew, which would tend, more than any
thing, to a right knowlege of the species, in so truly difficult a genus.
Cucubalus baccifer is omitted, as not of really British origin.
Arenaria peploides :—this is observed to be the Houkenya of Ehrhart.
The habit surely separates it from the other Arenariw, and we have lately
heard that some intelligent botanist at Edinburgh has ascertained that
this plant is constantly diceious.
Euphorbia is, with great propriety, removed to the Class Monoecia.
Rosa and Rubus are entirely remodelled: the former is made to in-
clude 22 species: the latter 14. Upon these intricate genera, we dare not
presume even to offer a remark. We are quite in despair upon the sub-
ject, and in a study “‘ of so much conjecture and uncertainty,” as Sir
James Smith justly terms it, it may be well supposed, that the opinions
will be as various as are the Botanists who devote their attention to the
subject.
Potentilla aurea, Fngl. Bot. is ascertained not to be the plant of Lin«
neus, but the a/pestris of Haller, jun. and Seringe: and Fragaria sterilis
is removed to Poteniilla.
We are glad to find, that the author confirms an opinion which we have
“sometime ago expressed, that Dryas integrifolia of Fl. Dan. may be only
a variety of D. octopetala.
We must now take leave of our learned author for the present. He
has still an arduous task before him, in the continuing of the work, and
we know that he labours at it incessantly, and with so earnest a desire for
correctness of execution, that he sometimes employs a whole day in de«
scribing and collecting the synonymy of a single species. We haye many ’
active botanists in the kingdom, who are smoothing the way for his intro-
duction of the Cryptogamia, with every improvement of the continental
‘botanists. In England Mr Purton, well versed in the Fungi, is zealously
collecting materials for a new edition of his interesting Midland Flora. *
Mr Hobson has published two volumes of specimens of mosses, found in
the neighbourhood of Manchester. Mr Baxter, chief gardener at the Ox-
ford Botanic Garden, is editing Fasciculi of the species of Cryptogamous
plants, gathered in the vicinity of that classical city. We have elsewhere,
in this Journal, spoken of the labours of Dr Greville, Mr Arnott, Captain
Carmichael, and Mr Drummond in Scotland. All and each of these able
botanists will have the honour of contributing largely to the completion
of the labours of the learned President of the Linnean Society, and which
will, we are confident, when the materials are properly digested by the
able author, combine to form a work, which, of its kind, will not find its
equal in any age or country.
- ™ Midland Flora, or a Botanical Description of the British Plants in the Midland
Counties, Sc. by T. Purton, Surgeon, Alcester ; in 2 vols. 12mo, to which have
heen added two yolumes of supplement. The Fungi here hold a very conspicuous
place.
170 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
Il. On the Effects of the Density of Air on the Rates of Chronometers.
By Georcr Harvey, Esq. F. R. S. E., &c. From the Philosophical
Transactions for 1824, Part IT.
In the first number of this Journal, we gave a brief notice of Mr Har-
vey’s investigation of the remarkable alterations of rate produced in Chro-
nometers, by changes in the density of the medium in which they are
placed, and we purpose now offering to our readers an analysis of the en-
tire memoir. -
The subject was undertaken by Mr Harvey, in the four following points
of view :—
First, By subjecting different Chronometers to a less pressure than that
afforded by the ordinary state of the atmosphere at the level of the ocean.
Secondly, By submitting them toa greater pressure than that afforded
by the atmosphere under the same conditions.
Thirdly, By removing Chronometers from condensed into rarified air,
and vice versa.
And Fourthly, To determine how far the rates of Chronometers are af-
fected by the ordinary aberrations of atmospheric pressure at the level of
the sea.
To estimate the effects produced by the first of these conditions, the
Chronometers were placed beneath the capacious receiver of a large double-
barrelled air-pump, the pressure being indicated by an excellent mercurial
guage ; and for the second, the time-keepers were introduced into a con-
densing engine, furnished with an appropriate guage. To prevent any ir-
regular effects from the unequal action of terrestrial magnetism, the posi-
tion of each Chronometer, with respect to the meridian, was preserved
constant during the whole course of experiments.
The first Chronometer, selected by Mr Harvey, was an eight-day one of
the box kind. Its rate for ten days previous to the experiments was
steady and uniform, amounting to — 3.”1, the mean pressure of the at-
mosphere being 30.1 inches; but when placed beneath the receiver ot’ the
air-pump, under a constant pressure of 20 inches of the mercurial column,
the mean of four days’ observation gave an equally steady rate of — 1.’3.
the Chronometer having gained 1.”8, by diminishing the density of the
air in the ratio of 3 to 2. A proportional effect was produced under a
twenty inch pressure, and an alteration of + 9.”7 was effected, by: dimi-
nishing the density in the ratio of 30 to 1.
The next experiment was with three pocket Chronometers, and the in-
crements to the rates, by diminishing the density in the ratio of 60 to I,
were respectively + 18.”8, + 18.”3, and + 19.”9.
In another set of experiments, the density of the air was uniformly di-
minished by decrements represented by two inches of quicksilver, and
which was accompanied by changes in the rates of two Chronometers, (ab-
stracting the occasional aberrations displayed by most time-keepers,) in-
creasing proportionally as the density of the air was diminished. From
Mr Harvey on the Rates of Chronometers. 171
the nearly equal uniformity of temperature also, that prevailed during the
experiments, and from the positions of the Chronometers, with respect to
the magnetic meridian being constant, there can be no doubt, as Mr Har-
vey remarks, but the different alterations of rate are due to alterations of
pressure. As the results relating to the last mentioned Chronometers are
very interesting, we subjoin them.
EXPERIMENTS WITH TWO POCKET CHRONOMETERS.
ae ct! Pressure. or Dage. Mean Daily Rate. | Mean Daily Rate.
Detached
46° 29.1 Ins. 4 +. 3.5 + 4.”0
46° Q7 4 + 3.0 + 5.2
47° 25 4 apna + 6. 1
46° 23 4 ay + 7.2
45° 21 3 + 644 + 9.4
42° 19 4 os 7."6 +g
43° 17 3 oe Me “ 13.4
44° 15 4 Oe WH. 4 14.4
45° 13 4 + 13."4 15."
49° 11 4 14."5 +471
48° 9 4 + 16.0 + 18.”2
48° 7 3 + 19.0 + 20.''4
50° 5 4 + 18."6 + 22,"1
49° 3 4 + 19."9
_- One of the most interesting parts of this paper, however, is the inquiry
respecting the probable alteration of rate that would be produced in a Chro-
nometer, by transporting it to any place elevated considerably above the
level of the ocean, as from London to Geneva, or from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the lofty plains of La Mancha and the Castiles, or from
Vera Cruz, on the shores of the Pacific Ocean, to the Table Land of Mex-
ico, where the mean atmospheric pressure is denoted by 23 inches of the
barometer, or to the still loftier elevation of Quito, where the density of
the air is denoted by only 21 inches of the mercurial column. The fol-
lowing table contains a few of the very interesting results obtained by dif-
ferent Chronometers.
Increment to Increment to Decrement to
Time-Keeper A. | Time-Keeper H. | Time-Keeper F.
From London
to Geneva. 0."6 + 1.”8 —1."5
panien te +21 + 2.2 — 2.8
Increment to Increment to
Vera Cruz to | Time-Keeper K.|Time-Keeper L.
Mexico. + 1."9 + 5.”0
fy Increment to Increment to
Level of the | Time-Keeper C. | Time-Keeper H.
ocean to Quito. + 3.2 + 6."2
172 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
For the lofty summit of Chimborazo, four time-keepers gave alterations of
rate, represented respectively by + 6.1, + 7.’0,— 5.3, and 9.1 ; and for
the elevation attained by Gay Lussac in his magnificent aerostatic ascent,
when the barometer sunk to 12.95 inches, Mr Harvey found alterations of
rate denoted respectively by + 13.”2, and +19.”2.
In the second branch of the experiments, relating to the influence of
condensed air, Mr Harvey found the results to be precisely the reverse of
those produced in rarefied air ;—that is, if a Chronometer gained by being
placed in air of a less density than that afforded by the ordinary state of
the atmosphere, it Jost, by being subject to air of a greater. This was
verified by many experiments, with the same Chronometers as employed
under the receiver of the air pump. We select, by way of illustration, the
time-keeper, of which the results produced under the receiver of the air
pump, are contained in the fourth column of the first table of this abstract.
Mean Number of | Mean Daily
Pressure. Days. Rate.
——
30 in. + 1.’2
45 in. — 4.4
60 in. — 8.2
75 10. — 9."5
30 in. + 0.°6
And which, it will be perceived, are all decrements, whereas in the experi-
ments performed in the rarified air with the same Chronometer, they were
uniformly found to be increments. The almost perfect restoration of the
detached rate, after the great changes produced by so considerable an aug=
mentation of density as that corresponding to the mercurial column of 75
inches, is a very remarkable circumstance.
The third division of the paper also contains some valuable and import-
ant results, one of which we select. An opportunity was taken, observes
Mr Harvey, when two Chronometers had been under the diminished pres-
sure of 23 inches for five days, to remove them for a like period into the
condensing engine, containing air of a double density. The result of this
application was, that the rate of one of the time-keepers received a decre=
ment of 9-5, and the other a diminution of 10.4, Knowing, continues —
Mr Harvey, the merits of these Chronometers, I ventured to predict, that —
if the two Chronometers were removed from the condensed air into an at-
mosphere corresponding in density to 21 inches of quicksilver, the transi-
tion would produce rates greater than those corresponding to 23 inches.
The result verified the conjecture; the average rate of the first time-
keeper being found to be + 5.”0, and of the second +12.”0.
We must, however, hasten to the fourth and last division of Mr Har-
vey’s paper ;—relating to the question, How far the ordinary changes in —
the density of the air are likely to exercise an influence on the rate of a
time-keeper? This branch of the investigation is enriched by many deli-
cate experiments, relating to small changes in the atmospheric density, and
ee
Mr Harvey on the Rates of Chronometers. 173
we regret our limits will not permit us to insert the results. Mr Harvey,
however, found, that a difference in the density of the air, represented by
@ quantity less than an inch of quicksilver, if continued for a day, was ca=
pable of affecting all the Chronometers employed ; and this is an atmos=
pheric change by no means uncommon in this variable climate. Nor is it
indeed necessary, continues the author, that the alterations of density.
should even continue for twenty-four hours, since, from the change of
rate being instantaneous, as he afterwards proves, six hours will be suffi-
cient, in some instances, to disclose it. In cases, however, where the vau
riations of the mercurial column are but small, and its transition from one
state to another marked by a gradual character, the effect on the generality
of Chronometers is scarcely if at all perceptible.
With a difference in the mercurial column of an inch and three-quarters,
or two inches, Mr Harvey has little doubt but all time-keepers must be
influenced ; and it is moreover known, he remarks, that from a species of
_ reaction in the atmospherical columns, the greatest depression of the baro=
meter succeeds to a considerable elevation of it, and vice versa, so as to ex=
hibit a difference of this kind. Mr Harvey, accordingly, endeavoured to
obtdin the rates of some good Chronometers during the remarkable depres-
sion of the berometer in December 1821, but without success; and he
farther observes, that there can be little doubt but, had the rates of some
good Chronometers been carefully attended to, during this singular altera~
tion of atmospheric density, variations of rate, at least equivalent to that
produced by transporting a time-keeper from London to Geneva, would
have been found.
_ Another curious part of the paper is, the consideration of the question,
Whether the alterations of rate observed by Mr Harvey during his experi-
ments, were immediately acquired, the moment the change of pressure
took place, or whether it was an effect which the air gradually produced
on the machine.
_ To determine this, a pocket and box Chronometer, possessing detached
rates of + 9.”0, and + 1.”9 were placed under the receiver of the air
pump, in air denoted in density by 2 inches of the mercurial column ; and
which great degree of exhaustion was employed in order that, by produc-
ing considerable alterations of rate, the changes during very small intervals
of time might be perceptible.
At the expiration of an hour, the increment produced in the rate of the
pocket Chronometer, by a mean of three observations, was found to be
+ 1.”33; whereas the detached rate, in the same time, would have
amounted only to + 0.”37, being a clear increase of 0.96 in consequence
of the diminished pressure. At the end of thesecond hour, the mean rate
- was found to be + 1.28, at the third 1.”35, at the fourth 1.”30 ; and the
observations were continued through the entire twenty-four hours, the
mean of the horary observations from noon to midnight being + 1.12,
and the latter + 1.”10. The entire rate for the twenty-four hours
amounted to + 26.6, being an increase on its detached rate of 17."6. By
a series of similar experiments with the box Chronometer, the mean of the
horary rates for the first twelve hours was + 0.92, and of the last
174 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
_+0.’72 ; the entire rate for the whole period esta + mats or an incre«
ment to its detached rate of 18.5.
‘The succeeding day, the two Chronometers were restored m the full
pressure of the atiesp betes and.the first hour after their restoration, an
attempt was made to discover the same increments as existed under the
receiver, but without effect ; the rate for the entire twenty-four hours of
the pocket Chronometer being + 10.’08, and of the other +'1."0. Hence,
‘Mr Harvey infers, that the change produced in the rate of a Chronometer
by diminishing the density of the air, is immediate and uniform in its ef=
fects ; and so also is the effect produced by increasing it.
We confess we thought, when considering the remarkable differences of
density to which the chronometers were subjected during these experi-
ments, that considerable derangements must result to their ordinary rates ;
‘but we were happy to observe that Mr Harvey has furnished many exam-
ples, illustrative of the power which most time-keepers possess, of regain=
ing their original rates, or very nearly so, after they have been subjected
to pressures, both considerably above and below the mean density of the
air. Mr Harvey furnishes one most remarkable example of a chronome=
ter, which possessed the power of immediately altering its rate with every
new circumstance in which it was placed, and also of, regaining its origi- —
nal rate, after being again restored to its primitive condition. During the
course of observations, and which embraced a period of four months, this
time-keeper was subjected to pressures from 60 inches to 3 inches, and the
power it possessed of regaining its original rate, may be observed in the
next table.
Detached + 7.9 | Detached + 7%."8 | Detached + 8."0
28.6 Inches + 9.7] 60Inches — 6. 6]| 5 Inches + 26. 6
Detached + 8.0] Detached + 8. 7 | Detached + 7.5
21 Inches + 14. 2] 3 Inches + 28. 0 | 5 Inches + 26.9
Detached + 7. 9] Detached + 7%. 2] Detached + 7.9
15 Inches + 17. 0 | 34 Inches + 5.3 | 40 Inches =, 37 0
Detached + 8.21 Detached + 7. 0} Detached ae We |
12 Inches + 19. 0 | 38 Inches eas ’
During the investigation, Mr Harvey attended to the changes of tempes
rature, always accompanying sudden alterations in the density of the air ;
and, following the opinion of Mr Dalton, that it is the effect of a degree
of heat amounting probably to 40 or 50 degrees, yet only allowed to exer-
cise its influence for a few seconds, in consequence of the immediate effort
made by the receiver and the surrounding objects, to restore the primitive
temperature, the effect on a delicate thermometer is only that of two or
three degrees. | Hence Mr Harvey introduced a very susceptible time-~
keeper, into an atmosphere 50° warmer than the ordinary state of the air
for ten seconds, but found no alteration of rate to result from it.
In accounting for these curious and singular alterations of rate, Mr
Harvey availed himself of the admirable paper of Mr Atwood, contained
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794, and by an extension of that
very learned philosopher’s formula for representing the daily aberration of a
1
Proceedings of Societies. 175
chronometer, he has been enabled to account for the whole series of changes
in the clearest and most satisfactory way. The formula in question is
1—n
wi (ty) 2
a 77
where a denotes the primitive arc of vibration, a’ the arc resulting from
the action of a disturbing force, and m the exponent, denoting the ratio
between the elastic force of the spring, and the angular distanees from the
point of quiescence.
By considering the way in which the value of this formula must be mo-=
dified, by assigning different values to the elements a’ and x, according
as we conceive the elastic force of the spring to vary directly with the an-
gular distances from the point of quiescence, or in a less or agreuter ratio,
_ he has been enabled to explain why some chronometers gained by dimi-
nished pressure, and lost by increased, whilst others possessed properties
precisely the reverse. This paper occupies above forty pages of the trans~
actions.
Art. XXXIII.—PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
March 21, 1824.—A Paper, entitled Observations on the Motions of the
Eye-ball, by Mr Charles Bell, was read.
There was also read, Farther Observations on the Vision of Impressions
on the Retina.
April 4.—The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members :
The Right Honourable Lord Belhaven.
Dr Reid Clanny, Physician, Sunderland.
Sir James Hatt read a Paper ‘‘ On the Consolidation of the Strata,”
of which we have given a full abstract in this Number, p. 1.
April 18.—A Paper on the Construction of Oil and Coal Gas Burners,
&c., by Dr Curistison and Dr Turner, was read.
May 2.—The above paper was concluded at this meeting.
At the same meeting was read the Description of an Instrument for
Registering the Indications of Meteorological Instruments, in the absence
of the Observer. By H. H. Brackapper, Esq.
' May 16.—Dr Knox read a paper, entitled Observations on the Mo~
tions of the Eye-ball. The object of this paper was to demonstrate, in
opposition to the opinion of Mr Charles Bell, that the eye had no up-
ward involuntary motion in a state of repose.
_ At this meeting Dr Turner exhibited to the Society the Experiment
of Condensing the Gases into Liquids by their own pressure.
There was laid before the Society a paper on the Refractive Power of
176 Scientific Intelligence.
the two new Fluids in Minerals, with Additional Observations on the Na-
ture and Properties of these Substances. By Dr Brewster,
There was also laid before the Society Astronomical Observations made
at Paramatta, and communicated by his. Excellency Sir Tuomas Bris-
BANE.
The Society adjourned its meetings till November.
Art. XXXIV.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
ASTRONOMY.
1. Pastorff on the Solar Spots and Clouds—In examining the sun’s disk
with a fine six feet achromatic telescope of Frauenhofer, with powers va-
rying from 25 to 400, M. Pastorff of Buchholtz, near Frankfort on the
Qder, has observed several interesting phenomena relative to the spots on
its surface, their penumbre, and the phosphoric clouds. He’ observes
that the penumbre of the spots resemble a mass of the empty eggs of the
Bombix neustria, which surround the black spots concentrically and with
different breadths. These apparent eggs are contiguous, and; as-it were,
agglomerated the one to the other, with openings extremely small. M.
Pastorff considers it quite certain, that these spots with the penumbre are
on the surface of the solar globe, and that they disappear when the phos-
phoric clouds cover them, principally whem they are near the margin of
the sun, and, he thinks, that it is probably these phosphoric clouds which,
in the interval of some hours only, form this great variety of spots. On
the 1st December 1823; M. Brioschi of Naples observed a large spot,
equal to 1} our globe, surrounded with an irregular and branching eleva-
tion, into which there seemed to be precipitating great masses of fire: The
whole surface of the sun he saw like an ocean: on fire agitated by a storm.
M. Pastorff saw this same spot on the same day, when the phosphoric
clouds were in great motion, but though he has often, seen the agitation of
the phosphoric clouds much greater, he did not consider it as resembling
an ocean on fire. Almost always when the spots approach the margin of the
sun’s disk, they divide themselves into several. groupes, or they reunite if
they have been previously subdivided. Very near the margin, the spots
appear totally altered, and they almost always appear as if they were dis-
solved and changed into luminous clouds, though that dissolution is only
apparent ; for it is quite evident, that, in proportion as these spots ap-
proach the margin of the disk, the penumbra or the nebulosity which
encircles them, covers them more and more till they totally disappear.
There is then only seen the luminous nebulosity which is sometimes sur-
rounded with phosphoric clouds. The sun always appeared more bright
at its centré’than towards its edge.
2. Comet seen on the Sun’s Disk.—On the 26th June 1819, M. Pastorff
observed a nebulous spot and three black ones. The nebulous spot was
Astronomy. — 177
perfectly round and slightly luminous ; and he supposed that it was the
comet, which, according to the calculations of Dr Olbers, ought to pass over
the sun’s disk on the 26th June 1819, at 5" 47’ A. M. The roundness,
the nebulosity, and the luminous point in its centre, appeared to M. Pas-
torff so remarkable, that he made an accurate drawing of it. At 8" 26’
A. M., its diameter was 84”.5, and its distance from the S. E. margin 6’
10”. Onthe 27th June at 9" A.M. the round spot and one of the black
spots had disappeared.—See Zach’s Corr. Astron. vol. xi. p. 550.
3. Singular Appearances in the Comet of 1824.—In this Journal, Vol.
II. p. 172, we have already noticed the curious fact observed by M. Car-
lini, that the light of the comet increased while its distance was increasing.
This remarkable fact has acquired more importance from the analogous
observation of M. Pons. On the 18th December 1829, M. Pons observed
the comet distinctly. On the 19th, he could not discover a trace of it ;
but on the 25th he again saw it. M. Carlini considers, that the photometri-
cal phenomena of that comet are explicable, by supposing that its light
varies inversely as the cube of its distances from the sun and the earth-
4. Encke’s Hyperbolical Elements of the Comet of 1824.—We have al«
ready given (Vol. II. p. 172.) Encke’s first elements of the comet, but he
has since obtained more accurate ones from the combination of zen mean
places, from 27th July to 26th October 1824. ‘These are as follows:
Passage of Perihelion, 1824, Sept. 29th ~ 08813
i Mean Time at Seeberg, - tn
Long. of Perihelion, Equin, Sept 29th = 4°. 314. 94.3
Long. of Ascending Node, ditto - 279° 15 39”
Inclination of Orbit : - 54° 36’ 58”.6
Log. of Perihelion Distance - 0.0212469
Excentricity - . = 1,0017346
_ This hyperbola, M. Encke remarks, represents the observations much
better than any parabola or ellipsis.
5. Comet of 1824 discovered at Paramatta.—This comet, which has ex-
cited much interest in Europe, was discovered at Paramatta by Mr Rumker.
The observations of this able astronomer will appear in the Edinburgh
_ ‘Transactions, vol. x. part ii. The following are the elements, com-
puted from these observations by a Correspondent.
Time of Perihelion Passage )
Mean Time at Paramatta f Saptember 29th 7 25 10”
Long. of Perihelion : - - 4° 22’ 21
Perihelion Distance « - - 1.048739
Long. of Ascending Node - - 279° 19’ 13”
Inclination of Orbit - « 54, 22 22
6. Sir Thomas Brisbane's Catalogue of the Stars in the Southern Hemi«
VOL. Ill. No. 1. JULY 1825. M
178 Scientific Intelligence.
sphere-—Great progress has been made in this important catalogue. In
July next 12000 observations will be sent home by Sir Thomas Brisbane,
and 6000 more are nearly ready.—Letter from Sir Thomas Brisbane.
7. Mr Herschel and Mr South on Double Stars.—The valuable memoir
‘containing the observations of these two able astronomers on double stars
has just reached us, but too late to enable us to avail ourselves of it in this
Number. It forms the third part of the Phil. Trans. for 1824, and has
been deservedly honoured with the annual astronomical prize of the insti-
tute of France. Mr South has continued these observations at Passy, and
in the Transactions of 1825 we may expect his observations on at least
400 more double stars.
8. Miss Caroline Herschel’s Catalogue of Stars—We understand that
this lady, already highly distinguished in the history of astronomy, has oc-
cupied herself since her residence in Hanover, in revising and reducing in-
to a general catalogue, in zones, all the twenty feet sweeps of her illustri-
ous brother, the late Sir William Herschel. This is a work of immense
labour, and will be an extraordinary monument of the unextinguished
ardour of a lady of seventy-five in the cause of abstract science.
optics.
9. Lateral Refraction —The phenomena of lateral or azimuthal refrac-
tion have been occasionally observed by astronomers in their geodetical ob-
servations. M. Schubert, in August 1823, while measuring from Tok-
sova the angle between the spires of the church of St Peter and St Paul
in Petersburgh, and the signal of Agalotowa, rain began to fall at Agalo-
towa at 23" P. M. and advanced to Toksova, and during this interval, the
angle alluded to increased from 88° 1’ 11”0, to 88° 1’ 312.
10. Mr Dunlop’s Reflecting Speculum.—We learn from Sir Thomas Bris-
bane, that his assistant, our countryman Mr Dunlop, has succeeded in
polishing a speculum, which bears a power of 2000 times, and Sir Thomas
expects that many valuable results will be made with this instrument
on the Magellanic clouds, and on the nebule and clusters of stars.
MAGNETISM.
11. Effects of Temperature on the Magnetic Forces.—In a very able paper
on this subject, just published in the PAil. Trans. for 1824, Part II. Mr
Christie has given the following results :
1..From 3° of Fahrenheit, and even much lower, up to 127°, the inten-
sity of the magnets decreased, as the temperature increased.
2. With a certain increment of temperature the decrement of intensity
is not constant at all temperatures, but increases as the temperature in-
creases.
3. From a temperature of about 80°, the intensity decreases very ra-
pidly as the temperature increases, so that if, up to this temperature, the
Meteorology. 179
differences of the decrements are nearly constant, beyond that temperature
the differences of the decrements also increase.
4, Beyond the temperature of 100°, a portion of the power of the mag-
net is permanently destroyed.
5. On a change of temperature, the greatest portion of the effect on the
intensity of the magnet is produced instantaneously, which proves that the
magnetic power resides on or very near the surface.
6. The effects produced on unpolarised iron, by changes of tempera=
ture, are directly the reverse of those produced on a magnet, an increase
of temperature causing an increase in the magnetic power of the iron,
the limits between which Mr Christie observed, and they were 50° and
100°.
12. Diurnal Variation of the Terrestrial Magnetic Intensity.—The fol-
lowing interesting table, given by Mr Christie in the paper above men-
tioned, shows the diurnal variation of the magnetic intensity in May and
June, according to his own observations, and those of Hansteen’s :
Intensity according to Hansteen’s Intensity according to Mr Christie’s
Observations in 1820. Observations in 1823.
Hour. May. June. Hour. May. June.
8" Oa. mM. 1.00034 1.00010 7™ 30’ a.m. 1.00114 1.00061
10 30 1.00000 1.00000 10 30 1.00000 1.00000
4 Opv.m- ,1-00299 1.00241 4 30 1.00175 1.00223
7 0 ~~ 1.00294 1.00302 7 30 1.00220 1.00239
10 30 1.00191 1.00267 9 30 1.00231 1.00209
13- Influence of Copper on the Oscillations of Magnetic Needles.—We
have already mentioned in our third number Mr Arago’s discovery of the
influence of copper on magnetic needJes which it enclosed. When a ho-
rizontal needle, suspended in a ring of wood by a thread or fibre, was
moved 45° from its natural position, it performed 145 oscillations before
the amplitude of the arc of oscillation was reduced to 10°: When the
needle was suspended in a ring of copper, and was moved 45° from its natus
ral position, it only performed 33 oscillations before the amplitude of the arc
was reduced to 10°. In another ring of copper of less weight the needle
performed 66 oscillations before the amplitude was redueed to 10°
14. Effect of Copper in motion on a Magnetic Needle-—M. Arago has
more receutly discovered, that if a plate of copper revolves under a mags
-netised needle contained in a closed vessel, the needle will deviate from
the magnetic meridian, the deviation increasing with the velocity of the
copper. If the velocity of the copper is sufficiently great, the needle will
turn continually round the wire on which it is suspended.—Ann. de Chime
See this Number, p. 135.
METEOROLOGY.
1s. Daniell’s Improvement on the Barometer.—Mr Daniell has, found
that air insinuates itself into the vacuum of the best made barometers, in
180 Scientific Intelligence.
time, by creeping up between the mercury and the glass, and that it will
insinuate itself between any fluid and any solid, when it has not attraction
enough for the former to causeit to wet it. If any gas be confined ina glass
jar for a length of time over mercury, it will make its escape, and its place be
occupied by atmospheric air ; whereas the same gas, if confined by water,
will be preserved unmixed. Hence the best made barometers are often
studded with air bubbles. ‘The cure which Mr Daniell has provided for
these evils is to weld a narrow ring of platinum to the open end of the
tube, which is immersed in the cistern. Boiling mercury amalgamates it-
self with platinum, and adheres to it when cold, wetting it, but not dis-
solving it, so that, by this means, the passage of the air is cut off as effec-
tually as if the whole tube were wetted by it.—Shumacher’s Astron. Nach-
richten, No. 73, p. 15.
16. Hygrometric Properties of insoluble Compounds.—The following re-
sults were obtained by Mr T. Griffiths. The bodies, after being accurately
weighed, were exposed for a month to a moist atmosphere; and then
weighed. The increase is given in the following table, which we have ar-
ranged in the order of their absorptive powers :
Oxide of zinc, - 29.0 Sulphate of antimony, lime, 9
Foolscap paper, - - 18.0 Carbonate of lime, chalk, - 8
Charcoal from Wilmot, - 17.3 Oxide of bismuth, - 7
Cartridge paper, - 17.1 Tartrate of lead, - - 7
Sulphate of lime, - 16.2 Chloride of silver, =“ - 6
Charcoal tulip wood, - 15.4 Carbonate of lead, - 6
ash, e - 15.3 Oxide of iron, soda, - 5
Brown paper, é - 15.3 Chloride of lead, 2 : 5
Charcoal, Botany Bay wood, 15.2 Chromate of lead, - 5
lance wood, - 13.7 Phosphate of lead, - 6
cedar, - = 13.4 Carbonate of zinc, - 5
American pine, 12.6 Clay ironstone, - ie 5
— willow, - 12.1 Sulphate of lead, - 4
— birch, = 12.0 Sulphuret of antimony, black, 4
——_—— rose wood, « 12.0 mercury, cinnabar, 4
lime tree, - 11.8 Fluor spar, blue, = 4
India paper, - - 11.6 Sulphate of baryta, - 3
Charcoal, king wood, - 11.5 Zeolite, p z "3
Oxide of chrome, = 10.0 Oxide of lead, red, a 2
Charcoal, zebra wood, - 6.6 — mercury by nitric acid, 2
Serpentine, - - 5.2 Bisulphuret of iron, A 2
Filtering paper, - 5.0 Carbonate of baryta nat. - 2
Plumbago, - - 4.5 Aurum musivum, 4 2
Oxide of iron, calc spar, 3.1 Granite, = s 2
— manganese, black, 2.5 Silica, powdered quartz, = A |
Cornish clay, - - 2.4 Oxide of copper, black, - A |
Smalt, - - 2.1 ———-~ tin, putty, = 1
Submuriate of copper, - 1.8 Chromate of mercury, 2 e |
Oxide of lead, litharge, yeaa) 17) Sulphate of strontia, = l
Mica slate, - - 1.1 Carbonate of strontia, v= ial
Drawing slate, ° 1,0 f
Journ. Roy. Inst. yol. xix. p, 93.
Meteorology.—Chemistry. 181
17. Highest and Lowest Temperature on the Earth's Surface-—M. Gay
Lussac has stated,—1. That in no place on the earth’s surface, nor at any
season, will the thermometer, a few yards above the ground, and sheltered
from reflections, reach the 114°.8 of Fahrenheit. 2. That, on the open sea,
the temperature of the air will never attain the 87°.8 of Fahrenheit. 3.
That, the greatest cold in the air has been —58° of Fahrenheit. 4+ That,
the temperature of the ocean never rises above 86° of Fahrenheit.
18. Remarkable Auroral Arch on the 19th March.—A very beautiful
auroral arch was seen in Edinburgh on the 19th March, between 10 and
11 o'clock; p.m. Pollux and most of the large stars of the Great Bear
were included init. It extended both to the east and west horizon, and
passed as far to the south of Orion’s belt as the length of the belt itself.
The arch, which passed over that zenith, was widest there, (about the
breadth of Orion’s belt,) and became narrower as it approached the hori-
zon ; but about 20° above the western horizon, the arch bent towards the
north, and at the place of bending, the auroral light contracted, and was
more intense. The light was for a long time perfectly steady ; but when .
it began to break up, it exhibited the irregular motion of the aurora. The
usual aurora appeared at the same time in the north, but formed no connec-
tion with the arch now described. The barometer stood at 30.4 inches,
and the thermometer at 30° Fahrenheit.
© 19. Bosson’s Observations on Waterspouts.—'The particulars of this phe-
nomenon seem to have been carefully observed by M. Bosson. One of the
most remarkable effects which he noticed, was that in the direction taker
by the waterspout, the trees put out new blossoms, a circumstance which
he attributed to the privation of leaves, an elevation of temperature, and
the humidity of the atmosphere. The following conclusions are deduced
by M. Bosson : + tothe
_ 1. The action of the waterspout showed itself in a valley.
2. Its direction continued always the same, in spite of the hills and val-
lies over which it passed.
ve The elevation of the ground rendered its effects more remarkable.
. Whenever it met heights of a conical form it moved round them.
It crossed the river Le Vegre without following its course.
5. It developed heat to such a great degree, that some persons experi~
enced a sensation analogous to that of burning.
7. It displayed all the ordinary phenomena of a terrestrial waterspout,
by exhibiting 4 mass of vapours similar to a dense cloud of a conical form,
taking a dreadful noise, throwing out flashes of lightning, spreading an
odour like that of thunder, and scattering all round it a great quantity of
water.—Journal de Pharmacie, March 1825, p. 147.
II, CHEMISTRY.
20: Cold produced hy the Combination of Metals—According to M. Do-
bereiner, the fusible metal consists of one atom of lead, one of tin, aud two
of bismuth ; and it becomes fluid when exposed to a heat of 210.? If the
1
182 Scientific Intelligence.
fusible metal, formed of 118 grains of filings of tin, 207 grains of filings of
ledd, and 286 grains of pulverised bismuth, be incorporated in a dish of
calendeéred paper, with 1616 grains of mercury, the temperature will in=
stantly sink from 65° to 14.° M. Dobereiner thinks, that it might fall so low
as the freezing point of mercury, if the experiments were made at a tem-
perature a little under 32.°—Seé Schweigger’s Neue Journal, xii. p. 182.
21. Refrigerating Salt.—If we mix 57 parts of muriate of potash, with
32 of muriate of ammonia, and 10 of nitrate of potash, a refrigerating salt
will be produced. This salt, put into four parts of water, and quickly
agitated, will make the thermometer descend from 20° to 5° below zero,
in Reaumur’s thermometer.—Vauquelin, Journal de Pharmacie.
22. On the Pectic or Coagulating Acid.—This newacid has beendiscovered
by M. H. Braconnot, and receives its name from zexzic, coagulum, in con-
sequence of its resembling a jelly or gum. It is found in all vegetables. It is
sensibly acid. It reddens turnsole paper. It is scarcely soluble in cold watér,
but more so in hot water. It is coagulated into a transparent and colourless
‘jelly by alcohol, by all the metallic solutions, by lime-water, water of
barytes, the acids, muriate and sulphate of soda, and nitre, &c. It
forms, with potash, a very soluble salt, consisting of 85 parts of lead, and
15 of potash. This salt has the remarkable effect of communicating to
large masses of sugar and water the property of gelatinising, which ren-
ders it of great use to the confectioner. M. Braconnot, in this way, prepar-
ed aromatised jellies, perfectly transparent and colourless, and very agreeable
tothe taste and the eye. He alsomade, with rose-water, coloured with a little
cochineal, rose-jelly of exquisite taste.—Ann. de Chim. tom. xxviil. p. 173.
23. Iodine in Mineral Waters.—Iodine was first discovered in mineral
waters by M. Angelini, who found it in the salt water of Voghera, and in
the water of Sales in the Voguerais. M. Cantu, Professor of Chemistry
at Turin, surprised at the wonderful effects of the sulphurous water of
Castel Nova d'Asti, in the treatment of goitres, and other glandular mala-
dies, examined it chemically, and found it more rich in iodine than any
other.—Mem. de Torino, tom. xxix. p. 221.
III. NATURAL HISTORY.
MINERALOGY.
24. Apatite in Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh.—Apatite has been latély
found in Salisbury Crags. It occurs in the greenstone near the southern ex-
tremity, in amixture consisting chiefly of white calcareous spar, red albite,
and a blackish-green soft suhstance, nearly allied to serpentine. Particularly
in the latter, the plain asparagus-green crystals of apatite are very distinct,
and possess a high degree of lustre. Their form is that of a regular six-
:
.
‘
e
i
3
2
Q
sided prism, terminated by a plane perpendicular to the axis, and having ~
frequently also the lateral edges replaced by another six-sided prism. The
length of these prisms is rarely so much as two lines, but theif thickness
Il
Mineralogy.— Botany. 183
is. very inconsiderable. They allow, however, of being measured by the
reflective goniometer, and as they are perfectly transparent, their refraction
appears to be the same as that of apatite, nearly 1.64. Besides these, the
rock contains also octahedral crystals of magnetic iron-ore, and the com~
bination of the hexahedron and octahedron of hexahedral iron-pyrites.
' 25, Withamite.—This new and interesting mineral, which we described
in our last number, is found in Glenco, on the property of Robert Downie,
Esq. of Appin, M. P. Mr Sommerville, lapidary in Edinburgh, has recent
ly discovered some specimens of it of an olive-green colour, and others in
which it occurs in botryoidal groupes. Mr Sommerville has now obtained
several fine specimens of the mineral, which, we believe, he means to dis-
pose of.
26. School of Mines in Cornwall.—A very excellent plan of a school of
mines in Cornwall has been drawn up and printed by Mr John Taylor. The
object of that plan is to have the mines properly wrought by intelligent and
well-instructed miners, and with this view it is proposed to establish at
Redruth three professors to teach the arts and sciences connected with
mining. It is proposed also to collect the necessary funds by a small as=
sessment of a penny per ton on the metals raised from the different mines,
and from other sources. We anxiously hope that this admirable plan will
meet with the support which it so well merits.
BOTANY.
27. Codium tomentosum, and Targionia hypophylla—Two interesting
additions have been recently made to the Cryptogamic Flora of Scotland ;
one in the discovery of the curious Codium tomentosum, on the shores of
the island of Iona, by M. J. Berkeley, Esq. of Christ College, Cambridge ;
the other in the finding a new station for the rare Targionia hypophylla,
which had never been met with since the days of Lighttoot, who detected
_ it near Tarbet in Cantyre. It isnow found upon the turf-coping of walls in
the island of Lismore, Argyleshire, by Captain Carmichael.
_. 28. Trichomanes elegans.—We find by an article in “‘ Taylor’s Philos
sophical Magazine,” that M. Bory de St. Vincent, has declared the figure
published by Mr Rudge, in his “‘ Icones et Descriptiones Plantarum Rari«
orum Guiane,” of the Trichomanes elegans, to be incorrect, and composed
of two different species ; or, according to M. Bory’s ideas, of two distinct
genera. This has given rise to considerable discussion among the bota~
nists in London ; and, in justification of the fidelity of the figure, our tes=
tiniony is brought forward ; we having given, in the fifty-second plate of
Exotic Flora, a figure of the Z'richomanes elegans, and haying spoken of
the figure of Mr Rudge as excellent. This term of approbation, however,
was only meant to apply to such of the figure as represented that state of
the plant which we had ourselves represented, that is, the barren fronds
and those fertile spikes which have separated involucres. The other spikes
with united involucres, ,we had never seen; but having, thens* only a
* We say, then, because we have since had the opportunity, through the liberality
of the same gentleman as sent us the first individual, the Rev. Lansdown Guilding,
184 Scientific Intelligence.
single specimen to examine, we did suppose that those spikes which have
the involucres united by a membrane, might belong to a younger state of
the fructification. On the specimen, however, from which Mr Rudge’s
figure was made, (and which was gathered in Guiana by Mr Martin,) be-
ing submitted to a careful examination, it was found to be composed of
two individuals ; thus, as it were, tending greatly to strengthen the opinion
of M. Bory.
It. is, however, not a little remarkable, that Kaulfuss, in his work on the
Ferns, which we shall notice in the next number of this Journal, and who
appears, from his manner of describing it, to be well acquainted with this
plant, not only quotes the figure of Rudge, without questioning the cor-
rectness of it, but absolutely describes the ¢wo kinds of fructification repre-
sented by Rudge; first, in his specific character, ‘‘ Indusiis spicatis disti-
che connatis, tandem liberis pedicellatis ;” and afterwards in the descrip-
tion, ‘© Indusia disticha, coarctata, primum membrana pellucida cons
neva, tandem distincta pedicellata spicam densam disticham subsecundam
referentia.” As a further evidence of his being well acquainted with the
Trichomanes elegans, he corrects Willdenow, who, he says, only knew the
plant from Rudge’s figure, and who particularly described the fertile fronds
otherwise than he would have done had he described from the plant itself.
(u-)
ZOOLOGY.
29. Say’s American Entomology.—The first volume of a very handsome
work under this title has made its appearance in the United States, from
the Philadelphia press. It is perhaps the most splendid work in a large
octavo form hitherto published in that country ; and whether we consider
the contents, the fineness of the paper, the style of engraving, or the
highly respectable manner in which the plates are coloured, it does Ameri-
ca infinite credit-. The present volume contains 18 plates, in which 41
species are figured, of which 34 are first described by Mr Say.
30. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York.—The Lye
ceum of Natural History of New York has put forth its first half volume of
Transactions, and it gives us much pleasure, in being able to bestow
eur cordial approbation on this specimen of its meritorious labours, es-
pecially, as it is mainly owing to the spirited exertions of a few of its
members, who have devoted no small share of time, money, and ta-
lent to the cause of Natural History in New York. The present half vo-
lume is composed of thirty-five articles, in various departments, connected
with the Natural History of North America, illustrated with thirteen well
executed plates.
31. American Fauna.—Dr Harlan is engaged in preparing a Fauna Ame-
ricana, the first part of which, containing the Mammalia, is nearly ready
of examining very many other specimens. All have the involucres separated, as re-
presented i in our plate, and as represented in the left hand spike of the entire ‘plant
in Mr Rudge’s representation, and at Fig. 2. of the magnified portion.
General Science. 185
for publication. We understand Dr De Kay of New York had ‘also been
collecting materials for a similar work, but has now transferred them
to his friend, Dr Harlan.
IV. GENERAL SCIENCE.
32. Remarkable Dissection of a Female Mummy.—This dissection, per-
formed by Dr Granville, was exhibited before the Royal Society. After
depriving the body, by ebullition and maceration, of the bees-wax, myrrh,
gum, resin, bitumen and ¢annin, with which it had been impregnated and
preserved, the parts resembled recent preparations ; and though the body
must have lived 3000 years ago, Dr Granville was enabled to ascertain the
age at which the lady died, and also that she had borne children, and had
died of ovarian dropsy. Dr Granville has also given the dimensions of its
various parts, and it is truly singular, that these happen to be precisely
those of the Venus de Medicis.
33. Discoveries in Nova Zembla.—The Russian officer, Captain Lilk, has
returned from his third Expedition to Nova Zembla. He has discovered
the Bay of Matorsky in 69° 44’ of N. lat. by 8° 33’ of W. long. He ad-+
vanced as far as 76° 48’ of N. lat., but was stopped by the ice, and a storm,
which damaged his vessel, prevented him from examining the island com-
pletely. — Journal des Voyages, tom. xxv. p. 257.
34. Hazel Nuts found in a singular state at a great depth—We have been
kindly presented, by Sir John Hay, Bart. of Smithsfield and Hayston,
with a packet of hazel nuts, found upon one of his farms at Bonnington,
about one mile south from Peebles. ‘The nuts were found ina bog, about
eight feet below the surface. The top soil was three feet of meadow clay,
beneath which was a layer of greyish coloured gravel about four and half
feet thick. The bottom of the bog consisted of a mixture of grey sand
and brown moss, with some branches of stumps of trees, quite rotten. The
nuts were found nearest the bottom of this substance. The bog is part of
a meadow about 1500 yards long, by about from 300 to 600 feet broad,
having a declivity of about one foot in 400.
_ Upon opening these nuts, we were surprised to find, that the kernel in all
of them had entirely disappeared, though the membrane which enclosed it, and
the nut itself, were as entire as if the nut had heen fresh and ripe. By
opening the nut carefully, the membrane could be taken out in the form
of a perfect bag, without the least opening. The substance of the kernel
must therefore have escaped through the membrane and the shell in a
gaseous form, or must have passed through them, when decomposed or dis-
solved by water, In some of the nuts, that had not arrived at maturity,
the bag was very small, and was surrounded, as in the fresh nut, with the
soft fungous substance, which had resisted decay.
35. The Menai Bridge near Bangor, Carnarvonshire.—On Tuesday, the
“26th of April 1825, the first chain of this stupendous work was thrown
over the Straits.of Menai, in presence of an immense concourse of persons
186 Scientific Intelligence.
of all ranks. At half-past two o'clock, about half flood tide, the raft, pre-
pared for the occasion, stationed on the Carnarvonshire side, which sup-
ported the chain intended to be drawn over, began to mové gradually from
its moorings, towed by four boats, with the assistance of the tide, to the
centre of the Strait, between the two grand piers ; when the raft was pro-
perly adjusted, and brought to its ultimate situation, it was made fast to
several buoys, anchored ‘in the channel for that specific purpose. The
whole of this arduous process was accomplished in twenty-five minutes,
The end of the chain, pending from the apex of the suspending pier on
the Carnarvonshire side, down nearly to high water mark, was then made
fast by bolts to that part of the chain lying on the raft, which operation
was completed in ten minutes. The next process was fastening the other
extremity of the chain (on the raft) to two immense powerful blocks, for
the purpose of hoisting the entire line of chain to its intended station, the
apex of the suspending pier, on the Anglesea side. When the blocks were
made secure to the chain (comprising twenty-five ton weight of iron) two
capstans, and also two preventive capstans, commenced working, each pro-
pelled by twenty-four men. To preserve an equanimity in the rotatory
evolutions of the two principal capstans, a fifer played several enlivening
tunes, to keep the men regular in their steps, for which purpose they had
been previously trained. The chain rose majestically, and the gratifying
sight was enthusiastically enjoyed by each individual present. At fifty
minutes after four o'clock, the final bolt was fixed, which completed the
whole line of chain. From the casting off of the raft, to the uniting of the
chain, took up only two hours and twenty minutes.
This splendid specimen of British architecture will be a lasting monu-
ment to the discernment of the present government, for having called into
requisition the transcendent talents of Mr Telford, who was present on the
occasion.
Upon the completion of the chain, three of the workmen had the teme-
rity to pass along the upper surface of the chain, which forms an inverted
curvature of 580 feet. The versed sine of the arch is 43 feet.
The fullowing is a summary account of the dimensions of the bridge :—
The extreme length of the chain, from the fastenings in the rocks, is about
1600 feet. The height of the road-way from high-water line, is 100 feet.
Each of the seven small piers, from high-water line to the spring of the
arches, is 65 feet. The span of each arch is 52 feet. Each of the two
Suspending piers is 52 feet above the road. The road on the bridge con-
sists of two carriage-ways, of 12 feet each, with a footpath, of 4 feet, in
the centre. The carriage-roads pass through two arches, in the suspend-
ing piers, of the width of 9 feet, by 15 feet in height to the spring of the
arches. To counteract the contraction and expansion of the iron, from
the effect of the change of the temperature in Winter and Summer, a set
of rollers are placed under cast-iron saddles, on the top of the suspending
piers, where the chains rest. The vertical rods, an inch square, suspend-
ed from the chains, support the slippers for the flooring of the road-way,
the rods being placed 5 feet from each other. The chains, 16 in number,
contain 5 bars each ; length of the bar 9 feet 9 inchés, width 3 inches by
—
“ee
ee es
<< hs. ee |
#- + re
ae
Pc leaped
*
Generai Science. 187
linch square, with 6 connecting lengths at each joint 1 foot 6 inches, by
10 inches, and 1 inch square, secured by two bolts at each joint; each bolt
weighing about fifty-six pounds. The total number of bars, in the~eross
section of the chains, is eighty.
A second chain was drawn over on Thursday morning, the 28th ult. ;
and there are fourteen other chains in readiness to be drawn over, when
the tide will serve, which will complete thé line of suspension.
36. Number of Steam-Engines in Glasgow and its neighbourhood in
April 1825.
No. of Engines. Horse Power.
Steam-Engines used in Manufactures,* 176 3000
Collieries, 58 1411
Stone quarries, 7 39
Steam-boats, 68 1926
Clyde Iron- Works, 1 60
Total 310 6436
Average power of engines 20,664, horses.
Cleland’s Hist. Account of the Steam-Engine.
87. Number of Steam Boats on the Clyde in 1825.—On the 11th of April
1825, there were on the Clyde 53 steam-boats, having 68 engines, and a
power of 1926 horses. Four of these steam-boats are each driven by two
engines of 50 horse power each, viz. the Majestic, the City of Glasgow, the
Superb, and the Ailsa Craig.—Jd.
38. Poisonous Effect of White Bread upon Dogs.—Dr Magendie is said
to have found, that when he fed dogs with white bread and water they all
died within 50 days. When the bran was left in the bread no bad effects
ensued.
89. The Goitre cured hy Subcarbonate of Soda.—M. Peschier of Geneva
has performed many surprising cures in cases of goitre, by administering
a solution of subcarbonate of soda, more or less disguised by other sub-
. stances. In the case of a girl fourteen years old, he gave 2 gros, or 118
grains every day, From two grains to half an ounce of the alkali is dis-
solved in eight ounces of water, and a table-spoonful of the solution taken
twice a-day, in half a glass of wine, or sugar and water.—Bibl. Univ.
vol. xxiii. p. 146.
40. Artificial Production of Pearls.—The invention of forcing the pro-
duction of pearls by fresh water bivalves, is said to belong to the Chi-
nése. For that purpose rounded pieces of mother-of-pearl are intro-
duced into the shells. Mr Gray introduced thirty or forty pieces into the
shells of the Anodonta cygneus, and Unio pictorum. Only two were push-
ed out again, the rest being placed by the animal in a convenient situa-
tion —Ann. of Phil. ix. p. 27. -
* In 1824, there were upwards of 200 steam-engines in Manchester.
°
188 List of English Patents.
Art. XXXV.—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS
SEALED IN ENGLAND FROM it ie 7, 1824, TO™ JA-
°NUARY. 1, 1825. ,
Oct: 14. For Improved Water-Proof Cloth, and Materials for Bonnets.
To W. P. Weise, Southwark.
Oct. 14. For Improved Water-Closets. To H. Manrort, London.
Oct. 19. For Improved Power Looms. To J. Tertow, Manchester.
Oct. 19. For Improved Steam-Boilers. To H.Mavupstay and J. Fretp,
Lambeth.
Oct. 21. For an Artificial Stove. To J. Arsprn, Leeds.
Oct. 21. For Fire Extinguishers. To G. Dopp, Westminster.
Oct. 21. For a Placard Machine. To G. S. Harris, Knightsbridge.
Nov. 1. For Lace Machinery. To J. Lincrorr, Nottingham.
Nov. 4. For Safety Guns. To Rev- J. Somurvitte, Currie.
Nov. 4 For a Contrivance for Insuring the Egress of ne To J.
Crosstey, Middlesex.
Nov. 4. For Improved Masting of Vessels. To T. R. Guprey. Bristol.
Nov. 4. For Boot Cords, &c. To J. Heap, Banbury.
Nov. 4. For Improved Augers. To Witt1am Cuurcu, Birmingham.
Novy. 4. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To H. Busx, London.
Nov. 6 For an Improved Air Furnace. To J. Wuite and T. Sowrr-
sy Bishop Wearmouth.
Noy. 6- For Improved Steam-Engine Apparatus. To J. Moore, Bristol.
Nov..6. For an Improved Percussion Gus-Cock. To T. CanTMELt,
Doncaster.
Noy. 11. For an Improved Lime and Coak Kiln. To C. Heatuorn,
Maidstone.
Nov. 11. For Improved Brick Machinery. To W. Leatuy, Southwark.
Novy. 11. For a New Furnace. To P. Brunet, London.
Nov. 20. For Improvements in Dressing Cloth. To J.C. Dawiett, Stoke.
Noy. 2U- For a New Cock or Tap. To J. Tayior, Chipping Ongar.
Nov. 20. For Improved Clamps for Burning Bricks. To W. Ruopes,
Middlesex. .
Nov. 23. For Improvements in the Paper Manufacture. To L. Lam-
BERT, London.
Nov. 25. For Diaphane Stuffs. To S. Witson, Streatham.
Noy. 25. For Improved Ship’s Tackle. To W.S. Burnett, London.
Nov. 29. For Improved Healds. Yo J. Ossatpiston, Lancashire.
Nov. 29. For a Substitute for Leather. To T. Hancock, Middlesex.
Dec. 4. For Improvements in the Sa/t Manufacture. To W. Furnivat,
Anderton,
Dec. 4. For Improvements in the Salt Manufacture. To W. W.
Youne, Glamorganshire. aa
Dec. 4. For a T'hermophore or Portable Bath, and Linen Warmer. To
J, H. SuwerxKror, London.
Dec. 4. For Improved Saddles. To G. Wycurentry, Whitchurch.
Dec: 8. Fora Improved Air-Chamber. To R. Dickenson, Southwark.
eee ee
VS eee
List of Scottish Patents. 189
Dec. 9. For Improvements in the Cast-Steel Manufacture. To J.
Tompson, Pimlico.
Dee. 9. For Elastic Stoppers to Regulate Chains and other Cables. To
R. Bowman, Aberdeen.
Dec. 9. For Improvements in Water Wheels. To W. Mout, Lambeth.
Dec. 14. Foran Improved Gas- Meter. To Sir W. Conereve, London.
Dec. 18. For Improved Guns, §c. ToS. Davis, London.
Dec. 18. For Improved Wheel Carriages. To D. Gorvon, London.
Dec. 18. For Improvements in the Plated Manufacture. ToS. Ronerts,
Middlesex.
Dec. 18. For Improved Looms. To P. Gosset, Middlesex.
Dec. 18. For Improved Cloth Shearing Machines. To J. GARDNER and
J. Herzert, Gloucestershire.
Dec. 18. For a New Wheelway. To W- 'T. Snowpen, London.
Dec. 18. For Improvements on Pumps. To J. Weiss, London.
_ Dec. 23. For Improvements in the Button Manufacture. To J. Dry-
«rn, and W. H. Deyxry, Birmingham,
Dec. 24.. For Improvements on Carriages. To D. Srarrorp, Liverpool.
Arr. XXXVI.—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND
SINCE MARCH 7, 1825.
13. March 11. For a New Composition of Malt and Hops. To Grorcr
Aucustus Lamps, Sussex.
14. March 11. For an Improved Method of Generating Steam. To
Joun Maccurpy, Middlesex.
15. March 12. For a New Method or Methods of Making or Manu-
facturing Hats, Bonnets, and Caps. To Patrick Mackay and Tuomas
Cunnincuam, Edinburgh.
16. March 25. For Improvements in the Art of Dyeing and Calico-
Printing, &c. To James Hanmer, Middlesex.
17. March 25. For an Apparatus for giving Motion to Vessels employed
in Inland Navigation. To Samuret Brown, Middlesex.
18. April 5. For Improvements applicable to the Mule Billy Jenny
Stretching-Frame, &c. To RicHarD Roserts of Manchester, Lancaster.
19. April 5. For Improvements on Square Piano-Fortes. 'To Francis
Me vite of Argyle Street, Glasgow.
20. April 13. For Improvements in the Construction of Morges, Se. To
Wictiram Ha tey, Surrey.
21. April 13. For a New Step or Steps, to Ascend or Descend from
Coaches and other Carriages. To Ross Corserr, Glasgow.
22. April 27. For a New Method of Constructing a Roasting-Jach.
To Joun Turn, Edinburgh.
23. May 3. For Improvements in the Construction of Apparatus for
Distilling Spirituous Liquors. To Witt1am Grimsve, Middlesex.
24. May 13. For Improvements in Machinery for Hackling, &c. To
Epwarvd Garsetp of Leeds, York.
25. May 17. For a New Process for Making Steel. To Cuartes Mac-
intosn, Lanark.
190
Celestial Phénomena, July—September 1825.
26. May 25. For Certain Improvements in Manufacturing Tubes for
Gas, and other Purposes. To Cornetius WuiTeEHouss, Stafford.
From July 1, to September 1, 1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edin«
burgh. By Mr Greorcez Innes, Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author.
These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning
at noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right
Art. XXXVII.—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA,
Ascension.
JULY.
8.
5363 fo
555) Bw
35 (Last Quarter.
4d)
— Sup. d © 8
Ree br woo
& | aucrrhooreN OS
QOnnW HAXKWKWO
@ oo
Zw 0 > wee iw
ae 4 ope
on
©
=
=
°
i=)
=}
44 ) First Quarter.
24 ©) enters SL
20 6) 9m
50 4) B Oph.
30 6 ¢ oll.
g
He. M.
Ss.
9 49 53 © Full Moon. -
Q Greatest Elong.
AUGUST.
25 ( Last Quarter.
50 6 Oo”
30 6) 8
10 d)2ag
25 @ New Moon.
&% Greatest Elong.
soSgeCM. ..
12 ) First Quarter.
17 dpom
10 S) B Oph.
56 © enters MH
Celestial Phenomena, July—September 1825. 191
; _ , SEPTEMBER. D. .H. M. §S,
D> HM &. 12 15 15 — d)3
3 4 20 22d6)5mM 4 7 00 d)t™
4 3 54 10 ( Last Quarter. 16 0 30 —Inf. 6©8
| 4 56 5 48d) Ax 16 20 30 48 6) om
4 14 30 18d) 2K%8 18 18 9 55 ) First Quarter.
5 20 8 36 d)h 19 2 51 14 d¢)lyut
6 «4 26 49 Sd) ail 203 9 0 4)yrt
6 17 40 42 6) wll. 20 6 44 30 gydt
zu 30 — 6) Cll eee S30) Ee
9 2 48 13 6)@ 21 12-20 43 S)3yp
9 12 29 55 d) 2am 22 20 21 22 © enters
9 20 33 18 d)g 26 15 48 30 Im. III. Sat. Y
10 2 23 37696 26 15 51 39 © Full Moon.
10 -6 54 18 d)on 27 23 46 1249 4
10 15 9 10 dgd)yrD 28 11 13 26 £ of aise
40 19 17 47 4) 7 28 6 12 34eaR
12 2 43 4 @ New Moon. 30 10 27 52 d)6m
Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.
. JULY.
Mercury. | Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian.
M.:| H. M. H. M.
31 22 15 12 40
19 22-2 12 24
3 21 45 12 3
37. | 21 27] 1h 43
29
16
1,| 23 23 21
6.) 23 44 21
10. ag 4 20
15. 34 20
or or or or i
NW RTD |
bo
oo
—
_—
mee po ro no
Mercury.
Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian.
H.. M:; H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M.
H...M.
1 29 20 52 22 48 0 55 20 29 10 33
1 35 20 54 22 43 0 43 20 14 10 18
Ls 1 41 20 56 22 38 0 26 19 55 9 57
1 44 31 0 19 38 9 36
1 42 3 19 21 9 15
: 1 36 3 19 8
Venus. Saturn. | Georgian.
H. M. HB. M. H. M.
ZL. Ll 18 (37 8 25
21 14 18 22 8 12
21 17 18"; 4 7 52
21 22 17 45 7 32
21 26 17 27 7 #12
21 29 hy ws 6 52
Z Oxe Let U' i . ty pectin
og'ez6| "166 [o"a | 80FL T°] 'L:26s]+L°668|lc-Lee1] colt] 2601 | TL-
* This I have found to be quite impracticable in the smaller species of ~
im the Eye of the Sepia Lolkgo. 197
the anterior iris shaped body just described, to be composed
chiefly of fibres, and to terminate in a semi-cartilaginous plate
of no great breadth; but I have not yet been able to deter-
mine the nature of these fibres. Lastly, It is invested by a
reduplication of the conjunctiva, which is reflected upon it
from the inner surface of the sclerotic, and from it over the
anterior surface of the crystalline humour.
Finally, it is to be carefully noted, that the two sets of fibres
which fix the lens in its position, and pass in a short way be-
twixt its hemispheres, do not pervade its whole thickness, but
suddenly terminate, uniting themselves intimately to the ex-
ternal layers of the crystalline humour, and leaving its central
portion clear for the passage of the rays of light. But there
is a peculiarity in the structure of this part of the crystalline
humour which does not seem to have been remarked. The
two distinct sets of fibres which I have described as fixing the
lens in its situation, are chiefly connected each with the more
external layers of its corresponding hemisphere ; there is con-
sequently left between them a small space filled with a dark-
ish pigment, which space communicates with a wedge-like ca-
vity, extending all round from the outer to the central portion
or nucleus of the lens. Even here we distinctly perceive a
darkish line passing over the nucleus of the lens; but I could
not positively make out whether this wedge-like cavity was
filled simply with a fluid, or whether, as is most probable, a
very delicate membrane also traversed the whole thickness of
the lens. External to the membranes described, is the sclero=
tic, seemingly of a cartilaginous nature, having a circular
opening anteriorly, into which the lens projects, there existing
neither cornea nor aqueous humour. It is perforated posteri-
orly by numerous foramina for the transmission of the nerves
proceeding to form the retina.
The external aspect of the sclerotic is invested by a mem-
brane, which I consider as analogous to the conjunctiva, ex-
‘cepting that, in the cuttle-fish, its internal layers are evidently
muscular. It projects considerably beyond the anterior ter-
mination of the sclerotic, to form a true and highly moveable
iris; a thin layer is reflected upon the inner surface of
the anterior portion of the sclerotic, and is thence transmitted
198 Dr Knox on the Limits of the Retina
over the anterior surface of the lens. Contrary to what has
been asserted, I found the iris just described to be perfectly
moveable in the living Sepia, and the pupil it formed contract-
ed and dilated precisely as in other animals. ‘The pupil is
linear and horizontal, and nearly equal in breadth through-
out; but it expanded somewhat in the living animal on being
removed from a strong to a weaker light, and on the death of
the animal, which happened unexpectedly by merely pouring
over it a quantity of spring-water, the pupil suddenly dilated
so as to become circular, and continued so as long as pre-
served.
This seems to me the true anatomy of the eye of the cuttle-
fish, as deduced from preparations which had been for some
time immersed in spirits. The number examined was eight,
viz. two of the calmar, and six of the smaller species of Sepia,
frequently met with in the Frith of Forth ; but as the latter
were brought to me alive, it may be worth while to mention
the precise appearances of the eye-ball when laid open in a
perfectly fresh state. This may be done very briefly. I
found the vitreous humour, hyaloid membrane, and lens, co-
lourless, and eminently transparent; nothing indicated the
presence of that darkish coloured stripe which we have shown
to traverse the lens from side to side, or of those wedge-like
cavities which we know to exist betwixt its hemispheres. The
pigmentum covers every portion of the great central chamber
of the eye-ball occupied by the vitreous humour, and is of a
dark purplish colour; the antero- — diameter of the eye
is short.
Having thus described what I consider as the true anatomy
of the retina and ciliary processes in these animals, and cor-
rected the highly erroneous notions hitherto entertained rela-
tive to the pupil, it will now be expected that I should offer
some opinion as to the mode in which I suppose vision to be
performed in the cuttle-fish ; but this is a subject the consi-
deration of which is attended with great difficulty. A part of —
the difficulty may be got over by supposing that the eye of —
the cuttle-fish is adapted not for the distinct perception of ob-_
jects, but for the more general sensation of light, whereby it
may regulate its course, and be guided to those depths in —
in the Eye of the Sepia Loligo. 199
which it expects to discover its prey. I am inclined to adopt
this opinion from the following considerations: 1st, The living
specimen on which I had an opportunity of: experimenting
did not show any signs of fear when the hand or a sharp in-
strument was made to approach the eye, but if touched, the
pupil closed entirely, the skin forming the eye-lids did the
same, the animal became extremely agitated, and made strong
efforts to escape. Now, it is difficult, if not impossible, to ex-
plaim these facts otherwise than by supposing a want of dis-
tinct perception in the eye of the cuttle-fish. There is one
objection, however, to this experiment, which candour obliges
me to state. It is this; that, as the animal was placed in a
very small quantity of water, it was in consequence exposed,
perhaps, to a dazzling strength of light, which nearly closed
the pupil, and might have rendered the eye generally unfit for
distinct perception. It is, however, to be remembered, that
the Buccinum and Snail, animals belonging to the same class
as the Sepia, exhibit nearly the same phenomena as to vision,
and the objection does not apply to them.
2d, We must consider the Sepia as being merely the most
perfect of the mollusca. Now there is no proof whatever that
any of these animals have distinct vision, and we know that
the eye of the buccinum and snail may, in some measure, be
considered as a miniature and less perfect representation of the
eye of the Sepia. Now, it is undoubtedly a general truth,
- though it admit not of minute or particular application, that
animals have been formed agreeable to certain general laws,
and that they have been grouped into classes, the individuals
- eonstituting which possess functions having a general resem-
‘blance, however much their organs may differ in appearance.
Thus it is with the eye of the cuttle-fish, which, notwith-
standing its dimensions, the beauty and complexity of its form,
expanded retina, and singularly constructed lens, I must still
consider as merely the eye of a cephalopodous molluscous
animal in its most perfect state.
8d, There is interposed, betwixt the vitreous humour and
retina an excessively dark pigment of considerable consistence,
assuming the form of a membrane, and apparently presenting
an insurmountable barrier to the passage of the rays of light
200 Dr Knox on the Limits of the Retina, &c.
in their progress to the retina. I have examined this mem-
brane with the micrescope, and find it exceedingly opaque ;
still it may be insufficient to prevent the rays of light from
reaching the retina, or rather, (as we know not yet the nature
of light sufficiently well,) we may say, that the membrane re-
celves an impression which is thus communicated to the con-
tiguous retina. The absolute opacity of the pigmentum, in
the eye of the cuttle-fish, may even be doubted, and we know,
by a very simple experiment,* that its immediate vicinity, or
rather contiguity, with the retina, may possibly permit lumi-
nous rays to penetrate to the retina itself.
The observations on the mode in which vision is performed
jn these animals are altogether distinct from the anatomical
-details which I have been particularly careful in submitting to
the Society, precisely as they appeared to me at the time of
the dissections. The considerations which arose out of the
facts I have stated, and out of those already known relative to
the singular construction of the lens in this class of animals,
in so far as they modify the received theories of vision, will
shortly be submitted to the Society, by a gentleman whose
extensive knowledge of optics eminently qualify him for so
difficult and obscure an inquiry.
It seems proper to add, that most of the dissections, whose
results are detailed in the preceding memoir, were performed
in the presence of several friends, and that I had the honour
of demonstrating the principal anatomical facts to the present
distinguished Secretary of the Society. I shall farther endea-
vour, in order as much as possible to perfect the view I have
taken of the anatomy of the eye of the cuttle-fish, to submit
to the Society, at a future meeting, accurate drawings of the
whole of the anatomical appearances in the order of dissec-
tion.
“ The experiment alluded to consists merely in holding a dark coloured
handkerchief or piece of black crape at a short distance before the eyes, so
as completely to intercept the rays of light, and, comparing the total dark-
ness so produced, with the tolerably auinee vision which follows, when
the crape, instead of being placed at a distance from the eye, is penal s in
almost immediate contact with the cornea.
Dr Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier, &c. 201
Art. IIl.—An Account of the Frontier between the Southern
part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. By Francis
Hamitton, M.D.F.R.S. & F.A.S. Lond. & Edin. Com-
municated by the Author.
In two former papers I have given an account of this
Frontier, so far as connected with the territories of the tribes
called Tripura and Saksah, which occupy chiefly the banks of
the Gomuti and Karnaphuli. I shall now proceed south
from the latter, and give an account of the frontier so far as
connected with the tribe, which the Bengalese call Joomea
Mugg. In the first place, I shall give some account of this
people, and of the tribes dependent, and then I shall give
some account of the territory they possess.
The invasion of the province of Chatigang by the troops
of Ava in 1794, and the giving up of the several refugees
that had fled from Arakan (Rakhain) for protection, had oc-
easioned a very general alarm among the Joomea Muggs ;
for there can be no doubt that these people came from Rak-
hain, the language and customs of which they retain un-
changed. This terror made them in general unwilling to ac-
knowledge. any connection with Arakan, although the more
intelligent among them acknowledged the name Marama,
which the people of Rakhain assume. In common conversa-
tion, however, they called themselves men of the hills
(Taumgsah,) or of the rivers (Khiaungsah ;) the former from
their cultivating hills, and the latter from their using the tor-
rents for a conveyance. It is true, indeed, that they would
appear to have retired from their origmal country about the
middle of the last century, that is, between thirty and forty
years before the conquest of Rakhain by the King of Ava,
while the refugees that were delivered up were insurgents,
who had risen against the government of Ava ten years after
the conquest. They were not in general aware that this
would make any difference in the disposition of the English
to protect them; and no doubt they had received many new
colonists, not only at the conquest, but on every occasion of
discontent that afterwards arose. - The opinion, indeed, which
202 Dr. Hamilton’s Accownt of the Frontier
prevailed both in Chatigang and Ava, was, that the refugees
were given up from fear ; and this opinion has no doubt con-
tinued to operate on the ill-informed court of Ava, and has
occasioned a frequent repetition of violence and. insolence,
ending in an open war. The consequence of this will no
doubt be fatal to the King of Ava; but may produce sub-
sequent difficulties to the Government of Bengal. These
evils might probably have been avoided by a vigorous re-
pulse of the invasion in 1794, and a positive refusal to
hearken to any proposal for giving up the msurgents, after
the court of Ava had adopted hostile measures in place of
negociation, to which alone it was entitled.
The Joomea Muggs in their own country no doubt used
the plough, and cultivated the level fields, both of which prac-
tices, on settling in Chatigang, they have entirely relinquish-
ed; but this seems to have been in order to conciliate the
Bengalese, among whom they settled, The hills, of which
they took possession, were entirely neglected by the Benga-
lese, as not admitting of being ploughed after the Indian
fashion, so that they gave no umbrage in taking possession of
this land; besides, these colonists were probably unable to
purchase the stock necessary for ploughing ; while that re-
quired for the joom cultivation is next to nothing. But far-
ther, these colonists, from their hideous impurity, would not
have been admitted among the Bengalese ; for although most
of these in the district of Chatigang are Muhammedans, they
have adopted in full vigour the doctrine of cast and Hindu
purity. The natives of Rakhain, on the contrary, eat, drink,
and sleep, with no more regard to purity than Christians,
and eat almost every thing, except milk and its preparations,
which they abominate.
The written character of the Joomea Muggs is entirely the
same with that of Ava, and almost all the names’ of persons
and places mentioned in this account were given to me in
writing. I have expressed this in English characters, not ac-
cording to the form of the Alphabetum Burmanum, but in a
manner more suited to express the provincial dialect of
Arakan.
The Joomea Muggs are considerably more civilized than
between the Southern Part of Bengal and Ava. 208
either the Tripuras or Saksahs, and are subject to three
chiefs, of which the one in the centre is by far the most con-
siderable.
The one who lives farthest north I had no opportunity of
seeing, as his house was too far removed from a road acces-
sible to a palanquin, the manner in which I travelled when in
his vicinity; but I had some communication with him by
messengers. His name or title is Agunnea, and his territory
lies along the rivulets which fall mto the north side of the
‘Sunkar river, which is called Sunka by the Bengalese, and
‘Reekri, (sweet water) by the Joomea Muggs. His house is
on a small stream, called the Barwany, that falls into this
river at a market-place, called Gulea cherra, and is three
‘hours’ journey from that place, above which, in 1798, the
judge of the district had placed a guard to prevent the incur-
sions of the Bonjugies. Agunnea is said not only to have
among his dependants many of the Kunkies or Lingtas, but
to have formed a very close connection with the chief of the
Bonzhu or Bonjugies. This last circumstance, however, his
messengers were not willing to acknowledge; and they al-
leged, that the Bonzhu chief resided fifteen days’ journey from
their master’s house, which does not ditfer much from the ac-
count given on the Karnaphul. His territory certainly in-
cludes all the country about the sources of the Karnaphuli and
Sunkar, and, no doubt, extends some way down several con-
siderable branches of the Arakan river, occupying the high-
est part of the frontier between Bengal and Ava, around
what in our surveys are called the Blue Mountain and Pyra-
mid Hill. The people of this tribe seem to trade chiefly with
Arakan, and the greater part of their territory is probably
considered by the King of Ava as his property.
' The territory of the central and principal chief of the
Joomea Muggs, extends from the south bank of the Sunkar
over all the vallies watered by the branches of the Mamuri
and Edgong rivers. In 1798 I staid two days at Sualuk,
. where this chief resides ; and, during this time, I visited in his
‘house, and in that of his chief priest, in return for the visits
of these persons, and of their principal dependents ; while in
other parts of his territory, I had a similar friendly intercourse
204 Dr Hamilton's Account of the Frontier
with the principal officers of the place, especially with Aung-
hiose, who managed the country on the Edgong river.
The people of this central tribe are often called Reekrisah, .
or sons of the sweet water, as they name the Sunkar river.
The chief whom I visited was called Pomang Kaungla Pru.
Po-mang, is his title, and signifies Captain ; Kaungla was his
proper name, and Pru (white) was his family name. By
three women he had six sons and six daughters, of whom,
all of the daughters and three of the sons were married. He
had about twenty Hindu servants, and still more Muham-
medans, his Dewan or minister being of that religion. The
domestic who had charge of his table, or steward, was a per-
son of the family of the Chaksah chief. The whole of his
sons, married and single, lived in his house. Besides this
numerous family, he had a great number of Marama slaves ;
that is, persons of his own tribe, who incur debt, go to him,
and say, if you will discharge our debt we will become your
slaves. On the master advancing the money, the slave must
perform his work from six in the morning till ten in the fore-
noon, and from four in the afternoon till sun-set. The month-
ly allowance made to the slave by the master is one piece of
coarse cotton-cloth, and one basket of unhusked rice, which is
said to weigh 82 pounds avoirdupois; but one, which I mea-
sured, evnkaaeiaed very nearly two Winchester bushels (432),
being a cylinder of three feet long, and one in diameter. He
seldom allows salt, or any other seasoning. The master can-
not sell the slave, but must give him his liberty, if ever he is
able to repay the money originally advanced ; and, of course,
the slave may change masters, if he can find any person who
will advance the price of his head. ‘This manner of treating
debtors would perhaps be more rational, than that prescribed
by the law of England, where the debtor may be condemned
to perpetual imprisonment, without the possibility of being of
advantage to his creditors, to himself, or to the public; but,
among these eastern nations, this practice is attended by an
abominable circumstance—the wife is often reduced to slavery
for the debts of her husband; and, what is still worse, chil-
dren are made slaves for the debt of their parent. The nu-
: 1
between the Southern Part of Bengal and Ava. 205
merous slaves of this kind, belonging to Kaungla Pru, are
chiefly employed in agriculture.
The house of this chief is supported on posts, and thatch-
ed, its floor and walls being constructed of bamboos split, and
woven into mats; but it had several large apartments, and was
furnished with chairs, carpets, beds, and mats. The yard is
- surrounded by a fence made of posts and mats, and is digni-
fied with the name of Fort. In the adjoiming village there
are forty or fifty houses, and a convent (Kiaung) of priests
(Poungris). For such a climate the houses seemed to be com-
fortable; but, as the women avoided my company, I could
not be minute in examination without distressing the inhabi-
tants. Kaungla Pru was a stout little man, with strongly
marked Chinese features, and was about fifty years of age.
He came to visit me in a palanquin, with many attendants,
who appeared to be in easy circumstances, and both he and
his family and suit were very obliging. Every thiig about
him had the appearance of considerable wealth, and he was
said to lend much money to the neighbouring Bengalese pro-
prietors, at the rate of ;'; part monthly, or 372 per cent. per
annum. °
The villages belonging to Kaungla Pru are managed by of-
ficers named Ruasah ; and I observed that, in one instance at
least, several of these were under the authority of an officer
styled Tamang. At any rate, this was the title of Aunghiose,
who seemed to manage all the affairs of Kaungla Pru on the
Mamuri river. I heard of another person named Pamang,
and of a similar officer named Poummakri; but I did not
learn whether this was his proper name or a title. I went to
visit Aunghiose at his village, which consisted of a few houses
disposed in a street parallel to the river Mamuri, and having
at its east end a rivulet named Yaungsa, and at its western
extremity a small hill, on which is a convent or Kiaung. I
found this officer’s house of considerable size, and raised high
on posts. The stair was very bad, being nothing more than
a notched stick. From the stair we landed on a bamboo plat-
form. ‘To our right was a tolerably large hall, into which we
were conducted, and on our left were the apartments of the
women, who kept out of sight. In the hall there was no fur-
206 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier
niture, except a stool, which was given to me, and a small car-
pet, which was reserved for Aunghiose, with some mats for
the attendants. I was received with much civility, although
the poor man was a good deal puzzled about the ceremonials,
wishing my servants to be seated with his kinsmen and his spi-
ritual guide. This officer was reported to be rich, and to have
made a great profit by lending his money to the people called
Mroo, who give him their young daughters as pledges for the
repayment ; and these are liable to be sold in case of failure.
On the whole, the subordinate chiefs among the Joomeas seem
to have more respectability than those of the Saksahs.
About the middle of April, the Joomea Muggs of this cen-
tral tribe leave their villages, and go to the joom for six
months. One day’s labour enables a man to build such a hut
as he requires during his residence, and he is supposed to raise
a hundred baskets of rice, with cotton, dioscoreas, arums, to-
bacco, &e. in proportion, the cotton being sufficient, at any
rate, to pay his rent. The free people have in their ornaments °
a good deal of silver, and are cleaner, and appear to be more
comfortable than the common Bengalese. They also seem to
have the good things of the world in greater abundance than
the cultivators of the plains, or at least they are more willing ”
to part with them. Kaungla Pru made me a present of eat-
ables, in which were cloves, nutmegs, black-pepper, and asa-
foetida, things which, even at Ramoo, I could procure neither
for money nor solicitation; and which, both Hindus and Mu-
hammedans assured me, never entered into the fare of the
Bengalese in the country parts of the district. Brandy and
gin I was told were for sale at Sualuk.
The priests of this tribe are called Poungri (great virtue,)
a title not unknown to those of Ava, although the latter are
more commonly called Rahan. Their Kiaungs, or convents,
have plain roofs, and are not ornamented like those of Ava ;
but they bespeak the inmates to be in easy circumstances.
That at Sualuk contained three apartments. In one of these
I found’a Poungri instructing some boys to read and write.
Among ‘the youths was a son of the chief. In a corner of
this apartinent were a few small images clothed in yellow, but
in a posture different from that of Gautama or Godama, as
Le
between the Southern Part of Bengal and Ava. 207
represented in the temples of Ava. By the priest, however,
they were said to be representations of that personage. They
were placed on a stage adorned with silver, and with paper
ornaments; and before the stage was a high iron lamp.
In one of the apartments of the convent the priest had
slaves, both male and female. ‘These were said to be nume-
rous, and to be procured by advancing money for people who
had fallen into distressed circumstances. ‘These slaves were
employed both as domestics and in the cultivation of the land ;
for the priests here never go out to beg like those of Ava, and
although they receive contributions from the pious, do not
choose to trust entirely to such for their subsistence. Among
the slaves of the priest were three girls very desirous to change
masters, nor was he unwilling to part with them, had I been
inclined to pay the sum for which they stood indebted. Their
levity and want of industry, and the priest’s gravity and de-
sire of gain, made both parties desirous of separating, nor did
a separation from their relations, religion, and customs, seem
any bar.
The chief priest was an intelligent man. He said that in
the convent there was another Poungri, and a boy six years
old, who was instructing in the duties of the priesthood, for
which he was intended. Although not yet admitted into or-
ders, he wore a yellow dress, which is contrary to the rules
observed at Ava, and to the precepts of the Kammua or book
of ordination; but perhaps the Rakhain edition of this book
differs from that used in Ava; as I found that there existed
many differences in the religious doctrines of the two people.
Among other doctrines which the Rahans of Ava would
consider heretical, this priest acknowledged Brahma, or a su-
preme being, and that this author of nature had given a dif-
ferent religion to each of the one hundred and one nations of
the earth. He believed in the same Munis or lawgivers, that
the priests of Ava allege to have appeared on earth, namely,
Chaucasum, Gonagom, Gaspa, (Kasiyapa,) and Godama,
(Gautama;) but to these he added a fifth, named Maha Mu-
ni. These priests are possessed of books said to contain the
' doctrine of the two last Munis only, and to them alone they
address their prayers, as they have no formula by which they
208 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier
could supplicate the others. ‘They have books containing an
account of Rama, of his spouse Sita, and of many other Hin-
du deities; but, like the natives of Ava, they consider these
as beings still liable to the infirmities of mortality, and not yet
arrived at Nriban, or the state of perfect bliss, free from
change and misfortune. The priest compared Gautama to
himself, and Maha Muni to his young disciple.
The principal circumstance, however, which distinguishes
the religion of the Joomea Muggs from that of Ava, is, that
the former are much addicted to the offering of bloody sacri-
fices to the spirits (Nat) of the air, mountains, woods, and m-
vers, a superstition held in abhorrence by the priests of Ava ;
nor in the whole empire did I see one instance of such a cere-
mony, but, during my stay at Sualuk, the drum, by which it
is accompanied, never ceased. When a Joomea Mugg has
made a vow, or when he wishes to render a Nat propitious, he
hires a drummer, goes to the supposed residence of the spirit,
dances for some time with all his might, and then kills the
animal, pouring forth its blood to the hungry deities. The
flesh is then dressed to the sound of the drum, and carried
home to a feast, which also is accompanied by that noisy in-
strument. The Nat of the Sualuk residing near the place
where my tent was pitched, I did not enjoy a moment’s si-
lence. This superstition, I believe, was not in use in Arakan,
and has probably been adopted by the Joomeas from the
rude tribes among whom they have settled, and-among whom
it universally prevails.
Soon after returning to my tent from the convent, I receiy-
ed a message from the priest, who wished to know if I would ~
take him to Europe. I answered that I could not, but that
I would be glad to carry him with me to my house at Lukhi-
pur, in order to receive instruction from him in the language
of Rakhain and Ava; and I requested to know if he would
sell me a copy of the book Kammua. He said that he could
not sell the book, but, if I resided near, he would make for
me whatever books I wanted. Our views thus being unsuit-
able to each other’s convenience, the negociation terminated.
‘The southern tribe of the Joomea Muggs in 1798 was sub-
ject to a chief called Umpry Palong; but whether this was
ee ee ee
between the Southern Part of Bengal and Ava. 209
his name or his title, I did not learn.’ "The tribe then occu-
pied six ‘villages or townships, ‘one under the immediate autho-
‘rity of the chief, and five under an equal number of officers
called Ruasahs. “All these are situated in the upper part of
the river passing Ramoo, which the Bengalese call Bak-kally,
and the Joomeas name Pangwa-khiaun. ‘The’ chief whom I
Saw Was a poor man with a few trifling golden ornaments, and
had two ill-looking Bengalese attendants, who took every op-
portunity of restraining their master’s inclination to satisfy my
curiosity ; but, ‘so far as I could learn, the manners of this
tribe do not differ from those of the other Joomeas, only they
are poorer, ‘although Umpry Palong sold a considerable quan-
tity of cotton to the Bengalese. He pays some tribute to the
Company, but I do not know the amount.
~ There can, as I have said, be little doubt that the Joomeas
came at no remoie period from Arakan; but they have sub:
ject to them the villages of some more rude tribes, who, although
tributary, retain their own chiefs, customs, and languages; and,
although they submit in some instances to have their disputes
settled by the authority of the Joomea chiefs, still in ordinary
_ €auses' they abide by the decisions of their own chieftains, and
- live ‘in distinct villages, although these are intermixed with the
» Villages occupied by Joomeas. The Joomeas, I know, hold
several of these tribes in a state of slavery, and these slaves
dwell in the villages of their masters; but I saw no instance of
a Joomea being in slavery to any person of these rude tribes,
although the Joomeas are often reduced to slavery with each
other. ‘The usual manner, indeed, in which slaves are pro-
eured, is by advancing money in loan, and when the debtor is
unable to repay, he becomes a slave to the creditor. The
Joomeas, being farther advanced in society, have more cun-
ning than the rude tribes, and are therefore generally the cre-
ditors. I did see a few slaves who were said to be captives
in war, but such, I believe, are very rare among the Joomeas.
It is alleged that the Bonzhu have carried off many captives,
_ both Joomeas and Bengalese, and either retain them as slaves,
_ of have sold them to Ava, where, indeed, I saw several such.
~The only rude people settled among the southern tribe of
VOL. I1I. NO. 11. ocTOBER 1825, oO
210 Dr Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier
the Joomeas are a few of the Saksahs, called by the Joomeas
Sak, and by the natives of Ava, Sek. In this southern part
of the district the Saksahs are, by the Bengalese, called Raj-
bangsi, which literally means descendants of princes, but all
over India is a term denoting a person of low birth. The
neighbouring part of the dominions of Ava is occupied by a
portion of this tribe.
The rude people, most numerous among the subjects of
Kaungla Pru, by the Bengalese are called Moroong ; but un-
der this name are included two distinct tribes ; the first by the
natives of Arakan called Mroo, and the second Mroung, and,
in the dialect of Ava, Mroun. By the Joomeas the Mroo are
also frequently called Lay Mroo, while the Mroung are called
Wase Mroo, a nomenclature arising from some difference in
the nature of the revenue which they pay; and a similar cir-
cumstance occasions some of the Mroo to be distinguished by
the name Paungsah. The Bengalese sometimes distinguish
the Mroung from the Mroo by calling the former Deinee
Moroong. The Mroo call themselves Moroosa. So far as I.
could learn, all the Moroosa consider themselves as subject or
connected with a chief named Layklang, who lives at a great
distance, probably within the dominions of Ava; but each
head of a village (Ruasah) seems to arrogate to himself very
independent powers, and, according to the report of the Joo-
meas, battles between them are not uncommon, the power of
the supreme chief being diminished by his residing at a dis-
tance, and in a different kingdom. Neither Joomeas nor Ben-
galese seem to think it worth their while to interfere in the
disputes of these impure creatures ; but I found that the Joo-
mea chiefs subordinate to Kaungla Pru did not conduct them-
selves with haughtiness towards the Moroosa. On the con-
trary, they kept up a friendly correspondence by visits and
presents. I had interviews with several people of this tribe
on the banks of the Edgong river, and more intercourse with
those on the Mamutri, having both received and returned visits
to Kingdai, chief of one of their villages. The dialect spoken
at Edgong differs a little from that in use on the Mamuri, but
their language seems to have a considerable resemblance to
between the Southern Part of Bengal and Ava. 211
the dialect of the Burma language spoken by the Joomea
Muggs, as will appear from the following words.
English.
_ Sun
el
Moon
Stars
Earth
Water
Fire
Stone
Wind
Rain
Man
Woman
Child
Head
Mouth
' Arm
Leg
Foot
Hand
Beast
Bird
Fish
Good
Bad
Great
Little
~ Long
Short
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
- Eight
Nine
Ten
Eat
Drink
Sleep
Walk
Sit
Joomea.
Nee
Law
Kree
Mo-ree
Mee
Kiouk
Lee
Mo
Loo
Meem-ma
Looshee
Gaung
Ko-naung
Lay-maung
Kree-ei
Po-wa
Lay-wa
Henak
Nga
Kaung
Makaung
Kree
Shay
Akree
Ato
Tay
Hnay
Soum
Lay
Nga
Kro
Koney
Shay
Ko
Tsay
Tsaw
Souk
Eit
Hlay
Tein
Moroosa
of the Mamuri.
of Edgong.
Ta-nee
Pu-law
Kray
Kraung
Tooee
Mai
Tow-hoa
Rlee
Mo-roo
Mee-sar
Na-sa
Loo
Nor
Boung
Se-pom
Ko-koum
Roo-koom
Ko-paw
To-waw —
Dam
Yoong
Yoongduay
A-yoo-ko
A-tsoi-tsa
Akrang
A-toung
Lou
Pray
Soum
Ta-lee
Ta-nga
Ta-rouk
Raneet
Reeat
Ta-koo
Haw-moot
Tsaw
Kam
Eep
Ma-nay-bo
Tsom
Sat
Law-ma
Kray
Kraung
Mai
Mai-hua
Lee
Mo-whang
Mo-roo
Mo-shee-wa
Mo-roo-sha
Lo
Nor
Boung
Klaung
Ko-paw
Roo-pa
Wa-ouk
Dam
Yaung
Yaungda
Yoogma
Sum-tsha
Klangma
Atong-sha
Lak
Pray
Soom
Ta-lee
Ta-nga
Ta-ro
Raneet
Ryat
Ta-ko
Haw
Tsaw
Kam
Eime-moi
Tsam-psa
Tsam
212 Mr Anderson on the Quartz District
English. Joomea. ; Moroosa
of Edgong. . of the Mamuri.
Stand Ta i Roo Roo
Kill Koymay Tap Too-tay-moi
Yes Hooi-ou Na-za Na
No Ma-hou-poo Na-doi Po-da-po
Here Heca Wang Oay
There A-wee-ma Pai-koi O-ro
Above Gaung-ko-ma O-roo-koi Mo-kaung
Below A-nee Krongkoi Yooa
The Moroosas have no written language, but their form of
writing the syllables of their words is evidently similar to that
used by the natives of Ava and Arakan in their written lan-
guages ; thus, the word eit, signifying sleep in the Arakan dia-
lect, is the same with etm, the first syllable in the compound
word cim-moi used by the Moroosas, for ¢ final before m is
pronounced m both at Ava and Arakan. —
(To be concluded in next Number. )
Art. IIT.—On the Quartz District in the neighbourhood of
Loch Ness.* By Grorcr ANDERSON, Esq. F.R.S.E., &c.
Inverness.
1. Tue rock I am now to describe, is more abundantly found
in the counties of Inverness and Ross than is generally ima-
gined ; but its character and geological relations are no where
better exemplified than along each side of the banks of Loch
Ness.
2. In the lower, or eastern portion of the Great Glen, of
which the basin of this lake forms a considerable part, the
quartz-rock is associated with sandstone, while in the central
and higher districts it is connected with granite and with
gneiss.
The mountains along the north side of the lake are imme-
diately connected with a chain of similar ones,—no large val-
ley intervening, while those on the south side are separated
from the Bain ranges, in the interior of the country,
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 5th April 1824.
in the neighbourhood of Loch Ness. 213
by a wide and dreary alpine plain, or valley, called Strath
Errick.. This valley is almost entirely composed of granite,
which is of a red or grey colour, large-grained, and most com-
monly contains hornblende. The granite is also distinguished
by the frequent occurrence of small rounded, or concretion-
ary imbedded portions of mica-slate and clay-slate.
On the north side of Loch Ness granite occurs, constitut-
ing one of the mountains (called the Red Rock) next the low-
est or eastern extremity, but is here remarkably small-grain-
ed, and, as I shall afterwards more particularly notice, differs
but little from the ordinary compact quartz-rock. Such is
the distribution of the granite. That of the quartz-rock I
shall describe, after explaining its characters. It appears to
be a rock which is daily assuming a more important place
than it formerly possessed in the classification of mountain
masses.
8. The predominating colour of the quartz-rock of Loch
Ness is light red or brown, but it is to be found of a blue or
grey tint. The substances which compose this rock, are fel-
spar, quartz, and mica, but of these three ingredients the
quartz is the most abundant. Its texture is granular, or near-
ly compact, and the form of the particles crystalline. The
three ingredients are so intimately combined as to exhibit a
perfectly homogeneous structure. But it is by the hardness,
and the shape of the fragments produced by the hammer, that
this rock is chiefly distinguished from the older sandstone.
The hardness is indeed so great, that, in breaking off speci-
mens, they frequently fly into the air and ring like clinkstone.
The cross fracture is uneven, very small and granular, and
the form of the fragments is rhomboidal, and rarely rectan-
gular.
The texture of the rock, though in general small-grained
or compact, is, however, occasionally diversified by the occur-
rence of large imbedded masses of conglomerate, into which
. those portions of the quartz-rock contiguous to it gradually
pass.
The conglomerated variety occurs in the neighbourhood of
Foyers, and on the margin of Loch Ness, between Inverness
and the General’s Hut. But it is most abundantly found in
Q14 Mr Anderson on the Quartz District
the mountains below Foyers, as we proceed eastward from the
margin of the lake. ~On the north side of Loch Ness, the
conglomerate is less abundant, but it is found on the summit,
of the well known mountain named Mealfourvoney, which is
more than 3000 feet high. This is, therefore, one of the
greatest altitudes in Britain in which rocks of a conglomerate
character have been traced. The fragments which compose
this rock, may be described as different varieties of granite,
gneiss, mica-slate, quartz, and felspar ; chlorite may be also
occasionally detected. The fragments are angular: -and round-
ed, those of the latter form ener undoubted marks of at-
trition. They also vary in magnitude, from the size of large
boulders to that of small grains.
I shall now state the only distinctions which I have been
able to discover between the conglomerate rock which occurs
in the quartz district, and that which is associated with the
red sandstone. The former is much harder than the latter,
yielding to the blows of the hammer with far greater difficul-
ty. Again, in the conglomerate peculiar to the quartz-rock,
the fragments have often the appearance of imperfect crystals,
which five been separated and re-united. This character,
however, is not found in the variety of conglomerate which is
associated with the red sandstone.
I may next observe, that the conglomerate which is found
on the summit of Mealfourvoney, contains a much smaller va-
riety of substances than is observed elsewhere, as they chiefly
consist either of quartz-rock itself, or of a variety of the same
which approaches to the character of gneiss.
With regard to the structure of the quartz-rock, it 1s some-
times schistose, but in its general character can scarcely be
considered as stratified ; at least, it displays but imperfect-
ly any regular lamellar arrangement. ‘The natural seams
and lines of fissility which its surface exhibits, are unlike
those of regular strata, having no uniform or parallel direc-
tion. There i is also no re sgular dip or inclination to any par-
ticular point of the compass.
This rock varies much in its liability to decomposition, but
in general it very strongly resists the action of the weather.
Tn decomposing, however, it is to be remarked, that the com-
in the neighbourhood of Loch Ness. 215
pacter kind never assumes the rounded concretionary disposi-
tion incidental to most varieties of granite.
_ The forms presented by the hills of quartz-rock, are con-
oidal, and in one or two instances serrated : the acclivities are
smoother than those which are found in mountains composed
of mica-slate or clay-slate, but they are bleak, and strewed
over with fragments. The conglomerated hills present more
undulating outlines, and their slopes are heaved up into rude
irregular precipices.
The high mountain of Mealfourvoney, so often referred to,
exhibits on its summit a large dome or cupola of conglomo-
rate, springing from a basis of the more compact quartz-rock.
This summit likewise sends off two very long waved ridges,
to the east and west, while its northern and southern sides
are formed into rugged mural precipices.
4. Having thus described the detached characters of the
quartz-rock, its importance and. geological position will now
be understood, by attending to its junctions with the other
rocks of the district; and I shall next describe the quartz-
rock as it is found in junction with granite.
This takes place on the south side of Loch Ness, especially
at the vitrified station of Dun-Jardil.
There is no change produced on the quartz-rock in regard
to its chemical composition; but some of the ingredients of
which it consists, increase in size, become visible to the naked
eye, and in many cases pass into a hard conglomerate, the por-
tions of which are sharp or angular, and partake more of a
form that is irregularly crystalline, than one which can be
considered as induced by abrasion. ‘This appearance is occa-
sionally accompanied by the presence of large rhomboidal cry-
stals of felspar. The conglomerate here alluded to likewise
partakes of a mixture of the predominating colours of the
quartz-rock and granite. In other cases, however, the junc-
tion-is marked by the quartz-rock and granite alternating with,
or succeeding each other, in the form of irregular layers,—
the passage of one substance into the other being gradual,
and almost imperceptible.
I have only further to remark, with regard to the relations
of these two rocks, that in certain places, especially on the
216: Mr Anderson ow the Quartz District
north side of the lake, veins of granite are seen traversing the
quartz. In the conglomerate, also, large fragments of granite
occur, though these are but rarely seen in the compact homo-
geneous quartz-rock. ‘
The granitic mountain on the north side of Loch Ness, to
which I have alluded, i is a variety approaching very near to
the character of quartz-rock, being, like it, naturally resolved
into short angular and rhomboidal fragments, of a tabular ap-
pearance, hile its structure is finer than we generally meet
with in granitic rocks. In the neighbourhood of the same
mountain, we also find the more common variety of the
quartz-rock, while its alliance to this variety of small-grained
granite, which it so nearly resembles, is confirmed by the pas-
sage through each of veins of an undoubted large-grained
granite.
This red quartz-rock likewise contains cavities encrusted
with small rock-crystals; and, associated with these, I dis-
covered particles of galena, copper-glance, and antimony.
5. The other primitive rock to be noticed is gneiss, with
which, as I have stated, the quartz-rock of this district is con-
nected. Gneiss occurs chiefly on the north side of the lake,
extending from thence as far as Ross-shire.
The changes induced on the quartz-rock by its contact with
gneiss, are shortly these :—There is, first, an increase of mica,
which adds to its schistose tendency, and gives it a grey or
blue colour. Secondly, the gneiss is disturbed in the regu-
larity of its stratification, for I observed it to deviate from
an inclined or vertical position into a horizontal one. Lastly,
both the gneiss and the quartz-rock are mutually intersected.
by granite veins, and imbedded masses of various sizes, con-
sisting of hornblende, often beautifully crystallized, in which
garnets are sometimes found.
6. ‘This concludes my account of the important relations of
quartz-rock to gneiss and granite. I shall now describe brief-
ly its connections with sandstone.
On the north side of Loch Ness, granite is succeeded to-
wards the east by quartz-rock, intermixed with gneiss; and to
_ these are joined a lower sandstone ridge, on the last of which,
11
im the neighbourhood of Loch Ness. 217
or that nearest the sea, is the celebrated vitrified fortification
of Craig-Phadric.
On the south side of Loch Ness, is the coarse conglomerate
chain of hills named Balcharnoch. From the softer and more
_ iron-shot texture of these conglomerate rocks, and from their
gradually passing into sandstone, I am inclined to regard them
as not belonging to the quartz-rock.
To complete my account of the sandstone, I have only to
add, that its predominating varieties are the common old red
sandstone, and a grey micaceous sandstone, very soft and
fissile. It is also associated with a bituminous rock, hitherto
_ but little noticed by geologists. This rock deserves a separate
consideration.
7. The exact line of junction between the quartz-rock of a
_ compact texture, and the sandstone, cannot always be accu-
rately determined; but a change is indicated on the quartz-
rock, by its very inferior degree of hardness, and by a cor-
responding alteration in its texture; the component particles
losing somewhat of their crystalline aspect, and acquiring more
of an arenaceous structure. ~
At a little distance from the point of junction, the rock as-
sumes a more determinate form; that is, it gradually acquires
a stratified arrangement, and the strata are varied in their line
of bearing, while they are generally inclined at a very low
angle. The circumstance, therefore, of stratification, is a very
characteristic difference between the sandstone and quartz-
rock, But, besides this distinguishing mark, the sandstone
strata appear to be superimposed on the quartz-reck, while
the latter, in its relations to granite and gneiss, observes no
‘such determinate mode of position.
Such are the relations of the quartz-rock. Its connection,
on the one hand, with granite and with gneiss, and, on the
other hand, with sandstone, have been severally explained.
The quartz-rock, therefore, maintains a very important place
in geological systems, as, from the nature of~its ingredients,
from its structure and transitions, it is the probable commences
ment of the great series of sandstone rocks.
The peculiar quartz-rock now described as so abundant in
the vicinity of Loch Ness, has been elsewhere observed ; and
218 Drs Hooker and Greville on the Genus Calymperes
Dr MacCulloch notices it as a curious variety, while Dr Hib- _
bert has identified it with the quartz-rock of Shetland.
*,* Mr Anderson’s Account of the Geographical Distribu-
tion of the Quartz-rock, and of the bituminous strata associated
with the Sandstone, will be given in our next Number.
Art. IV.—On the Genus Calymperes of Swartz and Syrrho-
podon of Schwaegrichen, of the Order Musct. By W. J.
Hooxrr, LL.D. F.R.S. &c. &c. Regius Professor of Bo-
tany in the University of Glasgow, and R. K. Grevitte,
LL.D. F.R.S.E. &c. &. Communicated by the Authors.
Iy noticing under the same head the two genera above men-
tioned, we are influenced by their great similarity in habit,
and by the circumstance of both having been previously con-
sidered as belonging to one genus, that of Calymperes.
The genus Calymperes was instituted by Dr Swartz; and,
as it appears, published for the first time at Kiel, in the year
1813, in the T'abula Muscorum Frondosorum of Weber; but,
as we do not possess that table, we are not aware what charac-
ter was there ascribed to it, or what species, if any particular
one, was there described. In the year 1816, our friend Dr
Schwaegrichen published the genus in his Mantissa Generum
aliquot Novorum, attached to the second part of the first sup-
plement to the “* Species Muscorum,” simply with the charac-
ter, “ Peristomium nullum, thece orificio membrana spon-
giosa tecto. Flores terminales dioici;” and describes under
it two new species, C. lonchophyllum, and C. Palisoti. .
In the year 1818, there appeared in Sprengel and Schra-
der’s “ Jahrbiicher der Gewiichskunde,” Dr Swartz’s paper,
with an excellent account of this genus, under which the C.
Afzelit is described ; and there we find the following generic
character, ‘ Peristomium nudum. Calyptra carinata, persis-
tens, infra sporangium constricta, apice circa operculum (ma-
turitate solutum) rimis longitudinalibus hians.”
About the same time, but without bemg aware of the me-
moir last mentioned, Dr Hooker published in his Musct E'xo-
tici, what he then considered, from the remarkable habit of the
of Swartz and Syrrhopodon of Schwaegrichen. 219
plant, and from the nature of the peristome, a species belong-
_ Ing to the same genus, under the name of Calymperes Gard-
neri. Here, however, Dr Hooker discovered the presence
of actual teeth to the peristome, united at the base into a
membrane, whereas in the figures of Calymperes given by
Schwaegrichen, there is an horizontal membrane radiated
with lines, as it were the rudiments of teeth, very similar to
the appearance which the peristome of C. Gardneri presents
in a young and moist state.
Schwaegrichen then, in his last supplement, considering
Calymperes to be destitute of actual teeth, and C. Gardneri
to be furnished with them, and finding some further charac-
ters to exist in the calyptra, constituted of the latter the
genus Syrrhopodon, adding to it the Weissia ciliata of Hook-
er, and four other species.
The two genera, as we have already observed, are very
closely allied in habit. They grow mostly on the trunks of
trees in a tufted manner, somewhat like the genus Orthotri-
chum. ‘Their leaves, generally narrow and much elongated,
have for the most part a close and compact texture, except at
the broad sheathing base, where a considerable portion is oc-
cupied by extremely large, very pellucid, and even transpa-
rent, colourless, quadrangular cellules. The extremity is
often lengthened out, again becoming broader at the very
apex, so as to be somewhat spathulate, and there producing
minute jointed bodies, which have so much the appearance of
a species of conferva, that we cannot help considering them
as quite analagous to the Conferva Orthotrichi, and by no
means to the Fide flowers of mosses, although Schwaegrichen
considers them as such, and makes them for m a part of his
generic characters. Swartz spoke of them doubtfully as the
male flowers, and we have ourselves seen the real gemmiform
male flowers of Hedwig, in more than one instance. The
margins of the leaves are more or less incrassated, serrated, or
entire; when serrated, the serratures are often extended to
the summit of the back of the nerve, and, in one instance, are
in that situation so much and so irregularly scattered, as to
give that part a spiculated appearance. The nerve is per-
current, (except in the doubtful species Syrrhopodon T'aylori,
220 Drs Hooker and Greville on the Genus Calymperes
which is the only species also which wants the reticulated.
pellucid base.) The seta is terminal, more or less elongated,
The capsule oblong or subcylindrical, smooth, sometimes
very shining. Operculum more or less acuminated and
straight. Calyptra large, enveloping the capsule, and, in
most instances, closely embracing the fruit-stalk with its base.
The points in which the two genera appear to differ are
these. In the first genus, Calymperes, the fruit-stalk is rarely
exserted beyond the points of the leaves. The calyptra is
constantly very large, deeply striated or sulcated, closely en-
veloping the capsule, like a mantle with many longitudinal
folds, somewhat spirally twisted, firmly embracing the upper
part of the seta, never, that we can find, deciduous, but open-
ing by fissures where it surrounds the mouth of the capsule,
and containing at its extremity the loosened operculum. This
operculum is, we believe, in every instance conico-acuminate,
and never equal to half the length of the capsule. The cap-
sule has no true peristome ; but in lieu of it, Schwaegrichen
finds in the species lonchophyllum and Palisoti, a yellow ho-
rizontal membrane, with a circular line at a short distance
from the margin, and radiated in one from the centre to the
circumference ; in the other only to the intra-marginal circle,
with sixteen lines, representing, as it were, so many teeth.
We, on the contrary, can only see in very perfect specimens
of C. Palisoti, a uniform, whitish, spongy, horizontal mem-
brane. Schwaegrichen, again, in his C. Moluccense, both
figures and describes this membrane as conical, green, and
filling the interior of the operculum. Sprengel describes that
of C. Berterii simply as covering the mouth ofthe capsule.
In the genus Syrrhopodon, the seta is more elongated,
mostly exceeding the length of the leaves. The calyptra is
smooth, not twisted, opening longitudinally on one side, and
deciduous. This part, however, we must confess, is variable
in length, and, in some instances, approaches too near to the
true dimidiate calyptra. The operculum hasa subulate point,
as long as the capsule, (except in the doubtful S. T'’aylori.)
The peristome is variable: in S. Gardneri, which must be con-
_sidered as-the type of the genus, the peristome is unquestion-
- ably horizontal, formed of sixteen transversely striated red
of Swartz and Syrrhopodon of Schwaegrichen. 221
teeth, united at the base into a thickish spongy yellow mem-
brane inserted just below the mouth of the capsule. This
materially differs from the figure of the same plant given by
Schwaegrichen, who has further represented a longitudinal
line down the centre of each tooth, which we have not been
able to discover. In Syrrhopodon ciliatus, the teeth are si-
milar to those of the genus Weissia, separated to the base,
erect, or only slightly inclined inwards, and marked with a
distinct longitudinal line, which Schwaegrichen has entirely
omitted. S. fasciculatus also has teeth similar to these, but
so opaque we have not been able to discover a longitudinal
line, if it exists. In imperfect specimens of S. Hobsoni, we
find a horizontal membranous annulus, as if when in perfec-
tion it might have had the teeth of S. Gardneri, or it may
have had a horizontal membrane, as in Calymperes.
Tt will now be seen how very nearly allied are some species
of Syrrhopodon to the genus Weissia. And, in truth, we
should never ‘consent to the separation of especially S. etliatus
and ryfescens, were it not that they differ so widely in habit
from the acknowledged species of Weissia, and are so closely
allied to S: Gardneri. Here, therefore, we have adopted the
golden rule of Linnzus, which is equally applicable to the
mosses, as to the higher orders of plants: Genus dabit cha-
racterem, non character genus. Others may be perhaps more
fortunate than ourselves in discovering good generic marks of
distinction.
CALYMPERES. *
Gen. Cuar.—Seta terminalis. Peristomiwm nullum, os mem-
brana spongiosa horizontali tectum. Calyptra sulcata, per-
sistens, infra capsulam constricta, apice circa operculum
(maturitate solutum) rimis longitudinalibus hians.
1. C. Palisoti, foliis lineari-lingulatis, obtusis, submargina-
tis, siccitate crispatulis ; seta vix exserta.
Calymperes Palisoti, Schwaegr. Suppl. I. 2. p. 334. t. 98, (in tab. sub.
nom. C. lonchophylli..)
* “ Etymologia a Greeca voce velamen et transadigo quoniam calyptra qua fruc-
tus tegitur rimis apice aperitur.”—Sw.
222 Drs Hooker and Greville On the Genus Calymperes
Has. St Thomas, in the West Indies, and French Guiana, Richard.
Abundantly upon the bark of trees in the island of St Vincent, and also
in the island of Grenada, upon the trunk of Bignonia leucomylon, Rev. L.
Guilding. Barbadoes and Dutch Guiana, C. Parker, Esq. Oware on the
coast of Africa, Pal. de Beauvois. Sincapore, Dr Wallich, but without
fruit.
This species is remarkable for the obtuseness of the leaves, and for their
being quite entire at the margin. They are likewise shorter and broader
than in any species with which we are acquainted, but not so much so as
those of C. Berterzi are represented to be.
Many of the upper leaves are lengthened out, and spathulated at their
extremity, bearing on their upper surface a cluster of conferva-like bodies.
The species varies in length, many of our fructified specimens from St
Vincent’s being only half an inch long, while those we have from Barba-
does and from Sincapore are from an inch to an inch and a half in length.
Upon the capsules of our most perfect specimens, we have found a mem-
brane stretching across the mouth, but have never been able to detect the
radiated appearance represented by Schwaegrichen.
2. C. Moluccense, ‘‘ caule subsimplici, compacto ; ramulis
vix conspicuis, foliis densissimis, capsula brevioribus, lanceo-
latis, obtusis.” Schwaegr.
Calymperes Moluccense, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 2. p. 99. t. 127.
Has. In Rauwack, one of the Molucca islands, Gaudichaud.
This species, which we do not possess, and of which not a very excel-
lent figure is given by Schwaegrichen, in his last supplement, resembles
C. Palisoti, of which Schwaegrichen thinks it might be made a variety.
8. C. Berterii, “ foliis ovato-oblongis, apice dentatis, seta
elongata.” Spreng.
C. Berterii, Spreng. in Neue Entdeck, v. 3, p. 1.
Has. upon the ground in Hispaniola, Bertero.
This appears, from the form of the leaves, to be most nearly allied to
C. Palisoti, except that here they are described as ovate-oblong, and
toothed at the extremity.
4. C. Afzelii, caule elongato, foliis linearibus marginatis,
apicem versus serrulatis, siccitate tortilibus marginibusque
involutis ; seta foliis subduplo longioribus.
Calymperes Afzelii, Spreng. in Jahrb. der Gewaechsk. p. 3. t. 1. 1818-
Has. Sierra Leone, Swartz. We have received specimens from Mr
Dickson gathered on the west coast of Africa.
Although Steudel in the second volume of his Nomenclator Botanicus,
seems to consider this as the same plant as C. Palisoti of Schwaegrichen,
(in the text, but not in the plate,) it appears to us to be sufficiently dis-
tinct, judging as we do, both from the figure in Sprengel’s work, above
1
of Swartz and Syrrhopodon of Schwaegrichen. 225
quoted, and from a specimen which we received from Mr Dickson ; which
specimen perfectly accords with that figure.
C. Afzelii too, is the individual upon which the genus was established
by the late excellent Dr Swartz. The stems are almost twice or thrice
the length of C. Palisoti ; the leaves are longer and narrower, and towards
the extremity constantly serrulate. In those leaves which have the con-
ferva-like processes, they are produced in globular heads at the tips of the
excurrent nerve ; whereas in C. Palisoti the leaf itself is lengthened out
into a spathulate extremity upon the upper surface of which these bodies
are produced.
5. C. Guildingii, caule elongato, foliis lmeari-setaceis, sub-
rigidis, siccitate subtortis, marginatis, omnino integerrimis ;
seta Vix exserta.
Has. frequent upon the bark of trees in shady places, on Mount St
Andrew, Island of St Vincent, Rev. L. Guilding.
The stems are from an inch anda half to two inches and a half in
length ; the leaves very slender, somewhat rigid, not much crisped when
dry, gradually acuminated upwards. Seta scarcely longer than the leaves.
Calyptra of a browner colour than usual. Neither in this species, nor in
C. lonchophyllum have we observed the conferva-like bodies.
6. C. lonchophyllum, foliis longissime angustissimeque
linearibus, marginatis, apicem versus serratis, siccitate tortuo-
sis.
Calymperes lonchophyllum, Schwaegr. Suppl. I. 2. p. 333. t. 98. (In
tab. sub. nom. C. Palisoti.)
Has. Upon trees in Guiana, Richard. Island of St Vincent, Rev. L.
Guilding, and C. Parker, Esq. This has by far the longest leaves of
any inthe genus. They are tender and pellucid, having a singularly thick-
ened margin, serrated only towards the upper extremity. The seta scarce-
ly rises above the summits of the leaves.
SyRRHOPODON.
Gen. Cuar.—Seta terminalis. Peristomium e dentibus sede-=
cim horizontalibus, basi membrana unitis, vel sedecim libe-
ris, erectis, inclusisve. Calyptra levis, magna, capsulam
involvens, demum lateraliter fissa, decidua. *
1. S. Gardneri, foliis linearibus, obtusis, submarginatis,
“ Imperfect as this character must appear, we fear it would scarcely be improved
by altering it to that of Schwaegrichen. ‘‘ Peristomium simplex, breve: dentibus
sedecim intus adnatis, conniventibus.
Flores masculi foliigeni, raro axillares. Calyptra levis, subcampanulata, latere
fissa, quibusdam longa.” Schwacgr.
224 Drs Hooker and Greville on the Genus Calymperes
serratis, siccitate crispatis; seta breviuscula ; calyptra levis-
sima.
Syrrhopodon Gardneri, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 2. p. 110. t. 121.
Calymperes Gardneri, Hook. Musc. Exot. t. 146.
Has. Upon trees in Nepal. Honourable D. Gardner, communicated by
Dr Wallich.
We have little to observe with regard to this highly beautiful species,
more than what has been said in the Musci Exotici above quoted ; except,
that we find the teeth in some instances seem less distinctly united by a
membrane, and that, in the dry state, they become nearly erect, especially
in old capsules.
Schwaegrichen’s figure by no means does justice to this plant, nor do
we understand his meaning when he says, ‘‘ Calymperis Gardneri Hook-
eriana icon et descriptio difficultatem mihi exhibet. Folia enim sistit
serrata, marginata et peristomium breve, ut in Syrrhopodonte Gardneri,
caulem vero et calyptram Syrrhopodontis Taylor?. Forte ambas habuit
species commixtas.” We have again verified the correctness of that figure.
The stems vary from half an inch to an inch, and the leaves are more or
less involute, and more or less distinctly serrated. The leaf at Fig. 3, of
Schwaegrichen’s representation, and the calyptra at Fig. 11, do not seem
at all to belong to the true Syrrhopodon Gardneri. Among numerous
specimens, we have never been able to find the conferva-like bodies which
Schwaegrichen has drawn at Figs. 6 and 7 of his plate.
2. S. albovaginatus, “caule subramoso, foliis lingulatis secun-
dis, rigidulis; basi alba vaginantibus ; calyptra breviuscula.”
Schwaegr. .
Syrrhopodon albovaginatus, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 2. p. 112. t. 131.
Has. In Rauwack, one of the Molucca islands, Gaudichaud.
The calyptra of this being described as shorter than the capsule, and
cleft and spreading at the base, it does not consequently correspond with
our generic character, as taken from the calyptra. Should this be the case,
we scarcely know upon what characters, as taken from the fructification,
the genus can rest. Here is a dimidiate calyptra like that of a Wetssia,
and we have shown that, in one instance at least, the peristome is erect,
like that of a Weissia: yet we can truly say, that all the species we. have
included in the present genus, are so closcly allied in habit, that they
cannot be separated without doing violence to nature.
3. S. Hobsoni, foliis linearibus acutiusculis, marginatis,
serratis, planiusculis, erecto-patentibus, siccitate crispatulis ;
seta foliis duplo longior, calyptra levis.
Calymperes Hobsoni, Grev. in Annals of Lyc. New York, y. 1.
Has. Guiana; from whence it was received and communicated to us
by Mr Hobson of Manchester.
This differs from S. rigidus in having the leaves shorter, broader, and
of Swartz and Syrrhopodon of Schwacgrichen. 225
crisped, when dry : in this species also, the reticulated portion at the base
is of a white instead of a reddish colour. The seta is shorter than in S.
rigidus. The capsule ovate-oblong and shining. We have not seen the
peristome, but have observed the remains of a membranaceous circle simi-
lar to the membrane which occurs at the base of the teeth in S. Gardneri,
but which may be the remains of that kind of membrane which is cha-
racteristic of the genus Calymperes. The lid is subulate, and equal in
length to the capsule.
4. S. involutus, “ caule subramoso, fastigiato, foliis erectis,
linearibus, margine involutis pellucidis, serrulatis, tortilibus,
capsula ovata, calyptra mediocri.” Schwaegrr.
‘Syrrhopodon involutus, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 2. p. 117. t. 132.
Has. In Rauwack, one of the Molucca islands, Gaudichaud.
5. S. Taylori, “ caule subsimplici, foliis linearibus, sub-
dentatis, subsecundis, tortilibus, capsula cylindrica, calyptra
magna, basi contracta.” Schwaegr.
Syrrhopodon Taylori, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 2. p. 115. t. 132.
Has. In Nepal, on the trunks of decaying trees.
We are quite unable to understand what the author intends by this
plant, which was communicated to him by our valued friend Dr Taylor,
and of which he says, that the stem and calyptra resemble the figures of
these parts as represented in the plate of Dr Hooker’s Calymperes Gard
neri, in Musci Exotici. There may indeed be but a slight difference in
the appearance of the stems, but his calyptra, Fig. 13. we must assert, is
totally unlike any thing figured by Dr Hooker in his Calymperes Gard-
neri. Our own collection of Nepal mosses is so similar to that of Dr Tay-
lor, that there cannot be a question that we must also possess this plant,
and, most assuredly, as far as regards the figures of the entire plants in
Schwaegrichen’s plate (Figs. 1 and 2,) of the leaves, (Figs. 3, 3,) and the
base * and extremity of the leaves (Figs. 4 and 5,) of Syrrhopodon Tay-
lori, they correspond in every particular with a Nepalese Dicranum which
we possess. But then again, the figures of the teeth and entire peristome,
(Figs. 11 and 12,) if correctly drawn, can never belong to our plant. We
hope to be able to speak of this subject with more certainty on another oc-
casion.
6. S fasciculatus, caule elongato, fastigiato-ramoso, foliis
lato-lanceolatis, undulatis, lato-marginatis, serrulatis, siccitate
crispis ; seta longa.
Haz. Island of Ternate, Mr Dickson. Sincapore, Dr Wallich.
By far the longest and most robust species we know of the genus, the
stems measuring full three inches in length. The leaves are remarkable
* We may here observe, that, both according to Schwaegrichen’s figure and de-
scription of this base, it altogether wants that peculiar reticulated and pellucid ap-
pearance which forms so striking a character in the other species of the genus,
VOL; 111, NO. It, OCTOBER 1825, P
226 Drs Hooker and Greville on the Genus Calymperes, &c.
for their broad semi-pellucid and waved margin. The capsule is cylin-
drical, the calyptra long, obscurely striated, enveloping the whole of the
capsule, and even the upper part of its seta with its base. The teeth are
long linear-subulate, erect, red, distinctly jointed like those of many spe-
cies of Wetssia.
7. S. incompletus, ‘* caule ramoso-fastigiato, foliis lineari-
lanceolatis, serratis, marginatis, peristomio membrana brevis-
sima indivisa.” Schwaegr.
Syrrhopodon incompletus, Schwaegr. Suppl II. 2. p. 119.
Has. In the Island of Cuba, Dr Poeppig.
8. S. rigidus, foliis lineari-setaceis, marginatis, serratis, ri-
gidis, siccitate strictis, margine mvolutis; seta elongata ; ca-
lyptra leevissima.
Has. Upon trees on Mount St Andrew, at an elevation of 1012 feet
above the level of the sea, in the Island of St Vincent. Rev. L. Guilding.
Of this fine moss we have seen no perfect peristome, but, on account of
the smooth calyptra, we have ranked it with the present genus. The
stems are from one to two inches long, branched. ‘The leaves long, slen-
der, peculiarly rigid and straight when dry ; many of them attenuated
upwards, but spreading again somewhat at the extreme point, and these
producing conferva-like bodies. The base of the leaves, which is white in
most species, is here of a red colour. We have received it from no country
but St Vincents. :
9. S. ciliatus, foliis lingulatis planis, longissime ciliatis.
Syrrhopodon ciliatus, Schwaegr. Suppl. IT. 2. p. 114. t. 132.
Weissia ciliata, Hook. Musc. Exot. t. 171.
’ Haz. In the Island of Vernate, whence it was received by Mr Dick-
gon.
We have followed Professor Schwaegrichen, in including this plant in
the genus Syrrhopodon. It possesses we think, sufficiently of the habit
and most evidently the pellucid base of the leaves belonging to the genus.
The teeth have, however, a line down the middle, which we cannot find
to exist in any other species ; and we must add, that an old fallen calyptra,
represented in Musci Exotici, (Fig. 7,) had the appearance of being truly
dimidiate, although before the falling of the calyptra it entirely envelopes
the capsule, and embraces the upper part of the fruit-stalk with its base.
10. S. spiculosus, foliis anguste linearibus, dorso margini-
busque incrassatis spiculoso-denticulatis, siccitate vix crispa-
tulis.
Has. Sincapore, Dr Wallich.
We only possess this without fructification, but, in habit and in the tex-
ture of its leaves, it quite accords with the other species of the genus, from
all of which it differs in the numerous pellucid denticulated or spiculated
unequal processes, which are found not only upon the margin of the leaf,
Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France. 227
but also on the nerve, especially on the back. These leaves approach in
size and somewhat in general appearance to S. rufescens.
11. S. rufescens, sericeis; foliis lineari-subulatis, margina-
tis, integerrimis, laxissime reticulatis, pellucidis, ad apicem
solummodo opacis, siccitate vix crispatis; seta gracillima.
Has. Sineapore, Dr Wallich.
A very singular species of a most soft and silky texture, growing in
dense tufts, apparently upon the trunks of decaying trees. The colour is
a very pale reddish green. The stems are from one to two inches long,
thickly clothed with leaves, which are remarkable in being formed almost
entirely of those large pellucid and even transparent cellules which exist
only at the base of the leaves in other species. ‘I'he opaque portion of the
leaf’ is almost wholly confined to the very extremity, or running down for
at most one third of the leaf, gradually quitting the nerve and disappear-
ing at the margin. The seta is about half an inch long, extremely slen-
der, yellowish. The capsule shortly oblong, at first yellowish, afterwards
red-brown. The lid has a subulate point equal in length to, or longer
than the capsule. Calyptra almost white, enveloping the capsule, but we
have not seen it in a mature state.
Art. VI.—Some Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of
France, collected partly from Observation, partly from a free
Communication with the Inhabitants of various ranks.
Written during a Residence in that Country, for the use
of a Friend in Britam. By H. H. Briacxapper, Esq.
Surgeon.
Tus northern part of France, distinguished more exclusively
by the name of French Flanders, comprehends about 60
square leagues, or 180 square miles,—extending N. E. to W.,
from Dunkirk to Calais, about nine leagues, and N. to S. E.,
from Gravelines to Cassel, about eight leagues. This tract
of country forms one extensive level plain, which was, be-
yond all doubt, at some remote period occupied by the sea.
The insulated hill on which Cassel stands, and which rises
from five to six hundred feet above the level of the plain, was,
at one time, bathed by the sea, from which it is now distant
about six leagues,—and there are monuments which seem to
indicate that vessels could, in former times, reach even to St
Omer, which is eight leagues from the present shore of the
English Channel.
228 Account of the Climate, §c. of the North of France.
The period at which the land began thus to encroach upon
the sea, is lost in the lapse of ages,—all that we can discover
from history is, that this encroachment had made considerable
progress anterior to the age of Julius Casar. No fossil shells
are found in the soil, but trees, similar to those found in Hol-
land, have been dug out sixteen feet below the surface. The
cause of this formation of land, and consequent repulsion of
the sea, seems to be the successive accumulation of alluvial
matter brought down by the rivers,—including, perhaps, the
Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld, along with the action of
the North Sea on the coast of Holland. Gravelines, built at
the mouth of a river, was, at the beginning of the last century,
bathed by the sea, and is now distant from it about three
miles.
The surface of the country is but very little elevated above
the level of the sea at low water ; and when the seais full, the
land is so much below it, that were it not for the artificial em-
bankments along the shore, and if the sluices were not regu-
larly shut at Calais, Gravelines, Dunkirk and Fort Nieulay,
the whole country would be inundated. Hence it is that the
rivers and canals do not flow during high water, a pheno-
menon which always attracts the attention of strangers, more
especially when unacquainted with the cause.
Strictly speaking, there is but one river that passes through
this country, which is named the Aa, and which has its origin
near Reuti in Artois, about six leagues to the 8S. W. of St
Omer. Passing through the last mentioned town, its direc-
tion is towards Gravelines, and about a league beyond that
place, it reaches the sea,—its whole course not being less than
sixty or seventy miles. At different parts, as in the vicinity
of St Omer, the bed of the river has been raised many feet
above the surrounding fields, so that it is impossible to divine
what its original distribution may have been. At Waten it
gives off a branch called the Colme, which runs N., passes
Bergue, and enters the sea at Dunkirk. A second branch
goes toward Bourbourg, which it surrounds and crosses, and,
with the Colme, reaches the sea at Dunkirk. About two cen-
turies ago these branches were enlarged, (being then only
small streams,) so as to form two canals for the purpose of na-
Account of the Climate, &c, of the North of France. 229
vigation,—and serving also more effectually to carry off the
water from the mmummerable small canals, (termed water-
gangs in the language of the country,) and from the ditches
which communicate with them.
To a stranger, nothing is more novel and characteristic,
than the manner in which this tract of country is divided and
intersected by the small canals and ditches; the meadows,
corn-fields, plantations, and gardens of each proprietor, being
divided by these watergangs into small and more or less regu-
lar squares, each of which is completely insulated, so as to ad-
mit of boats readily passing between them. The whole may
be compared to the streets and alleys of a large city, where
water and boats come in the place of pavement and carriages.
The execution of these works has been of incalculable advan-
tage to the country,—immense tracts of rich soil, otherwise
worse than useless, has been rendered highly productive ;
land-carriage is almost unknown ; and last, but uot least, the
endemic diseases, which were formerly the scourge of the in-
habitants, have now nearly disappeared.
The river Aa runs slowly on a slimy channel, and which is
fit for forming peat.* Hence the water has a peculiar brack-
ish taste, which is very disagreeable. Over the whole of this
* In many places peats are dug out of the watergangs, &c. several feet
under the surface of the water. For this purpose, the person goes into a
large half-decked boat, and is provided with a very long-handled spade,
the rest for the foot being four or five feet from the cutting extremity.
With this instrument he digs up the peat, which is easily raised to the sur-
face of the water, but then requires a considerable exertion to place it on
the deck. Afterwards the peats are transferred to the land, to be thorough-
ly dried, and where, for a considerable time, they emit a most offensive
odour. When dry they are very different from the peat to be met with in
Scotland. They are very hard, black, and ponderous,—not easily kindled,
and in burning, give out a most disagreeable and almost unsupportable
odour. This odour is well known to strangers who may have walked
round the old ramparts of Calais, though they may have remained igno-
rant of its true origin. The cause is doubtless to be traced to the great
quantity of decayed animal matter that enters into the composition of this
species of peat. As the canals afford a ready and cheap mode of convey-
ance, and as both wood and pit-coal are high priced, these peats are much
used by the lower ranks, both in the towns and villages, as well as in the
country.
230 Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France.
country, indeed, the water is sufficiently bad; but that of the
Colme and the canals is even worse than that of the Aa. In
general it has a muddy brown colour, and deposits a green-
ish yellow slime in great abundance. Many of the inhabi-
tants are nevertheless under the necessity of using water from
the watergangs and ditches however unwholesome. It is very
dangerous to make use of these waters as drink, but their of-
fensive taste commonly prevents their use in that form, the
drink of the inhabitants being always a kind of tea or beer.
Much use is made of water from draw-wells, though the qua-
lity of this is also very bad, being strongly impregnated with
saline and other substances. It is more discoloured, and of
_ greater specific gravity, than the water of the rivers and ca-
nals, and is unfit for culinary purposes, animal and vegetable —
substances when concocted in it, acquiring a horny consistence.
The principal use to which the water of draw-wells is applied
is the washing of the houses, a practice to which the inhabi-
tants are, to appearance, excessively addicted. But, perhaps,
if their houses were not thus kept proportionably damp, the
inmates would be less able to resist the excessive dampness of
the external air, to which they are liable to be exposed im all
variety of circumstances.
It is much to be regretted that cisterns, from which so
much advantage has long been derived in Holland, are here
almost unknown.
The soil seems to be of the same description over the whole
of this tract of country. It is very moist, and is composed of
a mixture of clay, siliceous earth, peat-moss, and a considerable
proportion of animal and vegetable substances in a state of de-
composition. So much do the latter substances abound, that,
when it is examined in the hand, it has that over-rich, or ra-
ther greasy appearance of the soil that is to be found in the
vicinity of old dunghills. Hence it is, that ashes are in such
great repute as a manure, and are sold at a high price. The
cultivated fields are highly productive, and the pastures and
meadows, especially those on the banks of the canals, around
the villages and large farm-houses, are-rich even to luxuriance.
There are also considerable plantations, the vegetation of
which is strikingly rapid, many trees acquiring large dimen-
Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France. 231
sions in the course of a few years. The progress made after
-engrafting is also remarkable ; in. some instances, indeed, that
I had an opportunity of observing, it exceeded any thing I
could have imagined in so northerly a climate. It may be
-observed, that the trees incline to the east, and that on their
sides next to the sea there are comparatively few branches.
The agricultural productions are, in general, of the best qua-
lity; wheat and rye in great abundance, a great quantity of
these being sent to the interior. The diseases which affect
the corn, are said to be le charbon, la nielle, la rouille, le blé
moucheté; the ergot of the rye is of very rare occurrence.
It is not uncommon, excepting in the summer months, to see
the meadows, pastures, and, in some places, even the corn-
fields, covered with water. Hence it happens, that when the
autumn is particularly rainy, the sown fields are ruined, and
it becomes necessary to re-sow them in the month of March.
Potatoes are in general cultivation, though not so much
used as in Britain, excepting on occasions of scarcity. ‘There
are some varieties to be met with in the markets. The first
is characterized by paleness of the skin and whiteness of the
flesh, resembling, in these respects, the variety named white
blooms in some parts of Scotland, but in other respects it is
much superior. It is, upon the whole, rather tasteless, and is
most apt to be injured by frost. The skin of the second has
a fine claret colour, and the flesh, sufficiently dry, is more
compact than that of most other varieties. It seldom exceeds
the size of an egg, has an agreeable flavour, and is much used
“in soup along with “other vegetables. ‘The third is an excel-
lent and beautiful variety of the kidney species. The skin
is of a bright claret colour, which extends into the flesh. It
grows from two to five or six inches in length, and of uniform
thickness, which is seldom so much as an inch. ‘This potatoe
is very dry, has a very agreeable flavour, and though, with
other varieties of the kidney species, it is not very productive,
it is surprising that it is not met with in our gardens. It is
usually the first that appears in the market, and must be con-
sidered an early variety. The fourth is that named the black
potatoe, though its flesh be the whitest of all. ‘This, as else-
where, is cultivated for spring use, being universally recog-
232 Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France.
nized as withstanding the frost, and as ,being later in vegetat-
ing than any other variety. I never observed any appear-
ance of disease in the potatoes raised in this country.
The horticultural productions are very abundant, and, up-
on the whole, rather luxuriant, approaching to that which is
termed rank—the quantity and size being much more char-
acteristic than the richness of the flavour. Still, however, the
cherries, currants, apples, pears, peaches, plums, and other
fruits, form a great part of the wealth of the inhabitants.
Gooseberries are not much cultivated, and are chiefly used in
an unripe state. Much use is made of roasted apples and
pears, more especially in the time of Lent. The coarsest ap-
ples and pears, which are otherwise only fit for making cider
and perry, become pulpy, and of a fine subacid taste, by sim-
ple roasting in the oven. In this state they are preserved
close packed in jars for almost any length of time, and with-
out the addition of sugar. Spinage and sorrel are also pre-
served in jars, so as to furnish a constant supply at a trifling
expence during winter and spring,—a little salt and half
boiling of the leaves being all that is necessary. For the pur-
pose of promoting and protecting early vegetation, I find
much advantage is derived from the use of easily moveable
hurdles, made by placing a thin layer of straw or reeds longi-
tudinally between thin wicker-work, and which can be con-
structed at almost no expence. These are placed in various
directions around the beds, and shifted according to circum-
stances. There is one method of having early salad, which is
very simple. They sow the lettuce seed very thick, and when*
the young plants are about an inch in height, they are thin-
ned out. ‘These young plants make a most delicate salad,
and the taste can be rendered more piquant by the addition
of a few plants of the Lactuca virosa, or by a little endive, or
blanched dandelion.
On the sea-shore is found the Critim. marit. maj., which,
when confected in vinegar, is an article of commerce.
The prevailing quality of the air is humidity, the face of
the sky being commonly concealed by a sombre greyness of
the atmosphere, at no great height above the earth. The
barometer is variable, seldom remaining of the same height
Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France. 238
for two days in succession. The extremes are said to be
26, 3'—29. It has been remarked, that the changes are more
frequent and rapid than in the interior, and that the varia-
tions are most remarkable about the equinoxes. The mean
temperature is about 5° above that of Paris. The cold
season is of long duration, , but is commonly not severe.
Judging from the animal sensations, however, this climate is
colder than that of Paris, which must arise from the great
dampness of the air, caused by the vicinity of the sea, the
number of canals and ditches, the lowness and consequent,
moistness of the soil, and the great luxuriance of vegetation.
When the south or west winds continue for some time in
any season, abundant rain is the consequence. The animal
system then feels relaxed and oppressed ; the circulation is
slow, and the secretions interrupted. Persons feel themselves
heavy, and incapacitated for either mental or corporeal exer-
tion, and many, but particularly strangers, acquire a dingy
yellow colour of the skin, obviously connected with some irri-
tation of the biliary organs. This state of the atmosphere is
quickly changed by a north or north-east wind coming from
the sea. These winds are dry and invigorating, but not un-
frequently accompanied by a dense fog. The winds are very
variable, often changing in the course of the same day. The
most frequent are the south-west and the north, the most rare
the east. The south-west and north winds are always the
strongest, and the south wind is very moist. The south-west
wind is common in autumn, the north wind in spring.
' ‘The number of serene days ‘is about 40, and occur only
during a very hot or very cold state of the air. Most com-
monly the: sky is covered with a universal greyness, through
which the sun only occasionally makes his appearance.
They count, on an average, about twelve thunder storms
in the course of the year; and not unusually a tremendous
one all at once ushers in the winter. In a storm of this kind
which I witnessed, a wind-mill, at a short distance, was struck
by the electric fluid, and immediately after the flash, there
suddenly fell a shower of angular pieces of ice, by which some
individuals had their faces slightly lacerated.
Heavy fogs are very frequent, often appearing at mid-day,
234 Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France.
and, extending from the sea, envelope all Flanders, but seldom
advance interiorly beyond the province of Artois. These fogs
occur occasionally at all seasons, but are most common in
spring and autumn.
The quantity of rain is only somewhat greater than at
Paris. ‘Chere, the mean is 24 inches 2 lines, and there are
119 days with rain; here, the mean is 24.4, and the number
of days with rain 159. May, July, August, and November
are the months in which most 1ain is observed to fall.
_ In spring, the north wind is almost constant, especially from
the beginning of March to the middle of April. This wind
is strong, dry, cold, and sharp. Jt freezes in the night, and
the barometer always keeps high, but the sky is uniformly ob-
scured. Hoar-frosts are apt to occur until May; and it is
not till the middle of that month that the air begins to feel
sensibly and steadily warmer.
Tn summer, the weather is very variable, there being con-
tinual changes from heat to cold, and vice versa, not only
from day to day, but in the course of the same day. A fog
coming in a direction from the sea, extends all over the coun-
try, and then the thermometer sinks. In July and August
the heat is considerable, sometimes so high as 92°. On such
occasions there is always a perfect calm, but this state of the
air never lasts long ; clouds soon begin to make their appear-
ance, and the thermometer falls to about 65°. The usual
summer heat is from 65° to 80°. At this season, there is al-
ways a heavy dew during the night, accompanied by a very
cold and dense fog, the thermometer falling from 8° to 14°
Jower than during the day. Hence the origin of various dis-
eases to which persons are liable when exposed to the open
air during the night. No where is the sudden sensation of
cold at sunset more remarkable.
In autumn, the weather is most steady; after the equinox,
the thermometer sinks to 50°, and vacillates but little for a
considerable length of time. Frosts do not usually com-
mence till December ; but during the night and part of the
morning, there is always a dense cold fog, which moistens all
the surface of the ground, and of solid bodies resting on it.
In winter, the temperature rarely falls so low as 20°, but it
Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France. 235
has once or twice been observed nearly at 0°. In the winter
of 1819, I observed it so low as 10° a considerable time after
sunrise. There had previously been a great fall of snow
without wind, and there was now a gentle but steady norther-
ly breeze. The whole sky was free of clouds, had a deep
blue colour, and a peculiar glistening appearance, produced
by minute icy spicule with which it was heavily charged,
and which, impinging on the face, in walking against the
wind, were sufficient to blister it. ‘These spiculz had no ef-
fect on the appearance of the sun, if it was not to render the
light more intensely white and glistening.
A humid atmosphere, habitual heavy fogs, a moderate
temperature, a low and moist soil, the free use of watery
drinks, such as beer, the daily use of a great quantity of milk
and butter, an abundant nourishment of wheat-bread, but-
cher’s meat, tea, and fresh water fish, and garden vegetables
of all kinds, the ease of all ranks of society, and labour to oc-
cupy:all hands, all these things united must greatly influence
the physical and intellectual constitution of the inhabitants.
In general, men, animals, and vegetables, are large. A moist
climate, and a fertile soil, are favourable to the developement
of all the parts of animate beings. Hence we remark large
bones, large muscles, with a profusion of cellular substance.
When King Henry the Eight described a certain princess as
‘a great Flanders mare,” the comparison was rude, but suf-
ficiently intelligible. In general, the complexion of the in-
habitants is fair, the eyes blue, and the hair chesnut. They
support labour well, and often arrive to an advanced age. In
character they are a mixture of the Frenchman and Holland-
er, and which, when closely analyzed, is found to be rather an
odd compound.
Beer of various qualities is much used, and spirituous li-
quors (particularly gin, which sells at the rate of about six-
pence the bottle) are consumed in great quantity. Drunk-
enness, however, even in the towns, is rare, very rare, com-
pared with what may be observed in Britain, and habitual
drinkers still more so, But it is an almost universal practice
to take a glass of raw spirits on first rising in the morning,
a practice common, and said to have been found beneficial, in
236 Account of the Climate, Sc. of the North of France.
most damp countries on the continent of Europe. The use
of spirits mixed with water, in the form ‘of grog or punch, is
all but unknown, such a mixture being considered highly per-
nicious to the stomach, and it would be well, perhaps, if all
their opinions were equally well-founded. Tea, with or
without milk, but always without sugar, a weak beer, and
** bouillie,” are the common drinks. As formerly mentioned,
the water cannot be used in its crude state with impunity.
The bouillie is made from a decoction of bran, to which old
leaven has been added ; fermentation ensues, and the product
is a refreshing subacid liquor, which removes thirst very well.
Milk, butter, cheese, and bread, constitute the principal
nourishment of the country people. Even the eommon
people never eat bread without butter, (excepting in Lent)
and he who is reduced to do so, is considered at the depth of
misery. Hence the proverbial expression, “ Manger le pain
sec.”
There is a mess called sour-milk much used by the country
people, and which is made as follows: A considerable quan-
tity of milk is put into a deep wooden vessel, and a certain
quantity of salt is added to it. Tt is then left until the whey
separate from the curd, when the former is poured off and
given to the pigs, and the latter is stirred round, and more
milk added to it. This operation is repeated until the de-
sired quantity of curd is obtained, and which is found to have
aequired a very acid taste. In this state it is kept for winter
use, and is used in mixing a quantity of it with water and
flour, which is boiled, and then bread is added to it. This
mess is used for breakfast and supper, which always conclude
with bread and butter.
There is another mess of curd often used in the summer
months, and much relished for supper. ‘For making it, two
vessels are provided, the one of which goes within the other,
the innermost being perforated with numerous holes for the
escape of the whey. The milk is coagulated by means of
runnet made by infusing a small piece of the dried stomach
of a young hare in white wine. ‘To the curd, well freed of
. the whey, is added salt and pepper, but many consider escha-
lots an indispensable ingredient.
Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France. 237
In the country, the houses are built of mud or brick, and
roofed with thatch. In the towns, they are built of brick, and
roofed with flat tiles, which at least have a better appearance
than those used in Scotland, but they require the roof to be
covered with deal, the same as in the case of slates. Nothing
is more agreeable than the internal appearance of these houses ;
every where there is exhibited, as in Holland, an exact atten-
tion to cleanliness; but the means employed for attaining this
is far from being agreeable to strangers. Several large tubs
of cold water are emptied in each apartment, and when every
part has been well scrubbed with a birchen broom, the re-
maining water is swept out by the door, and in this state it is
left to dry, which, in this climate, is a very slow process.
This deluging operation is of perpetual recurrence, and hence
those who are not completely accustomed to this moist manner
of life, are continually exposed to attacks of rheumatism,
toothache, &c.
Occasional inundations from heavy falls of rain are liable
to take place, and when the water is nearly evaporated, there
are elicited vapours of a very noxious quality. Notwithstand-
ing the numerous canals, &c. there still exist some marshes,
and in hot weather their effluvia are very pernicious. Some
of these marshes are formed by digging peat, and clay to
make bricks; others have existed from time immemorial.
At each farm-house there is a pond of no small extent, to re-
ceive the fluid part of the dunghills, &c. These are of a
greenish or reddish brown colour, and in autumn give out a
most abominable odour. Strange as it may appear, however,
almost every farmer sends his cattle to drink out of these
ponds, and even the animals themselves seem to prefer this
fluid (for water it cannot be called) to the water of the canals |
and ditches. It must be admitted, that there are no direct
proofs of the use of this fluid as drink being prejudicial, and
one thing is certain, that these ponds must be almost, if not
altogether free of insects and animaleula, which literally
swarm everywhere else, whether air, earth, or water.
The immense quantity of small animals of one kind and
another, that are to be seen in and about the canals, ditches,
and fields, enables us to account for no small portion of the
238 Account of the Climate, &c. of the North of France.
decayed animal matter that is so abundantly mixed with the
soil. Frogs are very abundant, but though they are regu-
larly brouplit to the market in Brussels, I never saw or could
hear of their being used as food in this country. At some
places leeches are bred in the marshes, and, during the war,
a great deal of money was made by the sale of them. A
common mode of collecting these animals deserves to be
noticed, as it explains a fact which has often caused suspicion
and blame to attach to upright leech-dealers in the interior,
and in Scotland not less than elsewhere. A number of per-
sons, commonly young women, are employed to wade in the
water with their feet and legs uncovered, and when they
come out after a short stay, these parts of their body are
found covered with leeches, which are then removed and se-
cured in vessels provided for their reception. This operation
they repeat as often as may be requisite for obtaining the de-
sired quantity, and, far from suffermg any injury from the Joss
of blood, these Flemish water nymphs informed me that their
health was always improved by it at the time; that their
complexions became clearer, and that afterwards they got
more into a state of en bon point. It must be obvious, that
leeches, caught in this manner, must acquire a small quantity
of blood, but, when afterwards they are sold for use, and
when some of this blood, still remaining, happens to be eject-
ed on the application of the animal, it is forthwith taken for
granted that the dealer has acted dishonestly in selling used
leeches for fresh ones.
Hares, partridges, and snipes, are in great plenty. Quails
were once common, but are now become exceedingly rare. In
the river are trout, which I have seen from two to three pounds
weight, but their flesh is not delicate, approaching somewhat
to that of the pike, which is, no doubt, owing to the gross
slimy quality of the water. Artificial flies for the purpose
of fishing are here unknown ;—an excellent proof this that ne-
cessity is the mother of invention, for here artificial flies are
unnecessary.. At almost every ‘step along the river is to be
found the fly most proper for ensnaring the trout, and as it-is
neither small nor delicate, and as the river moves slowly, it is
not soon torn from the hook. The fly is often seen to rest on
——--
=e i oe ee
Account of the Climate, &§c. of the North of France. 239
and float down the stream when seized by the fish, and the
fisher has only to imitate this dull operation. In the canals
and ditches are pike, and an abundance of perch and other
small fish. I have been informed that, about twenty years
ago, a pike was killed of the enormous weight of 32 pounds;
no one seemed to doubt the fact, but I have met with no one
who had himself seen such a fish.
The canals and ditches, from time to time, become more or
less choked, from the continual deposition of alluvial matter,
and, when cleared out by the workmen, the matter ejected
yields a most unsupportable cdour. "*, 1769.
Je.vois, Monsieur, que yous avez la bonté de vous occuper
de moi, bien moins encore que je n’en aurois besoin mais bien
plus que mon ignorance ne le mérite.. Je suis bien reconnois-
sant des recherches que vous avez eu la bonté de faire sur
lEcphrasis de Columna, mais je n’abuserai pas de la décou-
verte que yous avez faite de ce livre pour l’acquérir a votre
prejudice, n’ayant assurement ni le pouvoir ni Ja volonté d’en
donner le prix que De Bure en demande. Ainsi, Monsieur,
qu’a moi ne tienne que vous n’en fassiez Pacquisition, si cela
vous convienne. Une des choses qui me dégoiteroient-de la
Botanique seroit le prix énorme de la pluspart des livres qui
en traitent, et la necessité toutefois d’avoir tous ces livres ou
la plupart, surtout lorsque n’ayant point suivi de cours ni
etudié sous aucun maitre, on est réduit a étudier seul. J’ai
été forgé par la méme raison de renoncer a |’Hortus Cliffor-
LS
Botanical Letters from J. J. Rousseau to M. Gouan. 249
tianus, aux Ameenitates Academice, et a beaucoup d’autres
livres. qui me seroient egalement necessaires pour suppléer,
par leurs descriptions, 4 la secheresse du species, ef, ne vous
en déplaise, a celle de !Hortus Monsp. et de Flora Monspel.
Vous avez, Messieurs, ecrit seulement pour les doctes, cest
fort bien fait. Mais jaurais grand besoin de livres qui ap-
prissent aux ignorans a le devenir. I1 faudroit pour cela
force figures et force descriptions, et tout cela je trouve épars
dans une bibliotheque de Botanique si volumineuse, et ‘si
ruineuse, que ce que j’ai ne me pouvant suffire, je ne vois
d’autre parti que de le vendre pour acquérir le reste, ou de
tous abandonner.
_ Je suis bien sensible, Monsieur, au cadeau de votre Ichty-
ologie que vous voulez bien me faire, et dont je sens assure-
ment bien le prix; mais je dois vous prévenir, que vous ne
sauriez vous choisir un lecteur plus inepte, et moms en état de
vous entendre. Je me garde de vouloir faire aucune excur-
sion dans les autres parties de Vhistoire naturelle, ma vieille
eervelle ayant déja bien de la peine a contenir la trés mince
provision de foin dont je tache de la repaitre. Vous vous mo-
quez, assurément, Monsieur, de votre radotteur de disciple trés
indigne, quand vous le consultez sur les Ombelliferes dont
vous doutez. Avant votre lettre, je ne doutois pas du Selinum
palustre, yen doute a present parceque vous en doutez, et ce
nest que de vous que j’attends la décision de ce doute. Je
yois que dans la figure de Crantz il y a plusieurs feuilles cau-
linaires, il n’y en a qu'une dans le specimen; dans Crantz les
feuilles radicales sont plus petites que les caulinaires, dans le
specimen elles sont plus grandes. M. Guettard dit que le
bord des feuilles est légerement crenelé, dans le specimen il
ne lest point du tout, il ajoute que le bout des feuilles est
mousse, dans le specimen il est non seulement pointu mais af-
filé ; voila tout ce que je puis dire trés grossiement (grossiére-
ment?) sur cet article, il me semble que la question pouvoit
se decider aisément par la plante fraiche, en voyant si elle
faisoit du lait. A Végard du Seseli pyreneum, wayant point
Phonneur de le connoitre, je n’en saurois parler que comme un
aveugle des couleurs. Cependant Vobjection que vous vous
faites vous méme de la figure des graines me paroit bien forte.
250 Botanical Letters from J. J. Rousseau to M. Gouan.
M. Linneus parle, 4 la vérité, dune feuille unique, comme elle
est dans le specimen, mais le rameau ne sort pas de Vaisselle,
comme il le dit. Il dit encore, et méme il le repéte, que l’in-
volucelle est plus long que l’ombellule, et c’est ce qui west point
du tout dans le specimen. Je vois partout le pour et le contre,
et ne sails que penser, jusqu’ 4 ce que vous m’ayez decidé. A
Pégard de l Athamanta libanotis, je n’ai rien du tout a en dire,
parceque je ne l’ai pas trouvé dans lherbier, et je suis sur qu’il
n’y etoit pas quand je I’ai recu, car j’en fis sur le champ le ca-
talogue, dans lequel il n’est pas; non plus que le Selinum
caruifolium de Crantz, dont jai la figure aussi dans ses om-
belliféres, 4 laquelle je ne trouve rien de semblable dans celles
de Vherbier. Je suis certain que cet herbier ne m’a pas été
donné tel qu'il a pu étre arrangé sous vos yeux; car inde-
pendant des ombelliféres, famille sur laquelle je n’ose pronon-
cer, tant elle me paroit difficile, il y a un grand désordre et
beaucoup de faux noms dans toutes les autres, principalement
dans les Veroniques, et dans les Graminées. J’ai remarqué
que M. Dombey déterminoit fort legerement, et se trompoit de
méme, ceJa ue pouvoit guére étre autrement 4 son age. Je
suis persuadé quil est deja plus cireconspect aujourdhui. Son
procedé genereux et honnete mérite bien ma reconnoissance,
et mon affection. Quand vous aurez, Monsieur, de ses nou-
velles, vous mobligerez de vouloir bien m’en donner..— ~
Vous me faites bien vivement sentir mon ignorance et ma
misére par la note des Ombelliféres que vous m’envoyez et
dont je n’ai, ni ne connois pas, une, hors le seul Selinum carui-
pee; (non celui de Crantz mais celui de Linneus,) que
jai trouvé a Trie il y a deux ans, et dont j’ai apporté un seul
exemplaire que je destinais 4 mon herbier, mais que je vous
céderois bien volontiers si vous n’en aviez point et qu’il vous
fit plaisir. Ce pays-ci, trés pauvre en Ombelliféres, n’en four-
nit aucune que je sache qui se rapporte a votre note, excepté
peut-etre un petit Seseli dont j’ai rencontré, il y a quelques
jours, un pied unique et qui ressembleroit beaucoup 4 l’Hip-
pomarathon si ce n’etoit que l’involucelle est polyphylle. Cette
plante me paroit étre celle que M. Haller décrit dans sa der-
niere édition, No. 762, et qu’il rapporte, mal 4 propos, se me
semble au Seseli bienne de Crantz. J’ai trés peu de vue, Mon-
11
.
Mr Blackadder on Meteorological Instruments. 251
Sieur, je suis trés paresseux, je n’ai jamais eu la presomption
de croire pouvoir rien recueillir qui fut digne d’étre offert & des
botanistes de votre ordre, et j'ai méme rarement le courage de
rien ramasser pour moi-méme. Ma maniére d’herboriser est
d’errer au hazard par la campagne, et d’observer A droite et a
gauche les plantes qui frappent mes yeux, souvent méme sans
les arracher pour les desséquer ; vous concevez que cette ma-
niére nonchalante d’étudier ne doit pas rendre un commengant
de soixante ans fort habile. Le desir de me rendre bon A
quelque chose auprés de vous est bien capable de me rendre
vigilant et laborieux, quoique ce ne soit pas je vous jure un
miracle facile a faire. Je wavois pas méme imaginé de re-
cueillir des graines jusqu’ a un voyage de Pila que je viens de
faire, et ou je n’ai trouvé que les plantes alpines les plus com-
munes, excepté le Sonchus alpinus, le Praenanthes viminea, et
le Lichen islandicus que je crois moins communs que le reste.
Ce pays-ci est humide et les Carew n’y manquent pas; ainsi je
pourrai sur cet article vous servir l’année prochaine. Donnez
moi vos ordres, Monsieur, peut étre le désir d’en étre digne me
fera-t-il assez eventuer pour me mettré en état de les suivre.
Je nai point eu Phonneur, que je sache, de voir M. le Vicomte
de St Priest. Permettez qu’avec la simplicité et la cordialité
dun pauvre herboriste, je vous salue et vous embrasse.
Monsieur, de tout mon cceur,
RENON.
Art. VIII.—On the Construction of Meteorological Instru-
ments, so as to register their Indications during the Absence
of the Observer at any given Instant, or at successive inter-
vals of Time.
Tus paper, of which we propose at present to give a brief ab-
stract, was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on
the 2d May 1825, when Mr Blackadder exhibited to the so-
ciety some of the apparatus described in this paper.
The principle of Mr Blackadder’s contrivance applies either
to the spirit or mercurial 7'hermometer, and consists in keep-
ing a small index suspended at, or in contact with, the ex-
252 Mr Blackadder on Meteorological Instruments which
tremity of the fluid in the stem of the instrument ; so that the
former shall accompany the latter in all its movements, until
the instant arrive when we wish to determine the existing tem-
perature. At this instant the index is so acted upon as to re-
main fixed to its place, while the fluid either passes beyond, or
retires below it.
When a spirit-thermometer is used, the bore of the tube,
and the weight and form of the index, require attention ;* but
the adjustment is not difficult. As to the spirit, there is a
ceftain strength which seems to answer best, and it must be
colourless, of some age, and carefully and repeatedly filtered.
The colouring matter usually added to spirit-thermometers, is
in this instance of no use, and would be injurious. — For, after
a time, the colouring matter is partially deposited, and parti-
cles of this getting into the stem of the instrument, would in-
terrupt the movements of the index. It is for the same rea-
son that old spirit and frequent filtration are requisite; for if
the spirit is new, and if not frequently and carefully filtered,
small whitish floceul, or minute fibres may be seen suspended
in the fluid, from which interruption to the index is liable to
take place. Mr Blackadder had, on one occasion, much trou-
ble in adjusting an index, and, at length, discovered, that the
whole had arisen from a very minute particle of colourless
glass, which had by some accident got into the stem. With
proper care and attention, however, nothing is more simple
than the construction of a good and perfectly accurate spirit-
thermometer, for meteorological purposes. Nothing, at the
same time, is more rarely to be met with; for such instru-
ments, as usually made, are exceedingly inaccurate, and alto-
gether unfit for scientific purposes.
When a thermometer has been constructed in the way now
described, all that is necessary to keep the index constantly and
exactly at the summit of the fluid, whatever change of tem-
perature may take place, is to mvert the instrument, and re-
tain it either in a perpendicular or somewhat inclined position ;
the attraction of the fluid to the index being quite sufficient
* The bore of the tube admits of being so very minute, that the diffi-
culty of readily distinguishing the index is the chief obstacle, and hence
the bulb does not require to exceed three or four tenths of an inch in dia-
meter.
register their Indications during the Observer's Absence. 253
for the suspension of the latter, and for overcoming its friction
on the sides of the tube. When, however, the instrument is
placed in a horizontal position, the index no longer accompa-
nies the fluid in all its motions; for if -the temperature rises,
the fluid passes the andex as if no such body were present ;
and if the temperature is diminished, the index is dragged
along by the fluid. Upon this latter property, the Psychrome-
ter, or instrument for registering the lowest temperature, was
constructed. If, then, we take such a thermometer, and sus-
pend it vertically, and in an inverted position, on a moveable
axis, it is obvious, that, by connecting with it a time-piece, we
can have it placed in a horizontal position at any given in-
stant. And if we also make provision, that the instant the in-
strument comes to its horizontal position, its bulb is exposed to
a higher temperature than that of the air, it is evident that the
index will point out the exact temperature of the air at the
time the instrument was changed from its vertical position, and
that it will continue to do so as long as the instrument retains
its new position, and has its bulb kept at a higher temperature
than that of the air.
The means by which the bulb of the instrument is kept at
a higher temperature than that of the air, is the aqueous va-
pour originating from the flame of a small lamp; and, in the
coldest stormy weather, the flame does not require to be larger
than that produced by at most two small cotton threads im-
mersed in oil. When gas is at command, it is doubtless the
most convenient combustible, as a minute flame can be kept
up almost interminably, and without requiring any attention.
When a mercurial thermometer is used, the difference is,
that, in this case, the instrument is not placed in an inverted
position ; and, when it is brought into a horizontal position,
the bulb, instead of being kept at a higher, must be kept at a
- lower temperature than that of the air. This can readily be
effected, by providing the means for supporting a continual
evaporation from the surface of the bulb. When the instru-
ment receives its horizontal position, the bulb is made to
come into contact with a soft hair-pencil, of a hollow circular
form, through which distils guttatim, and slowly, from a re-
servoir, some evaporating fluid. On some occasions, as in a
254. Mr Blackadder on Meteorological Instruments which
very humid state of the atmosphere, ether may be requisite ;
but, on most occasions, rain-water is sufficient; the use, how-
ever, of common ardent spirits for such a purpose, is attended
with but a trifling expence, and may be found convenient.
Having thus shown how the temperature of the air and
other bodies may be determined, during absence; and at any
given instant, it may readily be conceived, how it may, in like
manner, be determined at successive intervals of time, by mul-
tiplication, and a proper arrangement of the same means.
Thus, seven thermometers of the before mentioned construc-
tion, connected by a very simple piece of mechanism, will
enable us to determine the exact temperature every hour
during the whole course of the day and night, and that with
very little trouble. For, to obtain this, it is necessary to in-
spect the instrument only three times in the course of the day,
or during that period not usually appropriated to sleep; for
example, at 7 a. M., 4p. m., and 11 P. M.
Having described Mr Blackadder’s method of registermg
the indications of the thermometer at any given instant, and
at successive intervals of time, the application of the same
principle to the registering of the Hygrometer will not re-
quire much illustration: For, if it be admitted that the at-
mizomic hygrometer (that is, a hygrometer constructed on
the Huttonian principle,) may be depended upon, all that is
requisite to procure an accurate register is, to attach two
thermometers to one slip of metal, on which is engraved a
scale for each, and to keep one of the bulbs moist with water.
When at any instant the instrument thus constructed is
brought into the horizontal position, the index in the one
tube will indicate the temperature, of the air, and that in the
other the temperature produced by evaporation. Nothing is
more simple than this modification of the registering appara-
tus, for nothing can be more easily effected than keeping one
of the bulbs moist with water, and in this only does it differ
from that fitted to register the atmospheric temperature alone.
Hitherto there has been no method devised for registering
even the extremes of the barometric changes, which does not
infer a very considerable increase of mechanical friction; and
which, consequently, does not. include a degree of inaccuracy
register their Indications during the Observer's Absence. 255
no way consistent with the present advanced state of meteoro-
logical science. For it is admitted, that, at the present day,
a variation in the elevation of the mercurial column to the five
hundredth part of an inch, must be attended to by those who
aim at scientific accuracy.
The principle of the method for registering the indications
of the barometer which Mr Blackadder was led to adopt, con-
sists in cutting off, at a given instant, all communication be-
tween the atmosphere and the mercury of the barometer, than
which, certainly, nothing can be more simple. If, at a given
instant, the communication between the air and the mercury
be cut off, the height of the mercurial column must remain
unaltered by any change in the pressure of the atmosphere,
until the communication is restored.
A section of the barometer cistern, which is made of iron,
is represented in Plate VI. Fig. 1, where a is an orifice for the
introduction of the mercury, afterwards shut up by means of
a screw; @, the air-duct, having a screw formed on its outer
surface ; f; an air-tight stop-cock, having a female screw, by
which it is attached to the air-duct ; 2, a small orifice in the
side of the stop-cock, to serve as a passage for the air, and so
as to exclude dust; /, a lever connected with a time-piece, by
means of which the stop-cock was shut, and the communica-
tion of the air with the mercury cut off at any given instant.
The cistern is about two inches in diameter—the depth of
mercury in the cistern, and the distance between the surface of
the mercury and the top of the cistern, must be as small as the
correct operation of the instrument will admit of.
By combining several such instruments in one piece of me-
chanism, we can have the exact height of the barometer every
hour in the course of the day and night. Thus seven baro-
meters, arranged at equal distances around a hollow column
of wood, four inches in diameter, and about three feet in
height, having a projection at the base, in the form of a pe-
destal, would form not only an elegant but a very complete
and highly useful barometrical apparatus. The column being
hollow, not only lessens the weight, but permits the timepiece
and connecting mechanism to be entirely concealed within it.
The barometers, however, may also be arranged on a flat
256. Observations on the Gulf-Stream,
surface, without producing any thing of an unwieldy appear-
ance, and the adaptation of the mechanism for-shutting one of
the stop-cocks each hour in eukntadany is not thereby render-
ed-more difficult. yeu
Axt. [IX.— Observations on the Gulf-Stream, in crossing at
from Halifax to Bermuda,and from Bermuda to Halifax,
in his Majesty's Ship Jaseur, in 1821. Communicated by
J. D. Boswaut, Esq. R.N., F. RS. E.
Tue Gulf-stream is generally. supposed to proceed through
the Gulf of Florida, along the coast of America, until it gets
a few degrees to the North of Bermuda, and.then, turns off
to the N.N.F., N. E., and E.N.E.,. between the latitudes of *
38° and 41° north. When it gets so far to the east as 61° of
west longitude, it spreads itself more, and its situation becomes
more southerly. Its breadth is commonly. supposed to -be
about two degrees, but it sometimes expands and contracts, in
consequence of the strength of the current varying. from’ a
number of causes not yet ascertamed. In making a-passage
from Halifax to Bermuda, I have known the ship to.be up-
wards of two degrees to the eastward of the longitude by ac-
count, and I have seen (but very seldom) the vessel not, as
many miles, It is very difficult to ascertain the rate and .di-
rection of the gulf-stream by a boat, as calms are seldom.ex-'
petienced in that quarter, and gales and squally unsettled
weather is very common, excepting with north-easterly, winds
which bring fine weather along with them.
The occurrence of the weed, called the gulf-weed, has been
considered by several navigators as a proof of their being in
the current, but this opinion is by no means correct... The
same weed is found all over the westerly part of the Atlantie,
and I have generally observed the greatest quantity on the
edges of the stream, and least in the middle. The weed I be-
lieve comes originally from the gulf, but it is driven about by
the different winds as much as by the stream, and is to be seen
floating about in strings in whatever way the wind blows, and
not always lying in the direction of the current.
1
4
J
:
‘
~
made in his Majesty's Ship Jaseur. 257
| The thermometer seldom errs in indicating the gulf-stream,
if we pay attention to the direction of the wind. If we cross
the gulf-stream from Halifax to Bermuda, or any place to
_the southward, and keep a strong northerly wind across it, the
air will be considerably colder than with a southerly wind, and,
consequently, there must be a greater difference between the
temperature of the air and the water. On the contrary, in
crossing the stream going to Halifax, or any way to the north-
ward, if we keep a southerly wind across, the air will be much
warmer than with a northerly wind, and, consequently, the
difference between the temperature of the sea and the air will
be less.
Thermometer.
Winds.
Remarks, &c. from Halifax to
Bermuda.
Noon.
P. m Moderate and fine weather.
2, Weighed and made sail for Ber-
muda.
8, Fresh breezes and clear.
Midnight, moderate and fine.
Sept.| 4)At anchor in Ha-
22. lifax Harbour.
A. M. Fresh breezes and clear.
Noon, fine weather.
p. M. Do. weather.
6, Fresh breezes and cloudy.
. |Midnight, hazy weather.
A. M. Fresh breezes and hazy wea-
ther.
On the north edge of the stream.
8, Moderate and fine.
Noon, light breezes and fine,
p. M. Do. weather.
176 miles Lat.
10/Obs. 39° 30’ N.
6{12’ W. 68 | 78
8 68 | 78 |Variable.|8, Calm and cloudy.
10 69 | 78 9, Light breeze.
68 | 78 |S. by E.|Midnight, fresh breezes & cloudy
A. M. Strong breezes and squally.
4, Fresh gales, air getting warm,
owing to south wind.
8, Strong gales, with a heavy cross
sea
76 | 78 | South.
| 74 | 73 sw.
73 | 74 Noon, fresh gales and squally,
2iW. 75 79 with rain.
4 77 | 78 p. M. Strong gales, and squally.
76) 77 Longitude not at all affected by the
78 | 77 stream these last 24 hours.
10 75 | 76 8, Fresh gales and thick weather.
12 74\ 76 Midnight, fresh gales and squally.
with rain, thunder, and light-
ning.
VOL.III. No. 11. ocTOBER 1825. R
258 Observations on the Gulf-Stream,
Remarks, &c. from Halifax to
Bermuda.
Ship’s Place at | ——
Noon. Air. |Water.
A. M. Fresh breezes, with rain and
lightning.
.|4, Moderate, 8, light airs, with
heavy rain, and a cross breaking
sea.
Noon, strong breezes and cloudy.
Pp. M. Do. weather.
4, Moderate and fine.
Midnight, light airs, with heavy
rain.
72 | 77 |\Variable.
16 82 Calm.
| 79) 81 North.
74) 78 | WNW.
A. M. Moderate and cloudy.
8, Squally, with rain.
Noon, calm and fine.
p. M. Moderate and cloudy.
8, Fresh breezes.
Midnight, do. weather.
A. M. Fresh breezes, with small
rain.
8, moderate and fine.
Noon, do. rain.
p. M. Light breezes and fine.
‘|8, Cloudy.
Midnight, moderate and cloudy.
A. M. Do. weather.
75 | 78 |E. by N.|Noon, fresh breezes and hazy, with
rain.
p. M. Squally weather.
Midnight, fresh breezes, with rain.
76) 78 ENE.
A. M. Do. fresh light breezes, with
thick fog.
8, squally.
Noon, strong breezes and squally,
with rain.
p. M. Do. weather.
Midnight, strong breezes, and
squally.
74| 77 |SE. by E.
73| 78 | BNE.
74| 77 |NE.byE.
74) 76 |E.byS.
A. M. Fresh breezes and cloudy.
Noon, fresh breezes and fine.
REMARKS, &c. FROM BER-
MUDA TO HALIFAX.
71 73 ESE. |a. mM. Moderate, with. rain.
north end of
Bermuda.
77 | 76 South. |Noon, fresh breezes and fine.
p. M. Moderate and fine.
6, Light breezes and cloudy.
77| 76 |W. byS.
j Midnight, squally weather.
ee
made in his Majesty’s Ship Jaseur. 259
é Thermometer.
Date| =| Ship’s Place at |— Winds. | Remarks, &c. from Bermuda to
feel Noon. Air. | Water. Halifax.
Nov.| 4|Course N. 20° B.| 75°] 76° | West.
2. | 8} 91 miles. Lat.| 75 | 74
1821)12)/D. R. 33° 54’ N.| 76 74 NNE.
A. M. Fresh breezes and squally.
Noon, do. weather.
Pp. M. Hazy weather.
8, Strong breezes and cloudy.
12 74 | 73 |NE.byN.|Midnight, do. weather.
A. M. Fresh breezes and squally.
8] Obs. 34° 54’ N.| 70] 74 NE.
Noon, cloudy.
p. M. do. weather.
4|al’ W. Chron.| 69 | 73 | E. by N.
6|63° 34’ W. 69| 74
8 69| 73 8, Moderate and cloudy.
10 70| 73s
12 71 | 73 | ENE. |Midnight, do. weather.
A. M. Moderate and fine.
8, Light breezes and fine.
12) 15’ W. Chron.| 74 | 73 ENE. |Noon, do. weather.
p. M. Moderate and fine.
6 72 74
8 73 | 76 8, Light breezes, getting into the
10 WBN xh 0, stream by the thermometer.
Midnight, moderate and fine.
5. | 2i1Course N. 11° W.| 73 | 76 ENE. |A. M. Moderate and fine.
4, Cloudy weather, with lightning.
10|50’ W. 69 | 69
12 69 | 70 Noon, moderate, with heavy rain.
68 | 70 |E. by N. |p. mt. Moderate, with thick rainy
66) 68 weather.
G1 | 56 6, Out of the stream by thermo-
62) 58 meter.
10 63| 57 8, Fresh breezes and hazy.
12 58} 58
Midnight, fresh gales and squally.
.|A. M. Fresh breezes and hazy.
4, Squally with rain.
Noon, fresh gales with rain.
p. mM. Do. weather, sounded in 32
fathoms.
Midnight, strong breezes & squally.
12|D. R. 42°41’ N.] 49 | 52
4\Course N. 23° W.| 49 48 Las’.
8| 73 miles. Lat.| 49 | 46
7, A. M. Do. weather.
8, Fresh gales and thick hazy wea-
ther.
260 Observations on
& Thermometer.
Date] =| Ship’s Place at
= Noon. Air. |Water.
Nov.|12/D. R. 42° 47’ N.| 49°} 49°
7, | 4|Long. D. R. 67°71 50 | 47
1821] 819’ W. 50 46
12 49 | 52
Mar.| 4|NE. end of Ber-| 64 67
29,| 8) muda, SW. 9| 62| 89
1822|12} miles. 65 68
4 61 68
8 59 67
12 59 | 64
30. | 4/Course N. 39° E.) 60 | 64
8|146 miles. Lat.| 57 66
12] Obs. 34° 30’ N. | 55 66
4|D. R. 34° 21’ N.| 51 65
g|Long. D. R. 62°) 55 | 66
12/50’ W. Chron.| 55] 64
62° 12’. We
31. | 4|/Course N. 31°E.) 57 | 60
8| 74 miles. Lat. | 61 65
12|/D. R. 35° 23’ N.| 62 62
4|Long. D. R. 62°} 60} 63
8|03’ W. Chron.}| 71} 72
12|61° 50’ W. 68 | 72
Apr.| 2|Course N.39°W.] 64] 70
+ | 5|}75 miles Lat.| 59 | 70
6|D. R. 36° 32’ N.| 56 70
8] Obs. 36° 50’ N.| 54] 70
10/Long. D. R. 63°| 52 | 70
12/03’ Ws Chron. | 50 71
2/61° 58’ W. 50} 71
4 49} 71
6 49 | 70
8 48 | 69
10 49| 69
12 48 69
2. | 2}Course N.20° W.} 50] 790
4\138 miles. Lat.} 54 70
6|D. R. 39° 01’ N.| 54] 70
8|Lat. Obs. 89°27" 50 71
10)N. Long D.R.} 50 val
12/64° 04’N. Chron.| 49 7l
2|52° 46’ W. 49 | 69
4 49| 69.
6 48 69
8 48 | 70
10 49 | 69
12 49 69
Winds. | Remarks, &c. from Bermuda to
Halifax.
At 10 |p. M. Fresh gales and squally, with
sounded | rain.
in 36 fa-|4, Moderate and fine, sounded in
thoms. 38 fathoms.
8, Cape Sable, NNW.
Midnight, fresh breezes and fine. —
N. B.—On making the land ship
about 1° 50’ east of the longi-
tude by account.
A. M. Fresh breezes and fine wea-
ther, :
Noon, do. weather.
P. M. do, weather.
SW.
Midnight,fresh breezes and cloudy.
A. M. Strong breezes and squally.
8, Fresh breezes.
Noon, moderate and cloudy.
p. M. do, weather.
NNW.
N. by W. Midnight, light breezes.
A. M. light breezes and cloudy.
6, Squally, with heavy rain.
Noon, fresh breezes,
P. M. do. weather.
8, Moderate on the edge of Stream
by thermometer.
Muinight, fine weather.
North.
Variable.
W. by N.
WSW. |a. M. Moderate and fine.
3, Heavy sea.
SW. |Noon, fresh breezes and fine,
P. M. do. weather.
8, Squally.
W. by S.|Midnight, fresh gales and equally,
W. by N./a. mt. Fresh gales, with heavy
squalls.
8, Moderate.
NW. |Noon, moderate and cloudy.
P. M. do. weather.
NNW.
8, Light airs and cloudy.
North, |Midnight, fine weather.
Dr Turner on Lithion-Mica. 261
Thermometer,
Date 5 Ship’s place at Winds, | Remarks, &c. from Bermuda to
= Noon Air. | Water Halifax.
~~———— | ———— |] —_ |}
69° A. M. Calm and cloudy.
69
2. 69
- 5 70 | West. |8, Light airs and fine.
des 70 Noon, fresh breezes.
25 69 p. m. Do. weather, at 4 out of the
on 2 60 stream, as plainly to be seen by
3 = 47 thermometer.
oF bl 8, Moderate and fine.
pat 47 |W. by N.|Midnight,fresh breezesand squally.
a)
a 40 A. M. Fresh breezes and squally.
35 4, Moderate.
39 NW. |Noon, squally.
34 p. M. Do. weather.
33 8, Strong breezes and clear.
34 West. |Midnight, do. weather.
35 A. M. Moderate—2, sounded in 70
34 fathoms.
23 SW. |8, Light airs, sambro lighthouse.
34 Noon, 3 miles.
34 SSW. |p. m. Moderate, with snow, at an-
34 Calm. chor in Halifax.
8, Calm, with rain—12, do. weath.
Found the chronometer nearly right on making the land.
Art. X.—On Lithion-Mica. By Epwarp Turner, M. D.
F.R.S.E. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the
Author.
Ix the last Number of this J ournal, I gave the analysis of a
mica from Cornwall, which was supposed, from its action be-
fore the blow-pipe, to contain lithia; and it was there stated,
that several similar micas had fallen under my notice, with
the investigation of which I was at that time engaged. Hav-
ing possessed an active assistant in my friend and pupil Mr
William Gregory, I have been able to complete the analysis
of three lithion-micas, besides repeating the former one,
which I subsequently found reason to suspect of slight in-
accuracy. Of these different analyses I shall now give a de-
scription ; but before speaking of each individually, it will be
262 Dr Turner on Lithion-Mica.
advisable to describe the method of separating lithia from po-
tash which was adopted in all of them.
To separate lithia from potash.—The mica, after being re-
duced to fine powder by friction in an agate mortar, was inti-
mately mixed with six times its weight of carbonate of baryta,
and then exposed for an hour and a half or two hours to the
full white heat of a Black’s furnace. The ignited mass was
dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, and evaporated to perfect
dryness. The soluble parts were taken up by a consider-
able quantity of hot water, pure ammonia was then added
to separate alumina, iron and manganese, and these preci-
pitates together with the silica were at once collected on a
filtre. 'To the filtered solution, while still hot, an excess of .—
carbonate of ammonia was added, so as to separate all the
baryta in the form of carbonate. The clear solution, thus
freed from baryta, was evaporated to perfect dryness, and the
dry salt ignited to expel muriate of ammonia. A fused mass
was always left, which deliquesced rapidly on cooling. It
was dissolved by water, mixed with a little solution of muriate
of platinum, and evaporated to perfect dryness. ‘The dry
mass was now treated with alcohol of moderate strength,
which readily took up the muriate of lithia, and the excess of
platinum salt, leaving the muriate of platinum and potash un-
dissolved. A perfect separation of the two alkalies was thus
effected, and they could each be determined in the usual way.
It is necessary to convert the muriate of lithia into sulphate,
because the former is so deliquescent, that it attracts moisture
during the operation of weighing ; and, moreover, its compo-
sition is not so well known as that of the sulphate. The con-
version was of course easily effected, by adding a neutral sul-
phate of ammonia to the alcoholic solution of the muriate of
lithia, evaporating to dryness, and igniting. It was found
most convenient also to determine the potash by means of the
sulphate, since the addition of sulphate of ammonia to the
double salt of platinum and potash, facilitated the separation
of the platinum.
I might here mention, that before adding the salt of platinum,
the absence of lime was proved by oxalate of ammonia; and
by way of precaution, a little hydrosulphuret of ammonia was
Dr Turner on Lithion-Mica. 263
added, to remove any manganese or iron which might be pre-
sent. This was in general unnecessary ; for the manganese is
separated completely in the former parts of the process; and
though a little iron always escaped, it was rendered insoluble
by the ignition alone.
In the former analysis of the brown Cornwall-mica already
alluded to, I did not succeed in separating the lithia from the
potash completely. I there followed Professor Gmelin’s me-
thod of removing the baryta by sulphuric acid, adding muri-
ate of platinum to the mixed sulphates of potash and lithia, and
dissolving away the sulphate of lithia from the double salt of
platinum and potash by the aid of water. With whatever care
this process was performed, the water always took up more or
less of the double salt in addition to the sulphate of lithia,
and on this account I adopted the process which has just been
described.
Analysis of the Zinnwald Mica.—This mica is of a silver-
white colour, mixed with grey, as described by Klaproth. It
occurs in crystalline groups, the laminz of which are flexible,
elastic, and of considerable size. The specific gravity of some
crystals, which had been boiled in distilled water to expel air,
was 2.985.
Heated to redness, it suffers no appreciable loss of weight,
and undergoes little change of aspect. Before the blow-pipe
flame it fuses readily, and at the same time tinges the flame
distinctly of a red colour. An appearance of boiling accom-
panies the fusion, and a black scorious mass is left.
To determine the alkalies, 51.235 grains of the powder were
acted on by carbonate of baryta. 'The mass contracted great-
ly from the ignition, and became of a dark greenish black
colour. By the process already described, I obtained 7.35
grains of sulphate of lithia, equivalent to 2.281 grains, or
4.09 per cent., of pure lithia; and 9.68 sulphate of potash,
equivalent to 5.28 grains, or 9.467 per cent., of pure potash.
In making these calculations, it is presumed, that sulphate
of potash is composed of 40 sulphuric acid, and 48 potash ;
and sulphate of lithia, of 40 acid, and 18 lithia. (Dr Thomson.)
' The determination of the other constituents is somewhat
complicated, owing to the presence of fluoric acid, which oc-
264 Dr Turner on Lithion-Mica.
curs in all the micas I have hitherto examined. ' The method
employed by Berzelius in his analysis of the topaz was
therefore resorted to; but as it is one of some delicacy, I
shall describe the various parts of the process carefully.
29.38 grains of the mica, in powder, were mixed with three
times their weight of carbonate of soda, and ignited during the
space of half an hour in a moderate red heat. The mass
had contracted greatly, and was of a dirty-yellow colour,
stained green in parts by manganese. It was treated by suc-
cessive portions of hot water, till all the soluble alkaline mat- ~
ter was completely remoyed.
B
Carbonate of ammonia was now added to the alkaline solu-
tion, and it was then exposed to a temperature of about 100°F.,
till the ammoniacal odour had completely ceased, by which
means the portion of alumina and silica, at first dissolved by
the soda, was deposited. The liquid, after filtration, was
exactly neutralized by muriatic acid, and the fluorie acid
precipitated by muriate of lime. The fluate of lime, after
being ignited, weighed 5.41 grains, equivalent (on the suppo-
sition that 100 fluate of lime contain 27.86 of fluoric acid) to
1,509 grains, or 5.138 per cent., of fluoric acid.
; Cc .
The matter that was undissolved by water in A, together
with what separated from the alkaline solution in B, was dis-
solved by muriatic acid. The solution was evaporated to
dryness ; the soluble parts were taken up by water acidulated
with muriatie acid, and the silica collected on a filtre. After
ignition, it weighed 15.07 grains, which is 44.277 per cent.
To the acid liquid, while cold and moderately diluted, a
solution of carbonate of soda was gradually added, till the
alumina and iron were precipitated. They were separated
from one another, after filtration, by pure potash. The alu-
mina, after exposure to a white heat, weighed 8.349 grains,
which is 24.532 per cent. The ignited peroxide of iron
amounted to 3.709 grains, equivalent to 3.329 grains, or
ee
voto eee
_ a
a= | aeeey
2. ae
7° se
M. Seguin on the Effects of Heat and Motion. 277
Depression. Tabular in Paap. of .
Excess or {Airin Ex7 4
Defect. cess or REMARKS,
Observed./Tabular. Defect.
— pe oo
4 25.4] 4719” |—0’ 6%4 Light airs.
4 3.4 Wind ENE. pleasant breezes, with fine
weather.
Ditto, ditto, ditto.
Wind ENE. sunshine, with occasional
ciouds.
Wind NE. by E. ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto, ditto.
Wind NE. with light rains.
Fresh NE. breeze, with occasional squalls.
Ditto, ditto, ditto.
Little wind, with sunshine.
Sunshine.
Becoming calm after a northerly gale.
Wind light, southerly.
Wind freshening.
Wind NW., fresh.
Wind light, easterly.
Soundings in 33 fathoms.
Wind NW., fresh, soundings in 30 fathoms.
Wind faint NW.., clear weather, hazy, very
distinct, but with the appearance of the
inversion of a ripple.
56 .2
53 .3
17 2
21.2
18.7
21 .2
51.3
48 .7
14.2
50
56 .6
36 .6
57.8
36 .2
37
15
45.6
.
OU Gr gn Gan Gr Or
[eel ell ee Th
hobo bo bo
owed
a)
CONC = Om CST io to
SRO SG Sb
WH Wt ODOM Ets toe KNt «6K lt
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
5
4
5
5
ans
Steady breeze ENE.
Ditto,
Wind south, fresh.
Wind SW. with light squalls.
Wind E., fresh, with light rain.’
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
them all the generality of which they are susceptible. If, as
our celebrated astronomer Laplace supposes, the different
planetary systems owe their formation to a material mass mi-
nutely divided, which, in obeying the single law of being at-
tracted in the inverse ratio of the square of the distance, the
molecules, at the origin of their motion, obeying their gravity
to reunite at the centre of the mass, and experiencing pertur-
bations from the neighbouring molecules, ought to approach
each other more and more, describing curves which satisfy the
integral conservation of the motion which they have acquired
during the passage they have made. Each particular sys-
tem will, by this means, have made part of another system,
with the power of being able, according to certain laws which
dre unknown, to give or receive from it a certain quantity of
motion, but with the express condition that the total sum can-
=
278 M. Seeuin on the Effects of Heat and Motion. ©
not be augmented or diminished, excepting in so far as there
has been an approach or recession of the constituent parts with
respect to the common centre of gravity. This law may be
applied to a simple crystal, the matter of which is sufficiently
dense, that the interval which separates the particles may be
comparable to that which separates the celestial bodies in re-
spect to the space which they occupy. This leads to questions
of the most important kind, but upon which I do not feel my-
self capable even of hazarding conjectures.
We see by experience that light, which, from its effects, we
regard as a compound body, may penetrate certain other bo-
dies with great facility. Magnetism does not seem to be stop-
ped by the densest bodies with which we are acquainted, nei-
ther is it impossible that a molecular mass may circulate round
the earth, subject to the same laws as the planets ; and since
we see magnetism and electricity pass through the densest bo-
dies, may we not conclude from this that currents of matter
circulate across the mass of the globe? Astronomy affords:
us, in the ring of Saturn, the belts of Jupiter, and, perhaps,
in the zodiacal light, an example of matter subject to revolve
in circular masses. If we suppose on the earth a series of
rings subject to move in ellipses, of which the centre of the
earth is one of the foci, we might give a sufficient and very
simple explanation of the changes in the pole of the magnetic
meridian, and of other observed phenomena. Thus it would
happen that, im certain points of the globe, the direction of
this current would be a tangent to the horizon ; that, in other
places, it would have an inclination determined by conditions
which it would be easy to verify ; and, in approaching the pole,
it would become almost nothing. The existence of similar sa-
tellites does not seem improbable.
Since the existence of the celestial bodies, in general, is in-
dependent of their mass, their velocity may be computed at
from 5 to 6000 miles per second, which would be sufficient for
explaining the great velocity of these fluids. If we apply to
insulated bodies the suppositions made on the great scale to
the celestial mass, we may conceive the possibility of establish-
ing round two of them similar currents. Experience, indeed,
M. Seguin on the Effects of Heat and Motion. 279
demonstrates, that friction determines electrical currents,
whose tenacity is greater, in proportion as the bodies ap-
proach a solid of revolution; and the loss of electricity by
points comes to the support of the theory, since the molecules,
which exist circularly around bodies, ought to separate from
it whenever its mass is no longer able, by its attraction, to be
in equilibrium with the velocity of its satellite. It would then
happen that the parts. escaping in a right line, in a tangential
direction, might have a velocity sufficiently great to transmit
a part of the motion to the organ of vision, and procure us
the sensation of sight, and to the organ of smell, the particular
sensation which it experiences.
This way of explaining the phenomena differs essentially
from the received one, by the motion which I suppose to
exist in solid bodies; and the most forcible objection which
can be made to it is, that bodies ought to be continually aug-
menting in density, or to have a general centrifugal motion,
which ought to be perceived ; but might we not say as much
of all the planetary system ; and may not the same laws which
cause the heavens to present for thousands of years the same
aspect, preserve also, during a certain time, the same figure to
terrestrial objects. Dense bodies are certainly more or less
subject to an intestine motion. Crystallization in the middle
of semifluid substances which appear to our eyes in absolute
repose, evidently demonstrates this motion, and may explain
a variety of geological facts, which are at present extremely
embarrassing.
Such are the reasons which induced me to offer my views
to the consideration of astronomers. Since that time, I have
had the honour of conversing on the subject with Mr Her-
schel in London, and the satisfaction of having been listened
to with a degree of interest, which has encouraged me to com-
municate to you at present another part of my reflections on
this subject.
I would be ashamed to present myself to your notice, as
one of the founders of systems, the result of which is almost
always to load science with new difficulties ; but it appears to
me that my object at present consists rather in simplifying,
280 = M. Seguin on the Ejfects of Heat and Motion.
and in seeking to arrange, under laws already known, a series.
of facts, which, in the present state of science, are, in my opi-
nion, very imperfectly explained.
The striking relations which exist between the production
of force and the use of caloric, are well worthy of the notice of
philosophers, for the admitted theory actually leads to the
creation of force, as to the doctrine of a mechanical perpetual
motion, which it is impossible to admit. If we suppose, in-
deed, that at each stroke of the piston of a high-pressure
steam-engine, the quantity of caloric employed is represented
exactly by the elevation of temperature of the water of con-
densation, abstracting all loss, it follows, that we have lost
nothing in obtaining a very great effect, and that, if it were
possible (which is supposable) to condense the caloric con~
tained in a mass M, into. another represented by =, in such a
manner that it may be reduced into vapour at the primitive
pressure, we may, by means of a small quantity. of caloric,
produce an indefinite number of oscillations.
If, instead of considering the pressure exerted on a piston,
or suppose the vapour condensing in a cylinder, the reasoning.
will be the same, and the two cases will present in the dilata-
tion of the aeriform fluid, a loss of temperature, which we
may consider as the true employment of the caloric. The
consideration of the proper motion of bodies given, is simple,
and, in my opinion, a satisfactory explanation of these phe-
nomena. For, if we suppose that the molecules of water are,
subject to a circular motion, and that the velocity the caloric
of bodies, or rather is caloric itself, then it is evident, that the
mass will augment with the acceleration of the velocity, till it,
reaches an epoch, at which the motion will be so great, that.
the attraction which retains the molecules at a distance from
one another, is insufficient to maintain the equilibrium. ‘Lhe
molecules will then begin gradually escaping in all directions
in a right line in the direction of the tangent, and will com-
municate it to other bodies which they meet, till they have
lost as much as will prevent the two faces again to come into
Mr. Herschel and Mr South’s Observations on Stars. 284
equilibrium. I have the honour to be, your humble and
obedient servant,
; SEGUIN ainé.
Annonay, Dep. de L’ Ardeche,
March 28, 1825.
Arr. XIV.—Observations on the apparent Distances and
Positions of 389 Double and Triple Stars. By J. F. W.
HerscuEt, Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and F.R.8. Edin., and
James Souru, Esq. F.R.S. Lond. and Edin.
Mor than forty years ago, the late celebrated Sir W.
Herschel directed the attention of astronomers to the im-
portance of determining the distances and positions of double
stars; and during the years 1779 and 1784, he published in
the Philosophical Transactions, descriptions:and names of
702 double and triple stars. The result which he obtained
in this inquiry, may be considered as forming an entirely new
department of physical astronomy, in which the agency of
attractive forces has been found to exist in the remotest
regions of the sidereal universe.
_ It was fortunate for astronomy, that a subject of such im-
terest was taken up by his son, whose mathematical acquire-
ments, and habits of nice observation, fitted him in a peculiar
manner for the task, and that he was aided by such an excellent
observer as Mr South. The object with which these gentlemen
commenced this inquiry, was to determine the existence and
amount of annual parallax, but this was soon lost sight of
amid the more extensive views of the construction of the uni-
verse, which gradually unfolded themselves. They have
clearly established the existence of binary systems, in which two
stars perform to each other the offices of sun and planet.
They have ascertained with considerable exactness the periods
of rotation of more than one such pair. ‘They have observed
the immersions and emersions of stars behind each other ; and
they have detected among them real motions sufficiently rapid
to become measurable quantities in very short intervals of
time.
282 Mr Herschel and Mr South’s Observations on
The instruments employed by Mr Herschel and Mr South,
were two achromatic telescopes of five and seven feet focal
length, mounted equatorially. The object-glass of the jive
feet telescope, has an aperture of 3% inches, and was made by
the late P. and J. Dollond. The power usually employed
was 133, but powers of 68, 116, 240, 303, and 381, were oc-
casionally used, by double eye-pieces 5 ; and a single lens, with
a power of 578, was sometimes applied for the purpose of mi-
nute scrutiny.
The object-glass of the seven feet telescope, which is con-
sidered the chefdauvre of Mr Tully, has a clear aperture
of five inches, and under high magnifying powers it is suppos-
ed to be surpassed in distinctness by no refractor in existence.
Under favourable circumstances, and with a power of 600,
the discs of the two stars of 7 Coronz, and of « Corone;
of @ Bootis, and of ¢ Orionis, are shown perfectly round, and
as sharply defined as possible. The power usually employed
was 179, but a lower power of 105, and a higher power of
273 were occasionally resorted to.
In observing with these fine instruments, Mr Herschel and
Mr South found that the proper degree of illumination was a
matter of great consequence, and that it differed in almost each
particular star. They found that many very minute stars
bore, without extinction, strong degrees of illumination, and
were even the better for it, while others apparently brighter were
Sound unable to bear even the slightest extraneous light.
This they considered as probably owing to an excess of blue
light in the star, forming a contrast* with the ruddy tint of
the lamp’s illumination, for the most remarkable instances of
the phenomena were those in which the small star was de-
cidedly of a blue colour.
For example—
6 Scorpii is much improved by illumination.
* We are disposed to ascribe this curious phenomenon to the circum-
stance of the blue colour of the star being the harmonic colour of the
orange yellow tint of the lamp-light- When the retina is impressed with
any colour, it is more sensible to weak impressions of its harmonic colour
than to any other.—Ep.
1
Double and Triple Stars. . 283
n Lyre. A small blue star, was much improved by illumi-
nation.
: Trianguli. A small blue star, bears illumination very
well.
n Perset. A small and extremely faint blue star, bears
illumination well.
59 Serpentis. A small blue star of the 9th mag. bears
all the illumination.
22 Monocerotis. A small star, bears the illumination well,
while a small white star near it bears it ill.
8 Virginis. The extremely faint small star bears a good
illumination.
51 Pisctum. This star, of a ruddy plum colour, bears a
very bad illumination in proportion to its size.
When the stars under examination had the last degree of
faintness, Mr Herschel and Mr South resorted to a singular
method of obtaining a view of them, and even a rough mea-
sure of the angle of position. They directed the eye to another
part of the field. Yn this way, a faint star in the neighbour-
hood of a large one will often become very conspicuous, so as
to bear a certain illumination, which will yet totally disap-
pear, as if suddenly blotted out, when the eye is turned full
upon it, and so on, appearing and disappearing alternately, as
often as we please. The small companion of 23 (h) Urse
Majoris, is a remarkable instance of this, and also 2 Persei;
7 Tauri; 43 Persei; 4 Leporis (R. Asc. 5". 4™.); 63 Gemi-
norum. ‘ The lateral portions of the retina,” our author re-
marks, “ less fatigued by strong lights, and less exhausted
by perpetual attention, are probably more sensible to faint
impressions than the central ones, which may serve to account
for this phenomenon.”
The explanation here given of this curious phenomenon is,
we apprehend, not well founded; but as the subject is a very
_ interesting one, we shall make it the subject of the next
article.
oOo NO OR OOD
Mr Herschel and Mr South’s Observations on
N.B. Remarkable Stars are pointed out by a * affixed’in Column 1. .
Star’s Name.
—
35 Piscium
38 Piscium ©
51 Piscium
mw Andromed.
a Cassiopee
Andromed. 142
V. 82
a Cassiopeze
65 Piscium
Nova
Andromed. 164
26 Ceti-
77 Piscium
74 ~) Piscium
Polaris
é Piscium
37 Ceti
+ Cassiopexe
100 Pisctum
y Arietis 1 & 2
y Arietis 1 & 3
47 Cassiopex
a Arietis
Ceti 292
a Piscium
y Andromed.
59 Androm.
« Trianguli
66 Ceti
H. C. 124
10, a2 Trianguli
30 Arietis
33 Arietis
» Persei 1 & 2
——e dt &S
m@ Arietis
4] Arietis
Ceti 499
32 Eridani
¢ Persci 1 & 2
oe ee a
@ Tauri
x, Tauri
No WWNNee —
mm OT pe
cost
ZZ AZ,
eo to bo bo bo
ee or te
— ie
—
°
60
32
7
85
7
34
ll
Angle of
Position. .
,
46
9
Il
26
52
0
29
56
bo
Distance.
” Dec.
0 11.168
4.967
25.866
35.951
46.464
47.136
8.789
5.960
3.151
7.520
15.756
32.069
30.340
18.701
24,648
50.780
33.347
16.018
9.109
3 48.764
1 33.594.
37.889
9.080
5.428
10.909
17.157
3.881
16.173
067
14.347
38.445
29.185
28.959
3 57.175
3.076
7.557
1 21.283
8.081
8.587
Remarks.
Unchanged.
Unchanged. f
Changed in Position
Unchanged.
Unchanged in A
Dist.probably increa
Unchanged. ‘ia
3° 41’ in Pos., and
3.706 in Dist.
Binary + 0°.5138
mean annual motior
Binary ? —0°.1)7—=
mean annual motior
Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Pos. unchanged.
Unchanged.
Unchanged... ;
Pos. unchanged; Dist, |
much increased.
Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Much changed if
same star.
Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Pos. unchanged.
Pos. changed—7° 39% |
Dist. unchanged.
Dist. increased.
Pos. unchanged.
annum.
Unchanged in Dist.
Sersibly changed.
Pos. unchanged.
increased sensibly.
Unchanged,
Unchanged.
Double and Triple Stars. 285
Angle of | Qua-
Postiume' dtait Distance, Remarks.
ny = vs Wekian? a eo
h. m. Sige vs ” Dec.
i 4 13/23 52 N 19 37 29.052 |Unchanged.
L Camelopardali 4 18/5331 N| 36 26 10.450
57. m. Persei 4 21/42 39 N GPs 50.193 |Dist much increased +
134.5«
9.455 |Dist. unchanged.
10.510 |Unchanged ?
7.892 |Unchanged.
5.865, |Position unchanged.
38.827
21.763 | Position hardly changed.
34.206
14.610 |Dist. unchanged; Pos.
—83°.0.
8.878 |Unchanged in Pos, hard-
ly in dist.
33.043 |Unchanged.
5.666 |Unchanged.
1.300 |Binary ? mean motion
88. d. Tauri 426/947 N| 2859
435}9 9S} 48 20
4 47/337 36 Nj} 82 1
4 48) 5288 15 16
rionis261&2 | 4 49/1415 N| 34 36
1&3 — |-——— 1/12
5 0) 8 53 10 6
5 4/45 48 N 78 2
5 4/52 28 N 45 37
~_
69 19
qr
S
oC
bo
a
m
13) 321 N} 62 40
18/25 ON 79 59
21} 548 N| 66 49
(St
bo
iY)
_—
— Oo oe wnesS ee w [a ) wens ww uw —
62 41 24.731 —0°.414.
22/16 5 52 4 9.790 |Pos. unchanged.
33 2 Orionis 1 & 2 22) 63 21 2.025 |Unchanged.
res} — 55 54 19.734
5 23 89 57 54.875 |Unchanged.
5 23 83 9 8.912
5 25 49 14 5.574 |Unchanged.
5 30 6 41 12.912 |Unchanged.
ees 28 57 42.765 |Unchanged.
_ 52 57 30.805
_ 33 44 10.131
_ 31 11 45.375
— 3 39 11.136 |Pos. unchanged.
DF = 68 11 8.255 |Very little changed.
§ 32 60 3 2.625 ,
— 82 50
5 47 82 16 5.051
{8 Monocerotis 6 14 64 39 14.379
{15 Geminorum 6 171: 65 21 32.693 |Unchanged.
1 {11 Monocerotis A,B] 6 2¢ 39 29 6.862 |Unchanged. ;
Ditto B and C 10 41 8.243 |Unchanged.
Comes 67 20
0 Geminorum 6 22)17 54 N 61 3 19.454
3 jy Canis Maj. 6 25 10 8 17.240 Ghanged in Pos.; ? in
Ist.
'4 [12 Lyncis 6 30)59 68 39 2.5938 |BInany — 0°.5574 per
annum,
36 50 9.849 |Pos. changed; +0°.109
_ | per annum.
Aurige 6 34 2 52 55.386 |Pos. unchanged.
8 Geminorum 6 44 84 24 5.528 |Dist. diminished.
Geminorum 6 53 85 27 31.032 |Pos. slightly changed.
19 Lyncis 7 8 43 5 14,544 |Scarcely changed.
. 86 45 33.357
'9 |20 Lyncis 7 9 17 21 16.988
Geminorum 7 9 74 35 7.248 |Probably unchanged.
286
89|29 Monocer 1 &
. L&
91|19 Argo Navis
#92124. y. Cancri
92 Cancti
Hydre 18
48 «. Cancri
144 of the 145
IV. 111
93
| 94
95
96 |
97
98 (57. ¢ 2 Cancri
99 |17 Hydre
} 1007. 3. Cancri
101/67. eg. Cancri
102|Cancri 194
103)Urs. Maj. 53
104|38 Lyncis I. 9
105|27 Hydre
106|t Hydre
107|6 Leonis
108|7 Leonis
109|14 Leonis
110|Felis 40
1] |e Leonis
112}145 of the 145
*113/7 Leonis 1 & 2
—1&3
114|Leonis 145
115|Leonis 155
116]35 Sextantis
ww bo
1&2
1&3
Iss s7eys
we He OO OO 09 CO
Soaaosna
com
x |
E>)
8 16/27 31 N
§ 26} 715 N
8 36/29 25 N
8 39)71 27 N
8 41/15 29 N
8 43/31 16 N
to ho
Sis
woo
~
Gr or Go bo
SSAawar
Cres oS con
SeHooD Oo
sale ee
enmnwoas
OT ok es 09
ZL PIA Po
—
10 11) 7 22N
10 14] 638 N
10 34] 5 42 N
Angle of
Position.
o?
3 57
Ep. 1822. 16
71 34
45 45
Qua-
drant.
ee
Mr Herschel and Mr South’s Observations on
Distance.
¢ “
5.355
Ep. 1822. 10
1 10.180
3 17.114
1 33.984
19.660
6.384
46.647
16.021
52.168
4.498
1 6.503
3 18+
—
6.241
~
10.175
6.046
5.914
10.844
29.387
8.745
16.521
1.894
5.723
1 29.731
1 43.144
7.640
25.346
2.887
45.689
6.683
mm OO
38.128
44.199
1 10.829
21.498
2 54.906
16.843
3.243
6.723
10 .387
0 7.869
5 33.500
an ptm
2 Ts
Remarks.
BINARY.
—0°.965.
Binary ? Pos. chi *
10°. 4
Pos. unchanged
Unchanged. |
Dist. increased
Single measures,
Unchanged.
Distance an inaccurati
estimation only. —
BinaRy? Mean
= —0°.5813; =
42’ in Angle, and
17.805 in Dist. ~
Binary? Mean m
—0°.514; Dist. in|
creased 2”,
Unchanged,
Scarcely changed i
Unchanged (? colour
“ae
‘e
Position chongeaty
16.
Unchanged.
Unchanged. og H
Pos. unchanged,
Pos. unchanged.
Pos. unchanged ; Dist
—1”.19. z
Unchanged. Bt
Pos. Unchanged.
ies ae slightly ‘eh
Some altered. — ? .
Unchanged. ae
Changed in Poss il n
Dist. ? ae
Slight change in Pos. |
BINARY.
+ 0°.30;
1822.24.
Inaccurate.
Pos. changed vee ia
unaltered. Hi
Unchanged. oa
a
Single measures. - ‘ae
Double and Triple Stars. 287
Distance.
, ”
7.023
35.010
13.144
1 7.062
1 46.256
2.809
Unchanged.
Dist. increased. ?
Much chan. in Pos. & D.
Binary. Mot. ——
5.036. Annual mot.
very variable.
Ep. 1823.19
23/Camelop. 201 21.876
124/63 Leonis 29.542 |Pos, changed +6° 11’.
5} Leonis 1 35.127 |Much increased in Dist.
13.040
14.670
4.452
1 0.753
1 14.897
I 16.861
Scarcely altered.
28 N Very little if at all
28 N changed.
43 N
15S
40 N Unchanged.
6N
56 S
5N;} 23 42
9N| 69 36
change of + 11° 15’ in
Pos., arising from pro-
per motion.
651N) 78 47 Pos. unchanged.
50 N 73 52
30S| 56 27 Unchanged.
20 N 19 39
118 of the 145 46N| 67 10
R122 22 N 2) 7 Unchanged.
1S} 29 26
27S| 13 24 BrnaRy. Elliptic orbit
probably. Mean mot.
5458 78 15 —0°.667.
48 N 75 38
9N| 67 49 Unchanged.
Unchanged.
Pos. changed +7°.55’.
Unchanged.
Pos. changed +7 50’.
13 4/1751S 56 17 Distance increased.
190/28 of the 145
288 Dr Brewster on some Affections of the Retina.
» Angle of | Qua- ot >
No.| Star's Name. |R. AJ Decl. | 4 speition. drant, | Distance. Remarks. i
— | —| SSS ee SS
’ He an 84 Sahm Ayan eS
°162|Prazzi XIII. 25 |13 6|10 245 28 2) nf 44.847 {
163)H. C. 506 13 15] 3 38N] 13 39 ee 28.465 i.
164/€ Ursee Maj. 13 13/5552 N| 57 46 sf 14.455 |Unchanged.
165} » V. 128 13 23}11 468 11 13 nf 47.720 |Distance increased.
166)H. C. 335? 13. 26/27 10 N 24 51 nf 9.613
167|81 Virginis 13 28] 6 57 S 47 16 nf 4.020 |Pos. changed —6° 4’.
168)H..C. 335 ? W3 41}27 52 N 70 25 sf 5.664
169} Bootis 13 44/19 19 N 23 27 sf 2 6.203
170|H. C. 162 13 46/33 43 N} 58 28 np 7.780
117|« Virginis 13 52) 226 N 19 57 np 1 19.290
172|82 of the 145 13 54/20 17 N 71 43 sf 21.392
173|98 of the 145 14 51 614 N] 99 20 Sp 6.049
| 174\« Bootis 14 7/5239 N} 3115 sp 13.136 |Position slightly chang:
ed.
175\: Bootis 14 10152:12 Ni 56 36 nf 38.047 |Very little changed.
176|Prazzi XIV. G2 {14 13) 6568 g7" 6 np 5.880
1 177|H. C. 334 14 14] 916 N 83 24 Sp 7-185
178|H. C. 470 14 15/12. 3 N 65 17 np 10.192
179|\x, Turdi Sol 14 15/19 8S 25 49 np 35.121
180)H. C. 165 14 23/29 6 N 7 36 sp 25 781 ;
|} 18} |r Bootis 14 32/17 12 N 7 53 sf -6.889 |Unchanged.
‘| 182\€ Bootis 14 33/14 31 N} 36 58 sf 1.683 :
} 183) IT. 82 14 36] 827 N 4 27 sf 7-335 |Unchanged in Position. |
18473 Hydre 14 36)24.40 S 46 40 sf 9.995 |Changed 8° 25’ in Pos. —
|*185)e Bootis 14 37/27 51 N| 52 59 np 3-931 |Brnary. ..Mean mot.
Ep. 1822.55 Ep. 1822.55) + 0°.4378 :
186) Liaise: 14 41}15 15S 44 33 np | 3 50.853
} 187|€ Boots 14 43/19 51 N} 70 54 np 8.696 |Grcatly changed, perhaps
Ep. 1822.63) by proper motion both
in Angle aud Distance.
188}39 Bootis 14 4441927 N} 45 55 sf 4.626 |Probably changed in Pos,
Our obs. rather dubious,
189)Bootis 346 14 5548 2N] 68 53 sf 36.544 | Unchanged.
14 48]20 39S 0-9 np 10.833
(To be continued. )
Ant. XV.—On some Remarkable Affections of the Retina,
as cxhibited in its insensibility to indirect Impressions, and
io the Impressions of attenuated Light.* By Davin Brew-
ster, LL.D. F. R. S. Lond., and Sec. R.S. Edin.
Aone the various phenomena of vision which were observed
by the philosophers of the last century, those which arise from
* This paper formed the third section of a Memoir On the Structure and
Functions of the Human Eye, which was read before the Royal iwi of
Edinburgh on the 2d December 1822.
}
Dr Brewster on some Affections of the Retina. 289
indirect impressions, and from the influence of highly attenu-
ated light upon the retina, seem to have escaped their notice.
If we look at a narrow slip of white paper placed upon a
black or a coloured ground, it will never appear to vanish,
however long and attentively we view it. But if the eye is
fixed steadily upon any object within two or three inches of
the paper, so as to see it only indirectly, or by oblique vision,
the slip of paper will occasionally disappear, as if it had been
removed entirely from the ground, the colour of the ground
extending itself over the part of the retina occupied by the
image of the slip of paper.
If the object seen indirectly is a dlack stripe on a white
ground, it vanishes in a similar manner; and, what is still
more remarkable, the same phenomena of disappearance take
place whether the object is viewed with one or with both
eyes.
When the indirect object is luminous, like a candle, it never
vauishes entirely, unless it is placed at a great distance; but
it swells and contracts, and is surrounded by a halo of nebu-
lous light, so that the excitement must extend itself to conti-
guous portions of the retina which are not influenced by the
light itself.
If we place two candles at the distance of about eight or ten
feet from the eye, and about twelve inches from each other,
and view the one directly and the other indirectly, the indi-
rect image will be encircled with a bright ring of yellow light,
and the bright light within the ring will have a pale blue co-
lour. If the candles are viewed through a prism, the red and
green light of the indirect image vanish, and leave only a large
mass of yellow, terminated with a portion of blue light.
While performing this experiment, and looking steadily and
directly at one of the prismatic images of the candle, I was
surprised to observe that the red and green rays began to dis,
appear, leaving only yellow and a small portion of blue ; and
when the eye was kept immoyeably fixed on the same part of
the image, the yellow light became almost pure white, so that
the prismatic image was converted into an elongated image of
white light.
VOL. Ill. NO. U1. OCTOBER 1825. T
290 Dr Brewster on some Affections of the Retina.
If the slip of white paper, viewed indirectly with both eyes,
is placed so near as to be seen double, the rays which proceed
from it no longer fall on corresponding points of the retina.
In this case, the two images do not vanish simultaneously ; but
when the one begins to disappear, the other begins soon after
it, so that they sometimes appear to be extinguished at the
same time.
In order to ascertain whether or not the accidental colour of
‘an object seen indirectly would remain after the object itself
had disappeared, I placed a rectangular piece of a red wafer
upon a white ground, and having looked steadily at an object
in its vicinity, the wafer disappeared, and though the acciden-
tal colour showed itself just before the wafer had vanished,
yet no trace of colour was visible afterwards.
The insensibility of the retina to indirect impressions has a
singular counterpart in its insensibility to the direct impres-
sions of attenuated light. When the eye is steadily directed
to objects illuminated by a feeble gleam of light, it is thrown
into a condition nearly as painful as that which arises from an
excess of splendour. A sort of remission takes place in the
conveyance of the impressions along the nervous membrane ;
the object actually disappears, and the eye is agitated by the
recurrence of excitements which are too feeble for the perform-
ance of its functions. If the eye had, under such a twilight,
been making unavailing efforts to read, or to examine a minute
object, the pain which it suffers would admit of an easy ex-
planation; but, in the present case, it is the passive recipient
of attenuated light, and the uneasiness which it experiences
can arise only from the recurring failures in the retina to
transmit its impressions to the optic nerve.
The preceding facts respecting the affections of the retina,
while they throw considerable light on the functions of that
membrane, may serve to explain some of those pheriomena of
the evanescence and reappearance of objects, and of the
change of shape of inanimate objects, which have been ascrib-
ed by the vulgar to supernatural causes, and by philoso-
phers to the activity of the imagination. If in a dark night,
for example, we unexpectedly obtain a glimpse of any object,
Dr Brewster on some \Affections of the Relina. 291
either in motion or at rest, we are vaturally anxious to ascer-
tain what it is, and our curiosity calls forth all our powers of
vision: This anxiety, however, serves only to baffle us in all
our attempts. Excited only by a feeble illumination, the
retina is not capable of affording a permanent vision of the
object, and while we are straining our eyes to discover its na-
ture, the object will entirely disappear, and will afterwards ap-
pear and disappear alternately.* The same phenomenon may be
observed in day light by the sportsman, when he endeavours
to mark, upon the monotonous heath, the particular spot
where moor-game has alighted. Availing himself of the
slightest difference of tint in the adjacent heath, he keeps
his eye steadily fixed upon it as he advances; but whenever
the contrast of illumination is feeble, he invariably loses
sight of his mark, and if the retina is capable of again taking
it up, it is only to lose it again.
Since the preceding paper was read, Mr Herschel and Mr
South + have described a very curious fact, which has some
analogy with the phenomena now described.
» “© A-rather singular method,” they remark, “ of phizhastin
a.view, and even a rough measure of the angles of stars; of
the last. degree of faintness, has often been resorted to, viz. to
direct the cye to another part of the feld.. In this way, a fait
star, in the neighbourhood of a large one, will often become
very conspicuous, so.as to bear a certain illumination, which
will yet totally disappear, as if suddenly blotted, out, when
the eye is turned full upon it, and so on, appearing and’ dis-
appearing alternately, as often as you please. The. lateral
portions of the retina, less fatigued by strong lights, and less
exhausted by perpetual attention, are probably more sensible
* An analogous, phenomenon, but arising from a quite different cause,
must have often been observed by persons who are very long-sighted. In
adark night; the pupil dilates to such a degree as to deprive the eye of
its power of adjusting itself to moderate distances. (See this: Journal,
-vol. i. p. 80.) Hence, if an object presents itself within that distance,
the observer must see it with a degree of indistinctness which cannot fail
to surprise him, especially as all distant objects, particularly those seen
against the sky, will appear to him with their usual sharpness of outline.
+ See the Phil. Trans. 1824, part iii, pe 15, and page 283 of this Number.
292 Dr Brewster on some Affections of the Retina.
to faint impressions than the central ones, which may serve to
account for this phenomenon.” * :
As it is with much diffidence that I venture to controvert
any opinion entertained by Mr Herschel, I have been at some
pains to investigate the subject experimentally. I was, at first,
disposed to ascribe the evanescence of the faint star, solely to
the same cause as the evanescence of faintly illuminated sur-
faces, and the reappearance of the star by indirect vision, to
the circumstance of the retina recovering its tone, by contem-
plating another object sufficiently luminous for vision ; but
this opinion was not well founded.
If a given quantity of light, which is unable to afford
a sustained impression when expanded over a surface, is con-
centrated into a luminous point, it is still less fitted for
the purposes of vision. It then acts upon the retina some-
what in the same way as a sharp point does upon the skin.
The luminous point will alternately vanish and reappear ; and
if the retina is under the influence of a number of such points,
it will be thrown into a state of painful agitation. The same
effect is produced by a sharp line of light; the retina is, in
this case, thrown into a state of undulation, so as to produce
an infinite number of images parallel to the luminous line ;
and when this line is a narrow aperture held near the eye, a
sheet of paper, to which it is directed, will appear covered
with an infinity of broken serpentine lines parallel to the aper-
ture. When the eye is stedfastly fixed, for some time, up-
on the parallel lines which are generally used to represent the
sea in maps, the lines will all break into portions of serpen-
tine lines, and red, yellow, green, and blue tints will appear in
the interstices of them.
- The evanescence of stars, therefore, of the last degree of
faintness, must be ascribed, both to their deleterious action
upon the retina as points of light, and to the insufficiency of
their light to maintain a continued impression upon the retina.
* If we recollect rightly, a similar fact, with regard to the satellites of
Saturn, is recorded in a late number of the Ann. de Chimie, and a similar
explanation given. It was, we think, noticed by some of the astronomers
in the Royal Observatory of Paris; but we have not the Number at hand
to refer to.
Mr EF. Marcet on the Action of Poisons, &c. 293
When the same star is seen by indirect vision, it reappears
witha degree of brightness which it never assumes when seen
directly by the eye. When the eye is adjusted to the distinet
perception of an object placed in the axis of vision, an object
placed out of the axis cannot be seen with the same distinct-
ness, both from the pencils not being accurately converged
upon the retina, and from the expansion of the image, which, as
we have already described, accompanies indirect vision. A
luminous point, therefore, seen indirectly, swells into a disk,
and thus loses its sharpness, and acts upon a greater por-
tion of the retina.* In order to determine whether this ex-
pansion, and the image of the luminous point, was the cause
of its superior visibility, I turned my eye full upon a lumi-
nous point till it ceased to be visible, and then, re-adjusting
my eye, so as to swell the point into a circular disk by direct
vision, I invariably found that its visibility was instantly in-
creased. If this explanation of the phenomenon be the cor-
rect one, the practical astronomer may, with direct vision, ob-
tain a clearer view of minute and faint stars, either by putting
the telescope out of its focus, or by adjusting his eye to nearer
objects.
AueRiy, September 5th 1825.
Arr. XVI.—On the Action of Poisons on the Vegetable King-
dom. By Mr F. Magcet.
Axruoucu the great work of M. Orfila contains a complete
and precise history of poisons, and of their action on the animal
economy, yet M. Marcet considered, that it would be desir-
able to make some experiments of the same kind on plants, the
tissue, and some of the organs of which, have such a striking
analogy with those of animals.
M. G. F. Jaeger, had previously published some interesting
* The eye is not capable of observing correctly the colours of lumi-
nous points seen indirectly. A blue luminous point, for example, appears
nearly white.
+ This interesting paper, is a translation and abstract of a Memoir,
‘which will appear in tom. iii. part i. of the Mem. de la Svc. de Phys. et
d Hist. Nat. de Geneve. It was read on the 16th December 1884.
294. Mr F. Marcet on the Action of Poisons
experiments on the action of arsenic upon vegetables ;* and
Mr C. J. Th. Becker, whose work we have noticed in this
Journal, vol. i. p. 376, performed some experiments on the ac-
tion of prussic fluid upon plants; but these authors have
scarcely, if at all, anticipated the curious results which are to
be found in Mr Marcet’s Memoir.
1. Metattic Potsons.
_ The first series of Mr Marcet’s experiments was made with
metallic poisons, such as arsenic, mercury, tin, copper, and
lead, and he, in general, administered them to robust plants of
the Phaseolus vulgaris, or French bean.
ARSENIC.
Exp. 1.—Two or three plants of the French bean were
watered with a solution of six grains of oxide of arsenic in an
ounce of water. By two ounces of the solution, the plants
were completely withered at the end of twenty-four or thirty-
six hours, the ‘leaves faded, and some of them had even be-
come yellow : an appreciable quantity of arsenic was afterwards
discovered in the leaves and stalk of the plant.
Exp. 2.—A branch of a rose tree, with a flower at its ex-
tremity, just beginning to blow, was introduced into a similar
solution of arsenic, on the 31st March. On the Ist April, the
exterior petals of the flower had become flabby, and of a
colour slightly purple. Some of the petals were covered with
deep purple spots, and the leaves had begun to fall. It had
now absorbed ;',,dths of a grain of arsenic.
- On the 3d April, the Ne were still more flabby, and
much withered, their colour was of a deeper purple, and the
external petals were covered with purple spots; the flower had
lost.a portion of its smell, and the leaves were quite withered.
‘The next day the branch was perfectly dead, the plant having
absorbed altogether the fifth part of a grain of oxide of arsenic.
The purple colour of the petals was found to vary in intensi-
ty, as the primitive colour of the rose was more or less deep,
or the rose itself more or less blown.
_ Exp. 3.—On the 1st June, M. Marcet made a cut about an
inch and a half long in a lilac tree, whose stalk was an inch in
*»
* Dissertatio Inauguralis de affectibus arsenici in varios organismos.”
on the Vegetable Kingdom. 295
diameter. The cut penetrated to the pith. Into the cut. he
inserted fifteen or twenty grains of oxide of arsenic, diluted
with some drops of water. The cut was then tied up with
twigs of osier. On the Sth June, the leaves of the tree began
to close, and to curl up at the extremity. On the 15th, the
leaves were withered, and the branches had begun to dry.
On the 28th, the branches were dry, and in the second week
of July, the whole of the stem was quite dry, and the tree
completely dead. Another lilac-tree, with a similar cut, but
without poison, suffered no injury. This lilac had another
trunk or stem, which joined it alittle above the ground. ‘This
trunk also became dry, about fifteen days after the other,
having presented the same appearances.
When arsenic was introduced below the bark of another
lilac, the principal branches of the tree nearest the wound
were quite dry at the end of 15 days; but the leaves of the
other branches did not fade till the ordinary period.
MERCURY.
Exp. 1.—On the 5th of May two or three French bean
plants which grew in a pot were watered with about two oun-
ces of water, holding in solution twelve grains of muriate of
mercury. Next day the leaves drooped, and the stems were of
a yellowish brown colour. The watering being continued on
the 6th, the stalks were quite yellow on the 7th, and the
leaves withered and dry.
Exp. 2.—On the 3d April, a branch of a rose tree, with
two or three rose-buds half developed, had its extremity in-
troduced into a flask containing a solution of six grains of
muriate of mercury in an ounce of water. On the 5th
April, specks of a yellowish brown colour appeared along
the ribs of the leaves; the external petals faded, but the flower
notwithstanding seemed to be a little blown. Twenty-four
grains of the liquid were absorbed. On the 6th, the streaks
were larger, and of a deeper colour, and the leaves very un-
healthy. On the 7th, the streaks covered the whole leaf, ex-
cept the margin, and the branch was quite dry. The inter-
nal petals were not withered, but seemed to have become of a
deep colour.
296 Mr F. Marcet on the Action of Poisons
‘Exp. 3.—On the 10th May 1824, Mr Marcet introduced
into a hole in the stem of a cherry tree, which penetrated in-
to the pith, some drops of metallic mereury, and covered up
the hole. On the 10th March 1825, the tree had suffered no
injury, although it has been said that trees are killed by that
process.
TIN.
On the 13th April, a rose tree branch with two or three
buds, was introduced into a solution of muriate of tin, of the
same strength as the preceding solution. On the 15th, brown
streaks appeated along the ribs of the leaves, larger and of a
deeper colour than those produced by muriate of mercury.
On the 16th the branch was dead, and the leaves almost all
yellow.
Tin acted upon French beans exactly like the muriate of
mercury.
COPPER.
In a solution of sulphate of copper, of the same strength as
the preceding one, a French bean plant, taken from the
ground, was immersed by its roots. The bean withered at
the end of a day ; but it required several waterings, and more
copper, to kill it completely.
LEAD.
A French bean was introduced by the root into a solution
of acetate of lead, of the same strength as the preceding. The
lower leaves withered at the end of two days, but it did not
die till the end of the third.
The same thing happened with the Murrate or BaryTes.
Mr Marcet next tried the effects of sulphuric acid, potash,
and sulphate of magnesia.
French bean plants being introduced by the root into sud-
phuric acid diluted with three times its weight of water, they
began to droop at the end of a few hours, and, at the end of
a day, they withered.
The same effect was produced by the action of liquid pot-
ash diluted with the same quantity of water.
Plants of French beans were not, in the slightest degree, 1 in-
on the Vegetable Kingdom. 297.
jated by the same treatment, with a solution of sulphate ‘of
magnesia, although Professor Carradori of Florence supposes
that this earth exercises a poisonous action upon vegetables.
IJ.—VEGETABLE Potsons.
As most of the poisons from the vegetable kingdom destroy
animal life by exercising a par ticular action on the nervous
system, Mr Marcet was anxious to examine their action
on vegetables.
OPIUM.
On the 10th May, at 9 A.M. a French bean plant was in-
troduced by its root into a solution of five or six grains of
opium im an ounce of water. In the evening, the leaves be-
gan to droop. Next day, about noon, the plant was com-
pletely dead, and the leaves withered, without change of co-
lour.
The aqueous extract of nightshade acted exactly like opi-
um, but with more rapidity.
NUX VOMICA.
On the 9th May, at 9 A. M. a French bean plant was in-
troduced into a solution of five grains of the aqueous extract
of nux vomica in an ounce of water. At the end of an hour,
the plant became unhealthy. At 10 o’clock the leaves had
not changed colour until the small branches to which they
were attached were bent, and, as it were, broken in the middle.
In the evening the plant was dead.
On the 15th July, Mr Marcet introduced fifteen grains of
the above extract, diluted with water, into a cut 13 inch long,
made in a lilac tree, about one inch in diameter, as far as the
pith.
On the 28th, the leaves of the two great branches of the
tree near the cut had begun to dry. On the 3d April, the two
branches were quite dry. The other branches dried in the
course ‘of the autumn.
Both opium and nux vomica produce death in animals, by
298 Mr F. Marcet on the Action.of Minerals
acting on the nervous system. The first, according to.M.
Orfila, acts specially on the brain, and the nux vomica on the
spinal marrow.
v
SEEDS OF THE COCULUS MENISPERMIs.
A French bean plant. was introduced by the root into a
vessel containing a solution of ten grains of the aqueous ex-
tract of the seeds of the Coculus menispermis in two ounces of
water. In a few seconds, the ends of two leaves nearest the
stalk became slightly crisp, and the extremity of each curl-
ed up on the upper surface of the leaf.
After some hours, the leaves nearest the lower part of the
stalk changed their position, so as to bend downwards from the
top of the leaf stalk. The leaves grew stiff in this position,
and remained so for some hours. At the end of a certain
time they began to become flabby ; and at the end of twenty-
four hours, the plant was quite dead, all the leaf stalks being
bent in the middle, and all the leaves withered.
PRUSSIC ACID.
Exp. 1. On the 12th May, at 8» A.M. the root of a
French bean plant was put into prussic acid. The leaves did
not become crisp, as with some of the preceding poisons, but
the leaf stalks began to bend at the middle, and the leaves to
chang down at the end of two or three hours, as in the case of
opium. At the end of twelve hours the plant was dead, and
all the leaf stalks were as if they had been crushed and bent
downwards by the middle.
Exp. 2. One or two drops of concentrated prussic acid were
poured on the extremity of a branch of the sensitive plant,
(Mimosa pudicu) to which some leaves were attached. After
some seconds all the leaves closed. It sometimes happened,
however, that all the little leaflets of each leaf were not
dead, but only those which were nearest the extremity of the
branch on which the prussic acid had been poured. ‘The leaves
opened again at the end of a quarter of an hour, but they had
lost the greatest portion of their sensibility, which they did
not recover till after some hours.
When the prussic acid was held in a dish a little below the
on the Vegetable Kingdom. 299
leaves of the plant, some of the leaves shut after a few se-
conds. Nay, even when the flask of prussic acid was held out
open to a leaf, the leaflets closed almost instantly. In both these
cases, the leaves subjected to experiment did not completely
regain their primitive sensibility till the end of some hours.
It appears also, that even the vapour of the prussic acid
exerts an action on the leaves of the sensitive plant.
+4
DISTILLED LAUREL WATER.
On the 8th May, at noon, the root of a French bean plant
was introduced into laurel water. At the end of some se-
conds some of the leaves became-crisp at their ends, bending
back upon themselves, This state of crispness lasted about
half an hour, at the end of which the leaves bent back again,
and became quite flabby. In the evening the plant was en-
tirely dead. In the repetition of the experiment several
times, the crispness of the leaves varied according to circum-
stances, and sometimes the plant died without any crispness
taking place.
BELLADONNA.
On the 9th May, at 9" A.M. M. Marcet introduced the
root of a French bean into a solution of five grains of the
aqueous extract of belladonna in an ounce of water. He did
not perceive any crispness in the ends-of the leaves; but after
some minutes the two lower leaves attached to the stalk
changed their position, bending downwards from the top of
the leaf stalk. At 9" P.M. the leaves had reapproached to
their natural state, but had become a little flabby. Next
morning they resumed their bent down position. In this state
they remained twenty-four hours, when the upper leaves had
begun to droop. On the 11th, the inferior leaves, which had
also changed their position, had begun to become yellow.
This yellowness began at the extremities, and gradually ex-
tended itself over the greater part of the leaves. On the 18th
the plant was entirely dead.
The belladonna appears to kill plants more slowly than
other vegetable poisons ; but it does not act upon them the
Jess distinctly, and often produces very singular effects. This
300 Mr F. Marcet on the Action of Poisons
poison, according to Orfila, exerts on animals a local action
by no means violent, but it is absorbed and carried into the
circulation, and occasions death, by acting on the nervous
system, and principally on the brain. ;
ALCOHOL,
The root of a French bean was introduced into alcohol, di-
luted with an equal volume of water. At the end of twelve
hours it died, and the bean was withered and flabby.
When the fluid used was half an ounce of alcohol, having
in solution three grains of camphor, the plant died at the
end of twelve hours, and in addition to the withering of the
leaves, the leaf stalks had the appearance of being broken
‘through the middle, as in the case of the nux vomica.
OXALIC ACID.
Exp. 1. On the 12th April, at 10%, a branch of a rose
tree, having a flower at its extremity, was detached from the
tree, and put into a solution of five grains of oxalic acid in
an ounce of water. Next day the colour of the external pe-
tals had become deeper, and the leaves had begun to fade. On
the 14th, the leaves and the stalk of the branch were com-
pletely dry, and the petals of the flower quite faded. During
the forty-eight hours, only the tenth of a grain of pure oxalic
acid had been absorbed.
This poison, when administered to animals in large quanti-
ties, acts like the mineral acids, by destroying the tissue of
the stomach. It kills, however, very quickly when it is ad-
ministered in small quantities, and it then appears to act
powerfully on the nervous system.
Exp. 2. The root of a French bean was put into a similar
solution of oxalic acid, and at the end of twenty-four hours it
was dead.
HEMLOCK.
On the 14th May, the root of a French bean plant was put
into a solution of five grains of the aqueous extract of hemlock
in an ounce of water. At the end of some minutes a crispness
was observed in two of the lower leaves. Next day these two
on the Vegetable Kingdom. 301
leaves had begun to grow yellow at the ends, the superior
leaves not being dead. On the 16th May, almost all the sur-
face of the two lower leaves had become yellow, and the
leaves were quite dry. The upper leaves were all withered,
but without any change of colour.
PURPLE DIGITALIS.
“On the 10th May, at 9" A. M. the root of a French bean
was introduced into a solution of six grains of this substance
in an ounce of water. At the end of a few seconds there was
a slight crispness at the end of some of the leaves. In
the evening the ends of the leaves were withered, and in
twenty-four hours more the plant was quite dead.
The two last poisons, when administered to animals, de-
stroy life by acting on the nervous system.
From these experiments it seems to be satisfactorily de-
monstrated.
1. That the metallic poisons act on vegetables nearly in the
same manner as they act on animals. They appear to be ab-
sorbed and carried into the different parts of the plant, and
alter and destroy the tissue of it by their corrosive power.
2. That vegetable poisons, and particularly those which are
demonstrated to destroy animals by their action on the ner-
vous system, produce also the death of plants. But as we
can scarcely conceive that poisons, which do not in any way
attack the organic tissue of animals, could alter that of vege-
tables in such a degree as to kill them at the end of a few
hours, it appears to me very probable that there exists in
vegetables a system of organs which is affected by certain
vegetable poisons nearly in the same manner as the nervous
system.
Mr Marcet concludes his very interesting memoir, by an
account of some experiments on the action of different gases
on the roots of vegetables. Carbonic acid gas was found to
exert a more deleterious action than hydrogen, and the action
of azote was much more rapid than any of the gases which he
tried, The nitrous oxide acted a little more rapidly than
hydrogen.
302 Mr Haidinger on Two Newly determined Species
Arr. XVII.—On Two Newly determined Species of the Genus
Gypsum-haloide of the System of Mohs. | By Wiittam
Hatpincer, Esq. F. R.S.E. Communicated by the Author,
L Hemi-prismatic Gypsum-haloide.
ie . . ..
Form, hemiprismatic. Fundamental form, a scalene four-
sided pyramid. P= {its aolis 129° 21’, 97° 8, _ Inclina-
tion of the axis = 24° 56’, in the plane of the short is ea
Plate VII, Fig. 1.
ab .¢e rd =9.15'. 2.94 2 h49% 1.
Simple forms. 5 (1) = 189° 17; P + 0 (f)=117° 24:
— Po (n)= 141° 8; (P+)? (g) = 157° 5! 5, Pret (0)
= = 95°14; Pr+ 0 (P). ; i al
0 igi")
Combinations. 1." —73" P+. Pr + w,,,. Fig, ®
2. PLP pi wo. (PEO) Prae Fig. 3!
The crystals are lengthened in the direction of the edges
of combination between o, 7, and P, and attached at one of
the ‘extremities, in most cases several together, so as to form
stellated or divergent groups. On the disengaged termina-
tion of the crystals, one of the faces of f is enlarged, so as
generally to make the other entirely disappear. ‘The Cnpeee
ance of Fig. 4 is then produced:
Cleavage, parallel to Pr+o@ 7 highly perfect and easily ob:
tained; traces in the direction of . — 5 = 54° 55/5 and Pr ai 2 5
very faint, fracture uneven.
Surface, the prisms parallel. to the: axis streaked in. the
direction of that line; Pr parallel to its intersections with
Ze. The faces of —"3- and. —*5- are deeply _ picake
parallel to their common ada of: combination.
Lustre vitreous. Pr + oc slightly inclining to pearly,
both upon faces of cleavage, and of ceystalteatione
Colour white, inclining to yellowish. Streak white. Trans-
parent or translucent. Index of refraction nearly 1.6, mea-
sured through / and P ; no separation of images. ~ : oak
a
Edin? ic be Sa pe
tn? Journal of Sélemce Vobilip. 302 wai
=
of the Genus Gypsum-haloide. 303
Sectile. Thin laminae are flexible in a direction nearly
perpendicular to the edges between 0, n, and P.
Hardness = 2.0...2.5, nearer the latter. The perfect
faces of cleavage are even below 2.0, since they may be scratch-
ed by rock-salt, particularly when applied in a direction cor-
responding to the elongation of the crystals. Sp. Gr. = 2.730,
in a number of detached crystals.
2. Diatomous Gypsum-haloide. .
Form prismatic. Fundamental form, a scalene four-
sided pyramid. P— 133° 35’, 123° 59’, 75° 35’ Fig. 5,
O2p 6, bf £08: ,/ 28S,
Simple forms. (Pr.+1) *(m) = 137°41, 61° 27’, 137° 35’;
5
(P41) — 126° 46’, 59° 32, 121° 37. P+ (c)=100° 0";
Pr — 126° 58’; Pr4a(d); Pr—l (g) = 146° 53’; Pr+1
(h) = 80° 8’; Pr+2 (i) = 45° 36’; Pr+n(f).
Combinations. 1. Pr—1. Pr. Pr+l. P+o. Pr rol
Pr+a ° Fig. 6. }
2. Pr—I. Pr. Br41 (P41)! Pr+2. (Pr+1). Poo.
Prt+o. Prto. Fig. 7.
Cleavage, highly perfect, and easily obtained in the dirce-
S i>] i]
tion of Pr+a. Surface, Pr. smooth, Pr. ¢ smooth, or faintly
streaked in a longitudinal direction. The measurement of
the terminal edge of Pr is on that account much more ac-
curate than that of P+, the faces of which are rather irre-
gularly streaked parallel to the axes of the crystals. The ho-
rizontal prisms, belonging to the short diagonal, are almost
all rough, particularly Pr—1, which is at the same time
slightly rounded. The pyramids are rounded, though
smooth.
‘Lustre vitreous. Colour white. Streak white. Trans-
parent, in small crystals, tranluscent. Double refraction ob-
servable through ¢, and the opposite face of f, making an
angle of 40°. The two indices of refraction are about 1.62
and 1.67. The less refracted image disappears, when the
axis of the tourmaline is perpendicular to the edge of the re-
fracting prism.
of the Genus Gypsum-haloide. 303
Sectile. Thin laminae are flexible in a direction nearly
perpendicular to the edges between 0, v, and P.
Hardness = 2.0...2.5, nearer the latter. The perfect
faces of cleavage are even below 2.0, since they may be scratch-
ed by rock-salt, particularly when applied in a direction cor-
responding to the elongation of the crystals. Sp. Gr. = 2.730,
in a number of detached crystals.
2. Diatomous Gypsum-haloide. t
Form prismatic. | Fundamental form, a scalene four-
sided pyramid. P— 133° 35’, 123° 59’, 75° 35’ Fig. 5.
Geo bf 4 Sf OBS,
Simple forms. (Pr.+1) *(m) = 13741, 61° 27’, 137° 35’;
(P41) —126° 46’, 59° 32’, 121° 37. P+ (c)=100° 0’;
Pr — 126° 58’; Pr4a(d); Pr—l (¢) = 146° 53’; Pr4J
(h) = 80° 8’; Pr+2 (i) = 45° 36’; Pr+(f).
Combinations. 1. Pr—1. Pr. Pr+1. P4o. Pro.
Pr+o. Fig. 6. / 2
2. Pr—l. Pr. Br4i (P41)! Pr42. (Pr+1), Pro.
Prtco. Prto. Fig. 7.
Cleavage, highly perfect, and easily obtained in the direc-
Co o :
tion of Pr+o. Surface, Pr. smooth, Pr. c smooth, or faintly
streaked in a longitudinal direction. ‘The measurement of
the terminal edge of Pr is on that account much more ac-
curate than that of P+, the faces of which are rather irre-
gularly streaked parallel to the axes of the crystals. The ho-
rizontal prisms, belonging to the short diagonal, are almost
all rough, particularly Pr—1, which is at the same time
slightly rounded. The pyramids are rounded, though
smooth.
Lustre vitreous. Colour white. Streak white. Trans-
parent, in small crystals, tranluscent. Double refraction ob-
servable through ¢, and the opposite face of £ making an
angle of 40°. The two indices of refraction are about 1.62
and 1.67. The less refracted image disappears, when the
axis of the tourmaline is perpendicular to the edge of the re-
fracting prism,
304 Mr Haidinger on Two Newly determined Species
- Sectile. Thin laming, slightly flexible. ° ae
~ Hardness = 2.0... 2.5, exactly the same as in the hemis-
prismatic; here also the face of perfect cleavage admits of
being scratched by rock-salt. The two species scratch each
other mutually, Sp. Gr. —2.848, of several fragments of
crystalline coats.
Observations.
A specimen, containing both the species described above,
forms one among the numerous interesting objects which the
mineralogist admires in the cabinet of Mr Ferguson of Raith.
It was there placed with gypsum, to which, in fact, it is very
nearly allied in regard to form and general appearance, and
described in the following manner on a ticket accompanying
it:—** Selenite X en prismes tetraedres tronqués en biseau,
et en hexaedres, dont ni les faces ni les troncatures son pro-
noncées distinctement (quelques uns des x x son deja decom-
posés et changés en platre) sur du quarz x, qui pose sur
une croute tres mince ondulée brune de calcedoinne, celle
ci sur une autre d’argil verte, celle si sur une autre de bary-
te rouge, dans le centre de laquelle se trouve un fragment
de petrosilex gris, de ———.” As there is no locality given,
I am the more particular in quoting the exact orthography
of the ticket, as it may perhaps be of use in enabling some
mineralogist, who happens to be acquainted with that kind of
descriptions, to trace the specimen to its original source. The
description itself will, however, require some farther comment.
The crystals of ‘ selenite” are those of the hemiprismatic
gypsum haloide, the first of the two species described above,
some of which are nearly half an inch long, and a line in
thickness It is very likely not an entirely new species, but
a variety of pharmacolite, now observed for the first time in
crystals large enough both to admit of measurement, and to
allow the characters derived from hardness and specific gra-
vity to be ascertained to a considerable degree of exactness.
The pharmacolite itself cannot be called a species which we
know, since the whole of our information respecting its na-
tural-historical properties is confined to its occurring in
exceedingly delicate white capillary crystals, aggregated in
l
of the Genus Gypsum-haloide. 305
globules, the specific gravity of which is = 2.64.* The lower
specific gravity might perhaps be accounted for by the delicacy
of the crystalline groups employed. In other respects, the
opinion that the variety described above, and the acicular
globules. of pharmacolite, belong to the same species, is ground-
ed solely on the analogy of fakin betes existing between the
former with crystals of gypsum, and between the latter and
the radiated groups so frequently observed in the same spe-
cies. That they both contain arsenic acid should not enter at
all into this comparison, as long as the species are not perfect-
ly established, though it was an experiment, proving this
substance to form one of the constituents of the hemi-prisma-
tic crystals, which suggested to me the propriety of comparing
them with the pharmacolite. However slight, therefore, the
reasons may be in themselves for uniting the two substances,
they are sufficiently strong to prevent us from establishing them
both as distinct species, as long as we are so much in want of
accurate information with respect to one of the varieties.
The decomposed crystals, said to be “ selenite already changed
into plaster,” do not, in fact, belong to, nor are they derivable
from the preceding species. They are white, opaque, and dull,
and cannot bear the slightest touch without crumbling into
pieces, like laumonite. From what I could collect in obsery-
ing several crystals, most of them half fractured, their form
belongs to the prismatic system, and nearly resembles Fig. 8..
These also give a sublimate of arsenic, when mixed with
charcoal, and exposed in a glass tube to the heat of the spirit-
lamp. It is probable that, previous to their decomposition by
the loss of water, they have belonged to a distinct species,
which it would be very interesting to discover in nature.
The “ guarz” is nothing else but the second one of the
two species described in the beginning of this paper, the dia-
tomous gypsura-haloide. It forms crystalline coats, of anear-
* Klaproth’s Essays, Transl. vol. ii. p. 220. Klaproth says, “ Its spe-
cific gravity, in the botryoidally aggregated crystals, I found to be =2.640.
Mr Selb, who probably weighed for the same purpose single or detached’
crystals, states’ its specific gravity only at 2.536.” | Hence we: may infer,
that the pharmacolite from Wittichen, the variety analyzed ‘by aula
sometimes occurs in crystals.
VOL.III, No. 11. ocTOBER 1825. U
306 =Dr Turner on the Composition of the Minerals
ly botryoidal disposition, and its crystals are very small, but
possess a higher degree of lustre than the larger ones of the
hemi-prismatic species. The stratum immediately below it,
(mentioned as calcedony,) is a kind of the ironsinter of Wer-
ner; it is very thin, and covers a rose-red variety of the
macrotypous lime-haloide of Mohs, which resembles very much
the red manganese, from the mine Krieg and Frieden near
Freiberg. It is less compact, and full of fissures lined with
a greenish substance, where it approaches to the covering of
the brown ironsinter. A small fragment of the rock, a rather
. compact claystone, containing some quartz, and called “ petro-
silex” in the ticket, is attached to the brown-spar.
If we reflect on the remarkable degree of resemblance pre-
vailing among the two species, and those contained in the
genus gypsum-haloide of the system of Mohs, we cannot he-
sitate a single moment, to refer them likewise to that genus,
whatever may be the kind or manner of combination of their
constituent parts. Nay, the determinations of natural history
appear more independent, and deserving of greater attention,
by seeming to be at variance on certain points with the results
of other sciences, though we may always look forward with
perfect security, that the laws will ultimately be discovered,
according to which each apparent discrepancy may be ex-
plained.
Art. XVIII.—On the Composition of the Minerals described
in the preceding Paper. By Epnwarpv Turner, M.D.
F.R. S. E., &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated
by the Author.
Berne obliged, in the execution of the following analyses, to
operate on very small quantities of each substance, and as
in such cases a slight error has an important influence on the
result, I cannot presume to publish them as absolutely exact.
They may be regarded, however, as good approximations, and
will be found, if I’mistake not, to give a satisfactory view of
the composition of the two minerals described by Mr Haidin.-
ger in the preceding paper.
described in the preceding Paper. 307
‘They are both arseniates of lime, and contain water of
erystallization. The water quickly comes into view when
they are exposed, in « clean glass tube, to the flame of a spi-
rit-lamp ; but a red heat is requisite to expel the last portions
of it. ‘The water, as it condensed on the cold parts of the
glass, was carefully tested, but it did not affect the most deli-
cate litmus-paper in the slightest degree. The arseniates, in
losing their water of crystallization, become opaque and white,
but can afterwards bear an intense heat without further
change, requiring the strongest temperature which can be
given with the common blow-pipe for fusion. From this
cause, it is difficult to decompose them on charcoal; but when
intimately mixed with charcoal powder, and heated in a glass
tube, a distinct layer of metallic arsenic is readily procured.
When reduced to powder, and boiled in distilled water for
one or two hours, a small quantity is taken up, though the
greater part remains undissolved. The solution gives a brick-red
precipitate with nitrate of silver, and a white one with nitrate of
lead and oxalate of ammonia. Nitric acid, whether strong or
diluted, dissolves them readily without effervescence, and the
salts.of silver, lead, and oxalic acid, occasion the same preci-
pitates as just mentioned, when the excess of acid is neutralized
to a sufficient degree. They contain nothing but water, lime,
and arsenic acid; the absence of magnesia and phosphoric
acid, in particular, having been proved by careful examination.
Analysis of the First Species.
3.455 grains were heated to redness in a green glass tube,
and lost 0.72 grains, or 20.839 per cent. of water.
2.175 grains were treated in like manner, and lost 0.46
gr. or 21.149 per cent. of water. The mean is 20.994.
6.18 grains of the anhydrous mineral were dissolved in wa-
ter by aid of the smallest possible quantity of pure nitric acid.
Nitrate of lead in slight excess was added, and the whole
brought, by a gentle heat, to perfect dryness. The soluble
parts were taken up by water, and the precipitate collected on —
a filtre. The arseniate of lead, after being ignited, weighed
11.32 grains, equivalent to 4.033 grains, or 65.259 per cent.
of arsenic acid.
The excess of lead, in the solution, after the separation of
308 Dr Turner on the Composition of the Minerals
arseniate of lead, was removed by sulphuretted hydrogen ;
and the lime, after neutralizing exactly, was separated by
oxalate of ammonia. The oxalate of lime was exposed to a
white heat, and 1.885 grains, or 29.466 per cent. of pure
lime, were thus procured.
The crystallized mineral is accordingly composed of
Arseniate of lime - 79.01
Water + - 20.99
And the anhydrous of
Arsenic acid - 4.033 65.259
Lime - - 1.885« 29.466
5.928 94.725
There has been considerable loss in this analysis, and_there-
fore it cannot be relied on for showing the actual composition
of the mineral itself. It will be obvious, however, in com-
paring the results of this and the next analysis together, that
the arsenic acid and lime are in both minerals united in the
same proportion.
Analysis of the Second Species.
The analysis was conducted as the preceding. In one ex-
periment, 2.495 grains lost from ignition 0.405 grains, or
13.965 per cent. of water. In another, 0.995 gr. lost
0.145 grains, or 14.673 per cent. The mean is 14.319.
From 3.29 grains of the anhydrous mineral, I obtained
6.26 grains of ignited arseniate of lead; equivalent to 2.23
grains, or 67.781 per cent. of arsenic acid.
The lime weighed 1.09 grains, which is 34.349 per cent.
The crystallized mineral is hence composed of
Arseniate of Lime - 85.681
Water - - ~ 14.319
100.000
And the anhydrous of
Arsenic acid - 2:35 67.78
Lime - - - 1.09 33.13
3.32 100.91
The data upon which these calculations were founded are
those of Dr Thomson. Arseniate of lead-is supposed to be a
described in the preceding Paper. 305
compound of 112 oxide of lead and 62 arsenic acid ; and ar-
seniate of lime, of 28 lime and 62 acid.
Making a fair allowance for the minute quantities operated
on, we must infer that the subject of each analysis is composed
of the same ingredients, united, with respect to the acid and
lime, in the same proportion. If we suppose that this arseni-
ate, which forms the basis of both minerals, contains an atom
of each constituent, it will be composed of
Arsenic acid, 62 68.89
Lime, - 28 31.11
If we regard Mr Haidinger’s second species,—the diato-
mous gypsum-haloide, as composed of two atoms of water,
with one of the arseniate of lime; and the hemiprismatic of
three atoms of water to one of the salt, they will be composed
of—
Diatomous. Hemiprismatic.
Arseniate of lime, 90 83.34 90 76.92
Waéter, - 18 16.66 27 23.08
It is probable that Klaproth’s pharmacolite from Wittichen,
as also that from Andreasberg, analysed by John, is identical
in composition with the hemiprismatic gypsum-haloide of Mr
Haidinger. ‘The analyses are,
Klaproth. John.
Arsenic acid, 50.54 45.68
Lime, - 25.00 27.28
Water, c 24.46 23.86
100.00 96.82
Mr Haidinger has pronounced, from mineralogical consi-
derations, that the decomposed substance, found on the same
specimen with the two preceding minerals, did not arise from
the decomposition of either of them. The accuracy of this
observation is confirmed by analysis. The first point of dif-
ference is, that it contains, even in its effloresced state, consi-
derably more water than either of the other species. For in
one experiment, 1.445 grains of it lost from ignition 0.43 gr.
or 29.065 per cent. of water ; and in a second, 1.60 grains
lost 0.545 gr. or 34.062 per cent. of water.
310 M. Nordenskiold on Zine Orcs
But its chemical composition, besides, is different, since it
is an arseniate of lime and magnesia. I possessed too small a
quantity for determining the relative quantities of the lime and
magnesia to my own satisfaction, but the arsenic acid amounts
to 74.43 percent. In containing magnesia, it is analogous to
the picropharmacolite from Riegelsdorf in Hessia, analyzed
by Professor Stromeyer ; but obviously differs from it, first,
in containing no oxide of cobalt; and, secondly, in the pro-
portion of its constituents. E
Art. XIX.—On the Chemical Characters of Zine Ores, ex-
amined in the manner of Berzelius, by means of the Blow-
Pipe. By M. Nits Norpeysxtorp of Abo.
Dear Str, 19 CHARLOTTE Square.
I sec tosend you a copy of some memoranda of M. Nordenskiold’s, relat-
ing to the chemical properties of some of the Zinc ores he found in my
Cabinet. As these minerals are not very well known, they may be useful
to your readers, as pointing out very simple means of discriminating sub-
stances which bear a strong analogy to each other.
Yours sincerely,
To Dr Brewster. T. ALLAN-
Tue mineral from Aachen contains two different substances,
viz. the CarsonaTE oF Zinc, and the S1r1tcro-CarBoNATE
oF ZINc.
The former presents the metastatique crystal of a pale yel-
low colour. In a matrass it gives off easily carbonic acid,
without any trace of water; the crystals preserve their form
after being heated, they do not fuse; and produce in a strong
heat an intense light of a yellowish white tint.
With salt of phosphorus it unites with ease, turns opaque
in cooling, and leaves a white ring of oxide of zinc on the
charcoal round the globule. If the quantity of the mineral
be small in proportion to the salt, it will be clear even in
cooling, and none of the fumes of zinc can be driven from
the globule, even by a strong heat.
With borawv it readily unites; the glass takes a great
quantity of the mineral to render it opaque in cooling. Soda
produces scarcely any effect upon the mineral, if exhibited in
examined by the Blow-Pipe. 311
amass. ‘The soda sinks into the charcoal without the oxide
of zine being condensed on its surface. With cobalt solution
a greenish colour is produced.
The Srziceo-CarponaTE or Zinc, from Aachen, is erys-
tallized. Alone, in a matrass, it affords nitre and carbonic
acid, and falls to pieces without fusing.
With salt of phosphorus it decomposes with difficulty. A
skeleton of silica is distinctly seen before the glass is cold; it
turns opaque in cooling, and deposits a ring of zinc fumes.
With orax it comports itself like the carbonate; with soda, a
half melted scoria is produced, along with a great quantity of
zinc fumes; with solution of cobalt, it produces a blueish
colour on the edges.
Sruiceo-CarBoNateE oF Zinc, Derbyshire. This mineral
occurs in clear prismatic crystals. Alone, in a matrass, it de-
crepitates, gives off carbonic acid, and but a very minute por-
tion of water. In a strong heat it melts only on the edges.
With salt of phosphorus it melts with facility ; the glass does
not become opaque, in combination with so small a quantity as
the former. No skeleton of silica is to be seen.
Curreous SinicaTE oF Zinc, Siberia. This is a combi-
nation of two minerals. 'The specimen consists of two distinct
layers; the upper one is colourless, and comports itself like the
siliceo-carbonate of Aachen. The under layer exposed to heat in
the matrass, affords nitre and carbonic acid. On charcoal it
turns black, and melts slightly on the edges, and communi-
cates a green tint to the flame; with salt of phosphorus it
gives a glass which exhibits the colour of copper. “A small
metallic globule, generates on the side of the array, which, as
the glass cools, spreads itself over the surface, and gives it
a white metallic lustre.
Sizicko-Carzonatr of Zinc anv Iron, Siberia.—'This
mineral turns black in the matrass, falls to pieces, yields car-
bonic acid and a little water, and becomes magnetic ; with
salt of phosphorus, it decomposes easily, leaves a skeleton of
silica, and tinges the glass the colour of iron ; is opaque on
cooling, and leaves a white ring of zine fumes; with boraw.
produces a glass coloured with iron ; with soda, a brownish
half melted scoria. Chis mineral has been improperly named
a silicate of zinc.
312 Rev. Mr Macvicar on a Meteorological Phenomenon
Sixtcate or Zinc, Bohemia.—This mineral is crystallized.
Alone in the matrass, it turns opaque, and thickens in the di-
rection of the cleavage ; gives no trace of carbonic acid, but a
slight trace of water with salt of phospiorus ; decomposes
with difficulty, and leaves a skeleton of silica full of bubbles ;
with doraw and soda, it comports itself in the same manner as -
the siliceo-carbonate; with solution of cobalt, it affords a
greenish blue colour. This is consequently a true silicate of
zine with a little water of crystallization.
Arr. XX.—Account of a Meteorological Phenomenon, which
was observed at the Summit of Ben-Nevis on the 27th June
last.* By the Rev. Joun Macvicar, Dundee. In a letter
to Dr Brewster.
Dear Sir,
In consequence of the suggestion of ee ELS Hooker, I
send you an account, as circumstantial as my notes and re-
collection admit, of a meteorological phenomenon, which
was observed at the summit of Ben-Nevis on the 27th June
last.
The weather, for some days previous, was extremely rainy
and disagreeable ; for the temperature was low, and the rain
was accompanied with a fog and a fresh breeze of wind. On
Saturday morning, however, the rain ceased, and the clouds
hung in the atmosphere in the form of immense cumuli and
cumulostrati. The nimbus also was seen in various quarters,
and before mid-day, the district of Ben-Nevis was visited by
one of these clouds, which poured rain almost without inter-
ruption, during the greater part of the day. About 2000
feet of the altitude of the mountain were immersed in the
cloud ; and from the observations of those who ascended to
the summit, it appears that this was not much less than its
general thickness, for they frequently saw its upper surface.
On Sunday, the weather improved ; and, on the morning of
Monday the 27th, it was still better, though it was not yet
* Phenomena, bearing some analog gy to the very interesting one de-
scribed in shis paper, will be found in the Edinburgh Eneyclopedia, Art.
Evecrricity, vol. viii. p. 491.—Ep.
observed at the Summit of Ben-Nevis. 313
changed. As the morning advanced, however, the sky be-
came more overcast, and about ten o’clock a shower came on,
and rain continued to fall suddenly, and with much interrup-
tion, during all the forenoon. The wind was constantly vary-
ing, and had a different direction in every glen, but the pre-
vailing course was from the south-east. The temperature was
low, so that the people about Fort-William thought that it
was very cold.
On the summit of Ben-Nevis, about mid-day, the thermo-
meter, with wet bulb, stood at 36°.5° Fahr. in the cloud, The
temperature soon after rose to v9’, and the cloud in which we
stood was partly evaporated, partly borne away, leaving a
view of the sublime scenery by which we were surrounded.
The dense clouds on every side hung down like curtains
around the panorama, and their under margins were so definite,
and the atmosphere otherwise so clear, that one felt disposed
to stoop down as if to see farther into the distant landscape,
which was illuminated by the sunshine. The altitude of this
magnificent accumulation of vapour, was between 3000 and
4000 feet above the level of the sea. But it was far from
uniform, at least the profile of its under surface was alternate-
ly elevated and depressed, so that at one time we saw beneath
it the mountains of Perthshire and the Hebrides; and, in a
few minutes after, our view was confined to the valleys sur-
rounding Ben-Nevis. Soon after mid-day, the weather be-
came more unsettled. Sometimes a cloud rose suddenly on
the face of the mountain, and rolled down the valley. Some-
times one came from the neighbouring summit of Corry-
Rignson, as if urged by a violent wind; and at other times
the condensed vapour ascended rapidly in immense volumes
from the centre of the valley below, and was aptly compared
by one of the party to the smoke from a town on fire. The
magnificence and variety of these clouds amply compensated
for the loss of the terrestrial scenery.
The summit of Ben-Nevis, for a considerable extent, was
covered with snow. Not only was there a ravine in the im-
mense precipice on the north side of that mountain, contain-
ing an upfilling of snow almost entitled to the name of a
glacier, and several beds of great depth lying fully exposed
3)4 Rev. Mr Maeviear on a Meteorological Phenomenon
to the sun, but there was a general covering of about three
inches depth, which had fallen since the same party was there
two days before. This was easy to be conceived, for about
one o'clock, the temperature fell to 33°.5, a fresh breeze having
arisen from the south-east, bringing a nimbus along with it.
When the storm reached us, it proved to be snow, which con-
tinued to fall very heavily for about two hours. Soon after
it began, our attention was attracted by a very singular noise,
which was heard every where around us. It exactly re-
sembled the hissing sound which proceeds from a point on an
excited prime conductor, or a strongly-charged Leyden phial
of an electrical apparatus, indicating the emission of a pencil
of electric light, which, had the daylight not overpowered it,
should certainly have been visible. ‘This sound was always
loud, and more or less distinct for about an hour and a half.
It seemed to proceed from every point near us. But amidst
the general hissing, f was convinced that I could specify the
summit of my umbrella and several points of the rocks from
which I heard it issuing. On removing to the cairn on the
highest pot of the mountain, the phenomenon became re-
markably manifest, and we could almost determine the stones
from which the pencils were proceeding.
Though this sound of the electric fluid is so completely
sui generis, as scarcely to be confounded with any thing else,
an accident now occurred, which afforded another evidence of
the nature of the action which occasioned it, when we were
seeking for none. One of the party having fallen behind the
rest, In examining some parts of the mountain, came up to
the others while they were wondering at the sound, and try-
ing to find shelter from the storm beside the cairn ; and were
it not, that complacency and fortitude are unalterably express-
ed in his countenance, we should certainly have concluded,
either that he had seen “ the angry spirit of the storm,” or
something else very terrific; for, as is always stated of per-
sons having witnessed such sights, “ steterunt come,”—the
hair of his head stood on end—not indeed all his hair, but
those locks only which enjoyed something of their natural
freedom to move, having withstood the pelting action of the
snow and rain several hours. For botanists, contrary to the
observed at the Summit of Ben-Nevis. 315
practice of the vulgar, sometimes find it more convenient to
wear their caps in their pockets. Several other gentlemen,
then, by uncovering their heads, gave their hair an opportu-
nity of exhibiting the beautiful phenomena of electrical attrac-
tion and repulsion.
As to the state of the electricity of the mountain, with re-
ference to that of the cloud, nothing can be inferred from
these motions of the hair ; but the hissing noise seems to in-
dicate that it was positive,—that the electric fluid was stream-
ing from the mountain in pencils characteristic of electricity in
that state.
Experiments would lead us to infer,* that when vapour
ascends into the atmosphere, it induces a negative state on
the surface of the ground, and theory would lead us to ex-
pect that the clouds in general are positive with respect to the
surface of the earth beneath them. But observation must
decide which of the two states prevails. Not only does the
phenomenon alluded to countenance the opinion that in this
instance the earth was positive, but we afterwards learned
that about the same time there had been a thunder storm at
Inverary, in the direction of which we heard two peals of
thunder, and that there the lightning was seen to ascend.
Of the possibility of observing the direction of lightning, at
least in certain cases, I think there can be no doubt. An
electrical discharge through a very long circuit of conductors,
is indeed simultaneous ; but when it has to pass through a
long column of dense air, I think a good eye, uninfluenced by
any theory, may be able to say, whether it was ascending or
descending, particularly if the mass of electric fluid was not
very great. This I had an opportunity of observing last
summer, during a lightning storm in Paris, when the ascent
of the electric fluid from several spires, and particularly from
the dome of St Genevieve, was not less distinct, than the
form of the beautiful coruscations which’ flashed in the shape
of pencils from the conductors of the Thuilleries. A flame of
sheet-lightning, too, often condensed into a flash of forked
* Davy’s Chem. Phil. p. 138.
316 Mr Haidinger’s Description of Edingtonite,
lightning, the course of which through the air, could be dis-
tinctly traced. .
The thunder storm of the 27th June, came from the south-
east, and seems to have had a very wide range. Fortunately
its force was nearly spent before it reached the highest point
of Scotland ; otherwise, instead of witnessing it im an
evanescent state, perhaps we might have afforded a melan-
choly decision of the question, whether lightning ascending
into the clouds, is equally fatal to the objects it leaves, as the
descending fluid is to those which it strikes.
In the afternoon the weather cleared up. Most of the
clouds evaporated, leaving the fine sky. The sun shone very
bright, and the evening became very warm. ‘Three hours
ago, on the top of the mountain, we had been chilled by cold
and covered with snow; and now, in the valley below, we
could look up with admiration to its cloudless summit, m a
climate where we were severely bit by the Tabanus czcutiens.
The following day was very fine, and during the greater part
there was not a cloud to be observed in the atmosphere.
I am, Dear Sir, yours sincerely and respectfully,
JoHN Macvicar.
Dunvex, September 10, 1825.
Arr. XXI.—Description of Edingtonite, a New Mineral
Species. By Wit11am Haipincer, Esq. F. R. 8S. E.
With an Analysis by Epwarp Turner, M. D. F.R. S. E.
&e. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author.
Form pyramidal. Fundamental form, an isosceles four-sided
pyramid of 121° 40’, and 87° 19 =P. Plate VII, Fig 9.
a— 0.905.
Simple forms. P—2 (n) = 144° 38’; P (P); P+@ (m).
Character of combinations. Hemi-pyramidal, with parallel
faces. ‘=~ = 129° 8', 35°22’. Fig. 10. E = 92 41’, 58"
20’. Fig. 11.
Combinations observed similar to Fig. 12, consisting of all
a New Mineral Species. 317
the foregoing simple forms, and to Fig 13, which, moreover,
contains the alternating faces of a very flat four-sided pyramid,
Ps Pp» which allows of no measurement.
Cleavage. Pretty distinct, parallel to the rectangular four-
sided prism, m. In other directions, there is small and imper-
feet conchoidal fracture ; sometimes it is uneven. Surface of
and P+ generally smooth, the other faces curved and
without lustre.
Lustre vitreous, Colour greyish-white. Semi-transparent,
generally only translucent. Streak white.
Brittle. Hardness = 4.0... 4.5, nearer the latter. Sp. gr.
= 2.710, of a number of small crystals, forming together, 243
milligrammes.
Observations.
1. Among a great number of interesting minerals from the
neighbourhood of Glasgow and Dumbarton, in the possession
of Mr Edington of Glasgow, with the inspection of which I
have been lately gratified, I observed some crystals disposed
in the cavities of Thomsonite, which at first I expected would
belong to that species; but I soon found that their faces could
not be identified with those mentioned in the descriptions of
it, as given by Messrs Brooke* and Phillips.+ Mr Edington
had the kindness of entrusting me with the only specimen of
the substance which I could discover in his collection, and to
which the preceding description refers. It is in compliment
to that gentleman that the name of Edingtonite is here pro-
posed for designating the species.
2. The regular forms of Edingtonite, even if we do not at-
tend to the interest attached to every novelty, are highly de-
serving of notice on account of their forming the only second
instance, among natural crystals, of hemi-pyramidal forms
with inclined faces; the first example observed being the spe-
cies of pyramidal copper-pyrites. Hemi-pyramidal forms are
in general very rare; the pyramidal scheelium-baryte of Mohs,
(tungstate of lime,) is the only well authenticated instance
* Ann. of Phil. vol. xvi. p- 193,
+ Mineralogy; p. 39.
318 Mr Haidinger’s Description of Edingtonite,
of such as have parallel faces. Perhaps pyramidal felspar
also belongs to this class. ‘There is a variety of it in the pos-
session of Mr Nordenskiéld, from Pargas in Finland, which
shows the form represented, in Fig. 14, having only one of the
apices disengaged.* This kind of distribution of faces is,
however, quite different from that in the Edingtonite, from
which it likewise considerably differs in its angles, though the
specific gravity of the two substances, and their cleavage, are
nearly the same.
3. Edingtonite occurs in crystals, the-largest about two
lines in diameter, implanted upon crystallized Thomsonite, in
the Kilpatrick hills, near Glasgow. It is accompanied by
calcareous spar, and a curious variety of harmotome, (the pa-
ratomous Kouphone spar of Mohs,) in twin crystals, of the
form Fig. 15. In these, the faces of the four-sided pyramids,
visible in most other crystals, have entirely disappeared, and
the re-entering angles at the summit are produced solely by
the faces of a horizontal prism. It may be considered in this
respect as the last term of a series of varieties, some of whose
members were first described by Professor Weiss. The
erystals of the Edingtonite itself are far from possessing such
a degree of perfection, that the angles given above could be
regarded as anything more than approximations, although
their general form is well defined. They resemble greatly
certain varieties of prelinite and felspar, but we must wait
for the discovery of other varieties of it, which may afford a
more extensive knowledge of the species, to enable us to de-
termine the genus in the Order Spar of the system of Mohs,
to which it might be referred.
Analysis of Edingtonite.
It yields water when exposed to heat, and becomes at the
same time opaque and white. Before the blow-pipe it fuses
into a colourless glass, though a pretty strong heat is neces-
sary for that purpose.
Muriatic acid acts upon it, separating silica in a gelatinous
* Mohs’ Treatise on Mineralogy, Transl. vol. ii. p. 265.
+ Magazin der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin. viii. 33.
a New Mineral Species. - 319
state ; but the action did not appear sufficiently perfect for
the purpose of analysis.
2.365 grains of the mineral (the whole quantity in my pos-
session) were heated to redness, and lost 0.315 of a grain, or
13.319 per cent. of water of crystallization. —
The residual 2.05 grains, which crumbled easily into pow-
der, were mixed with six grains of carbonate of soda, and kept
at a red heat during half an hour. The ignited mass was
quite white, and had not fused. Dilute muriatic acid dissolved
the whole of it, except a few flocculi of silica. The solution
was brought to dryness, and the silica, after being collected on
a filtre and heated to redness, weighed 0.89 of a grain, which
is 35.09 per cent.
The solution, thus freed from silica, was treated with a
slight excess of carbonate of soda at a boiling temperature,
when a white precipitate subsided. It was digested in pure
potash, to dissolve any alumina that might be present, and the
alkaline solution, when boiled with an excess of muriate of
ammonia, yielded a portion of alumina, which, after exposure
toa white heat, weighed 0.655 of a grain, being 27.69 per
cent.
The matter which did not dissolve in potash proved to be
an earthy carbonate; for it dissolved with effervescence in mu-
riatic acid. On neutralizing the solution exactly, and adding
oxalate of ammonia, a white precipitate subsided, which yield-
ed 0.3 of a grain, 12.68 per cent. of pure lime.
To the solution, after the separation of lime, carbonate of
ammonia and phosphate of soda were added. No precipitate
formed, and hence no magnesia was present. Iron and man-
ganese were likewise absent.
The Edingtonite hence contains,
Silica, - 35.09
Alumina, - 27.69
Lime, = si 12.68
Water, - 13.32
88.78
As the various substances found to exist in this mineral do
not account for the quantity submitted to analysis, it doubt-
320 Prot. De la. Rive’s Description
less contains about 10 or 11 per cent. of some alkali, the nature
of which I have not been able to ascertain.
Art. XXII.—Description of a New Hygrometer, depending
on the Affinity of Acids for Water.* By Professor Auc.
DE LA Rive, .
Iw the course of some researches on the different degrees of
heat, occasioned by the affinity of acids for water, I was led
to recognize in that phenomenon a very exact indication of
the degree of humidity of the atmosphere.
If we plunge the ball of a thermometer into a concentrated
acid, such as the nitric acid, but particularly the sulphuric
acid, it will be seen that, as soon as the ball is withdrawn
from the acid and exposed to the open air, the thermometer
will rise considerably. This phenomenon is owing to the con-
densation of the aqueous vapours produced by the affinity
exerted on these by the thin stratum of acid which adheres to
the ball. ‘The heat produced is very considerable with sul-
phuric acid, because in this case there are two sources of ca-
loric, 1st, That which proceeds from the condensation of the
vapour ; and, 2d, That which is owing to the mixture of the
water and the acid.
Having noticed that the quantity of heat, indicated by the
thermometer when taken out of the acid, varies with the hu-
midity of the air, other circumstances remaining the same,
I songht to determine whether or not these variations of heat
might serve to measure different degrees of humidity.
Every hygrometer, or apparatus for measuring variations in
the humidity of the air, ought to possess the following quali-
ties.
1. To agree with itself, or, on the return of the same state
of the humidity of the air, to indicate the same degree of its
scale.
2. That its variations be proportional to those of humidity,
* This paper is a translation and abstract of a Memoir read to the Na-
tural History Society of Geneva, on the 2ist April 1825, and appeared
in the Bibl. Univ, Avril 1825.
ll
of a New Hygrometer. 321
go that, in similar circumstances, a double or triple number of
degrees indicate constantly a double or triple quantity of va-
pours existing in the atmosphere.
The hygrometer of Saussure, the most perfect of all, pos-
sesses, in an eminent degree, the first quality. It is con-
stant in its indications, comparable, and of extreme sensibili-
ty ; but its variations are not proportional to those of the ab-
solute humidity of the atmosphere. For example, towards
extreme dryness, it moves nearly 3° for one unit of difference
in the tension of the vapour; and, on the contrary, towards
extreme humidity, it moves only 1° for three units of difference
in the same tension. Thus, when the hygrometer marks 75°,
for example, at 0° of the centigrade thermometer, this does
not denote that the vapours in the air are the same, when at
15° of the thermometer it stands at 75°, but only that, m the
two cases, the ratio between the humidity of the aur, and ex-
treme humidity at the same temperature, is the same.
In order that we may deduce from the indications of the
hygrometer exact notions on these two last points, we must
take the assistance of tables formed from a numerous series of
delicate experiments. Such are the tables contained in the
Essai sur LD’ Hygrometrie ; such also is the table constructed
from the experiments of M. Gay Lussac, which gives for the
temperature of 10° centig., the degree of the hair hygrometer,
when we know the tension of the aqueous vapour actually ex-
isting in the air, and vice versa. %
From these considerations, we shall proceed to study the
results to which we may be led by employing the process
which I have indicated above.
I plunge the ball of a delicate thermometer into sulphuric
acid ;—I draw it out, giving it a slight shake, so that there
may remain around the ball only a thin film of adhering acid.
The thermometer rises immediately a certain number of de-
grees above that which it indicated before its immersion in
the acid; then it immediately stops and begins to fall. I
suppose, however, that we have determined how many de-
grees it rises for extreme humidity at the same temperature ;
* Biot, Traité de Physique, tom. i. p. 532.
VOL. II]. NO. U1. OCTOBER 1625. x
fa} : Reet Ee
322 Prof. De la Rive’s Description
then, taking the ratio of these two numbers of degrees, we find
_ the exact ratio between the tension of the vapour existing in the
air, and the total tension at the same temperature.
The thermometer, for example, marks 12° cent. when immers-
ed in sulphuric acid ; exposed to the air, it rises to 254°, that
is 133°; placed in a vacuum, in which the air is at extreme
humidity, at the same temperature of 12°, it rises to 27°, that
is 15°; the ratio of 131° to 15°, or 90 to 100, expresses that
of the tension of the vapour existing in the air to the total
tension at 12° of temperature. If we now seek, io the table
of Gay Lussac, the degree of the hygrometer corresponding
to the tension 90, we shall find 95° 43, and the hygrometer
in the above experiment indicated 95° 50.
Several other experiments have given me analogous results ;
but if, in place of operating at the temperature of 12°, we
make the experiment at another temperature, for the same
degree of the hygrometer of Saussure the thermometer will
rise as much more as the temperature is elevated ; which arises
from this, that the absolute quantity of aqueous vapours in
the air increases with the degree of heat. The number of
degrees which the thermometer will rise for extreme humidi-
ty will vary also; and, consequently, we must determine it
for each degree of the thermometer in order to know the ratio
required at every temperature. I have made the determina-
tion for temperatures sufficiently remote ; and it appears to me
that we may, without sensible error, content ourselves with
determining the number of degrees which the thermometer
rises in the case of total humidity, for two extreme points
such as 0° and 20° centig., and divide the difference equally
between the intermediate-degrees. A great number of expe-
riments, made at different temperatures in the way above ex-
plained, have given me satisfactory results. Let us suppose,
then, a thermometer, on the scale of which is marked, oppo-
site to each degree, the number which shows how mueh, at
this degree of temperature, the thermometer taken from the
sulphuric acid rises when exposed to extreme humidity ; then,
if we wish to know the humidity of the air, we divide the
number which expresses the rise of the thermometer by that
which is marked at the end of the degrees on the scale, and
of a New Hygromeier. 323
the quotient will express the ratio of the tension at the time
of the experiment, to the total tension regarded as unity.
Some experiments appear to me to indicate, that the num-
bers which express the rise of the thermonieter at different
temperatures, for different degrees of humidity, follow, with-
out any sensible error, the same ratio as the tensions of the
vapours at these same temperatures: For this comparison, I
employed the table constructed from the experiments of Dal-
ton. From this it followed, that the thermometer, taken out
of the acid, and exposed to the air, would indicate, by the
number of degrees it rose, two things at once; Ist, The ratio
between the tension of the vapour in the air; and the total
tension at the same temperature; and, 2d, The absolute
tension of the vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the
experiment.
Along with the advantages which I have mentioned, the pre-
ceding process presents some inconveniences. In the first place,
it is not an instrument, but an apparatus which must be em-
ployed, as an experiment is necessary to obtain an indication.
In the next place, the employment of the process requires
some precautions. We must, as much as possible, make use
of a thermometer whose bulb is very small, both on account
of the gréat sensibility of the instrument, and because the
quantity of acid that adheres to the surface of the bulb re-
mains always the same. We must also employ an acid of the
same degree of concentration, though I have, however, not
observed that a small difference in the degree of concentra-
tion has a very great influence. We must, likewise, during
the experiment, endeavour to avoid every cause of heat fo-
reign to that which alone ought to act. On this account, it
it is proper to have, beside the thermometer in use, another
which will indicate the temperature of the air at every in-
stant.
Before concluding this notice, I shall say a few words on
the fact, which constitutes the principle of it, viz. the re-
markable difference between the quantities of heat developed
by the condensation of vapours on sulphuric acid, according
to the degree of humidity of the atmosphere.
It would seem at first sight, that however small be the
324 Prof. De la Rive’s Description
quantity of vapours in the atmosphere, there ought to be @
quantity sufficient to saturate the stratum of acid adhering to
the bulb of the thermometer, and consequently to develope
the same quantity of heat.
But we must remark, that there is a struggle between the
force of affinity of the acid for the vapour, and the. tendency
which the water possesses to remain under that form of va-
pour,—a tendency which increases as the quantity of vapour in
the atmosphere diminishes. Hence it follows, that the great-
er the humidity, the more facility will the water have to con-
dense the vapour, the more rapid also will the condensation
be, and, consequently, the more considerable will be the heat
developed. The thermometer will not stop, therefore, till
the cooling occasioned by the difference of temperature be-
tween the air and the thermometer bulb shall compensate the
quantity of heat produced by the condensation of the vapour,
and the term at which that limit takes place will depend on
the greater or less degree of the humidity of the air.
When the thermometer ceases to rise, we must say that its
stopping is owing to the equilibrium which is then establish-
ed between the heat produced and the cooling, which ought to
take place at this temperature; but still the acid does not
cease to condense the vapour. We may prove this by sus-
pending the thermometer to a sensible balance, when it will
be seen that its weight increases by the condensation of the
aqueous vapour round the bulb, even after the thermometer has
ceased to rise. It is easy also to measure exactly the quantity
of water which is attracted by a known quantity of sulphuric
acid. For this purpose, the thermometer is first weighed in
its natural state ;—it is then weighed after it is plunged in
the acid, by placing its bulb in a receiver dried by the muri-
ate of lime. The difference between these two weights gives
that of the thin stratum of acid adhering to the bulb. The
receiver is then removed, and exposed to the open air, and
condenses on the acid which envelopes it a certain quantity
of water, the weight of which it is easy to appreciate, as I
have often ascertained.
Of all the acids, the sulphuric acid is, without doubt, the
most proper for these experiments, on account of its great af-
of a New Hygrometer. 325
finity for aqueous vapours. This affinity is such, that, even
in a receiver dried by muriate of lime, I have seen the ther-
mometer rise from 15° to 18° centig., that is to say, 3°, but
it cannot rise higher.
The nitric acid produces also heat by the condensation of
aqueous vapours, but in a much less degree. A thermometer,
for example, whose bulb had been plunged into that acid,
rose only in extreme humidity from 132° to 173° centig., that
is, 4°, and exposed to an average humidity, it rose only 3°,
the temperature of the air being 14°.
The hydrochloric acid presents a singularity when it is em-
ployed for the same purpose. A thermometer whose bulb
has been plunged in that acid begins by descending, and this
rises higher than the part from which it set out. At the
temperature of 15°, for example, the thermometer descends
at first to 14°, and then rises to 17°: but when placed in a
receiver dried by muriate of lime, the thermometer descended
from 15° to 12°, and did not rise higher than the point
from which it set out. From this it seems to follow, that
the first tendency of the water contained in the hydrochlo-
ric acid is to evaporate,—a tendency to which it yields en-
tirely when the air is very dry,—and that afterwards the
acid, become more concentrated by the privation of the water
which is evaporated, tends to take some of it again, by con-
densing the aqueous vapours of the atmosphere, and conse-
quently producing heat; or may not the phenomenon be ow-
ing to the disengagement of the hydrochloric acid gas, which,
in quitting the water with which it was united, tends to pro-
duce cold, a cold which is soon more than compensated by
the condensation of the water attracted by the acid round the
bulb? However this may be, the phenomenon seems to pre-
sent a kind of contradiction which it is not easy to solve.
I shall not enter at present into any further details respect-
ing the heat produced by the affinity of acid for aqueous va-
pours, trusting that I shall resume the subject, and treat it
more profoundly, when I have finished the experiments on
this subject with which I am at this moment occupied.
826 Mr’ Maller on the Locality of Acmite.
Art.X XIII.—On the Locality of Acmite. By N. B. Moutrr,
Esq. of Porsgrund, Norway.*
Maxy years ago, Mr Brataas, one of the captains in the min-
ing district of Kongsberg, had discovered this mineral at
Eger, and showed it to Professor Strém, who was, at that
time, the clergyman of the place, and who, in his description
of the parish of Eger, mentioned it under the name of crystal-
lized hornstone or shorl.t-
Some time afterwards, a peasant brought some crystals of
it to Professor Esmarck, but as he had. found them only de-
tached, he could give no information in regard te their true
locality. Professor Esmarck himself considered these crystals
as staurolite, a mineral which in fact they much resemble
when found without their terminations, which was the case with
those which he possessed.
Mr P. Strém, a manager of several of the Kongsberg mines,
found the mineral én situ, from the instructions given by Cap-
tain Brataas, and took several specimens with him to Stock-
holm, where it was immediately suspected to be something
new ; and this was perfectly confirmed by the subsequent ana-
lysis by Mr Strém himself, and by Professor Berzelius, for as-
certaining the quality and quantity of the ingredients.
Since Mr Strém always kept the place a great secret, it is
probable that mineralogists would have long remained un-
certain in this respect, had I not had the good fortune of
becoming acquainted with Mr Brataas, who took me to the
real locality, which is Rundemyr, about two English miles
distant from Bisseberg Mine, in the parish of Eger, near
Kongsberg. It occurs in considerable quantities, imbedded
in quartz and felspar; many of the crystals being upwards of
a foot in length. They are, however, not easily disengaged
* Extracted from the manuscript account with which we have been fu-
voured by the author, and which is intended for the *‘ Magazin fur Na-=
turvidenskaberne” of Christiania. —Ep.
+ Strom. Eger Beskr. p- 50. The identity of these crystals with the
Acmite, has been placed beyond a doubt, by the comparison of the very
specimens described by Professor Strém, which are at present in the pos-
session of Mr Otto Tank, of Fredrikshald.
Prof. Berzelius on two newly discovered Mineral Species. 327
from the matrix, on account of their great fragility. ‘They do
not, all of them, possess that dark brownish-black, colour,
which is generally quoted in the descriptions of Acmite, but
they are sometimes greenish-grey, and of all the intermediate
shades between this and the brownish-black colour. In this
case, also, their lustre is not so high, and they approach very
much in appearance to Mussite, a variety of pyroxene, with
which species their regular forms likewise very closely agree.
Generally the crystals are macled, and very often bent.
eT
Arr. XXIV.—Account of two newly discovered Mineral Sipe-
cies. * By Professor J. J. BEexzetivs. M.D. F.R.S.
Lond. and Edin. &c. &c.
1. Phosphate of Yttria.
"[uis mineral has been discovered by Mr Tank junior, near
Lindesnaes, in Norway, ina vein consisting chiefly of a coarse-
grained granite. He obtained only one specimen, consisting
of an aggregate of crystals of half an inch or an inch in diameter,
but much engaged among each other. They belong to the pyra-
midal system of Mohs, and are similar to Fig. 16, Plate Vit
Cleavage takes place parallel to the faces J, J, in two directions
perpendicular to each other, and is easily obtained. ‘The cross
fracture is uneven and splintery. Its colour is yellowish-
brown, similar to certain varieties of the zircon from Freder-
icksvirn ; the streak very pale brown. “ Sp. Gr. 4.5577, at
a temperature of 16° centigr. Hardness =45... 5.0, between
fluor and apatite, nearer the latter.” It possesses resinous
lustre, the higher degrees of it upon the faces of cleavage, the
surface of the crystals being nearly dull, and faintly translu-
cent.
Before the blow-pipe, it resembles very much phosphate of
* Extracted from Kongl. Velenskaps Acad. Handlingar for 1824, p. 334
and Poggendort’s Annalen der Physik. 1825, li. p- 203.
+ The figures of these crystals, and that of the crystals of Polymignite,
were observed by Mr Haidinger, on specimens in the possession of Mi
Tank.
328 Prof. Berzelius on two newly discovered Mineral Species.
lime ; it is distinguished from it, however, by its being infusi-
ble without addition, and much more difficultly soluble in salt
of phosphorus. With boracie acid, and a piece of iron-wire,
it gives much phosphuret of iron. It is insoluble in acids,
even when they are concentrated.
The analysis was conducted in the following manner :
The mineral, having been melted with carbonate of soda, was
digested in water, which left a pale yellow earthy substance
undissolved. The alcaline solution was saturated with acetic
acid, evaporated to dryness, redissolved in water, (by which
process, a trace of silica was obtained,) and then precipitated
by acetate of lead. As the precipitate, produced in this man-
ner, is always the combination expressed by the formula
P6 P2, which, in the present instance, was likewise verified
by actual analysis, the relative quantity of phosphoric acid
could be thus ascertained. Since we must suspect the presence
of fluoric acid in almost every natural body containing the phos-
phoric acid, a small quantity of the mineral was analyzed, for
the purpose of ascertaining its existence; and, im fact, some
very distant, though slight indications of this substance were
obtamed. The earthy powder left from the first process, was
digested in muriatic acid, which left behind a small quantity
of silica, and undecomposed mineral. The solution was added
in drops to a solution of carbonate of ammonia, which dissoly-
ed entirely the precipitate that had been formed in the be.
ginning. The fluid was now evaporated, and the muriate of
ammonia driven away, the residue again dissolved in muriatie
acid, and then brought to dryness. Upon redissolving it in
water, a dark brown substance remained, which was phos-
phate of iron, with excess of base, and which seems to be the
colouring matter in the mineral. It did not contain any ce-
rium. That the earthy base, united with the phosphoric acid
was yttria, appears from the character, that the solutions pos-
sess a taste as sweet as sugar, as also from the amethyst-co-
loured difficulily soluble salt, which it formed with sulphuric
acid, and which effloresced and became milk-white, without
losing its form.
Prof. Berzelius on two newly discovered Mineral Species. 329
The proportion of the ingredients is
Yttria, - - - 62.58.
Phosphoric acid, with a little fluoric acid, - 33.49.
Phosphate of iron, with excess of base, - 3.93.
The corresponding formula is, Y° Pp, analogous to the native
phosphate of lime.
2. Polymignite.
The name of this mineral is derived from oAd¢ much, and
wyvva I mix, in allusion to the great number of substances of
which it is composed. It occurs in more or less regular im-
bedded crystals, from a line to upwards of an inch in length,
in the zircon syenite of Frederikovirn in Norway. ‘The spe-
cimens analyzed were collected by Mr Tank.
Its regular forms belong to the prismatic system of Mohs ;
one of the varieties is represented in Fig. 15, Plate VI. ‘They
are generally compressed between 7’ and 7’, and lengthened in
the direction of the axis. The cleavage isvery imperfect, though
sometimes traces of it are visible parallel to JT’ and M; the
fracture is highly perfect conchoidal. The surface of the
crystals is sometimes longitudinally streaked, but possessés a
considerable degree of an imperfect metallic lustre, which is
still higher in the fracture. Its colour is black; the streak
dark brown, rather paler when the mineral is much commin-
uted. Itis opaque. The hardness is = 6.5, between quartz
and felspar, the specific gravity = 4.806
Before the blow-pipe it remains entirely unaltered. It does
not give out water. ‘To glass of borax, in which it is readily
dissolved, it communicated the colours produced by iron, and
if it is added in a rather large proportion, the globule may be
rendered opaque by flaming, and then it assumes a nearly
orange-yellow colour. With tin it yields a reddish-yellow
colour, It is dissolved likewise by salt of phosphorus. In
the reducing flame the globule becomes reddish, and is not
altered by the addition of tin. It does not melt with carbonate
of soda, but is changed into a reddish-grey mass. It yields
traces of tin by reduction.
Only 0.658 grammes could be subjected to the chemical
analysis, and it is therefore not to be expected, that from so
330 Prof. Berzelius on two newly discovered Mineral Species.
small a quantity, both the nature and the relative proportions
of the ingredients could be ascertained with perfect exactness,
particularly as we are yet in want of exact methods for sepa-
rating zirconia and titanic acid, or yttria and protoxide of
manganese.
The analysis itself was conducted in the following manner :
A. As the mineral may be decomposed by sulphuric acid,
it first underwent that process. The sulphates dissolved in
water, left behind a white powder, which was well lixiviated
with hot water, and then exposed to a red heat. Upon the
supposition, that it was tantalic acid, it was melted together
with sulphate of potash with excess of acid, and yielded a
transparent yellow mass, from which the salt was extracted by
water, leaving the white substance undissolved. The latter
became green, when hydro-sulphuret of ammonia was poured
on it. The filtrated fluid being evaporated, left a trace of a
metallic sulphuret, which seemed to be sulphuret of tin. The
green substance was soluble in muriatic acid, with the excep-
tion only of a slight trace of the metallic sulphuret mentioned
above; and, therefore, it could not be tantalic acid.
The solution was yellow. First tartaric acid, and then an
excess of ammonia were added, in order to precipitate the
white substance, and to retain the oxide of iron, but no change
ensued. The iron was therefore precipitated by hydro-sul-
phuret of ammonia, the precipitate dissolved in nitro-muriatic
acid, and again precipitated by caustic ammonia.
B. Muriate of lime was added to the remaining fluid, the
precipitate washed, exposed to a red heat for decomposing the
tartaric acid, and freed from lime by muriatic acid. A white
powder remained, which appeared yellow while hot, but be-
came perfectly white on cooling. Before the blow-pipe it
‘ proved to be titanic acid.
C. The solution in sulphuric acid (A) and the water, with
which the precipitates had been washed, were precipitated by
caustic ammonia; the: precipitate filtered and washed. Lime
was precipitated from the fluid by oxalate of ammonia, and
then transformed into carbonate of lime. The remaining fluid,
evaporated and exposed to a red heat, gave a saline mass, con-
taining potash and magnesia.
Prof. Berzelius on two newly discovered Mineral Species. 331
_ D. The precipitate obtained in C by ammonia was partly
soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. A substance remained un-
dissolved, which turned pale yellow on being exposed to a red
heat.
E. The solution in sulphuric acid, (D) and the water of
edulcoration, were nearly neutralized with ammonia, and
while boiling hot, sulphate of potash was dissolved in them, as
long as any precipitate formed. The precipitate washed, first
with pure water, and then with ammoniacal water, and then
exposed to a red heat, became yellow. It was now melted,
along with the substance obtained in D, and a little sulphate
of potash with excess of acid, and digested in water, which be-
came but slightly nebulous by ammonia. It was placed upon
a filter, and washed first with tartaric acid, and then with con-
centrated muriatic acid, as the whole of it had not been dis-
solved by the former. What had remained undissolved, even
in the latter, proved to be titanic acid. From the solutions in
the tartaric and muriatic acids, nothing was precipitated when
ammonia was added in excess. Sulphuret of iron was preci-
pitated by hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, and afterwards it
was converted into oxide of iron, The remaining fluid was
evaporated to dryness, and the salts decomposed by a red
heat, A white earthy substance was-thus obtained, insoluble
in muriatic acid, but soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid,
and in every respect similar to zirconia. This substance, how-
ever, still contamed a little titanic acid, as also the titanic acid
obtained above a little zirconia.
F. The fluid, which in E had been precipitated by means
of sulphate of potash, was now mixed with tartaric acid, su-
persaturated with ammonia, and precipitated by hydro-sul-
phuret of ammonia. The sulphuret of iron thus obtained
was transformed into oxide, the remaining saline mass was
evaporated, and then exposed to a red heat, along with an ad-
dition of saltpetre to prevent the formation of sulphurets.
The salts, with an excess of alkali, were dissolved in water,
and the remaining earthy substance was soluble in muriatic
acid in the cold. With caustic ammonia the fluid gave a pre-
cipitate, which became yellowish-brown upon the filter, and
black on being exposed to heat. ‘The ammoniacal fluid yield-
382 Prof. Berzelius on some new localities of rare Minerals.
ed.a precipitate with oxalate of ammonia, which became black’in
a red heat, and was oxide of manganese mixed with a little lime.
G. What had been precipitated by ammonia, was soluble
in muriatic acid, giving out a slight odour of chlorine, and
after being saturated with sulphate of potash, the solution
gave.a lemon-yellow precipitate of sulphate of cerium and po-
tash, which was decomposed by caustic potash, and yielded
oxide of cerium. ‘The remainder proved to be yttria, mixed
with a little oxide of manganese.
In this manner, the following proportions among the ingre-
dients were obtained :
Titanic acid, - - 46.3
Zirconia, : - 14.14
Oxide of iron, . - 12.20
Lime, - - - 4,2
Oxide of manganese, - - 2.7
Oxide of cerium, - - 5.0
Yttria, “ 2 C i 11.5
Total 96.3
With traces of magnesia, potash, silica, and oxide of tin.
The loss is in reality greater than it appears in comparing the
numbers of the result, because the manganese and iron, and
probably also the cerium, exist in the mineral in the state of
protoxides. No calculation can, therefore, be grounded on
this analysis, only so much may be inferred, that the mineral is
a titanate of zirconia, mixed with other isomorphous titanates.
Art. XXV.—On sone new Localities of rare Minerals.* By
Professor J. J. Berzetivs, M. D. F. R. S. Lond. and
Edin. &e. &c.
Severat remarkable minerals, the orthite, zircon, and soda-
spodumene, have been discovered in the island of Skepsholm
in Stockholm, during the blasting of some rocks upon it, in
the course of the summer of 1824. ‘They do not occur in re-
gular veins, but are here and there disseminated through the
* From the “ Ansberiittelse om framstegen in Phystk och Chemie, 1825,”
p: 193 and 220.
4
Prof. Berzelius on some new localitics of rare Minerals 333
rock, particularly where the grain of the granite is larger.
The orthite so much resembles gadolimite, that it was, at first,
considered as a variety of it, till Dr Wohler, the first who ob-
served the orthite in the quarry of Skepsholm, found. its che-
mical composition to be exactly the same as that of the orthite
from Gottlicbsgang, at Finbo near Fahlun. Its fraeture is
either glassy, or it is granular, and almost metallic, like that
of yttro-tantalite ; its colour is sometimes yellowish-brown, and
even approaching to red, yet according to the experiments of
Dr W., these, and the black varieties, do not present any es-
sential difference in their composition. The zircon is rather
rare. Generally the crystals, which are dark brown, are very
small, but some of them have been found half a line in diame-
ter, and two lines long. The soda-spodumene, the same min-
eral which I formerly (Ansber. 1824. p. 160.) mentioned as a
new species found at Danvikgate, near Stockholm, is met with
here in abundance, sometimes of a snow-white colour, and
distinguishable from felspar by its stronger lustre. The va-
riety from Skepsholm, has been analyzed by Mr Arfvedson,
who found its chemical composition to agree with the result I
had obtained Jast year.
These minerals do not, in general, appear to be very rare
in the rocks in the vicinity of Stockholm. The soda-spodu-
- mene is probably a very common mineral, but often mistaken
for felspar. I have seen it in the granites of Norway. Or-
thite is found at Danvik, also in the Diurgard, (deer-park,)
and almost in every place where rocks have been newly blast-
ed. Ihave seen a roundish mass in Skepsholmen of two
inches diameter. In a granite block, taken from a wall near
Orkelliunga in Scania, I likewise discovered orthite, and Mr
Tank communicated to me large orthites from Lindisnaes, in
Norway, where they are found along with the phosphate of
yttria. ‘These varieties have uot yet been analyzed, but
their exterior appearance, and the characters which they ex-
hibit, when exposed to the action of the blow-pipe, so very
nearly agree with those of orthite, that I do not doubt their
composition will be found identical.
A mineral, which seems to be Pyrorthite, since it entirely
agrees with it in its characters, when examined before the
334 Zoological Collections.
blow-pipe, has been discovered by Dr Wohler. It occurs at
Grigisholm, near Stockholm, and at Skinnskatteberg, near
Riddarhyttan, so that it is no longer ancien to the locality
of Kararfvet, near Fahlun.
Carbonate of cerium has been discovered at Bastnaes, near
Riddarhyttan, accompanying the cerite, on which it forms
white crystalline coatings. According to an analysis by Mr
Hisinger, it is composed of
Oxide of cerium, - - V5e7
Carbonic acid, « - - 10.8
Water, - - - 13.5
which corresponds to the formula Ce C42 Aq. From a
want of sufficient material, it has been impossible to repeat the
analysis, which is called for in particular by the uncertain
propor tion of water. Along with it is found also fluate of ce-
rium, of a nearly orange nae: or wax-yellow colour, and
semi-transparent. It does not change its appearance, wheri
exposed to'a slight red heat, by which it loses 19 per cent. of
its weight. Itis exceedingly rare.
Ant. XXVI--ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. *
Chlamyphorus truncatus, Plate VIII, Fig. 1. pat a
Corrors, supra testa coriacea, postice truncata, squammis rhomboideis,
lineis transversis dispositis, conflata, subtus capillis albis, sericeis, obtecto ;
capite supra squamis testa dorsali continuis, adoperto ; palmis, plantisque
pentadactylis ; unguibus anterioribus longissimus, compressis ; marginibus
externis, acnoni buy sque acutis ; cauda rigida, sub abdomine sane
+A Dimensions,
’ : Tnch.
Total length - 4 - vs aust
_ Length of the head - - - - 16
Breadth between the eyes = - “8.
Depth of the posterior truncated portion of the shell Sibir Wea
Greatest breadth of the same - - - re"
Girth posterior to the shoulders - - |
Length of the sole of the foot, including the nails
Breadth of the foot - -
Length of the nails - -
* The following New Animals are described in the Annals of the Lyceum of
New York, vol. i
»
+
WL Ainnes ge
Zoological Collections: 335
Length of the hand — ki capcl oP pany! & 14
Breadth of ditto = ds as ze “4
Length of the longest nail - 5 =: = “Th
Length of that portion of the tail which is free, and*curved
beneath the body - = = 2 es 1:2
The shell which covers the body is of a consistence somewhat more
dense and inflexible than sole leather of equal thickness. It is composed
of a series of plates of a square, rhomboidal, or cubical form; each row
separated by an epidermal or membranous production, which is reflected
above and beneath over the plates ; the rows include from fifteen to twen-
ty-two plates; the shell being broadest at its posterior half, extending
about one half round the body ; this covering is loose throughout, except-
ing along the spine of the back and top of the head ; being attached to
the back immediately above the spine, by a loose cuticular production,
and by two remarkably bony processes (to be described hereafter) on the
top of the os frontis, by means of two large plates, which are nearly in-
corporated with the bone beneath ; but for this attachment, and the tail
being firmly curved beneath the belly, the covering would be very easily
detached. The number of rows of plates on the back, counting from the
vertex, (where they commence) is twenty-four ; at the twenty-fourth the
shell curyes suddenly downwards, so as to form a right angle with the
body ; this truncated surface is composed of plates nearly similar to those
of the back; they are disposed in semicircular rows, five in number: the
lower margin, somewhat elliptical, presents a notch in its centre, in which
is attached the free portion of tail, which makes an abrupt curyature, and
runs beneath the belly parallel to the axis of the body ; the free portion of
tail consists of fourteen caudal vertebrae, surrounded by as many plates,
similar to those of the body ; the extremity of the tail being depressed,
so as to form a paddle; the rest of the tail compressed. ‘The caudal ver-
tebre extend up to the top of the hack, beneath the truncated surface,
where the sacrum is bent to meet the tail. The superior semicircular mar-
gin of the truncated surface, together with the lateral margins of the shell,
are beautifully fringed with sitky hair.
Head: posterior half, broad, anterior half, before the eyes, tapering ;
the occiput is covered by the five first rows of the hack plates, with which
- they are continuous ; the occiput not distinguishable externally. The an-
__ terior half of the top of the head is covered, first, by a row of large plates,
~ five in number, which are firmly attached to the bone beneath ; particu-
larly the two outer ;—secondly, by a smaller row, six in number, anterior
to which, that is to say, the top of the snout, is covered with smaller
plates irregularly disposed.
External ear, consists of a circular, somewhat patulous opening, directly
posterior to the eye, surrounded with an elevated margin ; and communi-
eating with a bony canal, to be more fully described hereafter. Hye, mi-
nute, totally black; and, like the ear, nearly hidden by long silky hair
Mouth, the rictus small. Nose, the extremity of the snout is furnished
336 Zoological Collections.
with an enlarged cartilage, as in the hog ; the anterior nares opening down-
wards, at the inferior border.
The whole surface of the body covered ov fine silk-like hair, longer
and finer than that of the mole, but not so thick set. The anterior of the
chest is large,-full, and strong; the anterior extremities, short, clumsy,
and powerful; the hair is continued for some distance on the palm—the
phalanges of the hand united ; five powerful nails rising gradually one
above the other ; the external shortest and broadest ; the whole so arrang=
ed as to form a sharp cutting instrument, somewhat scooped ; very conye-
nient for progression under ground ; and such as must very much impede
motion on the surface. Hind legs weak and short—feet, long and narrow ;
the sole resembles considerably the human foot, having a well defined heel,
which rests flat upon the ground, and being arched in the middle; toes
separate, nails flattened horizontally.
Skull. At first view, the bones of the cranium and face would appear
to constitute one solid case, the remnants of sutures are indistinctly visible
in some parts only. The cavity of the cranium is capacious ; the greatest
breadth, which is from ear to ear, is one inch ; greatest depth five-tenths ;
length of the cavity, seven-tenths- One of the most remarkable pecu-
liarities of this skull consists in the two processes of bone above alluded
to, which project obliquely, forward, upward, and outward; from the os
frontis, anterior to the cavity of the cranium, and directly above the malar
bone ; giving to the front of the skull an aspect totally unique ; ‘these
prominences are hollow, communicating with the frontal sinuses, and must
contribute in a great measure to enlarge the organ of smell ; there exists a
considerable concavity between them, which, in the recent state, was filled
with an adipose, gristly mass, which served to unite the skull to the plates
above. The snout commences anteriorly to these processes, and is rapidly
attenuated and depressed. The ossa nasi are broad and strong, slightly
arched transversely, extending anteriorly beyond the os incisivum, as does
likewise the osseous septum narium. The zygomatic processes are lateral-
ly arched ; a small pointed process, descending near the malar bone, (some-
what like that in the sloth); the zygomatic fosse are large.
The labyrinth is protuberant, and occupies the usual situation at the
base of the skull; joined to which is the tympanum ;—to the last is at-
tached a. bony cylinder, stretching first upwards behind the zygomatic pro-
cess of the temporal bone, around which it makes a sudden curve, and
runs forward and upwards to terminate at the external ear. This struc-
ture, which I believe is peculiar to the animal before us, will be better un-
derstood by referring to the plate.
Lower jaw. Anterior portion shaped like that of the elephant, much
elongated ; the general form and proportion resembles very closely the
lower jaw of the sheep, the base being considerably arched, and the curve
at the posterior part, forming with the base nearly a right angle, project-
ing obliquely outwards: the base is marked by eight slightly elevated pro-
tuberances, occasioned by the roots of the teeth; the condyloid process is
longer than the coronoid ; in the sheep, this is reversed: the articulation
Zoological Collections. 337
at the glenoid cavity 1s such as to admit of great freedom of motion.
Length of the base of the lower jaw one inch; length of the angle five
tenths; greatest width two and a half tenths; width of the angle three-
~Feeth. Incisors, none in either jaw ; molars, eight in number, on ei-
ther side of the upper and lower jaws, all approximate ; disposed in se~
- parate alveoli; the crowns of the two first only, approach to a point, and
thus much resemble canine teeth ; the six remaining are all nearly flat on
the crown; their structure is simple; a cylinder of enamel, of equal
thickness throughout, surrounds a central pillar of bone, there being no
division into body and root ; the lower half is hollow, the cavity repre-
senting an elongated cone. In the lower jaw, the teeth penetrate its
whole depth ;—length of the teeth, about three tenths of an inch: two
tenths of which are buried in the sockets—diameter, about one-tenth
They are somewhat flattened on the sides, and in a slight degree curved
externally, to be adapted to the shape of the jaw. The teeth of the in
ferior maxilla are directed forwards and upwards; those of the superior ©
maxilla are directly reversed in their direction, so that the crowns meet
each other obliquely ; 3 and the posterior margin of the lower teeth, and
the anterior margin of the upper, present their angles to the object of
mastication:
We have been: piewntda' in the subject before us with a new form: an
animal combining in its external configuration a mechanical arrangement
of parts which characterizes, respectively, the armadillo, the sloth, and
the mole ; constituting in themselves, individually and separately, of all
other quadrupeds, those which offer the most remarkable anatomical cha-
racters. Pursving the investigation step by step, with the skeletons of
the above named animals before me, it was not until after I had com-
pletely finished every point of observation, that [ perceived in the skull
alone, of the new animal, a reunion, more or less complete, of all those
remarkable traits that an external view of the animal had offered for con-
templation ; which, taken collectively, furnishes us with an example of
organic structure, if not unparalleled, at least not ripe games in the history
of animals.
This animal is a native of Mendoza in Chili ; in the Indian language it
is termed ‘ Pichiciago.’ It had been obtained on the spot in a living
state, but it continued to live in confinement only a few days. Its habits
resemble those of the mole, living for the most part under ground, and is
reputed to earty its young beneath its scaly cloak— Prof. Harlan-
2. New and gigantic species of the genus Cephalopterus, of Dumeril.
Plate VIII. Fig. 2.
C. Vampyrus. Char—Breadth of the body exceeding its length ;
mouth nearly terminal, without teeth ; a vertical fin on each side of the
mouth, projecting forwards ; tail unarmed. *
* Supposed to be the same animal described by M, Lesueur, under the name, C.
Giorna. This description we had not seen. ”
VOL. III. NO. II. OCTOBER 1825, x
338, Zoological Collections.
Taken near the entrance of Delaware bay, by the crew of a smack, after.
a long and hazardous encounter. Its weight was supposed to be between
four and five tons.
Dimensions.—Length from the fore margin of the head to the root of
the tail 10 feet 9 inches. The breadth from one extremity of one pectoral
fin to the other, measuring along the line of the belly, 16 feet; when
measured across the convexity of the back 18 feet. The mouth nearly
terminal, and not situated on the under side. Its breadth from corner to
corner 2 feet 9 inches. There were two upper lips, both destitute of teeth.
There was a single lower lip, beset with small rough processes, resembling
those of a rasp, instead of teeth. There was in this huge mouth no ap-
pearance of a tongue.
Branchial openings on each side beneath, five, and with the gill covers
of different lengths, from 12 to 24 inches, and varying in breadth from
7 to10. The greatest breadth of the scull, or osseous part of the head, 5 feet.
Distance between the eyes 4 feet 2 inches; between the nostrils 2 feet
34 inches ; between the eye and ear 11 inches ; between the eye and nos-
tril 1 foot 1 inch; between the corner of the mouth and eye 1 foot
14 inches. The rostral fins were 2 feet 6 inches long, 12 inches deep, and
2% inches thick in the middle, whence it tapered toward the edges, which
were fringed before with a radiated margin. Each contains 27 parallel
cartilaginous rows. The natural flexibility and elasticity of these were
greatly increased by articulations alternating with each other through
every gristle and every part of the structure. Motion was communicated
to these cartilages with admirable effect, by means of muscles attached to
them, and lying under the common integuments which enveloped them.
The fin or wing so constituted could, from its flexibility, bend in all di-
rections, and be made in many respects to perform the function. .The
phalanges of this fin were attached by strong ligaments to the upper jaw
and to the point of articulation with the lower jaw- These two organs,
which we may suppose rendered essential services to the animal, were 5
feet 9 inches apart, and could almost be made to meet in front, or be bent
into the mouth. There was no proper bone in the skeleton, except in
one spot a hump or knob, about the size of a hen’s egg, at the root of the
tail behind the dorsal fin. The most remarkable parts of its organiza-
tion were the pectoral fins, or rather wings.
There was a scapula, humerus, ulna, carpus, and an uncommon num-
ber of phalanges of the before mentioned cartilaginous structure. All these
limbs or joints were articulated with each other; but the articulations,
like those of the human sternum, had very little motion. This series of
stiff joints was fixed in the flesh, and proceeded somewhat obliquely back-
ward. From this articulated but fixed extremity, proceeded obliquely back-
ward seventy-seven rows of cartilage of different lengths, but of almost same
parallelism, and not at all radiated. They were all articulated, and the
joints were very numerous. In the longest rew they amounted to twenty-
seven, and in the shorter ones proportionally fewer ; the cartilages, with their
articulations, were so alternated and diversified, that they, with the yield-
Zoological Collections. 339
ing and bending quality of the cartilage, were susceptible of all manner
of flexion, and enabled the fish to assume all the attitudes requisite for
its life and habits. In one of the wings or pectoral fins, the number of
joints amounted to 623 ; from which some judgment may be formed of the
vast variety of motions these organs are capable of performing, and how
admirably they are adapted to connect strength with speed. We can
hence understand the reason why they fly swiftly and powerfully through
the water; why they can raise a spray, or foam, around them when’
they flap their wings on the surface ; and they are able, huge as they are,
to gambol with agility, and even to leap out of the water for a consider-
able distance. This species is viviparous.—Prof: Mitchill-
3. Two New Genera of Reptiles Proposed.
Professor Harlan, who has paid much attention to the Batracian reptiles,
has established two new genera. The first of these, from its most promi-
nent character, he has named MENoOBRANCHUS.
Gen. Char.—Persistent branchie ; four-footed, four toes to each foot;
clawless.
M. lateralis——A black vitta from the nostrils, passing through the eyes,
and dilated on the sides, becoming obsolete on the tail. Plate VIII. Fig. 3-
Two rows of teeth in the upper jaw and one in the lower, and one rib
less than the true Salamandre. This species is the Triton lateralis of
Say, in Long’s Expedition. To this species, Professor Harlan refers the
animal mentioned by Professor Mitchill as a Proteus, and confounded by
him with the Salamandra Alleghaniensis of Michaux, and also the animal
from Lake Champlain, described by Schneider.
M. tetradactylus——Two rows of teeth in each jaw ; duplicature of skin,
forming a collar on the superior part of the neck, immediately anterior to
the branchie. Syn. Protée tetradactyle of Lacepede.
ABRANCHUS.
Gen- Char —Destitute of branchie at all periods of its existence; four
strong legs, five toes to the posterior, four to the anterior extremities ; the
outer edge of the feet fimbriated ; two outer toes of the hind feet palmat-
ed ; clawless.
A. Alleghaniensis, Plate VIII. Fig. 4. Salamandra Alleghaniensis of
Michaux and Latreille, S. gigantea of Barton.
4. Bilobites.
In the cabinet of the Lyceum of New York, there are some fossils from
New Jersey, and the Catskills, labelled with the name, Bilobites.
They are imbedded in a loose friable ‘sandstone, which seems to be al-
most wholly composed of organic remains, such as productus, terebratula,
&c. The general outline of the fossils may be considered as elliptical, one
extremity being much narrower than the other. The length varies from
1.2tol.5inch. The average thickness is about five lines. The superior
or dorsal surface is divided into two unequal lobes, by a longitudinal fur-
row, in the course of which a raised zig-zag line is observed. The lobes,
340 History of Mechanical Inventions and
with respect to each other, are unequal in size and thickness ; they gra-
dually become thinner towards the circumference, and more particularly
towards the posterior or larger extremity.. The lobes are marked trans=
versely by 18-30 distinct costae, which become more elevated as they ap-
proach the raised zig-zag line. These costae do not terminate at the
edges, but are continued at the anterior extremity, on the under surface.
Faint longitudinal impressions are observed, at unequal distances, crossing
the transverse costae nearly at right angles. The inequality of the lobes
is not always constant ; in one specimen, (See Plate VI. Fig. 11.) the smaller
lobe is compressed in such a manner as to produce a crest, and approxi
mating nearly to the shape of a trilobite. The under surface is ex-
tremely irregular. The edges, as before mentioned, are very thin, and are
elevated about two lines above the inferior surface. This, however, is not
uniform throughout the whole circumference ; the anterior portion, com-
prisiug one-third of the fossil, is without such a raised border. In this
part, the dorsal costae are continued beneath, and meet each other at
angles of about 45°. The line of junction has not yet been rendered visible
by the most careful dissection. The posterior portion of the under sur-
face presents a series of concentric lines, interrupted by a carina directly
beneath, and in the direction of the dorsal furrow. These fossils were. at
first supposed to be remains analogous to the Trilobites, but are at present
referred to the Productus of Sowerby—Dr Dekay.
See Plate VI. Fig. 11, 12, 13, and 14.
Til 4il i
=
Art. XXVIIL—HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS
AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS.
1. Method of giving the Epicycloidal Form to the Teeth of Wheels. 3 By
Peter Lecount, Esq. Midshipman, R. N. in a Letter to the Editor.
H. M, S. QuEEN Cuar.Lotre, PortsmMoutH Harsour,
Sir, Dec. 5, 1822-
I have to apologize to you for not having earlier sent you the aecount of
the method I propose to use in forming the teeth of the wheels and pinions
of chronometers in the shape of an epicycloidal curve. The fact is, I have
been waiting to get a sight of the engine now used for cutting watch
wheels, in order so to adapt my plan to that instrument as to leave it ca-
pable of performing all its former offices, and that the machinery for giving
the epicycloidal form may be put to it or taken away at pleasure.
In the instruments now used for cutting the teeth of watch and
chronometer wheels, there is a circular brass plate (called the dividing
plate) about seven inches in diameter, having a steel axis in its centre
(called the mandrill) five or six inches long; this is fixed in a frame with
the axis perpendicular, the wheel to be cut is fixed to the top of the man-
drill, and the plate is turned round the required distance for each tooth by
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Processes in the Useful Arts. ; 341
a contrivance (called the blind man’s guide) which, when once set to that
distance accurately, is stopped by a bolt, and the plate can be turned all
round by it one of the said distances at a time, without the trouble of
looking at the divisions again. Towards the top of the frame which holds
the mandrill and dividing plate, there is a horizontal dovetail slide of brass
running back from the mandrill about six inches, on which’ slide an up-
right back (or cock) holding the cutter frame is drawn backwards and for-
wards by means of a screw ina horizontal direction from the top of the
mandrill, where the wheel is so that the cutter may enter the wheel any
required depth to form the tooth. In the drawing, Plate I. Fig. 4, (given
in last Number,) a, a, represents the top of this upright back, and to two
brass chocks, b, b, the cutting frame is fixed as represented, but does'not
come forward farther than c, c, and is formed in the direction of the dotted
line. Between d, d, a steel axis is swiftly turned round bya lathe, and on
this axis is the cutter. This cutter frame may be moved upwards and down
wards in the chocks 5, 5, turning thus by means of steel hollow cones, into
which the inner ends of the screws f, f,; enter on the inside of the chocks—
after the cutter frame is brought forward on the dovetailslide, so that the cut-
ter will enter the wheel on the top of the mandrill, the requisite quantity,
the frame is then turned a little up, and the lathe'set in motion, and the cut-
ter is by this means turned swiftly ‘round in the frame ; the frame is then
turned downwards, and the cutter passes through the circumference of the
wheel cutting into it the required depth.
-)T-now propose, that after the first cut into the wheel is thus’ made, the
cutter-frame c, c, c, cpis taken “out/of'the chocks b, b, for which purpose
the screws fj f, g, g, may be for convenience made with large round heads;
with milled edges, similar to h, 4; as they can then be turned by hand;
the upright back and chocks are then to be drawn back on the dovetail
slide, and the frame k, i, is to be fixed inthe chocks d, b, exactly the
sameias the frame now used was done, taking out the screw m, and open-
ing the*part out marked n,n, which‘has a‘hinge ato, and adjusting the
hole p, to the mandrill, by the screw to the dovetail slide,—then shut up
the mandrill in the hole'p, by closing the part'n, n, and screwing fast the
scréw m,—this plate k, k, is to be of solid: brass, and about half an inch
thick.» ‘The frame &, #, when thus fixed, must be in a plane parallel to
that of the surface of the dividing plate, the top of the mandrill, with the
wheel on it standing nearly an inch above’ the upper surface of the frame.
~ On this frame, I propose to fix a pentagraph, constructed to diminish in
any required ratio,—the tracing end to be towards the chocks J, b, and the
marking end towards the mandrill and wheel at p,—at the end next p, the
cutter is to be fixed, so that its edge next p, is precisely in the marking
point of the pentagraph,—at the end of the plate next’the chocks 4, d,
where the tracing end of the pentagraph comes, an epicycloidal curve, ‘six
milar to that required for the teeth of the wheel, is to be deeply cut ;
when, therefore, the tracing end of the pentagraph is carried through this
curve, the edge of the cutter describes, or is carried through a similar curve,
but smaller in any required ratio to which the pentagraph may be
"
‘
342 History of Mechanical Inventions and
set,—the cutter is to be connected with the latter, and turned swiftly
round by it, exactly in the manner now done in these engines.
Now, supposing the length of that part of the epicycloidal curve, which
is required for the tooth of the wheel, to, be one-twenty-fourth of an inch,
which is nearly the size for the smallest sized chronometers, or those worn
in the pocket, than if the pentagraph diminished twenty times, the same
portion or the curve next the chocks, which is to be cut into the brass
frame, would be about an inch in length, which size is sufficient for it to
be constructed mechanically with sufficient accuracy, as any trivial errors
in that mechanical construction, when decreased twenty times, would be-
come insensible.
The best kind of pentagraph, I should think, would be the eidogrlipind in-
vented by Professor Wallace, and which is made by Bate, in the Poultry,
London, as it is found to be peculiarly accurate, and to possess several other
advantages, and for the suggestion of employing this pentagraph I am in-
debted to P. Barlow, Esq., of the Royal Military Academy. It ought to be
made of steel and hardened, to prevent it bending by the resistance opposed
to it, which, however, is not great, as the motion of the cutter is very swift.
There are several little things to be attended to in putting this method
in practice, all of which would immediately strike the practical mechanic,
but some of which I shall mention. The mandrill would have to be length-
ened a little, to enable its top, with the wheel on it, to stand above this
second frame. This may be done by unscrewing the part which holds the
wheel out of the mandrill, after the first cut is made in it by the old:cut-
ting-frame, and then screwing on an additional piece to the mandrill, and
again screwing it, the piece holding the wheel on the top of this additional
piece, or the second frame might have shoulders standing up above its upper
surface, at the end next the chocks 4, 5, to receive the hollow steel cones, in-
to which the inner conical ends of the screws f, f; come, which would hay-
the same effect. The approaching and receding motion of the pentagraph
must be exactly horizontal, or more properly speaking, it must be in a plane
parallel to that of the upper surface of the dividing plate,—the middle of
that part of the circumference of the cutter which is next the wheel, must
be the part which gives the cut,—when all is accurately set as to depth, &c.
every time the blind man’s guide turns round the requisite portion of the
dividing plate, the tracing end of the pentagraph will haye to be moved by
hand through the deeeply cut curve at the back part of the frame, the same
under similar circumstances, as the cutter frame now used, has to be
brought down by hand, to cut through the circumference of the wheel. .
There is a method a little different from the above, by which the teeth
of wheels might be curved epicycloidally, but I think it would be found
more difficult to use it with accuracy. I will, however, state it, and should
any public-spirited chronometer maker be inclined to this essential im-
provement in his machines, it will be for him to determine on this, and
many parts in the practical applications of the plans I give, which he will
be. much more qualified to do than I am.
In order to explain this, Fig. A, Plate I, shows the axis ¢ ¢, of the cutter as
il
Processes in the Useful Arts. 343
now used, which fixes in the cutter-frame d d, by the screws v, v, which
have conical holes in their ends at d, to receive the ends #, ¢, of the axis of
the cutter, and large round heads, with milled edges, similar to those pro=
posed for the screws f, f, the screws v, v, are fixed tight by others, w, w, y
is a brass virrel, round which the line passes from the cutter, and communi-
cates the motion, x is the cutter, which is a circular piece of steel fixed on
the axis with its:surface perpendicular to the length of the axis, and around
its edge are sharp teeth for cutting the teeth of the wheel.
Suppose now, that the second frame, with its attached pentagraph, as
before described, is fixed to the cutting machine, and instead of the wheel
to be cut being fixed on the top of the mandrill at p, let a piece of steel be
placed there, and by the action of the pentagraph, as before described, let
this steel be cut into the shape of the required part of the epicycloidal
curve wanted for the teeth of the wheel,;—this piece of steel, when proper-
ly shaped otherwise, may then be fixed on the axis ¢, ¢, and, with the cut-
ting-frame as now used, may be employed as the cutter for the wheels, and
their teeth will still have the required form ; the dotted lines at x, show
the shape which this cutter would have, eieirers of its presenting a thin
edge as at a.
' The difficulty in this method, appears to me to lie in making teeth to
this cutter, so as not to injure the true form of the curve,—an ingenious
mechanic may find himself capable of overcoming this. Perhaps, after the
teeth have been cut by the method I first proposed, an instrument, of the
form of the dotted lines at x, with its curves highly polished, may, with
advantage, be used as a burnisher, to prevent the injuring the true form of
the teeth, by finishing them up by any other method.
I am, Srr,
: Your obedient Servant,
- To Dr Brewster. Peter Lecounr,
Midshipman Royal Navy.
2. Description of a Single Weather Sluice, invented by Ropert THom,
Ese. Rothesay, Plate VI. Fig. 9.
One of the purposes to which this apparatus is applicable, is to regulate
the supply of water between a reservoir and mill, or other works, where
the former is at a great distance from and high above the latter; where
several streams fall into the aqueduct between them, and where the
adoption of apparatus, Vol. III. Plate I. Fig. 9, might be considered too
expensive. But it may also be applied to several other purposes, as will
readily occur to such as may have occasion to adopt it.
AB, part of an aqueduct, (close behind the tunnel of the reservoir,) in
which the water is always kept at the same level by an apparatus like that
of Vol. II. Plate IV. Fig. 5 or Fig. 6, placed upon the tunnel of the re-
servoir. The communication between this part of the aqueduct and that
below is opened or closed at pleasure by
BC, a small sluice, (and several others of the same kind, which are not
represented in the drawing,) that turns upon pivots at C.
B44 History of Mechanical Inventions and
DE, a light can of ;copper; (or tin plate painted,), open at top, witha:
small aperture in its bottom.
F,.a pulley. Oat icbass ii ser¥ ake
. G, a:lever attached to bales BC.
DFG, a chain, which, Ganttne over pulley F, has one end: fixed to can
DE; and the other to lever G.
IK, the section of a sinmdets 2 near where it enters» ther-reservoir, in the!
vicinity of AB.
LMN,;,2.pipe which, communicates between»the: rivuletvat:I Kand the
can DE.
OP, another pipe, which communicates ‘between pipe LMIN and a se-
cond can, the same as DE, not shown on the drawing.
QR, a third pipe, which comraunicates between pipe-LMN andia' third:
can, the same as DE, not shown-on the drawing,
1, 2, 3, apertures that communicate between rivulet. 1K:and pipe LM.
(When can DE is full of water, it shuts sluice BC, but when empty, the
pressure of water in front of BC throws it open. The aperture in the
bottom»of the can DE keepsiit always empty, except when the np hee
running into it is more than that aperture can pass.
» Before proceeding with the description, it may be proper to oskin
more fully the object in view. . It has been already mentioned, that in
this case a number of streams fall into the aqueduct between the sinedeais
and the: mills. When the weather is very wet, these streams furnish a
sufficient supply of themselves ;:and at such times, therefore, no water
should be:allowed to flow from the reservoir... But, when Jess rain’ falls,
these streams only furnish a part, and the rest must be supplied by the
reservoir ; and when the weather is very dry, these streams cease to flow
altogether, and then the whole supply must come from the reservoir.
Now, this apparatus is so contrived, that, when these streams are en-
urely dry, it sendsidown the whole supply from the reservoir ; when
these streams furnish a part, it sends down the remaining part, whatever
itmay be; and when these streams furnish the whole supply, it shuts the
reservoir altogether, so that the mills have always an equal supply, whe-
ther the weather be wet or dry.
To accomplish this, the whole number of sluices, BC, &c. placed on
the aqueduct AB, are calculated so as just to pass the whole quantity of
water wanted at the mills; and as more or less water is produced by these
streams, a. greater or lesser number of these sluices will open. or shut, so
as to keep the quantity at the mills always equal. The number of these,
sluices will be more or less, as the case may require; in this we suHON
three, as being sufficient to illustrate the principle.
Let us suppose, then, the weather very dry; the streams fotmenel the
reservoir and the mills quite dried up; and the sluices BC, &c. all open ;
rain comes, and these streams begin to flow; but the same rains that
swell these streams, swell also the rivulet IK ; and by the time the, first
produce a quantity equal to what one sluice (BC) can, pass, the last will
have risen_so as to flow out at aperture 1, thence. down pipe LMN inte,
Processes in the Useful Arts. 345
can DE ; which shuts sluice BC. ‘When these streams increase, so a6 to
produce as much water as two of the sluices (BC) can pass, then the ri-
vulet IK will have swollen so as to flow out at aperture 2, and thence
through P into a second can, which shuts a’ second’sluice. When they
increase so as to produce a quantity equal to what three of the sluices
(BC) can pass, then the water in the rivulet IK will have risen so as to
flow out at aperture 3, and thence through R into a third can, which
shuts a third sluice. 5
Again, suppose the weather to become fair, andthe streams hegitu to
decrease, by the time they fall short, a quantity equal to what one sluice,
(BC) can pass, the water in the rivulet IK will have fallen so as not to
flow out at aperture 3,. and, of course, one can will. be empty, and.one,
sluice open ; by the time they fall short, a quantity equal to what two
sluices can pass, the water in the rivulet IK will have fallen so as, not. to
flow out.at aperture 2, and x second can will have become empty, and a
second sluice open, When they shall have fallen short a quantity equal
to what three sluices can pass, the water in the rivulet IK will have fallen
so.as not to flow out at. aperture 1, and a third can will have become
empty, and a third sluice open, &c. &e.
In this way the water may be regulated at pleasure; and if a ante re-
servoir were made near the works to retain the water that flows during
the night, (or when the mills are not at work,) not a drop would be lost. *
The purpose, however, for which this apparatus was invented was; difs
ferent. Having occasion to cut an aqueduct round the bases of some hills,
to collect water and convey it to a reservoir at. a considerable distance, I
found, that, to make the aqueduct large enough to. convey a\l the water as,
it fell during floods, would be. very expensive ; it therefore occurred to
me, that, if a part of the water could be detained during floods, and
brought away gradually afterwards, a much smaller, (and, of course,
much less expensive,) aqueduct would answer the purpose. I therefore
made a small reservoir at a convenient place, and contrived these sluices
to shut during very heavy rains, and open again as they. became lighter,
which answered the purpose completely, and was the origin of all, these
weather sluices.
3. On coarse Paint made with Potatoes.
Take a pound of potatoes, skinned and well baked. Bruise them in
three or four pounds of boiling water, and then pass them through a hair
sieve. To this add two pounds of good chalk in fine powder, previously
mixed up with four pounds of water, and stir the whole together. This mix-
ture will form a sort of glue capable of receiving any “kind of colour, even
/* The apparatus, Vol. III. Plate I. Fig. 9, will accomplish the same thing with-
out this small reservoir; but, in most cases, (particularly where the elevation of the
reservoir above, and its distance from, the works is great,) the expence would
he much greater than in this.
346 History of Mechanical Inventions and
that of powdered charcoal, brick, or soot, which may be used for pean
gates, painters and. other articles exposed to the air.
4. Method of janine the polactine of Glass Chimneys.
The glass chimneys which are now in such extensive use, not only for
oil lamps, but also for the burners of oil and coal-gas, very frequently
break, and not only expose to danger those who are near them, but occa~
sion very great expence and inconvenience, particularly to those who are
resident in the country. The bursting of these glasses very often arises
from knots in the glass where it is less perfectly annealed, and also from
ani inequality of thickness at their lower end, which prevents them from
expanding uniformly by heat. The best method of detecting the knots is
to examine the glasses by polarized light, and reject those that exhibit at
the’ knots the depolarized tints.
» M: Cadet de Vaux (Bull. des Sc. Tech. Mars 1825. p. 180,) informs us,
that the evil arising from inequality of thickness may be cured by making
a cut with a diamond in the bottom of the tube, and he remarks that, in
establishments where six lamps are lighted every day, and where this pre-
caution was taken, there was not a single glass broken for nine years.
5. Description of Griebel’s Portable Night Clock °
This clock, constructed by M. Griebel of Paris, is represented in Plate
VI. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, the former showing it in perspective, and the latter
in section. A is the globe which contains the clock movement and the
lamp B. ‘The dial-plate C has a rim of ground glass with the hours paint=
ed upon it between E and C, Fig. 4.; EE isa plate in the centre of the
ground glass ring to which the movement is fixed, F is a globe to protect
the wheel-work from dust. The rays of light BG, BG issuing from the
lamp B, illuminate the rim EC of the dial on which the hours and mi-
nutes are painted. Bull. des Sciences Technol. Jan. 1825, p. 40.
It would, we think, be an improvement on this clock to place a mirror
between GG, to intercept all the rays that do not fall upon the rim of
ground glass, which, by means of another mirror behind B, would throw
some additional scattered light on the rim itself, while it would protect
the wheel-work from the direct radiation of the lamp-
6. Description of M. Allard’s Universal Bevel.
This useful and ingenious bevel, which is represented in Plate VI. Fig.
2, is composed of two rules a, b, which open and shut round the joint a.
The shortest of these two 4, carries a portion of a circle c, which passes
through a slit in d, where it may be fixed by a screw d. The other branch
a, is perforated with rectangular mortises in which are nuts, e, of the same
form, moving on a transverse pin /f. in order to allow the screw g, which
passes through them, to incline itself and change its position as may be re=
quired. One of these screws is shown separately in Fig. 8. Near a is fixed a
flexible plate of steel hhh, which is jointed by caps i, and rivetted to the ends
Processes in the Useful Arts. 347
of the screws g. In the openings of each of these caps is placed a piece k,
with two points, and with the end of the screw fixed in the middle of it,
so that the plate hhh, may, by means of the screws, be made to apply
to any curve, and retained in that position so as to be transferred.to an-
other substance. Bull. des Sc. Technol. Jan. 1825, p. 41.
7 Method of Consuming the Smoke of Steam- Boiler Furnaces. By Mr G.
CHAPMAN.
As this contrivance has been found to answer the purpose of consuming
the smoke, it has been honoured by the London Society of Arts with the
large silver medal. Mr Chapman heats the air which promotes the com-
bustion of the smoke before it is admitted into the furnace, by making
the grate-bars hollow from end to end, and causing the cold air to pass
through them into two boxes, one in front of the grate, and the other. be-
hind it. In the ordinary method of supplying the grate with fuel by the
front-door, about forty or fifty cubic feet of cold air is admitted into the
furnace. Mr Chapman, on the other hand, uses a cast-iron hopper from
which the coals are introduced in a moment without letting in any per-
ceptible quantity of cold air. When fresh coals are put in, the smoke
has at first the appearance of a light-gray vapour, but ina few seconds it
becomes nearly invisible. A drawing and a fuller account of this fur
nace will be found in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1824, vol-
xlii. p. 32.
8.. Menstruum for Biting in on Steel Plates for Fine Engravings. By Mr
Epmunp TuRRELL.
This useful process, for which Mr Turrel has received the large
gold medal of the London Society of Arts, has been the result of a great
number of well-directed experiments, made for the purpose of discovering
a menstruum, which should corrode the steel with great facility, while it
produced a beautiful, clear, and deep line. The following is the com-
pound fluid which he found the most perfect.
Take four parts by measure of the strongest pyroligneous, (chemically
called acetic acid, ) and one part of alcohol or highly rectified spirits of wine ;
mix these together; and agitate them gently for about half a minute, then
add one part of pure nitric acid ; and when the whole are thoroughly
mixed, the menstruum is fit to be poured upon the etched steel plate.
This fluid holds the oxide of the metal in perfect solution, so that the
whole of the lines appear beautifully bright, and continue so till the bit-
ing in is completed. Very light tints are corroded in about one minute
and a half, and a considerable degree of colour is produced in about fifteen
minutes. When this mixture is poured off the plate, it should be washed
with one part of alcohol, and four of water, and the stopping out should be
effected by asphaltus dissolyed in essential oil of turpentine, so as to
flow freely from a hair pencil. In making the above menstruum, the
purity of the ingredients is a matter of great importance.
The steel plates used for engraving may be saved from rust, by warms
348 History of Mechanical Inventions and
ing the plate, and rubbing sheep’s’ suet (from the animal) over it, and
keeping it near a fire, or ina dry room. The best steel plates are those
manufactured by Mr Rhodes and Mr*Hoole of Sheffield. See the Tvans«
actions of the Society of Arts, 1824, vol. xlii/ p. 50. ; ’
9. Description of Lenormand’s New Chronometer.
This very singular piece of mechanism, which excited much interest at
the expositions of French industry in 1819 and 1823, is represented in
Plate VI. Figs. 5,6, 7. The principle of this chronometer consists in
the continual displacement of the centre of gravity of the arm of a lever.
This lever has the form of an arrow AB, Fig. 5. which is capable of
moving round a horizontal axis O, fixed in the middle of a dial-plate di-
vided into twelve hours. The two arms AO, BO are unequal, and at the
end B is fixed a round box. If we place in the box a small weight,
which has the power of moving round the interior circumference of the
box, and if it is placed as at B, the arrow will remain in the position AB,
and point to IX*. If the small weight is placed as at D, so as to be at the
greatest possible distance from the centre O, the arrow will point to XII*,
and so on at the other quarters, as at E and F in Fig. 6. In like manner,
intermediate positions of the little weight will cause the arrow to point to
intermediate hours. If we now could fix in the box a piece of wheel-
work to displace this weight ina regular manner, so as to describe the
circumference of the box in twelve hours, the arrow AB would revolve in
twelve hours, and would point them out on the dial-plate like the hand of
aclock. If the wheel-work should carry the weight round the box in‘an
hour, the arrow would mark minutes on the dial. The additional weight
which we have used for the purpose of explaining the principle of the
machine, is not actually used. It exists naturally in every watch, as the
centre of gravity of every watch is at a distance from its centre of form,
on account of the weight of the main-spring box and fusee. “We require,
therefore, only to place a watch in the box B, Fig. 5, in such a manner,
that it cannot go without communicating its motion to the arrow AB.
This may be done in two ways, 1, The axle of the central wheel, at the
place where it comes out of the plate in which it moves, carries a square
which is laid hold of by one of the two cross pieces between which the
watch is carried, which cross pieces are fixed to the'box. The other end
of the axle, which is round, moves in‘a hole perforated in the opposite
cross piece. This method, though the most simple, is not always so con-
venient as the following: 2, On one of the cross pieces above mentioned
is fixed a wheel O, Fig. 7. which cannot turn round. Above the plate of
the watch passes the axle of a wheel, on which is fixed a pinion R, which
works in the wheel O. The wheel-work actuated by the spring not
being able to turn the wheel O; turns quite round it, and, consequently,
carries the centre of gravity of the watch quite round the interior circum-
ference of the box B, Fig. 5, and this changes at every instant, and in
a regular manner, the centre of gravity of the arrow. If the axle of the
wheel, which carries the pinion R, turns round in one hour, and if we
Processes in the Useful Arts... . 349
wish AB. to revolve in twelve hours, then R must. haye eight teeth, and
O 96, or R10 and O 120. If AB is to revolye in one hour, then R and
O must have the same number of teeth. Bull. des Sc. Technol. Jan. 1825,
p. 42. or i
10, On the Construction of Chimneys.
Mr Tredgold, in his work on warming and ventilating apartments, has
given the following rule for proportioning the upper orifices of chimneys
to their heights and the magnitude of the fire-places : ,
__ Multiply by 17 the length of the fire-place in inches. Divide the pro«
duct by the square root of the height in feet, and the chimney above the
fire. The quotient will be the area of the upper orifice in square inches.
Thus, if the fire is 15 inches wide, and the height of the chimney be
9 feet, we shall have ux =36) square inches nearly, which isa rectangle
of 6 X 6 inches, in a circle of nearly 7 inches in diameter. . In chimneys
already existing, the upper orifices may be contracted to their proper size
by Parker’s cement. The contraction of the lower end of the vent, above
the fire should be nearly the same as the upper orifice ; and the throat or
lowest opening should not exceed the length of the bars. The length of
the front of the fire should be an inch for every foot of the room’s length,
and the depth one-half the length. If the length of the chamber should
be such as to require a grate more than 30 inches long, two fire-places
should be constructed.
11. M. Ventau’s Gigantic Meteorological Eolian Harp.
Captain Haas of Basle has designated by these names, an apparatus
which emits of itself a variety of sounds during a change of weather.
Since the year 1787, he had stretched above his garden fifteen iron wires,
320 feet long, and at the distance of about two inches from one another ;
the largest wire two lines in diameter, the smallest one line, and those of
intermediate size one and a half line. They were situated towards the
south, and are inclined 20° or 30° to the horizon, being stretched by
means of rollers properly arranged for the purpose. Whenever the wea-
ther changes, these wires sound with such loudness, that it is im-
possible to go on with a concert in the house. The sounds sometimes re-
sembled the hissing noise of water rapid in ebullition, sometimes that of a
harmonicon, and sometimes that of a distant chime, or an organ.
The inventor of this curious apparatus is M. Ventau, provost at Burkli,
not far from Basle. He sometimes shot at a mark from his window ; and
in order that he might not go to the mark after each shot, he attached to
it a long iron wire to draw it to him at pleasure. He remarked more
than once, that that wire sounded exactly an octave ; and he found that
every iron wire, stretched in a direction parallel to the sounds, emitted
this tone at every change of weather.
A brass wire did not produce any sound, nor did an iron wire, when it
was stretched from east to west.
350 History of Mechanical Inventions, &c.
M. Dobereiner of Jena conceives that the phenomenon now described is
the effect of an electro-magnetic action ; and he proposes to try if the
brass wire would not sound when it communicates at its extremity with ~
an energetic electrometer. Bullet. des Sc. Techn. &c. July 1824, p. 51.
12. Natural Lamp by Incandescence.
In using a spirit of wine lamp, M. Dobereiner observed, that when the
spirit of wine was nearly consumed, the wick became carbonised, and
that the flame disappeared, yet the carbonised part of the wick became
incandescent, and’ continued red while a drop of alcohol remained, pro-
vided the air in the apartment was tranquil. In one experiment it con-
tinued red twenty-four hours; a disagreable acid vapour, however, was
formed.
Dr Brewster long ago observed an analogous fact in the small green
wax tapers in common use. When the flame is blown out, the wick will
continue red for many hours, and the wax and wick are burned down as in
its ordinary combustion, only with extreme slowness ; a very disagreeable
vapour being formed during the imperfect combustion. Dr Brewster-has
observed also, that the same effect is not produced when the taper is made
of red wax. This probably arises from the colouring matter of the two
tapers. ‘There can be little doubt, however, that the same result will be
obtained with different kinds of wax, and even with tallow, provided the
quantity of wax is properly proportioned to the diameter of the wick.
13. Oil for Chronometers, Clocks, and Delicate Wheel-work.
It has long been a desideratum among watchmakers to procure good oil,
that retained its fluidity for a length of time, without acting upon the
metals which it lubricated, and without becoming thick or freezing with
cold. For this purpose, every kind of acid, or of mucilage, must be taken
from it. In short, it should be pure elaine, without any trace of stearine.
In order to extract the elaine from fixed oils, M. Chevreul treats it in a
matrass, with seven or eight times its weight of alcohol nearly boiling,
decanting the liquid, and exposing it to the cold. The stearine will then
separate in the form of a crystallized precipitate. The Alcoholic solution
must then be evaporated to the fifth of its volume, and the remainder
will be elaine, which ought to be colourless, insipid, almost without
smell, without any action on the infusion of turnsole, having the con-
sistence of white olive oil, and coagulable with difficulty. M- Peclet’s
method of procuring elaine, consists in pouring upon oil a concentrated
solution of caustic soda, stirring the mixture, heating it slightly to sepa-
rate the elaine from the soap of the stearine, pouring it on a cloth, and
then separating by decantation the elaine from the excess of alcaline solu-
tion. Some excellent observations on the effects of oil in jewelled holes,
&c., will be found in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Horoxoey, vol.
xi. p. 137.
Mr Hodgkinson on the Strength of Materials. 351
Art. XXVIII—ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND
: MEMOIRS..
I. On the Transverse Strain and Strength of Materials. By Mr Eaton
Hopcxinson. (Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 225. Lond- 1824.)
WE slightly mentioned this article in our third number, and, at the same
time, stated our intention of examining it more at length in the present’
Journal. It appears to have been read in March 1822, but the author, at
that time, not having seen Mr Barlow’s “ Essays on the Strength of Ma-
terials,” &c. it was afterwards withdrawn, in order to make some notes
and additions considered necessary, in consequence of certain discrepancies
between the two theories, viz. the one adopted by Mr Barlow, and that by
Mr Hodgkinson; of these we shall take some notice as we proceed, ob-~
serving only in this place, that the points in dispute relate principally to
what may be called, the mechanism of the transverse strain, viz. to the
operations going on in the interior of a piece of timber at the moment of
rupture, as at the time of the greatest strain, and the relation between the
resistance of the timber, when strained transversely, and its power of di-
rect cohesion, but which, however, does not affect the computed strength
of timber as deduced from experiments made on the transverse strength ;
for all parties agree, that whatever may be the exterior operations, the
proportional strength of similar beams is directly as the breadth, and the
square of the depth, and inversely as the length, so that the point in ques-
tion may be considered as one rather of curious philosophical inquiry,
than of actual importance in these kind of experiments.
Mr Hodgkinson, after a short introduction, commences his paper with
the following inquiry. Suppose a beam fixed firmly in a wall, and to
be then broken by a weight suspended at its other end, what are the circum-
stances attending the rupture? admitting, in the first place, that the tim-
ber is wholly incompressible, and that it resists fracture by its tension only.
Even this simple question has given rise to some controversies amongst
early writers on this subject. Galileo, who led the way in these researches,
assumed, that the fibres of the timber, from the lower edge of the beam,
about which it was supposed to revolve, to produce fracture, acted in such
a way, that their united effect was the same, as if the whole of their actions
took place at the centre of gravity of the surface ; that is, he supposed, the
resistance of each fibre to be the same, at whatever distance it was situated
from the axis of motion, except so far as depended on its leverage. But
Mariotte, Leibnitz, and others, assert, and apparently with good reason,
that, according to the law, wt tensio sic vis, the resistance of each fibre is
proportionate to its tension, independent of the leverage, and, therefore,
introducing the latter, the effect of each will be as the square of its dis-
tance from the fulcrum.
To meet these cases, Mr Hodgkinson assumes the resistance to vary as
an indeterminate power (wv) of the distance of the fibres, and hence dedu-
ces a very simple and general formula, involving this indeterminate in-
dex v, to which, giving the different values 0, 1, &c. he arrives at the se-
352 Analysis of Scientific Books and. Memoirs. .
veral results obtained by these writers, for beams of all forms and dimen-
sions) These, as we have before.stated, differ essentially from each other,
when the results are made dependent on the strength of direct cohesion,
although with similar formed beams, and under similar circumstances, the
proportions deduced from each are.the same. .), coayTe to
One of the most remarkable differences in these deductions is, that, ad-
mitting the law of Galileo, which. is, equivalent.to making oo, an equila-
teral triangular beam will be twice as strong, broken with its edgedown~
wards, as when, reversed, so,as to make the, base the fulerum of motion,
the edge leaning upwards... And, according to Leibnitz, the proportions
of strength in, the two cases is as. 1. to3,;, whereas, by experiments report~
ed: by. Mr. Barlow, it appears that,.the strength in the, two. cases is nearly
equal, what difference there is, being on the opposite side to that deduced
from theory. From this, therefore, it is demonstrated, as. was before as-
serted by Coulomb, Dr Robison, and others, that both hypotheses are erro=
neous, the errors in each arising from, considering, the material as incom~
pressible, and thereby supposing the beam. to, turn about its lower, edge,
whereas, in fact, it is partly compressed, and .partly extended, the motion
being about an intermediate line, now commonly denominated the neutral
awis, because the fibre, situated at this place,is supposed to be neither ex~
tended nor compressed. The investigation of this question is the next ob-
ject of the author, who, adopting the theory of, Coulomb and Dr Robison,
arrives at this formula : f
breaking weight a ps oD dT Sia Pad
Where T =, the sum. of the forces arising from ‘tension, D and. A, the dis»
tance of the centres of tensions, and compression from the neutral axis,
L, the length of the beam, and C, the cosine of its deflection ; andhere we
fall upon the principal question, arising out.of the. paper under: review,
viz. the theory of Coulomb, Hodgkinson, and others,, versus Barlow’s.
It is not our intention to give any decision on this. subject, but. we shall
endeayour to lay,the question fairly before our readers, and leave them, or
those most practically conversant with these subjects, to decide, in order
to do which, however, we must quote at some length from the Memoir in
question.
After showing, as we have done above, that there must be in the beam
a certain neutral line, Mr H. proceeds.
“If then, in Plate II. Fig. 4, (given in last Number,) in which adbc
is intended to, represent, the surface of fracture, ab be the neutral line; or
that.of which we have been speaking, and if abd be the surface of extension
and ach that of compression, it is evident that the extensions, or compres-
sions of any particles, within those surfaces, will be as their distances from
the line ab ; and the forces necessary to produce them may be considered
as in proportion to some powers v and w of those distances. wo%
And in order to estimate the strength of the piece, whose section is achd,
if F and f represent.the points at which the forces, rising from extension
and compression, being collected, would produce the same effects as they
do at their respective distances from the neutral line: f will be the fal-
crum, on which all the horizontal forces may be conceived as sustained,
Mr Hodgkinson on the Strength of Materials. 353
and F f one arm of a bended lever, while the length of Gf is the other,
(the points F and G being supposed to be connected by the chain FG, mere-
ly to give the lever the appearance of greater strength.) And to obtain
the strength of the body we shall have
W X fG= sum of the forces in abd X Ff.
sum of the forces inahbd X Ff
Whence Waar oe where the deflection of the
beam is neglected ; or introducing that, as in Art. 9, we have W (the
__ sum of the forces in abd X (FP+Pf)_ TxD+4TxaAa
weight) Se re art
Length x cosine of Deflection LyC
where T = sum of the forces rising from tension, D and a the distances
of the centres of tension and compression from the neutral line, L the
length of the piece, and C the cosine of its deflection.
“* A necessary consequence of this reasoning is, that the sums of the
forces of extension and compression are just equal to one another:* For
the weight W, acting in the direction of GW, parallel to the surface of
fracture adbc, can have no influence in pushing the piece toward or draw-
*<¢ The mode of reasoning adopted above has been objected to by Mr Barlow, who
conceives that the forces in F and j, or those of extension and compression, instead
of being equal, should be inversely as their distances from the neutral line, or that
the forces in F PI = forces in f X P/, and that these taken collectively are
= the rectangle under the weight and the length of the beam, which is sup-
posed to turn as on a pivot round the neutral line. Whence L X W = the forces
in F X PF X forces inf X Pf = twice the forces in F X PF. The mode of
estimating the strengths of bodies, as deduced from this, is very simple and easy ;
it is in effect this :—Find the neutral line—suppose that the fulerum—estimate the
strength of the area of tension, = was done in incompressible bodies, and double
that for the answer.
_ But this rule, it appears to me, contains within itself a fundamental error which
will become very apparent by the following consideration.—It is supposed to be ge-
neral whatever the situation of the neutral line may be. Let then the body be in-
compressible ; the neutral line will in that case be extremely near the edge, and
the strength as estimated by this rule will be double what from incontestable prin-
ciples it ought to be: a consequence which the ingenious author could have had no
idea of, when he proposed this theory. The error too will be found to exist, though _
in a less degree, in almost every other position of the neutral line, and may be very
plainly seen, if we estimate by this rule, strengths of bodies that suffer a slight com-
pression, and compare the results with the known strengths of the same bodies, if
they had been wholly incompressible.
- For example :—The strength of an incompressible joist, broke by a weight hung
sba 2
at one end, being Keo+2y” (articles 4th and 9th,) -where s is the longitudinal
strength of the fibres in a unity of surface, b the breadth of the piece, @ its depth, 7
its length, and v the index of os : the strength of a compressible one, ac-
sbd2
cording to Mr Barlow, will isi Wo+2” where d is the depth of the area of tension,
and the rest as before.
VOL, IIT. No. 11. OCTOBER 1825. &
354 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.
ing it from the wall: and therefore the pressure on the fulcrum f must.
just be as great as the resistance in F, all the horizontal forces-being sup-
posed collected into those two points.
“ For the first outline of this subject, see the valuable treatise of Dr.
Robison, referred to above.”
Before entering more particularly on this subject, it may be proper
to state, that we do not conceive Mr Hodgkinson has, by any means, suc=
ceeded in proving, by the calculations he has made, the inaccuracy of the
theory in question. Mr Barlow obviously assumes, that the operation
of breaking consists of two distinct forces, namely, that necessary to pro-.
duce extension, and that of compression, and that the strength will be
greater as either of these are greater; and it is, therefore, quite consistent
Suppose d == Pig then 288 = oe x Oe
8 l@+2) 32 *% 142)
2 4 sba?
3 9 sba2
a= “et seeeeeneesecees 32 X70 42)
4 => sha?
d= 34 easceeeeesecens 32 X Tos lwo+2)
5 “s sba2
é = 3? sneeusgrase == a e+.
6 36 ba2
i= ace seeeeee BCT ae Teo+2)_
“3 19 Pag sba®
a= ce eeeeesceecesses—— Do Wo+2).
d= me = fits naa «
SS ERCES To+2)
The last three terms of which must be false, since they all give the strengths great-
er than as 2D? which is that of the joist when every fibre is submitted to ten-
sion, and the preceding five terms (setting aside accidental coincidences) must he
erroneous too, since they lead in a regular progression to the last three.
Now, as Mr Barlow has offered no reasons against the theory in the text (further
than that it does not agree with his own, which we have just been examining,) we
see no cause why it should be rejected, especially since it seems to us to be every
where consistent and just.
It may not be improper to mention that M. Coulomb, in his paper on this sub-
ject (Memoires presentés aU’ Académie des Sciences, tom. vii.) makes L X W = the
forces in F X PF+ the forces in f XX Pf, and endeavours to show that the forces
in F and /, or those of tension and compression are equal: the theory of Mr Bar-
low then differs from that of the French philosopher in this last particular, but we
conceive that the latter must be right;—the results from it are the same as from
that in the text, though it is much less convenient in its.use. We particularly reu
fer the reader to the above paper of M. Coulomb, as he has given a very minute
analysis of the transverse strain: and the reason why this matter has been so
long overlooked, seems to be that both M. Coulomb and Dr Robison have content«
ed themselves by giving a bare outline of it.”
Mr Hodgkinson on the Strength of Materials. 355
with his theory, that where the resistance to compression is considerably
greater than that to extension, the strength of the beam will be greater,
than if all the fibres acted by extension only: the only direct contradiction
appears in the last case, where the resistance to compression is infinite, viz.
in a case which cannot occur, and which the theory in question is invented
on purpose to avoid. That it should fail here is obvious, because, in this
case, there are no forces acting under the neutral line, as the theory sup-
poses ; and it is singular Mr Hodgkinson did not perceive, that precisely
the same want of'generality applies also to his theory, by taking the opposite
imaginary case, viz- of the material being infinitely inextensible; for in
this case, the area of tension being zero, the breaking weight would be zero,
or taking any small area of tension, then the strength would be infinite,
both inconsistent results.
The question is not, therefore, to be decided in this way, but by a refer-
ence to first principles, and it seems to be within narrow limits. Mr
Hodgkinson, following the theory of Coulomb, considers the resistance to
fracture as a single mechanical effort, measured by the area of tension,
multiplied by the tension on the unit of measure, and by the distance be-
tween the centre of tension and compression ; whence he deduces
sum of the forces in ahd X Ff
wv =
LC
__ sum of the forces in abd X (FP + fG)
Wien EC
’
W. we p< * +T XA
C
Whereas Mr Barlow considers the operation as compound, and estimates
the resistance to compression and tension separately. So that, denoting the
resistance to compression by R, his expression is
TX D+RxXa4
Wee ve
In order to reduce this formula to a state proper for further investiga-
tion, it is necessary to establish the relation between the two parts, T
* D, andR X 4, and he assumes them to be equal, observing “ that it is
_ this equality only which determines the relation to take place about the
point P,” whereas the other theory assumes T = R, which of course gives’
Mr Hodgkinson’s numerator, T X D+ T X 4. The question-is thus
reduced to this very narrow limit, viz. Whether, from the nature of the ope-
rations, we ought to take T—R,or T X D=R X 4, or whether the one
of these equalities may not belong to the first part, and the other to the
last part of the operations by which the fracture is produced. It is stated
hy Mr Tredgold, that the neutral axis does not remain permanent during
the operation of fracture, but that the area of compression gradually in-
creases ; and if so, a different law must have place at the beginning and
end of the process. At all events, we have reduced the question to its nar-~
rowest limit, and we leave it thus for the decision of those most conversant
with these matters, and proceed to-an examination of the experimental
part of the paper.
356 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. ~
The first experiments we meet with, were made on slips of yellow ping
and Baltic fir, with a view to ascertain the law observed between the de~
flections or extensions, and the weights or forces employed to produce
them ; and in order to avoid compression, an artificial fulerum was con-
trived for the beam to turn about, whereby all the fibres might act by ex-
tension only. The following are the results in one of those cases.
Weights. Deflections. Weights. Deflections.
5- - = - 8 60 - ~ = 98
10 - - = = 15 65 - - - 109
VD phe = d= 221 70 - = = 120
20 - - = - 28 75 - - - 133
25 - - - = 34 80 - - = 146
30 - - - - 41 85 - - - 163
35 - - - - 5l 90° =| = Oe
40 - - - - 61 95 - - = 195
45 - - - - 70 100 - - = 222
50 - - - - 79 105 - - = 241
SOle= eee set 110 It bore this about $a
minute, and then broke.
“ The two first of these experiments are the concluding ones of a series of
a similar kind, and were made with great care. Previous to their com-
mencement, a considerable weight, but still such as would not injure the
elasticity of the wood, was laid upon it, to make the iron recede as much
as possible. The weight was then taken off, and a small slip of thin tin
forced in between the ends of the iron.
** The deflections in both of them, and consequently the extensions are,
through their whole ranges, very nearly in the proportion of the forces.
The same may be said of the last experiment, and of every other we made,
during the earlier stages of flexure; but as we continued the experiment,
and arrived nearer to fracture, the extensions always increased faster than
the forces. —We will seek for the ultimate value of the index v in the last
experiment, and for that purpose shall select one of the earlier weights, as
201b., with its deflection 28, and the last weight it bore or 105lb., with its
deflection 241 ; and since the forces were supposed to be as the v power of
the extensions, we have 20]b. : (28)” :: 105Ilb : (241)”* But » in the two
cases is different, and in the former is = 1 (since then the extensions were
as the forces,) and hence we haye 20 : 28:: 105: (241) or (241)” =
28 X 105 A -
Tipp LAT And by taking the Logarithms we have »v X Log. 241
Log. 147 2.1673173 9098
= Log. 147, and »v = Log. 241 = 2.3820170 — 10000 = -91 nearly.
And pursuing the same mode with respect to the two former experi-
ments, and considering the tabular deflections as integers, since the result
will be the same, we shall have—
In the first,
19 240 Log. 76
60lb. : 19:: 240Ib. : (83)” 50 Ge Whence 1c pag 70g. 63°
1.8808136 _
19190781 ‘98
Mr Hodgkinson on the Strength of Materials. = 357
A
- In the second,
shay 4 Log. 60 __ 1-7781512 __
90: 20 : : 270: (53)” = 60..".v = Log, 53 — 1.724759 — 1.03.
_. © And taking the mean, we have ae ne +t = 97 = ulti-
mate mean value of w A number which so nearly approaches to unity,
the index of perfect elasticity, that it seems unnecessary to assume any
other law.”
We cannot here subscribe to the author’s decision ; for admitting v= 1,
we should have 20: 28 :: 105: 147, (taking his own example,) whereas the
experimental number is 241, instead of 147, which is too great a differ-
ence to allow us to use this law in any physical inquiry. The fact un-
questionably is, that woody fibres differ very essentially from bodies per-
fectly elastic ; their extension, for a certain time, is nearly or exactly pro-
portional to the existing force ; but beyond a certain point, they diminish
in their resistance as they are more extended, and in the particular exam-
ple in question, a part of the fibres still retained their entire elastic force,
while the outward ones were considerably reduced in their resisting power,
and consequently the deduction made by considering them all as in one
state is fallacious. The same remark applies to the experiments on the
law of compression. With respect to the chapter employed in deducing
the neutral line, it is so involved in the question on which we have al-
ready entered at some length, that we must pass it over in this place ; ob-
serving only, that the relations deduced with respect to the area of tension
and compression, differ considerably from what is shown to be the actual
case in Willow, by Duhamel, and in Fir, by Mr Barlow, by direct experi-
ment. The former of these experimenters eut his bars three quarters
through, filling up the cut by a wedge, without diminishing the strength,
and the latter cut his fir beams 5-8ths through, with but a very slight
diminution. The discrepancy, however, is, we conceive, sufficiently ac-
counted for by the author; viz. that his computations relate to beams
moderately strained, and the others to the breaking strains. The author
having thus first investigated the question on general principles, as ex-
plained in the leading part of this paper, and then deduced successively
the laws of tension and compression ; and, lastly, the position of the neu-
tral line or axis, proceeds to the solution of several examples somewhat
parallel with those given by Mr Barlow in his Essay, with a view of con-
necting the direct resistance of materials with their resistance to a transverse
strain, and, admitting his previous deductions, with great ingenuity and
precision ; but the accuracy of the whole is involved in the doubtful posi-
tion which we have endeavoured to examine in the early part of this arti-
cle.. Fortunately, however, this doubt affects only what may be consider-
ed the curious side of the question, the useful part being in a great mea-
sure independent of it ; for in all practical determinations, engineers, ar-
chitects, and others concerned in such inquiries, naturally make their cal-
culations from experiments of a similar kind to the case in hand; as, for
example, where the question is a tie, they look to experiments on direct
858 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs
cohesion, when pressure to experiments on this strain, and when trans-
verse strains are to be resisted to experiments on the transverse strength.
There is, therefore, in. these cases, no question concerning the relative re-
sistance to compression, extension, neutral ones, &c. At the same time, the
other inquiry is highly interesting, and being now fairly before the pub-
lic, it will, we haye little doubt, meet with the attention it merits, from
such of our readers as are conversant or interested in the physical theory
of the strength of materials.
II. On the Gold Mines of North Carolina. By Denison Otmsren,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of North
Carolina.
Tuts very interesting paper, which we are desirous of laying before our
readers, has been published in America in Professor Silliman’s Journal.
The description of the mines themselves is too valuable to admit of any
abridgement.
The gold mines of North Carolina, which have recently become an ob-
ject of much inquiry both at home and abroad, are situated between the
35th and 36th degrees of N- latitude, and between the 80th and 81st de-
grees of W. longitude from London. They are on the southern side of
the State, not far from the borders of South Carolina, and somewhat west-
ward of the centre. Through the gold country flows the river Pedee, re-
ceiving, within the same district, the Uwharre from the north, and Rocky
river from the south, both considerable streams. Above the junction with
the Uwharre, the Pedee bears the name of Yadkin.
The gold country is spread over a space of not less than 1000 square
miles. With a map of North Carolina one may easily trace its bounda-
ries, so far as they have been hitherto observed. From a point taken eight
miles west by south of the mouth of the Uwharre, with a radius of eighteen
miles, describe a circle,—it will include the greatest part of the county of
Montgomery, the northern part of Anson, the north-eastern corner of Mu-
lenberg, Cabarrus, a little beyond Concord on the west, and a corner of
Rowan and of Randolph. In almost any part of this region, gold may be
found, in greater or less abundance, at or near the surface of the ground.
Its true bed, however, is a thin stratum of gravel inclosed in a dense mud,
usually of a pale blue, but sometimes of a yellow colour. On ground that
is elevated and exposed to be washed by rains, this stratum frequently
appears at the surface ; and in low grounds, where the alluvial earth has
been accumulated by the same agent, it is found to the depth of eight feet :
where no cause operates to alter its original depth, it lies about three
feet below the surface- Rocky river and its small tributaries which cut
through this stratum, have hitherto proved the most fruitful localities’ of
the precious metal.
The prevailing rock in the gold country is Argillite. This belongs to
an extensive formation of the same, which crosses the State in numerous
beds, forming a zone more than twenty miles in width, and embracing,
among many less important varieties of slate, several extensive beds of
Mr Olmsted on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 859
novaculite, or whetstone slate, and also beds of petrosiliceous porphyry
and of greenstone. These last lie over the argillite, either in detached blocks,
or in strata that are inclined at a lower angle than that. This ample
‘field of slate I had supposed to be the peculiar repository of the gold ;
but a personal examination discovered that the precious metal, embosom-
ed in the same peculiar stratum of mud and gravel, extends beyond the
slate on the west, spreading, in the vicinity of Concord, over a region of
granite and gneiss.
A geographical description of the gold country, would present little
that is interesting. The soil is generally barren, and the inhabitants are
mostly poor and ignorant, The traveller passes the day without meeting
with a single striking or beautiful object, either of nature or of art, to
vary the tiresome monotony of forests and sandhills, and ridges of gravel-
ly quartz. Here and there a log hut, or cabin, surrounded by a few
acres of corn and cotton, marks the little improvement which has been
made by man, in a region singularly endowed by nature. The road is ge-
nerally conducted along the ridges which slope on either hand into vallies
of moderate depth, consisting chiefly of fragments of quartz, cither strew-
ed coarsely over the ground, or so comminuted as to form gravel ; these
ridges have an appearance of great natural sterility, which, moreover, is
greatly aggravated by the ruinous practice of frequently burning over the
forests, so as to consume all the leaves and under-growth, giving to the
_forest the aspect of an artificial grove. —
The principal mines are three—the Anson mine, Reed’s mine, and
Parker’s mine.
The Anson Mrnz is situated in the county of the same name, on the
waters of Richardson’s creek, a branch of Rocky river. This locality was
discovered only two years since by a “ gold hunter,”—one of an order of
people, that begin already to be accounted a distinct race. A rivulet
winds from north to south between two gently sloping hills that emerge
towards the south. The bed of the stream, entirely covered with gravel,
is left almost naked during the dry season, which period is usually select-
ed by the miners for their operations. On digging from three to six feet
into this bed, the workman comes to that peculiar stratum of gravel and
tenacious blue clay, which is at once recognized as the repository of the gold.
The stream itself usually gives the first indication of the richness of the
bed through which it passes, by disclosing large pieces of the precious
metal shining among its pebbles and sands—such was the first hint af-
forded to the discoverer of the Anson mine. Unusually large pieces were
found by those who first examined the place, and the highest hopes were
inspired. On inquiry it was ascertained that part of the land was not
held by a good title, and parcels of it were immediately entered," but it
“ A piece of land is said not to be entered when it remains the property of the
public, without taxation. Any one is at liberty to enter on the state books what-
ever land he can find in this situation, the land being secured to him on his becom-
ing responsible for the taxes.
360 . Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. «
has since been a subject of constant litigation, which has retarded. the
working of the mine.
Rexrp’s Mrvye in Cabarrus is the one which was first wrought ; and, at
this place, indeed, were obtained the first specimens of gold that were
found in the formation. A large piece was found in the bed of a small
creek, which attracted attention by its lustre and specific gravity, but it
was retained, for a long time after its discovery, in the hands of the pro~
prietor, through ignorance whether it were gold or not. This mine occu-
pies the bed of Meadow ereek, (a branch of Rocky river,) and exhibits a
level between two hillocks, which rise on either side of the creek, afford~-
ing a space between from fifty to one hundred yards in breadth. This
space has been nearly all dug over, and exhibits at present numerous
small pits for the distance of one-fourth of a mile on both sides of the
stream. ‘The surface of the ground and the bed of the creek are occupied
by quartz and by sharp angular rocks of the greenstone family. The first
glance is sufficient to convince the spectator that the business of searching
for gold is conducted under numerous disadvantages, without the least re-
gard to system, and with very little aid from mechanical contrivances
The process is as follows. During the dry season, when the greatest part
of the level above described is left bare, and the creek shrinks to a small
rivulet, the workman selects a spot at random and commences digging a
pit with a spade and mattock. At first he penetrates through three or
four feet of dark coloured mud, full of stones in angular fragments. At
this depth he meets with that peculiar stratum of gravel and clay, which
he recognizes as the matrix of the gold. If the mud be very dense and
tenacious he accounts it a good sign ; and if stains or streaks of yellow oc-
casionally appear on the blue mud, it is a fortunate symptom. Some-
times he penetrates through a stratum of the ferruginous oxide of manga-
nese, in a rotten friable state. This he denomivates ‘‘ cinders,” and re-
gards it also as a favourable omen. Having arrived at the proper stratum,
which is only a few inches thick, he removes it with a spade into the
© cradle.” This is a semi-cylinder laid on its side, (like a barrel bisected
longitudinally and laid flat-wise,) and made to rock like a cradle on two
parallel poles of wood. The cradle being half filled with the rubbish,
water is there laded in, so as nearly to fill the vessel. The cradle is now
set to rocking, the gravel being occasionally stirred with an iron rake, un-
til the coarse stones are entirely freed from the blue mud,—a part of the
process which is the more difficult, on account of the dense adhesive qua-
lity of the mud. By rocking the cradle rapidly, the water is thrown over
board, loaded with as much mud as it is capable of suspending. The
coarser stones are then picked out by hand, more water is added, and the
same process is repeated. On pouring out the water a second time, (which
is done by inclining the cradle on one side,) a layer of coarse gravel ap-
pears on the top, which is scraped off by hand. At the close of each
washing, a similar layer of gravel appears on the top, which appears more
and more comminuted until it graduates into fine sand, covering the bot-
tom of the cradle. At length this residuum is transferred to an ivon dish,
4
Mr Olmsted on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 361
which is dipped horizontally into a pool of water, and subjected to a rota-
tory motion. All the remaining earthy matter goes overboard, and no-
thing remains but a fine sand, chiefly ferruginous, and the particles of gold
for which the whole labour has been performed. These are frequently no
larger than a pin’s head, but vary in size from mere dust to pieces weigh-
ing one or two pennyweights. Large pieces, when they occur, are usual-
ly picked out at a previous stage of the process.
Large pieces of gold are found in this region, although their occurrence
is somewhat rare. Masses weighing four, five, and six hundred penny-
weights, are occasionally met with, and one mass was found that weighed,
in its crude state, 28 lbs. avoirdupoise. ‘This was dug up by a negro at
Reed’s mine, within a few inches of the surface of the ground. Marvel-
lous stories are told respecting this rich mass ; as that it had been seen by
gold hunters at night, reflecting so brilliant a li, ht, when they drew near
toit, with torches, as tomake them believe it was some supernatural appear-
ance, and to deter them from farther examination. But all stories of this
_kind, as I was assured by Mr Reed, the old proprietor, are mere fables.
No unusual circumstances were connected with the discovery of this mass,
except its being nearer the surface than common. It was melted down
and cast into bars soon after its discovery. ‘Ihe spot where it was found
has been since subjected to the severest scrutiny, but without any similar
harvest. Another mass weighing 600 pwts. was found on the surface of
a ploughed field in the vicinity of the Yadkin, twenty miles or more north
of Reed’s mine. Specimens of great elegance, as I should infer from the
descriptions of the miners, are occasionally found, but for want of minera-
logists to reserve them for cabinets, they have always been thrown into the
common stock and melted into bars. Mr Reed found a mass of quartz,
haying a projecting point of gold, of the size of a large pin’s head. On
breaking it open, 2 brilliant display of green and yellow colours was pre-
sented, which he described as exceedingly beautiful. The gold weighed
12 pwts. The mineralogist may perhaps recognize in this description,
acongeries of fine crystals, but on that point the proprietor could not
inform me. Although fragments of greenstone and of several argil~
laceous minerals, occur among the gravel of the gold-stratum, yet, in the
opinion of the miners, the precious metal is never found attached to
any other mineral than quartz. Indeed it is rarely attached to any sub-
stance, but is commonly scattered promiscuously among the gravel. Its
colour is generally yellow with a reddish tinge, though the surface is not
unfrequently obscured by a partial incrustation of iron or manganese, or
by adhering particles of sand. The masses are flattened and vesicular,
haying angles rounded with evident marks of attrition. The rounded
angles and vesicular structure lead to the opinion, which is very general,
that the metal has undergone fusion ; but any one who inspects the spe-
cimens narrowly, will be convinced that their worn and rounded appear-
ance is owing to attrition, and that the cavities are produced by the in-
dentation of sand and gravel, the exact impress of which may be observed,
and particles of them may still frequently be seen imbedded. ‘The gra-
862 © Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs.\
vel, moreover, which is separated by washing, bears evident marks of at-
trition, of a limited duration, sufficient to round its edges and angles, but
not sufficient to destroy them : the fragments are not ovoidal like the peb+
bles of rivers, but are still flat, retaining their original form, except that
their édges are dull, and their angles blunted. In short, the whole ap-
pearance is such, as would naturally result from so soft a substance as vir-
gin-gold, being knocked about among such stern associates as quartz and
greenstone.
The appearance of fusion, supposed to be exhibited by the gold, has
inspired the idea among the miners, that the small pieces which they ob-
tain: have been melted out from some ore that lies disguised somewhere in
the vicinity. This idea has frequently made them the dupes of imposi-
tion. The Mineral Rod, charms, end other follies, have had their reign
here, and the first is still held in some estimation. The common rocks
and stones of the country have been tortured by a new race of alchymists,
who have imagined them to be the ore of gold, veiling, under some dis-
guise, the characters of the precious metal. A great degree of eagerness
also pervades the country on the subject of the metals in general. The
minerals, thrown out in excavating pits in search of gold, consist chiefly of
quartz, greenstone, and hornblende mixed with chlorite, and afford little
that is interesting to the collector of specimens. Almost the only sub-
stance which I met with, that was worth preserving merely asa specimen,
was Pyritous Copper. Of this I saw some elegant fragments. It occurs
in a gangue of quartz, and resembles that found at Lane’s Mine at Hunt-
ington, Con. (Amer. Journal of Science, vol. i. p. 316.) A vein of it
occurs in slaty clay, six miles east of Concord, in Cabarrus county. This
ore had been subjected to numerous experiments, on account of the belief
that it was the “ ore of gold,” above mentioned ; and, although the expe-
riments did not lead to the discovery of gold, yet a ‘* German miner and
mineralogist” had, it was said, detected pratina init. On searching in-
to the evidence of so unexpected a result, I was informed that a white
metal was produced from this ore, which was not lead, nor tin, nor silver,
but answered perfectly to the description of platina, although, as they ac-
knowledged, it was easily fused, and burned with a blue flame. I sus-
pected it to be metallic antimony, but still could perceive no signs of that
inctal in the ore. I requested a minute account of the process——‘“ The
materials, namely, the ore, charcoal, borax, &c. were put into a crucible
—Emetic tartar, in considerable quantity, was added to make the ore
“ spew out” the metal. Ipecacuanha was afterwards tried with the same
view, but was not found to be strong enough “ to make the ore vomit.”
After the account of the process, it was not difficult to account for the
production of antimony, it being obviously derived from the Emetic
tartar.
At Concord, near the western limit of the gold country, the metal is
found in small grains in the streets and gullies, after every rain ; and the
gullies frequently disclose the stratum of gravel and mud, well known as
the repository of the gold. Washings, on a more limited scale, are con-
Mr Olmsted on the Gold Mines of North Carolina. 863
‘ducted here. ‘The clay is not so dense at this place as at Reed’s Mine, but
more ferruginous and full of spangles of golden-coloured mica. ‘This
stratum rests on gneiss: those before. described were over the slate for-
‘mation.
» Pargen’s Mrnr is situated on a small stream four miles south of the
river Yadkin. As in the instances already mentioned, excavations were
numerous in the low grounds adjacent to the stream; but, at the time of
my visit, the earth for washing, (which was of a snuff colour,) was trans-
‘ported from a ploughed field in the neighbourhood, that was elevated about
fifty or sixty feet above the stream. The earth, at this place which con-
tained the gold, was of a deeper red than that at either of the other mines.
The gold found here is chiefly in flakes and grains. Occasionally, how-
‘ever, pieces are met with which weigh 100 pwts. and upwards ; and very
recently a mass has been discovered that’ weighed four pounds and eleven
ounces, .Thisis‘said to have been found at the depth of ten feet, which
is a lower level than any I had heard of before. The idea of an aqueous de-
posit, which is apt to be impressed upon us whenever we either inspect
the formation or reflect upon its origin, would lead us to expect, on ae-
count of the great specific gravity of gold, that the largest masses would
be found at the lowest depths. But I am not aware that any uniformity
exists in this respect. The largest mass hitherto discovered was, as has
been mentioned already, found within a few inches of the surface It is
evident that the thin stratum which contains the metal, will be buried
at different depths, by variable quantities of alluvial earth, that are aecu-
mulated over it by causes still in operation ; and, consequently, that the
depth at which the stratum happens to be met with, in any given place,
is no criterion of its richness. Nor does the fact, that this fortunate dis-
covery was made at a lower level than ordinary, afford any encouragement
to work lower than the usual depth. It might interest geological cnriosi-
ty, however, to learn the nature of the strata below the gold deposit, al-
though I do not know that the existence of this furnishes any reasonable
grounds for supposing that there are other similar deposits below it. I
could not find that any search had been made with such an expectation
except in a single instance. Near the spot where the largest mass was
found, the earth was penetrated a few feet below the gold bed. Imme-
diately beneath this was a thin layer of green sand, and next a similar
layer of a bright yellow sand. These had a very handsome appearance,
but neither of them seemed to contain any thing more precious than mica.
The terms on which the proprietors of the mines permit them to be
worked, vary with the productiveness of the earth which is worked. Some
of the miners rent for a fourth of the gold found ; some for a third, and
others claim half, which is the highest premium hitherto paid. 'The ave-
rage product at Reed’s mine was not more than sixty cents a day to each
labourer ; but the undertakers are buoyed up with the hope of some spleu-
did discovery, like those which have occasionally been made.
_ The mines have given some peculiarities to the state of society in the
neighbouring country. ‘The precious metal is a most favourite acquisition,
364 Notices of Botanical Works recently
and constitutes the common currency. Almost every man carries about
with him a goose quill or two of it, and a small pair of scales in a box like
a spectacle case. The value, as in patriarchal times, is ascertained by
weight, which, from the dexterity acquired by practice, is a less trouble-
some mode of counting money than one would imagine. I saw a pint of
whisky paid for by weighing off three and a half grains of gold.
The greatest part of the gold collected at these mines is bought up by
the country merchants at 90 or 91 cents a pennyweight. They carry it to
the market towns, as Fayetteville, Cheraw, Charleston, and New York.
Much of this is bought up by jewellers ; some remains in the banks ; and
a considerable quantity has been received at the mint of the United States.
Hence it is not easy to ascertain the precise amount which the mines have
afforded. The value of that portion received at the mint before the year
1820, was 43,689 dollars. It is alloyed with a small portion of silver and
copper, but is still purer than standard gold, being 23 carats fine. (Bruce,
Mineral. Jour. I—125.)
It will probably appear evident to geologists, from the foregoing state-
ments, that the gold of North. Carolina oceurs in a dilwvial formation.
Such, indeed, seems to be its usual bed ; and; in this respect, it resembles
the gold countries of South America, of England, of Scotland, of Ireland,
and of Africa. (Buckland, Rel. Diluv. 218—20.)
Our author next proceeds to the discussion of two questions connected
with this subject :
1st, Is the gold brougiit down from the sources of the rivers? And,
2d, Did the present lumps and grains ever form parts of large masses
in a continued bed or vein P
The first of these questions Professor Olmsted answers in the negative ;
but he considers it as evident that the rivers cut through a stratum con-
taining the gold, which covers like a mantle an extensive part of the coun-
try through which they flow, and that they bring the precious metal to
view by separating it from its stony matrix.
On the subject of the second question, Professor Olmsted concludes
that this gold existed originally, that is, before its removal to its present
position, in pieces somewhat larger than those found at present, but still of
a moderate size; but he considers it is impossible to decide whether those
pieces lay contiguous to one another in a large vein, or whether they were
scattered abroad in individual masses.
Arr. XXIX.—NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED BOTANI-
CAL WORKS.
We have already mentioned the “ Flora Fdinensis, or Description
of Plants growing near Edinburgh,” of Dr Greville, which appeared
last year. Shortly after was also published, by James Woodforde, Esq.
“A Catalogue of the Indigenous Phenogamic Plants growing in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh; and of certain Species of the Class
Published in Great Britain. 365
Cryptogamia; with reference to their localities.” 12mo. This little
work is intended for the pocket, and may advantageously be taken into
the field by the students who object to carrying an 8vo book in their
hand ; and, in this point of view, will be found an useful companion to
those who are interested in collecting the vegetable productions of the en-
virons of Edinburgh. The stations mentioned, too, are generally more
full than in Dr Greville’s work. We rejoice at the appearance of every
new botanical work in this part of our island, however humble its prea
tensions ; for we are satisfied that each one is a means’ (to use our author’s
own words) of “ facilitating the acquisition of a science which is every-
where loved, and valued, and cultivated,—which, while it informs the
understanding, improves also the heart, and enlarges the boundary of
harmless and rational enjoyment.”
Transactions of the Linnean Society of London.
The 2d Part of the 14th volume of this valuable work has lately appear-
ed, and it contains the following botanical articles :—‘‘ A Commentary on
the Secend Part of the Hortus Malabaricus, by Dr Francis Hamilton.”—
“« Descriptions of Nine New Species of the Genus Carex, Natives of the
Himalaya Alps, in Upper Nepal, by Mr David Don.”—* Descriptions of
Two New Species. of Erythrina, by Felix de Avellar Brotero ;’—and
some Account of a Collection of Arctic Plants formed by Edward Sabine,
Esq. F.R.S. and L. S. &e. during a Voyage in the Polar Seas in the
year 1823, by W. J. Hooker, LL.D. Communicated by the Council of.
the Horticultural Society.
Prodromus Flore Nepalensis.
Mr David Don has recently published, in one volume duodecimo, a
“< Prodromus Flore Nepalensis, sive Enumeratio Vegetabilium que in iti-
nere per Nepaliam proprie dictam et regiones conterminas, Ann. 1802,
1803, detexit atque legit D.D. Franciscus Hamilton, &c. ; accedunt
Plante 4 D. Wallich nuperius misse.” The arrangement is according to
the Natural Orders, and the greater number of species, as may be suppos °
sed, are entirely new.
Botanical Magazine, No, 456, January 1825.
Tas. 2537. Zephyranthes rosea of Bot. Reg. t. 2538. Pancratium zey-
lanicum, Linn. t. 2539. Gloriosa virescens, n. sp. (Lindley mss.) “ foliis
cirrhiferis, pedunculis pendulis, petalis unguiculatis apice undulatis :” in-
troduced by the Horticultural Society from Mosambique. t. 2540. Guod-
yera pubescens, Br. 2. minor. t, 2541. Lavatera hispida, Desfont.
t. 2542. Phlomis lunariifolia, 8. Russelliana. t. 2543. Caladium bicolor,
Willd. t. 2544. Malva abutiloides, Linn.
The 458th Number of this work, for March 1825, contains, t. 2551,
Centaurea spherocephala, L. t. 2552, Petunia nyctaginiflora of Jussieu,
the Nicotiana axillaris of Lam. Tl (N: nyctaginiflora, Lehm. Hist.
366 Notices of Botanical Works recently Published.
Nicot.) ; a genus separated from Nicotiana principally on account of thie
inequality of the corolla, by Jussieu. Petun is the Brazilian name for
Tobacco, whence the appellation of the genus, -t..2553, Campanula latis
folia, v- macrantha. t. 2554, Boltonia asteroides, Hort. Kew.” t. 2255,
Nicotiana Langsdorfii, Roem. et Sch. t. 2556, Chrysanthemum sinense;
Sab. (var-17.) t. 2557, Herpestis monnieria #, Kunth, ( Gratiola mon-
nieria, Le) t. 2558, Zanthoxylum nitidum, De Cand. (Fagara nitida,
Roxb.) a
No 459. April. .
Tas. 2559, Catasetum tridentatum, Hook. t. 2560, Elsholizia crista=
ta, Willd. t. 2561, Crotaluria retusa, L. t. 2562. Cactus truncatus of
Hooker’s Exotic Flura, t. 20, where the plant was figured and described
under that name, for the first time, although not referred to by Dr
Sims. It was previously described by Mr Haworth, under the name of
Epiphyllum truncatum. t+ 2563, Lobelia longiflora, L. t. 2564, Primula
sinensis, of Sabine.
Botanical Register for December, No. 118.
Tas. 847. Fuchsia gracilis, Lindl. (F. deeussata, Bot. Mag. not of Ruiz
and Pavon.) t. 848. Passiflora alato-cerulea, a hybrid, produced by P.
alata, and P. cerulea. t. 849. Amaryllis alvena, Bot. Mag. t. 350. Leon-
otis intermedia, n. sp. from Delagoa Bay in S. Africa, ‘‘ caule suffruticoso,
foliis petiolatis ovato-cordatis acuminatus inciso-dentatis, bracteis molli-
bus ovato-lanceolatis, internodiis terminalibus longissimis.” t. 851. Poly-
stachia puberula, n. sp. from Sierra Leone, introduced by Hort. Society ;
*spica paniculata thyrsiformi, foliis lanceolatis 7, nervibus scapo longioribus
floribus ovariisque pubescentibus, bulbis ovatis:’” Myr Lindley enumerates
four species of the genus. t. 852. Cuphea Melvilla; Melvilla speciosa of
Anderson in Journ. of Sciences‘and the Arts ; and also, we think the same
with Grislea secunda of Smith in Rees’ Cycl.. Introduced by Mr James
M‘Crae from St Vincent’s, whence we have also received fine dried speci-
mens from the Rev L. Guilding. t. 853 represents a very remarkable
new plant, belonging to that family of Composite, denominated Labiati-
flora by De Candolle; Triptilium (Ruiz and Pavon) cordifolium, received
from Chili at the Hort. Society’s garden. Three other species are mention-
ed by Lagasca, all natives of the same country.
iNVo. 119, January 1825.
Tas. 854. Rubus pauciflorus of Wallich. t. 855. Gerberia crenata,
(Arnica crenata, Thunb.) +t. 856. Cassia purpurea, Hort. Bengal.
t. 857. Fuchsia excorticata, Linn. from New Zealand. t. 858. Catesboa
latifolia, n. sp. from W. Indies, “ eorollis tubo longissimo, spinis foliis lu-
cidis convexes longioribus.’ t. 859. Templetonia glauca, Bot. Mag.
t- $60. Hibiscus strigosus, n- sp. from S. Amcriea, Caule suffrutico strigoso
foliis trilobis angulatis cordatis dentatis tomentosis.pedunculo petiolo longi--
ore, involucelli foliolis 12 hispidis linearibus apice appendiculatis-” -
Scientific Intelligence. 367
Hooker's Exotic Flora. Part 19. February 1825.
Tas. 142. Dendrobium album, n. sp. from Jamaica, “ bulbis ellipticis
compressis apice uni-trifoliis, pedunculis unifioris erectis, petalis sublan-
ceolatis, labello oblongo obscure trilobo, medio tuberculo oblongo car-
noso-” t.143, Bromelia nudicaulis, L. t. 144, Roscoea purpurea, Sm.
t. 145, Habenaria orbiculata, (Orchis, Ph.) t- 146, Impatiens fimbriata,
Colebr. MSS. “‘ racemo terminali capitato, foliis ovali-lanceolatis acumi-
natis longe ciliatis, nectario corniculato florem excedente ; bracteis pul-
cherrime ciliatis.”
Part 20. March.
Tas. 147. Parkeria pteridotdes, a new genus of plants, allied to the true
Ferns. It has the habit of Pteris, or rather Z'eleozoma of Brown, but
has the capsules quite destitute of annulus. It was gathered in Guiana,
by Charles Parker, Esq. after whom the genus is named. t. 148, Pachy-
sandra? coriacea, a remarkable plant of the family of Euphorbiacew.
t. 149, nisopetalon Careyanum, a singular new genus of Orchideous
plants, sent from Nepal by Dr Carey to the Liverpool Botanic Garden.
t- 150, Cuscuta refleza, Roxb. var. B. verrucosa.
Art. XXX.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
ASTRONOMY.
1. Comet of July and August 1824 discovered at Paramatta. This
comet was discovered at Paramatta by our countryman Mr Dunlop, and
the following elements have been computed from Mr Dunlop’s observa
tions, (as communicated to us by Sir Thomas Brisbane,) by Mr George
Innes and Mr Gordon of Aberdeen. The observations themselves will
appear in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. x. part ii., now in the Press.
‘ 4 Mr Innes. Mr Gordon.
i Perihelion Pass
yi — samtdbals t July 10th —-10" 17” 30” 10" 17’ 41”
Long. of Perihelion, - 259° 45’ 32” 259° 45’ 31”
Long. of Ascending Node - 330 29 8 330 29 8
Inclination of Orbit * 57 0 36 57 0 36
Perihelion Distance ° 0.5956114 0.5956147
Motion retrograde.
2. Comet of September 1824 discovered at Paramatta. In our last
Number, p. 177, we gave the elements of the comet which was discover-
ed by Mr Rumker, as computed from his observations by a Correspon-
dent.
The following elements, differing very little from those previously given,
have been computed from Mr Rumker’s observations, (as communicated
to us by Sir Thomas Brisbane,) by Mr George Innes and Mr Gordon of
Aberdeen :
368 Scienti - Intelligence.
on Mr Innes. Mr Gordon.
Time of Perihelion Passage, 1824, Sept. 29t } seas
Mean Time at Paramatta, 7" 23' 26 7% 25 10”
Long. of Perihelion - = 4° 23/ 12” 4° 29) WW”
Long. of Ascending Node - = 279° 17’ 56” 279° 19’ 13”
Inclination of Orbit - 4 54 22 14 54 22 22
Perihelion Distance = : ee 1.048553 1.048739
Motion direct.
3. New Comet of 1825. M.Gambart of Marseilles discovered, on the
19th May 1825, a small comet in the head of Cassiopeia, about 0° 20’ of
right ascension, and 48° 22’ of north declination. On the Ist of June at
12° 31’ its right ascension was 1° 51’, and its declination 73° 39’ north.
This comet appeared as a small nebulosity of about two minutes in dia-
meter. It is round and well defined. Its light is evidently condensed at
its centre ; but M. Gambart could not see distinctly its nuclens, or the
part which is separated from the nebulosity.
4. Longitude and Latitude of Paramatta. The position of the Obser-
vatory at Paramatta, as corrected by numerous and recent observations, is
East longitude from Greenwich, 10° 4’ 5”, and South latitude 33° 48’ 45”.
5. Action of-the Moon on the Earth’s Atmosphere. From a series of
4752 observations made on the barometer, between the Ist October 1815,
and the Ist October 1823, M. Laplace has concluded, that the magnitude
of the lunar atmospherical tide is about the 18th part of a millimeter,
or about the “ith part of an English inch.
6. Lunar Eclipse of 31st May, observed at Bushy Heath. Colonel
Beaufoy observed the beginning of the eclipse, at 11° 52’ 43”, mean time,
and the end at 12" 15’ 58”. The shadow was ill defined. “The longitude
of his observatory is 1’ 20”.93 west, mean time, and 51° 37’ 44°.3.— Ann. of
Phil. July 1825, p. 44.
OPTICS.
7. Light produced during the Crystallization of Benzoie Acid. M.
Buchner of Magonza having mixed impure, but perfectly dry, benzoic
acid with the sixth part of its weight of pulverized charcoal, left it exposed,
for several days, to a moderate heat, the mixture being covered with a cy-
linder well luted with a paste of almonds, but having a small aperture
left on purpose to see the crystallization within. Having been exposed,
for several days, to a moderate heat, the crystals had already begun to
form, but being desirous of hurrying the operation, M. Buchner placed
the apparatus in a stove of a high temperature. In the space of half an
hour he was surprised to see a brilliant flash of light within the cylinder,
the brightness of which was augmented by the darkness of the room. A
number of similar flashes immediately succeeded, and continued for half
an hour. M. Buchner now found that a great quantity of crystals of ben=
Optics. —Electricity. 369
zoic acid were formed similar to.those obtained in the usual way, but only
less regular. As the flash did not continue after each crystal was depo-
sited, M. Buchner thought that the light was produced by a neutralization
of electricity. M. Buchner observed similar phenomena in the crystalli-
zation of acetate of potash, and M. Dobereiner observed the same in the
preparation of oxygen by means of a mixture of oxygenated chlorate, pot-
ash and manganese in powder. The last of these chemists is of opinion,
that those salts which contain no water of crystallization, are particular-
ly powerful in producing light during crystallization. See Neue Journ.
fur Chem. und Phys. 1824, vol. ii. p. 222, and Giorn. de Fisica, vii 470.
8. Tridescence of Clouds. M.de Humboldt mentions this phenomenon
‘as having been seen by him in Souti America, but I have not met with any
notice of its having been seen in this country, though it has most likely been
witnessed by some of our meteorologists who are accustomed to observe the
nepheological phenomena. On the morning of the 13th of December last,
we had a hard gale from the N. W-, with black and dense cumulostrati
driving rapidly in the direction of the wind. At 93 a. m., when examin-
ing the appearance of the heavens through an opening in the cumulostrati,
I observed an extensive cirrostratus resting motionless in a higher region
of the atmosphere, stretching from S. E. to E., and rising about 5° above
the horizon, the sun at that time being about 7° or 8° high. This cirro-
stratus exhibited all the prismatic colours in broad alternate stripes. There
were four alternations, and the tints being very brilliant, it formed a most
beautiful spectacle. It lasted till 11 a. m-, when the colours gradually
faded, and at last blended into a uniform yellowish brown- Since that
time I have frequently seen the same phenomenon shortly after sunrise,
when the rays of the sun are incident at small angles, upon a thin and
shallow cirrostratus. :
The cause of the iridescence is not easily explained, but it seems to be
connected with the magnitude of the aqueous globules of which the cloud
is composed.
I may give another instance, which took place on the 2Ist of January:
Wind brisk, from the W. by N., Hygrom- 3-5 ; an extensive black cloud
veiled the heavens, extending from N. E. and W. to within 10° of the
southern horizon. ‘he sun’s place was completely obscured ; but a small
portion of the south edge of the cloud had a dazzling yellow colour. At
this time a chain of scud, flying from S- to S. E., crossed in succession the
illuminated part, each, as it passed, suddenly displaying a splendid show
of prismatic tints, and then returning to its original sombre hue. I watch-
ed this interesting sight for ten minutes, when a nimbus approached, and
effectually darkened all that part of the heavens.
J. Foceo.
ELECTRICITY-
9. Remarkable Electricity of Oxalate of Lime.—Having obtained, by
precipitation, some oxalate of lime, and dried it when well worked in a
VOL. 111. No. 11. ocToBER 1825, Aa
370 Scientific Intelligence.
Wedgewood’s basin, at a temperature of about 300° of Fahrenheit, until it
was so dry as not to dim a cold plate of glass held over it, Mr Faraday re«
marked, that when it was stirred with a platina spatula, it became in a few
moments so strongly electrical, that it could not be collected together, but
flew about the dish whenever it was moved from its sides into the sand=
bath. This tock place either in porcelain, glass, or metallic basins, and
with porcelain, glass, or metallic stirrers. When the particles were well
excited and shaken on the top of a gold leaf electrometer, the leaves di-
verged two or three inches. When cooled out of the contact of air, the
same phenomena took place. When excited in a silver capsule, and left
out of contact with the air, the powder continued electrical for a great
length of time, proving its very bad conducting power, in which it pro-
bably surpasses all other bodies. Mr Faraday remarks, that oxalate of
lime stands at the head of all substances, yet tried, as to its power of be-
coming positively electrical by heat. Quart. Journ. No. 38, p. 338.
10. Electricity developed in Capillary Attraction.—M. Becquerel is said
to have demonstrated, that there is a sensible developement of electricity
during the ascent of liquids in capillary tubes. He first obtained this re-
sult by increasing the sensibility of Schweigger’s galvanometer. He
placed three of these instruments together, so that the magnetic needle of
the middle one deviates from its ordinary direction, by the lateral effects
produced upon each of its poles by the contrary poles of the two other
needles. From this arrangement it follows, that, when an electric current
passes into the apparatus, tending to bring the needle into the plane of
the magnetic meridian, the middle needle will be as much less retarded
in its progress as the poles, opposite to its own, of the other two needles
are more remote from it, consequently, the oscillations will have a wider
extent than if there were only one galvanometer.
In order to observe the electricity of capillary action, M. Becquerel
could not employ glass, as it is not a conductor of electricity ; but he ems
ployed sponge of platinum, and small pieces of charcoal. Pure hydro«
chloric acid, much diluted with water, is poured out into the platinum dish,
which communicates with one of the ends of the wire of the galvanome-
ter ; and into the dish is plunged sponge of platinum, which is fixed at
the other end of the wire. At this contact there is produced an electric
current, which goes from the sponge to the acid, and the direction of
which is contrary to that of the current which would have been obtained
if the acid had been attacked by the metal. As the interstices of the
sponge are filled with the fiuid, the current diminishes, and it ceases when
the sponge has absorbed all the liquid which it can contain. Sometimes
the current takes another direction, but the cause of that is not known.
The same effect is produced with nitric acid, but it is less marked. The
same result was obtained with a small piece of charcoal, prevented from
touching the platinum by a band of papier Joseph.
11. Electricity developed in Solutions and Mixtures=—By means of the
Electricity.— Magnetism. 371
Same apparatus, M. Becquerel has discovered that an electrical current
goes from the acid to the water, when sponge of platinum, that has im-
bibed distilled water, is plunged into the dish of platinum containing
hydrochloric acid.
In order to observe the electricity of solutions of alkalis in water, he
fixed in the platina pincers a fragment of hydrate of potash or soda, en-
veloped in papier Joseph, and then plunged it into distilled water in
the platina cup. A current was thus produced from the water to the
alkali.
M. Becquerel also found that electricity was developed during the mix-
ture of sulphuric and nitric acids. Bull. des Sc. Phys. &c. Fev. 1824, p. 99.
12. Electrical Gale-—On the 6th December 1823, about 100 miles to the
west of the Fiord of Drontheim, the Griper, commanded by Captain
Clavering, experienced a severe gale which lasted three days, and during
which period there was no intermission of its violence. This gale was re-
markable for the small amount of the effect produced on the barometer,
_ either on its approach, during its continuance, or on its cessation ; and by
the indications which were afforded of its having originated in a disturbed
state of electricity in the atmosphere. Yt was accompanied by very vivid
lightning, which is particularly unusual in high latitudes in winter, and
by the frequent appearance, and continuance for several minutes at a
time, of balls of fire at the yard-arms and mast-heads. Of these, not less
than eight were counted at one time. Sabine’s Pendulum Experiments.
p. 181.
MAGNETISM.
13. Mr Babbage and Mr Herschel on the Magnetism developed during
Rotation. In our last number, we gave a notice of the experiments made in
France on the effect of copper in motion or at rest, on magnetic needles,
Mr Babbage and Mr Herschel have pursued the subject with much suc-
cess, and have communicated an account of their experiments to the Royal
Society. In order to reverse the experiment, they put in rotation a power-
ful horse shoe magnet, and suspended over it various metals and other sub-
stances. In this way they developed signs of magnetism in copper, zinc, sil-
ver, tin, lead, antimony, mercury, gold, bismuth, and carbon, in that metal-
loidal state in which it is precipitated from carburetted hydrogen gas works.
In sulphuric acid, rosin, glass, and other non-conductors, or imperfect
conductors of electricity, no positive evidence of magnetism was obtained.
In order to determine the comparative intensities of these bodies, Messrs
Babbage and Herschel used two methods, Ist, By observing the deviation
produced in the needle by plates of great size cast to one pattern ; and,
2dly, By observing the times of rotation of a neutralized system of mag-
nets suspended over them. These two methods assigned the same order
to all the bodies but copper and zinc ; and it is a very curious fact, which
the authors have no doubt thoroughly investigated, that the two methods
372 Scientific Intelligence.
gave opposite results in the cases of zinc and copper, placing them constant<
ly above and below each other, according to the mode of observation employed.
Messrs Babbage and Herschel next investigated the effect of so-
lution of continuity on the various metals, and they ascertained the
curious fact, that the re-establishment of the metallic contact in other me-
tals, restores the force either wholly or in a great measure, even when
the metal ased for soldering has in itself but a weak magnetic power.
Hence is obtained a power of magnifying weak degrees of magnetism.
They found also that the force varied inversely between the square and the
cube of the distance.
From these valuable experiments, Messrs Babbage and Herschel con-
clude, that the phenomena may all be explained, by supposing time to be
requisite, both for the developement and the loss of magnetism, and that
different metals differ, in respect not only of the time they require, but of
the intensity of the force ultimately producible in them. See Quart.
Jour. vol. XXxviil- p. 276.
14. On the Magnetism imparted to Iron bodies by Rotation. This is the
title of a paper read before the Royal,Society by Mr Barlow. Having fix-
ed a 13 inch mortar shell to the mandril of a powerful turning lathe
wrought by a steam-engine, and caused it to perform 640 revolutions in a
minute, the magnetic needle deviated several degrees from the magnetic
meridian, and remained stationary during the motion of the shell. When
the rotation ceased, it immediately resumed its original position. When
the motion of the shell was inverted, an equal but opposite deviation of the
needle took place. j
When the earth’s action on the needle was neutralized, and the needle
made a tangent to the ball, the north end of the needle was attracted,
when the motion of the ball was made towards the needle, and repelled
when the motion was in the contrary direction, and this happened what-
ever was the direction of the axis of rotation. In the two extremities of
the axis, there was observed no effect, but in two opposite points, at right
angles to the axis, the effect was a maximum, and. the deviation of the
needle was to the centre of the ball. In speculating on these facts, Mr Barlow
is disposed to think, that the earth’s magnetism is of the induced kind,
and_ he considers this opinion as supported by the fact of the non-coin-
cidence of the magnetic axis with the axis of the earth’s daily motion.
15. Mr Christie’s New Experiments on the Magnetism produced hy Ro-
tation —In a letter to J. F. W. Herschel, Esq., which was read to the
Royal Society on the 16th June, Mr Christie has communicated the fol-
lowing facts: After confirming the results obtained by Mr Babbage and
Mr Herschel, as given above, Mr Christie found, that when a thick cop-
per plate is made to revolve under a small magnet, the force tending to make
the needle deviate is directly as the velocity, and inversely as the fourth
power of the distance ; but that when magnets of considerable size are
made to revolve beneath copper discs, the force diminishes more nearly as
Meteorology.—Chemistry. 373
the inverse ratio of the square of the distance, or between the ‘square and
the cube, though not in any constant ratio of an exact power. .
When copper discs of different weights are set in rotation, the force at
small distances seems to increase as the weights of the discs ; but at smal-
ler distances it varied in some higher ratio. See our last Number, p. 135.
METEOROLOGY.
16. Remarkable Hailstones with pyritic Nuclei. The following very
curious account of these hailstones is given in a letter from Professor John
of Berlin, to Baron Ferrussac. It forms also part of a letter from Dr Evers-
mann, known by his travels in Asia, dated 16th September, from Oren-
burg, where he has landed property. f
“Some days before our arrival at Sterlitamak, (more than 100 versts
from Orenburg,) there arose a storm in which very remarkable hail fell.
The hailstones, which were tolerably large, contained a stony and crystallize
ed nucleus. Thirty of them have been sent to our Governor, and i have
received two specimens.” They are of a brown colour like the auriferous
pyrites of Beresowsky, in Siberia. Their surface is shrivelled and shin-
ing. The crystal forms a flattened octohedron, whose edges are salient.
The two diagonals of the base are five lines by four, and the distance of the
summits is two lines. Sometimes the four angles of the base are trun-
cated. It seems that the constituent parts of these crystals are sulphur and
metals. No analysis of them has yet been made, but I shall perhaps have
occasion to do this. See Bull, des. Sc. Phys. Feb. 1825, p. 117.
II, CHEMISTRY.
17. Ona compound of Carbon of Hydrogen, with remarkable properties.
A paper was read at the Royal Society on the 16th June, by Mr M. Fa-
raday, containing an account of this curious substance which he calls a
Bi-carbonet of hydrogen, from its consisting of two proportions of carbon,
and one of hydrogen.
This substance is a fluid deposited in vessels in which oil gas has been
compressed. It is colourless, has less specific gravity than water, is al-
most insoluble in water, but is soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, &c. It burns
with a dense flame, and is not acted upon to any extent by solutions of
the alkalies. If it is put into gas, burning with a blue flame, it makes
the flame bright and white. It dissolves caoutchouc readily, and will an-
swer all the purposes of essential oils as solvents.
Part of this fluid is very volatile, causing the appearance of ebullition at
temperatures of 50° or 60°, other parts are more fixed, requiring even 250°
or more for ebullition. By repeated distillations, a series of products were
obtained from the most to the least volatile, the most abundant being such
as occurred from 170° to 200°. On subjecting, these, after numerous rec-
tifications, to a low temperature, it was found that some of them concreted
into a crystalline mass, and ultimately a substance was obtained from
them, principally by pressure at low temperatures, which, upon examina-
tion, proved to be a new compound of carbon and hydrogen. At com«
374 Scientific Intelligence.
mon temperatures, it appears as a colourless transparent liquid, of specific
gravity 0.85 at 60°, having the general colour of oil gas. Below 42°, it
is a solid body, forming dendritical transparent crystals, and contracting
much during its congelation. At 0° it appears as a white or transparent
substance, brittle, pulyerulent, and of the hardness nearly of loaf sugar.
It evaporates entirely in the air. When raised to 186° it boils, furnishing
a vapour which has a specific gravity of 40 nearly, compared to hydro-
genas 1. Ata higher temperature the vapour is decomposed, depositing
carbon. The substance is combustible, liberating charcoal, if oxygen be
not abundantly present. Potassium exerts no action upon it below 186°.
Experimenting with the most volatile portions of the liquid, a product
was obtained, which, though gaseous at common temperatures, condensed
into a liquid at 0°. This was found to be very constant in composition
and properties. It was very combustible. It had a specific gravity of 27
or 28 as a gas; asa liquid that of 0.627, being the lightest substance, not
a gas or vapour, known. When analyzed, it was found to consist of one
proportion of carbon 6., and one of hydrogen 1., as is the case with ole-
fiant gas; but these are so combined and condensed, as to occupy only
one-half the volume they do in that substance. A volume therefore of
the gas contains four proportionals of carbon 24, and four of hydrogen
4—= 28, which is its specific gravity.
Beside the remarkable difference thus established between this sub-
stance and olefiant gas, it is also distinguished by the action of chlorine,
which forms with it a fluid body, having a sweet taste, and resembling
hydro-chloride of carbon ; but from which a chloride of carbon cannot be
obtained by the further action of chlorine and light.
The other products from the original fluid do not present any characters
so definite as the above substances ; at the same time they appear to be
very constant, boiling uniformly at one temperature. They cannot be
separated by distillation into more and less volatile parts, so as to afford
means of reducing their numbers to two or three particular bodies. They
have the general properties of the original fluid, and, like the other pro-
ducts, are peculiarly acted upon by sulphuric acid, presenting phenomena
in the investigation of which Mr Faraday is now engaged. See Quart.
Journ. No. 38. .
III. NATURAL HISTORY.
BOTANY.
18. Overland Arctic Expedition. We have received intelligence from
the overland Arctic American Expedition, containing the welcome account
of its safe arrival at Penetanguishene, at the eastern extremity of Lake
Huron, upon the 22d of April. Our letter, which is from Dr Richardson,
announces that the party had a prosperous voyage, of 26 days, to New
York ; at which place the naturalists visited Dr Hossack, who seems to be
the liberal patron of botany, Mr Le Conte, well known as the author of
some Botanical Memoirs in the Lyceum of Natural History of New York,
Mr Halsey, a successful student of the Lichens of America, Mr Cooper,
Botany. 375
and Dr de Kay, the latter one of the most zealous cultivators of Natural
History at New York, but who now devotes himself almost entirely to
zoology. A day was devoted to an excursion to the Military Academy at
West Point, on the river Hudson, in order to see Dr Torry, who has been
recently appointed Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy to that insti-
tution, and who is working, besides his Flora of the midland counties of
the United States, at a compendium of the same, and is, moreover, col-
lecting materials for a complete North American Flora.
Dr Richardson and Mr Drummond (who is especially charged with the
collecting of plants) had already, notwithstanding the early season of the
year, been very successful in their botanical pursuits.
’ Of the Orchideous plants, indeed, the flowering season was already past,
but they found many species, and the beautiful Calypso borealis (Ameri-
cana, Br.) in great abundance. The Violets, the Raspberries, and the
Currants occupied much of their attention, and seemed to have been
very imperfectly described by authors. The Ranunculus rhomboideus,
first detected and described by Goldie, and the Primula pusilla of the
same author, which certainly comes very near to Michaux’s Primula mis=
tassinica, were in flower. Mr Drummond was much pleased at finding
the Juncus arcticus and the Orthotrichum Ludwigii, two plants of which
he had been, a short time previously, the discoverer in Scotland.
As to mosses, they were, as may be supposed, in a high state of perfec-
tione Bryum roseum, Neckera pennata, Dicranum glaucum, Fontinalis ca-
pillacea, and several other fine species, have been collected with abundant
fructification, together with very many individuals of the genus Leskea,
several of which appeared to have been hitherto unnoticed by botanists.
At Penetanguishene, Dr Richardson found a gentleman who was much
occupied with botany, Mr Tod, assistant-surgeon to a small naval esta-
blishment at that place. Encouraged by the well known zeal and enthu-
siasm of our valued friend and correspondent, it is to be hoped that he will
be led to investigate thoroughly the botany of that interesting part of
North America.
On the 24th of April the whole of the officers of the expedition were to
be assembled, and they were to proceed, on the following day, in the pro-
secution of their voyage.
19. Plantes raves du Jardin de Genéve, par Aug. Pyramus De Candolle,
&c. This beautiful work, of which we have just received the first Livraison
from the hands of its estimable author,-merits the attention of every lover
of botany, no less as coming from the pen of one of the most profound bo-
tanists that exist, than on account of the circumstances which gave rise to it.
Driven by religious persecution from the Botanical Garden at Montpel-
lier, and from the chair of that university, which he had filled with so
much honour to himself and to his adopted country, Professor De Can-
dolle returned to his native city, Geneva, when a professorship of Natural
History was constituted for him in 1817, and the formation of a garden
contemplated. The establishment of the Botanic Garden was facilitated
by a circumstance, unfortunate, indeed, in itself, namely, the distressed
376 Scientific Intelligence.
condition of the lower classes of the people, which induced the sovereign
council of Geneva to devote a sum of money for their maintenance, ex-
pressing a wish, at the same time, that they should be employed in pre-
paring the ground for the garden.
Soon after a private subscription was entered into, which, being aided
by almost all the inhabitants of the city, speedily furnished the govern-
ment with the necessary funds for constructing the inclosures, hot-houses,
and green-houses, &c ; and the government likewise undertook to contri-.
bute to its future support. The buildings were erected in 1818, and such
was the zeal shown in the promotion of this institution, and in fulfilling
the wishes of the learned Professor, and such the number of seeds and
plants that it received from various quarters, that, from the following
year, its advantages began to be perceived, and already a number of use-
ful and ornamental plants were thence distributed through the. country.
Every year the garden has increased in value; and, at this moment, the
directors of it are constructing a museum therein, for the purpose of de-
positing a herbarium, and collections of fruits and seeds. This building, too,
is erected at the expence of a private individual, a citizen of Geneva, who
has withheld his name from the public.
The taste for painting flowers being very general at Geneva, and M.
De Candolle, principal director of the garden, having already had occasion
to witness “ the anxiety with which the private artists sought the means
of rendering their talents useful, invited them to draw, upon a uniform
scale, the plants which flowered in the garden, with the view of preserv-
ing the recollection of them, and of forming a collection which might be
valuable to botany, and as specimens of the art. This request was grant-
ed with pleasure, and already upwards of 300 coloured drawings, either
made from nature by private artists, or given by the benefactors to the
garden, compose the collection, ‘“‘ Eh qui pourra, as M. De Candolle him-
self well observes, “ nous I’ esperons, servir un jour d’exemple de la maniére
dont l’espirit public peut, dans les petites républiques, compenser quel~
ques-uns des avantages des grands Etats.”
It is from the portfolio of drawings thus formed, that M. De Candolle
will select those plants which are either entirely new, or which are not
well figured in any work, in order to publish them by livraisons, aceompa-
nied by such scientific descriptions and observations as are necessary for
their complete history.
The present Livraison contains, 1. 2. the Pinus canariensis, Buch. of
which two plates are given, and which seems never to have been well de-
scribed or understood. Some had taken it for the Pinus Larix, others
for the Pinus Teda, whilst others had confounded it with the Pinus ma-
* M. Mocino, one of the authors of the Flora of Mewico, having given all the ori-
ginal Drawings of that work to M. de Candolle, that he might publish them in his
name, and having afterwards, on his return to Spain, desired to possess them again,
M. De Candolle expressed a wish to have copies made of the most interesting of
them. In the short space of a week, with one accord, as it were, all the artists
came forward, copied for him nearly a thousand drawings, and have thus been the
means of preserving the most yaluable part of the collection.
4
Botany.—General Science. 377
ritima. Von Buch and the late Christian Smith named it, in their cata«
logue of the Vegetation of Teneriff, Pinus canariensis, and they state,
that it inhabits that island from the edge of the sea to an elevation of 6700
Parisian feet above the level of the sea; but that the region where it is
most abundant may be reckoned at from 4080 to 5900 feet, where snow
falls for about 2 month. The temperature of this zone M. De Candolle
estimates to be similar to that of Scotland, or to the nerth of France, or of
Germany. The wood is resinous, highly flammeable, and is excellent for
constructing buildings, being known to continue sound for ages. 3. We-
mopanthes canadensis. (the Ilex canadensis of Michaux.) 4. Jussiea
longifolia, DC. 5. Sesamum indicum, Linn. 6. Silene picta, Desf.
There are thus six plates, and twenty-one pages of letter-press. The size
is a large quarto, and the execution of the plates is such as to reflect great
credit both upon those who have made the drawings and those who have
engraved them.
IV. GENERAL SCIENCE.
20- Lieut. Kotzebue’s recent Voyage of Discovery.—Dispatches have been
received from this active navigator, from the harbour of St Peter and St
Paul in Kamschatka, where he had arrived on his return home. He has
discovered three Islands, one of which, called after his ship Predprietige
Island, is situated in west Long. 140° 2’ 38” and south Lat. 15° 58’ 18”.
‘The second, called Bellinghausen, after the eminent Russian navigator,
is situated in west Long. 154° 30’ and in south Lat. 15° 48’ 7”. The
third called Kordaken, after his first Lieutenant, is in west Long. 168° 6’
and in south Lat. 14° 32’ 39”, This Island, however, had been previous-
ly discovered by M. Freycinet.
Lieut. Kotzebue has examined Navigation Island, and has corrected
the positions of several places in the Pacific Ocean. He visited Otaheite
and Owyhee, and he saw the Island of Karishof, seen by Roggewens in
1722, and situated in west Long. 145° 24’ 22” and south Lat. 14° 27’.
21. Steam-Boat Enterprise for India.—This Steam-Boat, which sailed on
the 2d August, is the first which has ventured to cross the Indian seas, and is
one of 500 tons burden. It has two steam-engines, each of 60 horse power.
The boilers, which are made of copper, extend across the ship, and are heat-
ed by seven furnaces, each seven feet in depth. The whole of the machinery
is executed by that able engineer Mr H. Maudslay, who has contrived an
ingenious method of changing the water in the boilers, in order to prevent
the deposition ofa crust of a salt on the bottom of the boilers. He has also
fixed up an ingenious pump to answer various purposes on board a ship, and
he has constructed a moveable railway to conduct the coals to the furnace
when they are wanted. The coals which the Enterprise carries along with
her, amounting to about 300 tons, are partly contained in chambers within
the sides of the vessel, covered with sheet iron, and partly in tanks beneath,
which, as the coals are used, will be filled with water, to keep the vessel
properly ballasted. There are twenty cabins in the ship, furnished ele.
gantly, and supplied with every convenience.
378 List of English Patents.
Art. XXXI—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.
SEALED IN ENGLAND FROM JANUARY Ist, to MAY 14th-
1825.
Jan. 1. For Machinery to Make Wove and Laid Paper. To S. Dent-
son and J. Harats, Leeds.
Jan. 1. For Lace and Net Machinery. To J. Hearucoat, Tiverton.
Jan. 5. For Improved Piano Fortes. To P. Erarp, London.
Jan. 11. For an Improved Steam-Engine. To Dr Tittocs, London.
Jan. 11. For Improvements in the Manufacture of Slivers, §c. To J.
F. Smiru, Esq. of Dunston-Hall.
Jan. 11. For Lace and Net Machinery. To W. HEnson and W.
Jackson, Worcester.
Jan. 11. Fora New Musical Instrument. To G- Gurney, London.
Jan. 11, For Improvements in Weaving. To F. G. Spitspury, Leek.
Jan. 11. For Improved Spinning Machines, &c. To W. Hirst, Leeds.
Jan. 11. For Improvemenis in Finishing Woollen Cloth. To J. F.
Smitu, Esq.
Jan. 11. For Improvements in Calico Printing. To J. Locket, Man-
chester.
Jan. 11. For Condensed Wood. To J. Fatconer ATLEE.
Jan. 11. For Improved Sawing Machinery. To G. Sayner, Leeds.
Jan. 11, For a Composition to Preserve Animal and Vegetable Substan=
ces. ToT. Macrara, Dublin.
Jan. 11. For an Apparatus for Conducting and Preserving Water. To
T. MaGRATH.
Jan. 11. For Paper Machinery. To J. Pures, London.
Jan. 11. For Improvements on Ships. To W.S. Burnett, London.
Jan. 11. For Improvements in Cotton-Spinning. To J. ANDREW, G.
Tartton, and J. SHerLey, Crumpside.
Jan. 13. For Spinning Machinery. To W. Bootu and M. Battey,
Congleton.
Jan. 18. For Improved Cocks. To E. W. Rupper, Edgbaston.
Jan. 18- For Improvements in Casting Cylinders, Tubes, Sc. To W.
Cuurcu, Birmingham.
Jan. 18. For Improved Piano Fortes. To F. Metvitye, Glasgow.
Feb. 1. For Improved Bricks, Tiles, &c. To E. Lers andG. Harrison.
Feb. 1. For an Improved Roasting-Jack. To J. Turn, Edinburgh.
Feb. 1. For an Apparatus for Registering the Quantity of Liquids pas
sing from one Place to another. ToS. Crostey, London.
Feb. 1. For Improved Gas Regulators or Governors. To S. Crosiey.
Feb. 3. For a Steam-Carriage. To T. Bursrati and J. Hii.
Feb. 10. For a New Composition of Malt and Hops. To Dr G. A.
Lams, Rye.
Feb. 10 For Improved Spinning Machinery. To R. Bacnatt, Leek.
Feb. 11. For Improved Methods of Manufacturing Silk. To J:
Heatucoar, Tiverton:
il
List of Scottish Patents. 379
Feb. 19. For Improved Water-Works. To E, Less, Essex.
Feb. 19. For an Apparatus to Bottle Liquids. To T. Masterman.
Feb. 19. Fora Fuel-Feeding Apparatus. To E. Luoyp, Middlesex.
Feb. 19. For Fire-Proof Buildings. To B. Farrow, London,
Feb. 19. For an Apparatus for Combing Wool. To Jussz Rosser, Lei-
cester.
Feb. 19. For Improved Fire Arms. To J. Moutp, Middlesex.
Feb. 19. For a Rotatory or Endless Lever Action. To H. Burnett,
Middlesex.
Feb. 19. For Improved Water-Closets. To J. Beacuam, Middlesex.
Feb. 19. For an Improvement in Bolting Uills. To J. Ayton, Nor-
folk Company.
Feb. 26. For a New Inkstand. To D. Epwarps, Middlesex.
Feb. 26. For Improved Fire Arms. To Jos. Manton, Middlesex.
Feb. 26. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To W. H. Hixt,
Woolwich.
Feb. 26. For Improved Piano Fortes. To G. A. Kottman, Middlesex.
Feb. 26. For a Method of Producing Figures on Silk or Goods. To J.
HeatucoatT.
Feb. 26. For a Portable Life-Boat. To J. BarEmMan, Middlesex.
Feb. 26. For Improved Gas-Tubes. To C. WuiteHousr, Wednes-
bury.
Feb. 26. For Improvements in Printing Cottons, §c. To T- Arwoon,
Birmingham.
Feb. 26. For Improvements in Cooling Fron with Copper. To D. Gor-
pon, Esq. and W- Bowser, London.
Art. XXXII.—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND
SINCE JUNE 16, 1825.
March 14. For a Locomotive or Steam Carriage. To Timotuy Bur-
STALL, Leith, and Jonn Hrt1, Bath. (Omitted in last Number.)
27. June 16. For the Preparation of Certain Substances for making Can-
dles. To Moses Pootr, Middlesex.
28. June 24. For Improvements in Machinery. 'To Henry Burnett,
Middlesex.
29. June 23. For Improvements in ire Lxtinguishing Machinery. To
Georcr Dopp, Middlesex.
30. June 24. For Improvements in Acletrees. To Wittiam Mason,
Middlesex.
31. July 2. For Improvements in Spinning-Machines, &c. To Maurice
De Taicu, Warrington.
32. July 2. For an Improvement in the making of Dies, Moulds, or Ma~
trives. To Pu1tir Brookes, Stafford.
33. July 2. For Improvements in Looms. To Joun Martin Han-
cHett, London, and Joseru Detvatve, Middlesex:
34. July 2. For Improvements on Steam-Engines. To Joun CHanves
CunristorHEeR Rappatrz, London.
380 Celestial Phenomena, October 1825—January 1826.
35. July 8. For Improvements in the Process of, and Apparatus for Di-
stilling. To Jean Jacques SarnrMarc, Surrey. '
36. July 29. For Improved Machinery for Preparing and Spinning
Flax Hemp, &c. To James Kay, Lancaster.
37. Aug. 3. For an Improved Machine or Press for Printing. To
Joan Rutuven, Edinburgh.
38. Aug. 5. For an Improvement in Lamps. To JosEerH Farry,
Middlesex.
39. Aug. 8. For Improvements in the Construction of a Machine used for
Throstle and Water-Spinning of Thread or Yarn, To JonaTHaNn AN-
DREW, GILBERT TARLTON, and JosErH SHEPLEY, Manchester.
40. Aug. 11. For Improvements in the Machinery to be employed for
Sawing and Grooving Marble, §c. To James Tuttocn, London.
41. Aug. 7. For Improvements in Pipes or Tubes for the Passage or
Conveyance of Fluids. To Watrer Hancock, Middlesex.
42, Aug. 11. For a New mode of obtaining Power applicable to Ma-
chinery-, To Epwaxrp Jorpan, Norwich.
43. Aug. 19. For an Improvement in the Construction of Zamps or
Lanthorns. _To Joun Crossiey, Middlesex.
44. Aug. 19. For Certain Mechanical Arrangements for Obtaining Powers
from certain Fluids. To Marc Isamparp Brunet, London.
45. Aug. 19. For Improvements in the Manufacture of Silks. To Ricu-
ARD Bapnat Younger, Stafford.
Art. XXXIJI.—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA,
From Oct. 1, 1825, to Jan. 1, 1826, calculated for the Meridian of Edin-
burgh. By Mr Grorce Innes, Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author.
These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning at
noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right
Ascension.
OCTOBER.
D H. M. S- D He M S-
1 11 2 42 ¢)AB 8 12. 3. .37)6.),a"
1 20 58 48 ¢)2x% 8 8 14 42.3546 )¥
1 % Greatest Elong. 8 22 41 5 d)Q
214 4 0d¢)rh 10 10 50 3646) 8
2 16 1 42 Im. 1. Sat. 2/ 11 11 3 34 @ New Moon
3 4 40 —d)h 12 8 4 —d gz
3 21 55 506) hill 14 0 5 —de@anr
4 128 8 6)eIl 144 5 3 14 £j)dm
4 6 37 — & near} 16 lo 13 2d6)lut
4 17 57 40 ( Last Quarter. 16 10 47 45 6 )2et
4 19 37 12 6) CI 17 9 56 37d )af
4 22 22 — GF 8B m 17 13 27 50 ¢6)df
62 5 6d)lag 17 4 2 4 6)H
6 22 13 2d6)2a a5 18 6 39 1 ) First Quarter
717 9 MH d)CN 18 18 37 646)PB W
8 1 36 40d)7S 20 23 8 —d@Phm
Celestial Phenomena, October 1825—January 1826.
s.
1 © enters
27 Im, I. Sat. Y
4 © Full Moon.
NOVEMBER.
55 5 )Z
57 Em. III. Sat 2/
oa
~
loge
p
4
C2)
5
oO
te
2 Im. I. Sat. 2/
36 d pdm
20: Im. II. Sat. 2/
52 6 )lut
26 )2ut
_
~I
an
Coace
_
=F
to
n
FXO OK FOO
ee ee
a xs SEbp »
oF > 3
R
pb te eon § a: SSR a |
DECEMBER.
122 6)oD
od)7T&r
45 Em. IV. Sat. 2/
55 ( Last Quarter.
50 46) ¥
35 Im. I. Sat. 2/
49d) og
40 5 yim
$y ™
4] 1m. II. Sat. 2
www h~
R
38
d
d
)
)
ro)
)
fe)
%
Aww
Ww
30 Im. II. Sat, 2/
361
has Eclipse
reatest Elong,.
382 Celestial Phenomena, October 1825—January 1826.
Di $H. PM. 4s. : D H. M. Sz
14 10 27°— 62m 23 14 35 24 d)h
14 14 50 49 Em. III. Sat. 7/ 24 16 31 53 6) II.
16 219 —~d3+t 244 2017 30 6) mI.
16 18 49 28 ) First Quarter. 24 21 0 32 © Full Moon.
17. 18 22 12 Im.I. Sat. 7/ 24 22 49 23 4)v Il.
19 12 50 34 Im. IL Sat. 7/ 2 14 7 20 6)C I.
19 17 56 — ¢& near¥ TH 26 14 43 51 1m. I. Sat. 7/
21 6 28 27 6)56m 27 16 9 48 g)lan
21 13 31 52 © enters vp 27:17 «9:10 g)Zan
21 15 23 4 Im. ITI. Sat. 7 28 12 57 12 g)or
21 18 48 2 Em. III. Sat. 2/ 98 21 49 0 Syren
22 7 6 5246)AB 30 3 30 9 6)Y
22 16 29 20 6 )2Ky 31 11 23 32 Im. IM. Sat. 2/
239 17 Odi 31 16 50 —iInf. 6O8
Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.
OCTOBER.
Venus.
H.
6
6
5
5
5
4
4
Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian.
H. M. H. M. H. M.
Mercury.
D. H. M. i, ML
1
5
H.
23 47 | 21 52 | 20 34 | 20 ¥ | 14 38 4 39
23. 57 21. 54 20 37 19 48 14 2) 3°15
10. 0 6 21 57 20 19 19 30 14 0 3 55
16. 0 18 22 0 20 10 9 13 13 39 9 37
20. 0 30 a2. 4 2U' 8 Oe 18 55 13° 18 3°17
25. 0 43 22°°°9 19 52 18 38 12 57 3B VO
30. 0. 57 22,12 19 42 18 20 12 39 2 43
Mercury. Venus. Mars. Saturn.
D.| H. H. . H. M. M. BH. M. H.
1. 0 22 19 41 17 12.21 2
5. 1 22 19 33 2 12 14 2
10. 1 22 19 24 45 Il 54 2
15. 1 22 19 14 25 ql 31 1
20. 1 22 19) 6 It 33 1
25.| 0 22 18 58 47 10 49 1
30. 0 22 18 46 27 10 37 0
Celestial Phenomena, October 1825—January 1826. 383
Occultation of Saturn, by the Moon
On the 30th of October there will be an Occultation of the planet Sa<
turn, by the Moon. The following are the Elements, and principal re«
sults of a calculation for Edinburgh ; using the Decimal Tables of Saturn
by Bouvard, the Solar Tables of Delambre, and Lunar Tables of Burck=
hardt.
Geocentric d of the ) and h at Edinburgh, Mean Time.
October, 30 9 JF 1,08
—— ——— apparent time, 9 23 12,81
Geocentric Conjunction in Longitude, « ss = 81° 18 50,20
Sun’s Right Ascension, - - - - 214 50 23,34
——-horary motion in Right Ascension, - - 2 26,23
Apparent Obliquity of the Ecliptic, - ae - 23 27 40,94
Moon’s Latitude, South increasing, - ~ z= 49 57,53
—— equatorial horizontal parallax, ~ - - 55 19,21
———horary motion in Longitude, - « - - 30 52,04
@ ET ——— in Latitude, = 3 ~ = 2 47,08
Saturn’s Geocentric Latitude, South, = = = = 1 34 4,37
For the Immersion. For the Emersion.
ee _
+ M.S. | H.. M./S. |. H. M.S. H. M. S.
Instants assumed, A pat Time, 112,81} 8 212,81] 8 57 12,81] 8 58 12,81
Right Ascension of the Meridian, sage 5 15,64/5359 20 18,08/3498 7 32,12|349° 22 34,56)
Moon’s true Longitude, . 80 36 39,10] 80 37 9; 97] 81 5 27,65] 81 5 58,59
true Latitude, South, 46 9,19 46 11:97 48 45,15 48 47,90)
Altitude of the Nonagesimal, 51 27 56,0] 31 33 46,5 | 36 47 0,1 156 52 31,2
Longitude of the Nonagesimal, | 12 22 13,7} 12 32 12,5 | 22 47 43,8 | 29 58 25,2
Parallax in Longitude, + 6 51,19}+ 96 53,93/-+ 28 16,41
Parallax in Latitude, . . 7 21,01 47 18,24 44 39,43 = on
‘ >
Appar. diff. Long. ) ana h 15 19,9) 14 46,30] 14 53,86 15 25451
=| 3 0 4
Appar, diff, Lat. ) ana hk 0 34,17 0 54,16 0 41,81 I
Sun’s Ap. mot, in 1 min. of time, 55,16 51,33
— 12,83) + 90773 — 14,64 + 16,69
hm, 6
Emersion, 8 57 40,85
Hence the final results are as follows, Mean time.
Deo He Me's
Immersion, October 30. 7 45 24,17 f at 34”,17 ) South of the
Emersion, — 8 41 20 17 —40, 93 § (’s centre.
The apparent semidiameter of Saturn being liable to some uncertainty, has not
been used in the calculation.
Eclipse of the Moon.
On the 25th of November, there will be a small Eclipse of the Moon, partly visible.
D. 'H. M. 18:
Errors from Instants assumed,
Apparent Time of Immersion,
The Eclipse begins, November 25 2 59 19
Moon rises Eclipsed, - - — 3 12'56
Ecliptic opposition, - F: — 3:46 10
Middle, - : . - — 8 56 24
End of the Eclipse, - - — 4 53 30
Digits Eclipsed, 2° 57’ 6”, by the north side’of the Earth’s shadow, or on the
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INDEX TO VOL. IIL.
ABRANCHUS Alleghaniensis, 339.
Acid pectic, a remarkable new one, 182.
Acmite, on the locality of, 326.
Adie, Mr, his meteorological registers
kept at Canaan Cottage, 192, 384.
Apatite found in Salisbury Crags, 182.
Amici, Professor, his improved camera
lucida, 157.
Anderson, Mr, on the quartz district
near Lochness, 212.
Aragé, M., on the influence of copper on
the oscillation of magnetic needles, 179.
Arctic overland expedition, 374.
Association for promoting inventions and
discoveries in Britain, 149.
Astronomical observations made at Pa-
ramatta, 72.
Astronomical notices, 176, 367.
Atmospherical phenomena, notice of
some of the rarer ones in 1824, 49.
Auroral Arch seen at Edinburgh on the
10th March, 181.
Ava, on the frontier between it and Ben-
gal, 32, 201.
Babbage, Mr, on the magnetism develop-
ed during rotation, 371.
Barlow, Mr, on the magnetism imparted
to irou bodies during rotation, 372.
Barometer, improvement on the, 179.
Bengal, on the frontier between it and
Ava, 32, 201.
Benzoic acid, on the light produced dur-
ing its crystallization, 368.
Berzelius, M., on two new minerals,
327—on some new localities of mine-
rals, 332.
Bevel, Allard’s universal one, 346.
Bilobites, 339.
Blackadder, Mr, on mirage, 13—on the
climate of the north of France, 227—
on meteorological instruments which
register their indications in absence,
251.
Blanken, Mr J., on fan-gate sluices, 95.
Boracite, on a remarkable variety of,
110.
Bosson, M., on waterspouts, 181.
Botanical works, notices of those recently
published, 364.
Bread, poisonous effect of white, on
dogs, 187.
Brewster, Dr, on some remarkable affec-
tions of the retina, 289—on the incan-
descence of wax tapers, 350.
Brisbane, Sir Thomas, op astronomical
observations made at Paramatta, 72—
on the tides in Van Diemen’s Land,
100.
Bryce, Mr, his moveable branch syphon,
149.
Camera lucida, improvements upon the,
157.
Capillary attraction accompanied by elec-
tricity, 370.
Carbon and hydrogen, on a new com-
pound of, 373.
Celestial phenomena, 190, 380.
Cephalopterus, 339. a
Cervus Euryceros, or Irish elk, observa-
tions on a fossil one, 134.
Chimneys of glass, how to prevent the
fracture of, 346—of houses, on the
construction of, 349.
Chlamyphorus truneatus, 334.
Christie, Mr, his discoveries on the effect
of rotation on magnetic forces, 135—
on the diurnal variation of the tertes-
trial magnetic intensity, 179—-on the
effects of temperature on the magnetic
forces, 178—on the magnetism of ro-
tion, 372.
Chronometers, on the effects of the den-
sity of air on the rates of, 170.
Chronometer, Lenormand’s new one de-
scribed, 348—on oil for, 351. }
Clock, night one described, 349.
Clouds, remarkable formations of, in
1824, 50—iridescence of, 369.
Codium tomentosum found in Scotland,
183. 1
Cold produced by the combination of
metals, 181.
Coldstream, Mr John, on a remarkable
explosion of gas in a well near Leith
Fort, 108. ae
Comet of Encke rediscovered in New
Holland by Mr Rumker, 146.
Comet.seen on the sun’s disk, 176—of
1824, singular appearances in. the,
177—of 1824, Encke’s, hyperbolical
elements of the, 177—of 1824, discos
vered at Paramatta, 177—clements of
the above comets, 367, 368—new one
of 1825, 368.
Convergence of solar beams, on, 52.
Conybeare, Rev. Mr, on the plesiosau-
rus, 143.
Coral, on a gigantic fossil one, 143.
VOL. Ill. NO. 11. ocTOBER 1825. Bh
386
Crystallization, production of light dur-
ing, 368.
Crystals, on the regular composition of,
59.
Daniel, Mr, his improvement on the ba-
rometer, 179.
Davy, Dr John, on the temperature of
springs, wells, and mines in Cornwall,
75.
Decandolle, M., on the plants of the bo-
tanic garden of Geneva, 375
Dew, on the formation of, 69.
Distances, on a machine for measuring
them, applied to a gig, 93.
Dunkeld, on a single block of stone on
the summit of a hill at, 46.
Dunlop, Mr his reflecting speculum, 178
—